2. SUMMARY DESCRIPTIONS OF PASSAGE TOMBS IN COUNTY DONEGAL

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1 SUMMARY DESCRIPTIONS OF PASSAGE TOMBS IN COUNTY DONEGAL The sites in the Kilmonaster cemetery, c. 2.5km N of Castlefinn, are described first, followed by the more isolated sites in the county. Of the twelve cemetery sites described by Ó Nualláin (1968b), eight are included here in the order of the letters he assigned to them. One, Croaghan/Glensmoil (Site L), is included among the isolated sites in the county, and three are described in Appendix 1 (Nos. 42, 67 and 68). The isolated passage tombs in the county are arranged in alphabetical order. An asterisk preceding a townland name denotes some uncertainty about the classification. THE KILMONASTER CEMETERY Kilmonaster Middle (Site A). OS 70:14:6 ( ). Giant s Graves (applies also to Site D) ( ). OD H This monument consists of a cruciform passage tomb standing close to the western edge of a large mound. The mound has been planted with trees, and its original perimeter is distorted by fences, but it appears to have been round in outline and c. 23m in diameter. It is now c. 1.5m high. A number of kerbstones can be identified, some of quartz. There are a large number of scattered quartz fragments on the surface of the mound. The surviving tomb structure is 7m in overall length, and it is aligned approximately W E. Little now survives of the passage, which is entered from the W, but it was at least 3m long. The northern transept, at right angles to the inner end of the passage, is 1.1m long and narrows from 1.1m wide at the front to 0.9m at the back. A large roofstone, possibly somewhat displaced, covers this chamber. The southern transept is set somewhat askew to the main axis of the monument. It is 1.2m long and 0.9m wide at the front, narrowing to 0.7m at the back. The endchamber is 2.4m long and 1.5m wide. The stones of this chamber are somewhat taller than those of the transepts. Fagan , book 10, 30; de Valera 1960, 71, fn. 224; Ó Nualláin 1968b, 5 8 (plan, photographs); Herity 1974, 214, Dg. 1; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 36, no. 75 (plan); SMR 1987, 70:66; Ó Nualláin 1989, 127; RMP 1995, 70:63. Kilmonaster Middle (Site B). OS 70:14:6 ( ). Not marked ( ). OD H * Kilmonaster Middle (Site C). OS 70:14:6 ( ). Not marked ( ). OD H These monuments stood c. 120m W of Site A. Both have been removed. They are shown on the OS six-inch map of , where collectively with Site A they are named Giant s Graves. Site B is shown as a circle of dots, suggesting a kerb with a diameter a little over 20m within which a small group of dots seems to represent a chamber. On the pre-publication field map the kerb-like feature is named Druidic Circle, and the group of dots in the interior is named Cromlech. Site C is shown as a small group of dots, perhaps representing a chamber, on the published map of and is named Cromlech on the pre-publication field map. As shown on the OS map, it stood c. 10m NW of Site B, but according to Thomas Fagan (1845 8) these sites stood c. 30 yards (c. 27.5m) apart. Fagan recorded that both were built with stones measuring 2 feet (c. 0.6m) to feet (c. 1.05m) high. He noted that one of these graves he did not specify which was 11 feet (c. 3.3m) long by feet (c. 1.4m) wide and the other 6 feet (c. 1.8m) long by feet (c. 1.4m) wide; both, he claimed, were originally larger. It appears that Site B, apparently a megalithic tomb in a circular, possibly kerbed cairn, was probably a passage tomb, and Site C, in view of its proximity, may also have been one. Fagan , book 10, 31; Ó Nualláin 1968b, 8 9; Herity 1974, 214, Dg. 2 and Dg. 3; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 36, nos. 76 7; Ó Nualláin 1989, 127; RMP 1995, 70:63.

2 PASSAGE TOMBS 181 * Kilmonaster Middle (Site D). OS 70:14:6 ( ). Marked but not named ( ). OD H This monument stands c. 140m WSW of Site A. Now partly incorporated in a roadside fence, the structure is quite ruined and consists of four orthostats and what appears to be a displaced roofstone. The roofstone, 2.2m by 2.2m and 0.4m thick, leans against the western face of an orthostat measuring 0.75m high and at least 1.6m long, which is aligned more or less N S. Just 0.2m to the E of the concealed southern end of this orthostat are two set stones, each c. 0.6m long, the northern one 0.55m high and the southern 0.4m. Approximately 1m S of the large orthostat is another set stone. This is 0.6m long and also 0.6m high. Although the remains are clearly those of a megalithic tomb, its original design is not clear. Its proximity to the cruciform passage tomb (Site A) and to another probable passage tomb (Site B) suggests that it too may be the remains of one. A large quantity of human bone is said to have been unearthed here in 1839 (Fagan ). Fagan , book 10, 31; Ó Nualláin 1968b, 9 (plan, photograph); Herity 1974, 214, Dg. 4; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 36, no. 78 (plan); SMR 1987, 70:68; Ó Nualláin 1989, 127; RMP 1995, 70:63. Kilmonaster Middle (Site E). OS 70:14:6 ( ). Carn (Site of) ( ). OD H This monument, which has been removed, stood c. 170m NW of Site A. According to OS cartographic and documentary records of the 1840s, the eastern half of a kerbed round mound, c. 23m in diameter, within which there appears to have been some form of structure, stood here alongside a roadway. The remainder of the mound had been demolished during construction of the road. According to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), many graves and human bones were unearthed during this work. The remaining half of the mound was levelled toward the end of the 19th century (OS 1:2,500 Name Book, 1905). Bones were again reportedly unearthed at this time. There is a possibility that this was a passage tomb. Fagan , book 10, 29; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 70 (1905), 68; Ó Nualláin 1968b, 11; Herity 1974, 214, Dg. 5; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 36, no. 79; SMR 1987, 70:65; Ó Nualláin 1989, 127; RMP 1995, 70:63. * Kilmonaster Middle (Site F). OS 70:14:6 ( ). Giant s Grave (Site of) ( ). OD H This monument has been removed. It stood 220m W of the cruciform passage tomb (Site A). Thomas Fagan (1845 8) described it as a ruined cairn, 25 yards (c. 23m) in diameter, enclosed by blocks of stone, apparently a kerb. He reported that in the cairn there were square, oblong and circular graves, some of which were covered by flags bearing sundry rude devices. Human bones were reportedly found in these graves. The presence of a round kerbed mound close to others containing passage tombs suggests that this may also have been a passage tomb, although the possibility that the whole was a cemetery mound containing cists has also been suggested (Waddell 1990). Fagan , book 10, 29; Ó Nualláin 1968b, 11 12; Herity 1974, 214, Dg. 6; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 36, no. 80; SMR 1987, 70:67; Ó Nualláin 1989, 127; Waddell 1990, 73; RMP 1995, 70:63. * Kilmonaster Middle (Site G). OS 70:14:6. No precise location. This monument is known only from Thomas Fagan s (1845 8) account, which was written in 1846, some years after it had been removed. He was informed locally that it was a cairn of white stones in which several stone coffins containing human bones had been found. One of the coffins was said to have contained a full skeleton accompanied by a brass hatchet. The precise location of this monument is not known, but according to Fagan

3 182 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND it was on the holding of John Stewart and adjoined the W side of the road running N S through the townland. It is clear from land valuation records (Griffith ) and related maps that in or around 1857 a parcel of land occupied by John Stewart opened onto both sides of the road for a distance of c. 170m. The southern and northern limits of this stretch of ground are 4.5cm and 6.2cm from the southern edge of OS six-inch sheet 70. This would place the monument c. 150m W of Site A, the cruciform passage tomb in the townland. It has been suggested (Ó Nualláin 1968b, 12) that a slight mound c. 90m N of Site E in the same townland may mark the location of this site, but as it lies to the N of what was the Stewart holding this seems unlikely. The precise nature of this monument is unclear, but its proximity to a small group of passage tombs suggests that it may have been another one. Fagan s account can also be interpreted as referring to a cemetery mound containing cists (Waddell 1990). Fagan , book 10, 30; Ó Nualláin 1968b, 12; Herity 1974, 214, Dg. 7; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 36, no. 81; Ó Nualláin 1989, 127; Waddell 1990, 73; RMP 1995, 70:63. * Gortnagole (Site J). OS 70:15:4 ( ). Giant s Grave ( ). OD H This monument stands c. 600m ESE of the cruciform passage tomb (Site A) in the adjoining townland of Kilmonaster Middle. Six orthostats, four to the N and two to the S, remain of a ruined structure c. 5m long and aligned E W. The two at the S are incorporated in a field fence. The remains of a mound enclose the structure, but its original outline is unclear. The remains are difficult to interpret. It appears that the westernmost of the four stones at the N and the two at the S, which stand opposite it, all of them 1m or more in height, may represent the remains of a chamber up to 2m wide. The remaining three stones, all at the N, none of which is more than 0.7m high, may represent the N side of a passage opening to the E. This would have been lower and, as indicated by the disposition of the stones, probably narrower than the presumed chamber. According to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), much human bone was discovered here in a search for treasure a few years before his visit to the site in the summer of Fagan , book 10, 33; Borlase 1897, 235, Raphoe North no. 6 (Borlase incorrectly identifies a reference by Kinahan to the megalithic tomb at Gortnacull recte Gortmacall More (Dg. 60) as referring to this tomb); Ó Nualláin 1968b, (plan, photograph); Herity 1974, 215, Dg. 10; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 37, no. 84 (plan); SMR 1987, 70:70; Ó Nualláin 1989, 127; RMP 1995, 70:70. ISOLATED PASSAGE TOMBS * Croaghan/Glensmoil. OS 70:16:4 ( ). Marked but not named ( ). OD H This monument stands within a hillfort (Lacy 1983, 115, no. 703) on the highest point (724 feet (c. 220m) OD) of Croaghan Hill. It commands an extensive view in all directions and overlooks the group of tombs in Kilmonaster Middle townland, 2.6km to the W. The monument is a grass-grown mound of broadly round outline. It measures 21m N S by 17.5m E W and is 3m high. Its composition, as revealed in a hole, 1.2m deep, high on its western slope and in a smaller one at the E, is a mixture of earth and some stones. An OS trigonometrical pillar stands on its summit. The nature of this monument remains to be determined, but its considerable size, round outline, hilltop situation and proximity to a group of passage tombs suggest that it too may contain such a tomb. Fagan , book 10, 27; Ó Nualláin 1968b, 14 15, site L (photograph); Herity 1974, 215, Dg. 12; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 37, no. 86; Cookman 1987, 133; SMR 1987, 70:74; Ó Nualláin 1989, 128; RMP 1995, 70:74. * Finner. OS 106 or 107. No precise location. This monument, like the court tomb (Dg. 57) in the same townland that stood close to it, has not been found. It

4 PASSAGE TOMBS 183 is known only from accounts written toward the end of the 19th century. These refer to its partial demolition to provide stones for wall-building. Two drawings, both signed by W.F. Wakeman and dated 11 June 1880 (Wakeman ), and a third, now in the Royal Irish Academy (RIA MS 3 C 27, no. 16), which is undated and unattributed but also probably by Wakeman, show a flat-topped cairn with what appears to be a lintelled opening at or close to its edge. The captions to the three drawings, in combination, describe the monument as a ruined chambered cairn measuring 120 or 121 paces around, in which several unburnt human skeletons were found. It seems from the captions to two of the drawings and a published account by Wakeman (1896, 298 9) that the cairn was encompassed by a circle of stones. Little is known of the chamber, which, according to Borlase (1897, 238), measured 9 feet (c. 2.75m) long by 6 feet 5 inches (c. 1.95m) wide. The possibility that it was a passage tomb is strengthened by the occurrence of a definite passage tomb in the same townland, the next to be described. Wakeman a, 105 (this site appears to be one of those referred to as occurring on the coast at Bundoran); Wakeman , 59 (sketches); Allingham 1879, 109; Kinahan (destruction of cairn and other monuments near Bundoran ); RIA MS 3 C 27, no. 16; Wood-Martin , 159; Wood-Martin 1888, 161; Wakeman 1896, 298 9; Anon. 1897a; Anon. 1897b, , 1536; Anon. 1897c, ; Borlase 1897, 237 (fig. 222), 238 (there was confusion on Borlase s part about this monument; the opening sentence in his descriptive piece on the sites at Finner relates to this site, as does, although Borlase thought it a different site, the entire second paragraph, where he quotes from Wood-Martin s earlier account); The Donegal Independent, 12 and 19 February 1897; Lockwood 1901, 88 9 (drawing, fig. 8); Herity 1974, 215, Dg. 14; Emerson 1986, 55 (quoting from regimental news sheet of the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers of September 1898: an old Irish cairn ); Ó Nualláin 1983a, 37, no. 89; Ó Nualláin 1989, 128. Finner. OS 107:9:4 ( ). Not marked (1952 4). OD G The remains of a cruciform passage tomb survive here. The endchamber, to the N, the western side chamber and part of the opposed eastern side chamber are exposed. The endchamber is c. 1.5m long internally and widens from 1m at its outer end to 1.5m near the backstone. The western side chamber is c. 1m long and 0.8m wide, and the eastern one appears to have been of similar size. Unauthorised digging at the site in 1955 uncovered burnt and unburnt bone (information from the late P.J. Hartnett, National Museum, Dublin). Hartnett noted a low round mound c. 18m in diameter around the structure. Herity (1974, 216) has suggested that a ruined cromleac drawn by Wakeman ( , 58) may be one and the same as a rude cist, 14 feet 6 inches [c. 4.4m] long by 6 feet [c. 1.8m] in breadth noted by Wood-Martin (1887 8, 158 9; 1888, 161) and that the monument may have been a passage tomb (his Dg. 15). It now appears that the ruined cromleac in Wakeman s drawing is the monument described here and that the rude cist referred to by Wood-Martin is the unlocated court tomb (Dg. 57) in this townland. Wakeman , 58 (sketch); Wakeman 1896, 299 ( The cromleac stands, isolated, at a considerable distance from the great carn seems to refer); Borlase 1897, 238 ( The dolmen marked No. 1 ) and sketch fig. 223 on p. 237; Lockwood 1901, 89 ( Another one, near the military wagon camp seems to refer); Anon (photograph); de Valera 1960, 71, fn. 224; Ó Nualláin 1968b, 23, no. 24; Herity 1974, 216, Dg. 16; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 37, no. 88; SMR 1987, 107:106 may refer; Ó Nualláin 1989, 128. * Gortfad. OS 79:3:4 ( ). Giant s Grave (1904). OD H This monument, demolished sometime between 1985 and 1991, stood 1.75km SSE of Site A in Kilmonaster Middle townland. It has been interpreted as a cruciform passage tomb (Ó Nualláin 1983a). Before its destruction there were five set stones and a number of displaced slabs at the site. A terminal chamber at the SW and a sidechamber at right angles to it toward the S appeared to be present. Two opposed orthostats, large well-matched slabs, seemed to represent the sides of the terminal chamber. This measured 1m wide and at least 2.5m long. A

5 184 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND low stone, possibly a sill, and a tall stone opposite it seemed to mark the front and back of the side-chamber, which was 0.8m long. The fifth set stone at the site stood where a presumed passage would have opened onto the chambers. It was low and may have been a sillstone. Fagan , book 12, 5; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 37, no. 87; SMR 1987, 79:7; Ó Nualláin 1989, 128; RMP 1995, 79:7. Magheracar. OS 106:15:4 ( ). Giant s Grave (1953 4). OD G This monument is an undifferentiated passage tomb standing toward the eastern side of a kerbed mound at the edge of a sea cliff. The approximate northern half of the mound has been lost to the sea. Originally round in outline, it measures 20m in diameter E W. The kerb turns inward in front of the entrance to the tomb. There is a gap between the kerb and the front of the tomb, which faces SE and is 4.5m long and c. 1m wide. According to Wood-Martin (1887 8; 1888), bones, ashes and a cinerary urn were found here many years ago. Excavation, in 1986 and 1987, revealed a division of the tomb by sills into four compartments (Cody 1987; 1988). A considerable quantity of bone was recovered from the site. Among the objects found were a miniature stone axehead, flint scrapers and fragments of a single stone bead. BLL Stowe MS 1024, folio 177; Fagan , book 15, 33; Wakeman a, 105 (this site appears to be one of those referred to as occurring on the coast at Bundoran); Wakeman , 62 (two sketches); Wood-Martin , (plan, sketch); Wood-Martin 1888, (plan, sketch); Borlase 1897, 236 7, under Tirhugh nos. 4, 5, 6 ( The first he describes is a dolmen-circle ); Lockwood 1901, 87 8 (sketch, fig. 6, and plan, fig. 6a); Killanin and Duignan 1962, 114; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 128; Ó Nualláin 1968b, 23, no. 23; Holly 1973, (plan); Herity 1974, 10 (fig.), 215, Dg. 13; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 39, no. 90; McGreevy 1986; Cody 1987; SMR 1987, 106:11; Cody 1988; Killanin and Duignan 1989, 84; Ó Nualláin 1989, 128; RMP 1995, 106:11.

6 APPENDIX 1 Sites for which there is insufficient evidence to warrant their acceptance as megalithic tombs The sites are listed in alphabetical order by townland, followed by those for which the townland is not known. 1. Aghaglassan. OS 12:13:2 ( ). Not marked (1903). OD C Bonner (1972) has claimed that there is a giant s grave surrounded by a circle of stones laid in the ground in this townland. It has not been possible to identify this site, the nature of which must remain uncertain. Bonner 1972, Aghanursan. OS 36. No precise location. On the W side of Columbkille Lough are some large stones that appear to be the remains of a megalithic structure (Kinahan b). On the basis of this information it would have been situated in the townland named in the heading or in the adjoining one, Glenkeen. This feature has not been identified, and its nature remains uncertain. Kinahan b, Alt Upper. OS 88:2:2 ( ). Giant s Grave (1906). OD H There is no trace of this feature, which was first shown on the original OS six-inch map (1836), where it is named Giant s Grave. It stood on a gentle fall of ground c. 4km S of the River Finn and close to the E side of a byroad c. 5km S of Castlefinn. It is described in the OS Memoirs (1836) as some remarkable stones having the appearance of antiquity and called the Giant s Grave. The stones are five in number, three standing and two fallen, the largest standing stone is 5 feet [c. 1.5m] high, and seems sunk about 1 foot [c. 0.3m] in the ground the two fallen are each 6 feet [c. 1.8m] in length, about 4 feet [c. 1.2m] broad and 2 feet [c. 0.6m] thick. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) described it as the ruins of a Giant s Grave which seem to have been 20 feet [c. 6.1m] long and 5 to 7 feet [c. 1.5m to 2.15m] wide. It lay almost N S, and only two stones were then in place, with two others lying prostrate. The two set stones stood opposite each other, one to the E and the other to the W. The former measured 5 feet (c. 1.5m) high, feet (c. 1.7m) broad and 1 2 feet (c m) thick. The western stone was feet (c. 0.75m) high, feet (c. 1.7m) long and 1 foot (c. 0.3m) thick. The prostrate stones were to the N of the two just described. One measured feet (c. 2m) by 3 feet 9 inches (c. 1.15m) by up to 3 feet (c. 0.9m) thick. The other measured 7 feet (c. 2.15m) by feet (c. 1.7m) by 2 3 feet (c m) thick. According to an entry in an OS 1:2,500 Name Book, there were some stones at the site in 1904, but their number and status are not clear from the account. These had been removed by The stones referred to in the mid-19th-century accounts may have formed part of a megalithic tomb, with perhaps the two upright stones noted by Fagan serving as orthostats at either side of a chamber or gallery. However, without more information the nature of the site must remain uncertain. OS Memoirs, Urney Parish (1836), 71, 73; Fagan , book 12, 16; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 88 (1904), 3; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 46, no. 140; SMR 1987, 88:1; Ó Nualláin 1989, 142; RMP 1995, 88:1. 4. Ardara. OS 73:16:5 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1907). OD G This site, first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map, consists of a substantial rock outcrop, around the base of which are loose stones. Brief accounts of the site in an OS Revision Name Book ( )

7 186 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND and an OS 1:2,500 Name Book (1904) describe it as a natural feature and make no reference to any artificial structure here. This may be the site in Kilgole (this part of the townland of Ardara is known by that name), where, according to P.J. McGill (1970), a dolmen was removed about fifty years ago in the course of land reclamation. The nature of the supposed dolmen is not known. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 73 ( ), 43; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 73 (1904), 63; OS Field Memorandums, sheet 73 (1951), A/19/6; L. McGill 1964, 63; P.J. McGill 1970, 7; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 46, no. 141; SMR 1987, 73:41; RMP 1995, 73: Ballagh. OS 4:6:2 ( approx.). Not marked (1903). OD C approx. Bonner (1972, 17) recorded the destruction of a sort of dolmen around 50 years earlier at Ballagh. It was said to consist of a large coffin-shaped stone resting on three uprights. The location of the site may be that indicated in the heading (C. O Rahilly, pers. comm.). A pillar-like stone, 2.2m long, 0.4m broad and 0.2m thick, lies prone on a boggy ridge beside a low upright stone that may be part of the butt of the prostrate stone. This may have been a standing stone. Bonner 1972, 17; SMR 1987, 4:13; RMP 1995, 4: Ballyannan. OS 19:9:1 ( ). Standing Stones (1903). OD C The site is in rough bog-grown ground on the SW slope of Aghaweel Hill. The Standing Stones referred to in the heading consist of two stones next to each other. However, there are indications of what may be buried structure extending for c. 10m south-westward from the stones, the nature of which is unclear. It may be part of a pre-bog field fence pattern, traces of which can be recognised closeby to the W. There is also the possibility, however, that the stones are part of some form of megalithic structure. The eastern of the two standing stones is 0.8m long, 0.2m thick and 0.9m high. The western one, which leans against the eastern, is 0.9m long, 0.15m thick and 1.2m high. Approximately 5m to the SW a boulder rests on the ground. A further 2.5m to the SW is another boulder overlying buried stones. Immediately SW of this, the top of what may be a slab set on edge is visible at the surface. Beside and to the W of this another boulder rests on the ground. SMR 1987, 19:6; Colhoun 1995, 57, no. 19/3; RMP 1995, 19:6. 7. Ballyhork. OS 17. No precise location. According to the OS Memoir (1835), there was a Giant s Grave in this townland. A description and accompanying sketch show an upright stone feet (c. 1.05m) long and 5 feet (c. 1.5m) high beside a prostrate one of similar size. The precise location of the site is not recorded. However, it may be the feature named Standing Stones on the original OS six-inch map (1835) and Standing Stone on the and 1905 editions, no trace of which now survives (Lacy 1983). This stone was located at NGR C The available evidence indicates that it is unlikely that the feature referred to was a megalithic tomb. OS Memoirs, Clondavaddog parish (1835), 31 (sketch); Lacy 1983, 89, no. 515; SMR 1987, 17:7 may refer; RMP 1995, 17:7 may refer. 8. Ballymagowan Lower. OS 27. No precise location. Kinahan (1889) noted three large blocks of granite that appear to be the remains of a cromleac beside the road

8 APPENDIX in Ballygowan (recte Ballymagowan). It has not proved possible to identify this feature, which was situated either in Ballymagowan Lower or in the adjoining townland of Ballymagowan Upper. Its nature remains uncertain. Kinahan 1889, 278; SMR 1987, 27:1. 9. Ballynarry. OS 29:5:2 ( approx.). Not marked (1904). OD C Killanin and Duignan (1962; 1967), following Somerville (1929), claimed that there is a ruinous prehistoric chamber tomb on Crockacashel in this townland. There is here, on the overgrown hillslope overlooking the E shore of Lough Swilly, a long and narrow oval pile of large stones c. 30m long and 12m wide. In the middle of this heap there is a cavity under a large block resting unevenly on two opposed blocks. Whatever the origin of this great heap of stones, the so-called chamber appears to be a fortuitous occurrence. Somerville 1929, (plan, photograph); Anon. 1951, 350; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 113; Killanin and Duignan 1967, Ballyness. OS 24. No precise location. In 1845 Thomas Fagan (1845 8) was shown the ruins of one of those ancient sepultures called Dermot and Grania s Bed. It was in Ballyness townland c furlongs (c. 300m) N of the road leading from Falcarragh to Gortahork. According to Fagan, it originally occupied a space 20 yards (c. 18m) by 10 yards (c. 9m) and consisted of several large graves enclosed at sides and ends by great slabs, many of which had been robbed for building work. At the date of Fagan s visit the site had been largely reclaimed and only a few stones 2 4 feet (c m) high marked the spot. During the digging out of the graves human bones, sea-sand and shells and also some curious stones and old silver coin were reportedly discovered. Fagan , book 4, Ballystrang. OS 60. No precise location. The remains of an ancient sepulture called Dermot and Grania s Bed were to be seen in Thomas Moore s kitchen garden in this townland in 1846 (Fagan ). It was represented by a few large stones, feet (c. 0.75m) high, which had been incorporated in a field fence. According to Fagan, the structure may originally have measured 20 feet by 9 feet (c. 6.1m by 2.75m). Fagan also noted the ruins of another sepulture, measuring 9 feet by 8 feet (c. 2.75m by 2.4m) at the end of Thomas Moore s dwelling, the stones of which are now absorbed in the soil around them. He added that many similar structures were reportedly destroyed here and that decayed bones were said to have been frequently found in them. This site is not shown on OS maps; a note written alongside Fagan s account states that there was not time to insert the antiquities in this area on the OS six-inch map of The Thomas Moore referred to above may well be the Thomas Moore listed as occupier of a house and c. 25 acres (c. 10ha) of land in this townland in or around 1857 in land valuation records (Griffith ). Examination of the relevant valuation maps has enabled the location of the grass-grown foundations of what may have been his house. The location, at a position 76.8cm from the left-hand side and 20.8cm from the bottom of OS six-inch sheet 60 (NGR C ), is in an area of rough undulating ground where there are many low, grass-grown, stone-built field fences, some incorporating sizeable slabs. There are now no identifiable traces of a megalithic tomb in the immediate vicinity of the ruined building. Whether the stones noted by Fagan represented the remains of one or more such structures is uncertain. Fagan , book 7, 13.

9 188 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND 12. Baskill. OS 12:5:4 ( ). Not marked (1903). OD C According to Colhoun (1949), there is a chambered cairn, known as the Queen s Grave, in this townland. There is a low mound here that is almost totally ploughed out, but the original nature of the feature is not apparent (Lacy 1983). The basis of Colhoun s claim is uncertain. It may be that she had in mind references to a structure said to consist of two upright stones with a third laid horizontally on top of them (W.S. Mason ), which has been positioned in this townland by Lewis (1837) and Maghtochair (1867). W.S. Mason , vol. 2, 155 ( near to Kindrahad recte Kindroghed); Beaufort 1828, 119 ( at Kindrahad ); Lewis 1837, vol. 1, 441; Maghtochair 1867, 24; Colhoun 1949, 116; Bonner 1972, 16; Lacy 1983, 560, no. 242; SMR 1987, 12:23; Colhoun 1995, 52; RMP 1995, 12: Beagh. OS 73. No precise location. It has been suggested that a structure demolished almost a century ago in this townland after an animal was caught in it was probably a court tomb (P.J. McGill 1970). Nothing further is known of this. L. McGill 1964, 63; P.J. McGill 1970, Brockagh. OS 34. No precise location. In 1845 Thomas Fagan (1845 8) visited the ruins of an ancient sepulture locally called Dermot and Grania s Bed in this townland. He described it as consisting of one grave 8 feet [c. 2.4m] long and feet [c. 0.45m] wide enclosed at either side by a slab of the above length laid edgeways and standing feet [c. 1.05m] high and 6 inches [c. 0.15m] thick. Other, similar graves were supposedly destroyed here. The site is not shown on OS maps. Fagan described its location as 5 furlongs (c. 1km) NE of the road from Letterkenny to Falcarragh and on that part of the townland falling within the confines of OS six-inch sheet 34. A general search in the area indicated by Fagan and local enquiry failed to reveal either a trace of it or information about it. The nature of the site remains uncertain. Fagan , book 5, Carrowkeel. OS 30:12:6 ( ). Cromlech (Site of) (1903). OD C This feature is named Cromlech on the original OS six-inch map (1833 4). There are no visible remains at the site. It is described as the druidical remains of an altar in an OS Name Book (1833 4) and Druid s Altar in the OS Memoirs (1833), although no further details are provided. According to the OS Memorandums ( ), it was pointed out to Lieutenant T.A. Larcom, officer in charge at the Ordnance Survey, and George Petrie, head of the historical and antiquarian department of the Survey, when they visited the area in Whatever the nature of this feature, it had apparently been removed by 1848, as it is named Site of Cromlech on the OS six-inch map of that date. OS Memoirs, Upper Moville parish (1833) [4]; OS Name Book, Upper Moville parish (1833 4), 19; OS Memorandums ( ), 137; Borlase 1897, 229, Inishowen East no. 9 (Borlase mistakenly suggested that this is the cromlech at Condum Beg recte Drung, App. 1, No. 47, noted by Doherty 1891, 26); Colhoun 1949, 117; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 380; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 381; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 46, no. 143; SMR 1987, 30:13; Colhoun 1995, 76; RMP 1995, 30:13.

10 APPENDIX Carrowreagh or Craignacally. OS 4:13:1 ( ). Cloghtogle (1834). OD C This feature was shown on the original OS six-inch map (1834) but not on subsequent editions. There is now no trace of it. An entry in the OS Memoirs (1834) mentions the site but provides no information on its nature. OS Memoirs, Clonmany parish (1834), 16; Borlase 1897, 229, Inishowen East no. 2; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47, no Cashel. OS 11:8:2 ( ). Not marked (1903). OD 100. C According to the SMR for County Donegal (1987), there is a possible megalithic tomb at this location. The RMP for County Donegal (1995) identifies it as a court tomb. A search failed to reveal any trace of a megalithic tomb. Some large stones at this spot seem to form part of an old fence. SMR 1987, 11:25; RMP 1995, 11: Cashel. OS 20:2:3 ( ). Not marked (1903). OD C There is a standing stone at this location (Lacy 1983). In 1944 Colhoun (1995) was told by the landowner that it was the remnant of a cairn removed during his lifetime. He claimed that the cairn was long and that there were cross-stones visible. Colhoun was of the view that he may have been describing a chambered grave with at least some roofstones in place. Colhoun 1949, 116; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 127; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 140; Bonner 1972, 16; Lacy 1983, 79, no. 378; SMR 1987, 20:1; Colhoun 1995, 59; RMP 1995, 20: Cashelard. OS 108:1:1 ( ). Cloghacurragh, Giant s Grave (1907). OD G This was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map, where it is marked at a position c. 40m NW of and across the road from that shown on the 1907 edition of the map. There is no trace of an ancient feature at either location. Thomas Fagan (1845 8), who described it as the ruins of a Giant s Grave, found three large prostrate stones here in They measured, on average, feet (c. 2.9m) long, 4 7 feet (c m) wide and feet (c. 0.45m) thick. He was informed that they had stood until around 1830, when they were dislodged by people said to have been searching for treasure. Human bones were reportedly unearthed during the search. Fagan , book 17, 8; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 108 (1905), 2; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47, no. 147; SMR 1987, 108:1; RMP 1995, 108: Cashel Glebe. OS 8:14:2 ( ). Not marked (1905). OD C Fig. 85. This ruined structure, much overgrown by bushes, first came to notice in It stands on a slight break on a relatively steep fall of ground. Just upslope from the site is an old roadway, and immediately beyond this is a large stone quarry that was in use until the beginning of the 20th century. The site, at the northern end of the Fanad peninsula, commands an extensive view northward out to sea. The monument seems to have been a single-chamber structure, perhaps polygonal in outline, measuring 2.5m long (N S) and 2m in maximum width, which it attains at mid-length, from where it narrows to both ends. A single set stone, 0.4m high, forms the narrow N end of the chamber. A single orthostat, set at an obtuse angle to the N end of the chamber, remains on the E side. It is 0.7m in internal height. The W side of the chamber is concave in outline and consists of three set stones and some dry-walling. There is a gap of 0.6m between the N

11 190 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND end of the chamber and the northernmost of the three set stones, which is 0.15m high. Two small pad-stones (not on plan) rest on this and support an almost prostrate slab, the outer end of which is now buried. It measures 1.7m by at least 0.8m by 0.25m thick. The status of this stone is uncertain, but it may be a corbel. It partly overlies but does not touch the next set stone on the W side, which is 0.2m high. The third stone on this side is 0.7m high. Beyond this are two blocks of stone that appear to be the remnant of a dry-wall infill. Each is c. 0.25m long and c. 0.25m high. A prostrate slab, 1.45m by 0.5m by 0.4m, now marks the S end of the chamber. It is likely, though not certain, that it originally stood here. There are two displaced slabs within the chamber. One, shown on the plan, measures 1.25m by 0.8m by 0.25m thick. It partly overlies another (not on plan), which measures at least 0.6m in maximum dimension. This seems to be some form of ancient burial chamber, the age and precise nature of which remain to be determined. RMP 1995, 8: Cashelgolan. OS 64:12:3 ( ). Not marked (1907). OD G It has been reported that there are two ruinous portal dolmens in this townland (L. McGill 1964; P.J. McGill 1970). It has not proved possible to substantiate these claims. The supposed sites were pointed out by the landowner in At one of these sites, that recorded in the heading, there is a ruined stone fence in which there are some sizeable stones but no identifiable remains of a megalithic tomb. At the other site, on the same farm, there is a low natural rock face but no identifiable remains of an artificial structure. L. McGill 1964, 63 (Castlegoland); P.J. McGill 1970, 7 (Castlegoland). 22. Castleforward Demesne. OS 47:13:1 ( ). Not marked (1905). OD C The SMR (1987) and RMP (1995) for County Donegal both record a megalithic tomb in this townland at around the position indicated in the heading. There is no megalithic tomb here. A heap of stones, very probably field clearance, is the only feature evident (ASCD archive). The suggestion that there is a megalithic tomb in this townland seems to have arisen from an attempt to locate a druidical cromlech described in 19th-century accounts (M Parlan 1802; M Loughlin ; Lewis 1837). It reportedly consisted of a roofstone 5 feet (c. 1.5m) in diameter indented with what may have been cupmarks and supported on low upright stones c. 18 inches (c. 0.45m) high; an urn was recovered from it in around The monument had been largely demolished when Kinahan ( a; b) saw it. Part of the roofstone then lay on the ground. The nature of this site remains uncertain, but the available information suggests that it is more likely to have been a cist grave than a megalithic tomb. It stood in Castleforward deerpark, which would place it not in Castleforward Demesne but in one of the two nearby townlands, Deer Park West or Bohullion Lower. M Parlan 1802, 104; M Loughlin , 92; Lewis 1837, vol. 1, 476; Kinahan a; Kinahan b, 472 5; ASCD archive; SMR 1987, 47:16; RMP 1995, 47: Churchland Quarters. OS 11:10:3 ( ). Labbypatrick (1903). OD C The above-named site has been listed as a multiple-chambered cairn or dolmen (Colhoun 1949) and as a prehistoric chamber tomb (Killanin and Duignan 1962; 1967). It is described in an OS Revision Name Book (1848) as follows: An old bed something like those commonly called Dermot and Grania s Bed. This is said to have been used by Saint Patrick as a resting place when he came to build a church at Donagh; and is called after him. It is commonly called Leaba Phádraig in the locality even by those who do not speak Irish. The English name Patrick s Bed is not applied. The stones which formed the bed have been removed of late but the site has

