The Hadal Zone

The Hadal Zone
Life in the Deepest Oceans
The hadal zone represents one of the last great frontiers in marine science, accounting
for 45% of the total ocean depth range. Despite very little research effort since the
1950s, the last 10 years has seen a renaissance in hadal exploration, almost certainly as a
result of technological advances that have made this otherwise largely inaccessible
frontier a viable subject for research.
Providing an overview of the geology involved in trench formation, the hydrography
and food supply, this book details all that is currently known about organisms at hadal
depths and linkages to the better known abyssal and bathyal depths. New insights on
how, where and what really survives and thrives in the deepest biozone are provided,
allowing this region to be considered when dealing with sustainability and conservation
issues in the marine environment.
Alan Jamieson is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Aberdeen, based at Oceanlab.

His research is focused on the exploration of the hadal zone for biological research. He
is the designer and operator of the Hadal-Landers that over the last 7 years have been
deployed over 100 times in ultra-deep trenches of the Pacic Ocean.
The Hadal Zone
Life in the Deepest Oceans
ALAN JAMIESON
University of Aberdeen, UK
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Jamieson, Alan (Alan J.)
The hadal zone : life in the deepest oceans / Alan Jamieson.
pages cm
ISBN 978-1-107-01674-3 (Hardback)
1. Deep-sea biology. I. Title.
QH91.8.D44J36 2014
578.770 9dc23 2014006998
ISBN 978-1-107-01674-3 Hardback
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For Rachel, William and Matthew
Contents
Preface page xi
Acknowledgements xiv
PART I History, geology and technology

Introduction 1
1 The history of hadal science and exploration 3

1.1 Sounding the trenches 4
1.2 Development of plate tectonic theory 5
1.3 Establishing full ocean depth 9
1.4 First sampling of the trenches 11
1.5 Exploratory bathyscaphes 15
1.6 Modern hadal research 16
1.7 Terminology 18
2 Geography and geology 22

2.1 Geographic location 22
2.2 Trench formation 31
2.3 Topography 35
2.4 Sedimentation and seismic activity 38
2.5 The hado-pelagic zone 43
3 Full ocean depth technology 45

3.1 The challenge of wires 46
3.2 The challenge of high pressure 50
3.3 Trawling and coring 52
3.4 Cameras and traps 56
3.5 Biogeochemistry instruments 64
3.6 Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) 65
3.7 Manned submersibles 67
vii
viii Contents
PART II Environmental conditions and physiological adaptations

Introduction 73
4 The hadal environment 75

4.1 Deep-water masses and bottom currents 75
4.2 Temperature, salinity and oxygen 80
4.3 Adaptations to low temperature 86
4.4 Light 88
4.5 Substrata 89
5 Hydrostatic pressure 92
5.1 Piezophiles 92
5.2 Pressure and depth 94
5.3 Carbonate compensation depth 97
5.4 Adaptations to high pressure 98
6 Food supply to the trenches 109

6.1 Particulate organic matter (POM) 109
6.2 Carrion-falls 116
6.3 Plant and wood debris 119
6.4 Chemosynthesis 120
6.5 Heterogeneity 121
6.6 Adaptation to low food availability 122
PART III The hadal community

Introduction 125
7 Microbes, protists and worms 127

7.1 Bacteria 127
7.2 Foraminifera 132
7.3 Nematoda 138
7.4 Polychaeta 140
7.5 Miscellaneous worms 145
8 Porifera, Mollusca and Echinodermata 148

8.1 Porifera 148
8.2 Mollusca 148
8.3 Echinodermata 156
8.4 Other benthic invertebrates 167
Contents ix
9 Crustacea 169
9.1 Copepoda 171
9.2 Cirripedia 172
9.3 Ostracoda 172
9.4 Mysidacea 173
9.5 Cumacea 176
9.6 Tanaidacea 176
9.7 Isopoda 180
9.8 Amphipoda 188
9.9 Decapoda 211
9.10 Acariformes 215
9.11 Pantopoda 216
10 Cnidaria and fish 217

10.1 Cnidaria 217
10.2 Fish 220
PART IV Patterns and current perspectives

Introduction 239
11 Ecology and evolution 241

11.1 Antiquity 241
11.2 Speciation and endemism 243
11.3 Community structure 249
11.4 Vertical zonation 255
11.5 Relationships with area and depth 258
11.6 Habitat heterogeneity 264
12 Current perspectives 266

12.1 Exploitation and conservation 267
12.2 Living in the shadow of a trench 272
12.3 Public perception 275
12.4 Life in extreme environments 279
12.5 Bioprospecting and biotechnology 281
12.6 Future challenges 282
Appendix 285
References 322
Index 363
Colour plates can be found between pages 176 and 177.
Preface
The hadal zone is an enigmatic ecosystem or rather a cluster of deep ocean trench
ecosystems. It is not only one of the most extraordinary, extreme marine environments
in terms of high hydrostatic pressure, geological instabilities and low food supply, the
hadal zone is also a place where life has been found to thrive at such great depths,
despite common perceptions to the contrary. The hadal zone represents one of the last
great frontiers in marine science, accounting for 45% of the total ocean depth range, yet
it receives little or no mention in contemporary deep-sea biology text books. In the
1950s, the hadal fauna were subject to a great deal of attention as a result of the Soviet
Vitjaz and Danish Galathea biological sampling expeditions, the discovery of the
deepest trenches and the rst manned submersible dives into the trenches. The decade
culminated in the rst visit by humans to the deepest place on Earth, the Mariana
Trench. Despite the myriad of public attention and the advances in our understanding of
hadal biology, ecology and geology, interest appeared to dwindle and very little
scientic endeavour occurred through the 1970s, 80s and 90s. In fact, during these
decades, the hadal zones main accolade was as a potential dumping ground for
pharmaceutical and radioactive waste materials, driven by the anthropocentric opinion
of out of sight, out of mind. Thankfully, this exploitation and perturbation of trench
habitats did not become common practice and in recent years there has been a renais-
sance in hadal exploration, almost certainly as a result of technological advances that
have made this otherwise largely inaccessible frontier a viable subject for research.
Furthermore, as the current resurgence continues to ourish, it is hoped that the hadal
zone will, at long last, be placed equally alongside all other marine ecosystems. We face
an uncertain climatic future and thus, the ocean must be understood and maintained in
its entirety and not categorised by proximity to the nearest human. It is startling how
little is known about the hadal environment and this lack of knowledge renders a limited
view of the communities that survive at the greatest depths and endure the highest
pressures on Earth.
Ofcially, the hadal zone occurs in areas where one tectonic plate subducts beneath
another; where the topography of the vast abyssal plains suddenly plunges to depths of
nearly 11 km below sea level. The hadal zone was named after Hades, the name of both
the ancient Greek kingdom of the underworld and the god of the underworld himself,
Hades (brother to Zeus and Poseidon). The hadal zone comprises many disjunct
trenches, mostly around the Pacic Rim and these trenches are host to most major taxa,
some of which ourish even at the greatest depths (e.g. Holothurians, amphipods,
xi
xii Preface
bivalves, gastropods). The geological setting of the trenches is notoriously unstable,

adding another string to the extreme environment bow. The trenches offer up many
biological and ecological conundrums, such as why two seemingly isolated trenches,
sometimes tens of thousands of kilometres apart, are both home to the same species that
do not inhabit the areas in between? Likewise, how were the trenches ever colonised at
all, given that the quantity and distribution of surface-derived food supply varies so
drastically from the surrounding plains? Also, what happens to the benthic communities
following a catastrophic earthquake? Are there seasons, interannular variability or
potential for chronobiology? How connected are the hadal communities with each other
and to the wider deep-sea communities? We do not know the answers to most of these
questions because hadal science is still in its infancy relative to conventional deep-sea
research; however, we now have the technological and scientic support required to
expand our knowledge of this unique environment.
There are many aspects of life in the hadal zone that are shared with the wider deep
sea, therefore, this book aims to focus specically on the trenches and the hadal
communities therein and should be viewed as a companion resource to other key works.
While compiling the information for this book, it became apparent that, despite so many
recent developments on the topic, the large amount of sampling undertaken on the
Danish and Soviet expeditions of the 1950s, particularly of invertebrates, has not yet
been repeated on the same scale. All the data from these expeditions were compiled and
documented in the works of the late G.M. Belyaev, from the P.P. Shirshov Institute of
Oceanography in Russia, in a book entitled Deep Ocean Trenches and Their Fauna.
The book was translated into English by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in the
USA and is a fabulous resource and a fantastic compilation of hadal research up until
the late 1980s. The intention of this new book is not necessarily to update the work of
Belyaev, however, it must be acknowledged that a lot of the information documented in
Part III and the updated species list in the Appendix was derived or moderately updated
from his work, due to lack of new information on many taxa. The species list in the
Appendix and tables throughout are, to the best of my knowledge, correct and I accept
any responsibility for errors or reclassications that may have been missed.
Throughout the book there is also regular mention of HADEEP. HADEEP, the
HADal Environments and Education Program are a series of projects that have been
running from 2006 to the present. HADEEP was undertaken in collaboration with the
University of Aberdeen (UK), the University of Tokyo (Japan) and the National
Institute for Water and Atmosphere Research (New Zealand). These projects amassed
a large dataset on hadal organisms from many trenches and enabled the compilation of
various information databases. Many of these resources are referred to in this book and
are referenced to HADEEP. It was during the rst HADEEP project that the idea for
this book arose.
In terms of organisation, this book is split into four parts, where the rst part (History,
geology and technology) provides a review of the history of hadal science and explor-
ation (Chapter 1), geography and geology (Chapter 2) and full ocean depth technology
(Chapter 3). These three chapters provide an overview of the components that led to the
contemporary understanding of hadal science and provide the appropriate background
Preface xiii
information for reference in the following sections. Part II (Environmental conditions

and physiological adaptations) includes chapters on the hadal environment, hydrostatic
pressure and food supply to the trenches. In the hadal zone context, hydrostatic pressure
and food supply are independent chapters, given their signicance in this environment.
Part III (The hadal community) comprises four chapters describing our current under-
standing of the hadal communities from bacteria to sh (Chapters 7, 8, 9 and 10). The
nal part, Part IV (Patterns and current perspectives), describes more recent develop-
ments in ecology and evolution (Chapter 11) and for the rst time, attempts to explore
some rudimentary ecology. Chapter 12, Current perspectives, details the interactions
between humans and the hadal zone, whether good, bad, present or historical. The
Appendix is a species list of all known hadal specimens for reference.
The hadal zone is the subject of many things to different people. For example, it has
been the subject of curiosity-quenching exploration, scientic endeavour, a potential
source for pharmaceutical prospecting and a source of potentially devastating earth-
quakes and tsunamis. However, to most people, the hadal zone is a dark, mysterious
realm that incites inquisitiveness, fascination and the thirst for exploration. Contrary to
long-perceived opinion, we now know that the hadal zone is denitely not a deep, dark
area of little importance to the world, where nothing but the weirdest and enigmatic
creatures simply eke out an existence.
Future efforts are urgently required to comprehensively sample numerous trenches in
order to enable global generalisations about life on Earth. We now live in an age where
technology is at a level where very few unexplored frontiers remain, but we can now
study these remote and extreme environments beyond simple ag planting and try to
understand them, maintain them and enjoy them now and in the future. With ever more
exploration, visual imagery, experimentation and scientic understanding of these deep
environments, it is hoped that the hadal zone will become less alien to the world, while
still retaining a sense of majesty and wonder.
Acknowledgements
From the University of Aberdeen, I am indebted to my colleagues Professor Monty

Priede, Professor Stuart Piertney and Dr Toyonobu Fujii for their long, frequent and
healthy discussions on all aspects of hadal science and their contributions to the book,
and to Dr Martin Solan (now at NOCS, UK) and Dr Phil Bagley (now at AkerSolutions,
UK) for their part in founding HADEEP. I thank Dr Tomasz Niedzielski (University of
Wrocaw, Poland) for his GIS contribution. The University of Aberdeen students
Nichola Lacey, Thomas Linley, Heather Ritchie, Amy Scott-Murray and Ryan Eustace,
and Matteo Ichino (NOCS, UK) are thanked for their enthusiasm, assistance and
contributions to this book. I wholeheartedly thank the New Zealand HADEEP contin-
gent: Dr Ashley Rowden, Dr Malcolm Clark, Dr Anne-Nina Lrz and Dr Peter
McMillan (National Institute for Water and Atmosphere research; NIWA), Andrew
Stewart (Museum of New Zealand, Te Papa Tongerewa) and especially Dr Niamh
Kilgallen (now at the Australian Museum). I equally thank the Japanese HADEEP
contingent: Dr Kumiko Kita-Tsukamoto, Professor Hidekazu Tokuyama, Professor
Mutsumi Nishida, Dr Kota Kitazawa and Dr Robert Jenkins (Atmosphere and Ocean
Research Institute, University of Tokyo, Japan). For supply of and permission to use
images and other advice and expertise, I thank Professor Julian Partridge and Milly
Sharkey (University of Bristol, UK), Dr Torben Wolff and Professor Danny Eibye-
Jacobsen (Zoological Museum, Danish Museum of Natural History, Denmark), James
Cameron (Lightstorm Entertainment, USA), Charlie Arneson (USA), Dr Eric Breuer
and Samantha Brooke (Pacic Island Fisheries Science Center, NOAA, Hawaii, USA),
Peter Sloss (retired; NOAA/NGDC, USA), Professor Doug Bartlett, Kevin Hardy and
Professor Lisa Levin (Scripps Institution of Oceanography, USA), Dr Paul Yancey
(Whitman College, USA), Dr Andy Bowen (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute,
USA), Dr Andrey Gebruk (P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russia), Professor
Ronnie Glud (University of Southern Denmark), Kevin Mackenzie (University of
Aberdeen, UK), Dr Robert Turnewitsch (Scottish Association for Marine Science,
UK), Professor Andy Gooday (NOCS, UK), Ikuta Azusa (JAMSTEC, Japan),
Dr Tomislav Karanovic (Hanyang University, S. Korea) and Fredrik Sreide
(Promare, USA). I also thank Dr Gordon Paterson (Natural History Museum, London,
UK) and Hannah Tilson (ex-University of Southampton, UK) for use of material from
an unpublished Masters thesis. For additional hard work and help in compiling elec-
tronic databases, I thank the University of Aberdeen 2013 graduates, Sarah Breimann,
Sophie Miles and Bruce Leishman, and the 2013 Brazilian Science Without Borders
xiv
Acknowledgements xv
exchange students, Ingrid Padovese Zwar and Gabriel Stefanelli Silva. A million thanks
also go to Dr Rachel Jamieson for her patience, proof-reading and commenting on this
entire book through its many drafts. The funding bodies Nippon Foundation (Japan),
NERC (UK), Total Foundation (France) and the Marine Alliance for Science and
Technology, Scotland (MASTS) are gratefully acknowledged for supporting the hadal
research prior to and during the writing of this book.
Part I
History, geology and technology

Introduction
The history of hadal science is full of the legacies of inquiring scientists who dared to
explore the unknown and push the boundaries of the seemingly impossible in order to
satisfy human curiosity for the natural world. The story is equally fraught with academic
minds who, in their time, publicly deemed impossible many of the fundamental facts
about the deep sea that are now taken for granted. For example, deep-sea biologists had
to contend with the infamous statement of Edward Forbes who claimed that life did not
exist at depths greater than 600 m below sea level (Forbes, 1844). Similarly, over
100 years later, Pettersson (1948) also expressed doubt as to the existence of life deeper
than 6500 m, ironically on the eve of the discovery of life at 7900 m (Nybelin, 1951).
Challenging the likes of Forbes may indeed have inspired the pursuit of life to deeper
than 600 m and may ultimately have led to the discovery of life at nearly 11 000 m, full
ocean depth. Around this time, hydrologists navigating the seas discovered areas of
ocean that were deeper than ever thought possible. These deep areas, now recognised
collectively as the hadal zone, are extremely deep trenches, located at tectonic plate
boundaries. However, even in the mid-1900s, the theory of plate tectonics and contin-
ental drift was still disregarded by many academics. In 1939, on the subject of plate
tectonics and continental drift, the well-known geologist Andrew Lawson voiced the
then current opinion of many when he said; I may be gullible! But I am not gullible
enough to swallow this poppycock! (Hsu, 1992).
The discovery and exploration of the hadal zone has been slow relative to that of
other deep-sea habitats. The primary reason for this is that the area of seaoor which
encompasses the trenches is small relative to the surrounding abyssal plains. Therefore,
trenches were less likely to be encountered during standard sounding surveys. Further-
more, early sounding of extreme depths occurred before there were any theories to
estimate how deep the ocean really was, and long before the development of plate
tectonic theory. Thus, the trenches as we know them today, their existence and forma-
tion, were completely unheard of.
Today, we now not only understand tectonics, but we have also felt the presence of
the trenches rst hand. From a geological context, the trenches have never before been
as conspicuous in the public domain. The 2010 Cauquenes earthquake off Chile
(magnitude Mw 8.8) and the 2011 Thoku-Oki earthquake off Japan (magnitude
Mw 9.0) were both the result of the geological activity of hadal trenches (the Peru
Chile and Japan Trenches, respectively). Furthermore, the latter and the 2004 Indian
2 History, geology and technology
Ocean earthquake (magnitude Mw > 9; triggered by the Java Trench) are remembered
for the devastating tsunamis that followed.
From a biological perspective, progress in sampling the hadal zone has been slow and
was initially hampered by the technological challenges associated with its sheer distance
from the oceans surface. Equipment had to be lowered through thousands of metres of
water, a challenge once again exacerbated by the fact that full ocean depth was still to be
determined. Before the onset of ship-mounted acoustic systems (echo-sounders), deter-
mining ocean depth would have been an extraordinarily laborious task. The hadal zone
also presented a technical challenge in the form of extremely high hydrostatic pressure.
Sampling equipment had to be capable of withstanding over 1 ton of pressure per square
centimetre in order to resist implosion.
Despite these challenges, we now know the precise locations of the trenches and
have made signicant progress in understanding the biology and ecology of life in the
deepest places on Earth, whilst having developed some sophisticated and innovative
technology along the way. The rst part of this book provides a brief synopsis of
the people, projects and expeditions that paved the way in the exploration of the nal
frontier in ocean science (Chapter 1), examines the formation and location of the hadal
zone (Chapter 2) and reviews the challenges and innovations of technology for full
ocean depth (Chapter 3).
1 The history of hadal science
and exploration
The history of hadal science and exploration is a peculiar story and, largely due the
challenges of sampling at such extreme depths, research effort seems to have occurred
in waves. Major events in this history are often as disjunct as the trenches themselves.
Around the turn of the twentieth century, early pioneers began sampling at greater and
greater depths. Following the burst of curiosity concerning the extent to which animal
life could be found and the true depths of the oceans, there was a lull in progress. It was
in the 1950s when the rst major hadal sampling campaigns began with the extensive
series of Soviet RV Vitjaz expeditions and the round the world Danish RV Galathea
expeditions. The Vitjaz continued to periodically sample the great depths for some time
but, in general, research campaigns were few and infrequent. The rst manned dive to
the deepest place on Earth took place in 1960 amidst a myriad of public interest.
However, it was the rst and only time that this submersible ventured to the bottom
of a trench.
The 1990s saw new interest in the trenches when the Japan Agency for Marine-
Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) developed the rst full ocean depth
remotely operated vehicle (ROV) named Kaik. Kaik was used numerous times in
the trenches and provided scientists with the tools to access full ocean depth. Aside
from JAMSTEC, few other academic institutes were involved in hadal research until
the mid-2000s.
We are now in an age where more countries are involved in hadal research than
ever before, and the number of projects relating specically to biology at full
ocean depth are too many to mention. Scientists from the USA, UK, Japan, New
Zealand and Denmark, among others, are prominently involved in active sampling at
hadal depths. Coinciding with this work, scientists have supported high prole
rsts such as when the Deepsea Challenger submersible reached the deepest place
on Earth. What actually sparked this recent wave of interest is unclear, but it may be
attributed, like most eras in deep-sea research, to the development of new technol-
ogy. It is also nice to think that this new found interest in the great depths is, in
some way, a public response to an ever-changing climate; that people are becoming
more aware of the urgency, the means that we possess and responsibility that we
now have to investigate the ocean in its entirety; from the airsea interface to
full ocean depth.
3
4 The history of hadal science and exploration
1.1 Sounding the trenches
Since the days of Aristotle, the altitude of the land and the depth of the seas have
prompted great curiosity. The rst deep sounding expeditions began in 1773 with Lord
Mulgraves expedition to the Arctic Ocean, where a depth of 683 fathoms (1249 m) was
recorded. In 181718, Sir John Ross recorded a depth of 1050 fathoms (1920 m) and
collected a sediment sample using a wire deployed deep-sea clam in Bafn Bay, east
of Greenland. During the Erebus and Terror expeditions in 183943, Sir James Clark
Ross used a 3600 fathoms (6584 m) long wire that was marked every 100 fathoms. The
time interval between each mark was noted until the intervals signicantly increased,
where it was thought that the line had reached the bottom. The same technique was
adopted during the British round-the-world expedition on the HMS Challenger
(187376), under the leadership of Charles Wyville-Thomson (Thomson and Murray,
1895). Equipped with 291 km of Italian hemp for sounding wire, the HMS Challenger
unexpectedly recorded a depth of 4500 fathoms (8230 m) in the northwest Pacic
Ocean at latitude 11 24 N, longitude 143 16 E, southwest of the Mariana Islands
and north of the Caroline Islands in the North Pacic Ocean. This sounding was the rst
measurement that indicated the existence of extraordinarily deep areas and, in due
course, led to the discovery of the Mariana Trench. It was this Challenger expedition,
the rst global marine research campaign, that laid the framework for all future marine
research.
At the time of the Challenger expeditions, scientists aboard the USS Tuscarora
employed a similar method for sounding. They used piano wire to record a depth of
4665 fathoms (8531 m) in the KurilKamchatka Trench in the northwest Pacic Ocean,
originally coined the Tuscarora Deep.
Sir John Murray (18411914) documented the rst systematic measurements of
ocean depth distribution and mean depth of the oceans with which he calculated the
rst hypsometric curve, thus beginning the process of mapping the oceans in three
dimensions (Murray, 1888). Based on the available data of the day, he calculated the
volume of the ocean, the volume of the continents above sea level and even the depth of
a uniform ocean if the seaoor were level and no continents existed. Following on from
the work of Murray (1888), sounding data became more numerous with time. Charts
that mapped the oceans, such as those of E. Kossinna in 1921 and T. Stocks in 1938
(cited in Menard and Smith, 1966) were frequently produced and many studies relating
to the nature of the seaoor and depth distribution were undertaken (e.g. Murray and
Hjort, 1912; Menard, 1958; Menard and Smith, 1966).
Towards the turn of the twentieth century, new sounding devices were developed by
the British Royal Navy, notably the Hydra Rod (so-called following its design by the
blacksmith onboard the HMS Hydra) and the Baillie rod (named after the navigating
lieutenant on HMS Challenger who designed it) (Thomson and Murray, 1895). The rst
depth sounding of greater than 5000 fathoms was recorded during a British expedition
on the HMS Penguin in 1895 using a Baillie rod lowered with piano wire. They
recorded a depth of 5155 fathoms (9144 m) in the Kermadec Trench in the southwest
Development of plate tectonic theory 5
Pacic Ocean off the north coast of New Zealand. Shortly afterwards, the German
vessel Planet measured a greater depth in the Philippine Trench, where later, the Dutch
would record an even deeper 5539 fathoms (10 319 m) using the rst audio-frequency
sounding methods onboard the Willebord Snellius. Using this primitive but pioneering
audio-frequency technique of recording sound echo, the Scripps Institution of
Oceanographys USS Ramapo measured a depth of 5250 fathoms (9600 m) in the Japan
Trench (now known to be the Izu-Bonin Trench, south of the Japan Trench in the
northwest Pacic Ocean). Another Scripps vessel, Horizon, also recorded 5814 fathoms
(10 633 m) in the Tonga Trench (southeast Pacic Ocean) and named the site Horizon
Deep (Fisher, 1954). Following these new ndings, the German vessel Emden recorded
a measurement of 5686 fathoms (10 400 m), once again in the Philippine Trench. The
record for the greatest depth found was broken once more by the USS Cape Johnson
during World War II, with a reading of 5740 fathoms (10 500 m) in the Philippine
Trench off Mindanao, which was for years thought to be the deepest place on Earth
(Hess and Buell, 1950). The method of projecting sound and recording the echo to
measure the depths, coined echo sounding, was developed and quickly superseded
wire-deployed methods.
The new echo-sounder method often relied on bomb sounding, whereby someone
threw a half-pound demolition block of TNT off the ship to create the sound source
from which the echo was received onboard the ship via a transducer amplier (Fisher,
2009). This method, albeit primitive relative to todays technology, was accurate
enough to distinguish between the trench oor at the axis and the trench slopes. It
was used to sound the maximum depths of the Middle America, Tonga, PeruChile and
Japan Trenches (Fisher, 2009). It ultimately led to the discovery of the deepest point on
Earth: the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench (nearly 11 000 m; Carruthers and
Lawford, 1952; Gaskell et al., 1953).
The ability to accurately sound the depths of the oceans using ship-mounted acoustic
systems provided sounding data with relative ease, and with much greater replication
and resolution than wire-deployed systems. Such accuracy led to several in-depth
reports on the internal topography, morphology and sedimentation of some deep
trenches, for example, Fisher (1954), Kiilerich (1955) and Zeigler et al. (1957).
However, there was still the question of how the trenches were formed. Figure 1.1
shows how these early soundings were interpreted into three-dimensional topography
and Figure 1.2 shows the equivalent data using modern sounding methods but based on
the same principles.
1.2 Development of plate tectonic theory
The discovery of the deep trenches occurred long before the development of any
theories relating to how they came to be. The discovery of continental drift, which, in
turn, prompted the discovery of plate tectonics and convergence zones (where trenches
occur), was nearly 360 years in the making. Abraham Ortelius (1596) rst noted how
1247n
1135n
1025n N
8000
9000
S
10000m 851n
2 4 6 8 10 km AK
Figure 1.1 Trench bathymetry obtained using early sounding techniques: sections of the bottom of
the Philippine Trench. From Kiilerich (1955); reproduced with the permission of Galathea
Reports).
the continents, in particular South America and Africa, seemed to t together as if they
had once formed a single land mass; an observation reiterated by others in the 1700s and
1800s (Romm, 1994). Around the turn of the twentieth century, Roberto Mantovani
suggested the previous existence of a super continent (what is now known as Pangaea).
However, credit for the development of continental drift theory, beyond simple obser-
vations of a jigsaw-puzzle t, came from the German meteorologist Alfred Wegener
(Wegener, 1912; Demhardt, 2005). Wegener hypothesised that the continents had once
formed a single land mass prior to splitting apart and drifting to their current locations.
The splitting apart of Pangaea was thought to have occurred by volcanic activity and
this led Mantovani to suggest that the Earth was expanding (Mantovani, 1909). This
was, of course, not the case and over the coming years various theories from Wegener
and others were put forth ranging from lunar gravity driven drift, centrifugal pseudo-
force and astronomical precession. None of them, however, proposed a sufciently
Development of plate tectonic theory 7
Figure 1.2 Examples of modern digital swathe bathymetry showing the three-dimensional
bathymetry of the Mariana Trench. Above and below is a frame grab from a computer generated
y-through movie, note the 100-fold vertical exaggeration. Images courtesy of Peter Sloss,
NOAA/NGDC (retired).
strong force to explain the drift. In the absence of a driving force for continental drift,
the theory was not accepted generally for many years and it sparked lively debates
between drifters (supporters of the theory) and xists (opponents of the theory)
(Scheidegger, 1953).
An Australian geologist, Samuel Carey, advocated the continental drift theory of
Wegener. Carey provided a mechanism to explain such processes whereby super
continents divide and drift and cause the generation of new crustal zones in deep oceanic
ridges. His theory, however, still backed the idea of an expanding Earth. Despite the
eventual acceptance of plate expansion, the expanding Earth theory was erroneous.
Further support for continental drift came during the late 1950s and early 1960s
as bathymetry of the deep ocean provided evidence of seaoor spreading along the
mid-oceanic ridges (e.g. Heezen, 1960; Dietz, 1961; Vine and Matthews, 1963). The
advances in early seismic imaging techniques along the deep trenches adjacent to
many continental margins showed how the oceanic crust could disappear into the
mantle, providing evidence, for the rst time, that was contrary to the expanding
Earth theory. The disappearance of one crust beneath another was termed subduction
(Amstutz, 1951).
It was the onset of magnetic instruments (magnetometers) which provided unequivo-
cal evidence of multiple lithospheric plates. Magnetometers, adapted from World War II
airborne and submarine detection systems, identied unexpected magnetic anomalies
and variations across the ocean oor. They detected volcanic rock (iron-rich basalt)
which contained a strongly magnetic mineral (magnetite) that gave the basalt measur-
able magnetic properties. Furthermore, the Earths magnetic eld was recorded at the
time when the newly formed rock was cooled. The magnetic variations turned out to be
recognisable patterns and not random. A zebra-like striped pattern emerged when a
wide area of seaoor was scanned. These striped patterns were areas of normal polarity
alternating with areas of reversed polarity.
The discovery of magnetic striping prompted theories that mid-ocean ridges were
structurally weak zones, where the seaoor was being torn apart lengthwise along the ridge
crest, pushed apart by magma rising up from the Earths mantle through these weak zones
to create new oceanic crust, a process we now know as seaoor spreading (SFS). The SFS
hypothesis represented major progress in the development of the plate tectonic theory.
The ofcial acceptance of plate tectonics (originally termed New Global Tectonics)
by the scientic community occurred at a symposium at the Royal Society of London in
1965. In addition to the discovery of seaoor spreading at divergent zones and
subduction at convergent zones, adding the new concept of transform faults to the
general tectonic model provided the nal piece of the puzzle completing the explanation
for tectonic plate mobility (Wilson, 1965). Two years later, at a meeting of the American
Geophysical Union, it was proposed that the Earths surface was made up of 12 rigid
plates that move relative to each other (Morgan, 1968) and this was quickly followed by
a complete model based on six major plates and their relative motions (Le Pichon, 1968).
In the 1960s and early 1970s frustration grew as identication of the structures that
were diagnostic to the working of subduction processes was greatly inhibited by the
technical challenges of extreme water depths and the steep slopes of the trenches (von
Huene and Shor, 1969; Scholl et al., 1970). The extreme depths made conventional rock
and sediment sampling by dredging difcult, while the steep trench slopes caused a
reduction in the resolution of subsurface structures captured by the acoustic imaging
techniques. Such techniques were, by then, available to most researchers (von Huene
and Sholl, 1991). By the mid-1970s, offshore seismic reection studies had resolved
some of the important issues such as sediment subduction and accretion (Karig and
Sharman, 1975; discussed in detail in Chapter 2).
Since the 1980s, advances in offshore geological and geophysical techniques and
technologies have permitted the remote exploration of the deep subsurface structures of
convergent margins (e.g. the Mariana Trench; Fryer et al., 2002). Swath-bathymetry
now readily provides accurate areal images of the morphology of even the most
Establishing full ocean depth 9
complex topography, such as trenches, and it is able to do so with incredible detail and
clarity (see Fig. 1.2).
1.3 Establishing full ocean depth
During the Challenger II expeditions in 1951, the vessel returned to the Mariana Trench
in the northwest Pacic Ocean, this time equipped with an echo sounder. A depth of
5940 fathoms (10 860 m) was recorded at 11 19 N, 142 15 E (Carruthers and Law-
ford, 1952; Gaskell et al., 1953). In conjunction with the echo soundings, a Baillie rod
was deployed, and on the third attempt a sample of red clay was retrieved from the
deepest point on Earth, newly named Challenger Deep. Challenger Deep is still
regarded as the deepest point on Earth although the exact depth often varies. For
example, in 1957, the Soviet vessel Vitjaz recorded 11 034 m (and dubbed the area
the Mariana Hollow; Hanson et al., 1959), whereas the American MV Spenser
F. Baird recorded 10 915 m in 1962 and the Scripps INDOPAC expedition recorded
10 599 m in 1977 (Yayanos, 2009). A review by Angel (1982) states the maximum
depth as 11 022 m but does not cite the source. JAMSTEC have visited Challenger
Deep more times than any other country due to the construction of the full ocean depth
rated ROV Kaik, deployed from its mother ship RV Kairei (Mikagawa and Aoki,
2001). The Japanese literature states the depth of Challenger Deep as 10 890 m (Taira
et al., 2004), 10 897 m (Takami et al., 1997), 10 898 m (Kato et al., 1997, 1998), 10
933 m (Fujimoto et al., 1993) and 10 924 m (Akimoto et al., 2001; Fujioka et al., 2002).
On 24 March 1995, the ROV Kaik descended to 10 911 m and placed a plaque bearing
the name and date of the dive to ofcially mark the deepest point on Earth (Fig. 1.3).
Figure 1.3 Video frame grab of the Japanese full ocean depth rated ROV Kaik placing a ag to
mark the deepest place on Earth; Challenger Deep, 10 911 m in the Mariana Trench. Image
JAMSTEC, Japan.
Table 1.1 Summary of both sounding and direct measurement of the deepest place on Earth; Challenger Deep in the
Mariana Trench. Modified from Nakanishi and Hashimoto (2011).
Sounding
Year Vessel Depth (m) Reference
1875 HMS Challenger 8184 Thomas and Murray (1895)

1951 Challenger VIII 10 863 35 Carruthers and Lawford (1952)
1957 Vitjaz 11 034 50 Hanson et al. (1959)
1959 Stranger 10 850 20 Fisher and Hess (1963)
1962 Spencer F. Baird 10 915 20 Fisher and Hess (1963)
1975 Thomas 10 915 10 R.L. Fisher (pers. comm. in Nakanishi and Hashimoto,
Washington 2011)
1980 Thomas 10 915 10 R.L. Fisher (pers. comm. in Nakanishi and Hashimoto,
Washington 2011)
1984 Takuyo 10 924 10 Hydrographic Dept. Japan Marine Safety Agency (1984)
1992 Hakuho-Maru 10 933 Fujimoto et al. (1993)
1992 Hakuho-Maru 10 989 Taira et al. (2005)
1998 Kairei 10 938 10 Fujioka et al. (2002)
1998/99 Kairei 10 920 5 Nakanishi and Hashimoto (2011)
Selected dives
Year Vehicle Depth (m) Reference
1960 Bathyscaphe Trieste 10 913 5 Piccard and Dietz (1961)

1995 ROV Kaik (test) 10 911 Takagawa et al. (1997)
1996 ROV Kaik (Dive 21) 10 898 Takagawa et al. (1997)
1998 ROV Kaik (Dive 71) 10 907 Hashimoto (1998)
2009 HROV Nereus 10 903 Bowen et al. (2009b)
In 2009, using a modern, deep-water multi-beam sonar bathymetry system, the

American RV Kilo Moana sounded 10 971 m at Challenger Deep. The equipment is
thought to have accuracy better than 0.2% of the depth, suggesting accuracy to within
11 m (10 96010 982 m). The area of Challenger Deep is, of course, unlikely to be at
and this accounts for the variation in exact depth measurements taken (the mean of the
above depths is 10 908 m 114 S.D.). As technology improves in accuracy and
precision, it is reasonable to assume the most up-to-date in situ value, in this case the
2009 RV Kilo Moana value of 10 971 m. However, a more recent study focused entirely
on what the exact depth of the Challenger Deep is and concluded that it consists of three
en-echelon depressions along the trench axis, each of which is 610 km long (~2 km
wide), and each deeper than 10 850 m where the eastern depression is the deepest at
10 920 5 m (Nakanishi and Hashimoto, 2011). Table 1.1 summarises the depth
estimates and measurement by both sounding and in situ measurements.
Different instruments with varying accuracies and interpretations will undoubtedly
produce more depth records in the vicinity of 10 900 m, but the important point is that
the trench is nearly 11 000 m deep and furthermore there are four other trenches that
are also nearly 11 000 m deep; the Philippine (10 540 m), the KurilKamchatka
(10 542 m), the Kermadec (10 177 m) and the Tonga Trenches (10 800 m).
First sampling of the trenches 11
Furthermore, in 2001, a sonar survey performed by the Hawaii Mapping Research

Group (HMRG) identied an area 200 km to the east of Challenger Deep which was
10 732 m, close to or potentially challenging Challenger Deep or Horizon Deep in the
Tonga Trench (second deepest place; ~10 882 m). Identication of this area, originally
coined the HMRG Deep (now known as the Sirena Deep), suggests that there are
multiple sites >10 500 m deep within one trench (Fryer et al., 2002).
In terms of biology, it is the fact that there are multiple areas in the ocean reaching
close to 11 000 m deep that is important. The exact depth of the single deepest point is
extraneous. Likewise, the deepest point is simply one value of just one parameter of an
entire trench ecosystem. Therefore, while the top ve deepest trenches represent the
deepest 45% of the total ocean depth range, there are still 46 distinct habitats which
make up the hadal zone (see Chapter 2).
1.4 First sampling of the trenches
The existence of life in the deep sea was established by Charles Wyville-Thomson,
aboard the HMS Porcupine, in the late 1860s in the northeast Atlantic Ocean at
~4000 m (Thomson, 1873). The success of the Porcupine expedition prompted the
round-the-world HMS Challenger expedition of 1873 to 1876. The HMS Challenger
was the rst expedition to physically sample the hadal zone by collecting a small
sediment grab at 7220 m in the Japan Trench. Analysis of the sediment revealed
14 species of Foraminifera shells, but scientists were unable to conclusively determine
whether or not these were hadal species or simply the fragments of species that had
fallen from shallower waters. In 1899, a US expedition on the RV Albatross trawled at
7632 m in the Tonga Trench, but like the Challenger samples, only fragments of a
siliceous sponge were recovered (Agassiz and Mayer, 1902).
Success nally came in August 1901, when the expedition on the Princess-Alice
successfully trawled specimens of Echiuroidea, Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea and demersal
sh from 6035 m, in the Zeleniy Mys Trough (North Atlantic Ocean) (Koehler, 1909;
Sluiter, 1912). These data suggested that that multicellular organisms were present
deeper than 6000 m, contrary to popular perception at that time (Pettersson, 1948).
In 1948, a Swedish-led expedition on the Albatross successfully trawled a
variety of benthic species from 76257900 m, from the Puerto-Rico Trench
(Nybelin, 1951). The catch comprised mostly holothurians (with some polychaetes
and isopods), and proved unequivocally that life existed well beyond 6000 m
(Eliason, 1951; Madsen, 1955).
New evidence of life at these extreme depths spurred a period of intense research.
The sudden boom in scientic interest concerning the trenches and the fauna therein
was primarily sparked and pioneered by two research campaigns; the Soviet Vitjaz
expeditions (194953, 195459) and the Danish Galathea expedition (195152;
Fig. 1.4).
In 1949, the Vitjaz trawled 150 benthic invertebrates belonging to 20 species from
10 different classes from 8100 m in the KurilKamchatka Trench (Uschakov, 1952).
Figure 1.4 The Danish vessel Galathea in Copenhagen harbour. Image courtesy of Torben Wolff,
Zoological Museum, Danish Museum of Natural History, Denmark.
Three years later in the same trench, six large trawl catches were obtained from
68609500 m. From 1954 to 1959, the Vitjaz expeditions (cruises 19, 20, 22, 2427
and 29) continued sampling hadal fauna in the Pacic Ocean (mainly Japan, Aleutian,
Izu-Bonin, Volcano, Ryukyu, Bougainville, Vityaz, New Hebrides, Tonga, Kermadec
and Mariana Trenches; Belyaev, 1989 and references therein). In 1966, on cruise 39 to
the KurilKamchatka Trench, a more detailed examination was made of hadal fauna at
depths of between 6000 and 9530 m. Three bottom grabs and 17 successful trawls were
obtained that yielded exceptionally abundant catches, even from the trenchs greatest
depth (Zenkevitch, 1967). Vitjaz cruise 57 (1975) comprised 30 successful trawls and
12 grab samples, and collected hadal fauna from the Ryukyu, Philippine, Palau, Yap,
Mariana, Volcano, Izu-Bonin and Banda Trenches. Later, during the 59th cruise, ve
trawl catches were obtained from 7500 m in the Japan Trench. After this cruise, the
Vitjaz remained operational until 1979, but ceased to conduct further work at hadal
depths.
From 1949 to 1976, the RV Vitjaz sampled hadal depths during 20 expeditions to
16 trenches in the Pacic and Indian Oceans. The scientists aboard managed to amass an
exceptionally abundant and diverse collection of hadal fauna, from a grand total of
40 bottom grab samples and 106 successful trawls, 18 of them at depths >9000 m and
ve at >10 000 m. The vast contribution of the RV Vitjaz to hadal research has never
been surpassed by any other research vessel to date. Vitjaz completed her last cruise in
1979 and returned to the port of Kaliningrad which she had left 34 years before. She can
be found their today, residing on the banks of the River Pregolya, fullling her new role
as a maritime museum.
The Danish Galathea expedition successfully sampled depths >6000 m by trawl and
sediment grab in six trenches: the New Britain, Java, Banda, Bougainville and
Kermadec and Philippine Trenches. The deepest trawl was achieved in the Philippine
Trench at 10 120 m and contained holothurians whose capture provided evidence that
First sampling of the trenches 13
Figure 1.5 Examples of hadal fauna recovered from the Galathea expedition. (a) The sh
Notoliparis kermadecensis, (b) the tanaid Apseudes galathea taken from 6770 m in the Kermadec
Trench, (c) the isopod Macrostylis galathea from 9790 m in the Philippine Trench, (d) the
holothurian Elpidia glacialis from 8300 m in the Kermadec Trench and (e) the gastropod
Trenchia woll from 6730 m in the Kermadec Trench. Reproduced with the permission of
Galathea Reports.
life existed everywhere in the oceans, even at depths greater than 10 000 m below sea
level (ZoBell, 1952; Wolff, 1960).
The extensive work of the Galathea and Vitjaz expeditions resulted in the sampling
of almost every known major trench, with recovery of multi-celled organisms from
every trench at every depth sampled (for examples, see Fig. 1.5). The rst comprehen-
sive reports of these expeditions were published in the Galathea Reports (available
online via the Natural History Museum of Denmark, www.zmuk.dk) and were rst
summarised by Wolff (1960) and expanded later in Wolff (1970) and Zenkevitch (1954;
Zenkevitch et al. (1955), respectively. The entire Galathea and Vitjaz collections were
also collated and summarised in Belyaev (1966) and later, incorporating other hadal
research up to the mid-1980s (Belyaev, 1989).
In the years after the Galathea and Vitjaz expeditions, there were several more
biological sampling expeditions to the trenches, but each of these focused on a single
trench. Although the number of samples taken and expeditions undertaken were
relatively low compared to those of shallower zones, there are still too many to mention
them all. However, to provide some examples, an American expedition on the RV
James M. Gilliss successfully obtained two trawls from 7600 and 8800 m and two box
cores from 8560 and 8580 m in the Puerto-Rico Trench (George and Higgins, 1979).
Further sediment samples were taken from the Puerto-Rico Trench on the USNS
Bartlett in 1981 (83718386 m; Richardson et al., 1995) and the RV Iselin in 1984
(74608380 m; Tietjen et al., 1989). Occasional trawl sampling by some nations in
neighbouring trenches commenced (e.g. Anderson et al., 1985; Horikoshi et al., 1990),
but very little trawling occurred at hadal depths after the early 1980s.
In addition to trawling and sediment grabs, another method rose to the fore in the
challenging quest to sample the deep ocean; a method that enabled scientists to view
specimens and the deep-sea environment in situ. Although underwater photography has
existed for over 100 years (Boutan, 1900), it was not until the 1940s and 1950s when it
became an integral part of seaoor investigations, whether for biological or geological
applications (Ewing et al., 1946; Hahn, 1950; Emery, 1952; Pratt, 1962; Emery et al.,
1965). The rst wave of scientically useful images from hadal depths were captured in
the Atlantic Ocean, in the Puerto-Rico and Romanche Trenches (Pratt, 1962; Heezen
et al., 1964; Heezen and Hollister, 1971). Further images were taken in the South
Sandwich Trench (Heezen and Johnson, 1965), the New Britain and New Hebrides
Trenches (Heezen and Hollister, 1971). All of the images described above were
captured between 6000 and 8650 m, using single or dual lm cameras lowered to the
seaoor on a wire. In 1962, the American PROA expedition on the Spencer F. Baird
obtained ~4000 images of the hadal seaoor, from depths of 6758 to 8930 m in the
Palau, New Britain, South Solomon and New Hebrides Trenches (Lemche et al., 1976).
Over time, the preferred sampling methods for extreme depths shifted from using
long wires to the deployment of free-falling baited traps and cameras. For example, the
American SOUTHTOW expedition in 1972 to the PeruChile Trench deployed a free-
fall camera 17 times between 84 and 7023 m that provided the rst recorded evidence of
live hadal fauna (described in Hessler et al., 1978). The same system, with traps, was
deployed from the RV Thomas Washington at 9600 and 9800 m on the oor of the
Philippine Trench and revealed extraordinarily large densities of scavenging amphipods
(Hessler et al., 1978). These results showed that, not only could scavenging Crustacea
be easily photographed, but they were readily attracted to and caught in baited traps
(Hessler et al., 1972). Similar traps were used to recover necrophagous scavengers from
the Philippine Trench (84679604 m), the Palau Trench (7997 m) and the Mariana
Trench (72189144 m) from the same vessel during the EURYDICE (1975), PAP-TUA
(1986) and INDOPAC IX (1977) expeditions, respectively (France, 1993). These
samples were used to examine gene ow of species between different trenches for the
rst time. Physiological experiments followed suit in 1980. Hyperbaric traps were
Exploratory bathyscaphes 15
employed to recover live amphipods from the trenches under ambient pressures (Yaya-
nos, 1977, 2009). Although the results were rudimentary, they provided new insight
into the potential for large vertical migration (Yayanos, 1981).
The year 1995 saw the construction of the rst full ocean depth rated ROV Kaik
(Kyo et al., 1995; Mikagawa and Aoki, 2001). In addition to the ceremonial marking of
the deepest place on Earth, Kaik was also used to collect sediment core samples and
deploy baited traps in Challenger Deep. The samples obtained from Kaik (mostly
sediment samples) provided specimens for a urry of research focusing on piezophilic
bacteria (Kato et al., 1997, 1998; Fang et al., 2000), Foraminifera (Akimoto et al., 2001;
Todo et al., 2005) and microbial ora (Takami et al., 1997), and ultimately led to
the discovery of the deepest chemosynthetic-based community, at 7326 m in the
Japan Trench (Fujikura et al., 1999; Fujiwara et al., 2001). The ROV Kaik completed
295 dives, with more than 20 dives to full ocean depth, however, it was unfortunately
lost in an accident in May 2003 (Momma et al., 2004; Tashiro et al., 2004; Watanbe
et al., 2004).
There were a few more opportunistic sediment core and baited trap samples taken in
the years following Kaiks loss. These included sediment samples and amphipods from
the PeruChile Trench (Danovaro et al., 2002, 2003; Perrone et al., 2002; Thurston
et al., 2002), and other amphipod studies from the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches
(Blankenship et al., 2006; Blankenship and Levin, 2007), where the latter samples were
employed in the rst attempt to examine a hadal food-web.
Coinciding with the increasing presence of Japanese technology at hadal depths via
the ROV Kaik, others began deploying instruments to measure environmental
parameters such as temperature, salinity, pressure, current speed and direction. Using
bespoke conductivity, temperature and depth (CTD) probes, proles of the entire
water column were obtained from the surface to >10 800 m in the Mariana Trench
(Mantyla and Reid, 1978; Taira et al., 2005) and to 9209 m in the Izu-Bonin
(Ogasawara) Trench (Taira, 2006). Super-deep current meters were also deployed
to 10 890 m at the same location and remained there for 14 months (Taira et al., 2004).
The resulting data revealed that current speeds were low, as had been anticipated, and
also showed the presence of tidal cycles at full ocean depth at 1415 day and 2832
day spectral periods.
1.5 Exploratory bathyscaphes
In 1956, the rst photographs of the hadal zone were taken by Jacques Cousteau at 8000 m,
in the Romanche Trough (North Atlantic Ocean; Cousteau, 1958).
The rst humans ever to visit Challenger Deep were Swiss scientist Jacques Piccard
and US Navy Lt. Don Walsh in the human-occupied vehicle (HOV) or Bathyscaph,
Trieste in 1960 (Piccard and Dietz, 1961). Although the dive represented an enormous
achievement in human endeavour, unfortunately it did not offer any scientic insight or
herald a new era in trench exploration. The reports of the animals that the men saw on
the bottom were somewhat dubious and, despite being rapidly discredited in the
scientic literature (Wolff, 1961), the erroneous account of a at sh which was

described as white and about one foot long, is sadly still perpetuated to this day
(Jamieson and Yancey, 2012).
The Trieste dive did, however, conrm that life was present at full ocean depth, but
the tall tales of sh at Challenger Deep perhaps dampened interest in the reports from
other bathyscaphes at hadal depths. For example, in 1962, the French bathyscaphe
Archimde made a total of eight dives over 7000 m (including three >9000 m) in the
KurilKamchatka Trench and at the junction of the Japan and Izu-Bonin Trenches. In
1967, the Archimde achieved a further eight dives off Japan, ranging from 5500 to
9750 m and observed numerous benthic animals and collected several samples using a
manipulator arm (Laubier, 1985). The Archimde also completed 10 dives in the Puerto-
Rico Trench, two of which were dedicated to biological observations at 7300 m (Prs,
1965). The pilot observed and documented numerous benthic animals including holo-
thurians, isopods, decapods and sh, although no video or still images were taken to
substantiate these personal notes and unfortunately this prohibited any accurate identi-
cation of species or abundance calculations. The description and behaviour of the
organisms reported by Prs (1965) bore an uncanny resemblance to much more recent
video and still images taken from the Japan and Kermadec Trenches at similar depths
(Jamieson et al., 2009a, b, 2010; Fujii et al., 2010). This more recent evidence suggests
that, sadly, the reports from Archimde were far more valuable at the time than was
realised, because of the deeper but erroneous claims of the Trieste.
1.6 Modern hadal research
The turn of the century saw a renewed interest in hadal research. While opportunistic
sampling is still occasionally undertaken (e.g. Blankenship et al., 2006; Itoh et al.,
2011), there have been several signicant developments in the last decade.
Following the loss of ROV Kaik, JAMSTEC developed the Kaik-7000, a 7000 m
rated vehicle (Murashima et al., 2004; Nakajoh et al., 2005) which was shortly
superseded by Automatic Bottom Inspection and Sampling Mobile (ABISMO; Yoshida
et al., 2009). ABISMO is a much smaller, compact and relatively low-cost vehicle,
capable of taking small water and sediment samples only. However, it was successfully
deployed to 9707 m in the Izu-Bonin Trench in 2007 and 10 257 m at Challenger Deep
in 2008 (Yoshida et al., 2009).
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, USA, has developed a new full ocean depth
ROV, capable of conversion to an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV; Bowen et al.,
2008, 2009a; Fletcher et al., 2009). This new hybrid vehicle or HROV, Nereus, completed
eld trials at 10 903 m at Challenger Deep on 31 May 2009 (Bowen et al., 2009b) and now
offers new and unprecedented access to trench environments. Capable of performing
acoustic and video transects, recovering organisms and sediment samples, Nereus provides
the potential to map, observe and quantify the distribution of hadal fauna in situ.
Coinciding with these technological advances, a collaboration between the Univer-
sities of Tokyo (Japan) and Aberdeen (Scotland) began the 5-year HADEEP project in
Modern hadal research 17
Figure 1.6 Biological samples recovered from the Japan, Kermadec and PeruChile Trenches.
(a) The snailsh Notoliparis kermadecensis, (b) the lysianassoid amphipod Eurythenes gryllus,
(c) close up of E. gryllus, (d) the pardaliscid amphipod Princaxelia jamiesoni, (e) unidentied
leptostracan, (f) the gastropod Tacita zenkevitchi and (g) the decapod Hymenopenaeus nereus. All
images courtesy of the HADEEP projects, except (b) Shane Ahyong (Australian Museum,
Australia) and (d) courtesy of Tomislav Karanovic (University of Seoul, S. Korea).
2006 (HADal Environments and Educational Program; Jamieson et al., 2009c).

HADEEP was the rst international campaign to perform repeated, standardised experi-
ments in multiple trenches in order to disentangle the effects of depth (i.e. hadal) and
individual trench identity (Jamieson et al., 2010). Using autonomous free-fall imaging
landers and traps, the project carried out seven trench expeditions covering six trenches
(Kermadec, Tonga, PeruChile, Mariana, Izu-Bonin and Japan Trenches), and sampled
depths ranging between 4000 and 10 000 m. The expeditions obtained hours of in situ
video footage, thousands of samples (see Fig. 1.6) and in situ still images which have
provided novel data concerning species distribution, behaviour and physiology.

A further collaboration between the University of Aberdeen and the National Institute
for Water and Atmosphere research (NIWA) in New Zealand saw the project (dubbed
HADEEP2) extended to 2013 and later (HADEEP3 and 4) running until 2015. These
projects, still ongoing, have introduced a eet of baited landers and baited traps to
collect samples and record footage from the Kermadec, New Hebrides and Mariana
Trenches.
One of the outcomes of the rst HADEEP project was Trench Connection; the rst
international symposium focusing entirely on the hadal zone biology, ecology, geology
and technology (Jamieson and Fujii, 2011). It was held at the University of Tokyos
Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute (AORI) in November 2010. The symposium
attracted an international collective of 70 scientists and engineers from six different
countries to discuss the latest developments in the exploration and understanding of the
deepest environments on Earth. It was the hope of the Trench Connection organising
committee that bringing together such a diverse group of scientists would increase the
opportunities for hadal research, with the aim to progress hadal science from its infancy
into a fully-edged area of research, integrated within the wider deep sea research
community. One such project emerged from the Trench Connection Symposium; The
HADES project.
The HADES project is an international collaboration between various institutes in the
USA, the UK and New Zealand. This project will bring together a diverse range of
disciplines with a suite of technology (traps, cameras and ROV) to perform comprehen-
sive biological surveys in the Kermadec and Mariana Trenches in 2014. This project
aims to determine the composition and distribution of hadal species, the role of pressure,
food supply, physiology, depth and seaoor topography on deep-ocean communities
and the evolution of life in the trenches.
1.7 Terminology
Based on the 194953 Vitjaz data, an endemism-based biological transition was identi-
ed at 60007000 m, thus distinguishing the abyssal zone from the ultra-abyssal zone
(Zenkevitch et al., 1955). A trench was dened as a long but narrow depression of the
deep-sea oor having relatively steep sides (Wiseman and Ovey, 1953) with features
such as a at oor (Menzies and George, 1967), an area of high seismic activity
(Ewing and Heezen, 1955) and negative gravity anomalies (Worzel and Ewing, 1954).
Around the same time, the same conclusion regarding biological zonation was drawn
by Anton Bruun, leader of the Galathea expedition, based on their ndings. It was
Bruun (1956a) who proposed the term hadal and hadal fauna to describe depths and
fauna greater than 6000 m (with hadopelagic to describe mid-water fauna deeper than
6000 m). Russian literature at that time, and sometimes still, refers synonymously to the
hadal zone as the ultra-abyssal zone (following Zenkevitch, 1954). Attempts to
rename hadal fauna by Menzies and George (1967) as trench oor fauna were rejected
by Wolff (1970) on the grounds that it did not reect the inuence of elevated
Terminology 19
hydrostatic pressure (also stressed by Madsen, 1961; Wolff, 1962; Belyaev, 1966). In
addition, the new name implied that fauna originated on the oor of the trench axis and
not on the slopes, thus making a distinction between fauna within the trench for which
there was no evidence to suggest a difference (Wolff, 1970).
The term hadal is derived from Hades, meaning both the Greek kingdom of the
underworld and the god of the underworld himself (son of Cronus and Rhea and brother
to Zeus and Poseidon). According to myth, the three brothers defeated the Titans and
claimed rulership over the underworld, air and sea, respectively. The term can also be
loosely translated as the unseen, abode of the dead or the dominion of Hades. In
modern days, Hades is perhaps more associated with evil but in mythology he was often
portrayed as more passive than malicious. It is interesting to note that although he was
portrayed as more altruistic than he is now known, he was known to strictly forbid the
inhabitants of his dominion to leave, which is a rather apt analogy for hadal fauna
endemism; the species inhabiting hadal depths are often conned to one or more
trenches and are rarely capable of leaving. Furthermore, Hades was renowned for his
overwhelming wrath in response to anyone trying to leave, which is also analogous to
the effects of decompression on obligate piezophilic organisms if removed from the
hadal zone.
The hadal zone differs somewhat from shallower zones (littoral, <200 m; bathyal,
2002000 m; and abyssal 20006000 m; Gage and Tyler, 1991) because it is not simply
a continuation of the preceding deep-sea environments. In fact, the progression of the
environment from the continental slopes and rises to the abyssal plains eventually splits
into clusters of fragmented and often vastly isolated trenches. Therefore, the term hadal
was suggested by Bruun (1956a) over ultra-abyssal, so as not to imply a mere
extension of the abyssal zone and in order to provide a name as distinctive and
consistent with the terms littoral, bathyal and abyssal.
Although the maximum depth of the hadal zone is clearly dened as the maximum
known depth, the minimum depth has prompted various discussions. The geographic
isolation of the trenches is thought to have promoted a high degree of endemism (Wolff,
1960, 1970; Belyaev, 1989). This has, in turn, been used as an indicator of the lower
depth limit of the hadal zone. Wolff (1960) published the rst summary of hadal
research and, based on the fauna known at that time, suggested 6000 m as the minimum
hadal depth. It was also suggested that the depth limit could be 68007000 m, but the
6000 m mark which represented 58% (Wolff, 1960) or 56% (Belyaev, 1989) endemism
was subsequently recognised as the boundary between the abyssal and hadal zones.
Although endemism >6000 m can vary between trenches from 3781% (Belyaev,
1989), it is generally recognised that 60007000 m represents the abyssalhadal
transition zone (Jamieson et al., 2011a). More recently, the 6000 m boundary has,
presumably for convenience and to account for the abyssalhadal transition zone, been
revised to 6500 m (UNESCO, 2009). The same recommendations have also readdressed
the depth ranges of all vertically stratied zones.
The bioregional classication adopted by the United Nations Educational, Scientic and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2009) were based primarily on suggestions regarding
regions and provinces by Zezina (1997), Menzies et al. (1973), Vinogradova (1979) and
Figure 1.7 Proles of the seaoor and bathymetric biozones for aseismic zones (a) and seismic
zones (b). Vertical exaggeration 50.
Belyaev (1989), and the newly dened boundaries have been set on the basis of unpub-
lished observations, re-analyses of existing data and more recent data reviewed by an expert
group during the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) workshop on Biogeo-
graphic Classication Systems in Open Ocean and Deep Seabed Areas Beyond National
Jurisdiction, held in Mexico City, Mexico, 2224 January 2007. This led to a proposal by
Watling et al. (2013) that the deep-sea biogeographic classication depth ranges are upper
bathyal (300800 m), lower bathyal (8003500 m), abyssal (35006500 m) and hadal
(650011 000 m) (Fig. 1.7). The depth zones translate to 2.9, 23.0, 65.4 and 0.21% of the
total ocean area as calculated by Watling et al. (2013).
The upper bathyal zone comprises the continental margins and generally falls within
the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ; 200 nautical miles from coast) of many nations.
The lower bathyal zone encompasses three physiographic categories; lower continental
margins, seamounts and mid-ocean ridges. The abyssal zone accounts for the large
majority of the deep-sea oor and the hadal zone, as described previously, is generally
restricted to convergent plate boundaries in areas where lithospheric plate subduction
occurs. As these plate boundaries tend to form the continental land masses, most of the
trenches fall within national jurisdiction (Watling et al., 2013)
Terminology 21
A more detailed description of the hadal environment in terms of geographic location

and geological formation is given in Chapter 2. However, with regards to terminology it
is important to clarify the exact boundaries of the hadal zone for the context of this
book. While acknowledging that the oceans do not ever conform to convenient human-
contrived nomenclature, but rather form transition zones between one distinct zone and
another, hereafter the hadal zone is considered to be the deep subduction trenches and
hadal fauna is that inhabiting depths of greater than 6000 m. Although Belyaev (1989),
UNESCO (2009) and Watling et al. (2013) suggest 6500 m as the lower limit, no
signicant new or comprehensive dataset has been recently undertaken and, until it
does, 6000 m will be used.
2 Geography and geology
The geography and geology of the hadal zone is somewhat unique and is more similar
to habitats such as canyons and seamounts than to the other depth-stratied biozones
such as the abyssal and bathyal zones. This is because the trenches are enclosed, distinct
geological features, often isolated from one another by thousands of kilometres. Fur-
thermore, trenches are more complex than simply areas deeper than 6000 m. They are
formed by immense geological forces which, on one hand, provide a unique geological,
biological and environmental setting, however, on the other hand, these forces result in
the devastating earthquakes and tsunamis for which they are better known.
For the purposes of this book, an analysis of global trench locations and topography
was undertaken by Dr Tomasz Niedzielski from the Department of Cartography at the
University of Wrocaw in Poland, using ArcMap 9.3.1 under ArcInfo licence, provided
by ESRI. The abyssalhadal boundary of 6000 m was automatically selected across
contours imposed on imported bathymetry (30 arcsec grid released by GEBCO). The
maps were projected to the cylindrical equal area projection with a central meridian 180
and a standard parallel 30 S, with a subkilometre spatial resolution. The analysis of the
topography was focused further by slicing the bathymetry into 500 m depth bins. This
approach permitted the extraction of habitat size (km 2), projected area (km 2), mean
slope () and water volume (km 3). These data were used to provide a list of up-to-date
locations and depths of the trenches, with additional information on size and volume
characteristics. The exact depth of each trench should be taken as indicative since the
map resolution may not detect very small depressions within the deepest point.
2.1 Geographic location
With the entire Earths oceans now mapped, we now know the locations of all the areas
of seaoor that comprise the hadal zone. It is accepted that the hadal zone is comprised
of deep trenches and troughs; however, the numbers of these habitats cited in scientic
literature often varies. For example, Smith and Demopolous (2003) cite a total of
14 trenches, Herring (2002) cites 37 trenches, Jamieson et al. (2010) cites 22 trenches
(and 15 troughs), Angel (1982) cites 22 trenches (one of which is <6000 m),
Vinogradova et al. (1993a) list 32 trenches (of which two are <6000 m), whereas Belyeav
(1989) cites a total of 55 trenches and troughs. The confusion perhaps arises when
considering those areas which are not large trenches formed at tectonic convergence
22
Geographic location 23
zones: the troughs and other features such as faults or fracture zones that intersect
mid-ocean ridges (such as the Romanche trough) and small localised depressions on the
abyssal plains. To complicate the matter, the original depth boundary of the hadal zone
(6000 m) has been recently reviewed and changed to 6500 m (UNESCO, 2009),
automatically omitting some shallower areas.
To address this issue, a digital global bathymetry database (GEBCO) was used to
extract all known areas deeper than 6500 m using GIS software (ArcGIS). The results
were then categorised into trench or trough using the following criteria:
Trench: a distinct, single elongated area deeper than 6500 m generally formed by
tectonic subduction or fault.
Trough: large area, or cluster of basins deeper than 6500 m which are not formed
at converging plate boundaries but rather basins within an abyssal plain.
Using these criteria, 33 trenches (27 subduction trenches and six trench faults) and
13 troughs were identied, 46 individual hadal habitats in total. An example of the
characteristic differences between trench, trough and trench fault topography are shown
in Figure 2.1. A list of all the trenches and troughs is shown in Table 2.1 with total
projected area, maximum depth and the latitude and longitude of the deepest point.
These parameters are also illustrated in Figures 2.2, 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5.
The mean depth of the trenches (including trench faults) and troughs are 8216 m
1331 S.D. and 7229 m 665 S.D., respectively (total mean depth 7938 m 1257 S.D.,
Table 2.1, Fig. 2.6). The deepest trench is the Mariana Trench at 10 920 5 m (Nakanishi
and Hashimoto, 2011), but the largest trench in terms of area is the Izu-Bonin Trench
which spans 99 801 km 2 (maximum depth 9701 m). The deepest, and also the largest
trough is a vast cluster of deep basins in the middle of the North Pacic with a maximum
depth of 8565 m and an area of 23 670 km 2. For ease of comparison, the 22 trenches can
be categorised into deep, medium and shallow trenches (Fig. 2.6). The medium trenches,
of which there are 11, are trenches within 1000 m of the median depth. Therefore, there
are ve deep trenches, all of which exceed 10 000 m and six shallow trenches.
The total area of the trenches and troughs is approximately 750 000 km 2 and
50 500 km 2, respectively, thus, in total, the hadal zone covers 800 500 km 2. The
area of the entire ocean is 335 258 000 km 2, therefore, the total area exceeding 6500 m
constitutes 0.24% of the entire ocean. Despite comprising a very low percentage of the
worlds ocean area, the depth range between 6500 and 10 982 m (4482 m) accounts for
41% of the total depth range.
Of the 27 hadal trenches, there is no correlation between depth and descriptors of size
(area and length). The longest trenches (in their entirety, regardless of depth) are the
Java Trench (~4500 km), the Atacama Trench (3700 km) and the Aleutian Trench
(3700 km) which have depths of 7450, 8074 and 7822 m, respectively. In fact, most of
the longest trenches are not excessively deep. The shortest ve trenches are the
Volcano, Yap, Banda, Admiralty and Palau Trenches of which the Palau and Admiralty
Trenches are also among the ve smallest trenches in terms of area.
The length of the trench is, of course, just an indicator of the size of the geological
formation. In terms of percentage of the trench length occurring deeper than 6500 m, for
Figure 2.1 Example of the different trench and trough topography. Examples shown are the Java
Trench, the West Australian Trough and the Diamantine Trench fault in the Indian Ocean south of
the Indonesian island of Java and West of Australia.
58% of the trenches, at least 70% of the trench lies within hadal depths. In contrast, the
Middle America Trench and the Diamantina Trench fault have less than 20% of their
length exceeding 6500 m and for the New Hebrides Trench only 8% is found below
6500 m. These trenches are predominantly abyssal trenches. Perhaps as expected, the
trenches with the largest percentage of seaoor area >6500 m are the deep trenches such
as the Mariana, KurilKamchatka, Tonga and Kermadec Trenches (all greater than 90%).
The projected area >6500 m depth gives a far more representative indication
of the size of the hadal habitat, irrespective of depth. The largest hadal habitats
are found within the Izu-Bonin (99 801 km 2), KurilKamchatka (91 692 km 2),
Mariana (79 956 km 2), Tonga (65 817 km 2) and the Aleutian Trenches
(63 036 km 2), whereas the smallest are in the Admiralty (4050 km 2), New
Table 2.1 A List of all the trenches, trench faults and troughs deeper than 6000 m with maximum depth
(m), the approximate location of the deepest point and ocean location.
Max depth (m) Latitude Longitude Ocean
Trenches
Admiralty 6 887 00.5600 S 149.3800 E Pacic

Aleutian 7 669 50.8791 N 173.4588 W Pacic
Atacama 7 999 23.3679 S 71.3473 W Pacic
Banda 7 329 05.3852 S 130.9175 E Pacic
Bougainville 9 103 06.4762 S 153.9323 E Pacic
Hjort 6 727 58.4400 S 157.6800 E Pacic
Izu-Bonin 9 701 29.8038 N 142.6405 E Pacic
KurilKamchatka 10 542 44.0700 N 150.1800 E Pacic
Japan 8 412 36.0800 N 142.7500 E Pacic
Java 7204 11.1710 S 118.4669 E Indian
Kermadec 10 177 31.9270 S 177.3126 W Pacic
Mariana 10 920 11.3808 N 142.4249 E Pacic
Middle America 6 547 13.9097 N 93.4728 W Pacic
New Britain 8 844 07.0225 S 149.1623 E Pacic
New Hebrides 7 156 23.0733 S 172.1502 E Pacic
Palau 8 021 07.8045 N 134.9869 E Pacic
Philippine 10 540 10.2213 N 126.6864 E Pacic
Puerto-Rico 8 526 19.7734 N 66.9276 W Atlantic
Ryukyu 7 531 24.5109 N 127.3602 E Pacic
San Cristobal 8 641 11.2800 S 162.8200 E Pacic
Santa Cruz 9 174 12.1800 S 165.7700 E Pacic
South Orkney 6 820 60.8510 S 41.0442 W Southern
South Sandwich 8 125 56.2430 S 24.8326 W Southern
Tonga 10 800 23.2500 S 174.7524 W Pacic
Vityaz 6 150 10.2142 S 170.1178 E Pacic
Volcano 8 724 24.3326 N 143.6107 E Pacic
Yap 8 292 08.4073 N 137.9244 E Pacic
Trench faults
Cayman 8 126 19.1700 N 79.8633 W Atlantic

Emperor 8 103 45.1594 N 174.1444 E Pacic
Lira 6 881 01.3800 N 150.6500 E Pacic
Massau 7 208 01.4200 N 148.7400 E Pacic
Romanche 7 715 00.2226 S 18.5264 W Atlantic
Vema 6 492 08.9232 S 67.4983 E Indian
Troughs
Agulahas 6 787 53.8494 S 26.9643 E Atlantic

Argentina 6 859 48.8498 S 50.6501 W Atlantic
Canaries 7 268 24.1248 N 35.6662 W Pacic
Central 8 211 01.1723 S 168.2845 W Pacic
Madagascar 7 113 31.3555 S 61.0106 E Indian
N American 6 922 26.1278 N 55.8783 W Atlantic
NW Pacic 8 565 39.8184 N 178.8757 W Pacic
Philippine 7 872 20.8711 N 136.7116 E Pacic
Table 2.1 (cont.)
Troughs
SE Atlantic 6 559 13.3632 S 1.8716 W Atlantic

South African 6 509 45.5201 S 14.4328 E Atlantic
South Australian 6 826 45.0223 S 128.3304 E Indian
W Australian 7 782 22.2517 S 102.3780 E Indian
Zeleniy Mys 6 708 14.5810 N 35.2081 W Atlantic
Figure 2.2 Geographical location of the hadal trenches of the North Pacic Ocean.
Hebrides (2439 km 2), the Diamantina (2430 km 2), the Palau (1692 km 2) and the
Middle America Trenches (36 km 2).
Of the 33 hadal trenches and trench faults, 26 are located in the Pacic Ocean (79%),
three are found in the Atlantic Oceans (9%), two in the Indian Ocean (6%) and two in
the Southern Ocean (6%). Of the 13 troughs, six are found in the Atlantic Ocean (46%),
four in the Pacic Ocean (31%) and three in the Indian Ocean (23%). These gures are
the number of individual trenches and troughs within each ocean. In terms of hadal
habitat size distribution, 84% of all hadal habitat is found in the Pacic Ocean
(673 855 km 2) compared to 8% in the Atlantic Ocean (64 053 km 2) and 4% in both
the Southern and Indian Oceans (31 293 and 31 779 km 2, respectively).
Figure 2.3 Geographical location of the hadal trenches of the southwest Pacic Ocean.
The numerical majority of hadal areas, in particular the deep trenches, are located
around the Pacic Rim or, more specically, around the perimeter of the Pacic tectonic
plate where it converges with neighbouring tectonic plates. Due to the immense
geological processes responsible for the formation of the deep trenches, and particularly
the resulting elevated volcanic activity associated with dynamic convergence, the
boundaries of this area are often referred to as the Ring of Fire.
When compiling the denitive list of the names of hadal zones, there are various
other criteria and issues to consider. For example, individual trenches and hadal habitats
Figure 2.4 Geographical location of the hadal trenches of the southeast Pacic, Atlantic and
Southern Oceans.
should be distinct from trench systems. Such a distinction relates to the topographic
partitioning <6500 m between two neighbouring trenches. For example, the Tonga and
Kermadec Trenches are clearly part of the same geological feature, however, they are
partitioned by the Louisville Seamount Ridge, an abyssal partition, and thus represent
two separate hadal habitats. A similar partition occurs in the PeruChile Trench where
the Nazca Ridge intercepts the trench at ~15 S, isolating the northern and southern
sectors of the trench by a 5000 m deep partition. The PeruChile Trench differs from
the Kermadec and Tonga scenario in that the northern sector (sometimes referred to as
the Milne-Edwards Trench; e.g. Menzies and George, 1967) is not hadal, whereas the
southern sector (known sometimes as the Atacama Trench; e.g. Danovaro et al.,
2002) is approximately 8000 m deep. Therefore, in the hadal context it is often referred
to as the Atacama Trench. The Mariana Trench is also a trench with a confusing
denition. It is often described as the trench that runs in an arc formation from the
Figure 2.5 Geographical location of the hadal trenches of the Indian Ocean.
northern tip of Yap Trench to the Southern tip of the Izu-Bonin Trench, however, the
northern sector of the Mariana Trench is partitioned by depths <6000 m which divide it
from the Volcano Trench. Again, from a hadal context the Mariana Trench and Volcano
Trench are treated as separate habitats as the partition between the two is as distinct as
those between the Palau, Yap, Izu-Bonin and the Mariana Trenches.
Many trenches are referred to by more than one name, depending on the nation
reporting on them. For example, in the North Pacic Ocean, the Izu-Bonin Trench is
often referred to as the IzuOgasawara Trench, the Ryukyu Trench is also known as the
Nansei-Shoto Trench and the Yap Trench is also known as the West Caroline Trench. In
the South Pacic Ocean, the San Cristobal Trench is also known as the South Soloman
Trench (and is also sometimes grouped with the Santa Cruz Trench as one), the Java
Trench is also known as the Java or Sunda Trench and the Banda Trench is also known as
the Weber Basin. Likewise, the North American Trough is also known as the Nares Deep.
The general tendency of naming deep areas within a single trench as deeps can
further confuse the terminology. For example, the Ramapo Deep in the Izu-Bonin
Trench (Fisher, 1954), the Meteor Deep in the South Sandwich Trench (Herdman
et al., 1956), the Milne-Edwards, Krmmel Deep, Haeckel Deep and Richards Deep
in the PeruChile Trench (Zeigler et al., 1957) and in the Puerto-Rico Trench, the
Gilliss, Brownson and Milwaukee Deeps (George and Higgins, 1979). In other areas
such as the Tonga and Kermadec Trenches, the Tonga Trench has a specic name for
the deepest point, Horizon Deep (Fisher, 1954), whereas the equivalent deep area in the
Kermadec Trench does not. The most famous of these deeps is, of course, the Challen-
ger Deep in the Mariana Trench because it is the deepest area in the world, however,
(a)
11000
10500
10000 Deep
9500
9000
Medium
Depth (m)
8500
8000
7500 Shallow
7000
6500
Middle America
South Sandwich
San Cristobal
New Hebrides
Volcano
New Britain
Kurile-Kamchatka
Philippine
Kermadec
Yap
Cayman
Ryukyu
Java
Alueaan
Palau
Puerto-Rico
Banda
Peru-Chile
Japan
Marianas
Tonga
Izu-Bonin
Trench
(b) (c)
9000 9000
8500 8500
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
8000 8000
7500 7500
7000
7000
6500
6500
SW Pacic
NE Pacic
Philippine
S Atlanc
NW Pacic
SE Pacic
Africa-Antarcc
W Australian
Canaries
N American
Indian plate
Argenna
N Atlanc
Agulahas
Zeleniy Mys
Romanche
Admiralty
Emperor
Diamanna
Trough Trench fault
Figure 2.6 Maximum depth (m) of the trenches (a), troughs (b) and trench faults (c) in order of
maximum (left) to minimum (right). Deep, medium and shallow trenches are dened as either
above or below the medium trenches ( median depth 1000 m).
there are also two others nearby in the same trench; the Sirena (HMRG) Deep and Nero
Deeps (Fryer et al., 2002).
The concept of coining these areas as deeps was thought to be convenient nomen-
clature spurred by the desire to declare a new nd and does not really offer anything
useful scientically (Wiseman and Ovey, 1954). In fact, in the case where there is more
Trench formation 31
than one deep, such as the Mariana Trench, this tends to result in a disproportionate
amount of research effort focused on the deepest area, thus omitting the rest of the often
large trench ecosystem.
The issue of coining deeps has been debated for decades. According to an inter-
nationally approved denition of deep-sea oor features, a deep is a well dened
deepest area of a depression of the deep-sea oor which applies when soundings exceed
3000 fathoms [5486 m] (Wiseman and Ovey, 1953). However, shortly after this
publication the British National Committee on Ocean Bottom Features came to the
conclusion that although geographical names should be given wherever possible to all
major underwater features, deeps that were dened from a morphological point of view
were relatively unimportant and therefore newly discovered deeps should remain
unnamed (Wiseman and Ovey, 1954). They went on to suggest that the term should
fall into abeyance and subsequently the British Committee omitted the deeps from their
recognised names of undersea features. Sixty years on and it seems that concept of a
deep may indeed be valid as they do represent relatively distinct geomorphological
features (Fryer et al., 2002) and unique habitats characterised by a distinct lack of
macrofauna, high concentrations of microbial cells and extremely soft sediment accu-
mulations (Danovaro et al., 2003; Glud et al., 2013). Further research is needed to
investigate the distinctiveness of the deeps to the surrounding trench habitat and
community structure.
There are, of course, a series of trenches close to hadal depths that fall just short of the
6500 m limit. These include the South Shetland, Puyseger and Henry Trenches of the
Southern Ocean and the Amirante and Chagos Trenches of the Indian Ocean, among
others. Although they do not constitute a hadal habitat, and data is currently lacking, the
trench morphology and isolation is such that they may share similar characteristics to
the hadal trenches and may provide an ideal setting to test direct effects of trench
topography on the distribution of abyssal species.
The biogeographic classication of benthic habitats by UNESCO (2009) categorised
the hadal trenches into subregions and provinces, based primarily on Belyeav (1989).
Within the provinces trenches are essentially grouped into clusters of adjoined or
neighbouring trenches underlying similar hydrographic or productivity regimes. The
hadal provinces are listed in Table 2.2.
2.2 Trench formation
The outermost surface of the Earth, the crust and uppermost mantle, act as a single
mechanical layer known as the lithosphere. The lithosphere is made up of 14 major
tectonic plates and 38 minor plates which constantly move relative to one another above
the slightly less dense asthenosphere. The way in which these dynamic plates move
relative to one another at the plate boundary are categorised into three types: divergent,
transforming and convergent zones (Fig. 2.7). Divergent plates move away from each
other and new lithosphere is formed by seaoor spreading (e.g. the Mid-Atlantic Ridge).
Transforming plates slide past each other in opposite directions or at different speeds
Table 2.2 Hadal subregions and provinces as classified by UNESCO (2009). The trenches in parentheses
are not mentioned directly by UNESCO (2009) and are assumed. The Middle America and Cayman
Trenches do not conform to an obvious province.
Subregion Province Trenches
Pacic AleutianJapan Aleutian, Emperor, KurilKamchatka, Japan,

Izu-Bonin (Emperor)
Philippine Philippine, Ryukyu
Mariana Volcano, Mariana, Yap, Palau
BougainvilleNew New Britain, Bougainville, San Cristobal and
Hebrides New Hebrides (Admiralty, Banda, Lira, Massau,
Santa Cruz, Vityaz)
TongaKermadec Kermadec, Tonga
PeruChile PeruChile/Atacama
North Indian Yavan Java, Banda (Vema)
Atlantic Puerto-Rico Puerto-Rico
Romanche Romanche
Antarctic-Atlantic Southern Antilles South Sandwich (South Orkney)
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Transform boundary
Divergent boundary
Convergent boundary
Figure 2.7 The three types of lithospheric plate boundaries: transform boundaries, where plates
move parallel in opposite directions; divergent boundaries, where plates spread away from each
other; and convergent boundaries, where two plates collide and one is driven (subducted) beneath
the other into the asthenosphere.
(e.g. the San Andreas Fault). Convergence zones exist where two plates collide head on
and create an underlying subduction zone where sediments, oceanic crust and mantle
lithosphere return to and reequilibrate with the Earths mantle (Amstutz, 1951; White
et al., 1970; Stern, 2002; Fig. 2.8).
Divergent boundaries are typied by the presence of heightened volcanic activity,
whereas transform boundaries form structural discontinuities which can result in
extensive seismic activity. However, convergence and the underlying subduction
zones are dynamic plate boundaries associated with both extensive volcanic and seismic
activity and are characterised geomorphically by the deep-ocean trenches, which in turn,
make up the majority of the hadal zone.
Trench formation 33
Ocean Margin Deposits Accretionary Prism

Volcanic Arc Trench Axis
Ocean Basin Deposits
Upper
te
Plate Lower Pla
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
n
ctio
bdu
Su
Figure 2.8 Principal sedimentary deposits and morphological elements of a convergent plate
boundary.
Most of the hadal trenches in their modern form, particularly in the Pacic Ocean, are
believed to have formed 65.5 million years ago (mya) during the Cenozoic period when
the continents moved into their current position (Menard, 1966; Belyaev, 1989 and
Russian citations therein), although it is believed that trenches may have existed for
107 years or more. The age of the seaoor can be much older than the age of the trench
in its current form. For example, the seaoor age of the Mariana, Tonga and Kermadec,
Kamchatka and Atacama Trenches are 150, 120, 70 and <40 million years, respectively
(Stern, 2002).
The total global convergence plate margins span >55 000 km (Lallemand, 1999),
nearly equal to that of mid-ocean ridges (60 000 km; Keary and Vine, 1990) and are
thought to be the most important tectonic features on Earth (Stern, 2002). Generally
there are 37 distinct areas that comprise the convergence zones. These areas range in
length from 300 km (East Luzon) to 2700 km (AleutianAlaska; von Huene and Scholl,
1991; Fig. 2.9a).
The subduction process involves a heavy oceanic plate colliding with, and subse-
quently being driven beneath, a lighter upper plate (Fig. 2.8). The lower plate is driven
down at either high angles (30) or low angles (<30) (Li et al., 2011). The ocean
plates are generally underlying oceans, whereas the light upper plates are topped by a
layer of terrestrial (continental) crust and/or an arcuate or linear belt of eruptive centres
which form volcanic arcs. Areas where oceaniccontinental convergence occurs often
result in mountainous areas adjacent to the near-offshore deep trench, for example, the
PeruChile Trench and the Andes or the Japan Trench and Japan. When the conver-
gence is oceanic to oceanic, volcanic arcs are created. These arcs are formed when the
lower plate descends towards the Earths mantle; the asthenopsheric mantle is sucked
towards it, interacting with water and other elements from the sinking plate causing the
(a) (b)
18000 Seaward slope 10
Seaward slope
Landward slope Landward slope
16000 Total trench Total trench
9
14000
8
Area of seafloor (km-2)
12000
Mean slope ()
10000 7
8000 6
6000
5
4000
4
2000
0 3
9500-10000
6500-7000
7000-7500
7500-8000
8000-8500
8500-9000
9000-9500
>10000
9500-10000
6500-7000
7000-7500
7500-8000
8000-8500
8500-9000
9000-9500
>10000
Depth bin (m) Depth bin (m)
Figure 2.9 Area of seaoor (a) and mean slope (b) for the western slope, eastern slope and
entire trench, example shown is data from the Kermadec Trench.
mantle to melt. It is these melts which ascend vertically through the mantle to erupt at
arc volcanoes (Stern, 2002). Examples of volcanic arcs can easily be seen to the north of
the Aleutian Trench and the Kuril Islands, west of the KurilKamchatka Trench.
Although the volcanic arcs represent an important geological aspect of the convergence
zones, in the context of hadal biology it is the process of subduction that ultimately
forms the hadal habitat. The rate at which the lower plates are subducted varies greatly
depending on location and age of the trench (Stern, 2002). Convergence rates through-
out the convergence margins range from 10 km per million years (e.g. Manila) to
170 km per million years (the Tonga Trench; von Huene and Scholl, 1991).
Earth appears to be the only terrestrial planet with subduction zones and plate
tectonics. Both Mercury and the Earths moon are tectonically and magmatically dead.
Mars appears to have tectonically ceased and is now a single-plate planet (Connerney
et al., 1999) and Venus is dominated by thick lithosphere and mantle plumes (Phillips
and Hansen, 1998). On Earth, subduction zones produce continental crust which can
protrude from the ocean (i.e. continents), and it has been speculated that without
subduction zones the Earths solid surface would be submerged in the oceans and
terrestrial life, including humans, would never have evolved (Stern, 2002).
From a biological perspective, the subduction processes affect the trench commu-
nities in various ways. The convergence process plunges the seaoor thousands of
metres deeper than the abyssal plains which account for most of the Earths surface.
Topography 35
Furthermore, the act of subduction creates the characteristic trench morphology, typied
by a V-shape cross-section which supports sedimentation between the slopes of the
converging lithospheric plates (Thornburg and Kulm, 1987). The thickness of the
sediment within each convergence zone ranges from 0.4 to 6 km and averages at
1.4 km thick (von Huene and Scholl, 1991; Fig. 2.9). Beyond geographic isolation
and creation of the extreme depths, the dynamic plate boundaries undergo continual
metamorphosis as tectonic activity shapes the conguration of onshore drainage basins,
the pathways of sediment dispersal across the continental margin and depositional
processes with the trenches. Over extremely long timescales, sedimentation, sediment
subduction and accretion shape the trench oor in a unique way that does not occur in
other deep-sea habitats. In addition, frequent seismic activity, varying in severity, can
lead to additional and unpredictable events, ranging from turbidity currents to cata-
strophic sediment slides (Itou et al., 2000; Fujiwara et al., 2011; Oguri et al., 2013).
2.3 Topography
The topography of trenches is unique and the hadal trenches are considerably larger
than trenches found in shallower zones (e.g. the Mediterranean Sea; Faccenna et al.,
2001; Masson, 2001; Tselepides and Lampadariou, 2004). Trench topography shares
similarities with features such as submarine canyons and channels, where sediment
accumulation also occurs (Vetter and Dayton, 1998; Tyler et al., 2009; De Leo et al.,
2010) but does not exhibit an open end where material can be ushed out into the wider
neighbouring abyssal plains (Canals et al., 2006; Arzola et al., 2008), although large
depth gradients, steep slopes and sedimentation rates are similar. Trenches also differ
from other sloping areas such as continental slopes and rises because in trenches, the
area of seaoor diminishes with depth, culminating at a single point (the deepest point),
rather than a steady continuation of the slope with depth.
The trenches are asymmetrical in that the subduction process affects the landward and
seaward slopes in different ways. The seaward slopes (on the lower plate) tend to be of a
more gradual relief as they constitute what was once the neighbouring abyssal plains
gradually travelling down towards the trench axis. However, the landward slopes (the
upper plate) tend to be far steeper and complex as they are forced upwards by the lower
plate. The steeper landward slopes are generally smaller in terms of area than the
seaward slopes.
Using the Kermadec Trench in the southwest Pacic Ocean as an example, the
general shape of the trench is such that the area of seaoor beyond the relatively at
abyssal plains (>6500 m) decreases linearly (y 2336.9x 16733; R2 0.9352)
(Fig. 2.9a). For example, the area between 6500 and 7000 m spans 17 057.9 km 2
(34.3% of the trench) whereas >10 000 m spans just 15.5 km 2, accounting for just
0.03% of the trench. In fact, the shallowest 50% of the trench in terms of depth
(65008500 m) accounts for 87.3% of the benthic habitat (43 425 km 2).
The total area of the trench can be deconstructed into the east (seaward) slope which
spans 32 998.5 km 2 and the west (landward) slope which is 15 832.9 km 2. These
(a) (b)
45 Marianas 70
Puerto-Rico
Tonga New Britain
40 Philippine Yap
60
KurilKamchatka San Cristobal
35 Kermadec Cayman
Percenatge of the trench (%)
Percentage of the trench (%)

Izu-Bonin 50 Palau
30
25 40
20 30
15
20
10
10
5
0 0
10000-10500
10500-11000
9500-10000
6500-7000
7000-7500
7500-8000
8000-8500
8500-9000
9000-9500
6500-7000
7000-7500
7500-8000
8000-8500
8500-9000
Depth (m) Depth (m)
Figure 2.10 Decrease in habitat size with increasing depth, illustrated as in percentage of trench per
500 m depth bin for the six deepest trenches (a) and six randomly selected medium depth
trenches (b).
areas account for 66.5% and 33.5% of the trench >6500 m, meaning that the seaward
slope is nearly twice as large (due to steeper slopes) as the landward slope in terms of
benthic habitat. The mean slope of the entire trench is 6.4 1.7 S.D. but can reach up
to 48 in places. The mean slope on the west side is 7.7 1.2 S.D. and east side is
5.9 1.8 S.D. (Fig. 2.9b).
Analysis of the mean slope of the trench clearly shows the boundaries between the
relatively at abyssal plains (mean slope 3.2 0.4 S.D. between 4000 and 6500 m)
and trench slopes (mean slope 6.7 1.7 S.D.). The trench slopes become steeper
with depth as the mean slope ranges from 4.3 to 8.5 from 6500 to 9500 m. Beyond
9500 m the slope begins to decrease indicating a attening at the deep trench axis (mean
slope 5.7 2.5 S.D.), with a mean slope of 3.9 beyond 10 000 m.
The linear increase in area is common to all trenches, regardless of whether they are
deep (10 km) or mid-depth trenches, as illustrated in Figure 2.10. In the six deepest
trenches, the shallowest 1000 m (65007500 m) accounts for an average of
55% 7.3 S.D. of the entire trench, whilst the deepest 1000 m accounts for
0.97% 0.4 S.D. In six randomly selected mid-depth trenches, the upper 1000 m
accounts for an average of 77% 7.5 S.D. while the deepest 1000 m is 14% 4.1 S.D.
of the trench. Likewise, the mean slope also tends to follow a similar trend whereby the
steepest gradients occur on the mid slopes, again regardless of whether the trenches are
deep or mid-depth, see Figure 2.11. On average, in most trenches the maximum mean
Topography 37
(a) (b)
Marianas 10 Puerto-Rico
10
Tonga New Britain
9 Philippine 9 Yap
KurilKamchatka San Cristobal
8 Kermadec 8 Cayman
Izu-Bonin Palau
7 7
Mean slope ()
Mean slope ()
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
6500-7000
7000-7500
7500-8000
8000-8500
8500-9000
9000-9500
9500-10000
10000-10500
10500-11000
6500-7000
7000-7500
7500-8000
8000-8500
8500-9000
Depth (m) Depth (m)
Figure 2.11 Mean slope with increasing depth for the six deepest trenches (a) and six randomly
selected medium depth trenches (b).
Cross-section (a) Cross-section (b) Cross-section (c)

6000
8000
10000
Depth (m)
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
Trench Axis
Figure 2.12 Cross-sectional proles across the trench axis showing plateaus (cross-section (a)),
smooth gradients (cross-section (b)) and complex ridges and valleys (cross-section (c)). The
example shown is the Philippine Trench in the northwest Pacic Ocean (vertical exaggeration
on cross-sections and trench axis are 60 and 120, respectively).
mid-slope gradient is approximately three times that of the slope at 6500 m, whereas the
mean slopes at the deepest trench axis are comparable to those at abyssal depths.
These parameters are, of course, averaged and, in reality, the trenches rarely conform
to a smooth gradient from the abyssal plains to the deepest point whether it is perpen-
dicular or parallel to the trench axis. Most of the trenches are large geological structures
with complex internal topography. Extracting bathymetric proles along the trench axis
or cross-sections perpendicular to the trench axis can reveal just how heterogenic the
topography is (see Fig. 2.12). Within the trenches there are areas particularly on the
landward side which vary greatly in terms of gradient and include large mounds,
escarpments, plateaus, dips and depressions. These features also occur, albeit to a lesser
extent, on the seaward slopes. Such complexity in topography will undoubtedly cause a
similar heterogeneity in substrata, where softer, ner sediments may accumulate in
localised pockets within depressions, whereas the steeper rockier outcrops are likely to
be devoid of sediment. The cross-section proles of the Philippine Trench shown in
Figure 2.12 show three different characteristics; cross-section (a) features a large
plateau, cross-section (b) conforms to a more classic representation of a trench and
cross-section (c) shows a highly variable topographical structure.
2.4 Sedimentation and seismic activity
Deep-sea sediment is composed mainly of clayey, terrigenous material derived from

continental erosion, carbonate and siliceous material supplied by pelagic and benthic
organisms, and metal oxides and ash of volcanogenic origin (Howell and Murray, 1986;
Hay et al., 1988).
The rates of sedimentation vary within different sections of the slopes and trench
oor and between trenches, depending on the nature of the relief and geographic
location. Deposits located far from continents or adjacent to poorly drained land masses
are typically only 200600 m thick. The supply rate and the size of particles decreases
with distance from land (Thistle, 2003), therefore within trenches adjacent to large
continental land masses, sedimentary deposits are dominated by coarser grained sand
and silt of terrestrial origin. The thickness of these layers is typically greater than 500 m
but can reach as deep as 56 km (Fig. 2.13). In addition, the persistent rain of particulate
organic matter (POM) from the surface layers and turbidites are deposited along the
trench axis and may thicken the overall trench oor layer of sediment to several
kilometres or more (von Huene and Scholl, 1991).
The complex internal topography within the trenches results in highly variable
sediment depositional morphology, such as trench fans, axial channels, sheeted basins,
ponded basins and axial sediment lobes (e.g. the PeruChile Trench; Thornburg and
Kulm, 1987). In addition, these spatially variable depositional bodies change over time
due to continual subduction and accretion of sediment. Sedimentation does not always
occur on the steep projections of the slopes but rather on the numerous areas with rocky
outcrops (Belyaev, 1989). Rock fragments are frequently deposited on the trench oors,
having fallen from the upper slopes during sediment and rock slides caused by the high
seismic activity in the trenches. Trenches are considered to be regions where the
sedimentation rates are considerably high (Belyeav, 1989). For example, the sedimen-
tation rate on the oor of the KurilKamchatka Trench varies from 510 to
501000 mm per 100 years which is considerably greater than the levels reported at
abyssal depths.
It is the characteristic V-shape of the trenches, formed by the subduction process
which creates a funnelling or sediment trap effect resulting in an obvious accumula-
tion of sediment at the trench axis that may not have otherwise occurred on the atter
abyssal plains (Nozaki and Ohta, 1993; Danovaro et al., 2003; Glud et al., 2013). Given
Sedimentation and seismic activity 39
(a) (b) (c)

Margin length (km) Sediment thickness (km) Convergance rate (km my1)
0 1000 2000 3000 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 40 80 120 160 200

Mexico
Washington-Oregon
Vancouver
Aleutian-Alaska
Japan
Nankai
Manila
Negros
East Luzon
Sulawesi
Columbia
Middle America North Pacific
Convergance margin
Kuril
Izu-Bonin
Mariana
Yap-Palau
Ryukyu
Philippine
Southern Chile
Central Chile
Peru
Triobriand
New Britain
Hukurangi
New Hebrides
Northern Chile South Pacific
San Cristobal
Tonga
Kermadec
McQuarie
Makran
Andaman Indian
Sunda
Java
Antilles
South Sandwich Atlantic-
Aegean Mediterranean
Figure 2.13 Characteristics of 37 convergence margins. (a) Length of the margins (km; where grey
bars Type 1 margins and white bars Type 2 margins); (b) sediment thickness (km); and
(c) convergence rates (km my-1). Data taken from von Huene and Scholl (1991).
the enclosed setting of individual trenches, material that is deposited into a trench
remains within it, slowing migrating downwards, driven by gravity towards the deepest
trench axis (Oguri et al., 2013).
Sediment subduction occurs where sediment remains attached to the subducting
oceanic plate and is driven under the resistive prism-shaped buttress of consolidated
sediment and rock on the frontal edge of the upper plate. Most of the material subducted
is, therefore, derived either directly or indirectly from continental denudation. This
process is categorised into two types: type 1 margins, where distinct accretionary prisms
occur, and type 2 margins, where only small accretion occurs.
At type 1 margins, sediment subduction occurs at the seaward face of an active
buttress of consolidated accretionary material that has accumulated in front of a core
buttress of framework rocks. In the case of small-to-medium sized prisms, ~20% of the
incoming trench oor is skimmed off and the remaining 80% is subducted. In the case
of large prisms, ~70% of the incoming trench oor section is subducted. The estimated
rate of solid-volume sediment subduction at convergent ocean margins is 1.5 km 3 y 1
(von Huene and Scholl, 1991). At type 2 margins, nearly all incoming sediment is
subducted beneath the landward trench slope, generally resulting in a thinner layer of
sediment than at type 1 margins. Type 1 areas constitute ~56.5% of the total convergent
margin (type 2 43.5%).
Nozaki and Ohta (1993) retrieved deep gravity and piston cores from 9750 m in the
IzuOgasawara Trench. They found that the lower sediments were dominated by layers
of material derived from terrestrial courses and the upper layers were of contemporary
marine origin. They also found that the sediment on the upper layer of the
IzuOgasawara Trench was similar to those recently deposited on the northwest Pacic
region and had a sedimentation rate of an order magnitude greater than at 8800 m in the
neighbouring Japan Trench. The source of the sediment was found to be the Japanese
Islands or the nearby Asian continent, transported via turbidity currents which may have
developed recently through submarine canyons on the western ank of the trench. This
in turn may have been effected by changes in turbidity source strength or deep-water
circulation patterns between the two trenches and is likely to have had occurred for long
periods of time to account for the observed differences.
The oceanic crust of the Pacic plate near the IzuOgasawara Trench is ~120 million
years old (Heezen and McGregor, 1973). Therefore, Nozaki and Ohta (1993) estimated
that if the average sedimentation rate is 0.5 cm per 10 000 years for the North Pacic
Ocean, then the sediments above the crust near the trench are 600 m thick. Assuming
that all sediments carried by the tectonic movement of ~10 cm per year are redistributed
to the at trench oor of ~5 km in width, then the sediment accumulation rate is
1.2 cm y 1, which is several times faster than is actually observed. This strongly
suggests that the sediments on the oceanic converging plate are largely subducting,
adhered to the plate, and only a small fraction can be redistributed in the subduction
zone. Therefore, the V-shaped trench morphologies are maintained through continual
removal of sediments by subduction.
The subducting action at convergence zones is not only responsible for the removal of
material but also results in juvenile crustal growth and terrane accumulation. The
subduction process either builds up new terrestrial crust through arc volcanism or builds
new areas of crust through the piling up of accretionary masses of sediment deposits and
fragments of thicker crustal bodies scraped off the subducting lower plate (von Huene
and Scholl, 1991). The principal contributor of input material to accretionary mass
is the lower plate, which is constructed of igneous rocks from the oceanic crust and its
overlying cover of ocean basin sediment (Hay et al., 1988). These convergence pro-
cesses continually create new regions of continental crust because some of the igneous,
sedimentary and thicker crustal masses attached to the subducting oceanic plate are
mechanically scraped off and accreted to the seaward edge of the upper (terrestrial) plate
(Howell, 1989). Arc magmatism also supplies igneous rocks from the underlying mantle
providing new material to the terrestrial layer, one of the most important processes in
sustaining the Earths stock of terrestrial matter (Reymer and Schubert, 1984).
Sedimentation and seismic activity 41
Interestingly, it has been estimated that during the latter part of the Earths history,
the volume of subducted material reaching mantle depths equals estimates of new
igneous masses to the layer of terrestrial rocks (von Huene and Scholl, 1991).
The lateral transport of sediment particles originating from the continental shelf and
slope into the trench (Monaco et al., 1990; Biscaye and Anderson, 1994) are very
important in biogeochemical cycling (Honda et al., 1997; Ramaswany et al., 1997;
Otosaka and Noriki, 2000). A vertical array of sediment traps moored in 9200 m in the
Japan Trench revealed a higher vertical particulate ux at the deeper traps suggesting
there is a signicant addition to the deeper depths from horizontal sources (Lerche and
Nozaki, 1998).
In addition to the routine input of material, sedimentary perturbations occur by
episodic lateral transport of particulate material from coastal regions to the deep sea,
initiated by earthquakes (Heezen and Ewing, 1952; Gareld et al., 1994; Thunell et al.,
1999). This process is also observed directly and indirectly in trenches (Itou et al., 2000
and Fujioka et al., 1993, respectively). Sediment sides and slumps can occur on slopes
as gentle as 2 resulting in the relocation of large volumes of sediment, hundreds of
metres thick and thousands of metres long. Flows of slower moving debris can occur on
slopes as gentle as 0.5 (Gage and Tyler, 1991). The gradients of the trench slopes are
much greater than this, thus the magnitude of seismically induced sediment perturbation
is exacerbated in trenches.
In general, earthquakes are limited to the uppermost 20 km, however, earthquakes in
subduction zones occur at much greater depths. Planar arrays of deep earthquakes along
the path of the subducting plate occur as deep as 660 km, at the edge of the mesosphere.
Seismologists use the seismic moment magnitude scale (MMS) to measure earthquake
magnitude in terms of the energy released (measure in MW). The magnitude is derived
from the seismic moment of the earthquake, which is equal to the Earths rigidity
multiplied by the average amount of, and size of slip on the fault during an earthquake.
As an example, the Mariana and Izu-Bonin Trenches 7.2 MW, whereas the Tonga and
Kermadec Trenches 8.3 MW. The highest values on the MMS are for the Japan and
Kamchatka Trenches at 8.39.0 MW and the Atacama Trench off Southern Chile at
9.5 MW (Stern, 2002). These high levels of seismic activity associated with deep
trenches have been recently demonstrated in all these areas in the 2010 Cauquenes
earthquake in the Atacama Trench off Chile (MW 8.8), the 2011 Christchurch
earthquake in New Zealand (MW 6.3) and the 2011 Thoku-Oki earthquake in the
Japan Trench (MW 9.0).
Due to the unpredictable nature of earthquakes, there are a few direct observations of
a seismically induced turbidity ow, although there are historical reports suggesting
such events in areas of similar topography (e.g. Prior et al., 1987; Porebski et al., 1991;
Thunell et al., 1999). However, Itou et al. (2000) happened to have long-term sediment
traps moored at 6150, 2950 and 350 m above the bottom (depths 1000, 4200 and
6800 m, bottom depth 7150 m) in the Japan Trench over the course of the 28 Decem-
ber 1994 Sanriku-Oki earthquake (magnitude 7.7) and subsequent aftershocks. They
reported a distinct increase in non-biogenic material at 4200 and 6800 m immediately
after the earthquake struck (Fig. 2.14). Although the composition (Mn/Al) of the
140E 142E 144E

5
4.5
40N
4 Japan
3.5
Total flux (g m2 d)
38N
3
2.5
36N
2
1.5
0.5
0
06 Nov 94
23 Nov 94
12 May 95
05 Mar 95
22 Mar 95
20 Oct 94
10 Dec 94
27 Dec 94
13 Jan 95
30 Jan 95
16 Feb 95
08 Apr 95
25 Apr 95
Date
2
Figure 2.14 Total ux of particulate matter (g md) in the Japan Trench before and after the
27 December 1994 Sanriku-Oki earthquake (black dot on map) as collected by sediment trap
(white dot on map) at depths of 1000 m (6150 mab; white bars), 4200 m (2950 mab; grey bars)
and 6800 m (350 mab; black bars). Data taken from Itou et al. (2000).
particulate material differed between these sediment traps, implying difference source
areas, they concluded that the material originated from surface sediments, transported
from the eastern slope of the Japan Trench.
The rst major scientic account of the 11 March 2011 Thoku-Oki earthquake
(magnitude 9.0) was published by Fujiwara et al. (2011), who described the location
and mechanism of the earthquake and resultant tsunami, and documented the resulting
physical changes in the trench morphology. They believe that the earthquake was
caused by a fault rupture extending to the shallower end of the subduction zone of
the Japan Trench. By comparing a new post-earthquake acoustic multi-beam survey to
one carried out in 1999, they found that the rupture had extended to the trench axis.
Furthermore, they found that the seaoor elevation (depth) throughout the landward
side was shallower by 7 to 10 m, and 50 m at the axes due to a submarine landslide.
They also estimated a horizontal displacement of 56 m towards the east-southeast. It is
clear from these results that with such huge forces and instability underlying the
trenches, even the shape of the hadal habitats are continually changing. Four months
after the Thoku-Oki earthquake, a 3050 m thick nepheloid layer was still present and
the top 31 cm of sediment in the trench axis revealed three recent deposition events
The hado-pelagic zone 43
characterised by elevated 137Cs levels (originating from the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear
disaster) and alternating sediment densities (Oguri et al., 2013).
The location of Japan is such that it experiences a very high number of earthquakes
and as a nation, in situ monitoring of these events is performed routinely and perhaps
more widely than by any other nation. As such, it is likely that the interaction between
seismic activity and the trenches will be fully understood through research undertaken
by the Japanese in their adjacent waters.
2.5 The hado-pelagic zone
The enclosed nature of trench topography also encompasses the water mass within it;
the hado-pelagic zone. As the area of the benthic habitat decreases with depth, so do the
three-dimensional pelagic habitats. In the ve deepest trenches, the volume of water
decreases relatively from ~30% of the pelagic waters being between 6000 and 6500 m
to just less than 5% beyond 9000 m. In fact, most of the deepest areas (>10 000 m)
account for <1% of the pelagic habitat (Fig. 2.15). Whilst the hydrography and
(a) (b)
300000
40
Marianas
250000 35 Kamchatka
Kermadec
30
Actual plegaic volume (km-3)
Percentage pelagic volume (%)
200000 Tonga
25 Philippine
150000
20
15
100000
10
50000
5
0 0
6000-6500
6500-7000
7000-7500
7500-8000
8000-8500
8500-9000
9000-9500
9500-10000
6000-6500
6500-7000
7000-7500
7500-8000
8000-8500
8500-9000
9000-9500
10000-10500
10500-11000
9500-10000
10000-10500
10500-11000
Depth (m) Depth (m)

3
Figure 2.15 (a) The decline in actual hado-pelagic volume (km ) of the ve deepest trenches and
(b) the relative decrease in percentage (%).
environmental characteristics of the hado-pelagic zone are relatively well sampled

(Johnson, 1998; Kawabe et al., 2003; Taira et al., 2004, 2005), from a biological
perspective, the hado-pelagic fauna are virtually unknown. This is mostly a result of
the technical challenges associated with mid-water trawling at such extreme depths.
There are only a handful of vertical plankton hauls from the hado-pelagic zone and
these date back to the 1950s and 1960s (Vinogradov, 1962). More recently there have
been some studies of the microbial communities from 6000 m in the Puerto-Rico
Trench (Eloe et al., 2010, 2011). Endemism at hado-pelagic depths was estimated at
41% by Belyaev (1989), a value somewhat lower than that of benthic fauna (56%).
However, this was based on very few samples that did not cover the entire depth range
of the hado-pelagic.
3 Full ocean depth technology
Scientic endeavour into the worlds ecosystems, whether on land or in the sea, tends to
occur in three stages: exploration, observation and experimentation (Tyler, 2003). The
discovery and subsequent exploration of marine ecosystems, whether serendipitously or
otherwise has been ongoing since the birth of marine science and provides the rudi-
mentary groundwork for all future research. As detailed in Chapter 1, this discovery and
exploration has culminated in the mapping of the worlds oceans in their entirety. In
shallow and coastal seas, the observational and experimental stages of research have
been ongoing for more than a century and are a well-established practice due to the
relative ease of access compared to deep environments. In shallow-water ecosystems,
the fauna and environmental correlates are readily accessible for study, both in situ and
in the laboratory, a luxury rarely obtainable in deep-sea research. The inherent nature of
the deep sea does not lend itself readily to examination using the experimental tools and
procedures of typical laboratory settings and research is often further hampered by the
great distances from shore and depths from the surface. As a result, deep-sea sampling
has lagged behind that of coastal and inshore research. The understanding of the deep-
sea environment has greatly increased in the last century, particularly in the last 50 years,
due to the ever-increasing sampling effort driven by the ever more apparent importance
of the oceans on our planet.
It has recently been said that if there are ages in science, the deep-sea biological
community is in the later stages of the age of observation (Tyler, 2003). While this is
certainly true for the general deep-sea environment, hadal research is more likely placed
in the early stages of observation. The technical challenges of exploration, observation
and experimentation that have hindered research at bathyal and abyssal depths are
exacerbated at hadal depths. It is the technological capabilities that underpin progress
in understanding these deep environments, as even the most basic scientic question is
unlikely to be answered without a heavy reliance on technology.
With literally hundreds of different applications and avenues of research, the diver-
sity and capability of technology, methods and techniques for studying the deep sea are
immense. Methods for the study of life in the hadal zone are mostly derived from
systems and techniques used in the wider deep sea that have been modied for
extension into the deep trenches. Whilst some of the technology itself, methods in
delivery and analytical techniques have evolved rapidly, others have remained relatively
unchanged for decades. Many of the basic operational principles are shared between the
shallow and deep environments, with only minor or extrapolated modications for use
45
in the hadal zone. There are a plethora of instruments, methods and techniques currently
available to deep-sea researchers, so much so, it is not possible describe them all
here, although there are comprehensive reviews of such methods (e.g. Eleftheriou and
McIntyre, 2005; Humphris, 2010). Hereafter is a description of the instruments
and methods that have been or are currently commonplace in sampling specically
hadal depths.
3.1 The challenge of wires
A common denominator in the sampling of bathyal, abyssal and hadal depths is the use
of research vessels by which to deliver technology to the deep sea, irrespective of depth.
This prompts the rst major challenge in sampling the hadal zone: depth, or perhaps
more accurately distance from the surface. Regardless of the environmental conditions
found at depth, this challenge is prompted by the sheer distance to which some sampling
devices must be lowered in order to reach the seaoor at full ocean depth.
Towing or lowering instrument packages or sampling devices on thousands of metres
of wire, often without any visual reference, requires specialised research vessels that
carry a wire sufciently long to reach the bottom. In addition, the vessel must have the
capability to withstand the weight of such a length of wire, plus the load exerted during
hauling, the drag on the wire and the weight of the equipment on the end of it. There are
currently few research vessels with the capability of sampling using wires beyond
6500 m.
Time can also be a limiting factor when using wire-deployed instruments at hadal
depths. Sampling with sufcient replication to quantitatively sample an area of seaoor
is inhibited by the time it takes to lower a package to the deepest trench oor and back.
For example, lowering an instrument at 50 m min 1, which is relatively fast, will take
over 7 h to reach full ocean depth and return, plus the time it takes to sample on the
bottom. A more controlled descent of 30 m min 1 will take over 12 h of paying out and
hauling in wire for just one sample. These times are based on simply lowering a wire
straight down and back up. If a package is being towed, then these times, and the length
of required wire, are increased furthermore. If a wire of equal thickness along its length
is dragged through the water without touching the bottom, it will form a straight line
where the angle is determined by the speed of the ship, the weight of the wire and the
drag on the wire (which to some degree offsets the weight of the wire). As the ships
speed increases, the wire will approach a more horizontal position, i.e. it rises ever
further away from the seaoor. If pulling a trawl across the seaoor, the wire directly in
front of the trawl must be horizontal, therefore, the entire length of wire cannot be
straight. The length of wire must be theoretically calculated to account for the extra
length needed to form the arc. For abyssal trawling the length of wire required is
typically between two and three times the depth of descent, depending on the type
of trawl.
In the example of beam trawling, the length of wire that needs to be paid out is often
roughly twice the depth of water (at typical towing speeds of 2 knots), in order to enable
The challenge of wires 47
Table 3.1 Specifications of the 12 000 m trawling wire from the Galathea expedition. Modified from
Kullenberg (1956).
Wire diameter Length Cumulative Weight in water Cumulative Breaking

(mm) (m) length (m) (kg m 1) weight (kg) strain (kg)
9.3 3600 3 600 0.26 936.0 7 140

11.6 1750 5 350 0.41 1653.5 11 100
13.2 770 6 120 0.53 2061.6 12 600
14.7 1330 7 450 0.66 2939.4 15 600
17.1 1730 9 180 0.89 4479.1 21 000
19.6 1080 10 260 1.18 5753.5 25 000
20.2 980 11 240 1.25 6978.5 29 200
21.8 760 12 000 1.45 8080.5 33 900
the trawl to be pulled along the seaoor behind the ship. Such an exercise would require
22 000 m of wire to be paid out at full ocean depth. The length of wire would therefore
take nearly 15 h to pay out and haul in, plus another 24 h on the seaoor to collect the
samples, totalling at least 17 h for just one trawl. Therefore, the number of samples
obtained per day is far lower than that which can be achieved in shallow waters. With
such long deployment times the reliability of the equipment is ever more pertinent. The
problems of lower replication with time are further hampered by low densities, small
body sizes, high species richness and the many rare species found in the deep sea. For
scientic credibility, the presence of these factors in the deep sea means that more
numerous samples must be obtained relative to shallower environments, in order to
condently describe the inhabiting fauna.
These estimates of wire lengths, towing speeds and times are, however, extrapo-
lations from abyssal trawling. Given that there have been no trawling campaigns
undertaken at hadal depths since the 1950s, there is currently only one detailed descrip-
tion, based on experience, of how to trawl at these depths. This is provided by
Kullenberg (1956) based on his experiences during the Galathea expeditions.
Kullenberg (1956) detailed his experience in calculating the required length of wire to
be paid out for different diameters of wire. To tow a trawl at a depth of 5000 m with 9,
12 and 16 mm wire requires 9600, 7900 and 6700 m of wire, respectively (pay out to
depth ratios of 1.9:1, 1.6:1 and 1.3:1). This suggests that heavier wire (16 mm wire) is
more suitable, as less wire is required due to the extra weight pulling the wire down,
relative to thinner wires. However, as in most deep-sea trawling, the wires are never of a
uniform thickness but rather are tapered, starting with a thin section which increases in
stages. This prevents the wire from parting under the combined weight of itself and the
tension during operations. The Galathea carried one such wire which was 12 000 m
long. The tapered section and other characteristics are detailed in Table 3.1. The
trawling wires used on the Soviet research vessels were steel cables ranging from
15.516 mm diameter to 6.87.2 mm diameter on the end.
Kullenbergs mathematical calculation for the length of a cable (shown in Fig. 3.1)
was successful, as shown by the achievements on the Galathea expeditions. His
Figure 3.1 The theoretical calculation charts for estimating the required length of wire to trawl at
the extreme depths as used on the Galathea expeditions, where (a) is for otter trawls and (b) is for
sledge trawls. Modied from Kullenberg (1956).
calculations are based on a matrix of the inclination angle of the wire leaving the ship,
the depth and the ships speed. Calculating this correctly is of the utmost importance as
insufcient length of wire could mean that the trawl does not reach the bottom.
Conversely, the use of excessive wire lengths can result in entanglement and the
formation of knots and kinks that could potentially break the wire. His calculations
show that, for example, if 12 000 m of wire were paid out with an otter trawl, it would
reach ~11 000 m when travelling at approximately 1 knot (wire angle ~70, which is
near vertical). If the ships speed increases to 2 knots, the wire would only reach short of
8000 m and the angle would increase to ~50.
Even when theoretically ignoring the challenge of long wires breaking, the time it
would take to pay out the necessary wire compared to more conventional deep trawling
depths becomes extremely long and would thus consume more ship-time per trawl
(Fig. 3.2).
Despite the trawling successes of the Galathea expeditions the Soviet opinion, based
on the experience of the Vitjaz and Akademik Kurchatov expeditions, was that often, the
wire paid out does not correspond to the theoretical calculation due to changes in
current speed and direction at different depths. The Soviets used a simpler method
based on Pythagoras theorem, where the depth was the vertical leg of a right-angle
triangle and the cable length was the hypotenuse, which again relied on the monitoring
The challenge of wires 49
Time (min)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0
2000
4000
Depth (m)
6000 11000 m at 1 knot

6000 m at 1 knot
8000 6000 m at 2 knots
3000 m at 1 knot
10000
3000 m at 2 knots
12000
Figure 3.2 The difference in time taken to trawl at 11 000 m, 6000 m and 3000 m assuming
pay out speed of 50 m min 1, a towing speed of one knot (solid lines) with the trawl on the
seaoor for 3 h. The equivalent trawl distance at 2 knots, which is not possible for 11 000 m
operations, is indicated by dashed lines.
of the wire inclination angle at the stern of the ship. With ship-side wire inclination
angles up to 3040 , they found from experience that increasing the wire length by
2030% of the calculated length was the optimal. Presumably the additional 2030%
accounted for the bend in the wire.
To overcome the challenges of extremely long wires, long deployment times and
availability of capable vessels, there are a number of instruments and sampling
devices that can be operated using the free-fall method. This method relies on two
major components: a basic delivery system and a scientic payload. The delivery
system comprises expendable ballast weights designed to sink the package, timing
devices or acoustically releasable devices to jettison the ballast weights when desired,
and subsurface buoyancy to oat the instrument back to the surface (see Tengberg
et al., 1995; Bagley et al., 2005 for detailed examples). Therefore, a relatively small
instrument package or sampling device (e.g. cameras or traps) are deployed from a
ship and sink to the seaoor where they carry out pre-programmed tasks and either
return to the surface at a specied time or on command from the ship. Since the free-
fall technology used is separate from the ship, this method enables relatively small
vessels to sample at full ocean depth, or alternatively, one vessel can deploy multiple
systems to operate simultaneously on the seaoor. This method also enables samples
to be taken over timescales that are far longer than the duration of the voyage itself
(e.g. 12 months). Also, instruments that are unattached to the ship are also independ-
ent of any movement from the ship and can therefore perform precise measurements
on the seaoor.
This method has become commonplace in hadal sampling and has been used
extensively to deliver baited traps to hadal depths (Hessler et al., 1978; Blankenship
et al., 2006; Yayanos, 2009; Kobayashi et al., 2012), baited video and still cameras
(Jamieson et al., 2009a, b, c, d, 2011a, b; Fujii et al., 2010).
3.2 The challenge of high pressure
The second major challenge for deep-sea research involves coping with the immense
hydrostatic pressure found at depth. Sampling methods such as trawling and sediment
sampling tend not to suffer any adverse effects from ambient hydrostatic pressure found
at depth, since these systems do not include any air cavities that could potentially
implode under pressure. Exposure to high hydrostatic pressure must be considered
during the technical design of deep-sea instruments containing electrical, electronic or
optical components. With pressure up to ~1.1 ton cm 2 at the deepest ocean depth
(11 000 m), a considerable crushing force will be exerted across any pressure differen-
tials, for example, dry instruments containing air cavities such as cameras, lights,
batteries or data loggers. These components must be assembled in sufciently strong
housings to resist these enormous pressures. This can be achieved by inserting the
components into metal, water-tight cylinders with sufcient structural integrity to
withstand the pressure at its intended operational depth. Alternatively, instruments that
do not include any air cavities (such as a leadacid battery) can be pressure compen-
sated whereby the device is mounted inside a housing and ooded with an inert uid,
usually certain types of oil, that maintain electrical contact. A water-tight exible
membrane can compensate for any minor changes in volume with increasing pressure.
The design of full ocean, depth rated, pressure housing is relatively elemental and can
be extrapolated from shallower rated designs. Increasing the operational depth range of
an instrument requires an increase in the wall thickness of the housing and thus its
weight also increases. Consequently, instruments deployed in the deep sea using the
free-fall method require greater buoyancy than their shallower counterparts and this
subsequently increases the cost. The issue of housing weight can be overcome by the
selection of appropriate materials such as titanium which, due to an excellent strength to
weight ratio, will produce a smaller and lighter housing relative to stainless steel, albeit
considerably more expensive.
Resisting hydrostatic pressure using metal housings is relatively rudimentary, how-
ever, optical devices such as cameras or lights require a transparent window in the
housing and this poses further challenges. The design of viewports requires transparent
components capable of withstanding high pressure. In shallower zones, this is typically
achieved through the use of acrylic (or Polymethylmethacrylate; PMMA) plastic,
borosilicate glass or sapphire, each with its own disadvantages and advantages. There
are three main types of viewport: plain disc, bevelled disc and hemisphere. Acrylic is
cheap in terms of material supply and machining, and it is relatively insensitive to
imperfection in manufacture. However, it does suffer from considerable plastic ow
prior to fracture, i.e. baroplastic characteristics (Gonzalaez-Leon et al., 2003). Extensive
testing of acrylic windows by Gilchrist and MacDonald (1980) showed that permanent
plastic deformation occurred when pressurised beyond 83 MPa (~8300 m) and cata-
strophic failure occurs at 140 MPa (~14 000 m), suggesting acrylic is not an ideal
solution for hadal applications (Fig. 3.3a). Borosilicate glass differs in that there is little
warning prior to a failure due its brittle characteristics. In addition, glass, like acrylic,
requires extremely thick viewports to withstand the pressure, often resulting in very
The challenge of high pressure 51
(a) (b)
150
25 50
140
130 * 22.5 45
120
20 40
110
Postive buoyancy (kg)

17.5 35
Wall thickness (mm)

100
90
Pressure (MPa)
15 30
80
12.5 25
70
60 10 20
50 7.5 15
40
30 5 10
20 2.5 5
10
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500
0 200 400 600 80010001200
Time (mm) Sphere inner diameter (mm)
Figure 3.3 Engineering challenges at extreme pressures. (a) Pressure testing of an acrylic viewport
(solid line) and a sapphire viewport (dashed line) whereby the equivalent full ocean depth
pressure causes the acrylic to deform (indicated by drop in pressure) prior to failure (indicated
by *), an effect which does not occur in sapphire. (b) Required wall thickness of a sphere rated to
11 000 m operations of varying diameter made in titanium (black lines) and borosilicate
(grey lines), the amount of positive buoyancy (dashed lines) increases in borosilicate but is
always <3 kg in titanium regardless of size.
large cumbersome components. Sapphire, however, albeit very expensive, difcult to

machine and restricted to available shapes (limited to plain disc design), has excellent
mechanical and optical properties, and its incorporation into housings means that the
physical size of the viewport is reduced. In large submersible applications, where
housing size is not an issue, acrylic and borosilicate glass can be used, while in smaller
camera applications, sapphire offers a more practical solution (as used in the Hadal-
Landers; Jamieson et al., 2009c, d).
The buoyancy provisions for deep-sea, free-fall instruments are similar to those used
in abyssal applications. Typically, there are two types of buoyancy: glass (borosilicate)
spheres (Pausch et al., 2009) and syntactic foam (Gupta et al., 2001). Syntactic foam is
made from microscopic glass spheres encapsulated in an epoxy resin matrix. The
resulting product is robust, insensitive to sudden failure and can be moulded into
complex shapes. It is generally used in submersible applications (e.g. HROV Nereus,
Bowen et al., 2009a; ROV Kaik, Mikagawa and Aoki, 2001; ABISMO, Yoshida et al.,
2009). The net buoyancy per volume, however, is much lower than that of glass
spheres. Glass spheres comprise two evacuated hemispheres secured inside plastic
shells that are typically 43 cm in diameter. They are commonly used in smaller lander
operations (e.g. Hadal-Landers; Jamieson et al., 2009c, d) and are relatively cheap to
produce compared to syntactic foam. The spherical shape is ideal in resisting pressure
due to uniform loading. Glass spheres are, however, prone to implosion if not carefully
handled and monitored throughout multiple pressure cycles. Other solutions, such as
titanium spheres should, in theory, eliminate the implosion risk; however, the required
volume of material needed to withstand pressure at hadal depth negates any positive
buoyancy (Fig. 3.3b). In even smaller vehicles, such as single traps (e.g. PRATS;
Yayanos, 2009), reservoirs of parafn oil-based liquids such as Isopar-M are used
for buoyancy (Yayanos, 1976). Once again, the problem with using oatation modules
containing materials such as Isopar-M comes down to the weight of the relatively
large volume of material required to meet the buoyancy demands. The weight factor
thus limits the use of this type of buoyancy to smaller vehicles.
3.3 Trawling and coring
Coring and, particularly, trawling require prior knowledge of the seaoor, more so in
trench environments than on the abyssal plains. Trenches are characterised by steep
slopes and often complex terrain with spatially variable substrata, all of which can affect
the efciency of the equipment and, ultimately, may damage or endanger it. Echo-
sounders are used to clarify the topographic nature of the trench prior to trawling, in
order to select a suitably at trawl path. They are used continuously during the trawl to
monitor the course in the event of changes in depth or relief. Likewise, the echo-sounder
is used to locate a suitably at coring station prior to coring operations.
There are two basic types of benthic trawl that have been used regularly in hadal
applications: beam trawls and otter trawls. The beam trawls are used primarily for
sampling benthic megafauna, whereas otter trawls are more suited to the collection of
bentho-pelagic fauna.
The most common beam trawl used in sampling at hadal depths is the Agassiz trawl
(also called a Blake or Sigsbee trawl, or a SigsbyGorbunov beam trawl by the Soviets).
These trawls consist of two D-shaped runners joined by 2.53 m long struts that create a
xed trawl mouth area of between 1.5 and 2.1 m2. In good conditions (low relief and
soft sediment), both the Galathea and Vitjaz expeditions sometimes used a 6 m wide
trawl, which was essentially two beam trawls coupled together side by side, to double
the trawl mouth area. These trawls have a typical mesh size of 20 mm and a cod end (the
sample bag) lined with 10 mm netting.
The main advantage of beam trawling is that the xed mouth design is relatively easy
to deploy. Unlike some other trawls it is not susceptible to net collapse or entanglement
and can therefore be towed very slowly on rough or unfamiliar ground, such as in the
trenches. The xed mouths allow the trawl to be lowered almost vertically from the ship
and dragged very slowly across the seaoor. The ability to tow the trawl very slowly
becomes ever more pertinent with increasing depth, as illustrated by Kullenbergs
calculation of wire out (Fig. 3.1). Various safety features are often incorporated into
the trawl for use in the event of an entanglement or snagging. Features such as weak links
are designed to sheer in certain circumstances, transferring the strain to the cod end.
Trawling and coring 53
Beam trawls are designed to sample benthic fauna but are less effective at catching
large, mobile animals such as sh. Fish are typically caught using otter trawls, like those
employed on the Galathea expeditions. Otter trawls have larger nets than beam trawls
and a non-xed mouth that is pulled and held open by two steel boards attached to the
main wire. The advantage of otter trawls in deep-sea applications is that they sample a
greater volume of water per unit towing time (Stein, 1985). However, otter trawls are
susceptible to net collapse at low towing speeds (<2 knots) and, although they do not
feature in trench applications as signicantly as beam trawls, they have been used
successfully. For example, George and Higgins (1979) used a 40 foot otter trawl with a
500 m mesh cod end at depths of 8580 m in the Puerto-Rico Trench. They towed the
trawl at 1.5 knots for 4 h covering 711 km of seaoor.
Otter trawls usually include a ballast weight of greater than 100 kg in order to
maintain a positive bottom contact. The moment when a trawl or coring device hits
the seaoor is difcult to ascertain. Sudden drops in tension on the winch are not readily
detectable as the weight of the package is minute relative to the weight of the actual
cable. Therefore, for years, scientists relied on the wire out calculation to determine
bottom contact time. A more precise method was developed using an acoustic signalling
device (or pinger) that transmits a signal to the ship on contact with the seaoor. This
method was rst used at hadal depths onboard the American RV Thomas Washington
in the Philippine Trench at 9600 m. Most modern methods of deep-sea trawling use
pingers or slightly more sophisticated trawl monitors to continuously monitor depth,
contact, angle and spread. The idea of monitoring bottom contact was developed further
by the inclusion of a freely rotating wheel known as a trawl-graph, which recorded the
length of the path traversed by the trawl over the seaoor. This method provided
sufcient data from which to establish approximate calculations of the trawled area
and subsequently of the biomass and abundance per unit area, albeit only under
favourable conditions (Zenkevitch et al., 1955). To cope with more complex macro-
and micro-relief of the seaoor, and any major changes in depth, two or three trawl-
graphs were used simultaneously across the mouth of the trawl. Unfortunately this
method produced such varied results that the trawl-graphs were abandoned in future
trench trawling endeavours.
The simple pingers of the 1960s and 1970s were not as effective as modern trawl
monitor systems when towing equipment. Today, such monitors contain multiple tilt
sensors to relay angle, pitch, twisting and depth data directly to the ship, in a series in
time-delayed pulses. Modern bottom trawl tilt switches can show sudden changes in
angle when the package is on the bottom, and indicate accidental lifting from the
seaoor. However, since no major trawling campaigns have been conducted at hadal
depths in the last few decades, modern trawl monitors have yet to be employed at these
depths.
More recent (post Galathea and Vitjaz) reports of trawling at hadal depths do exist,
for example, Horikoshi et al. (1990), but details of the actual operation are lacking.
Aside from bottom trawling, hado-pelagic vertical trawls (or BogorovRass
closing nets) were used in the Soviet expeditions. Vertical trawls are lowered to the
desired start depth, opened and hauled vertically to the desired end depth and then
closed. This technique was used to obtain quantitative distribution patterns of plankton
from the surface to 8000 m over the KurilKamchatka, Mariana, Bougainville and
Kermadec Trenches (Vinogradov, 1962).
In addition to the different types of trawl, many other devices are used for sampling
the deep sea, including equipment specically designed to collect the fauna and material
in sediments. Sediment grabs and corers are mechanical devices that are lowered to the
seaoor on a wire and are triggered, on contact with the bottom, to collect a sediment
sample. The earliest methods for sounding the deep trenches included small, single
corers, such as the Hydra-rod or the Baillie rod (Thomson and Murray, 1895). Although
these grabs were initially used to conrm bottom contact, subsequent development led
to the corer as a method of collecting sediments and organisms from the deep-sea oor
(Thorson, 1957).
The most common types of grab in use today, in relatively shallow environments, are
the Peterson, Van Veen and Day grabs. At hadal depths, the Galathea expedition used
the 0.2 m2 Petersen bottom grab (Bruun, 1956a) and the Soviet expeditions used the
0.25 m2 bottom grab Okean-50 (Belyaev, 1989) and managed to obtain samples from
9340 m in the Philippine Trench and 9540 m in the Mariana Trench. Although each
grab differs slightly in design (surface area and sample volume), all rely on a trigger
mechanism that shuts a pair of jaws on contact with the seaoor, a principle based on
the original Peterson grab.
Although highly efcient in coastal applications, these sediment grabs are subject
to the same challenges as the other wire-deployed systems described earlier.
Deploying these grabs in the deep sea is extremely time consuming relative to the
sample size obtained. Over such long distances from the surface, the grabs can suffer
severe wash-out during the long ascent from the seaoor. Furthermore, the efciency
and effectiveness at quantifying the infaunal communities from such samples has
been questioned for decades. Bow waves can easily sweep away light-bodied organ-
isms and surface sediments from the samples (Wigley, 1967) and the depth of
seaoor penetration of the grab is dependent on substrate type and, as a result,
organisms that burrow below the grabs penetration depth may not be sampled (Smith
and Howard, 1972). Given these issues, sediment grabs were superseded, rst by box
corers and then by tube corers.
Today, the use of grabs is relatively uncommon in deep-sea research. Nevertheless,
they are frequently employed as precision tools for use by ROVs for the virtually
undisturbed sampling of benthic organisms. These slightly modied grabs are used to
target organisms precisely, particularly large and often fragile epifauna, or specic areas
of seaoor (e.g. the Ekman type grab; Rowe and Clifford, 1973). ROV delivery and
operation eliminates the bow wave problem, sediment disturbance and problems asso-
ciated with full ocean depth-capable wires.
The grab, or multiple grabs, is carried to the seaoor on the ROV tool tray. The ROV
uncouples the grab and gently places it over the desired organism or area of seaoor.
The grab is then gently inserted into the seaoor, enclosing the animal, the underlying
sediment and overlying water. The grab is closed and retracted and secured back on the
tool tray ready for return to the surface.
Trawling and coring 55
Sediments grabs were superseded in the 1970s by spade corers, now commonly
known as box corers and these became the standardised method of quantitative
sediment sampling in the deep sea (Hessler and Jumars, 1974). Box corers did exhibit
the same level of disturbance to which grabs were prone, but retrieved much larger,
deeper and less disturbed sediment samples.
Box corers comprise a central column that is weighted with lead and is slotted and
gimballed within an outer frame. On the end of the central column is a detachable,
square, bottomless, metal box. Prior to operation, the spade is held horizontally by a
spring-loaded bolt. When the outer frame reaches the seaoor, the weighted inner
column drives the box into the sediment. The spring-loaded pin is withdrawn and a
short length of cable is released causing the spade to swing 90 through the seaoor
and under the box, thus enclosing the relatively undisturbed sediment within the box.
Once the corer is hauled back to the ship, the sediment-lled box is detached, sampled
and processed.
Box corers were used extensively in the 1980s in the Puerto-Rico Trench, from
depths of 7460 to 8380 m (Tietjen, 1989) and 8371 to 8386 m (Richardson et al., 1995)
in order to investigate the benthic assemblages of nematodes and macro- and meiofauna,
respectively. Other box core samples have been obtained from 7298 m in the Aleutian
Trench (Jumars and Hessler, 1976) and 9600 m in the Philippine Trench (Tendal and
Hessler, 1977; Hessler et al., 1978).
Since its invention, there have been many iterations of the box core based on the
same principle (e.g. Jumars, 1975; Gerdes, 1990). In general, box corers were found to
be superior to grabs in terms of the state and volume of sample collected. However, box
corers were still susceptible to the sweeping away of ne surface sediments and delicate
organisms by the waves which also contaminated the overlying water (Bett et al., 1994;
Shirayama and Fukushima, 1995). They were eventually superseded by the multiple
tube corer.
In the late 1990s, the spade corer principle was revisited in the form of a smaller
programmable auto-corer, which was deployed on the end of a mooring line. The
auto-corer was set on a time-delay and programmed only to trigger 7 hours after
reaching the seaoor at a reduced speed to minimise sediment disturbance (Danovaro
et al., 2002, 2003). Although this method was successful in retrieving 6 cm diameter
cores from 7800 m in the Atacama Trench, it was a bespoke design and is not
commonplace in hadal sampling.
The surface sediment disruption caused by box corers led to the development of the
multiple corer, known as multicorers (Barnett et al., 1984) or in later versions, the
megacorers (Gage and Bett, 2005). The multicorer comprises an array of up to 12 core
tubes of typically 25.1 cm 2. The core tubes are attached to a central shaft within an
outer frame and are driven into the seaoor using the same principle as the box corer,
however, the tubes are hydraulically dampened to further minimise disturbance. The top
and bottom of the core is sealed upon extraction from the seaoor.
Multicorers (and box cores) are monitored through the water column by pingers
coupled to the wire (or on the corer itself). They descend with a payout speed of
~5060 m min 1 until close to the seaoor where they are slowed down to
~1015 m min 1 prior to penetration. The core is left for a brief period to allow for
the slow penetration before a slow pull out and hauling commences. Once onboard the
ship, the cores are removed individually and either preserved as whole or extruded and
sliced into desired depth horizons. There are currently several different types of multiple
tube corer available, based on the same basic principle but with variation on number and
size of core tubes.
The challenges of using extremely long wires to reach hadal depths has prevented any
signicant use of wire-deployed coring systems in trenches, mainly due to the lack of
suitable ships. One of the few examples of mulitcorer use in the hadal zone is
documented by Itoh et al. (2011), whereby two sets of cores were successfully
recovered from ~7000 m in the KurilKamchatka Trench. JAMSTEC have also
developed an 11 000 m rated free-falling sediment corer, called ASHURA (Murashima
et al., 2009). This vehicle is equipped with three hydraulically dampened cores and high
denition (HD) camera to image the sediment surface (Glud et al., 2013).
Nevertheless, many more cores have been retrieved from hadal depths through the
use of ROV push cores (e.g. Kato et al., 1997; Takami et al., 1997). Push cores are
smaller than those on multicore systems and the tubes are typically 58 mm diameter
300 mm long with a non-return or manual valve at the top and a T-handle for ROV
handling. Most deep-water ROVs can take tens of push cores on one dive, secured to
the tool tray. The ROV can gently insert each push core tube into the sediment creating
very little disturbance, while the water vents out through the valve on the top. The
manual valve is then closed by the ROV or, using a utter valve, the core is simply
pulled straight out allowing suction to close the valve. The core is then removed from
the seaoor and placed onto a bung inside a designated quiver, ready for retrieval at the
surface.
The ROV method of push coring allows precise, targeted coring on a small scale
(e.g. cold seep bacterial mats; Van Dover and Fry, 1994) and can provide the means to
perform transects of tens to hundreds of metres. This push coring technique has
been used in Challenger Deep to sample Foraminifera (Akimoto et al., 2001;
Todo et al., 2005), microbial ora (Takami et al., 1997) and bacteria (Kato et al.,
1998; Fang et al., 2000).
3.4 Cameras and traps
In the absence of opportunities to trawl, baited traps are simple and effective methods of
recovering animals from hadal depths. Baited traps are biased towards mobile bait-
attending fauna and, in one respect, this can be seen as a disadvantage, however, baited
traps are capable of recovering a greater sample of scavenging crustaceans in terms of
numbers and diversity than either trawling or coring. Their greatest advantage, however,
is that when these traps are deployed using the free-fall method, they can be delivered
from smaller research vessels and are relatively cheap to construct relative to other
methods. Furthermore, baited traps can be integrated into the scientic payload of other
vehicles such as baited camera landers, or they can comprise one of a selection of tools
Cameras and traps 57
used by an ROV. As baited traps are relatively small packages, they can also be
constructed in multiple compact units and deployed quickly across an area, thus
increasing sample size and replication.
The samples obtained from traps can be used for the same diverse range of down-
stream scientic applications as any other physical sampling methods, for example,
basic taxonomy, population genetics, physiological measurements, stomach content
analysis (diet), chemical composition and lengthweight (biomass) relationships. Trap
samples are also employed to contribute to the accuracy of the baited camera method
because, on occasion, a species captured on lm may be too small to identify con-
dently from photographs only. For these reasons, the baited trap is currently the most
favoured method for sampling at hadal depths and, consequently, there is currently a
disproportionately large sampling bias towards scavenging or bait-attending fauna,
particularly amphipod crustaceans.
Free-fall baited traps have been used extensively for many years to recover mobile
scavengers at bathyal and abyssal depths (Paul, 1973; Shulenberger and Hessler, 1974;
Isaacs and Schwartzlose, 1975; Thurston, 1979; Stockton, 1982), and there has been,
since these early years, an increase in their use at hadal depths (Hessler et al., 1978;
France, 1993; Thurston et al., 2002, Blankenship et al., 2006; Jamieson et al., 2011a;
Eustace et al., 2013).
Baited trap designs can vary in size, volume, number per package or in operational
features (e.g. closable), but most are based upon the simple principles of funnel traps
(Fig. 3.4a). The most common baited trap is the small invertebrate funnel trap, designed
to trap small scavenging crustaceans. These cylindrical traps comprise mesh funnels on
one or both ends, with bait inside the cylinder. The bait releases an odour plume that is
detected by scavenging animals that follow the plume upstream into the trap. The
animal is funnelled into the trap through the large opening, it then passes through the
smaller trap entrance and into the cylinder, whereupon it feeds on the bait. The funnel
exits are not easily located from the inside as they contact the internal structure of the
cylinder and therefore, although some may escape or may be lost during the ascent to
the surface, most occupants are successfully recovered. This method is highly effective
in capturing a sufcient number of samples in hadal applications (Fig. 3.4b). To reduce
any potential loss during ascent and recovery of the system, some traps have used
converted closing water samplers (Niskin bottles) to form a closable cylinder (e.g.
Blankenship et al., 2006).
These simple funnel traps can be deployed by attachment to larger deep-submergence
system (e.g. a lander; Fujii et al., 2010; Jamieson et al., 2011a), or deposited directly on
the seaoor individually using an ROV or can be dedicated free-falling systems such as
those used by Blankenship et al. (2006) or the Latis system used in HADEEP (Jamieson
et al., 2013; Fig. 3.4c and d, respectively).
The baited trap has been further developed into a more sophisticated hyperbaric
trap. Hyperbaric traps entice animals into them in the same way as conventional baited
traps, however, the body of the trap is constructed like an open pressure housing. Once
the trap leaves the seaoor, the internal chamber is closed either by a piston (e.g.
Yayanos, 1977; Fig. 3.5) or by a cantilever mechanism (MacDonald and Gilchrist,
Figure 3.4 Small invertebrate funnel traps. (a) Basic principles of funnel trap whereby an
amphipod, for example, is lured through the funnels into the trap with bait and is unable to
relocate the entrances. (b) Example of trap efciency whereby thousands of hadal amphipods
(Hirondellea gigas) are emptied from a small trap after just 12 h at 9316 m deep (Izu-Bonin
Trench; as used in Eustace et al., 2013). (c) Example of full ocean depth rated trap used by
Blankenship et al. (2006). (d) The Latis, large sh trap and funnel trap array as used by Jamieson
et al. (2013). Images (b) and (d) are courtesy of HADEEP, University of Aberdeen. Image
(c) courtesy of L. Levin, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, USA.
1980) and the animals are sealed inside and subsequently recovered at their ambient
pressure. This technique was used to recover the rst (and only) live organism from
hadal depths; a lysianassoid amphipod from 10 900 m in the Mariana Trench (Yayanos,
1981, 2009). Maintaining the ambient pressure is a difcult task due to volume changes
during the ascent through the warmer surface layers. Additional thermo insulation
around the traps aims to counter this effect. Decompressing organisms from such depths
has not yet led to the survival of these deep-sea species at atmospheric pressure, but
rather, the process has been used to investigate pressure tolerance and the potential for
vertical migration (e.g. MacDonald, 1978; Yayanos, 1981).
The small invertebrate funnel trap was further developed in the construction of the
free-falling Latis trap (Jamieson et al., 2013). The Latis had an array of four conven-
tional invertebrate traps but its main load comprised two larger baited sh traps and
pressure sensors to conrm depth of capture. The two sh traps (40 40 100 cm
To Buoyancy To Buoyancy
Amphipod
lured into
chamber
with bait
Viewports
PISTON
PISTON
Spring loaded piston Piston closes chamber

held down by when ballast is
ballast weight jettisoned
Figure 3.5 Simplied schematic of pressure retaining amphipod trap used by Yayanos (1977).
The amphipods are lured into a chamber with bait and upon jettisoning ballast weights a piston
seals the chamber maintaining ambient pressure on recovery. The design also has two viewports
through which to observe the live specimens. For full detailed description see Yayanos (1977).
cuboid) had a square funnel opening of 14 14 cm, recessed 25 cm into the trap. The
traps were lined with 1 cm mesh and baited with ~1 kg of jack mackerel inside each
trap. The traps were specically designed to target hadal snailsh by creating a
relatively wide and easily accessible opening that was in full contact with the seaoor.
Also, in each trap were two baited invertebrate funnel traps (12 cm diameter 30 cm
length) to catch smaller organisms which may have washed out of the larger trap on
recovery.
The Latis successfully collected thousands of scavenging amphipod samples over
12 deployments between 6097 and 9908 m in the Kermadec Trench, in 2011 and 2012.
In addition, the large sh traps successfully recovered nine specimens of the hadal
snailsh Notoliparis kermadecensis from ~7000 m (the rst samples collected in
59 years). The larger traps were also responsible for recovering nine specimens of the
supergiant amphipod Alicella gigantea from 62957000 m (the rst samples in the
southern hemisphere and at hadal depths), amongst various other invertebrate speci-
mens (Jamieson et al., 2013).
The earliest imaging systems used to capture the seaoor and epifauna at hadal
depths comprised either black and white or colour lm cameras that were lowered by
wire to within a few metres of the bottom (e.g. Pratt, 1962; Heezen et al., 1964; Heezen
and Johnson, 1965; Heezen and Hollister, 1971). These systems were generally mech-
anically triggered to take a photo on contact with the seaoor. The camera systems later
evolved into stereoscopic cameras with dual capabilities; one black and white and one
colour lm camera, which could be towed across the seaoor using a pinger to control
the altitude. This system was used on the PROA expedition on the Spencer F. Baird, in
multiple trenches of the western Pacic Ocean from 6758 to 8930 m (Lemche et al.,
1976). The cameras were towed 12 m above the seaoor taking images at 1015 s
intervals. Due to variation in altitude, the eld of view ranged from 0.5 to 10 m2. The
system was very successful in progressing from the single images obtained by previous
systems to being able to map areas of several hundred to over 2000 m2 of seaoor.
The challenges and access to sufciently long wires more or less halted the use of
towed camera systems at hadal depths by the 1970s, although variations on such
systems are still regularly used at bathyal and abyssal depths today (e.g. Rice et al.,
1979; Barker et al., 1999; Ruhl, 2007; Jones et al., 2009). Camera systems were,
thereafter, deployed using the free-fall methods and known as free-vehicles or
landers. Imaging landers were pioneered in the 1960s (Isaacs and Schick, 1960; Isaacs
and Schwartzlose, 1975) and were used primarily not to image the seaoor and
associated epifauna over relatively large distances, but rather to attract mobile fauna
to the camera using bait and observe them over time, usually ~12 h. A good example is
Hessler et al. (1978) and Jamieson et al. (2011a) who combined time-lapse cameras
with baited traps to both collect scavenging fauna and observe the time course of bait
interception and consumption. The cameras are typically mounted vertically, looking
down at the seaoor where the bait is placed centrally in the eld of view. Images are
taken at regular intervals (e.g. 1 min). The resulting images can provide a wealth of
information to complement trawl and towed camera studies. For example, observations
of live animals over time can provide data on locomotion speeds of slow moving
megafauna, species interactions and the presence of taxa that are not readily sampled
by other methods due to avoidance (e.g. decapods; Jamieson et al., 2009b) or not
recovered in large numbers which would thus otherwise result in an underestimation of
the importance of such faunal groups (e.g. amphipods; Hessler et al., 1978).
The use of imaging landers is further enhanced by the use of video systems that
operate with the same time-lapse facility as still cameras (e.g. 1 min on, 4 min off;
Jamieson et al., 2009a, b). Video footage further complements other sampling methods
by recording moving images of live fauna that can be used for behavioural analysis and
some physiological studies; for example, decapod predatory behaviour (Jamieson et al.,
2009b), sh tail-beat frequency (Jamieson et al., 2009a; Fujii et al., 2010), general
locomotion and burst escape responses, as exemplied by the Hadal-Landers (Jamieson
et al., 2011b; 2012a, b; Aguzzi et al., 2012; Table 3.2; Fig. 3.6).
Two Hadal-Landers were designed and constructed in 2007 as part of the rst
HADEEP project (Jamieson et al., 2009c) and combined they completed 34 deploy-
ments spanning ve trenches and the central Pacic abyssal plains. Hadal-Lander A had
a colour video camera and Hadal-Lander B had a 5 megapixel still camera. Both landers
were also equipped with conductivity, temperature and depth (CTD) sensors. Both
systems had cameras placed vertically at a height of 1 m off the seaoor, with elds
of view of 0.35 and 0.29 m 2, respectively. Bait, typically mackerel or tuna, was placed
in the centre of the eld of view on a scale bar. The landers descended to the seaoor at
speeds of ~40 m min 1, aided by three, negatively buoyant, steel ballast weights. At the
end of the deployment time (1224 h), these ballast weights were jettisoned by acoustic
Table 3.2 Specification of the Hadal-Lander developed with the HADEEP projects.
Lander Hadal-Lander A Hadal-Lander B Hadal-Lander C
Type Baited Video, CTD Baited Stills, CTD Baited Video

Year of construction 2007 2007 2012
Delivery system
Acoustic releases Oceano 2500-Ti UD (2) Oceano 2500-Ti UD (2) Oceano 2500-Ti UD (2)
Buoyancy 170 glass spheres (13) 170 glass spheres (9) 170 glass spheres (X)
Total positive buoyancy 247 kg 171 kg 190 kg
Ballast weight (wet) 135 kg (45 kg 3) 135 kg (45 kg 3) 120 kg (120 kg 1)
Vehicle weight 180 kg 110 kg 120 kg
(in water)
Total weight (descent) 68 kg ve 74 kg ve 60 kg ve
Total weight (ascent) 67 kg ve 61 kg ve 70 kg ve
Descent velocity 46 m min 1 34 m min 1 36 m min 1
Ascent velocity 54 m min 1 34 m min 1 35 m min 1
Scientic payload
Camera Hadal-Cam 12000 Kongsberg OE14208 Hadal-Cam 12000 mk2
Camera resolution/ 704 576 pixels 5 megapixel (JPEG) 704 576 pixels
format (MPEG2) (MPEG4)
Camera sample interval 1 min every 5 min 1 min 1 min every 5 min
Camera sample number 120 2000 >350
Battery 12V LeadAcid 24V LeadAcid 12V LeadAcid
Camera eld-of-view 68 cm 51 cm 63 cm 47 cm Oblique; 1 m across centre
(0.35 m 2) (0.29 m 2)
Camera orientation Vertical (1 m) Vertical (1 m) Oblique (1.5 m)
CTD SBE19plus V2 SBE19plus V2 SBE 39 PT only
CTD resolution (S,T,P) 0.4 ppm, 1 104C, 0.4 ppm, 1 104C, n/a
0.002% 0.002%
CTD sample interval 10 s 10 s n/a
Water sampler 2-l Niskin 2-l Niskin 2-l Niskin
Current meter n/a Aanderaa n/a
Zpulse TDD 266
Funnel Traps 30 cm 40 cm (3) None 18.5 cm 50 cm (2)
10 cm 30 cm (1)
Bait ~1 kg mackerel/tuna ~1 kg mackerel/tuna ~1 kg mackerel/tuna
command from the surface and the landers ascended by virtue of an array of 17 inch
glass buoyancy spheres on a 100 m long mooring line. Both systems were pre-
programmed and autonomous and the data was downloaded upon recovery.
Unfortunately, after 11 successful deployments, Hadal-Lander A was lost at sea in
2009 following an error in deployment at 7000 m in the Kermadec Trench. This was
the lander that lmed the deepest sh ever found, at 7703 m in the Japan Trench
(Fujii et al., 2010). Hadal-Lander B was lost three years later at 9500 m in the Kermadec
Trench due to suspected implosion of the glass sphere buoyancy modules. This lander,
however, achieved 23 successful dives and revealed to the world new nds such as the
deepest sh in the southern hemisphere (Jamieson et al., 2011a) and in situ images of
the supergiant amphipod Alicella gigantea (Jamieson et al., 2013). Despite the
Figure 3.6 The Hadal-Landers used in the HADEEP Project. (a) Hadal-Lander A being deployed to
10 000 m in the Tonga Trench and (b) is the new Hadal-Lander C. Images courtesy of J.C.
Partridge (University of Bristol, UK) and HADEEP, respectively.
unfortunate end of both landers, the data collected resulted in 14 scientic publications
within 5 years. A new Hadal-Lander has been designed, constructed and already used at
depths between 1000 and 6500 m in the Kermadec Trench with further, deeper studies
scheduled for 2014 in the HADES project.
The lander principle was adopted for full ocean depth operations by the Scripps
Institution of Oceanography (USA). Following on from the institutes pioneering free-
vehicle developments in the 1960s and 70s (Isaacs and Schick, 1960; Phleger and
Soutar, 1971), a series of low-cost compact lander design were developed based on the
Deep Ocean Visualisation Experimenter (DOVE) instrument platform (Hardy et al.,
2002; Fig. 3.7). This series of landers include:
DOV Mary Carol in 2001; upgraded to 10 000 m operations in 2002 which
completed dives to the Puerto-Rico (8400 m) and Aleutian Trenches
(7200 m).
DOV Bobby Ray in 2006; successfully retrieved water samples from the Puerto-
Rico Trench (8400 m; Eloe et al., 2010).
DOV Patty in 2011; deployed in Sirena Deep, Mariana Trench (10 800 m) but
subsequently lost in Typhoon Muifa.
DOV Karen in 2011; contained a single core tube, which retrieved sediment from
5400 m in the Philippine Sea.
Figure 3.7 Low-cost, compact landers for full ocean depth operations. (a) DOVE designer
Kevin Hardy demonstrating size and weight benets of the compact design; (b) DOV Bobby Ray
(water sampler); (c) DOV Mike (Alpha Lander; camera and traps); (d) Obulus IV (baited traps);
and (d) Promares 11k (camera). Images courtesy of K. Hardy, Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, USA (ac), HADEEP (d) and F. Sreide, Promare, USA (e).
DOV Michelle in 2011; comprised dual sediment core tubes and rated for
11 000 m operations but was lost during a dive to 5400 m in the Philippine Sea.
DOV Mike or Alpha Lander in 2012; used in the Deepsea Challenge expedition
and was successfully deployed in the New Britain Trench and both Challenger
and Sirena Deeps in the Mariana Trench.
A similar design was deployed in 2008 in the Puerto-Rico Trench, equipped with an
acoustic current meter (Schmidt and Siegel, 2011). However, despite recording a full
8350 m vertical prole of three-axis velocity, temperature and pressure, the instrument
ooded after 75 min on the seaoor.
A similar design principle was used in HADEEP in 2011 to supplement small
invertebrate sample numbers from the larger imaging landers and traps. These systems,
again comprising one 17 inch glass sphere, comprised two baited funnel traps per
system and used a timed burn-wire release mechanism to jettison gravel-lled sand
bags at a predetermined time. Five systems were built, called Obulus IV, and were
deployed at 6968, 6999, 7014 and 8148 m in the Kermadec Trench. Although these four
deployments were highly successful in recovering hadal amphipods, one system was
lost and two suffered water ingress and thus the Obulus array has been temporarily
abandoned due to unreliability at depth.
Another low-cost imaging lander has also been developed recently by Promare (USA;
Fig. 3.7; Sreide, 2012). Called 11k, the basic vehicle consists of a glass sphere from
Nautilus Marine Service GmbH (Bremen, Germany) that contains proprietary software
and hardware, as well as an assortment of off-the-shelf components, such as an HD video
camera and lithium-ion battery pack from OceanServer Technology Inc. (Fall River,
Massachusetts). In addition, the system includes a high-resolution, full ocean depth
pressure sensor custom made by Presens AS (Oslo, Norway), and full ocean depth
LED lights and a drop-weight system developed by Promare. 11k weighs just 60 kg
and measures 50 50 75 cm. The vehicle has already been deployed to ~8000 m in the
Puerto-Rico Trench (Sreide and Jamieson, 2013), and lmed and recovered footage and
samples of hadal amphipods (notably Scopelocheirus schellenbergi; Lacey et al., 2013).
11k is also scheduled to be used in an AUV or ROV mode in the future (Sreide, 2012).
Other less well-documented imaging systems have been reported, for example, Kobaya-
shi et al. (2012), Glud et al. (2013) and Oguri et al. (2013). These studies used an 11 000 m
rated camera system, named ASHURA (Murashima et al., 2009), which was deployed to
10 897 m in the Mariana Trench and recovered specimens of the amphipod Hirondellea
gigas and sediment samples (Kobayashi et al., 2012). In the Glud et al. (2013) and Oguri
et al. (2013) studies, they used the system equipped with HD video camera, halogen lights,
a CTD and three sediment corers, but detailed specications have not been published.
With modern electronics and data storage capacity ever increasing, the number of still
images and length of video footage that can be easily obtained is accelerating, resulting
in a greater number of images being obtained from hadal depths. Furthermore, the use
of high-resolution digital still photograph and HD video form key components of
modern exploratory vehicles (discussed below).
3.5 Biogeochemistry instruments
Lander- or ROV-deployed instrumentation for biogeochemical research is widely used

in the deep sea (Tengberg et al., 1995, 2005). However, there is currently only one
system rated for hadal operations (Fig. 3.8). Glud et al. (2013) adapted a transecting
Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) 65
Figure 3.8 The micro-electrode lander used by Glud et al. (2013) to measure sediment O2 proles
at nearly 11 000 m in the Mariana Trench; (a) is the entire lander and (b) is close up of the
micro-electrode array. Images courtesy of R.N. Glud, University of Southern Denmark.
deep-sea micro-proler lander (Glud et al., 2009), capable of measuring in situ O2

proles at full ocean depth (Fig. 3.7). This proling lander measured the distribution of
O2 across the sedimentwater interface at a resolution of 0.51 mm at nearly 11 000 m
in Challenger Deep twice. The lander had eight Clark-type oxygen micro-electrodes and
a resistivity probe to identify the sedimentwater interface.
3.6 Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs)
Even today, very few ROVs are capable of exploring and sampling at full ocean depth.
The rst ROV of this kind to be developed was the ROV Kaik, constructed in 1993 by
JAMSTEC (Kyo et al., 1995). Following over 20 dives to full ocean depth, the ROV
Kaik was lost in 2003. For the 15 years that followed, there were no operational, full
ocean depth ROVs in circulation until the construction of the HROV Nereus by the
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (WHOI, USA), with collaboration of the Johns
Hopkins University and the US Navy Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center San
Diego (Fig. 3.9a; Bowen et al., 2008). Only two other systems have ever been used at full
ocean depth; the shallower rated Kaik 7000 II (Fig. 3.9b; Murashima et al., 2004) and
the compact full ocean depth rated crawler ABISMO (Fig. 3.9c; Yoshida et al., 2009).
Figure 3.9 Full ocean depth remotely operated vehicles. (a) WHOIs HROV Nereus, (b)
JAMSTECs ROV Kaik 7000 II with launcher and (c) JAMSTECs ABISMO ROV/Crawler
system with launcher. Images WHOI, USA (a) and JAMSTEC, Japan (b, c).
The full ocean depth rated ROV Kaik was constructed in 1995 for scientic research
(Kyo et al., 1995; Mikagawa and Aoki, 2001). Kaik was a two-body system where the
actual ROV was coupled to a launcher system during descent. The negatively buoyant
launcher aided the whole system to descend rapidly as it was lowered on the main
umbilical (4.5 cm diameter). The launcher itself had limited operational capabilities on
the seaoor, but could be used independently as a towed system equipped for acoustic
surveillance (Barry and Hashimoto, 2009). Kaik was connected to the launcher via a
250 m long tether (3 cm diameter), permitting a relatively short but unconstrained range
from the launcher. Once uncoupled, the ROV could manoeuvre to explore and sample
the seaoor under complete control from the mother ship; RV Kairei (Mikagawa and
Aoki, 2001). The vehicles scientic payload comprised several charge-coupled device
(CCD) and wide-angle video and stills cameras, multiple high-intensity lights and other
sensors, such as a scanning sonar, altimeter, compass and pressure sensors. It had two
highly dexterous manipulator arms (six axes and seven axes of motion) for collecting
biological or geological samples, or other equipment from the front-mounted sample
basket. Despite a successful 8-year reign as the only full ocean depth exploratory
vehicle, amassing 295 dives (20 to full ocean depth), the vehicle (not the launcher)
was accidentally lost in May 2003 off Shikoku Island in an emergency ascent during
Typhoon Chan-Hom (Momma et al., 2004; Tashiro et al., 2004; Watanbe et al., 2004).
Using the existing launcher, a 7000 m rated Kaik (Kaik 7000 II modied from the
existing UROV7K) was later introduced in 2004 (Murashima et al., 2004; Barry and
Hashimoto, 2009). The Kaik 7000 II completed several dives to ~7000 m but served as
only a temporary replacement and was superseded by the ABISMO (Yoshida et al.,
2009). The ABISMO comprises a similar vehicle and launcher system to Kaik, but the
vehicle is much smaller with far fewer sampling capabilities; it was specically
designed to retrieve small sediment samples and for seaoor inspection with a pan
Manned submersibles 67
and tilt video camera. Water samples can be taken using a Niskin bottle array on the
launcher. ABISMO has the capability of switching between conventional ROV mode
and crawler mode. As a crawler, it drives across the seaoor on treads, as opposed to
free-oating using vertical thrusters. In 2007 it reached 9760 m in the IzuOgasawara
Trench and, in 2008, it collected small sediment and water samples from 10 257 m in
the Mariana Trench (Itoh et al., 2008; Yoshida et al., 2009).
The HROV Nereus is a novel, deep submergence vehicle designed to perform
scientic surveys and sampling to full ocean depth (Bowen et al., 2008, 2009a, b;
Fig. 3.8). Nereus operates in two different modes. (1) As an untethered autonomous
underwater vehicle (AUV) capable of exploring and mapping the seaoor with sonars
and cameras for broad area surveying. (2) It can be readily converted to operate as a
tethered ROV for close-up imaging and sampling. The hybridisation of AUV and ROV
form the basis of the term HROV. The ROV conguration features a novel lightweight
bre-optic tether connected to the surface vessel for high bandwidth real-time video and
data telemetry. This enables high-quality remote-controlled teleoperation by a pilot on
the mother ship. The development of the lightweight bre-optic tether was driven by the
limitations of steel reinforced cables, which are only self-supporting to ~7000 m, and
alternatives such as Kevlar, which present problems in the form of poor hydrodynamics
and large cable handling systems. The ultra thin umbilical tether (0.8 mm diameter) was
only achieved by designing the vehicle to be self-powered, meaning that power is
supplied via a battery pack on the vehicle itself. This excludes the need to transmit
power through the umbilical. The only disadvantage to being self-powered is the trade-
off between operational depth and exibility and the issues of limited power and
re-charge time between dives. The HROV is equipped with a suite of sensors and
sampling devices for both biological and geological sampling, mainly still and video
imaging systems (with variable output LED illumination), push core sediment samplers,
water samplers with in situ temperature sensors, a sample box in which organisms or
rock samples can be stored after collection by the manipulator arm, a magnetometer, a
salinitytemperaturepressure sensor and high resolution acoustic bathymetry. It also
has the capacity for a further 25 kg of equipment.
Following on from its rst successful eld trial in shallow water in November 2007
(Bowen et al., 2008), the HROV Nereus successfully descended to over 10 000 m (max.
depth 10 903 m) in the Mariana Trench in May 2009 (Bowen et al., 2009b; Fletcher
et al., 2009). The HROV is still fully operational and is scheduled to make up to
30 dives between 4000 and 11 000 m in the Mariana and Kermadec Trenches in 2014 as
part of the HADES project.
3.7 Manned submersibles
To date, only two manned submersibles (previously known as bathyscaphes and often
referred to as HOVs) have reached full ocean depth, the Trieste and the Deepsea
Challenger, which reached the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench in 1960 and
2012, respectively. Another submersible, operational in the 1960s called Archimde,
was used in three different trenches. There is also the Chinese Jiaolong three-man
submersible rated to 7000 m (Liu et al., 2010) and the Japanese Shinkai 6500; a three-
man submersible capable of diving to 6500 m (Nanba et al., 1990).
The history of manned submersibles at hadal depths is interesting from the point of
view that there have been so few, and as a technology, they have largely been stuck
in the record-setting phase. For example, the Trieste is known for completing the
rst manned dive to full ocean depth, followed 52 years later by the Deepsea
Challenger, which was hailed as the rst solo dive to full ocean depth. Likewise,
the Japanese Shinkai 6500 website declares that it can go deeper than any other
manned submersible for academic research around the world today. In fact, this
accolade has recently been beaten by the Chinese Jiaolong, which it is said has the
greatest depth range of any manned research vehicle in the world. Technical
achievements aside, these submersibles have yet to produce any comprehensive
scientic ndings from the maximum depths that they advertise having achieved. It
is hoped that once manned submersibles such as Deepsea Challenger and Jiaolong
are beyond the demonstration phase, they will yield new and exciting data from the
deepest places on Earth.
The Trieste was designed by the Swiss scientist Auguste Piccard, based on previous
designs by Piccard (FNRS-2) and was constructed in Italy. It was named Trieste after
the city and seaport in northeast Italy on the Adriatic Sea where the major components
were manufactured. It was originally operated by the French Navy and later by the US
Navy in 1958.
The submersible consisted of a 15 m long buoyancy chamber lled with 85 000 l of
gasoline, water ballast tanks, 9 tons of expendable magnetic iron pellet ballast weight
and a separate 2.16 m diameter pressure sphere on the underside, from which a crew of
two would operate it. The pressure sphere was later upgraded to 12.7 cm thick in order
to withstand the hydrostatic pressure at hadal depths. The new sphere weighed 13 tons
in air and 8 tons in water. The crew of the Trieste could look outside the pressure sphere
via a tapered acrylic viewport. The illumination was provided by quartz arc-light bulbs,
which without any modication were able to withstand the pressures at hadal depths.
This design permitted a free descent, rather than a lowering via cable like previous
bathyspheres.
The expendable iron ballast weights were used to control the descent speed and once
fully jettisoned by electromagnets they initiated the ascent to the surface. The electro-
magnetic expulsion of the ballast weights also facilitated an emergency ascent in the
event of power failure.
The submersible was rst operated in August 1953 in the Tyrrhenian Sea near
Capri. It was later used in a series of deep-water tests in the Pacic Ocean, which
culminated in the 10 916 m dive to Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench on
23 January 1960, as part of Project Nekton. The submersible was deployed from the
USS Wandank (ATA-204). The two-man crew comprised Auguste Piccards son,
Jacques Piccard, and US Navy Lieutenant Don Walsh. This marked the rst visit to
the deepest point on Earth.
The descent to Challenger Deep took 4 h 48 min at a descent rate of 0.9 m s 1 and
was not without incident. At a depth of approximately 9000 m one of the acrylic
viewports cracked, shaking the entire submersible. The two men spent barely 20 min
at the ocean oor, eating chocolate bars for sustenance. Visibility at the seaoor was
almost entirely obscured by resuspended sediment. They did, however, record seeing
animal life on the bottom, including an erroneous account of a atsh (Jamieson and
Yancey, 2012). The ascent to the surface took 3 h 15 min.
Unfortunately, the submersible was never again used at hadal depths, nor was any
useful scientic data gained from the dive. In 1963, it was sent to the Atlantic Ocean to
search for the missing submarine USS Thresher, which it found, wrecked off the coast
of New England, at 2560 m. After intensive modications, followed by decommis-
sioning in 1966, the Trieste was exhibited in the National Museum of the US Navy at
the Washington Navy Yard in 1980.
The manned submersible Archimde was operated by the French Navy and
designed by Pierre Willm and Georges Houot. It was christened on 27 July 1961 in
Toulon, France, at the French Navy base. Like the Trieste, it used 160 000 litres of
gasoline buoyancy and weighed 61 tons. It completed its rst test dives to 1500 m in
1961, although these were unmanned. Shortly after, it successfully achieved a speed
of 3 knots at 2400 m in the Mediterranean Sea, followed by a deeper dive the
following year to 4799 m off Japan. It became the rst submersible to reach the
deepest part of the Atlantic Ocean: 8390 m in the Puerto-Rico Trench. The rst
credible scientic accounts from manned submersibles at hadal depths were reported
by J.M. Prs in the mid-1960s, from 7300 m in the Puerto-Rico Trench from
Archimde (Prs, 1965). Although he did not have any operational imaging equip-
ment onboard, he gave detailed eye-witness accounts of various hadal fauna such as
isopods, decapods and sh.
In 1962, the Archimde reached 9560 m in the KurilKamchatka Trench in the
northeast Pacic Ocean, followed by a descent to 9300 m in the Japan Deep in the
Izu-Bonin Trench. The submersible was operational until the 1970s.
The more recent Deepsea Challenger (DCV 1; Fig. 3.10) was a 7.3 m long,
manned submersible built by the Canadian lm director James Cameron to revisit
Challenger Deep, 52 years after the last manned submersible to do so, Trieste. It was
constructed in Australia, in partnership with the National Geographic Society and
other commercial support. The development of the submersible heralded new mater-
ials including specialised structurally sound syntactic foam buoyancy, designed to
produce positive buoyancy at full ocean depth. The structural integrity of the new
foam was such that it enabled thruster motors to be mounted within it, but without the
aid of metal structures. Like the Trieste, the submersible had a pressure sphere, 1.1 m
diameter and 64 mm thick, where the single pilot would be housed. The sphere was
coupled to the base of the submersible, which weighed over 10 tons. Once subsur-
face, the Deepsea Challenger operated in a vertical attitude, and carried 500 kg of
expendable ballast weight to aid the descent and, once jettisoned, ascent to the
surface was initiated.
Figure 3.10 The Deepsea Challenger submersible piloted by James Cameron on its 2012 dive
to the Mariana Trench. Image courtesy of Charlie Arneson.
After various shallow-water dives, the submersible, piloted by Cameron was suc-
cessfully deployed to 7260 m and 8221 m in the New Britain Trench (southwest Pacic
Ocean). Here, he was reported to have seen anemones and jellysh that were consistent
with other ndings from that trench (Lemche et al., 1976).
On 26 March 2012, the Deepsea Challenger successfully reached 10 898.4 m in the
Challenger Deep, after a 2 h 37 min descent from the surface vessel. It remained there
for approximately 3 h before successfully returning to the surface.
There are another two manned submersibles capable of reaching depths greater
than 6000 m, but only marginally. In 1991, JAMSTEC in Japan began using the
Shinkai 6500 submersible (Takagawa, 1995). Although only capable of descending
into the very upper hadal depths, it is the deepest diving submersible for academic
research in operation. In 2012, it had already completed 1300 dives and has recently
received a major upgrade.
Since 2010, the Chinese have been using a new three-man submersible called
Jiaolong, rated to 7000 m (Liu et al., 2010). In July 2010, it completed various
shallower dives to 3759 m in the South China Sea and 4027 m in the northeast Pacic
Ocean the following year. In 2012, the Jiaolong descended to 6965 m, followed shortly
after by a descent to 7062 m in the Mariana Trench, in the western Pacic Ocean.
The only other manned submersible with potentially hadal capability is the new DSV
Alvin, not yet in operation and currently under construction by WHOI in the USA. Like
the Shinkai 6500, the new Alvin may ultimately be rated to 6500 m (Monastersky, 2012)
and may therefore oversee future operations in the upper hadal zone.
Part II
Environmental conditions and

physiological adaptations
Introduction
The hadal trenches are geographically disjunct deep-sea ecosystems. Many have trench-
specic geographical settings and thus often unique environmental conditions. Con-
sidering all trenches to be a single habitat, i.e. simply hadal, it is likely to confound
interpretation of environmental drivers. Many environmental aspects are applicable to
all hadal environments (e.g. increase in hydrostatic pressure with depth); however, there
are those which only apply to a specic trench. Certain environmental conditions
exhibit inter-trench variation, a result of the interactions between, for example, the local
hydrography (temperature, salinity and oxygen), trench topography, seismic activity,
substrata and hydrostatic pressure. Direct measurements of some of these parameters
across multiple trenches are nonexistent, sparse, spurious or noncomparable. With the
exception of topography and seismic activity, the hadal trenches experience similar
conditions to the surrounding abyssal zone, for example, absence of light, low tempera-
tures, salinity and oxygen.
Coping with, or rather adapting to, high hydrostatic pressure is perhaps one of the
most important prerequisites to survival in the hadal zone. High-pressure (and low-
temperature) adaptations are common to all deep-sea organisms, but in the case of
pressure, none more so than to those inhabiting the trenches. Furthermore, the process
of ossication (the creation of hard shells) cannot occur beyond the carbonate compen-
sation depth (CCD; >40005000 m) and this, in addition to other stresses, has
prompted further adaptation enabling organisms to compensate for the high pressures
with softer, more organic, physiological structures (e.g. Todo et al., 2005).
Coupled with the need to adapt to these environmental conditions, food supply is also
a biological challenge and most hadal animals are directly or indirectly reliant on food
derived from the surface waters. Extreme depth can also be expressed as extreme
distance from the surface, which means that by the time organic matter has reached
hadal depths, it is likely to be greatly reduced in both quantity and quality. Despite these
seemingly impossible odds, the hadal zone is inhabited by representatives of most major
taxa (Wolff, 1960) and within those taxa there are representatives of all feeding guilds;
lter-feeders (e.g. Oji et al., 2009), deposit feeders (e.g. Hansen, 1957), scavengers (e.g.
Blankenship et al., 2006), plant and wood consumers (e.g. Kobayashi et al., 2012),
chemosynthesisers (e.g. Fujikura et al., 1999) and predators (e.g. Jamieson et al.,
74 Environmental conditions and physiological adaptations
2009b). This, in itself, is testament to how well the deep-sea community has evolved
and adapted in response to the challenges presented.
In this part, the general environmental conditions with examples of adaptations are
discussed (Chapter 4), with a special emphasis on high hydrostatic pressure and its
effects (Chapter 5) and an overview of the food supply to the trenches (Chapter 6).
4 The hadal environment
Menzies (1965) made the rst attempt at reviewing the environmental conditions in the
deep sea. Whilst considered a milestone review of its day, it was largely based on
limited point-source observations. The review was later updated and revised in light of
subsequent global studies of a more holistic nature (e.g. Tyler, 1995; Thistle, 2003). The
Tyler (1995) review highlights the heterogeneity of conditions on both small and large
scales and temporal variations, in contrast to the previous perception of a physically
stable and unchanging environment (Sanders, 1968). To add further to the reviews of
Menzies (1965) and Tyler (1995), this chapter will detail what is currently known about
the environmental conditions required for the existence of life in the hadal trenches.
4.1 Deep-water masses and bottom currents
There are two forces driving deep-water currents in the deep sea; thermohaline and tidal
(Tyler, 1995). The water masses owing through the deep oceans are illustrated in the
great ocean conveyer belt diagram, published in Natural History in 1987 (see
Broecker, 1991; Rahmstorf, 2006). Although this diagram has become famous, it
represents a simplistic illustration of ocean circulation for the layperson. However, as
a basis for understating the global circulation of water masses throughout the worlds
trenches, it does serve as an ideal starting point. While there are now multiple complex
studies into deep-water masses and their interaction with other stratied water masses
and underlying topography, on a global context the diagram illustrates the main
features: cold surface waters in the Antarctic descend and become deep bottom waters
that ow up the western Pacic Ocean, through most of the worlds trenches. As this
water ows north it warms, causing it to rise towards the surface again in the North
Pacic Ocean before owing west towards the Indian Ocean. This warmed surface
water ows up the Atlantic Ocean, cools once more and descends to the bottom and
ows southward back down the Atlantic as bottom water. Thus, the thermohaline
conveyer belt leads to a net transfer of heat from the south to the north (Berger and
Wefer, 1996).
In reality, however, deep-water mass circulation is far more complex (e.g. Kawabe
et al., 2003; Fig. 4.1). The deep bottom water masses, driven by the thermohaline,
spread slowly towards lower latitudes, following the deepest topographical features.
The Earths rotational forces cause the water to ow against the western boundary of
75
Figure 4.1 Surface (white) and deep (black) water masses of the Pacic Ocean. The contrast
between the surface and deep-water masses are the inuence of the topography on the deep-water
mass as it ows over trenches, ridges and around basins. Figure based on Kawabe and Fujio
(2010), illustrated by Amy Scott-Murray, University of Aberdeen, UK.
basins or trenches. Therefore, in the Atlantic Ocean, Antarctic bottom water travels
northwards, across the abyssal plains situated between the eastern slope of South
America and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Broecker et al., 1980). Once at the equator it
diverges with one branch owing into the deep northwest Atlantic, and the other
owing through the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (through the Romanche Trench fault); both
northwards and in part southwards into the abyssal plains of the east Atlantic (Angel,
1982). As the waters are driven through the South and North Atlantic they become more
saline through evaporation (Schmitz, 1995). On reaching high latitudes in the north, this
water cools and sinks by vertical convection to form the northeast Atlantic Deep Water
(NEADW). Once in the northwest Atlantic basin it mixes with low-salinity water from
the Labrador Sea to form the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). The NADW then
ows into the South Atlantic and eventually back to the Pacic Ocean via the Circum-
polar Current (Worthington, 1976).
The ow of water around the Pacic Ocean is also predominantly driven by
thermohaline circulation (Broecker, 1991; Rahmstorf, 2006), as no deep water can
be formed in the North Pacic Ocean (Stommel, 1958; Warren and Owens, 1985).
Deep-water masses and bottom currents 77
At depths exceeding 3000 m in the Pacic Ocean, the cold (0.51.5C) and relatively
saline, Antarctic bottom water is found. These waters are mostly formed during sea ice
formation during Austral winter (Tomczak and Godfrey, 1994). This deep-water mass
circumnavigates the Southern Ocean and ows up the western boundary of the South
Pacic Ocean in deep western-boundary currents, whilst also spreading slowly eastward
into the deep Pacic Ocean. There are two major water masses present in the deep
Pacic Ocean; the Lower Circumpolar Deep Water (LCDW) and the North Pacic Deep
Water (NPDW) (Siedler et al., 2004). The LCDW (Warren and Owens, 1985, 1988;
Owens and Warren, 2001; Kawabe, 1993) enters the Pacic Ocean from the south and
ows northwards and clockwise through the southwest Pacic trenches (i.e. the
Kermadec and Tonga Trenches; Warren, 1981; Johnson, 1998). Thus, these trenches,
which are found at the most southerly latitudes, are the coldest in the Pacic Ocean due
to this incursion of cold, deep Antarctic water. Through the Samoan Passage the water
ows northwest and enters the east Mariana Basin from the east side, before branching
into both a northward and westward ow. The northward branch travels north through
the Izu-Bonin, Japan and KurilKamchatka Trenches before heading southwards
around the Emperor Seamounts and then eastwards around the Aleutian Trench. The
deep waters of the North Pacic Ocean are the furthest removed from their Antarctic
origin and, therefore, it is at least 1000 years since these waters acquired oxygen from
the surface. The ow of water then returns westwards, back around the Aleutian Trench
and KurilKamchatka Trench and then southwards through the Japan and Izu-Bonin
Trenches.
Data from current meters situated near the seaoor within trenches are generally
sparse, however, there are several reports of large-scale velocities within the water
masses in the vicinity of and overlying the major trenches of the western Pacic Ocean;
the Kermadec Trench (Whitworth et al., 1999), Mariana Trench (Taira et al., 2004), Izu-
Bonin Trench (Fujio et al., 2000), Japan Trench (Hallock and Teague, 1996) and
Aleutian Trench (Warren and Owens, 1985, 1988), as is summarised in Johnson (1998).
A current meter array, comprising 20 moorings over 22 months, was deployed
transecting the Kermadec Trench at 32.5 S within the deep western-boundary current
(Whitworth et al., 1999). The current meters were placed at 2500, 4000 and 6000 m.
A deep cyclonic circulation was found over the Kermadec Trench, superimposed on the
general northward ow of the deep western-boundary current. At the deepest sites,
>4000 m, the ow is strong (up to 9 cm s 1) and generally northward over the west side
of the trench but switches to a weaker (~2 cm s 1) southward ow over the eastern side.
Three current meter moorings have been deployed across the southwest end of the
Mariana Trench at ~142.6 E for up to 424 days, at depths ranging from 6095 to 9860 m
(Taira et al., 2004). The velocity data again revealed that the ow was cyclonic in sense
around the trench axis (which, in the Mariana, runs approximately eastwest). On the
north side of the trench (at 6960 m), the waters owed westward at ~1.3 cm s 1, whereas
at the centre of the trench (10 286 m), the velocity was just 0.1 cm s 1. Over the
southern ank (6520 m), the water owed eastward at a rate of ~0.5 cm s 1.
Similar ndings are documented for the Izu-Bonin (IzuOgasawara) Trench (Fujio
et al., 2000). This study comprised 30 current meters transecting the trench at ~34 N for
an average of 401 days, at depths ranging from 3830 to 8961 m. The mean direction of
ow was closely correlated to the bathymetric contours, and cyclonic circulation around
the trench axis was observed. A southward ow of 3.6, 4.6 and 2.4 cm s 1, over depths
of 4500, 6000 and 9000 m, respectively, was recorded on the western ank of the
trench. At the centre, a southerly ow of 0.8 cm s 1 was found, whereas on the eastern
ank a northward ow of 3.0 and 12.8 cm s 1 was recorded over depths of 9000 and
6000 m, respectively.
Hallock and Teague (1996) reported results from a deep current meter mooring array
from the Japan Trench at around ~36 N, and once again, they observed a cyclonic sense
of deep circulation. These data showed evidence of a relatively low ow rate of
1.31.6 cm s 1, nominally south owing, on the west side of the trench over depths
of 3300 and 4600 m. Similarly, the mean ow of water over the Japan Trench generally
follows the bathymetric contours, as in the Kermadec, Mariana and Izu-Bonin
examples. On the eastern ank, a northward ow of 5.2 cm s 1over depths of 6400 m
has been observed, while other data from RAFOS oats recorded a stronger northward
ow on the west and a weaker southward ow on the eastern side of the trench
(Johnson, 1998).
In the Aleutian Trench, vertical proles of mean current velocity have shown that it is
moderate (~3 cm s 1) and owing westward, once more in line with bathymetric
contours and forced against the Aleutian Island Arc (Warren and Owens, 1985,
1988). Over the trench and on its southern ank, a slightly weaker velocity of
~2 cm s 1 was recorded, with an eastward ow.
These velocity measurements from long-term studies over the trenches of the western
Pacic Ocean are consistent with cyclonic gyres of at least a few cm s 1 magnitude.
The near-bottom currents in the deep sea ow more slowly than those in shallower
environments (Thistle, 2003). At bathyal and abyssal depths, near seaoor current
velocities are typically ~10 cm s1 and 4 cm s1, respectively, with little variation on
short timescales (Eckman and Thistle, 1991). Current speeds across the vast abyssal
plains of the Pacic Ocean, which often surround trenches, are indeed low, since the
shear stresses are inadequate to displace most sediment types (Smith and Demopoulous,
2003). There are, however, certain scenarios which may induce high-energy ows, such
as eddies (Hollister and McCave, 1984), submarine canyon ushing (Vetter and
Dayton, 1998) or through channels and over peaks (Genin et al., 1986). However, most
of these high current ow phenomena are restricted to depths much shallower than the
trenches.
Direct measurements of water ow within the hadal trenches are limited. The
majority of recorded measurements have been collected over long periods of time
within the overlying water column and were taken in order to examine cyclonic
circulation in trench localities, e.g. the Kermadec Trench (Whitworth et al., 1999),
Mariana Trench (Taira et al., 2004), Izu-Bonin Trench (Fujio et al., 2000), the Japan
Trench (Hallock and Teague, 1996) and Aleutian Trench (Warren and Owens, 1985,
1988). However, measurements taken on a shorter, higher resolution are lacking, and it
is measurements of this kind that could provide an indication of the kind of ow that is
routinely experienced by organisms living on the trench oor.
Deep-water masses and bottom currents 79
Table 4.1 Summary of near-bottom current speed data from the Kermadec Trench (~32 S).
Bottom time Current speed

Depth (m) Date Altitude (mab) (hh:mm) (cm s 1 S.D.)
6116 Feb 2012 2 15:52 4.1 3.0

6475 Feb 2012 2 14:42 3.6 2.9
6980 Nov 2011 1 25:00 1.6 0.9
7501 Nov 2011 1 09:09 1.7 3.0
8631 Feb 2012 2 14:16 3.9 2.8
9281 Nov 2011 1 09:59 0.4 0.3
The pore waters within seaoor sediments do not move and therefore current speeds
must decrease to 0 cm s1 at the sedimentwater interface (Vogel, 1981). This suggests
that the current speeds directly above the seabed are much less than those recorded from
high above the seaoor, or even within a metre above bottom. This decrease in speed
towards the sedimentwater interface is sufcient to prevent the erosion of surface
sediment or perturbation of epibenthic organisms (Thistle, 2003).
There is sufcient evidence to suggest that near-bed ow at hadal depths is indeed
slow. At the deepest place on Earth, Challenger Deep, Taira et al. (2004) documented
current speeds from sensors tethered about a hundred metres above the seaoor. Despite
long periods during which the current speeds were too low to record (37.5% of the
time), speeds of up to 8.1 cm s 1 were otherwise measured. Further measurements were
made at 7009 m and 6615 m, where the mean speeds were found to be 0.7 cm s1 and
0.5 cm s1, respectively.
Closer to the seaoor, Schmidt and Siegel (2011) recorded near-bottom (within 2 m)
current speeds of between 1 and 5 cm s 1, at 8350 m in the Puerto-Rico Trench. In the
Philippine Trench, Hessler et al. (1978) reported rather variable maximum current
speeds of 11.8 cm s 1 at 9605 m and an exceptionally high 31.7 cm s 1 at 9806 m.
More recently, a new acoustic current meter was deployed six times over two exped-
itions, within 4 months of one another, at different depths in the Kermadec Trench, at
~32 S (unpublished data, HADEEP). Again, mean current speeds between 6000 and
9000 m were in the region of 15 cm s 1. These data are summarised in Table 4.1 and
an example of the data obtained is shown in Figure 4.2.
The water ow driven by the thermohaline is also subject to tidal uctuation. Tidal
periodicity has been well documented at bathyal and abyssal depths (Gould and McKee,
1973; Magaard and McKee, 1973; Elliott and Thorpe, 1983). Lunar and semi-lunar
cycles were detected in current ow over long periods in the Mariana Trench (Taira
et al., 2004) and in the pressure and current ow measurements obtained from the
Kermadec Trench (unpublished data, HADEEP). Many marine organisms possess clock
mechanisms that can track the undulations of the tidal cycle (Guennegan and Rannou,
1979; Naylor, 1985; Palmer and Williams, 1986; Wagner et al., 2007). Furthermore,
many marine species are also known to display cyclic behaviour that is synchronised to
tidal cycles (Blaxter, 1978; 1980; MacDonald and Fraser, 1999; Pavlov et al., 2000).
While circadian clocks are principally governed by the light/dark cycle, tidal clocks
Time (min)
0 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 1080 1200 1320 1440
0
Current velocity (mm s 1)
-10
-20
7147
-30
Pressure (dbar)
7146
-40
7145
7144
0 120 240 360 480 600 720 840 960 1080 1200 1320 1440
Time (min)
Figure 4.2 Example of near-bottom current speed and direction data (whisker plot, length denotes
strength, angle denotes direction) and pressure data (modied from Jamieson et al., 2013).
(Zeitgebers) are entrained by a suite of cycles associated with the tides, including
current ow and hydrostatic pressure (Reid and Naylor, 1990). Tidal synchronisation
suggests that marine organisms are capable of detecting often minute changes in
hydrostatic pressure (Fraser, 2006). It has been demonstrated that small amplitude, slow
cycles of hydrostatic pressure are readily detected by decapod crustaceans (Fraser and
MacDonald, 1994; MacDonald and Fraser, 1999; Fraser, 2001; Fraser et al., 2001) and
sh (Fraser and Shelmerdine, 2002; Fraser et al., 2003).
The presence of tidal (~12.4 h; Fig. 4.2), semi-lunar (~15 days) and lunar cycles
(~28 days; Taira et al., 2004), and presumably also daily (~24 h) and lunar-day
(~24.8 h) cycles, suggests that chronobiology at hadal depths is likely, although not
yet proven.
4.2 Temperature, salinity and oxygen
Temperature per se does not ultimately drive species zonation but it is denitely one
of the fundamental abiotic factors involved (Danovaro et al., 2004; Carney, 2005).
Small temperature changes can inuence the vertical or horizontal (latitudinal) distri-
bution of species (Peck et al., 2004; Brown and Thatje, 2011). Unlike pressure,
temperature is not linear with depth and can vary at intra- and inter-trench levels. In
the ocean, subsurface temperature generally decreases with depth but varies
depending on latitude and region (Mantyla and Reid, 1983). At the surface, a mixed
layer is commonly found, caused by friction from surface winds and additional
turbulence. This is followed by a thermocline, where the temperature decreases
rapidly before reaching the deep ocean (>1000 m). At bathyal (10003000 m) and
abyssal depths (30006000 m), the rate of temperature change slows considerably and
as a result 75% of deep water has a temperature of <4oC (Knauss, 1997). The bottom
Temperature, salinity and oxygen 81
water temperatures in the hadal trenches are considered exceptionally stable in

comparison with surface waters (Belyaev, 1989).
The temperature variation with depth is trench-specic, ranging from the warmest
trench, the Cayman Trench, 4.46 to 4.49C (62006900 m), to the coldest trench, South
Sandwich Trench, 0.27 to 0.09C (60477390 m). However, it is more typical for
bottom temperatures to vary between 1 and 4C, not including the South Sandwich
Trench which represents the only sub-zero trench in the world and the Banda and
Cayman Trenches which are generally warmer that the other trenches.
Hydrostatic pressure effects always act to increase the in situ temperature at a rate of
~0.16C per 1000 dbar (~1000 m) increase in pressure and this is known as the adiabatic
temperature gradient. Adiabatic heating is the result of a compressibility effect, whereby
water molecules under mounting pressure increase their temperature without gaining
heat from the ambient environment. This increase in temperature is generally masked by
the decrease in temperature down through the thermocline. In terms of water masses and
stratication, in general, the rate of temperature decrease with depth is reduced in the
deep ocean. When the decrease in temperature with pressure in deep waters becomes
equal to the adiabatic temperature increase, the minimum in situ temperature occurs.
The minimum in situ temperature does not, therefore, occur at full ocean depth, but
rather, it occurs in the abyssal zone (Fig. 4.3a).
In the southwest Pacic Ocean, the in situ temperature minimum is ~1.05C at
approximately 4881 dbar and 1.07C at 4746 dbar overlying the Kermadec and Tonga
Trenches, respectively. In the central Pacic Ocean overlying the Mariana Trench,
the temperature minimum is 1.47C at 4820 dbar. In the northwest Pacic Ocean the
minimum temperature is 1.49C at 4170 dbar and 1.44C at 4017 dbar overlying the
Japan and Izu-Bonin Trenches.
Below the minimum in situ temperature, the adiabatic increase in in situ temperature
is larger than the decrease in temperature associated with the water mass stratication in
the deep water, and this causes the in situ temperature to rise. Therefore, the bottom
waters at the very bottom of the trench are actually slightly warmer than at the abyssal
hadal boundary, although the actual temperature range within individual trenches is low
(between 1 and 2C). Of the ve trenches which exceed 10 000 m in depth, the total
temperature range between 6000 and 10 000 m is approximately 0.85C, with a general
rise of 0.16C per 1000 m depth (Table 4.2). This heating effect towards the deepest
point of the trench results in the in situ temperature at full ocean depth equalling that of
the bathyal zone and the coldest environments are found in the abyssal zone (Jamieson
et al., 2010; Fig. 4.3b). The temperature variation from the bathyal to hadal is low
compared to the surface waters and seasonal variation thereof (Sanders, 1968). The rate
of the increase in bottom temperature with depth is constant (0.16C per 1000 dbar), but
the actual in situ temperature differs depending on the locality of the trench and
hydrological regime. For example, the in situ bottom temperature in the PeruChile
Trench is slightly warmer than that of the Japan and Izu-Bonin Trenches, which in turn,
are slightly warmer than the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches, although adiabatic heating
trends are equal. Likewise, this trend is also visible in the potential temperatures from
the three locations (Fig. 4.3c).
Table 4.2 The minimum and maximum bottom temperature of the five deepest trenches including temperature range
and temperature rise per 1000 m.
Upper trench temperature Lower trench temperature Total temperature Temperature rise
Trench (C) at depth (m) (C) at depth (m) range (C) per 1000 m
Mariana 1.57 at 6000a 2.4 at 10 910a 0.83 0.169

Tonga 1.18 at 6252b 1.91 at 10 787b 0.73 0.161
Philippine 1.85 at 6000a 2.56 at 9864a 0.71 0.184
KurilKamchatka 1.65 at 6000a 2.15 at 9000a 0.5 0.167
Kermadec 1.17 at 6000c 1.8 at 9856b 0.63 0.163
a b c
Data taken from: Belyaev (1989), Blankenship and Levin (2006) and Jamieson et al. (2011a).
Temperature (C)
(a) 0 5 10 15 20 25 (c)
0 3
1000 Temperature (C)