12 APPENDIX been pointed out to me. Lacy (1983) quoted a 17th-century reference to the site by John Colgan, who described it as the penitential bed of St. Patrick surrounded by polished stones. It stood c. 200m SE of the early ecclesiastical complex at the edge of Carndonagh town. A patch of bare soil here is still respected as a source of cures (Lacy 1983). The nature of the site remains uncertain. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 11 (1848), 110; Colhoun 1949, 116; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 127; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 140; Lacy 1983, 251, no. 1532; SMR 1987, 11:61; Colhoun 1995, 36, no. 11/34; RMP 1995, 11: Claggan. OS 15. No precise location. Thomas Fagan (1845 8), on the basis of local information supplied to him when visiting Horn Head peninsula in 1845, recorded the destruction of a supposed Druid s Altar called the Cloghcorr Stones in this townland. It stood on a slight rise adjoining Claggan Upper, the name assigned to a group of houses in the townland. It was reportedly encircled by a wall or parapet and consisted of several large upright stones 2 4 feet (c m) high and arranged in two rows a few feet apart with a pillar at either end. All had been removed during the four years before Fagan s visit. His second-hand account could relate to a megalithic tomb, but without further evidence this cannot be accepted as one. Fagan , book 1, Claggan. OS 36:8:2 ( ). Giant s Grave (1905). OD C The various editions of the OS six-inch map differ regarding the location of this feature. On the original OS sixinch map (1834) it is shown 50m SE of, and on the 1848 edition it is 90m SW of, the position marked on the 1905 edition. The feature in question is named Giant s Grave on all three editions. The position shown on the 1848 edition is in the adjoining townland of Kilwarry, but in 1834, before a slight boundary change, it lay in Claggan townland. This supposed Giant s Grave is mentioned in two documents of the 1834 survey, but no details are provided. According to an entry in a Name Book relating to the 1848 edition of the map, the feature named Giant s Grave on the 1834 map was an old altar where mass used to be said about forty years since. It claimed that at the position shown on the 1848 map there was a grave of a circular form but that it could scarcely be traced. It appears from this that little if anything then survived at the spot. The feature identified on the 1905 edition of the map, according to an entry in an accompanying Name Book (1903), was a cairn of stones supposed to have been the burial place of giants. No remains are visible at the position indicated on the 1848 edition of the map, which is on level ground close to the shore of Columbkille Lough. The positions identified on the 1834 and 1905 editions of the map are on a densely overgrown slope rising above the lough. There is a small heap of slabs of uncertain origin at the position shown on the 1905 map, but it was not possible to identify the feature shown on the 1834 map. Kinahan ( b, 475; 1889, 281) failed to find this site toward the end of the 19th century. There is no convincing evidence that a megalithic tomb ever stood at any of the three locations. OS Memoirs, Aughnish and Tullyfern parishes (1834), 45; OS Name Book, Aughnish and Tullyfern parishes (1834), book 2, 26; OS Revision Name Book, sheet 36 (1848), 26; Kinahan b, 475 ( Giant s Grave ); Kinahan 1889, 281 ( Giant s Grave under Kilwarry); Borlase 1897, 232, Kilmacrenan no. 17; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 36 (1903), 33; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47, no. 18; SMR 1987, 36:12; RMP 1995, 36: Cloghan Beg. OS 68:9:3 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1904). OD H Plate 183. This feature was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map. It consists of two upright stones, 0.6m

13 192 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND Plate 183. Cloghan Beg. (App. 1, No. 26), from north. apart, lying NE and SW of each other. That to the SW is 1m long, 0.5m thick and 1.1m high. That to the NE is 1.2m long, 0.8m thick and 1.5m in maximum height. Both are incorporated in a low fence and rise above bog c. 1m deep. Some low stones beside the south-western stone are of uncertain status. According to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), a few smaller stones a 1 2 foot to 1 foot (c m) high stood beside the two uprights. He further claimed that a large enclosed grave had stood a little eastward of the stones until it was dug out in the summer of 1846, shortly before his visit, which took place between 2 September and 31 October of that year. The nature of the enclosed grave referred to by Fagan is not known, nor is it clear whether he considered the two stones still extant here as part of it. The function of these stones is now uncertain, but they can be interpreted as a pair of jambs in a megalithic gallery, the larger one being particularly well suited to carry corbels. There may have been a megalithic tomb at this location, but more evidence is required to establish with any degree of certainty that such was the case. Fagan , book 13, 8 (sketch); Ó Nualláin 1983a, 44, no. 120; SMR 1987, 68:6; RMP 1995, 68: Cloghfin. OS 70:11:1 ( ). Giant s Grave (1906). OD H This feature was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map. The only information about it is contained in an OS 1:2,500 Name Book (1903), where it is described as a supposed Giant s Grave marked by a spread of boulders. There is now no trace of any boulders at the site nor any visible remains of a monument of any kind. OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 70 (1905), 50; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47, no. 149; SMR 1987, 70:43; RMP 1995, 70: Clonmany Glebe. OS 10:7:4 ( ). Cloghtogle (1903). OD C This feature was first shown on the 1848 edition of the OS six-inch map, where it is named Cloghtogle. It stood on a slight ridge between the Clonmany River and its tributary, the Ballyhallan River, c. 3.5km SE of Tullagh Bay on the NW coast of the Inishowen peninsula. There is outcropping rock at the site and a scatter of stones, at least some of them fragments of larger stones that appear to have been deliberately smashed. There is no reliable trace now of any artificial structure here. The following account of the feature is contained in an OS Revision Name Book (1848): This monument is composed of flag stones set on their edges, and a large flag or covering stone on top 6 feet [c. 1.8m] long and 3 feet [c. 0.9m] broad, at the west end is an upright stone, all of which are from 3 to 6 feet [c. 0.9m to 1.8m] long and enclosing this sepulchral monument and not unlike others of druidical remains called Labby Dermot and Grania. This account indicates that there was some form of megalithic chamber here, but its nature remains

14 APPENDIX uncertain. The feature seems to have been destroyed by the end of the 19th century, as only a clump of cropping rock was noted here in (OS 1:2,500 Name Book). OS Revision Name Book, sheet 10 (1848), 34; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 10 ( ), 35; Colhoun 1949, 117; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 162; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 172; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47, no. 151 (incorrectly identifies Somerville 1928, figure opposite p. 66, as this site; it is Cloontagh, App. 2, No. 12); Colhoun 1995, 27; RMP 1995, 10: Clonmass. OS 16. No precise location. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) claimed that an extensive sepulture stood a few perches N of the Cromlech (App. 2, No. 11) in this townland but that it had been removed in the course of land reclamation sometime before his visit in On the basis of local information, he claimed that it had consisted of many long graves each enclosed at sides and ends by great slabs and in each of which skulls and other human bones of unusually large size have been found. The floors of some of the graves were said to have been bedded with sea sand and shells. There is now no trace of any such feature in the vicinity mentioned by Fagan. His second-hand account may well relate to a destroyed megalithic tomb, but more evidence would be required before this could be accepted as one. Fagan , book 4, Corraine. OS 77. No precise location. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) described what he claimed was the ruins of a Giant s Grave now called the Grey Rocks in this townland. Only one side of the structure, 15 feet (c. 4.6m) long, represented by four flags, then stood at the site. One of the stones was feet (c. 1.4m) high, feet (c. 1.7m) long and 1 foot (c. 0.3m) thick. The others were smaller. According to Fagan, the site was on the S side of the road leading from Ballybofey to Glenties on the holding of John Thompson. No trace of such a feature can now be found beside and immediately S of the short stretch of road that fronted the holding of John Thompson in or around 1857 (Griffith ). Doubt is cast on the status of this site by a note written alongside Fagan s description to the effect that it should not be engraved on the OS six-inch map. The note is not signed but was apparently written by the reviser sent to check the site for inclusion on the map. The nature of the feature described by Fagan is uncertain. Fagan , book 13, Cranford. OS 27:7:4 ( ). Giant s Grave (1905). OD C This feature, now destroyed, was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map. It stood on sloping bog-grown ground overlooking Mulroy Bay 1.2km to the E. In 1952 all that remained was an oval mound, in the centre of which was a pit. The pit seemed to have been but recently dug. No structural remains were apparent. More recently the site has been overgrown by furze bushes. According to an account in an OS Revision Name Book (1848 9), this was a structure 15 feet (c. 4.6m) long and 5 feet (c. 1.5m) broad, composed of flagstones 2 3 feet (c m) high on each side and covered by a stone feet (c. 2.6m) long, feet (c. 1.7m) broad and 8 inches (c. 0.2m) thick. The report notes that this monument is similar to others in the country called Dermot and Grania s Bed. A later account by Kinahan (1889, 277 8) identified it as a fosleac [a term he has explained as a habitation or structure, constructed of flags or long blocks of stone ] running nearly north and south, the cover-stone about 9.5 feet by 4.5 feet [c. 2.9m by 1.4m], on six uprights. Kinahan added that workmen repairing the nearby road had knocked the structure and uprooted the uprights shortly before his visit. It is thus clear that his account is based on hearsay and perhaps, if the dislodged stones lay at the site, on a conjectural reconstruction.

15 194 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND It appears that a partly roofed megalithic gallery c. 4.5m long may have stood here until the second half of the 19th century. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 27 (1848 9), 46; Kinahan 1889, 277 8; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 373; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 374; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 44, no. 122; SMR 1987, 27:5; Ó Nualláin 1989, 142; RMP 1995, 27: Cranford. OS 27:7:5 ( ). Giant s Grave (1835). OD C There is no trace of this feature, which was named Giant s Grave on the 1835 edition of the OS six-inch map and shown but not named on the edition. It is mentioned in an OS Name Book (1835), but no details are provided about what it may have been. OS Name Book, Kilmacrenan parish (1834 5), book 1, 19; Borlase 1897, 231, Kilmacrenan no Cratlagh. OS 36:2:2 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1905). OD C This feature is named Grania s Bed on the original OS six-inch map (1834) and Dermot and Grania s Bed on the 1848 edition. There is outcropping rock at the point indicated on the OS maps but no trace of an artificial feature. An OS Name Book (1834) records that there was an ancient grave here, but no details are provided. According to an entry in a later, 1:2,500 Name Book (1903), the feature was a rock used by the ancient Irish for devotional purposes. There is no reliable evidence that a megalithic tomb ever stood here. OS Name Book, Kilmacrenan parish (1834 5), book 1, 3 (under Cool Upper); Borlase 1897, 232, Kilmacrenan no. 15; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 36 (1903), 3; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 373; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 374; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47, no. 153; SMR 1987, 36:1; RMP 1995, 36: Creenasmear. OS 34. No precise location. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) wrote the following account of a site he visited in 1845: In the townland of Creenasmear and holding of John Kelly and others 2 miles [c. 3.2km] NE the road from Letterkenny to Crossroads [now Falcarragh] stands the ruins of an ancient place of sepulture locally called Dermot and Grania s Bed. It is an oval 30 by 25 feet [c. 9.15m by 7.6m] and seem to have been originally enclosed by a stone wall or circle some of which remain and stones standing upright from 1 to feet [c m] above the surface but not otherwise large. It is said to have contained sundry graves none of which are now traceable. It lay in that part of the townland that falls on OS six-inch sheet 34 but is not shown thereon. A general search of this area, one of sloping boggy land below Muckish Mountain, revealed no trace of the feature described by Fagan. The nature of this site remains unknown. Fagan , book 5, Croaghnamaddy. OS 57. No precise location. According to Harkin (1893), there is an immense cromlech on Cronamadda recte Croaghnamaddy, a hill c. 2.4km SW of Dunglow. This hill lies in the above townland and in the adjoining townlands of Loughsalt and Meendrain. A limited search of the hill revealed no trace of an artificial structure that may have merited the name Cromlech. Many large erratics lie scattered on the hill, and one of these may have been incorrectly identified as a Cromlech.

16 APPENDIX Harkin 1893, 69; P.J. McGill 1974, Curraghlea. OS 53. No precise location. When in this area in 1845, Thomas Fagan (1845 8) was informed of the destruction, a short time before, of two ancient sepultures that stood a few yards apart. The larger one consisted of sundry graves 6 to 8 feet [c m] long enclosed at sides and ends by great flags set upright and edgeways in the ground. One vault of this structure, known as Darby s Bed, was roofed by a great flag, and a vault beside it was known as Grania s Bed. The second sepulture was of similar construction and also consisted of a number of graves. Many of the upright stones forming both structures reportedly stood 2 6 feet (c m) high but lay prostrate at the site when Fagan visited there. A few stone hatchets were said to have been found among the ruins. This site is not shown on OS maps. According to Fagan, it lay half a mile (c. 800m) W of the road linking Letterkenny and Dunfanaghy and on the holding of Samuel Gallagher, perhaps he of that name who along with Hugh Gallagher is listed as occupier of a parcel of land of c. 75 acres (c. 30ha) in or around 1857 (Griffith ). Through examination of the relevant valuation maps it was possible to identify what may have been the holding in question. Limited local enquiry and search in the area revealed neither knowledge of nor any likely remnant of the features described by Fagan. Although the nature of the remains is quite uncertain, it may be that two chambered graves, perhaps constituent parts of a single large monument, stood here until around Fagan , book 6, Currynanerriagh. OS 66:7:5 ( ). Finnygal s Grave (1906). OD B There is no trace of this feature, which was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map. According to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), the grave in question was originally enclosed by large flag stones, a few of which now lie prostrate on the grave, but all of which are absorbed beneath a cairn of small stones of modern collection. A later, 1:2,500 Name Book (1903) makes no reference to the presence of stones at the site and describes it simply as a low mound of earth. Local information has suggested that it was a mound, probably oval, measuring c. 6m by 3m by 0.5m high (Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47). During its destruction in around 1940 it was reportedly found to have been composed entirely of clay. There seems to be little likelihood that there was a megalithic tomb here. Fagan , book 23, 17; OS Revision Name Book, sheet 66 ( ), 18 (recounts a legend associated with the site); Doherty 1891, 82; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 66 (1903), 19; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47, no. 156; SMR 1987, 66:3; RMP 1995, 66: Derryreel. OS 25. No precise location. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) recorded the destruction, in the few years before his visit to this townland in 1845, of two ancient sepultures of the type commonly called Dermot and Grania s Bed. One was miles (c. 2.8km) S of the road from Dunfanaghy to Falcarragh. The other was 1 mile (c. 1.6km) W of this. Both were on the S side of a long hill ridge running SW NE close to the long, south-eastern boundary of this large townland. The eastern site, removed in 1844, was reportedly 18 feet (c. 5.5m) long by 4 feet (c. 1.2m) wide and built of great flat slabs. A few pieces of decayed bone were allegedly found here. The western site, said to be of similar construction, was destroyed in 1843, and the slabs with which it was constructed were used for building purposes. Sea sand and shells were found in the structure. These sites appear to be additional to that known as Munterdoney s Grave, also in this townland, the next to be described. The nature of these sites must remain uncertain. Fagan , book 3, 23.

17 196 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND 39. Derryreel. OS 25:11:4 ( ). Munterdoney s Grave (1905). OD B This feature was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map. There are no visible remains of it now. In an account in an OS Revision Name Book (1847 9) it is described as a grave, only two stones of which then survived. One was an upright slab c. 12 feet (c. 3.65m) long and feet (c. 0.45m) high. The other, of similar dimensions, lay over the grave. It is also recorded that the site had been dug at the behest of the proprietor, Mr Hart, and that some human bones were found. There may have been a megalithic tomb here, but more reliable evidence would be required to establish that such was the case. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 25 (1847 9), 23; Borlase 1897, , Kilmacrenan no. 2: Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47, no. 157; SMR 1987, 25:45; RMP 1995, 25: Doocashel Glebe. OS 26:6:1 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1905). OD C This feature was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map. The site, alongside a gravelled roadway in a state forest, when visited in 1985 was overhung by branches and covered by briars and other undergrowth. Two set stones are visible here. These are 0.55m apart, parallel to each other and aligned almost N S. The western one is 0.7m long, 0.2m thick and 0.8m in exposed height. The eastern one is 0.4m long, 0.2m thick and 0.4m high. At the southern end of this is a low stone with rounded top measuring c. 0.5m in maximum dimension and 0.3m in exposed height. This may also be a deliberate feature. There are a number of prostrate slabs, some quite sizeable, scattered in the surrounding undergrowth. There are two accounts of this site in OS documents. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) wrote a somewhat confused description of it. He saw it in 1845 and claimed that it was a cillín (a children s burial ground) originally enclosed by a thick stone wall within which was a gallery built of great slabs of stones with other vaulted graves. At the time of his visit much of the site had been cleared and the rest of it, including, apparently, the gallery feature, was covered by reclamation debris. According to Fagan, the gallery measured c. 12 feet (c. 3.65m) long and 4 feet (c. 1.2m) wide and at around mid-length there was a single roofstone 5 feet (c. 1.5m) long, 4 feet (c. 1.2m) broad and 1 foot (c. 0.3m) thick. A slightly later description of the site in an OS Revision Name Book (1847 9) reads as follows: This druidical monument is about 12 feet [c. 3.65m] long and 5 feet [c. 1.5m] broad. In the north end are two upright stones about 3 feet [c. 0.9m] in height and on the sides smaller stones set edgeways in the ground. The interior has been filled with rubbish gathered off the land by the occupant. The report concludes with the observation that Fagan was in error in describing it as a cillín. The nature of the site is not apparent from the scant remains now present. The early accounts, quoted above, suggest that it may have been a megalithic tomb. Fagan , book 2, 13; OS Revision Name Book, sheet 26 (1847 9), 47; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 181; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 191; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47 8, no. 159; SMR 1987, 26:12; RMP 1995, 26: Dooish. OS 77:3:6 ( ). Cashelnagat Fort, Giant s Grave (Site of) (1906). OD H Fig. 85. There is now no visible trace of this monument, to which the names Cashelnagat Fort and Giant s Grave were given on the edition of the OS six-inch map. On this map the Giant s Grave is depicted as a small rectangular feature within Cashelnagat Fort. The latter is portrayed as a round embanked enclosure c. 30m in diameter. By 1904, the date of the OS 1:2,500 survey of the area, the Giant s Grave was apparently no longer extant. The spot where it had stood is indicated by the appropriate symbol on the map and the words Giant s Grave (Site of). Cashelnagat Fort, depicted on this map as an embanked enclosure, is described in the accompanying OS 1:2,500 Name Book as an ancient mound of earth. It has since been removed. In 1984 there

18 APPENDIX were some large stones lying in the corner of a field that now occupies the site of the enclosure, but it is not known whether these ever formed part of an ancient structure. The monument stood on good farmland S of and overlooking the River Finn. There are two accounts of this monument. One is by Thomas Fagan (1845 8), who visited it in 1846, and the other, unsigned, is contained in an OS Revision Name Book (1847 9). Two rudimentary drawings of the Giant s Grave by Fagan are reproduced below. He described it thus: In the townland of Dooish stands the ruins of a pagan sepulture now called Cashelnagath i.e. the Cat Fort but originally called Dermot and Grania s Bed. It occupied 30 by 20 yards [c m by c. 18.3m] and about 7 feet [c. 2.15m] height but now much disfigured and seat of a small grove of forest trees. It consisted of a number of stone coffins or graves chiefly lying E and W and enclosed at sides and ends by great flags, and all (except a range on its top) immured in a pile or carn of stones. The opposite sketch convey some idea of its present shape and order. The figure in front or east end [captioned Figure 1 by Fagan on his sketch] represent a vault or altar consisting in a great flag supported on four pillars, the two front ones of which, together with the flag or altar over them is shown by sketch. The rear pillars could not appear in this sketch but in size and shape nearly resemble those given by sketch. The vault is 4 feet [c. 1.2m] high, 2 to feet [c m] wide and feet (c. 2m) long front to rear. The four pillars enclosing on either side average four and a half feet [c. 1.35m] high The altar or flag over them is feet [c. 1.4m] long, feet [c. 1.05m] broad and 1 foot [c. 0.3m] thick in the extremes. This erection has been recently discovered by removal of a portion of the eastern end of the cairn in which it was immured. The figure in the background [captioned Figure 2 by Fagan on his sketch] or western part of the cairn represent an enclosed range of graves on the top of the carn lying E and W through its centre enclosed on either side by great flags set end and edgeways in the ground and standing 2 to feet [c m] above the latter, some of great length and in some cases three rows of them laid up together on either side the grave A portion of the range of graves is still traceable and retaining shape and constitute the western end of the original range and measure feet [c. 4.4m] long, 3 to feet [c m] wide and enclosed by flags of the aforesaid size and order as will be seen by sketch as a few of the upright flags are there represented. The slightly later account in the OS Revision Name Book (1847 9) reads as follows: In this fort is the remains of a Giant s Grave so called by the peasantry and is composed of two rows of flags and is about 26 feet [c. 7.9m] long and 5 feet [c. 1.5m] wide. At the east end of this grave is a sort of doorway or entrance formed by two upright stones and another placed horizontal on top. There appears to have been an underground passage here as part of the foundation was lately dug up. Information gathered locally in 1981 suggested that the monument was interfered with and perhaps removed in the early years of the 20th century. During this work a hatchet top or something similar was allegedly found (ASCD archive). In the absence of any visible remains the available accounts, especially in the light of the depiction of the site as a ringfort-type enclosure on OS maps, are open to the interpretation that this monument was a ringfort with souterrain (Ó Nualláin 1983a). Nevertheless, it is possible that this was a megalithic tomb consisting of a cairn in which was a long gallery with a lintelled entrance at the E. The matter remains unresolved. Fagan , book 13, 1 2 (two drawings); OS Revision Name Book, sheet 77 (1847 9), 25; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 77 (1904), 17 18; ASCD archive; Lacy 1983, 206, no. 1267; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 48, no. 160; SMR 1987, 77:7; Ó Nualláin 1989, 142; RMP 1995, 77: Dooros. OS 70:15:6 ( ). Giant s Grave (Site of) (1906). OD H There is no trace of this feature, which was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map, where it is named Giant s Grave. It stood on a gentle fall of ground in pasture just W of the base of Croaghan Hill and almost 2km E of the cruciform passage tomb (Site A) in Kilmonaster Middle townland. Thomas Fagan (1845 8), who visited here in 1846, described it as the ruins of a Giant s Grave 22 feet [c. 6.7m] long and 2 to 4 feet [c m] wide and lie nearly N and S and was enclosed by flat stones, a few of which still remain 1 to 3 feet [c m] high, but not otherwise large. A flat stone in its south end seem to cover a grave and measure 7 feet [c. 2.15m] long, 4 feet [c. 1.2m] broad and 1 to 2 feet [c m] thick. Several smaller flags lie about the

19 198 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND grave. No trace of this structure survived after 1870 according to an entry in the OS 1:2,500 Name Book (1903 4). This may have been a megalithic tomb. However, the evidence is insufficient to warrant its acceptance as a definite one. Fagan , book 10, 32; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 70 (1905), 74; Ó Nualláin 1968b, 14, site K; Herity 1974, 215, Dg. 11; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 37, no. 85; SMR 1987, 70:73; Ó Nualláin 1989, 142; RMP 1995, 70: Drumanoo. OS 97. No precise location. Killanin and Duignan (1962; 1967) claimed that there is a ruined prehistoric chamber tomb on Farbreaga Hill, in Drumanoo townland. The site referred to is not known, unless it is the court tomb (Dg. 48) in this townland that stands 700m SE of the summit of the hill. Killanin and Duignan 1962, 334; Killanin and Duignan 1967, Drumcarbit. OS 4:11:1 ( ). Druid s Altar (1903). OD C This feature is named Druid s Altar on the original OS six-inch map (1834) and on the 1848 edition. It is beside the boundary fence between Drumcarbit and Carrowmore townlands and consists of several large flags heaped one on top of the other. These stones, associated with giants in local tradition, are of uncertain origin, but there is now no indication that they ever formed part of an artificial structure. Borlase 1897, 229, Inishowen East no. 4; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 4 (1900), 59; Colhoun 1949, 116; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 366 (Carrowmore); Killanin and Duignan 1967, 368 (mentions the site twice: firstly, as on the borders of Carrowmore and Balleeghan Upper and, secondly, immediately following, as Drumcarbit); Bonner 1972, 16; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47, no. 144 (Carrowmore); SMR 1987, 4:28 (Carrowmore); Colhoun 1995, 11 12; RMP 1995, 4:28 (Carrowmore). 45. Drumkeelan. OS 93:10:4 ( ). Not marked (1907). OD G This feature has been listed as a possible megalithic tomb in the SMR for County Donegal (1987) and as a court tomb in the RMP for County Donegal (1995). It stands at the N end of a boggy plateau, 350m NW of Glencoagh Lough, and on top of a quarry face with a sheer drop to the N. The feature consists of a long, somewhat illdefined, subrectangular mound, aligned approximately E W and measuring c. 30m long, 14m wide and up to 1.5m high. Approximately 10m from its eastern end is an open space in the mound, oval in outline, measuring 8m E W by 7m N S. This open area is entered via a passageway, 3m long and 1m wide, through the S side of the mound. The sides of the passageway are faced with set stones, two on each side, varying from 0.6m to 1.6m long and from 0.2m to 0.6m high. Just inside the entrance passage two orthostats are exposed at the SE section of the perimeter of the open space. The northern one is 1m long, and the southern one, nearer the entrance, is 1.4m long; both are 0.7m in exposed height. The mound is covered with grass and heather, but its make-up may be largely of stones. Some sizeable stones are visible in occasional exposures, but there is no trace of any formal structure. A doubt remains about the nature of the mound. Although it may be ancient, the matter is complicated by the presence of the quarry, which has been in operation since at least the first half of the 19th century; it is shown on the original OS six-inch map (1835 6). Although the open space here bears a resemblance to a court at the centre of a long mound, it is also possible, particularly in the light of the doubts about the origin of the mound, that it is some form of small enclosure of uncertain date. The nature of this feature as a whole remains to be determined. SMR 1987, 93:5; RMP 1995, 93:5.

20 APPENDIX Drumnaha. OS 70:12:4 ( ). Giant s Grave (Site of) (1906). OD H This was first shown on the original OS six-inch map (1834 5), where it is named Giant s Grave, and it was also so named on the revision at that scale of It stood close to the S side of the road running SW from Ballindrait, on gently rolling pasture, 600m S of the Deele River. The site is overlooked from the S by Croaghan Hill, 1.5km distant. The relevant Name Book and the Memoir of the original OS six-inch survey refer, respectively, to a few stones having the appearance of antiquity called the Giant s Bed and to some large stones, called a Giant s Grave. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) visited the site in 1846 and described it as the ruins of a giant s grave lying almost E W, measuring feet (c. 4.7m) long and 3 feet to 7 feet (c. 0.9m 2.15m) wide and enclosed by great flat stones 2 feet to feet (c m) high, seven of which were then in place. These were feet to 8 feet (c m) long and 1 foot to 3 feet (c m) thick. Approximately feet (c. 1.7m) to the W was a large slab 6 feet (c. 1.8m) long, feet (c. 1.7m) broad and c. 2 feet (c. 0.6m) thick. No trace remained of this feature in 1904 according to an OS 1:2,500 Name Book of that year. On a visit here in the early 1950s Ruaidhrí de Valera and Seán Ó Nualláin noted low stones in the roadside hedge adjacent to the original position of the monument, but it was unclear whether these ever formed part of an ancient structure. In 1984 a large stone of uncertain origin was noted in the hedge here. Fagan s account suggests that there may have been a megalithic tomb here, but the evidence does not warrant its acceptance as a definite one. OS Name Book, Clonleigh parish (1834 5), book 1, 15; OS Memoirs, Clonleigh parish (1835), 23; Fagan , book 10, 33; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 70 (1905), 58; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 44 5, no. 124; SMR 1987, 70:46; Ó Nualláin 1989, 142; RMP 1995, 70: Drung. OS 31:1:5 ( ). Druid s Altar (1903). OD 400. C This monument, named Druid s Altar on all editions of the OS six-inch map, is in pasture 0.9km from the western shore of Lough Foyle. There is a steady fall in ground level from the site toward the lough, across which there is an extensive outlook. Rising ground to the W limits the view inland. A single upright stone measuring 0.6m by 0.7m by c. 2m high stands here. There is a small clump of earth and stones at its base. At the beginning of the 20th century two upright stones stood here, one described as c. 3 feet (c. 0.9m) and the other as c. 5 feet (c. 1.5m) high (OS 1:2,500 Name Book, ). Entries in both an OS Name Book (1833 4) and the OS Memoirs (1833) mention the existence of a Druid s Altar in the townland, but neither contains an account of it. Lewis (1837) noted that there were the remains of an ancient cromlech not far from Drung (the village in the townland of the same name) and that these consisted of eight upright stones near which others lay flat. On the pre-publication Fair Plan of the original OS six-inch map the site referred to in the heading is indicated by eight dots. Each of these may represent a stone. The evidence suggests that there may have been more substantial megalithic remains at this site than the two stones that stood here at the beginning of the 20th century. However, the nature of any such feature remains uncertain. OS Memoirs, Upper Moville parish (1833) [4]; OS Name Book, Upper Moville parish (1833 4), 26; Lewis 1837, vol. 2, 399; Maghtochair 1867, 15; Doherty 1891, 26 (on the slopes of Condum Beg hill); OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 31 ( ), 4; A.I. Young 1929, 8; Colhoun 1949, 117; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 380; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 381; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 48, no. 161; SMR 1987, 31:4; Ó Nualláin 1989, 142; Colhoun 1995, 80, no. 31/5; RMP 1995, 31: Dunmore. OS 25:9:6 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1905). OD B This feature was first marked on the edition of the OS six-inch map. It stood 1.3km ESE of the site of

21 200 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND the destroyed court tomb in Ballintemple (Dg. 2), on gently sloping pasture overlooking the valley of the Ray River. To the S the mountains stretching from Errigal to Muckish form the skyline. An OS 1:2,500 Name Book records that there were several large stones at the site in According to local information, four stones remained here until c. 1930, when they were removed. One stone is said to have been buried, and the others were apparently used for wall-building. Two accounts of the monument are contained in OS documents. The first is by Thomas Fagan (1845 8), who saw it in He described it as the ruins of an ancient sepulture called Dermot and Grania s Bed which seem to have originally occupied 30 by 15 feet [c. 9.15m by 4.6m] but at present consist in a few of the large stones originally enclosing the graves. To the N was a large slab feet (c. 1.7m) long, 5 feet (c. 1.5m) broad and feet (c. 0.45m) thick, with its S end raised 2 feet (c. 0.6m) above ground on two upright pillars. Fagan thought that this large slab had originally rested clear of the ground on the two supporting stones. Approximately feet (c. 3.8m) to the S a large stone feet (c. 2.9m) long, 4 feet (c. 1.2m) broad and of similar thickness lay flat on the ground at right angles to the long axis of the monument. It appeared to Fagan to have been intended to divide the structure into two apartments. The second account, in an OS Revision Name Book (1847 9), reads as follows: This monument is about 18 feet [c. 5.5m] long and 8 feet [c. 2.4m] broad. It is placed N and S and on the N end is a large flag 5 feet [c. 1.5m] long and 4 feet [c. 1.2m] broad. It stands on its edge in a sloping position toward the south and supported by two smaller stones. In the S end is another large stone shaped like a wedge with the narrow part uppermost and extends across the whole breadth of the monument. There are four other smaller stones at the S end. The accounts referred to describe what may have been a considerably ruined megalithic tomb. Fagan , book 3, 14; OS Revision Name Book, sheet 25 (1847 9), 39; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 25 (1905), 45; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 45, no. 125; SMR 1987, 25:44; Ó Nualláin 1989, 142; RMP 1995, 25: Errity. OS 54:13:3 ( ). Giant s Grave (Site of) (1905). OD C This feature is named Giant s Grave on the edition of the OS six-inch map. It stood on rolling pasture 2.2km S of the inner reaches of Lough Swilly. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) described it as the remains of a pagan sepulture commonly called the giant s grave. According to him, it occupied a space c. 13 yards (c. 11.9m) square, which was elevated some feet above adjoining ground. On top, lying E W, was an enclosure 20 feet [c. 6.1m] long, 7 to 9 feet [c m] wide divided into different graves. This enclosure, then much deranged, was built of large blocks of stone, several of which were then still in place. Many other stones were missing or lay prostrate at the site. Kinahan (1885 6, 427) remarked that this structure had been broken up and removed just before his visit to the area. There is now no trace of it, unless a slab, c. 1m in maximum dimension, in a fence adjacent to the site of the monument was part of it. Fagan s account may describe a megalithic tomb, but without corroboration it cannot be accepted as a definite one. Fagan , book 8, 12; Kinahan , 427; Borlase 1897, 235, Raphoe North no. 2; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 45, no. 126; SMR 1987, 54:33; RMP 1995, 54: Eskaheen. OS 39:6:1 ( ). Giant s Grave (1904). OD C This feature was first shown on the 1848 edition of the OS six-inch map, where it is named Giant s Grave. There is no trace of it now. The only information about it is a brief description in an OS 1:2,500 Name Book (1902), which states that the name on the map applies to an indenture in the ground, the sides are composed of large rocks, and covered by a large flat rock. This feature, the nature of which is unclear, had been removed by 1941 (Colhoun 1995). OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 39 (1902), 21; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 380; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 381;

22 APPENDIX Ó Nualláin 1983a, 48, no. 164; SMR 1987, 39:3; Colhoun 1995, 92, no. 39/5; RMP 1995, 39: Fawnaboy. OS 33. No precise location. In 1845 Thomas Fagan (1845 8) visited the remains of an ancient sepulture locally called Dermot and Grania s Bed on the holding of Bernard Harkin in that part of Fawnaboy townland on the above OS six-inch sheet, c. 1 furlong (c. 200m) W of the road from Falcarragh to Dunlewy. The remains then comprised one grave lying E and W, 9 feet [c. 2.75m] in length, 3 feet [c. 0.9m] wide and enclosed by four large flags some of which are 6 feet [c. 1.8m] long and 1 to 4 feet [c m] above the ground laid edgeways and nearly closing over the top of the grave. Fagan concluded by stating that other graves of similar construction had long since been destroyed there. This feature, which has not been found, is not shown on OS maps. In the absence of further information its nature remains uncertain. Fagan , book 5, Garrygort. OS 36:4:6 ( ). Not marked (1905). OD C Kinahan (1889) noted two rude ancient structures of squarish slabs of stone set on edge on the SE slope of Crockmore in the above townland. Then known to locals as Dane s houses they are so very rude that one would easily pass them by as dilapidated shelters for lambs or calves. Kinahan saw weathered traces of sculpturing on a stone of one of the structures. These sites were subsequently listed as dolmens (Borlase 1897) and as chamber tombs (Killanin and Duignan 1962; 1967). They are not shown on OS maps, but Kinahan marked their location on his field maps, now in the Geological Survey Office, Dublin. A search at the location indicated by Kinahan and in the vicinity failed to reveal any identifiable trace of the structures referred to. There is no convincing evidence that these features were megalithic tombs. Kinahan 1889, 281; Borlase 1897, 232 3, Kilmacrenan nos. 18 and 19; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 336; Killanin and Duignan 1967, Garvegort Glebe. OS 74:14:4 ( ). Marked but not named ( ). OD G A feature shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map as a small rectangle, without a name, is named Giant s Grave (Site of) on the pre-publication field map. It is described in an accompanying Name Book as follows: The site of an old grave roughly formed with large stones but now removed from the spot where they stood. There is no trace of any remains here now. The nature of the supposed grave must remain uncertain. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 74 ( ), Glencar Scotch. OS 53:5:6 ( ). Not marked (1906). OD C Kinahan (1883 4; ) has described and illustrated a narrow, parallel-sided, gallery-like feature, c. 5.2m long and internally 1.1m wide. The sides were formed of flags c. 0.9m high, three on one side and four on the other, and one end, apparently the northern, was closed by a tall stone. Flanking the open end of the structure were two further flags. Kinahan described the structure as a lusca (1883 4) and later as a fosleac (1885 6). The former term usually denotes a souterrain, and the latter refers to a habitation or structure constructed of flags or long blocks of stone (Kinahan 1889, 277). It is not shown on OS maps, but Kinahan marked its position on his field maps, now in the Geological Survey Office, Dublin. A search in the area indicated by him, hampered