(b) 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
2.5
2000 2000
3000 3000
2
Temperature (C)
4000 4000
Depth (m)
5000 5000 1.5
6000 6000
1
7000 7000
8000 8000 0.5
9000 9000
0
10000 10000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Depth (m)
Figure 4.3 (a) Surface to seaoor temperature proles from the Tonga Trench in the southwest
Pacic Ocean (black line) and the Izu-Bonin Trench in the northwest Pacic Ocean (grey line).
(b) Close-up of the lower Tonga Trench prole between 1 and 2C clearly showing the
temperature minima at abyssal depths and the adiabatic heating with depth thereafter. (c) The in
situ bottom temperature with depth (circles) and potential temperature (triangles) for the
Kermadec/Tonga Trenches in the southwest Pacic Ocean (black), the Japan/Izu-Bonin Trenches
in the northwest Pacic Ocean (grey) and the PeruChile Trench in the southeast Pacic Ocean
(unshaded). Note the baseline temperatures vary but the adiabatic heating rate with depth is
the same. Data obtained by HADEEP.
The adiabatic heating effect can be theoretically removed by conversion of in situ to

potential temperature (denoted as ) which determines the true characteristics of the
water, thus permitting the tracking and comparison of large water masses by their
temperature signal. In very deep regions, such as hadal trenches that may be lled with
water from a single source with constant temperature and salinity at the top of the
trench, the in situ temperature increases with pressure at the adiabatic gradient, but the
potential temperature remains constant, reecting the true temperature of the source
water. Hydrostatic pressure increases with depth, therefore, in the hadal trenches (6000
to ~11 000 m), the difference between in situ temperature and potential temperature can
be considerable. Polynomial algorithms for potential temperature were determined by
Bryden (1973) and later developed by Fofonoff (1977) using a fourth order Runge
Katta integration algorithm to allow the smallest possible integration error when
calculating the potential temperature. This integration error is less than 0.1 103oC for
p 10 000 dbar (Fofonoff and Millard, 1983).
Generally, the potential temperature decreases until it reaches an isothermal value
(where 0) within the water column, resulting in thick layers of constant potential
temperature. In the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches these layers can reach 1178 and
1811 dbar thick, respectively. Further north in the Japan and Izu-Bonin Trenches,
layers can be up to 436 dbar and 514 dbar thick, respectively. The thickness of the
layers increases with depth; ~80 dbar per 1000 dbar in the northwest Pacic and
500 dbar per 1000 dbar in the southeast Pacic trenches. These thick layers of potential
temperature have hitherto gone unrealised as they occur in the trenches beyond the
depth of conventional abyssal sampling and little to no layer of potential temperature
can be observed <6500 m. The pressure where potential temperature becomes isother-
mal also increases with depth. By applying linear regressions, the pressure where the
potential temperature layers begin increases by ~900 dbar per 1000 dbar depth in the
northern Pacic trenches and ~600 dbar per 1000 dbar depth in the southern Pacic
trenches.
In summary, the trenches support two temperature gradients that must be considered:
the intra-trench adiabatic warming (hydrostatic pressure effect) and the overarching
warming with the south to north ow of the thermohaline circulation.
At hadal depths, the in situ temperature increases as a result of hydrostatic pressure
and the compressibility of the water. The potential temperature decreases, eventually
culminating in thick layers of constant potential temperature and layers of homogeneous
water masses owing through the trenches. From these data and from previous studies
(Kawabe et al., 2003; Fujio and Yanagimoto, 2005), it appears that the potential
temperature reaches an isothermal level at depths where pressures exceed 6500 dbar.
Salinity is an important physiological parameter to consider in shallower environ-
ments, particularly in coastal and inshore settings (Thistle, 2003). However, in the deep
sea, salinity is relatively constant at ~35 and is, in fact, one of the most constant
features of the deep-sea oor (Tyler, 1995). The exceptions are the Red Sea, Mediterra-
nean Sea and some areas of the Gulf of Mexico. The salinity within the trenches remains
similar to typical abyssal plain values (34.7) and is unaffected by pressure. In the
Pacic Ocean, salinity decreases from the surface from ~35.6 to ~34.4 at ~1000 m
Salinity
34 34.25 34.5 34.75 35 35.25 35.5
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
Depth (m)
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10 000
Figure 4.4 Surface to seaoor salinity proles for the Kermadec Trench (southwest Pacic Ocean;
black line), PeruChile Trench (southeast Pacic; dark grey line) and the Izu-Bonin Trench
(northwest Pacic Ocean; light grey line). Note salinity becomes constant at ~3000 m. Data
obtained by HADEEP.
and stabilises at a constant 34.7 beyond 30004000 m (Knauss, 1997; Fig. 4.4).
The majority of hadal trenches are located in the Pacic Ocean and have salinities
of typically 34.7 with only occasional uctuations. The Banda Trench hosts the
lowest salinity at 34.5834.67 (Belyaev, 1989), while the highest salinity readings
are found in the tropical Atlantic Ocean: Romanche Trench (34.6734.96), Puerto-
Rico Trench (34.8034.89 ) and the Cayman Trench (34.9935.00). Salinity
proles extending into hadal depths have been obtained from the Japan Trench (Fujio
and Yanagimoto, 2005), Tonga Trench (Taft et al., 1991), Mariana Trench (Taira
et al., 2005), Kermadec Trench (Jamieson et al., 2011a), Izu-Bonin Trench (Taira,
2006) and the PeruChile Trench (unpublished data, HADEEP), and a constant
salinity of 34.7 was found at all depths. Generally, salinity does not vary more
than 0.2 and even within the aforementioned examples of high and low salinity, the
variation does not exceed 0.42. Salinity is not, therefore, thought to have any
ecological consequences, nor affect the dispersion of even the most stenohaline
species (Belyaev, 1989; Tyler, 1995).
Most circulating bottom waters in the deep sea are known to be oxygenated (Tyler,
1995). The oxygen concentration is a result of the time since the parcel of water was at
the surface and the reduction of oxygen thereafter by microbiota and benthic fauna.
Therefore, deep waters with the lowest subsurface age (North Atlantic and Antarctica)
have the highest concentrations, typically 67 ml l 1. In areas with longer subsurface
ages, such as the North Pacic Ocean, oxygen concentrations are lower, typically
<3.6 ml l 1 (Mantyla and Reid, 1983).
Waters with the highest oxygen content at hadal depths are found in the South
Sandwich Trench, Cayman and Puerto-Rico Trenches, where oxygen concentration
measurements range from 4.9 to 6.9 ml l 1 (6570% saturation; Belyaev, 1989). The
South Pacic and Indian Ocean trenches (Kermadec, Tonga and Java) have slightly
lower oxygen concentrations, at 4.04.7 ml l 1 (5563% saturation). The lowest
reported oxygen concentration of 2.032.38 ml l 1 (2732% saturation) was in the
Banda Trench. All the other trenches are characterised by intermediate values of
oxygen, albeit there are very few measurements recorded in recent decades, therefore,
most oxygen values are derived from samples from the 1950s and 1960s.
These data, summarised by Belyaev (1989), show uctuations in different areas
within a trench (and between trenches), seasonal variation and bathymetric variation.
For example, in the Philippine Trench, the oxygen concentration was found to vary
from 2.26 to 3.60 ml l 1 (30 to 47% saturation), based on 45 measurements (Belyaev,
1989). Other measurements of 2.364.32 ml l 1, 2.993.92 ml l 1 and 3.074.42 ml l 1
were reported from the KurilKamchatka, Aleutian and Mariana Trenches, respectively.
In the Palau Trench, the RV Vitjaz 1957 expedition recorded an oxygen concentration
of 3.663.71 ml l 1, however, an RV Spencer F. Baird expedition measured a much
lower oxygen concentration of 0.921.35 ml l 1, just 5 years later. Belyeav (1989)
states this example as the only incidence of such a severe drop in the oxygen measure-
ments between expeditions. Nevertheless, even such a low oxygen concentration did
not appear to affect the trench communities as numerous photographs of the bottom
revealed an abundant and diverse benthic fauna (Lemche et al., 1976). The same was
found in the Banda Trench, despite exhibiting the lowest known oxygen levels of the
trenches.
The important point regarding oxygen is that none of the trenches or areas within
trenches has been found to be oxygen limited. Similarly, studies that model deep-water
mass ow around the Pacic Ocean, in particular, have shown that bottom waters are
not stagnant and, therefore, the water clearly circulates, allowing the trenches to
ventilate (Johnson, 1998). Cold, surface-derived, bottom water is well oxygenated
and the ventilation rates are sufcient to ensure that hadal fauna do not experience
any signicant stress from low oxygen levels (Angel, 1982). Trench water ventilation
has also been suggested by Nozaki et al. (1998) who found that trench water masses
were mixing relatively freely by isopycnal mixing with the bottom water overlying the
northwest Pacic abyssal plain.
There are, however, areas in the deep sea where oxygen concentrations are low enough
to be problematic for fauna (<0.2 ml l 1). Examples of such areas include oxygen
minimum zones, however, these are typically restricted to depths of <1500 m (Sanders,
1969; Wishner et al., 1990) or localised, acute zones in the immediate exit of
hydrothermal vents (Tyler, 1995), which have, to date, not been reported at hadal depths.
4.3 Adaptations to low temperatures
While hydrostatic pressure is known to determine the vertical distribution of species,

temperature has long been regarded as the pivotal factor that drives their latitudinal
distribution (reviewed in Prtner, 2002). However, temperature is a major co-varying
environmental factor, and is also considered to contribute signicantly to vertical
zonation patterns. Although the temperature experienced at hadal depths does not differ
much from the shallower abyssal or lower bathyal zones, adaptation to these cold waters
(typically <4C; Thistle, 2003) is still an essential prerequisite for hadal fauna. The
relationship between pressure and temperature on biological processes is, at best,
difcult to unequivocally disentangle, however, there have been a variety of studies
which partly provide new information concerning the incorporation of temperature
effects on observed biological trends.
A decrease in temperature causes a decrease in chemical reaction rates and rates
change by a factor of two to three for each 10C temperature change (Carney, 2005).
Successful adaptation to low-temperature and high-pressure habitats involves increased
enzyme concentration, adoption of enzymes with greater efcacy and inclusion of
modulator compounds that facilitate enzyme reactions (Somero, 1992; Samerotte
et al., 2007). Low temperatures are also known to exacerbate the effects of pressure
on shallow-water invertebrate fauna (e.g. Young et al., 1997; Villalobos et al., 2006;
Oliphant et al., 2011) but, given the low variation in temperature across the hadal
depths, its effects are still unknown but likely to be minimal.
Brown and Thatje (2011) investigated the physiological tolerances of fed and starved
specimens of the deep-sea lysianassid amphipod Stephonyx biscayensis from depths of
c. 1500 m, at varying temperature and pressure regimes, by measuring the rate of
oxygen consumption. Acclimation to atmospheric pressure or starvation was found to
have no signicant interaction with temperature and/or pressure. Interestingly, the effect
of hydrostatic pressure on respiration rate was found to be dependent on temperature:
pressures of ~200 atm were tolerated at 1 and 3C, 250 atm was tolerated at 5.5C and at
10C, 300 atm was tolerated. These variations in tolerance were found to be consistent
with the natural distribution range for this species. Therefore, the pressure tolerance is
not an effect of simply hydrostatic pressure itself, but is heavily inuenced by the
ambient temperature; higher temperatures can enable tolerance of higher pressure
(Brown and Thatje, 2011).
To further understand the mechanisms that drive the distribution and abundance of
trench fauna, the energetic demands of the individuals and populations must be con-
sidered. The ow of energy and materials in an ecosystem can be modelled based on
metabolic rates, which are largely dependent on both ecological roles and the ambient
environmental variables (Childress and Thuesen, 1992; Smith, 1992; Christiansen et al.,
2001; Smith et al., 2001). It is often assumed that energetic demands of deep-sea
Adaptations to low temperatures 87
animals can be extrapolated from the data modelled from shallow living analogues
(e.g. Mahaut et al., 1995), or derived from a few measurements of representative taxa
(e.g. Smith, 1992; Smith et al., 2001). Some marine animals such as shes, crustaceans
and cephalopods exhibit metabolic rates that are an order of magnitude lower in deep-
sea species compared to their shallow-water counterparts (Drazen and Seibel, 2007;
Seibel and Drazen, 2007). However, after the effects of temperature and body size are
taken into consideration, there are some instances of no apparent difference in metabol-
ism (e.g. some shes, amphipods and crabs; Seibel and Drazen, 2007; Drazen et al.,
2011). It is thought unlikely that hydrostatic pressure can account for these data since
enzymes that are adapted to high pressures can be inefcient (Somero and Siebenaller,
1979), leading to a lower metabolic rate.
The constant levels of enzymatic activity in the brains and hearts of shes (Childress
and Somero, 1979; Sullivan and Somero, 1980; Siebenaller et al., 1982) conrms that
capacity adaptations allow organisms to maintain a certain level of performance regard-
less of depth (Hochachka and Somero, 2002).
Some shes and crustaceans have shown no changes in metabolic rate under varying
pressure (Meek and Childress, 1973; Childress, 1977; Belman and Gordon, 1979),
suggesting that the lower, routine metabolic rates of some deep-sea animals have
evolved to match a low food supply (Childress, 1971; Smith and Hessler, 1974; Collins
et al., 1999; Treude et al., 2002). Some deep-sea animals respond to low food resources
by depressing routine metabolism (Sullivan and Smith, 1982; Christiansen and Diel-
Christiansen, 1993; Yang and Somero, 1993) and the low metabolic rate in some
abyssal amphipods has, in fact, been hypothesised to be a low food adaptation (Treude
et al., 2002).
Interestingly, in situ observations of sh (Notoliparis kermadecensis, Liparidae)
swimming behaviour from c. 7000 m in the Kermadec Trench, where food supply is
potentially greater than on the abyssal plain, suggest relatively high activity when
compared to shallower-water sh of the same family (Jamieson et al., 2009a). Likewise,
the locomotive speeds of a hadal holothurian, Elpidia atakama (Elpidiidae) was meas-
ured at over 8000 m in the PeruChile Trench and found to be equal to or slightly faster
than those of abyssal holothurians from ~4000 m (Jamieson et al., 2011b). Other
measurements of activity from hadal depths include those of the isopod Rectisura cf.
herculea (Munnopsidae) from 6945 and 7703 m in the Japan Trench (Jamieson et al.,
2012b) and of two species of amphipod (Princaxelia abyssalis and P. jamiesoni;
Pardaliscidae) from 7966 and 8798 m in the Tonga and Kermadec Trenches, and
7703 and 9316 m in the Japan and Izu-Bonin Trenches, respectively (Jamieson et al.,
2012a). Although comparative data from shallower depths is distinctly lacking, there
were no observable reductions in activity, despite the extremely high pressure.
An alternative explanation is the Visual Interactions Hypothesis (VIH; Childress,
1995; Seibel and Drazen, 2007). In the surface waters, animals are able to detect both
predators and prey at a great distance due to the brightly lit environment. Higher
metabolic rates and greater locomotory capabilities for long chases or escapes are
essential for catching prey and avoiding predators in such a well-lit habitat. In the
deep sea where solar light no longer penetrates (Warrant and Locket, 2004), predators
and prey do not interact over such long distances or as frequently, relaxing the
requirement of high locomotory capacity, which, in turn, reduces metabolism. Seibel
and Drazen (2007) support the VIH, in that sighted taxa exhibit metabolic reductions
with depth, but nonvisual groups such as holothurians do not. The VIH would predict
that nonvisual hadal animals would have similar metabolic rates as their shallow living
relatives (at the same temperature) and hadal animals relying on vision would have
lower rates than similar animals in the photic zone but would be similar to bathyal and
abyssal inhabitants which inhabit the same dark environment.
Adaptations at a metabolic level are therefore not unique to the hadal environment, or
indeed to areas of high pressure, but are, in fact, simply a mechanism for survival
beyond the photic zone, within the deep sea. Like many aspects of hadal ecology it is
currently very difcult to disentangle the co-varying effects of food supply, tempera-
ture, light, pressure and oxygen on any observed trends. The trench ecosystem provides
a unique opportunity in which food supply may actually show an inverse relationship
with depth (increases towards the axis), while light levels, temperature and oxygen do
not vary very much, yet hydrostatic pressure continues to increase across the deepest
45% of the water column.
4.4 Light
In clear oceanic water, solar light decreases by an order of magnitude every ~75 m, until
ceasing to be detectable at ~1000 m (Denton, 1990). Beyond 1000 m the only visually
relevant source of light is of biological origin, bioluminescence. Bioluminescence can
range from bacterial glow, gelatinous luminescent organisms or larger invertebrates and
sh with light producing organs or the ability to eject luminescent material (reviewed in
Herring, 2002; Haddock et al., 2010). Pelagic bioluminescence has been detected at
abyssalpelagic depths (Priede et al., 2006a; Gillibrand et al., 2007a) and deep benthic
communities are known to exhibit spectacular bioluminescence displays on the abyssal
seaoor in the vicinity of food-falls (Gillibrand et al., 2007b).
Bioluminescence has, so far, not been detected at hadal depths. However, most
marine planktonic organisms are known to produce light (Herring, 2002) and plankton
have been recorded in the hado-pelagic zones of four major trenches to at least 8000 m
(Bougainville, Kermadec, KurilKamchatka and Mariana Trenches; Vinogradov,
1962), albeit in low numbers. Although bioluminescence is typically realised using
articial stimulation such as bait (Priede et al., 2006a; Gillibrand et al., 2007b) or
mechanical stimuli (Craig et al., 2009, 2011a) it is known to naturally occur with some
frequency. Craig et al. (2011b) showed that the visual environment of the deep sea is
perhaps as heterogenic as the physical substrata. Planktonic organisms in the near-
bottom waters produce light when they naturally collide with physical structures, such
as rocks or sessile organisms (e.g. stalked crinoids). All these elements are present
within the hadal trenches; rocky outcrops are found particularly on the fore arc (Lemche
et al., 1976), plankton survives to at least 8000 m (Vinogradov, 1962) and stalked
crinoids to at least 9000 m (Oji et al., 2009). Therefore, although it has not been
Substrata 89
observed directly so far, there is potential for bioluminescence at full ocean depth and
thus it is a potentially heterogenic, visual environment (Craig et al., 2011b).
4.5 Substrata
The nature of the seaoor substratum has a profound effect on the composition of the
benthic communities (Thistle, 2003); surface-dwelling fauna dominate hard substrata,
while burrowing fauna dominate sedimentary substrata.
Hard substrata in the deep sea are typically found on the continental slopes,
seamounts and mid-ocean ridges, however, the nature of tectonic subduction is such
that the slopes, particularly on the fore arc, are steep (often exceeding 45). These slopes
herald large areas of hard, steep projections characterised by numerous sections with
base rock exposed outcroppings (e.g. Oji et al., 2009), littered with copious bedrock
fragments and stones beneath (Bruun, 1956a; Belyaev, 1989). Such geological debris is
common on the trench oors due to seismically induced rockslides and turbidity
currents, and thus redeposition of sediments and rocks via removal is apparently a
typical phenomenon in trenches (Wolff, 1960; Itou, 2000; Otosaka and Noriki, 2000;
Rathburn et al., 2009).
The typical deep seaoor substratum type is soft sediments. Generally, grain
size decreases with depth but whether this trend extends to hadal depths is unknown.
The carbonate compensation depth (CCD), the depth beyond which calcium carbonate
dissolves, results in seaoor >40005000 m comprising siliceous ooze, whereas above
the CCD, the sediments are primarily carbonate ooze (Tyler, 1995). The continental
margins of the Pacic Ocean, situated above most major trenches, are comprised of soft,
terrigenous sediment (Smith and Demopoulous, 2003). These sediments consist of
mineral particles of continental origin, integrated with various planktonic components
(e.g. diatoms, Foraminifera shells) and many other dust and particle types (Berger,
1974; Angel, 1982). It is these sediments that ultimately sink towards the continental
ank of the trenches and their transport to the great depths are likely to be accelerated by
the steep, often bedrock-exposed slope of the fore arc, as well as occasional seismic
activity.
At the abyssal depths beneath productive waters, siliceous mud composed of diatom
and radiolarian tests are typical, with organic-carbon contents between 0.25% and 0.5%
(Smith and Demopoulous, 2003). In contrast, beneath the central gyres of the North and
South Pacic Ocean, the sediments are composed of ne-grained clay particles of
continental origin, transported by wind and volcanic eruptions (Berger, 1974). It is
the sediments of the surrounding abyssal plains that ultimately descend into the trench
via the oceanic slopes as the oceanic plate is subducted.
The distribution of soft sediments differs on inter- and intra-trenches levels
depending on the nature of the relief, internal topography, proximity to continental
land masses and seismic activity. Sedimentation rates using ion-thorium methods are
estimated at 0.56.3 mm per 1000 year in the northwest Pacic trenches, with some
estimates as high as 510 to 501000 mm per 100 year (e.g. KurilKamchatka
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4.5 Examples of various substrata at hadal depths as photographed from the Hadal-Lander,
where the eld of view is 62 46.5 cm (0.29 m 2). The metal bar holding the bait runs
horizontally through the middle of the image and gives an indication of seaoor hardness.
(a) Taken at 6173 m and shows little sinking into typical soft abyssal sediment; (b) is from 7050 m
and shows some sinking into clay-like sediment littered with iron deposits; (c) is from 7561 m
on the trench axis and shows a hard sediment surface with rock slabs in the top centre with stones
and pebbles in the top right corner; (d) is from 9281 m and shows an extremely soft bottom littered
with animal tracks, presumably made by holothurians. (a) and (b) are from the PeruChile Trench
and (c) and (d) are from the Kermadec Trench. Images taken by Hadal-Lander B, courtesy of
HADEEP.
Trench; Belyaev, 1989). These estimates are considerably greater than those for the
surrounding abyssal plains (Jumars and Hessler, 1976).
The distribution of soft sedimentary substrata is thought to be driven by the physical
topography of trenches. The steep slopes create a downward transport and
subsequent accumulation of soft sediment along the trench axis (Danovaro et al.,
2003; Romankevich et al., 2009), resulting in a heterogenic distribution of soft sedi-
ments within the trench that is different to that of the at, neighbouring abyssal plains. It
is therefore hypothesised that the trenches act as large sedimentation tanks that accu-
mulate both surface-derived material and material transported from the surrounding
abyssal plains (Jamieson et al., 2010). The enclosed nature of trench topography,
compared to other features such as plains, seamounts and submarine canyons, means
Substrata 91
that material that is transported into the trenches is physically captured at these depths,
thus determining the high sedimentation rate within the trench environment.
The complex topography and the subsequent variation in sedimentation rate within
areas of the same trench, coupled with the diverse types of substrate (from ne-grained
silts to exposed rocky outcrops) potentially create diverse ecological niches that should
promote the existence of diverse communities. Examples of different substrates are
shown in Figure 4.5.
5 Hydrostatic pressure
Every life form on Earth experiences some degree of pressure, but none more so than
those inhabiting the hadal zone. In the deep sea, pressure is a key physical parameter
that has inuenced the evolution and distribution of both microorganisms and macro-
organisms (Bartlett, 2002). Pressure represents an absolute, continuous gradient from
the sea surface to the deepest place on Earth, the Mariana Trench (~11 000 m) and it is
one of the only parameters to maintain a linear relationship with depth. Adaptation to
high hydrostatic pressure is an essential prerequisite for survival at hadal depths as this
zone accounts for the deepest ~45% of the total depth range of the oceans (Jamieson
et al., 2010). Hydrostatic pressure increases by 1 atmosphere (atm) every 10 m depth.
Pressure is often expressed in Megapascal (MPa) or bar (bar) and all are relatively easy
to covert; 1 atm 1 bar 0.1 MPa ~10 m depth. The pressure found at hadal depths
ranges from ~600 to 1100 atm (6000 m to 11 000 m).
The effects of hydrostatic pressure and survival in the deep sea have been reviewed
several times (e.g. Somero, 1992; MacDonald, 1997; Pradillon and Gaill, 2007). It is not
the intention of this chapter to review all aspects of high pressure and other adaptations,
which could be another book in itself, but rather to highlight some of adaptations that
are particularly relevant to or identied from hadal organisms.
5.1 Piezophiles
The discovery of piezophily (high-pressure adaptation) has been rooted in microbiology

for over a century (Simonato et al., 2006). Arguably, its discovery came to fruition as a
result of the hadal sampling undertaken on the Galathea expedition, most notably by
Claude E. ZoBell and other former-Soviet contemporaries such as Anatolii Evseevich
Kriss (Bartlett, 2009). It was ZoBell who obtained the rst evidence of physiological
adaptation to high hydrostatic pressure in trenches (from over 10 000 m in the Philippine
Trench) and established the scientic discipline of high-pressure microbiology (ZoBell
and Johnson, 1949; ZoBell, 1952). These pioneering experiments involved the rapid
repressurisation of recently sampled deep-trench sediment back to its ambient pressure
in laboratory-pressurised steel vessels, the fundamentals of which are mostly unchanged
today (Bartlett, 2009). Although these early experiments laid the foundations for high-
pressure biology research and provided evidence of piezophilic life, the rst strains of
piezophilic bacteria were not cultured until 1979 (Yayanos et al., 1982). This was soon
92
Piezophiles 93
followed by the discovery of a piezophilic microbial species that was extracted from an
amphipod found in the Mariana Trench. This species could not be cultured at atmos-
pheric pressure and thus was coined obligately piezophilic (Yayanos et al., 1982) and
assigned to a relatively new eld of research that aimed to study organisms termed
extremophiles (MacElroy, 1974).
The denition of an extremophilic organism is one that thrives under extreme
environmental conditions. It is mainly unicellular and prokaryotic organisms that are
categorised under this denition, although not all extremophiles are unicellular, but
most extremophiles are microorganisms (Horikoshi and Bull, 2011). The upper opti-
mum growth temperature for Archea is 113C, 95C for bacteria and 62C for single-
celled eukaryotes. In contrast, multicellular eukaryotes rarely grow above 50C.
Extremophiles that are specically adapted to thrive at high hydrostatic pressure were
originally termed barophiles (sensu ZoBell and Johnson, 1949), however, in 1995 this
name was replaced by the more appropriate term piezophiles (Yayanos, 1995; Kato,
2011); baro is derived from the Greek word meaning weight, while piezo means
pressure. The terminology used in this research eld comprises some of the following
expressions: piezosensitive (not tolerant of high pressure), piezotolerant (survival and
growth at atmospheric pressure but can tolerate some degree of high pressure),
piezophilic (survival and growth are optimised at high pressure) and obligatory piezo-
philic (requires high pressure for survival and growth). Other studies use denitions
such as piezophilic where optimal growth pressure exceeds 40 MPa, and moderately
piezophilic where optimal growth is above atmospheric but less than 40 MPa (Kato and
Bartlett, 1997). The piezophilic relationship between optimal growth and depth of
capture is illustrated in Table 5.1.
Many piezophilic bacteria have been recovered from hadal depths (reviewed in Eloe
et al., 2011; Kato, 2011). The rst pure culture of a piezophilic isolate was strain CNPT-
3 which showed a rapid doubling rate at a pressure of 50 MPa but no colonies formed at
atmospheric pressure, even after long incubations (Yayanos et al., 1979). It is now well
known that many deep-sea heterotrophic bacteria grow optimally in the laboratory at
pressures and temperatures close to those of their natural habitat (Yayanos et al., 1979).
Thus, piezophilic bacteria are increasingly piezophilic with increasing depth of origin
(Yayanos et al., 1982). The latter study also concluded that the pressure value which
allows the maximal reproductive rate of the bacteria at 2C to be achieved is always
lower than the pressure at depth of capture. Many of the piezophilic strains are also
psychrophilic (psychropiezophilic; both low-temperature and high-pressure adapted;
Eloe et al., 2011) and cannot be cultured above 20C (Kato and Qureshi, 1999). The
effects of pressure and temperature on cell growth are similar, in that all strains become
more piezophilic at higher temperatures (Kato et al., 1995a). This indicates that piezo-
philic isolates are obligately piezophilic above the temperature at which growth occurs
at atmospheric pressure. Therefore, high pressure can extend the upper temperature
limit for growth. Likewise, at lower temperatures (~2C), piezophilic bacteria reproduce
more rapidly when the pressure is less than that at its depth of capture (Kato and
Qureshi, 1999). It is thought that the pressure at which the rate of reproduction at 2C is
maximal may indicate the true habitat depth of an isolate (Yayanos et al., 1982).
Table 5.1 Optimal growth pressure and temperature for various piezophilic, moderately piezophilic
and piezotolerant bacterial strains. Modified from Kato and Bartlett (1997).
Optimal growth Depth of

Bacterial strain pressure [Temp.] capture Reference
Piezophilic bacteria
DB5501 50 MPa [10C] 2485 m Kato et al., 1995a

DB172F 70 MPa [10C] 6499 m Kato et al., 1995b
PT99 69 MPa [10C] 8600 m DeLong and Yayanos, 1986
Moderately piezophilic bacteria
DSS12 30 MPa [8C] 5110 m Kato et al., 1995a

S. benthica 30 MPa [4C] 4575 m MacDonell and Colwell, 1985
SC2A 20 MPa [20C] 1957 m Yayanos et al., 1982
SS9 20 MPa [18C] 2551 m DeLong, 1986
DSJ4 10 MPa [10C] 5110 m Kato et al., 1995a
Piezotolerant bacteria
DSK1 0.1 MPa [10C] 6356 m Kato et al., 1995a

DSK25 0.1 MPa [35C] 6500 m Kato et al., 1995c
S. hanedai 0.1 MPa [14C] MacDonell and Colwell, 1985
5.2 Pressure and depth
The relationship between the rate of pressure change and depth of the ocean is linear.
The relative rate of pressure change with depth is much higher in the shallower zones.
For example, an organism descending from 500 to 1000 m will experience a pressure
change of 101.2% but, in contrast, an organism moving from 9500 to 10 000 m experi-
ences a pressure change of only 5.3%, although the absolute change is still ~500 dbar
per 500 m (Fig. 5.1a). The same trend is seen with temperature and salinity and depth
(Fig. 5.1b and c). For example, migration from 500 to 1000 m induces a 45% decrease
in temperature, whereas any 500 m step at hadal depths equates to a decrease of only 5%
or less. Similarly, although not as pronounced, a migration from 500 to 1000 m induces
a salinity change of 9%, whereas beyond 4000 m, no such migration will result in a
change in salinity.
These values for migration through the pressure gradient represent theoretical com-
pression and decompression of an organism as it migrates vertically upwards and
downwards through the water column. However, most current research into hadal fauna
focuses on benthic fauna; animals associated with the seaoor. Therefore, vertical
migrations do not necessarily account for any routine pressure changes that hadal
benthic fauna experience. Hadal fauna presumably move around on the trench oor,
Pressure and depth 95
(a)
530 120
Absolute pressure change (dbar) Absolute pressure change
Percentage pressure change (%)

Percentage pressure change
100
525
80
520
60
515
40
510
20
505 0
(b) 3.5 50
Absolute temperature change
45
Percentage temperature change (%)

Absolute temperature change (DC)
3.0 Percentage temperature change

40
2.5 35
30
2.0
25
1.5
20
1.0 15
10
0.5
5
0.0 0
(c) 4 10
Absolute salinity change
3.5 Percentage salinity change 9
Percentage salinity change (%)
Absolute salinity change (ppt)
8
3
7
2.5 6
2 5
1.5 4
3
1
2
0.5 1
0 0
Depth (m)
Figure 5.1 Changes in pressure (a), temperature (b) and salinity (c) in 500 m depth strata
expressed in absolute values (solid lines) and percentage change per 500 m (dashed lines). Data
taken from the Kermadec Trench.
(a) Abyssal Plain Hadal Trench (b) 90

180
Pressure change per overground km (dbar km-1)

10 slope
160 80 20 slope
Pressure change per overground km (%)

140 70 30 slope
40 slope
120 60
50 slope
100 50
80 40
60 30
40 20
20 10
0 0
9500-10000
>10000
4000-4500
4500-5000
5000-5500
5500-6000
6000-6500
6500-7000
7000-7500
7500-8000
8000-8500
8500-9000
9000-9500
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
Depth (m) Nominal depth (m)
Figure 5.2 (a) Hydrostatic pressure change (%) experienced if theoretically traversing one
kilometre across the seaoor perpendicular to the trench axis. Note increase in pressure change
on the trench slopes relative to the abyssal plains. (b) Hydrostatic pressure change (%) if
traversing one kilometre up or down a varying degree of slopes (1050) at different depths.
often traversing areas of extreme topography and many species are known to occur
across the abyssalhadal transition zone, which represents a at-to-steep transition.
Therefore, what are the spatial variations in hydrostatic pressure experienced by hadal
fauna on a more natural timescale?
If an organism traverses the seaoor parallel to the trench axis (i.e. following a depth
contour), then no signicant change in pressure occurs. Likewise, if an organism
traverses a at and vast abyssal plain, the variation in pressure is also minimal.
However, if an organism moves within the trench, perpendicular to the trench axis in
either direction, then it experiences compression (if moving towards the axis) or
decompression (if moving away from the axis).
Changes in hydrostatic pressure can be calculated per overground kilometre perpen-
dicular to the trench axis, using the topography of the Kermadec Trench as an example
(Fig. 5.2a). Across the abyssal plains (40006000 m), the pressure changes by 3060 dbar
per km. This change steadily increases with depth down the trench slopes to ~158 dbar per
overground km at 90009500 m (almost four times that of the abyssal plains).
In reality, there are varying degrees of slopes within the trench and, presumably,
organisms must traverse these often steep gradients. To demonstrate the effects of
pressure changes when traversing a steep slope, the absolute and percentage change
in pressure, calculated for one overground kilometre traversed up (or down) a 10, 20,
30, 40 and 50 slope at 1000 m depth intervals, are shown in Figure 5.2b. Regardless of
depth, travelling this kilometre at each of the gradients will result in the same change in
depth (174, 342, 500, 643 and 766 m, respectively) and approximately the same change
Carbonate compensation depth 97
2.5
Pressure variation (dbar)
1.5
1 7699m
8547m
0.5
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48
Time (h)
Figure 5.3 Pressure data showing M2 tidal constituents over 48 h at 7699 m (grey) and 8547 m
(black) in the Kermadec Trench.
in absolute pressure. However, the relative change in pressure at a given depth decreases
dramatically. For example, travelling 1 km down a 10 and 50 slope at 1000 m will
result in an 18 and 80% change in pressure, whereas beyond 6500 m, the relative
pressure change is always less that 14%, regardless of the angle of the slope.
Irrespective of changes in depth or distance travelled overground, the ambient hydro-
static pressure is subject to tidal cycles as the sea surface rises and falls. Pressure data from
43298547 m from the Kermadec Trench, taken in both 2007 and 2009, show a combined
mean tidal period of 12.42 h 0.64 S.D. (Fig. 5.3), suggesting the presence of an M2
internal tidal period. The M2 tidal period is one of the dominant semi-diurnal tides in the
region and rotates anti-clockwise around New Zealand (Chiswell and Moore, 1999). It is
also typical in bathyal and abyssal environments (Wagner et al., 2007). The mean ampli-
tude (peak to trough) of these pressure cycles was found to be 1.26 dbar 0.19 S.D.,
approximating to a 1 m swell. These tidal cycles have been found as deep as 9900 m in
the Kermadec Trench as well as in all other stations studied during the HADEEP project,
irrespective of depth (Kermadec, Tonga, Izu-Bonin, Japan and PeruChile Trenches). In
the North Pacic trenches the same signature of the cycle is seen as deep as 7700 m. It is
therefore likely that hadal organisms may be able to detect slight tidal variations in pressure.
5.3 Carbonate compensation depth
The effects of high hydrostatic pressure can extend beyond the direct effects of pressure
adaptation and toleration. It also has an effect on seawater chemistry, particularly at
great depths. The oceans play an important primary role in the regulation and storage of
carbon dioxide (CO2) (e.g. Toggweiler et al., 2006), through precipitation, burial and
dissolution of carbonate sediment (Archer, 1996).
The oceanic absorption of atmospheric CO2 in the last century has resulted in a
decrease of the average pH of the surface oceans (Caldeira and Wickett, 2003) and a
decrease in the carbonate ion concentration, leading to undersaturation of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). Calcium carbonate becomes increasingly soluble at low tempera-
tures and high hydrostatic pressures; the exact conditions that are found in the deep sea
(Bostock et al., 2011).
The carbonate compensation depth (CCD) is the depth, or more realistically, the
gradual transition over which the calcium carbonate supply (calcite and aragonite)
equals the rate of solvation, such that no solid CaCO3 can accumulate (Pytkowicz,
1970; Takahashi and Broecker, 1977). As the CCD is not a sharply dened boundary, it
is often dened as the depth at which the sediment CaCO3 content decreases below 20%
by weight due to dissolution (Broecker and Peng, 1982). The exact depth of the CCD
varies between oceans and the largest regions therein, as a result of variations in
temperature, circulation, CaCO3 and organic carbon ux to the deep sea (Broecker
and Peng, 1982; Archer, 1996; Feely et al., 2004; Ridgwell and Zeebe, 2005). Gener-
ally, the CCD occurs within the abyssal depths between 3000 and 5000 m. It is therefore
not an exclusively hadal feature, but rather, one of the wider deep sea. The CCD of the
North Atlantic is ~51005200 m, in the South Atlantic it is ~43004400 m, in the Indian
Ocean it is ~45004700 m, in the central Pacic Ocean it is 45004600 m and in the
South Pacic Ocean it is 40004600 m (Bostock et al., 2011).
In terms of deep-sea fauna, the CCD is signicant because it has been proposed as a
physiological barrier to deep-ocean colonisation that has promoted the adaptation of
some taxa (Angel, 1982). Calcium carbonate is widely used as a structural component
by foraminiferans, corals, crustaceans and molluscs. As carbonate solubility increases
with increasing depth, ossication becomes harder and ultimately impossible to achieve
(McClain et al., 2004). This may explain why ossied groups (e.g. ophiuroids, echin-
oids) tend to be replaced by soft-bodied organisms (e.g. holothurians, soft and organic-
walled foraminiferans) with increasing depth (Sabbatini et al., 2002; Gooday et al.,
2004; Todo et al., 2005).
5.4 Adaptations to high pressure
Many deep-sea fauna are constrained within species-specic depth limits (Vinogradova,
1997). Although, the relative role of ever-increasing pressure with depth versus other
environmental correlates, such as food supply, isolation, hydrography and life history, is
likely to be extremely complex. Nevertheless, hydrostatic pressure in the hadal zone
represents the extreme end of one of the most signicant environmental parameters in
the ocean.
High-pressure adaptation is evident in many deep-sea organisms, from the lower
eukaryotes (Simonato et al., 2006), invertebrates and shes (Kelly and Yancey, 1999),
to deep diving marine mammals (Castellini et al., 2001).
Adaptations to high pressure 99
Pressure and temperature are two of the most fundamental abiotic factors (Danovaro
et al., 2004; Carney, 2005) and their effects on organismal physiology are complex
because these variables are inversely related (Pradillon and Gaill, 2007). An increase in
pressure at constant temperature leads to a compression and an ordering of molecules,
whereas a loss of ordering occurs with an increase in temperature (Brehan et al., 1992).
Temperature and pressure also act slightly differently from each other, in that pressure
effects only result from volume changes, whereas temperature affects both volume and
energy. Furthermore, the increase in pressure with depth is linear, while temperature
varies non-uniformly with depth and also varies depending on geographic location. In
the polar regions, many shallower species inhabit depths with similar low temperatures
to other deep-sea biozones, however, adaptation to low temperatures does not pre-adapt
these organisms to function at high pressure (Somero, 1992). Given that most deep-sea
species physiological systems are improved under high pressures, they are piezophiles,
or even obligate piezophiles, since they actually require high pressure for survival
(Yayanos, 1986).
The high and low depth limits at which an organism can survive vary depending on
the species, from tens to thousands of metres (Pradillon and Gaill, 2007). Furthermore,
the maximum and minimum depth of a species may also vary depending on geographic
location, ontogenic stage (Tyler and Young, 1998) and other environmental correlates
such as food availability, oxygen and temperature (Tyler, 1995). The bathymetric
distribution of marine organisms may be explained, in part, by interspecic variation
in pressure resistance. High pressures may limit the maximum depth to which shallow-
water organisms can extend, and conversely may limit the minimum depth into which
the barophilic, deep-water organisms can penetrate (Somero, 1992).
Hydrostatic pressure can have several perturbing effects on biological structures and
processes following Le Chateliers principle which states that at equilibrium, a system
tends to minimise the effects of disturbing external factors (Pradillon and Gaill, 2007).
This essentially means that a reduction in a systems volume is favoured during an
increase in pressure and vice versa. Therefore, the fundamental effect of pressure on a
biological system is the change in volume that accompanies a process, whether this is
compression or decompression (Somero, 1992). For example, when a biological process
requires an increase in volume, it is inhibited by pressure and, conversely, when a
decrease in volume is required, the pressure augments the process.
Pressure can affect biological processes in many ways and in response a number of
adaptations have evolved to counter these effects in the deep sea. For example, there are
pronounced pressure adaptations in the neural functions of deep-sea invertebrates
(Campenot, 1975) and shes (Harper et al., 1987). Studies have shown that subjecting
shallow-living shes to pressures of up to 409 atm causes a 50% decrease in the peak
amplitude of the compound action potential (c.a.p.) of the vagus nerve, an effect that is
not detected in deep-sea shes from 40004200 m (Coryphaenoides armatus and Bath-
ysaurus mollis; Harper et al., 1987). Similar differences between shallow- and deep-
water shes have been documented in relation to depolarisation rates (Harper et al.,
1987), where the apparent activation volumes for the rate of depolarisation is higher in
shallow-water species than deep-sea species. Furthermore, the nerves of some deep-sea
sh can be restored to an apparent normal function after recompression to the species

ambient pressures (Harper et al., 1987). Likewise, the heart function of deep-sea sh
can also be partially restored if pressurised to the species ambient pressure (Pennec
et al., 1988). On a microbial level, high pressure has been found to affect the growth and
viability of bacteria. Research is currently focusing on the isolation of pressure-resistant
mutants, regulation of gene expression by high pressure, the role of membrane lipids
and proteins in determining growth ability at high pressure, pressure effects on DNA
replication, topology and cell division and the modulation of enzyme activity at high
pressure (reviewed in Bartlett, 2002 and Simonato et al., 2006).
5.4.1 Effects and tolerance of pressure

The vertical (bathymetric) zonation of marine species implies that each has adapted to a
specic pressure range in which the species has evolved or adapted to function most
efciently. To fully understand the perturbing effects of hydrostatic pressure on an
organism, simple experiments have demonstrated the effects of exposing organisms to
pressures that normally lie outside their typical environment, whether higher or lower
than normal. Although the susceptibility of shallow-living species to high pressures was
demonstrated in the 1870s, it was not until the 1970s that experiments were conducted
to ascertain the effects of higher and lower pressure on deep-sea organisms (reviewed in
MacDonald, 1997).
MacDonald (1997) gives a detailed account of what happens to shallow-water
animals when they are exposed to ever-increasing pressure. He states that organisms
respond to this perturbation through a series of changes in their motor activity. During
the rst few atmospheres of compression there is an initial increase in normal activity,
followed by a period of impaired coordination and otherwise normal behaviour. As the
pressure increases further, excitability increases culminating in spasms or convulsions at
100 atm. In decapods, tail-ip escape responses are elicited early on and at higher
pressures they merge into similar, but more violent, convulsive responses. In amphi-
pods, relatively slow dorsally directed spasms of the longitudinal musculature are
elicited at high pressure. At higher pressure still, a progressive immobilisation sets in,
albeit initially reversible, but it eventually culminates in mortality. Some deep-water
species, however, have been shown to exhibit no hyperexcitability when exposed to
pressure higher than at their depth of capture (MacDonald, 1997). MacDonald and
Gilchrist (1982) recovered several species of amphipods in a pressure-retaining trap at
394442 atm and pressurised the specimens to 700 atm. They noted that the amphipods
did not convulse at the higher pressure, although they did exhibit mild hyperexcitability.
The failure to convulse at high pressure means that the specimens from 4000 m differed
radically in their pressure tolerance from those captured at the shallower depth of
2700 m. These studies suggest that for some amphipod species at least, the deeper the
normal range of the species, the greater their tolerance to higher pressures.
Conversely, the effects of decompression on deep-sea organisms are not straightfor-
ward. Due to the ease of capture in pressure-retaining traps, amphipods have been the
test species of most of these types of study (e.g. Yayanos, 1978, 1981; MacDonald and
Gilchrist, 1980, 1982). During decompression, amphipods are considered to be rela-

tively hardy in this respect and the extent to which deep-sea amphipods can tolerate
decompression is species-specic (MacDonald, 1997). Some amphipods can be
recovered from moderate depths without any drastic impairment of the locomotor
activity (Brown and Thatje, 2011). In some instances, they have also been shown to
exhibit no hyperexcitability during a step-wise change in pressure. Many crustaceans
appear dead after collection from the deep sea but can be reactivated if restored to their
ambient pressure, although pressure resuscitation may take several minutes to hours
(MacDonald, 1997). Likewise, the chances of observable activity from deep-sea organ-
isms on the surface are increased if they are kept at their ambient low temperature
(Truede et al., 2002). Many amphipod species, such as Eurythenes gryllus and Para-
licella caperesca, have been readily resuscitated by recompression following decom-
pression paralysis, from as deep as 4000 and 5900 m (MacDonald and Gilchrist, 1980;
Yayanos, 1981). The P. caperesca from 5900 m at 2C were recovered at ambient
pressure (~600 atm) and decompressed to atmospheric pressure. Loss of locomotor
activity occurred at 215 atm but was regained following recompression, suggesting that
this species is capable of 3000 m of vertical migration (Yayanos, 1981).
By maintaining the cold ambient temperature in thermally insulated baited traps,
Truede et al. (2002) recovered hundreds of amphipod specimens from ~4400 m.
Abyssorchemene abyssorum and specimens of the genus Paralicella from 4400 m only
survived decompressions of up to 300 atm and were, therefore, considered stenobathic
(Truede et al., 2002). However, the same study showed that Abyssorchemene distinctus
and Eurythenes gryllus exhibited a high decompression tolerance since both species
were recovered from abyssal depths without any detectable problems. They were
subsequently classied as eurybathic. This is not surprising given that E. gryllus is
known for its pronounced vertical migration behaviour (Ingram and Hessler, 1987;
Christiansen et al., 1990) and can tolerate pressure changes between 1 and at least
526 atm (George, 1979). Similarly, the high decompression tolerance of A. distinctus
may also be related to large vertical migrations since it has been recovered from several
mid-water trawls at ~2500 m above bottom (Thurston, 1990).
Experiments using amphipods from the Mariana and Philippine Trenches (from
approximately 10 000 m) collected in pressure-retaining traps (Yayanos, 2009) showed
that they were capable of a signicant vertical migration (i.e. decompression) to as
shallow as 3800 m. This decompression tolerance was greater than had been shown for
species living at 5800 m. Although these experiments demonstrated that amphipods in
particular herald impressive decompression tolerances, all other samples recovered from
hadal depths died upon reaching atmospheric pressure and this was veried by a lack of
observable activity after recompression (Yayanos, 2009). A range of comparative
pressure tolerance data is shown in Table 5.2.
The pressure tolerance of the Amphipoda is perhaps demonstrated well by analysis of
each amphipod species bathymetric range compared with other full ocean depth taxa
(Bivalvia, Gastropoda, Polychaeta, Holothuroidea and Isopoda). The average bathymet-
ric range of trench amphipods, excluding species with ranges of <100 m to eliminate
single nds and rarities, is 1562 m compared to the other taxons which range from
Table 5.2 Overview of the pressure tolerances of deep-sea amphipods in both compression and
decompression.
Capture Absolute pressure Tolerance

Species depth (m) tolerance (atm) range (atm) Reference
Compression
Paralicella caperesca, 4000 400700 300a MacDonald and

Orchomene sp., plus others Gilchrist, 1982
Decompression
Abyssorchemene 39504420 442140b 302 Truede et al., 2002

abyssorum, Paralicella spp.
Paralicella caperesca, 40004300 400c 400 MacDonald and
Eurythenes gryllus Gilchrist, 1980
Abyssorchemene distinctus, 39504420 4420b 442 Truede et al., 2002
Eurythenes gryllus
Eurythenes gryllus 5260 5261 525 George, 1979
Paralicella caperesca 5900 6010 (215d) 601 (386) Yayanos, 1981
Cf. Hirondellea sp. 10 000 1000380 620 Yayanos, 2009
a
This increase of 200 atm was when progressive inhibition was starting and not necessarily mortality.
b
The success of live capture was aided by thermally insulated traps.
c
50% of the 155 individuals were resuscitated following recompression to 400 atm.
d
Loss of locomotor activity occurred at 215 atm, but individuals were resuscitated following
recompression.
730 to 852 m, therefore almost twice the range of the other full ocean depth groups
(Fig. 5.4). Furthermore, these high values are consistent across the species with a far
greater percentage of species with bathymetric ranges of 2000 m or more (Table 5.3).
Pressure tolerances have also been investigated in bacteria, where mortality was
determined by the loss of colony-forming ability (CFA; Yayanos and Dietz, 1983).
These studies demonstrated that a decompression sensitive (obligately piezophilic)
bacterium from 10 476 m in the Mariana Trench (strain MT-41) lost CFA after 150 h,
following decompression from 103.5 MPa to 0.101 MPa (atmospheric pressure)
(Chastain and Yayanos, 1991). They found severe changes in cell shape and ultimately
cell death when this pychropiezophilic bacterium was decompressed, but death did not
occur immediately. This is interesting, as decompression mortality has not been
observed in abyssal bacteria from 5900 m in the Pacic Ocean (Yayanos et al., 1982).
These abyssal bacteria are piezophilic, not obligately piezophilic and can be retrieved
without pressure-retaining equipment, recompressed to high pressure and grown in the
laboratory for ve months (Yayanos et al., 1979).
Conversely, the exposure of a mesophilic bacterium, Escherichia coli, to elevated
pressures results in the induction of 55 proteins, including 11 heat-shock proteins and
four cold-shock proteins (Welch et al., 1993). Pressure appears to be the only stressor
known to induce both heat-shock and cold-shock proteins simultaneously, as they are
otherwise induced following exposure to opposing thermal regimes (Bartlett, 2002).
Table 5.3 The bathymetric ranges of six full ocean depth-dwelling taxons, expressed as the percentage of the total
number of species in each 1000 m range. Only species with range >100 m were used to omit single findings
and rarities.
Amphipoda Isopoda Bivalvia Gastropoda Holothuroidea Polychaeta
Total number 69 76 75 42 76 99
of species
Percentage of 01000 43 72 72 74 72 67
total number 10002000 23 20 15 14 18 25
of species 20003000 19 7 8 7 5 4
within each 30004000 10 1 4 2 1 1
bathymetric 40005000 4 0 0 0 1 0
range (m) 50006000 0 0 0 0 1 0
(a) 6000 (b) 3000

Amphipoda
Bivalvia
5000 Gastropoda 2500
Polychaeta
Holothuroidea 2000
4000 Mean depth range (m)
Bathymetric range (m)
Isopoda
1500
3000
1000
2000
500
1000
0
Bivalvia
Gastropoda
Amphipoda
Isopoda
Holothuroidea
Polychaeta
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Cumulave number of species
Figure 5.4 Bathymetric ranges of six full ocean depth groups showing that (a) the Amphipoda have
consistently larger bathymetric ranges than the other groups and (b) the average is almost twice
that of the others.
Heat-shock proteins or similar stress proteins can also be induced in piezophiles, such as
the bacterium Thermoccus barophilus, during decompression (Marteinsson et al.,
1999). High pressure and low temperature exert similar effects on protein synthesis
and membrane structure, and, therefore, the simultaneous induction of both heat- and
cold-shock proteins may be an attempt to counteract the perturbing effects of high
pressure on membrane integrity, translation processes and the stability of macromol-
ecules (Bartlett, 2002).
Conspicuous examples of adaptation by organisms to high pressure in the deep sea
include (1) the increased use of unsaturated fatty acids in cell membrane phospholipids
in order to maintain their uidity and cellular function (Hazel and Williams, 1990)
and (2) the use of intracellular protein-stabilising osmolytes, such as trimethylamine
N-oxide (TMAO; Samerotte et al., 2007), that act to maintain enzyme function by
increasing cell volume to counteract the adverse effects of pressure.
5.4.2 Lipids
Another adaptation in some marine organisms is the accumulation of metabolic energy
stores in the form of lipid reserves (Lee et al., 2006) that comprise four major classes:
triacylglycerols, wax esters, phospholipids and diacylglycerol ethers. All these groups
contain long-chain fatty acids but differ in the ways in which the fatty acids are
bound together. All classes may be found within an organism, but can vary in
composition between taxa, for example, wax esters are the predominant storage lipid
in many deep-living and cold water crustaceans (Bhring and Christiansen, 2001;
Lee et al., 2006).
Lipids provide solutions to several biological problems in the deep sea, one of which
is membrane uidity regulation at high pressure. Lipids are particularly sensitive to
hydrostatic pressure (Bartlett, 2002) and are, on average, an order of magnitude more
compressible than proteins (Weber and Drickamer, 1999).
Hydrostatic pressure, as well as temperature, exerts an evolutionary force on the
composition of biological membranes, reducing their uidity by increasing the packing
of fatty acyl chains (Simonato et al., 2006). Healthy membrane functioning is depend-
ent upon their maintenance in a liquid crystal-like state that allows the appropriate
movement of enzymes and transmembrane proteins. In a temperaturepressure-phase
diagram, for many membranes, the gradient that represents the transition of gel to a
liquid crystalline state increases about 20C for every 100 MPa at pressures <100 MPa.
Therefore, the combined effect of temperature and pressure on the membrane phase
state of a deep-sea organism at full ocean depth (100 MPa and 2C) is similar to a
membrane at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature of 18C (MacDonald, 1984a;
Cossins and MacDonald, 1989; Bartlett, 2002).
The phospholipid bilayers of biological membranes have been the focus of
many pressure effect studies (e.g. Wann and MacDonald, 1980; Somero, 1992;
MacDonald, 1997), since cell membrane-based processes are, perhaps, the most
susceptible to perturbation by high pressure and consequently exhibit extreme
sensitivities in shallow-water organisms (MacDonald, 1984; MacDonald and Cos-
sins, 1985). Decreasing temperature and increasing pressure will reduce membrane
uidity in shallow-living organisms (Brehan et al., 1992). Modications in mem-
brane proteins, or the phospholipid bilayer (or indeed both) could prompt pressure
adaptation in membrane-based processes. Bilayer uidity offers a potential for
adaptive regulation in deep-sea organisms as a result of strong interacting effects
of high pressure and low temperature on the properties of lipids. Deep-sea organ-
isms membranes exhibit changes in lipid composition with an increase in the
fraction of unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs). These UFAs permit the maintenance of
uidity under pressure (maintained within a narrow range of viscosity), a process
sometimes referred to as homeoviscous adaptation (Cossins and MacDonald,
1984; DeLong and Yayanos, 1985; Fang et al., 2000). This is well illustrated by
comparison with butter: a high to low temperature change causes otherwise soft
butter to harden, whereas if the unsaturated fatty acid content is increased, it can
remain soft at low temperatures (like spreadable butter; Herring, 2002).
The phospholipid bilayer in a deep-sea organism found at 24C, at a depth of
4000 m, has an effective temperature of 3 to 6C, while the effective temperature
for a 2C membrane in hadal organisms from the Mariana Trench is 11 to 19C
(MacDonald and Cossins, 1985), suggesting that phospholipid bilayers of deep-sea
species differ from those of shallow-living species. Deep-sea species have an intrinsic-
ally higher degree of uidity, such that under high hydrostatic pressure and low
temperature, membrane uidity is conserved within the optimal range for function.
Therefore, homeoviscous adaptation may be an imperative component of adaptation to
high pressure (MacDonald and Cossins, 1985; Cossins and MacDonald, 1989). Such
pressure acclimations are also of particular importance in organisms with vertical
ontogenetic structures spanning large bathymetric ranges (e.g. hadal amphipods;
Yayanos, 1978, 2009; MacDonald and Gilchrist, 1980).
The fatty acid composition of piezophilic bacterial strains changes as a function
of pressure (Kato, 2011). Generally, a greater amount of polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFAs) are synthesised at higher pressure conditions for their growth.
A piezophilic bacterium (strain CNPT3, probably of the genus Vibrio) cultured at
pressures of 1, 172, 345, 517 and 690 atm (at 2C) showed that the ratio of total
unsaturated fatty acids (TUFAs) to total saturated fatty acids (TSFAs) increased
with increasing pressure (DeLong and Yayanos, 1985), a trend found in other
piezophilic bacteria (DeLong and Yayanos, 1986). These studies revealed that
physiological acclimation to high pressure by a deep-living organism are possible,
although homeoviscous adaptation has not been found in all studies of pressure
acclimation. For example, contrary to the predictions of homeoviscous theory,
MacDonald (1984b) did not detect homeoviscous adaptation in Tetrahymena cells
that were grown at different pressures and found that the fatty acid changes
observed were opposite from those expected. This suggested that the enzymatic
and genetic mechanisms important in regulating membrane uidity in shallow-water
species during temperature changes are not pre-adapted to respond suitably to
increasing pressure (Somero, 1992).
Psychrophilic and piezophilic bacteria are believed to produce one of the long-
chain PUFAs, either eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA),
but this does not appear to be obligatory (Kato, 2011). Of the bacteria strains found
at hadal depths, the piezophilic Shewanella strains produce EPA (Nogi et al.,
1998b), Moritella strains produce DHA (Nogi et al., 1998a; Nogi and Kato, 1999)
and Psychromonas kaikoae produces both EPA and DHA (Nogi et al., 2002). Yano
et al. (1998) examined the lipid composition of barophilic bacterial strains that
contained docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and their adaptations in response to growth
pressure. They also concluded that the general shift from saturated to unsaturated
fatty acids is one of the adaptive changes in response to increasing hydrostatic
pressure and suggested that DHA may also play an important role in maintaining
optimal membrane lipid uidity at high pressure.
5.4.3 Piezolytes
High hydrostatic pressure can have large perturbing effects on biological molecules.
Membranes and proteins are known to have structural adaptations that provide pressure
resistance (Hochachka and Somero, 1984). In recent years, another adaptation to
pressure has been suggested involving piezolytes (sensu Martin et al., 2002); small,
organic solutes rst discovered as organic osmolytes. Solutes that are accumulated by
most marine organisms prevent osmotic shrinkage of their cells by osmoconforming to
the ambient environmental conditions (osmotic pressure of about 1000 mOsm). Among
others present in marine organisms, one of the main osmolytes is trimethylamine oxide
(TMAO; the source of the shy smelling trimethylamine) and this is found in deep-sea
sh. Most marine Osteichthyes (bony sh) are osmoregulators, which means that they
maintain a relatively high internal osmotic pressure of about 300400 mOsm compared
to shallower bony sh (~4050 mOsm).
Organic solutes such as TMAO are thought to be selected as osmolytes over inor-
ganic solutes, since the latter can perturb macromolecules while the former usually
do not; i.e. they are not only compatible with cellular functions (Brown and Simpson,
1972) but can both stabilise macromolecules and counteract perturbants such as
hydrostatic pressure (Yancey, 2005). Laboratory studies have shown that TMAO
counteracts the perturbing effects of hydrostatic pressure on enzyme kinetics and
protein stability and assembly (Yancey and Siebenaller, 1999; Yancey et al., 2001,
2004; Yancey, 2005).
Analyses of TMAO in deep-sea bony shes, elasmobranchs (sharks and rays) and
decapods (shrimp and crabs) have shown an increase in this osmolyte with depth (Kelly
and Yancey, 1999; Samerotte et al., 2007). In bony sh (teleosts), internal osmotic
pressure increases with depth as a result of increasing TMAO content. In osmoconfor-
mers, on the other hand, other osmolytes decrease in osmotic compensation as TMAO
increases with hydrostatic pressure, e.g. urea in elasmobranchs and glycine in decapods
(Kelly and Yancey, 1999).
There are currently no TMAO content data for any major hadal fauna, except for one
species of sh, Notoliparis kermadecensis (Lipardiae; Nielson, 1964). TMAO content
analyses of other deep-sea shes revealed a linear relationship with depth, down to
4900 m (Gillett et al., 1997; Kelly and Yancey, 1999; Samerotte et al., 2007). Extrapo-
lation of these data suggested that shes would become isosmotic with seawater at
about 80008500 m, roughly the depth of the deepest shes observed or captured
(Nielsen, 1977; Jamieson et al., 2009a; Fujii et al., 2010). To test this hypothesis,
muscle, plasma and gel tissues were sampled from the Notoliparis kermadecensis
specimens recovered by the Latis sh trap from 7000 m in the Kermadec Trench and
analysed for TMAO content (Yancey et al., in press). The results showed that the
liparids had values of 386 18 mmol kg 1, which is in keeping with the extrapolation
from the shallower dataset (teleosts between 0 and 4850 m are between 40 mmol kg 1
and 261 mmol kg 1). Furthermore, the osmolality of the hadal samples were
991 22 mosmol kg 1, which again sits very close to the extrapolation of isosmosis
(1100 mosmol kg 1) at approximately 8200 m (Fig. 5.5). Therefore, the Yancey et al.
(a)
500
450
400
TMAO (mmol kg -1)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Depth (m)
(b) isosmoc
1100
Muscle osmolality (mosmol kg -1)
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Depth (m)
1
Figure 5.5 (a) Muscle TMAO contents (mmol kg wet mass) versus depth for teleosts.
Open circles represent shallow-water shes, and solid dots show deep-sea sh with linear t
(TMAO 62.1 0.429 depth, p < 0.001). (b). Osmolarities (mosmol kg 1) of muscle
uid versus depth for teleosts. The linear t extrapolates to isosmosis at ~8200 m
(mosmol kg 1 320 0.0953 depth, p < 0.001). Modied from Yancey et al. (in press).
(in press) study supports the hypothesis that TMAO accumulation denes the depth
limit for teleosts and is the rst study to demonstrate that hydrostatic pressure can
biochemically constrain an entire taxonomic group with the diversity and complexity of
the teleosts.
Similarly, it has also been shown that Chondrichthyes (sharks, rays and chimaeras)
are limited to bathyal depths, as predicted by linear regression of global database
records for sh (Priede et al., 2006b). This study proposed that chondrichthyans are
excluded from abyssal and hadal depths as a result of their high-energy demands. One
such demand is their oil-rich liver that is essential for buoyancy and which cannot be
sustained in extreme oligotrophic conditions. However, Laxson et al. (2011) analysed
the major organic osmolytes of 13 chondrichthyan species, caught between 50 and
2850 m. While their urea concentrations declined with depth, TMAO concentrations
increased from 85168 mmol kg 1 in the shallowest group, to 250289 mmol kg 1 in
the deeper group and indicated a plateau at the greatest depths, suggesting that the
deepest chondrichthyans may be unable to accumulate sufcient TMAO to counteract
the perturbing effects of hydrostatic pressure at upper abyssal depths (30004000 m;
Laxson et al., 2011). Whilst Chondrichthyes are not present at hadal depths, the ndings
provide further support for the TMAO hypothesis that sh are physiologically
restrained by the high pressures found at depths of 80008500 m.
With further sampling across other taxa at hadal depths, the apparent inability to
penetrate the trenches by many of the organisms may be accounted for by TMAO or
other osmolyte concentrations. One such example are the Decapoda. In these organ-
isms, extrapolations of the TMAO concentration data (Kelly and Yancey, 1999) and
observational data (Jamieson et al., 2009a, 2011a; Fujii et al., 2010) of shallower-water
specimens indicated that they share a similar bathymetric range to that of the sh;
limited to depths of less than 80008500 m.
Although the effects of piezolytes, such as TMAO, may explain the depth limit for
teleosts, many other hadal taxa exhibit no such depth limitations and in fact thrive at full
ocean depth (e.g. bivalves, gastropods, holthurians), some maintaining extraordinary
bathymetric ranges (e.g. amphipods). Exactly how these animals survive at higher
pressures is still unknown, but through examining the upper end of the pressure
gradient, such as that experienced in the trenches, future investigations into depth
zonation and pressure adaptation should provide great insight.
6 Food supply to the trenches
In addition to hydrological and geological factors, food supply has an incredibly strong
spatial and temporal inuence on species composition and abundance (Gage, 2003).
The deep sea, including the hadal zone, is essentially a heterotrophic environment
where most of the available food descends from the ocean surface waters (Tyler,
1995). Surface-derived food (allochthonous) ranges in size, from particulate organic
matter (POM), the carcasses of gelatinous organisms, sh and even dead whales (e.g.
Britton and Morton, 1994; Beaulieu, 2002; Smith and Baco, 2003; Robison et al., 2005,
respectively) to terrestrial plant and wood debris (Turner, 1973; Wolff, 1976). Supple-
mentary energy is available, however, in the form of autochthonous production from the
hydrothermal vents and cold seeps found in the deep sea (Childress and Fisher, 1992).
Although the food sources and types of food found in the hadal zone are very similar
to those of the general deep sea, hadal food differs in that the distance travelled by
surface-derived nutrition to hadal depths is formidable and, as a result, both the quantity
and quality of the food is likely to be reduced. Furthermore, the trenches are of a unique
topographical setting where food distribution is different to that of the at neighbouring
abyssal plains. Moreover, when coupled with the periodic seismic-induced sediment
slides, the food distribution factor is central to the creation of this unique setting in
which the deepest of deep-sea organisms survive. The other key factor to point out
when considering food supply to the trenches is that, due to isolation, there is little
resource gradient between different trenches; they are, after all, a disjunct collection of
deep trenches with often very different biogeographical settings. Thus, the food avail-
ability, in terms of both type and quantity, may differ from one trench to another.
6.1 Particulate organic matter (POM)
POM comprises a vast range of sizes and types, ranging from phytodetritis (Rice et al.,
1986), mucilaginous aggregates (Martin and Miquel, 2010), larvacean houses (Robison
et al., 2005) and faecal pellets (Turner, 2002). In regions close to continental margins
(which includes most trenches), increasing amounts of particulate and dissolved phy-
todetritis are derived from coastal and terrestrial material (Gage, 2003). It is the sinking
POM that represents the main energy input to the deep-sea benthic community. Surface
primary production varies greatly depending on geographic location (Romankevich
et al., 2009) or, indeed, biogeographic province (Longhurst et al., 1995). Therefore,
109
each trench or trench system underlies a gradient of eutrophic to oligotrophic surface

productivity regimes, which presumably results in inter-trench heterogeneity in POM
supply. However, regardless of trench location, the reduction that occurs in the POM
supply as it falls from surface waters is drastic, resulting in less than 1% reaching
abyssal depths (Tyler, 1995). This reduction occurs as sinking POM is intercepted by
heterotrophic bacteria and zooplankton that either solubilise or mineralise it, prior to it
reaching the deep sea (De La Rocha and Passow, 2007; Buesseler and Boyd, 2009). The
trench communities are, therefore, generally considered to be energy- (organic carbon)
limited systems (Smith et al., 2008). However, despite the decrease in the quantity of
POM, it is believed that qualitative aspects of the POM, such as the phytopigments,
proteins and essential fatty acids (EFAs) may play a signicant role (Danovaro et al.,
2002, 2003; Wigham et al., 2003). However, heterotrophic pelagic organisms can
selectively remove these highly labile compounds as the POM sinks through the
water column, reducing both the quantity and quality of POM with increasing depth
(Wakeham et al., 1984, 1997).
As a result of the regular but ever-decreasing POM supply with depth, the deep sea is
often considered nutrient poor. However, periodically large-scale, signicant pulses of
relatively fresh phytodetritus are delivered to abyssal depths in many parts of the
oceans (Deuser and Ross, 1980; Billett et al., 1983; Lampitt, 1985). These pulses of
POM are a result of seasonal surface blooms and they contribute substantially to the
export of both organic carbon and nutritious compounds into the oceans interior
(Fabiano et al., 2001, Beaulieu, 2002; De La Rocha and Passow, 2007). These
seasonal pulses can elicit signicant responses by benthic organisms, in particular in
the abundance of deposit feeders (Bett et al., 2001; Billett et al., 2010) and in the
stimulation of seasonal growth and reproduction (Starr et al., 1994). However, both the
routine input of POM and the magnitude of seasonal pulses can vary interannually and
in response to climate variation (Billett et al., 2001; Ruhl and Smith, 2004; Smith et al.,
2006; Vardaro et al., 2009).
It can be speculated with some certainty that a sufcient quantity of POM reaches
hadal depths. Furthermore, sufcient POM input to the deep abyssal plains, including
signicant seasonal pulses, is well documented, therefore, to have reached lower
abyssal depths suggests that in areas overlying hadal depths, this food would continue
to sink to the trench oor relatively untouched. The rate at which heterotrophic bacteria
and zooplankton can solubilise or mineralise POM in the hado-pelagic is unknown and
whether this would be higher or lower than in the abyssopelagic remains unresolved.
Only further studies involving direct measurements of seaoor POM and POC ux in
the hado-pelagic will resolve the issues of quantity, quality and temporal variability of
surface-derived input to the trenches. In the meantime, most information must be
obtained from models.
Longhurst et al. (1995) estimated the annual primary production in 57 distinct
biogeochemical ocean provinces, based on monthly mean near-surface chlorophyll
elds for 197986. The provinces were specied from regional oceanography
and through examining the chlorophyll elds. The net primary production rate
(g C m 2 y 1) can be used as a proxy for relative food supply in each of the trenches,
Particulate organic matter (POM) 111
Table 6.1 The biogeochemical provinces of each of the major subduction trenches with the annual primary production
rate in the overlying surface waters. Data taken from Longhurst et al. (1995).
Province primary Total trench

production rate Mean POC ux POC ux
Trench Biogeochemical province (g C m 2 yr 1) (g C m 2 yr 1 S.D.) (g Cy r 1)
Banda SundaArafura Seas Coastal 328 1.60 0.44 160.46

(SUND)
Java SundaArafura Seas Coastal 328 1.06 0.62 252.45
(SUND)
PeruChile ChilePeru Current Coastal (CHIL) 269 3.17 1.43 997.24
Kuril Pacic Subarctic Gyre (PSAG) 264 2.26 0.77 3118.86
Kamchatka
Aleutian Pacic Subarctic Gyre (PSAG) 232* 1.76 0.87 1827.27
Philippine Kuroshio Current (KURO) 193 0.69 0.21 395.12
Ryukyu Kuroshio Current (KURO) 193 0.90 0.54 145.05
Japan Kuroshio Current (KURO) 193 3.05 0.91 909.87
Cayman Caribbean (CARB) 190 0.77 0.46 40.65
South Antarctic (ANTA) 165 0.66 0.28 384.57
Sandwich
Izu-Bonin North Pacic Subtropical Gyre 110 1.69 0.54 1595.41
(NPST)
Puerto-Rico North Atlantic Tropical Gyre 106 0.85 0.33 505.09
(NATR)
New Britain Western Pacic Archipelagic Deep 100 1.07 0.55 110.29
Basins (ARCH)
San Western Pacic Archipelagic Deep 100 0.82 0.47 37.15
Cristobal Basins (ARCH)
New Western Pacic Archipelagic Deep 100 0.86 0.75 18.15
Hebrides Basins (ARCH)
Tonga South Pacic Subtropical Gyre 87 0.99 0.30 711.16
(SPSG)
Kermadec South Pacic Subtropical Gyre 87 1.64 0.45 1270.33
(SPSG)
Yap Western Pacic Warm Pool 82 0.56 0.29 67.99
(WARM)
Palau Western Pacic Warm Pool 82 0.61 0.36 11.51
(WARM)
Mariana North Pacic Tropical Gyre 59 0.55 0.20 606.59
(NPTG)
* indicates an average rate between PSAG East and West. The mean POC ux per unit area and the total
POC ux per trench are derived from the Lutz et al. (2007) model by M.C. Ichino (NOCS, UK).
in their respective biogeochemical provinces. These values are given in Table 6.1. The
trenches that underlie the most productive province, the SundaArafura Sea Coastal
(SUND), are the Banda and Java Trenches. The most oligotrophic provinces overlie the
Mariana and Volcano Trenches in the North Pacic Tropical Gyre (NPTG). By
comparison, the annual primary production overlying the trenches of the SUND
province is ~5.5 times higher than those underlying the NPTG province. This is, of
course, a rather rough estimate of the relative food supply to each trench. The use of
POC ux models provides a more accurate representation of both POC ux and total
POC input, accounting for the size of the trench.
Using GIS software and the Lutz et al. (2007) POC ux model, a mean POC ux
value in grams of carbon per square metre per year can be calculated for each of the
trenches (Fig. 6.1a). This shows that trenches such as the Japan, KurilKamchatka and
PeruChile Trenches receive a relatively high amount of POC compared to the other
trenches. By converting these data to the total POC input to the trenches (by accounting
for total trench area), the larger trenches underlying areas of high surface productivity
predictably produce high total POC input values (Fig. 6.1b). In both instances, the
trenches underlying regions of low productivity are predictably oligotrophic, as inferred
from the biogeochemical province values (Table 6.1). The indication that some of the
trenches are likely to receive the highest POC input based on the biogeochemical
province (e.g. Banda and Java Trenches) is not supported by the Lutz et al. (2007)
model. Interestingly, the trench with the highest POC ux is the PeruChile Trench,
which was also described as a depocenter of organic matter by Danovaro et al. (2003).
The POC ux modelling described here and shown in Figure 6.1 was calculated by
M.C. Ichino (NOCS, UK).
The delivery of POM to the trenches differs to that on the surrounding abyssal plains
in the way that it is distributed on the seaoor. The distribution of settled particles is
thought to be affected by the physical topography of the trenches. The steep slopes
create a gravity- (and subduction) driven downward transport and therefore a subse-
quent accumulation of POM along the trench axis (Otosaka and Noriki, 2000; Danovaro
et al., 2003; Romankevich et al., 2009). This is further driven by occasional seismic-
induced mass transport of sediments towards the axis (Itou, 2000; Rathburn et al.,
2009); an effect that is not possible on the at abyssal plains. This topography-driven
accumulation of food resource is evident in continental shelf submarine canyons
(Duinevald et al., 2001) and the increase in trench deposit feeders (e.g. holothurians;
Belyaev, 1989). This increased availability of food along the trench axis, or the trench
resource accumulation depth (TRAD; sensu Jamieson et al., 2010) results in the
quantity of food on the trench axis and slopes being respectively higher and lower than
what would have otherwise fallen on the at plains (Fig. 6.2). The relatively impover-
ished zones above the TRAD may serve as a biological barrier, impeding exploitation of
the accumulated food resources at the deeper depths. The steeper slopes, often com-
prised of bare rocky outcrops, are likely to support relatively low levels of settled POM
compared to the opposing oceanic slope. Observations of high abundances of deposit
feeders and facultative scavengers (Belyaev, 1989; Blankenship and Levin, 2007) as
well as dense aggregations of lter-feeders (Oji et al., 2009) at the deepest parts of the
trench axes, regardless of actual depth, provide anecdotal support for the TRAD.
Unfortunately, at hadal depths, there have been no direct studies using conventional
sampling such as moored sediment traps undertaken to quantify the amount of surface-
derived food that reaches the trench oor, nor a comprehensive survey to investigate
whether the TRAD truly exists. Direct analysis of sediment from multiple depths within
Lutz et al. (2007) by M.C. Ichino, NOCS, UK, unpubl.
and (b) is the total POC ux (g C y 1) accounting for the size of the trench. POC ux derived from
Figure 6.1 Surface-derived POC ux to the trenches, where (a) is the mean POC ux (g C m 2 y 1)
(b)
(a)
Total POC input (g C y-1) Mean POC flux (g C m-2 y-1 S.D.)
1000.00
1500.00
2000.00
2500.00
3000.00
3500.00
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
500.00
5
0.00
Aleuan
Aleuan Banda
Banda Bougainville
Bougainville Cayman
Cayman Izu-Bonin
Izu-Bonin Japan
Japan Java
Java Kermadec
Kermadec Kurile-Kamchatka
Kurile-Kamchatka Mariana
Particulate organic matter (POM)

Mariana
New Britain
Trench
New Britain
New Hebrides
New Hebrides
Palau
Palau
Peru-Chile Peru-Chile
Philippine Philippine
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico
Romanche Romanche
Ryukyu Ryukyu
San Cristobal San Cristobal
South Sandwich South Sandwich
Tonga Tonga
Yap Yap
113
Surface-derived particulate organic matter
B C
Figure 6.2 Graphical representation of the Trench Resource Accumulation Depth (TRAD) across a
cross-section of a trench, where the distribution of surface-derived particulate organic matter
raining from the surface settles across the at abyssal plains (A). On the steel side of the trench the
quantity of settled POM should in theory be lower (C) and lower still on the steeper fore arc (B) as
more material is accumulated at the deeper trench axis (D).
a trench are few and studies that have been undertaken report highly variable results
depending on the trench examined. For example, Richardson et al. (1995) found that the
Puerto-Rico Trench sediments were low in nutritional value and were of oceanic origin,
despite its close proximity to land. They found a low percentage of organic carbon (OC)
and high C:N ratio which is characteristic of older, more refractory organic material
from abyssal sources, as opposed to the high OC and low C:N ratio characteristic of
more labile material derived from shallower-water sources. Richardson et al. (1995)
concluded that the island of Puerto Rico had not recently been a signicant supplier of
sediment to the trench and the trench had accumulated low-nutrient, terrigenous clay.
However, they did nd that organic-rich turbidite sedimentation had once occurred but
had since been buried under nutrient-depleted oligotrophic sediment and led to a present
day depauperate benthic community.
Conversely, large quantities of labile, phytoplankton-derived compounds have been
found in trench sediments, albeit from a very few samples (Danovaro et al., 2003). Such
studies conrm that pulses of fresh POM are received occasionally, at least in certain
trenches. The study by Danovaro et al. (2003) from the Atacama sector of the Peru
Chile Trench found that the functional chlorophyll-a (18.0 0.10 mg m 2), phytode-
tritus (322.2 mg m 2) and labile organic carbon (16.9 4.3 g C m 2) deposited on
surface sediments at 7800 m reached concentrations similar to those encountered in
highly productive shallow coastal areas. They concluded that the trench behaves like a
deep oceanic trap for organic matter and that despite the extreme conditions, it repre-
sents an ultra-abyssal [hadal] eutrophic environment.
Particulate organic matter (POM) 115
A more recent study in the Mariana Trench by Glud et al. (2013) showed that
sediment from nearly 11 000 m deep had higher concentrations of microbial cells than
at neighbouring abyssal localities, as a result of enhanced deposition of organic
material. The sedimentary organic material in the trench was found to be, on average,
younger, more labile and possibly more nutritious than at the 6000 m abyssal reference
site where the sediment represents a much longer deposition period. This was thought
to be indicative of relatively rapid sediment deposition and burial, potentially as a
result of erratic down-slope sediment transport aided by occasional seismic activity.
Furthermore, a study arising from the aftermath of the 2011 Thoku-Oki Earthquake
in Japan found 134Cs-containing particles on the trench oor 4 months after the
earthquake (Oguri et al., 2013). Scientists realised that these radioactive particles must
have been transported rapidly from the surface and speculated that this transport was
facilitated by a concurrent springtime phytoplankton bloom that occurred 2 weeks
after the earthquake and lasted for 2 weeks. The deposition and aggregation of
phytodetritus in the Japan Trench was conrmed by seaoor images down to
5800 m. This led to the conclusion that the transport time for the 134Cs-contaminated
phytodetritus to reach the trench from the surface layers was a minimum of
7864 m day 1.
The relative importance of surface-derived organic matter and chemosynthetic
sources to the hadal community is not yet fully understood but is likely to vary spatially
as the number, size and extent of chemosynthetic resources are not well known and the
accumulation of POM at the trench axis is still speculative based on various observa-
tions which are largely shallow; ~7800 m (Danovaro et al., 2003) and ~7550 m (Oguri
et al., 2013) and both sites underlie relatively productive surface waters (Watling et al.,
2013) and are near sources of terrestrial input. The relatively fast settling of particulate
matter may likely explain the accumulation of fresh sedimentary material in the trench
axes of these trenches (PeruChile and Japan, respectively). However, the Mariana
Trench differs from these other trenches in that it is located in the central Pacic Ocean
away from continental land masses and underlies oligotrophic surface waters. Despite
this, and the much greater depth of the Mariana Trench, increased amounts of fresh
organic matter in its axis sediments relative to the shallower trench-rim sediments were
found by Glud et al. (2013).
Surface-ocean productivity is the likely driver of the absolute amounts of pelagic
sediments reaching trench axis but there may be additional factors that control the
relative efciency in the way sedimenting material is transferred through the water
column and into the underlying trench-axis sediments. This led Turnewitsch et al. (in
prep.) to speculate that the comparatively abundant fresh sedimentary materials found in
sediments of the trench axis relative to sediments from shallower adjacent areas
suggests that, in addition to the material inputted directly from the surface waters, there
is perhaps input through quasi-lateral transport. Occasional mass-wasting events in the
form of either turbidity currents transporting sediments down the slopes (Jumars and
Hessler, 1976; Nozaki and Ohta, 1993; Fryer et al., 2002) or earthquake-induced lateral
transport (Itou et al., 2000; Oguri et al., 2013) are becoming ever more evident, but
events such as these are likely to be on timescales of decades or longer (Nozaki and
Ohta, 1993) and are perhaps not sufciently frequent to maintain the more routine
supply of food to the heterotrophic hadal community.
In light of this, Turnewitsch et al. (in prep.) theorised that perhaps internal tides also
play a prominent role in the transport of surface-derived POM. They examined ratios of
measured (sediment-derived) and expected (water column-derived) sedimentary inven-
tories of the naturally occurring and radioactive particulate-matter tracer 210Pbxs in
trench-axis sediments of the northwest Pacic Ocean (Japan, Izu-Bonin and Mariana
Trenches). They detected some evidence for a positive relationship between inventory
ratios and POC uxes albeit not a particularly strong relationship. In fact, they con-
cluded that the more continuous supply of surface-derived food may not only be
inuenced by the magnitude of the productivity of the overlying surface-ocean waters
but also by higher-frequency (tidal, near-inertial) uid dynamics both in the water
column and near the seaoor, with propagating internal-tide beams potentially playing
a prominent role. The speculative conceptual mechanism of this is underpinned by the
notion that the larger, aggregated and comparatively rapidly settling particles are
converted into suspended (very slowly settling) particles and, consequently, reduced
axis-accumulation of pelagic sediments into trench-axis sediments. Turnewitsch et al.
(in prep.) also propose that this conversion takes place along internal-tide beams,
particularly at locations where beams are reected at the seaoor and where beams
interfere with each other in the water column. Further studies are, however, required to
fully test this hypothesis.
6.2 Carrion-falls
The spatial distribution and temporal variation of POM at hadal depths is punctuated
with the input of carrion-falls, for example, from shes and birds (mesocarrion ~1 kg),
to seals and dolphins (macrocarrion ~100 kg) and the largest cetaceans (megacarrion
>100 000 kg) (Stockton and De Laca, 1982; Britton and Morton, 1994; Bailey et al.,
2007).
Carrion-falls should, in theory, occur irrespective of depth, as sinking rates are
relatively high and there are little pelagic processes in place to impede descent. In the
hado-pelagic, the average size of nutritious particles descending from shallower or
surface waters must be signicantly larger than at bathyal or abyssal depths. This is
because the longer a particle takes to descend, the lower its nutritive value becomes as a
result of continuous degradation during descent. For example, as smaller particles settle
slower, those which may have reached the abyssal seaoor with some nutritional value
may well be spent before arriving in the trenches. Therefore, if a greater proportion of
the food-falls that occur at hadal depths consist of larger parcels that are more widely
scattered across the seaoor, then it may well be the case that mobile scavengers play a
proportionately greater role in such communities.
Mesocarrion-falls are extremely important as pelagic sh are known for their high
essential fatty acid (EFA) content (Litzov et al., 2006), and could represent a highly
concentrated, energy- and nutrient-rich resource for trench communities. Predicting the
Carrion-falls 117
quantity and quality of naturally occurring carrion-falls to the deep sea is complex and
speculative (Stockton and DeLaca, 1982) and direct observations of these events are
rare (Klages et al., 2001; Soltwedel et al., 2003; Yamamato et al., 2009; Aguzzi et al.,
2012). The signicance of carrion-falls at hadal depths is evident as observed when
using baited cameras and traps, which essentially simulate a carrion-fall. At bathyal
and abyssal depths, baits are normally consumed by synaphobranchid eels, somniosid
sharks or macrourid shes (Priede et al., 1991, 2003; Jamieson et al., 2011c),
however, direct carrion consumption in the trenches is typically the role of scavenging
amphipods. The amphipods, ability to intercept and consume food-falls is often rapid
and the numbers and speed with which they do so increases with depth (Blankenship
et al., 2006; Jamieson et al., 2009a). Therefore, the role of scavenging amphipods in
the dispersal of organic matter is signicant, as the redistribution of organic matter by
amphipods in the deep trenches may also provide nutrients to the wider hadal fauna
via two pathways. (1) In the upper depths (<8000 m) there have been no other direct
observations of scavenging, however, larger predators such as benthesicymid prawns
and liparid shes intercept the food-fall but rather than consume the carcass, they
exploit the temporarily high densities of amphipods. (2) At depths greater than 8000 m
where there are no apparent predators, amphipods eventually die and are scattered
uniformly across the seaoor, thus themselves distributing food to the wider hadal
fauna. In the upper depths (<8000 m), interception is fast but consumption is rela-
tively low. Beyond 8000 m, where the bait attending community is almost exclusively
amphipods, even large baits can be entirely consumed in less than 24 h (Hessler et al.,
1978; Angel, 1982; Jamieson et al., 2009a; Fig. 6.3). The amphipods ability to
rapidly intercept and consume carrion-falls suggests that this does not directly contrib-
ute to the trench resource accumulation depth since the duration prior to consumption
is short. The contribution to the food-webs at depths >8000 m appears to be highly
signicant when observed in situ, however, analysis of the gut contents of scavenging
hadal amphipods has shown that scavenging is not the primary feeding strategy, but
rather detritus feeding is dominant. Therefore, at these depths, punctuated carrion-falls
may simply supplement the routine POM resources. The signicance of carrion-falls
in the upper trenches is perhaps greater. Despite low consumption rates and far fewer
numbers of bait attending amphipods, the carrion-fall itself triggers a secondary
response in larger predators. Natantian decapods (Benthesicmydae), snailsh
(Liparidae) and cusk-eels (Ophidiidae) have consistently been observed to attend
baited cameras and traps, not to feed directly on the bait itself but rather to prey
upon the scavenging amphipods ( Jamieson et al., 2009a, b, 2011a; Fujii et al., 2010).
These larger species tend to approach the bait from down current, suggesting that they
are using olfactory senses to detect the bait and follow the odour plume presumably to
exploit the temporarily high densities of prey in the vicinity of the bait. Therefore, the
energy pathway of carrion-falls in the hadal zone differs to that in the bathyal and
abyssal zones. In the hadal zone the energy is directly consumed by amphipods that,
in turn, provide a temporary feeding opportunity for larger predatory species in the
upper depths, as opposed to the bulk of carrion being consumed directly by large
scavenging shes.
Figure 6.3 Rapid consumption of simulated carrion-fall at 8074 m in the PeruChile Trench, where
(a) shows ~1 kg of tuna just before reaching the seaoor; (b) shows an aggregation of scavenging
amphipods (Eurythese gryllus) 2 h later; (c) shows the remnants of the bait scattered around the
seaoor after 18 h; and (d) shows the skeletal remains after leaving the seaoor.
Larger macro- and megacarrion-falls such as cetacean carcasses are also evident in
the deep sea (Smith et al., 1989; Smith and Baco, 2003; Dahlgren et al., 2004; Kemp
et al., 2006). These large food-falls provide temporary elevated biodiversity and provide
hard substrates and organic enrichment in the otherwise nutrient-poor deep sea. As these
large injections of organic matter should reach the deep-sea oor irrespective of depth, it
is likely that they also occur in the trenches, however, no direct observations have ever
been reported. The likelihood of a hadal whale-fall or other cetacean carcasses is high
given that most trenches are located close to continental margins underlying surface
waters known to host such communities. The duration of these ephemeral habitats may
also be prolonged at hadal depths, particularly at depths >8000 m where there is a
distinct lack of large scavenging sh and elasmobranchs to remove the bulk of the
tissues.
Plant and wood debris 119
The input of gelatinous zooplankton carcasses to the deep sea is a newly emerging
phenomenon known as jelly-falls (Billett et al., 2006). The occurrence and signi-
cance of jelly-falls are perhaps only recently being realised due to the spatiotemporal
challenges of observation (Lebrato et al., 2012). Jellysh blooms in the surface waters
occur with similar seasonal patterns to conventional surface blooms, particularly in
areas of upwelling and/or in temperate or subpolar zones. As the bloom diminishes,
gelatinous carcasses are deposited across the seaoor, often in low densities (Sweetman
and Chapman, 2011) or they form thick and vast, gelatinous jelly-lakes (Billett et al.,
2006; Lebrato and Jones, 2009) comprising Cnidaria (Scyphozoa) and Thaliacea
(Pyrosomida, Doliolida and Salpida; Lebrato et al., 2012). Although jelly-falls are
emerging as a potentially signicant input of remineralised organic/inorganic material
to the deep sea, it is not known if, or what quality and condition of such material would
reach hadal depths. These questions will hopefully be answered one day, when further,
more extensive exploration of trenches is undertaken using ROV technology.
6.3 Plant and wood debris
Supplementary to the aforementioned food sources, terrestrial and coastal plant debris has
been reported in some of the deep trenches. Pratt (1962) reported blades of coastal turtle
grass Thalassia testudinum from 7860 m depth in the Puerto-Rico Trench. Later, George and
Higgins (1979) trawled turtle grass, eel grass and red algae from depths over 8000 m. Wolff
(1976) found that on the blades and rhizomes of Thalassia there was extensive evidence of
consumption and within the samples were many invertebrate species (e.g. gastropods,
tanaids, isopods). More recently, Fluery and Drazen (2013) deployed pieces of seagrass
on a lander to ~5000 m in the Sargasso Sea and observed a different, mostly invertebrate,
assemblage of scavengers attracted to the seagrass compared to conventional sh bait. These
samples were taken from the Sargasso Sea, Cayman and Puerto-Rico Trenches in the
vicinity of the Caribbean Sea where there are extensive seagrass meadows and hurricanes
are frequent. It has been suggested that the amount of seagrass transported into the deep sea
after removal by hurricanes may equal the amount of material washed ashore (Moore, 1963).
The input of seagrass to a trench is not entirely limited to the trenches around the
Caribbean Sea. Such inputs have also been observed in the Palau Trench in the central
Pacic Ocean and in the New Britain and New Hebrides Trenches in the Indo-Pacic
(Lemche et al., 1976). The photographs analysed by Lemche et al. (1976) revealed
blades of seagrass as the most commonly identied objects in the Palau Trench between
8021 and 8042 m, with densities estimated at 1 blade per 30 m 2. They also reported
larger pieces of wood (sticks, twigs, branches, fragments of tree trucks) and even
coconut shells. Patches of unidentied plant remains, albeit also probably seagrass
blades, were observed in densities of approximately 1 blade per 100 m 2 in the New
Britain and New Hebrides Trenches (Lemche et al., 1976). The input of seagrass
appears to be highly signicant at these depths as it is known to increase species
diversity through the provision of hard substrate, shelter and as food (Wolff, 1976).
Plant- and wood-falls can also host specialised plant/wood-dwelling species, such as
Table 6.2 Details of the plant debris trawled by the Galathea at depths exceeding 6000 m. HOT Herring Otter Trawl,
ST200, ST300 and ST600 are sledge trawls which were 2, 3 and 6 m wide, respectively (Bruun, 1957).
Area swept Plant debris Plant debris

Station Location Depth (m) Gear (km 2) volume (ccm) biomass (g)
466 Java Trench 7160 HOT 0.178 240 82

497 Banda Trench 64906650 HOT 0.178 312 194
494 Banda Trench 7280 ST300 0.017 62 37
661 Kermadec Trench 52305340 ST600 0.039 75 135
649 Kermadec Trench 82108300 ST600 0.033 32 21
521 New Britain Trench 88308780 ST200 0.013 3 2
517 New Britain Trench 8940 ST300 0.017 121 55
418 Philippine Trench 1015010190 ST300 0.008 25 20
419 Philippine Trench 1015010210 ST300 0.011 75 40
cocculiniform limpets, which are prevalent in both number and diversity in the Cayman
Trench (Leal and Harasewych, 1999; Strong and Harasewych, 1999). A recent and
perhaps surprising study by Kobayashi et al. (2012) showed that the hadal amphipod
Hirondellea gigas from 10 897 m in the Mariana Trench possesses a unique digestive
enzyme capable of digesting sunken wood debris. This suggests that even in the deepest
place on Earth, plant and wood debris of terrestrial origin are sufciently frequent and
important enough that species have evolved to utilise it.
More recent research on seagrass meadows has revealed that seagrass meadows,
mangroves and salt marshes have a great capacity to trap carbon (Duarte et al., 2005),
potentially storing 50 times more carbon than tropical forests, per hectare (Kennedy
et al., 2010). Seagrass meadows are thus natural hotspots for carbon sequestration,
accounting for 1018% of the total carbon burial in the ocean despite only accounting
for 0.1% of the coastal ocean (Kennedy et al., 2010). Seagrass, therefore, offers the
potential for rapid transport of carbon from the photic zone to the hadal zone where it is
either recycled by the benthic community or buried, in which case, there is potential for
this carbon to be eventually subducted back into the Earths mantle.
The quantity of plant and wood debris in the trenches is specic to individual trenches
in close proximity to continental land masses. Furthermore, if the occasional mass input
of material such as seagrass is largely instigated by hurricanes, then the introduction and
community responses are likely to be seasonal and highly subject to interannual variation.
Quantitative data on plant debris at hadal depths are limited but the Galathea reports do,
in fact, record a detailed description from their trawl data (Bruun, 1957), shown in
Table 6.2.
6.4 Chemosynthesis
Autochthonous production occurs as a result of chemosynthesis by free-living or

symbiotic bacteria (Childress and Fisher, 1992). The seismic activity synonymous with
trenches can trigger turbidity ows and massive slope instability and it should not be
Heterogeneity 121
surprising if methane emissions and exposed suldic sediments are found along slopes
of trenches in the future (Blankenship-Williams and Levin, 2009). In these areas,
methane seeps can support high densities of symbiont-bearing clams that rely on
autochthonous chemosynthesis rather than the surface-derived (allochthomous) input
of organic matter. The Aleutian Trench is known to host chemosynthetic communities
at seep sites, mostly large vesicomyid clams, albeit, so far only found at abyssal depths
(Rathburn et al., 2009). Chemosynthetic bacterial communities such as cold seeps have
been found at hadal depths at 6437 and 7326 m, in the Japan Trench. These habitats
provide localised resources for a host of specialised organisms, in particular, mass
aggregations of bivalves, which, as with all seeps, appear to occur in localised high
densities (Boulgue et al., 1987; Fujikura et al., 1999; Fujiwara et al., 2001). Few
chemosynthetic sites at hadal depths have been found to date, but their close association
with subduction zones and other geological features (Suess et al., 1998; Rathburn et al.,
2009) suggest that more will be discovered as the sampling effort increases. Indeed,
Blankenship-Williams and Levin (2009) speculated that seep communities, which are
widespread along Pacic Ocean margins at shallower depths (Levin, 2005), are likely to
be quite common in the tectonically active hadal trenches and may well host new
species.
Chemosynthetic primary production in the deep sea is thought to be an almost
insignicant component of the availability of organic carbon on a global scale (Tyler,
1995), yet its signicance in the hadal zone is yet to be resolved. Seep environments at
any depths are extremely localised and patchy habitats and are, therefore, difcult to
nd without the AUVs that can detect methane plumes followed by the usage of ROVs
to survey the seaoor once evidence of methane is located (e.g. Newman et al., 2008).
6.5 Heterogeneity
The concept of habitat heterogeneity developed between the rst review of conditions
on the deep-sea oor (Menzies, 1965) and the more recent Tyler review (1995). Within
a given trench it appears that temperature and hydrostatic pressure (with the exception
of tidal cycles) vary only with depth, and salinity does not vary at all. There is, however,
evidence to suggest that oxygen may vary spatially and temporally, but this evidence is
still only anecdotal (Belyaev, 1989). Current ow varies slightly between opposing
anks and is likely to vary on temporal and tidal scales. The habitat substrata is one key
feature that exhibits great heterogeneity, perhaps even more so within the relatively
small area of a trench than on the surrounding abyssal plains. The heterogeneity of
substrata can be characterised on the large scale; steeper projection, rocky outcrops and
debris on the continental ank (fore arc), more gradual, softer, sedimentary seaoor on
the oceanic anks and a deep but soft accumulation of sediment along the trench axis,
particularly at the greatest depths. On the smaller scale, the seaoor is likely to be as
heterogenic as most deep-sea settings; areas of at soft sediment partitioned by steeper
and/or outcrops with different degrees of sediments depending on underlying
topography.
Given the size of each trench, there is still no comprehensive review of

spatial heterogeneity in seaoor habitat for any trench. Asides from a perhaps
similar spatial variation to that of abyssal plains, underlying often steep continental
slopes and rises, punctuated with submarine canyons and seamounts, the trenches
are exposed to somewhat unique environmental conditions of seismic-induced land-
slides and turbidity currents. These presumably catastrophic events must reshape
vast areas of seaoor in relatively short periods of time (Itou et al., 2000; Fujiwara
et al., 2011).
The input of POM to the trenches varies depending on the biogeochemical province
and upwelling. Furthermore, the presence of seasonal surface blooms provides occa-
sional mass depositions of POM, as also occur on the abyssal plains. The punctuation of
carrion-falls is likely to occur in all trenches, but the frequency and magnitude is, once
more, subject to geographic location. While the mesocarrion-falls may represent a
relatively frequent but short-term source of food, the macro- and megacarrion-falls
introduce packages of food with much longer timescales. The input of plant and wood
debris, utilised as both food and substrata/shelter, are also likely to be trench-specic
and cases where material, such as seagrass, is deposited on mass following adverse
atmospheric events, such as hurricanes and typhoons, are also very much trench-specic
and exhibit spatial, temporal and seasonal variation.
Is summary, many of the environmental conditions found in the hadal zone are not
signicantly different from those of the abyssal plains; temperature, salinity, oxygen,
absence of solar light, tidal cycles, current velocities, food supply and perhaps seasonal
variation therein, but it is the complex topography and seismic activity that are truly
unique. While many of these environmental conditions may appear intrinsically inhibit-
ing to trench colonisation by deep-sea fauna, the fact remains that many taxa have,
indeed, colonised these habitats and many successfully thrive.
6.6 Adaptation to low food availability
Adaptation to a low food environment can be achieved by the efcient storage of

energy, in order to survive long periods of food deprivation. Lipids are the most
widespread, long-term, energy storage strategy in marine organisms (Lehtonen,
1996). Furthermore, some of the fatty acids ingested by marine organisms are incorpor-
ated unmodied into their lipid reserves and thus provide information about their
dietary composition (Dalsgaard et al., 2003; Stowasser et al., 2009); certain accumu-
lated fatty acid classes serve as biomarkers for different trophic levels and feeding
strategies, i.e. herbivory, omnivory or carnivory (Graeve et al., 1994, 1997; Kirsch
et al., 2000).
Deep-sea benthic organisms, such as amphipods, have shearing mandibles and
capacious guts that allow them to take advantage of sporadic and potentially infre-
quent food-falls (Dahl, 1979; Sainte-Marine, 1992). They are, therefore, adapted
for bursts of feeding activity, followed by lengthy periods of digestion and fasting.
This lifestyle is supported by the presence of wax esters in their tissues (Bhring and
Adaptation to low food availability 123
Christiansen, 2001), which serve as energy reserves during prolonged periods of

food deprivation (Lee et al., 2006).
Data on lipid concentrations in hadal fauna are currently few. However, Perrone et al.
(2003) found that lipid concentrations of Eurythenes gryllus, recovered from 7800 m in
the PeruChile Trench, accounted for 718% of the dry weight (D.W.), much lower
than those reported for deposit-feeding amphipods of the Baltic Sea (1545% of D.W.;
Lehtonen, 1996) and for E. gryllus from the Southern Ocean (>40% of D.W.; Reinhardt
and Van-Vleet, 1985), but close to that of another hadal amphipod, Hirondellea gigas
from 9800 m in the Philippine Trench (26.1% of D.W.; Yayanos and Nevenzel, 1978).
The differences in lipid content that were observed between the PeruChile Trench
amphipods and those from the other deep-sea localities were deemed unlikely to
be dependent on thermal variation, given that the temperatures were similar (~2C).
The concentrations of E. gryllus lipids were also found to decrease signicantly with
increasing body size. Other studies suggested that E. gryllus accumulates large amounts
of lipids during sexual maturation to cope with reproductive effort (Ingram and Hessler,
1987), therefore, the decrease in lipid concentration in these hadal specimens could be
explained by the fact that they were all immature females (Perrone et al., 2003).
The lipid composition of these hadal amphipods was dominated by monounsaturated
fatty acids with a very small fraction of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Conversely,
shallower amphipods (Anonyx nugax and Stegocephalus inatus) from 150250 m in
the Barents Sea had much higher amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids (Graeve et al.,
1997). The low values reported for E. gryllus in Perrones 2003 study suggest that hadal
amphipods may be more dependent upon lipid reserves than species living at shallow-
water depths and the data were thought to be indicative of a scavenging lifestyle,
interspersed with long periods of starvation (Perrone et al., 2003).
Part III
The hadal community