23 202 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND by thorn bushes, failed to reveal any trace of it. The nature of this feature remains uncertain. Borlase (1897), in noticing the feature just referred to, also drew attention to two other sites designated as antiquities on the OS six-inch map (1834 5). Named Marcagh s Knowe and Marcagh s Stable, these are in the nearby townland of Edenacarnan South (Kinahan ; Lacy 1983). Both sites now appear to be natural knolls, but according to Fagan (1845 8) a rampart enclosed the top of each when he saw them. Fagan , book 6, 18 19; Kinahan , 435 (at Glencar); Kinahan , 426 (plan); Borlase 1897, 234, Kilmacrenan no. 29 (plan after Kinahan); Lacy 1983, 62, no Glenkeo. OS 27. No precise location. It is recorded in an OS Revision Name Book (1848 9) that the hill called Bingrania in this townland is so named because Grania had a bed here marked by stones, but it has been destroyed by the herds [and] no trace is now to be found of it. There is no other information available about this feature. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 27 (1848 9), Goldrum. OS 35:16:2 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1905). OD C This feature, first shown on the 1848 edition of the OS six-inch map, has been demolished. It stood on level ground overlooked to the N by the hill country S of Lough Salt Mountain. South-eastward from the site there is a view between low hills along the valley of the Lurgy River toward Kilmacrenan village. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) described it as the ruins of an ancient sepulture locally called Dermot and Grania s Bed consisting of a great oblong flag measuring feet (c. 2.3m) long, feet (c. 1.7m) broad and 1 foot (c. 0.3m) thick, which lay with its E side nearly resting on the ground and its W side elevated feet [c. 0.75m] by a pillar beneath each end. Immediately to the W a few upright stones, feet (c. 0.75m) high, stood close together. He claimed that many other stones, as well as some enclosed graves, had been removed from the site at an earlier period. The remains here appear to have been further interfered with by the beginning of the 20th century, as they were then described as a large boulder laid horizontally over some loose stones (OS 1:2,500 Name Book, 1903). Two stones, each c. 1m in maximum dimension, set in a field fence a short distance S of where this feature stood are claimed locally to have formed part of it. The structure described by Fagan may have been a ruined megalithic tomb, but evidence that was more compelling would be required to establish with any degree of certainty that this was so. Fagan , book 5, 5; Kinahan , 432; Kinahan 1889, 280; Borlase 1897, 232, Kilmacrenan no. 14; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 35 (1903), 7; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 45, no. 127; SMR 1987, 35:13; Ó Nualláin 1989, 142; RMP 1995, 35: Gort. OS 5:13:1 ( ). Giant s Grave (1903). OD C This monument is named Standing Stone on the original OS six-inch map (1834) and Giant s Grave on the 1848 edition. It consists of a low subrectangular mound measuring 5m N S, 2m E W and 0.5m high. At its southern end is an upright stone, and at the northern end is a partly buried, prostrate stone. The upright stone is 1m long, 0.6m thick and 1.6m high. The prostrate one measures at least 0.8m in maximum dimension. It is clear that the monument was in its present state in 1848 (OS Revision Name Book). It was then locally regarded as the burial place of some noted person. According to the same account, some partly obliterated ornamental devices were visible on the S face of the upright stone. It has not been possible to identify any trace of these. The original nature of this ancient feature is uncertain. The upright stone may be a standing

24 APPENDIX stone, perhaps originally one of a pair, although it is conceivable that there was a more substantial megalithic structure here. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 5 (1848), 21; A.I. Young 1929, 10; Colhoun 1949, 116 (Muff); Bonner 1972, 16; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 49, no. 175; SMR 1987, 5:9; Colhoun 1995, 18; RMP 1995, 5: Gortnacart Glebe. OS 83:2:1 ( ). Not marked (1907). OD G A supposed court tomb at Upper Gortnacart recte Gortnacart Glebe (L. McGill 1964; P.J. McGill 1970) consists of a setting of around a dozen stones protruding above bog-grown land. These stones describe an incomplete oval measuring 4m N S by 3m E W. One of the stones is 1m high, and another is 0.5m high. The rest rise just above the surface. The nature of this ancient feature is uncertain. L. McGill 1964, 63; P.J. McGill 1970, Gortnaskea. OS 38. No precise location. According to A.I. Young (1929), there are the remains of a cromlech on Scalp Mountain. Maghtochair (1867, 15) described one there as being in excellent preservation. It is presumed that both had the same site in mind. Scalp Mountain is almost wholly situated in the above townland, but the site referred to is not known, nor is there any description of it in the two reports. It may well be a natural feature, as Maghtochair (1867, 65) used the term cromlech to describe just such a feature in the nearby townland of Crislaghmore (App. 2, No. 16). Maghtochair 1867, 15; A.I. Young 1929, Gortree. OS 54:4:4 ( ). Giant s Grave (Site of) (1905). OD C This feature, of which there is no trace, is depicted as a rock on the original OS six-inch map of and is named G[iant s] Rock on the Fair Plan. It is named Giant s Grave on the revised six-inch map of The site, c. 5km E of the inner reaches of Lough Foyle on gently rolling pasture, commands a good all-round outlook. The vicinity of the site has been quarried and is now heavily overgrown. Two large prostrate slabs, each c. 1m in maximum dimension, lie c. 6m apart at the southern edge of the quarried area, but it is not known whether these formed part of an ancient structure. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) described this feature as the ruins of a pagan sepulture and stated that it was known locally as a Giant s Grave. It measured 9 feet (c. 2.75m) by 5 feet (c. 1.5m) and had been built with large stones 2 4 feet ( m) high set end and edgeways in the ground. Only three stones were then in place. One of these, standing on edge at the S side of the grave, was 8 feet (c. 2.4m) long. The other two were smaller, but their dimensions are not known. Other stones lay prostrate at the site, one of which was 8 feet (c. 2.4m) long, 4 feet (c. 1.2m) broad and feet (c. 0.45m) thick. According to Fagan, this stone had originally rested on top of the upright stones and covered the grave. According to an entry in the OS 1:2,500 Name Book of 1904, the large stones that had comprised this feature were removed by the then landowner, Houston. The date of their removal is not recorded. In his report Fagan also recorded that c. 21 yards (c. 19m) to the E of the feature just referred to was a large slab measuring 9 feet (c. 2.75m) by feet (c. 2m) and averaging feet (c. 0.75m) thick. This lay almost prostrate on a smaller stone. He speculated that these stones may have been the remains of a second sepulture. The nature of these features remains uncertain. Fagan , book 8, 13; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 54 (1904), 15; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 45, no. 129; SMR 1987, 54:13; Ó Nualláin 1989, 142; RMP 1995, 54:13.

25 204 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND 61. Gortree. OS 54:8:1 ( ). Pagan Burial Place (Site of) (1905). OD C This feature, which has been removed, is named Stones on the original OS six-inch map of and Pagan Burial Place on the revision of On the pre-publication map of the survey it is named Druid s Altar in Ruins. It stood on gently rolling pasture 600m S of the last described. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) described it as the ruins of a pagan altar and sepulture commonly called the Grey Rocks, which had been largely demolished a few years before his visit in During the demolition a large quantity of burnt bones and ashes was reportedly found. Among the stones noted by Fagan during his visit were three massive flags, each as much as 10 or 11 feet (c m) in maximum dimension; two of these were said to have rested on upright stones c. 6 feet (c. 1.8m) high. All trace of the feature had been removed by the early years of the 20th century (OS 1:2,500 Name Book, 1904). The nature of the feature referred to remains uncertain. Fagan , book 8, 16; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 54 (1904), 29; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 45, no. 130; SMR 1987, 54:14; Ó Nualláin 1989, 142; RMP 1995, 54: Islandroy Barr or Drumfin. OS 27:14:1 ( ). Giant s Grave (1905). OD C This feature, first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map, is on a bog-grown hill-ridge. It consists of a single slab on edge near the eastern side of a hole measuring 4m N S, 1.8m E W and 0.5m deep in an uncut portion of bog. The slab is 2.8m long (N S), 0.45m thick and 0.7m in exposed height. In around the middle of the 19th century the stone, said to mark the grave of the mythical hero Fionn Mac Cumhaill, was nearly covered by the bog (OS Revision Name Book, ), and so it appears that the hole has been dug since then. Despite the name accorded to the site on the OS six-inch map, there is now no convincing evidence that the stone formed part of a megalithic tomb. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 27 (1848 9), 24; L.W. Lucas 1962, 13; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 48, no. 166; SMR 1987, 27:20; RMP 1995, 27: Keeldrum Lower. OS 24:15:6 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1905). OD B This feature is named Dermot and Grania s Bed on the OS six-inch map of It is 1.4km SW of Gortahork on level ground above the valleys of the Owentilly River to the W and the Glenna River to the E, both of which reach the sea at the inner end of Ballyness Bay, 1.3km to the N. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) described it as the ruins of an ancient sepulture called Dermot and Grania s Bed which at present consist in one grave 8 feet [c. 2.4m] long enclosed at either side by a slab of nearly equal length placed edgeways in the ground and standing feet [c. 0.45m] above the latter and supporting as cover to the grave a large flag 6 feet [c. 1.8m] long, feet [c. 1.4m] broad and 9 inches [c. 0.2m] thick and a portion of its upper side partially studded with holes 1 to 2 inches [c mm] diameter and 1 2 inch [c. 12mm] deep. Here stood other graves the enclosing stones of which have been long since removed to modern erections. Two opposed stones, aligned N S and standing 0.7m apart, mark the site. They are at right angles to a field wall that has been built over them and largely obscures them. The eastern stone is 1m long, 0.1m thick and 0.7m high. The western is 0.9m long, 0.15m thick and also 0.7m high. Just 0.4m W of this is a partly buried, prostrate slab measuring at least 1.3m in maximum dimension. According to local information, there was further structure here until recent decades, but its extent and relationship to the two set stones are unclear. The remains cannot now be reconciled with Fagan s account, and the nature of the site remains to be satisfactorily determined. Fagan , book 4, 23; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 45, no. 131; SMR 1987, 24:14; RMP 1995, 24:14.

26 APPENDIX Keeldrum Lower. OS 24:15:6 ( ). Not marked (1905). OD B This site, according to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), was known locally as Dermot and Grania s Bed and then consisted of two slabs, one standing upright, which was feet (c. 1.05m) long, 8 inches (c. 0.2m) thick and feet (c. 1.4m) high, and the other, somewhat smaller, leaning against it. A few other stones lay prostrate here; there were others on edge in the ground; and all appeared to have originally lain within an enclosure 25 yards (c m) in diameter. This site was excavated in According to the excavator s account (Kilbride-Jones 1997), a rubble-cored wall, faced internally and externally, formed a round enclosure 23m in diameter. At the S the excavation revealed a chamber filled with midden material within the thickness of the wall. At the NE there was a gap in the wall, and 3m S of it were the two stones noted by Fagan. These still stand at the site. The excavator has suggested that they stood as opposed sidestones of a small megalithic chamber. According to him, there was a socket behind each of these and a further one forming a back to the chamber at the W. Immediately E of and in front of the supposed chamber the excavator identified a small forecourt delimited by sockets. Two periods of activity were identified in the enclosure, the earlier represented by sherds of Western Neolithic pottery, by a plano-convex flint knife and possibly by sherds of coarse pottery. The later period was represented by spindle whorls of stone, a bone needle, a bracelet and ring, both of chlorite, and a heavily corroded iron object. Animal bones and piles of shells were recovered from different parts of the enclosure, and a small amount of cremated human bone was also found there. The site, substantially obscured by furze bushes (in 1994), looks like a ruined cashel with an entrance-like feature at the S consisting of the two stones described by Fagan, one leaning against the other. The nature of the supposed megalithic chamber with forecourt identified by Kilbride-Jones is uncertain. The context of the undoubted Neolithic activity at the site is unclear. Fagan , book 4, 22; Kilbride-Jones 1977; Lacy 1983, 52, no. 194; SMR 1987, 24:15; RMP 1995, 24:15; Kilbride-Jones Keeldrum Upper. OS 33. No precise location. In 1845 Thomas Fagan (1845 8) visited an ancient sepulture locally called Dermot and Grania s Bed in this townland. His account suggests that there was a mound or cairn here measuring c. 30 yards (c. 27.4m) by 20 yards (c. 18.3m) by 7 feet (c. 2.15m) high in which there were two graves, one 7 feet (c. 2.15m) long, the other 9 feet (c. 2.75m) long, and both 2 3 feet (c m) wide. These graves were enclosed at sides and ends by great slabs set edge and endways in the ground and standing 1 to feet [c m] above the bottom of the graves. Fagan noted that some interference had taken place at the site. This site is not shown on OS maps. According to Fagan, it stood a 1 4 mile (c. 400m) W of the road from Falcarragh to Dunlewy on the holding of James Ferry and Denis Duggan. It is not known whether the former is the James Ferry, one of a number bearing that surname, listed as occupier of a small parcel of land in this townland in 1857 (Griffith ). A number of persons named Duggan or Doogan are also listed but none with the Christian name Denis, nor is there any instance at this time, some twelve years after Fagan s visit, of a parcel of land in the joint possession of a Ferry and a Duggan. A general search in the area where James Ferry held land in 1857 failed to reveal any trace of the site, and on the basis of limited enquiry there seems to be no local knowledge of it. The precise nature of the feature described by Fagan is uncertain. It is conceivable that it was a megalithic tomb, but more compelling evidence of its nature would be required to warrant its acceptance as such. Fagan , book 5, Kildrum Lower. OS 55:6:6 ( approx.). Stones (1835). OD C An entry in an OS Name Book (1835) claims that in this townland there are some remarkable stones supposed

27 206 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND to be Druidical remains. The feature may be that described by the word Stones on the Fair Plan of the original OS six-inch map (1835), in the typeface used to denote antiquarian features, at or near the position indicated in the heading, although there is no accompanying dot or mark to show its exact location. It is also named on the published map but not in antiquarian typeface, which suggests that on final consideration it was deemed not to be an antiquity. The name does not appear on later editions of the OS six-inch map. There are no remains at the site, which is on rolling land c. 2km N of Carrigans in the basin of the River Foyle. The nature of this feature remains uncertain. OS Name Book, All Saints parish (1833), Kilmonaster Middle. OS 70:15:4 ( ). Not marked (1906). OD H This feature, of which there is no trace, appears on the revision of the OS six-inch map, where it is depicted as a standing stone but is not named. It was 50m NE of the next to be described. Both stood on a slight elevation in rolling pasture c. 2km W of Croaghan Hill and c. 400m SE of the cruciform passage tomb (Site A) in the same townland. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) identified it as a Giant s Grave enclosed by large flags standing 1 to 2 feet [c m] high [it] is 11 feet [c. 3.3m] square [in it] there lies a flag 7 feet [c. 2.15m] long, 4 feet [c. 1.2m] broad and feet [c. 0.45m] thick and in one end raised 2 feet [c. 0.6m] and seem to cover a grave. Thomas Fagan s brief account suggests that there may have been some form of megalithic structure here, but its nature is quite uncertain. Fagan , book 10, 32; Ó Nualláin 1968b, 12 13, site I; Herity 1974, 214, Dg. 9; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 37, no. 83; Ó Nualláin 1989, 142; RMP 1995, 70: Kilmonaster Middle. OS 70:15:4 ( ). Giant s Grave (Site of) (1906). OD H This feature, of which there is no visible trace, was first shown on the revision of the OS six-inch map. It stood 50m SW of the last. Thomas Fagan identified it as a Giant s Grave and wrote that it, like the last described, was enclosed by large flags standing 1 to 2 feet [c m] high. He added that it occupied a space measuring 24 feet by 14 feet (c. 7.3m by 4.25m) within which lay a flat stone 6 feet [c. 1.8m] square and 1 to feet [c m] thick and in one end raised 2 feet [c. 0.6m]. According to an entry in the OS 1:2,500 Name Book (1903 4), all trace of this monument was removed in around Fagan s account seems to describe some form of megalithic structure, but its nature is not at all clear. Fagan , book 10, 32; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 70 (1905), 72; Ó Nualláin 1968b, 12 13, site H; Herity 1974, 214, Dg. 8; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 36 7, no. 82; SMR 1987, 70:69; Ó Nualláin 1989, 142; RMP 1995, 70: Kinnagoe. OS 29:3:2 ( ). Giant s Grave (1834). OD C This feature is named Giant s Grave on the original OS six-inch map (1834). It does not appear on later editions of the map, and there is now no trace of it. According to an entry in an OS Name Book (1834), the name applied to some stones, but no details are provided. The only indication that there may have been a megalithic tomb here is the name accorded to the site on the OS map. In referring to this site Borlase (1897) also drew attention to two nearby features. One, in Ballynakeeloge townland, is named Carn on OS six-inch sheet 19. The other, named Split Rock on the same sheet (1834 edition only) is on a mountain peak at the junction of three townlands, Ballynakeeloge, Fallask and

28 APPENDIX Connaghkinnagoe. The former is a small cairn (Lacy 1983, 60, no. 240), and the latter is undoubtedly a natural feature. OS Name Book, Fahan Lower parish (1834), 25; Borlase 1897, 230, Inishowen West no. 2 (Borlase was in error in supposing that this is the cromleach near Buncrana mentioned by Doherty 1891, 65); Killanin and Duignan 1962, 113; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 127; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 48, no. 168; SMR 1987, 29:9; RMP 1995, 29: Knockfair. OS 78:2:1 ( ). Not marked (1906). OD H A feature named Druid s Altar in ruins, shown on a pre-publication field map, was omitted from the published OS six-inch map of There is no information about it in OS documents, nor are there any remains at the site now. Its nature remains uncertain. 71. Knockglass. OS 4:1:6 ( ). Carn (Site of) (1903). OD C This feature, named Carn on the 1834 and 1848 editions of the OS six-inch map, is listed as a multichambered cairn by Colhoun (1949, 117). There are no remains at this spot nor any reliable information about its nature. Colhoun 1949, 117; Bonner 1972, 14, 16; SMR 1987, 4:8; Colhoun 1995, 11; RMP 1995, 4: Largatreany. OS 15:8:1 ( ). Druid s Altar (1905). OD C This monument was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map. The remains here, considerably overgrown by furze bushes and other vegetation, consist of a substantial but ill-defined pile of stones, uneven on top, measuring c. 20m E W, 5m N S and 1m in maximum height. Resting on it, c. 5m from its eastern extremity, is a prostrate slab, 1.7m by 1.4m by 0.3m thick. There is a considerable scatter of loose stones in the area around the site, which is crossed by a number of partly ruined field fences. According to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), the remains represent the base of a large cairn that had covered sundry vaults or graves enclosed by large flat stones pitched end and edgeways in the ground. The so-called graves were so disfigured that he found it impossible to ascertain any details of their size or shape. A slab lay prostrate on the cairn, which may be the same one as mentioned above, on the basis of the dimensions quoted by Fagan. He added that a considerable amount of reclamation had taken place in the area in the ten years before his visit, which saw the destruction of many ancient features. The substantial pile of stones here may be the remains of a cairn. Its present appearance suggests that it may have been a long cairn. According to Fagan, it covered some form of megalithic structure, although the nature of this is unclear. Fagan , book 1, 17; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 48, no. 171; SMR 1987, 15:7; RMP 1995, 15: Legmuckduff. OS 36:12:4 ( ). Not marked (1905). OD C According to Kinahan (1889, 282), the remains of a doubled-chambered fosleac, constructed of large squarish blocks stood here. Kinahan (1889, 277) applied the term fosleac to structures constructed of flags or long blocks of stone. This feature is not shown on OS maps, but Kinahan marked its position on his field maps, now in the Geological Survey Office, Dublin. There is now no trace of it. Land reclamation at the site may have accounted for it. The nature of this feature is not known.

29 208 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND Kinahan 1889, 282; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 373; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 374; SMR 1987, 36:24; RMP 1995, 36: Linsfort. OS 18, 19, 28, 29. No precise location. A druidical altar was found lying on the ground in this townland, on the Inishowen peninsula, in The feature was a large slab, 28 feet (c. 8.55m) long and 25 feet (c. 7.6m) broad, full of cavities and cups and possibly decorated (Gough 1789). It has not been found, and its nature is uncertain. Gough 1789, vol. 3, 645 (sketch facing p. 603); Graves , 427 8; Graves , Liscooly. OS 79:5:4 ( ). Standing Stone (1906). OD H The standing stone referred to in the heading (Lacy 1983) is the only surviving one of four remarkable stones two of them placed so as to form a grave that stood in the same field (OS Revision Name Book, 1845). The three missing stones stood c. 75m S of the extant one. The name Giant s Grave written beside these on a pre-publication field map of 1845 was shortly thereafter crossed out, as the three stones were removed by mid Thomas Fagan (1845 8) visited here between 7 July and 29 August 1846 and remarked of the extant standing stone that it was the remaining one of a number of stones that had lately stood in the same field. The nature of the supposed Giant s Grave is not known. It is worth recording that near to this place (no precise location is given) workmen engaged in levelling a fort found a stone coffin containing bones, and an urn, with some other ornaments (OS Revision Name Book, 1845). This may have been a Bronze Age cist burial. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 79 (1845) [12]; Fagan , book 12, 4; Lacy 1983, 83, no. 447; SMR 1987, 79:13; RMP 1995, 79: Listicall Lower. OS 55:5:5 ( ). Giant s Grave (Site of) (1905). OD C This feature is named Giant s Grave on the original OS six-inch map (1835) and on the revised six-inch map of There are no visible remains at the site. When Thomas Fagan (1845 8) visited here in 1846 he found two set stones amid a spread of loose stones. The taller one measured 2 feet (c. 0.6m) by feet (c. 0.45m) by 4 feet (c. 1.2m) high. The other was 2 feet (c. 0.6m) high, 6 feet (c. 1.8m) long and feet (c. 0.45m) thick. Unfortunately he did not comment on the positioning of the stones relative to each other. However, he thought that they represented the remains of a Giant s Grave. The feature appears to have been cleared by 1903, the date of the OS 1:2,500 survey of the area, after which it was named Giant s Grave (Site of) on the OS map. The nature of the site remains uncertain. Fagan , book 11, 15; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 45 6, no. 133; SMR 1987, 55:8; RMP 1995, 55: Loughros Glebe. OS 36. No precise location. According to an entry in an OS Name Book (1834), there is a cromlech in this townland, but no details of it are provided. It is not shown on OS maps. The Name Book reference may be to a feature named Standing Stone on the original OS six-inch map (1834) that is not marked on later editions of the map and of which there is now no trace (Lacy 1983). In any case the nature of the supposed cromlech remains uncertain. OS Name Book, Aughnish and Tullyfern parishes (1834), book 2, 2; Lacy 1983, 95, no. 600.

30 APPENDIX Lurgan. OS 103:11:5 ( ). Marked as trigonometrical station (1907). OD G Killanin and Duignan (1962; 1967) refer to a chambered cairn in this townland. The feature is a grass-grown mound c. 15m in diameter and up to 1m high. An OS trigonometrical pillar has been built on the mound. The nature of any structure that the mound may cover is not known. The mound stands toward the NE edge of an embanked enclosure c. 35m in diameter, and both are within a great D-shaped enclosure measuring c. 340m N S by c. 200m E W. This great enclosure is delimited at the E by a steep natural escarpment and elsewhere by the collapsed remains of a stone wall that curves around the top of the hill. It appears to be a hillfort, although it has been suggested (G.P. and O.D. 1942) that it is a Neolithic enclosure. G.P. and O.D. 1942, 137; Deery 1948, 101 ( Lurgan Cairn ); Davies and Evans , 4; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 78; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 89; Lacy 1983, 148 9, no. 886; SMR 1987, 103:29; RMP 1995, 103: Magheestown. OS 62. No precise location. According to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), the ruins of a Giant s Grave 14 feet (c. 4.25m) long and 8 feet (c. 2.4m) wide, orientated E W, had stood in this townland, but only a few stones, 1 2 feet (c m) high, remained when he visited the area in Fagan described the location of the site as 3 4 of a mile (c. 1.2km) W of the road leading from Raphoe to Newtowncunningham and on the holding of William Tease. It was not shown on OS maps: according to a note written alongside Fagan s account, the reviser who was sent to check the site for inclusion on the map after Fagan had brought it to notice found that neither Tease nor the oldest inhabitant in the townland knew of it, nor was there any apparent trace of it. Today, in a field c. 1.2km from the Raphoe Newtowncunningham road and on land occupied by William Tays in 1857 (Griffith ) there is a small upright stone at a position 33.6cm from the left-hand side and 17.6cm from the bottom of OS six-inch sheet 62 (NGR C ). It measures 0.45m by 0.45m by 0.6m high. Its origin and purpose are now unclear, but perhaps it is one of the stones noted by Fagan. Approximately 15m W of this stone and toward the NW corner of the field the surface of a large slab of rock bears rock art motifs (Cody 1998). Whether the few stones noted by Fagan were the remains of a megalithic tomb is uncertain. Fagan , book 8, Magheramenagh. OS 25:3:5 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1905). OD B This feature was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map. All trace of it had been removed by At the beginning of the 20th century two large boulders are said to have marked the site (OS 1:2,500 Name Book, 1903). The word boulders in the Name Book entry was inserted in place of the words standing stones, which are crossed out. According to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), this feature consisted of one traceable grave, 12 feet [c. 3.65m] long and 3 feet [c. 0.9m] wide formerly enclosed at sides and ends by large flag stones, two of which still remain and stand 3 feet [c. 0.9m] high, feet [c. 0.75m] broad and 1 foot [c. 0.3m] thick. All the others have been removed within memory. Although it is possible that there were the scant remains of a megalithic tomb here at the time of Fagan s visit, the evidence is insufficient to warrant its acceptance as a proven one. Fagan , book 3, 21; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 25 (1905), 9; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 49, no. 173; SMR 1987, 25:23; RMP 1995, 25: Magheranaul. OS 4:13:2 ( ). Cloghtogle (1834). OD C This feature is mentioned in some of the unpublished documents of the original OS six-inch survey (1834), but

31 210 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND no details are provided about its nature. It is not shown on later editions of the OS six-inch map, where instead a space incorporating the position shown on the 1834 map is identified as St. Buchan s Burial Ground. This burial ground is an irregular platform, measuring 23m N S by 31.3m E W, at the highest point of which is a small cairn. On top of the cairn is an upright slab, one of several presumed grave-markers (Lacy 1983). There seems little reason to suppose that the term Cloghtogle in this instance referred to a megalithic tomb. OS Name Book, Clonmany parish (1834), 20; OS Memoir, Clonmany parish (1834), 16; Borlase 1897, 229, Inishowen East no. 1; Lacy 1983, 282 3, no. 1594; SMR 1987, 4:48; Colhoun 1995, 13, no. 4/21; RMP 1995, 4: Malin Beg. OS 89. No precise location. Killanin and Duignan (1962) have claimed that there is a prehistoric chamber tomb near Trabane Strand in this townland. It has not been possible to find it. The omission of any reference to this in the second edition of The Shell guide to Ireland (Killanin and Duignan 1967) suggests that by then the authors had reason to doubt its existence. Killanin and Duignan 1962, Masiness. OS 26:10:1 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (Site of) (1905). OD C This feature was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map. There is no trace of it now. In the middle of the 19th century two stones, one upright and the other prostrate, marked the site and were thought to be the last remains of a sepulchral monument known locally as Dermot and Grania s Bed (Fagan ; OS Revision Name Book, ). The upright stone was c. 4 feet (c. 1.2m) high, feet (c. 1.05m) broad and 6 inches (c. 0.15m) thick. The prostrate stone was 7 feet (c. 2.15m) long, 3 feet (c. 0.9m) broad and 7 inches (c. 0.17m) thick. According to Fagan (1845 8), the upright stone marked the W end of a grave that had measured feet (c. 2.3m) long and 4 5 feet (c m) wide, and it was locally believed that the prostrate stone had stood upright at the E end of the grave. All trace of the site had been removed by 1902 (OS 1:2,500 Name Book, ). This may have been a megalithic tomb but cannot be relied on as such on the basis of the available evidence. Fagan (1845 8), book 2, 15; OS Revision Name Book, sheet 26 (1847 9), 22; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 26 (1902 3), 44; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 46, no. 134; SMR 1987, 26:28; RMP 1995, 26: Meencargagh. OS 77. No precise location. In 1846 Thomas Fagan (1845 8) visited a site called Labbagrania in this townland, 5 furlongs (c. 1km) NW of the road leading from Ballybofey to Donegal town on the holding of Hugh Dermod. He described it as the ruins of a pagan sepulture, orientated more or less N S, which was 12 feet (c. 3.65m) long and feet (c. 2.9m) wide. Only a small number of stones were then in place. Three of these measured, on average, feet (c. 1.05m) high, feet (c m) broad and a 1 2 foot to 1 foot (c m) thick. A note alongside Fagan s report in another hand states that this site should not be shown on the OS six-inch map, which suggests a doubt on the part of the field reviser about its authenticity. In 1989 a wedge tomb (Dg. 98) was discovered in this townland. Fagan s account of the site he called Labbagrania is not sufficiently detailed to permit a definite conclusion about whether it and the wedge tomb are one and the same. Fagan , book 13, 3.

32 APPENDIX Millford. OS 36. No precise location. Lewis (1837) recorded that there is a Giant s Grave at Millford. There is no known megalithic tomb nor any other structure that might merit the name Giant s Grave in the town of Millford nor in the townland, also Millford, in which it is situated. The basis for Lewis s claim is not known. Lewis 1837, vol. 2, Moyne. OS 100:5:3 ( ). Giant s Grave (1835 6). OD G This feature, named Giant s Grave on the original OS six-inch map (1835 6), is not shown on later editions. On the map the words Giant s Grave appear in Golard townland beside a circular enclosure in the adjoining townland of Moyne next to which the name Fort is also written. According to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), this fort was referred to by some in the locality as the Giant s Grave. He added that there was no trace of a grave at the site nor any recollection of one. There seems little reason to suppose that there was ever a megalithic tomb at this location. Fagan , book 14, 20; Borlase 1897, 236, Tirhugh no. 1; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 48, no. 165 (under Golard); SMR 1987, 100:7; RMP 1995, 100: Moyra Glebe. OS 25. No precise location. Thomas Fagan (1845 8), on his visit to this townland in 1845, was told of the destruction of what may have been a megalithic tomb. It had reportedly stood c. 100 yards (c. 90m) W of the court tomb (Dg. 103) in the same townland and like it was locally called Dermot and Grania s Bed. It had consisted of several graves of great size that were enclosed at ends and sides by immensely large blocks and flags standing 3 to 5 feet [c m] above the ground, a few from 6 to 8 feet [c m] high and of great breadth and thickness and in one case a stupendous flag supported about 4 feet [c. 1.2m] above the ground on upright pillars of great weight and thickness. He added that the entire structure had been recently dislodged and the immense blocks and slabs used in houses and fences on the site, many of them still retaining their original size and form. He also recorded that c. 50 yards (c. 45m) to the N there was an ancient column 8 feet (c. 2.4m) high, feet (c. 1.7m) broad and 4 feet (c. 1.2m) thick. A few small pillars stood at its base. There may well have been a megalithic tomb here, but reliance on Fagan s necessarily generalised secondhand report leaves some uncertainty about the nature of the feature. Fagan , book 3, Mullanacross. OS 103:3:2 ( ). Not marked (1907). OD G According to Deery (1948, 102 3), Henry Morris found a stone-built chamber 10 feet (c. 3.05m) long (E W) and feet (c. 2.3m) wide when excavating a mound in this townland in Among the finds was a stone axe recovered from what appears to have been a disturbed context near the top of the mound. The mound, round in outline, stands immediately N of a roadside fence. It measures 8m N S by 6m E W and over 1m high. Its eastern edge has been removed to facilitate a gateway. When visited, in 1994, the mound was overgrown and difficult to examine. Some stones visible at the mound surface seemed to be set. However, their age and function were not clear. As they seemed to be set in the mound rather than in the old ground surface beneath, it is unlikely that they formed part of a megalithic chamber. Deery 1948,

33 212 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND 89. Muntermellan. OS 15. No precise location. According to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), one of those sepulchral graves commonly called Grania s Bed was destroyed in this townland in Some stones of the structure still lay on the ground at the site, a slight hillock, when he visited the area in He was told that it had been built of large slabs set on edge and that it measured, internally, c. 8 feet (c. 2.4m) by 4 feet (c. 1.2m) by 4 feet (c. 1.2m) high and was roofed by a cover slab of great size and weight. It had, apparently, stood in a cairn. Decayed bones, supposed to be human, were reputedly found at some depth beneath the surface of the grave. The location of this site is not shown on OS maps. Fagan has recorded that it stood on the holding of Thomas Durnin, perhaps the Thomas Durneen listed as occupier of a parcel of land of c. 82 acres (c. 33.2ha) in this townland in or around 1857 (Griffith ). The nature of the site remains uncertain. Fagan , book 1, Norrira. OS 4. No precise location. According to Killanin and Duignan (1962; 1967), there is a prehistoric chamber tomb in the grounds of Malin Hall in this townland. It has not been possible to find such a feature here. It may have been a cist burial (B. Ó Ríordáin and J. Waddell 1993). Killanin and Duignan 1962, 366; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 368; B. Ó Ríordáin and J. Waddell 1993, 101, no Owey Island. OS 40 and 40A. No precise location. According to Harkin (1893), there was a Giant s Grave, 30 feet (c. 9.15m) long, on the island. Borlase (1897) was here in 1892, when two stones sunk in the ground and 30 feet (c. 9.15m) apart were pointed out to him as representing the extremities of a Giant s Grave, no other trace of which remained. He described the location as a long area of sloping turf under the peak of a rocky eminence forming the seaward extremity of the island. On the rocky summit above this spot there was a small cavity or cist known as Dermot and Granny s Bed, which Borlase considered may have been a natural feature. Despite an extensive search it has not been possible to find these sites. Their nature remains uncertain. Harkin 1893, 67; Borlase 1897, 238 9, Boylagh no. 1; Crozier 1957, 65 (island of Omey recte Owey). 92. Pollaguill. OS 15. No precise location. In this townland, on a gentle elevation contiguous to the sea shore at the W side of Horn Head peninsula, there was a sepulchral monument that, according to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), was destroyed during land clearance sometime before his visit there in It reportedly consisted of sundry vaults or graves enclosed at sides and ends with long flat stones pitched end and edgeways in the ground and in some instances covered with stones of similar description. Decayed bones and cinders were reportedly found in a number of the graves, the floors of some of which were said to have been paved with sea pebbles of different colours. This may have been some form of megalithic monument, but its nature remains uncertain. Fagan , book 1, Port. OS 25:4:2 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1905). OD C This feature was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map. It is represented by two set stones.