Introduction
This part details all that is currently known about the different forms of life in the hadal
zone. In an ideal world, the taxa should be split into easily navigable sections in
taxonomic order, but the hadal community is not as well known as many other environ-
ments and there are several taxa on which a disproportionate amount of information is
available. Therefore, the next four chapters are divided into sections that cover the type
of organisms found using different sampling methods. Chapter 7, Microbes, protists
and worms, includes the types of organisms largely found in sediment cores. Chapter 8,
Porifera, Mollusca and Echinodermata, incorporates the types of invertebrate epifauna
that are encountered using trawls and sledges. Chapter 9, Crustacea, are largely
represented by amphipods caught by baited trap, but other crustaceans have also been
included for consistency. Chapter 10 details the current knowledge concerning Cnidaria
and sh, most of which is derived from baited camera observations or plankton net
hauls. For completeness, the Cnidaria section also includes the sessile Anthozoa, which
are often recovered via trawl or dredge, or lmed by ROV.
Representatives of most marine organisms are found at hadal depths and each class
heralds its own interesting groups. For example, the most diverse and commonly
sampled groups are the polychaetes (Annelidea, ~164 species), bivalves (Mollusca,
~101 species), gastropods (Mollusca, ~85 species) and holothurians (Echinodermata,
~59 species). All of these groups are found at full ocean depth and in most cases are
found in large aggregations, particularly the holothurians. Other groups such as the
Bivalvia differ in that they do not appear to be uniformly distributed within the trenches,
but rather they aggregate at chemosynthetic habitats (Fujikura et al., 1999; Fujiwara
et al., 2001). Other groups such as the Crinoidea are rather conspicuous when found,
forming crinoid meadows as deep as 9700 m (Oji et al., 2009), although identication
of such organisms to species level has not yet been possible. Other groups, such as the
Sipunculids and the Echinoids, are less well known and appear to be limited to the
upper hadal depths. Likewise, the Asteroidea appear limited to upper depths, with the
exception of one or two deeper ndings. Other groups such as the Byrozoa are not well
known at all, some are lacking species identication, partly due to the poor condition in
which samples have been recovered. The microorganisms such as bacteria and
Foraminfera are, of course, present at all depths and have been the focus of several
detailed studies (e.g. Kato, 2011 and Gooday et al., 2008, respectively), such as high-
pressure adaptation (Bartlett, 2002; also discussed in Chapter 5) and connectivity with
shallower waters (e.g. Eloe et al., 2010). Despite the depth of detail reported in studies,
126 The hadal community
information concerning the organisms is often derived from very few samples. In
contrast, amphipods have recently emerged as one of the best sampled hadal fauna in
recent decades, due to their ease of capture with baited traps. Consequently, they
represent one of the few taxa that can be readily captured in sufcient numbers and
diversity to provide statistically meaningful data. Hadal members of the Decapoda have
also been identied and are included in this book in some detail. This is, perhaps,
surprising given that most literature referring to the hadal zone cites the fact: decapods
are not represented in the hadal zone (e.g. Herring, 2002). On the contrary, hadal
decapods do exist and have been found frequently over the last few years, in several
trenches (Jamieson et al., 2009b). Their previously reported absence highlights the
wrong tool for the job scenario and emphasises the fact that trawling at great depths is
simply insufcient for catching fast-moving prawns.
7 Microbes, protists and worms
7.1 Bacteria
Scientists have proposed that life may have originated in the deep sea and that early
forms of life may have possessed high-pressure-adapted mechanisms of gene expres-
sion (Kato and Horikoshi, 1996). It has been proposed that the primary chemical
reactions involved in the polymerisation of organic materials (i.e. amino acids) could
have occurred in high-pressure environments (Imai et al., 1999). Thus, the study of
high-pressure-adapted microorganisms, such as those found at abyssal and hadal depths,
may enhance our understanding of the deep sea and offer new perspectives on the origin
and evolution of life (Kato, 2011).
Most of the research concerning hadal bacteria has originated from the northwest
Pacic trenches (Japan, Izu-Bonin and Mariana Trenches; Table 7.1), mainly due to the
activities of Japanese researchers (e.g. Kato et al., 1995a, b, c, 1996, 1998; Nogi et al.,
2002, 2004, 2007). While most bacterial studies focus on seaoor sediment samples,
including the Puerto-Rico Trench sediments (Deming et al., 1988), other strains have
been isolated from hado-pelagic waters (Fig. 7.1; Eloe et al., 2011) and even from hadal
amphipods in the Mariana Trench (Yayanos et al., 1981) and the Kermadec Trench
(Lauro et al., 2007).
Many of the deep-sea isolates are novel, psychrophilic and piezophilic bacteria:
Photobacterium profundum, Shewanella violacea, Moritella japonica, Moritella yaya-
nosii, Psychromonas kaikoi and Colwellia piezophila. These piezophilic strains belong
to ve genera in the Gammaproteobacteria subgroup and possess high-pressure adap-
tations such as the inclusion of signicant amounts of unsaturated fatty acids in their cell
membranes in order to maintain uidity at low temperature and high pressures. It is
believed that these piezophilic microorganisms are well distributed on our planet (Kato,
2011). Table 7.1 details the most common genera of piezophilic bacteria currently
known from hadal depths (Colwellia, Psychromonas, Moritella and Swellanella).
Species of the Gammaproteobacteria genus Colwellia are dened as facultatively
anaerobic and psychrophilic bacteria (Deming et al., 1988). There are three piezophilic
species known from hadal trenches; C. peizophila Y223GT (Nogi et al., 2004),
C. hadaliensis BNL-1T (Deming et al., 1988) and C. sp. strain MT41 (Yayanos et al.,
1981). These have been found at 6278 m in the Japan Trench, 7410 m in the Puerto-Rico
Trench and 10 476 m in the Mariana Trench (Table 7.1), the latter was discovered from
a decaying amphipod (Hirondellea gigas). Cells of strain Y223GT are Gram-negative
127
Table 7.1 A summary of known hadal bacteria including optimal growth temperature (Topt) and pressure (Popt).
Modified from Eloe et al. (2011).
Isolate Trench Depth (m) Topt (C) Popt (MPa) Reference
Colwelliacae
Colwellia peizophila Y223GT Japan 6 278 10 60 Nogi et al., 2004
Colwellia hadaliensis BNL-1T Puerto-Rico 7 410 10 90 Deming et al., 1988
Colwellia sp. strain MT41 Mariana 10 476 8 103 Yayanos et al., 1981
Psychromonadaceae
Psychromonas kaikoae JT7304T Japan 7 434 10 50 Nogi et al., 2002
Psychromonas hadalis K41G Japan 7 542 6 60 Nogi et al., 2007
Moritellaceae
Moritella japonica DSK1 Japan 6 356 15 50 Kato et al., 1995a
Moritella yayanosii DB21MT-5 Mariana 10 898 10 80 Nogi and Kato, 1999
Shewanellaceae
Shewanella benthica DB6705 Japan 6 356 15 60 Kato et al., 1995a
Shewanella benthica DB6906 Japan 6 269 15 60 Kato et al., 1995a
Shewanella benthica DB172R Izu-Bonin 6 499 10 60 Kato et al., 1996
Shewanella benthica DB172F Izu-Bonin 6 499 10 70 Kato et al., 1996
Shewanella benthica DB21MT-2 Mariana 10 898 10 70 Kato et al., 1998
Shewanella sp. strain KT99 Kermadec 9 856 ~2 ~98 Lauro et al., 2007
Non-Gammaproteobacteria
Dermacoccus abyssi MT1.1T Mariana 10 898 28 40 Pathom-aree et al., 2006
Rhodobacterales bacterium PRT1 Puerto-Rico 8 350 10 80 Eloe et al., 2011
rods, 2.03.0 m long by 0.81.0 m wide and motile by means of a single unsheathed
polar agellum (Nogi et al., 2004). Colwellia species produce the long-chain PUFA,
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; Bowman et al., 1998), however, C. piezophila do not
produce eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or DHA in the membrane layer but, rather, high
levels of unsaturated fatty acids (16:1 fatty acids) are produced (Nogi et al., 2004). This
suggests that the possession of long-chain PUFA is not a prerequisite for piezophilic
classication in bacterium, although unsaturated fatty acid production is likely to be
common in piezophiles (Kato, 2011).
The Gammaproteobacteria genus Psychromonas is a psychrophilic bacterium. Based
on 16S rRNA gene sequence data, they are closely related to the genera Shewanella and
Moritella. Psychromonas kaikoae was isolated from sediment retrieved from the
deepest known cold seep environment: 7434 m in the Japan Trench (Nogi et al.,
2002). Psychromonas kaikoae has an optimal growth temperature of 10C and optimal
growth pressure of 50 MPa. Psychromonas kaikoae JT7304 are an unusual strain as they
produce both EPA and DHA in the membrane layer, whereas piezophilic and psychro-
philic bacteria, such as Shewanella and Photobacterium, typically produce only one or
the other (Nogi et al., 2002). Interestingly, one of the shallower-water counterparts in
Antarctica, P. Antarctica, does not produce either (Kato, 2011). The obligately piezo-
philic species Psychromonas hadalis K41G was also isolated from sediment from
7542 m in the Japan Trench and was found to have an optimal growth temperature
and pressure of 6C and 60 MPa, respectively (Nogi et al., 2007). No growth was found
Bacteria 129
Figure 7.1 Morphological features of Rhodobacterales bacterium PRT1 from 8350 m in the
Puerto-Rico Trench, imaged using cryo-transmission electron microscopy (Cryo-TEM) at
12 000 magnication. Scale bars 0.5 m. Modied from Eloe et al. (2011), American
Society for Microbiology.
to occur at atmospheric pressure. Cells of strain K41G are Gram-negative rods,

1.52 m long by 0.81.0 m wide and motile by means of a single unsheathed polar
agellum.
Psychromonas antarctica has been isolated from sediment in the Antarctic (Mount-
fort et al., 1998) and was found to be very similar to piezophilic Psychromonas strains
from the Japan Trench (Nogi et al., 2002). Similarly, Psychrobacter pacicensis,
isolated from water from the Japan Trench at 50006000 m, was taxonomically similar
to the Antarctic isolates Psychrobacter immobilis, P. gracincola and P. frigidicola
(Maruyama et al., 2000). From these ndings, it was concluded that the global deep-
ocean circulation linked to the sinking of cooled seawater in polar regions may have
inuenced bacterial habitation of the deep sea and their evolution.
Moritella marina is the type strain of the genus Moritella and is one of the most
common psychrophilic marine organisms but is not a piezophilic bacterium (Kato,
2011). The rst piezophilic species of the genus Moritella was Moritella japonica
DSK1, a moderately piezophilic bacterium isolated from 6456 m in the Japan Trench
(Kato et al., 1995a). Production of the long-chain PUFA, DHA, is a characteristic
property of the genus Moritella and is characteristic of M. japonica DSK1 (Nogi et al.,
1998). Cells of the DSK1 strain were found to be Gram-negative rods, 24 m long by
0.81.0 m wide, motile by means of a single, unsheathed, polar agellum. The optimal
growth temperature and pressure for this species is 15C and 50 MPa, respectively,
making it moderately piezophilic. The extremely piezophilic bacterium Moritella yaya-
nosii DB21MT-5 was isolated from 10 989 m in the Mariana Trench (Nogi and Kato,
1999). The optimal growth pressure of M. yayanosii strain DB21MT-5 is 80 MPa and it
can grow well at pressures as high as 100 MPa. It is, however, unable to grow at
pressures <50 MPa and for this reason it is an extremely piezophilic strain (Kato et al.,
1998). M. yayanosii strain DB21MT-5 also represented the rst evidence of the
existence of an obligately piezophilic Moritella sp. The cells of DB21MT-5 are rods,
2.5~3 m long by 1 m wide with a single polar agellum for motility (Nogi and Kato,
1999). The membrane lipids of this strain are approximately 70% unsaturated fatty
acids, consistent with its adaptation to very high pressures (Fang et al., 2000).
Shewanella are not exclusively found in marine environments. Gram-negative, aerobic
and facultatively anaerobic Gammaproteobacteria (MacDonell and Colwell, 1985) and
several novel marine Shewanella species are not piezophilic (Kato, 2011). Shewanella
strains PT-99, DB5501, DB6101, DB6705, DB6906, DB172F, DB172R and DB21MT-2
are all piezophilic members of the same species, S. benthica (Nogi et al., 1998b; Kato
and Nogi, 2001). The extensively studied S. violacea strain DSS12 (Kato et al., 1995a;
Nakasone et al., 1998, 2002) is moderately piezophilic, with a reasonably constant
doubling time at pressures between 0.1 and 70 MPa, as opposed to most piezophilic S.
benthica strains that have doubling rates that change signicantly with increasing pressure
(Kato, 2011). Strain DSS12 exhibits few differences in the growth characteristics under
varying pressure conditions and thus represents a convenient deep-sea bacterium for
research focused on high-pressure adaptations. In fact, the genome analysis on strain
DSS12 has been used as a model deep-sea piezophilic bacterium (Aono et al., 2010). Both
S. benthica and S. violacea are also considered psychrophilic at atmospheric pressure (Nogi
et al., 1998b). Shewanella benthica DB21MT-2 represents one of the deepest bacteria ever
sampled, having been isolated from sediment from Challenger Deep at 10 898 m (Kato
et al., 1998). The optimal growth pressure for this strain is 70 MPa, with no growth
occurring at pressures <50 MPa, indicating that it is extremely piezophilic. Furthermore,
this strain was able to grow well at pressures up to 100 MPa. The cells of DB21MT-2 are
rods, 2 m long by 0.8~1 m wide with a single polar agellum for motility.
Kato (2011) identied two distinct groups within the Shewanella genus from the
Gammaproteobacteria phylogenetic tree. Most psychrophilic or psychrotrophic Shewa-
nella species belong to the same group. Also within this group are S. benthica and
S. violacea, which show piezophilic or piezotolerant growth properties under high-pressure
conditions. The second group comprises species that exhibit no growth at a pressure of
50 MPa, and are therefore piezosensitive (Kato and Nogi, 2001). Generally, members of
Shewanella group 1 are characterised as cold adapted and pressure tolerant, whereas the
members of Shewanella group 2 are mostly mesophilic and piezosensitive. This is sup-
ported by evidence that members of the former group produce substantial amounts of the
PUFA EPA (1116% of total fatty acids), whereas members of the latter group produce no
or limited amounts of EPA, thus dening the two taxonomic groups as psychro- and
Bacteria 131
piezophilic (group 1) and mesophilic and piezosensitive (group 2). Indeed, the piezophilic
strains have been isolated from sediments in the Japan Trench (62696356 m; Kato et al.,
1995a), the Izu-Bonin Trench (6499 m; Kato et al., 1996) and the Mariana Trench
(10 898 m; Kato et al., 1998). Another strain, KT99, was isolated from 9856 m in the
Kermadec from the amphipod, Hirondellea dubia, homogenate (Lauro et al., 2007).
On a larger scale, Takami et al. (1997) characterised the microbial ora community
of sediments collected from 10 897 m in the Mariana Trench. The community com-
prised actinobacteria, fungi, non-extremophile bacteria and various extremophilic
bacteria such as alkaphiles, thermophiles and psychrophiles. The non-extremophilic
bacteria were found in frequencies of 2.2 1042.3 105 colonies per gram of dry
sediment. The lamentous fungi and actinobacteria were found at the same frequency as
facultative psychrophilic bacteria (2.0 102 per gram of dry sediment). They did not,
however, nd any of the piezophilic bacteria in these samples that were reported shortly
after by Kato et al. (1998) and previously reported by Yayanos et al. (1981). Takami
et al. (1997) concluded that the sediments of the Challenger Deep are a depository of
active or dormant microbes usually found in particulate matter constituting marine
snow. With estimated sinking rates of 1.0 to 0.1 m per day (or 5000 m in 150 per year;
Jannasch and Taylor, 1984), many microbes are being deposited over the course of long
periods of time. However, Glud et al. (2013) found higher organic carbon concen-
trations and more disturbed and inconsistent sediment proles at Challenger Deep than
at an abyssal reference site (6018 m). This was thought to be indicative of relatively
rapid sediment deposition and burial, potentially as a result of erratic down-slope
sediment transport, aided by occasional seismic activity. The same study concluded
that the sediment of Challenger Deep exhibited intensied mineralisation mediated by
the prokaryote community (combined bacteria and Archea), which was sustained by the
enhanced deposition of organic material. The average prokaryote density at 10 813 and
10 817 m was 0.97 107 cm 3, compared to just 0.14 107 cm 3 at the abyssal site.
The intensied heterotrophic microbial activity resulted in sediment O2 concentrations
attenuating faster at full ocean depth than at abyssal depths (Glud et al., 2013).
The hado-pelagic zone represents one of the least studied environments on Earth as
very little research has been undertaken. Of the few studies available, Eloe et al. (2010)
examined the compositional differences in particle-associated (>3 m) and free-living
(30.22 m) microbial assemblages (bacterial, archaeal and eukaryal) from pelagic
waters at 6000 m in the Puerto-Rico Trench. This study obtained 541 bacterial and
675 archaeal gene sequences from both free-living and particle-associated fractions, and
339 eukaryal sequences from the former fraction. No signicant differences were found
in the archaeal libraries, whereas the bacterial libraries were statistically different. The
particle-associated bacterial fraction hosted a greater diversity compared to the free-
living fraction which was consistent with other, albeit shallower studies. Bacterial
sequences recovered from the two size fractions were comprised of ~40% of six named
orders of Alphaproteobacteria: Rhodobacterales, Rhizobiales, Sphingomondales,
Caulobacterales, Rhodospirillales and Rickettsiales, with the latter representing the
greatest number of sequences. The order Rhizobiales accounted for a large fraction of
the particle-associated fraction, which expanded this order from soil and sediment
environments to the deep sea. Relatively few Gammaproteobacteria sequences were

recovered from either fraction but included Legionellales, Xanthomonadales,
Alteromonadales, Chromatiales and Oceanospirillales, of which the order Xanthomona-
dales accounted for half of the Gammaproteobacteria sequences in the free-living
fraction. Betaproteobacteria sequences accounted for 2.7% of the particle-associated
fraction and 26.5% of the free-living fraction. The majority were from the order
Burkholderiales, within the three families Alcaligenaceae, Comamonadaceae and Bur-
kholderiaceae. This high proportion of Betaproteobacteria was surprising given that
they had not been found in signicant abundance in other marine bacterioplankton
communities. Deltaproteobacteria sequences accounted for 13% of the particle-
associated fraction and 4.4% of the free-living fraction with more than half of the total
49 sequences being within the same clade, SAR324. The remaining sequences were
comprised of non-Proteobacteria, which accounted for 38 and 107 sequences from the
free-living and particle-associated fractions, respectively. The majority of the particle-
associated sequences grouped within the phyla Bacteroidetes and Planctomycetes. Four
cyanobacterial-like and 12 plastid-related sequences were identied exclusively from
the particle-associated fraction, suggesting that some of the particle-associated fraction
is surface-derived. Of the free-living fraction, the most dominant non-Proteobacteria
was the well-documented deep-dwelling SAR406.
The study by Eloe et al. (2010) indicated that the phylotypes recovered from the
Puerto-Rico Trench were closely related to sequences known from other deep-sea
habitats. However, some of the phylotypes from the particle-associated fraction may
have originated from the overlying surface waters and have sunk and survived at high
pressure. They concluded that the particle-associated microorganisms present at
depth may reect the magnitude and duration of exposure to elevated pressures and
the relative pressure-resistance of the associated microbes. The presence of both
eukaryotic and bacterial phytoplankton in the particle-associated library appears to
be evidence of a shallow-water microbial community connection. However, given
the high overall similarity of this community with other deep communities and the
free-living fraction, the portion of surface-water microorganisms present must be
relatively small.
7.2 Foraminifera
Within the meiofaunal size fraction (small eukaryotes), most of the biomass is made up
by nematodes and foraminiferans. Benthic Foraminifera (Protista, Rhizaria) are repre-
sented at hadal depths by more species than from any other taxon, apart from crust-
aceans (Belyaev, 1989). The rst hadal Foraminifera were retrieved by the Challenger
expedition collected in the 1870s, from a depth of 7224 m in the Japan Trench (Brady,
1884), although most of the 14 species found were known from shallower sites. The
majority of hadal Foraminifera samples have emerged from the Soviet expeditions of
the 1950s onwards and were reviewed by Belyaev (1989). At that time, 103 foraminif-
eral species (ve orders, 15 families) were known between 6000 and 10 687 m. These
Foraminifera 133
Table 7.2 List of Foraminfera families sampled from depths exceeding 6000 m. The list is derived from
Belyaev (1989) and updated with Gooday et al. (2008), Kitazato et al. (2009), Akimoto et al. (2001).
All records have been updated using the World Register of Marine Species (WORMS).
Order Family Genera Species Depth range (m)
Allogromiida Allogromiidae 4 5 214010 896

Allogromiidae incertae sedis 1 1 10 896
Astrorhizida Ammodiscidae 5 6 689220
Astorhizidae 2 4 17606980
Botellinidae 1 1 20008430
Dendrophryidae 1 2 551010 002
Hyperamminidae 2 8 173910 002
Normaninidae(Komikiacea) 1 3 289010 687
Polysaccamminidae 1 1 33608006
Psamminidae 1 1 68607320
Psammaophaeridae 2 2* 253210 687
Rhabdamminidae 3 7** 50010 924
Rhizamminidae (Komikiacea) 1 3 10156520
Saccamminidae 3 6 172410 924
Stannomidae (Xenophyophorea) 1 2 61166675
Syringamminidae (Xenophyophorea) 1 3 27608950
Litoulida Reophacidae 1 1 10 896
Ammosphearoidinidae 6 11** 2528380
Discamminidae 1 1 7 225
Haplophragmoidae 4 4* 14506740
Hormosinellidae 2 3 11347660
Hormosinidae 3 4 162010 924
Lituolidae 2 5 6407316
Prolixoplectidae 1 1 28627225
Reophacidae 3 8* 17399580
Spiroplectamminidae 3 3** 18879540
Trochamminoidae 1 1 7506250
Loftusiida Cyclamminidae 1 3 27506240
Globotextularidae 2 2* 15506070
Miliolida Cornuspiroidinae 1 1 21976240
Hauerinidae 2 2 2 0487 225
Sprioloculinidae 1 1 49306927
Textulariida Eggerellidae 1 1 17486250
Textulariidae 1 1 10 896
Trochamminida Conotrochamminidae 1 1 25077300
Trochamminidae 1 4 7139220
* Indicates the number of species listed in Belyaev (1989) that are not listed by WORMS.
numbers have now increased to seven orders and 36 families after cross-checking and
updating this list using the World Register of Marine Species (WORMS) database
(Table 7.2). This is still a relatively low number compared to an estimated 2140 known
species worldwide (Murray, 2007). This low number is not a reection of low diversity
but rather a chronic undersampling of hadal sediment, compared to shallower zones.
Figure 7.2 Foraminifera from the Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench. (a) Resigella laevis,
(b) unidentied coiled foram, (c) Textularia sp. and (d) Resigella bilocularis. Images courtesy
of Andrew J. Gooday, National Oceanography Centre, Southampton (bd), and (a) copyright
of the Lennean Society of London.
Of the 103 species listed by Belyaev (1989), there were two with organic-walled
tests: Nodellum membranacea (from the Challenger expedition; Brady, 1884), and
Xenothekella elongata, from over 9000 m in the KurilKamchatka Trench (Saidova,
1970). Since the Belyaev (1989) review there have been more ndings, primarily from
two trenches: the Mariana Trench (Akimoto et al., 2001; Todo et al., 2005; Gooday
Foraminifera 135
et al., 2008) and the PeruChile Trench (Sabbatini et al., 2002). Of the remaining
species, six were calcareous, six were ammodiscaceans, 49 were multilocular, agglutin-
ated species and 46 (including three komokiaceans) belonged to monothalamous
(single-chambered), agglutinated taxa. Other than the two organic-walled species
(allogromiids) listed by Belyaev (1989), records of other allogromiids from hadal
depths were sparse.
Allogromiids did, however, account for 41% of meiofaunal taxa in a box core from
7298 m in the Aleutian Trench (Jumars and Hessler, 1976). Sabbatini et al. (2002)
reported numerous soft-shelled Foraminifera (organic-walled allogromiids and agglu-
tinated saccamminids) from the Atacama sector of the PeruChile Trench from 7800 m
and these accounted for 82% of live individuals in one core sample. They reported a
total of 546 Rose-Bengal stained, and therefore living, soft-walled specimens in the
>20 m fraction of the 06 cm layer of the core. Most specimens were allogromiids
(82.0%), followed by saccamminids (11.0%) and psammosphaerids (6.0%). In the size
distribution, a distinct peak around 120160 m was observed in the allogromiids,
particularly Nodellum- and Resigella-like forms, while a spherical allogromiid species
dominated the larger-size classes. This study provided further evidence for the wide-
spread occurrence of soft-walled, monothalamous Foraminifera in marine habitats
(Sabbatini et al., 2002).
The majority of recent hadal Formaminifera have been sampled from the Mariana
Trench, particularly Challenger Deep, as a result of the research interests of JAMSTEC.
Akimoto et al. (2001) examined a 54 ml sediment sample from 10 897 m. Of the
91 individual agglutinated foraminiferans found in the sample Lagenammina difugi-
formis (46 individuals) and Rhabdammina abyssorum (27 individuals) dominated, but
also included Hormosina globulifera (9 individuals), Hormosinella (Reophax) guttifer
(3 individuals) and 6 miscellaneous species. Only 4 out of 91 individuals were con-
sidered live, all of which were L. difugiformis.
Following this study, Todo et al. (2005) reported 432 living benthic Foraminifera in
the top 1 cm of a sediment core from 10 896 m in Challenger Deep. This equated to a
density of ~449 individuals per 10 cm 2 which was similar to other shallower, but still
hadal, samples (7088 m in the Japan Trench and 7761 m in the KurilKamchatka
Trench) and greater than at many abyssal sites, including their own reference site
(550 m; Table 7.3). The assemblage was very similar to shallower samples from the
same trench at 7123 m. The assemblage was dominated by delicate, soft-walled species
except for four individuals of the multichambered agglutinated genera Leptohalysis and
Reophax. Of these 428 specimens, 85% were organic-walled allogromiids, resembling
the genera Chitinosiphon, Nodellum and Resigella. The organic-walled species
accounted for 99% of the total foraminiferal assemblage at Challenger Deep. The high
percentage of organic-walled allogromiids was thought to be very unusual because in
most deep-sea environments they constitute 520% of the living Foraminifera
assemblage.
Gooday et al. (2008) later described four new species and a new genus of Forami-
nifera from 10 896 m, again from Challenger Deep, which were rst mentioned in Todo
et al. (2005). The species were Nodellum aculeate, Resigella laevis, R. bilocularis and
Table 7.3 Number of live specimens (N) and number of species (S) of major foraminiferal taxa at trench and abyssal
sites in the northwest Pacific Ocean. MAF multilocular agglutinated Foraminifera. Modified from Todo et al. (2005).
Other Trenches Mariana Trench Region
Mariana Abyssal
KurilKamchatka, Japan, Stn 40 Challenger Deep Stn 64
Major 7661 m 7088 m 7123 m 10 896 m 5507 m
taxonomic group
N S N S N S N S N S
Nod/Res-like allogromiids 12 3 16 2 199 11 363 5 24 9

Other allogromiids 45 4 22 5 20 11 24 1 32 13
Psammosphaeridae 17 5 17 5 165 11 32 2 89 18
Saccamminidae 318 6 54 9 19 11 9 3 39 18
Other soft-shelled taxa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 5
Lagenammina 1 1 0 0 10 3 0 0 52 9
Other Astrorhizacea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 2
Ammodiscacea 1 1 0 0 3 2 0 0 2 1
Hormosinacea 9 3 26 3 21 5 4 2 28 6
Trochamminacea 126 8 8 2 2 1 0 0 9 3
Other MAF 3 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 9 3
Rotaliina 161 2 1 1 5 1 0 0 19 3
Total numbers 693 35 145 31 445 57 432 13 329 89
% soft-shelled monothalamous 56 75 91 99 63.5
Conicotheca nigrans (also new genus). Previously, Akimoto et al. (2001) had reported
several agglutinated foraminiferal species, identied as Lagenammina difugiformis,
Hormosina globulifera, Reophax guttifera and Rhabdammina abyssorum, from Chal-
lenger Deep. The ndings from Akimoto et al. (2001) and those of Todo et al. (2005)
and Gooday et al. (2008) differed somewhat, despite being from the same area and
depth. This was attributed to the different methods used to analyse the samples since
many of the very small, elongate morphotypes would have passed through the 125 mm
mesh sieve used in the Akimoto et al. (2001) study. Furthermore, the earlier study
examined dried residues in which delicate, organic-walled Foraminifera would have
been destroyed or unrecognisable (Gooday et al., 2008).
Gooday et al. (2010) detailed four small foraminiferan tests, three trochamminaceans
and one species of Textularia, from Challenger Deep and found that some agglutinated
Foraminifera living close to full ocean depth construct a test from biogenic and detrital
particles, which subsequently dissolve. The incorporation of dissolved coccoliths and
fragments of planktonic foraminiferal shells into two tests indicates that these delicate
calcareous particles can reach full ocean depth intact. Presumably, they are conveyed by
rapidly sinking particles, such as phytodetritus aggregates or faecal pellets.
The predominance of organic-walled or soft-shelled species at hadal depths is likely
to be an effect of survival well beyond the CCD. Todo et al. (2005) also concluded that
the very distinctive yet primitive Foraminifera found at Challenger Deep probably
represented the remnants of an abyssal assemblage. It seems likely that this abyssal
Foraminifera 137
assemblage was able to adapt to the steady increase in hydrostatic pressure over the
69 million years that it is thought the Challenger Deep has taken to develop (Fujioka
et al., 2002).
7.2.1 Komokiacea
The superfamily Komokiacea (Tendal and Hessler, 1977) is one of the most widely
distributed deep-sea foraminiferal groups and also the most controversial one (Lecroq
et al., 2009a). Prior to their classication as Foraminifera, the komokiaceans were
placed within the sponges and xenophyophores (Hessler and Jumars, 1974). Komokia-
ceans (informally termed komoki) are particularly common in oligotrophic, abyssal
regions. They sometimes have broad bathymetric ranges and have been found in the
hadal zone. Tendal and Hessler (1977) and Kamenskaya (1989) reported a variety of
komoki from the Pacic Ocean, including from eight trenches. The former study, from
the Galathea expedition, found Komokiacea at seven stations >6000 m, the deepest at
9605 m. The deepest trawl sample examined was recovered from a reported depth of
10 915 m in the Tonga Trench and yielded komoki belonging to the genus Edgertonia
(Kamenskaya, 1989). Tendal and Hessler (1977) stated that the greatest relative abun-
dance of komoki have been found in the oligotrophic abyssal plains and hadal trenches,
where their volume exceeds that of all the metazoans combined and equals that of the
remains of other Foraminifera. More than 80% of the specimens came from the surface
layer of sediment and only 2% were found below 2 cm. Gooday et al. (2007)
re-examined several abyssal and hadal specimens from the earlier Soviet work reported
by Saidova (1975), who described them as new species of foraminferans in the genera
Dendrophyra and Normania. Gooday et al. (2007) concluded that D. kermadecensis
from 89289174 m was of the genus Reticulum, while the N. fruticosa specimen from
6126 m was not only lost, but it was concluded from the examination of photographs
that this specimen was probably not Normanina, but rather Komokia and from
999510 002 m. N. ultrabyssalica was probably a new komokiacean. At present, the
Komokiacea are still classied within Foraminifera, based on morphology. Even
molecular attempts to establish their phylogentic position have failed to unequivocally
conrm that they are indeed Foraminifera (Lecroq et al., 2009a). This study did,
however, suggest that komokiaceans, and probably many other large testate protists,
provide a habitat structure for a large spectrum of eukaryotes and signicantly contrib-
ute to maintaining the biodiversity of micro- and meiofaunal communities in the
deep sea.
7.2.2 Xenophyophorea
The somewhat enigmatic xenophyophores are a group of giant unicellular Foraminifera
that construct fragile, agglutinated tests which provide habitat structure for a wide range
of small metazoans (Levin, 1991). They themselves are therefore, already known to be
hotspots of deep-sea meiofaunal and macrofaunal diversity (Lecroq et al., 2009a).
Like the komokiaceans, their taxonomic position remained undetermined for almost a
century, with various studies classifying them as Spongia, or different groups of

Protozoa. However, they now reside in the Foraminifera (class Polythalamea, super-
family Xenophyophorea).
They are deposit- or suspension-feeding benthic organisms, often greater than 10 cm
in diameter. They consist mainly of foreign particles (xenophyae) and are found with a
wide variety of morphologies (Lecroq et al., 2009b). Despite their wide occurrence in
the abyssal deep sea in particular, at times reaching densities as high as 1000 per 100 m2
(Tendal and Gooday, 1981), xenophyophores are poorly understood since they are
notoriously fragile and easily fragmented. In total, 14 genera and ~60 species of
xenophyophores have now been described.
The rst records of hadal xenophyophores emerged from the Russian and Danish
literature following the Vitjaz and Galathea expeditions (Belyaev, 1989). Tendal (1972)
established two orders in the subclass Xenophyophoria: Psamminida and Stannomida.
These are now two families (Psammettidae and Stannomidae) in the superfamily
Xenophyophoroidea. Species from the predominantly abyssal genus Stannophyllum
(Stannomidae) were found at hadal depths. Stannophyllum granularium was known
from various abyssal sites and several hadal sites in the KurilKamchatka Trench, albeit
<6900 m (62726282 m, 67106675 m and 62156205 m). The same species was also
found in the Japan Trench at 6116 m, where another species, S. mollum, was found at
6380 m. Xenophyophores have also been responsible for extraordinarily high biomass
estimates in core sampling. Shirayama (1984) sampled 12 stations in the northwest
Pacic Ocean (20908260 m), in the region of Japan and found the highest biomass at
the 8260 m site, in the Izu-Bonin Trench. This was the result of an elevated abundance
of the xenophyophore Occultammina profunda (Syringamminidae).
Apparent xenophyophores also featured on many bottom photographs from the
PROA expedition in the Palau, New Britain, Bougainville and New Hebrides
Trenches, to depths of 8662 m (Lemche et al., 1976). Scientists reported a mean density
of the genus Stannpohyllum of 1 ind. 3 m 2 in the New Britain Trench at 8260 m, and
1 ind. 10 m 2 in the New Hebrides at 6770 m. The density of an unidentied Psammetta
sp. was 1 ind. m 2 at 78757931 m in the New Britain Trench.
Belyaev (1989) hypothesised that Xenophyophorea may play a very signicant role
in the primary use and reprocessing of the organic matter contained in the benthic
sediment at hadal depths. Given their extreme fragility, only further sampling and more
delicate sampling methodologies (such as the use of ROVs) will the diversity and role
of the xenophyophores be truly understood.
7.3 Nematoda
Nematoda (roundworms) are an extraordinarily diverse animal phylum, inhabiting a

range of environments (Lambshead, 2003). They were known to exist at depths
exceeding 4570 m until the mid-1950s (Wieser, 1956). However, in the 1960s, extraor-
dinary large population densities in the region of 20 00080 000 ind. m 2 (Thiel, 1966)
and 156 000278 000 ind. m 2 (Thiel, 1972) were found at lower abyssal depths,
Nematoda 139
Table 7.4 Nematode species diversity, richness and evenness from three stations in the Puerto-Rico
Trench and corresponding abyssal and bathyal sites.
Species diversity Species richness Evenness

Site Depth (m) (H) (SR) (J)
Hatteras Plaina 5411 4.10 19.14 0.87

Puerto-Rico Trencha 2217 3.97 15.89 0.89
Atacama Slopeb 1050 3.1 14.1 0.878
Atacama Slopeb 1140 3.2 14.5 0.897
Atacama Slopeb 1355 3.2 13.0 0.897
Atacama Trenchb 7800 2.7 7.9 0.862
Modied from a Teitjen (1989) and b Gambi et al. (2003).
suggesting that hadal populations may be as numerous. Indeed, they were subsequently
found at all depths to 10 41510 687 m in the Tonga Trench during the Vitjaz expeditions
(Belyaev, 1989). Having been found at more than 60 stations in 18 trenches of all three
oceans (Wolff, 1960), nematoda are now considered one of the most characteristic fauna
of the meio- and microbenthos in the hadal zone and many other deep-sea settings.
Nematode diversity is often very high, even at hadal depths, for example, Jumars and
Hessler (1976) recovered 194 species from a single box core sample, from 7298 m in the
Aleutian Trench. This corresponds to a density of 776 ind. m 2.
Teitjen et al. (1989) investigated the meiofauna abundance and biomass at three sites
in the Puerto-Rico Trench (5411, 7460 and 8189 m) and found that nematode abun-
dance and biomass did not correlate to depth and that the deepest station supported four
times the biomass. Fewer known families were found at the trench depths than at
comparative abyssal (5411 m) and bathyal (2217 m) sites (Teitjen, 1989). The trench
nematodes were overwhelmingly dominated by the families Oxystominidae, Chroma-
doridae and Xyalidae (also observed at the abyssal site). These three families accounted
for 65.9 and 55.9% of the individuals and species at the two trench depths, respectively.
Several other families were of local signicance (Sphaerolaimidae at 7460 and 8189 m,
Siphonolaimidae and Desmoscolecidae at 8189 m, Microlaimidae at 7460 m). Of the
110 genera found across all stations, 52% were known and the rest were new,
undescribed genera. The unknown genera accounted for 6.4% (7460 m) and 19.5%
(8189 m) of the total number of nematodes identied. The highest diversity was found
at the abyssal site and the lowest at the deepest site. Teitjen (1989) concluded that,
generally, species diversity was in agreement with many other abyssal localities, where
it was found to be a function of species richness and where the nematode species tended
to be evenly distributed. Nematode species diversity, richness and evenness are shown
in Table 7.4.
The Puerto-Rico Trench, however, is thought to be a nutrient-depleted, oligotrophic
environment (Richardson et al., 1995). In contrast, a study similar to that of Teitjen
et al. (1989) was undertaken in the relatively eutrophic PeruChile Trench, in the
Atacama sector (Gambi et al., 2003). This study examined nematode assemblages at bathyal
and hadal depths (10507800 m) in an area of very high concentrations of nutritionally
rich organic matter, at 7800 m. The assemblages at these depths displayed characteristics
typical of eutrophic systems and revealed high nematode densities (>6000 ind. 10 cm 2)
that were different in composition from those found at bathyal depths.
The low afnity index between the bathyal and hadal communities of the Puerto-
Rico Trench was thought not to be due to the presence or absence of certain families/
genera, but rather to the different per cent compositions of the assemblages (Tietjen,
1989). Although Gambi et al. (2003) also reported a low afnity index, it was due to
an entirely different composition between bathyal and hadal depths. The most abun-
dant families in the bathyal Atacama Slope were Comesomatidae, Cyatholaimidae,
Microlaimidae, Desmodoridae and Xyalidae, whereas the most abundant in the
trench area were Monhysteridae (<1% at bathyal depths, 24% at hadal depths),
Chromadoridae, Microlaimidae, Oxystominidae and Xyalidae.
In a comparison of the PeruChile Trench and the Puerto-Rico Trench (Tietjen,
1989), Gambi et al. (2003) found that the dominant families were the same:
Monhysteridae, Chromadoridae, Oxystominidae and Xyalidae; but the relative import-
ance of Monhysteridae (5% in the Puerto-Rico, 24% in the Atacama Trench) and
Xyalidae (17.4% in the Puerto-Rico, 7.4% in the Atacama Trench) changed. Another
peculiarity of the nematode assemblage from the PeruChile Trench was that the family
Cyatholaimidae, particularly abundant in both trench and slope sediments (6.3% and
13.1%, respectively), accounted only for a minor fraction of nematode assemblages in
all other deep-sea studies.
The two regions are quite contrasting, where the PeruChile Trench is characteristically
typical of eutrophic systems with very high concentrations of nutritionally rich organic
matter (Danovaro, 2002) and the Puerto-Rico is nutrient poor (Richardson et al., 1995). The
different trophic conditions observed between these trenches are thought to have contrib-
uted to the differences in the structure of nematode assemblages (Gambi et al., 2003).
Based on buccal morphology, Teitjen (1989) classied the nematode assemblages
into feeding guild (selective deposit feeders, non-selective deposit feeders, epistrate
feeders and predators/omnivores). At all stations, deposit feeders were the dominant
type, whereas at the two deepest sites non-selective deposit feeders comprised 55% of
those observed. Generally, the relative abundance of epistrate feeders was lower in the
trench than at the bathyal or abyssal sites. This was thought to be the result of increased
resource partitioning by worms inhabiting a more heterogeneous sedimentary environ-
ment at bathyal depths than at hadal depths.
7.4 Polychaeta
In the hadal zone, Polychaeta (bristle worms of the Annelidea phylum) are one of the
most abundant and diverse groups of benthic invertebrates (Table 7.5; Fig. 7.3). Poly-
chaeta are the most frequently encountered among all benthic invertebrates, accounting
Polychaeta 141
Table 7.5. Maximum depth of each order and family of Polychaeta and the number of genera and
species therein. * indicates one undescribed species.
Order Family Genera Species Maximum depth (m)
Eunicida Dorvilleidae 1 1 72987398

Eunicida Lumbrineridae 2 4 61568100
Eunicida Onuphiidae 2 2 60906330
Phyllodocida Pilargidae 1 1 6580
Phyllodocida Hesionidae 1 1 89809043
Phyllodocida Nephtyidae 3 3 61809174
Phyllodocida Nereididae 3 5 58008400
Phyllodocida Aphroditidae 1 1 67666875
Phyllodocida Goniadidae 1 1 72187934
Phyllodocida Phyllodocidae 2 3 60528100
Phyllodocida Polynoidae 10 21 605210730
Phyllodocida Sigalionidae 1 1 60506150
Drilomorpha Capitallidae 2* 3 64108660
Terebellida Faveliopsidae 2 2 60526835
Terebellida Flabelligeridae 2 5 56507934
Terebellida Maldanidae 4 6 61567290
Terebellida Opheliidae 3 6 60529734
Terebellida Cirratulidae 4 5 648710015
Terebellida Poecilochaetidae 1 1 1041510687
Terebellida Amparetidae 5 7 61508430
Terebellida Terebellidae 1 2 60406328
Terebellida Trichobranchiidae 1 1 66607587
Spionida Chaetopteridae 1 1 6860
Sabellida Siboglinidae 11 28 61569735
Sabellida Oweniidae 3 3 61808300
Sabellida Scalibregmatidae 2 3 56509174
Sabellida Sabellida 3 4 61569735
Sabellida Serpulidae 1 1 64109735
for 90% in both trawl and grab samples from the Vitjaz expeditions (Belyaev, 1989).
Hadal polychaetes have been found in all the studied trenches, including at depths
exceeding 10 000 m (10 16010 730 m in the Philippine, Mariana and Tonga Trenches;
Kirkgaard, 1956; Fig. 7.4). Their mean abundance and biomass at hadal depths is
second only to the Holothurioidea and Bivalvia, which are perhaps the most diverse
hadal fauna known. They are, therefore, one of the few classes where there is relative
wealth of information available in terms of diversity and distribution compared to other
faunal classes. The composition of Polychaeta dwelling at depths of more than 6000 m
is extremely complex and urgently requires either new comprehensive sampling or
major revision. Based on the Vitjaz and Galathea data, Belyaev (1989) lists 7 orders,
26 families, 50 genera and 75 species (one with two subspecies). Of these, 30 species
(40%) are thought to be endemic to hadal depths, but 14 of these species are known
from a single nding only and the other 16 by very few ndings. Furthermore, many
species have only been described to genus or family level.
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 7.3 Examples of hadal polychaetes. (a) Macellicephala hadalis from 10 190 m in the
Philippine Trench; (b) anterior part of Nereis profundi from 72507290 m in the Banda Trench;
(c) polynoidae from 9300 m and (d) 6979 m in the Kermadec Trench. (a, b) taken from Kirkgaard
(1956) reproduced with the permission of Galathea Report and (c, d) are courtesy of HADEEP.
Polychaeta 143
Number of species
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
6000-6500
6500-7000
7000-7500
7500-8000
Depth (m)
8000-8500
8500-9000
9000-9500
Phyllodocida
9500-10000 Terebellida
Sabellida
10000-10500
Drilomorpha
10500-11000 Eunicida
Figure 7.4 Number of species per 500 m depth stratum for the Polychaeta orders: Phyllodocida,
Terebellida, Sabellida, Drilomorpha and Eunicida (Spionida not shown).
A recent census of marine polychaetes has been produced to evaluate whether there is
indeed a distinct hadal fauna (Paterson et al., 2009). The study was part of the 10-year
Census of Marine Life programme (CoML; Snelgrove, 2010) of which one of the
objectives was to assess global biodiversity in the oceans. To evaluate marine poly-
chaetes, Paterson et al. (2009) assembled 3633 records, most of which are from depths
>2000 m. These records were used to test for the degree of geographical similarity of
polychaete found at >6000 m between 20 trenches using Parsimonious Analyses of
Endemism; Rosen, 1988).
A total of 107 species of polychaetes were identied from trench depths and these
comprised a mix of hadal endemic species, abyssalhadal species and some species that
extended from bathyal to hadal depths. The four most common families were
Polynoidae, Ampharetidae, Maldanidae and Onuphidae. Each family contained several
species that appear to be restricted to the abyss or to hadal depths: 17, 6, 3 and 2,
respectively (although there are instances where some records are <2000 m). The
analysis excluded species known from a single nding.
Ecocladistic analysis revealed high levels of trench endemism, with only limited
resolution supporting biogeographical similarity. These results suggest that if a distinct
hadal fauna exists, it is represented by a low number of species, many that are possibly
endemic to a particular trench (although sampling bias must be acknowledged). The
number of hadal species that have a wide bathymetric range suggests that the trench
polychaetes are at the deeper end of a shallower distribution and not necessarily
exclusively deep or indeed hadal. Paterson et al. (2009) also suggested that a
sourcesink system may apply to hadal communities deriving from, and maintained
by, dispersal from abyssal and bathyal assemblages (Rex et al., 2005). However, the
scarcity of information regarding polychaete reproduction and larvae dispersal makes
this a difcult hypothesis to test.
The same dataset was used to examine the biogeography of polychaetes based on the
physical properties of the trenches; size, productivity and seismic activity versus
polychaete communities; Tilston, 2011). Statistical analysis of trench size identied
two groupings: one with the longest trenches, Aleutian, PeruChile and Java, and one
group comprising the rest. A similarity matrix of POC ux also resulted in two groups:
one with Aleutian, KurilKamchatka, Middle America, PeruChile and Java, and
another comprising the rest. The biogeography of polychaetes was split into two broad
groups (meaning there were many similarities between communities) with pronounced
intra-group gradient in faunistic change, and an overarching gradient with both latitude
and POC ux. Although the volume of polychaete records are more numerous than
most hadal classes, they are still insufcient to unequivocally draw conclusions of
biogeographical patterns.
Of all the hadal Polychaeta, the Polynoidae family (scale worms) are the most
characteristic with 20 species, and of those, 17 (85%) are endemic for depths over
6000 m (Belyaev, 1989); these 20 species belong to 9 genera, of which 6 are endemic to
the trenches. Lemche et al. (1976) estimated the abundance of two Polynoidae species
in the New Hebrides Trench between 6758 and 6776 m at one individual per 100 m2. In
these images, up to four specimens of Polynoidae were occasionally present in an image
and were photographed at six out of seven stations. The in situ photography of Lemche
et al. (1976) also showed that many species were free-swimming and not exclusively
benthic; behaviour that was also noted in the HADEEP expedition to the Kermadec
Trench (unpublished). In fact, it was in the PROA images where Polynoidae were rst
found to be capable of swimming (Lemche et al., 1976). Similar images were obtained
during the HADEEP project from 7884, 8613 and 9281 m in the Kermadec Trench.
Here groups of polynoids were seen both on the seaoor and swimming 50 cm above it
(Fig. 7.3). These polychaetes were in the region of 46 cm long.
In the Polychaeta listings in Belyaev (1989), there are almost as many species with
extraordinary eurybathic depth ranges (sublittoral to hadal; 26%), as there are species
that are limited to the deeper areas (21%). Belyaev noted with curiosity a few immediate
bathymetric groups that had 2.5 times fewer intermediate depth range species than the
eurybathic ones. It was suggested that these eurybathic species may be erroneous given
further examination or sampling, as it is difcult to assume that populations spanning
over 6000 m of water could be classied as the same species. The bathymetric ranges of
all known polychaetes are shown in Figure 7.4.
Also within the Polychaeta phylum is the more recently reclassied family
Siboglinidae, comprised of the former tube-dwelling Pogonophora and large tube
worms Vestimentifera (Rouse, 2001). There are 29 species of hadal Siboglinidae (all
formerly Pogonophora) listed from the Vitjaz and Galathea collections, comprising
11 genera (Belyaev, 1989). Of these, only ve species also occur at abyssal depths, one
is known from bathyal depths and one from shallower depths still (22 m). The
22 endemic hadal species (76%) are conned to single trenches or to several neigh-
bouring trenches. The deepest record of Siboglinidae is 97159735 m in the Izu-Bonin
Trench (Heptabrachia subtilis Ivanov, 1957).
Miscellaneous worms 145
Ivanov (1963) suggested that as lter-feeders, these organisms depend on the

quantity of detritus suspended in the near-bottom water and the bacterial ora
developing on it. Therefore, the Siboglinidae are likely to be more frequently found
where concentrations of near-bottom suspended organic matter are plentiful. This is
supported by their absence in open-ocean areas far from continents and tentatively
supported by their apparent absence in the open-ocean trenches (Volcano, Mariana,
Yap, Palau, New Hebrides, Tonga, Kermadec, Romanche), although further explora-
tory research may detect them elsewhere (Ivanov, 1963; Belyaev, 1989). Dense
aggregations have been found in the KurilKamchatka Trench where Siboglinidae
are both relatively diverse and abundant. There are 10 known species and the trawl
catch frequency in this trench is 50% (in general it is 28%). The Vitjaz once hauled
1500 specimens comprising six different species from 9000 m, most of them were
Zenkevitchiana longissima Ivanov, 1957, whose white leathery tubes reached up to
1.5 m long (Belyaev, 1989).
There are currently no records of any giant tube worms (formally Vestimentifera)
from hadal depths, although they may well be discovered as more exploratory research
is undertaken, particularly on the more seismically active fore arcs.
7.5 Miscellaneous worms
There are various other fauna found at hadal depths that comprise just a few species
and were identied from a very low number of samples. Many of these organisms
can loosely be categorised as worms albeit from a variety of phyla and classes. In
most instances their apparent scarcity or absence from the great depths may be a
sampling artefact, since many of these species are highly fragile and often very small,
and are easily damaged beyond recognition when trawled (such as the Turbellaris
and Nemerea). Similarly, some species may not occur in the densities of other more
conspicuous species and therefore have gone relatively unnoticed (e.g.
Enteropneusta). There are, of course, others which although technically found at
>6000 m, really only represent the deeper fringes of an abyssal population, such as
the sipunculids. While there is very little information available by which to present a
meaningful discussion on the miscellaneous worms, they are mentioned here for
completeness.
Echiura (spoon worms) are known from 17 trenches at all depths (max
depth 10 15010 210 m in the Philippine Trench). From 60 ndings, accounting for
a trawl catch frequency of 35%, all the hadal Echiura belong to the Bonelliidae family
which is comprised of 10 genera and 15 species. Four of these species are thought to be
endemic (but none at the genus level) while ve and three species have been found in
the abyssal and bathyal zones, respectively. The Echiura therefore comprise a charac-
teristic fraction of the hadal community fauna.
Echiura are also known to utilise plant and wood debris. They were found in wood
fragments from the Puerto-Rico Trench (58906000 m) and among seagrass rhizomes
in the Cayman Trench (67406780 m). Wolff (1976) conrmed from the stomach
contents that these worms feed directly on this debris.
Of the oligochaetes (Phylum: Annelida), there has only ever been one nding at hadal
depths; four specimens of Bathydrilus hadalis (Tubicidae) from 7298 m in the Aleu-
tian Trench.
Turbellaria (at worms) from the phylum Platyhelminthes and the order Polycladida
have been trawled from the KurilKamchatka and PeruChile Trenches, albeit in
extremely low numbers. In the KurilKamchatka Trench, single specimens were cap-
tured from 72657295 m and 91709335 m (which may have been a pelagic bycatch;
Belyaev, 1989) and 60006354 m in the PeruChile Trench (Frankenberg and Menzies,
1968). In the former case, a 500 m mesh trawl net was used and proved that conven-
tional trawling damages these extremely fragile animals. Such damage may have
accounted for their absence in samples from the Vitjaz and Galathea expeditions.
Trawling damage was later conrmed in the Aleutian Trench at 7298 m by Jumars
and Hessler (1976) who, rather than using a trawl, collected 37 specimens of Turbellaria
in a 0.25 m2 box core (148 individuals m 2).
Gastrotricha (hairy back worms) have only been described from 60006354 m in the
PeruChile Trench (Frankenberg and Menzies, 1968).
Nemerea (ribbon worms) have been identied in the KurilKamchatka, Aleutian,
PeruChile and the South Sandwich Trenches to depths of 7230 m, although usually
only in fragments (Belyaev, 1989).
Sipuncula (peanut worms) are known from the Aleutian, KurilKamchatka, Japan
and South Sandwich Trenches. Of the eight known species of the genera Golngia and
Phascolion, seven are eurybathic, extending from the bathyal zone or shallower.
Despite a trawl catch frequency of 62%, they have only been found at <7000 m (the
deepest being 7000 m in the PeruChile Trench; Nephasoma (Golngia) schuttei
(Augener, 1903; Golngiidae). Although they do not represent a signicant hadal fauna,
they do, on occasion, occur in large numbers; in the northwest Pacic Trench the Vitjaz
hauled in up to 615 specimens in a single trawl. This haul was comprised mainly of
either Phascolion lutense Selenka 1885 or Nephasoma (Golngia) minuta (Keferstein,
1862) (Belyaev, 1989).
Plankton net hauls by the Vitjaz in the KurilKamchatka Trench recovered
small Chaetognatha (arrow worms) from 70006000 m and 87007000 m, thought
to be Eukrohnia fowleri of the family Eukrohniidae. An arrow worm was also
observed in the Puerto-Rico Trench by Prs (1965), although no images or samples
were taken.
Enteropneusta (acorn worms) of the Hemichordata phylum are commonly found
burrowing in soft sediment (Smith et al., 2005) or in the deep sea in particular they
live on the sediment surface leaving characteristic spiral and looped faecal trails of
raised sediment behind them (Heezen and Hollister, 1971; Lemche et al., 1976).
Recently, they have also been found to swim or at least actively drift in near-bottom
currents (Osborn et al., 2012). They have been collected from several trenches: Kuril
Kamchatka (56158100 m), Aleutian (65207250 m) and the South Sandwich Trench
(80048116 m) and observed in images from the New Britain and New Hebrides
Miscellaneous worms 147
Trenches (Lemche et al., 1976). The density of acorn worms, as calculated from the
PROA images, was ~1 ind. 100 m 2 (Lemche et al., 1976). After many years of
convoluted taxonomy as a result of great morphological diversity, Osborn et al.
(2012) re-diagnosed the family and established that most deep-sea enteropneusts are
part of a single clade, the Torquaratoidae, which are also likely to be those observed at
hadal depths.
8 Porifera, Mollusca and Echinodermata
8.1 Porifera
Porifera (sponges) are one of the simplest multicellular organisms. The occurrence and
diversity of Porifera at hadal depths is somewhat low (Table 8.1) and many ndings are
only solitary specimens. Although the sponges are a seemingly diverse group of
organisms that span multiple trenches, the species that are found in the trenches are
also found at abyssal, bathyal and even shallower depths (<500 m). The Porifera classes
are split evenly between the Demospongiae (most common in shallower waters) and the
Hexactinella or glass sponges (more characteristic in the deep sea). The majority of
the Porifera do not extend much deeper than 7000 m and Belyaev (1989) suggests that
the hadal sponges are simply a depleted abyssal fauna. Evidence of the low densities
of these organisms on the seaoor was provided by the PROA images; where only 3 out
of 4000 images contained sponges (Cladorhizidae; Lemche et al., 1976). Mass occur-
rences of sponges were, however, found on one occasion by the Vitjaz, on the east slope
of the Emperor Trench fault at 62726282 m, where 207 specimens from ve different
species were trawled. Of these, 200 specimens were identied as Hyalonema apertum
Schulze, 1886 (Koltun, 1970).
The absence of sponges from the KurilKamchatka Trench is thought to be a result of
the dominance of silt (which can clog sponge irrigation systems) and the lack of solid
substrates for attachment to the seaoor (Belyaev, 1989). This nding suggests that in
the other trenches, sponges may inhabit deeper depths where silt is less and where solid
substrates are more plentiful; a hypothesis supported by the nding of several sponges
from 89509020 m in the Tonga Trench and 9990 m in the Philippine Trench. Therefore,
the dissemination of hadal Porifera is, perhaps, determined by more favourable substrata
and not by depth, although supporting data are still circumstantial. Furthermore, the
heterogeneity of substrata within any trench, particularly between the fore arc and the
oceanic slopes, implies that sponges may well have an equally heterogenic distribution.
8.2 Mollusca
Within the phylum Mollusca (shellsh), the Gastropoda and Bivalvia classes are
extremely characteristic hadal fauna in particular. Both diverse classes have been found
in every trench sampled, often in extraordinarily high numbers and both are known to
148
Mollusca 149
Table 8.1 Maximum depth of each order and family of Porifera and the number of genera and
species therein.
Class Order Family Genera Species Depth range (m)
Hexactinellida Amphidiscophora Hyalonematidae 1 2 60906860

Hexactinellida Haxasterophora Caulphacidae 1 3 60906770
Hexactinellida Haxasterophora Euplectellidae 1 1 62966328
Hexactinellida Haxasterophora Rossellidae 2 2? 56508540
Demospongiae Poecilosclerida Chondrocladiidae 1 1 60908660
Demospongiae Poecilosclerida Cladorhizidae 3 5 66209990
Demospongiae Poecilosclerida Esperiopsidae 1 1 6860
Demospongiae Poecilosclerida Cladorhizidae 1 1 69207567
extend to full ocean depth (Table 8.2; Fig. 8.1). As well as these two classes, other
Mollusca found at hadal depths include the Scaphopoda, Polyplacophora and
Monoplacophora. While several records exist for these three classes in the trenches,
their sitings are relatively few compared to the other molluscs and, generally, they
appear to be restricted to upper depths (<7600 m).
8.2.1 Gastropoda
Gastropoda (sea snails and limpets; Fig. 8.2) are an important fraction of the hadal fauna
and, to date, these organism have been found in all the trenches sampled and at full
ocean depth; 10 687 m in the Tonga Trench and 10 730 m in the Mariana Trench. The
Gastropoda were the seventh most dominant taxa collected from the Galathea
expeditions in the 1950s (Wolff, 1970). The hadal Gastropoda comprise at least
40 putative genera, although the species lists presented by Belyaev (1989) include
many undescribed species or specimens classied to genus or family-level only. Even
so, the data indicated a total number of 60 hadal species. Belyaev (1989) also estimated
that the number of known species of hadal gastropods will reach close to 100 once a
systematic taxonomic exercise is undertaken.
The composition of the hadal Gastropoda is complex; there are 19 families, 40 genera
and 58 species listed by Belyaev (1989) (Table 8.2). The families Cocculinidae,
Turridae and Buccinidae dominate in diversity and trawl catch frequency compared to
the others. The Turridae represent the most diverse gastropod family and the second
most diverse family of the Mollusca (13 species, 8 genera). Endemism at the species
level is estimated at 68%, but the majority of these endemics are known from single
specimens. Of the non-endemic species, two-thirds are restricted to the abyssal zone.
The number of gastropod species decreases with depth while the percentage of
endemism increases; a similar pattern in most groups (Fig. 8.1). Gastropoda, however,
show unusually high endemism at the genus level; 26% of the genera are endemic to the
hadal zone and another four genera are conned to a single trench and its surrounding
abyssal plain. These values differ slightly from those calculated by Wolff (1970) who
Table 8.2 Hadal community composition of the Mollusca phylum (class, order, family, numbers of genera and species
and maximum known depth).
Class Order Family Genera Species Maximum depth (m)
Gastropoda Docoglossa Bathypeltidae 1 1 85608720

Gastropoda Docoglossa Bathysciadiidae 1 1 82409530
Gastropoda Docoglossa Propolidiidae 1 1 60906135
Gastropoda Fissurellidae Fissurellidae 1 1 62906300
Gastropoda Alata Seguenziidae 3 3 70007450
Gastropoda Anisobranchia Skeneidae 1 1 62906330
Gastropoda Anisobranchia Trochidae 3 4 66208035
Gastropoda Aspidophore Naticidae 1 1 63306430
Gastropoda Hamiglossa Buccinidae 4 8 53299050
Gastropoda Hamiglossa Cancellariidae 2 2 66607340
Gastropoda Heterostropha Aclididae 1 1 82108300
Gastropoda Heterostropha Piramidellidae 1 1 70007280
Gastropoda Homeostropha Eulimidae 1 1 66606770
Gastropoda Planilabiata Bathyphytophilidae 2 2 58008120
Gastropoda Planilabiata Cocculinidae 5 10 51798400
Gastropoda Toxoglossa Turridae 8 13 605210 730
Gastropoda Tectibranchia Phylinidae 1 4 64107587
Gastropoda Tectibranchia Retusidae 1 1 79748006
Gastropoda Tectibranchia Scaphandridae 2 2 56508035
Bivalvia Nuculida Ledellidae 5 20 565010190
Bivalvia Nuculida Malletiidae 1 3 56508035
Bivalvia Nuculida Nuculanidae 4 5 565010687
Bivalvia Nuculida Tindariidae 1 1 62967286
Bivalvia Lucinida Montacutidae 1 1 62908580
Bivalvia Lucinida Mytilidae 1 1 60506150
Bivalvia Lucinida Thyasiridae 5 9 615010,687
Bivalvia Pectinida Limarlidae 1 1 61359735
Bivalvia Pectinida Pectinidae 4 6 56508100
Bivalvia Venerida Pholadidae 1 2 66607290
Bivalvia Venerida Teredinidae 2 2 72507290
Bivalvia Venerida Vesicomyidae 3 7 615610730
Bivalvia Cuspidariidae Cuspidariidae 2 2 62909990
Bivalvia Verticordiidae Vertocordiidae 3 10 60409335
Scaphopoda Galilida Entalinidae 2 3 59006780
Scaphopoda Galilida Pulsellidae - 15* 56507657
Polyplacophora Cyclopoida Chitonophilidae 2 4 67407657
Monoplacophora Tryblidiida Neopilinidae 3 4 16476354
* indicates up to ve undescribed species.
reported that 16 species of gastropod were found at >6000 m, of which only 2 were also
found at abyssal depths. Thus, he estimated gastropod endemism at hadal depths to be
87.5%.
Due to the relatively small size and colour of most hadal gastropods, they are often
not visible or obvious from in situ photography (Fig. 8.2). For example, Lemche
et al. (1976) did not report seeing any gastropods at all in over 4000 images from four
Mollusca 151
Number of species
0 10 20 30 40 50
6000-6500
6500-7000
7000-7500
7500-8000
Depth (m)
8000-8500
8500-9000
9000-9500
9500-10000
Bivalvia
10000-10500
Gastropoda
10500-11000 Scaphopoda
Figure 8.1 Number of species per 500 m depth stratum for the Mollusca: Bivalvia, Gastropoda
and Scaphopoda.
Indo-Pacic trenches. There are, however, high quality images of the buccinid Tacita
zenkevitchi from 5329 and 6173 m in the PeruChile Trench (Aguzzi et al., 2012).
These were photographed in time-lapse (every 1 min) over periods of 11 h 09 min and
18 h 40 min, respectively. These data showed that T. zenkevitchi is a gregarious
scavenger, albeit a potentially facultative one. Several hours after the bait had been
placed on the seaoor, the gastropods entered the eld of view and positioned them-
selves directly on the bait where they stayed for several hours until being adversely
removed by macrourid or ophidiid sh.
These data allowed each gastropod to be digitally tracked across the seaoor,
providing estimates on their locomotion speed and area coverage. They traversed the
seaoor at a mean absolute speed of 3.2 cm min 1 1.5 S.D. (specic speed
0.6 SL min 1 0.3 S.D.) at 5329 m and 2.3 cm min 1 1.2 S.D. (0.6 SL min 1 0.2 S.-
D.) at 6173 m. The tracks left in their wake were clearly visible as a mucus layer within
the depressed sediment. The mean area of the gastropod tracks was estimated at
0.03 m 2 h 1 0.02 S.D. The gastropods had a mean shell height of 5.33 cm at
5329 m and 4.7 cm at 6173 m. Three specimens were also recovered from the baited
traps coupled to the camera system (mean shell height of 3.1 cm; Fig. 8.2).
The Gastropoda collected from the Kermadec Trench on the Galathea expeditions
exhibited different feeding strategies (Knudsen, 1964). Based on morphological char-
acteristics, Naticidae and Admete appear to be predators and the two species of
Trochidae are scrapers (feeding on surface lm on rocks and stones) but may also
be opportunistic scavengers or detrital feeders.
Cocculiniform limpets are a particularly complex group of gastropods. At hadal
depths they have been described in six trenches but are most prevalent in number and
diversity in the Cayman Trench (Leal and Harasewych, 1999). Cocculinids are exclu-
sively associated with submerged plant or wood debris (Strong and Harasewych, 1999)
and are often collected by a bottom trawl (e.g. George and Higgins, 1979). For example,
(a) (b) (c)
1 mm 1 mm 10 mm
(d) (e) (f)
Figure 8.2 Hadal gastropods. (a) Aclis kermadecensis from 82108300 m in the Kermadec Trench.
(b) Melanella hadalis from 66606770 m in the Kermadec Trench. (c) Admete bruuni from
66606770 m in the Kermadec Trench. (d) Three scavenging gastropods (Tacita zenkevitchi) at
5329 m in the PeruChile Trench (arrowed), which were later captured from 6173 m (e).
(f) Unidentied Buccinidae from 7703 m in the Japan Trench, note the thumbprint and tear in the
soft shell. (ac) are taken from Knudsen (1964), reproduced with the permission of Galathea
Report and (de) are courtesy of HADEEP.
Leal and Harasewych (1999) described several new species originally collected from
the Cayman and Puerto-Rico Trenches in the 1950s and 60s, and reported that
Fedikovella caymanensis Moskalev, 1976 and Caymanabyssia spina Moskalev, 1976
were recovered inhabiting wood debris, while Amphiplica plutonica Leal and Harase-
wych, 1999 was found attached to blades of turtle grass. Turtle grass (Thalassia
Mollusca 153
testudium) is common within the seagrass meadows of the Caribbean and is often found
on the oor of the neighbouring trenches amongst other plant debris (Moore, 1963;
Wolff, 1976). Therefore, in the case of cocculinformes, their high diversity and abun-
dance is likely to be due to their location within highly productive coastal regions
containing vast seagrass meadows. When the seagrass is removed naturally or by
seasonal adverse weather systems (to which the area is prone), it accumulates in the
trench providing the ideal substrata for such organisms.
Coping mechanisms that enable organisms to deal with the environmental conditions
at hadal depths are particularly pertinent in the gastropods, as beyond the CCD they are
physically unable to ossify their shells. Nevertheless, gastropods prevail to full ocean
depth. At 10 700 m in the Mariana Trench, remains were found of several small
Gastropoda shells that only had a preserved periostracum (the thin organic coating of
the shell), while the calcareous part was completely dissolved (Belyaev, 1989). In 2008,
three specimens of unidentied Buccindae were recovered in baited traps from 7703 m
in the Japan Trench (unpublished data, HADEEP; Fig. 8.2). Despite being perfectly
formed, the shells were incredibly soft, so much so, they were easily torn upon careful
removal from the trap. Ingeniously, gastropods have adapted to survive beyond the
CCD by maintaining the structural formation of their shell but in a soft form; a strategy
adopted by many calcied groups (e.g. Sabbatini et al., 2002; Todo et al., 2005).
8.2.2 Bivalvia
Bivalve molluscs (clams and mussels) are another dominant class in the hadal zone,
often forming mass populations, particularly around chemosynthetic habitats (Boulgue
et al., 1987; Fujikura et al., 1999; Fujiwara et al., 2001). In terms of numbers recovered
in trawls, Bivalvia are second only to the Holothurioidea (Wolff, 1960) accounting for
catch rates of up to 82% (Belyaev, 1989). They have been found in all the studied
trenches and at all depths including greater than 10 500 m (Table 8.2; Fig. 8.1) in the
Mariana and Tonga Trenches.
The records of hadal Bivalvia listed in Belyaev (1989) are complex and include a lot
of incomplete data and identications (20 taxons only dened to the genus or family).
The records list 33 taxons at genus level, 6 orders, 14 families and 47 species but
Belyaev (1989) thought the numbers would be even greater once all specimens were
examined in more detail. Indeed, on compiling an updated list for this study, a total
number of approximately 70 species is perhaps a better estimate. The most diverse
family of the Bivalvia is the Ledellidae (of the Nuculacea superfamily), which include
20 species from 5 genera. This is another family which is likely to herald many more
species with further analysis. The remaining 13 families are much less diverse. Nucu-
laceans are known to exhibit extraordinary variation in species and morphology (Gage
and Tyler, 1991), suggesting a variety of life history traits and exploitation of different
habitat types.
Of the 47 known Nuculacean species found at hadal depths, 32 (68%) have not been
found at abyssal depths. Endemic species are generally conned to either single
trenches or clusters of adjoining trenches.
Table 8.3 Examples of mass findings of Bivalvia in the hadal zone. Table shows selected trawls from
the KurilKamchatka Trench. Modified from Belyaev (1989).
Depth (m) Bivalve species Number of specimens
72107230 Bathyspinula vityazi 184

Tindaria sp. 189
76007710 Parayoldiella mediana 227
81858400 Vesicomya sergeevi 3496
82408345 Vesicomya profundi 119
90709345 Vesicomya sergeevi 186
91709335 Yoldiella ultraabyssalis 440
Vesicomya sergeevi 191
95209530 Yoldiella ultraabyssalis 3380
Vesicomya sergeevi 1935
On many occasions, even at the greatest depths, the Soviet expeditions discovered
mass ndings of Bivalvia. They sometimes recovered over 3000 specimens from a
single trawl (Table 8.3).
Three of the Bivalvia species recovered during the Soviet expeditions belonged to the
families Teredinidae and Pholadidae. Both are borer-molluscs that were retrieved from
sunken plant debris recovered from the Banda Trench >7000 m. Although adults of
these species inhabit hadal depths, it is not known if they reproduce there. Knudsen
(1970) suggested they were guest species whose trench populations may be main-
tained via recruitment from the shallower zones where these species typically live and
reproduce.
Two common families of deep-sea bivalves are Thyarsiridae and Vesicomyidae. Both
of these families are relatively diverse in the hadal zone (nine and seven species,
respectively). They are often associated with hydrothermal-vent and cold seep
habitats (e.g. Boulgue et al., 1987; Fujikura et al., 1999). Vesicomyid bivalves are a
consistent component of the communities that inhabit sulphide-rich reducing environ-
ments and they have a global distribution, from shallow depths (100 m) to almost
full ocean depth (9530 m; Krylova and Sahling, 2010), e.g. the genus Calyptogena
(Boulgue et al., 1987). Vesicomyids found in sulphide-rich reducing habitats are
typically larger (up to 30 cm) than others. These larger vesicomyid clams live in
symbiosis with the sulphur-oxidizing bacteria in their gills (Fisher, 1990). In these
habitats, the clams have access to substantial concentrations of hydrogen sulphide in the
pore water (Barry et al., 1997). Conversely, far less is known about the smaller
representatives of the family. The irregular mass occurrences of vesicomyid clams in
the trenches may be indicative of chemosynthetic habitats within the trenches. A theory
further supported by the discovery of the cold seeps at 7200 m in the Japan Trench that
were dominated by Thyasirid clams of the genus Maorithyas (Fujikura et al., 1999;
Fujiwara et al., 2001).
As the Bivalvia include molluscs with diverse habitat and feeding preferences,
it could be construed that some of the mass ndings were a result of localised
Mollusca 155
density increases in the vicinity of sunken wood/plant debris, or the presence of

chemosynthetic habitats.
8.2.3 Scaphopoda
Scaphopoda (tusk shells) are a small class of recent molluscs, with approximately
500 known living species dwelling in shallow and deep marine sediments (Gracia
et al., 2005). They have been recorded 20 times at hadal depths of which 19 reports were
from Soviet expeditions (Belyaev, 1989). They have been found in many major trenches
throughout the oceans but are limited to depths of <8000 m (Table 8.2; Fig. 8.1).
There are only 10 known records of hadal scaphopods, which include three species and
one with two subspecies. Only one hadal scaphopod has ever been found at depths greater
than 7000 m; this specimen is from one of ve unidentied species belonging to the
Pulsellidae family, one of which was caught between 6920 and 7657 m in the Bougain-
ville Trench, the other four were from the Japan, Java, San Cristobal and Romanche
Trenches. Of the described species, there are Costentalina caymanica Chistikov, 1892
(Cayman Trench; 59006780 m), Costentalina tuscarorae Chistikov, 1892 (Japan
Trench; 64806640 m), Striopulsellum (Siphonodentalium) galatheae Knudsen, 1964
(Java Trench; 69007000 m) and Entalinidae sp. that have been found in the Kuril
Kamchatka Trench (60906675 m) and the South Sandwich Trench (60526150 m).
The hadal scaphopod (S. galatheae) examined by Knudsen (1964) was found to feed
primarily on unicellular organisms and the microscopic larvae of benthic invertebrates.
Other scaphopods are known to feed on other items such as Foraminifera tests (Morton,
1959), however, this was not evident in the Galathea specimens (Knudsen, 1964).
8.2.4 Polyplacophora and Monoplacophora

Specimens of hadal Polyplacophora (chitons), from the family Leptochionidae (order
Lepidopleurida) have only been found on four separate occasions in trenches located
within the tropical regions of the Pacic and Atlantic Oceans (Schwabe, 2008).
The rst hadal sample discovered was Leptochiton vitjazae (Sirenko, 1977),
which was found and described from the Bougainville Trench (69207657 m;
Sirenko, 1977). The Soviet expeditions also retrieved 12 specimens of Leptochiton
from the Palau Trench at 70007170 m, one specimen from the New Hebrides
Trench at 66806830 m (Belyaev, 1989) and 39 specimens attached to sunken
pieces of wood at 67406780 m in the Cayman Trench. The specimens found in
the Cayman Trench were later found to be of a new genus and species: Ferreiraella
caribbea (Sirenko, 1988).
The discovery of living Monoplacophora by the Galathea expedition was perhaps
one of their greatest nds, since this order of Mollusca was previously known only
from Paleozoic fossils; CambrianDevonian, c. 500320 Ma (Lemche, 1957; Menzies
et al., 1959; Schwabe, 2008). While the name Monoplacophora should technically
be Tryblidiida (Lemche, 1957; Wingstrand, 1985), it is still the most widely used
(Schwabe, 2008).
Of the modern Monoplacophora, 35% of the 31 known species inhabit depths

exceeding 2000 m with four species extending to hadal depths, one of which is
endemic. These four species are Veleropilina (Rokopella) oligotropha (Rokop, 1972)
(60656079 m; northwest Pacic Trough), Vema bacescui (Menzies, 1968)
(59866134 m; PeruChile Trench), Vema ewingi (Clarke and Menzies, 1959)
(58176002; PeruChile Trench) and Neopilina sp. which has large bathymetric range
of >4000 m (16476354 m; PeruChile Trench and Scotia Ridge). All are members of
the Neopilinidae family and are believed to be deposit feeders (either sediment ingesting
or unselective detritus feeding). It is likely that they are preyed upon by ophiuroids,
gastropods and sh (Menzies et al., 1959).
Based on the current number of samples, which is admittedly low, the Monoplaco-
phora appear in highest abundance in the vicinity of trenches, particularly up the eastern
Pacic Ocean (0.040.7 ind. km 2; Menzies et al., 1959). Furthermore, of the abyssal
species, none have been found in the western Pacic Ocean (Schwabe, 2008). The
reasons for this remain unresolved.
8.3 Echinodermata
The phylum Echinodermata encompasses Crinoidea (sea lilies), Asteroidea (sea stars),
Ophiuroidea (brittle stars), Echinoidea (urchins) and Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers).
All of these are wholly represented in the hadal zone and in most trenches sampled
(Gisln, 1956; Madsen, 1956; Hansen, 1957; Wolff, 1960, 1970; Table 8.4). These ve
groups all exhibit different trends within the trenches; some (e.g. Echinoids) are
restricted to the shallower depths while others (e.g. Holothurians) thrive at full ocean
depth (Fig. 8.3). Similarly, where some echinoderms prefer rocky outcrops and hard
substrata (e.g. Crinoids), some prefer the softer sediments of the oceanic slopes
(e.g. Asteroidea) and others the soft sedimentary accumulation at the trench axis
(e.g. Holothurians).
8.3.1 Crinoidea
Crinoids (sea lilies) are reasonably well represented in most of the deep trenches trawled
during the Vitjaz expeditions (Gisln, 1956). They have, so far, been recovered from
the Aleutian, KurilKamchatka, Japan, Izu-Bonin, Volcano, Palau, Bougainville,
Kermadec, Java, New Hebrides and PeruChile Trenches (Lemche et al., 1976;
Belyaev, 1989; Oji et al., 2009). They have been found at depths of 6000 to nearly
10 000 m (Belyaev, 1989). One species, in particular, that trawled from between
8175 and 9345 m in the KurilKamchatka Trench is described as massive (Belyaev,
1989). The general abundance of crinoids is also impressive; The Vitjaz trawled on
occasion up to 100 and even 255 specimens in one hadal trawl. Such large numbers of
crinoids per trawl is, in part, due to their tendency to grow in dense patches, utilising the
rocky outcrops that are characteristic of trenches (Oji et al., 2009). Video footage from
the ROV Kaik obtained by Oji et al. (2009) represents the deepest in situ observation
Echinodermata 157
Table 8.4 Hadal community composition of the Echinodermata (class, order, family, numbers of
genera and species and maximum known depth).
Holothuroidea Apodida Myriotrochidae 4 15 565010730

Holothuroidea Aspidochirotida Synalactidae 5 5 64908260
Holothuroidea Elasipoda Elpidiidae 7 30 247010000
Holothuroidea Molpadonia Gephyrothuriidae 1 2 67589530
Holothuroidea Molpadonia Molpadiidae 1 1 64906650
Ophiuroidea Ophiurae Ophiacanthidae 2 4 60657880
Ophiuroidea Ophiurae Ophiodermatidae 1 1 60526150
Ophiuroidea Ophiurae Ophioleucidae 1 1 66808006
Ophiuroidea Ophiurae Ophiuridae 9 19 56508662
Asteroidea Brisingida Freyellidae 2 4 56508662
Asteroidea Paxillosida Porcellansteridae 6 9 56507880
Asteroidea Valvatida Goniasteridae 1 1 80218042
Asteroidea Valvatida Caymanostellidae 1 1 67406780
Asteroidea Valvatida Pterasteridae 1 2 60529990
Echinioidea Echinothuroida Echinothuroida 1 1 60906235
Echinioidea Spatangoida Holasteridae 1 1 58006850
Echinioidea Spatangoida Pourtalesiidae 3 7 56507340
Echinioidea Spatangoida Urechinidae 1 1 58006780
Number of species
0 10 20 30 40 50
60006500
65007000
70007500
75008000
Depth (m)
80008500
85009000
90009500
950010000
Echinoidea
1000010500 Ophiuroidea
Asteroidea
1050011000
Holothuroidea
Figure 8.3 Number of species per 500 m depth stratum for the echinoderms: Holothuroidea,
Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea and Echinoidea.
Figure 8.4 Examples of Crinoidea at hadal depth, where (a) is from 9092 m and (b) is from 9095 m
in the Izu-Bonin Trench. Both images were taken with the ROV Kaik. Images JAMSTEC,
Japan.
of stalked crinoids (Fig. 8.4). The footage clearly shows that they can occur in
abundance at hadal depths and that they adopt the same feeding postures (mouths
directed down-current) as many shallower-water counterparts. The dense aggregations
on rocky outcrops are similar to the dense populations of stalked crinoids, or crinoid
meadows, reported in shallower zones (Conan et al., 1980; Messing et al., 1990).
Based on earlier trawling expeditions, eight species of the most common genus are
found in the hadal zone; the lter-feeding stalked crinoid Bathycrinus (family
Bathycrinidae). This family is signicantly represented in the hadal zone yet none of
its species have been found at abyssal depths, suggesting a high degree of endemism.
Specimens of Bathycrinus have also been recovered from geographically distant local-
ities, from the Aleutian, Volcano and Palau Trenches in the North Pacic Ocean, to the
Bougainville and Kermadec Trenches in the south (Mironov, 2000), across the Pacic
Ocean in the PeruChile Trench (Menzies et al., 1959; Menzies et al., 1963) to the
Southern Oceans sub-zero South Sandwich Trench (Belyaev, 1989). The maximum
depths at which crinoids have been recovered are between 9715 to 9735 m in the
Izu-Bonin Trench. This is also the same location where they were lmed in situ by the
ROV Kaik (Oji et al., 2009). Belyaev (1989) stated that the encounter frequency of
crinoids between 6000 and 10 000 m is 22%, suggesting that they are indeed a major
fraction of the hadal community.
Prior to the introduction of full ocean depth ROVs, photographs obtained by drop-
camera revealed occasional stalked crinoids at >6000 m depth, with population density
estimates of 1 ind. 100 m 2 (Lemche et al., 1976). They reported photographing at least
25 Bathycrinus cf. australis Clark, 1907 (Bathycrinidae) from between 6758 and
6776 m in the New Hebrides Trench situated individually, in groups of three to six
and mostly at the most exposed areas. They also noted seeing a further group of six
individual crinoids between 8021 and 8042 m in the Palau Trench. This group was
attached to what appeared to be a seagrass rhizome.
Echinodermata 159
The signicant abundance of crinoids at full ocean depth implies that there is
sufcient food supply reaching the extreme depths to support these organisms. As they
are lter-feeders, there must, therefore, be sufcient food suspended in the near-bottom
currents to sustain these dense aggregations. The source of this food supply is still
unknown, although Oji et al. (2009) hypothesised that conventional lter feeding may
be supplemented by chemosynthetic sources, although evidence of such geological
features in close proximity to the crinoids was lacking. They later concluded that
perhaps the crinoids were exploiting the food resource accumulation thought to occur
at the trench axis (as suggested by Danovaro et al., 2003 and Jamieson et al., 2010).
It seems likely, given the wide geographic distribution of stalked crinoids, that the
hadal trenches provide an ideal setting for these organisms that are specialists when it
comes to attaching to rocks and the other solid debris that is ever present in the trenches.
The signicance of crinoids in trenches will be further realised as more exploratory
methods are undertaken.
8.3.2 Asteroidea
Asteroidea (sea stars) are known to inhabit at least 15 trenches to depths close to
10 000 m (Table 8.4), although they are more common at and generally restricted to
depths of <8500 m. The frequency of encounter of Asteroidea in trawling hauls for
depths from 6 to 10 km averaged 42% (Belyaev, 1989). Both the number of species and
catch rate decrease linearly with depth (Fig. 8.3).
There are 41 known ndings of 17 species belonging to ve families of Asteroidea
from depths exceeding 6000 m, many of which are undescribed. These families are
Porcellansteridae (9 species, of which 4 are undescribed; 56507880 m), Pterasteridae
(1 species, 11 undescribed; 6052 to 9990 m), Freyellidae (3 species and three ndings of
1 undescribed species; 56508662 m), Goniastidae (1 undescribed species; 80218042 m)
and Caymanostellidae (1 species; 67406780 m).
The deepest record (>8500 m) for a sea star is that of a single specimen of the genus
Hymenaster (family Pterasteridae) from the Philippine Trench (Mironov, 1977, cited in
Belyaev, 1989). While there are many species known from depths exceeding 6000 m,
only one species has been described (Hymenaster glegvadi, from the Kermadec Trench;
Madsen, 1956). Hymenaster spp. have been found in most of the trenches sampled by
the Galathea and Vitjaz expeditions, from the North Pacic Ocean (KurilKamchatka,
Japan, Izu-Bonin, Volcano, Yap, Palau and Philippine Trenches), the South Pacic
Ocean (Kermadec, New Hebrides and Bougainville Trenches) as well as the Atlantic
Ocean trenches (South Sandwich and Romanche Trenches). The most numerous family
in terms of species number is Porcellansteridae and this family is found in the same
trenches as Pterasteridae, and also in the Aleutian, Ryukyu in the North Pacic
Ocean and the PeruChile Trench in the southeast Pacic Ocean, the San Cristobal
and New Britain Trenches in the southwest Pacic Ocean and the Cayman Trench in the
Carribean Sea.
Asteroidea endemism in the hadal zone is 40% at the species level and of the
10 known genera from these depths, only one is endemic; Lethmaster (Belyaev,
1989). They were also found in bottom photographs from the New Hebrides and Palau
Trenches (Lemche et al., 1976) but have never been seen on any of the lander footage
from the HADEEP projects. Lemche et al. (1976) do, however, provide a reasonably
detailed description of the Asteroidea observed.
8.3.3 Ophiuroidea
Ophiuroidea (brittle stars) are a characteristic fauna at abyssal depths and are found in
most major trenches, albeit mostly in the upper depths (Fig. 8.3). There are an estimated
24 known species belonging to four families; Ophiacanthidae (four species, three
genera), Ophioleucidae (one species), Ophiodermatidae (one undescribed species) and
the most representative family Ophiuridae (18 species, eight genera) (Table 8.4). The
exact species number may vary as the records listed in Belyaev (1989) contain both
undescribed and presumed species identications.
The deepest known Ophiuroidea is Perlophiura profundissima Belyaev and Litvi-
nova, 1972 (Ophiuridae) trawled from 80608135 m by the Vitjaz in the Kuril
Kamchatka Trench, although photographs also exist of an unidentied species from
8662 m in the Bougainville Trench (Lemche et al., 1976). However, most species of
ophiuroids are found at <7500 m with only four species found deeper (Fig. 8.3).
Furthermore, these records span 17 of the worlds trenches. The overall trawl catch
frequency decreases from a mean of 50% between 6000 and 7500 m, to 9.6% at
>7500 m. In general, the Ophiuroidea comprise a minimal component in most hadal
trawl catches, however, there are instances of mass catches. For example, one trawl on
the Vitjaz recovered 600 specimens of Ophiuroidea, accounting for 55% of the total
number of samples. Similarly, ndings of dense aggregation were found in the Palau
Trench (55%) and the South Sandwich Trench (42% and 14%).
Ophiuroidea endemism at species level is estimated at 43%, with only one endemic
genus in the trenches. The non-endemic species are apparently highly eurybathic, as
they are known to inhabit both abyssal and bathyal depths suggesting bathymetric
ranges of several thousand metres.
Ophiuroidea have been photographed several times at hadal depths in the HADEEP
projects but these taxa are notoriously difcult to identify from images. At 7199 m in
the Kermadec, 180 images of Ophiura aff. loveni (Lyman, 1878; Ophiuridae) were
reported (Jamieson et al., 2011a; Fig. 8.5a), two distinctly different species were
observed in the PeruChile Trench at 4602 m and one further species at 6173 m
(unpublished data, HADEEP; Fig. 8.5). The three PeruChile Trench species behaved
slightly differently. Ophiuroid A was present periodically throughout the deployments,
staying for either 38 min (40% of observations) or 3090 min (60%). It is estimated
that of the 10 observations made, seven of these were of individuals and only on one
occasion were two individuals visible simultaneously. Ophiuroid B was observed three
times; the rst two occurrences saw solitary individuals traversing the seaoor seem-
ingly indifferent to the bait and associated activity, while the third individual remained
in the vicinity for over 3 h. Ophiuroid C aggregated to a maximum number of ve
Echinodermata 161
Figure 8.5 (a) Ophiura aff. loveni from 7199 m in the Kermadec Trench. (b, c, d) The
ophiuroids, Ophiuroid A from 4602 m, Ophiuroid B from 4602 m and Ophiuroid C from 6173 m
in the PeruChile Trench, respectively. Scale bars 2 cm. Images courtesy of HADEEP.
individuals by 386 min into the deployment. As the numbers of the sh increased, these
ophiuroids quickly exited the eld of view. The behaviour of O. aff. loveni in the
Kermadec Trench was similar to Ophiuroid A.
Lemche et al. (1976) made 350 observations of Ophiura sp. (and two specimens
thought to be Ophiacanthidae) between 6758 and 6776 m in the New Hebrides Trench,
using a drop-camera. The ophuiroids were frequently seen on the seaoor, situated
between rocks and boulders. They observed up to 11 individuals in the same frame and
estimated the average density to be at least 3 ind. 10 m 2.
8.3.4 Holothuroidea
Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers) are thought to be one of the most signicant hadal fauna
(Hansen, 1957; Fig. 8.3), so much so that the hadal zone has been referred to as the
kingdom of the Holothurians (Belyaev, 1989). This is based on the results of deep
trawls from the Galathea and Vitjaz expeditions where the trawl catch rate at >6000 m
was 88%, only comparable to Polychaeta. The hadal Holothuroidea are, however, less
diverse than the Crustacea and Polychaeta, but close to that of the Gastropoda and
Bivalvia (Table 8.4). The holothurians are represented at hadal depths by seven
families; Elpidiidae (30 species, 6 genera), Myriotrochidae (15 species, 4 genera),
Synalactidae (5 species, 4 genera), Psychrolotidae (4 species, 2 genera), Gephyrothur-
idae (2 species, 1 genus), Leatmogonidae (1 species), Molpadiidae (1 species) and
Palagothuriidae (1 species). Holothurians of the order Elasipoda, mainly the family
Elpidiidae (Fig. 8.6), are thought to be one of the most important trench species based
on genus diversity and density (Fig. 8.7). It also thought that Elasipoda are one of the
most common animals in the deep sea (Hansen, 1972).
Holothuroidea species endemism is estimated at 69% in the trenches and most
endemics are limited to a single trench or adjoining trenches. There is only one known
Figure 8.6 Two drawings of Elpidiidae from the Galathea expeditions; Elpidia glacialis
solomonensis (a) and E.g. kermadecensis (b) and (c) Elpidia atakama photographed in situ at
8074 m in the PeruChile Trench. Images (a) and (b) taken from Hansen (1957), reproduced with
the permission of Galathea Report and (c) is courtesy of HADEEP.
endemic genus, Hadalothuria Hansen, 1956. Of the non-endemic species, 6 are con-
strained to abyssal depths whereas the remaining 11 species are sufciently eurybathic
to extend as far as bathyal depths.
The number of trawl samples from hadal depths is still extremely low, even by
comparison with abyssal depths. Therefore, there are some perhaps more abundant
species where inter-trench trends can be observed, while there are others that still pose
disparate trends that may change as further research in undertaken. An example of the
disparate species is Amperima naresi (Thel, 1882; Elpidiidae) that has, so far, only
been found in the Java Trench (Indian Ocean) and the Palau Trench in the North Pacic
Ocean. It seems unlikely that a species would inhabit two such isolated trenches and not
trenches in closer geographic proximity, such as the Yap, Mariana or Volcano Trenches.
Similarly, Amperima velacula Agatep, 1967 and Elpidia decapoda (Belyaev, 1975) are
recorded in the San Cristobal in the Indo-Pacic and the South Sandwich Trench in the
Southern Ocean. Equally, there are many examples of holothurians that are endemic to
hadal depths but that occupy a cluster of neighbouring trenches. For example, the
Hadalothuria wolf Hansen, 1956 species has been found in the closely located New
Britain, New Hebrides and Bougainville Trenches and the Elpidia glacialis kurilensis
species has been found to inhabit the Aleutian, KurilKamchatka and Japan Trenches,
all of which are linked. A good example of a species found to inhabit multiple trenches
spanning the western Pacic Ocean is Prototrochus bruuni (Hansen, 1956;
Myriotrochidae). This holothurian is found from the northern Izu-Bonin through the
Palau and Philippine Trenches in the central Pacic Ocean, to the Bougainville,
Kermadec and Tonga Trenches in the south and across into the Java Trench.
A greater faunal diversity exists between 6000 and 7500 m, however, holothurians
still account for 25% of trawl catches at these depths. At depths exceeding 7500 m, their
mean trawl catch rate exceeds 50%, with some as high as 7598%. In the deepest parts
of the trench, the holothurians represent one of the largest animals. Consequently, their
Echinodermata 163
KurilKamchatka
Kermadec
South Sandwich
New Hebrides
Japan
Izu-Bonin
Bougainville
Philippine
Palau
Banda Elpidiidae
Trench
San Cristobal Myriotrochidae