34 APPENDIX These are 1.3m apart, parallel to each other and aligned NNW SSE. The eastern stone is 1.1m long, 0.15m thick and 0.45m high. The western is 0.5m long, 0.2m thick and 0.6m high. Fagan (1845 8), who saw the site in 1845, claimed that these stones were the remains of an ancient sepulture of the type commonly called Dermot and Grania s Bed and that flags and large blocks of stone had been removed from the site within local memory for building purposes. Although the two stones here may be the remains of some form of megalithic structure, the nature of any such is now unclear. Fagan , book 3, 19; OS Revision Name Book, sheet 25 (1847 9), 12; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 49, 178; SMR 1987, 25:13; RMP 1995, 25: Portlough. OS 47:14:4 ( ). Giant s Grave (Site of) (1905). OD C This feature is named Giant s Grave on the original OS six-inch map (1833) and on the revised six-inch map of There is no trace of it now. Thomas Fagan (1845 8), whose examination of the site in 1846 was restricted by a grain crop, found two upright stones c. 10 yards (c. 9.15m) apart and each c. 4 feet (c. 1.2m) high. In seeming confirmation of this, the site is named Standing Stones on an OS pre-publication map, although the name Giant s Grave was retained on the published version (1846 8). The name Giant s Grave (Site of) assigned to the site on the 1905 edition of the OS six-inch map indicates that the stones had been removed by that date. Although the nature of the site remains uncertain, there is no convincing evidence that the stones noted by Fagan ever formed part of a megalithic tomb. OS Name Book, All Saints parish (1833), 6; Fagan , book 11, 21; Borlase 1897, 234, Raphoe North no. 4; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 49, no. 179; SMR 1987, 47:19; Colhoun 1995, 98; RMP 1995, 47: Rahan Near. OS 98:5:6 ( ). Not marked (1907). OD G At the position indicated in the heading, a stone has been placed on edge on top of a prominent NE SW hill ridge from which there are commanding views. The stone, aligned NE SW, is 2.8m long and 0.45m thick. It slopes from a height of 0.95m at its SW end to 0.2m at the NE end. There is no visible trace of any structure here, nor was there in 1847, when the stone was described in an OS Hill Drawing Name Book (1847). Its suitability for use as a side orthostat in a megalithic tomb, particularly a wedge tomb given its orientation and decrease in height from SW to NE, deems it worthy of record, although its origin and function remain quite uncertain. OS Hill Drawing Name Book, book 116 (1847), Rinclevan. OS 15:16:2 ( ). Labba (Site of) (1905). OD C This feature was named Labba on the original OS six-inch map (1834) and on the revised six-inch map of There is now no trace of it. It is described in an OS Name Book (1834) as a small collection of stones eight in number said to have been a temporary residence for a husband and wife, a reference, it appears, to the Diarmuid and Gráinne legend. According to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), the structure was removed in On the basis of local information gleaned on his visit to the area in 1845 he concluded that it was a Druidical sepulchre of the type known to the people as Dermot and Grania s Bed and that it had occupied a space 40 feet (c. 12.2m) by 20 feet (c. 6.1m) inside a parapet of earth and stone and had consisted of sundry vaults or graves built of large stone slabs 2 5 feet (c m) high. A central vault measured 10 feet (c. 3.05m) by 6 feet (c. 1.8m) and was covered by a single great flag. The other graves were of minor size, but there is no information about their number or position relative to the so-called central vault. On the destruction of the monument, shin, thigh and other human

35 214 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND bones of large size were reportedly found, as well as over three cartloads of sea shells and two brass spears each c. 18 inches (c. 0.45m) long, one embracing the handle by a socket and the other by straps. Many other finds of minor order were lost by local children. The floors of the graves were said to have been paved with large and small stones. Although the monument appears to have been some form of chambered burial site, its nature remains uncertain. OS Name Book, Clondahorky parish (1834), book 4, 52; Fagan , book 4, 6; Borlase 1897, 231, Kilmacrenan no. 4; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 260; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 263; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 49, no. 180; SMR 1987, 15:18; RMP 1995, 15: Sharagore. OS 18:8:5 ( ). Cloghtogle (1905). OD C This feature was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map. It consists of two large slabs, one prostrate and the other lying partly on it and partly on the ground. The prostrate slab measures 3.5m by 2m by 0.75m thick. The other measures 3m by 2.5m by 0.6m. These stones were in their present positions in 1850 (OS Revision Name Book, ). Their origin is uncertain, but there is no indication now that they formed part of an artificial structure. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 18 ( ), 15; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 49, no. 181; SMR 1987, 18:11; Colhoun 1995, 56, no. 18/6, plate 8 (b); RMP 1995, 18: Stragar. OS 91 or 92. No precise location. McNelis (1952), in notes compiled in 1931, noted six large stones standing in an elliptical space and some distance apart in the above townland and considered the feature to be a grave monument. It has not been possible to find this site, and its nature remains uncertain. McNelis 1952, 431; Conaghan 1974, Straths. OS 11:1:2 ( ). Standing Stone (1903). OD C Colhoun (1949, 115) referred to a wrecked megalith near Ballyliffin, which she positioned in Straths townland on page 116 of the same work. Following her, Killanin and Duignan (1962; 1967) also recorded it. A fuller account (Colhoun 1995) identified the site as that in the heading. There is a standing stone here (Lacy 1983), beside which, in 1946, Colhoun noted some partly buried or prostrate slabs that she thought may represent the remains of a collapsed Giant s Grave. There are some large stones scattered around at this location, which is rough and overgrown, but there is no reliable indication that they formed part of a megalithic tomb. Colhoun 1949, ; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 127; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 140; Lacy 1983, 88, no. 487; SMR 1987, 11:6; Colhoun 1995, 39 40; RMP 1995, 11: Tawnyvorgal. OS 94:2:1 ( ). Not marked (1907). OD G A supposed dolmen said to consist of a massive cap stone supported by pillar stones, incorrectly assigned to the townland of Friary (Anon. 1952), comprises three prone slabs, the largest almost 3m in maximum dimension and lying on the two others, in the adjoining townland of Tawnyvorgal. Although it cannot be ruled out that these are the remains of a collapsed structure, there is at present no good reason to suppose that there was a megalithic tomb here.

36 APPENDIX Anon. 1952, 430; SMR 1987, 94:3; RMP 1995, 94: Tops. OS 70:6:4 ( ). Carn ( ). OD C This monument, on a hilltop with an extensive outlook in all directions, is known as Beltany Stone Circle. It lies 3.2km NNW of the cemetery of megalithic tombs centred on Kilmonaster Middle townland. It consists of a disturbed artificial platform now c. 0.5m high, perhaps the base of a cairn, bounded by a circle of large stones. The circle is c. 45m in diameter. At present 64 stones stand in the circle, and there may originally have been up to 80. Some large stones are exposed in the disturbed interior. It has been suggested that there may have been a megalithic chamber within the circle (O.D. 1939), perhaps a passage tomb (Ó Nualláin 1995, 15). The earliest accounts of the site seem to be those in the unpublished documentation of the Ordnance Survey dating to the years shortly before the mid-19th century. It is clear that the monument was considerably disturbed at this stage. According to the OS Memoir (1836), there had been a cairn or vast heap of stones within the circle, but it had been removed to form fences in the vicinity. Thomas Fagan (1845 8), who saw the monument in 1846, observed that both the interior and the enclosing circle of stones were much disfigured. He was informed that the interior was raised with earth and stones covering and encircling sepulchral graves and that decayed bones were unearthed here. Excavation would be required to determine whether the enclosed platform is the base of a cairn and whether there was any form of megalithic chamber here. OS Memoirs, Raphoe parish (1836), 1, 27; Fagan , book 10, 28; H. Morris 1939 (Beltany); O.D (Beltany); Lacy 1983, 72 3, no. 329 (fig.); SMR 1987, 70:26B; Ó Nualláin 1995, 15; RMP 1995, 70:26/ Tory Island. OS 6. No precise location. Getty (1853) noted some very large stones, like the remains of a cromleac on high ground behind (i.e. to the N of) West Town on Tory Island. T.H. Mason (1936) claimed that a dolmen on the island was marked on a map in his possession. However, he failed to find the monument and was informed locally that it had been broken up by a contractor employed to build a wall at the lighthouse, which is at the NW extremity of the island. According to Hunter (1972), a megalithic tomb was shown on the 1910 edition of the OS six-inch map. This is not so, as no feature there bears any of the names usually assigned to such monuments on OS maps. He may have had in mind one of a number of sites on the map named Carn or Grave(s). There is no trace of a megalithic tomb at any of these sites. More convincing evidence would be required to establish that there was a megalithic tomb on the island. It may be noted that the name Leaba Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne or a version of it has been applied by islanders to what are apparently natural features at the E end of the island (OS Letters, 1835; Doherty 1891; Ó Colm 1971). OS Letters (1835), 89; Getty 1853, 114; Doherty 1891, 187; T.H. Mason 1936, 18; Ó Colm 1971, 49; Hunter 1972, 160; Crumlish 1993, Tromaty. OS 30:11:6 ( ). Not marked (1903). OD C Colhoun (1995) suggested that a mound at this location may contain a chambered grave. The mound, roughly rectangular, measures c. 7m by 3m by 1m high. It is grass grown, although some large stones are partly exposed at the surface. The mound is clearly an artificial feature, but it is not known whether it covers any structure. Colhoun 1995, 78, no. 30/10.

37 216 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND 104. Tullanree. OS 11:7:5 ( ). Standing Stone (1903). OD C Colhoun (1995) suggested that this may be the site of a Giant s Grave. However, the indications are that a substantial mound of earth and some large stones at this spot are derived from land-clearance activities that took place sometime before 1943, when Colhoun visited the site. The standing stone shown here on the OS map cannot now be identified with certainty. Lacy 1983, 88, no. 499; SMR 1987, 11:39; Colhoun 1995, 32, no. 11/13; RMP 1995, 11: Tullyally. OS 21:10:2 ( ). Giant s Grave (Site of) (1903). OD C This feature was first shown on the 1849 edition of the OS six-inch map, where it is named Giant s Grave. There is no trace of it now. It is briefly described in an OS Revision Name Book (1849) as consisting of standing flags arranged in an irregular oblong form about 8 feet [c. 2.4m] long. It had apparently been removed by 1900, as it is described as the site of a Giant s Grave in an OS 1:2,500 Name Book of that time. It seems to have been an artificial feature, possibly some form of megalithic structure, but its precise nature is unclear. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 21 (1849), 47; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 21 ( ), 21; Colhoun 1949, 116; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 380; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 381; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 49, no. 183; SMR 1987, 21:5; Colhoun 1995, 61; RMP 1995, 21: Tullynabratilly. OS 10:4:6 ( ). Darby s Bed (1834). OD 500. C This feature, named Darby s Bed on the original edition of the OS six-inch map (1834), is shown but not named on the revised six-inch map of It stands at the western edge of a stream and consists of two stones at right angles to each other. The larger one, an upright slab, lies ENE WSW and is 1.07m long, 0.2m thick and 1m high. The smaller stone is just S of the eastern end of the larger. This is a low stone, 1m long, 0.5m thick and 0.3m high. The nature of this artificial feature is unclear. Borlase 1897, 229, Inishowen East no. 7; Lacy 1983, 88, no. 501; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 49, no. 184 (the description here arose from a misidentification of the site); SMR 1987, 10:20; RMP 1995, 10: Tullynabratilly. OS 10:8:2 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1903). OD 600. C This feature was named Grania s Bed on the original OS six-inch map (1834) and Dermot and Grania s Bed on the edition of All trace of it had been removed by 1945 (Colhoun 1995). It stood in pasture on the S- facing slope of Coolcross Hill. There are two short accounts of this feature. In the OS 1:2,500 Name Book ( ) it is described as an antiquity consisting of a few stones forming a rectangle. Somerville (1929, 155 6) gave the following description: This appears to be the remains of a chamber grave. It is greatly ruined, and now consists of three slabs of stone only, set on their edges in the ground, parallel to one another, 5 feet [c. 1.5m] apart, marking the two sides of the grave; each slab being about 6 feet [c. 1.8m] long and 3 feet [c. 0.9m] high above present ground level. The capstone and all other of its original features have disappeared. This may have been a megalithic tomb, but it cannot reliably be accepted as one on the available evidence. Borlase 1897, 229, Inishowen East no. 5; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 10 ( ), 37; Somerville 1929, 155 6; Colhoun 1949, 117; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 87; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 98; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 49, no. 185; SMR 1987, 10:19; Colhoun 1995, 23; RMP 1995, 10:19.

38 APPENDIX Umgall. OS 4:2:2 ( ). Grave (Site of) (1903). OD C This feature is named Grave on the 1848 edition of the OS six-inch map. It is listed by Colhoun (1949) as a multi-chambered cairn. There is no trace of it now, unless two large stones, partly buried, are remnants. It is described as follows in an OS Revision Name Book (1848): The grave is about twelve feet [c. 3.65m] long and six feet [c. 1.8m] broad the only traces which remain are some rubbish of loose stones and any which were of use being carried away for other purposes by the peasantry. The nature of this destroyed site is uncertain. Lewis 1837, vol. 1, 352 ( Ossian s Grave ); OS Revision Name Book, sheet 4 (1848), 11; Maghtochair 1867, 25 (cairn at Umgall); Doherty 1891, ( Oscar s Grave ); A.I. Young 1929, 10; Colhoun 1949, 117; Bonner 1972, 14, 16; Lacy 1983, 62, no. 270; SMR 1987, 4:1; Colhoun 1995, 11, no. 4/13a; RMP 1995, 4: No precise location. Wakeman (1876 8a) was aware of three much ruined megalithic chambers on the coast at Bundoran. One is the wedge tomb in Magheracar (Dg. 88), and another is the passage tomb in the same townland. The third site has not been identified. Wakeman a, 105; Borlase 1897, under Tirhugh nos. 3, 4, 6 ( There must have been a second monument near this ) No precise location. Kinahan (1883 4) suggested that a pair of standing stones to the southward of Manorcunningham village (NGR C ) may have been the last remains of a Giant s Grave. Without further information it is not possible to assess the merit of his suggestion. Kinahan , No precise location. Borlase (1897) listed as a dolmen a site in the parish of Culdaff in north Inishowen on the basis of notes supplied to him by Margaret Stokes. In these she had described it as a cromlech with avenue to the north. The avenue consisted of five stones on the one side, and four on the other some of which were huge blocks, 10 to 12 feet [c m] thick. It stood near the coast on slightly raised ground, but Borlase was unaware of its exact location. It has not been possible to identify this site, the nature of which remains uncertain. M. Stokes 1882, 17; Borlase 1897, 230, Inishowen East no No precise location. According to Margaret Stokes (1882), there was a Giant s Grave at Carn. Her small-scale distribution map places it a short distance SE of Lough Derg. It is not known to what site she was referring, but it may have been the feature named St. Davog s Chair on OS six-inch sheet 101. This is in the townland of Carn. It has been described as consisting of a stone seat in front of a grave-like opening but may no longer survive (Lacy 1983, 282). In the OS Memoir (1835) there is an annotated drawing of a feature named St. Deavog s Chair. This is assigned to a townland named Seadavog Mountain, which, like the townland of Carn, adjoins the southern end of Lough Derg. This drawing shows a small, subrectangular, box-like feature apparently set into the ground. The

39 218 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND illustration indicates that it was formed by four stones, one at each of the sides and ends. The recorded measurements show it to have been c. 0.75m long, 0.4m wide at one end, narrowing to 0.2m at the other, and 0.6m deep. Apparently people knelt in this to pray, with feet to the broader end, knees to the narrower end and elbows resting on the sides. There may be two sites named St. D(e)avog s Chair or simply confusion about location. The name assigned to the site links it to the famous pilgrimage centre on Lough Derg. As the supposed Giant s Grave referred to by Stokes cannot reliably be identified, its nature remains uncertain. OS Memoirs, Templecarn parish (1835) [23]; M. Stokes 1882, 17; Lacy 1983, , no No precise location. Richard Pococke, on a tour of Ireland in 1752, saw some stones set on end in a circle around a single stone on a height somewhere, his account suggests, between Buncrana and Clonmany on the W side of the Inishowen peninsula (G.T. Stokes 1891; McVeigh 1995). The site has not been identified, and its nature is uncertain. G.T. Stokes 1891, 47; McVeigh 1995, No precise location. Richard Pococke, on a tour of Ireland in 1752, noted a cromlech somewhere in the Falcarragh Gortahork area of NW Donegal, consisting of a large stone laid on three or four others (G.T. Stokes 1891; McVeigh 1995). The site cannot reliably be identified, but of the megalithic tombs extant in the area today the description would best fit the portal tomb at Ards Beg (Dg. 1). Whether this is the site referred to remains uncertain. G.T. Stokes 1891, 63; McVeigh 1995, 65.

40 APPENDIX 2 Sites rejected as megalithic tombs The sites are listed in alphabetical order by townland, followed by those for which the townland is not known. 1. Adderville. OS 10:6:3 ( ). Not marked (1903). OD C Colhoun (1949; 1995) recorded a multiple-chambered cairn or Giant s Grave in this townland. The feature, when cleared of bushes, is seen to be a substantial piece of outcropping rock. Colhoun 1949, 117; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 162; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 172; Colhoun 1995, Ardeevin. OS 94:3:4 ( ). Not marked (1907). OD G A supposed dolmen in this townland (Anon. 1952) is a large prostrate slab just outside the perimeter of a ringfort. Anon. 1952, Balleelaghan. OS 4:10:5 ( ). Friar s Cell (1903). OD C Listed as a dolmen by Borlase (1897), this is a small cave-like opening in a ledge of rock, the entrance to which is partly closed by a stone wall. A friar named Doherty supposedly lived here in the 17th century (OS Name Book, 1834). OS Name Book, Clonca parish (1834), book 1, 26; Borlase 1897, 229, Inishowen East no. 3; Bonner 1972, 15; SMR 1987, 4:24; Colhoun 1995, 10 ( Balleeghan ); RMP 1995, 4: Ballyboe. OS 25:6:1 ( ). Altar (1905). OD B This feature, listed by Borlase (1897) as a dolmen, was later described as a chamber tomb (Killanin and Duignan 1962; 1967). This is an altar at which, it is locally believed, Mass was celebrated during the era of the Penal laws. Borlase 1897, 230, Kilmacrenan no. 1; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 298; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 300; SMR 1987, 25:47; RMP 1995, 25: Ballybuninabber. OS 44:3:4 ( ). Carn (1905). OD C This feature, named Druid s Grave on the original OS six-inch map (1834 5), is a round cairn in which a large cist containing a human skeleton and two small pottery vessels were found in around 1830 (OS Name Book, 1834; Fagan ; Waddell 1990, 70). OS Name Book, Kilmacrenan parish (1834 5), book 1, 42; Fagan , book 9, 6; OS Revision Name Book, sheet 44 (1847 9), 33; Kinahan 1889, 283 ( cave seems to refer); Borlase 1897, 233, Kilmacrenan no. 23; A.I. Young 1929, 8 ( at Dun-owen ); Killanin and Duignan 1962, 336; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 337; Lacy 1983, 59 60, no. 238; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 46, no. 142; SMR 1987, 44:5; Waddell 1990, 70; RMP 1995, 44:5.

41 220 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND 6. Ballynarry. OS 29:5:2 ( ). Grave (1904). OD C This site, described by Killanin and Duignan (1962; 1967) as a possible prehistoric chamber tomb, is the supposed burial place of a priest killed during the era of the Penal laws (OS Revision Name Book, 1848). A modern memorial slab marks the spot. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 29 (1848), 29; Anon. 1951, 350; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 113; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 127; Colhoun 1995, 68, no. 29/12; RMP 1995, 29: Brockagh. OS 68:9:1 ( ). Altar (1836). OD C This feature, listed as a dolmen (Borlase 1897) and a prehistoric chamber tomb (Killanin and Duignan 1962; 1967), is described in OS records as an altar where Mass was said until 1799, when a chapel was built nearby. OS Memoirs, Kilteevoge parish [c ], 7; Borlase 1897, 236, Raphoe South no. 1; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 81; Killanin and Duignan 1967, Carnanmoyle. OS 39:5:2 ( ). Giant s Chair (1904). OD C This is a prominent rock in the shape of a chair (OS 1:2,500 Name Book, 1902). OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 39 (1902), 18; Colhoun 1995, Carthage. OS 5:9:3 ( ). Cromlech (1903). OD C This was first shown on the 1848 edition of the OS six-inch map. It consists of a large stone, supported on some smaller stones, placed over a slight natural crevice at the edge of a rocky clifftop on the seaward side of a coastal promontory fort (Lacy 1983, 219, no. 1411). OS Revision Name Book, sheet 5 (1848), 59, 75; Colhoun 1949, 115; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 184 ( On an islet to the E ); Killanin and Duignan 1967, 193; Bonner 1972, 16; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47, no. 146; SMR 1987, 5:6; Colhoun 1995, 18; RMP 1995, 5: Cloghan More. OS 68:9:5 ( ). Altar (Site of) (1904). OD C Listed as a dolmen (Borlase 1897) and later as a prehistoric chamber tomb (Killanin and Duignan 1962; 1967), this was an altar that served as a place of worship during the era of the Penal laws and was removed in around 1845 (OS 1:2,500 Name Book, 1904). Borlase 1897, 236, Raphoe South no. 2; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 68 (1904), 13; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 81; Killanin and Duignan 1967, Clonmass. OS 16:14:5 ( ). Cromlech (1905). OD C This feature was first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map. It is a conspicuous boulder on a ridge of bare rock and seems to owe its position to nature. A local belief that it was placed there by the pagans (OS Revision Name Book, ) may account for its identification as a Cromlech on OS maps.

42 APPENDIX Fagan , book 4, 17; OS Revision Name Book, sheet 16 (1847 9), 6; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 16 (1903), 79; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47, no Cloontagh. OS 10:8:4 ( ). Cloghtogle (1903). OD C This feature was first shown on the 1848 edition of the OS six-inch map. It is a massive boulder, c. 5m by 3m by 2m, resting partly on surface rock and partly on two blocks of stone, each c. 0.7m high, one under its NW end and the other under its SE end. According to W.S. Mason ( ), it was known as Fion McCuil s fingerstone. Later writers, including Lewis (1837), have identified it as a cromlech, but it appears to be a natural feature. W.S. Mason , vol. 1, 191; Lewis 1837, vol. 1, 368 ( Magheramore ); OS Revision Name Book, sheet 10 (1848), 6; Lawrence photograph collection, no (c ); Somerville 1928, figure opposite p. 66; Somerville 1929, 156 8, figs. IIa and IIb; Swan 1949, 36 7 (photograph); Colhoun 1949, 117 ( Magheramore ); Killanin and Duignan 1962, 87; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 98; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47, no. 152; Colhoun 1995, 24, no. 10/ Cratlagh. OS 36:3:4 ( ). Altar (Site of) (1905). OD C At this spot there was an altar where Mass was celebrated during the era of the Penal laws (Kinahan 1889). Its identifications as a dolmen (Borlase 1897) and as a chamber tomb (Killanin and Duignan 1962; 1967) are incorrect. Kinahan 1889, 280 (he incorrectly places this site on OS six-inch sheet 35); Borlase 1897, 232, Kilmacrenan no. 16; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 373; Killanin and Duignan 1967, Creeveoughter. OS 28:6:4 ( ). Not marked (1905). OD C Swan (1955, 49) referred to a double row of small slabs suggestive of a gallery grave in Creeve, i.e. Creeveoughter, townland. This is not a gallery grave but a series of closely spaced lines of stones, part of a prehistoric complex (Lacy 1983). Swan 1955, 49; Lacy 1983, 50 52, no. 190; SMR 1987, 28:10; RMP 1995, 28: Crislaghmore. OS 38:7:4 ( ). Not marked (1905). OD C The SMR for County Donegal (1987) suggests that there is a megalithic tomb at the position indicated in the heading, but this is not the case. There is a large, leaning granite stone here, possibly a standing stone, with a small heap of grass-grown stones, apparently the result of field clearance, at its base. Colhoun 1949, 116; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 114; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 127 (prehistoric chamber tomb); SMR 1987, 38:18; RMP 1995, 38: Crislaghmore. OS 38:11:1 ( ). Muillore Rock (1905). OD C This is a large erratic. It is incorrectly identified as a possible megalithic tomb in the SMR for County Donegal (1987) and as a court tomb in the RMP for County Donegal (1995).

43 222 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND Maghtochair 1867, 65; SMR 1987, 38:27; Colhoun 1995, 88, no. 38/23; RMP 1995, 38: Disert. OS 84:2:5 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1907). OD G This is a natural cavern just below the summit of Carnaween Hill. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 84 ( ), 12; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 84 (1906), 4; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 47, no Disert. OS 84:6:6 ( ). Altar (1907). OD G A supposed court cairn in this townland (P.J. McGill 1963) is instead a lintelled entrance to a small stone enclosure close to St Columcille s Well. P.J. McGill 1963, (photograph); SMR 1987, 84:1; RMP 1995, 84: Drumaville. OS 11:4:1 ( ). Cuill Carn (1903). OD C Colhoun (1949) listed this site as a single chambered cairn or dolmen. This is a large rock outcrop on which, according to an entry in an OS Revision Name Book (1848), there was then an ancient cairn of stones. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 11 (1848), 103; Colhoun 1949, 116; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 127; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 140; Bonner 1972, 16; SMR 1987, 11:19; Colhoun 1995, 31, no. 11/5; RMP 1995, 11: Drumaville. OS 11:4:4 ( ). Carn (1903). OD C Colhoun (1949) listed this site as a multi-chambered cairn or dolmen. The feature is a grass-grown mound c. 15m in diameter and 3.5m high, which seems to be partly natural (Lacy 1983). OS Revision Name Book, sheet 11 (1848), 105; Colhoun 1949, 116; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 127; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 140; Bonner 1972, 16; SMR 1987, 11:21; Colhoun 1995, 31, no. 11/6; RMP 1995, 11: Druminderry Upper and Lower. OS 29:3:5. ( ). Carn (1904). OD C Colhoun (1949) recorded a multiple-chambered cairn in this townland. The site referred to is that listed in the heading. This is a small heap of stones c. 6m in diameter and 1.25m high (Lacy 1983). Colhoun 1949, 116 ( Druminderry ); Lacy 1983, 60, no. 251; SMR 1987, 29:14; Colhoun 1995, 67 8; RMP 1995, 29: Dunlewy Near. OS 42:8:6 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1906). OD B This feature is a natural cavern on the side of Errigal Mountain. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 42 (1847), 27; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 42 (1903), 23; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 48, no. 162.

44 APPENDIX Errarooey More. OS 25:2:2 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1905). OD B There are no ancient remains at the spot indicated in the heading. The name Dermot and Grania s Bed was mistakenly applied to this spot on the OS map. The name was intended to apply to the court tomb (Dg. 52) 100m to the E in the adjoining townland of Errarooey Beg. Ó Nualláin 1983a, 48, no. 163; SMR 1987, 25:4; RMP 1995, 25: Finner. OS 106:16:2 ( ). Not marked (1953 4). OD G The SMR and RMP for County Donegal are in error in recording a megalithic tomb at the above location. SMR 1987, 106:8; RMP 1995, 106: Finner. OS 106:16:3 ( ). Flaherty s Stone (1953 4). OD G Killanin and Duignan (1962; 1967) describe a site on Finner Hill, known as Flaherty s Stone, as a chambered cairn. It is a ringfort within which is a prostrate slab, possibly a fallen standing stone. Killanin and Duignan 1962, 114; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 127; Lacy 1983, 173, no (plan); SMR 1987, 106:6; RMP 1995, 106: Finner. OS 107:13:1 ( ). Not marked (1952 4). OD G The SMR and RMP for County Donegal are in error in recording a megalithic tomb at the location described in the heading. SMR 1987, 107:65; RMP 1995, 107: Glackadrumman. OS 12:2:1 ( ). Druidical Circle (1903). OD C This feature is a stone circle. W.S. Mason , vol. 2, 180; OS Name Book, Clonca parish (1834), book 1, 60; Lewis 1837, vol. 1, 352; Maghtochair 1867, 15; Doherty 1891, 56 7; Doherty , 112; Borlase 1897, , Inishowen East, under no. 9 (at Mass Hill); Somerville 1929, 153 5, plans (Culdaff stone circle); H. Morris 1947, 41, no. B1; Swan 1949, 4 (photograph); Killanin and Duignan 1962, 185 ( on Mass Hill ); Killanin and Duignan 1967, 193; Bonner 1972, (sketch); Lacy 1983, 71, no. 327 (plan); SMR 1987, 12:4; Colhoun 1995, 44, no. 12/7; RMP 1995, 12: Glebe. OS 44:14:1. No precise location. Kinahan ( b) drew attention to a group of stones called the Giant s Grave c. 200 yards (c. 180m) from Bridge Isle point at the N end of Gartan Lough in this townland. However, in a note added in press he declared them to be natural in origin. Kinahan b, 472, 474.

45 224 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND 29. Glenalla. OS 37:1:1 ( ). The Altar (1905). OD C This feature has been listed as a dolmen (Borlase 1897). According to the OS Memoir (1834), it was an altar used as a place of worship by the local population. There is now no trace of it. OS Memoirs, Tullyaughnish parish (1834), 37; Kinahan 1889, 282; Borlase 1897, 233, Kilmacrenan no. 21; RMP 1995, 37: Glenmakee. OS 11:1:6 ( ). Not marked (1903). OD C This feature, identified by Colhoun (1949, 116) as a multiple-chambered cairn, is a small stone-built structure, subrectangular in outline, measuring 1.8m long (N S) by c. 1.3m wide. Small upright stones set in the ground define three of its sides. The western side, if it exists, is obscured by dumped stones. The feature is somewhat cist-like in appearance, but there is a doubt about its antiquity. The remains of what appear to be boreholes at the edge of two of the structural stones suggest that they have been quarried in modern times, perhaps by blasting. Colhoun 1949, 116; SMR 1987, 11:10; Colhoun 1995, no. 11/46 recte 11/41, 38; RMP 1995, 11: Kilbarron. OS 103:13:6 ( ). Not marked (1907). OD G This feature, not shown on OS maps, is listed in the SMR for County Donegal (1987) as a megalithic tomb. There are three low stones here, lying approximately NE SW, but, although they appear deliberately set, they are not part of a megalithic tomb. SMR 1987, 103:49; RMP 1995, 103: Kill. OS 15:16:3 ( ). Altar (1905). OD C This feature, listed by Borlase (1897) as a possible dolmen, was later described as a prehistoric chamber tomb (Killanin and Duignan 1962; 1967). It is a masonry platform built against the enclosing wall of an old burial ground. According to an OS 1:2,500 Name Book (1905), clergymen, when officiating at burials, stood at this spot to collect death offerings. Borlase 1897, 231, Kilmacrenan no. 3; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 15 (1905), 53; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 260; Killanin and Duignan 1967, Killult. OS 24:12:5 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1905). OD B This feature is a natural crevice in the side of a rocky knoll. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 24 ( ), 11; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 48, no Kilmacrenan. OS 45:5:3 ( ). Altar (1834 5). OD C This feature has been listed as a possible dolmen by Borlase (1897). It is a small vaulted masonry structure adjoining the external NE angle of a ruined church.

46 APPENDIX Borlase 1897, 233, Kilmacrenan no. 26; SMR 1987, 45:10; RMP 1995, 45: Kiltyfergal. OS 68:13:6 ( ). Altar (1836). OD H This feature is listed as a dolmen by Borlase (1897) and later as a prehistoric chamber tomb (Killanin and Duignan 1962; 1967). All trace of it had been removed by 1904 (OS 1:2,500 Name Book). Although there is no information about the nature of the site, there can be little doubt that this, like most other sites so named on the OS six-inch maps of County Donegal, was a Penal altar. Borlase 1897, 236, Raphoe South no. 3; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 68 (1904), 24; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 81; Killanin and Duignan 1967, Labbadish. OS 62:1:3 ( ). Giant s Bed (1906). OD C This is a large earthen enclosure of uncertain origin and date. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) reported a claim that it was built as a military fortress during the Williamite wars of the late 17th century. Fagan , book 8, 30; Kinahan , 428; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 369; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 48, no. 169; SMR 1987, 62:4; RMP 1995, 62: Laghil. OS 81:13:2 ( ). Not marked (1907). OD G This feature, not shown on OS maps, is listed in the SMR for County Donegal (1987) as a possible megalithic tomb. It consists of a shallow round depression, less than 2m across and c. 0.3m deep. The southern half of its perimeter is faced with small upright stones, some now loose. The origin and nature of this artificial feature are unclear, but it is certainly not a megalithic tomb. SMR 1987, 81:4; RMP 1995, 81: Lisfannan. OS 38:1:3 ( ). Friar s Grave (1905). OD C Borlase (1897) listed this site as a possible dolmen on the basis of its name on the OS six-inch map. It is a small heap of stones beside a holy well (Lacy 1983). OS Name Book, Fahan Upper parish (1833 4), 1; OS Revision Name Book, sheet 38 (1847 8), 45; Borlase 1897, 230, Inishowen West no. 4; Somerville 1929, 164; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 113; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 127; Lacy 1983, 305, no. 1708; SMR 1987, 38:2; Colhoun 1995, 82; RMP 1995, 38: Losset. OS 44:7:4 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1905). OD C This site, on a narrow, level terrace on a steep W-facing hillside, is a rectangular stone-built structure measuring, internally, 4m N S by 2 2.5m E W. Its eastern side is formed by a large erratic stone, 4m long, 1.6m in greatest width and 1.6m high. The other three sides are formed by stones set on edge, the largest 1.9m long and 0.6m high. Grass-grown peat in the interior rises 0.5m above the level of the ground around the structure. The nature of the site is uncertain, but it may have been a hut or shelter and may be of some antiquity. The position of this structure is incorrectly shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map. On this map the name Dermot and Grania s Bed relates to a point c. 300m N of the correct position. OS documents confirm

47 226 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND this error. The SMR (1987) and RMP (1995) for County Donegal have separate entries for the two locations. Fagan , book 9, 5; Kinahan 1889, 283; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 44 (1903), 12; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 48, no. 172; SMR 1987, 44:10, 44:13; RMP 1995, 44:10, 44: Loughfad. OS 64:16:3 ( ). Not marked (1907). OD G This feature has been listed as a possible megalithic tomb in the SMR for County Donegal (1987). It consists of a slab resting on two boulders and overlying a third. This seems to be a natural feature in an area of rough pasture broken by abundant outcropping rock and scattered stones just E of Lough Fad. SMR 1987, 64:12; RMP 1995, 64: Loughsallagh. OS 77:13:6 ( approx.). Not marked (1906). OD H approx. There is here, in rough boggy land, a large slab c. 2.5m by 2m by 1.5m thick deliberately placed in a more or less horizontal position on three points of outcropping rock. Two pad-stones are interposed between the base of the raised slab and the top of one of the pieces of outcrop. This arrangement outlines one side, and low stones set on edge in the bog represent the remaining three sides, of a rectangular space measuring 4.5m by 1.5m. The nature and age of this feature are not known, but it is not a megalithic tomb. Verling 1990, 126; RMP 1995, 77: Magheranaul. OS 4:13:2 ( ). Cloghtogle (1903). OD C This site was first shown on the 1848 edition of the OS six-inch map. It is a standing stone, 2m high, on one face of which is a large inscribed cross, a miniature cross and two small circular depressions. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 4 (1848), 13; Lacy 1983, 282 3, no. 1594; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 49, no. 174; SMR 1987, 4:48; Colhoun 1995, 12 13, no. 4/20; RMP 1995, 4: Malin More. OS 89:3:4 ( ). Not marked (1907). OD G Plate 184. Fig. 86. Norman Moore (1872, 521) drew attention to several piles of stones that lay to the W of the portal tomb complex (Dg. 91) in this townland. These, he suggested, were originally of the nature of the cromlechs. One of the piles was identified by a tall stone. Borlase (1897, 245) noted two heaps of stones here, each with an upright stone at its centre, and suggested that they resembled cairns, often of Christian date, to which pilgrims added stones. The heap of stones with the tall stone rising above it noted by Moore is still extant. This stone, 1.9m high, forms the northern half of the W side of a rectangular cist measuring, internally, 1.3m N S by 0.7m E W. A single stone, 0.6m high, forms the E side, and there are single stones at either end, the northern one 0.65m high and the southern one c. 0.3m high. Adjacent to the SE corner of this cist are the remains of what appears to have been a second cist, the axis of which lies NNW SSE. Only two stones of this remain. A single leaning stone, 0.75m high if upright, forms the southern end, and another, 0.45m high, forms the western side. Just E of this are two low set stones, both of uncertain function. The two adjoining cists stand toward the southern end of a heap of stones, at least some of which were gathered from the fields, measuring c. 14m NNW SSE by 4.3m in greatest width and reaching c. 1m in maximum height. The monument stands on ground falling to the N amid pasture broken by outcropping rock and scattered stones.

48 APPENDIX Plate 184. Malin More (App. 2, No. 43), from north. N. Moore 1872, 521; Borlase 1897, 245, under Banagh nos. 3 8; Herity 1990, 51, no. 44; SMR 1987, 89:7; RMP 1995, 89: Malin More. OS 89:3:5 ( ). Not marked (1907). OD G Norman Moore (1872) noted what he believed may be the roofstone of a chamber protruding from the heather on a bog-grown ridge to the E of the portal tomb complex (Dg. 91) in this townland. This supposed chamber, best described as a cist, consists of a roofstone covering a cavity outlined by stones on edge and measuring c. 1m N S by 1.3m E W. The structure is open to the N, and single stones form its E, S and W sides. The roofstone overlies these stones, and a pad-stone has been employed to support it above the junction of the eastern and southern stones. The northern end of the roofstone is tilted upward slightly, and the southern end is buried. It measures 1.8m E W by at least 1.1m N S and is 0.15m thick. The floor of the cist is no more than 0.6m below the underside of the roofing slab. Just 0.3m W of the open northern end of the structure there are two set stones. The larger one, to the E, measures 0.7m by 0.4m, and both are 0.5m high. Approximately 1.3m to the S is another stone, the tallest at the site. It measures 0.5m by 0.3m by 1.1m high. This stone and the two preceding ones may represent some form of kerb. Approximately 1m W of the possible kerbstones there is a dip in ground level that may indicate the presence of a mound. N. Moore 1872, 522 3; Borlase 1897, 248, under Banagh nos. 3 8; Herity 1990, 51, no Meencargagh or Raneany Barr. OS 100:8:1 ( ). Fin McCool s Pan (1907). OD G Borlase (1897), on the basis of the manner of its depiction on the original OS six-inch map (1835 6), listed this as a possible dolmen. It is, however, a broad natural depression on a hill ridge. Borlase 1897, 236, Tirhugh no Meendoran. OS 10:11:6 ( ). Standing Stones (1903). OD 300. C Colhoun (1949, 117) recorded a multiple-chambered cairn, and Killanin and Duignan (1962; 1967) a chamber tomb, at Meendoran. The feature is a group of three standing stones (Lacy 1983). Colhoun 1949, 117; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 162; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 172; Lacy 1983, 84, no. 458; SMR 1987, 10:35; Colhoun 1995, 25, no. 10/12; RMP 1995, 10:35.

49 228 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND 47. Mully. OS 75:6:5 ( ). Dermot and Grania s Bed (1907). OD G First shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map, this is a shelter-like feature built against the steep face of a rocky knoll. An upright slab 1.5m E of and parallel to the base of the knoll is 2m long, 0.4m thick and 1.6m high. This supports the eastern edge of a sloping roof-slab, 2.3m by 1.6m, the western edge of which rests on a ledge at a height of c. 0.6m on the rock face. Closeby to the S there is another slab on the ground. It is clear from OS documents that this structure was in its present state in the middle of the 19th century. An entry in an OS Revision Name Book ( ) records a claim that it was a place of worship some hundreds of years ago. Fagan , book 23, 11; OS Revision Name Book, sheet 75 ( ), 10; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 75 (1903), 34; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 49, no. 176; SMR 1987, 75:2; RMP 1995, 75: Oughterlin. OS 28:14:6 ( ). Druid s Altar (1905). OD C This feature, first shown on the edition of the OS six-inch map, is to the N of Croaghan Hill in an area of rough terrain, the surface of which is rocky, uneven and strewn with boulders. It is prominently sited toward the northern end of a narrow ridge of bare rock and consists of a large slab resting on three low stones, which in turn lie flat on the rocky surface. The raised slab, which is c. 0.5m clear of the ground, measures 3.7m NNW SSE by 2.3m wide at its southern end, narrowing to c. 1.5m at the northern end, and is c. 0.7m thick. The raised slab is tilted slightly from the horizontal, with the northern end a little higher than the southern end. This feature is not a megalithic tomb, but whether it is natural or artificial in origin is somewhat uncertain. Approximately 30m to the S there is a large boulder supported in a more or less upright position on some low stones, as if an attempt had been made to prop it up, and there is a similar feature a further 30m to the S. These are not megalithic tombs, although they have been listed as such in the SMR for County Donegal (1987). OS Revision Name Book, sheet 28 ( ), 39; Kinahan 1889, 280; Borlase 1897, 232, Kilmacrenan no. 10; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 28 (1902 3), 41; Somerville 1909, (plan); Somerville 1929, (sketch); H. Morris 1947, 41, B16; Killanin and Duignan 1962, 408 ( On the N slope of Croaghan ); Killanin and Duignan 1967, 412; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 49, no. 177; SMR 1987, 28:28, 28:29, 28:30; RMP 1995, 28:28; 28:29; 28: Rashenny/Tullynabratilly. OS 10:4:5 ( ). McCool s Bed (1903). OD C This feature is an erratic boulder on the boundary of the two townlands named in the heading. Borlase 1897, 229, Inishowen East no. 6; Somerville 1929, 156; Swan 1949, 37 ( Finn McCool s Bed ); Colhoun 1995, 24, no. 10/ Skreen Lower. OS 36:10:4 ( ). Dornogfin (1905). OD C According to Lewis (1837), there is a cromlech at Lough Keil. The site referred to may well be that named in the heading, which is c. 50m W of the N end of Lough Keel. It was first shown on the 1848 edition of the OS six-inch map. This appears to be a natural feature and consists of a large boulder resting on three points of a rocky ledge. It is associated with the legendary hero Fionn Mac Cumhaill. Lewis 1837, vol. 2, 167; OS Revision Name Book, sheet 36 (1848), 14; Harkin 1893, 26; OS 1:2,500 Name Book, sheet 36 (1903), 39.

50 APPENDIX Templedouglas. OS 52:7:5 ( ). Altar (1906). OD C This feature, listed by Borlase (1897) as a possible dolmen, is a small barrel-vaulted structure built between 1840 and 1850 (Lacy 1983). It stands in the graveyard of a ruined 16th-century church. OS Revision Name Book, sheet 52 (1845 7), 8; Borlase 1897, 234, Kilmacrenan no. 28; Lacy 1983, 294, no Tirhomin. OS 27:16:6 ( ). Ballyboe Fort (1905). OD C A site named Ballyboe Fort on the OS six-inch map appears to have been misread as Ballyboe Altar and consequently described as a prehistoric chamber tomb (Killanin and Duignan 1962; 1967). It is a ringfort (Lacy 1983). Killanin and Duignan 1962, 373; Killanin and Duignan 1967, 374; Lacy 1983, 193, no. 1147; SMR 1987, 27:30; RMP 1995, 27: Tirhomin. OS 36:4:2 ( ). Giant s Finger Stones (1905). OD C This feature consists of two large erratic boulders a short distance apart. Tradition accounts for them in the actions of a stone-throwing giant (OS Revision Name Book, 1848). OS Revisio0n Name Book, sheet 36 (1848), 42; SMR 1987, 36:2; RMP 1995, 36: Trimragh. OS 53:12:5 ( ). Giant s Rock (1834 5). OD C A feature named Giant s Rock on the original OS six-inch map (1834 5) but not shown on later editions has been listed as a dolmen by Borlase (1897). This is a large erratic. According to Kinahan ( ; ), a large flat stone, known as the Giant s Grave, on which he noted two cupmarks stood c. 100 yards (c. 90m) E of the Giant s Rock. This cannot now be identified. Kinahan a, 272; Kinahan , 426; Borlase 1897, 234 5, Raphoe North no. 1 ( Trimrath ). 55. Trusk. OS 86:4:3 ( ). Giant s Grave (1906). OD H This feature is named Giant s Grave on all editions of the OS six-inch map. At the position indicated there is what appears to be a natural ledge c. 1m high at the base of a steep rise. According to OS documents, this is the reputed burial place of a giant called Trusk, also the townland name. There is no evidence of any form of megalithic monument here, and it appears that the name Giant s Grave applied to the site on OS maps has its origin in local folklore. Near to this place, according to an entry in the OS Memoir (1836), large slabs laid at intervals like stepping stones were noted under the surface of the bog. OS Memoir, Donaghmore parish (1836), 75, 77; Fagan , book 13, 20; Ó Nualláin 1983a, 49, no. 182.

51 230 PART 2. DISCUSSION 1. MORPHOLOGY OF MEGALITHIC TOMBS IN COUNTY DONEGAL The 125 tombs described in the main inventory consist of 46 court tombs, 25 portal tombs, 22 wedge tombs and 32 that are left unclassified. Although all the unclassified tombs are ruined to a greater or lesser degree, nine of them display features of recognised tomb types. Survival, usually in combination, of such features as jambs or jamb and sill arrangements and of backstones with gabled outline points to the possibility that the ruined galleries at Cappagh (Dg. 16), Croaghlin (Dg. 41), Mondooey Upper (Dg. 102) and Straid or Glebe (Dg. 115) are court tombs. The gallery of the complex monument at Barnes Lower (Dg. 11) also displays court tomb features. The very collapsed structure at Legaltan (Dg. 80) can plausibly be reconstructed as a portal tomb. Tall, longitudinally aligned jambs or portals at Dooey (Dg. 46) and Tonbane Glebe (Dg. 122) leave little doubt that the affinities of both lie with court tombs and portal tombs. The indications are that the tomb at Crocam (Dg. 44), where what may be a facade-stone stands at right angles to the western end of a gallery, may be a wedge tomb. At a further eleven of the unclassified sites the remains are in some measure consistent with one of the various tomb classes. The tombs at Gortmacall More (Dg. 60), Knocknashangan (Dg. 75), Murroe (Dg. 105), Stroove (Dg. 117) and the destroyed one at Ballybobaneen (Dg. 4) are best understood as possible court tombs. There is some likelihood that each of the tombs at Croaghonagh (Dg. 43), Dooish (Dg. 47) and Lisnanees Upper (Dg. 83) is either a court tomb or a portal tomb, with the first two more likely to be instances of the former and the last site probably the latter. The tombs at Carrowmullin (Dg. 27), Creeveoughter (Dg. 38) and Knockagarran (Dg. 73) may possibly be ruined wedge tombs. The nature of the remaining tombs is uncertain. The true nature of a number of sites, apparently megalithic in character, is uncertain. A structure at Cashel Glebe (App. 1, No. 20) appears to be some form of ancient burial chamber, but its cultural context is unclear. Possible structural remains lie largely buried at Ballyannan (App. 1, No. 6) and Drumkeelan (App. 1, No. 45). At Cloghan Beg (App. 1, No. 26) there are two upright stones well suited to serve as jambs in a megalithic gallery, but, although OS records indicate that there may have been such a monument at or near this spot, their status remains uncertain. There is also uncertainty about the nature of structural remains represented by two opposed slabs at Doocashel Glebe (App. 1, No. 40), Keeldrum Lower (App. 1, No. 63) and Port (App. 1, No. 93). A lone stone on edge at Rahan Near (App. 1, No. 95) is so well suited to the requirements of a gallery tomb orthostat, in particular for a wedge tomb, that it merits recording even in the absence of other evidence of megalithic remains at the site. The nature of a site in Keeldrum Lower (App. 1, No. 64) that was excavated in the 1970s (Kilbride-Jones 1997) remains quite uncertain. However, a structure in Malin More (App. 2, No. 43) that is lent a particular prominence by the employment of one very tall stone is not a megalithic tomb. It clearly consists of two conjoined cists. Another site in the same townland (App. 2, No. 44), on the basis of its relatively modest dimensions, also seems to be a cist. COURT TOMBS The 46 court tombs in the county display a variety of forms. Those of the standard single terminal-court design are the norm. There are two central-court tombs, Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) and Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), and one dual-court tomb, Roosky Upper (Dg. 108). A tomb at Malin More (Dg. 95) is one of only three instances of the twin, parallel-gallery design in Ireland. Galleries are predominantly of two chambers, but at some there were clearly more than two, although at none of these is the original number now apparent. Subsidiary chambers are reliably identified at seven sites. At one of these, Letter (Dg. 81), and at two others, Ballyboe (Dg. 5) and Carricknamoghil (Dg. 23), there are additional chambers of uncertain status. Cairn There are clear remains of a long cairn at 28 of the 46 court tombs, but considerable denudation appears to have taken place at many of these. There are faint traces of mounds at six further sites, Ballintemple (Dg. 2), Drumanoo (Dg. 48), Drumrat (Dg. 51), Liafin (Dg. 82), Lurgan (Dg. 86), and Moyra Glebe (Dg. 103). At another site,

52 MORPHOLOGY 231 Cashelcummin (Dg. 30), some stone fill in and around the gallery is of uncertain origin but may be cairn remnant. The evidence of the excavated tombs at Bavan (Dg. 12), Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and Shalwy (Dg. 113) is that cairn make-up is entirely of stones. Although unexcavated cairns are grass grown and occasionally peat grown to varying degrees, many of them display surface evidence that they are stone built. Revetment of dry-wall construction was revealed during excavation at Bavan (Dg. 12), and well-built walling, surviving to two and three courses in places, is extant at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and Shalwy (Dg. 113). Some of the stones of the lowest layer at these two sites are quite substantial, up to and over 1m long and almost as high. At Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9), Claggan (Dg. 33), Letter (Dg. 81), Magheraboy (Dg. 87) and Roosky Upper (Dg. 108) revetment is represented by what appears to be continuous lines of kerbstones. At Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) some of these are orthostatic in character and stand to a height of c. 1m. At the other four sites the individual stones are no larger than many of those forming the dry-walling at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and Shalwy (Dg. 113), and it is unclear whether they are individually socketed kerbstones or the remnant of drywalling. There are scant traces of revetment at six sites: Ballyboe (Dg. 5), Binroe (Dg. 14), Drumanoo (Dg. 48), Drumhallagh Upper (Dg. 50), Farranmacbride (Dg. 56) and Lackcrom (Dg. 77). At Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9), a central-court tomb, the cairn is a long oval in outline. The cairn at the other central-court tomb in the county, Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), seems to have been of similar outline, although the absence of reliable cairn edging leaves some uncertainty. At Roosky Upper (Dg. 108), a dual-court tomb, surviving kerbstones show a long cairn with straight sides and, less certainly, at least one straight end, indicating that the cairn was originally a long narrow rectangle in outline. At the standard single terminal-court tombs, cairns appear to have been mainly trapezoidal in outline, as at Letter (Dg. 81) and Magheraboy (Dg. 87). Coffin-shaped cairns are also known, occurring at Malin More (Dg. 95) and Shalwy (Dg. 113). The sides of the trapezoidal cairns are straight and converge on each other from front to rear. Coffin-shaped cairns are widest not at the front, as are trapezoidal cairns, but somewhat back from the front. The design of the front of the cairn is evident at only three sites. There is a straight frontal facade at Malin More (Dg. 95), and that there was also one at Letter (Dg. 81) is indicated by the juxtaposition of the outer ends of the arms of the court and the cairn sides. At Shalwy (Dg. 113) excavation revealed an incurved crescentshaped facade or forecourt at the front of the monument. The rear of the cairn at the standard single terminal-court tombs seems, on limited evidence, to have been usually straight ended. Such a design was noted during excavations at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and Shalwy (Dg. 113). The rear of the cairn at Malin More (Dg. 95) is also straight ended, and at Letter (Dg. 81), although no revetment is visible at the rear of the cairn, the straight end to the mound appears accurately to reflect the original situation. In contrast to the sites just mentioned, surviving revetment indicates a gently rounded end to the cairn at Magheraboy (Dg. 87). Accurate cairn lengths are available for only a handful of sites. At the central-court tomb at Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) the cairn, to the nearest metre, is 41m long. The cairn at the other central-court tomb, Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), is now 60m long, the longest in the county. Allowing for cairn spill, it was probably a few metres less than that in its original state. An original length of just over 48m is indicated for the cairn of the dual-court tomb at Roosky Upper (Dg. 108). The restored cairn of the twin-gallery tomb at Malin More (Dg. 95) is 46m long. Among the tombs of standard single terminal-court design the cairn at Letter (Dg. 81) is c. 40m long and that at Shalwy (Dg. 113) is 37m. Cairn length at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) seems to have been similar to that at the last site. There seems to have been a shorter cairn at Bavan (Dg. 12), which on excavation appeared to have been c. 19m long. At Liafin (Dg. 82) the main gallery and two subsidiary chambers extend over a distance of c. 47m. When intact the cairn here would have been longer. Original cairn widths, where available, range from 12m to almost 17m. The cairn at the central-court tomb at Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) narrows somewhat to both ends from a mid-length maximum of 16m. The cairn at the dual-court tomb at Roosky Upper (Dg. 108) appears to have been no more than 12m wide. The trapezoidal cairn at the standard single terminal-court tomb at Letter (Dg. 81) narrows from 16m at the front to 10m at the back. At Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) a cairn of similar type narrows from 13.5m at the front to 10.5m at the rear. The coffin-shaped cairns at Malin More (Dg. 95) and Shalwy (Dg. 113) reach maximum widths of almost 17m and 14.5m. The first of these narrows to 12m at the front and 7.5m at the back, and the second to c. 10m and 7m. At the majority of the twenty or so sites where revetment is lacking, an indication of original cairn size is given by

53 232 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND the fact that at around half of them the visible mound is now between 20m and 30m long. Original cairn heights are uncertain. However, the cairn survives to the top of the gallery sides at Ballyboe (Dg. 5), Tawlaght (Dg. 118) and the south-western end of the central-court tomb at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56). At all of these cairn height is 1.5m or slightly more. At the excavated sites, Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and Shalwy (Dg. 113), where more precise measurements are possible, cairn heights of 2m and almost 2.5m are in evidence. It is clear that maximum cairn height was normally attained in the gallery area, from where it diminished to both ends and sides. The only detail available about cairn construction relates to Bavan (Dg. 12), where the excavators noted the deployment of large key-stones at one side of the gallery to anchor the cairn body, which otherwise appeared to have been formed by simply dumping stones. Court Courtstones other than gallery entrance jambs survive at around two-thirds of the sites in the county. Frequently only a small number of courtstones, usually adjacent to the gallery entrance, now survive, as at Cloghbolie (Dg. 34), Drumanoo (Dg. 48), Kilclooney More (Dg. 69), Lurgan (Dg. 85), Moyra Glebe (Dg. 103) and Tirlaydan (Dg. 121). Even among some better-preserved sites the outer ends of the court arms, crucial to the identification of the original design, are lacking, e.g. Binroe (Dg. 14), Cashelcummin (Dg. 30), Carrickafodan (Dg. 20). The nature of court closure can reliably be determined at only nine sites. At one of these, Letter (Dg. 81), there is an open court. Full courts are known at the other eight sites: the two central-court tombs, Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) and Farranmacbride (Dg. 56); the dual-court tomb, Roosky Upper (Dg. 108); and five standard single terminal-court tombs, Ballyboe (Dg. 5), Bavan (Dg. 12), Croaghbeg (Dg. 40), Malin More (Dg. 95) and Shalwy (Dg. 113). Entry to full courts was via a passage linking the edge of the cairn to the court perimeter. Entrance passages range from c. 2m to 5m long and from 1m to just over 2m wide. At Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) a narrow, orthostatically lined entrance passage is situated, as is usual in tombs of central-court design, around midway along one side of the cairn. At Bavan (Dg. 12), Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and Shalwy (Dg. 113), all tombs of standard single terminal-court design, excavation in each case revealed an entrance passage linking the middle of the frontal facade to the outer end of the court. There is a similar arrangement at Malin More (Dg. 95), where the restored entrance passage, which consists of two large opposed orthostats, is considered likely to be faithful to the original. At the dual-court tomb at Roosky Upper (Dg. 108) the entrance to both courts is via an orthostatically lined passage. Possible entrance features are present at two other sites, Ballyboe (Dg. 5) and Farranmacbride (Dg. 56). At the latter site a stone midway along the south side of the court may represent the inner end of one side of a laterally placed entrance passage. At Ballyboe (Dg. 5) an out-turned stone at one side of a gap in the court perimeter suggests the possibility of a lateral entry, and another out-turned stone, also beside a gap, stands at the front of the court. There is significant variety in court shape evident among the relatively small number of tombs where this feature is preserved. At Letter (Dg. 81) the open court is of a broad and deep U-shaped design. The full courts at Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) and Farranmacbride (Dg. 56) are long ovals in outline. The court at Malin More (Dg. 95) is of similar outline, and at Bavan (Dg. 12) a court of short oval outline was revealed by excavation. The court at Ballyboe (Dg. 5) is circular in outline. At Shalwy (Dg. 113) a court of pear-shaped outline is evident, with its narrower end toward the gallery entrance. The northern and better-preserved of two courts at Roosky Upper (Dg. 108) is subrectangular in outline. At three sites where only the inner end of the court survives, Claggan (Dg. 33), Farragans (Dg. 55) and Meenbog (Dg. 97), there is noticeable flattening of the court perimeter across the front of the gallery. The variation evident in court shape also exists in court size. The full court at Ballyboe (Dg. 5) is 6m long and 5.5m wide, and that at Bavan (Dg. 12) is 6.2m long and 5.3m wide. The full court at Shalwy (Dg. 113), the two full courts at Roosky Upper (Dg. 108) and the open court at Letter (Dg. 81) are all 8m to 10m long and 7m to 8m wide. Precise measurements are not available for the full court at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40), but it too seems to have fallen into this size category. Larger courts are found at three sites. The central court at Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) measures 12.2m long by 8m wide; the large court fronting the twin, parallel galleries at Malin More (Dg. 95) measures 16m long and 12m wide, and the central court at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56) measures 20.5m long by 8.5m wide.

54 MORPHOLOGY 233 Courtstones are usually slab-like in form, although occasionally more rounded blocks are employed, e.g. Claggan (Dg. 33), Kilclooney More (Dg. 69), Lurgan (Dg. 85) and Magheraboy (Dg. 87). Slight gaps between courtstones were probably filled with drystone-walling, such as now survives to a limited extent at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40). At tombs of standard single terminal-court design the courtstones at the gallery entrance tend to be higher than those toward the outer end of the court. This feature is quite marked at Bavan (Dg. 12) and Malin More (Dg. 95) and is clearly demonstrated at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and Shalwy (Dg. 113), where courtstone heights of c. 1.5m at the gallery entrance decline to 0.5m or less at the front. This feature is less marked at some other sites, such as Letter (Dg. 81) and Roosky Upper (Dg. 108). Courtstones flanking the entrance to the gallery may be higher than the entrance jambs, e.g. Cashelcummin (Dg. 30), Meenbog (Dg. 97) and Roosky Upper (Dg. 108), or lower, e.g. Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) and Lurgan (Dg. 85), or the jambs and their flankers may be more or less the same height, e.g. Binroe (Dg. 14) and Letter (Dg. 81). High flanking stones, it appears, were intended to revet the cairn at either side of the gallery entrance (de Valera 1960, 20), and to this end they would have risen to, or close to, the height of the entrance lintel, as at Cloghbolie (Dg. 34) and Shalwy (Dg. 113). At Croaghbeg (Dg. 40), where a flanking stone is only half the height of the eastern entrance jamb, its effective height has been raised almost to that of the entrance lintel by the superimposition of two large blocks and above these a corbel. A considerable mass of cairn material, the result, according to the excavator, of cairn collapse, lay in the court in front of the gallery entrance at Shalwy (Dg. 113) and was cleared during the excavation. There is a substantial cairn in the court at Tawlaght (Dg. 118), but its origin is unclear. A spread of stones in the court at Meenbog (Dg. 97) seems to be the remnant of a relatively modern hut-like structure. At Bavan (Dg. 12) a low set stone found close to the front of the court was considered by the excavators to be a ritual feature. A shallow pit was also found in the same court. Gallery The number of chambers in the gallery can reliably be determined at only nine court tombs in the county. At each of these there are two chambers. Six of these sites are tombs of standard single terminal-court design: Bavan (Dg. 12), Binroe (Dg. 14), Cashelcummin (Dg. 30), Croaghbeg (Dg. 40), Drumhallagh Upper (Dg. 50) and Shalwy (Dg. 113). The other three are the central-court tombs, Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) and Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), and the twin-galleried tomb, Malin More (Dg. 95). Both galleries at each of these three tombs are of twochamber design. The lengths of the twelve galleries at these nine sites, measured from the inner face of the backstone to the entrance jambs, range from 4.5m at Bavan (Dg. 12) to 7.2m at Cashelcummin (Dg. 30), and maximum gallery widths lie between 2.1m at Drumhallagh Upper (Dg. 50) and 3.4m at Shalwy (Dg. 113). At other, less well-preserved sites gallery length and/or other design features are a basis for assessing the likely number of chambers, and it is clear that galleries of two-chambered design predominate in the county. There seems to be little doubt that the galleries at Doochill North (Dg. 45), Drumanoo (Dg. 48), Farragans (Dg. 55), Moyra Glebe (Dg. 103) and Kilclooney More (Dg. 69) were of two chambers. There is only slightly less likelihood that such was the case at Ballintemple (Dg. 2), Killeen (Dg. 71) and Errarooey Beg (Dg. 52), although at the last there is a possibility that there was only one main chamber behind the extant antechamber there. The indications are that the galleries at Cool Beg (Dg. 37) and Laraghirril (Dg. 78) were also of two-chambered design. At another six rather poorly preserved sites, Ballyboe (Dg. 5), Ballynarry (Dg. 10), Lackcrom (Dg. 77), Malin More (Dg. 92), Ray (Dg. 107) and Tirlaydan (Dg. 121), and at the unlocated/destroyed tomb at Finner (Dg. 57), there is no indication that there were any more than two chambers. Four other sites, Ballymore Upper (Dg. 8), Carrickafodan (Dg. 20), Malin More (Dg. 96) and Tawlaght (Dg. 118), may also have been of two-chamber design, but there is a possibility that all of these had more than two chambers. There are four sites where galleries of more than two chambers are in evidence. However, none of these is sufficiently well preserved to enable the original number of chambers to be reliably established. At Knockergrana (Dg. 74) a gallery lacking both extremities now consists of three chambers, and a similar situation obtains at Meenletterbale (Dg. 101). At Claggan (Dg. 33) the gallery now ends at a segmenting feature, indicating that there was at least one more chamber in addition to the two extant main chambers, which are preceded by an antechamber. At Meenbog (Dg. 97) the gallery consists of at least three chambers, and there is a possibility that there were four. In their present state these galleries range from 6.8m long at Meenbog (Dg. 97) to 11.8m long

55 234 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND at Meenletterbale (Dg. 101). None of them exceeds 2.3m in maximum gallery width. As expected, galleries of more than two chambers tend to be longer than two-chambered ones, but it appears from the limited evidence that they also tend to be narrower. In addition to the four sites just referred to, it is likely that the galleries at Carricknamoghil (Dg. 23), Loughnakey (Dg. 84) and Lurgan (Dg. 86) were all divided into more than two chambers. Access to the gallery is via a narrow gap in the court flanked by entrance jambs that also usually function as courtstones. Entrance jambs are preserved at the majority of sites in the county. They are normally positioned so as to narrow the entrance gap, which in most instances seems to have been between c. 0.5m and 1m wide. They are frequently well-matched, flat-topped stones suitable for bearing lintels. For the most part they are of long rectangular plan, although stones that are almost square or somewhat rounded in outline are known, e.g. at Farragans (Dg. 55) and in the eastern gallery at Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9). The majority of entrance jambs are set transversely to the long axis of the gallery. This is found to be the case at 16 of the 23 sites in the county where both entrance jambs are preserved. There are only two sites where both entrance jambs are longitudinally set, Ballymore Upper (Dg. 8) and Cashelcummin (Dg. 30), and it is only at the former site that this is a particularly pronounced feature. There are two longitudinally aligned jambs flanking a sill at one end of the gallery at Meenletterbale (Dg. 101), but it is not clear whether these are entrance jambs. A transversely set stone and a longitudinally set stone are combined to form entrance jambs at Lurgan (Dg. 85), Drumanoo (Dg. 48), the northern gallery at Roosky Upper (Dg. 108) and the western gallery at Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9). The relationship of gallery walls to entrance jambs varies. Both sides of the gallery may run to the inner ends of the jambs, e.g. at Letter (Dg. 81); the gallery sides may overlap the entrance jambs, e.g. at Drumanoo (Dg. 48); or both of these arrangements may occur at different sides of the same gallery, e.g. at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40). The height of entrance jambs does not vary greatly from that of the gallery sides. More usually they are around the same height or the entrance jambs are slightly taller. There are, however, no definite instances of particularly emphasised entrance jambs. Sills or doorstones set between the entrance jambs are known at a number of tombs. At Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) a sill was revealed during excavation. It is a slight stone and, though still at the site, is no longer in situ. It seems to have stood to around one-third of the height of the flanking jambs. At Tawlaght (Dg. 118) a doorstone rises to at least half the height of the flanking jambs. At Ballintemple (Dg. 2), now destroyed, a sill stood beside a jamb at what seems to have been the entrance to the gallery. During the excavation of Shalwy (Dg. 113) a displaced stone found at the front of the gallery had apparently been trimmed to size and shape by the tomb-builders. It was considered by the excavator to have served as a blocking slab at the gallery entrance (Flanagan 1969). A short antechamber precedes the main chambers at Claggan (Dg. 33) and Errarooey Beg (Dg. 52). At the former site a second jamb 0.5m inside one of the entrance jambs divides the antechamber from the rest of the gallery. At Errarooey Beg (Dg. 52) the antechamber seems to have been c. 1m long. At Laraghirril (Dg. 78) a pair of jambs placed one immediately behind the other at either side of one end of the gallery are taken to indicate the front of the tomb. This forms, in effect, a doubling of the entrance jambs, but there does not appear to be a formal antechamber. At Cool Beg (Dg. 37) there is a small stone in front of what may be the entrance to the gallery. It is unclear whether it was intended as a doubling of the entrance jamb. Neither is it clear whether two small stones represent some form of antechamber feature at Malin More (Dg. 92). Segmenting jambs are similar to entrance jambs in both size and shape and like them are generally wellmatched stones. Both transversely set and longitudinally aligned ones occur. The former are more numerous, although it appears that the longitudinally aligned are somewhat better represented in segmenting jambs than in entrance jambs. At a number of sites the alignment of the segmenting jambs differs from that of the entrance jambs, e.g. Drumhallagh Upper (Dg. 50) and Meenbog (Dg. 97). The full complement of segmenting jambs survives at only seven sites, all of them two-chambered galleries. Of these, transversely set jambs are known at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40), at Shalwy (Dg. 113), in both galleries at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56) and at Malin More (Dg. 95). Longitudinally aligned jambs are found at Cashelcummin (Dg. 30) and Drumhallagh Upper (Dg. 50), and at the central-court tomb at Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) there are both transversely set and longitudinally set segmenting jambs. The gap between the segmenting jambs seems in most cases to lie between c. 0.5m and almost 1m. There are, however, somewhat wider gaps between longitudinally aligned segmenting jambs in the western gallery at Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) and at Drumhallagh Upper (Dg. 50). Segmenting jambs tend to be around the same height as gallery sides, but lower and taller ones are known. At two sites, Drumhallagh Upper (Dg. 50)

56 MORPHOLOGY 235 and Laraghirril (Dg. 78), segmenting jambs rise quite markedly above the gallery sides. At both of these sites the jambs are longitudinally aligned. Transversely set segmenting jambs may be set within the gallery walls, which seems to be the more common arrangement, e.g. Ballyboe (Dg. 5), Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and Shalwy (Dg. 113), or inset in the gallery sides, as at the southern gallery at Malin More (Dg. 95). The longitudinally aligned segmenting jambs are either set within the walls, as at Laraghirril (Dg. 78), or otherwise approach an imbricated design where the jambs are aligned with the sides of one chamber and are overlapped by those of the next chamber. Such an arrangement is in evidence at Drumhallagh Upper (Dg. 50) and indicated at the surviving side of the gallery at Carrickafodan (Dg. 20). Sills or septal-stones set between the segmenting jambs are known at seven sites. Excavation revealed a slight sillstone between two much taller, transversely set segmenting jambs at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40). There seems to be a similar contrast between a slight sill and a substantial jamb at Lackcrom (Dg. 77), where only one of the flanking stones is now in place. The sills at these two sites would have offered little restriction to passage along the gallery. At the other five sites relatively tall septal-stones are associated with longitudinally aligned jambs. At one of these sites, Laraghirril (Dg. 78), the space between the segmenting jambs is spanned by two septalstones set back to back, an arrangement not recorded elsewhere. At this site and at Drumhallagh Upper (Dg. 50) the septal-stones are sizeable slabs reaching to around the height of the gallery sides. At Carrickafodan (Dg. 20) the substantial septal-stone rises almost to the top of the surviving flanking jamb, which is around the same height as the gallery side. Segmenting stones at Claggan (Dg. 33), where they are preserved at two points of segmentation, and at Knockergrana (Dg. 74) rise to within c. 0.5m of the top of flanking jambs. The gallery backstone is preserved at around 25 sites. It may be set between the ends of the gallery sides or partially or fully beyond them, and there are instances where one end of the backstone is fully or partially overlapped by a sidestone and the other end overlaps the end of the opposite sidestone. Around half of the known backstones are more or less gabled in outline, and they are almost invariably taller than the gallery sides, e.g. Drumanoo (Dg. 48), Errarooey Beg (Dg. 53), Liafin (Dg. 82), Moyra Glebe (Dg. 103) and Ray (Dg. 107). At the remaining sites the backstones are flat topped, and these ones are usually around the same height as the gallery sides, e.g. Ballymore Upper (Dg. 8), Croaghbeg (Dg. 40), Farragans (Dg. 55), Killeen (Dg. 71) and Shalwy (Dg. 113). The sidestones of galleries tend to be fairly even in height, although some variation occurs at many sites. Large slabs seem to have been most usually favoured, but there are instances of split-boulder-type stones placed with their flat face inward. Some sidestones are particularly suited to carry corbels, as their top surfaces slope down to the outside. Instances of this feature are found at a number of sites, among them Drumanoo (Dg. 48), Drumrat (Dg. 51), Farragans (Dg. 55) and Moyra Glebe (Dg. 103). The peculiar arrangement at Farragans (Dg. 55) is worthy of note. At this site a large erratic forms part of one side of the gallery, and it seems that an inward projection of this great rock served as a segmenting feature. Lintels resting on the entrance jambs are in place at seven sites. In some instances small pad-stones are interposed between them and the top of the jamb. At Shalwy (Dg. 113), exceptionally, the lintel consists of an upper and a lower stone. When viewed from the front the lower stone is more or less rectangular in profile and the upper one is flat based with a peaked top. The lintel at Killeen (Dg. 71), when viewed from the front, presents a humpbacked profile. The lintels at Cloghbolie (Dg. 34) and Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) are very substantial rectangular blocks. A slighter stone is used at Lurgan (Dg. 86) and at Tawlaght (Dg. 118), where the ends of the stone are rounded. Most substantial of all is the great block at Cashelcummin (Dg. 30), the top of which slopes from one side of the entrance to the other. At two further sites, Carricknamoghil (Dg. 23) and the western gallery at Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9), entrance lintels are somewhat displaced. At Kilclooney More (Dg. 69) a displaced lintel spans the gallery, and what appears to be another, perhaps the entrance lintel, lies prostrate in front of the gallery. There are fallen entrance lintels at Ballymore Upper (Dg. 8), the eastern gallery at Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9), Farragans (Dg. 55), Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), Laraghirril (Dg. 78), Letter (Dg. 81), Lurgan (Dg. 85), Malin More (Dg. 95) and Roosky Upper (Dg. 108). Lintels, all rectangular blocks, are in place above the segmenting jambs at Cashelcummin (Dg. 30), at the southern one of the two galleries at Malin More (Dg. 95) and at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40). At the last site a gap between the western end of the lintel and the gallery side is blocked by a stone wedged between them. Lintels that are somewhat displaced survive at the segmentation between the rear chamber and the largely destroyed remainder of the gallery at Malin More (Dg. 96) and at the segmentation in both galleries at Farranmacbride (Dg.