Romanche
Java Gephyrothuriidae
Peru-Chile Laetmogonidae
New Britain
Mariana Molpadiidae
yap Palagothuriidae
Puerto-Rico
Aluean Psychropodae
Volcano Synalacdae
Tonga
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Number of species
Figure 8.7 Number of species of holothurian per family in each of the trenches sampled.
percentage biomass from most deep trawls can exceed 90%. Wolff (1970) detailed the
numbers of holothurian specimens belonging to the genus Elpidia, recovered by trawl in
the KurilKamchatka Trench that showed an exponential increase in numbers with
depth (Fig. 8.8). Such mass aggregations have also been witnessed in the Japan Trench,
by remotely operated vehicles (Fig. 8.9).
Most of the incidences of mass catches occur at highly productive regions in the
North Pacic Ocean, mainly around the KurilKamchatka, Japan and the Kermadec
Trenches, and even at trenches in the Southern Ocean (Vinogradova et al., 1993b).
One similar result was obtained in the tropics, at the Java Trench, which is also
characterised by high biological productivity. These mass catches are mainly conned
to the deepest trench axis, thus supporting the trench resource accumulation hypothesis
(Jamieson et al., 2010); if the downward input of POM were to accumulate along the
trench axis, particularly at the greatest depth of the trench, then this should be reected
in high numbers of deposit feeders, such as holothurians, as is observed at abyssal
depths (Billett and Hansen, 1982; Bett et al., 2001; Billett et al., 2001). Mass catches are
also an indication of the relationship between holothurians and shallower, complex
topographies, since dense populations of elpidiids are a common feature of submarine
canyons and other depressions known to accumulate organic matter (De Leo et al., 2010).
20000
18000
16000
Number of holothurians
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Depth (m)
Figure 8.8 Number of holothurians of the genus Elpidia recovered by trawl from the
KurilKamchatka Trench. Data derived from Wolff (1970).
Figure 8.9 Mass aggregation of holothurians at 7323 m in the Japan Trench, taken by
the ROV Kaik. Image JAMSTEC, Japan.
Based on the Vitjaz trawl data, Belyaev (1989) provided population estimates of other
Elpidiidae in various other trenches. The density of E. glacialis uschakovi Belyaev,
1971 in the New Hebrides Trench and Elpidia sp. from the Palau Trench were both
0.1 ind. m 2 ( 1000 ind. ha 1), while the density of E. solomonensis Hansen, 1956
Echinodermata 165
from the New Britain and Bougainville Trenches ranged from 0.03 to 0.1 and
0.01 ind. m 2, respectively (3001000 ind. ha 1 and 100 ind. ha 1). Summarising
the whole family, Belyaev (1989) suggested that the density of Elpidiidae in trenches
varies from 0.5 to 10 ind. m 2 (5000100 000 ind. ha 1). Other reports from the abyssal
Orkney Trench have estimated the density of E. decapoda to be 15 ind. m 2
(150 000 ind. ha 1) and 30 ind. m 2 (300 000 ind. ha 1) at 6160 m and 5580 m,
respectively (Gebruk, 1993). These estimates are somewhat higher than estimates from
the abyssal North Pacic Ocean (15.5193.3 ind. ha 1; Kaufmann and Smith, 1997)
and North Atlantic Ocean (8.77337.92 ind. ha 1; Billett et al., 2001). In the western
tropical Pacic trenches, various Holothuroidea were photographed at depths down to
9000 m (Lemche et al., 1976). Here, population densities for the Elpidiidae were
estimated at 0.5 to 10 m2.
Aside from trawl catch statistics, holothurians have also been observed by drop-
cameras in multiple trenches (Lemche et al., 1976) and during ROV exploration
(unpublished data, JAMSTEC, Japan and WHOI, USA). Jamieson et al. (2011b)
serendipitously landed a Hadal-Lander in the vicinity of the holothurian Elpidia
atakama (Belyaev, 1971) at 8074 m in the PeruChile Trench. Over a 20 h 25 min
period, the lander recorded 1225 still images of the solitary holothurian traversing the
seabed. The holothurian was tracked to provide information on locomotion rates and
feeding behaviour. The results showed that the behaviour of E. atakama was not
exceptional when compared to shallow-water counterparts. It exhibited the run and
mill foraging pattern also adopted by functionally analogous, abyssal species in the
northeast Pacic Ocean (Elpidia minutissima Belyaev, 1971, Abyssocucumis abys-
sorum (Thel, 1886), Synallactes profundi, Peniagone vitrea Thel, 1882 and Scoto-
planes globosa Thel, 1879; Smith et al., 1993; Kaufmann and Smith, 1997; Fig. 8.10).
Its locomotion and feeding rates were also comparable to these shallow-water holothur-
ians. The run and mill foraging behaviour observed suggested that these holothurians
are a functionally important species capable of behavioural adaptation in response to
localised resource heterogeneity (Godbold et al., 2009, 2011). As unique as these data
were, it is difcult to assess the ecological signicance of hadal Elpidiidae in the
absence of spatial and temporal information of the population, as there are no abun-
dance estimates for E. atakama (or any other holothurian) in the PeruChile Trench.
However, these data were used to calculate the area of seaoor bioturbated by a single
holothurian with time (based on mean speed and animal width); E. atakama is capable
of reworking 1 m2 of surface sediment every 5.1 days, or alternatively a population of
123 individuals could rework 1 m2 of surface sediment per hour.
Holothurians were also a dominating fauna in the trench images described by Lemche
et al. (1976). These images provided further information regarding their behaviour
rather than simply focusing on diversity and abundance. For example, they showed
that Peniagone purpurea, a at holothurian with 79 pairs of ventrolateral tubefeet, not
only lie on the sediment surface but often partially bury themselves, with only the
anterior visible. They discussed how the tubefeet are used for walking as well as milling
(also observed in E. atakama; Jamieson et al., 2011b). The illumination in some of the
images was sufcient to ascertain that the tubefeet raise the ventral surface over the
(a) 250 (b) 50
200
Absolute speed (cm min -1)
40
Distance Y (cm)
150
30
100
20
50
0 10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Distance X (cm)
Figure 8.10 Locomotion and feeding behaviour of the hadal holothurian Elpidia atakama, where
(a) is the time course of feeding and locomotion and (b) shows the XY coordinates as viewed
from above. In both instances the shaded area indicated periods of feeding. Modied from
Jamieson et al. (2011b).
seaoor during locomotion and that the veler papiliiae are as long as the body (not
previously known to damaged trawl samples) and can move independently, seemingly
to explore the waters and sediment immediately in front of the animal. Further observa-
tion of Peniagone azorica Marenzeller von, 1892 from the New Britain Trench,
between ~7000 and 8000 m, also showed the tubefeet raising the body off the sediment
surface, as well as traces of footprints. P. azorica, however, showed no evidence of
burying behaviour. Scotoplanes globosa at 70577075 m in the New Britain Trench and
at 67586776 m in the New Hebrides Trench was observed to be walking with every
second foot moving at a time. In addition, no footprints were visible, suggesting a very
minute weight in water. These observations also conrmed the observation of Hansen
(1972), who reported that their bodies produce a wave of constrictions to aid in
locomotion, i.e. peristaltic waves passing over the body, pressing uid from the dermal
ambulacral cavities to the tubefeet. The images also showed that Pelgothuria, hitherto
considered a swimming holothurian, is also found resting on the seaoor, in this case at
67586776 m in the New Hebrides Trench. Interesting feeding behaviours were also
documented describing how Hadalothuria wolf is able to bend its anterior end at right
angles to feed over a greater area without the need for further locomotion. It was also
seen to leave shallow tracks in its wake and the scientists speculated that it moves in a
gliding motion because its small tubefeet offer little resistance against the sediment.
8.3.5 Echinoidea
Echinoidea (urchins) are known to inhabit at least nine major trenches to depths of
<7000 m (Madsen, 1956). They have, however, been found slightly deeper in two
trenches; the Palau (7170 m) and Banda Trenches (7340 m). The Echinoidea are repre-
sented by four families: Pourtalesiidae (seven species, three genera), Holasteridae (one
Other benthic invertebrates 167
species), Echinothuroidea (one species) and Urechinidae (one species) (Table 8.4). With
the exception of the Echinothuroidea, all the other families belong to the order
Spatangoida.
Only two species and one subspecies of echinoid are endemic at hadal depths and of
the non-endemic species, four are known to inhabit abyssal depths and just one
eurybathic species extends to the bathyal zone.
Echinoidea are not especially common in upper hadal depth trawl catches and are
typically represented only by fragments. The trawl catch frequency between 6000 and
7340 m is 31% (Belyaev, 1989). The Echinoidea, similar to the other Echinodermata, do
appear to occur, on occasion, in mass aggregations. In the Banda Trench, Pourtalesia
heptneri Mironov, 1978 (Pourtalesiidae) was found in all three trawls to a maximum
depth of 7130 m. In total, 24 whole specimens were recovered along with the shell
fragments of at least another 120 individuals. In the Java Trench, the endemic subspe-
cies Echinosigra amphora indica Mironov, 1974 (Pourtalesiidae) was found in two out
of six trawls undertaken between 6820 and 6850 m. One trawl included 32 specimens.
Very little further information is known about the occurrence, bathymetric range and
ecology of hadal echinoids.
8.4 Other benthic invertebrates
Ascidiae (sea squirts) are present in the hadal zone but are generally restricted to the
upper half of the depth range. The hadal sea squirts fall into two orders (Phelebobran-
chia and Stolidobranchia) and ve families (Corellidae and Octacnemidae, and
Hexacrobylidae, Pyuridae and Styelidae, respectively). All records are taken from the
trenches of the western Pacic Ocean where the trawl catch frequency is approximately
25% (Belyaev, 1989). Ascidens, possibly of the Corellidae family, were also visible in
some of the PROA images in the New Britain (78757921 m) and New Hebrides
Trenches (67586776 m; Lemche et al., 1976). The New Britain ascidians were found
in far greater densities than those in the New Hebrides, estimated at one specimen per
30 m2 although whether this was an effect of trench, depth or substrata is unknown. The
deepest known species is Situla pelliculosa Vinogradova, 1969 (Octacnemidae), found
in the KurilKamchatka Trench between 5000 and 8400 m.
The Brachiopoda (lamp shells) are generally limited to the abyssal depths at ~5500 m
and no live brachiopods have ever been found in the hadal trenches. However, empty
brachiopod shells were discovered at 6160 m in the northwest trough and at ~7500 m at
the Romanche Trench fault (Belyaev, 1989). However, Lemche et al. (1976) noted
small, attened specimens of Articulata brachiopoda at 67586776 m in the New
Hebrides Trench. These anecdotal observations are yet insufcient to prove or refute
the presence of hadal brachiopods.
Belyaev (1989) notes that although Bryozoa had been collected by the Galathea and
Vitjaz expeditions from the Kermadec (82108300 m), Java (6487 m), Kuril
Kamchatka (60908400 m), Izu-Bonin (88008830 m) and PeruChile Trenches
(7000 m) and from the Romanche Trench fault (7340 m), most of the specimens were
not processed. He noted that some specimens are probably of the genus Kinetoskias or
Bugula, from the Bicellariidae (now Bugilidae) family and that all the Bryozoa found at
<3000 m belong to the order Cheilostomatida. Therefore, it is likely that the Bryozoa
found in the trenches belong exclusively to Cheilostomatida.
9 Crustacea
In total, 11 orders of Crustacea have been found at hadal depths (Table 9.1). The
Crustacea are an extremely important facet of the hadal community, particularly the
orders Isopoda and Amphipoda. In fact, they are found in almost every sample and
every trench. In terms of numerical abundance and diversity, isopods are one of the
most important macrofaunal, benthic taxa in deep-sea communities (Hessler and
Sanders, 1967; Hessler and Strmberg, 1989) and the number of species found at hadal
depths exceeds that of all other Crustacea and any other class of multicellular organism
(Belyaev, 1989).
The importance of the Amphipoda is evident from different sampling methods than
the other invertebrates. The use of baited camera and traps have shown that amphipods
completely dominate the mobile scavenging fauna at depth greater than 8000 m and are
often recovered from traps in numbers of tens of thousands (Blankenship et al., 2006);
they are prolic scavengers that thrive at full ocean depth (Hessler et al., 1978;
Jamieson et al., 2009a; Eustace et al., 2013). Their importance is also two-fold. In
addition to their overwhelming presence at >8000 m, they have been consistently
shown to be a major prey item to larger predators in the upper trench at <8000 m
(Jamieson et al., 2009a, b; 2012a).
There are, of course, other less conspicuous and less diverse Crustacea found at hadal
depths, including the Cirripedia, Ostracoda, Mysidacea, Pantopoda, the exceptionally
rare Acariformes and the Leptostraca. The Acariformes are seldom found and are
mostly restricted to the abyssalhadal boundary. Similarly only a single, individual
leptrostracan has ever been recovered from hadal depths; from 7100 m in the Japan
Trench (Jamieson et al., 2010). Furthermore, specimens from the cosmopolitan subclass
Copepoda have been recovered from the hado-pelagic zone, but due to the fact that it is
notoriously difcult to obtain quantitative samples from hado-pelagic waters, extraor-
dinarily few samples and thus extraordinarily few specimens have ever been collected
(Vinogradov, 1962). The fact that the orders of Crustacea described above appear to be
low in abundance and diversity in the hadal zone, or seem to be restricted to shallower
depths, may be a result of sampling bias. Hopefully, their role and the true extent of
their existence at hadal depths will one day be realised, as more comprehensive data is
obtained.
The nal crustaceans worthy of a mention here are the Decapoda and the
supergiant amphipod Alicella gigantea. Up until 2009, one of the inexplicable nd-
ings to emerge from the extensive sampling in the 1950s was the complete absence of
169
170 Crustacea
Table 9.1 Each group of Crustacea currently known to inhabit the hadal zone with the total number
of known species ( number of undescribed species) with the corresponding maximum known depth
for the order. Given the large number of undescribed species, these species number should be
interpreted as indicative only.
Number of known species Maximum known

Group ( number of undescribed species) at hadal depths depth (m)
Copepoda 27 (5) 10 000

Cirripedia 6 (3) 7 880
Ostracoda 9 (5) 9 500
Mysidacea 2 (10) 8 720
Cumacea 6 (10) 8 042
Tanaidacea 43 (10) 9 174
Isopoda 94 (39) 10 730
Amphipoda 63 (14) 10 994
Decapoda 2* 7 703
Acariformes 1 6 850
Pantopoda 8 (1) 7 370
decapods at hadal depths. In hindsight, employment of the wrong sampling gear for the
task was probably to blame for this erroneous nding. Since then, baited cameras have
consistently observed large (over 20 cm long), benthesicymid prawns in multiple
trenches, as deep as 7703 m (Jamieson et al., 2009b). Also, the supergiant amphipod
has always been something of an enigma, with few specimens taken over decades from
disparate, geographical locations. Recently, however, they were found in relatively high
numbers using cameras and traps at 7000 m in the Kermadec Trench and some
measured up to nearly 30 cm (Jamieson et al., 2013). The discoveries of both the
decapods and the supergiants are testament to how much more there is still to learn
about this environment through hadal sampling. It is suprising that an entire order of
such large Crustacea and an animal dubbed supergiant has gone unnoticed in the
trenches until very recently. In a sense, this provides some condence that the other
smaller crustaceans, or perhaps even the larger ones, are more extensive and diverse in
the hadal zone than is currently known today.
The following provides an overview of the orders of Crustacea currently known to
exist in the hadal zone.
One of the most intriguing characteristics of Crustacea at hadal depths is their
increased body size relative to their shallow-water counterparts. Both Belyaev (1989)
and Wolff (1960) refer to this phenomenon as gigantism, although Wolff (1962)
stipulated that this actually meant a tendency towards larger dimensions. True gigant-
ism at hadal depths is perhaps only really evident in the supergiant amphipod, Alicella
gigantea (Jamieson et al., 2013). The most striking example of increased body size with
depth is the Asellota suborder of the Isopoda (Wolff, 1960), while others such as some
Cumacea, Tanaidacea and Mysidacea genera also show this increase.
The possible reasons for the increased body size with depth and the greatest dimen-
sions of hadal Crustacea remain unresolved. However, the increase in body size in some
Copepoda 171
cases occurs in closely related species within the same genus at comparatively shallow
depths in the polar regions and thus is likely to be related to low temperature, but in
other cases, it is related solely to increased depths not temperature, suggesting hydro-
static pressure as a potential explanation in some cases. For the Isopoda at least, Wolff
(1962) also attributed the larger body dimensions to a longer life span under trench con-
ditions but also suggested that gigantism may be due to the pressure effects on meta-
bolism (Wolff, 1960, also suggested by Zenkevitch and Birstein, 1956). This tendency
for a larger body size has not been reported for any groups other than Crustacea.
9.1 Copepoda
Copepoda of the hadal zone are represented by the pelagic order Calanoida and the
benthic order Harpacticoida. Information on the hadal Calanoida is almost exclusively
derived from the RV Vitjaz expeditions. The rst samples were obtained in 1953
by closing plankton nets, from 8500 to 6000 m in the KurilKamchatka Trench
(Vinogradov, 1962). These hauls produced 20 species belonging to 17 genera and
10 families, including 2 new genera; Zenkevitchiella and Parascaphocalanus. These
plankton hauls revealed that, despite a relatively diverse catch, the composition was
often dominated by just a few species. For example: 64 Spinocalanus similis profunda-
lis Brodsky, 1950 (Spinocalanidae), 97 specimens of Parascaphocalanus zenkevitchi
Brodsky, 1955 (Scolecitrichidae) and 37 Metridia similis abyssalis Brodsky, 1955
(Metridinidae), and the rest comprised single specimens of the other species.
Of the 32 species collected from the KurilKamchatka Trench, 15 (47%) are endemic
to hadal depths, whilst 10 are known to extend to abyssal depths and are generally only
found in the northwest Pacic Ocean (with the exception of Lucicutia curvifurcata
Heptner, 1971 (Lucicutiidae), also found in the Bougainville Trench). The other species
are eurybathic and geographically widespread.
Deep-sea, benthic representatives of Harpacticoida have been described from as deep
as 10 000 m in the Kermadec Trench (Belyaev, 1989) and they are, generally, the second
most abundant meiobenthic taxon in marine samples, after nematodes (Giere, 2009). Of
the Harpacticoida obtained from the Vitjaz expeditions, only one has been formally
described as a new genus and species from the family Cerviniidae, Herdmaniopsis
abyssicola Brotskaya, 1963 (Aegisthidae), from 6071 m (Belyaev, 1989). The same
study described three new species of the genus Cervinia, from the same family
(C. brevipes, C. tenuicauda and C. tenuiseta Brotskaya, 1963) from 5700 m, close to
the Izu-Bonin Trench. Belyaev (1989) suggested that these species would also probably
be found at hadal depths. In 2009, baited traps deployed in the Kermadec Trench
collected 40 copepods from 5173 m, one from 6000 m and 19 individuals from 7561 m,
but unfortunately, these specimens are still unidentied (Jamieson et al., 2011a).
The most detailed study to date regarding harpacticoids is Kitahashi et al. (2012),
who examined the spatial changes in the assemblages of harpacticoids at the family
level, around the Ryukyu region (encompassing the trench and surrounding abyssal
plain) and Kuril region (encompassing the KurilKamchatka Trench and adjacent
172 Crustacea
abyssal plains). In the Ryukyu region, they found high average dissimilarities
in the assemblages between the trench, trench slope and abyssal plain, indicating
that the assemblage structures differ substantially between these topographic settings
at the family level. The dominant families from the 18 found in this region were
Ectinosomatidae (15.8%), Psuedotachidiidae (15.1%), Zosimeidae (14.2%),
Ameiridae (12.5%), Argestidae (12.1%) and Neobradyidae (9.3%).
In the Kuril region, the average assemblage dissimilarity between topographical
locations suggested that the hadal assemblage is a transition zone between the slope
and the abyssal plain. Sixteen families of harpacticoid were found in this region and
were dominated by Ectinosomatidae (23.9%), Ameiridae (17.3%), Psuedotachidiidae
(14.3%), Idyanthidae (13.3%), Argestidae (9.8%) and Cletodidae (6.1%).
The data from each region suggested that the composition of harpacticoid assem-
blages was inuenced by the quantity of organic matter in the Ryukyu region, while in
the Kuril region, sediment properties played a key role. Comparisons of the two
assemblages showed that the average dissimilarities between the trenches and abyssal
plains were higher than those between the adjacent slopes, suggesting that migration
between regions is difcult for deep-sea, benthic harpacticoid copepods due to topo-
graphical barriers (Kitahashi et al., 2012).
Unfortunately, as Kitahashi et al. (2012) point out, species-level analyses present a major
challenge because more than 95% of deep-sea harpacticoid specimens are new to science. In
addition, morphological identications should be tentative, as molecular studies on shal-
lower harpacticoids have revealed that some cosmopolitan harpacticoid species are actually
species complexes (e.g. Schizas et al., 1999; Rocha-Olivares et al., 2001). Therefore,
much more research, in particular molecular analyses of deep-sea harpacticoids, is required
to provide a clear overview of some taxonomic groups, in this case, the harpacticoids.
9.2 Cirripedia
Cirripedia are not a particularly characteristic hadal fauna, as most are found only around
the 6000 m contour and in very low numbers. The majority have been found between
6000 and 7000 m in the KurilKamchatka, Japan, Izu-Bonin, Ryukyu, Kermadec, Peru
Chile and Philippine Trenches but in most instances, they were only found in quantities of
one or two individuals. All of the nine species of Cirripedia found at hadal depths belong
to the family Scalpellidae; three have only been classied to genus or subfamily level. All
of them have been described from a single trench only, with the exception of Annanda-
leum japonicum (Hoek, 1883), which has also been found in the neighbouring
KurilKamchatka, Japan and Ryukyu Trenches (61566810 m; Belyaev, 1989).
9.3 Ostracoda
There are currently 14 species of ostracod known from the hadal zone. These comprise
mostly undescribed specimens belonging to ve families of two orders (Podocopida and
Halocyprida). The most common species is Juryoecia (Metaconchoecilla) abyssalis
Mysidacea 173
(Rudjakov, 1962) of the Halocyprididae family. These have been found in the
KurilKamchatka, Mariana, Bougainville and Kermadec Trenches, from 4200 to
8500 m deep (Belyaev, 1989). The maximum known depth of a benthic ostracod is
8100 m in the Puerto-Rico Trench (Retibythere scaberrima Brady, 1886; Bythocyther-
idae) and the deepest pelagic ostracods are Archiconchoecilla maculata Chavtur, 1977,
and Paraconchoecia vitjazi (Rudjalov, 1962), both Halocyprididae, from 9500 m in the
KurilKamchatka Trench.
Three individual ostracods were also recovered using baited traps in the Kermadec
Trench in 2009, albeit from only 5173 m (Jamieson et al., 2011a). These were identied
as two Bathyconchoecia sp. n. and one Metavargula cf. adinothrix Kornicker, 1975.
9.4 Mysidacea
The Mysidacea are another group of crustaceans found in the hadal zone, about which
little is known. There are only two that have been described to species level; Amblyops
magna from the KurilKamchatka Trench (64357230 m) and Mysimenzies hadalis,
from the PeruChile Trench (61466352 m) (Bacescu, 1971). There are, however,
records of various unidentied species, all from the family Mysidae from 14 trenches,
comprising ve genera (Amblyops, Birsteiniamysis, Mysimenzies, Paramblyops and
Mysidacea) of which all are known from shallower zones. Of the 12 known species
from hadal depths, only 3 species are known from the lower abyssal zone (below
4500 m), and the other 9 (75%) are endemic to hadal depths. The deepest Mysidacea
found to date was from 85608720 m, in the Yap Trench (Paramblyops sp. n.).
There are also various records of hado-pelagic catches of mysids from the Kuril
Kamchatka, Japan, Izu-Bonin and Ryukyu Trenches (Boreomysis incise; 60007000 m)
and Dactylamblyops tenella from 6600 m in the Ryukyu Trench (Birstein and
Tchindonova, 1958).
While descending into the Puerto-Rico Trench in the Archimde bathyscaphe, Prs
(1965) reported observing euphausids between 6100 and 6450 m and another individual
below 6600 m. However, Belyaev (1989) notes, based on the opinions of others at the
time, that these euphausids were more likely to be mysids (although there are currently
no records of hadal mysids from the Puerto-Rico Trench). Mysids were also tentatively
identied from images taken at four stations in the Palau, New Britain, Bougainville and
New Hebrides Trenches at depths between 6758 and 8662 m (Lemche et al., 1976).
They documented 37 individuals at 80218042 m in the Palau Trench that were, on
average, 1 cm long and they noted other possible sightings at 82588260 m in the New
Britain Trench (one specimen), at 78478662 m in the North Solomon Trench (four
specimens) and at 67586776 m in the New Hebrides Trench (two specimens which
were 34 cm long).
Perhaps the most striking and indicative examples of trench mysids are those
observed using the Hadal-Lander B which was deployed at 4602, 5329, 6173 and
7050 m in the PeruChile Trench, in 2010 (Fig. 9.1). The lander took a photograph
every 1 min of a 0.35 m 2 area of seaoor that was baited with tuna. At the abyssal
174 Crustacea
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 9.1 Examples of trench-dwelling mysids, where (a) is an in situ image of mysids
aggregating at bait at 4602 m in the PeruChile Trench; (b) is a magnied view of an individual at
7050 m in the PeruChile Trench; and (c) is a specimen of Amblyops sp. recovered from 6709 m
in the Kermadec Trench. Images courtesy of HADEEP.
stations, the number of mysids outnumbered the usually dominant amphipods and at the
6173 and 7050 m sites, they were still present but in lower numbers. At each of these
four stations, the rst arrival times of the mysids were 7, 67, 27 and 28 minutes,
respectively. Their maximum numbers (in each image) reached 76, 5, 27 and 15,
respectively, and they were present in 99.4, 59.7, 56.2 and 27.7% of the images taken
(Fig. 9.2). Their mean body length was 2.21 cm 0.5 (n 40), 1.69 cm 0.8 (n 10),
Mysidacea 175
(a)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(b) 30
Number of mysids
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
(c)
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (h)
Figure 9.2 Total number of mysids observed per image at (a) 4602 m, (b) 6173 m and (c) 7050 m
in the PeruChile Trench. The black line depicts a 1 h moving average. Data obtained using
Hadal-Lander B, HADEEP.
1.88 cm 0.4 S.D. (n 24) and 1.77 cm 0.4 S.D. (n 10), respectively. Unfortu-
nately, despite recovering hundreds of amphipod specimens per deployment, not a
single mysid was caught and, therefore, the species is still unidentied. This observed
hadal mysid species did, however, closely match the location and depth (61466354 m)
of Mysimenzies hadalis (Bacescu, 1971).
176 Crustacea
Use of the same lander in other trenches, notably the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches,
has produced many observations of smaller mysids, but normally in numbers of fewer
than ve individuals. The baited trap, Latis, did, however, recover two specimens from
6265 and 6709 m in the Kermadec Trench and these were identied to genus level as
Amblyops sp. (unpublished data, HADEEP; Fig. 9.1).
9.5 Cumacea
The Cumacea are not a common or well-known group at hadal depths. There are records
from 14 trenches comprising two identied species (Makrokylindrus hadalis Jones,
1969 and Makrokylindrus hystrix Gamo, 1985; Diastylidae) from the Java and Japan
Trenches, respectively, three identications to genus level (Bathycuma sp. from the
Bougainville Trench, Lamprops sp. from the Java Trench and Leucon sp. from the
Aleutian Trench) and one presumed species (Vaunthompsonia aff. cristata Bate, 1858,
Bodotriidae) from the KurilKamchatka Trench. The other 10 records have not been
identied. All of the records are reported from depths between 5650 and 8042 m
(Belyaev, 1989). Other reported sightings include those of Lemche et al. (1976) who
saw an elongated cumacean in the Palau Trench (80218042 m), three distinctively
different cumaceans at 78757921 m in the New Britain Trench (one of which was
Leucon-like) and a very elongate individual at 67586776 m in the New Hebrides
Trench. There are currently no indications that any of the species or genera previously
reported are endemic to hadal depths.
9.6 Tanaidacea
The Tanaidacea order are a relatively well-known group of Crustacea, having been
found in most trenches and studied to a maximum known depth of 9174 m; Akantho-
phoreus (Leptognathia) longiremis (Lilljeborg, 1864) (Akanthophoreidae); Kermadec
Trench (Fig. 9.3). The taxonomic composition of hadal Tanaidacea are quite diverse
(Table 9.2), comprising 63 species of 26 genera and 13 families dened to date
(derived from Belyaev, 1989, updated from Larsen and Shimomura, 2007a). The
most diverse family is the Leptognathiidae that accounts for 52% of the total known
hadal species. Leptognathiidae also contains 20 species of the genus Leptognathia and
thus this genus accounts for one-third of all the Tanaidacea species found at hadal
depths. Larsen and Shimomura (2007b) removed several species from the Leptog-
nathia but did not give replacement family designation. Trench endemism of the
Tanaidacea is currently around 40%, but increases with depth, from 16% between
6000 and 6500 m up to 75% between 8000 and 8500 m, and there are no endemic
genera.
The distribution of tanaids prompted some discussion by Belyaev (1989). At hadal
depths tanaids are thought to be distributed unevenly since the encounter frequency in
trawl catches was less than 30% and in the bottom grab samples it was ~40% (based on
Vitjaz and Galathea expedition collections). Furthermore, he doubted their apparent
Tanaidacea 177
Table 9.2 Tanaid families found at hadal depths with numbers of genera, species and bathymetric range.
Family Genera Species Depth range (m)
Apseudidae 2 3 60657657
Collettidae 2 2 31467433
Gigantapseudidae 1 1 69207880
Neotanaidae 2 12 59868330
Incertae sedis 3 2 57338006
Paratanaidae 1 1 73707370
Pseudotanaidae 2 5 66756890
Tanaidae 1 1 60906135
Agathotanaidae 1 1 67706890
Anarthruridae 2 2 31468015
Leptognathiidae 5 29 38539174
Paratanaoidea incertae sedis 1 1 26006850
Typhlotanaidae 3 3 36107370
Figure 9.3 Number of species per 500 m depth stratum for the Tanaidacea.
vertical distribution, since many eurybathic species found in the hadal Pacic Ocean are
also known from shallower depths in the Atlantic Ocean (but not shallower in the
Pacic). He commented that it was more likely that these were morphologically similar
or identical species, but living as reproductively isolated populations. Until these issues
178 Crustacea
are resolved, the number of seemingly eurybathic and endemic species remains specu-
lative. In support of this, others have stated that the depth range of most deep-sea tanaids
does not exceed 2000 m and their geographic distribution is limited to far narrower
regions (Wolff, 1956).
Tanaids are typically benthic, and usually inhabit the surface layer of the bottom
sediments. However, some Tanaidacea are capable of oating, rising considerable
distances above the bottom. For example, Leptognathia sp. (Sars, 1882;
Leptognathiidae) was once caught by plankton net in the KurilKamchatka Trench,
between 50 and 100 m above bottom at a depth of 87007000 m (Belyaev, 1989).
Tanaids are seldom reported from in situ observations and this may partly be due to
(a) their small body size, (b) their apparent patchy distribution as suggested by Belyaev
(1989) and (c) when using baited cameras, they are difcult to distinguish among
swarms of amphipods (Fig. 9.4). However, Lemche et al. (1976) reported observing a
single tanaid, which he thought was Neotanais, enter a burrow in the New Britain
Trench at 70577075 m. He also observed another solitary, unidentiable tanaid
(0.51 cm) at 67586776 m in the New Hebrides Trench. Despite multiple deployments
of the Hadal-Lander B in the Kermadec Trench, tanaids were only observed during one
deployment at 7501 m (unpublished data, HADEEP). During this deployment, tanaids
of ~12 cm long were frequently seen, burrowing in and out of the sediment, often
leaving long, visible tails on the sediment surface as they traversed just under the
surface (Fig. 9.4). They were observed in 99 frames out of 599 (17%) and no more
than three individuals were observed in one frame. Their absence from all other
deployments in this trench, even at similar depths, supports Belyaevs idea of a sparse
or patchy distribution.
Based on the specimens from the Galathea expeditions, Wolff (1956) noted that the
mean body size of tanaids is correlated to depth, whereby the mean length in all
environments <200 m was <10 mm, while the mean length across the abyssalhadal
boundary was greater than 20 mm (Fig. 9.5). Since then, there have been other notable
ndings regarding body size; in the Philippine Trench at 6290 to 7880 m, 77 specimens
of Gigantapseudes adactylus Kudinova-Pasternak, 1978 (Gigantapseudidae) were
found that measured up to 37 mm in length, 1.5 times longer than the next largest
crustacean of this order (Kudinova-Pasternak, 1978). However, even larger representa-
tives of this genus, G. maximus (length up to 75 mm), were described from 5460 to
5567 m deep, to the east of the southern Philippine Trench, close to the location of
G. adactylus (Gam, 1984). These additional data would, in fact, further increase the
average body size of the abyssal and hadal tanaids shown in Figure 9.5 (Wolff, 1956).
One other peculiarity regarding hadal tanaids was reported by Wolff (1956) who
observed that none of the 30 females recovered from hadal depths had eggs in the
marsupium. This suggested that their egg-bearing period was either very short, seasonal
or, perhaps more likely, the egg-bearing females exhibit a fossorial (buried) period
which could not be detected by trawling. However, he did discuss the idea that the
absence of egg-bearing females may be due to the fact that deep-sea crustaceans live to
a relatively old age. Based on observation of Apseudes galatheae (Apseudidae) and
Tanaidacea 179
(a)
5 mm
(b)
5 mm
(c)
Figure 9.4 Examples of tanaids collected from the Kermadec Trench on Galathea expeditions. (a)
Neotanais serratispinosus hadalis from 8210 m and (b) Herpotanais kirkegaardi from 7150 m
(top specimen is a female, the bottom is a male). (c) A burrowing tanaid at 7501 m in the
Kermadec Trench: each image is 1 min apart showing a tanaid emerging from a burrow and
traversing under the sediment surface and reappearing. Images (a) and (b) are from Wolff (1956)
reproduced with the permission of Galathea Report and (c) courtesy of HADEEP.
Herpotanais kirkgaardi (Neotanaidae), he concluded that each female must complete

several egg-bearing periods, each potentially lasting at least 3 months. These periods
may occur every 23 years, assuming that they live to be 1520 years old and this
would minimise the chances of collecting an egg-bearing female.
180 Crustacea
Mean body length (mm)

0 5 10 15 20 25
Fresh or brackish
Environment
Tidal Zone (excl. Antarctica)

Tidal Zone (incl. Antarctica)
10200 m (excl. Antarctica)
10200 m (incl. Antarctica)
251400 m
14004400 m
44006800 m
Figure 9.5 Mean body size of tanaids from environments increasing in depth. Modied from
Wolff (1956).
9.7 Isopoda
The Isopoda are a very successful order of Crustacea, occurring in terrestrial, freshwater
and marine environments (Schotte et al., 1995). In terms of numerical abundance and
species diversity, isopods are one of the most important macrofaunal benthic taxa in
deep-sea communities (Hessler and Sanders, 1967; Hessler and Strmberg, 1989). In
the hadal zone, isopods are plentiful and more isopod species are found at hadal depths
than any other order of Crustacea and, indeed, any other class of multicellular animal
(Belyaev, 1989). There are currently 15 families, encompassing 34 genera containing
135 species residing at depths greater than 6000 m (Table 9.3). The overwhelming
majority of the species found at hadal depths belong to the suborder Asellotta (Fig. 9.6),
as is also the case in the wider deep sea (Hessler et al., 1979).
The vertical distribution of hadal Isopoda shows a typical decrease in diversity with
increasing depth, but even at the greatest depths ve different species still prevail (Fig. 9.7).
Belyaev (1989) stated that the species he found to be endemic to the hadal zone accounted
for 63% of those captured, while species that cross the abyssalhadal boundary accounted
for over 35% and only about 1.5% (two species) were eurybathic (24006200 m). How-
ever, of the hadal endemic species, approximately 75% were described from a single
nding. Therefore, as is the case with many of the hadal fauna, caution must be taken when
interpreting vertical distribution until further sampling is undertaken.
Of the endemic species discussed by Belyaev (1989), 50% had a depth range of less
than 1000 m, 40% of 10002000 m and only 10% had a depth range of 20003000 m,
suggesting that the hadal isopods are largely stenobathic. Of the non-endemic species,
there was still a relatively high presence of stenobathic species, where 54% of them had
depth ranges of <1000 or 2000 m and 29% had ranges of 20003000 m and only 17%
had larger depth ranges though none of them exceeded a range of 4000 m.
Based on the Galathea and Vitjaz samples, isopods were found in approximately
70% of trawls (in some instances accounting for 1040% of the catch) and 36% of the
bottom grabs. They have also been found in almost all of the trenches sampled to date
and at 10 700 m deep in the Mariana Trench.
Isopoda 181
Table 9.3 Isopod families found at hadal depths with numbers of genera, species and bathymetric range.
Acanthaspidiidae 1 3 56507216
Antarcturidae 2 3 60907370
Arcturidae 1 2 72007370
Cirolanidae 1 1 59866134
Desmosomatidae 1 2 59866710
Echinothambematidae 1 1 58006850
Haploniscidae 3 19 598610 415
Ischnomedidae 3 21 60508830
Janirellidae 1 9 61508430
Laptanthuridae 1 1 6580
Macrostylidae 1 15 598610 730
Mesosignidae 1 6 59867880
Munnidae 3 3 59866450
Munnopsidae 10 41 534510 687
Nannoniscidae 4 8 59869043
The most diverse families are the Munnopsidae (10 genera, 41 species),
Ischnomedidae (3 genera, 21 species), Haploniscidae (3 genera, 19 species) and
Macrostylidae (1 genus, 15 species). In instances where mass ndings of isopods were
collected, they typically consisted of two genera of the Munnopsidae family; Eurycope
and Storthyngura (although it is worth noting that several of the species within
Storthyngura were later reclassied into other genera, but still within the same family;
Malyutina, 2003).
Examples of mass ndings reported by Belyaev (1989) include one from 6200 m in
the Japan Trench, where 159 specimens of 7 species, including 150 specimens of
Vanhoeffenura (Storthyngura) bicornis (Birstein, 1957) were caught and the isopods
accounted for 27% of the entire catch. Furthermore, in the same trench at 7200 m, 41%
of the catch were of the Isopoda, comprising two species including eight Storthyngura
herculea (Birstein, 1957; later reclassied as Rectisura herculea Malyutina, 2003).
At 8000 m in the KurilKamchatka Trench, 13% of the catch comprised two isopod
species (40 Rectisura (Storthyngura) vitjazi Birstein, 1957 and 4 Eurycope magna
Birstein, 1963).
Based on the Galathea ndings, Wolff (1956, 1970) noted some other aspects of the
hadal Isopoda, mostly concerning their size. He observed a tendency towards a larger
body size in species that occurred at the greatest depths (Fig. 9.8). Of a total of 47 species
and subspecies, only 10 were found to be smaller than the average size for the genus,
whereas in half the genera, the mean size of the hadal species was much larger than that of
the abyssal species. With the exception of the genus Haploniscus, only 7 species (4%) out
of the 186 non-hadal species of the 11 genera were larger than the largest hadal species
(Wolff, 1970). This gigantism, or rather increase in body size, in hadal Isopoda was
attributed to the effect of hydrostatic pressure on metabolism (Wolff, 1960), as suggested
earlier by Zenkevitch and Birstein (1956) and Birstein (1957).
182 Crustacea
(a)
5 mm
(b)
2 mm
(c)
1 mm
Figure 9.6 Examples of hadal isopods collected from the Galathea expeditions. (a) Storthyngurella
(Storthyngura) benti from 7000 m in the Kermadec Trench; (b) Ischnomesus bruuni from
7000 m in the Kermadec Trench; and (c) Macrostylis hadalis from 7280 m in the Banda Trench.
Images from Wolff (1956). Images reproduced with the permission of Galathea Report.
Isopoda 183
Figure 9.7 Number of species per 500 m depth stratum for the Isopoda.
Mean body size (mm)

0 10 20 30 40 50
Mesosignum
Hadal
Haploniscus
Non-hadal
Macrostylis
Hydroniscus
Ilyarachna
Isopod genera
Janirella
Eurycope
Haplomesus
Munneurycope
Ischnomesus
Storthyngura
Bathyopsurus
Figure 9.8 Mean body size for each of the isopod genera found at hadal depths compared to the
non-hadal representatives. Data derived from Wolff (1970).
184 Crustacea
Upon inspection, Wolff also noted a complete lack of eyes in the hadal isopods,
although this is normal for the Asellota. He also reported that the bodies of some species
were extremely brittle, more so than their bathyal or abyssal counterparts. Conversely,
he noted that the samples of Storthyngura were very robust and were no less calcied
than similar abyssal species. Generally, he concluded that the hadal Isopoda were
remarkably similar to their abyssal, bathyal and sublittoral relatives, and no endemic
genera were found. They were, however, characterised as being larger, less spiny and
more strikingly white in colour than bathyal and abyssal specimens of the same genera
(Wolff, 1956). None of female isopods collected by the Galathea were found to be egg
bearing, thus information regarding their fecundity or size of eggs within the marsu-
piums was lacking.
Due to their relatively small body size and diversity, isopods are notoriously difcult
to identify from bottom photographs or video footage and, therefore, little is known
about the behaviour of deep-sea isopods in general (Jamieson et al., 2012b). Despite
their position as a very characteristic component of the hadal community, even less is
known about isopods at hadal depths, other than information derived from physical
samples. On the PROA expeditions, Isopoda were observed several times on bottom
images (Lemche et al., 1976). They described seeing about seven isopods at
78478662 m in the North Solomon Trench (1.52 cm long), mostly resembling janir-
ids, while one may have been a eurycopid. Another possible eurycopid was observed
at 67586776 m in the New Hebrides Trench, alongside a 1.5 cm long individual
thought to be of the genus Ilyarachna. At 80218042 m in the Palau Trench,
Lemche et al. (1976) saw elongated and slightly cruciform isopods of 11.5 cm in
length and in numbers of up to seven in a single image, apparently all facing in the same
direction. In addition to these, another species (0.70.8 cm) was also observed but not
identied.
In 2009, during the HADEEP project, two species of isopods were frequently seen in
the Kermadec Trench (Jamieson et al., 2011a and also Fig. 9.9). Two species of
munnopsid isopods were observed by Hadal-Lander B but were too small to be
identied to species level. The rst (munnopsid) was seen once at 7199 m but was
more conspicuous at 7561 m where a maximum number of three individuals were
observed. These isopods (lengths ~1020 mm) were observed approaching the bait
and climbing on it. The isopods were noted to leave the vicinity once the snailsh
Notoliparis kermadecensis (Liparidae) arrived or were, perhaps, even consumed by the
sh. Munnopsid B, possibly of the genus Storthyngurinae, was photographed at
7199 m. They were less conspicuous throughout the images than munnopsid A and
tended to sit motionless, some distance from the bait with no apparent interaction with
other species or the bait.
When the same lander was deployed in the PeruChile Trench in 2010, a much
greater diversity of Isopoda was observed. Five putative species were observed between
4602 and 8074 m, two of which belonged to munnopsid. The three other species remain
unidentied, however, one shared an uncanny resemblance to munnopsid A from the
Kermadec Trench and one other was a long-legged species. The long-legged isopod was
seen at 4602 m, whereas the other munnopsid was seen frequently at 5329, 7050 and
Isopoda 185
Figure 9.9 Examples of in situ observation of hadal isopods, although none can be condently
identied from photographs, all are thought to be from the Munnopsidae family. (a) and (b) are
from 7561 and 7199 m in the Kermadec Trench, respectively. (c) and (d) are from 7050 m in the
PeruChile Trench; (e) is from 5469 m on the edge of the Mariana Trench; and (g) is from 5329 m
in the PeruChile Trench. All photos were taken using Hadal-Lander B, images courtesy of
HADEEP.
186 Crustacea
8074 m (similar depths to the Kermadec Trench isopod). The other three species (sp. 1,
2 and 3) were seen at 46025329 m, 53296173 m and 7050 m, respectively. None of
the isopod species observed in the PeruChile Trench were seen in numbers greater
than one.
Identifying isopods to species level or detailing their behaviour is extremely
difcult from in situ imaging due to their relatively small body size. However, one
species of isopod was lmed at 6945 and 7703 m during HADEEP cruises to the
Japan Trench in 2007 and 2008, respectively. This species, Rectisura (Storthyngura)
herculea, was of a much larger body size than many others and this enabled a
reasonably condent in situ identication. Second, the resolution of the camera on
Hadal-Lander A was of a sufcient quality to track the locomotive speeds and other
behaviours with condence.
The video data showed R. cf. herculea aggregating towards the bait, particularly at
6945 m, where they reached a maximum number of 12 after 6 h (Fig. 9.10). Their
behaviour towards the bait indicated that these isopods directly exploited the bait, as
the largest percentage of observations (55%) showed individuals situated directly on
the bait itself. This was interesting because Wolff (1962) had previously studied the
gut contents of 36 specimens of 19 asellote isopod species from the Galathea
expedition and concluded that deep-sea benthic asellotes were primarily detritus
feeders, although some species are known to directly consume plant debris
(Wolff, 1976). Previously, Wolff (1962) had reported Foraminifera in the guts of
some asellote species and it was assumed that these had been accidentally swallowed
along with detritus. However, Svavarsson et al. (1993) reported that Ilyarachna
hirticeps Sars, 1870 and Eurycope inermis Hansen, 1916 (family Munnopsidae),
from 1200 to 2000 m were seen to prey selectively on benthic forams, rather than
consuming them indirectly with detritus, a strategy reiterated in mouthpart morph-
ology (Wilson and Thistle, 1985). Scavenging is a feeding strategy used by some
shallower isopod genera, notably Natatolana (e.g. Wong and Moore, 1995) that
also occur, and scavenge, as deep as 2500 m (Albertelli et al., 1992). Similarly, the
giant isopod Bathynomus giganteus Milne-Edwards, 1879 (Soong and Mok, 1994)
is known to occasionally consume sh and squid remains (Barradas-Ortiz et al.,
2003). However, these species belong to another suborder, Flabellifera, and the
family Cirolanidae, a specialised group of sighted and active carnivorous scavengers
that are not represented in the hadal zone.
The combined results of Wolff (1962), Svavarsson et al. (1993) and Jamieson et al.
(2012b) may indicate that deposit-feeding and/or predation on forams may be routine,
but the isopods are capable of exploiting the temporarily nutrient-rich presence of a
carrion-fall (trophic plasticity); a strategy also adopted by lysianassoid amphipods
(Blankenship and Levin, 2007). The observations from the Kermadec Trench also
supported this indication; one specimen was recovered in a baited trap that did not
contain sediment (Jamieson et al., 2011a). Furthermore, images obtained from 8075 m
in the PeruChile Trench not only show the presence of munnopsid isopods attending
the bait, but also captured an individual isopod dragging a small piece of fragmented
bait out of the eld of view (Jamieson et al., 2012b). These observations are further
Isopoda 187
(a) 12 (b) 12
10
Number of isopods
10
Number of isopods
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
1519
2024
2529
3034
3539
4044
4549
00:00
00:30
01:00
01:30
02:00
02:30
03:00
03:30
04:00
04:30
05:00
05:30
06:00
06:30
07:00
07:30
08:00
08:30 Time (hh:mm) Body size (mm)
(c) 20 (d)
18
Speed (cm s1/BL s1)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Swimming
Burst escape
Routine walking
Backward jump
Perturbed walking
Behaviour
Figure 9.10 Behaviour and locomotion of Rectisura cf. herculea, a hadal isopod from
6945 and 7703 m in the Japan Trench. (a) Numbers aggregating over time; (b) size frequency
(grey 6945 m and black lines 7703 m); (c) is their absolute speed (black dots) and
size-specic speed (white dots) for various locomotion types; and (d) is a frame grab showing
two individuals at 6945 m near the tail of a macrourid. Modied from Jamieson et al. (2012b).
supported by anecdotal evidence of munnopid isopods of the subfamily Bathyopsurinae

approaching and feeding on bait at 4185 m in the Peru Basin (Brandt et al., 2004).
Therefore, it seems appropriate to conclude that Rectisura cf. herculea is a bait-
attending species, most likely of the facultative scavenging guild, however, the extent
of this feeding behaviour among the hadal Isopoda requires more in situ observations
using baited systems.
188 Crustacea
In addition to noting these feeding behaviours, the Jamieson et al. (2012b) data also
provided the rst measurement of locomotion of a hadal isopod, albeit there are no other
such measurements for other deep-sea isopods for comparison. For the Rectisura cf.
herculea isopod, its routine mode of locomotion is walking using pereopods IIV at
mean of 0.19 BL s 1 0.04 S.D. If perturbed by the presence of predators, most notably
the decapod Benthesicymus crenatus Bate, 1881, the isopods accelerated to 0.33 BL s 1
0.04 S.D. (an increase of 74% from routine). When the threat became more urgent
(<80 mm away), the isopods jumped backwards, propelling themselves with pereopods
VVII at 2.6 BL s 1 1.5 S.D. to a distance of 1.9 ( 0.8 S.D.) body lengths away.
When the threat is imminent (<50 mm), the isopods initiated a burst swimming escape
response, whereby they retracted pereopods IIV and swam backwards in a spiralling
motion using pereopods VVII, either vertically or horizontally across the seaoor at
4.63 BL s 1 0.9 S.D. After a <0.6 s burst of acceleration they continued swimming at
a mean velocity of 4.8 BL s 1 0.6 S.D. for at least 2 s until reaching an estimated
distance of 3040 cm away from the threat. During vertical burst escape, the descent
back to the seaoor was dampened by a full extension of pereopods IIV and an
increase in projected body area (and thus drag) by descending (gliding) ventral side
down to the seaoor; a burst and coast tactic. These data suggested no signicant
reduction in locomotory capability despite the extreme depths in which they inhabit
and ndings were comparable to the swimming speeds of shallow-water isopods
(Alexander, 1988).
9.8 Amphipoda
The Amphipoda are a very characteristic element of the hadal fauna. Their ability to
detect, intercept and consume baits placed on the seaoor, particularly at depths
exceeding 8000 m, is exceptional. They have been found in all the trenches sampled
to date, at all depths including over 10 500 m (e.g. Blankenship et al., 2006; Fig. 9.11).
The vast majority of hadal amphipods are prolic scavengers, albeit facultative, and
given their propensity to swarm at bait they have become a well-known fauna through
the use of baited traps (e.g. Hessler et al., 1978; Blankenship et al., 2006; Jamieson
et al., 2011a). They also normally occur in high numbers and are one of the few highly
mobile species to be frequently photographed using drop-cameras in trenches (Lemche
et al., 1976). The baited trap catch frequency within the HADEEP projects was 100%
based on 46 deployments in six trench locations and the trawl catch frequency of
Amphipoda was 70% (based on 124 successful trawls; Belyaev, 1989). Across the
board, the vast majority of deep-sea amphipods that have been collected using baited
systems have belonged to the superfamily Lysianassoidae (Dahl, 1979). At hadal
depths, there are currently 77 known species belonging to 42 genera comprising
23 families, all of which are from the suborder Gammaridea (Table 9.4). Of these,
61% are considered benthic or bentho-pelagic, while the remainder are pelagic.
The most diverse amphipod family is the Lysianassidae with 5 genera and 10 known
species. Based on the ndings of HADEEP and other studies, there are six main benthic
Amphipoda 189
Figure 9.11 Number of species per 500 m depth stratum for the benthic and pelagic Amphipoda.
families found at hadal depths; Eurytheneidae, Hirondellidae, Allicellidae, Uristidae,

Scopelocheiridae and Pardaliscidae (Princaxelia). Based on the Soviet and Danish
expeditions there are three main hado-pelagic families; Pardaliscidae (Halice),
Hyperiopsidae and Lanceolidae. It is also worth noting that many of the species therein
are bentho-pelagic and can be found both on the seaoor and at considerable distances
above (e.g. Eurythenes gryllus Lichtenstein, 1822).
Eurythenes gryllus is one of the most bathymetrically and geographically widespread
marine species (Thurston, 1990; Fig. 9.12). It is known throughout all oceans and is
thought to be a cold water stenotherm; inhabiting shallower depths at the poles but
restricted to deeper colder waters at low latitudes (Thurston et al., 2002). E. gryllus
forms an important part of the deep-sea benthic community because of its ability to
rapidly intercept and consume carrion-falls (Ingram and Hessler, 1983; Hargrave et al.,
1995) and also as a predator (Sainte-Marie, 1992). The geographic and bathymetric
coverage of E. gryllus is also reected in its occurrence at hadal depths. Earlier literature
reported E. gryllus from 67706850 m in the Izu-Bonin Trench (northwest Pacic;
190 Crustacea
Table 9.4. Amphipod families found at hadal depths with numbers of genera, species and
bathymetric range.
Stilipedidae 1 1 72107230
Maeridae 2 2 66008900
Lysianassidae 5 10 600710 500
Ischyroceridae 1 1 63246328
Ampeliscidae 1 1 64756571
Epimeriidae 1 1 61567230
Eurytheneidae 1 1 43298074
Eusiridae 3 6 60909120
Pardaliscidae 3 9 400010500
Phoxocephalidae 3 3 63247550
Hirondellidae 1 5 600010787
Hyperiopsidae 3 6 42008500
Lanceolidae 2 3 400010500
Atylidae 1 3 64758015
Liljeborgiidae 1 1 61566207
Alicellidae 2 4 43298480
Cyclocaridae 1 2 6007
Scinidae 1 2 60009400
Scopelocheiridae 2 2 60008723
Stegocephalidae 3 9 60008500
Uristidae 2 3 51736173
Valettiopsidae 1 1 6007
Vitjazianidae 1 1 42008480
Kamenskaya, 1981) and at 7230 m in the PeruChile Trench (southeast Pacic; Ingram
and Hessler, 1987). It was later found in large numbers at 7800 m in the PeruChile
Trench (Thurston et al., 2002). In the southwest Pacic, it was found in the Tonga
Trench, albeit in low numbers between 5155 and 6252 m (Blankenship et al., 2006)
and at 43296007 m in the neighbouring Kermadec Trench (Jamieson et al., 2011a).
More recent and unpublished sampling from the Kermadec Trench found more speci-
mens, also restricted to ~6000 m (unpublished data, HADEEP). Several large specimens
of E. gryllus were observed using baited cameras by Fujii et al. (2010), at 7703 m in the
Japan Trench. The unidentied specimens observed by Hessler et al. (1978), also in the
PeruChile Trench, were later suspected to be E. gryllus (Thurston et al., 2002).
The occurrence of E. gryllus in the PeruChile and Japan Trenches appears to slightly
contradict the cold water stenotherm hypothesis discussed by Thurston et al. (2002),
since although E. gryllus appears to dominate the hadal depths of the warmer Peru
Chile Trench, it is apparently unable to penetrate far into the colder Kermadec Trench
(below 6000 m), albeit this trench is only ~0.75C colder than the other two trenches.
The reasons for this anomaly remain unresolved but it appears likely that E. gryllus
distribution is driven by food supply or a combination of this and temperature, rather
than temperature alone (Fujii et al., 2013).
Amphipoda 191
Figure 9.12 Examples of Eurythenes gryllus caught from: (a) 7703 m in the Japan Trench;
(b) 6079 m in the Kermadec Trench; and (c) 6173 m in the PeruChile Trench. Images (a) and
(b) courtesy of HADEEP, image (c) taken by Camilla Sharkey, University of Bristol, UK.
The dominance of E. gryllus at upper hadal depths is clear in video footage from the
Japan Trench (Fujii et al., 2010). However, the signicance of this species is, perhaps,
most striking in the time-lapse images from the Hadal-Lander, taken across the trench
depths of the PeruChile Trench, at 8074 m in particular, at the deepest point (Richards
Deep; Fujii et al., 2013; Fig. 9.13). At this station, the deepest at which they have ever
been found, E. gyllus arrived within an hour of the bait reaching the seaoor and
consumed over 1 kg of tuna in less than 20 h.
E. gryllus is also known to occur tens of metres above the seaoor (up to 500 m above
bottom in the abyssal North Pacic; Ingram and Hessler, 1983). During sampling for the
192 Crustacea
Figure 9.13 Example of the response to bait places at 8074 m in the PeruChile Trench by
2
Eurythenes gryllus; (ad) are images taken 5 h apart, the eld of view is 0.29 m (62 46.5 cm).
Images were taken using Hadal-Lander B, images courtesy of HADEEP.
HADEEP project in the PeruChile Trench, traps were set at 1, 2, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 and
90 m above bottom. The only species caught in any of the traps set at 20 m or greater
was E. gryllus, albeit in numbers far lower than those obtained in the abyssal North
Pacic (Smith et al., 1979; Smith and Baldwin, 1984) or North Atlantic (Charmasson
and Calmet, 1987). Although somewhat anecdotal, it appears that E. gryllus play a
lesser role in the pelagic environments at hadal depths than at abyssal depths.
Eurythenes gryllus also exhibits bathymetrically stratied populations. Abyssal
populations are known to be genetically diverse across immense geographic locations,
yet a distinctive, divergent population was identied between those on the abyssal
plains and those inhabiting guyots within the same area (Bucklin et al., 1987), suggest-
ing the populations were bathymetrically stratied. Thurston et al. (2002) also com-
mented that specimens found at 7800 m in the PeruChile Trench appeared to be outside
of the known morphological variability for E. gryllus, and that they may be undergoing
incipient speciation. Genetic analysis currently arising from the HADEEP project is
revealing that the PeruChile Trench population is highly divergent from the abyssal
populations, even more so than the guyot population described by Bucklin et al. (1987).
Furthermore, these two depth-stratied populations are found in the same area and
appear to be separated at the 6000 m mark.
Amphipoda 193
Figure 9.14 A specimen of Hirondellea dubia recovered from 9104 m in the Kermadec Trench.
Image courtesy of HADEEP.
Hirondellea of the family Hirondelleidae (Fig. 9.14) are named after the yacht
Hirondelle that rst used baited traps at abyssal depths in 1888 and are, perhaps, the
most conspicuous and ubiquitous hadal amphipod genus with distinctive phylogeo-
graphic structure. Hirondellea gigas (Birstein and Vinogradov, 1955) are prolic
scavengers, found in the trenches of the northwest Pacic; KurilKamchatka, Philip-
pine, Mariana, Japan, Izu-Bonin, Volcano, Yap and Palau Trenches (Birstein and
Vinogradov, 1955; Dahl, 1959; Hessler et al., 1978; Kamenskaya, 1981; France,
1993; unpublished data, HADEEP). This species is known to attend baited systems at
depths greater than 10 000 m, in extraordinarily large numbers, in fact, these swarms
increase in size with increasing depth. Very few have been found at abyssal depths and
the shallowest record to date is 6770 m (Belyaev, 1989). The genetic homogeneity of
H. gigas was examined by France (1993) who studied abyssal-partitioned populations
from the Mariana, Philippine and Palau Trenches. He concluded that these geographic-
ally isolated populations may have reduced levels of gene ow causing them to diverge
morphologically. Nonetheless, H. gigas is currently known only in the northwest Pacic
trenches.
In the southwest Pacic trenches (Kermadec and Tonga) the most common scaveng-
ing amphipod is Hirondellea dubia (Dahl, 1959). H. dubia exhibits many of the same
characteristics as H. gigas, in that it appears to be mostly restricted to the southwest
quadrant of the Pacic. It is also found in ever-increasing numbers with increasing
depth (found at depths exceeding 10 500 m) and is often the sole amphipod species
caught in baited traps >9200 m (Blankenship et al., 2006). While H. dubia is primarily
a species restricted to the southwest Pacic, with a minimum depth recorded in the
Kermadec Trench of 6000 m, albeit only four specimens (Jamieson et al., 2011a),
the DNA sequencing of the HADEEP samples found several specimens of H. dubia
on the abyssal plains, east of the Mariana Trench at 5469 m, some 6000 km north
of the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches (unpublished data, HADEEP). This study sug-
gests that H. dubia are not entirely restricted to the southwest Pacic trenches, nor
194 Crustacea
are they, therefore, an exclusively hadal species, but are, in fact, found in the open
abyssal plains, albeit in very low numbers. Their status as the dominant, scavenging
amphipod of the southwest Pacic trenches is not refuted, since catches in baited
traps at >9500 m have been known to exceed 12 000 individuals (Blankenship et al.,
2006). It is interesting to note that no H. gigas were found in the same abyssal location,
despite being known as the dominant scavenging amphipod of the Mariana Trench. The
gene ow, albeit limited between the trenches of the northwest Pacic, also suggests
an abyssal fraction of H. gigas that may become more apparent as more sampling is
undertaken between trenches.
Across in the southeast Pacic, Perrone et al. (2002) documented a new, but
unnamed, species of Hirondellea from 7800 m, in the PeruChile Trench, based on
conventional morphological taxonomy. This nding added another piece to the puzzle
concerning the Hirondellea distribution pattern in the hadal Pacic Ocean; it appears
that at hadal depths, each quadrant of the Pacic is inhabited by a different, single
species of Hirondellea where H. gigas and H. dubia inhabit the northwest and south-
west quadrants, respectively. The new PeruChile specimens accounted for 64.7%
of the 945 amphipods collected by Perrone et al. (2002). The results were, however,
taken from a single location. In 2010, the HADEEP project sampled ve stations at
4602, 5329, 6173, 7050 and 8075 m in the same trench and found that, unlike the
Hirondellea species of the western trenches, three morphologically distinct species were
identied: species 1 was found in low numbers at 6173 m (n 4), species 2 was found
at the deepest three sites and increasing in numbers with depth (n 2, 15 and 104,
respectively) and species 3 was found only at 7050 m (n 33) (Kilgallen, in press).
Which of the three species found in the HADEEP study corresponds to that reported in
Perrone et al. (2002) is currently unknown. However, based on the closest geographical
and bathymetric deployment, Hirondellea species 2 is likely to be the unnamed species
that Perrone et al. also found because it accounted for 62.3% of the catch at 8074 m,
whereas E. gryllus comprised only 32.2%. Perrone et al. (2002) and Thurston et al.
(2002) reported a catch of Hirondellea sp. nov. and E. gryllus from 7800 m as approxi-
mately 50:50.
The amphipod family Alicellidae was named after the vessel Princess-Alice, one of
the rst vessels to trawl at hadal depths, in 1901. The baited trap campaigns of the
HADEEP project have often recovered species of Paralicella from the Alicellidae
family, notably P. tenuipes Chevreaux, 1908 and P. caparesca Shulenberger and
Barnard, 1976. These have been recovered from 43297000 m and 43296007 m,
respectively, in the Kermadec Trench (Jamieson et al., 2011a). They have also been
found in the PeruChile Trench at 53297050 m and 46026173 m, respectively (Fujii
et al., 2013) and at similar depths in the Japan Trench and on the abyssal plains
surrounding the Mariana Trench (unpublished data, HADEEP). While these species
account for a large fraction of the abyssal and upper hadal depths, they are a cosmopol-
itan, abyssal species and no specimens have been found deeper than ~7000 m. However,
Paralicella microps (Birstein and Vinogradov, 1958) exhibits a more hadal presence
and has been discovered in the KurilKamchatka, Japan and Izu-Bonin Trenches down
to depths of 8000 m (Belyaev, 1989).
Amphipoda 195
Perhaps the most striking species of Alicellidae is Alicella gigantea (Chevreux, 1899),
also known as the supergiant amphipod (sensu Barnard and Ingram, 1986). It is the
largest known amphipod, originally identied in the northern hemisphere (Chevreux,
1899; Hessler et al., 1972; Barnard and Ingram, 1986; DeBroyer and Thurston, 1987).
Despite its conspicuous and inexplicably large body size (up to 340 mm), the
supergiant has remained somewhat enigmatic as a result of sparse ndings spanning
an enormous bathymetric and geographic range (both North Atlantic and North Pacic,
17206000 m).
The largest known amphipod, measuring up to 340 mm total body length was found
among the regurgitated stomach contents of an albatross in Hawaii (Harrison et al.,
1983). The species is known to inhabit the deep abyssal plains of the northern hemi-
sphere, in the North Atlantic Ocean (off the Canaries, Cape Verde and in the Demerara
Basin) and has been found in the vicinity of the Hawaii Islands in the North Pacic
Ocean (Barnard and Ingram, 1986; De Broyer and Thurston, 1987). These two localities
are approximately 12 800 km (6900 nautical miles) apart and separated by the American
continental land mass. Furthermore, in both these known areas of occurrence, the
specimens have been captured (albeit in low numbers) multiple times, but have never
been found in the more frequently studied areas around the associated ocean rims. There
is also a report of 61 individuals recovered by baited traps at 6200 m off the coast of
Japan which weighed a combined 1.1 kg, but no other information is available
(Hasegawa et al., 1986). In 2011 and 2012, a total of nine specimens of A. gigantea
were recovered using the Latis sh trap, from depths of 6265 and 7000 m and upwards,
to where a further nine individuals were observed by the Hadal-Lander at 6890 m in the
Kermadec Trench (Jamieson et al., 2013; Fig. 9.15). These were the rst and only
ndings of the supergiant in the southern hemisphere and at hadal depths. The speci-
mens ranged from 102 to 278 mm long. The largest specimens were mature males with
an overall length to weight relationship of length 0.968 weight 113.87 (n 8; R
0.9166). The individuals caught on camera were estimated to be between 175 and
349 mm long. Shortly after the Kermadec Trench ndings, A. gigantea was photo-
graphed by a baited camera at 5160 m in the Sargasso Sea, in the Atlantic (Fleury and
Drazen, 2013).
The samples from the Kermadec Trench were identied as A. gigantea using three
methods: (1) comparison with the re-description of type specimens of Chevreux (1899)
and description of specimens from both the North Atlantic and Pacic by De Broyer and
Thurston (1987); (2) direct comparison with a single male specimen (TL 240 mm),
5851 m, central North Pacic Ocean (30 18.0 N, 157 50.9 W, ID C10951; University
of California, San Diego Benthic Invertebrate Collection); and (3) DNA sequence
comparisons between the Kermadec Trench samples and the conrmed central North
Pacic individual. The results showed no signicant morphological differences between
the specimens from the Kermadec Trench and previous descriptions (Chevreux, 1899;
De Broyer and Thurston, 1987) or any genetic differences from the male specimen from
the central North Pacic (Jamieson et al., 2013). These results support the observation
that there is no signicant morphological variation between the geographically wide-
spread populations (De Broyer and Thurston, 1987).
196 Crustacea
Figure 9.15 The supergiant amphipod Alicella gigantea. The top image was taken in situ at
6979 m in the Kermadec Trench, showing a large individual next to the snailsh Notoliparis
kermadecensis. The bottom image was captured from 7000 m in the same trench and measured
27.8 cm in length. Images courtesy of HADEEP.
The majority of samples containing A. gigantea have been recovered from the lower
abyssal to hadal zone (48507000 m), however, a single juvenile female was captured at
1720 m in the central North Pacic Ocean (Bernard and Ingram, 1986). This record
provides the bathymetric range for A. gigantea of 5280 m. The limited observations of
A. gigantea are, therefore, surprising given its apparent vast bathymetric and geographic
range. The question then arises as to why a relatively large deep-sea animal with such a
large bathymetric and geographic range is so infrequently found, while other smaller
amphipods, with similarly wide ranges are so frequently caught in high abundance (e.g.
Eurythenes gryllus; 1847800 m; Barnard, 1961; Thurston et al., 2002; De Broyer
et al., 2004; Stoddart and Lowry, 2004). The scarcity of ndings for this large
crustacean can probably be attributed to the low number of samples taken from depths
of >5000 m, particularly when sampling is reliant only upon traps with a small opening
Amphipoda 197
that could prevent the capture of the large-bodied A. gigantea. However, in the case of
the Kermadec Trench, the same vehicles that captured and imaged A. gigantea during
previous sampling campaigns have been used frequently (eight and nine times, respect-
ively), within the same depth range, without detecting the presence of A. gigantea
(Jamieson et al., 2009a, b, 2011a). What is, perhaps, even more perplexing is that
despite the fact that these amphipods were readily captured and observed 2 km apart on
the same day, further attempts to observe or capture these animals on the same voyage
at the same locations failed, despite having detected the predictable occurrences of sh,
decapods and smaller lysianassoid amphipods. The low frequency of capture could have
occurred because either: (1) A. gigantea has a very patchy distribution or (2) it is very
sparsely distributed. It would take a relatively long time for a very sparsely distributed,
scavenging animal to arrive at a bait, perhaps even longer than the typical baited camera
deployment time of <12 h and, therefore, it is rarely trapped or imaged. In the Kermadec
Trench study (Jamieson et al., 2013), individuals of A. gigantea were among the last
species to arrive at the bait beneath the camera (>5 h 33 min), and their maximum
number was not achieved until towards the end of a typically long lander deployment
(after 16 h of a 25 h deployment). Thus, it is probable that A. gigantea is very sparsely
distributed in its habitat.
Genetic homogeneity among the known locations of A. gigantea span thousands of
kilometres, albeit in relatively slowly evolving DNA regions. This implies that genetic
connectivity between the Kermadec Trench and Hawaii populations is at a level that is
difcult to reconcile with a seemingly disjunct distribution. Similar patterns of large-
scale distribution within the same depth zone have been shown for the cosmopolitan
amphipod E. gryllus (France and Kocher, 1996). These ndings indicate that the
disjunct distribution of A. gigantea may be an artefact of both small-scale patchiness
in population density and a lack of sampling across the adjoining abyssal plains at
depths of greater than 5000 m. For example, the central Pacic basin, particularly in the
equatorial waters, is an area where very little deep-sea biological sampling has been
undertaken. It can therefore be construed that if further sampling campaigns are
undertaken using appropriate methods on the deep abyssal plains and abyssalhadal
transition zones, it is likely that ndings of the supergiant A. gigantea may become
more frequent and geographically widespread. Issues such as patterns of phylogeo-
graphic structure and gene ow across oceans could then be assessed more readily and
with greater reliability.
Perhaps the most conspicuous feature of A. gigantea is their extraordinary large body
size relative to all other deep-sea amphipods; an explanation for this is yet to be
unequivocally established. It is known, however, that the Alicellidae are a primitive
family of gammaridean Amphipoda, with broad unpleated gills on coxa 27 and
accessory lobes on gills 56. Gammarideans are believed to have undergone a reduction
in body size accompanied by a reduction in respiratory surface (Steele and Steele,
1991). The presence of a gill on coxa 7 and tubiliform accessory lobes in A. gigantea
may suggest a need for additional respiratory surfaces, retained from when amphipods
rst evolved the larger body size (Steele and Steele, 1991). Pressure, temperature and
oxygen have all been hypothesised to be related to gigantism. The most recent
198 Crustacea
discussions have focused on oxygen availability as a driver for maximum potential size,
as a product of both concentration of oxygen and partial pressure (Chapelle and Peck,
1999, 2004; Peck and Chapelle, 1999; Spicer and Gaston, 1999). However, this does
not adequately explain deep-sea gigantism where little to no variation has been recorded
in temperature vertically through the water column. Further discussion has considered
the ecology of A. gigantea and E. gryllus as bentho-pelagic scavengers, since they are
more closely related to pelagic specialists than the benthic scavengers with whom they
compete for carrion, suggesting that they may experience a higher oxygen threshold on
body size by swimming above more oxygen-impoverished bottom waters (Chapelle and
Peck, 2004).
The Uristidae family, particularly the genus Abyssorchomene, share a similar distri-
bution to the Alicellidae, in that they include cosmopolitan abyssal species that often
dominate the abyssal and sometimes upper hadal depths of a trench, in particular
A. chevreuxi (Stebbing, 1906) and A. distinctus (Birstein and Vinogradov, 1960) in
the PeruChile and Kermadec Trenches, and A. musculosus (Stebbing, 1888) also in the
latter (Jamieson et al., 2011a). In the Kermadec Trench, Orchomenella gerulicorbis
Shulenberger and Barnard, 1976 (Lysianassidae) is also present at similar depths.
Phylogentic analysis of the HADEEP amphipod samples did, however, refute the
monopoly of the two genera, suggesting that they are one of the same (a sentiment
reiterated in Antarctic studies; Havermans et al., 2010). Species belonging to each of
these groups are identied based on acute differences in their feeding appendages,
which have been shown to exhibit high degrees of evolutionary plasticity during periods
of range expansion (MacDonald et al., 2005). Therefore, there is clearly a need to revise
the morphological characters that are used for the classication of Abyssorchomene and
Orchomenella species, ensuring traits that exhibit developmental or evolutionary plas-
ticity are avoided. Blankenship et al. (2006) also documented a new species of Uristes
from the Tonga and Kermadec Trenches, between 7349 and 9273 m, which was
previously unreported from hadal depths. This species was later described as Uristes
chastaini and some of the specimens were found to have eggs nestled in the brood
pouch. This was the rst recording of hadal lysianassoid females attending bait while
brooding (Blankenship and Levin, 2009; Fig. 9.16). However, the name Uristes chas-
taini is nomen nudum nor does this species belong to the genus Uristes (Lysianassoidea:
Uristidae), but rather it appears to belong to a new genus within the subfamily Trypho-
sinae (Lysianassoidea: Lysianassidae) (M.H. Thurston and T. Horton, pers. comm.).
The Scopelocheiridae are not a diverse family at hadal depths, comprising only two
hadal species of which one, Scopelocheirus (Bathycallisoma) pacica Dahl, 1959, is
known only from 69607000 m in the Kermadec Trench. However, the second species
Scopelocheirus schellenbergi Birstein and Vinogradov, 1958 (Fig. 9.16) exhibits a
seemingly enormous geographical range. It has been recorded in the North Pacic
trenches, the Indo-Pacic trenches, the southwest Pacic trenches, the Puerto-Rico
Trench in the North Atlantic and in the Java Trench in the Indian Ocean (Lacey
et al., 2013). It appears to inhabit depths of 6000 m to 9104 m and is listed by Belyaev
(1989) as being a pelagic species, although it has been recovered in fairly large numbers
from benthic traps (Blankenship et al., 2006).
Amphipoda 199
Figure 9.16 (a) The new species of the Lysianassidae subfamily Tryohosinae (formally Uristes
sp. nov; Blankenship et al., 2006) from 73499273 m in the Tonga Trench with arrow indicating
the developing embryo. (b) Scopelocheirus schellenbergi from 62529104 m in the Tonga
Trench. Images courtesy of L. Levin, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, USA.
The family Pardaliscidae is largely represented in the trenches by the benthic genus
Princaxelia (named after Prince Axel of Denmark, 18881964, following the Danish
Galathea expedition), and the pelagic genus Halice. The rst known species of Prin-
caxelia was P. abyssalis, sampled from the Kermadec Trench (Dahl, 1959) and later on
P. stephenseni Dahl, 1959 and P. magna Kamenskaya, 1977 were also discovered, the
latter of which was claimed to occur in the Aleutian, KurilKamchatka, Izu-Bonin, Yap,
Japan, Philippine, Bougainville and Kermadec Trenches (Kamenskaya, 1981). With the
exception of P. stephenseni (known to occur in the shallower North Atlantic), all other
species of Princaxelia are, so far, considered to be endemic to hadal trenches. The
HADEEP projects discovered a new species, Princaxelia jamiesoni Lrz, 2010, from
7703 m in the Japan Trench (Fig. 9.17) and 9316 m in the neighbouring Izu-Bonin
Trench. Amphipods of this genus appear to be represented in most trenches and are
clearly visible in lander video footage from the Japan (P. jamiesoni, 7703 m), Izu-Bonin
(P. jamiesoni, 9316 m), Kermadec (P. abyssalis, 7966 m) and Tonga Trenches
(P. abyssalis, 8798 m; Jamieson et al., 2012a). A further, unidentied species was also
found in the PeruChile Trench at 5329 and 7800 m (unpublished data, HADEEP and
Perrone et al., 2002, respectively). The princaxelids differ somewhat from the other
benthic amphipods encountered in the trenches because they do not consume the bait
but rather, they prey upon smaller necrophagous species of amphipods.
The Princaxelia spp. appear large and distinct enough in in situ video recordings to
permit analyses of behaviour and locomotion (Jamieson et al., 2012a). The Hadal-
Lander A made observations of P. jamiesoni in the Japan Trench (7703 m) and
IzuOgasawara Trench (9316 m) and of P. aff. abyssalis in the Kermadec Trench
(7966 m) and the Tonga Trench (8798 m). The body lengths of four P. jamiesoni from
7703 m and four from 9316 m were 5771 mm (mean 65 mm 6 S.D.) and
2532 mm (mean 29 mm 3 S.D.). In the Kermadec Trench, the body lengths for
200 Crustacea
Figure 9.17 The predatory amphipod Princaxelia jamiesoni (Pardaliscidae) recovered from 7703 m
in the Japan Trench. Modied from Jamieson et al. (2011a), original image taken by Tomislav
Karanovic, Hanyang University, S. Korea.
P. aff. abyssalis were 1951 mm (mean 29 mm 8 S.D., n 14) and in the Tonga
Trench specimens ranged from 18 to 37 mm (mean 28 mm 5 S.D., n 14) in
length. The P. jamiesoni specimens caught in the traps at 7703 m in the Japan Trench
were 56.2 mm (female; holotype), 57.5 mm (male; paratype) and 61.0 mm (female;
paratype) long. At 9316 m in the IzuOgasawara Trench, the catch included one female
at 36 mm and one 24 mm long juvenile.
These in situ observations and the specimens caught in the traps conrm the
assumptions made by Kamenskaya (1981) and Lrz (2010) that princaxelid amphipods
have well-developed olfactory senses and are carnivores and efcient swimmers. Their
bait interception times of between 15 and 41 min were relatively fast compared to other
taxa at similar depths (e.g. decapods, sh; Jamieson et al., 2009a, b; Fujii et al., 2010).
It is assumed that olfaction is their primary detection sense, since princaxelid amphi-
pods, particularly in the Japan and IzuOgasawara Trenches, arrived at the bait long
before the other amphipod species (mainly lysianassoids) had aggregated in large
numbers. Their status as carnivorous can be expanded further to conrm that they are
not scavengers but rather predatory, preying on small scavenging amphipods; a
common strategy at these depths (e.g. liparid sh and natantian decapods; Jamieson
et al., 2009a, b).
Princaxelia exhibits impressive mobility and exibility in swimming, not only in a
forward direction in the typical horizontal posture but also backwards with the head up,
swimming vertically. As suggested by Lrz (2010), Princaxelia have an optimal body
shape for efcient swimming, as the telson and uropods can be hydrodynamically
Amphipoda 201
8
(a) (b) 8 (c) 2
Specific swiming speed (BL s 1)

7 7 1.75
6 1.5
6
Swimming speed (cm s 1)
Swimming speed (cm s 1)

1.25
5 5
1
4 4
0.75
3 3
0.5
2 2
0.25
1 1
0
Japan
IzuOgasawara
Kermadec
Tonga
0 0
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
Body length (cm) Body length (cm)
Figure 9.18 Swimming speeds of Princaxelia amphipods. (a) Absolute overground swimming
speed (closed dots) and size-specic swimming speeds (open dots) of the amphipod Princaxelia
jamiesoni from the Japan and IzuOgasawara Trenches (7703 m and 9316 m, respectively).
(b) Absolute overground swimming speed (closed dots) and size-specic swimming speeds (open
dots) of the amphipod Princaxelia aff. abyssalis from the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches (7966 m
and 8798 m, respectively). (c) A summary of mean specic swimming speeds (BL s-1) for P.
jamiesoni (closed dots) and P. aff. abyssalis (open dots). Modied from Jamieson et al. (2011a).
streamlined to reduce drag and therefore increase locomotive efciency. In the case of
P. jamiesoni (Fig. 9.17), the wide rami of uropod III can be used for routine locomotion
and burst acceleration, which is particularly useful during fast predatory attacks; a
strategy all the more useful given their strong mouthparts which enable rapid immobil-
isation of prey, in conjunction with large maxilliped and strong gnathopods. Efcient
swimming ability is a trait common to other deep-sea pardaliscid amphipods. Individ-
uals have been observed holding station in mid-water, where current speeds reached up
to 10 cm s 1 (>10 BL s 1) (Kaartvedt et al., 1994). Mean absolute swimming speeds
were calculated for P. jamiesoni and P. aff. abyssalis as 4.16 cm s 1 1.8 S.D. and
4.02 cm s 1 0.87 S.D., respectively (Jamieson et al., 2012a; Fig. 9.18). The obser-
vations showed that these amphipods have the capacity for long-range swimming,
high manoeuvrability in close range and efcient predatory behaviour. Also, burst
swimming speeds for P. aff. abyssalis were 9 and 10 cm s 1 with accelerations up to
2225 cm s 2.
In addition to the benthic Princaxelia species, Dahl (1959) also recorded two
occurrences of Pardaliscoides longicaudatus, from 10 000 m in the Philippine Trench
and 6180 m in the Kermadec Trench.
202 Crustacea
Moving further away from the seaoor, the Pardaliscidae genus Halice comprises
ve species that are known to occupy the hado-pelagic zones of multiple trenches. For
example, H. aculeate has been described from four trenches in the western Pacic
Ocean, from the Tonga in the south to the KurilKamchatka Trench in the north
(400010 500 m). H. quarta Birstein and Vinogradov, 1955 has a similarly wide
geographic range, spanning the western Pacic trenches (600010 000 m). H. secunda
(Stebbing, 1888), H. rotundata Birstein and Vinogradov, 1960 and H. subquarta
Birstein and Vinogradov, 1960 are all known from a range of western Pacic trenches,
from depths of 696010 190, 40509120 and 719010 500 m, respectively.
The Hyperiopsidae are a pelagic family comprising three genera (Hyperiopsis,
Paragissa and Protohyeriopsis) and six species, and the Lanceolidae family include
two genera (Lanceola and Metalanceola) and three species. Both of these families
are known only from the western Pacic trenches. Most of these species were identi-
ed from single trawl samples, while others show considerable bathymetric range.
For example, Paragissa arquarta is found between 4200 and 8500 m in the Kuril
Kamchatka Trench (range 4300 m) and Lanceola clausi gracilis is found in the same
trench between 4200 and 8000 m (range 3800 m). As a result of the limited number of
pelagic trawls at hadal depths, information regarding the pelagic Amphipoda is limited
relative to that of the benthic species.
Extraordinarily large numbers of amphipods are often recovered from the hadal
zone using baited traps. Similarly large numbers are also observed in still photographs
and video from baited systems (Fig. 9.19). Mobile scavenging amphipods,
particularly at depths exceeding 8000 m account for the entire suite of natatory fauna
(Hessler et al., 1978). However, the relatively large numbers of amphipods relative
to, for example, sh at abyssal depths makes accurate population density and
biomass estimates difcult at best. However, the absence of abundance and biomass
estimates does not detract from the overwhelming dominance of these organisms that is
witnessed when using baited sampling techniques. Their ability to detect, intercept and
consume bait is extraordinary. Moreover, the deeper the experiment, the more individ-
uals are present and the faster they arrive. Given that food-falls should, theoretically,
occur in the deep sea irrespective of depth, the role of scavenging amphipods in the
dispersal of organic matter is signicant, even more so at depths exceeding 8000 m
where there is little evidence of any other taxa of the scavenging guild. Also, at these
depths, the redistribution of organic matter by hadal amphipods in the deep trenches
may also provide nutrients to the wider hadal fauna; in the absence of predators,
amphipods will eventually die and will presumably be distributed uniformly across
the seaoor, thus playing their part in another mechanism for the dispersal of food
within the hadal zone.
The reasons why amphipods play such a dominant role within the scavenging guild at
the greatest depths is not clear. In most of the data from depths exceeding 10 000 m,
only Hirondellea are found (Hessler et al., 1978; Blankenship et al., 2006). Whether
this trend is a direct testament to the success of the Amphipoda or simply due to the
absence of larger predators due to physiological limitations is unclear. However, their
dominance at full ocean depth cannot be understated.
Amphipoda 203
6000
7000
Nominal depth (m)
8000
9000
10000
00:00 00:30 01:00 02:00 04:00 08:00