57 236 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND 56). The lintel in the south-western gallery of Farranmacbride (Dg. 56) is a rectangular block, and that in the north-eastern gallery is flat based with a humpbacked upper surface. A stone found in the front chamber during the excavation of Shalwy (Dg. 113) was considered by the excavator to have rested as a lintel on the segmenting jambs; it now lies in the court. A prostrate stone at Carricknamoghil (Dg. 23) may have fallen from a pair of segmenting jambs. Roofing structure is generally poorly preserved. Evidence for corbelling survives at over one-third of the sites in the county, but well-preserved corbelling is rare. Comparatively light slab corbels laid almost flat on the gallery sides are found at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), although few are now preserved there, and at Malin More (Dg. 95), where they are better represented, particularly in the forward chamber of the southern gallery. In the main, however, corbels are heavy slabs, generally c. 0.2m to 0.4m thick, set at an angle of c. 30 degrees. There is well-preserved tiered corbelling at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and at Shalwy (Dg. 113), held in place at both by a substantial cairn mass. Less well-preserved tiered corbelling is in evidence at Tawlaght (Dg. 118) and at the front chamber at Cashelcummin (Dg. 30), although at each the corbels have been largely denuded of cairn cover. At Magheraboy (Dg. 87) two lines of corbels indicate the position of the gallery, which is otherwise almost totally obscured. There are scant remains of corbelling at some other sites. Only one corbel is in place at Killeen (Dg. 71), Lackcrom (Dg. 77), Loughnakey (Dg. 84) and Moyra Glebe (Dg. 103); there is a possible corbel at Ballyboe (Dg. 5); and not more than three or four are in place at Ballymore Upper (Dg. 8), Carrickafodan (Dg. 20), Carricknamoghil (Dg. 23), Kilclooney More (Dg. 69), Letter (Dg. 81) and at both galleries at Roosky Upper (Dg. 108). The corbelling as preserved in the county seems designed more to raise the height of the gallery sides than to narrow the span to be roofed, as even in the better-preserved instances there is no marked oversailing of the gallery sides. Apart from corbels, other structural devices were employed to raise the height of the gallery. At Croaghbeg (Dg. 40), where the middle orthostat on each side of the gallery is lower than those on either side of it, an upright slab placed immediately behind each raises its effective height to that of the adjoining orthostats. These additional stones are wedged between the cairn mass and the orthostat. The back of the gallery at the same site was raised by placing a large stone directly on the backstone, which in turn serves as a seat for corbels. A similar approach was adopted in parts of the gallery walls at Shalwy (Dg. 113). In the rear chamber of the southern gallery at Malin More (Dg. 95) a number of courses of small flat stones are placed on a sidestone and directly support a roofstone. There is considerable preservation of dry-walling in this gallery, where it has also been employed to fill gaps between orthostats. There is also dry-walling in one of the front angles of the rear chamber of the south-western gallery at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), but it is of uncertain age. The small number of surviving roofstones are quite sizeable slabs. One above the rear chamber at Shalwy (Dg. 113) covers almost the entire chamber. Another large slab is in place above the rear chamber of the southern gallery at Malin More (Dg. 95). There is a large displaced roofstone in the rear chamber of the north-eastern gallery at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), and another displaced one in the gallery at Cool Beg (Dg. 37). A slab overlying part of the rear chamber of the south-western gallery at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56) does not appear to be in situ. Two lintels covering part of the rear chamber at Cashelcummin (Dg. 30) are also unlikely to be original and may be associated with the later incorporation of the site in a cashel of the early medieval period. Roof height can reliably be determined only at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and Shalwy (Dg. 113), at both of which it appears to have been almost 2.5m. Chambers vary considerably in size and to some extent in shape. In the case of two-chambered tombs, the two tend to be of similar size. Only at Binroe (Dg. 14), where the rear chamber is longer, and at Cashelcummin (Dg. 30), where the rear chamber is shorter and narrower, is there any noticeable size difference between the two chambers of a gallery. Variation in chamber size in galleries of more than two chambers is shown in the occurrence of small rear chambers at Lurgan (Dg. 86) and Malin More (Dg. 96). However, it is not possible to make any reliable assessment of the incidence of such variation because of the poor survival of galleries with more than two chambers. The majority of chambers are of generally rectangular outline, e.g. Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9), Cashelcummin (Dg. 30), Claggan (Dg. 33), Laraghirril (Dg. 78) and Meenbog (Dg. 97), although some of generally square outline are known, e.g. Malin More (Dg. 95), Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and Farranmacbride (Dg. 56). At the last two the sides of the front chamber are marginally further apart than their ends. A narrowing of the rear chamber toward the backstone is in evidence at the western gallery at Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9), Binroe (Dg. 14), Cashelcummin (Dg. 30), Lackcrom (Dg. 77) and Malin More (Dg. 95), and this also seems to have

58 MORPHOLOGY 237 been the case at Errarooey Beg (Dg. 52) and Laraghirril (Dg. 78). Rather less common is the situation where there is a distinct narrowing of the gallery over its entire length from front to back, as at Drumhallagh Upper (Dg. 50), Shalwy (Dg. 113) and also, it appears, Cloghbolie (Dg. 34). Of the sites where gallery sides are reasonably well preserved, the majority are found to be in straight alignment, but at around one-quarter of these sites an inturn or waist-like narrowing is in evidence or indicated. The latter feature coincides with the segmentation at the western gallery at Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) and, in the absence of jambs, may indicate a point of segmentation at other sites such as Lurgan (Dg. 85), Farragans (Dg. 55), Letter (Dg. 81) and the northern gallery at Roosky Upper (Dg. 108). Chamber lengths range from c. 1.8m to 4m, and maximum widths from c. 1.2m to 3.4m. Of 45 chambers where length can reasonably reliably be established, it is up to 3m at around two-thirds and more than that at the remainder. A curious chamber feature attracts attention at Malin More (Dg. 95), where a stone seat occupies one side of the rear chamber of the northern of the two galleries. The age and function of this feature are quite uncertain, but it seems to have been in place before the late 19th-century restoration of the monument. Subsidiary chamber Subsidiary chambers separate from the main gallery occur in the cairns at seven sites. At four of these, Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9), Croaghbeg (Dg. 40), Farranmacbride (Dg. 56) and Malin More (Dg. 95), the subsidiary chambers open into a full court. Lateral subsidiary chambers set beyond the gallery and opening toward one side of the cairn are known at Letter (Dg. 81) and Liafin (Dg. 82), and this seems to have been true also of the largely demolished tomb at Killin (Dg. 72). Three subsidiary chambers are ranged round the central court at both Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) and Farranmacbride (Dg. 56). Scant but fairly reliable remains of a fourth chamber are present at the latter site, and it has been suggested that some buried stones at the former site may represent the remains of another chamber (Ó Nualláin 1976, 95, 106). At Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) two of the chambers stand close together midway along the northern side of the court, and the third lies at the western end of the southern side. There is a skewed symmetry to the positioning of the chambers around the court at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56). Two stand at opposite sides of each end of the court. From a viewpoint in either of the two main galleries, the subsidiary chamber on the right is the nearer of the two to the end of the court. Two subsidiary chambers open into the court at Malin More (Dg. 95), one at either side of the court entrance. At Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) the lone subsidiary chamber would have opened onto the outer end of the now destroyed western arm of the court. At Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) the subsidiary chambers are entered directly via a gap between courtstones, which also act as entrance jambs, and it is likely that the two entrance jambs at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) also formed part of the missing western arm of the court. Excavation at this site revealed a sillstone, not exceeding 0.5m high, between the tall entrance jambs. Entry to the northern of the two subsidiary chambers at Malin More (Dg. 95) is via a markedly narrow gap between two courtstones. It appears, however, that the southern subsidiary chamber at this site may have been completely closed by a tall courtstone that now leans outward at its front. At Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), where one side of each subsidiary chamber lies on the court perimeter, the chambers were entered from the court via an angled approach element. This approach element is still preserved at the northeastern subsidiary chamber there. At Letter (Dg. 81) the lateral subsidiary chamber opens directly onto one side of the cairn, and it is likely that the two subsidiary chambers at Liafin (Dg. 82) also articulated with one side of the cairn, which is now all but denuded. The relationship of the destroyed subsidiary chamber at Killin (Dg. 72) to the cairn edge is now uncertain. The entrance jambs of the subsidiary chambers are almost all clearly transversely set and tend to be around the same height or somewhat lower than the orthostats behind them. The chamber sides, in turn, do not show any marked variation in height with respect to the backstone, which may be flat topped or slightly gabled in outline. The better-preserved of the subsidiary chambers that at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40), three at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56) and the southern one at Malin More (Dg. 95) are of short rectangular form, not exceeding, in internal measurement, 2m long or 1.6m wide. Single stones usually form the sides and back of the subsidiary chambers, and at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) each sidestone leans in against the backstone. However, at Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) the subsidiary chambers, two of which narrow toward the back, are 2 3m long and have sides composed of two or more relatively small orthostats.

59 238 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND Roofing evidence survives only at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56) and Malin More (Dg. 95). One subsidiary chamber at each site is covered by a single large stone, and, although both are now partly dislodged, they appear to have been laid directly on the chamber orthostats. There is an unusual feature at Malin More (Dg. 95), where a massive slab is laid on the floor of the southern subsidiary chamber and supports the backstone, which sits directly on it. It is considered that this is probably an original feature despite concerns arising from the 19th-century restoration of the site. Local information reported by Norman Moore (1872, 525) suggests that there may have been a similar structural arrangement at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56). According to this claim, sidestones stood on a flooring slab in a chamber, unspecified, at this site. At Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) the excavation of the subsidiary chamber revealed what appeared to be paving of around half of the floor area. There are additional chambers of uncertain status within the cairn at two sites. At Letter (Dg. 81) there are two opposed chambers on the main axis of the monument close to the narrow back of the cairn. Although these may be the remains of a second gallery, they seem best interpreted as subsidiary chambers to which there may have been a shared entry via a passage leading from one side of the cairn. At Carricknamoghil (Dg. 23) a chamber standing at the eastern end of the cairn may also be a subsidiary chamber; if so, it is larger than others in the county, although the possibility that it is the remains of a second but otherwise destroyed gallery cannot be ruled out. At Ballyboe (Dg. 5) two tall structures, one just beyond the other, stand in separate mounds a short distance behind, and on the same axis as, the court tomb there. Their original form remains uncertain, but the betterpreserved one resembles a portal tomb chamber, and there is a possibility that the second structure was also one. Art Two courtstones at Malin More (Dg. 95) are decorated. One flanks the front of the southern subsidiary chamber, and the other is at the front of the northern subsidiary chamber. These are the only unambiguous instances of decorated stones in a court tomb. The scorings at Ballymarlagh (An.) (Davies 1949, 29 30, figs. 2 and 3) are not definitely ancient (de Valera 1960, 63; Shee Twohig 1981, 234 5). The supposed lozenge on a loose stone found on the cairn at Goward (Dw.) is now considered to have been natural in origin (Davies and Evans 1934, 97 8; Shee Twohig 1981, 235). The absence of similar ornamentation at other court tombs and its occurrence at Malin More (Dg. 95) on the exposed faces of two courtstones, where it could have been added after the tomb was built, raise the possibility that those who built the monument were not responsible for the art. Of the individual motifs at the site, the arcs, circles and lozenges can be paralleled in the art of the builders of the passage tombs but not the S-curve and the crook-like curves (Shee Twohig 1981, 235). A possible influence may also be sought in the numerous occurrences of rock art now known in County Donegal, although the great majority of these are in the north-east of the county, in Inishowen (Van Hoek 1987; 1988), well away from Malin More (Dg. 95). Nevertheless, a reasonably good comparison can be made between a crook-like curve running from the outer and penannular one of two concentric circles on the southern one of the two decorated stones at Malin More (Dg. 95) and a motif on outcropping rock at Magheranaul, County Donegal (Van Hoek 1987, 38 9, fig. 11c). A crook-like groove also forms part of a motif on Rock A at Mevagh, County Donegal, and has been compared to the crook-like motifs at Malin More (Dg. 95) (Van Hoek 1988, 26, 29). There are broad similarities, then, between the art at Malin More (Dg. 95) and that found both in passage tombs and, perhaps to a lesser extent, on decorated rock surfaces. It is possible that one or both of these styles were influences behind the art at Malin More (Dg. 95). Orientation The orientations of the 37 tombs of standard single terminal-court design for which evidence is available are plotted on Fig. 93, as well as the slightly differing orientations of the two galleries at Malin More (Dg. 95). It is clear from the diagram that there was a marked preference for placing the front of the tomb to the east of the north south line. This is so in 33 tombs, as opposed to five at which the entrance lies to the west of the line. Among the tombs facing east of the north south line there is a clear bias in favour of an orientation toward the east-north-east. In all, the fronts of 22 of the 33 tombs facing east of the north south line are aligned on points falling between 40 degrees and 92 degrees.

60 MORPHOLOGY 239 PORTAL TOMBS There are 25 portal tomb monuments in County Donegal. At twenty of these there is a single chamber. The other five sites are composite monuments. There are two chambers at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70), Malin More (Dg. 90) and Toome (Dg. 123). A mid-19th-century OS sketch indicates that there was a similar arrangement at Ards Beg (Dg. 1). There are six chambers at the celebrated complex at Malin More (Dg. 91). One portal tomb, Gortfad (Dg. 59), has been destroyed since it was surveyed in The tomb at Sand Island (Dg. 112) was exposed in a hole in the sand in 1976 when surveyed. By 1984 the hole had been filled in. It is not known whether the structure survives. Cairn A cairn or mound survives at fourteen of the 25 portal tombs in the county. At two further sites, Malin More (Dg. 90) and Templemoyle (Dg. 120), there are scant traces of what may be a mound. At another site, Roshin South (Dg. 110), there is a slight dip in ground level visible around part of the chamber, but it is uncertain whether it represents the edge of a cairn or is a natural feature. At three of the fourteen sites where a mound is present the remains are slight and provide little indication of the original shape. This is so at Errarooey Beg (Dg. 53) and was also the case at the now destroyed tomb at Gortfad (Dg. 59). At the large portal tomb complex in Malin More (Dg. 91) there are what seem to be cairn remains at the eastern extremity of the monument. There are also some indications of what may have been a more extensive cairn here, but it is not now clear whether it encompassed all the chambers. The complex does, however, appear to have been designed as a unit (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972, 165). There are substantial cairn remains at eleven sites. At six of these there is a long mound, and at the other five a mound of subcircular or broadly subrectangular outline encompasses the structure. At the latter five sites, mound size ranges from 9.5m to 11.5m. Later disturbance at two of these sites, Carnaghan (Dg. 19) and Lackaghatermon (Dg. 76), and the irregular outline at another, Kilclooney More (Dg. 68), leave much uncertainty about original mound form. There is a reasonably coherent outline to the mound at each of the remaining two sites, Ballyannan (Dg. 3) and Straleel North (Dg. 116), and this suggests that their present form fairly accurately reflects the original. At none of these five sites nor the six where a long cairn survives is there any clearly identifiable cairn edge in the form of kerbing or another type of deliberately built revetment. However, the regular outlines of the long cairns at Carrickmagrath (Dg. 21), Muntermellan (Dg. 104), Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) and Toome (Dg. 123) suggest that they reasonably accurately represent the original shape. At Carrickmagrath (Dg. 21) the cairn is long and narrow with essentially parallel sides and rounded ends. The cairn at Toome (Dg. 123), although its extremities are wanting, is clearly of similar outline. At Muntermellan (Dg. 104) the cairn is rounded at the front, with sides essentially parallel over their forward two-thirds, beyond which they converge sharply. At Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) the mound, which contains two portal tomb chambers, is distinctly trapezoidal in outline. At Eskaheen (Dg. 54) and Claggan (Dg. 32) there are also long cairns, although their outlines are somewhat disturbed. It is clear, however, that both narrow toward the back from broad rounded fronts. In the case of the six long cairns, identifiable length varies from c. 17m at Carrickmagrath (Dg. 21) to c. 33m at Claggan (Dg. 32), and the cairn at Toome (Dg. 123), where, as noted, the extremities are wanting, is now c. 36m long. The long narrow cairns, Carrickmagrath (Dg. 21), Muntermellan (Dg. 104) and Toome (Dg. 123), vary from 8m to 10.5m in maximum width, and the broad fronts at Claggan (Dg. 32), Eskaheen (Dg. 54) and Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) range from 13m to 17m wide. The chambers are found at the broader ends of the last three cairns, and at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) the larger of the two portal tomb chambers in the cairn is similarly placed. At the six sites where long cairns are known, the chambers are found not at their extremities but set back somewhat from them. Cairn spread may exaggerate this effect, but it nonetheless seems a deliberate feature. The cairns at four sites, Carrickmagrath (Dg. 21), Claggan (Dg. 32), Eskaheen (Dg. 54) and Muntermellan (Dg. 104), are clearly of stone construction. Elsewhere the make-up of the mounds is obscured by grass growth and occasionally by peat. Nevertheless, the surface indications are generally that these too are substantially of stone construction. Cairns are all quite low. Only at Muntermellan (Dg. 104) does the cairn rise to the top of the chamber sides, which in this instance are only half the height of the portal-stones at the front of the chamber.

61 240 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND Chamber The portal tomb chambers in the county are of rectilinear design, and at around three-quarters of the sites where the shape is apparent they narrow somewhat toward the rear. The remaining chambers are more or less rectangular in outline. Chamber size can accurately be ascertained in only six instances. The western one of the two chambers in the same mound at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) measures, internally, 1.5m long and 1.1m wide at the front, from where it narrows to 0.75m at the back. This is the smallest portal tomb chamber in the county. The larger chamber in the same cairn is 2m long and 1.4m wide. The chamber at Carrickmagrath (Dg. 21) is 1.7m long and up to 1m wide; that at Muntermellan (Dg. 104) is 1.8m long and narrows from 1m wide at the front to 0.8m at the back; the well-preserved chamber at the western end of the cairn at Toome (Dg. 123) is 2.2m long and 1.2m wide; that at Ballyannan (Dg. 3), the largest of the six, is 2.2m long and narrows from 1.5m wide at the front to 1.3m at the rear. Bigger chambers are in evidence at a number of sites, although they are not amenable to precise measurement. The chamber at Ards Beg (Dg. 1) seems to have been c. 3m long; that at Carnaghan (Dg. 19) was at least 2.6m long; and that at Cloghroe (Dg. 35) seems to have been at least 2.5m long. Chamber No. 1 of the complex at Malin More (Dg. 91), the widest known in the county, narrows from 1.8m wide at the front to 1.6m at the back and was at least 2m long. A less well-preserved chamber at this site, No. 6, seems to have been of comparable dimensions. The chamber at Roshin South (Dg. 110), which is 1.1m wide, seems to have been c. 3m long. As noted above, five of the 25 portal tombs in the county are composite monuments. At Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) the two portal tomb chambers, one bigger than the other, stand just over 9m apart somewhat inside either end of the same cairn and face more or less in the same direction. At Toome (Dg. 123) a well-preserved portal tomb stands toward one end of a cairn, and c. 10m toward the opposite end there is a ruined chamber that has been interpreted as a portal tomb chamber (Ó Nualláin 1983b, 94). If Ó Nualláin s interpretation of the ruined chamber is correct, the two chambers would have faced each other. At Malin More (Dg. 90) a collapsed portal tomb stands 5m from the remains of a second chamber, the nature of which is not now apparent. There are indications that both structures stood in the same cairn. At Ards Beg (Dg. 1) a 19th-century OS drawing shows the remains of a second chamber standing somewhat behind and facing in the same direction as the extant portal tomb at the site. The nature of this second chamber is uncertain, nor is it known whether it and the extant portal tomb shared a cairn. At Malin More (Dg. 91) six chambers extend over a distance of 100m. The two terminal chambers (Nos. 1 and 6) are of similar size, are aligned more or less on the same axis and face eastward. The four intermediate chambers, each smaller than the terminal ones, are arranged in a line slightly to the north of the long axis of the terminal chambers. The two nearer the western terminal chamber (Nos. 2 and 3) are quite well-preserved portal tomb chambers. Each stands more or less at right angles to the long axis of the terminal chambers. However, they face in opposite directions. Chamber No. 2 opens toward the axis of the terminal chambers, and chamber No. 3 opens away from it in the manner of a lateral subsidiary chamber in a court tomb cairn. The next intermediate chamber to the east (No. 4) is small, low and of uncertain design and, if present indications can be relied on, faced eastward like the two terminal chambers. Chamber No. 5 at this site is very ruined. The indications are that it may have been a portal tomb chamber and that it faced either eastward, like the terminal chambers, or westward. The front of portal tomb chambers is usually formed by two longitudinally set and frequently tall portalstones, which may flank a doorstone or sill. Both portal-stones survive intact at around one-third of the sites in the county. One portal-stone survives intact at around half of the sites. At a number of these sites the second stone is partly toppled or has fallen. At the remaining sites, except one, both portal-stones or the surviving one are either broken or fallen. The portal-stones at Eskaheen (Dg. 54) are now skewed somewhat, and this may owe something to the partial collapse of the great roofstone there. Only at Sand Island (Dg. 112) was there no trace of either portal-stone. The true heights of portal-stones cannot always be determined with accuracy, but, excluding those sites where they are obviously broken, it is clear that the greater number, approximately twothirds, are c. 1 2m high. There are six sites where distinctly taller portal-stones, c. 2.5m or slightly more, are found, namely, Carnaghan (Dg. 19), Cloghroe (Dg. 35), Malin More (Dg. 93), Muntermellan (Dg. 104) and the two endchambers of the complex at Malin More (Dg. 91); it is also likely that the prostrate portal-stones at Malin More (Dg. 90), when upright, were of similar height. At these sites, and perhaps also at Lackaghatermon (Dg. 76), Roshin South (Dg. 110) and Toome (Dg. 123), the portal-stones appear to have been markedly taller, by c. 1m or more, than the other chamber orthostats. At the remaining sites the portal-stones do not exceed the other

62 MORPHOLOGY 241 orthostats by more than c. 0.7m, and at Ballyannan (Dg. 3), Bin (Dg. 13), Carrickmagrath (Dg. 21) and Claggan (Dg. 32) the portal-stones rise little above the other orthostats. This also seems to have been the case at Kilclooney More (Dg. 68), where the surviving portal-stone is no higher than the other orthostats. At around onethird of the sites the top of one portal-stone, and at Carnaghan (Dg. 19) and Gortnavern (Dg. 62) the top of both portal-stones, slopes downward toward the back of the chamber. The gap between portal-stones is as little as c. 0.3m at Eskaheen (Dg. 54) and Muntermellan (Dg. 104), but it generally lies between c. 0.5m and 1m. However, the two portal-stones of the western chamber at Malin More (Dg. 91) are 1.2m apart. A doorstone spans the gap between the portal-stones at Ards Beg (Dg. 1), Ballyannan (Dg. 3), Errarooey Beg (Dg. 53), Muntermellan (Dg. 104) and Toome (Dg. 123), and somewhat less impressive sills are found at Carrickmagrath (Dg. 21), Gilbertstown (Dg. 58) and both chambers at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70). A report in a mid-19th-century OS account suggests that there may then have been a doorstone or sill across the front of the chamber at Templemoyle (Dg. 120), although there is now no trace of it. The sills do not exceed one-third of the height of the portal-stones, and, although they inhibit access to the chamber, they would not have prevented it. Doorstones rise to between one-half and two-thirds of the height of the portal-stones, and it is clear that they effectively blocked entry to the chamber. It is noteworthy that the doorstones at Muntermellan (Dg. 104) and Toome (Dg. 123), which rise only to around half the height of the portal-stones, achieve full closure. At these sites the doorstone stands between the inner ends of the portal-stones and rises to the height of the subsidiary roofstone, which is laid on the sides and back of the chamber. At Errarooey Beg (Dg. 53) the closing stone is keyed behind one of the portal-stones; at the other sites it fits between the two portal-stones, usually between their inner ends. A stone is set in advance of both portal-stones of the western chamber (No. 1) of the complex at Malin More (Dg. 91), and there is also one in front of the northern portal-stone at Eskaheen (Dg. 54). The southern one of the two at the former site is a tall stone, equal in height to the portal-stone, and the northern one, now quite low, may be only the stump of a taller stone. That at Eskaheen (Dg. 54) would have been around the same height as the adjacent portal-stone when the latter was intact. There may have been a similar arrangement at one side of the chamber at Roshin South (Dg. 110). This is suggested by the disposition of the stones at the front of the chamber there and by an 18th-century sketch of this. Chamber sides are normally formed of single stones, e.g. Ballyannan (Dg. 3), Bin (Dg. 13), Carrickmagrath (Dg. 21), Claggan (Dg. 32), Eskaheen (Dg. 54), Gortnavern (Dg. 62), Kilclooney More (Dg. 68), both chambers at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70), Nos. 2, 3, and 6 at Malin More (Dg. 91), Muntermellan (Dg. 104), Straleel North (Dg. 116), Templemoyle (Dg. 120) and the western chamber at Toome (Dg. 123). Sometimes more than one sidestone was employed. Both sides of the chamber at Roshin South (Dg. 110) consisted of two stones, and two stones are found at one side of the chamber at Ards Beg (Dg. 1) and at one side of the western chamber (No. 1) at Malin More (Dg. 91). It is likely that more than one stone also formed one side of the chambers at Cloghroe (Dg. 35) and Lackaghatermon (Dg. 76). Sidestones, in the majority of cases, are set outside the line of the portalstones and usually overlap them. Less frequently they are set more or less in line with the portal-stones. This is true of both sides of the chambers at Carrickmagrath (Dg. 21) and Roshin South (Dg. 110), the western chamber at Toome (Dg. 123) and both chambers at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70). It is also true of one side of the chamber at Bin (Dg. 13) and the surviving side at Straleel North (Dg. 116). Inward-leaning sidestones are a frequent feature: they are known at around half of the sites where sidestones are present and may bear against the portalstones, the backstone or both, e.g. Muntermellan (Dg. 104). The back of the chamber is preserved at around three-quarters of the sites in the county and consists of a single stone except at the north-eastern chamber at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70), where there are two endstones, a greater and a lesser one. At Ballyannan (Dg. 3) there is a low set stone outside one end of the backstone, but this does not serve any closing function and may be a packing-stone. The backstone is usually set between the sidestones but is placed beyond them at Kilclooney More (Dg. 68), and there may have been a similar arrangement at Sand Island (Dg. 112). At Eskaheen (Dg. 54) and the south-western and smaller of the two chambers at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) the backstone is set beyond one side of the chamber and is overlapped by the other side. Backstones lean inward at just over half of the sites in the county and are generally somewhat taller than the sidestones, although at Muntermellan (Dg. 104) and Templemoyle (Dg. 120) they are somewhat lower, and this may also have been the case at Roshin South (Dg. 110). Generally backstones are somewhat gabled in outline, e.g. at Ballyannan (Dg. 3), Bin (Dg. 13) and Eskaheen (Dg. 54), the terminal chambers of the

63 242 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND complex at Malin More (Dg. 91) and Toome (Dg. 123). There are flat-topped backstones in both chambers at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70). Backstones normally present a flat face to the interior, but those at Cloghroe (Dg. 35) and the north-eastern chamber at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) present a somewhat concave one, as does, to a lesser degree, the backstone of the eastern chamber at Malin More (Dg. 91). There is evidence for roofing at three-quarters of the sites in the county, usually in the form of a single great roofstone, although in a number of instances a second or subsidiary roofstone was employed to cover that part of the chamber behind the portal-stones. It is clear that, when in place, the great roofstone normally rested in a sloping position, raised to the front on the portal-stones and sloping down toward the rear, where it rested either on the back of the chamber or on a subsidiary roofstone. Roofstones are in situ only at the north-eastern chamber at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) and at the second portal tomb in the same townland (Dg. 68). At the latter site the roofstone rests in a horizontal position because, as noted above, the surviving portal-stone is no higher than the other orthostats. At the former site the great roofstone rests on both portal-stones, from where it slopes down to the rear, where it rests on a pad-stone on top of the larger of the two stones forming the back of the chamber. At the south-western chamber at this site the roofstone, which is somewhat displaced, is not laid directly on the portal-stones but on a lintel that rests on them. Roofstones, though displaced, retain more or less their original positions at Carrickmagrath (Dg. 21), Gortnavern (Dg. 62) and to a lesser extent Eskaheen (Dg. 54). Rather more displaced ones are present at Ards Beg (Dg. 1), Errarooey Beg (Dg. 53), Gilbertstown (Dg. 58), Lackaghatermon (Dg. 76), Malin More (Dg. 90), Malin More (Dg. 91), Malin More (Dg. 93), Templemoyle (Dg. 120) and possibly Malin More (Dg. 94). A subsidiary roofstone is in place at Muntermellan (Dg. 104), Straleel North (Dg. 116) and the western chamber (No. 1) at Malin More (Dg. 91), and what appears to be another is displaced from above the eastern chamber (No. 6) of the same complex. A subsidiary roofstone is also in place above the western chamber at Toome (Dg. 123), and the 18th-century sketch of the tomb at Roshin South (Dg. 110) shows what seems to have been a subsidiary roofstone then in place. On the same sketch a large stone is shown on the ground in front of the monument, perhaps the main roofstone. Roofstones normally rise clear of the chamber sides, and there is some evidence that the intervening gaps were originally blocked. On the eastern side of the chamber at Muntermellan (Dg. 104) a gap between the underside of the roofstone and the top of a sidestone is blocked by a stone set outside of and rising above the sidestone. At the south-western chamber at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) a large stone has been placed on top of the western sidestone, apparently to aid the closure of the gap between it and the roofstone. The slightly displaced roofstone now rests against this stone, but originally there would have been a gap between them. A stone that served a similar role has been displaced from above the western side of the larger portal tomb chamber at the same site. At Carrickmagrath (Dg. 21) the space between the base of the roofstone and the declining top of a sidestone has been filled by a stone laid on top of the sidestone. Although such stones can be described as corbels, they do not seem to have played a key role in supporting the roofstone, as have the true corbels found in court tombs. On the limited evidence available the stones so used seem to have been chosen to fit the top surface of the sidestone and to rest on it. At the western chamber at Toome (Dg. 123) such a stone laid on the northern sidestone acts as a true corbel and directly supports the subsidiary roofstone. A similar supporting stone has slipped from the top of the opposite sidestone. Large pad-stones are employed at the back of the chamber at Eskaheen (Dg. 54) and at the back of the western chamber (No. 1) at Malin More (Dg. 91) to provide a more secure seat for one end of the roofstone than the relatively pointed top of the gable-shaped backstone at these sites. Roofstones may be roughly rectangular in outline, as at Errarooey Beg (Dg. 53), Gilbertstown (Dg. 58), Malin More (Dg. 90) and chambers No. 4 and No. 6 at Malin More (Dg. 91). More frequently, however, they narrow toward the back, giving a slight to a pronounced wedge shape, as at Ards Beg (Dg. 1), Gortnavern (Dg. 62), Kilclooney More (Dg. 68), Kilclooney More (Dg. 70), Lackaghatermon (Dg. 76), Muntermellan (Dg. 104), Straleel North (Dg. 116) and Templemoyle (Dg. 120). Exceptionally, at Eskaheen (Dg. 54) the broader end of the roofstone overlies the back of the chamber. Roofstones may be of relatively uniform thickness, e.g. Ards Beg (Dg. 1), Errarooey Beg (Dg. 53) and Gortnavern (Dg. 62), or, just as likely, one end, almost invariably the front, may be thicker, e.g. Muntermellan (Dg. 104), Templemoyle (Dg. 120) and both chambers at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70). However, at Kilclooney More (Dg. 68) the thicker end of the roofstone is to the back of the chamber. Roofstones vary considerably in size. The largest in the county, by some margin, is the massive one at Eskaheen (Dg. 54), which is 5m long, 3.7m in greatest width and 1.5m in maximum thickness. Next in size is

64 MORPHOLOGY 243 the imposing stone covering the north-eastern chamber at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70), which is 4.2m in overall length, 3.7m wide at the front, narrowing to c. 1m at the back, and 0.9m in greatest thickness. Included among the smaller roofstones is that covering the south-western chamber at the last site, which is 1.9m long, 1.4m wide at the front, narrowing to c. 0.5m at the back, and 0.4m in greatest thickness. Other small roofstones are that at Errarooey Beg (Dg. 53), which measures 1.85m by 1.7m by 0.25m thick, and that dislodged from above chamber No. 2 at Malin More (Dg. 91), which measures 1.8m by 1.4m by 0.3m thick. No flooring features are in evidence at any of the sites, although a claim that the chamber at Ards Beg (Dg. 1) was found to have been paved when dug by locals in search of treasure is contained in a mid-19th-century OS report. Orientation The orientations of 27 portal tomb chambers at 23 sites are shown on Fig. 94. Included on this are all but one of the twenty singly occurring chambers in the county. The exception is Malin More (Dg. 93), where the indications are that this considerably ruined monument faced east-south-east. The other eight chambers identified on the diagram belong to composite sites. The orientations of both chambers at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) are plotted, as are four of the six at Malin More (Dg. 91), the surviving chamber of the two at Ards Beg (Dg. 1) and the western one of the two at Toome (Dg. 123). It is not possible to determine the orientation of either of the ruined chambers at Malin More (Dg. 90). Except for the tomb at Eskaheen (Dg. 54), which faces west-north-west, the chamber orientations are relatively evenly distributed over slightly more than the eastern half of the compass. Within this considerable range (north-north-west through east to south-south-west) there is no obvious bias toward any one direction, although there is a very slight preference for an outlook lying between east-north-east and east. WEDGE TOMBS There are 22 wedge tombs in County Donegal, including one, Casheltown (Dg. 31), where three galleries are placed side by side within a round kerb, the only instance in Ireland. Apart from one large one, Carmoney (Dg. 17), the wedge tombs are small to medium-sized, and all maintain the western orientation of the type. Gallery Gallery structure can be identified at all sites except Ballymagrorty Scotch (Dg. 6). The longest gallery in the county, at c. 10m, is at Carmoney (Dg. 17). Of the remaining wedge tombs the galleries at Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25) and Kilbarron (Dg. 66) are both c. 6m long, and it seems that two of the three galleries at Casheltown (Dg. 31) would have been around the same length when intact. There is no indication that gallery length at any of the damaged sites in the county was originally any greater than c. 6m. The shortest intact gallery is at Magheranaul (Dg. 89), where overall length is 3.4m. The gallery at Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 26) may have been less than 3m long, but a doubt about the position of its front leaves some uncertainty about its true length. A gradual narrowing of the gallery toward the east or rear is a normal feature, although at Cabry (Dg. 15) the sides cease to converge at mid-length, beyond which they are parallel sided. There seems to have been a similar design at Gransha (Dg. 64) and perhaps also at Meenkeeragh (Dg. 100), where the sides of the surviving inner half of the gallery are also parallel. It appears that the gallery at Magheracar (Dg. 88) maintained an even width of 1m over its full length. This, and perhaps Tawlaght (Dg. 119), which seems to have been of similar width toward the front, is among the narrowest galleries. There are wider ones at Cabry (Dg. 15), Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25), Kilbarron (Dg. 66) and Kilbeg (Dg. 67). The front of each of these is c. 1.75m wide. The convergence of the gallery sides to the east is most marked at Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25), which is only c. 0.5m wide at the rear. Gallery width at the rear in most instances lies between c. 0.7m and 1m, e.g. Carrownaganonagh (Dg. 28), Kilbarron (Dg. 66), Magheranaul (Dg. 89) and Meenformal (Dg. 99), but at Gransha (Dg. 64) it is 1.5m and at Cabry (Dg. 15) 1.2m. Gallery height is difficult to estimate owing to the presence of cairn remains and/or peat growth, but apart from Gransha (Dg. 64), which is c. 1.5m high at the front, none seems to exceed 1.2m, and many are less than

65 244 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND this. A diminution in gallery height from front to rear is apparent at around two-thirds of the sites in the county, e.g. Carmoney (Dg. 17), Carmoney (Dg. 18), Kilbarron (Dg. 66) and Kilbeg (Dg. 67). At some sites this diminution in height is quite marked, notably at Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25). Gallery sides are, or clearly were, formed of two or more stones, with the sole exception of Magheranaul (Dg. 89), each side of which consists of a single stone. Backstones are present at nine sites and are inset between the gallery sides at five of these, Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 26), Gransha (Dg. 64), Magheranaul (Dg. 89), Meenformal (Dg. 99) and Sharagore/Tonduff (Dg. 114). The backstone is set beyond the gallery sides at Kilbarron (Dg. 66) and at each of the three galleries at Casheltown (Dg. 31). At two sites, Largynagreana (Dg. 79) and Meenkeeragh (Dg. 100), one end of the backstone is overlapped by a gallery side and the other end is set beyond the opposite side. Roofing is by means of slabs laid lintel-like on the gallery sides, and these are preserved in place or only slightly dislodged at fifteen sites. The roofstones are usually laid directly on the gallery sides, although padstones are sometimes interposed between them and the tops of the sidestones. Pad-stones are found at Cabry (Dg. 15), Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25), Carrownaganonagh (Dg. 28), the middle and eastern of the three galleries at Casheltown (Dg. 31) and Largynagreana (Dg. 79), and corbelling is employed at Kilbarron (Dg. 66). Where roofing is reasonably well preserved, e.g. Carmoney (Dg. 17) and Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 26), a decline in height from front to rear is evident. At the latter site the forward one of the two extant roofstones partly overlies its companion. Similar instances of overlap are known at Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25) and Meenformal (Dg. 99). Exceptionally, at Gransha (Dg. 64) a forward roofstone is overlain by one behind it. It is generally possible to distinguish between roofstones laid with their longer axis in line with the main axis of the gallery and those set transversely to it, and instances of both types at the same site are known. Those slabs laid lengthwise along the gallery are generally quite large, and one is sufficient to roof an entire, though admittedly short, gallery at Magheranaul (Dg. 89), almost all of the slightly longer gallery at Largynagreana (Dg. 79) and half of each of the three adjoining galleries at Casheltown (Dg. 31). The lone surviving roofstones at Carmoney (Dg. 18), Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 24) and Tawlaght (Dg. 119) are longitudinally laid, as are the two in place at Kilbarron (Dg. 66). At Carmoney (Dg. 17) a longitudinally laid roofstone covers the end of the gallery, and the remainder and greater part of it was roofed by transversely laid stones, five of which remain. There is an occurrence of each type at both Carrownaganonagh (Dg. 28) and Gransha (Dg. 64), the longitudinally laid one being the larger in each case. Five roofstones, all transversely laid, lie across the gallery at Meenformal (Dg. 99), and one or at most two are in place at Cabry (Dg. 15), Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25), Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 26) and Carrowreagh (Dg. 29). At Carrownaganonagh (Sl. 28) a stone set at right angles to the outer face of one side of the gallery seems to have served as a buttress-stone. At Meenformal (Dg. 99) a stone at right angles to the outer face of the presumed backstone may also be a buttress-stone, but it is possible that it is the remaining stone of a small rear chamber. A line of four stones outside the front of the north side of the gallery at Carmoney (Dg. 17) appear to be packingstones. At around half of the sites in the county there is some form of gallery segmentation. However, it is not known whether the absence of segmenting features at the remaining sites reflects their original state or is due to later loss. An exception is the intact gallery at Magheranaul (Dg. 89), which does not appear to have been segmented. At Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 26), Carrownaganonagh (Dg. 28), Kilbarron (Dg. 66) and Meencargagh (Dg. 98) a septal-stone separates a small western chamber or portico from the remainder of the gallery, and there may be a similar arrangement at both Carmoney (Dg. 18) and Largynagreana (Dg. 79). The outer end of the porticos at these sites is generally poorly defined, and precise measurement is seldom possible. An exception is Kilbarron (Dg. 66), where the portico is 1.8m long, somewhat less than one-third of the overall length of the gallery. None of the other porticos at the sites just named would have comprised a greater proportion of overall gallery length. At two other sites, Cabry (Dg. 15) and Gransha (Dg. 64), a septal-stone divides the gallery into two approximately equal parts, and two of the three galleries at Casheltown (Dg. 31) are similarly divided, the western one by a septal-stone and the middle one by two stones set end to end across the gallery. At two sites, Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25) and Meenformal (Dg. 99), a jamb-like stone projecting from one side of the gallery and blocking half of its width forms a segmentation between a portico, equal to around one-third of the length of the gallery, and the remainder of the gallery. At Carmoney (Dg. 17) a slight but abrupt narrowing of the forward extremity of the gallery identifies a distinct western element, but there is no indication of any

66 MORPHOLOGY 245 segmentation of the gallery at this point. At Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25) a stone reaching to the height of the gallery sides stands at around the middle of the portico, and there is also a stone within the portico at Cabry (Dg. 15). Each may have served as a roof support at the wider end of the gallery. Septal-stones, where present, seem intended to block access along the gallery. They are substantial slabs and generally fill the width of the gallery, although at Cabry (Dg. 15) there is a slight space between one end of the septal-stone and the gallery side, which has been filled by a small stone. At Kilbarron (Dg. 66) the septal-stone seems to have been inset in the gallery sides, and that in the western gallery at Casheltown (Dg. 31) projects beyond both side-walls. The relationship of the septal-stones to the gallery roof is clear at three sites. At Carrownaganonagh (Dg. 28) it rises to roof height; at Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 26) it rises to between 0.12m and 0.25m of the roof; and at Gransha (Dg. 64) it rises to within 0.3m of the roof. At the remaining sites the precise relationship of the septal-stones to the roof is not clear, but the indications are that they would have risen to, or close to, the top of the gallery sides. At Gransha (Dg. 64) a slight groove has been cut in the top of the septal-stone, but it is not known whether this is an ancient feature. There is only one confirmed instance in the county of a small chamber at the rear or east end of a wedge tomb gallery. At Carmoney (Dg. 17) a transversely set slab rising to roof height divides such a chamber from the rest of the gallery. There is a possibility that the surviving roofed structure at the adjacent tomb in the same townland (Dg. 18) is the rear chamber of an otherwise demolished gallery. There are indications that there may have been a rear chamber at two other sites. At Meenformal (Dg. 99) a stone behind the presumed backstone is more or less in line with one side of the gallery and in this position could have served as the side of such a chamber, although, as noted above, it could also have served as a buttress-stone. At Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25) both sides of the eastern extremity of the monument are stepped-in so as to narrow the gallery abruptly, but there is no segmenting feature at this point. Outer-walling and facade There is some evidence for outer-walling, comprising a row of contiguous orthostats, beyond the sides and/or back of the gallery at around four-fifths of the sites in the county. Outer-walling is usually approximately equal in height to gallery sides and, in general, declines from west to east. The gap between the outer-walling and the gallery side varies. The gap may be slight, e.g. at Carmoney (Dg. 17) and Meenformal (Dg. 99), where it is scarcely 0.5m, or almost negligible, as at Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 24), where the outer-walling all but touches the gallery sides. At one site, Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25), there is more than one line of closeset outer-walling. At other sites there may be quite a marked gap between the front of the outer-walling and the gallery sides. This gap is c. 1m at Kilbarron (Dg. 66), Kilbeg (Dg. 67) and Sharagore/Tonduff (Dg. 114) and as much as 1.5m at Magheracar (Dg. 88). At these broad-fronted tombs the sides of the outer-walling usually converge quite sharply, and more markedly than the gallery sides, so that the gap between the two usually narrows to c. 0.6m and less at the east. The outer-walling is usually more or less equidistant from both sides of the gallery, although at Magheranaul (Dg. 89) the gap between them at the north side of the monument is only around half of that at the S. There may have been a similar disparity at Meenkeeragh (Dg. 100), but the destruction of the outer half of the gallery leaves some uncertainty. Outer-walling is usually more or less straight sided, although at the south side at Ballymagrorty Scotch (Dg. 6) it is somewhat bellied in outline, and at Meenkeeragh (Dg. 100) both sides splay sharply from mid-length toward the front. Outer-walling beyond the back of the gallery is poorly represented but survives in part at five sites, Cabry (Dg. 15), Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25), Kilbarron (Dg. 66), Largynagreana (Dg. 79) and Magheranaul (Dg. 89). In these cases a straight end is indicated. Frontal facades, though generally poorly preserved, are represented at thirteen sites, and at a further site, Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 24), a lone stone at the west end of the monument may be the remnant of one. Facades are usually straight but at Cabry (Dg. 15) and Meenkeeragh (Dg. 100) are very slightly curved in outline. At Meenformal (Dg. 99) a stone behind the lone facade-stone seems to represent a doubling of this feature, and at Meenkeeragh (Dg. 100) the facade consists of an elaborate arrangement of three lines of overlapping stones, the northern half of which survives. Normally the outer-walling and gallery sides terminate at the facade, which links one to the other. This seems to be the case at Gortnalaragh (Dg. 61), Kilbarron (Dg. 66), Kilbeg (Dg. 67), Magheracar (Dg. 88), Magheranaul (Dg. 89) and Meenformal (Dg. 99), and probably also at Meencargagh (Dg. 98), Sharagore/Tonduff (Dg. 114)

67 246 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND and Tawlaght (Dg. 119). At one of these sites, Magheranaul (Dg. 89), the facade forms an unbroken line across the end of the monument. The largest facade-stone here also functions as a closing slab at the front of the gallery. It now leans outward but when upright would have blocked entry to the gallery. The facade may also have formed an unbroken line across the western end of the monument at Meenkeeragh (Dg. 100). However, it appears that normally a gap was left in the facade to allow access to the gallery. At one site, Kilbeg (Dg. 67), a stone, part of the facade, stands at the gallery entrance and divides but does not block it. There may have been a similar arrangement at Gransha (Dg. 64). Such a division of the gallery entrance has been noted in wedge tombs elsewhere (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1982, 106; Walsh 1995, 122) and may be a deliberate feature. At a number of sites poor preservation leaves some uncertainty about the relationship of the facade to the front of the gallery. At one of these, Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25), the remaining facade-stones, now all but prostrate, are forward of what seems to be the front of the gallery, but whether this is an accurate reflection of the original design is uncertain. Also unclear is the role of a stone standing at the front of this gallery. It may be intended to divide the entrance, but, because it is a sizeable stone and there is another stone, albeit a small one, beside it, both may be remnants of a closing feature. At Casheltown (Dg. 31) the indications are that the two betterpreserved of the three galleries opened onto the surrounding round kerb. At Sharagore/Tonduff (Dg. 114) a lone stone seems to represent a continuation of the facade beyond the outer wall. This feature, not known elsewhere in County Donegal, may be intended as an enhancement of the facade. It is also possible to envisage that it linked to a kerb of the type found beyond the outer-walling at Culdaly (Sl. 114) (Ó Nualláin 1989, fig. 57), although there is now no trace of any such at the site. Another exceptional feature at Sharagore/Tonduff (Dg. 114) is the careful roofing of the inner end of the space between the outer-walling and the northern side of the gallery. As this feature is without parallel elsewhere, its antiquity must be doubted, although it appears from OS documents of the mid-19th century that it was in place by that time. Cairn At sixteen sites there are some remains of a mound or cairn present, and at two other sites, Kilbarron (Dg. 66) and Kilbeg (Dg. 67), stony fill between the outer wall and the gallery sides may be cairn remnant. Many of the surviving mounds are now grass grown, and their make-up is frequently unclear, but disturbance at Carrownaganonagh (Dg. 28) reveals a stone cairn beneath a layer of earth. At Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25) it is clear that there is a considerable content of stones in the mound, and stones are also exposed at the surface at Casheltown (Dg. 31), Largynagreana (Dg. 79) and Magheranaul (Dg. 89). According to OS records, there was a considerable quantity of stone, not now apparent, scattered at both Gransha (Dg. 64) and Sharagore/Tonduff (Dg. 114) in the middle of the 19th century. The mounds survive in a variety of shapes, some of them clearly the result of disturbance. Only at Casheltown (Dg. 31) is there any form of a revetment feature. Here the remains of a round kerb, 10m in diameter, testify to the form of the mound. It is likely that the heel- or wedge-shaped mounds at Magheranaul (Dg. 89) and Sharagore/Tonduff (Dg. 114), which reflect the outline of the orthostatic structure, are true to their original shape. The mound at Cabry (Dg. 15) may have been of similar outline. Elsewhere mounds are now oval in outline, e.g. at Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25), Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 26) and Tawlaght (Dg. 119), subcircular, e.g. at Carrownaganonagh (Dg. 28) and Gortnalaragh (Dg. 61), and subrectangular, e.g. at Meenkeeragh (Dg. 100). There is a very substantial mound at Magheracar (Dg. 88), measuring 15m by 14m by c. 1m high, but otherwise surviving mounds are not much bigger than the tomb structure. At some sites the surviving mound extends only a little beyond the outer-walling, which may have retained it. Orientation The orientations of the wedge tombs in County Donegal are shown in Fig. 95. It should be noted that the orientations of the three galleries at Casheltown (Dg. 31) are plotted individually. The results are in accord with those in other areas (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1961, 106; 1964, fig. 71; 1972, fig. 78; 1982, fig. 36; Ó Nualláin 1989, fig. 80). All face in directions between just west of due south and west-north-west. The tombs are fairly evenly distributed over this range, which represents a splay of almost 100 degrees.

68 MORPHOLOGY 247 PASSAGE TOMBS There are thirteen passage tombs or possible ones in County Donegal. Ten sites are in eastern Donegal, nine of them centred on the townland of Kilmonaster Middle, the location of a passage tomb cemetery (Ó Nualláin 1968b). There are surviving remains at four of these ten sites, Kilmonaster Middle (Sites A and D), Gortnagole and Croaghan/Glensmoil. Another site, Gortfad, was destroyed in recent years. The remaining five sites Kilmonaster Middle (Sites B, C, E, F, G) have been identified from OS records. There are two passage tombs in the south of the county, one at Magheracar and another at Finner. Another passage tomb, still extant in the latter townland at the end of the 19th century, has not been found. Pending a fuller treatment of this class of monument, consideration of the morphology of these sites is necessarily preliminary. Cairn The surviving cairns or mounds at these sites are or appear to have been of round outline, and all except the unlocated tomb at Finner seem to have been c. 20m in diameter. Exposed kerbstones indicate original cairn diameters of 23m and 20m at Kilmonaster Middle (Site A) and at Magheracar. Round mounds of comparable size are indicated for three destroyed sites at Kilmonaster Middle (Sites B, E, F). A low mound visible during the 1950s around the cruciform chamber at Finner measured c. 18m in diameter. The cairn at Croaghan/Glensmoil, where no kerb is apparent, measures between 17.5m and 20m across. There appears to have been a somewhat larger cairn at the unlocated site at Finner. The available evidence suggests that the cairn at this site was encompassed by a circle of stones. Passage and chamber The chamber at Kilmonaster Middle (Site A) is of cruciform design, and according to Ó Nualláin (1983a, 37) that at Gortfad may have been of similar design. The best interpretation of the remains at Gortnagole suggests that they consist of the remains of a passage leading to a somewhat higher and wider chamber (Ó Nualláin 1968b, 13 14). The scant remains at Kilmonaster Middle (Site D) reveal no indication of the original design. One of the two sites in Finner in the south of the county is of cruciform design. The design of the unlocated tomb in the same townland remains uncertain. The remaining passage tomb in this part of County Donegal, that at Magheracar, is of undifferentiated design. Art No instances of passage tomb art have been noted at any of the extant passage tombs or the likely ones in County Donegal or at Gortfad, destroyed in recent years. However, Fagan (1845 8) recorded that some of the flags covering graves at one of the destroyed monuments (Site F) in Kilmonaster Middle bore sundry rude devices. Toward the end of the 19th century M Nulty (1897) noted cup-and-ring designs on what he believed to be the overturned table-stone of a cromlech near Castlefinn and on the covering block of another cromlech in the same neighbourhood. It is not possible to identify these sites, but their proximity to Castlefinn could place them in the Kilmonaster Middle area. It has been suggested that the overturned table-stone of a cromlech noted by M Nulty may have been a decorated stone that was found in a fence in Kilmonaster Middle in the 1950s. This stone bore cup-and-circle designs, as well as other markings, possibly straight lines. The design seemed more akin to rock scribings than to passage tomb art (Ó Nualláin 1968b, 5). This stone has since been removed or destroyed. Some indentations, which could be natural, visible on the now displaced roofstone at Site D in the same townland may be the other site referred to (Ó Nualláin 1968b, 5). 2. DISTRIBUTION OF MEGALITHIC TOMBS IN COUNTY DONEGAL Megalithic tombs are widely distributed in County Donegal, with notable concentrations in some areas (Figs ). The most numerous type, the court tomb, is also the most widespread. The distribution of portal tombs is broadly similar to that of court tombs, although there is variation in the ratio of the two types in different parts of the county. Wedge tombs are less widely distributed than court tombs and portal tombs, and passage tombs are confined to two localities. The distribution of the unclassified tombs mirrors that of the classified ones in aggregate.

69 248 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND Of the megalithic tombs known in Ireland, 9% are in County Donegal. The 46 court tombs in the county comprise 11% of the total of 411 known. The 25 portal tombs in the county are 14% of the 180 in the country. The 22 wedge tombs in the county are 4% of the 532 known. The 32 unclassified tombs represent 15% of the 214 in the country. The 13 passage tombs or possible ones represent 6% of the total of 235. Consideration of the distribution of megalithic tombs is hindered by the constraints of an inadequate chronology and uncertainty about the original number of tombs in the area. Relatively few Irish megalithic tombs have been scientifically dated, and none of the County Donegal ones. The duration of the period during which the different megalithic tomb types were built is yet to be satisfactorily established. Assessment of the tomb distribution is based on those that have survived into the modern era. The extent to which this represents the ancient distribution is uncertain. As pointed out in the introductory section of this volume, it cannot be relied on that tomb loss has been entirely random. A brief account of the topography and environment of County Donegal precedes consideration of tomb distribution. TOPOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT OF COUNTY DONEGAL County Donegal, which encompasses a number of offshore islands, is in the extreme north-west of Ireland (Fig. 87). It comprises an area of 1,197,153 acres (484,487ha), 6% of the country, of which almost 23,000 acres (9308ha) is taken up by water. The county is bounded on the north, west and south-west by the Atlantic Ocean and on the east and south by counties Derry, Tyrone, Fermanagh and Leitrim. The structure of the county is the product of complex geological processes (Pitcher and Berger 1972; Whittow 1975), one striking result of which is the pronounced north-east to south-west grain in the topography. The main rock formations (Fig. 91) are schists, quartzites and granites, with a lesser extent of carboniferous limestone around the inner end of Donegal Bay. The coastline is highly indented, particularly to the north-east, where great sea loughs Lough Foyle, Lough Swilly, Mulroy Bay and Sheep Haven isolate a series of peninsulas, notably that of Inishowen. A feature of the coast of Donegal is the occurrence of extensive sand dunes that are vulnerable to wind and wave action (Wilson 1995, 24). Hill and mountain land occupies the whole central region of the county, where many of the peaks rise from an erosion surface at c. 800 feet (c. 245m) OD (Freeman 1960, 445 6). To the north the north-east/south-westtrending Muckish Errigal quartzite range rises over 2000 feet (c. 610m) OD, and closeby to the south there is the only slightly less impressive Derryveagh range of granite mountains. Toward the southern end of the county and north of Lough Eske the peaks of the Blue Stack mountains, the highest over 2000 feet (c. 610m) OD, dominate the skyline. Much of the central and north-western sectors of the Inishowen peninsula consists of hill land c. 800 feet (c. 245m) high, from which rise mountain peaks, the highest Slieve Snaght at just over 2000 feet (c. 610m) OD. The Knockalla mountains rise from hill land that occupies the southern end of the Fanad peninsula, and nearby to the south-west, and beyond the inner end of Mulroy Bay, Lough Salt Mountain rises just over 1500 feet (c. 457m) OD. In the south-west of the county a series of peaks rising to c feet (c. 457m) OD extends due south from the Ardara area. These serve to isolate the Slieve League peninsula, an area dominated by Slieve League Mountain, whose precipitous slopes fall 1900 feet (c. 580m) OD to the sea. Less imposing coastal cliffs are found elsewhere, e.g. at the north side of the Slieve League peninsula, where Slieve Tooey drops to the sea, and at Horn Head in the north of the county. Generally, however, the coastal lands of the county are low lying and, along with an extensive low-lying inland region in the east of the county, adjoining counties Derry and Tyrone, are the areas favoured for settlement today. The main watershed in the county is described by a line crossing the central highland area from Horn Head south to Lough Finn and from there south-east to Lough Eske. To the west of the watershed, streams and rivers drain westward and south-westward to the Atlantic coast, and east of the watershed drainage is eastward and north-eastward to the great sea loughs of the north coast. The River Finn is the principal waterway in the county, and it and the River Deele drain the eastern lowland area. These rivers are part of the extensive River Foyle catchment basin that also encompasses a considerable area of counties Derry and Tyrone. Most of County Donegal, including the coastal lowlands and the Inishowen peninsula, is drained by numerous minor rivers and streams. Many of the river valleys, widened and deepened by glacial action during the Pleistocene, form fingers

70 DISTRIBUTION 249 of lowland that indent the highland terrain. Glacial action denuded the uplands and deposited soil-forming tills over much of lowland Donegal. There is a widespread covering of rolling drift in east Donegal and on the coastal lowlands in the north and south of the county. On much of the limestone lowlands around Donegal Bay the drift was deposited in the form of closely spaced drumlins. Drumlins, less densely spaced, are also found, along with ground moraine, in the peninsular areas to the west of Lough Swilly in the north of the county and around Loughros More Bay in the south-west (Fig. 92). Accumulations of drift are, however, rare over much of the coastal lowlands of the west of the county, notably on the granite in The Rosses area (Freeman 1960, 35). The climate of Ireland during the Neolithic appears to have been slightly warmer and wetter than at present but otherwise may not have been much different from the current regime of generally cool, cloudy summers and damp but mild winters (Aalen 1978, 24, 32). For two millenniums until around 3000 BC the average summer temperature reached values of 1 or 2 degrees Celsius higher than at present, after which it appears to have begun to fall back toward levels known today (Mitchell 1976, 85 6). A brief outline of present-day meteorological conditions in the county can be gleaned from a guide to Ireland s climate (Rohan 1975). Mean daily air temperature now ranges from c. 5 degrees Celsius in January to 14.5 degrees Celsius in July. Mean annual rainfall ranges from 1000mm to 1200mm along the northern coast, in the lowlands of the Inishowen peninsula and in east Donegal. In these regions rain falls on around 175 days of the year. Over the remainder and greater part of the county there are 200 and more raindays per year, with mean annual falls of over 1200mm and more than twice that in the mountainous areas. Coastal Donegal, where the prevailing winds blow from the south and west, is the windiest area in Ireland. At Malin Head gales blow on an average of 42 days annually and occur predominantly during the period from October to March. Over the year the average daily duration of bright sunshine is around 3.5 hours. A detailed outline of the vegetation pattern in the county during the prehistoric period remains to be established. The available palaeobotanical work relates to two areas in the western lowlands: The Rosses to the north and the Loughros peninsula, just south of Loughros More Bay, to the south (Fossitt 1994). This work shows the western lowlands of the county to have been among the most marginal region for tree growth in Ireland and the area where woodland decline was earliest. As early as the centuries after 7000 BC the open mixed woodland, including oak, elm and pine, that by then had developed in this area had begun to contract, apparently as a response to climatic and edaphic factors. In The Rosses the reduction in woodland was accompanied by the growth of blanket peat, which was widespread in the area by around 6000 BC. In this area the process of deforestation accompanied by ongoing peat growth continued unabated from this early date into and throughout the Neolithic, despite some expansion of pine in the centuries after the elm decline of the early fourth millennium BC. The elm decline in The Rosses, though evident, is not particularly pronounced in the palaeobotanical record because of the already open nature of the woodland there. Further south, on the Loughros peninsula there is evidence of equally early tree loss and bog growth, but both processes were of short duration. The tree regained its former position with the arrival of alder shortly after 6000 BC, and the major contraction in woodland and the accompanying expansion in peat growth in this area did not begin until the centuries after the decline in the elm tree population. Today peat covers approximately one-third of the county. It is found mainly along the west coast from the Slieve League peninsula north to Bloody Foreland. It also occurs in the highland area of the Inishowen peninsula and on the upland region stretching southward from the eastern limits of the Blue Stack Mountains to Lough Derg and beyond it to the boundary with County Fermanagh (Hammond 1981, 39 and accompanying peatland map). Human impact on the landscape in the form of forest clearance for agricultural purposes has been demonstrated at a number of locations in Ireland distant from each other shortly after 4000 BC and before the sudden decline in the elm tree population, dated to c BC (Waddell 1998, 26 30). Although, at least for now, it is not possible to cite definite evidence of farming in the Donegal area at this stage, there are indications of agricultural activity at around the time of the elm decline in the west of the county (Fossitt 1994, 24). DISTRIBUTION OF MEGALITHIC TOMBS RELATIVE TO TOPOGRAPHY The most obvious feature of the distribution of megalithic tombs in the county relative to the local topography

71 250 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND is their absence from the more elevated areas. All known tombs are found at altitudes below 900 feet (c. 274m) OD. A total of 116 of the 125 court tombs, portal tombs, wedge tombs and unclassified tombs occur below 600 feet (c. 183m) OD, as do all but one of the thirteen sites included in the summary accounts of passage tombs. The extensive hill and mountain land of central Donegal divides 85% of the tombs into two major groups a southern and south-western coastal one and a northern and north-eastern peninsular one while the remaining tombs are found in inland east Donegal. In the south of the county there are 24 court tombs, twelve portal tombs, six wedge tombs, three passage tombs and ten unclassified tombs. Their distribution is bounded on the landward side by a line running from the vicinity of Dunglow south-eastward to Lough Eske and from there due south to the southern extremity of the county. In the northern region there are eighteen court tombs, ten portal tombs, fourteen wedge tombs and seventeen tombs that remain unclassified. The distribution of these is bounded at the south by a line running eastward from the vicinity of Gortahork and skirting the northern and eastern edges of the highlands around Muckish Mountain as far as Gartan Lough, from where it runs south-eastward to Mongorry Hill and from there eastward to the county boundary. The remaining tombs in the county are those in inland east Donegal and comprise four court tombs, three portal tombs, two wedge tombs, five unclassified tombs and the ten passage tombs or possible ones in or close to the townland of Kilmonaster Middle. The tombs in this area are bounded by a line stretching from Mongorry Hill westward to Lough Finn and from there south-eastward to Lough Derg. This area, drained by the rivers Deele and Finn, represents, as noted, the County Donegal part of the extensive River Foyle catchment basin. The Blue Stack Mountains and adjoining highlands form a considerable barrier between these tombs and those of the southern zone. Mongorry Hill (939 feet (c. 286m) OD) serves as a much less stark barrier between the tombs in inland east Donegal and those of the northern peninsular zone. A tomb, Mondooey Upper (Dg. 102), on the outermost northern slopes of this hill looks toward Lough Swilly, and those to the south of the hill command an inland aspect. The locations of most of the tombs in the two major geographical zones are markedly coastal in character. Of the 114 tombs of all types in these two zones, 38 are 1km or less from the coast, 64 are 2km or less, and all but 25 are 3km or less. The tombs in inland east Donegal are found at distances ranging from 9.5km to 22.5km from the coast, and all but five are over 15km from it. The megalithic tombs in the county are found in a wide variety of topographical settings. Tombs of all types are found on flat to undulating ground, in ridge and valley situations and on slopes varying from the relatively gentle to hillsides. Hillsides and steeper slopes where chosen are predominantly south-facing, e.g. Ballyannan (Dg. 3), Carmoney (Dg. 17 and Dg. 18), Farragans (Dg. 55), Killin (Dg. 72), Lackcrom (Dg. 77), Magheraboy (Dg. 87), Meenbog (Dg. 97), Meenkeeragh (Dg. 100) and Meenletterbale (Dg. 101). Only two tombs, Knockagarran (Dg. 73) and Mondooey Upper (Dg. 102), are on north-facing slopes. The avoidance of the harsher climes of the mountains and the cool northern sides of hillslopes demonstrates a preference in tomb-siting for the warmer parts of the landscape. As such areas are optimal for human settlement, it seems likely that megalithic tombs in County Donegal were part of the everyday environment of their builders. DISTRIBUTION OF COURT TOMBS A look at the distribution maps (Figs ) shows the court tombs widely distributed on the lowlands of County Donegal. Twenty-two (48%) of the 46 court tombs are found below 200 feet (c. 61m) OD, and 39 (85%) are below 400 feet (122m) OD. There are, however, extents of lowland where they are not known. No court tomb, nor any other type of megalithic tomb, is known in the extensive low-lying coastal region largely coinciding with The Rosses and Gweedore in north-west Donegal, an area extending northward from the vicinity of Dunglow to Bloody Foreland. Court tombs are scarce on the low-lying coastal stretch of south Donegal at either side of Donegal town. The situation in these areas seems to be accounted for most readily by their unattractiveness for agriculture and hence for Neolithic settlement. In the case of the lowlands of the north-west of the county the early development of bog, which, as already noted, was widespread in The Rosses by 6000 BC, could be expected to have rendered the area unsuitable for farmers. A second environmental disincentive to settlement in this region can also be identified. The Rosses and Gweedore form part of a wider area that comprises the main Donegal granite (Fig. 91), the only extensive geological formation in the county with a lowland virtually devoid of tombs. It is striking how megalithic tombs are poised on the edge of or just off the

72 DISTRIBUTION 251 southern end of the main granite in the Loughros More Bay Gweebarra Bay area, a region where, as already noted, the major expansion in bog growth did not take place until after the elm decline. A possible reason for what seems to be the avoidance of the main Donegal granite is cobalt deficiency, which is common in granitederived soils and may cause pining in farm animals (Gardiner and Radford 1980, 53). The other gap in the lowland distribution of court tombs referred to above, the coastal stretch at either side of Donegal town, coincides with the location of the main concentration of drumlins in the county (Fig. 92). Drumlin land, characterised by heavy, poorly drained soils, is thought to have been little favoured in the prehistoric period, and court tombs, and other tomb types, though found on the fringes of this drumlin area, are largely absent from its main extent. The scarcity of court tombs and other tomb types on the drumlin-covered limestone lands around Donegal Bay contrasts with the marked preference for limestone soils south of the drumlin belt. There is also a noticeable scarcity of court tombs, and other types, on the lowlands stretching from Burnfoot in south Inishowen as far south as the River Deele in inland east Donegal. In the northern part of this area in prehistoric times much of the land won from Lough Swilly in recent centuries may well have been under water, and a similar situation would, no doubt, have obtained on the Lough Foyle side of the peninsula. Thus the extent of suitable land for settlement may have been small here. The absence of court tombs in the southern half of this region may be more apparent than real, as two tombs in the area, Dooish (Dg. 47) and Mondooey Upper (Dg. 102), though unclassified, display affinities with court tombs. It may also be relevant that, as already noted, there are indications of levels of monument destruction in inland east Donegal that were higher than average. The overall picture appears to be that the court tombs in County Donegal were built on relatively low-lying ground in the warmer parts of the landscape. Their scarcity on low-lying land that appears to have been little suited to prehistoric agriculture indicates that these tombs were built by farming groups. Almost all of the court tombs in the county, as is apparent from the distribution maps, are readily divided into a series of local or regional groups. The gaps between the different groups seem largely to be accounted for by extents of land, mainly hill and mountain land but also stretches of lowland already identified, that are likely to have been unattractive to early farmers. In the north of the county there are three relatively widely separated groupings of court tombs. That in the Falcarragh Dunfanaghy region on the north coast of the county between Gortahork and Sheep Haven comprises seven tombs. Lough Salt Mountain, with its surrounding highlands, and a distance of 18km intervene between these seven sites and a group of five sites that form a long, slightly arcing line of distribution extending over 20km, lying inland from the western shore of Lough Swilly. To these five may be added two on the eastern side of the lough, on the Inishowen peninsula. This Lough Swilly-centred group of tombs is separated by a minimum distance of 18km and the highlands of north-west Inishowen from four court tombs in north-east Inishowen that lie on the lowlands there between the Donagh River and Inishowen Head. In the south of the county the distances between the different groups of court tombs are not as great as those between the northern groups. In this part of the county only three court tombs lie to the north of the Slieve League peninsula, where they are found on the coastal lowlands in the Gweebarra Bay Loughros More Bay area. The highlands of the peninsula intervene between these and the other tombs in this part of the county. There is a group of four court tombs in the Glencolumbkille Malin Bay area at the western tip of the Slieve League peninsula. Approximately 14km to the east is a group of three court tombs, Croaghbeg (Dg. 40), Shalwy (Dg. 113) and Bavan (Dg. 12), aligned along a small coastal valley. Just over 5km further to the east four court tombs are sited close to Killybegs Harbour. Two are on the west side of the harbour; one is somewhat inland from its inner end; and the remaining one is on its east side. The extensive drumlin lands lying to the west and south of Donegal town intervene between the last group and seven tombs in the Ballyshannon Ballintra area in southernmost County Donegal. Between these two concentrations there are three tombs on the fringes of the drumlins, an isolated one at Killin (Dg. 72) and further east two sites almost 4km apart between Lough Eske and Donegal town. The tombs in the Ballyshannon Ballintra area are the northern ones of a larger spread of tombs, including many in counties Leitrim and Sligo, stretching the length of the east side of Donegal Bay. In inland east Donegal two of the four court tombs form a small group to the north of Killygordon, and each of the other two court tombs in this area, Meenbog (Dg. 97) and Tawlaght (Dg. 118), stands isolated from other court tombs in the county. The latter site has nearer neighbours in the adjoining county of Fermanagh, and the former has potential near neighbours in the unclassified tomb at Ballybobaneen (Dg. 4), 4km distant, and a possible destroyed tomb at Cloghan Beg (App. 1, No. 26) less than 2km distant.