Time (hh:mm)
Figure 9.19 Succession of scavenging amphipods at 1000 m intervals over time. These images are
frame grabs from the Hadal-Lander A (each image 0.35 m 2 with sh bait in the centre)
showing relatively low amphipod activity at the shallower depths, with an increase with both
depth and time, culminating in nearly a 100% coverage of bait at 9000 and 10 000 m after 2 h and
the greatest activity after 8 h at 10 000 m. Images are taken from the Kermadec and Tonga
Trenches, courtesy of HADEEP.
The success of the Amphipoda at hadal depths may lie in the array of adaptations that
they possess in order to cope with a low food environment. Deep-sea scavengers occupy
a very specic ecological niche, whereby they must meet the requirements necessary for
survival by consuming large meals that may arrive at long time intervals and that are
randomly dispersed over large areas of seaoor (Dahl, 1979). In order to do survive in
this environment, a scavenger must (1) have the ability to localise and recognise
potential food sources, (2) have the ability to feed on large muscular food sources, (3)
be capable of consuming large quantities of food in relatively short periods of time, (4)
store the energy obtained for gradual utilisation over extended periods (survive for long
periods of starvation) and (5) supplement their diet with alternative food sources that
become available between large carrion-falls.
All of these requirements are met by the hadal Amphipoda. Amphipods use chemo-
sensory stimulation to detect a food-fall via the emanating odour plume (e.g. Tamburri
and Barry, 1999), as is the case for most deep-sea scavengers (Wilson and Smith, 1984;
Sainte-Marie and Hargrave, 1987; Hargrave et al., 1995). While the foraging strategy
for amphipods is as yet unclear, it is likely to encompass either the sit and wait method
or the cross-current drifting method (Bailey and Priede, 2002). Furthermore, the
strategy for detecting odour plumes is potentially species-specic. Dahl (1979) dis-
cussed the possibility of mechanoreception as an indicator of the arrival of food,
204 Crustacea
however, the idea was mostly discounted based on the fact that amphipods are known to
continue arriving at bait after 24 h.
Chemosensory adaptations are evident in the lysianassid amphipods, for example,
some species sweep water over the proximial part of the antennulae, mouthparts and
into the branchial region when beating their pleopods (Dahl, 1977), presumably to
increase the chance of detecting chemical stimuli. Lysianassids also have a dense array
of chemosensor-type setae on the ventral side of the rst agellar article of the antennae
(Dahl, 1979). They also have short and stout antennae which are kept depressed to
increase exposure to chemosensory stimuli, and when swimming, these sensors are
prominently exposed to the body of water through which the amphipod swims.
Smith and Baldwin (1984) provided estimates of sound intensity and spherical
spreading of the noises created by Eurythenes gryllus whilst feeding. They calculated
that the resulting noise intensity (75 dB re 1 Pa) could potentially produce 15 dB
(assuming spherical spreading) at a distance of 1 km. This hydroacoustic stimuli,
although unproven, may attract further visitors to the carrion-fall (whether other amphi-
pods or other taxa), but it is generally agreed that the detection of the odour plume is the
primary strategy.
The amphipods ability to consume the esh of carrion is self-evident when images
and video from the hadal zone are viewed. Often, carcasses are stripped of every visible
shred of esh within 24 h and often, when no other taxa are present (e.g. Fig. 9.13). This
efcient removal of esh is a result of highly adapted mouth morphology (Fig. 9.20).
The basic gammaridean amphipod has a strongly and irregularly serrated incisor part
with well-developed lacina mobilis on both mandibles (Dahl, 1979). When biting, the
left incisor passes in front of the right incisor which, in turn, moves between the left
lacinia mobilis, which then sits in front of the right one. However, for the three most
dominant amphipod genera in the hadal zone (Eurythenes, Hirondellea and
Paralicella), this feeding motion is slightly different; the right incisor slides in behind
the left and the shape of the bite is bowl-shaped allowing these genera to remove
larger pieces of food than those with a attened mandible (Dahl, 1979). Furthermore,
E. gryllus and H. gigas have distinctively shaped molars, such that when they are
closed, they form an almost complete funnel from the mouth to the stomach, thought to
aid in guiding larger food particles to the digestive tract.
The ability of amphipods to store large food items is clearly evident when examining
specimens that have just been captured. Often, the guts of the amphipods look like they
are ready to burst. The alimentary tracts of the above-mentioned genera are adapted
for the accumulation and storage of large volumes of food relative to their size and thus
are capable of storing more food than their shallower-water counterparts. This ability is
particularly evident in Paralicella where the body wall can extend ventrally to two or
three times its body size (Shulenberger and Hessler, 1974; Thurston, 1979). In
Eurythenes, Hirondellea and Paralicella, food can be stored in the midgut which can
expand to ll the entire body cavity.
The feeding strategy exhibited by amphipods is species-specic. Based on the
morphology of the Eurythenes gryllus mandibles, their capacious guts and high
assimilation rates, Sainte-Marie (1992) characterised them (and Paralicella spp.) as
Amphipoda 205
Figure 9.20 (a) A 40 magnied image of the mandibles of the hadal amphipod Hirondellea dubia
from 9908 m and (b) Scopelocheirus schellenbergi from 8487 m in the Kermadec Trench.
Image (a) taken by Nichola Lacey and (b) by Kevin MacKenzie, University of Aberdeen, UK.
batch-reactor-type feeders that are able to survive prolonged starvation periods. In

contrast, other deep-sea species such as Orchomene sp. were described as a plug-ow
reactor-type, whereby, they process food continuously and, thus, are more dependent
on a consistent food supply.
Whilst in contact with a carrion-fall, amphipods are capable of characterising the food
source, presumably using gustatory seta on the gnathopods and periods (Kaufmann,
1994). The majority of gustatory sensors (a combination of chemical and physical) are
found on the ventral margins of appendages and are thought to be used for tasting the
206 Crustacea
food items upon which the amphipod is crawling, or items held by the gnathopods.
Thus, it appears that amphipods are capable of discriminating between food items that
differ either chemically or texturally. This is further supported by observations of
selective feeding on liver and gonads during necrophagy (Scarratt, 1965), presumably
in order to maximise their energetic intake per unit feeding by consuming the most
energy-rich tissues rst (Kaufmann, 1994). This behaviour was also observed during a
2011 HADEEP cruise to the Kermadec Trench, whereby a single juvenile snailsh was
recovered from 7012 m in a baited trap and found to be largely intact except for its liver
which had been removed by amphipods (pers. obs.).
After gorging themselves on a carrion-fall, it is likely that the amphipods must wait
for an extended period of time before the next carrion-fall arrives. There are two
strategies to cope in this scenario. The rst is simply energy management: making the
most of the last meal. Smith and Baldwin (1984) showed that necrophagous, deep-sea
amphipods (Paralicella caperesca and Orchomene sp.) may drastically reduce their
metabolic activity during starvation periods. Tamburri and Barry (1999) demonstrated
that an amphipod, Orchomene obtuse Sars, 1895 could survive without any food
whatsoever for 46 weeks in laboratory conditions, although repeating similar experi-
ments with hadal amphipods is not yet possible. Yayanos and Nevenzel (1978) reported
that Hirondellea gigas specimens from the Philippine Trench had appreciable stores of
lipids in their bodies (26.1% of the total dry weight), presumably an energy cache to
cope with long periods of starvation.
The storage methods of the three deep-sea, scavenging amphipod species were
investigated by Bhring and Christiansen (2001). The Paralicella spp. and Orchomene
sp. were found to store triacylglycerols whereas Eurythenes gryllus stored wax esters.
All three amphipod species were identied as necrophagous and the lower total lipid
content of Orchomene sp. compared to the other two amphipod species supported the
idea that, unlike the other species, Orchomene sp. process food continuously, rather
than gorging after a period of starvation.
The success of Hirondellea in the trenches may be attributed to several such energy-
conserving strategies that maximise reproductive success. Hessler et al. (1978) found
that as H. gigas specimens increased in size, the number of individuals that had bacteria
and sediment in their guts decreased. This was thought to be a potential strategy for
protecting their young, i.e. smaller individuals and juveniles may have more difculty in
feeding at food-falls, whereas for larger individuals bottom feeding may require too
much energy to be protable. Likewise, the large amount of stored lipids, a slowing of
growth in later instars, the disproportionate number of females and the absence of
brooding females attending food-falls all appear to be adaptations in hadal amphipods
in order to optimise reproductive success in an energy-poor environment, like the
trenches.
A second strategy that hadal amphipods use to survive is to supplement a scavenging
diet with other smaller food items, beyond the limits of necrophagus scavenging on
carrion. The existence of obligate scavengers has been a matter of debate for some time
(Britton and Morton, 1994; Kaiser and Moore, 1999; Tamburri and Barry, 1999) and it
seems likely that even amphipods, the prolic scavengers of the deep sea, are also
Amphipoda 207
facultative in this nature. Blankenship and Levin (2007) examined the nutritional
strategies of four lysianassoid amphipod species from the Tonga Trench: E. gryllus,
S. schellenbergi, H. dubia and former Uristes sp. nov. Their results revealed a remark-
able trophic plasticity in that, supplementary to necrophagy, these amphipods exhibited
detrivory and predation. Furthermore, the nutritional strategies of some species
appeared to change with age and depth. E. gryllus, and S. schellenbergi were shown
to employ predation and possibly detrivory in the absence of carrion. These species
were found to have digested tunicates, ascidians, pelagic salps or larvaceans and other
amphipods. A more recent study by Kobayashi et al. (2012) showed that H. gigas from
10 897 m in the Mariana Trench possessed a unique digestive enzyme capable of
digesting wood debris. Given the morphology of the mouthparts, it is unlikely that
H. gigas can remove pieces of wood from a larger object, but rather, it may consume
small detrital pieces of wood that are delivered to the trench from terrestrial origin
amongst plant debris.
Although it is unclear whether these food/prey items were dead or alive at the time of
consumption, or what the exact mechanisms involved in the consumption of wood
debris are, the results align well with the idea that amphipods are one of the most
trophically diverse taxa in the marine environment (Nyssen et al., 2002).
Gammaridean amphipods develop primary and secondary sexual characteristics that
indicate a particular stage of maturity, resulting in distinct morphological characteristics
for a particular developmental stage or instar (Sexton, 1924; Steele and Steele, 1970;
Hessler et al., 1978). Hirondellea gigas, collected from 96009800 m in the Philippine
Trench, were classied into developmental stage and sex (Hessler et al., 1978). With the
exception of female and male stages 1 and 2, respectively, the stages are the equivalent
of instars that exhibit a relatively constant growth ratio. The females had seven to eight
instars and the males had four. An exception occurred in stage 6 females, where growth
decreased, coinciding with the development of reproduction products. This decrease is
probably an effect of nutritional intake being converted into reproduction. As no
brooding females or individuals with spent gonads were caught in this study, it is
therefore assumed that stage 6 is followed by a brooding instar with spent gonads and
morphologically mature oostegites. This study suggested that females breed only once
and, if so, then the total fecundity averages ~97 oocytes per female. The study also
found that the females accounted for 63% of the population, which, given the distinct
absence of brooding females, was likely to be higher.
The absence of ovigerous females suggested that during this period, females do not
partake in feeding bouts, presumably because the expansion of the stomach may expel
or crush the eggs (Blankenship et al., 2006), although it was speculated that if post-
brooding females were larger than 12.5 mm in height, then they may not have readily
entered the traps used by Hessler et al. (1978). However, larger traps deployed in
the Mariana Trench still failed to recover any brooding females. Alternatively, the
absence of brooding instars may be because if sufcient nutrients have already been
accumulated to ensure a successful brooding, partaking in feeding bouts may pose
unnecessary danger to the female (as reported in other amphipods; Fulton, 1973),
favouring a period of fasting. Furthermore, large stores of lipid are present in H. gigas
208 Crustacea
(Yayanos and Nevenzel, 1978) but it is not known if these are sufcient for more than
one brooding cycle.
The afore-mentioned studies highlighted the dominance of Hirondellea at the greatest
depths of the ocean, but as the deployments were all undertaken at the deeper end of
trenches, larger scale vertical ontogenetic patterns could not be identied. Even so,
Hessler et al. (1978) did record individuals of all stages (except brooding instars) within
his samples from the deeper sites, suggesting a lack of ontogenetic vertical structure.
A slightly larger dataset focusing on H. gigas was obtained in the nearby Izu-Bonin
Trench from 8172 and 9316 m (Eustace et al., 2013). Like the Hessler et al. (1978)
study, data from this trench also showed that a similar pattern of all instars was present
at the corresponding depth of ~9300 m, however, the shallower depth samples were
comprised mostly of juveniles. These data suggest that although all instars can be found
at a single depth, vertical stratication in the form of shifting male:female:juvenile
(M:F:J) ratios (and size frequency) still occurs (Fig. 9.21). Similar trends in M:F:J ratio
shifting with depth, in favour of mature individuals at the deeper depths, is also
becoming apparent in preliminary HADEEP data for other hadal amphipods (N.C.
Lacey, unpublished). For example, H. dubia and S. schellenbergi both show a bias
towards juveniles at the shallower end of their depth range, although this trend is
perhaps most pronounced in H. dubia.
Blankenship et al. (2006) carried out 11 baited trap deployments in the Tonga Trench
from 5155 to 10 787 m. They found four main scavenging amphipod species with
distinct vertical zonation; E. gryllus, 51556252 m; S. schellenbergi, 62528723 m;
an unidentied Tryphosinae (listed as Uristes), 73499273 m; and H. dubia,
734910 787 m. The most dominant amphipod, H. dubia, ranged from 2.8 to 20.9 mm
with females reaching 20.9 mm and males reaching 18.6 mm. Although, again, no
ovigerous females were found and the vast majority of juveniles were found in the
shallower stations (73298723 m), corresponding to a larger size-frequency distribution
at the greater depths, thus indicating an ontogenetic vertical structure. Similarly,
although based only on one sampling depth at 7800 m in the PeruChile Trench,
Perrone et al. (2002) reported that the majority of the Hirondellea sp. nov. were close
to the maximum possible size. Furthermore, the size frequency distribution of these
Hirondellea sp. nov. resembled that of H. dubia in the Tonga and Kermadec Trenches
(Blankenship et al., 2006), suggesting a similar pattern of ontogenetic structuring in
Hirondellea.
Eustace et al. (2013) stated that, despite the presence of both mature and juvenile
H. gigas towards the deepest parts of the Izu-Bonin Trench, ontogenetic vertical
stratication was evident. This statement is contrary to the ndings of Hessler et al.
(1978), who based their conclusions on an extremely narrow depth range
(96009800 m). The presence of both mature and juvenile individuals at all stations
reported by Eustace et al. (2013) and Hessler et al. (1978) suggests that the vertical
stratication was not driven by depth (or pressure) per se, but rather by another
environmental driver in combination. It is also unlikely that this trend was inuenced
by temperature, as despite a slight warming of bottom waters with depth, the tempera-
ture range was very low; ~1C increase across the depth range of the trench. Salinity
Amphipoda 209
Percentage of catch
(a) 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
6709
6968
7000
7884
8487
9053
9908
(b)
8172
Depth (m)
9316
9604
(c)
6709
6968
7000
7291
7884
8487
Male Female Juvenile
Figure 9.21 Ontogenetic stratication of the hadal amphipods. (a) Hirondellea dubia from
the Kermadec Trench (Lacey, unpublished), (b) Hirondellea gigas from 8172 and 9316 m in the
Izu-Bonin Trench (Eustace et al., 2013) and 9604 m from the Philippine Trench (Hessler et al.,
1978) and (c) Scopelocheirus schellenbergi from the Kermadec Trench (Lacey, unpublished).
was also found to be constant (34.69 ppt) throughout the hado-pelagic water column.
It is, therefore, more likely that food supply and other associated ecological interactions
drive ontogenetic stratication.
Eustace et al. (2013) found that juveniles were the most dominant life stage of
H. gigas at 8172 m and that their percentage of the total population diminished with
depth. This raises the question as to why juveniles are most abundant at the shallower
depths. Likewise, if amphipods descend with age, culminating in the onset of brooding
210 Crustacea
females at the deepest point, what mechanisms drive juveniles to culminate at shallower
depths? It is not known if females migrate up the trench slopes to release their brood, or
if juveniles independently move up the trench. If juveniles are to move such relatively
large distances, then they would need to have high fat reserves in order to fuel such a
large migration. This is partially supported by the known high lipid content of H. gigas
(Yayanos and Nevenzel, 1978). However, it seems impractical for a female to supply
such a high quantity of energy to a large brood in an energy-poor environment and since
large food-falls are scarce and ephemeral, there is little opportunity for juveniles to build
up their own lipid stores in order to make such a migration (Blankenship et al., 2007).
The most logical explanation, therefore, is that the ovigerous females migrate to a
shallower depth and then release their brood (Blankenship et al., 2006), however, direct
evidence for this theory is currently lacking.
The associated advantages of H. gigas spending at least part of its life cycle at
shallow depths are numerous and of key consequence. Decreasing pressure is known
to increase the rate at which metabolic reactions proceed (Blankenship et al., 2006),
therefore, juveniles who mature at shallow depths are able to assimilate food more
rapidly and thus increase the rate at which they grow and become reproductive. Food-
falls are also of higher nutritional quality and quantity at shallower sites than at the
deeper trench depths. This further provides juvenile individuals with the opportunity to
rapidly increase both their weight and size in order to better cope with the competition
and predation pressures at greater depths, where H. gigas abundance is far higher, i.e.
the shallower depth hosts a greater number of food-fall items and therefore less
competition. Furthermore, at shallower depths, competition with conspecics for
resources is vastly reduced as well as the risk of cannibalism, due to the reduced
abundance of larger adult H. gigas at shallower depths. One disadvantage to such a
strategy is that in the shallower depths of the trenches (60008000 m), amphipod
predators such as sh and natant decapods are frequently encountered (Jamieson
et al., 2009a, b, 2011a). However, this may be negated by their relatively small size
and thus potentially low energy transfer, since predators may selectively choose larger
prey items than amphipods if available. Upon reaching notable size and sexual maturity,
the amphipods descend to depths where predator abundance is low (7700 m) (Fujii
et al., 2010).
Female H. gigas show the opposite trend in vertical structure to juveniles; their
presence is minimal at shallow sites and increases with depth towards the trench axis.
This trend may also be related to the correlated increase in pressure. Neither this study
nor any of the previous studies performed on H. gigas have found egg-laden females
(Hessler et al., 1978; France, 1993). One proposed theory for this is that ovigerous
females do not attend baited traps in order to help reduce the risk of mortality through
cannibalism. Alternatively, once females become ovigerous they may stop feeding to
prevent the expulsion of eggs via the swelling of their midgut (Hessler et al., 1978;
Blankenship et al., 2006). If females do not attend baited traps then it may be likely that
they undergo a period of starvation, during which they are maintained by their lipid
reserves (Hessler et al., 1978). Therefore, the vertical patterning shown by female
H. gigas may be an attempt to survive the starvation period by decreasing their
Decapoda 211
metabolism through exposure to increasing pressure. However, this would also suggest
that the developing embryos would suffer a decreased metabolism and the rate at which
they grow would decrease, further increasing the brooding period and thus the starva-
tion period, negating the advantages of descending to greater depths.
It has also been postulated that H. gigas females are semelparous (Hessler et al.,
1978). The data reported in Eustace et al. (2013) support this hypothesis, where no
females with spent oostegites were captured. Furthermore, no stage 6 females were
captured, a rarity noted in previous studies (Hessler et al., 1978; France, 1993).
However, the collection of amphipods from 9316 m by Eustace et al. (2013), was found
to contain a copious amount of loose oocytes. It is unknown how the oocytes came to be
extruded from any of the specimens, but may have been a result of cannibalism or other
damage to the ventral surface of females within the trap. None of these loose oocytes
were held by females in any great number and were simply loose in the containers or
caught in between the pereopods and ventral surface. The oocytes varied in size from
0.27 to 1.1 mm but all were of the same yellow-orange colour and morphology. The
origin of the loose oocytes remains unresolved. They were not genetically identied,
although given the overwhelming dominance of H. gigas (99.6%) and the large number
captured (n 3968) it was postulated with some certainty that the oocytes did indeed,
belong to H. gigas.
The same ontogenetic structuring pattern as seen in H. gigas has also been docu-
mented in H. dubia and S. schellenbergi from the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches
(Blankenship et al., 2006). In these trenches, juveniles were found to reside at shallower
depths and upon maturation, they descended to greater depths. This appears to be a
mechanism for survival exploited by bentho-pelagic amphipods that, as adults, reside in
the deepest depths of hadal trenches. It can, therefore, be construed that pressure per se
does not drive the observed trends but rather an interaction between depth (pressure)
and topography-inuenced distribution of resources, in terms of both quality and
quantity. Juveniles are found in the shallower depths where a greater net quantity
and higher quality of POM is present and the net total of food-falls is the highest
(and competition is lowest) and pressure-induced effects on metabolism are benecial
for growth. Mature individuals are found deeper where predator abundance is low,
where their large body size means that they are no longer a target for predators, and
where their metabolic rate can be reduced due to the reassurance of high lipid stores. For
both males and females the ability to maintain high lipid stores is advantageous during
periods of starvation such as occur in between food-falls, but even more so for females
during brooding, who undergo prolonged periods of starvation.
9.9 Decapoda
Since the rst major hadal sampling efforts in the 1950s, crustaceans of the order
Decapoda have been thought absent from the hadal zone, with no representatives
documented below 5700 m (Wolff, 1960). There were brief mentions of decapods at
hadal depths in George and Higgins (1979), from 7600 m in the Puerto-Rico Trench
212 Crustacea
(eight Plesiopeneus and Nematocarcinus) and by Hessler et al. (1978) in the PeruChile
Trench, who reported occasional natantian decapods from between 6767 and 7196 m.
However, despite these reports, it was assumed until recently that decapods had no
hadal representatives (Herring, 2002; Blankenship et al., 2006). This conclusion was
largely based on the results of a series of trawls during the Galathea and Vitjaz
expeditions, in the 1950s (Wolff, 1960, 1970). Although >700 species of invertebrates
and sh were described from the ~33 000 individuals that were recovered from 80 hadal
trawls on the Galathea, not a single decapod was found (Wolff, 1970). The apparent
absence of hadal decapoda was attributed to the physiological limitations of hydrostatic
pressure and the deepest decapod (Parapagurus sp.) was recorded at 5160 m. Following
the expeditions of the 1950s, the deepest ndings of decapods were 4785, 4986, 5060,
5413, 5440 and 5700 m (Tiefenbacher, 2001; Haedrich et al., 1980; Gore, 1985b;
Bouvier, 1908; Domanski, 1986; Kikuchi and Nemoto, 1991, respectively).
One of the most surprising results to emerge since the very beginning of the
HADEEP project was the presence of decapods at almost every site, at depths of
<7700 m in all the trenches studied (Jamieson et al., 2009b; Fig. 9.22).
Figure 9.22 Examples of decapods from the trenches. (a, b and c) Benthesicymus crenatus from
6474 m, 6173 m and 5545 m in the Kermadec, PeruChile and Mariana Trenches, respectively.
(d) Heterogenys microphthalma from 6709 m in the Kermadec Trench. Images courtesy of
HADEEP.
Decapoda 213
The Hadal-Lander A obtained video footage of the natantian decapod Benthesicymus

crenatus Bate, 1881 (Benthesicmidae), at 6007 and 6890 m in the Kermadec Trench,
6945 and 7703 m in the Japan Trench and at 5469 m on the edge of the Mariana Trench
(Jamieson et al., 2009b). Furthermore, Hadal-Lander B later photographed the same
species at 5172 and 6000 m in the Kermadec Trench (Jamieson et al., 2011a), and at
5329 and 6173 m in the PeruChile Trench (unpublished data, HADEEP). In addition to
B. crenatus, Hymenopenaeus nereus (Faxon, 1893) of the family Solenoceridae was
photographed at 4602 m in the PeruChile Trench (but not at hadal depths), and the
smaller Caridean decapod Heterogenys microphthalma (Smith, 1885; originally
described in Jamieson et al., 2009b as Acanthephyra sp.) was photographed at
6007 and 6890 m in the Kermadec Trench. In 2012, a single specimen of H. micro-
phthalma was recovered from 6709 m in the same trench with the Latis sh trap but, to
date, no physical specimen of B. crenatus has been recovered from hadal depths.
The video footage of Benthesicymus crenatus showed that they were readily and
consistently attracted to bait. The appearance of this decapod is similar to that of the
common deep-sea Aristaeid prawn, Plesiopenaeus armatus Spence, Bate, 1881
(Aristeidae), perhaps more commonly seen at baits (Thurston et al., 1995; Janen
et al., 2000). However, the resolution of the camera was sufciently high to allow
B. crenatus to be distinguished from P. armatus (shorter rostrum).
The mean body length of B. crenatus in the Kermadec Trench at 5172 m was
18.7 cm 0.8 S.D. (n 3), at 6000 m it was 17.9 cm 3.2 S.D. (n 3), at 6007 m it
was 22.0 cm 3.9 (n 10) and at 6890 m it was 22.4 cm 2.6 S.D. (n 4) (see
Fig. 9.23). The estimated total number of individuals ranged from 10 at 6007 m, to
3 at 5172 m and at 6000 m. At 6945 m in the Japan Trench, 29 sightings of 20 individual
B. crenatus were made (mean body length 15.3 cm 2.9 S.D.). At the abyssal Mariana
location, two sightings were made of one individual decapod (body length 23.5 cm)
among a succession of the scavenging demersal sh Coryphaenoides yaquinae
Iwamoto and Stein, 1974 (Macrouridae).
B. crenatus was observed as it preyed upon small scavenging amphipods already
present on the bait, rather than feeding on the bait itself. The conrmation of predation
of amphipods by B. crenatus was made difcult because its mouth is ventrally located
and seldom in view. In one instance, however, an individual was observed removing
and handling a large lysianassoid amphipod (~2 cm body length). The decapod, 20 cm
in length, approached the bait up-current with its pereopods trailing below and out-
wards. It rapidly decelerated once contact was made with the bait. It then reached down,
clasped and shufed its pereopods while drifting slightly down-current away from the
bait. During this time, the distinctive orange body of the amphipod clearly contrasted
against the red-coloured underside of the decapod. At the same time, the site on the bait
that was previously occupied by the large amphipod became visible and vacant,
indicating that the decapods were preying upon small amphipods.
The behaviour of B. crenatus was similar to other baited camera observations from
the shallower abyssal plains. One study, where the numbers of decapods (Plesiopenaeus
armatus) were high, was undertaken in the Arabian Sea at 40004500 m (Janen et al.,
2000). Although in this study, the decapods were the rst to arrive at bait (within 1 h),
214 Crustacea
28
26
24
22
Body length (cm)
20
18
16
14
12
10
5172
5329
5495
6000
6007
6116
6173
6474
6890
6945
6975
Depth (m)
Figure 9.23 Mean body length (S.D.) for the decapod Benthesicymus crenatus from 51726975 m
in the Kermadec Trench (black dots), PeruChile Trench (white dots), Japan Trench (white
triangle) and Maraiana Trench region (black triangle).
they did not appear in the same place in consecutive images and no loss of bait was
visible when only decapods were present. Similarly, only 40% of individuals were seen
to be in direct contact with the bait. This also suggests that the decapods may have been
exploiting the temporarily high density of amphipods, rather than feeding at the bait
itself. In the Atlantic (40005000 m) small clusters of P. armatus have been viewed
directly on the bait, however, in both instances, still photography could not conrm
predatory behaviour (Thurston et al., 1995). The lack of bait consumption by decapods
in this study and others (Janen et al., 2000) suggests that exclusive dependency on
carrion-falls is unlikely. Stomach contents from abyssal specimens have comprised
phytodetritus, small bivalves and ground-up crustacean parts (Domanski, 1986;
Thurston et al., 1995); further evidence of facultative necrophagy and possibly active
epibenthic predation is suggested by these observations and others (Gore, 1985a, b).
The swimming speeds of B. crenatus in the Kermadec Trench were recorded by
Jamieson et al. (2009b) and did not show any obvious signs of hydrostatic pressure-
induced limitations. Overground swimming speeds from 6007 and 6890 m in the
Kermadec Trench were measured as 7.4 cm s 1 1.8 S.D. and 6.9 cm s 1 1.6 S.D.,
respectively (translating as 0.34 BL s 1 0.08 S.D and 0.35 BL s 1 0.11 S.D) and at
6890 m in the Japan Trench they were 6.9 2.0 cm s 1 (0.49 BL s 1 0.17 S.D.).
The other decapod, H. microphthalma, has, to date, only been observed swimming
off the bottom, with no apparent interest in the bait and it is, therefore, likely that these
observations were simply chance encounters. Combined, these observations do provide
Acariformes 215
unequivocal proof that decapod crustaceans are active at hadal depths, inhabiting the
upper slopes of the Pacic Ocean trenches in both the northern and southern hemi-
spheres. They are capable of preying upon the abundant scavenging amphipod commu-
nity that thrives at these depths and form a major component of the hadal food-web
(Blankenship et al., 2006; Blankenship and Levin, 2007), thus adding a new element to
the hadal food-web as a top predator in the upper trenches.
B. crenatus and H. microphthalma (Jamieson et al., 2009b) are, however, not endemic
to the hadal zone but simply transcend the abyssalhadal transition zone. The absence
of decapods at depths greater than 7700 m bears a strong similarity to the depth ranges
of teleost (bony) sh. It is thought that the depth limit for shes is ~80008500 m,
where the deepest sh ever seen alive was observed during the same deployment as the
deepest decapod (Jamieson et al., 2009a; Fujii et al., 2010). The maximum depth for
sh is thought to be limited by the content of the osmolyte trimethylamine oxide
(TMAO) within their cells, which is predicted to reach isosmosis at 80008500 m
(Jamieson and Yancey, 2012), i.e. the depth where TMAO can no longer counteract
the perturbing effects of high hydrostatic pressure (Yancey et al., 2001, 2004). It is also
worth noting that the TMAO content for sh is very close to those already found in
decapods (Kelley and Yancey, 1999), suggesting that decapods, like sh, are perhaps
also limited to depths of 80008500 m.
The reason decapods have, until recently, remained elusive in hadal sampling
campaigns is that they appear to be extremely difcult to physically catch. The
decapods have evolved highly efcient threat detection (disproportionately large sens-
ory antennae) and evasion techniques (burst fast-start escape responses) that make them
highly adapted to evade a trawl, particularly a slowly moving trawl at hadal depths.
Furthermore, since the discovery of the decapods using baited cameras, baited traps
and tangle nets have been deployed multiple times in their known vicinity but to no
avail. The trade-off is that the baited camera method is effective in nding decapods
at hadal depths but does not provide the necessary physical specimen to prove or refute
the TMAO hypothesis. These observations do, however, highlight the point that for
an entire and relatively conspicuous order of Crustacea to remain undiscovered from
such a large depth zone, the need for further exploration of the hadal trenches, with
appropriate techniques, is paramount in order to reveal the true structure of the hadal
community.
9.10 Acariformes
Acariformes are the most diverse of two superorders of mites. Acarina (family
Halacaridae) were rst found in the abyssal zone in the Pacic Ocean, at approximately
4000 m (Newell, 1967). They do not represent a characteristic hadal group as they are
currently known from only a few trench samples. A new genus and species of Halacar-
idae, Bathyhalacarus quadricornis Sokolov and Yankovskaya, 1968, was described
from two ndings in the vicinity of the KurilKamchatka Trench at 51005200 m and
later from the Izu-Bonin Trench at 67706850 m (Belyaev, 1989).
216 Crustacea
9.11 Pantapoda
The Pantopoda, of the class Pycnogonida, are rarely found at hadal depths and have not
yet been found greater than 7370 m. There are currently nine known species previously
found in hadal trenches, belonging to ve genera and three families, each known from
just a single specimen. They were found at 13 stations in ve Pacic Ocean trenches and
in the South Sandwich Trench. Two other undescribed specimens of Pantopoda were
caught in the PeruChile Trench (Menzies, 1964, cited in Belyaev, 1989). To date, all
the Pantopoda collected from hadal depths are typical deep-sea species. Of the nine
known species, only two have been found in more than one trench; Heteronymphon
profundum Turpaeva, 1956 (Nymphonidae) is known from the KurilKamchatka
Trench and neighbouring Japan Trench, at depths of 6860 m and 61566380 m, respect-
ively, and the other, Pantopipetta longituberculata (Turpaeva, 1955; Austrodecidae) is,
rather curiously, known only from the KurilKamchatka Trench (60906710 m) in the
North Pacic and the South Sandwich Trench in the Southern Ocean (60526150 m).
10 Cnidaria and fish
10.1 Cnidaria
Representatives of the Cnidaria phylum have been retrieved from hadal depths
(Hydrozoa, Scyphozoa and particularly Anthozoa; Table 10.1, Fig. 10.1). Hydroid
polyps have been identied in most trenches, the deepest of which were discovered
at 82108300 m in the Kermadec Trench (Halisiphonia galatheae; Kramp, 1956), at
81858400 m in the KurilKamchatka Trench and at 89509020 m in the Tonga
Trench (the latter two are not listed or named in Belyaev, 1989). There are 12 species
listed by Belyaev (1989), where only one species has been found in more than one
trench (Crossota sp.; Palau and New Hebrides Trenches). These 12 species belong to
7 families (two of them putative). Hydroids of the genus Branchiocerianthus have
been collected from the Kermadec and New Hebrides Trenches and photographed in
situ in the New Hebrides and PeruChile Trenches, where they exceeded 25 cm in
length (Lemche et al., 1976). Hydroids are, however, somewhat rare in numbers and
species at depths exceeding 6500 m and are, therefore, not considered characteristic of
the hadal zone.
The Medusae are a rare group but are known to occur in the trenches. There
are ve known species belonging to three putative families (Mitroconidae,
Anthomedusidae and Phopalonematidae) of three orders (Anthomedusae, Leptomeu-
sae and Trachymedusae). The rst hadal Hydromedusae were sampled by plankton
net by the Vitjaz, between 68008700 m (Voragonema profundicola Naumov, 1971;
Rhopalomatidae) in the KurilKamchatka Trench. Other Hydromedusae have been
sampled from the Palau, New Britain and New Hebrides Trenches; these organisms
were present in 17 images obtained by Lemche et al. (1976), from between 6758 and
8260 m who calculated the density of the Trachymedusae to be approximately one
individual per 100 m2. The occasional Hydromedusae have also been seen in baited
camera data from the HADEEP projects, as deep as 6945 m in the Japan Trench.
Unfortunately, identication of such small and gelatinous organisms is, at best,
difcult (unpublished data, HADEEP).
There are three known species of hadal Scyphozoa, all belonging to the genus
Stephanoscyphus (Atorellidae), with the exception of the Ulmaridae sp., identied in
Bougainville Trench samples from 78478662 m. Stephanoscyphus simplex Kirkpa-
trick, 1890 has been recorded from the Banda and Kermadec Trenches from
217
Table 10.1 Maximum depth of each order and family of Cnidaria and the number of genera and
species therein.
Hydrozoa Anthoathecata Corymorphidae 1 1 62606776

Hydrozoa Leptothecata Lafoeidae 1 1 6860
Hydrozoa Leptothecata Hebellidae 1 1 82108300
Hydrozoa Leptothecata Aglaopheniidae 1 3 63007000
Hydrozoa Leptomedusae Mitroconidae? 1 1 82588260
Hydrozoa Anthomedusae Anthomedusidae? 1 1 82588260
Hydrozoa Tracymedusae Rhopalonematidae 3 3 67588700
Scyphozoa Coronatae Atorellidae 1 2 600010000
Scyphozoa Semaeostomeae Ulmaridae 1 1 87468662
Anthozoa Alcyonacea Alcyonaria 1? 1? 67588662
Anthozoa Alcyonacea Primnoidae 1 1 80218042
Anthozoa Pennatularia Kophobelemnonidae 1 2 56506150
Anthozoa Pennatularia Umbellulidae 2? 5 56506730
Anthozoa Hexacorallia Actinosolidae 2 2 66608230
Anthozoa Hexacorallia Bathyphelliidae 1 1 72507290
Anthozoa Hexacorallia Edwardsiidae 1 1 7160
Anthozoa Actiniaria Galatheanthemidae 2 4 10730
Anthozoa Actiniaria Actiniidae 1 1 56506780
Anthozoa Antipatharia Unknown 1 1 72008840
Anthozoa Scleractinia Fungiidae 1 1 60906328
64906650 m and 61807000 m, respectively (Kramp, 1959). By far the most common
hadal scyphozoan is an unidentied species of Stephanoscyphus, recorded in the
hado-pelagic zone of 10 trenches. However, Belyaev (1989) notes that, based on size,
colouration and morphology, there are likely to be at least different species among them,
with the added possibility of more families. Furthermore, ndings of scyphopolyps
(S. simplex) at depths of greater than 6000 m indicate that Scyphomedusae must also
exist in the trenches, although they have yet to be found. Images of Scyphomedusae,
presumably Ulmaridae, ranging in size from 5 to 7 cm diameter, were obtained in the
PROA expedition to the Bougainville Trench at depths between 7847 and 8662 m
(Lemche et al., 1976). The distinct lack of pelagic sampling at hadal depths means that
the densities and ecological signicance of Scyphomedusae is still unresolved and is
another area requiring further examination.
Of the Anthozoa subclass of Octocorallia, representatives of the orders Alcyo-
nacea and Pennatulacea corals have been recorded in images from several trenches,
including the New Britain and New Hebrides Trenches (Lemche et al., 1976).
With the exception of 3 out of 21 species, all are restricted to depths of <7000 m
(the remaining three are found between 7500 and 8000 m). Several Pennatula
species of the genus Khophbelemnon and Umbellula have been found in multiple
trenches but are still generally limited to <7000 m. In the northwest Pacic
Cnidaria 219
Figure 10.1 Number of species per 500 m depth stratum for the Cnidaria: Anthozoa, Scyphozoa
and Hydrozoa. Note: Not shown are 10 ndings of pelagic Scyphozea (Stepanoscyphus sp.)
caught somewhere between 6000 and 10 000 m.
Trenches where the greatest numbers of samples have been taken, e.g. in the
KurilKamchatka Trench, octocorals were only found at three stations and only
on the upper slopes. The most common octocorals were recorded from the Peru
Chile and South Sandwich Trenches. A single trawl in the PeruChile Trench by
the Vitjaz recovered 26 specimens and another in a bottom grab, both from 6040 m
(Belyaev, 1989). A single specimen of the order Ceriantharia was recorded in
time-lapse in the Kermadec Trench, albeit at abyssal depths (Jamieson et al.,
2011a; Fig. 10.2).
Of the six known and one unknown families of Hexacorallia, the genus
Galatheanthemum (family Galatheanthmidae, order Actinaria) is the most domin-
ant, having been found in nearly every trench sampled (45 ndings from 16 Pacic
and Atlantic trenches >6000 m), including occasional mass ndings. Two speci-
mens of these tube-forming sea anemones have been found at full ocean depth;
Galatheanthemum hadale Carlgren, 1956 (982010 210 m in the Philippine Trench)
and Galatheanthemum sp. n. (10 17010 730 m in the Mariana Trench). The bathy-
metric range of the other species covers all other depths and, therefore, these
organisms are not restricted by hydrostatic pressure. Actinaria were also present
in the images taken in the New Britain and New Hebrides Trenches (70577075 m
and 67588930 m, respectively; Lemche et al., 1976), as well as in the Puerto-Rico
Trench (Heezen and Hollister, 1971). Most other known species are specimens from
single ndings (George and Higgins, 1979), including a photo from 7600 m in
the Puerto-Rico Trench of 2 out of 64 specimens identied as Tube-dwelling
Figure 10.2 Although there are no high quality images of Cnidaria at hadal depths, this tube-
dwelling anemone (Ceriantharia, Anthozoa) was imaged at 5173 m in the Kermadec Trench.
Image courtesy of HADEEP.
actiniarian anthozoans (Galatheanthemum), presumably Galatheanthemum profun-

dale Carlgren, 1956 (Cairns et al., 2007).
The Vitjaz and Galathea samples indicate that the family Galatheanthemidae is
widespread in many trenches and is a family that is mainly restricted to the deep abyssal
plains and hadal trenches, although shallower-water ndings have been made in the
Antarctic (39474063 m) (Dunn, 1983). Their distribution was later extended to the
Cayman Trough (58006500 m; Keller et al., 1975), the Puerto-Rico Trench
(57498130 m) and the Virgin Islands Trough (40284408 m; Cairns et al., 2007).
These data suggest that Galatheanthemidae originated in deep Antarctica and spread
into many deep-sea trenches. It is still not known why the Galatheanthemidae in all the
regions, except for the Antarctic, are conned to depths greater than 5500 m.
10.2 Fish
The diversity and bathymetric range of shes in the deep trenches has, until recently,
been unresolved, partially due to a low number of records, some spurious records and
some erroneous reports (Fujii et al., 2010; Jamieson and Yancey, 2012). Fishes of the
bathyal and abyssal zone are well documented across the worlds oceans (Merrett and
Haedrich, 1997) and are known to be a diverse and important component of the deep-
sea community (Priede et al., 2010). Records of hadal sh species are comparatively
less numerous and several species have been recorded from solitary samples that were
often in very poor condition (e.g. Stein, 2005). The lack of credible and high quality
samples is a direct result of the technical challenges associated with capture. Many of
the hadal shes known to date were originally caught by trawl in the 1950s and 1960s.
Fish 221
Unfortunately, the complications associated with trawling at hadal depths meant that
the number of high quality or high quantity samples obtained during this period were
few and far between. Consequently, current understanding of the occurrence of hadal
shes has been primarily based upon a very limited number of sh specimens and has,
until recently, been woefully inadequate (Fujii et al., 2010). Furthermore, as a result
of the dearth of sh samples, very little is known about their behaviour, ecology or
abundance. For decades, it has been generally assumed that hadal sh diversity and
population abundances are low and perhaps these sh are simply eking out an
existence on the fringes of the abyssal plains (Wolff, 1961; Nielsen, 1964). Recently,
this assumption has been entirely disproven (Jamieson et al., 2009a, 2011b; Fujii
et al., 2010).
The rst hadal sh was recovered from 6035 m in 1901, onboard the Princess-Alice
in the east Atlantic Ocean. This ophidiid (cusk-eel), Bassogigas profundissimus
(Roule, 1913) was considered the deepest sh until the Galathea expedition
trawled another specimen from 7160 m in the Java Trench (northeast Indian Ocean).
The Galathea also recovered ve snailsh liparids (Liparidae), described at the
time as Careproctus kermadecensis (Nielson, 1964), from 66606770 m in the Ker-
madec Trench. The Soviet Vitjaz expeditions later captured another two liparid
species in the northwest Pacic Ocean: a solitary Careproctus amblystomopsis
(Andriashev, 1955) from the KurilKamchatka Trench, at 7230 m and an individual,
Careproctus sp., from the Japan Trench, at 7579 m. The two named species were later
reclassied to Notoliparis (C) kermadecensis (Nielsen, 1964) and Pseudoliparis
(C) amblystomopsis.
Bassogigas profundissimus was collected once again in 1970, from 8370 m in the
Puerto-Rico Trench (Staiger, 1972) and was later reclassied as Abyssobrotula
galatheae (Nielson, 1977). This specimen is still regarded as the deepest living sh
on record. More recently, several other new sh species have been described from the
hadal zone (e.g. Anderson et al., 1985; Nielsen et al., 1999; Chernova et al., 2004;
Stein, 2005), but they were typically singlular, often poor quality specimens that did not
offer any new insights into the role of shes in the hadal environment.
The confusion regarding the exact ocean depth at which sh can no longer survive
can be directly traced back to the Trieste bathyscaphe dive in 1960. The publicity
surrounding this dive catapulted the story of Jacques Piccard and his sighting of a
atsh at over 10 900 m in the Challenger Deep into the public domain. The story goes
that when Trieste reached the bottom of Challenger Deep it crash-landed on the bottom
and resuspended considerable seabed sediments. After 20 minutes on the seaoor it
ascended back to the surface. Jacques Piccard was quoted as saying, Lying on the
bottom just beneath us was some type of atsh, resembling a sole, about 1 foot long
and 6 inches across. Even as I saw him, his two round eyes on top of his head spied, he
went on to add . . .extremely slowly, this atsh swam away. Moving along the bottom,
partly in the ooze and partly in the water, he disappeared into his night (Piccard and
Dietz, 1961). However, the pilot of the Trieste, US Navy Lt. Don Walsh, recounted a
less detailed version, As we landed, a cloud of sediment was stirred. This happened
with all of our dives and usually after a few minutes it would drift away. Not this time.
The cloud remained for the entire time on the bottom and showed no signs of moving
away. It was like looking into a bowl of milk (Walsh, 2009), and more recently he has
added, In the half century since our dive, there has been some speculation that we did
not see a atsh. And this is entirely possible. Neither Jacques nor I were trained
biologists and the critter could have been something else (Burton, 2012).
The atsh story was quickly refuted by the scientic experts. Wolff (1961)
described the observation as somewhat dubious since atsh are rarely found beyond
1000 m, and none of the trench sampling campaigns up to that point had found any sh
deeper than 7587 m, despite recovering representatives from most major taxa. He
concluded that the atsh was far more likely to be the bathypelagic holothurian
Galatheathuria aspera (Thiel, 1886), which matches the description of the Trieste
atsh.
Other scientic literature, reporting on shes from >6000 m have reiterated the point
that the atsh was, in reality, probably not a sh (Nielson, 1964), and nearly 17 years
later, the description of the Abyssobrotula galatheae (Ophidiidae) from 8370 m was
published as the deepest living sh (Nielson, 1977). The A. galatheae from the Puerto-
Rico Trench is still, to this day, considered to be the deepest living sh.
Around the same period as the Trieste dive, there were also other, credible reports of
hadal sh. The pilot of the French Archimde bathyscaphe described seeing 200 small
sh similar to liparids and three individuals of two other sh species in the Puerto-
Rico Trench, at 7300 m (Prs, 1965). Despite the lack of images to corroborate these
observations of diversity, density and behaviour, they are somewhat intriguing since the
observations do match more recently gathered data, albeit from other trenches (Fujii
et al., 2010).
Despite overwhelming evidence that contradicts the likelihood of the Trieste atsh
actually being a sh (Wolff, 1961; Jamieson and Yancey, 2012), the story has continued
to be perpetuated to this day in the popular media, leading to confusion and misinfor-
mation on the matter. Fortunately, a great deal of research has been undertaken in recent
years that can, once and for all, dispel the myth of the Trieste atsh and offer scientic
insight into the occurrence of sh at hadal depths.
A comprehensive analysis of all sh species was reported in Priede et al. (2006b).
The analysis was primarily conducted in order to show that Chondrichthyes were absent
from abyssal depths. Linear regression of the log species numbers of all 9360 sh
records in the database predicted a maximum depth for sh to be between 8000 and
8500 m (Priede et al., 2006b, 2010). This coincides with the 8370 m record for
Abyssobrotula galatheae (Nielson, 1977). This also placed the Trieste atsh at nearly
3000 m deeper than any other sh and 7916 m deeper than the next deepest pleuronecti-
form (atsh; Jamieson and Yancey, 2012). These depth-related trends are, of course,
still based on preliminary data, owing to the sparse number of records at the deeper end
of the scale.
The HADEEP project specically aimed to investigate hadal sh populations using
baited cameras and traps, thus providing unequivocal proof of the depths they inhabit
and, at the same time, gathering behavioural information, population density estimates,
high quality images and samples of sh (Jamieson et al., 2009a, 2011c; Fujii et al.,
Fish 223
Table 10.2 Current list of fish species recorded at depths of >6000 m (updated and modified from Fujii et al., 2010).
Species Depth (m) Trench Record
Macrouridae (Grenadiers)
Coryphaenoides yaquinae 6000 Kermadec Jamieson et al., 2011a
6160 Japan Horibe, 1982
6945 Japan Jamieson et al., 2009a
63806450 Japan Endo and Okamura, 1992
Carapidae (Pearlsh)
Echiodon neotes 82008300 Kermadec Markle and Olney, 1990
Ophidiidae (Cusk-eels)
Bassozetus zenkevitchi 06930 Not specied Rass, 1955
Bassozetus cf. robustus 6116, 6474 Kermadec Jamieson et al., 2013
Leucicorus atlanticus 45806800 Cayman Nielsen, 1975
Unidentied Ophidiid 6173* PeruChile Unpublished data, HADEEP
Barathrites sp. 6116* Kermadec Unpublished data, HADEEP
Abyssobrotula galatheae 31108370 Puerto-Rico Nielsen, 1977
Holcomycteronus profundissimus 56007160 Sunda Roule, 1913
Apagesoma edentatum 50828082 Not specied Carter, 1983
Liparidae (Snailsh)
Notoliparis antonbruuni 6150* PeruChile Stein, 2005
Notoliparis kermadecensis 66606770 Kermadec Nielsen, 1964
6890 Kermadec Jamieson et al., 2009a
64747501 Kermadec Jamieson et al., 2013
7199, 7561 Kermadec Jamieson et al., 2011a
Pseudoliparis amblystomopsis 72107230 KurilKamchatka Andriashev, 1955
6945 Japan Jamieson et al., 2009a
74207450 Japan Horikoshi et al., 1990
Japan Fujii et al., 2010
Pseudoliparis belyaevi 75657587 Japan Andriashev and Pitruk, 1993
* Indicates that in situ photography from HADEEP expeditions recorded this sh at either 4602 and 5139 m,
or 7050 m in the PeruChile Trench.
2010). This project prompted a reappraisal of hadal shes by Fujii et al. (2010), with an
updated version shown in Table 10.2.
Data regarding the depth of occurrence and the diversity of hadal sh were extracted
from global datasets, accessed through FishBase (available from www.shbase.org;
Froese and Pauly, 2009). The dataset for shes found deeper than 6000 m documented
15 species belonging to six families (ve Ophidiidae (cusk-eels), four Liparidae
(snailsh), three Bathylagidae (deep-sea smelts), one Eurypharyngidae (gulpers), one
Macrouridae (grenadiers) and one Carapidae (pearlsh)). On re-examination of the
original references, it was found that many of these records were either erroneous or
misleading.
The bathylagids, Lipolagus ochotensis Schmidt, 1938, Bathylagus pacicus Gilbert,
1890 and Pseudobathylagus milleri (Jordan and Gilbert, 1898) are well-known meso-
pelagic sh that migrate vertically from deep (~1000 m) to shallow waters (~500 m) at
night in order to feed (Radchenko, 2007). They happen to inhabit the pelagic waters
overlying the Aleutian, KurilKamchatka and Japan Trenches. These are relatively
well-researched sh, known to rely heavily on the meso-pelagic and epi-pelagic zone
for feeding and spawning. Therefore, it appeared more likely that these bathylagids
were accidental catches from the shallower zones, captured as the trawl was hauled to
the surface. Furthermore, the depth ranges were cited as 06000 m for the rst two
species of bathylagids and 2307700 m for the latter, suggesting that the sh were
captured by vertical trawling, a method that provides no means of determining the exact
depth of capture. The same conclusion can be drawn on a record for the gulper eel
Eurypharynx pelecanoides Vaillant, 1882. This gulper eel is another well-known bath-
ypelagic sh (Gartner, 1983), generally found between 1200 and 1400 m, several
thousand metres above the seaoor (Owre and Bayer, 1970; Masuda et al., 1984).
Other records were found to be inconclusive, such as the record for the pearlsh
Echiodon neotes Markle and Olney, 1990 (Carapidae), since all 12 species of Echiodon
are otherwise known to inhabit depths of 182000 m (Markle and Olney, 1990;
Williams and Machida, 1992). The hadal species recorded was a single specimen from
82008300 m in the Kermadec Trench. It was recorded as demersal but is debatably
pelagic (Nielsen et al., 1999). Furthermore, it seems unlikely that a species of this
relatively shallow-water family would inhabit waters ~6300 m deeper than any other
Echiodon species. Other spurious records include that of the Ophidiid Apagesoma
edentatum, recorded as living between 50828082 m, although Anderson et al. (1985)
and Nielsen et al. (1999) state its depth range at 25605082 m. The origins of the
8082 m entry are unclear, thus its status as a hadal species, living at hadal depths is
unresolved.
It is also worth noting that there are some erroneous references to sharks at hadal
depths. For example, the bigtooth cookie-cutter shark Isistius plutodus has been
recorded from as deep as 6440 m (Kiraly et al., 2003). In reality, the specimen in
question was caught at a depth of 200 m mid-water over the Ryukyu Trench
(6440 m deep).
The appraisal of Fujii et al. (2010) and the results of the HADEEP projects concluded
that there are, in general, three families of sh that inhabit the hadal zone; Macrouridae
(grenadiers or rat-tails), Ophidiidae (cusk-eels) and Liparidae (snailsh).
Macrourids are an abundant and diverse family of deep-sea gadiformes (Wilson and
Waples, 1983; Fig. 10.3). There are two main macrourids observed within the vicinity
of trenches around the Pacic Rim; Coryphaenoides yaquinae Iwamoto and Stein, 1974
and Coryphaenoides armatus (Hector, 1875). The deeper of the two macrourids,
C. yaquinae, is restricted to the Pacic Ocean and is a well-documented species,
observed down to 5900 m on the abyssal plains (Priede and Smith, 1986). Although
primarily a deep abyssal scavenger, it has also been observed in situ at 6160 m (Horibe,
1982) and 6945 m (Jamieson et al., 2009a) in the Japan Trench, at 6000 m in the
Kermadec Trench and at abyssal depths in the northern sector of the PeruChile
Trench (Jamieson et al., 2012c). The deepest of these records, 6945 m, highlights its
ability to transcend the abyssalhadal boundary, although this has only been observed in
the Japan Trench. The most ubiquitous abyssal macrourid is Coryphaenoides armatus
Fish 225
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 10.3 Examples of Macrouridae. (a) Lateral image of Coryphaenoides armatus on the
abyssal plains of the northeast Atlantic Ocean; (b) C. yaquinae at 5469 m on the edge of the
Mariana Trench; (c) C. armatus from 4329 m in the Kermadec Trench; (d) C. yaquinae (dark) and
C. armatus (light) at 4602 m in the PeruChile Trench. Images taken by Hadal-Lander B, courtesy
of HADEEP except (a) courtesy of the University of Aberdeen, UK.
but this sh is limited to depths of 5180 m (Cohen et al., 1990). It is a wide-ranging,

mostly eutrophic, deep-slope or upper-rise species that dominates the abyssal plains of
the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, between 2000 and 4800 m (Wilson and Waples, 1983).
In the Pacic Ocean, it is restricted to relatively food-rich zones between 2000 and
4600 m around the Pacic Rim, and it appears unable to penetrate into the large
oligotrophic expanses of the abyssal plains, unlike C. yaquinae (Jamieson et al.,
2012c). Interestingly, Prs (1965) reportedly saw a macrourid at ~7000 m in the
Puerto-Rico Trench, in the Atlantic. If this identication was actually a macrourid, then
perhaps C. armatus lives 2000 m deeper than previously thought or otherwise, there is a
new and undescribed species of macrourid inhabiting hadal depths. While neither
C. yaquinae nor C. armatus penetrate far into hadal depths, they do account for a
signicant presence in the abyssalhadal transition zone.
There are descriptions of ve ophidiids with a depth range exceeding 6000 m:
Bassozetus zenkevitchi Rass, 1955, Leucicorus atlanticus Nielsen, 1975, Holcomycter-
onus profundissimus (Roule, 1913), Apagesoma edentatum Carter, 1983 and
Abyssobrotula galatheae Nielsen, 1977; all of which are relatively rare. Various
cusk-eels have also been observed by baited cameras in the hadal zone, however, they
have yet to be identied to species level.
Bassozetus zenkevitchi is the only known pelagic Bassozetus species, although
benthic captures have been acknowledged (Nielsen and Merrett, 2000). Its large depth
range of 06930 m is again misleading because of the vertical trawling method used for
sampling. More accurate trawl records suggest that it is an abyssal species (Machida and
Tachibana, 1986; Nielsen and Merrett, 2000), although its presence in the upper depths
of trenches is not unlikely. B. zenkevitchi is found mainly in the vicinity of the
northwest Pacic trenches (KurilKamchatka, Japan and Izu-Bonin) (Orr et al., 2005).
Holcomycteronus profundissimus (Roule, 1913), formerly Bassogigas (Nielsen,
1964), is a geographically extensive species, found in the Atlantic, Pacic and Indian
Oceans. It is a lower abyssal to upper hadal species (56007160 m; Nielsen et al., 1999)
and the deepest point at which it has been found was recorded in the Java Trench.
The deepest sh, and indeed the deepest vertebrate ever found, is the Abyssobrotula
galatheae (8370 m in the Puerto-Rico Trench; Nielsen, 1977). Although this
A. galatheae is widely accepted as the deepest sh, the accolade is still questionable.
There are 17 records of this sh available on the shbase.org database: 1 bathyal
(2330 m; Shcherbachev and Tsinovsky, 1980), 14 abyssal and 2 hadal (31008370 m;
Machida, 1989). Although the deeper records for A. galatheae are from or in the vicinity
of trenches (Puerto-Rico, Japan and Izu-Bonin; Machida, 1989), the specimens were
obtained using a non-closing trawl net. Therefore, there is the possibility of incidental
capture in mid-water during hauling. This issue was raised by Nielson (1964) and
Nielson and Munk (1964), as 15 genera of pelagic sh were reported from the same
trawl that included A. galatheae. The stomach contents indicate that it is potentially
bentho-pelagic. However, Shcherbachev and Tsinovsky (1980) reported on a total of
12 specimens of A. galatheae, all from bathyal or abyssal depths and noted that one was
captured in a pelagic trawl 400800 m above the seaoor. The true depth range of this
species is, therefore, still debatable until further information becomes available, but for
the time being it is assumed to be the deepest sh.
Leucicorus atlanticus was once considered a unique hadal sh species of the Carib-
bean region, having been described from a specimen recovered from the Cayman Trench
(Rass et al., 1975). It is now known to be a lower abyssal to hadal species (45908600 m;
Anderson et al., 1985). Aside from a few trawled specimens, very little is known about
L. atlanticus. However, an ophidiid similar in appearance to L. atlanticus, but more likely
of the genus Barathrites, was observed in high abundance at a baited lander in the Peru
Chile Trench (unpublished, HADEEP). The sh was infrequently observed at 5329 m (in
only 2.3% of the 669 frames), however, its abundance at a deeper 6173 m site was
extraordinarily high (Fig. 10.4). At this depth, it arrived at 2 h 41 min into the deployment
and increased in numbers, reaching an estimated maximum of 20 individuals in the
0.29 m 2 eld of view. The sh were clearly feeding at the bait, and did not show any
signs of a decrease in numbers even 19 h later (the end of the deployment). In total, at
least 7257 observations were recorded, accounting for a presence of 71.5% in 1120
images. This one deployment represents more observations of a single species of sh at
these depths than found anywhere else, regardless of depth, using the same equipment.
Fish 227
Figure 10.4 Large aggregation of an unidentied ophidiid at 6173 m in the PeruChile Trench,
after (a) 3 h, (b), 6 h, (c) 9 h and (d) 14 h on the seaoor. Images taken by Hadal-Lander B,
courtesy of HADEEP.
More recently, another two species of Ophidiidae have been photographed in situ at
6116 and 6474 m in the central Kermadec Trench (unpublished data, HADEEP;
Fig. 10.5). At these two sites, no macrourids were observed, however, the ophidiid
Bassozetus sp. was dominant. They reached a maximum number of three and six,
respectively. These ophidiids were present in 80% and 73% of 840 frames (14 h;
Fig. 10.6). However, the Bassozetus sp. is externally very similar to specimens photo-
graphed at 5469 m on the edge of the Mariana Trench (Jamieson et al., 2009a), and at
5329 and 6173 m in the PeruChile Trench. It may be construed that the Bassozetus sp.
is actually B. robustus Smith and Radcliffe, 1913 (pers. comm., A. Stewart, Te Papa
Fish Collection, New Zealand), a globally ubiquitous abyssal species. Also observed at
6116 m was a solitary ophidiid of the Barathrites genus. Neither of the species observed
entered the Latis sh trap, which was deployed at the same depths 2 km away.
Therefore, identication of these ophidiids to species level was not possible.
There are at least six species of the Liparidae known to occur at hadal depths. Two
of the species, Notoliparis antonbruuni Stein, 2005 and Pseudoliparis belyaevi
Andriashez and Pitruk, 1993, were described from single specimens from 6150 m in
the PeruChile Trench (Stein, 2005) and 63807587 m in the Japan Trench (Chernova
et al., 2004), respectively. The limited number of samples, and, in particular, the poor
Figure 10.5 Ophidiidae in the trenches, (a) A group of Bassozetus sp. (possibly B. robustus) at
6474 m in the Kermadec Trench, (b) more Bassozetus sp. and one Barathrites sp. (white, centre)
at 6116 m in the Kermadec Trench and (c) Bassozetus sp. at 6173 m in the PeruChile Trench.
Images taken by Hadal-Lander B, courtesy of HADEEP.
quality of N. antonbruuni, unfortunately added little to our understanding of sh

populations at these depths. Baited camera deployments in the PeruChile Trench at
4602 and 5329 m observed two small liparids preying upon amphipods that were
attracted to the bait (Fig. 10.7). There was also another liparid observed relatively
frequently at 7050 m. In the absence of physical samples, and given the poor condition
of the deep liparid described from the region (Stein, 2005), it was not possible to
determine if one of these two species was N. antonbruuni.
In addition to these rarer records, there is also the 1964 account of liparids at 7300 m
from Archimde bathyscaphe in the Puerto-Rico Trench (Prs, 1965). Two hundred
individuals were observed over a short transect and were mostly 1012 cm long,
although some were as long as 25 cm. The report describes the sh as pale pink in
colour, becoming darker with increasing body size and with distinct black eyes. Their
swimming behaviour was described as spirally and often discontinuous and some sh
were observed to fall to the seaoor and remain stationary for short periods, with the
Fish 229
6
6474 m
Number of ophidiids 5
3
6114 m
2
0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 660 720 780 840
Time (min)
Figure 10.6 Time series of ophidiids (Bassozetus cf. robustus) attending bait in the central
Kermadec Trench and 6116 and 6474 m.
Figure 10.7 Liparids of the PeruChile Trench. (a) Unidentied liparid from 7050 m and
(b) Notoliparis cf. antonbruuni found between 4602 and 5329 m. Images taken by
Hadal-Lander B, courtesy of HADEEP.
body arched and lying on one side. There were no samples, video or still images taken
to corroborate these observations at the time, however, the description and behavioural
accounts reported by Prs (1965) bear an uncanny resemblance to more recent
observations of other liparids, taken in situ in other trenches (Jamieson et al., 2009a,
2011a; Fujii et al., 2010). Such observations suggested that the upper depths of the
Figure 10.8 The snailsh Pseudoliparis amblystomopsis (Liparidae) in the Japan Trench
(69457703 m). (ac) show one tail-beat 0.3 s apart from 6945 m and (d) shows a mass
aggregation at 7703 m, the deepest sh ever seen alive. Modied from Fujii et al. (2010).
Puerto-Rico Trench are, indeed, inhabited by liparids. Interestingly, a deep-living

liparid, Careproctus sandwichensis, was also found in the vicinity of the South Sand-
wich Trench, in the Southern Ocean at 5453 m (Andriashev and Stein, 1998).
A number of comparative in situ observations of hadal sh were made during the
HADEEP projects, in different trenches and they comprised signicant observations of
two species in particular; Notoliparis kermadecensis Nielsen, 1964 from the Kermadec
Trench and Pseudoliparis amblystomopsis Andriashev, 1955 from the Japan Trench.
Pseudoliparis amblystomopsis is a relatively well-documented liparid, inhabiting
some of the northwest Pacic trenches. It has been found between 7210 and 7230 m
in the KurilKamchatka Trench (Andriashev, 1955) and between 7420 and 7230 m in
the Japan Trench (Horikoshi et al., 1990). The rst observation of this species alive
occurred at 6945 m in the Japan Trench, where an individual (22.5 cm) was seen twice
(Jamieson et al., 2009a). In the Kermadec Trench at 6890 m, three individuals of
N. kermadecensis (32.2, 33.3 and 28.7 cm long) were observed over a 6 h period. Both
P. amblystomopsis and N. kermadecensis were observed suction feeding on small
scavenging amphipods, at a rate of 2 and 9 min 1, respectively (Fig. 10.8).
The initial observations undertaken during the rst HADEEP project gave the
impression that sh populations in the upper depths of the trenches were indeed low.
However, the still photographs and video footage obtained using baited cameras
provided additional information about the sh that the historical trawl samples could
not. For example, Jamieson et al. (2009a) observed that P. amblystomopsis was capable
of holding its position in near-bottom currents of ~37 cm s 1, with a routine tail-beat
frequency of 0.47 Hz 0.01 S.D. (n 2). Both pectoral and caudal ns were used for
propulsion with a tendency of 1:1 synchrony (mean 0.76). N. kermadecensis was seen
Fish 231
Figure 10.9 The snailsh Notoliparis kermadecensis (Liparidae) from the Kermadec Trench
(64747561 m). (left) Close-ups of body and (right) mass aggregation at 7561 m. Images taken by
Hadal-Lander B, courtesy of HADEEP.
to be capable of swimming against currents of ~1014 cm s 1 with a mean tail-beat

frequency of 1.04 Hz 0.11 S.D. (n 31) and a caudal:pectoral frequency ratio of 2.08.
Problems of size scaling, temperature differences and absence of data on shallow-water
liparids makes it hard to assess whether these hadal sh show lower activity levels, as
might be expected in sh living at extreme hydrostatic pressure. However, tentative
comparison of the tail-beat frequency and theoretical swimming speeds of these liparids
with those of shallower abyssal species of Moridae and Macrouridae (Collins et al.,
1999) showed no obvious signs of physiological limitations.
The idea that sh at hadal depths are rare and low in number was quickly challenged
when further expeditions to the Japan and Kermadec Trenches revealed large aggrega-
tions of both species at slightly greater depths than had been previously observed
(Fig. 10.8, Fig. 10.9). At 7703 m in the Japan Trench, Pseudoliparis amblystomopsis
arrived at the bait within 1 h 15 min and subsequently represents the deepest sh seen
alive to date (Fujii et al., 2010). The number of P. amblystomopsis increased exponen-
tially over the following 5 h, to a maximum number of 20 by the end of recording
(6 h 35 min). Both adults and juveniles were present, with maximum and minimum
body lengths of 30.0 cm and 7.4 cm, respectively (mean body length of
19.8 cm 5.2 S.D., n 10). In the Kermadec Trench at 7199 and 7561 m, N. kerma-
decensis were present in 63% and 90% of the frames taken at these sites (779 and
813 frames, respectively) (Jamieson et al., 2011a; Fig. 10.10). Their arrival times were
78 and 75 min, respectively. At 7199 m, their numbers increased to a maximum of 5,
whereas at 7561 m, the maximum number was 13. Their body lengths ranged from 18.5
to 34.1 cm at 7199 m (mean 25.4 cm 5.4 S.D., n 8) and 13.5 to 22.7 cm
(mean 17.5 cm 2.3 S.D., n 11) at 7561 m.
Since then, a further three deployments of the baited camera have detected N.
kermadecensis in the central Kermadec Trench (~32 S), at 6474, 6979 and 7501 m,
(a) 20
18
16
cf. Leucicorus atlanticus
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050
Time (min)
(b) 20 (c) 20
18 18
Pseudoliparis amblystomopsis
Notoliparis kermadecensis
16 16
14 14
12 12
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
0 150 300 450 600 750 0 150 300
Time (min) (Time (min)
Figure 10.10 Examples of large aggregations of sh at hadal depths. (a) Leucicorus atlanticus
(ophidiid) at 6173 m in the PeruChile Trench, (b) Notoliparis kermadecensis (liparid) at 7561 m
in the Kermadec Trench and (c) Pseudoliparis amblystomopsis (liparid) from 7703 m in the Japan
Trench. Data derived from (a) unpublished data, HADEEP, (b) Jamieson et al. (2011a) and (c)
Fujii et al. (2010).
on the 2011 and 2012 RV Kaharoa expeditions (KAH1109 and KAH1202;

HADEEP). The 6474 m record represents the shallowest record of occurrence for
N. kermadecensis. The previous record was reported at 66606770 m when the
N. kermadecensis holotypes were caught in 1951 on the Galathea expedition
(Nielsen, 1977). Furthermore, the RV Kaharoa KAH1109 expedition was the rst
to use the full ocean depth rated sh trap, Latis, specically designed for recover-
ing hadal snailsh. Latis was deployed at 7000, 7012, 7291, 7844 and 9908 m and
ve specimens were recovered from the 7000 m site (mean length 23.7 cm;
Fig. 10.11) and small single specimens were recovered from 7291 and 7179 m, with
body lengths 19.0 and 12.8 cm, respectively. Subsamples were taken from each of
these specimens for, among other things, visual function, DNA sequencing and
cellular pressure adaption analysis.
Fish 233
Figure 10.11 Specimens of Liparidae from the Pacic Ocean trenches. (a) Pseudoliparis
amblystomopsis from 7703 m in the Japan Trench and (b) Notoliparis kermadecensis from 7000 m
in the Kermadec Trench. Images courtesy of HADEEP.
None of the Japan or Kermadec liparids were observed to feed directly on the bait
itself, but rather to suction feed on small amphipods (< ~2.0 cm). On several occasions,
they were seen sucking sediment from the seaoor and blowing it through the gills,
presumably ltering out amphipods in the process. In the Japan Trench, large amphi-
pods (Eurythenes gyllus) were observed interfering with the tails or body of the liparids.
These perturbations were counteracted by sudden and repeated body-icks, including
icking of the head and body against the seaoor, often resulting in turning upside-
down and exhibiting a spiral-swimming gait. In contrast, some individuals temporarily
became motionless and rolled onto one side as if forced by the current; a behaviour also
observed among other individuals that were otherwise very active. On average, 36% of
the sh exhibited these short periods of inactivity but there are no obvious explanations
as to the initiation or cessation of this behaviour.
This spiral-swimming gait and motionless periods are intriguing, as they are rarely
evident in deep-sea sh. Furthermore, it is unlikely that these behaviours could be
deduced from captured specimens, thus, the reports of spirally swimming and sh
passing out on the seaoor in an unbalanced arch position (as well as the descriptions
of the size and appearance of the sh) suggest that the bathyscaphe ndings of Prs
(1965) at c. 7000 m in the Puerto-Rico Trench are entirely credible. It can, therefore, be
construed that a hadal species of Liparidae inhabits the same depths of the Puerto-Rico
Trench as do the liparids observed in the Japan, Kermadec and PeruChile Trenches.
The repeated in situ observations of P. amblystomposis in the Japan Trench and
N. kermadecensis in the Kermadec Trench have provided a sufcient spread of body
length data to be included in the general depth trend for Actinopterygii maximum body
size proposed by Priede et al. (2010). These data have been modied to account for the
reappraisal of deepest sh records presented by Fujii et al. (2010) and to include the
(a) Maximum length (cm) (b) Arrival time (min)

1 10 100 1000 1 10 100 1000
0 0
1000 1000
2000 2000
Maximum depth of occurance (m)
3000 3000
4000 4000
Depth (m)
5000 5000
6000 6000
7000 7000
8000 8000
9000 9000
10000 10000
11000 11000
Figure 10.12 Depth-related trend for (a) sh maximum body size, where the average of 8686
records 32.2 cm (dashed line). The hadal liparids (P. amblystomopsis and N. kermadecensis)
are in open dots. (b) Fish arrival times (Tarr) at baited cameras (closed dots) with all HADEEP sh
data from trenches or neighbouring abyssal plains in open dots (depth time relationship:
tarr 2.5793e0.0005D, n 82, R2 0.42). (a) modied from Priede et al. (2010) and (b) modied
from Jamieson et al. (2009a).
latest maximum body sizes for the hadal liparids. These data show that the optimum
body size for sh towards their deepest known depths, for all shes approaches 30 cm
(mean length 32.2 cm, n 8686; Fig. 10.12). Similarly, with increasing depth, the
time it takes for sh to arrive at the bait also increases (Jamieson et al., 2009a;
Fig. 10.12b).
10.2.1 Distribution
The distribution of scavenging sh in the vicinity of the trenches is becoming more
apparent as new data are collected from around the world. In the oligotrophic Sargasso
Sea in the North Atlantic (annual chlorophyll biomass <0.25 mg m 3; Longhurst,
2007), ophidiids, particularly Bassozetus sp., were the primary scavengers (Fluery
and Drazen, 2013). Elsewhere in the Atlantic (Porcupine Abyssal Plain, Madeira
Abyssal Plain and off Cape Verde), studies have shown an abundance of macrourids,
mostly Coryphaenoides armatus, albeit at slightly shallower depths of 40004900 m
(Nielsen, 1986; Armstrong et al., 1992; Thurston et al., 1995; Priede and Merrett, 1998;
Henriques et al., 2002). Around the continental slopes of the Pacic Rim the macrourids
Fish 235
also dominate, where C. armatus, a wide-ranging, mostly eutrophic, deep-slope/upper-

rise species dominates between 2000 and 4800 m (Wilson and Waples, 1983; Jamieson
et al., 2012c). As depth increases, C. armatus is replaced by another macrourid,
Coryphaenoides yaquinae, which is conned to the Pacic and dominates under the
vast expanse of the central gyres, typically at depths of 3400 to 5800 m (Wilson and
Waples, 1983). Although these two species share a bathymetric overlap of 900 m, they
are generally bathymetrically segregated (Endo and Okamura, 1992). C. yaquinae has
also been reported on occasion, from the deeper depths of 63806450 m (Endo and
Okamura, 1992), 6160 m (Horibe, 1982) and 6945 m (Jamieson et al., 2009a) in the
Japan Trench. It has also been seen at 5469 m on the edge of the Mariana Trench
(Jamieson et al., 2009a), at 5329 m in the PeruChile Trench (Jamieson et al., 2012c)
and at 6000 m in the Kermadec Trench (Jamieson et al., 2011a). These data suggest that
C. yaquinae is a deep-dwelling species that crosses the abyssal and hadal boundary,
albeit by only a few hundred metres. However, the observations of macrourids in the
Kermadec Trench by Jamieson et al. (2011a) were made at the southern tip of the trench
in the vicinity of the continental slopes. Additional deployments made further offshore,
in the central, more oligotrophic area of the trench, between 6000 and 7000 m, did not
detect a single macrourid. Instead, relatively large numbers of ophidiids were found;
mainly Bassozetus cf. robustus and a single Barathrites sp. at 6116 and 6474 m.
While data from all these locations are low relative to the abyssal depths, it appears that
there may be a succession of scavenging sh with depth; C. armatus (20004800 m),
C. yaquinae (34006945 m, although generally <6000 m) and ophidiids of the genus
Bassozetus (50006500 m).
Fleury and Drazen (2013) suggest that, based on data obtained from the deep
Atlantic, the distribution of macrourids and ophidiids in the deep Kermadec Trench is
likely to be linked to the overlying surface productivity. Their ndings from the deep
Atlantic Ocean report that ophidiids dominated the more oligotrophic Madeira Abyssal
Plain (annual chlorophyll biomass <0.50 mg m 3; Longhurst, 2007) when compared to
the more eutrophic Porcupine Abyssal Plain (annual chlorophyll biomass <1.5 mg m 3;
Longhurst, 2007), where macrourid abundance is often found to be high (Armstrong
et al., 1992). The trend in abundances of ophidiids and macrourids has been explained
by the different productivity regimes (Armstrong et al., 1992; Thurston et al., 1995) and
seasonality of surface production (Merrett, 1987). This suggestion is supported by other
observations which have indicated that macrourids are more common in eutrophic
regions. For example, the California Current in the North Pacic is known to be
dominated by macrourids (Priede et al., 1994), while oligotrophic regions such as the
North Pacic subtropical gyre are dominated by ophidiids (Yeh and Drazen, 2009).
These observations suggest that the scavenging sh communities in the vicinity of
trenches are not determined by depth alone but probably by a combination of depth and
trophic setting. Where trenches underlie eutrophic waters, such as the Japan Trench,
macrourids are found to extend down the slopes into the upper trench (Horibe, 1982;
Endo and Okamura, 1992; Jamieson et al., 2009a, 2012c) and in the case of the
Kermadec Trench, macrourids are found on or near the more productive continental
slopes at abyssal depths, while ophidiids are found deeper and further offshore under
more oligotrophic waters. Further sampling is still required to prove or refute this
hypothesis and to disentangle the effects of depths and productivity as the driver for
scavenging sh distribution.
The distribution of sh beyond the bait-attending species, such as the Macrouridae
and Ophidiidae, comprises only that of the Liparidae. All the trench studies undertaken
have shown that each trench (or adjoining trench) is inhabited by a single species of
liparid. Also, there are relatively good data to show that the trench liparids inhabit
depths of between approximately 6500 and 7500 m. While there are no comparative
data from both anks of any trench, it can be assumed that if liparids inhabit these
depths on one slope, then presumably, they inhabit the adjacent slope also, which would
suggest a peculiar distribution band that circumnavigates the trench. Moreover, the
liparids are capable of swimming at high altitudes off the bottom, and, therefore, are
theoretically incapable of moving directly from one slope to the adjacent one, across
the trench axis. Thus, for the adjacent-slope populations to mix, they must have to
circumnavigate the trench. This type of distribution is similar to that of organisms living
on the slopes of a seamount or even a terrestrial mountain, where the population is
locked into a circular band, unable to traverse the summit or extend beyond the base.
10.2.2 Depth limitations

All of the newly acquired data on sh occurrence with depth from the HADEEP project,
combined with regression analysis from the databases, indicate that sh are limited to
depths of less than approximately 80008500 m. For example, Figure 10.13 shows the
maximum depths records of all known species of sh, as extracted from www.shbase,
org (comprised of over 9300 records, modied from Priede et al., 2006b, 2010) and also
shows all the Hadal-Lander deployments (n 29) where sh were, and were not, found.
Both sets of data show the same limit of around 8000 m.
The reason for the apparent 80008500 m bathymetric limits to sh is a direct effect
of hydrostatic pressure. One of the major prerequisites to survival in the hadal zone is
the ability to cope with extreme high hydrostatic pressure, which can have large
perturbing effects on biological molecules. Membranes and proteins are known to have
structural adaptations that provide pressure resistance (Hochachka and Somero, 1984).
In recent years, a different adaptation to pressure has been hypothesised involving
piezolytes (sensu Martin et al., 2002); small organic solutes rst discovered as organic
osmolytes. Solutes accumulated by most marine organisms prevent osmotic shrinkage
of their cells by osmoconforming to the ambient environmental conditions (osmotic
pressure of about 1000 mOsm). Among others present in marine organisms, one of the
main osmolytes is trimethylamine oxide (TMAO), which is found in deep-sea sh. Most
marine Osteichthyes (bony sh) are osmoregulators, which means that they maintain a
relatively high internal osmotic pressure of about 300400 mOsm, compared to that of
shallower bony sh (~4050 mOsm).
In bony sh, internal osmotic pressure increases with depth as a result of increasing
TMAO content. Whereas in osmoconformers, other osmolytes decrease in osmotic
Fish 237
(a) Log10 species
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

0
1000
2000
3000
4000
Depth (m)
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
11000
(b) Cumulative number of deployments

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
4000
Fish observed
5000
No fish observed
6000
Depth (m)
7000
8000
9000
10000
Figure 10.13 (a) Log10 of all known species of sh in 500 m stratum with linear regression (black
line), modied from Priede et al. (2006b, 2010). The light and dark shaded areas represent the
depths where TMAO concentrations are predicted to reach isosmosis in both groups, respectively.
Modied from Jamieson and Yancey (2012). (b). Baited camera deployments in and around hadal
trenches from the HADEEP projects where solid dots represent where sh were observed and
grey dots where no sh were observed.
compensation as TMAO increases with hydrostatic pressure, e.g. urea in elasmobranchs

and glycine in decapods (Kelly and Yancey, 1999).
TMAO concentration analyses of deep-sea shes revealed a linear relationship with
depth, down to 4900 m (Gillett et al., 1997; Kelly and Yancey, 1999; Yancey et al.,
2004; Samerotte et al., 2007). Extrapolation of these data suggested that the depth at
which the shes cells would become isosmotic with seawater is about 80008500 m,
roughly the depth of the deepest shes ever observed or captured (Nielsen, 1977;
Jamieson et al., 2009a; Fujii et al., 2010). This was recently tested by Yancey et al.
(in press) using samples from several Notoliparis kermadecensis specimens recovered
by the Latis sh trap from 7000 m in the Kermadec Trench, who did indeed prove that
sh are restricted to a maximum depth of ~8500 m.
Furthermore, it has been shown that Chondrichthyes (sharks, rays and chimaeras) are
limited to bathyal depths, as predicted by linear regression of global database records
for sh (Priede et al., 2006b). They proposed that chondrichthyans are excluded from
abyssal and hadal depths due to their high-energy demands, which are required to
maintain, among other things, an oil-rich liver for buoyancy, which cannot be sustained
in extreme oligotrophic conditions. However, Laxson et al. (2011) analysed the major
organic osmolytes of 13 chondrichthyan species, caught between 50 and 2850 m. While
the urea concentration of these chondrichthyans declined with depth, TMAO content
increased from 85168 mmol kg in the shallowest group to 250289 mmol kg in the
deeper group and a plateau was predicted at the greatest depths, suggesting that the
deepest chondrichthyans may be unable to accumulate sufcient TMAO content to
counteract the perturbing effects of hydrostatic pressure at upper abyssal depths
(30004000 m; Laxson et al., 2011). Although Chondrichthyes are not present at hadal
depths, these ndings provide further support for the TMAO hypothesis that sh cannot
exceed 8500 m.
Part IV
Patterns and current perspectives

Introduction
Trying to put the trenches and the hadal community into some form of coherent
ecological context is very difcult for many reasons. Beyond what we already know
about deep-sea biology and ecology in general (e.g. Gage and Tyler, 1991; Herring,
2002) there is a historical lack of systematic and comprehensive sampling campaigns at
hadal depths, and on issues specic to organisms at very high pressure. The problem
stems from a historical mismatch of opportunity and method. The 1950s provided a rare
opportunity to compile the best marine scientists of the age and embark on lengthy and
expensive voyages to sample as many trenches as possible from around the world. Such
investments in sea-going activity are no longer commonplace despite the fact we now
have advanced technology and methodology, and a much better understanding of
statistical methodology and sampling design. Playing catch up with regards to
narrowing the gap in knowledge between the hadal zone and other marine environments
is set to be a long drawn out game, despite the recent resurgence in interest.
In an ideal world, this book would end on an all encompassing and in-depth chapter
on the ecology of the hadal zone, but in reality this is still a long way off. We do,
however, have a good feel for many of the ecological trends that are likely to drive what
we observe at the great depths. For example, the trench fore arcs are likely to host
chemosynthetic communities, the extent and importance of which are still unknown
(Blankenship-Williams and Levin, 2009). There is likely to be a signicant effect of
food accumulating along the trench axes but this still lacks unequivocal evidence,
despite multiple anecdotal or limited observations (Danovaro et al., 2003; Glud et al.,
2013). Hadal speciation and endemism is likely driven by combinations of hydrostatic
pressure, topography, isolation and disturbance but these have yet to be disentangled
across multiple taxa (Wolff, 1960, 1970; Belyaev, 1989). Similarly, the trench commu-
nities may differ as a result of proximity to land mass, latitude, individual trench age,
inter-trench connectivity, or frequency and magnitude of seismic activity (Belyaev,
1989; Oguri et al., 2013; Watling et al., 2013), which are all likely but yet to be
condently proven. Other more rudimentary ecological trends such as the examination
of species diversity with depth or with area, or the effects of transition zones between
the trenches and neighbouring abyssal plains are currently tantalising (Jamieson et al.,
2011a; Fujii et al., 2013; Kitahashi et al., 2013) but are severely hampered by a lack of
consistent and quantitative sampling. While all of the above have some degree of
historical data on which to build on in the future, there has not been nor are there any
immediate plans to perform long-term monitoring of these ecosystems. This is worrying
240 Patterns and current perspectives
on two counts. First, the trenches are isolated ecosystems inhabited by largely endemic
communities; therefore, large changes or perturbations could have a signicant effect on
the entire trench (Angel, 1982). Second, we live in an age where climatic changes are
ever more evident and the effects are being witnessed at ever-increasing depths (Ruhl
and Smith, 2004; Ruhl et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2008). The hadal zone is one of the few
marine ecosystems whereby there are no historical long-term datasets on which to steer
conservation initiatives or environmental policy in the future.
Chapter 11 documents many of these issues in the hope of providing a baseline on
which to build upon as hadal sampling increases. Many of the trends and relationships
described hereafter are derived from individual groups, individual species, individual
trenches and so on. Therefore, they do not necessarily represent an all encompassing
trend in hadal ecology per se. Furthermore, studies examining bathymetric, topo-
graphic, area- or depth-related effects on community structure are derived from simi-
larly limited sources, albeit the best sources that are currently available.
On a more contemporary note, we are at a turning point in hadal science (Jamieson
and Fujii, 2011) and Chapter 12 explores current perspectives in regards to exploitation
and conservation, anthropocentric interactions with the physical instabilities of the
trenches and the public perceptions of what they, and the life therein, represent. In an
era of responsible exploitation for the biotechnology industry and the quest for under-
standing life on Earth at its most extreme, the trenches can offer positives to mankind
beyond simple curiosity and fascination of the unknown. This perhaps might go some
way in counteracting the notoriously negative aspects of trenches such as earthquakes.
If future scientic challenges are overcome, we stand a better chance of providing
sufcient stewardship of the oceans, thus addressing the shortfall in ecological under-
standing and long-term sustainability of the deepest parts of the oceans.
11 Ecology and evolution
11.1 Antiquity
The antiquity or age of the hadal community has been a contentious subject and under
discussion since the rst hadal organisms were recovered (Belyaev, 1989). To under-
stand the invasion of the trenches both the historical oceanography and geology of the
deep sea and trenches must be considered. The history of the physical deep-sea
environment is characterised by extreme variability in temperature, oxygen and circula-
tion (McClain and Hardy, 2010). The deep sea used to be much warmer than it is today
as it has cooled by approximately 1415C since the Eocene/Palaeocene boundary
(55 Ma), following minor warming in the Late Cretaceous and a similar cool period at
the Eocene/Oligocene boundary (34 Ma; Waelbroeck et al., 2001). Furthermore, deep-
ocean circulation has alternated between two types of ocean; one driven by high-latitude
deep water formation (thermohaline, THC), and one driven by salinity-induced strati-
cation at low latitudes (halothermal, HTC). The former resulted in cold, oxygenated
deep water and the latter in warm, saline deep water which reduced global circulation
(Rogers, 2000; McClain and Hardy, 2010). THC conditions have existed since the
EoceneOligocene transition, and the HTC conditions occurred back to the Triassic.
During this period, deep-water anoxic events were both frequent and extensive (Jacobs
and Lindberg, 1998; Rogers, 2000; Waelbroeck et al., 2001; Takashima et al., 2006),
with the most severe events associated with rapid THCHTC transitions in the mid-
Cretaceous, and at the Permian/Triassic and Ordovician/Silurian boundaries (Horne,
1999).
Belyaev (1989) details the arguments on the origin and age of deep-sea and trench
fauna from around the 1950s and highlights that there was no consensus between
leading experts at the time. The arguments fell into two categories: the deep-sea fauna
should mainly be considered young (e.g. Bruun, 1956b) or should be considered as
refuges that have maintained slightly altered, ancient, archaic forms (e.g. Zenkevitch
and Birstein, 1953) of which both arguments were considered as opposite and mutually
exclusive. It is, however, now thought that both arguments are partially right and that
the origins of the deep-sea fauna are centred around the extinction and replacement
hypothesis where the large, widespread anoxic events led to near-complete extinctions
followed by the radiation of shallow-water species into deeper waters (Rogers, 2000).
This suggests that many deep-sea clades are relatively young, dating back to the
EoceneOligocene boundary, while many clades had in fact survived the anoxic events
241
(Raupach et al., 2009; McClain and Hardy, 2010). Vulnerable taxa may have been
wiped out by these catastrophic anoxic events producing a more resistant (eurythermic
and eurybathic; Wolff, 1960) deep-sea community that may have also encouraged
allopatric speciation rather than complete extinction (Wilson, 1999; Rogers, 2000).
These two groups can be categorised into ancient and secondary fauna (Andria-
shev, 1953; Zenkevitch and Birstein, 1953). The ancient and secondary forms differ in
respect to their vertical distribution. In most secondary deep-sea fauna the number of
species rapidly decreases with depth whereas in ancient forms the number of species
increases with depth in the bathyal zone and decreases towards the abyssalhadal
boundary. Examples of this are the secondary Sipunculoidea and the ancient
Siboglinidae (formerly Pogonophora) (Zenkevitch and Birstein, 1953), the ancient
Neotanidae and the secondary isopod genera Macrostylis and Storthyngura (Wolff,
1960) and sh families such as the ancient Macrouridae and Ophidiidae and the
secondary Zoarcidae and Liparidae (Andriashev, 1953). Furthermore, Andriashev
(1953) states that the secondary sh species are more stenobathic than the relatively
eurybathic ancient species, and in the latter, there is a tendency for panoceanic horizon-
tal ranges.
Emiliani (1961) found that the surface waters at high latitude and abyssalhadal
waters were around 14C in the Upper Cretaceous and had since cooled by 12C during
the last 75 million years. The effect on the abyssal and hadal community may have been
signicant, although probably very gradual. It was in fact the work of Emiliani (1961)
that Bruun (1956b) and Wolff (1960) cited as suggestive evidence that Tertiary abyssal
fauna may have been largely killed by the temperature change, and hence most modern
abyssal and hadal fauna are relatively young.
Belyaev (1989) concluded that the majority of available hadal data indicated that the
modern trench communities originate from groups (at the taxon rank of families and
orders) that were formed no earlier than the Mesozoic (25165.5 Ma), and in many
cases, in the Cenozoic (65.5 Ma to present) but also highlight that in the overwhelming
majority of cases there is no paleontological chronicle to trace and examine the
evolutionary timelines of the trench fauna. This suggests that the hadal community is
largely of the secondary invasion whereas he also acknowledges that the wider deep-sea
communities largely originate in the Paleozoic (i.e. ancient). Belyaev (1989) also
concluded that the abyssal fauna of the neighbouring regions to each trench is the likely
source for settlement of the trenches as representatives of the ancient deep-sea groups
that were formed and evolved in the abyssal zone should have played a signicant role.
This is thought to be a result of the lengthy existence at great depths under hydrostatic
pressures of several hundred atmospheres, and thus the ancient abyssal fauna were pre-
adapted to the colonisation of even greater depths. Wolff (1960) also reiterates this
thought that the hadal fauna is derived from the abyssal zone in that endemic families,
genera and some species may be considered as relics of a pre-glacial abyssal (and hadal)
fauna. This sentiment is further supported by Belyaev (1989) in the idea that the
subduction process converts the abyssal plains (and communities therein) into hadal
trenches and communities over hundreds of thousands or even millions of years, the
duration of which is comparable to the duration of species formation, and sometimes
Speciation and endemism 243
even evolutionary changes to higher taxonomic levels (genera, rarely families). Birstein
(1958) noted that the abyssal and hadal Malacostraca are predominately of ancient
origin with seemingly endemic ancient genera and families. Wolff (1960) pointed out
that this is not in accordance with the thought that the trenches in the current formation
are relatively young (formed in their modern form during the Cenozoic period) but
could have, however, migrated from the abyssal zone after their formation followed by
an extinction at abyssal depths.
11.2 Speciation and endemism
Allopatric speciation occurs as a result of geographic isolation between populations

(Hoskin et al., 2005). In areas or habitats with limited or an absence of gene ow,
reproductive isolation arises gradually and incidentally as a result of mutation, genetic
drift and the indirect effects of natural selection driving local adaptation (Dobzhansky,
1951). The hadal zone represents an ecosystem which should, in theory, promote
allopatric speciation as each trench is isolated from one another, often over great
distances and partitioned by very differing habitat type (abyssal plains). Since the early
taxonomic work of the Vitjaz and Galathea expeditions, the hadal community as a
whole has been frequently reported as being highly endemic, whereas diversity within
each trench is relatively low. This is highly analogous with mountain or island bio-
geography in terrestrial ecology or seamount and vent systems in marine ecology where
an entire ecosystem is represented not by any large continuous habitat but rather by a
myriad of individual habitats. With individual trenches being so deep and abruptly
punctuating the otherwise vast open and at abyssal plains the conditions are ideal for
driving allopatric speciation.
Allopatric speciation is supported by the ndings of different species of Hirondellea
found in each trench. For example, Hirondellea gigas is the single dominant amphipod
species at hadal depths in the northwest Pacic trenches (KurilKamchatka, Japan,
Izu-Bonin, Mariana, Yap, Palau and Philippine Trenches; Kamenskaya, 1981; France,
1994), H. dubia in the southwest Pacic trenches (Kermadec and Tonga Trenches;
Dahl, 1959; Blankenship et al., 2006) and three species of Hirondellea inhabit the
PeruChile Trench (Perrone et al., 2002; Fujii et al., 2013; Kilgallen, in press).
Furthermore, despite the amphipod Eurythenes gryllus being one of the most geograph-
ically cosmopolitan species in the deep sea it is known to be morphologically variant
depending on habitat type (Ingram and Hessler, 1983; Thurston et al., 2002). Moreover,
the HADEEP sampling campaign in the PeruChile Trench revealed three distinct
morphological forms (HADEEP, unpublished). The two most abundant forms were
stratied between abyssal (4602 to 6173 m) and hadal (6173 to 8074 m) depths, whereas
the rarest of the three were found between 4602 and 5329 m (Fig. 11.1). The morpho-
logical variation occurs in the structure of the pereonies and pleonites, the shape of coxa
2 and the rst and second gnathopods.
Population genetic studies on E. gryllus from the central North Pacic basin has
shown that populations are stratied by depth; in this case one population spread across
Relative E. gryllus catch (%)

(a) 0 20 40 60 80 100
4602
5329
Depth (m)
6173
7050
8074 Hadal Abyssal Intermediate
(b)
100 Abyssal (Individual A)
Abyssal (Individual B)
Intermediate (Individual A)
100 Intermediate (Individual B)
Hadal (Individual A)
100 Hadal (Individual B)
0.02
Figure 11.1 (a) Percentage of each morphological form of Eurythenes gryllus as a percentage of
total E. gyllus catch at each depth. (b) Maximum likelihood phylogeny of six E. gryllus
individuals from hadal, abyssal and intermediate depths, based upon DNA sequence differences
across 243 base pairs (b.p.) of the mitochondrial 16S ribosomal RNA locus. Values at nodes
represent bootstrap support indices (based upon 1000 iterations).
the summits of guyots and another throughout the adjoining basins (Bucklin et al.,
1987). In the PeruChile Trench, the abyssal and hadal forms are two distinctively
different populations as both are found to contain males, females and juveniles
spanning all instars. The abyssal populations were found to be genetically similar
to other abyssal populations of the Pacic at similar depths (HADEEP, unpublished).
However, the hadal populations were found to be quite divergent, even more so than
the guyot population described by Bucklin et al. (1987). The abyssal samples were
taken in the Milne-Edwards sector of the PeruChile Trench and the hadal samples
were taken from both the Milne-Edwards and Atacama sectors and therefore it
appears that topography does not solely drive allopatric speciation but depth (or
rather pressure) is a signicant driver.
France and Kocher (1996) discussed the importance of temperature as a controlling
ecological factor in the deep sea (with references to Wilson and Hessler, 1987; France,
1994), and to E. gryllus in particular, whereby once isolated, such a selective regime
may lead to genetic differentiation and speciation (Palumbi, 1994). When comparing
bathyal to abyssal populations, typical bottom temperatures are sufciently distinct to
prompt such conclusions, however, such comparisons between abyssal and hadal
populations do not. The temperatures experienced at abyssal depths are very similar to
those from underlying trenches, in fact the minimum bottom temperatures are typically
found at ~4500 m, thereafter the temperature rises and at full ocean depth, it equals
those in the upper abyssal and lower bathyal (Jamieson et al., 2010); a result of
adiabatic heating (Bryden, 1973). Therefore, the temperature experienced by the abyssal
and hadal populations of E. gryllus is extremely similar. Oxygen as a controlling factor
has also been proposed as an ecological factor promoting allopatric speciation (White,
1987; France and Kocher, 1996). However, like the case of temperature, the oxygen
regimes exhibited in the bathyal zone contrast with the abyssal zone, whereas there is no
evidence to suggest any such differences in oxygen concentration between abyssal and
hadal depths (Belyaev, 1989). Salinity can also be discounted on the grounds it does not
uctuate signicantly beyond ~3000 m. The presence of the third divergent E. gryllus
form, found at the abyssal depths of the Milne-Edwards sector and found only in the
lower instars remains subject to further study, but the important issue arising in the case
of E. gryllus is that allopatric speciation appears to occur as a result of depth alone and
not distance isolation.
The story is further complicated in that E. gryllus is thought to be stenothermic,
favouring colder waters (Thurston et al., 2002). Whilst the central North Pacic and
PeruChile Trench basin studies show three distinct vertically stratied populations
(guyots/seamounts, abyssal plains and hadal trenches), there has yet be a nding of
E. gryllus in the slightly colder Kermadec and Tonga Trench beyond 6200 m
(Blankenship et al., 2006; Jamieson et al., 2011a). This may be explained by the
conclusion of Fujii et al. (2013) that pressure alone does not necessarily account
for these bathymetric patterns and that food supply also contributes signicantly (the
Kermadec and Tonga Trenches are far more oligotrophic that the PeruChile Trench).
Holothurians of the genus Elpidia (Elasipodida) are typical and often highly abundant
representatives of trench communities. Gebruk and Rogacheva (unpublished data)
examined the phylogeny within the genus Elpidia based on a matrix comprising
20 morphological characters coded for 22 terminal taxa, including 21 species of Elpidia
and the outgroup taxon, Psychroplanes convex. A strict consensus tree was obtained for
four equally parsimonious trees (length 33 steps; Fig. 11.2).
Their results show that all species endemic to trenches, group into a well-derived
clade on the phylogenetic tree. Within this clade, supported by one clear apomorphy,
the species E. kurilensis, E. birsteini and E. longicirrata group together conrming the
assumption of Belyaev (1975) who designated several species groups in the genus
based mainly on the spicule morphology. This group is the strongest supported on the
consensus tree after the clade including the Arctic species of Elpidia. At the same time
the species E. hanseni also occurring in the KurilKamchatka and the Izu-Bonin
Trenches remains outside the northwest Pacic trench clade. Another trench clade
was formed by the species E. ninae and E. lata, both of which are known from the
South Sandwich Trench. These results demonstrated that the trench species in the genus
Elpidia are mostly derived morphologically, and evolutionary relationships among
species occurring in the same or nearby trenches can be different: some species are
closely related whilst others evolve separately.
Figure 11.2 Phylogenetic tree of Elpidia based on 20 morphological characters. Clade A trench
species; B South Sandwich Trench species; C species from the northwest Pacic trenches;
D Arctic species. Numbers correspond to coded characters. Unique characters shown in black
circles. Figure courtesy of Andrey Gebruk, P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russia.
Species endemism at hadal depths was estimated by Belyaev (1989) at 56.4% with
the hado-pelagic fauna being somewhat lower, averaging 41% (Table 11.1). Of the 56%
of endemic species, 95% of those were only found in one trench and of the non-endemic
species, 22% were found at abyssal depths in the vicinity of the trench, suggesting the
trench fauna originated from the surrounding abyssal province (as suggested by Wolff,
1960). Endemism at genus level was found to be far lower at just 10%. As perhaps
expected, the degree of endemism for all benthic organisms increases with depth and is
found to be lowest across the abyssalhadal boundary (60007000 m), where a higher
proportion of characteristic abyssal species also inhabit. The greatest percentage of
endemic species were found at the very deepest points and thus restricted to some of
the deepest trenches that exceed 10 000 m (Mariana, Tonga and Philippine). Endemism
at these depths ranges from 86 to 100%, although the other two deep trenches
(KurilKamchatka and Kermadec) have only 50 and 59% endemism, respectively.
Table 11.1 Percentage of species endemism in each of the trenches and troughs as estimated by
Belyaev (1989).
Trench % endemism Trench % endemism
Aleutian 42 Tonga 100

KurilKamchatka 50 Kermadec 59
Japan 53 PeruChile 2350*
Izu-Bonin 48 Banda 43
Volcano 54 Hjort 20
Mariana 100 Java 71
Yap 81 South Sandwich 37
Palau 77 Romanche 60
Philippine 86 Puerto-Rico 50
Ryukyu 72 Cayman 47
Bougainville 71 Pacic Troughs 28
New Hebrides 60 Atlantic Troughs 20
Total 56.4
* Indicates values for the northern (Milne-Edwards) and Southern (Atacama) sectors,
respectively.
Table 11.2 Summary of the types of dissemination of hadal species based on the Galathea and Vitjaz
expeditions, derived from Belyaev (1989).
Type of dissemination Percentage of hadal species (%)
Endemic hadal species 56.4

Found only in one trench 4.7
Found in two or multiple but neighbouring trenches 6.4
Found in two or multiple but distant trenches 3
Exclusive to oceanic region in vicinity of trench(es) 22
Known from several regions on one ocean 4.6
Known from two oceans 11
Known from three oceans 6
Belyaev (1989) calculated endemism beyond depth >6000 m in order to broaden

the perspective. He calculated that only 4.7% of hadal species were found solely in one
trench, 6.4% of species were found in multiple but neighbouring trenches and 3%
were known from two or more (but distant) trenches (Table 11.2). A much higher
percentage of species, 22%, are found exclusively in one oceanic region in the vicinity
of trenches, which in turn prompted the classication of hadal provinces by UNESCO
(2009) and Watling et al. (2013). These values are likely to change in the future as more
sampling is undertaken, particularly in the lesser known or studied trenches. Perhaps an
even more enlightening avenue of research would concentrate on sampling the adjacent
abyssal plains or continental slopes and rises as well as the trenches and in doing so,
greater connectivity between species may be further detected in time.
Belyaev (1989) also indicates a remarkable difference between the trenches at
temperate and tropical latitudes (Fig. 11.3). Trenches from temperate latitudes in the
100
Temperate latudes
90
Tropical latudes
80
Percentage endemism (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Peru-Chile (N)
Peru-Chile (S)
Java
Ryukyu
KurilKamchatka
New Hebrides
Kermadec
Yap
Japan
Aleuan
Izu-Bonin
Volcano
Mariana
Palau
Bougainville
Tonga
Trench Philippine
Figure 11.3 Percentage of species endemism in trenches at tropical and temperate latitudes.
Pacic Ocean (Aleutian, KurilKamchatka, Japan, Izu-Bonin, Kermadec and Peru

Chile) showed a far lower degree of endemism than the trenches in Pacic tropical
latitudes (Volcano, Mariana, Yap, Palau, Ryukyu, Philippine, Bougainville, New
Hebrides and Tonga), with endemism estimated at 4259% and 54100%, respectively.
These estimates did, however, include the non-Pacic Java Trench and omitted the
tropical Banda Trench on account of their apparently young age and thus their relatively
low degree of endemism (43%). Despite noticing this stark latitudinal trend, Belyaev
was unable to explain why this would be the case. In other more isolated trenches such
as the South Sandwich Trench, low degrees of endemism (37%) were thought to be
explained by the cold sub-Antarctic locality, known to be inhabited by otherwise deeper
species at uncharacteristically shallower depths.
The degree of endemism at species level somewhat reects the maximum depth at
which the group has been found (Table 11.3). For example, the highest percentage of
endemism in the benthic fauna is found in the Isopoda, Amphipoda, Gastropoda,
Bivalvia and Holothuroidea, all of which are known to inhabit the entire bathymetric
range of the hadal zone and exceed 60% endemism. Other groups, such as the
Echuiroidea and Tanaidacea, are not as common at the deeper sites and are 30% and
40% endemic, respectively. Polychaeta endemism is also lower (40%), despite their
existence at full ocean depth. This may be a result of the fact that they are less likely to
be recovered in trawls compared to the other groups. At a genus level, gastropod
endemism is slightly lower, around 1015% for most, although 26% of the 41 Gastro-
poda genera are endemic.
Community structure 249
Table 11.3 Percentage endemism at species and genus level for most major hadal groups, based on
Vitjaz and Galathea expedition data, derived from Belyaev (1989).
Species Genera
Group Total % endemic Total % endemic
Polychaeta 73 40 50 14
Echuiroidea 13 30 10 0
Tanaidacea 63 40 15 7
Isopoda 122 63 34 9
Amphipoda 35 78 28 11
Gastropoda 56 68 41 26
Bivalvia 47 68 33 15
Holothuroidea 56 69 20 10
Other Echinodermata 53 49 30 7
Siboglinidae 29 76 10 10
Other groups 123 43 93 9
Total 660 56.4 364 10
11.3 Community structure
The decrease in species diversity with depth is a well-known trend throughout the deep-
sea environment and was also shown to extend to the hadal zone from the earliest
investigations into diversity (Wolff, 1960). Understanding the ecological transition of
faunal distributions within and between other depth-related habitats, such as the bathyal
and abyssal zones, has been discussed in great detail, yet the hadal zone is often omitted
from consideration, despite accounting for 45% of the ocean depth range (e.g. Carney,
2005; Rex et al., 2005; Smith et al., 2008; Levin and Dayton, 2009). This omission has
provided the impetus for the investigation of individual trenches based not only on
observations made from within the trench itself, but also of the transition of faunal
distributions from the neighbouring abyssal plains into the trenches (Jamieson et al.,
2011a). By examining the abyssalhadal transition zone, linkages between trench fauna
and neighbouring abyssal communities can determine whether the hadal zone comprises
an ecocline or ecotone (van der Maarel, 1990). An ecotone represents a narrow transi-
tion (an abrupt or rapid distinction of species composition) between two dened
habitats; an ecocline refers to a broader area of transition across an environmental
gradient (Jenik, 1992; Attrill and Rundle, 2002), in this case, depth.
Using necrophagous amphipods as the target species, Jamieson et al. (2011a) statis-
tically examined the compositional change of species across the abyssalhadal bound-
ary of the Kermadec Trench and found an ecotone between depths of <6007 m and
>6890 m, indicating that there is an ecologically distinct, bait-attending fauna within
this trench. The exact causes of this shift in composition were unclear as pressure
increases monotonically and thus seems unlikely to prompt a sudden shift in the
community. One possible explanation for the pattern observed could be related to the
Table 11.4 Deployment data, environmental data and amphipod diversity data of the HADEEP PeruChile Trench baited
trap sampling. Percentage of catch is shown in parentheses. Modified from Fujii et al. (2013).
Depth (m)
4602 5329 6173 7050 8074
Station SO209/11 SO209/03 SO209/19 SO209/35 SO209/48

Date 030910 010910 050910 100910 130910
Latitude 06 12.42 S 04 27.02 S 07 48.04 S 17 25.47 S 23 22.47 S
Longitude 81 40.13 W 81 54.72 W 81 17.01 W 73 37.01 W 71 19.97 W
Bottom time (hh:mm) 20:26 11:09 18:40 22:51 20:25
Temperature (C) 1.80 1.87 1.98 2.07 2.25
Salinity (ppt) 34.69 34.69 34.69 34.69 34.69
Amphipod species
Abyssorchomene chevreuxi 313 (45.7) 24 (10.5) 44 (33.3)
Abyssorchomene distinctus 34 (5.0) 1 (0.4)
Eurythenes gryllus 254 (37.1) 21 (9.2) 32 (24.2) 261 (80.6) 54 (32.2)
Paralicella caperesca 72 (10.5) 174 (76.3) 43 (32.6)
Paralicella tenuipes 5 (2.2) 7 (5.3) 14 (4.3)
Tectovalopsis sp. (nov.?) 1 (0.1)
Valettietta sp. 11(1.6)
Princaxelia sp. (nov. ?) 3 (1.3)
Hirondellea sp. 1 4 (3.0)
Hirondellea sp. 2 2 (1.5) 15 (4.6) 104 (62.3)
Hirondellea sp. 3 33 (10.2)
Tryphosella sp. 1 (0.3)
aff. Pseudorchomene sp. nov. 9 (5.4)
Number of individuals 685 228 132 324 167
Number of species 6 6 6 5 3
obvious change in seaoor topography that occurs at ~6400 m. This depth juncture
marks the separation between samples taken from a relatively shallow, sloping, plain-
type seaoor to those taken on the slopes of the trench. It is, therefore, probable that the
deposition of food within these two habitats is quite distinct or possibly that there are
physiological issues regarding routine pressure changes of species that inhabit at or
sloping habitats. Furthermore, if stark changes in topography drive the changes in
community composition, then composition is likely to vary between trenches, where
the change may be shallower or deeper depending on the trench.
To investigate similarities in community structure between trenches that are distinctly
isolated from one another Fujii et al. (2013), once again, studied necrophagous
amphipod samples taken from baited traps from ve stations across the abyssal
and hadal zones of the PeruChile Trench (southeast Pacic Ocean) and from seven
in the Kermadec Trench (southwest Pacic Ocean) from depths of 46028074 m and
43297966 m, respectively (Tables 11.4 and 11.5).
These data were combined to investigate the species composition and structure of
the amphipod communities in the two South Pacic trenches, which are isolated by
Table 11.5 Deployment data, environmental data and amphipod diversity data of the HADEEP Kermadec Trench
baited trap sampling. Percentage of catch is shown in parentheses. Modified from Fujii et al. (2013).
Depth (m)
4329 5173 6000 6007 6890 7561 7966
Station K09108 K09102 K09106 KT1a KT2a K09107 KT3a

Latitude 36 45.31 36 31.02 36 10.07 26o 43.94 26o 48.73 35 45.10 26o 54.96
S S S S S S S
Longitude 179 179 179 175o 175o 178 175o
11.52 W 12.03 W 00.27 W 11.33 W 18.10 W 52.55 W 30.73 W
Bottom time (hh:mm) 12:10 09:30 12:41 17:28 12:16 13:33 46:57
Temperature (C) 1.06 1.09 1.17 1.16 1.31 1.40 1.46
Salinity (ppt) 34.70 34.69 34.69 34.69
Amphipod species
Paralicella tenuipes 1 (4.5) 18 (2.6)
Paralicella 12 (54.5) 620 (88.3) 5 (22.7) 78 (4.9)
caperesca
Cyclocaris tahitensis 2 (0.1)
Eurythenes gryllus 3 (13.6) 7 (1.0) 1 (4.5) 2 (0.1)
Rhachotropis sp. 4 (0.6)
Hirondellea dubia 2 (9.1) 2 (0.1) 127 (92.7) 279 (99.6) 361 (100)
Paracallisoma sp. 1 (4.5) 1 (0.1)
Scopelocheirus 1 (0.1) 10 (7.3)
schellenbergi
Abyssorchomene 13 (1.9)
chevreuxi
Abyssorchomene 2 (9.1) 1 (0.1)
distinctus
Abyssorchomene 3 (13.6) 1 (0.1)
musculosus
Orchomenella 37 (5.3) 14 (63.6) 1471 1 (0.4)
gerulicorbis (93.3)
Tryphosella sp. 1 (0.1)
Valettietta anacantha 20 (1.3)
Number of 22 702 22 1577 137 280 361
individuals
Number of species 6 9 4 8 2 2 1
10 000 km of abyssal plain. Amphipod diversity was found to decrease signicantly

with increasing depth across all the sampling stations, but the structure diverged
markedly between the two hadal trench communities. Four distinctive community
groups were identied (Fig. 11.4) and their relationships were examined using six
environmental variables (latitude, longitude, hydrostatic pressure, primary productivity,
temperature, sediment characteristics), of which depth (hydrostatic pressure) and longi-
tudinal (geographic isolation) gradients were found to best explain the observed trends.
The composition of the abyssal community was dominated by typical cosmopolitan
Figure 11.4 Analysis of hadal amphipod species composition from the Kermadec and PeruChile
Trenches. (a) Dendrogram based on fourth-root transformation, BrayCurtis similarity and
group-average clustering. Four main groups of sites (black branches) were identied based on the
similarity prole (SIMPROF) permutation test (p < 0.05). (b) Non-metric multi-dimensional
scaling (nMDS) ordination, based on fourth-root transformation and BrayCurtis similarity.
Modied from Fujii et al. (2013).
species belonging to the genera Paralicella, Abyssorchomene and Eurythenes

(Schulenberger and Hessler, 1974; Dahl, 1979; Thurston, 1990). The abyssal group
had a relatively high degree of similarity irrespective of location, suggesting a high
degree of connectivity across the vast stretches of the Pacic abyssal plain that connects
the two trenches. There appeared to be very few physical impediments to dispersal between
the two regions at these depths, since the abyssal areas are almost continuous along the
longitudinal gradient between the edges of the PeruChile and Kermadec Trenches.
At the deeper hadal sites, there was no similarity between the communities from each
trench, suggesting that the deeper trench fauna are either physically isolated and/or the
environmental conditions experienced within each trench are sufciently varied to account
for the faunal differences. The hadal Kermadec Trench sites (68907966 m) were domin-
ated by Hirondellea dubia and the hadal PeruChile Trench sites (70508074 m) were
characterised by E. gryllus and three undescribed Hirondellea species. The shift from
these abyssal genera to the hadal genus Hirondellea is also typical of other trench
environments (Hessler et al., 1978; Blankenship et al., 2006; Jamieson et al., 2011a).
Fujii et al. (2013) concluded that the overlying surface productivities at the trenches
studied were in stark contrast to one another; the long-term averages of surface
primary production rates at the PeruChile Trench ranged from 859.4 to 2144.5 mg
C m 2 d 1, compared to 261.5 to 554.4 mg C m 2 d 1 in the Kermadec Trench. It
was concluded, therefore, that the environmental forcing exerted on the amphipod
community structure by the pressure and longitudinal gradients was likely to be
further exacerbated by the supply of surface-derived food to the trenches. In order
to truly test the effects of isolation, further comprehensive studies will be required
from other vastly isolated trenches underlying various environmental settings, as well
as from trench clusters at a provincial level for comparison. The combined vertical and
horizontal isolation is likely to result in allopatric speciation (France and Kocher,
1996; Doebeli and Dieckmann, 2003).
The community structure of another hadal group, the harpacticoid copepods, has
also been examined in the context of shifts from bathyal to hadal depths in the
KurilKamchatka Trench (Kitahashi et al., 2013) and in comparison between the
KurilKamchatka and Ryukyu Trenches (Kitahashi et al., 2012).
The former study focused on the genus diversity and community composition of the
harpacticoids and their relationship with environmental factors across the large depth
range of 490 to 7090 m. Using a sediment corer, 15 stations that culminated in two hadal
stations were sampled down the KurilKamchatka Trench slope, east of Hokkaido. The
density of copepods did not decrease with depth and peaked at 1000 m, whereas,
copepod diversity showed a unimodal pattern with depth, with peaks at intermediate
depths (Fig. 11.5). Kitahashi et al. (2013) concluded that the general relationship
between depth and diversity described for macro- and megafauna could be extended
to meiofauna across all depth ranges. They did not, however, identify a regulating
factor, such as food availability, for the observed patterns of diversity.
Across bathyal to hadal depths, the community composition was found to change
gradually. Furthermore, comparison of the assemblages between the abyssal plain
(5570 m), trench slope (10605730 m) and trench oor (7000 m and 7090 m) suggested
that the trench oor or hadal community was quite different from those found on the
trench slope and abyssal plain; the dissimilarity values between the trench oor and the
other stations were considerably larger than those between the three slope zones
(Fig. 11.6). Statistical analyses suggested that depth, or certain factors associated with
(a)
40
35
30
Number of genera
25
20
15
10
0
490
560
1060
1060
2060
2070
2350
3030
3320
3730
5430
5730
5570
7000
7090
Depth (m)
(b)
3.5 1.5
3 1.3
1.1
2.5
Diversity, H' log e
Evenness, J'
0.9
2
0.7
1.5
0.5
1
0.3
0.5 0.1
0 -0.1
490
560
1060
1060
2060
2070
2350
3030
3320
3730
5430
5730
5570
7000
7090
Depth (m)
Figure 11.5 (a) Number of genera of harpacticoid copepods across the bathyal to hadal depth range
(4907090 m) and (b) ShannonWiener diversity index (H log e) and evenness (J). Derived
from Kitahashi et al. (2013).
depth such as food availability and/or seasonal variation thereof, affects harpacticoid
assemblages in and around the KurilKamchatka Trench.
In the Ryukyu Trench, south of Japan, Kitahashi et al. (2012) found high average dis-
similarities in the harpacticoid assemblages inhabiting the abyssal plain (49105710 m),
Vertical zonation 255
Figure 11.6 Dissimilarity values in harpacticoid copepod community composition between

topographical settings in the KurilKamchatka Trench (4907090 m). Modied from Kitahashi
et al. (2013).
trench slope (12905330 m) and trench oor (63407150 m), indicating that the assem-
blage structures differ substantially between these topographic settings at the family level.
In comparison with the KurilKamchatka Trench, they suggested that the hadal harpac-
ticoid assemblage reects a transition zone between the slope and the abyssal plain in
this region and that the composition of the assemblages was inuenced by the quantity
of organic matter in and around the Ryukyu Trench, while sediment properties play a
key role in and around the KurilKamchatka Trench. Direct comparisons of the respec-
tive assemblages revealed that the average dissimilarities between the two trenches
and between the two surrounding abyssal plains were higher than those between the
adjacent slopes (Fig. 11.7). This result suggests that connectivity between regions is
difcult for benthic organisms such as the harpacticoids and this is probably due to
the presence of topographical barriers around trenches.
11.4 Vertical zonation
Although the total number of hadal species decreases with depth and the percentage of
endemic species increases with depth, there are very few species that span the entire
bathymetric range of the hadal zone; 0.5% or six species. Based on the ~1200 species
listed in the HADEEP hadal species database, the largest percentage depth range is
<100 m (38.8%). This is almost certainly because in some cases, individuals were
caught in a single trawl that happened to span a few tens of metres in depth (in addition,
Figure 11.7 Average dissimilarity values in harpacticoid copepod community composition between
the regions in and around the Ryukyu and KurilKamchatka Trench (4907090 m). Modied
from Kitahashi et al. (2012).
(a) 50 (b) 50
45 45
40 38.8 40
35
Percentage of species
35
Percentage of species
30 30
27.2
24.4
25 25 21.5 21.2
20 20
15
15 12.5
9.2 8.7
10
10 7.0
5.1 4.3 4.0 3.6
4.0 5
5 1.3 0.9 0.9
1.3 1.2 1.5
0.7 0.1 0.5 0
0
9500-10000
10000-10500
10500-11000
<6000
6000-6500
6500-7000
7000-7500
7500-8000
8000-8500
8500-9000
9000-9500
500-1000
<100
1000-1500
1500-2000
2000-2500
2500-3000
3000-3500
3500-4000
4000-4500
4500-5000
>5000
100-500
Depth range (m) Mean depth (m)
Figure 11.8 (a) The percentage of species with apparent depth ranges in 500 m strata. The <100
category is likely to be solitary or rare ndings from trawl that hauled a few tens of metres depth.
(b) The mean depth of all hadal species. Data are derived from ~1200 records in the HADEEP
database.
rare species sampled from a single locality were not included, i.e. depth range 0 m).
Beyond this, there is an exponential decrease in the percentage of species with increas-
ing depth ranges (Fig. 11.8). However, the mean depth of species is highest between
6000 and 7500 m and it decreases with increasing depth thereafter. The number of
Vertical zonation 257
species with a mean depth greater than 9000 m is low probably because so few trenches
reach this depth and there are a far greater number of trenches with bottom depths of
between 6000 and 7500 m (almost all). This result could also reect the fact that a
combination of these shallower depths account for the largest surface area of the
trenches, coupled with the abyssalhadal transition zone. The values for bathymetric
ranges are potentially skewed by a group of 10 unidentied scyphozoans of the
Coronatae family, whose ranges are recorded as 6000 to 10 000 m (mean depths
8000 m, range 4000 m). These range recordings are misleading and are likely to have
resulted from the use of vertical plankton hauls that are unable to record the exact depth
of capture and thus probably indicated an overly large range. The other, more condent
large depth ranges (>4000 m) comprise mostly arthopods (three ostracods, three
amphipods) and two holothurians. The largest recorded bathymetric ranges are for the
two holothurians; Peniagone azorica (Elpidiidae) known from 26408300 m, with the
deepest nding from the Kermadec Trench, and Prototrochus bruuni (Myriotrochidae)
known from 648710 687 m in seven trenches, but, as Belyaev (1989) suggested, the
ranges of these species require revision.
The bathymetric trends at the species level, particularly at the deepest depths, are
likely to change dramatically as more sampling is undertaken in the future. In areas
such as the Mariana Trench, there is a propensity to target the deepest point, in this
case Challenger Deep, thus data from the surrounding area are lacking. Furthermore,
Belyaev (1989) highlights several species with extraordinary depth ranges, where
the maximum and minimum are separated by broad hiatuses. On the back of this,
he suggested that certain species may require a thorough systematic revision which
could result in the nding that several species have more stenobathic ranges than
previously thought. Furthermore, there are many species recorded that have not yet
been described (Table 11.6) and this may or may not have altered the ranges of other
known species.
The maximum depth of different classication groups known from the trenches also
declines with depth and not just in terms of the number of species (Table 11.6;
Fig. 11.9). There are, however, some groups that are frequently found that are well
known with relatively robust identications and that have been identied at full ocean
depth. These are the amphipods, holothurians, isopods, gastropods and polychaetes. By
examination of these groups bathymetric ranges, it is quite apparent that the amphipods
have consistently larger depth ranges than the other groups; nearly double. This may be
because the amphipods are a bentho-pelagic and free-swimming group, while the others
are truly benthic and, thus, are intrinsically linked to the seaoor. The larger depth range
of theses amphipods does, however, prompt further questions as to why some groups
are capable of such large bathymetric disseminations when others are either smaller, or
limited to shallower depths. It has been shown that it is highly likely that sh are limited
to depths of <8000 m by hydrostatic pressure-induced biochemical stress (Yancey
et al., in press). While this justication appears to explain the absence of sh and
possibly decapods (Laxson et al., 2011) from full ocean depth, it does not yet account
for so many other species or classication groups that are not absent, nor does it explain
why some, like the amphipods, are so extraordinarily pressure tolerant. As future
Table 11.6 Each phylum and class of hadal organism currently known to inhabit the hadal zone with
the total number of known species ( number of undescribed species or species not registered on
WORMS) with the corresponding maximum known depth for the order. Given the large number of
undescribed species, these species numbers should be interpreted as indicative only. Also, there are
currently no listings for hadal Nematoda.
Number of species Maximum

Phylum Class ( number of unknown species) known depth (m)
Foraminifera Polythalamea 100 (15) 10 924

Porifera Hexactinellida 5 (3) 8540
Demospongiae 6 ( 2) 9990
Cnidaria Hydrozoa 5 ( 8) 8700
Scyphozoa 1 ( 2) 10 000
Anthozoa 13 ( 5) 10 730
Annelidea Polychaeta 122 ( 42) 10 730
Echiura Echiuroidea 13 ( 2) 10 210
Mollusca Gastropoda 60 ( 25) 10 730
Bivalvia 70 ( 31) 10 730
Scaphopoda 3 ( 2) 7657
Polyplacophora 2 ( 1) 7657
Monoplacophora 3 ( 1) 6354
Sipuncula Sipunculidea 7 ( 1) 6860
Bryozoa Gymnolaemata 0 ( 2) 8830
Echinodermata Crinoidea 0 ( 8) 9735
Asteroidea 17 ( 7) 9990
Ophiuroidea 16 ( 8) 8662
Holothuroidea 51 ( 9) 10 730
Echinoidea 8 ( 2) 7340
Arthropoda Copepoda 27 (5) 10 000
Cirripedia 6 (3) 7880
Ostracoda 9 (5) 9500
Mysidacea 2 (10) 8720
Cumacea 6 (10) 8042
Tanaidacea 63 (10) 9174
Isopoda 94 (39) 10 730
Amphipoda 63 (14) 10 994
Decapoda 1 (1*) 7703
Acariformes 1 6850
Pantopoda 8 (1) 7370
* Indicates species known only from in situ observations.
sampling is undertaken, the answers to questions like these will help to further explain
the zonation and degree of eurybathy at hadal depths.
11.5 Relationships with area and depth
Applying ecological theory to trench communities beyond individual groups, such as

the readily recoverable Amphipoda, is at best difcult, due to a lack of comprehensive
sampling at a sufciently high bathymetric resolution. However, there are enough
Relationships with area and depth 259
Classification group
Monoplacophora
Polyplacophora
Gymnolaemata
Demospongiae
Holothuroidea
Hexactinellida
Foraminifera
Sipunculidea
Ophiuroidea
Scaphopoda
Acariformes
Echiuroidea
Gastropoda
Amphipoda
Tanaidacea
Polychaeta
Echinoidea
Pantopoda
Asteroidea
Mysidacea
Scyphozoa
Ostracoda
Copepoda
Decapoda
Cirripedia
Crinoidea
Anthozoa
Hydrozoa
Cumacea
Isopoda
Bivalvia
Fish
6000
6500
7000
7500
Maximum depth (m)
8000
8500
9000
9500
10000
10500
11000
Figure 11.9 Decline in the maximum known depth for all classication groups at hadal depths
(except bacteria and nematodes).
available data from some trenches to enable the investigation of some rudimentary
ecological patterns. For example, in the Kermadec Trench, 14 baited camera deploy-
ments have been undertaken (60009281 m; unpublished data, HADEEP; Jamieson
et al., 2011a, 2013), 18 baited trap deployments (60979856 m; unpublished
data, HADEEP; Blankenship et al., 2006; Jamieson et al., 2011a) and 12 trawls
(595010 015 m; Belyaev, 1989). In addition, all previously known species in the area
that were recorded from greater than 4000 m were summarised by Lrz et al. (2012),
providing a total of 194 recorded species. Using GIS, the Kermadec Trench was
stratied into 500 m depth bins and the horizontal abyssal boundaries set at the
4000 m contour on the west ank and the 6000 m contour on the east ank (to coincide
with the abrupt change in slope). By combining the diversity data with the topography
and bathymetric data, a simple species area relationship (SAR) was tested.
The SAR dictates that as habitat area increases, species diversity (or species richness)
also increases (Arrhenius, 1921). This prediction implies that the largest habitats, i.e. the
shallowest depth bin of the trench, should contain a higher diversity than smaller
habitats, i.e. the deepest point. However, in the Kermadec Trench case study, the
highest numbers of species were not sampled from the depth bin with the largest habitat
area (60006500 m), but from 65007000 m (Fig. 11.10).
Currently there is mixed support for SAR where changes in habitat area occur along
terrestrial elevational gradients (mountains); some studies have shown strong effects
0.8 80
0.7 70
Standardised species richness (Sst)
0.6 60
Total number of species

0.5 50
0.4 40
0.3 30
0.2 20
0.1 10
0 0
9500-10000
10000-10200
4000-4500
4500-5000
5000-5500
5500-6000
6000-6500
6500-7000
7000-7500
7500-8000
8000-8500
8500-9000
Depth (m) 9000-9500
Figure 11.10 Species diversity as a function of depth (black line) and standardised species area
relationship (grey bars). Data taken from 194 known species in the Kermadec Trench. The
increase at 65007000 m shows potential mid-domain effect where abyssal and hadal
communities overlap.
and others have shown evidence to the contrary (McCain, 2009, 2010). This lack of a
consistent relationship is likely to be due, in part, to variations in the heterogeneity of
the topography (the presence of plateaux, escarpments, ridges, etc.), as is also exhibited
in trenches and that may occur with changes with elevation/depth. Habitat heterogeneity
inuences species diversity (the greater number and/or complexity of habitats, the more
species a given area will support), and has been found to have a greater inuence on
diversity patterns than depth in submarine canyons (Schlacher et al., 2007). So, in order
to better resolve the diversitydepth relationship for the Kermadec Trench and to
elucidate possible drivers for the pattern, the measures of diversity can be standardised
using the simple power law commonly used to describe the relationship between species
richness and habitat area (Sst ln(S)/ln(A), where S is the number of species and A is
the habitat area for a particular depth bin; Connor and McCoy, 1979). Interestingly,
standardised species richness does not decrease with increasing depth, rather, it is
relatively similar across the bathymetric gradient, apart from a slight elevation for the
65007000 m depth bin (Fig. 11.10). The increased richness at 65007000 m could be
explained by variations in topography (see above) that occur as the seaoor slope
increases as the trench itself begins or by insufciently replicated sampling. Alterna-
tively, it might also be explained by the mid-domain effect (MDE), which assumes that
spatial boundaries cause more overlap of species ranges towards the centre of an area,
where species with large- to medium-sized ranges must overlap (see Pineda, 1993). In
the Kermadec Trench region, the MDE would, therefore, predict maximum diversity at
the abyssalhadal transition and/or at the midpoint depth of the hadal zone. There is,
however, little support for MDE as a sole predictor along bathymetric gradients in the
ocean, particularly among macro-invertebrates (McClain and Etter, 2005; Kendall and
Haedrich, 2006). Although it is possible that the slight elevation in standardised species
richness observed for the 65007000 m depth bin could reect the MDE and represent
further evidence of a distinct ecological boundary (an ecotone) between the abyssal and
hadal fauna (Jamieson et al., 2011a). Ideally, future sampling in the trench would be
conducted, at a ne scale, across the abyssalhadal transition zone in order to conrm
the presence of an ecotone and the possible inuence of the MDE on the species
diversitydepth relationship. Future sampling effort will also be required to disentangle
the speciesarea relationship from the speciesdepth relationship, in order to clarify the
potential drivers of the latter.
Another interesting point to highlight regarding vertical zonation is that although
there are few species that span the entire hadal zone, the hadal zone is a collective of
47 individual habitats (27 subduction trenches, 6 trench faults and 13 troughs) that
exceed 6500 m. Most of these areas are not full ocean depth, as only ve trenches
reach depths exceeding 10 000 m. Moreover, given that the area of the seaoor in a
trench decreases drastically with depth, the ability to survive at depths of over 10 000 m
does not offer a signicant increase in available habitat. This point can also be reversed
to say that orders, genera or even species with a maximum depth that is far shallower
than full ocean depth can still occupy vast majorities of a trench and in some cases, even
the entire trench, if it is shallow enough. Again, using the Kermadec Trench as a case
study, an examination of the maximum depth of each classication group known to
inhabit the trench gives the impression, albeit correct, that only four groups can survive
at the deepest point (Fig. 11.11). However, there are twice as many groups with depth
ranges between 8000 and 8500 m; which equates to an inhabitable area of the trench of
nearly 90%. This point highlights that there are many species or orders that will
undoubtedly play a very signicant role in the trench ecosystem, despite their absence
from the very small but deepest point. One could then question the meaningfulness of
studies that only sample the deepest point, as it is not only the smallest area but the area
with the lowest diversity and thus the least representative area of a trench. It is
analogous with the studies of mountain ecology, whereby investigations made solely
on the summit would not provide a meaningful overview of the ecology of the
mountain.
By examining the maximum depth of each of the 32 classication groups against the
maximum depth of each trench, trench fault and trough, it becomes clear that many
groups can span many hadal habitats in their entirety (Table 11.7). For example, the
shallower trench faults and troughs can be entirely inhabited by 22 (69%) and 20 (63%)
groups, respectively. Furthermore, 22 of these groups can fully extend to the bottom of
over 50% of the subduction trenches. Taking into account the total 47 distinct hadal
habitats, 24 groups can inhabit the entire depth range of more than 50% of them and
262
Trench. (b) The respective area of the Kermadec Trench potentially occupied by each group.
Figure 11.11 (a) Number of species and maximum know depth for each group in the Kermadec
(b)
Ecology and evolution

(a)
Percentage trench habitat >6500 m (%) Number of species
100
10
15
20
25
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
5
0
Asteroids Asteroids
Aplacophora Aplacophora
Decapod Decapod
Maximum known depth

Number of species
Sponges Sponges
Cirripedia Cirripedia
Acideans Acideans
Ophuioids Ophuioids
Isopods
Isopods
Pisces
Pisces
Ostracod
Taxa
Ostracod
Crinoids
Taxa
Crinoids Hydoids
Hydoids Gastropod
Gastropod Acniaria
Acniaria Bryozoa
Bryozoa Echuira
Echuira Tanaids
Tanaids Amphipoda
Amphipoda Holothurians
Holothurians Polychaete
Polychaete Bivalves
Bivalves
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
8500
9000
9500
10000
10500
Depth (m)
Table 11.7 The number of hadal trenches (n 27), trench faults (n 6) and troughs (n 13) which
each classification group can span the entire depth. Percentages in parentheses. The maximum depth
shown is the maximum known depth and are thus in many cases likely to be higher.
Group Maximum depth (m) Trenches Trench faults Troughs All
Monoplacophora 6354 1 (4) 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (2)

Acariformes 6850 4 (15) 1 (17) 1 (8) 6 (13)
Sipunculidea 6860 5 (15) 2 (17) 6 (46) 11 (23)
Echinoidea 7340 8 (30) 3 (50) 9 (69) 20 (43)
Pantopoda 7370 8 (30) 4 (50) 10 (69) 21 (43)
Scaphopoda 7657 9 (33) 5 (50) 11 (69) 21 (45)
Polyplacophora 7657 10 (33) 6 (50) 12 (69) 22 (45)
Decapoda 7703 10 (37) 7 (50) 13 (69) 22 (47)
Cirripedia 7880 11 (37) 4 (67) 11 (85) 25 (53)
Cumacea 8042 12 (44) 5 (67) 12 (85) 27 (57)
Pisces 8370 14 (52) 6 (100) 12 (92) 32 (68)
Hexactinellida 8540 16 (59) 6 (100) 13 (92) 35 (74)
Ophiuroidea 8662 17 (63) 6 (100) 13 (100) 36 (77)
Hydrozoa 8700 17 (63) 6 (100) 13 (100) 36 (77)
Mysidacea 8720 17 (63) 6 (100) 13 (100) 36 (77)
Gymnolaemata 8830 18 (67) 6 (100) 13 (100) 37 (79)
Tanaidacea 9174 21 (78) 6 (100) 13 (100) 40 (85)
Ostracoda 9500 21 (78) 6 (100) 13 (100) 40 (85)
Crinoidea 9735 22 (81) 6 (100) 13 (100) 41 (87)
Demospongiae 9990 22 (81) 6 (100) 13 (100) 41 (87)
Asteroidea 9990 22 (81) 6 (100) 13 (100) 41 (87)
Scyphozoa 10000 22 (81) 6 (100) 13 (100) 41 (87)
Copepoda 10000 22 (81) 6 (100) 13 (100) 41 (87)
Echiuroidea 10210 23 (85) 6 (100) 13 (100) 42 (89)
Anthozoa 10730 25 (93) 6 (100) 13 (100) 42 (94)
Polychaeta 10730 25 (93) 6 (100) 13 (100) 42 (94)
Gastropoda 10730 25 (93) 6 (100) 13 (100) 42 (94)
Bivalvia 10730 25 (93) 6 (100) 13 (100) 42 (94)
Holothuroidea 10730 25 (93) 6 (100) 13 (100) 42 (94)
Isopoda 10730 25 (93) 6 (100) 13 (100) 42 (94)
Polythalamea 10924 27 (100) 6 (100) 13 (100) 47 (100)
Amphipoda 10994 27 (100) 6 (100) 13 (100) 47 (100)
20 groups can inhabit over 75% of them. Also, the maximum depths for each group are
still maximum known depth and the values are, therefore, likely to be higher.
Access to the deepest point in a trench is signicant if the trench resource
accumulation hypothesis is correct (Jamieson et al., 2010). If indeed there is an
enhanced volume of food availability at the deepest point on the trench axis (as
suggested by Glud et al., 2013), then in many trenches, this enrichment is available
to a wider range of organisms than those that are typically reported from the deepest
places in the deepest trenches. This, in turn, would alter any generalisation regarding the
community structure across the bathymetric range of the hadal zone and again favour a
focus on individual trench ecology.
11.6 Habitat heterogeneity
In 1966, Belyaev suggested dividing the hadal zone into three subzones: (1) the upper,
60007000 m (the abyssal and hadal transition zone), (2) the middle, 70008500 m and
(3) the lower; greater than 8500 m. He also stressed that the boundaries of these
subzones are, to a certain degree, conditional depending on trench identity. From the
more recent studies, it appears that these suggestions are highly valid and bring into
question how best to subcategorise the trenches into more meaningful and convenient
habitats. The abyssalhadal transition zone does appear to be very real, as indicated by
Jamieson et al. (2011a) and Fujii et al. (2013). However, immediately beyond this
transition zone is, perhaps, the most representative trench community at 70008500 m
as this encompasses the largest area in most of the trenches and is beyond the inuence
of the abyssal community. The lower hadal zone also seems relevant, as many studies
suggest that the deepest points, the small and often unique ponds are not necessarily
representative of the wider trench habitat.
This conclusion comes 60 years on from the debate concerning the ofcial coining of
the term deeps (Wiseman and Ovey, 1953). During the debate, the British National
Committee on Ocean Bottom Features came to the conclusion that the deepest point of a
trench or a deep was dened from morphological standpoints and thus such an area
was relatively unimportant and should remain unnamed, and the term deep should fall
into abeyance (Wiseman and Ovey, 1954). However, the exploration of the Challenger
Deep and other deeps within the Mariana Trench shortly after showed that the deeps
are often highly unique, important and well dened, warranting at least an ecological
subzone to differentiate between these areas and the wider trench environment.
There are, however, more factors to consider when classifying the hadal zone beyond
simple trenches, trench faults and troughs or indeed solely by community-based depth
strata. The internal heterogeneity of the trenches should also be considered. For
example, the trenches comprise two slopes: the continental slope, or fore arc, and the
oceanic slope. These two slopes are likely to differ greatly, as the fore arc is, theoretic-
ally, an area that hosts many chemosynthetic seep sites (Blankenship-Williams and
Levin, 2009). The geological nature of the fore arc is such that the presence of seep sites
is highly likely and supported by various observations (Fujikura et al., 1999; Fujiwara
et al., 2001). Furthermore, the geology of this area results in much steeper slopes, often
with rocky outcrops, escarpments and steep walls. These types of substrata and seaoor
conditions, combined with an increased chemosynthetic-based community may well
host a community that differs greatly from those at equal depths on the soft sediment of
the oceanic slopes.
This entire scenario is complicated further when adding the inuence of food supply.
The surface-derived input of POM descends into the trench regardless of depth, slope or
seaoor setting. If the trenches do accumulate this food towards the axis, then the effects
of the community should differ by proximity to the axis, regardless of the slope or depth
that they inhabit. The quantity of food will also depend on the biogeographic province
(Longhurst et al., 1995), or hadal province (Watling et al., 2013) or proximity to land
mass. Other additional factors such as the quantity and type of plant and wood debris
Habitat heterogeneity 265
input (Bruun, 1957) that can support specic groups (Wolff, 1976), or even trenches
that underlie signicant migration routes of large marine mammals enhancing the
probability of whale-falls and associated fauna (e.g. Smith and Baco, 2003; Glover
et al., 2013) may also turn out to be relevant. The complexity does not end there.
Further variation may occur on larger scales such as the temperate-tropical latitude
variation noted by Belyaev (1989), the age of isolation of the trenches or the degree of
partitioning of trenches in close geographic proximity.
12 Current perspectives
The interesting history of discovery, geological aspects, environmental characteristics,

ecology and biology associated with the deepest ecosystem on Earth have been
acknowledged by scientists for some time and will continue to affect humankind in
the future, in both positive and negative ways. For example, the very nature of the ultra-
deep regions of the oceans once fuelled the perception that these trenches would make
ideal dumping grounds for pharmaceutical and radioactive waste products (Osterberg
et al., 1963; Peele et al., 1981; Lee and Arnold, 1983). Thankfully, this idea is no longer
commonplace and has been completely overruled by the contemporary perspectives on
conservation and sustainability that now apply to all marine environments.
On a grander scale, recent hypotheses suggest that the subduction process is, in part,
involved in the disposal of atmospheric carbon, some of which is derived from human
activities (Nozaki and Ohta, 1993). While the signicance of this contribution to the
planet remains unresolved, the plate subduction process impacts upon the everyday life
of the human populations living in close proximity to trenches, often in highly negative
ways. Ultimately, trench sites are the origin of the devastating earthquakes and tsunamis
that have the power to deliver mass death and destruction without warning.
On a more positive note, one of the truly enriching aspects of the hadal zone lies in its
status as one of the nal frontiers; places on our planet that are still waiting to be
explored. Curiosity is an intrinsic part of our human nature and manifests itself in our
desire to explore the unknown and in our quest for knowledge concerning the new and
fascinating organisms with which we share this planet. One of the members of the 2012
Deepsea Challenger expedition to the Mariana Trench, Dr Joe MacInnis, summed up
humankinds desire to explain the unexplained in his statement, Exploration is a force
that gives us meaning. It is driven by our curiosity to know what lies beyond the
horizon.
From a less romantic point of view, we do live in an era where we face an uncertain
climatic future and the signicance of the role that the oceans play in regulating our
climate has never been in doubt. Even before the environmental challenges that face us
today were realised, John F. Kennedy predicted in 1961, knowledge of the oceans is
more than a matter of curiosity. Our very survival may hinge upon it. In recent years we
have seen an ever-increasing body of evidence arise showing that nowhere in the ocean,
including the hadal zone, is exempt from a varying or changing climate. Perhaps even
more worrying is the fact that the hadal zone represents a large marine ecosystem that
we still know very little about and, subsequently, we have no wealth of historical
266
Exploitation and conservation 267
information from which to draw conclusions or make projections for future policy.
Therefore, rapid exploration and understanding of the trenches is an ever more pertin-
ent, yet still fascinating, undertaking.
12.1 Exploitation and conservation
Litter, perhaps, has the most conspicuous negative impact on the marine environment.
Highly durable and slowly degrading plastic discards are particularly responsible and,
unfortunately, they account for the large majority of marine litter (Laist, 1987; Spengler
and Costa, 2008). The annual global production of plastic products is estimated at
230 million tons, of which >10% ends up in the oceans (Thompson, 2006). The
disposal of solid waste at sea was prohibited in 1988 (Annexe V, MARPOL Conven-
tion), yet there are still many instances where even remote environments, such as the
deep sea, are contaminated with litter (Galgani et al., 2000; Barnes, 2002; Bergmann
and Klages, 2012). Some of the deepest litter ever encountered was observed at 7216 m
in the Ryukyu Trench off Japan (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011). During the 2009 HROV
Nereus dive to Challenger Deep, an anecdotal report of a raincoat on the seaoor at over
10 900 m was circulated (Lee, 2012). These examples highlight that the presence of
litter in our seas is a full ocean depth problem. Although some forms of litter are
recognisable, e.g. bottles and bags, there is mounting evidence that describes a drastic
decrease in the size of the litter found. The larger items degrade or erode into
mermaids tears which are approximately 5 mm in diameter and smaller still
microplastics (sand grain-sized particles). Both of these types of degraded litter are
becoming more evident, even in deep-sea environments (Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011;
Bergmann and Klages, 2012).
There are certain topographical settings such as submarine canyons and troughs that
have a tendency to accumulate litter objects (debris traps) (Galgani et al., 2000).
Therefore, the trenches, by their very nature, are likely to accumulate and trap any
debris that descends into them. In addition, the problem is exacerbated because the
trenches tend to mirror the coastline of continental land masses where the litter
originates and, unlike submarine canyons, trenches are closed systems so any trapped
items cannot be ushed out into the neighbouring abyssal plain and dispersed. To date,
there have been no studies undertaken relating to the presence of litter at hadal depths.
However, it is likely that litter-focused investigations will be incorporated into future
deep-submersible work as common practices since it can be said with some certainty
that the hadal zone is not exempt from the scourge of discarded plastic.
Perhaps the most signicant example of irresponsible introduction of anthropogenic
material into the hadal zone was the dumping of pharmaceutical waste in the 1970s
(mainly antibiotics). During this time, the Puerto-Rico Trench in the North Atlantic was
one of the main waste disposal sites because the Puerto Rico government gave tax
advantages to the pharmaceutical industry. The subsequent waste material was dumped
in the trench approximately 40 miles north of the island, at a depth of 6000 m (Simpson
et al., 1981). The gures are astonishing; between 1973 and 1978, >387 000 tons of
waste material was discarded in the trench; this is equivalent to 880 Boeing 747s
(Ramirez-Llodra et al., 2011). The particular pharmaceutical waste products that were
dumped were shown to be acutely toxic to many marine invertebrates (Nicol et al.,
1978).
By the early 1980s, this dumping practice ceased but research undertaken at the
disposal site found self-evident changes in the marine microbial community (Peele
et al., 1981). The abundance of some previously common bacteria, such as Pseudomo-
nas spp., decreased drastically at the disposal site over a 3-year study, while others, such
as Staphylococcus, increased in numbers (Grimes et al., 1984). Furthermore, larger
organisms such amphipods (Ampithoe valida) experienced chronic toxicity in response
to the waste material (Lee and Arnold, 1983).
Around the same era, it was suggested in all seriousness that the trenches could be a
suitable dumping ground for nuclear waste. The out of sight, out of mind perception of
trenches prompted the emergence of several key papers that highlighted the unsuitabil-
ity of trenches for such purposes. Angel (1982), in a paper entitled Ocean trench
conservation, pointed out the simple fact that the isolated and apparently highly
endemic trench communities are enclosed and that even a demonstration exercise gone
awry could have detrimental effects on an entire trench community. Furthermore, so
little was known about the hadal communities at the time that monitoring any of the
effects of waste disposal was futile. Yayanos and Nevenzel (1978) reported that not
everything out of sight is out of mind forever. By analysing the lipids of various hadal
amphipods they showed that a mass contamination-induced extinction would cause
contaminated particles to rise to surface waters by binding to the lipids within dead
crustaceans. They estimated that, potentially, it would take a dead and ascending
amphipod crustacean 1 week or certainly less than 1 year to reach the sea surface from
5000 m below sea level. This rising particle hypothesis may explain how the largest
ever specimen of the supergiant deep-sea amphipod, Alicella gigantea, was recovered
from the regurgitated stomach contents of an albatross in Hawaii (Harrison et al., 1983;
Barnard and Ingram, 1986).
Aside from the direct dumping of nuclear waste, contamination from nuclear
weapons testing is also evident in the deep-sea oor, in the form of radionuclides
(Tyler, 1995). Radioactive elements from weapons testing were found in deposit-
feeding holothurians at depths of 5000 m (Osterberg et al., 1963), presumably accumu-
lated from surface-derived phytodetritus; the process through which this occurred was
not known at the time.
Although the industrial practice of dumping nuclear waste products in the trenches
never actually materialised, there is a solitary case where it may have occurred. Onboard
the ill-fated Apollo 13, during its mission to the moon in 1970 was a SNAP-27
radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) that was supposed to remain on the moon
after the mission. The RTG contained approximately 3.9 kg of plutonium 238. Once the
mission had been aborted, the plutonium was brought back to Earth. The lunar module
was purposely burnt up in the Earths atmosphere and the RTG was deliberately
jettisoned over the southwest Pacic where it reportedly survived re-entry and
allegedly landed in the Tonga Trench at a depth of 60009000 m. Here, the RTG
should remain radioactive for several thousand years, however, atmospheric and
oceanic monitoring showed no evidence of a release of nuclear fuel (Furlong and
Wahlquist, 1999).
A more recent study of trench sediment at 7261 and 7553 m in the Japan Trench
revealed that 4 months after the 2011 Thoku-Oki earthquake, surface sediment was
found to contain 134Cs from the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear disaster. The radioactive
134
Cs was believed to have been rapidly deposited in the sediment by a concurrent
spring bloom of phytoplankton, supplemented by successive sediment disturbances
(Oguri et al., 2013). The sinking rate of the phytodetritus and radioactive material
was estimated at 78 and 64 m per day and this was comparable to the speed at which
fallout material reached the bottom of the Black Sea following the Chernobyl accident
(Buesseler et al., 1990). These studies highlight very clearly that contamination from
human activities can reach some of the deepest trench communities extremely quickly
and, as such, these communities are not exempt from such disasters.
The efforts to protect the trench environment in the 1980s were a direct result of
various plans to use them as dumping grounds, which, with the exception of the Puerto-
Rico Trench, were implemented before any major detrimental activities took place. The
conservation efforts were simply preventative and it was not until January 2009 that the
rst trench was ofcially declared a marine reserve by former US President George
W. Bush who created the Mariana Trench Marine National Monument (MTMNM,
Presidential Proclamation 8335; Tosatto, 2009; Fig. 12.1). It became the largest marine
reserve under the authority of the Antiquities Act of 1906, which protects areas
of historic or scientic signicance. The MTMNM consists of approximately
95 216 square miles of submerged lands and waters of the Mariana Archipelago and it
is managed in three units: the islands unit, the waters and submerged lands of the three
northernmost Mariana Islands; the volcanic unit, the submerged lands within 1 nm of
21 designated volcanic sites; and the trench unit, the submerged lands extending from
the northern limit of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the USA in the Common-
wealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) to the southern limit of the EEZ of the
USA in the Territory of Guam. Interestingly, the US EEZ in the area encompasses
almost all the Mariana Trench but not its southernmost tip, where Challenger Deep is
located.
The trenches are now considered to be unique areas where negative practices, such as
dumping of waste products, should not occur. Furthermore, due to their great depth,
industrial extraction of hydrocarbons or mineral resources from trenches is not com-
mercially viable and it seems likely that the hadal zone is, for the foreseeable future,
exempt from direct anthropogenic impacts. However, issues regarding a changing
climate do pose an issue for the entire marine environment, including the hadal zone.
The trenches, like all deep-sea environments, are intrinsically linked to the surface
waters through the vertical POC ux. Climate change and other human activities, such
as ocean fertilisation, will alter the patterns of this surface-derived input of food to the
deep sea (Smith et al., 2006). Changes in this downward injection of organic matter will
substantially alter the structure, function and biodiversity of the trench ecosystems, and,
thus, it is imperative that global assessments of the environmental impacts of global
Figure 12.1 Map of the Mariana Trench Marine National Monument showing the EEZ (dashed
line), the island unit boundary (white line), the trench unit boundary (solid grey line) and active
hydrothermal vents (stars). Image courtesy of Samantha Brooke, NOAA Fisheries Marine
National Monuments Program.
warming and ocean fertilisation account for the entire marine environment including the
deepest points (Smith et al., 2008).
It has been speculated that the effects of rising atmospheric pCO2 and climate change
will affect the deep seaoor (Ruhl and Smith, 2004; Smith et al., 2008). Warming trends
in atmospheric and upper ocean temperatures (attributed to anthropogenic inuence)
and ocean stratication, combined with a reduction in upwelling, could potentially shift
pelagic ecosystems from diatom- and large zooplankton-dominated assemblages with
higher export efciencies to picoplankton- and microzooplankton-dominated assem-
blages with lower export efciencies (Smith et al., 2008, 2009). Global warming has
been predicted to intensify stratication and reduce vertical mixing which, in turn, will
enhance variability in primary production and alter carbon export ux to the deep sea
(Smith et al., 2008). These shifts in surface community structure are likely to cause a
decrease in overall primary production and thus reduce the efciency of organic carbon
export from the photosynthetically active euphotic zone to the deep sea, causing a
substantial reduction in POC ux to the trenches and neighbouring abyssal plains. This
process will have detrimental effects on processes such as sediment community oxygen
consumption (SCOC), bioturbation intensities and biomass and body sizes of inverte-
brate taxa, among many others. Furthermore, a reduction in the quality of the POC that
reaches the deep sea (in the fatty acid composition, for example, caused by the diatoms
to picoplankton shift) will alter the nutritional quality of the food and may, in turn, alter
the reproductive success of some species (e.g. Hudson et al., 2004).
Global analysis of ocean temperatures has shown that deep water is warming at an
alarming rate (Balmaseda et al., 2013). Although volcanic eruptions and El Nio events
were identied as sharp cooling events in the analysis, these events punctuate the trend
of long-term ocean warming. While the upper 300 m ocean heat content (OHC) appears
to have stabilised despite global ocean warming, the heat is being absorbed in the
deeper ocean and it is thought that in the last decade, ~30% of the warming has occurred
below 700 m.
The published effects of warming on deep-sea communities are not simply based on
theoretical modelling because it has already been shown that broad, biogeographic
patterns in abyssal macrofauna community structure can change over contemporary
timescales with changes in sea surface conditions (Ruhl et al., 2008). Results from
a 10-year study in the abyssal northeast Pacic Ocean at 4100 m found that climate-
driven variations in food availability were linked to total metazoan macrofauna abun-
dance, phyla composition, rank-abundance distributions and remineralisation over
seasonal and interannual scales. It is these apparent links between climate, the upper
ocean and deep-sea biogeochemistry that highlight the worrying vulnerability of all
deep-sea ecosystems including the trenches, and indicate that the ocean must be
considered in its entirety when determining the long-term carbon storage capacity of
the ocean and the effects of a changing climate.
Warming trends in atmospheric and surface layers have occurred over the past four
decades (Smith et al., 2009) and our understanding of these trends in the deep sea is
fragmented, due to the limited number of coherent long-term monitoring campaigns
required to address questions at sufcient scales to understand the effects of a changing
climate (Ruhl et al., 2011). Long-term datasets from the abyssal deep sea are particu-
larly rare, and long-term data are only available from a few locations globally (Smith
et al., 2009). Equivalent datasets from the hadal zone are entirely nonexistent. There-
fore, the long-term stability of these rare and potentially highly endemic, hadal commu-
nities requires urgent investigation.
With conservation initiatives now in place and the drive for a greater scientic
presence in the hadal zone, one further potential impact on these largely pristine
environments remains; the impact of scientic endeavour.
In the aftermath of the highly publicised Deepsea Challenger manned submersible
dive to Challenger Deep in 2012, various comments and articles were circulated
regarding the exciting technological advancements, the ever-improving submarine
capabilities and the broadening scientic research capabilities that are currently paving
the way for new and unprecedented access to the deepest places on Earth (e.g. Burton,
2012; Lutz and Falkowski, 2012). However, Hartmann and Levin (2012) highlighted
that this all means that the deepest oceans are no longer beyond the reach of human
activities. As an example, they reported on the nding of bovine DNA in the stomach
contents of hadal amphipods from the Tonga Trench (Blankenship and Levin, 2007),
which were presumably from ship galley discards. The nding of the raincoat at
Challenger Deep (Lee, 2012) also highlights human proximity to the deep ocean.
Furthermore, scientists have highlighted that from now and in the future, it is important
to consider conserving these pristine environments whilst undertaking scientic endeav-
ours. An ever-increasing presence of scientic instrumentation may well lead to an
accumulation of accidentally lost equipment, jettisoned ballast weights and potentially
the introduction of foreign bacteria with it. Such accumulations at a specic point of
interest, such as at Challenger Deep, could, worryingly, become analogous with the
anthropogenic debris currently residing at extraordinary high altitudes on Mount
Everest (Karan and Cotton Mather, 1985; Panzeri et al., 2013).
12.2 Living in the shadow of a trench
By far the greatest impact of the hadal zone on humankind is centred on the seismic
instability of the trenches themselves. These instabilities present themselves in unpre-
dictable and often devastating earthquakes, often followed by, perhaps even more
devastating, tsunamis. Although the magnitude of an earthquake triggered in the
subduction zones can be extraordinarily large, it is often the resulting tsunami that
delivers the greatest damage and loss of life. In recent years, the devastation wreaked by
seismic instability has been unforgettably demonstrated in the 2004 SumatraAndaman
earthquake (Java Trench), the 2010 Chilean Couquenes earthquake (PeruChile
Trench) and the 2011 Thoku-Oki (Japan Trench).
The SumatraAndaman earthquake occurred on 26 December 2004 off the west coast
of Sumatra, with a magnitude of Mw 9.19.3 (Lay et al., 2005). The earthquake was
triggered at the Java Trench, where the Indian plate is subducted beneath the Burma
plate. The resulting tsunami was devastating. It generated waves of up to 30 m high that
swept across the Indian Ocean coastlines killing over 280 000 people in 14 countries.
It was the third largest earthquake ever recorded and lasted for an exceptionally long
8.310 min.
On 27 February 2010, a large earthquake (Mw 8.8) occurred off the coast of central
Chile, to the northeast of Concepcin (Chiles second-largest city). At the time, this was
Living in the shadow of a trench 273
Table 12.1 Summary of every major earthquake involving multiple fatalities in Japan in the last
100 years. The average magnitude is Mw 7.5, total fatalities 180 468, and * indicates a tsunami.
Date Magnitude (Mw) Name Death toll
Sept. 1923 8.3 Great Kant earthquake 142 800

Mar. 1927 7.6 Kita Tango earthquake 3020
Nov. 1930 7.3 North Izu earthquake 272
Mar. 1933 8.4 Sanriku earthquake 3000*
Sept. 1943 7.2 Tottori earthquake 1083
Dec. 1944 8.1 Tnankai earthquake 1223*
Jan. 1945 6.8 Mikawa earthquake 1180
Dec. 1946 8.1 Nankaid earthquake 1362
Jun. 1948 7.1 Fukui earthquake 3769
Mar. 1952 8.1 Hokkaid earthquake 28
Jun. 1964 7.6 Niigata earthquake 26
May. 1968 8.2 Tokachi earthquake 52*
May. 1974 6.5 Izu Peninsula earthquake 25
Jun. 1978 7.7 Miyagi earthquake 28
Jul. 1993 7.7 Hokkaid earthquake 202
Dec. 1994 7.7 Offshore Sanriku earthquake 3
Jan. 1995 7.2 Great Hansin earthquake 6434
Mar. 2001 6.7 Geiyo earthquake 2
Oct. 2005 6.9 Chetsu earthquake 40*
Jul. 2007 6.6 Chetsu offshore earthquake 11
Jun. 2008 6.9 Iwate-Miyage Nairiku earthquake 12
Mar. 2011 9.0 Thoku-Oki earthquake 15 883*
Apr. 2011 7.1 Miyage aftershock 4
Apr. 2011 7.1 Fukushima aftershock 6
Dec. 2012 7.3 Kamaishi earthquake 3
the fth largest earthquake recorded worldwide since 1900 and included over 100 after-
shocks of magnitude 5.0 or greater following the initial event (Beittel and Margesson,
2010). The earthquake and subsequent tsunami, which struck Chiles coast roughly
20 min after the earthquake, devastated many coastal areas. The ofcial death toll was
over 500 and it is though that around 200 000 homes were badly damaged or destroyed.
Estimates suggest as many as 2 million people may have been affected by the
earthquake.
The 2011 Thoku-Oki earthquake off Japan (Mw 9.0) is believed to have been caused
by a fault rupture extending to a shallow part of the subduction zone at the Japan
Trench, in the vicinity of 38.322 N 142.369 E (Fujiwara et al., 2011). The event
resulted in approximately 20 000 dead or missing people and the tsunami inundated a
very large area of about 560 km2, covering over 35 cities along the coast of northeast
Japan (Ando et al., 2012). The Japan Meteorological Agency observed 666 aftershocks
that exceeded Mw 5.0 (Oguri et al., 2013). Even a seismic-ready nation like Japan was
still devastated by this earthquake and tsunami, albeit an extraordinarily large one, but
history has shown time and again that this region must be prepared for every seismic
eventuality (Table 12.1).
Studies focusing on the reasons why so many people died in the Thoku-Oki event
were held in the following months and concluded that: (1) The gures for the predicted
earthquake magnitudes and hazards in northeastern Japan that had been assessed and
publicised by the government were signicantly smaller than the actual earthquake.
(2) The rst tsunami warnings were underestimated compared with the actual tsunami
heights. (3) Previous overestimated tsunami height predictions inuenced the behaviour
of the residents. (4) Some local residents believed that with the presence of a breakwater
only slight ooding would occur. (6) Many people did not understand how tsunamis are
created and thus many did not make the connection or take appropriate action (Ando
et al., 2012). They concluded that many deaths resulted unnecessarily because current
technology and earthquake science underestimated tsunami heights, warning systems
failed and breakwaters were not strong or high enough. This is very surprising given
that Japan has arguably the best early-warning systems and tsunami evacuation proced-
ures in the world, yet globally, the loss of life from earthquakes continues to rise,
despite increasingly sophisticated methods of estimating seismic risk (Bilham, 2013).
Globally, earthquakes with extraordinarily large death tolls have increased with
world population and obey a nonstationary Poisson distribution where rate is propor-
tional to population (Holzer and Savage, 2013). Despite more than a century of seismic-
resistant engineering (Tobriner, 2006) and the increasingly sophisticated warning
systems, the past decade has been the most fatal if the exceptional Shanxi earthquake
in 1556 is ignored (Bilham, 2013). Holzer and Savage (2013) predict that the number of
earthquakes with death tolls in the tens of thousands will increase in the twenty-rst
century to 8.7 3.3 for earthquakes with fatalities of over 100 000 and 20.5 4.3 for
earthquakes fatalities of over 50 000 from 4 and 7, respectively, as observed in the
twentieth century, if world population reaches 10.1 billion by 2100. They also estimate
that global fatalities in the twenty-rst century will be over 2.5 million if the average
post-1900 death toll for catastrophic earthquakes (193 000) is assumed. Since 2000,
earthquakes have claimed the lives of 630 000 people and the cumulative cost of recent
earthquakes has exceeded $300 billion, largely due to reconstruction costs in the indus-
trial nations (Bilham, 2013). An unprecedented death toll exceeding 1 million is now
possible in a single earthquake, should it occur near one of the worlds megacities
(Bilham, 2009). A prime example of this risk would be the city of Tokyo, where the
population of the metro area currently exceeds 35 million at a mean density of
2629 people per square kilometre. This risk is further exacerbated because Tokyo is
situated at a triple plate junction (between the Japan, Izu-Bonin and Ryukyu Trenches).
That being said, Tokyo does, however, have some of the worlds most sophisticated
seismic-resistant architecture.
Beyond the destruction of infrastructure and direct fatalities, the impact on humans in
the aftermath of these events affects a whole manner of everyday things, from declines
in health (Daito et al., 2012), declines in house prices (Naoi et al., 2009), to even a
decline in the number of males born in close proximity to the areas worst affected by the
disaster (Catalano et al., 2013). The latter study found a 2.2% reduction in male births,
thought to be a result of men producing less testosterone, reducing the quality of male
sperm in a time of high stress.
Public perception 275
The vulnerability of the nations that lie in close proximity to subduction zones is also
highly variable. While developed nations, such as Japan, are seemingly very advanced
when it comes to warning systems and evacuation procedures, many less developed
nations lack systems, procedures and seismic-resistant infrastructure. Bilham (2013)
attributed the pronounced loss of life in the developing nations to three factors: poverty,
corruption and ignorance. Another reason for the vulnerability of some nations lies with
the fact that seismic-resistant construction is inadvertently restricted to wealthy or civil
segments of the community and is, therefore, either unobtainable or irrelevant to the
most vulnerable segment of the public. Nations with coastal borders that lie in close
proximity to the trenches, particularly those around the Pacic Rim, must be aware of
the potential risks of seismic instability and the devastation that can ensue quickly and
sometimes without warning. Living in the shadow of the hadal zone is a risky business.
Of course, not all earthquakes originate directly in hadal trenches, some originate
from faulting, shallower subduction and seismic events at the plate interior, but a vast
proportion of these statistics will be attributed to the devastating effects of hadal
trenches. In fact, England and Jackson (2011) note that the largest earthquake-induced
death tolls were not a result of the very high magnitude events (Mw > 8), but rather
caused by relatively modest events (Mw < 7.5), specically those originating in plate
interiors. In recent years, the devastation caused by the larger (Mw > 8) plate boundary
earthquakes (i.e. hadal trenches) has been expensive but has not resulted in signicant
loss of life, if it were not for the effects of the resulting tsunami; for example, the 2011
Thoku-Oki earthquake (Japan Trench) and SumatraAndaman earthquake or Boxing
Day tsunami (Java Trench).
In order to truly understand the energy involved in high-magnitude earthquakes it is
important to consider the following: the SumatraAndaman earthquake caused a shift of
mass and a sufciently massive release of energy to slightly alter the Earths rotation.
Theoretical models suggest the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68 micro-
seconds, due to a decrease in the oblateness of the Earth (Cook-Anderson and Beasley,
2005). Similarly, popular media at the time reported that the Thoku-Oki earthquake had
shifted the Earths axis by estimates of between 10 and 25 cm, leading to the shortening of
a day by 1.8 microseconds due to the redistribution of the Earths mass.
12.3 Public perception
On a more positive note, humanity has always been fascinated by the animals that
survive in extreme and hostile environments such as the trenches (Larsen and
Shimomura, 2007a). The intrinsic curiosity of the public is now easily exploited using
on-line analytical tools to examine website statistics. For example, the impact on human
curiosity of events that have been reported in the media, such as those related to
trenches, can be identied with keywords using websites such as Google Trends
(www.google.co.uk/trends/). These web services can provide data on the relative search
volume of particular words or phrases. The impacts of trench-related stories are
particularly evident when examining the search volume patterns of the phrases
Figure 12.2 Relative search volume of the keywords Mariana Trench (a), Deepest sh (b) and
Japan Trench (c) from 2007 to 2013, derived from Google Trends. The peaks in each graph
represent a media event associated with the hadal zone (marked *), where in (a) is James
Camerons dive to Challenger Deep in March 2012, (b) is the media release of the deepest sh
ever lmed alive; 7703 m in the Japan Trench, October 2008 and (c) is in the aftermath of the
Thoku-Oki earthquake in Japan, March 2011.
Mariana Trench, Deepest sh and Japan Trench (Fig. 12.2). Large peaks in search
patterns for these phrases are clearly seen during and in the aftermath of James
Camerons dive to Challenger Deep (March 2012), after the announcement of the
deepest sh ever lmed alive (October 2008) and following the Thoku-Oki
earthquake (March 2011). The publics general interest in the subject of trenches has
also be monitored on other internet sites such as www.youtube.com, whereby the 2008
deepest sh ever lmed alive video received 5 179 620 views over 5 years. Also, the
news item, Supergiant amphipod found in the Kermadec Trench at 7000 m received
1 443 057 hits on the BBC news website (www.bbc.co.uk/news/) in the rst 24 h, and
over 2 million in the rst 2 days. Furthermore, both of these stories, and James
Camerons Challenger Deep dive, received extraordinarily large international media
coverage, which again is indicative of a real interest in trenches by the inquisitive
general public.
There are also indicators that general interest in this subject goes beyond passive
news browsing and that large fractions of internet users are searching on-line
Public perception 277
(a)
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
(b)
3000
2500
Number of hits
2000
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(c)
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
Day of the month
Figure 12.3 Wikipedia article trafc statistics in terms of number of hits per day during month of
(a) James Camerons Mariana Trench dive, 28 March 2012 (Wiki page: Mariana Trench),
(b) Deepest sh ever seen alive, HADEEP media release, 8 October 2008 (Wiki page: Snailsh)
and (c) the Japanese Thoku-Oki earthquake, 11 March 2011 (Wiki page: Japan Trench).
encyclopaedias, such as Wikipedia, to nd out further information. Wikipedia article

trafc statistics can be evaluated at www.stats.grok.se, and for the three stories men-
tioned above, similar peaks in activity are apparent following the news item or event
(Fig. 12.3). The James Cameron dive saw searches for Mariana Trench or Challenger
Deep soar from daily hits of 10003000 to over 48 000 on the day of the dive.
Likewise, the deepest sh story saw the snailsh page increase from approximately
100 hits per day to over 2600, and following the 2011 Japanese earthquake, the Japan
Trench page went from a daily hit rate of around 2550 to nearly 4000. Other stories,
such as the Supergiant amphipod in the Kermadec Trench story, saw the amphipod
pages hit rate increase from 5075 per day to over 1000. In the case of the supergiants
or the deepest sh events, the encyclopaedia pages were not specic to the news article
but are rather a generic entry for amphipods and snailsh, respectively. Hits on these
pages indicated that the users curiosity was sufciently stimulated to actively seek
more information around the general subject of trenches or trench fauna and, thus, the
initial story promoted further education of the public on this particular subject. It
can, therefore, be construed that the stories from extreme environments, such as from
the hadal trenches, are sufciently relevant and charismatic to incite curiosity in the
general subject area and to stimulate a broader interest and independent learning by
the general public.
While the response by the public to news stories regarding deep-sea exploration are
generally overwhelmingly positive, there are always instances that prompt diverse
opinions. A good example is James Camerons Challenger Deep dive. In June 2013,
National Geographic ran the New explorers cover story, featuring Cameron himself
on the cover. The main article was largely dedicated to his account of the Deepsea
Challenger dive to the Mariana Trench. However, in the October 2013 edition, several
contrasting letters from the public were published in response to the article. The rst
letter was from a man who, in 1967, was on the USS Meeker County transiting from
Guam to Vietnam, and when told they were passing over the deepest place on Earth, he
decided to throw a hammer over the side of the ship. This correspondence was written in
jest and asked if Cameron had found it, and if so, could they return it to the US Navy.
One should wonder why the rst instinct in such a scenario should be a reckless
disregard for such a pristine environment and whether the same reaction would occur
in other terrestrial frontier environments? The second letter praises Cameron for all he
has achieved in his career including, from Deepsea Challenger, nding previously
unknown micro-organisms that could shed light on the origin of life as we know it. It
is particularly worrying that someone would come to this conclusion based on the report
of the dive, and shows that a high prole such as this can detract from years of scientic
research. While the rst manned mission to Challenger Deep did not contribute any
scientic nds (Jamieson and Yancey, 2012), Camerons solitary dive was also rather
limited relative to many other studies but gave the impression that Challenger Deep was
unexplored and poorly understood, despite the wealth of already published research
from the same area spanning over 30 years, for example, Yayanos et al. (1981), Kato
et al. (1997, 1998), Takami et al. (1997), Nogi and Kato (1999), Fang et al. (2000),
Akimoto et al. (2001), Todo et al. (2005), Pathom-aree et al. (2006), Gooday et al.
(2008), Kitazato et al. (2009) and Kobayashi et al. (2012), as well as four bottom trawls
deeper than 10 000 m by the Vitjaz expeditions (Belyaev, 1989), multiple visitations by
the ROV Kaik (Takagawa et al., 1997; Mikagawa and Aoki, 2001), HROV Nereus
(Bowen et al., 2009b), biogeochemical landers (Glud et al., 2013) and oceanographic
systems (Taira et al., 2004, 2005). Furthermore, the biotechnology potential of natural
products from Challenger Deep sediments are already being examined (Abdel-Mageed
et al., 2010). This highlights the danger that high-prole and high-impact events such as
the Deepsea Challenger can overshadow and perhaps undermine the scientic efforts
already achieved. The pursuit of sensational exploration stories does raise awareness of
exploration, but there is a danger of hindering rather than responsibly promoting
dissemination to the public about scientic fact, albeit often less publically digestible.
Life in extreme environments 279
The third letter to National Geographic criticises the fact that the submersible had to
leave 1072 lbs (486 kg) of steel ballast behind, and that Cameron should have left the
trench as it was, whilst the fourth correspondence was tremendously enthusiastic and
having read the article was left with a feeling of wanting more. These four correspond-
ents represent diverse and mostly valid opinions and reactions to the same story, which
is probably why this selection was picked for publication, but above all else, it is
extremely encouraging to see people talking about the deepest places on Earth than not
at all.
12.4 Life in extreme environments
Extreme environments are dened as environmental parameters showing values per-

manently close to the lower or upper limits known for life in its various forms
(Rothschild and Mancinelli, 2001; Amils et al., 2007). The study of life in extreme
environments is an area of science that has exploded during the past decade, with
several reviews and books having been published on extremophiles (Madigan and
Marrs, 1997; Horikoshi and Grant, 1998; Horikoshi et al., 2011), and the launch of
concerted funding programmes, such as the US National Science Foundation and
NASAs programmes in Life in Extreme Environments, Exobiology and
Astrobiology, and the European Unions Biotechnology of Extremophiles and Extre-
mophiles as Cell Factories (Aguilar et al., 1998). In 2003, the European Science
Foundation (ESF) initiated a new research support activity, Investigating Life in
Extreme Environments (ILEE). The main conclusion that emerged from the rst
interdisciplinary workshop in 2005 was the need for a more coordinated approach to
improve future opportunities for funding research in this area. This led to the 200810
CAREX project (Coordination Action for Research activities on life in EXtreme envir-
onments; Ellis-Evans and Walter, 2008). CAREX tackled the issue of enhancing
coordination of life in extreme environments research in Europe and included 60 Euro-
pean and non-European partners from 24 countries. Its approach to life in extreme
environment research covered microbes, plants and animals evolving in various
marine, polar, terrestrial extreme environments as well as in outer space. Among many
other marine and non-marine ecosystems, the hadal zone was selected by CAREX as a
model environment against the specic feature of high pressure (CAREX, 2011).
However, it should have also been placed under the specic features of oligotrophic
(as per seeps and vents), extreme variability (as were seamounts) and perhaps a new
category of seismic instability. The categories of the hadal extreme environment as
dened by CAREX are shown in Table 12.2.
The study of life in extreme conditions, such as at high pressure, also has signicance for
understanding life in the emerging scientic area of the deep-biosphere (Jrgensen and
DHondt, 2006; Huber et al., 2007). Deep-biosphere is the sub-seaoor habitat where
prokaryote life has been found to survive hundreds of metres below the seaoor (mbsf). It
has been suggested that the sub-seaoor biosphere may contain two-thirds of Earths total
prokaryotic biomass (Whitman, et al., 1998), although these estimates are somewhat
Table 12.2 Selected model marine environments and their specific features as identified by CAREX (2011), including
the hadal zone as contrasted against other marine environments. This has been adapted from CAREX (2011) by adding
* where the trenches should be considered oligotrophic, especially as seeps and vents are already deemed so,
**extreme variability is undoubtedly as high as seeps, vents and seamounts with respect to endemism, food supply,
size and environmental setting and *** the addition of seismic instability as a specific feature (Oguri et al., 2013).
Oligotrophic environments
Irregular energy supply

Extreme temperatures
Extreme variability
Seismic instability
Toxic compounds
Anoxia=hypoxia
High radiation
High pressure
Alkalinity
Salinity
Acidity
Cold seeps x x x x x x x
Hydrothermal vents x x x x x x x x x
Hypersaline lakes x x x x x x x ?
Seamounts x ?
Antarctic continental slopes x
Canyons x ? x
Hadal trenches * x ** ***
Oxygen minimum zones x x
Coastal saline lakes x x x
Inland saline lakes x x x
Intertidal zones x x x
contentious (Jrgensen, 2012). Roussel et al. (2008) provided evidence for living prokary-
otic cells in sediments 1626 mbsf that were 46111 million years old and living at 60 to
100C. This study also suggested that Archaea, capable of anaerobic oxidation of methane,
and novel members of the high-temperature Thermococcales (Pyrococcus and Thermo-
coccus), can dominate deep and hot sediments where there are thermogenic energy sources.
The extent of the deep sub-seaoor biosphere is still in debate, for example, Roussel et al.
(2008) versus Hinrichs and Inagaki (2012), but the important point is that even in an age
where technology has nally caught up with the desire to go deeper, we nd that life exists
even deeper still. If we continue to study the most extreme environments where life is
sustained, then the more we will understand about life on our planet.
Understanding the evolution and existence of life under extreme environmental
parameters will aid in determining the boundaries of where life can exist. This may
lead to an understanding of organismal properties that have evolved under particular
environmental stressors, and this may, in turn, aid our understanding of the ecology and
evolution of life on Earth and potentially that of extraterrestrial life also (Allwood et al.,
2013). The discovery of extreme environments and the organisms that inhabit them has
made the search for extraterrestrial life more plausible (Rothschild and Mancinelli,
2001), and even advocated the possibility of panspermia (the transport of life from
one planet to another; Nicholson et al., 2000; Wickramasinghe et al., 2013).
Bioprospecting and biotechnology 281
12.5 Bioprospecting and biotechnology
The discovery of extremophiles has also sparked great interest from the biotechnology
industry. The marine environment is currently emerging as a hotbed of microbial
diversity that has rarely been exploited for biotechnological gain (so-called blue
biotechnology; DeSilva, 2004), despite preliminary work showing huge potential
(Aertsen et al., 2009; Blunt et al., 2009; Fang and Kato, 2010). Extreme deep-sea
habitats such as the hadal trenches, as well as the polar regions, O2 minimum zones and
hypersaline pools are also considered to be likely repositories of previously unknown,
novel biocompounds of potential importance in medicine and biotechnology (Rittman
and McCarty, 2001). However, the commercial potential of bioprospecting in the deep
sea has rarely been recognised, and is certainly far from being realised (Abe and
Horikoshi, 2001; Haefner, 2003).
The oceans biotechnological potential is only now being recognised, with the global
market currently estimated at US$2.4 billion and with a predicted annual growth of 10%
(Allen and Jaspars, 2009). The European Commission describes it as one of the most
exciting technology sectors, and the Institute of Marine Engineering, Science, and
Technology (IMarEST) describes the sea as a biotechnological frontier waiting to be
explored with potential for marine biotechnological products to be used as [among
others] anticancer agents (Anon, 2007).
The high-pressure and low-temperature environments within the hadal trenches are
also likely to be repositories of novel biocompounds that are currently unknown to
modern medicine. Recent advances in exploration and analytical techniques have
discovered a myriad of bacterial communities that have evolved novel bioactive com-
pounds through their physiological adaptations to environmental stressors. The proper-
ties and potential applications of these compounds have rarely been fully appreciated
(Allen and Jaspars, 2009). Research on marine natural products (MNPs) has evolved
into a multidisciplinary international collaboration between scientists from pharmacol-
ogy, chemical ecology, biosynthesis, molecular biology, genomics, metabolomics,
chemical biology and chemical genomics, under the umbrella terminology of
bioprospecting.
Although bioprospecting may be perceived at face value as deep-sea exploitation and
thus has negative connotations, it is still in its infancy and there are opportunities to
pursue the search for novel, natural products at hadal depths responsibly, opportunities
that may herald many positive outcomes for human life and well-being. At present,
there are about 20 (shallower) marine natural products in advanced clinical development
as anticancer drugs and many more are under testing for the treatment of pain and
various neurodegenerative disorders, as well as tuberculosis, AIDS, malaria and many
other diseases (Mayer et al., 2010; Querellou et al., 2010).
All extremophiles such as thermophiles, psychrophiles, acidophiles, alkaliphiles and,
of course, peizophiles have been, or are, of great potential interest to the biotechnology
industry (Simonato et al., 2006). Possible biotechnology applications for piezophiles
have proven slow to develop as a result of cultivation difculties. A number of potential
routes of exploration are described in Simonato et al. (2006), such as the ability of deep-
sea bacteria to synthesise chemical compounds such as omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty
acids. These PUFAs are considered useful in decreasing the risk of cardiovascular
disease (Nichols et al., 1993). Similarly, for the food industry, enzymes involved in
the biosynthesis of these chemicals could be transferred into more suitable organisms in
order to obtain increased quantities of these compounds.
The number of reported compounds that have been isolated from hadal trench
organisms so far is <10 (Arnison et al., 2013), and recently, 12 more compounds have
been isolated from a pressure-tolerant bacterium found in Mariana Trench sediment
(Abdel-Magreed et al., 2010). Recent evidence shows that piezotolerant bacteria from
Mariana Trench sediments produce biologically active and unusual secondary metabol-
ites that have very strong anti-trypanosomal activity (M. Jaspars, unpublished). The
metabolic activity of such deep-trench organisms was shown to change signicantly
under high hydrostatic pressures. The exploration of extreme environments with high
hydrostatic pressures and low temperatures is likely to yield microorganisms from
clades that are far removed from those found in other environments, thus increasing
the possibility of discovering new chemical entities with potent and selective
bioactivity.
12.6 Future challenges
Closer to home, our understanding of the distribution of marine biodiversity is a crucial

rst step towards the effective and sustainable management of marine ecosystems
(Webb et al., 2010). A marine conservation paradox currently exists: we need to assess
and protect the marine environment with the utmost urgency, but we still know
relatively little about it (Holt, 2010). This problem is particularly pertinent in the hadal
zone, where fundamental understanding of its ecology is lagging far behind that of the
more readily accessible coastal and shallower zones. Global marine conservation must
do just this; conserve the global marine environment which extends from the airsea
interface to the deepest ocean trench. In the past, ocean research has tended to focus on
shallower habitats that were perceived to have a greater direct inuence on day-to-day
human endeavours. Sadly, there is still an anthropocentric opinion that the deep sea is a
remote and enigmatic environment, far removed from everyday human activities.
To redress this issue, recent efforts by international networks such as the Census of
Marine Life (www.coml.org) have substantially advanced our knowledge of the marine
diversity of specic regions and habitats (Snelgrove, 2010). Yet, despite the 10-year
long project, including projects on abyssal plains, in the Arctic, Antarctic, on continen-
tal margins and shelves, at coral reefs, mid-ocean ridges, seamounts, hydrothermal vents
and seeps, it did not include the hadal trenches and, therefore, the knowledge gap
between the trenches and the rest of the ocean is ever widening.
The research effort regarding the hadal zone has, however, increased in recent
decades. An on-line search for peer-reviewed scientic papers on Thomson Reuters
Web of Knowledge journal search engine (http://wok.mimas.ac.uk/) with the term
Future challenges 283
10
7
Number of papers
0
1956
1959
1962
1965
1968
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
2010
2013
Year of publication
Figure 12.4 The number of peer-reviewed scientic publications found using the search word
hadal on Thomson Reuters Web of Knowledge (accessed September 2013) from 1956 to 2013.
The black line represents a moving 10-year average.
hadal listed 143 papers between 1956 and 2013 (Fig. 12.4). In the rst 40 years (1956
to 1996), 61 papers were published on hadal biology (43% of the total). In the last
10 years (2002 to 2012), a further 58 hadal publications have emerged, accounting for
41% of all hadal papers ever published. The maximum number of hadal papers
published was in 2009 and 2010 (nine papers each). While this increase in research
activity is encouraging, it is still greatly lagging behind similar work in the shallower
depths ranges, for example, the same search using the term abyssal produces 1359
papers, hydrothermal vent produces 1605 papers, seamounts produces 1275 papers,
and continental slope and continental shelf produces 2528 and 5026 papers, respect-
ively. These values were derived in September 2013.
Webb et al. (2010) compiled a list of ~7 million georeferenced records of marine
organisms, recorded in the Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS) in order to
provide a graphical summary of the three-dimensional distribution of recorded global
marine biodiversity. This exercise demonstrated a clear under-sampling of deep oceans,
and, in particular, the deep pelagic zone. This work highlighted the signicance of
under-sampling the deep pelagic ocean in terms of its extraordinary large volume and
this concern became the focus of their conclusions. However, the hadal zone was
somewhat overlooked, presumably on account of its relatively low area coverage
despite the enormous depth range that it encompasses.
The challenges for the immediate future are two-fold. First, there is a technology and
access challenge. The challenge being to develop low cost, compact and innovative
methods by which to access the greatest depths in order to perform multidisciplinary
observational and experimental tasks, including long-term monitoring (Jamieson and
Fujii, 2011). This comes at a time where the reliance on large deep-submergence
platforms, such as ROVs, HOVs and AUVs, may dwindle due to the pressure of
nancial strain (Monastersky, 2012) on engineers and designers to develop tools for
full ocean depth that have been previously restricted to shallower waters.
The second challenge is to alter the perception of the scientic community in order to
ensure that the deepest parts of the world are included in future research programmes
and on an equal par with the other marine environments. This is necessary, not just to
narrow the knowledge gap between hadal and other zones, but also to encourage a more
holistic approach to marine science, especially given the climate-related changes
happening currently in the atmosphere and surface waters and the cascading effects
these may have on the underlying habitats. Furthermore, depth-related trends in diver-
sity, biology, physiology and ecology, among many others, are likely to be heavily
inuenced by the incorporation of the deepest 45% of the worlds marine environment.
These technological and psychological challenges need to be urgently met in order to
enable the comprehensive sampling of multiple trenches with sufcient resolution,
bathymetric coverage and replication to enable global generalisations, not just about
marine life, but about all life on Earth; from the upper atmosphere and high elevations to
the deepest trench and the deep-biosphere beyond. We now live in an age where
technology is at a level where few, truly unexplored frontiers remain. With increasing
technological developments, exploration, education and the overarching fundamental
drive to push the limits of human endeavour, our understanding and appreciation of
these deep environments will hopefully become a reality in the not so distant future.
Ocean exploration gives mankind a sense of human progress and heritage. It provides the
experience and knowledge necessary to undertake stewardship of the ocean and its resources,
and thus sets a course for future generations to navigate. What lies ahead is still unknown.
Whatever it is, however, will be inuenced by what is found through tomorrows exploration
and, will likely be different than todays predictions! (Anon, 1998).
Appendix
List of all known species from hadal depths showing maximum and minimum depth of
capture from in, and in the vicinity of, the trenches. Those marked * are pelagic and those
marked ** were identied from in situ photography. NPT North Pacic Troughs.
PHYLUM: FORAMINIFERA
CLASS: POLYTHALAMEA
ORDER: Allogromiida
FAMILY: Allogromida incertae sedis
Conicotheca nigrans Mariana 10 896 10 896
FAMILY: Allogromiidae
Nodellum aculeata Mariana 10 896 10 896
Nodellum membranaceum NPT 2140 7224
Resigella bilocularis Mariana 10 896 10 896
Resigella laevis Mariana 10 896 10 896
Xenothekella elongata KurilKamchatka 9220 9380
FAMILY: Ammodiscidae
Ammodiscus consonus KurilKamchatka 4710 9050
Ammodiscus profundissimus NW Pacic, NPT 3400 9220
Ammolagena clavata Aleutian 68 7660
Glomospira gordialis KurilKamchatka 2507 9050
Turritellella shoneana Japan 7225 7225
Usbekistania charoides profunda Aleutian, Ryukyu 2532 6520
FAMILY: Astorhizidae
Pelosina cylindrica Kermadec 3429 6240
Pelosina rotundata NPT 3400 6070
Pelosina variabilis Aleutian, KurileKamchatka 1760 6980
Pelosphaera trunca NPT 6070 6070
FAMILY: Botellinidae
Protobotellina pacica Aleutian, KurileKamchatka 2000 8430
FAMILY: Dendrophryidae
Dendrophrya abyssalica NPT 5510 6060
Dendrophrya kermadecensis Kermadec 8950 10 002
FAMILY: Hyperamminidae
Hyperammina echinata KurilKamchatka, Ryukyu 2930 9580
Hyperammina elongata Aleutian 2048 6980
Hyperammina imbecilla NPT 2200 6072
Hyperammina kermadecensis Kermadec 8950 10 002
285
286 Appendix
Hyperammina zenkevichi KurilKamchatka 5060 9540

Saccorhiza praealta KurilKamchatka 4120 6870
Saccorhiza ramosa KurilKamchatka, NPT 1739 6072
Saccorhiza zankevichi KurilKamchatka 6700 9540
FAMILY: Normaninidae
Normanina elongata KurilKamchatka, NPT 2890 7180
Normanina fruticosa Aleutian, KurileKamchatka 4330 7180
Normanina ultrabyssalica Kermadec, Tonga 8950 10 687
FAMILY: Polyaccaminidae
Saccamminis incrusatum KurilKamchatka, Bougainville 3360 8006
FAMILY: Psamminidae
Psammina planata KurilKamchatka 6860 7320
FAMILY: Psammosphaeridae
Psammosphaera orbiculata NPT 2532 6070
Sorosphaera abyssorum Volcano, Tonga 2582 10 687
FAMILY: Rhabdamminidae
Bathysiphon lanosum NPT 500 6240
Psammosiphonella bougainwillica Bougainville 6800 8006
Psammosiphonella rustica Japan, NPT 2680 6150
Rhabdammina abyssorum Mariana 10 924 10 924
Rhabdammina abyssorum KurilKamchatka, NPT 2020 6860
Rhabdammina bougainwillica Bougainville 9022 9022
Rhabdammina inaudita KurilKamchatka, NPT 2000 6260
Rhabdammina recondita KurilKamchatka, NPT 3429 6880
FAMILY: Rhizamminidae
Rhizammina algaeformis Unknown 1015 6240
Rhizammina alta Aleutian, KurileKamchatka 5050 6520
Rhizammina transversa NPT 6020 6070
FAMILY: Saccamminidae
Lagenammina alta KurilKamchatka, NPT 1724 6860
Lagenammina minuta KurilKamchatka 8220 9220
Lagenammina difugiformis Mariana 10 924 10 924
Tholosina irregularis Japan, Bougainville, Kermadec 6070 10 002
Thurammina albicans PeruChile 1800 7720
Thurammina corrugata PeruChile 2140 7720
FAMILY: Stannomida
Stannophyllum granularium KurilKamchatka 6215 6675
Japan 6116 6116
Stannophyllum mollum Japan 6380 6380
FAMILY: Syringamminidae
Aschemonella delicata NPT 3420 6070
Aschemonella ramuliformis Kermadec 2998 8950
Aschemonella scabra KurilKamchatka, NPT 2760 7180
Ocultammina profunda Izu-Bonin 8260 8260
ORDER: Litoulida
FAMILY: Hormosinidae
Hormosina globulifera KurilKamchatka, NPT 10 924 10 924
FAMILY: Reophacidae
Leptohalysis kaikoi Mariana 10 896 10 896
FAMILY: Ammosphaeroidinidae
Adercotryma glomerata abyssorum KurilKamchatka, NPT 2000 7351
Cribrostomoides nitidum abyssalicus KurilKamchatka, NPT 2000 6250
Appendix 287
Cribrostomoides profundum Aleutian, KurilKamchatka, 2380 6240

Izu-Bonin, NPT
Cribrostomoides rotulatum Aleutian, KurileKamchatka, 2508 7266
NPT
Cystammina pauciloculata Ryukyu, NPT 252 6200
Recurvoidatus parcus KurilKamchatka, Volcano, 4105 8087
NPT
Recurvoidatus trochamminiforme KurilKamchatka, NPT 2726 6740
trochamminiformis
Recurvoidatus ultraabyssalicus KurilKamchatka, Bougainville 6700 7678
Recurvoidella bradyi NPT 1732 6050
Recurvoides contortus gurgitis KurilKamchatka, NPT 1500 6740
Recurvoides mutilus Japan, Volcano, Bougainville 7225 8380
FAMILY: Discamminidae
Ammoscalaria tenuimargo Japan 7225 7225
FAMILY: Haplophragmoididae
Cribrostomellus apertus KurilKamchatka 8220 9580
Haplophragmoides pulicosus KurilKamchatka, NPT 2611 6740
Labrospira canariensis profunda KurilKamchatka 1739 6250
Veleroninoides scitulus Unknown 1450 6006
FAMILY: Hormosinellidae
Hormosinella distans distans KurilKamchatka 1134 7660
Hormosinella ovicula oviculus Unknown 1620 7225
Subreophax aduncus Unknown 2515 7225
FAMILY: Hormosinidae
Hormosina normani Aleutian, NPT 1620 7266
Hormosinella guttifera Mariana 10 924 10 924
Pseudonodosinella rubra NPT 3540 6120
FAMILY: Lituolidae
Ammobaculites echinatus echinatus KurilKamchatka, NPT 2414 7316
Ammobaculites liformis KurilKamchatka 1669 6180
Ammobaculites microformis KurilKamchatka 5080 6250
Ammobaculites sp. Aleutian 640 6520
Eratidus foliaceus KurilKamchatka 1015 6250
FAMILY: Prolixoplectidae
Karrerulina apicularis Ryukyu, NPT 2862 7225
FAMILY: Reophacidae
Hormosinoides perpastus NPT 6070 6070
Pseudonodosinella bacillaris Aleutian, KurilKamchatka, NPT 2853 7500
Reophax gaussicus Aleutian, KurilKamchatka, 4580 7180
Japan, Izu-Bonin, NPT
Reophax nodulosus 2561 9540
Reophax dentaliniformis Aleutian, KurilKamchatka, NPT 2140 9220
Reophax echinatus NPT 4920 6070
Reophax excentricus NPT 1739 6250
Reophax pesciculus KurilKamchatka 8220 9580
FAMILY: Spiroplectamminidae
Astrorhizinulla aetheria KurilKamchatka 4610 6250
Morulaeplecta sp. Aleutian 1950 6980
Psammosiphonella beata Aleutian, KurilKamchatka, 1887 9540
Bougainville, NPT
288 Appendix
Spiroplectammina subcylindrica Unknown 2000 6810

FAMILY: Trochamminoidae
Trochamminoides lituotubus Unknown 750 6250
ORDER: Loftusiida
FAMILY: Cyclamminidae
Cyclamina cancellata cancellata KurilKamchatka, NPT 2750 6200
Cyclamina subtrullissata Unknown 2770 6240
Cyclamina trullissata NPT 3000 6200
FAMILY: Globotextularidae
Globotextularia anceps NPT 2507 6065
Tritaxis nana NPT 1550 6070
ORDER: Miliolida
FAMILY: Cornuspiroidinae
Cornuspiroides striolatus KurilKamchatka 2197 6240
FAMILY: Hauerinidae
Involvohauerina globularis Japan, NPT 5030 6150
Miliolinella laeva New Hebrides 2048 7225
FAMILY: Spiroloculinidae
Pseudospirilina abyssalica New Hebrides 4930 6927
ORDER Textulariidae
FAMILY: Eggerellidae
Eggerella bradyi KurilKamchatka 1748 6250
FAMILY: Textulariidae
Textularina sp. Mariana 10 896 10 896
ORDER: Trochamminida
FAMILY: Conotrochamminidae
Conotrochammina abyssorum KurilKamchatka, NPT 2507 7300
FAMILY: Trochamminidae
Trochammina abyssorum KurilKamchatka 3314 9220
Trochammina alta Unknown 713 6008
Trochammina macroformis KurilKamchatka, NPT 5017 6860
Trochammina subglabra KurilKamchatka 1800 6250
PHYLUM: PORIFERA
CLASS: HEXACTINELLIDA
ORDER: Amphidiscophora
FAMILY: Hyalonematidae
Hyalonema apertum KurilKamchatka 6090 6235
Hyalonema sp. KurilKamchatka 6860 6860
ORDER: Haxasterophora
FAMILY: Caulphacidae
Caulophacus hadalis Kermadec 6660 6770
Caulophacus latus latifolium KurilKamchatka 6090 6710
Caulophacus sp. sp. Japan 6156 6207
FAMILY: Euplectellidae
Holascus undulatus Aleutian 6296 6328
FAMILY: Rossellidae
Bathydoris mbriatus KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Hyalospomgidae? Volcano 8530 8540
South Sandwich 6766 7216
San Cristobal 5650 6070
Appendix 289
CLASS: DEMOSPONGIAE
ORDER: Poecilosclerida
FAMILY: Chondrocladiidae
Chondrochadia concresens KurilKamchatka 6090 8660
FAMILY: Cladorhizidae
Asbestopluma occidentalis Kermadec 6960 7000
KurilKamchatka 7265 8840
Asbestopluma wolf Kermadec 6620 6730
Asbestopluma sp. sp. KurilKamchatka 6860 6860
Palau 8440 9990
Cladorhiza septemdentalis KurilKamchatka 7265 7295
Cladorhizidae sp. sp. Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Mariana 8215 8225
Yap 7230 7280
Philippine 7000 7170
Palau 7000 7880
New Britain 7875 7921
Abyssocladia bruuni Bougainville 6920 7567
FAMILY: Esperiopsidae
Esperiopsis plumosa KurilKamchatka 6860 6860
PHYLUM: CNIDARIA
CLASS: HYDROZOA
ORDER: Anthoatheceta
FAMILY: Corymorphidae
Branchiocerianthus imperator New Hebrides 6758 6776
Branchiocerianthus sp. Kermadec 6260 6260
ORDER: Leptothecata
FAMILY: Lafoeidae
Cryptolaria sp. KurilKamchatka 6860 6860
FAMILY: Hebellidae
Hailiphonia galathea Kermadec 8210 8300
FAMILY: Aglaopheniidae
Aglaopenia tenuissima Kermadec 6660 6770
Aglaopenia galathea Java 6900 7000
Aglaopenia sp. Cayman 6300 6300
ORDER: Leptomedusae
FAMILY: Mitroconidae?
Leptomedusae sp. New Britain 8258 8260
ORDER: Anthomedusae
FAMILY: Anthomedusidae?
Anthomedusae sp. New Britain 8258 8260
ORDER: Trachymedusae
FAMILY: Rhoplanematidae
Crossota sp. Palau 8021 8042
New Hebrides 6758 6776
Voragonema profundicula* KurilKamchatka 6800 8700
Trachymedusae sp. New Britain 7057 7075
290 Appendix
CLASS: SCYPHOZOA
ORDER: Coronatae
FAMILY: Atorellidae
Stephanoscyphus simplex Banda 6490 6650
Kermadec 6180 7000
Stephanoscyphus sp. sp.* Aleutian 6000 10 000
KurilKamchatka 6000 10 000
Japan 6000 10 000
Izu-Bonin 6000 10 000
Ryukyu 6000 10 000
Philippine 6000 10 000
New Hebrides 6000 10 000
Palau 6000 10 000
Puerto-Rico 6000 10 000
Cayman 6000 10 000
ORDER: Semaeostomeae
FAMILY: Ulmaridae
Ulmaridae sp. Bougainville 7847 8662
CLASS: ANTHOZOA
ORDER: Alcyonacea
FAMILY: Alcyonaira
Calvulariidae New Britain 7057 8260
Bougainville 7847 8662
FAMILY: Primnoidae
Primnoella sp. Palau 8021 8042
ORDER: Pennatularia
FAMILY: Kophobelemnonidae
Kophobelemnon biorum KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Kophobelemnon molanderi South Sandwich 6052 6150
FAMILY: Umbellulidae
Umbellula lindashi Palau 6100 6100
Umbellula magniora KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Palau 6040 6240
Umbellula thomsoni KurilKamchatka 6090 6235
Palau 6040 6240
Umbellula sp. sp. Kermadec 6180 6730
Palau 6006 6260
Pannatularia? New Britain 7875 7921
ORDER: Hexacorallia
FAMILY: Actinosolidae
Bathydactulus kroghi Kermadec 8210 8230
Hadalanthus knudseni Kermadec 6660 6770
FAMILY: Bathyphelliidae
Daontesia mielchei Banda 7250 7290
FAMILY: Edwardsiidae
Paredwardsia lemchei Java 7160 7160
Appendix 291
ORDER: Actinaria
FAMILY: Galatheanthemidae
Galatheanthemum hadale Philippine 9820 10210
Cayman 5800 6500
Puerto-Rico 5749 8130
Galatheanthemum profundale Kermadec 6180 8300
Galatheanthemum sp. n. Mariana 10 170 10 730
Galatheanthemidae sp. sp. Aleutian 6965 7250
Japan 6156 7370
Ryukyu 6660 6670
Izu-Bonin 6770 9735
Volcano 6780 6785
Mariana 8215 8225
Yap 8560 8720
Palau 7420 9750
Tonga 8950 9020
Kermadec 8928 9174
Cayman 5800 6500
FAMILY: Actiniidae
Paractis sp. Cayman 6740 6780
ORDER: Antipatharia
FAMILY: Unknown
Bathypathes patula Aleutian 7200 7200
ORDER: Sceleractina
FAMILY: Fungiidae
Fungiacyathys symmetricus Aleutian 6296 6328
PHYLUM: PLATYHELMINTHES
CLASS: TURBELLARIA
ORDER: Polycalidida
FAMILY: Unknown
Unknown KurilKamchatka 7265 9335
Unknown PeruChile 6000 6354
Unknown Aleutian 7298 7298
PHYLUM: GASTROTRICHA
CLASS: UNKNOWN
ORDER: Unknown
FAMILY: Unknown
Unknown PeruChile 6000 6354
292 Appendix
PHYLUM: ANNELIDA
CLASS: POLYCHAETA
ORDER: Eunicida
FAMILY: Dorvilleidae
Ophryotrocha hadalis Aleutian 7298 7298
FAMILY: Lumbrineridae
Lumbrineris abyssorum South Sandwich 6052 6150
Lumbrineris sp. sp. Aleutian 6960 7250
Japan 6156 7587
Paraninoe fusca Kermadec 6620 7000
Paraninoe harmani Aleutian 7250 7250
Japan 6156 7587
FAMILY: Onuphiidae
Onuphis ehlersi KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Aleutian 6296 6328
Paraonuphis ulraabyssalis Volcano 6330 6330
ORDER Phyllodocidae
FAMILY: Pilargidae
Sigambra (Ancistrosyllis) constricta Banda 6580 6580
FAMILY: Hesionidae
Hesionidae sp. Bougainville 8980 9043
FAMILY: Nephtyidae
Micronephthys abranchiata Izu-Bonin 8800 8830
Kermadec 8928 9174
Nephthys elamelata Kermadec 6180 7000
Nephthyidae gen. sp. Bougainville 8980 9043
FAMILY: Nereididae
Ceratocephale loveni pacica Japan 6600 6670
Nereis profundi Banda 7250 7290
Nereis caymanensis Cayman 5800 6850
Nereis sp. sp. Philippine 8080 8400
Java 6935 7060
Nereidae gen. sp. Japan 7265 7587
FAMILY: Aphroditidae
Laetmonice benthaliana South Sandwich 6766 6875
FAMILY: Goniadidae
Bathyglycinide longisetosa South Sandwich 7218 7934
FAMILY: Phyllodicidae
Eulalia sandwichensis South Sandwich 6052 7218
Eulalia sigeiformis Aleutian 7246 7246
Vitjazia dogiela KurilKamchatka 6150 8100
Japan 7190 7587
FAMILY: Polynoidae
Bathyeditia berkeleyi Aleutian 6965 7000
Ryukyu 6810 7450
Bathyeliasona abyssicola Aleutian 7286 7286
Appendix 293
Bathyeliasona kirkegaardi Aleutian 6925 7250

Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Volcano 6330 6330
Palau 7000 7170
Ryukyu 7440 7450
Kermadec 6620 7000
Banda 7250 7290
Java 7130 7160
Bathykermadeca hadalis Kermadec 6660 8300
Yap 8560 8720
Japan 7350 7370
Banda 7250 7290
Philippine 10 160 10 210
Bathykurila zenkevitchi KurilKamchatka 8100 8135
Japan 6600 6670
Bathylevensteinia bicornis Tonga 9735 9875
Bathymariana zebra Ryukyu 7440 7450
Bathymoorea aff. renotubulata South Sandwich 6052 6150
Macellicephala alia Palau 7970 8035
Macellicephala mirabilis Puerto-Rico 7625 7900
Macellicephala tricornis South Sandwich 7200 8116
Macellicephala violaca Aleutian 7250 7250
Japan 7370 7370
Macellicephaloides grandicirra KurilKamchatka 8100 9500
Macellicephaloides improvisa KurilKamchatka 8035 8120
Macellicephaloides sandwichiensis South Sandwich 7200 7934
Macellicephaloides uschakovi KurilKamchatka 8035 8120
Macellicephaloides verrucosa KurilKamchatka 7210 8015
Japan 6156 6207
Macellicephaloides villosa Japan 7350 7370
Macellicephaloides vitjazi KurilKamchatka 7210 8430
Macellicephaloides sp. Mariana 7990 10 710
Polynoidae sp. KurilKamchatka 8175 9335
Japan 6475 7370
Izu-Bonin 6770 9735
Volcano 6780 6785
Mariana 10 170 10 730
Palau 8021 8042
Tonga 10 415 10 687
Java 6820 6850
FAMILY: Sigalionidae
Leonira quatrefagesi South Sandwich 6050 6150
294 Appendix
ORDER: Drilomorpha
FAMILY: Capitallidae
Notomastus latericeus South Sandwich 6875 7216
Notomastus sp. sp. Aleutian 6550 6550
Japan 6600 7587
Kermadec 8210 8300
Java 6820 6850
Capitellidae sp. sp. Aleutian 6410 7246
Japan 7190 7190
ORDER: Terebellida
FAMILY: Faveliopsidae
Laubieriopsis (Fauveliopsis) brevis KurilKamchatka 6835 6835
Palau 6200 6240
Fauveliopsis challengeriae KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
FAMILY: Flabelligeridae
Ilyphagus (brada) irenaia KurilKamchatka 6860 6860
Ilyphagus (brada) sp. South Sandwich 6052 7934
Ilyphagus bythincola Java 6730 6850
Ilyphagus wyvillei San Cristobal 5650 6070
Flabelligeridae sp. n. Aleutian 6965 7000
Japan 6600 7587
FAMILY: Maldanidae
Maldanella harai Kermadec 6620 6720
Maldanella japonica Japan 6156 6840
Notoproctus oculatus antarcticus South Sandwich 6766 6875
Notoproctus sp. Japan 6156 6207
Petaloproctus Banda 7250 7290
Maldanidae sp. sp. KurilKamchatka 6860 7230
Japan 6380 6380
FAMILY: Opheliidae
Ammotrypane galatheae Banda 7250 7290
Ammotrypane sp. Aleutian 7250 7250
Japan 7370 7587
Kesun abyssorum Aleutian 6960 7250
Japan 6156 7370
Izu-Bonin 8800 9735
Kermadec 6960 8300
Java 6740 6850
Ryukyu 6330 7600
Kesun fuscus Japan 7565 7587
Travisia profundi Aleutian 7250 7250
Appendix 295
Japan 6156 7190

Banda 6490 7290
Travisia sp. Japan 7460 7557
FAMILY: Cirratulidae
Chaetozone sp. Java 6935 7060
Cossura longicirrata Java 6487 6487
Tharix multilus Banda 6580 6580
Tharix sp. sp. Java 6820 6850
Cirratulidae sp. sp. Aleutian 7246 7246
Kermadec 8928 10015
FAMILY: Amparetidae
Amagopsis cirratus Palau 6200 6240
Amphicteis gunneri South Sandwich 7686 7686
Amphicteis gunneri japonica Aleutian 6965 7250
Japan 6156 7587
Amphicteis mederi KurilKamchatka 7210 8430
Japan 6380 6380
Anobothrus sp. KurilKamchatka 6860 6860
Japan 6156 6207
Mellinampharete eoa KurilKamchatka 6150 6860
Ampharetidae sp. sp. Aleutian 6296 6296
Japan 6156 6207
Kermadec 6660 6720
Java 6820 7000
FAMILY: Terebellidae
Pista sp. Aleutian 6296 6328
Japan 6156 6207
Pista mirabilis KurilKamchatka 6205 6215
Japan 6156 6207
Palau 6040 6328
FAMILY: Trichobranchiidae
Terebellides eurystethus KurilKamchatka 7210 7230
Japan 7190 7587
Kermadec 6660 6770
Aleutian 6960 6960
ORDER: Sabellida
FAMILY: Siboglinidae
Lamellisabella johanssoni Japan 6156 6207
Birsteinia sp. KurilKamchatka 9000 9050
Cyclobrachia auriculata Bougainville 7974 7974
Diplobrachia japonica Aleutian 7200 7200
Japan 6600 7587
Izu-Bonin 8800 8830
Heptabrachia abyssicola KurilKamchatka 6475 8100
Heptabrachia subtilis Izu-Bonin 9715 9735
Polybrachia choanata KurilKamchatka 9000 9050
Japan 6600 6670
Polybrachia sp. 1 KurilKamchatka 8100 8100
296 Appendix
Polybrachia sp. 2 Palau 6324 6328

Zenkevitchiana longissima KurilKamchatka 8330 9500
Polybrachiidae gen. sp. Palau 6324 6328
Sclerolinum Javanicum Java 6820 6850
Sclerolinum sp. Ryukyu 6810 6810
Siboglinum caulleryi KurilKamchatka 8100 8100
Siboglinum longimanus Palau 6324 6328
Siboglinum pusillum Aleutian 6960 6980
Siboglinum sp. II KurilKamchatka 9000 9050
Siboglinum sp. IV KurilKamchatka 8100 8100
Siboglinum sp. VI KurilKamchatka 9000 9050
Siboglinum sp. VIII Bougainville 7974 8006
Siboglinum sp. IX Bougainville 7974 8006
Siboglinum sp. n. 1 Aleutian 6410 6757
Siboglinum sp. n. 2 Japan 7565 7587
Siboglinum sp. n. 3 Java 6841 6841
Siboglinum sp. n. 4 Palau 6324 6328
Siboglinum sp. n. 5 Palau 6324 6328
Spirobrachia beklemishevi KurilKamchatka 9000 9050
Spirobrachia leospira South Sandwich 8004 8186
FAMILY: Oweniidae
Myriochele sp. Kermadec 6180 8300
Owenia lobopygidiata Banda 6490 6650
Oweniidae sp. sp. Aleutian 6296 7246
FAMILY: Scalibregmatidae
Pseudoscalibregma pallens Kermadec 8928 9174
Pseudoscalibregma collaris San Cristobal 5650 6070
Scalibregmidae sp. sp. Japan 6600 6700
FAMILY: Sabellidae
Potamethus latovae Aleutian 6328 6960
Japan 6380 6700
Izu-Bonin 9715 9735
Potamethus sp. sp. Japan 6156 6380
Izu-Bonin 8530 8735
Kermadec 6620 8300
Banda 7280 7280
Potamilla sp. KurilKamchatka 8100 8100
Sabellidae sp. sp. KurilKamchatka 7210 7230
Palau 8021 8042
FAMILY: Serpulidae
Serpulidae sp. Aleutian 6410 6757
Izu-Bonin 9715 9735
Kermadec 6620 6620
ORDER: Spionida
FAMILY: Poecilochaetidae
Poecilochaetus vitjazi Tonga 10 415 10 687
FAMILY: Chaetopteridae
Phyllochaetopterus KurilKamchatka 6860 6860
Appendix 297
CLASS: OLIGOCHAETA
ORDER: Haplotaxida
FAMILY: Tubicidae
Bathydrilus hadalis Aleutian 7298 7298
PHYLUM: ECHUIRA
CLASS: ECHIUROIDAE
ORDER: Bonelliida
FAMILY: Bonelliidae
Alomasoma chaetifera Aleutian 7246 7246
Alomasoma nordpacica Aleutians 7246 7246
Volcano 7584 7614
Bruunelia bandae Banda 7250 7290
Hamingia arctica Palau 7970 8035
Ryukyu 7440 7450
Ikedella bogorovi Java 6820 6850
Jakobia birsteini KurilKamchatka 6475 9730
Japan 6600 7370
Kurchatovus tridentatus Puerto-Rico 5890 6000
Cayman 6740 6780
Pseudoiledellia sp. Philippine 9980 9990
Sluiterina abellorhynchus San Cristobal 5650 6070
Sluiterina vitjazi Aleutian 6965 7000
Torbenwolfa galatheae Kermadec 6660 8300
Japan 8560 8720
Aleutian 6965 7000
Vitjazema aleutica Aleutian 7246 7286
Vitjazema planirostris Philippine 9750 9750
Vitjazema ultraabyssalis KurilKamchatka 7210 9530
Izu-Bonin 9715 9735
Yap 7190 7250
Vitjazema sp. sp. Philippine 8080 8400
Philippine 10 150 10 210
Palau 6200 6240
PHYLUM: ECHINODERMATA
CLASS: ECHINOIDEA
ORDER: Echinothuroida
FAMILY: Echinothuroida
Kamptosoma abyssale KurilKamchatka 6090 6235
ORDER: Spatangoida
FAMILY: Holasteridae
Rhodocystis rosea Puerto-Rico 6290 6314
Cayman 5800 6850
FAMILY: Pourtalesiidae
Ceratophysa ceratopyga Aleutian 6272 6328
valvaecristata
298 Appendix
Echinosigra amphora amphora Aleutian 6272 6282

Echinosigra amphora sp.? Java 6433 6850
Echinosigra amphora indica Palau 7000 7170
Pourtalesia heptneri Banda 7130 7340
Pourtalesia sp. (aff. debilis) South Sandwich 6100 6650
Japan 6156 6207
FAMILY: Urechinidae
Pilematecinus belyaevi Cayman 5800 6780
CLASS: OPHIUROIDEA
ORDER: Ophiurae
FAMILY: Ophiacanthidae
Ophiacantha bathybia KurilKamchatka 6090 6235
Ophiocymbium cavernosum Izu-Bonin 6065 6850
Ophiocymbium sp. n. Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
Ophiacanthidae sp.? New Hebrides 6758 6776
FAMILY: Ophiodermatidae
Ophiurochaeta sp. South Sandwich 6052 6150
FAMILY: Ophioleucidae
Bathylepta pacica Bougainville 6920 8006
FAMILY: Ophiuridae
Abyssura brevibranchia Aleutian 6965 7000
Japan 6156 6207
Amphiophuira bullata bullata Puerto-Rico 5890 6035
Amphiophuira bullata pacica KurilKamchatka 6090 6235
Japan 6096 6390
Amphiophuira convexa Ryukyu 6065 6810
Amphiophuira vitjazi Ryukyu 6810 6810
Amphiophuira sp. South Sandwich 6052 6150
Homalophiura madseni KurilKamchatka 6675 7230
Japan 6156 6380
Homalophiura aff. madseni Ryukyu 7440 7450
Palau 7000 7170
Mariana 7340 7450
Homalophiura sp. nov. KurilKamchatka 6475 6571
Ophiocten sp. nov. San Cristobal 5650 6070
Ophiotypa simplex Java 6477 6487
Ophiura bathybia Aleutian 6296 6328
Ophiura indet Kermadec 6620 6620
Ophiura loveni Kermadec 6660 6770
Romanche 6330 7340
Ophiura irrorata irrorata San Cristobal 5650 6070
Ophiura irrorata polyacantha South Sandwich 6052 6150
Ophiurolepis sp. South Sandwich 6052 7216
Perlophiura profundisima Aluetian 7200 7200
Appendix 299

Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Volcano 6330 6330
Ophiuridae sp. sp. Bougainville 7847 8662
CLASS: ASTEROIDEA
ORDER: Brisingida
FAMILY: Freyellidae
Freyella kurilo-kamchatica KurilKamchatka 6205 6860
Japan 6156 6207
Freyella mortenseni Kermadec 6180 6180
Freyella mutabila San Cristobal 5650 6070
Freyellidae sp. sp. New Britain 7875 8260
ORDER: Paxillosida
FAMILY: Porcellansteridae
Albatrossia sp. Aleutian 6296 6328
Eremicaster pacicua Kermadec 6620 6620
Eremicaster crassus Aleutian 6296 6328
Eremicaster vicinus Aleutian 6296 7246
Japan 6700 7340
Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
PeruChile 6006 6328
Kermadec 6620 6730
Java 6433 7000
Lethmaster rhipidophorus Ryukyu 6460 7540
Lethmaster rhipidophorus Philippine 7420 7880
Porcellanaster sp. sp. Aleutian 6296 6328
Styracaster longispinus Aleutian 6296 6328
Styracaster sp. n. Cayman 6466 6600
Porcellanasteridae? New Britain 7057 7078
ORDER: Valvatida
FAMILY: Goniasteridae
Litonaster sp. Palau 8021 8042
FAMILY: Caymanostellidae
Caymanostella spinimarginata Cayman 6740 6780
FAMILY: Pterasteridae
Hymenaster blegvadi Kermadec 6660 6770
Hymenaster sp. KurilKamchatka 6090 8400
Japan 6380 6380
Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Volcano 7584 7657
Yap 8560 8720
Palau 7000 8042
300 Appendix

Romanche 6330 7600
CLASS: HOLOTHUROIDEA
ORDER: Apodida
FAMILY: Myriotrochidae
Lepidotrochus kermadecensis Kermadec 8928 9174
Myriotrochus longissimus Japan 6475 7370
Palau 7000 7170
Myriotrochus mitus Kermadec 8928 9174
Prototrochus angulatus Philippine 7610 9990
Prototrochus bipartitodentatus South Sandwich 7694 8116
Prototrochus bruuni Philippine 9360 10 210
Palau 7970 8035
Izu-Bonin 8900 9180
Tonga 8950 10 687
Kermadec 8928 10 015
Java 6487 7060
Prototrochus kurilensis KurilKamchatka 7795 8430
Prototrochus wolf Mariana 8215 8225
Volcano 8530 8540
Yap 8560 8720
Prototrochus zenkevitchi KurilKamchatka 8175 9530
zenkevitchi
Japan 7500 7500
Izu-Bonin 8800 9735
Prototrochus zenkevitchi atlanticus Romanche 7430 7600
Prototrochus zenkevitchi exiguus KurilKamchatka 8060 8135
Prototrochus aff. longissimus South Sandwich 6052 6150
Prototrochus sp. n. Mariana 10 630 10 730
Siniotrochus spiculifer KurilKamchatka 8330 8430
ORDER: Aspidochirotida
FAMILY: Synalactidae
Mesothuria murrayi Banda 6490 6650
Paroriza grevei Banda 6490 7290
Pseudostichopus villosus Kermadec 6660 7000
Molpadiodemas (P) villosus Kermadec 6660 7000
Pseudostichopus sp. KurilKamchatka 8100 8100
ORDER: Elasipoda
FAMILY: Elpidiidae
Amperima naresi Java 6820 7160
Palau 6200 6240
Appendix 301
Amperima velacula South Sandwich 6052 6150

Ellipinion galatheae Philippine 9820 10 000
Elpidia atakama PeruChile 7720 8074
Elpidia birsteini KurilKamchatka 8060 9345
Kermadec 8185 8400
Izu-Bonin 8530 8540
Elpidia decapoda San Cristobal 5650 6070
Elpidia hanseni hanseni KurilKamchatka 8610 9530
Elpidia hanseni idsuboninensis Izu-Bonin 8800 9735
Elpidia hanseni javanica Java 6820 6850
Elpidia glacialis kermadecensis Kermadec 6620 8300
Elpidia kurilensis KurilKamchatka 6675 8100
Japan 6156 7587
Aluetian 6410 6757
Elpidia lata South Sandwich 8004 8116
Elpidia longicirrata KurilKamchatka 8035 8345
Elpidia ninae South Sandwich 6766 7634
Elpidia solomonensis Bougainville 7847 9043
Elpidia sundensis Java 6433 7160
Elpidia uschakovi New Hebrides 6680 6830
Elpidia sp. 3 Romanche 7340 7340
Elpidia aff. minutissima Yap 8560 8720
Palau 7970 8042
Kolga hyalina KurilKamchatka 6205 6215
Peniagona azorica New Hebrides 7057 7921
Kermadec 2640 8300
Romanche 7100 7300
Peniagona gracilis Aluetian 6965 7250
Izu-Bonin 6770 7315
Peniagona herouardi Puerto-Rico 7950 8100
Peniagona incerta KurilKamchatka 6090 7230
Japan 6156 6207
Peniagona purpurea Palau 8021 8042
Peniagona vedali Kermadec 6140 8300
Peniagona sp. sp. KurilKamchatka 6090 8400
Japan 7565 7587
Izu-Bonin 7305 7315
Mariana 6580 6650
PeruChile 6002 6030
Romanche 6330 7600
Scotoplanes globosa Kermadec 2470 6770
Scotoplanes hanseni KurilKamchatka 6090 6860
302 Appendix
Japan 6480 6640

Elpidiidae sp. sp. Philippine 8440 9990
FAMILY: Laetmogonidae
Apodogaster sp. Kermadec 4410 6730
FAMILY: Psychropotidae
Benthodytes sanguinolenta Banda 6490 7290
Psychropotes verrucosa Kermadec 3710 6730
Banda 6490 7290
Psychropotes sp. sp. PeruChile 6260 6260
Psychropotidae gen. et. sp. n. KurilKamchatka 9170 9335
FAMILY: Palagothuriidae
Palgothuria natatrix New Hebrides 6758 6776
ORDER: Molpadonia
FAMILY: Gephyrothuriidae
Hadalothuria wolf New Britain 7057 7071
Hadalothuria sp. KurilKamchatka 9070 9530
FAMILY: Molpadiidae
Ceraplectana trachyderma Banda 6490 6650
PHYLUM: MOLLUSCA
CLASS: SCAPHOPODA
ORDER: Galilida
FAMILY: Entalinidae
Costentalina caymanica Cayman 5900 6780
Costentalina tuscarorae tuscarorae Japan 6480 6640
Entalinidae sp. KurilKamchatka 6090 6675
FAMILY: Unknown
Siphonodentalium galatheae Java 6900 7000
FAMILY: Pulsellidae
Unknown Japan 6480 6640
Java 6820 6850
Romanche 6330 6330
CLASS: GASTROPODA
ORDER: Docoglossa
FAMILY: Bathypeltidae
Bathypelta pacica Japan 8560 8720
FAMILY: Bathysciadiidae
Bonus petrochenkoi KurilKamchatka 8240 9530
Tonga 8950 9020
FAMILY: Propolidiidae
Propilidium reticulatum KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Appendix 303
FAMILY: Fissurellidae
Fissurellidae sp. Philippine 6290 6300
ORDER: Alata
FAMILY: Sequenziidae
Seguenzia sp. Japan 7190 7250
PeruChile 7000 7170
Ryukyu 7440 7450
ORDER: Anisobranchia
FAMILY: Skeneidae
Skeneidae sp. Philippine 6290 6330
FAMILY: Trochidae
Guttula galathea Kermadec 6660 6770
Trenchia wolf Kermadec 6620 6730
Trenchia sp. Ryukyu 7440 7450
Trochidae sp. sp. PeruChile 7970 8035
Ryukyu 7335 7340
ORDER: Aspidophora
FAMILY: Naticidae
Naticidae Romanche 6330 6430
ORDER: Hamiglossa
FAMILY: Buccinidae
Calliloncha iturupi KurilKamchatka 8240 8345
Calliloncha solida Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
Paracalliloncha ultra-abyssal KurilKamchatka 8035 8120
Tacita arnoldi KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Tacita holoserica KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Japan 6480 6640
Tacita zenkevitchi PeruChile 5329 6173
Tacita sp. n. KurilKamchatka 7210 7230
Tacita sp. sp. KurilKamchatka 9000 9050
Japan 7370 7370
Buccinidae sp. sp. KurilKamchatka 6090 8015
Japan 6156 6640
Buccinidae sp.? San Cristobal 5650 6070
FAMILY: Cancellaridae
Admete bruuni Kermadec 6660 6770
Cancellariidae sp. PeruChile 7000 7170
Banda 7335 7340
ORDER: Heterosropha
FAMILY: Aclididae
Aclis kermadecensis Kermadec 8210 8300
FAMILY: Piramidellidae
Piramidellidae sp. sp. Japan 7230 7280
PeruChile 7000 7170
ORDER: Homoeostropha
FAMILY: Eulimidae
Melanella hadalis Kermadec 6660 6770
ORDER: Planilabiata
FAMILY: Bathyphytophilidae
Bathyphytophilus caribaeus Cayman 5800 6780
304 Appendix
Aenigmabonus kurilo-kamtschaticus KurilKamchatka 6090 8120

FAMILY: Cocculinidae
Bandabyssia sp. Bougainville 6920 7657
Caymanabyssia spina Cayman 6740 7247
Cocculina sp. Puerto-Rico 7540 7960
Fedikovella caymanensis Cayman 6740 7247
Fedikovella sp. n. 1 Puerto-Rico 7950 8100
Fedikovella sp. n. 2 Puerto-Rico 8330 8330
Pseudococculina sp. n. 1 Cayman 6740 6800
Pseudococculina sp. n. 2 KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Pseudococculina sp. n. 3 Philippine 8080 8400
Pseudococculina sp. n. 4 Java 6820 6850
Macleaniella moskalevi Puerto-Rico 5179 8595
Amphiplica plutonica Cayman 6466 7247
ORDER: Toxoglassa
FAMILY: Turridae
Abyssocomitas kuirlo-kamchatika KurilKamchatka 6090 6117
Kurilohadalia brevis KurilKamchatka 7210 8015
Japan 6156 6207
Kurilohadalia sysoev KurilKamchatka 7210 8430
Oenopotella ultrabyssalis KurilKamchatka 6090 7230
Japan 6156 6207
Oenopotella aleutica Aleutian 6965 7000
Pleurotomella cancellata Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
Tuskaroria ultrabyssalis KurilKamchatka 7210 7230
Vityazinella multicostata KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Xanthodaphne bougainvillensis Bougainville 6920 7657
Xanthodaphne laevis Bougainville 7947 8006
Xanthodaphne palauensis Palau 7000 7170
Xanthodaphne tenuistriata Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
Gastropoda prosobranchia Volcano 6330 6330
Mariana 10 220 10 730
Tonga 10 415 10 687
Kermadec 9995 10 015
Romanche 6330 7600
ORDER: Tectibranchia
FAMILY: Phylinidae
Phyline sp. 3 Japan 7565 7587
Phyline sp. 5 Aleutian 6410 6757
Phyline sp. 6 Yap 6820 6850
Phyline sp. 7 Yap 6820 6850
FAMILY: Retusidae
Volvula sp. 2 Bougainville 7974 8006
FAMILY: Scaphandridae
Cylichna sp. 4 Izu-Bonin 7305 7315
Tectibranchia sp. sp. Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
Appendix 305
Yap 7230 7280

Palau 7000 8035
CLASS: POLYPLACOPHORA
ORDER: Cyclopoida
FAMILY: Chitonophilidae
Leptochiton vitjazae Bougainville 6920 7657
Palau 7000 7100
Leptochiton sp. New Hebrides 6680 6830
Ferreiraella caribbea Cayman 6740 6780
CLASS: MONOPLACOPHORA
ORDER: Tryblidiida
FAMILY: Neopilinidae
Rokopella oligotropha NW Pacic Trough 6065 6079
Vema bacescui PeruChile 5986 6134
Vema ewingi PeruChile 5817 6002
Neopilina sp. PeruChile 1647 6354
CLASS: BIVALVIA
ORDER: Nuculida
FAMILY: Ledellidae
Bathyspinula (bathyspinula) bogorovi Ryukyu 6810 6810
Japan 7350 7370
Bathyspinula (bathyspinula) knudseni KurilKamchatka 6860 6860
Bathyspinula (bathyspinula) latirostris Japan 7350 7370
Bathyspinula (bathyspinula) oceanica Aleutian 6296 6328
Japan 6165 6207
Izu-Bonin 7500 7500
PeruChile 6324 6328
Bathyspinula (bathyspinula) thorsoni Romanche 6330 6430
Bathyspinula (bathyspinula) vityazi Aleutian 6965 7250
Japan 6660 7587
Ledella (Ledella) crassa Cayman 5800 6500
Ledella (Mageleda) inopinata San Cristobal 5650 6070
Ledellina convexirostra Japan 6600 6670
Ledellina olivecea PeruChile 7720 7720
Spinula sp. sp. Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Mariana 7340 7450
Yap 7190 7250
Palau 7000 7170
Ryukyu 6660 6670
Romanche 6330 6430
Parayoldiella mediana KurilKamchatka 7600 7710
Japan 7350 7587
Parayoldiella angulata Mariana 8890 8900
306 Appendix

Parayoldiella hadalis Philippine 10 150 10 190
Parayoldiella idsubonini Izu-Bonin 8800 8900
Parayoldiella inata Mariana 7340 7450
Japan 8560 8720
Palau 7970 8035
Parayoldiella knudseni Philippine 9820 10 000
Parayoldiella ultraabyssalis KurilKamchatka 8355 9530
Parayoldiella sp. South Sandwich 8004 8116
Parayoldiella sp. sp. Volcano 6330 8540
Palau 7000 7170
FAMILY: Malletiidae
Malletia cuneata Japan 6156 6207
Malletia sp. n. South Sandwich 7200 7934
Malletia sp. sp. KurilKamchatka 6860 7230
Japan 7565 7587
Palau 7970 8035
Ryukyu 6660 6670
Malletia sp. sp. San Cristobal 5650 6070
FAMILY: Nuculanidae
Neilonella hadalis Kermadec 6660 7000
Nielonella sp. sp. Aleutian 7246 7246
Yoldia kermadecensis Kermadec 8210 8300
Yoldiella sp. sp. South Sandwich 6875 6875
Nuculanidae gen. sp. n. Tonga 10 415 10 687
Kermadec 8928 9174
Java 6820 6850
FAMILY: Tindariidae
Tindaria sp. sp. Aleutian 6296 7286
Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Kermadec 6960 7000
ORDER: Lucinida
FAMILY: Montacutidae
Montacuta sp. sp. Banda 7130 7340
Montacutidae sp. sp. Philippine 6290 8580
FAMILY: Mytilidae
Dacridium sp. South Sandwich 6050 6150
FAMILY: Thyasiridae
Axinopis sp. Japan 6156 6207
Axinulus aff. pygmaeus Java 6820 6850
Axinulus sp. n. 1 Java 6841 7060
Axinulus sp. n. 2 Tonga 10 415 10 687
Axinulus sp. n. 3 Kermadec 8928 10 015
Axinulus sp. sp. Aleutian 6460 7285
Appendix 307

Japan 7350 7587
Volcano 8530 8540
Palau 7000 7170
Maorithyas hadalis Japan 7326 7434
Axinulus sp. sp. Kermadec 9995 10 015
Parethyasira kaireiae Japan 6270 6440
ORDER: Pectinida
FAMILY: Limarlidae
Lima sp. sp. KurilKamchatka 9000 9050
Japan 6156 6207
Izu-Bonin 9715 9735
Volcano 6135 6135
FAMILY: Pectinidae
Cyclopecten (H) hadalis Kermadec 6620 7000
Cyclopecten sp. San Cristobal 5650 6070
Delectopecten randolphi Japan 6156 6207
Java 6820 6850
Delectopecten sp. KurilKamchatka 6860 8100
Propeamussium sp. sp. Aleutian 6410 7246
Pectinidae sp. Romanche 6330 6430
ORDER: Venerida
FAMILY: Pholadidae
Xylophaga grevi Banda 7250 7290
FAMILY: Pholadidae
Xylophaga hadalis Kermadec 6660 6770
FAMILY: Teredinidae
Bankia carinata Banda 7250 7290
Uperotus clavus Banda 7250 7290
FAMILY: Vesicomyidae
Vesicomya bruuni Kermadec 6620 9174
Vesicomya profundi Aleutian 7246 7246
Vesicomya bruuni KurilKamchatka 7210 9050
Vesicomya sergeevi KurilKamchatka 6090 9530
Vesicomya sundensis Java 6820 7000
Vesicomya sp. sp. Japan 6156 7587
Volcano 6330 6330
Mariana 10 700 10 730
Romanche 6330 7600
Calyptogena sp. Japan 6270 6440
Abyssogena phaseoliformis Japan 6270 6440
ORDER: Cuspidariida
FAMILY: Cuspidariidae
Cuspidaria hadalis Banda 6580 7210
Cuspidariidae sp. sp. Japan 7565 7587
Volcano 6330 6330
308 Appendix
Mariana 8215 8225

Yap 7190 7250
Palau 7970 8035
Ryukyu 6660 6670
Romanche 7460 7600
ORDER: Verticordiida
FAMILY: Verticordiidae
Laevicordia sp. South Sandwich 6050 6150
Lyonsiella KurilKamchatka 8175 8840
Polycordia (Angustebranchia) extente KurilKamchatka 8185 8400
Polycordia (A) maculata KurilKamchatka 9000 9050
Polycordia (A) rectangulata KurilKamchatka 8175 9335
Polycordia (A) sp. 1 KurilKamchatka 8610 8660
Polycordia (A) sp. 2 KurilKamchatka 8175 8840
Polycordia (Latebranchia) ovata Palau 6040 6040
Polycordia sp. 1 South Sandwich 7200 7216
Polycordia sp. 2 Philippine 6290 6330
PHYLUM: SIPUNCULA
CLASS: SIPUNCULIDEA
ORDER: Golngiida
FAMILY: Golngiidae
Golngia (Golngia) anderssoni KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Golngia (Golngia) muricaudata KurilKamchatka 6090 6860
Japan 6156 6214
Golngia (Nephasoma) improvisa KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Golngia (Nephasoma) minuta KurilKamchatka 6090 6710
Japan 6380 6380
Golngia (Nephasoma) schuttei KurilKamchatka 6090 6235
Golngia (Nephasoma) sectile South Sandwich 6052 6150
FAMILY: Phascolionidae
Phascolion (montuga) lutense Aleutian 6296 6328
Japan 6156 6207
Java 6820 6850
Aleutian 6296 6328
Japan 6600 6670
ORDER: Unknown
FAMILY: Unknown
Sipuncula sp. Aleutian 6520 7298
Japan 6600 6670
Palau 6040 6229
Appendix 309
PHYLUM: BRYOZOA
CLASS: GYMNOLAEMATA
ORDER: Cheilostomatida
FAMILY: Bugulidae
Bugula Kermadec 8210 8300
Kinetoskias? Java 6487 6487
Izu-Bonin 8800 8830
PeruChile 7000 7000
Romanche 7340 7340
PHYLUM: CHAETOGNATHA
CLASS: SAGITTOIDEA
ORDER: Phragmophora
FAMILY: Eukrohniidae
Eukrohnia fowleri* KurilKamchatka 6000 8700
PHYLUM: ARTHROPODA
CLASS: COPEPODA
ORDER: Calanoida
FAMILY: Aetideidae
Batheuchaeta anomala* KurilKamchatka 960 7040
Batheuchaeta gurjanovae* KurilKamchatka 1200 8100
Batheuchaeta heptneri* KurilKamchatka 3680 7100
Batheuchaeta peculiaris* KurilKamchatka 3250 6540
Batheuchaeta tuberculata* KurilKamchatka 3000 7040
Pseudochaeta spinata* KurilKamchatka 5130 6210
Pseudochaeta sp.* KurilKamchatka 6000 8500
FAMILY: Bathypontiidae
Zenkevitchiella abyssalis* KurilKamchatka 6000 8500
FAMILY: Calanidae
Neocalanus tonsus* Pacic/Antarctica 6000 8500
FAMILY: Euchaetidae
Paraeuchaeta plicata* KurilKamchatka 1440 7390
Paraeuchaeta sp.* KurilKamchatka 6000 8500
FAMILY: Heterorhabdidae
Paraheterorhabdus compactus* All oceans 5850 8500
FAMILY: Lucicutiidae
Lucicutia anomola* Arctic/Atlantic/Pacic 3600 6900
Lucicutia biuncata* KurilKamchatka 1900 3900
Lucicutia cinerea* KurilKamchatka 3470 3860
Lucicutia curvifurcata* KurilKamchatka 1500 8150
Lucicutia ushakovi* KurilKamchatka 1140 8500
Lucicutia sp.* KurilKamchatka 5020 6140
FAMILY: Metridinidae
Metridia okhotensis* Pacic 6000 8500
Metridia similis abyssalis* Pacic 6000 8500
FAMILY: Phaennidae
Xanthocalanus pavlovskii* Pacic 6000 8500
310 Appendix
FAMILY: Spinocalanidae
Mimocalanus distinctocephalus* NW Pacic 6000 8500
Spinocalanus similis profundalis* NW Pacic 6000 8500
FAMILY: Scolecitrichidae
Parascaphocalanus zenkevitchi* NW Pacic 6000 8500
Puchinia obtusa* NW Pacic 6500 8000
Scaphocalanus acutocornis* NW Pacic 4295 6551
Falsilandrumis bogorovi* Atlantic/Indian 6000 8500
Scaphocalanus sp.* Atlantic/Indian 6000 8500
Scolecithrix birsteini major* Atlantic/Indian 6000 8500
Atlantic/Indian 6000 8500
Scolecithrixidae gen. sp.* Atlantic/Indian 6000 8500
CLASS: CIRRIPEDIA
ORDER: Scalpelliformes
FAMILY: Scalpellidae
Annandaleum japonicum KurilKamchatka 6675 6860
Japan 6156 6380
Ryukyu 6810 6810
Meroscalpellum ultraabissicolum Ryukyu 6660 6670
Neoscalpellum eltaninae PeruChile 6040 6040
Planoscalpellum hexagonum PeruChile 6040 6040
Trianguloscalpellum regium KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Weltnerium speculum San Cristobal 5650 6070
Arcoscalpellinae sp. 1 Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
Arcoscalpellinae sp. 2 Philippine 7420 7880
Scalpellum sp. Kermadec 6620 7000
CLASS: OSTRACODA
ORDER: Podocopida
FAMILY: Bairdiidae
Bairdiidae sp. n. Bougainville 6920 7657
Bairdia sp. Palau 7000 7170
FAMILY: Bythocyprididae
Bythocypris sp. Philippine 6290 6330
Retibythere scaberrima Puerto-Rico 7950 8100
Zabythocypris helicina PeruChile 5986 6134
FAMILY: Krithidae
Krithe setosa Java 6487 6487
FAMILY: Trachyleberidae
Actinocyteris sp. Palau 6290 6330
ORDER: Halocyprida
FAMILY: Halocyprididae
Archiconchoecia maculata KurilKamchatka 7280 9500
Archiconchoecia sp. n. Mariana 4400 8000
Bathyconchoecia paulula pacica KurilKamchatka 5400 9500
Juryoecia abyssalis KurilKamchatka 4200 8500
Mariana 4400 8000
Kermadec 6200 8000
Paraconchoecia mamillata KurilKamchatka 4200 8500
Appendix 311
Bathyconchoecia sp. n. sp. Kermadec 5173 5173

Matavargula cf. adinothrix Kermadec 5173 5173
Paraconchoecia vitjazi KurilKamchatka 7280 9500
CLASS: MALACOSTRACA
ORDER: Mysida
FAMILY: Mysidae
Amblyops magna KurilKamchatka 6435 7230
Amblyops sp. n. 1 Yap 7190 8720
Banda 7335 7340
Amblyops sp. n. 2 South Sandwich 7200 7216
Amblyops sp. n. 3 Volcano 6780 6785
Amblyops sp. n. Japan 7190 7190
Amblyops sp. 4 Kermadec 6265 6709
Birsteiniamysis sp. n. South Sandwich 7200 7216
Mysimenzies hadalis Peru 6146 6354
Mysimenzies sp. n. 1 Palau 7970 8035
Mysimenzies sp. n. 2 Ryukyu 7440 7450
Paramblyops sp. n. Aleutian 7246 7246
Yap 7190 8720
Mysidacea sp. sp. Palau 8021 8042
ORDER: Cumacea
FAMILY: Botodriidae
Bathycuma sp. n. Bougainville 6920 7657
Vaunthompsonia aff. cristata KurilKamchatka 6475 6571
FAMILY: Diastylidae
Makrokylindrus hadalis Java 7160 7160
Makrokylindrus hystrix Japan 6380 6450
FAMILY: Lampropidae
Lamprops sp. n. Java 6820 6850
FAMILY: Leuconidae
Leucon sp. nov. Aleutian 7426 7426
FAMILY: Nannastacidae
Cumacea sp. sp. Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Volcano 6330 6330
Marianas 6580 6650
Palau 8021 8042
Peru 6324 6328
ORDER: Tanaidacea
FAMILY: Apseudidae
Apseudes galathea Kermadec 6660 6770
Apseudes zenkevitchi Kermadec 6065 6065
Apseudidae gen. sp. Bougainville 6920 7657
312 Appendix
FAMILY: Gigantapseudidae
Gigantapseudes adactylus Philippine 6920 7880
FAMILY: Neotanaidae
Herpotanais kirkegaardi Kermadec 6960 7000
Neotanais americanus Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
Neotanais armiger Peru 5986 6134
Neotanais hadalis Kermadec 6960 8300
Neotanais insignis Mariana 8215 8225
Neotanais kurchatovi South Sandwich 7200 7934
Neotanais serratispinosus Kermadec 6960 8300
Aleutian 6520 6520
Neotanais tuberculatus KurilKamchatka 7265 7295
Neotanais sp. A Japan 6380 7460
Neotanais sp. B Japan 6380 6380
Neotanais sp. New Hebrides 6680 6830
Neotanais? New Britain 7875 7921
FAMILY: Paratanaidae
Heterotanoides ornatus Japan 7370 7370
FAMILY: Pseudotanaidae
Cryptocopoides arctica Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
Pseudotanais afnis Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Pseudotanais nordenskioldi Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Banda 7335 7430
Pseudotanais vitjazi Japan 7370 7370
Pseudotanais sp. KurilKamchatka 6675 6710
FAMILY: Taniadae
Protanais sp. KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
FAMILY: Agathotanaidae
Paragathonais typicus Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
FAMILY: Anarthotanaidae
Anarthruropsis langi KurilKamchatka 7795 8015
FAMILY: Leptognathiidae
Colletea cylindrata KurilKamchatka 6090 6710
Colletea minima Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Leptognathia angustocephala Romanche 6330 7500
Leptognathia armata Aleutian 6520 6520
Leptognathia birsteini Bougainville 6920 7657
Leptognathia brevimeris KurilKamchatka 7265 7295
Leptognathia caudata Bougainville 7974 8006
Leptognathia dentifera KurilKamchatka 6225 6225
Leptognathia dissimilis Puerto-Rico 5890 6000
Leptognathia elegans Bougainville 7974 8006
Leptognathia gracilis KurilKamchatka 6675 6710
Japan 7370 7370
Appendix 313

Leptognathia greveae KurilKamchatka 8185 8400
Leptognathia langi KurilKamchatka 6675 6710
Leptognathia longiremis Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Aleutian 6520 6520
Java 6433 6475
Kermadec 8928 9174
Leptognathia microcephela Volcano 6330 6330
Leptognathia parabranchiata Palau 7000 7170
Leptognathia paraforcifera South Sandwich 6052 6150
Leptognathia robusta Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
Leptognathia sp. KurilKamchatka 8700 8700
Libanus longicephalus Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Tryphlotanais compactus KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Tryphlotanais elegans Volcano 6330 6330
Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
Tryphlotanais grandis KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Tryphlotanais kussakini KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Tryphlotanais mucronatus KurilKamchatka 6675 6710
Tryphlotanais rectus Volcano 6330 6330
Japan 7370 7370
Tanadacea sp. sp. New Hebrides 6758 6776
ORDER: Isopoda
FAMILY: Laptanthuridae
Laptanthura hendii Banda 6580 6580
FAMILY: Desmosomatidae
Desmosoma similpes PeruChile 5986 6134
Desmosoma tenuipes KurilKamchatka 6675 6710
FAMILY: Echinothambematidae
Echinothambema sp. n. Cayman 5800 6850
FAMILY: Munnopsidae
Bathyopsurus nybelini Puerto-Rico 7265 7900
Betamorpha acuticoxalis KurilKamchatka 7210 8400
Japan 6156 7587
Eurycope complanata Puerto-Rico 6800 7030
Eurycope curtirostris KurilKamchatka 7210 7230
Japan 7370 7370
Eurycope eltanje PeruChile 5986 6134
Eurycope galatheae Kermadec 6960 7000
Eurycope kurchatovi Puerto-Rico 6800 7030
Eurycope madseni Kermadec 6960 7000
Eurycope magna Aleutian 7246 7246
Eurycope ovata Japan 7370 7370
Eurycope quadratifrons Romanche 7200 7200
Eurycope sp. 1 Java 6820 6850
Eurycope sp. 2 Kermadec 8928 9174
Eurycope sp. A Puerto-Rico 8330 8330
314 Appendix
Eurycope sp. 3 Izu-Bonin 6770 6890

Munneurycope curticephala KurilKamchatka 6675 7230
Munneurycope menziesi Kermadec 6960 7000
Storthyngurella (Storthyngura) benti Kermadec 6620 7000
Vanhoeffenura (S) bicornins Japan 6156 6207
Vanhoeffenura (S) chelta KurilKamchatka 6090 6860
Rectisura (S) furcata Kermadec 6620 6770
Rectisura (S) herculea Aleutian 7246 7246
Japan 6700 7703
Storthyngura pulchra kermadecensis? Kermadec 6620 6730
Rectisura (S) tenuispinis KurilKamchatka 6205 8430
Aleutian 7246 7246
Japan 6700 7370
Storthyngurella (S) zenkevitchi Romanche 7200 7200
Storthyngurella (S) sp. n. 1 Java 6820 6850
Storthyngurella (S) sp. n. 2 Puerto-Rico 6400 7030
Storthyngurella (S) sp. sp. Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
Volcano 6330 6330
Syneurycope sp. Kermadec 8928 9174
Ilyarachna defecta PeruChile 6073 6281
Ilyarachna kermadecensis Kermadec 6600 7000
Ilyarachna kussakini KurilKamchatka 6090 7230
Japan 6156 7370
Ilyarachna vemae PeruChile 6052 6328
Ilyarachna sp. 1 KurilKamchatka 8330 8430
Ilyarachna sp. 2 Kermadec 8928 9174
Ilyarachna sp. 3 Tonga 10 415 10 687
Ilyarachna sp. 4 PeruChile 6324 6348
FAMILY: Haploniscidae
Haploniscus belyaevi KurilKamchatka 6090 6225
Haploniscus bruuni PeruChile 5986 6260
Haploniscus gibbernastus KurilKamchatka 6435 6710
Haploniscus hydroniscoides KurilKamchatka 6675 8120
Japan 7370 7370
Haploniscus inermis KurilKamchatka 8035 8345
Haploniscus intermedius KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Haploniscus menziesi KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Haploniscus profundicola KurilKamchatka 6090 7710
Japan 7370 7370
Haploniscus pygmeus Romanche 7280 7280
Haploniscus ultraabyssalis Bougainville 6920 8006
Haploniscus cf. unicornis Puerto-Rico 8330 8330
Haploniscus sp. n. 1 Java 6935 7060
Haploniscus sp. n. 2 Tonga 10 415 10 687
Haploniscus sp. n. 3 Kermadec 8928 9174
Haploniscus sp. n. 4 Puerto-Rico 7430 7430
Haploniscus sp. sp. Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
Phillipine 8440 8580
Haploniscus sp. Japan 7190 7250
Appendix 315
Mastigoniscus concavus PeruChile 6073 6281

Mastigoniscus latus KurilKamchatka 6435 8400
FAMILY: Ischnomedidae
Haplomesus bervispinus KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Haplomesus concinnus KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Haplomesus consanguineus Izu-Bonin 8800 8830
Haplomesus cornutus KurilKamchatka 6475 6571
Haplomesus gigas KurilKamchatka 6475 6571
Japan 6675 8430
Haplomesus profundicola KurilKamchatka 7265 7295
Haplomesus robustus KurilKamchatka 6675 6710
Haplomesus thomsoni KurilKamchatka 6435 6710
Haplomesus sp. sp. Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
Volcano 6330 6330
Haplomesus sp. n. A Puerto-Rico 7430 8330
Haplomesus sp. n. B Puerto-Rico 7938 7938
Ischnomesus andriashevi Japan 6156 6207
Ischnomesus bruuni Kermadec 6960 7000
Ischnomesus elongatus Bougainville 7974 8006
Ischnomesus sparcki Kermadec 6660 7000
Ischnomesus sp. B Cayman 6840 6850
Ischnomesus sp. n. Puerto-Rico 8330 8330
Stylomesus hexatuberculatus KurilKamchatka 6050 6135
Stylomesus inermis Aleutian 6079 6079
Stylomesus menziesi KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Stylomesus sp. n. KurilKamchatka 6675 6710
FAMILY: Janirellidae
Janirella erostrata Bougainville 7974 8006
Janirella fusiformis Japan 6156 6207
Janirella macrura KurilKamchatka 6435 7230
Janirella quadritubercuata KurilKamchatka 6150 6150
Janirella sedecimtuberculata Japan 6350 6450
Janirella spinosa KurilKamchatka 6435 8430
Japan 7370 7370
Janirella tuberculata Japan 6380 6450
Janirella verrucosa KurilKamchatka 6205 6850
Janirella sp. Izu-Bonin 6770 6850
FAMILY: Acanthaspidiidae
Acanthaspidia curtispinosa South Sandwich 6766 7216
Acanthaspidia iolanthoidea San Cristobal 5650 6070
Acanthaspidia cf. decorata Puerto-Rico 6400 7030
FAMILY: Macrostylidae
Macrostylis compactus Bougainville 6920 7657
Macrostylis curticornis KurilKamchatka 6225 6225
Japan 6600 6670
Macrostylis galatheae Palau 9820 10 000
Macrostylis grandis KurilKamchatka 7265 7295
Macrostylis hadalis Banda 7270 7270
Macrostylis longifera PeruChile 5986 6354
Macrostylis ovata KurilKamchatka 6435 6710
316 Appendix
Macrostylis profundissimus KurilKamchatka 8240 9530

Macrostylis porrecta Java 6433 6433
Macrostylis vitjazi Bougainville 6920 7657
Macrostylis zenkevitchi KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Macrostylis sp. n. Puerto-Rico 7950 8100
Macrostylis sp. 1 Mariana 10 630 10 710
Macrostylis sp. 2 Tonga 10 415 10 687
Macrostylis sp. 3 Izu-Bonin 6770 8900
Volcano 6330 8540
Mariana 8890 10 730
Palau 6290 9750
FAMILY: Mesosignidae
Mesosignum latum KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Mesosignum multidens PeruChile 5986 6450
Mesosignum vitjazi Bougainville 6920 7657
Mesosignum sp. PeruChile 6002 6002
Mesosignum sp. sp. Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Volcano 6330 6330
FAMILY: Munnidae
Aryballurops japonica Japan 6380 6450
Munna sp. Japan 6380 6380
Zoromunna setifrons PeruChile 5986 6134
FAMILY: Nannoniscidae
Janthura (Austroniscoidea) bougainvillei Bougainville 6920 9043
Austroniscus acutus KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Austroniscus sp. n. Cayman 6800 6850
Nannoniscus ovatus PeruChile 6321 6328
Nannoniscus perunis PeruChile 5986 6134
Nannoniscus sp. PeruChile 6073 6281
Nannoniscidae gen. n. sp. n. A Cayman 6800 6800
Nannoniscidae gen. n. sp. n. B Puerto-Rico 8330 8330
FAMILY: Cirolanidae
Corolana sp. PeruChile 5986 6134
FAMILY: Antartcturidae
Chaetarcturus (Antarcturus) abyssalis KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Chaetarcturus (Antarcturus) ultraabyssalis KurilKamchatka 6435 7320
Japan 7190 7190
Antarcturus zenkevitchi KurilKamchatka 7370 7370
FAMILY: Arcturidae
Arcturus primus Japan 7370 7370
Arcturus sp. South Sandwich 7200 7216
ORDER: AMPHIPODA
FAMILY: Stilipedidae
Alexandrella carinata KurilKamchatka 7210 7230
FAMILY: Stegocephalidae
Andaniexis australis Peru 6324 6328
Andaniexis sp.* Izu-Bonin 6770 6890
Andaniexis stylifer* Bougainville 6500 8500
Appendix 317
FAMILY: Andaniexinae
Andaniexis subabyssi* KurilKamchatka 6000 8500
FAMILY: Maeridae
Bathyceradocus stephenseni Bougainville 6920 7652
Banda 7250 7340
Metaceradocoides vitjazi Yap 7190 7250
Japan 6600 7370
Mariana 8215 8225
Izu-Bonin 8900 8900
FAMILY: Lysianassidae
Bathyschraderia fragilis Philippine 7000 9990
Bathyschraderia magnica Kermadec 6960 9174
Tonga 7354 9875
Onesimoides cavimanus Banda 6490 6650
Orchomene abyssorum Kermadec 8210 8230
Orchomene sp. Mariana 10 500 10 500
Galathella galatheae Kermadec 6960 7000
Unknown (Uristes) gen. n. sp. n. Tonga 7349 9273
Kermadec 9104 9104
FAMILY: Tryphosidae
Tryphosella bruuni Kermadec 6660 6770
Tryphosella sp. 2 Kermadec 6007 6007
PeruChile 7050 7050
FAMILY: Epimeriidae
Epimeria sp. nov. Japan 6156 6207
FAMILY: Eurytheneidae
Eurythenes gryllus** PeruChile 4329 8072
Izu-Bonin 6770 7850
Tonga 5155 6252
Kermadec 4329 6252
FAMILY: Eusiridae
Eusirella longisetosa Bougainville 8500 8500
Eusirus bathybius Bougainville 7500 7500
Eusirus fragilis* Tonga 9120 9120
Rhachotropis emmingi KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Java 6820 7160
Rhachotropis sp. n. Philippine 7420 7880
Rhachotropsis sp.? Kermadec 6960 7000
FAMILY: Pardaliscidae
Halice aculeata* Izu-Bonin 4000 6500
Tonga 7100 10 500
Halice quarta* KurilKamchatka 6000 8500
Izu-Bonin 8480 9000
Tonga 9120 9120
Mariana 10 000 10 000
318 Appendix
Halice rotunda* Bougainville 4050 8400

Tonga 9120 9120
Halice subquarta* Yap 7190 7250
Kermadec 9400 9400
Tonga 10 500 10 500
Pardaliscoides longicaudatus Kermadec 6180 6180
Princaxelia abysallis Kermadec 6620 8300
Aleutian 6965 7000
Yap 7190 8720
Japan 6380 7370
Izu-Bonin 6770 8830
Princaxelia magna Japan 7190 7250
Tonga 7354 8411
Princaxelia jamiesoni Izu-Bonin 9316 9316
Japan 7703 7703
FAMILY: Phoxocephalidae
Harpinia abyssalis Peru 6324 6328
Harpiniopsis spaercki Banda 6580 7340
Metaphoxus sp. Japan 7550 7550
FAMILY: Hirondelleidae
Hirondellea dubia Kermadec 6000 9400
Hirondellea gigas Izu-Bonin 6770 8900
Palau 7970 8035
Volcano 8530 8540
Yap 8560 8720
Mariana 7218 10 592
Hirondellea sp. 1 PeruChile 6173 6173
FAMILY: Hyperiopsidae
Hyperiopsis anomala* Tonga 6900 6900
Hyperiopsis laticarpa* KurilKamchatka 6000 8500
Izu-Bonin 8480 8480
Parargissa afnis* Izu-Bonin 6500 6500
Parargissa arquata* KurilKamchatka 4200 8500
Protohyperiopsis curticornis* New Hebrides 7000 7000
Protohyperiopsis longipes* Bougainville 8500 8500
FAMILY: Lanceolidae
Lanceola clausi gracilis* KurilKamchatka 4200 8000
Appendix 319
Lanceola sphaerica* KurilKamchatka 7800 7800

Metalanceola chevreuxi* Bougainville 6500 8500
Kermadec 9400 9400
Tonga 9100 10 500
FAMILY: Lepechinellidae
Lepechinella aberrantis Volcano 6330 6330
FAMILY: Atylidae
Lepechinella ultraabyssalis KurilKamchatka 6475 8015
Japan 7370 7370
Lepechinella vitrea Yap 7190 7250
Lepechinella woli Kermadec 6660 6770
FAMILY: Liljeborgiidae
Liljeborgia caeca Japan 6156 6207
FAMILY: Alicellidae
Paralicella microps Japan 6580 6580
Izu-Bonin 8480 8480
Paralicella tenuipes** Kermadec 4786 7000
PeruChile 6173 7050
Tonga 7300 7300
Paralicella caperesca Kermadec 4329 6007
PeruChile 4602 6173
Alicella gigantea Kermadec 6200 7000
FAMILY: Cyclocaridae
Cyclocaris tahitensis Kermadec 6007 6007
FAMILY: Scinidae
Scina cheleta* KurilKamchatka 7750 7750
Scina wagleri abyssalis* KurilKamchatka 6000 8500
Izu-Bonin 8500 8500
Kermadec 9400 9400
FAMILY: Scopelocheiridae
Scopelocheirus hopei (pacica)* Kermadec 6960 7000
Scopelocheirus schellenbergi KurilKamchatka 6000 7000
Japan 6380 7370
Java 6935 7060
Aleutian 6965 7200
Tonga 6252 8723
FAMILY: Stegocephalidae
Stegocephalus nipoma Philippine 6290 6330
Stegocephalus sp. nov. KurilKamchatka 7600 7710
Stegocephalus sp. nov. 1 Japan 6380 6380
Steleuthera maremboca Peru 6324 6380
FAMILY: Uristidae
Abyssorchomene gerulicorbis Kermadec 5173 6007
Abyssorchomene chevreuxi PeruChile 6173 6173
FAMILY: Velettiopsidae
Valettietta anacantha Kermadec 6007 6007
320 Appendix
FAMILY: Vitjazianidae
Vitjaziana gurjanovae* Izu-Bonin 4200 8480
CLASS: PYCNOGONIDA
ORDER: Pantopoda
FAMILY: Ascorhynchidae
Acorhynchus birsteini Palau 6040 6040
Acorhynchus inatum San Cristobal 5565 6070
FAMILY: Austrodecidae
Colossendels sp. Aleutian 6410 6757
Pantopipetta longituberculata KurilKamchatka 6090 6710
FAMILY: Nymphonidae
Heteronymphon profundum KurilKamchatka 6860 6860
Japan 6156 6380
Nymphon femorale Banda 6490 6650
Nymphon longitarse Japan 7270 7370
Nymphon procerum KurilKamchatka 6090 6135
Nymphon tripectinatum Japan 7370 7370
PHYLUM: HEMICHORDATA
CLASS: ENTEROPNEUSTA
ORDER: Enteropneusta
FAMILY: Torquaratiodae?
Enteropneausta sp. KurilKamchatka 5615 8100
Aleutian 6520 7250
PHYLUM: CHORDATA
CLASS: ASCIDIACEA
ORDER: Phlebobranchia
FAMILY: Corellidae
Corellidae sp.? New Britain 7057 7075
FAMILY: Octanemidae
Octacnemus sp. KurilKamchatka 8185 8400
Situla pelliculosa KurilKamchatka 7265 8430
ORDER: Stolidobranchia
FAMILY: Hexacrobylidae
Asajirus (hexacrobylus) sp. Philippine 7420 7880
Asajirus (hexacrobylus?) gen. et. sp. n. Volcano 6330 6330
FAMILY: Pyuridae
Culeolus murrayi Japan 6156 6207
Culeolus robustus KurilKamchatka 7265 7295
Culeolus tenuis Japan 6156 6207
Culeolus sp. sp. KurilKamchatka 7210 8015
Japan 6380 6380
FAMILY: Styelidae
Cnemidocarpa bythia Kermadec 6180 7000
Appendix 321
CLASS: ACTINOPTERYGII
ORDER: Gadiformes
FAMILY: Macrouridae
Coryphaenoides yaquinae Japan 6160 6945
ORDER: Ophidiiformes
FAMILY: Ophidiidae
Leucicorus atlanticus Cayman 4580 6800
Unidentied ophidid PeruChile 5329 6173
Abyssobrotula galatheae Puerto-Rico 8370 8370
Japan 6480 6640
Holcomycteronus profundissimus Java 5600 7160
Apagesoma edentatum Puerto-Rico 5082 8082
FAMILY: Carapidae
Echiodon neotes Kermadec 8200 8300
ORDER: Scorpaeniformes
FAMILY: Liparidae
Notoliparis antonbruuni PeruChile 6150 6150
Notoliparis kermadecensis** Kermadec 6474 7561
Notoliparis sp.** PeruChile 7050 7050
Pseudoliparis ambylstomopsis KurilKamchatka 7210 7230
Japan 6945 7703
Pseudoliparis belyaevi Japan 7565 7587
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Index
Abraham Ortelius, 5 Lysianassoidae, 188

Abyssal plains, xi, 1, 19, 23, 3438, 52, 60, 76, 78, Mass occurrences, 202
8990, 96, 109110, 112, 121122, 137, 172, Orchomenella, 198, 251
192195, 197, 213, 220221, 224225, 234, Pardaliscidae, 87, 189190, 199200, 202
239, 242243, 245, 247, 249, 255, 271, 282 Population genetics, 243
Abyssalhadal transition zone, 264, 322 Princaxelia, 17, 87, 189, 199201, 250
Abyssobrotula galatheae, 221, 225226 Reproduction, 207
Abyssorchemene, 101102 Scopelocheiridae, 189190, 198
Acariformes, 169170, 215, 258, 263 Scopelocheirus, 64, 198199, 205, 208, 251
Halacaridae, 215 Species list, 315
Accretion, 8, 35, 3840 Stephonyx, 86
Acorn worms. See Enteropneusta Supergiant, 59, 61, 169170, 195197, 268,
Actinopterygii 276277
Species list, 320 Uristidae, 189190, 198
Adaptation to hydrostatic pressure, 98, 103 Anatolii Evseevich Kriss, 92
Homeoviscous adaptation, 104 Andes, 33
Adiabatic temperature gradient, 81 Andrew Lawson, 1
Age of the trenches, 3334 Annelida, 140, 258, 322
Aleutian Trench, 12, 2325, 3233, 55, 62, 7778, Species list, 291
85, 111, 121, 135, 139, 144, 146, 156, 158159, Anoxic events, 241242
162, 176, 199, 224, 247248 Antarctica, 32, 75, 77, 111, 128, 198, 220, 248, 280,
Alfred Wegener, 6 282
Amirante Trench, 31 Anthozoa, 125, 217220, 258, 263
Amphipoda, 1415, 17, 5761, 64, 87, 93, Octocorallia, 218
100103, 105, 108, 117, 120, 122123, 127, Species list, 290
131, 169170, 175, 188, 191, 193195, Antiquity, 241
197198, 200201, 204, 206208, 210, 213, Apollo 13, 268
215, 243244, 250253, 257, 268, 276 Archaea, 16, 93, 280
277, 322 Arctic, 4, 245246, 282
Abyssorchomene, 198, 250252 Area and depth relationships, 258
Adaptations, 203 Area of the trenches, 23, 3435
Alicella, 59, 61, 169170, 195196, 268 Aristotle, 4
Alicellidae, 189190, 194, 197198 Arrow worms. See Chaetognatha
Community structure, 249 Arthropoda
Diversity, 188189, 250251 Species list, 309
Eurytheneidae, 189190 Ascidiacea
Hirondellea, 58, 64, 102, 120, 123, 127, 131, Species list, 320
193194, 202, 204208, 243, 250251, 253 Ascidiae, 167
Hirondellidae, 189 Asteroidea, 11, 125, 156157, 159160, 258, 263
Hyperiopsidae, 189190, 202 Caymanostellidae, 157, 159
Lanceolidae, 189190, 202 Diversity, 159
Life history, 207, 209 Freyellidae, 157, 159
Locomotion, 199 Goniastidae, 159
Lysianassidae, 188, 190, 198199 Porcellansteridae, 157, 159
363
364 Index
Asteroidea (cont.) Bioprospecting, 281

Pterasteridae, 157, 159 Bioregional classication, 19
Species list, 298 Biotechnology, xi, 240, 278, 281
Astrobiology, 279 Biozones, 20, 22
Atacama Trench, .28, 33, 41 See PeruChile Trench Bivalvia, xii, 101, 103, 108, 121, 125, 141, 148,
Atlantic Deep Water (NEADW), 76 150151, 153154, 161, 214, 248249, 258,
Atlantic Ocean, 11, 1415, 26, 69, 75, 84, 159, 165, 263
177, 195, 221, 225, 235 Diversity, 153
Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUV), 16, 64, Ledellidae, 150, 153
67 Mass occurrences, 154
Pholadidae, 150, 154
Bacteria, xiii, 15, 56, 9294, 100, 102, 105, 110, Species list, 305
115, 120, 125, 127131, 154, 206, 259, 268, Teredinidae, 150, 154
272, 282 Thyarsiridae, 154
Actinobacteria, 131 Vesicomyidae, 150, 154
Alphaproteobacteria, 131 Black Sea, 269
Alteromonadales, 132 Bottom currents, 7780, 121
Bacteroidetes, 132 Bougainville Trench, 12, 25, 32, 54, 88, 138,
Betaproteobacteria, 132 155156, 158160, 162, 165, 171, 173, 176,
Burkholderiales, 132 199, 217218, 247248
Caulobacterales, 131 Brachiopoda, 167
Chromatiales, 132 Bristle worms. See Polychaeta
Colwellia, 127128 British National Committee on Ocean Bottom
Deltaproteobacteria, 132 Features, 31
Escherichia, 102 Brittle stars. See Ophiuroidea
Gammaproteobacteria, 127128, 130, 132 Brownson Deep, 29
Legionellales, 132 Bryozoa, 125, 167, 258
Moritella, 105, 127129 Species list, 309
Oceanospirillales, 132
Planctomycetes, 132 Carbonate compensation depth (CCD), 66, 73, 89,
Psychrobacter, 129 9798, 136, 153
Psychromonas, 105, 127128 CAREX project, 279280
Rhizobiales, 131 Caroline Islands, 4
Rhodobacterales, 131 Carrion-falls, 116117, 122, 265
Rhodospirillales, 131 Distribution, 116
Rickettsiales, 131 Jelly-falls, 119
Shewanella, 105, 127128, 130 Macrocarrion, 116
Sphingomondales, 131 Megacarrion, 116
Strain CNPT3, 105 Mesocarrion, 116
Strain CNPT-3, 93 Cayman Trench, 81, 8485, 120, 146, 151, 155, 159,
Strain DB21MT-2, 130 226
Strain DB21MT-5, 130 Census of Marine Life, 143, 282
Strain DSS12, 130 Cephalopoda, 87
Strain K41G, 129 Cetaceans, 118
Strain KT99, 131 Chaetognatha, 146
Strain MT41, 127 Species list, 309
Strain MT-41, 102 Chagos Trench, 31
Strain Y223GT, 127 Challenger Deep, 9, 322
Thermoccus, 103 Charles Wyville-Thomson, 4, 11
Xanthomonadales, 132 Chemosynthesis, 15, 115, 120, 125, 153154, 159,
Banda Trench, 12, 23, 25, 29, 32, 81, 8485, 239, 264
111112, 120, 142, 154, 166, 182, 217, Chernobyl nuclear accident, 269
247248 Chondrichthyes, 107, 222, 238
Bathyscaphe. See Manned submersibles Chordata
Biogeographic provinces, 19, 3132, 264 Species list, 320
Biogeographical provinces, 111 Chronobiology, 80
Bioluminescence, 88 Circumpolar Current, 76
Index 365
Cirripedia, 169170, 172, 258, 263 Body size, 213

Species list, 310 Feeding, 213
Claude E. ZoBell, 92 Heterogenys, 212213
Climate change, 240, 269, 271, 284 Hymenopenaeus, 17, 213
Cnidaria, xi, 119, 125, 217220, 258 Locomotion, 214
Diversity, 218 Nematocarcinus, 212
Hydroids, 217 Parapagurus, 212
Hydrozoa, 217219, 258, 263 Plesiopeneus, 212
Scyphozoa, 119, 217219, 258, 263 Solenoceridae, 213
Species list, 289 Deep-water masses, 7577
Cold seeps, 109, 121, 128, 264, 279280, 282 Deep western-boundary current, 77
Collonisation of the trenches, 242 Deep-biosphere, 279
Community structure, 249 Deepest place on Earth, xi, 3, 5, 910, 15, 92, 120,
Conservation, 266269, 272, 282 272, 278279
Disposal of waste, 267, 269 Deeps, 264
Continental margins, 20, 35, 282 Deepsea Challenger. See Manned submersibles
Continental slopes, 19, 35, 89, 122, 234235, 247, Denition
280 Abyssal zone, 1920
Copepoda, 169171, 253254, 258, 263 Abyssalhadal transition zone, 19
Ameiridae, 172 Bathyal zone, 1920
Argestidae, 172 Deeps, 29, 31
Cerviniidae, 171 Hadal zone, 1921
Cletodidae, 172 Littoral zone, 19
Diversity, 171 Trench, 23
Ectinosomatidae, 172 Trench systems, 28
Harpacticoida, 171 Trench fault, 23
Idyanthidae, 172 Trough, 23
Lucicutiidae, 171 Demospongiae
Metridinidae, 171 Species list, 288
Neobradyidae, 172 Depths of the trenches, 23, 25, 30
Psuedotachidiidae, 172 Diamantina Trough, 24, 26
Scolecitrichidae, 171 Don Walsh, 15, 68, 221
Species list, 309
Spinocalanidae, 171 Earthquakes, 240, 266, 273
Zosimeidae, 172 Cauquenes earthquake (Chile), 1, 41
Coral reefs, 282 Christchurch, New Zealand, 41
Crinoidea, 88, 125, 156, 158, 258, 263 Effects on planet, 275
Bathycrinidae, 158 Human consequences, 274
Crinoid meadows, 125, 158 Human interactions, 272
Cronus (Greek Mythology), 19 Indian Ocean earthquake (SE Asia), 2
Crustacea, 14, 87, 101, 104, 125, 161, 169171, 176, Sanriku-Oki Earthquake (Japan), 41
180, 215 Sedimentation, 41
Diversity, 170 Thoku-Oki earthquake (Japan), 1, 4142, 115,
Species list, 309 269, 272276
Cumacea, 170, 176, 258, 263 Tsunamis, xiii, 2, 22, 266, 272, 274
Species list, 311 Echinodermata, xi, 125, 148, 156157,
Current perspectives, 239, 266 249, 258
Cusk-eels, 117, 226 Diversity, 157
Species list, 297
Decapoda, 1617, 60, 69, 80, 100, 106, 108, 117, Echinoidea, 125, 156157, 166167, 258, 263
126, 169170, 188, 197, 200, 210215, 238, Diversity, 166
257258, 263 Echinothuroidea, 167
Acanthephyra, 213 Holasteridae, 157, 166
Behaviour, 60 Spatangoida, 167
Benthesicmidae, 213 Species list, 297
Benthesicymidae, 117 Urechinidae, 157, 167
Benthesicymus, 188, 212213 Echiura, 145, 258
366 Index
Echiuroidae Liparidae, 87, 106, 117, 184, 221224, 227231,

Species list, 296 233234, 236, 242
Echiuroidea, 11, 258, 263 Macrouridae, 99, 151, 187, 213, 223225, 227,
Echonoidea 234235, 242
Pourtalesiidae, 157, 166 Notoliparis, 13, 59, 87, 106, 184, 196, 221, 223,
Echuira 227, 229230, 232, 238
Species list, 296 Ophidiidae, 151, 221227, 234235, 242
Ecology, 239240 Ophiididae, 117
Edward Forbes, 1 Osteichthyes (Bony sh), 106
El Nio, 271 Pseudoliparis, 221, 223, 227, 230232
Elasmobranchs, 106 Species list, 320
Elevational gradients, 259, 261 Tail-beat frequency, 60
Emperor Seamounts, 77 Zoarcidae, 242
Endemism, 143, 149, 243, 246249 Flat worms. See Turbellaria
Hado-pelagic zone, 44 Food industry, 282
Energetics, 86 Food supply, 109, 263264
Energy storage, 122 Adaptation to low food availability, 122
Enteropneusta, 145146 Carrion-falls, 116, 118, 192, 203
Species list, 320 Changes to, 271
Environmental conditions, 73, 75, 95 Chemosynthesis, 120
Heterogeneity, 121 Effects of internal tides, 116
Hydrostatic pressure, 92 Jelly-falls, 119
Light, 88 Particulate organic matter (POM), 38, 109
Substrata, 89 Phytodetritus, 110, 114115, 136, 214, 268269
Eukaryotes, 93, 98, 132, 137 Plant and wood debris, 119, 152, 154155
European Science Foundation (ESF), 279 POC ux, 42, 111113, 269
EURYDICE expedition, 14 Seasonality, 110, 120
Eurythenes, 17, 101102, 123, 189, 191192, Trench resource accumulation depth, 112
196, 204, 206, 233, 243244, 250252 Wood and plant debris, 120
Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ), 20, 269270 Foraminifera, 11, 15, 56, 89, 98, 125, 132137, 155,
Exobiology, 279 186, 258
Exploitation, 267 Allogromiids, 135136
Extinctions, 241243, 268 Chitinosiphon, 135
Extraterrestrial life, 280 Conicotheca, 136
Extreme environments, 278280 Dendrophyra, 137
Extremophiles, 93, 131, 279, 281 Diversity, 133
Edgertonia, 137
Fatty acids, 103105, 110, 116, 122123, 127128, Hormosina, 135136
130, 271, 282 Hormosinella, 135
Fish, xiii, 11, 13, 16, 45, 53, 5861, 69, 80, 8788, 98, Komokiacea, 137
100, 106109, 116, 118119, 125, 151, 156, 161, Lagenammina, 135136
184, 186, 195, 197, 200, 202203, 210, 212213, Leptohalysis, 135
215, 220223, 225228, 230233, 235236, 238, Monothalamous, 135136
242, 257, 276277 Nodellum, 134135
Bathylagidae, 223 Normania, 137
Bathysauridae, 99 Occultammina, 138
Bathysaurus, 99 Psammosphaerids, 135
Behaviour, 87 Reophax, 135
Carapidae, 223224 Resigella, 134135
Chondrichthyes, 107 Reticulum, 137
Coryphaenoides, 99 Rhabdammina, 135136
Deepest living sh, 221 Saccamminids, 135
Depth limitations, 236 Species list, 285
Distribution, 234 Stannophyllum, 138
Diversity, 220, 223 Stannpohyllum, 138
Erroneous records, 223 Xenophyophorea, 137
Eurypharyngidae, 223 Xenothekella, 134
Index 367
Fracture zones, 23 Hemichordata

French Navy, 6869 Species list, 320
Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear disaster, 43, 269 Henry Trench, 31
Fungi, 131 Hexactinellida
Future challenges, 282 Species list, 288
History
Galathea (Danish expedition), xi, 3, 1112, 14, 18, Hadal exploration, 3
4748, 5254, 92, 120, 137138, 141142, Hadal sampling, 11
144, 146, 149, 151, 155, 159, 161162, 167, Hadal science, 3
176, 178181, 184, 186, 199, 212, 220221, HMRG Deep. See Sirena Deep
232, 243, 247, 249 Holothuroidea, 13, 87, 101, 103, 108, 125, 156157,
Gastropoda, 101, 103, 108, 119, 125, 148151, 153, 161163, 165166, 222, 248249, 257258,
161, 248249, 258, 263 263, 268
Behaviour, 151 Diversity, 161
Buccinidae, 149150, 152153 Elpidia, 13, 87, 162165, 245246
Cocculinidae, 149150 Elpidiidae, 87, 157, 161162, 164165, 257
Cocculiniforms, 151 Locomotion, 165166
Diversity, 149 Mass occurrences, 163164
Species list, 302 Myriotrochidae, 157, 161162, 257
Turridae, 149150 Population estimates, 164
Gastrotricha, 146 Population genetics, 245246
Species list, 291 Species list, 299
Genetics, 105, 193, 195, 197, 243245 Trawl catch rates, 162
Geographic location, 22 Homeoviscous adaptation, 104105
Geography, 22 Horizon Deep, 5, 11, 29
Geology, 22 Human evolution, 34
George W. Bush, 269 Human-occupied vehicle (HOV). See Manned
Georges Houot, 69 submersibles
Gigantism, 170, 181, 197 Hydrostatic pressure, 73, 96, 121
Gilliss Deep, 29 Adaptations, 98
Global warming. See Climate change CCD, 97
Google Trends, 275 Conversion, 92
Great ocean conveyer belt, 75 Le Chateliers principle, 99
Grenadiers. See Fish, Macrouridae Perturbing effects of, 99100, 102
Gulf of Mexico, 83 Piezolytes, 106
Guyots, 192, 244245 Relationship with depth, 94
Gymnolaemata Relationship with temperature, 99
Species list, 309 Tolerance of, 100, 102
Vertical migration, 94
Habitat heterogeneity, 121, 264 Hydrothermal vents, 86, 109, 282283
Hadal community, 125 Hydrozoa
Hadal-Lander, 6062, 90, 165, 173, 175, 178, 184, Species list, 289
186, 191192, 195, 199, 203, 213, 225, 236 Hypersaline pools, 281
HADEEP project, xii, xii, xiv, 1618, 5758, 6061,
64, 79, 82, 84, 90, 97, 142, 144, 153, 160, 162, Indian Ocean, 12, 26, 31, 272
175176, 178, 184, 186, 188, 190, 192194, INDOPAC expedition, 9, 14
198199, 203, 206, 208, 212213, 217, Institute of Marine Engineering, Science, and
222224, 226227, 230, 232, 236, 243, Technology (IMarEST), 281
250251, 255, 259 Internal tides, 116
Hades (Greek Mythology), xi Isopoda, 11, 16, 69, 101, 103, 119, 169170,
HADES project, 18, 62, 67 180182, 184, 186, 188, 248249, 257258,
Hado-pelagic fauna, 246 263
Hado-pelagic zone, 43, 88, 131 Asellota, 170, 184
Haeckel Deep, 29 Body size, 181, 183
Hairy back worms. See Gastrotricha Diversity, 180181
Halothermal, 241 Eurycope, 181, 186
Hawaii Mapping Research Group (HMRG), 11 Feeding, 186
368 Index
Isopoda (cont.) Lamp shells. See Brachiopoda

Haploniscidae, 181, 257 Length of the trenches, 23
In situ observations, 184 Leptostraca, 169
Ischnomedidae, 181 Light, 88
Locomotion, 186188 Liparidae, 59, 117
Macrostylidae, 181 Lipids, 104, 106, 122123
Mass occurrences, 181 Litter, 267, 272
Munnopsidae, 87, 181, 184186 Debris traps, 267
Rectisura, 87, 181, 186188 Deepest found, 267
Species list, 313 Mermaids' tears, 267
Storthyngura, 181182, 186, 242 Microplastics, 267
Izu-Bonin Trench, 5, 12, 1517, 2325, 29, 32, 41, Location of the trenches, 23, 26
58, 69, 7778, 8184, 87, 97, 111, 116, Lord Mulgrave, 4
127128, 131, 138, 144, 156, 158159, 162, Lower Circumpolar Deep Water (LCDW), 77
167, 171173, 189, 193194, 199, 208209,
215, 226, 243, 245, 247248, 274 Macrouridae, 117
IzuOgasawara. See Izu-Bonin Trench Madeira Abyssal Plain, 235
Malacostraca
Jacques Cousteau, 15 Species list, 311
Jacques Piccard, 15, 68, 221 Manned submersibles
James Cameron, xiv, 6970, 276278 Archimde, 16, 6869, 173, 222, 228
James Clark Ross, Sir, 4 Deepsea Challenger, 6770, 266
JAMSTEC, xiv, 3, 9, 16, 56, 65, 70, 135, 164165 DSV Alvin, 71
Japan Trench, 5, 1112, 1517, 33, 4042, 61, Jiaolong, 68, 71
7778, 84, 87, 115, 121, 127, 129, 131132, Shinkai 6500, 68, 70
135, 138, 152155, 163, 169, 176, 181, Trieste, 10, 1516, 6769, 221222
186187, 190191, 194, 199, 213214, Manned submersibles, 67
216217, 221, 224, 227, 230233, 235, 269, Mapping the ocean, 4
272273, 275277 Mariana Basin, 77
Java Trench, 2, 12, 2324, 29, 85, 111, 120, 155, Mariana Hollow, 9
162163, 167, 176, 198, 221, 226, 248, 272, Mariana Islands, 4, 269
275 Mariana Trench, xi, 45, 78, 10, 12, 1415, 18,
J.M. Prs, 16, 69, 146, 173, 222, 225, 228229, 2324, 2829, 33, 41, 54, 58, 62, 6465,
233 6768, 71, 7779, 81, 8485, 88, 9293,
Joe MacInnis, 266 101102, 105, 111, 115, 120, 127, 130131,
John F. Kennedy, 266 134136, 149, 153, 180, 185, 193194, 207,
John Murray, Sir, 4 213, 219, 225, 227, 235, 257, 264, 266, 270,
John Ross, Sir, 4 276278, 282
Johns Hopkins University, 65 Mariana Trench Marine National Monument
(MTMNM), 269
Kaik. See Remotely operated vehicles (ROV) Mediterranean Sea, 35, 69, 83
Kermadec Trench, 4, 10, 1213, 1518, 2425, Medusae, 217
2829, 3235, 41, 54, 59, 6162, 64, 67, 7779, Anthomedusae, 217218
8185, 8788, 90, 9697, 106, 111, 120, Anthomedusidae, 217218
127128, 131, 142, 144145, 151, 156, Leptomedusae, 217218
158163, 167, 170174, 176, 178, 184, 186, Mitroconidae, 217218
190191, 193195, 197199, 201, 206, 208, Phopalonematidae, 217
211, 213214, 217, 219221, 223224, 227, Trachymedusae, 217
230233, 235, 238, 243, 245253, 257, Mercury (Planet), 34
259262, 276277 Mermaids tears, 267
Komokiacea, 135, 137 Metabolism, 8687
Krmmel Deep, 29 Meteor Deep, 29
KurileKamchatka Trench, 4, 2425, 32, 41, 69, 88, Microbes, xi, 125, 127
90, 111112, 135136, 138, 144146, 154, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 31, 76
159, 162164, 167, 171, 173, 176, 193194, Middle America Trench, 5, 2425, 32,
199, 202, 216217, 219, 223224, 230, 243, 144
246247, 253255 Mid-domain effects, 260
Index 369
Mid-ocean ridges, 8, 20, 23, 33, 89, 282 Ophiuroidea, 11, 156157, 160, 258, 263
Milne-Edwards Deep, 29 Diversity, 160
Milne-Edwards Trench, 28. See Peru-Chile Trench Ophiacanthidae, 157, 160161
Milwaukee Deep, 29 Ophiodermatidae, 157, 160
Mollusca, 125, 148151, 155, 258 Ophioleucidae, 157, 160
Diversity, 150 Ophiuridae, 157, 160
Species list, 302 Ophuroidea
Monoplacophora, 149150, 155, 258, 263 Species list, 297
Species list, 305 Origins of hadal fauna, 241
Mount Everest, 272 Osmolytes, 103, 106108, 236, 238
Mysidacea, 169170, 173176, 258, 263 Ostracoda, 169170, 172, 257258, 263
Diversity, 173 Halocyprida, 172
Species list, 311 Podocopida, 172
Species list, 310
Nansei-Shoto Trench, 29 Oxygen, 85, 131, 245
Nares Deep, 29 Oxygen in the trenches, 85
NASA, 279 Oxygen minimum zones, 85, 281
National Geographic Society, 69, 278279
National Museum of the US Navy, 69 Pacic Ocean, 45, 9, 12, 26, 29, 33, 35, 40, 60,
National Science Foundation (NSF), 279 6871, 7578, 81, 83, 85, 89, 98, 102, 115116,
Natural History Museum of Denmark, 13 119, 121, 136138, 156, 158159, 162163,
Nazca Ridge. See PeruChile Trench 165, 167, 171, 177, 194196, 202, 215216,
Nematoda, 138, 140, 258 221, 224, 233, 248, 250, 271
Chromadoridae, 139140 Pacic Rim, xi, 27, 224, 234, 275
Comesomatidae, 140 Palau Trench, 12, 14, 23, 2526, 29, 32, 85,
Cyatholaimidae, 140 111, 119, 138, 145, 155156, 158160, 162,
Desmodoridae, 140 164, 166, 173, 176, 184, 193, 217, 243,
Desmoscolecidae, 139 247248
Diversity, 139 Pangaea, 6
Microlaimidae, 139140 Panspermia, 280
Monhysteridae, 140 Pantopoda, xi, 169170, 216, 258, 263
Oxystominidae, 139140 Austrodecidae, 216
Siphonolaimidae, 139 Nymphonidae, 216
Sphaerolaimidae, 139 Species list, 320
Xyalidae, 139140 PAP-TUA expedition, 14
Nemera, 145 Paralicella, 101102, 194, 204, 206, 250252
Nemerea, 146 Particulate organic matter (POM), 122
Nero Deep, 30 Peanut worms. See Sipuncula
New Britain Trench, 14, 25, 32, 63, 70, 111, PeruChile Trench, 1, 5, 1415, 17, 2829, 3233,
119120, 138, 146, 159, 162, 165167, 173, 38, 8182, 84, 87, 97, 111112, 114115, 118,
176, 178, 217219 123, 135, 140, 144, 146, 151152, 156,
New Hebrides Trench, 12, 14, 18, 2426, 32, 111, 158160, 165, 167, 172173, 175, 184, 186,
119, 138, 144145, 147, 155156, 158159, 190192, 194, 198199, 208, 212213,
161162, 164, 166167, 173, 176, 178, 184, 216217, 219, 223228, 232233, 235,
217219, 247248 243245, 247248, 250, 252253, 272
New Zealand, xii, xiv, 3, 5, 18, 41, 97, 227 Pharmaceutical waste, 266267
NIWA, New Zealand, xiv, 18 Philippine Trench, 56, 10, 12, 14, 3738, 5455,
North American Trough, 29 79, 85, 92, 101, 120, 123, 142, 145, 148, 159,
North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), 76 178, 201, 206207, 209, 219
North Pacic Deep Water (NPDW), 77 Photic zone, 88, 120
Physiological adaptations, 73
Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS), Locomotion, 87
283 Metabolic rate, 87
Oligochaeta Visual Interactions Hypothesis, 87
Species list, 296 Piccard, 10, 15, 68, 221
Oligochaetes, 146 Pierre Willm, 69
Ophidiidae, 117 Piezolytes, 45, 106
370 Index
Piezophily, 15, 19, 9294, 99, 102, 105, 127131, 281 Radioactive waste, 266, 268
Terminology, 93 Radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), 268
Plant and wood debris, 264 Ramapo Deep, 29
Plate tectonics, 31 Red Sea, 83
Continental drift, 1, 5, 7 Remotely operated vehicles (ROV), 3, 910, 1516,
Convergence zones, 5, 8, 23, 27, 31, 3334, 3940 18, 51, 54, 5657, 6467, 119, 125, 156, 158,
Divergent zones, 3132 164165, 278
Expanding Earth theory, 6, 8 11k, 64
Lithosphere, 31, 34 ABISMO, 16, 51, 6566
Plate boundaries, 31 HROV Nereus (Hybrid AUV), 10, 16, 51, 65, 67,
Plate tectonic theory, 1 158, 267, 278
Ring of Fire, 27 Kaik, 10, 51, 6566, 158, 278
Seaoor spreading, 78, 31 UROV7K, 66
Theory, 5, 8 Rhea (Greek Mythology), 19
Transform faults, 8 Ribbon worms. See Nemerea
Transforming zones, 31 Richards Deep, 29
Plate tectonics, 5 Rising particle hypothesis, 268
Platyhelminthes Roberto Mantovani, 6
Species list, 291 Romanche Trough (Trench), 1415, 23, 25, 32, 76,
Polychaeta, 101, 103, 140142, 144, 161, 248249, 84, 145, 155, 159, 167168, 247
258, 263 Roundworms. See Nematoda
Ampharetidae, 143 Royal Navy, British, 4
Diversity, 141 Royal Society of London, 8
Maldanidae, 141, 143 Ryukyu Trench, 12, 25, 29, 32, 111, 159, 171173,
Onuphidae, 143 224, 247248, 253254, 256, 267, 274
Pogonophora, 144, 242
Polynoidae, 141144 Sagittoidea
Siboglinidae, 141, 144, 242, 249 Species list, 309
Species list, 291 Salinity, 8384, 121, 245
Vestimentifera, 145 Samoan Passage, 77
Polyplacophora, 149150, 155, 258, 263 Samuel Carey, 7
Species list, 305 San Andreas Fault, 32
Polythalamea San Cristobal Trench, 29
Species list, 285 Sargasso Sea, 119, 195, 234
Porcupine Abyssal Plain, 235 Scaphopoda, 149151, 155, 258, 263
Porifera, xi, 125, 148149, 258 Costentalina, 155
Cladorhizidae, 148 Diversity, 155
Demospongiae, 148149, 258, 263 Entalinidae, 155
Diversity, 149 Species list, 302
Hexactinella, 148 Striopulsellum, 155
Hexactinellida, 149, 258, 263 Scripps Institute of Oceanography, xii, xii, xii, xii,
Species list, 288 xii, 9
Poseidon (Greek Mythology), xi, 19 Scyphozoa, 257
PROA expedition, 14, 60, 138, 144, 147148, 167, Species list, 289
184, 218 Sea cucumbers. See Holothuroidea
Project Nekton, 68 Sea lilies. See Crinoidea
Projected area of the trenches, 24 Sea squirts. See Ascidiae
Prokaryotes, 93, 279280 Sea stars. See Asteroidea
Promare, xiv, 6364 Seagrass, 119120, 153
Protists, 125, 127, 137 Seamounts, 20, 22, 8990, 122, 245, 279280,
Psychrophily, 93, 105, 127131 282283
Public perception, 275 Sediment slides, 35, 41
Puerto-Rico Trench, 11, 62, 69, 84, 119, 140, 145, Sedimentation, 38, 4041, 89, 115
219, 221, 225226 Accumulation, 90
Puyseger Trench, 31 Seismic activity, 18, 32, 35, 38, 41, 43, 73, 89, 115,
Pycnogonida 120, 122, 131, 144, 239
Species list, 320 Seismic moment magnitude scale (MMS), 41
Index 371
Sipuncula, 146 DOVE landers, 62

Species list, 308 Echosounders, 2, 5, 9, 52
Sipunculidea, 125 Free-fall systems, 14, 17, 49, 63
Species list, 308 General, 45
Sirena Deep, 11, 30, 62 Hydra Rod, 4
Slope of the trenches, 3637 Hydrostatic pressure, 2, 5051
Snailsh, 17, 59, 117, 184, 196, 206, 221, 223224, Hyperbaric traps, 15, 57, 59, 101
230, 232, 277278 Landers, 51, 57, 6062, 6465, 90, 119, 160, 165,
Somniosidae, 117 173, 176, 184, 197, 199, 226
Sounding the trenches, 4 Latis (Baited trap), 5759, 106, 176, 195, 213,
South Sandwich Trench, 14, 29, 32, 81, 85, 146, 155, 227, 232, 238
158, 160, 162, 216, 230, 248 Lowering systems, 46
South Shetland Trench, 31 Magnetometers, 8
South Solomon Trench, 14 Multi-beam sonar, 10
Southern Ocean, 26, 31, 123 Multicorer, 55
SOUTHTOW expedition, 14 Otter trawl, 53
Spatial heterogeneity, 122 Photography, 1415, 17, 59, 144, 150, 214, 223,
Speciation, 192, 239, 242245, 253 285
Speciesarea relationship, 259 ROV push cores, 56
Species diversity, 249, 258259, 262 Sediment coring, 15, 52, 54, 6364, 135
Sponges. See Porifera Swath-bathymetry, 8
Spoon worms. See Echiura Towing systems, 46
Subduction, 8, 20, 23, 3235, 38, 4042, 89, Trawl monitors (Pingers), 53
111112, 121, 242, 261, 266, 272273, 275 Trawling, 46, 48, 52
Submarine canyons, 22, 35 Vertical trawl, 53
Substratum, 89 Wire-deployed systems, 4648
Sunda Trench. See Java Trench Temperature, 80, 121, 245
Sustainability, 266, 282 Relationship with pressure, 99
Synaphobranchidae, 117 Temperature adaptation, 86
Temperature of the trenches, 8182
Tanaidacea, 119, 170, 176178, 180, 248249, 258, Adiabatic heating, 81
263 Potential temperature, 83
Akanthophoreidae, 176 Temperature proles, 82
Apseudidae, 177178 Terminology, 18
Body size, 178, 180 Abyssalhadal transition zone, 19
Diversity, 176177 Hadal, 19
Gigantapseudidae, 178 Hadal zone, 18, 21
Leptognathiidae, 176178 Hado-pelagic, 18
Neotanaidae, 177, 179 Trench oor fauna, 18
Species list, 311 Ultra-abyssal zone, 18
Trawl catch rates, 176 Thaliacea, 119
Technology Thermohaline, 7576, 79, 83, 241
Agassiz trawl, 52 Thomson Reuters Web of Knowledge, 282
Auto corer, 55 Tidal cycles, 15, 75, 79, 97, 121
Baillie rod, 4, 9 Titans (Greek Mythology), 19
Baited cameras, 14, 18, 49, 56, 60, 170 Tonga Trench, 5, 1012, 17, 29, 3234, 62, 77, 82,
Baited traps, 1415, 18, 49, 5658, 60, 6364, 8485, 137, 139, 148149, 190, 199200,
101, 125126, 151, 153, 171, 173, 176, 186, 207208, 217, 245, 268, 272
188, 193195, 202, 206, 208, 210, 215, Trench Connection Symposium, 18
250251, 259 Trench formation, 31
Beam trawl, 53 Trench morphology, 34, 3738
Box corers, 55 Trench resource accumulation depth (TRAD), 112,
Buoyancy, 4952, 61, 6869, 238 121, 263
Challenges, 2, 8, 4546, 60, 284 Trench topography, 35
CTD, 15, 6061, 64 Trieste at sh, 45, 69, 221
Current meter, 15, 64, 7779 Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), 104, 106108,
Deepsea clam, 4 215, 237238
372 Index
Tsunamis. See Earthquakes RV Takuyo, 10

Turbellaris, 145 RV Thomas Washington, 14, 53
Turbellaria, 146 RV Vitjaz, 1112, 48, 52, 85, 139, 141, 146, 158,
Species list, 291 160, 162, 165, 168, 171, 173, 176, 181, 183,
Turbidity currents, 35, 38, 4041, 114, 120, 122 212, 217, 220221, 243, 278
Tuscarora Deep, 4 Terror, 4
Thomas Washington, 10
US Navy Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center USNS Bartlett, 14
San Diego, 65 USS Cape Johnson, 5
UNESCO, 19, 21, 23, 3132, 247 USS Ramapo, 5
United States Navy, 68 USS Tuscarora, 4
University of Aberdeen, UK, xii, xiv, xiv, 16, 76, USS Wandank, 68
205, 225, 282 Willebord Snellius, 5
University of Tokyo, Japan, 16, 18 Visual Interactions Hypothesis, 87
Urchins. See Echinoidea Vityaz, 12, 25, 32
Volcano Trench, 12, 29, 111
Venus (Planet), 34 Volume of the trenches, 43
Vertical zonation, 255, 261
Vesicomyid clams, 121, 154 Weber Basin, 29
Vessels West Caroline Trench, 29
Akademik Kurchatov, 48 Wikipedia, 277
Emden, 5 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, xiv, 16, 65, 71
Erebus, 4 World Register of Marine Species (WORMS), 133
HMS Challenger, 4, 911 World War II, 5, 8
HMS Hydra, 4 Worms, 127
HMS Penguin, 4
HMS Porcupine, 11 Xenophyophorea, 137138
MV Spencer F. Baird, 910, 14, 60, 85
Planet, 5 Yap Trench, 12, 23, 25, 29, 32, 111, 145, 159, 162,
Princess-Alice, 11, 194, 221 173, 193, 199, 243, 247248
RV Albatross, 11 Yava Trench. See Java Trench
RV Hakuho-Maru, 10 Yavan Trench. See Java Trench
RV Horizon, 5
RV Iselin, 14 Zeleniy Mys Trough, 11
RV James M. Gilliss, 14 Zeus (Greek Mythology), xi, 19
RV Kaharoa, 232 Zonation, 100
RV Kairei, 910, 66 Zooplankton, 110, 119, 271
Plate 1 The deepest place on Earth: the Mariana Trench. (a) Modern digital swathe bathymetry
showing the three-dimensional topography of the Mariana Trench. Image courtesy of P. Sloss,
NOAA/NGDC (retired). (b) Video frame grab of the Japanese full ocean depth rated ROV Kaik
placing a ag to mark the deepest place on Earth: Challenger Deep at 10 911 m. Image
JAMSTEC, Japan. (c) The bathyscaphe Trieste residing in the National Museum of the US Navy,
Washington, DC. Image courtesy of P.H. Yancey, Whitman Collage, USA. (d) The Deepsea
Challenger manned submersible on its 2012 dive to the Challenger Deep. Image courtesy of
Charlie Arneson.
Plate 2 Hadal-Landers. (a) Large haul of hadal amphipods (Hirondellea gigas) being emptied
from a small baited funnel trap after 12 h at 9316 m deep in the Izu-Bonin Trench. Image courtesy
of HADEEP. (b) University of Aberdeens Hadal-Lander A being deployed to 10 000 m in the
Tonga Trench in 2007. Image courtesy of J.C. Partridge, University of Bristol, UK. (c) DOV
Mike, or Alpha Lander being deployed to over 10 500 m deep in the Challenger Deep. Image
courtesy of K. Hardy Scripps Institution of Oceanography, USA. (d) The microelectrode lander
being deployed to Challenger Deep. Image courtesy of R.N. Glud, University of Southern
Denmark.
Plate 3 Trench sediments. (a) 6000 m, (b) 7561 m, (c) 8215 m and (d) 9281 m in the Kermadec
Trench, (e) 6173 m, (f) 7050 and (g) 8074 m in the PeruChile Trench, and (h) 9729 m in the
Tonga Trench. All images courtesy of HADEEP.
Plate 4 Scavenging amphipods. Rapid consumption of simulated carrion-fall at 8074 m in the
PeruChile Trench, where (a) shows ~1 kg of tuna just before reaching the seaoor; (b) shows an
aggregation of scavenging amphipods (Eurythenes gryllus) 2 h later; (c) shows the remnants of
the bait scattered around the seaoor after 18 h; and (d) shows the skeletal remains after leaving
the seaoor. (e) E. gryllus collected by baited trap with a close-up shown in (f). Images (a) (d)
courtesy of HADEEP, images (e) and (f) courtesy of J.C. Partridge and C. Sharkey, University
of Bristol, UK.
Plate 5 Hadal epifauna. Examples of crinoid meadows at (a) 9092 m and (b) 9095 m in the
Izu-Bonin Trench. (c) Ophiura aff. loveni from 7199 m in the Kermadec Trench. (d) Unidentied
ophiuroid from the PeruChile Trench. (e) Tube dwelling anemone (Ceriantharia, Anthozoa)
from 5173 m in the Kermadec Trench. (f) Mass aggregation of holothurians (Elpididae) at 7323 m
in the Japan Trench. (g) In situ image of Elpidia atakama from 8074 m in the PeruChile Trench.
Images (a), (b) and (f) JAMSTEC, Japan; (c), (d), (e) and (g) courtesy of HADEEP.
Plate 6 Hadal Crustacea. (a) Hirondellea dubia recovered from 9104 m in the Kermadec Trench.
(b) Scavenging amphipods at nearly 10 000 m in the Tonga Trench showing nearly a 100%
coverage of bait after 2 h. (c) The predatory amphipod Princaxelia jamiesoni (Pardaliscidae) from
7703 m in the Japan Trench. (d) Isopod from 5469 m on the edge of the Mariana Trench. (e) The
supergiant amphipod Alicella gigantea (27.8 cm in length) captured from 7000 m in the
Kermadec Trench. (f) The decapod Heterogenys microphthalma from 6709 m in the Kermadec
Trench. (g) The decapod Benthesicymus crenatus from 6474 m in the Kermadec Trench. (h)
A burrowing tanaid at 7501 m in the Kermadec Trench: each image is 1 minute apart showing
a tanaid emerging from a burrow and traversing under the sediment surface and reappearing.
All images courtesy of HADEEP except (c) taken by T. Karanovic, Hanyang University,
S. Korea.
Plate 7 Hadal sh. (a) Large aggregation of unidentied ophidiids at 6173 m in the PeruChile
Trench. (b) A group of ophdiids, Bassozetus sp. (possibly B. robustus) at 6474 m in the Kermadec
Trench. (c) The macrourid Coryphaenoides yaquinae at 5469 m on the edge of the Mariana
Trench. (d) An unidentied liparid from 7050 m in the PeruChile Trench. (e) Large aggregations
of Notoliparis kermadecensis (liparid) at 7561 m in the Kermadec Trench and (f) Pseudoliparis
amblystomopsis (liparid) from 7703 m in the Japan Trench and close-ups of samples of N.
kermadecensis (7000 m; (g)) and P. amblystomopsis (7703 m; (h)).
Plate 8 Behaviour and interactions. (a) A brooding female lysianassoid (subfamily Tryphosinae)
from 73499273 m in the Tonga Trench. This is the only hadal amphipod found to attend bait
whilst brooding (eggs arrowed). (b) The liparid Notoliparis kermadecensis feeding on amphipods
at 6474 m in the Kermadec Trench. (c) The supergiant amphipod Alicella gigantea feeding at
bait at 6979 m in the Kermadec Trench, undeterred by the presence of N. kermadecensis that
would otherwise prey upon amphipods. (d) The natantian decapod Benthesicymus crenatus
removing amphipod from bait (arrowed) from 6474 m (Kermadec Trench). (e) The pardaliscid
amphipod Princaxelia jamiesoni (arrowed) searching for prey at 7703 m in the Japan Trench. (f)
Three isopods, Rectisura cf. herculea, in mid-escape bursts (arrowed, in direction of travel)
following perturbation from B. crenatus at 7115 m in the Japan Trench. (g) Swimming polynoid
polychaetes circling a swarm of amphipods at 8631 m in the Kermadec Trench, with close-ups of
these Polynoidae from 9300 m (h) and 6979 m (i) in the Kermadec Trench. All images courtesy of
HADEEP, except (a) courtesy of L. Levin, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, USA.

The Hadal Zone

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The Hadal Zone

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The Hadal Zone

Life in the Deepest Oceans

Alan Jamieson is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Aberdeen, based at Oceanlab.

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

PART I History, geology and technology

1 The history of hadal science and exploration 3

2 Geography and geology 22

3 Full ocean depth technology 45

PART II Environmental conditions and physiological adaptations

4 The hadal environment 75

6 Food supply to the trenches 109

PART III The hadal community

7 Microbes, protists and worms 127

8 Porifera, Mollusca and Echinodermata 148

10 Cnidaria and fish 217

PART IV Patterns and current perspectives

11 Ecology and evolution 241

12 Current perspectives 266

bivalves, gastropods). The geological setting of the trenches is notoriously unstable,

information for reference in the following sections. Part II (Environmental conditions

From the University of Aberdeen, I am indebted to my colleagues Professor Monty

History, geology and technology

1.1 Sounding the trenches

1.2 Development of plate tectonic theory

1.3 Establishing full ocean depth

Year Vessel Depth (m) Reference

1875 HMS Challenger 8184 Thomas and Murray (1895)

Year Vehicle Depth (m) Reference

1960 Bathyscaphe Trieste 10 913  5 Piccard and Dietz (1961)

In 2009, using a modern, deep-water multi-beam sonar bathymetry system, the

Furthermore, in 2001, a sonar survey performed by the Hawaii Mapping Research

1.4 First sampling of the trenches

1.5 Exploratory bathyscaphes

scientic literature (Wolff, 1961), the erroneous account of a at sh which was

1.6 Modern hadal research

2006 (HADal Environments and Educational Program; Jamieson et al., 2009c).

provided novel data concerning species distribution, behaviour and physiology.

A more detailed description of the hadal environment in terms of geographic location

2.1 Geographic location

Max depth (m) Latitude Longitude Ocean

Admiralty 6 887 00.5600 S 149.3800 E Pacic

Cayman 8 126 19.1700 N 79.8633 W Atlantic

Agulahas 6 787 53.8494 S 26.9643 E Atlantic

Table 2.1 (cont.)

SE Atlantic 6 559 13.3632 S 1.8716 W Atlantic

Trough Trench fault

2.2 Trench formation

Subregion Province Trenches

Pacic AleutianJapan Aleutian, Emperor, KurilKamchatka, Japan,

Ocean Margin Deposits Accretionary Prism

Depth bin (m) Depth bin (m)

Percentage of the trench (%)

Cross-section (a) Cross-section (b) Cross-section (c)

2.4 Sedimentation and seismic activity

Deep-sea sediment is composed mainly of clayey, terrigenous material derived from

(a) (b) (c)

0 1000 2000 3000 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 40 80 120 160 200

140E 142E 144E

2.5 The hado-pelagic zone

Percentage pelagic volume (%)

Depth (m) Depth (m)

environmental characteristics of the hado-pelagic zone are relatively well sampled

3.1 The challenge of wires

Wire diameter Length Cumulative Weight in water Cumulative Breaking

1960 Bathyscaphe Trieste 10 913 5 Piccard and Dietz (1961)

6116 Feb 2012 2 15:52 4.1 3.0

Banda SundaArafura Seas Coastal 328 1.60 0.44 160.46