73 252 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND Within the different areas of Donegal referred to above the court tombs range from closely spaced sites to more distantly spaced sites that may be evenly or irregularly dispersed in the landscape. The more closely spaced ones can be characterised as loose concentrations of small numbers of sites but nowhere approach the very close siting typical of many passage tombs. The generally dispersed distribution of court tombs has long been interpreted as representing the settlement pattern of their builders (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1964, 113). It has further been suggested that the social framework underlying court tomb distribution was a segmentary society, one of equal but separate and essentially autonomous units (Darvill 1979). In this scenario each court tomb is seen as the burial and ritual monument of a single social group exercising control over and exploiting the territory in its vicinity. However, instances of the close siting of two or more court tombs and the existence of some large court tombs point to a more varied and perhaps complex social picture (Bergh 1987; Cooney 1990). The present distribution of court tombs in County Donegal indicates that the interpretation of each tomb as representing a single social unit may be relevant for a number of the groups of court tombs in the county. One is the group of three court tombs in the Gweebarra Bay Loughros More Bay area, which stand 7km from each other. Another is the Lough Swilly-centred group of court tombs. These are relatively widely dispersed, with none being closer than 2.1km to another. The third is the dispersed group of four court tombs near Killybegs Harbour, which are not less than 2.8km distant from each other. The Falcarragh Dunfanaghy group of court tombs on the north coast of the county may also be considered in this context. In this area there are seven court tombs, two of them widely separated both from each other and from the remaining five. These five are aligned along, and at distances of between 0.25km and 1.4km from, the Ray River. They are fairly evenly spaced, at intervals varying from 1km to 1.85km. Their dispersed distribution along the Ray River is open to the interpretation that each represents a single social unit, and the even spacing of the sites may suggest that each of the individual units controlled a comparable area. In areas where some or all of the court tombs are more closely sited than those already referred to, the interpretation of each tomb as representing a single social unit can less easily be relied on. The most closely sited court tombs in Donegal are the three in a small coastal valley in the south-west of the county. Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) stands c. 300m from the shore and is 200m from Shalwy (Dg. 113), which in turn is 400m from Bavan (Dg. 12). Such close siting may indicate that relatively small units of society built each tomb. Another possibility is that close siting represents a process of abandonment and closure of old sites and their replacement by new ones (Bergh 1987, 243 5). It is also possible that some social units built more than one tomb and that these were in contemporaneous use. Such a development may indicate the emergence of a more complex social structure that monumentally may have culminated in the building of dual-court tombs and central-court tombs. Regarding the sites just referred to, a case can be made on morphological grounds that at least Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and Shalwy (Dg. 113), which are close together on the floor of the coastal valley, with the third, Bavan (Dg. 12), upslope from them, were built as a pair. The three are equivalent in design, each with a full court and a gallery of two chambers. That at Bavan (Dg. 12) is somewhat smaller than the other two, which display some striking similarities, although each has its distinguishing features, the subsidiary chamber opening off the court at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and the doubled entrance lintel at Shalwy (Dg. 113). The two galleries are of comparable size, as it seems were the courts. In both, three orthostats disposed in a similar manner form the gallery sides. At each side of the two galleries the middle orthostat overlaps the segmenting jamb and serves as sidestone to each of the two chambers therein. The close siting of these two sites and their morphological similarity suggest that they may have been built as a pair. There are grounds for speculating that sites more distant from each other than Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and Shalwy (Dg. 113) may be in some sort of grouped arrangement. In the case of the group of four court tombs in north-east Inishowen, the distance from one to the next from west to east is 5km, 1.4km and 6.2km. The relatively short distance between two of these sites, Knockergrana (Dg. 74) and Laraghirril (Dg. 78), suggests that their relationship may have been a different from that between each and the other two tombs here. They may have been built as a pair, or one may have replaced the other. In the Ballyshannon Ballintra area in southernmost County Donegal four of the seven court tombs lie to the north of the estuary of the River Erne. Purely on the basis of distance intervals between sites, it may be suggested that these four are in a paired arrangement. Two of these, the tombs at Lurgan (Dg. 85 and Dg. 86), are 0.9km apart and are in turn 3.55km from Cool Beg (Dg. 37), which itself is 1.7km from Cloghbolie (Dg. 34). The other three court tombs in this area, which lie south of the River Erne, show a more regular distribution.

74 DISTRIBUTION 253 The factor of large and complex monuments is added to the close siting equation in the Glencolumbkille Malin Bay area. Here, as noted above, four court tombs are isolated at the western tip of the Slieve League peninsula. Three are in Malin More townland (Dg. 92, 95, 96), and the fourth is at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), just over 3km to the north and at the other side of a spur of high ground (Fig. 90). This tomb has a potential nearer neighbour in the unclassified tomb at Straid or Glebe (Dg. 115), which may be a ruined court tomb and is 0.5km distant. Two of the court tombs at Malin More (Dg. 92 and Dg. 96), though quite ruined, are of the standard single terminal-court design and stand 1.4km apart. More or less intermediate between these two tombs is another (Dg. 95), which consists of a court opening onto twin, parallel galleries with, in addition, two subsidiary chambers opening off the outer part of the court. This tomb and that at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), which is of central-court type with three and perhaps four subsidiary chambers, are pre-eminent in Ireland on the basis of court size. The two court tombs of standard design in this area are unlikely to have been other than of local significance. The two large tombs, Farranmacbride (Dg. 56) and Malin More (Dg. 95), with their more complex designs are, it can be suggested, later in date than the two tombs of standard design. Their substantial size and, in particular, the very large court at each suggest that they may have been of regional importance and hint at the emergence of elite groups for whom large and more complex tombs served as expressions of power and status. Competition between two such groups may account for the existence of two impressive monuments a little over 3km apart. In morphological terms a broad distinction can be made between the court tombs in the south of the county and those in the north. Despite some bias in the evidence because of the fuller picture available in the south as a result of the investigation and restoration of one site, Malin More (Dg. 95), and the excavation of others, it is clear that court tombs with full courts and main galleries of two chambers are usual in the southern region but less so in the north. Of seven tombs in the southern region where the extent of court closure is known, all are of the full variety, and, of the three sites elsewhere in the county where the matter can be determined, two are of full-court type and one is of open-court type. In regard to the number of gallery chambers, eight of the nine confirmed two-chambered galleries in the county are in the southern region, and the four tombs known to have had galleries of more than two chambers are to the north of the central highlands. It appears that the extensive hill and mountain land occupying the whole central area of the county hindered contact between communities either side of it. Differences between tombs in the north and south of the county are also reflected in other morphological features, which may point to interaction between communities at local level. At seven court tombs already identified in an earlier section a sill- or a septal-stone segments the gallery. Sill segmentation is known at two of these sites, both of which are in the south of the county, and relatively tall septal-stones are preserved at five sites, all in the north of the county. These five sites include three of the group of four court tombs in northeast Inishowen. That this structural device is found in three of four neighbouring tombs suggests interaction between tomb-builders at local level and would be consistent with some groups having built more than one tomb. An antechamber precedes the main gallery at two of the sites in the group of seven court tombs in the Falcarragh Dunfanaghy region of north Donegal, perhaps another indication of close contact between communities in the same neighbourhood. DISTRIBUTION OF PORTAL TOMBS Portal tombs are quite widely distributed on the lowlands of County Donegal. In all, twelve (48%) of the 25 are sited below 200 feet (c. 61m) OD and twenty (80%) below 400 feet (c. 122m) OD. The altitudinal preferences expressed here correlate closely with those for court tombs. There are ten portal tombs known in the north of the county and three in inland east Donegal. The tombs are widely scattered in both of these areas. The remaining twelve tombs are in the south of the county, where they are known only in the western part of the region, i.e. to the west of Dunkineely. There are no portal tombs known on the coastal lowlands lying to the east of Dunkineely or in the southernmost part of the county, although the unclassified tomb at Legaltan (Dg. 80) in this area may be a ruined one. The portal tombs are, for the most part, relatively widely dispersed. What close siting occurs is confined to south-west Donegal and, if not simply coincidental, seems to relate to the presence of composite monuments. Most of the 25 portal tombs in the county are more than 5km from another one, and a number are considerably

75 254 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND more distant. The four portal tombs on the Inishowen peninsula are all 13km or more from one another. In inland east Donegal the tomb at Gortfad (Dg. 59) is just over 10km from Cloghroe (Dg. 35), which in turn is just over 15km from Carrickmagrath (Dg. 21). The two portal tombs at the southern end of the Fanad peninsula, Bin (Dg. 13) and Gortnavern (Dg. 62), are 7.8km apart. In the Falcarragh Dunfanaghy area two of the four portal tombs, Claggan (Dg. 32) and Muntermellan (Dg. 104), at 2.9km apart are the two most closely sited ones in the county outside the south-west. The other two tombs here are separated from these and each other by c. 7km. In the Loughros More Bay Gweebarra Bay area two of the six portal tombs, one of them the composite monument at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) and the other the second portal tomb in the same townland (Dg. 68), are 1.05km apart. Otherwise the tombs here, with the exception of one, Roshin South (Dg. 110), which is almost 11km from its nearest neighbour, are between 5km and 6km from each other. The most closely sited portal tombs in County Donegal are the four in Malin More townland in the Glencolumbkille Malin Bay area (Fig. 90). The westernmost one (Dg. 91) is a composite monument. Approximately 900m to the north-east there is another composite monument (Dg. 90), and a further 1km to the east there are two portal tombs (Dg. 93 and Dg. 94) 100m apart. To the extent that portal tombs like court tombs are absent from areas that are likely to have proved unattractive for prehistoric agriculture, it appears that they too were built by early farming groups. Their generally dispersed distribution, with the instances of relatively close siting largely associated with the occurrence of composite sites, is open to an interpretation analogous to that proposed for court tombs. Most of the sites are quite well dispersed and can be understood as ceremonial and burial monuments built by local communities. Almost all portal tombs are equivalent in concept in that they are single-chamber structures. The potential for conscious competitive display is thus limited to the choice of notably tall portal-stones, e.g. at Carnaghan (Dg. 19), or a very large roofstone, e.g. at Eskaheen (Dg. 54). The choice of large structural stones may just as well be a result of local geology. The construction of composite monuments seems to represent a change in concept, perhaps to cater for social change. The placing of more than one portal tomb chamber in the same cairn may have been an attempt to accommodate competing tendencies within and/or between social groups. So far the distributions of portal tombs and court tombs in County Donegal have been examined separately, but it may be more relevant to the original situation to consider the two types together. Aspects of morphology, distribution and finds have long been interpreted as indicating a relationship between them (E.E. Evans 1938; de Valera 1960; de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972). The similarity in the finds from portal tombs and court tombs suggests that they are the products of the same material culture. Similar forms of pottery occur in some portal tombs and some court tombs (Cooney and Grogan 1994, 59 60). The indications are that the two tomb types may be of comparable antiquity. However, the lack of scientific dates for any of the portal tombs or court tombs in the county leaves a considerable degree of uncertainty about their precise relationship. If we take both distributions into account, portal tombs are found to occur in areas where court tombs are also known, although the latter type is both more numerous and of more widespread occurrence. Although there is a considerable degree of correspondence in the distribution of the two types, the ratio of their occurrence varies from place to place. In the north of the county four portal tombs are known in the general Falcarragh Dunfanaghy area, where there are seven court tombs. There are two portal tombs at the southern end of the Fanad peninsula, in the same general area as the northernmost of the five court tombs close to the west side of Lough Swilly. There are four portal tombs on the Inishowen peninsula, one close to the two court tombs adjacent to the east side of Lough Swilly and another in the vicinity of the four court tombs in north-east Inishowen. The remaining two portal tombs lie to the south of the peninsula s central highland zone, an area where court tombs are not known. In inland east Donegal, where all tomb types are known, there are three portal tombs. In the south of the county there is a notable contrast in the occurrence of portal tombs and court tombs. In the Loughros More Bay Gweebarra Bay area, portal tombs outnumber court tombs by six to three. In the Glencolumbkille Malin Bay area there are four portal tombs and four court tombs. Further east, beyond the hills that isolate the Glencolumbkille Malin Bay group of tombs, there is a lone portal tomb at Straleel North (Dg. 116), and considerably further east the portal tomb at Gilbertstown (Dg. 58) stands at no great distance from the Killybegs group of court tombs. To the east of Dunkineely there are a considerable number of court tombs but, as noted above, no proven portal tomb. To summarise, in the north of the county portal tombs are generally found close to court tombs but in smaller numbers. On the west side of the south of the county portal tombs occur in

76 DISTRIBUTION 255 numbers equal to or slightly greater than court tombs, but in the remainder of the south of the county portal tombs occur hardly at all and court tombs are quite numerous. This varied pattern cannot readily be accounted for, particularly in light of uncertainty about the chronological relationship between the two types. Although there are similarities between portal tombs and court tombs, morphologically they are two quite distinct monument types. One is a single-chambered structure apparently largely exposed to view in a low cairn. The other is a gallery grave of two, three or four chambers substantially enveloped in a roof-high cairn. The portal tomb achieves its visual impact in the vertical, and the court tomb in the horizontal. It has long been suggested both that the portal tomb developed from the court tomb and vice versa. Aspects of tomb morphology can be interpreted as lending some support to both arguments, but no definite conclusion is possible. However, it may be that portal tombs and court tombs represent separate and perhaps contemporary structural traditions. If so, the morphological similarities that exist may represent a mingling of these traditions. With regard to the two types in County Donegal, it is easier to point to portal tombs that appear to have taken on some of the features of court tombs than it is to suggest influence in the opposite direction. For instance, at the composite portal tomb at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) both chambers are incorporated in a long trapezoidal mound; each is accessible over an entrance sill; and at the smaller chamber a lintel rests on the portal-stones in the manner of lintels found on the entrance jambs of court tombs. The last feature is known at only one other portal tomb in Ireland, at the western one of two chambers in one cairn at Ballyrenan (Ty.). Reference may also be made to the tomb at Drumhallagh Upper (Dg. 50), which is classified as a court tomb but where the rear chamber is identical to a portal tomb. There seems to be a good possibility that at this site a pre-existing portal tomb was converted to a court tomb by the addition of a front chamber, a court and perhaps a long cairn. Interaction between the two building traditions would account for the existence of some hybrid structures such as the unclassified tombs at Dooey (Dg. 46) and Tonbane Glebe (Dg. 122) and perhaps the complex monument at Ballyboe (Dg. 5). At the last site one, or both, of the two ruined structures behind and on the same axis as the court tomb gallery may be a ruined portal tomb chamber. It has already been noted that outside the south-west of the county court tombs occur in greater numbers than portal tombs. In light of this, it may have been that in the mingling of the two traditions and over time the larger monument, the court tomb, perhaps in the context of an increasing population, better fulfilled ideological, religious and social requirements by offering greater communal scope both in burial capacity and for ceremonial activity. In the south-west of the county, where portal tombs occur in numbers equal to or slightly greater than court tombs, it can be suggested that the response to the requirement for bigger and more complex structures culminated in the construction of a notable group of composite portal tombs, Kilclooney More (Dg. 70), Malin More (Dg. 90), Malin More (Dg. 91) and Toome (Dg. 123). In this area there may have been some measure of parallel development in both portal tomb and court tomb traditions. Such a process may explain the location in the Glencolumbkille Malin Bay area of the largest portal tomb complex in Ireland, Malin More (Dg. 91), as well as two court tombs, Farranmacbride (Dg. 56) and Malin More (Dg. 95), at which occur the two largest courts in the entire court tomb series. DISTRIBUTION OF WEDGE TOMBS Wedge tombs in County Donegal have a more limited distribution than either court tombs or portal tombs. None is known west of a line linking Sheep Haven in the north and Teelin Bay in the south-west. Fourteen of the 22 are in the northern part of the county, where they occur in two upland areas. One of these is the highlands centred on Lough Salt Mountain to the west of the inner reaches of Mulroy Bay, where there are five wedge tombs, and the other is the central highland area of the Inishowen peninsula, in or adjacent to which there are nine wedge tombs. Only two wedge tombs are known in inland east Donegal, and the remaining six are in the south of the county, where they are dispersed along two lengths of coastline, three lying to the west of Dunkineely and three to the south of Ballintra. In Donegal a broader altitudinal range was favoured by the builders of wedge tombs than those of other types of megalithic tomb. Six (27%) of the 22 wedge tombs are sited below 200 feet (c. 60m) OD; eight (36%) are below 400 feet (c. 120m) OD; and the remaining fourteen lie between 400 feet (c. 120m) and 700 feet (c. 213m) OD. There is, however, a regional disparity in altitude preference within the county. The tombs in the south of

77 256 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND the county are relatively low lying, occurring in the same coastal lowland situations as other tomb types. Five of the six wedge tombs in this region are sited below 200 feet (c. 60m) OD, and the other, Casheltown (Dg. 31), stands between 200 feet and 300 feet (c. 60m and 90m) OD. By way of contrast, both wedge tombs in inland east Donegal and twelve of the fourteen in the northern region of the county are sited on land between 400 feet and 700 feet (c. 120m and 213m) OD and in the main are sited in more upland situations than other tomb types in these two areas. Within the limited areas of County Donegal where they are known, wedge tombs are mainly quite dispersed, although there are some instances of relatively close siting in the north of the county. None of the six in the south of the county is less than 6km from another of the type. The two wedge tombs in inland east Donegal, Meencargagh (Dg. 98) and Tawlaght (Dg. 119), c. 20km apart, are isolated both from each other and from other ones. In north Donegal the most marked instance of close siting in the county occurs among the five on the highlands centred on Lough Salt Mountain, where the two wedge tombs in Carmoney (Dg. 17 and Dg. 18) are only 30m apart. None of the other three wedge tombs in this area is closer to this pair, or to another, than 4.5km. Of the nine wedge tombs on the Inishowen peninsula five are sited toward the eastern edge of the central highland sector. Three of these are in Carrowmore or Glentogher townland and close to each other. Tombs (Dg. 24) and (Dg. 25) are 200m apart, and the latter is 550m from the third wedge tomb (Dg. 26) in the townland. One of the other two wedge tombs in this area, Carrowreagh (Dg. 29), lies almost 5km to the north of the ones at Carrowmore or Glentogher, and the fifth tomb of this group, that at Cabry (Dg. 15), lies 2.6km south-east of them. Toward the opposite side of the peninsula, there are two wedge tombs, Gransha (Dg. 64) and Meenkeeragh (Dg. 100), 3.9km apart at the western edge of Inishowen s central highlands. Another, Sharagore/Tonduff (Dg. 114), lies just over 11km north of Meenkeeragh (Dg. 100). The one at Sharagore/Tonduff (Dg. 114) and the one at Magheranaul (Dg. 89), at the northern end of the peninsula, stand in relative isolation both from each other and from the other wedge tombs on the peninsula. The distribution of wedge tombs resembles that of court tombs and portal tombs in that it consists of geographically separate groups of sites that are generally quite dispersed but with a few instances of relatively close siting. The dispersed tombs can be understood, like court tombs and portal tombs, as the burial and ritual sites, probably largely contemporary with each other, of separate and essentially equivalent subgroups within the wider population, each living in the vicinity of its own tomb. The instances of relatively close siting, which, as noted, are few, may represent a process of tomb abandonment and replacement or may indicate the emergence of a group exercising a disproportionate measure of ritual and social control. The latter situation may be true at Carmoney, where the placing of two wedge tombs (Dg. 17 and Dg. 18), one of them the largest of the type in the county, only c. 30m apart seems to represent a concentration of ritual resources. The tomb at Casheltown (Dg. 31), where three galleries of wedge tomb type are set alongside each other, within a kerb, could be similarly characterised; however, as this monument is without parallel in the wedge tomb series, this tomb must be seen as a product of particular local circumstances. The relationship between wedge tombs and the other megalithic tomb types is uncertain. It is not known whether the other types were still in use when wedge tombs were first built, which seems to have been during the Late Neolithic. The relatively limited distribution of wedge tombs may point to the abandonment of formerly inhabited areas, such as westernmost Donegal, where wedge tombs are not known, or it may simply be that in some areas the wedge tomb, for whatever reason, did not prove popular. In the areas of County Donegal where wedge tombs and other tomb types all occur, their distributional relationship is varied. As pointed out above, the wedge tombs in the north of the county are generally sited at higher altitudes than court tombs and portal tombs. The highlands centred on Lough Salt Mountain, the locale for five wedge tombs, forms the main topographical barrier between the groups of court tombs and portal tombs found on lower ground in the Falcarragh Dunfanaghy area to the west and those lying inland from Lough Swilly to the east. There are some unclassified megalithic tombs Barnes Lower (Dg. 11), Gortmacall More (Dg. 60) and Drumbrick (Dg. 49) in the vicinity of the wedge tombs, but the wedge tombs are distinguished by their siting at somewhat higher elevations than the unclassified tombs. On the Inishowen peninsula the group of five wedge tombs at the eastern edge of the central highlands and the two at the western limit of the highlands are also at quite a remove from the generally lower-lying court tombs and portal tombs in the region. The remaining two wedge tombs on the Inishowen peninsula, the isolated ones at Sharagore/Tonduff (Dg. 114) and Magheranaul (Dg. 89), are in areas where other tomb types predominate. The former site is within c. 3km of both the court tomb at Liafin (Dg. 82)

78 DISTRIBUTION 257 and the portal tomb at Ballyannan (Dg. 3), and the latter site is on the lowlands of north Inishowen, where a portal tomb, four court tombs and two unclassified tombs are sited. In south Donegal the three wedge tombs lying south of Ballintra are sited among the court tombs of the Ballyshannon Ballintra area, where passage tombs are also known. Each of the wedge tombs here is closer to another tomb type than to another wedge tomb. The wedge tomb at Magheracar (Dg. 88) is only 80m from the passage tomb in the same townland. The three wedge tombs to the west of Dunkineely are all closer to other tomb types than to one another. The two widely distant wedge tombs in inland east Donegal are also both closer to other tomb types than to each other, most markedly that at Tawlaght (Dg. 119), which is just under 1km from the court tomb (Dg. 118) in the same townland. In summary, wedge tombs in the two northern areas where they are known indicate a preference for upland locations, in contrast to the low-lying areas favoured by the builders of court tombs and portal tombs; in the south of the county the three types share the same lowland landscapes. The move to upland areas in the north of the county may indicate some population pressure on the lowlands, as a result of demographic growth, population movement, deterioration of land quality through overuse or bog growth, or some combination of such factors. As court tombs, portal tombs and wedge tombs display the same distribution pattern, i.e. all are generally dispersed, with occasional instances of close siting, it seems that they catered for similarly structured societies. All three avoid areas clearly unsuited to agriculture, which indicates that they are situated in areas farmed and lived in by their builders. In the south of the county the gap between the three wedge tombs to the south of Ballintra and the three to the west of Dunkineely seems best accounted for by the unattractiveness of the Donegal Bay drumlin belt for early agriculture. The indications are of some measure of continuity in the settlement pattern in this area during the currency of court tombs and portal tombs, on the one hand, and wedge tombs, on the other. The preference for more upland areas shown by the distribution of wedge tombs in the north of the county may represent an expansion in pastoral farming during the Later Neolithic (Ó Nualláin 1983b, 84). DISTRIBUTION OF PASSAGE TOMBS Ten of the thirteen passage tombs or possible ones are in inland east Donegal between the rivers Deele and Finn, and the other three are close to the coast in the extreme south of the county. Pending a fuller treatment of this class of monument, consideration of the distribution of these sites is preliminary. The two extant passage tombs in the south of the county, Finner and Magheracar, stand 4.7km apart on a lowlying coastal strip between the rivers Erne and Drowes. The site of an unlocated, possibly destroyed passage tomb in Finner townland has not been identified, but it could not have been more than 2.2km from the extant passage tomb in the townland. The passage tombs in this area are markedly coastal in their siting. At Magheracar around half of the round cairn encompassing the tomb structure has been lost to the sea. The extant tomb at Finner is less than 1km from the extensive beach bordering the outermost reaches of the River Erne, and the unlocated passage tomb in the townland would have been similarly close to the coast. These passage tombs form a small dispersed group isolated from other ones. The next nearest passage tombs are at Carrowmore (Sl.), just over 25km to the south-west. There is some indication of a degree of territorial exclusivity in the siting of this small scattered group of passage tombs relative to court tombs and portal tombs in the area. It is assumed that the wedge tombs in the area are later than the passage tombs and so could not have influenced their siting. Between the rivers Erne and Drowes, where there are coastal passage tombs, other tomb types are 5km or more from the coast. The unlocated court tomb at Finner (Dg. 57) may have been an exception. To the north of the River Erne and south of the River Drowes, where there are no passage tombs, court tombs and portal tombs are quite markedly coastal. To the south of the River Drowes there is a group of tombs at Wardhouse (Le.) that includes two court tombs and two portal tombs, all within 0.25km of the coast. To the north of the River Erne the relatively closely sited court tombs at Cloghbolie (Dg. 34) and Cool Beg (Dg. 37) are 0.2km and 0.9km from the coast. The group of ten passage tombs or possible ones in inland east Donegal, apart from the site at Croaghan/Glensmoil, which occupies the summit of Croaghan Hill (724 feet (c. 220m) OD), are sited on undulating lowland between 100 feet and 300 feet (c. 30m and 90m) OD. The seven sites in Kilmonaster Middle townland, if indeed all are true passage tombs, exhibit a level of close siting markedly greater than that apparent among other megalithic tomb types in the county. In this townland the cruciform tomb, Site A, stands between

79 258 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND 120m and 220m east of Sites B, C, D, E and F. The distance from any one of these five to the next does not exceed 90m. The other three sites in the area are somewhat more distant from Site A. The tomb at Gortnagole is 0.6km to the east-south-east; the destroyed tomb at Gortfad is 1.8km to the south-south-east; and the cairn at Croaghan/Glensmoil is 2.6km to the east. Apart from the portal tomb at Gortfad (Dg. 59), which stood 0.4km from the possible passage tomb in the same townland, other portal tombs and court tombs are relatively far from the sites in the Kilmonaster Middle area. The court tomb at Magheraboy (Dg. 87) is c. 5.5km away. The indications here, as in south Donegal, are of a degree of territorial exclusivity in the siting of passage tombs relative to court tombs and portal tombs. The three passage tombs in the south of the county, in their dispersed distribution, resemble court tombs and portal tombs and like them can be understood as the burial and ritual sites of separate social groups, each based in the vicinity of its own tomb. The clustered distribution of the tombs in the Kilmonaster Middle area is of a site density not known among megalithic tombs elsewhere in County Donegal. The cemetery may have been a ritual centre of regional importance. Close grouping of tombs can be seen as an expression of shared beliefs on the part of different groups, each group represented by its own monument. Considerable variation in tomb size is a feature of some passage tomb cemeteries, perhaps a result of competition between social groups, but whether such a process had developed in the Kilmonaster Middle area is not known because of the poor survival of the monuments there. In ritual terms the close grouping of burial monuments suggests the development of the concept of a special place for the dead away from the world of everyday life in contrast to burial on family or community land, which seems to be true of the dispersed megalithic tombs of all types. Burial at home, so to speak, means that the deceased is, in a sense, still part of the community. Burial at a large ritual complex suggests a distinction between two different spheres, that of the living and that of the dead. The development of cemeteries may also point to a new concept of land ownership or control, one where separate and perhaps scattered social units exercised some form of shared ownership of or right of access to a regional ritual centre. 3. FINDS FROM THE TOMBS IN COUNTY DONEGAL Confirmed finds from the tombs derive from excavation, unauthorised interference and chance discovery. The finds are briefly outlined below. Attention is also drawn to those sites included in the appendices, some of which may be destroyed megalithic tombs, at which finds were reportedly made. Fuller details of finds are contained in the inventory of site descriptions. FINDS FROM COURT TOMBS Four of the 46 court tombs in the county have been excavated, Bavan (Dg. 12), Croaghbeg (Dg. 40), Shalwy (Dg. 113) and Drumrat (Dg. 51). The finds from the site at Bavan (Dg. 12), described and illustrated in the report of the excavation (Flanagan and Flanagan 1966), consist of a considerable number of stone implements, mainly of flint, and some pottery sherds. The most numerous flint implement was the leaf-shaped arrowhead. A single one made of chert was also found. Other flint pieces included portion of a javelinhead, a variety of scrapers and a number of plano-convex knives. Other stone finds were part of an axe of polished mudstone and three stone beads. Both decorated and undecorated Neolithic pottery was recovered from the site. There was, however, no trace of human remains. Preliminary excavation accounts are available for the tombs at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40), Shalwy (Dg. 113) and Drumrat (Dg. 51). Only the finished implements among the finds recovered at Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) have been listed in the preliminary reports (Flanagan 1970; 1971a; 1971b; 1972; 1973; 1974). All flint pieces, these comprise two plano-convex knives, two hollow scrapers, a concave scraper, two end scrapers and two knives, all from the burial chambers and court area. Among the classifiable artifacts reported (Flanagan 1967; 1968; 1969; 1970) as having been recovered at Shalwy (Dg. 113) are at least twelve hollow scrapers, smaller numbers of other scrapers, two plano-convex knives and two arrowheads, all of flint. Pottery from the site included identifiable fragments of Neolithic type. Iron Age material was recovered from the upper levels of the gallery. Animal bones of various types were found at all levels in the rear chamber of the gallery, and a razorclam shell was found beneath the edge of the backstone. A large number of artifacts were recovered at Drumrat

80 FINDS 259 (Dg. 51), including Neolithic pottery, a polished stone axe, flint scrapers and knives, and a chert bead, as well as some later material probably of Early Christian date (Channing and King 1997, 125). Finds have been made at a number of unexcavated court tombs in recent decades. Flint flakes were found at and close to Ballyboe (Dg. 5); a large flint knife was found at Tawlaght (Dg. 118); two sherds of pottery were found at Ballymore Upper (Dg. 8); and a plano-convex flint knife and part of a Bann Flake were found at Carrickafodan (Dg. 20). According to a report, an axehead, subsequently lost, was found in the northern court at Roosky Upper (Dg. 108) sometime before 1981 (ASCD archive). Nineteenth-century accounts record finds at a small number of court tombs. Disturbance of the tomb at Carrickafodan (Dg. 20) is said to have resulted in the discovery of a small metal cup (OS Revision Name Book, sheet 11, 1848, 90). Norman Moore (1872, 525), when on a visit to the central-court tomb at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56) in 1871, recorded a local claim that a skull and a piece of earthenware had been dug up near one of the structures there. The skull was reportedly buried in the nearby churchyard. Thomas Fagan (1845 8) reported that human bones were unearthed at Lackcrom (Dg. 77). On a visit to the then recently restored tomb at Malin More (Dg. 95) in 1888, Borlase (1897, 243) was informed that during the work some few objects, such as pottery etc. had been found. FINDS FROM PORTAL TOMBS No portal tomb in County Donegal has been excavated, and only one, Kilclooney More (Dg. 70), has produced Neolithic material. Small sherds of plain Neolithic pottery were found on the floor of the north-eastern and larger of the two portal tomb chambers at this site (A.T. Lucas 1960, 18; Herity 1964, 138; 1982, 319). Thomas Fagan (1845 8) reported a claim that locals digging for supposed treasure at Ards Beg (Dg. 1) unearthed cinders, ashes, shells and burnt slates. What appear to have been Bronze Age burials were uncovered at or close to two portal tombs. According to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), a small earthen urn containing calcined bones and ashes was unearthed close to the tomb at Cloghroe (Dg. 35) in Fagan (1845 8) also recorded a claim that two crocks of bones were dug up close to the tomb at Carnaghan (Dg. 19) sometime before his visit there in Subsequently, in 1880, Bronze Age funerary ware was found at this site, but it is unclear whether it came from the portal tomb or an adjoining cist (Waddell 1990, 71). FINDS FROM WEDGE TOMBS As in the case of portal tombs, no wedge tomb in County Donegal has been excavated, and reports of finds from these tombs are few. There is a claim dating to 1700 (BLL Stowe MS 1024), the earliest known reference to finds from a megalithic tomb in the county, that five urns were found at Magheracar (Dg. 88). A mid-19th-century report (OS Revision Name Book, sheet 98, , 18) records the discovery of human bones, said to have been of greater than usual size, in a stone trough in one of the three galleries, apparently the easternmost one, at Casheltown (Dg. 31). Another early report (OS Revision Name Book, sheet 18, , 11) records a local claim that at Sharagore/Tonduff (Dg. 114) a human skeleton was exposed during the clearing away of stones from the site. The report notes that it was left in place and covered over. FINDS FROM PASSAGE TOMBS According to Thomas Fagan (1845 8), human bone was reportedly found at Sites D, E, F and G in Kilmonaster Middle townland. At the last site a brass hatchet was said to have accompanied a skeleton in one of several stone coffins found in the cairn there. Human bone was also reportedly found at Gortnagole (Fagan ), at the unlocated tomb at Finner (RIA MS 3 C 27, no. 16; Wood-Martin , 159; 1888, 161) and at the cruciform passage tomb in the same townland (Herity 1974, 216, Dg. 16). Wood-Martin (1887 8, 156 7; 1888, 158 9) recorded the discovery, many years ago, of bones, ashes and a cinerary urn at Magheracar. Excavation at this

81 260 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND site, for which only preliminary accounts are yet available, yielded a large quantity of bone and a number of Neolithic pieces, including flint scrapers, a stone bead and a small stone axehead (Cody 1987; 1988). FINDS FROM UNCLASSIFIED TOMBS According to a report in The Dublin Penny Journal (G.H.R ), a cinerary urn reportedly containing ashes and several large bones was found in the unclassified tomb at Rowantreehill (Dg. 111). FINDS FROM SITES IN APPENDIX 1 AND APPENDIX 2 A site at Keeldrum Lower (App. 1, No. 64), the nature of which is uncertain, was excavated in the 1970s (Kilbride-Jones 1997) and yielded finds indicating two periods of activity, the earlier, of Neolithic date, represented by pottery sherds and a plano-convex flint knife. The later period was represented by, among other items, stone spindle whorls and a bone needle. Nineteenth-century accounts, most of them by the Ordnance Survey s Thomas Fagan (1845 8), refer to the discovery or reported discovery of various items, including bones, at a number of sites. Bones are reported as having been found during the destruction, before the middle of the 19th century, of supposed sepulchral sites at Ballystrang (App. 1, No. 11), Cashelard (App. 1, No. 19), Derryreel (App. 1, No. 39), Gortree (App. 1, No. 61), Muntermellan (App. 1, No. 89), Pollaguill (App. 1, No. 92), Ballyness (App. 1, No. 10), Clonmass (App. 1, No. 29), one of the two sites described under Derryreel (App. 1, No. 38) and Rinclevan (App. 1, No. 96). Shells are also said to have come from the last four of these sites. In addition to bones and shells, Ballyness (App. 1, No. 10) is said to have yielded some curious stones and old silver coin, and Rinclevan (App. 1, No. 96) two brass spears. A few stone hatchets were said to have been found during the destruction of two ancient sepultures, possibly parts of the same monument, at Curraghlea (App. 1, No. 36). Reference to the discovery of what appear to have been Bronze Age cist burials is included in the accounts of sites at Castleforward Demesne (App. 1, No. 22), Liscooly (App. 1, No. 75) and Ballybuninabber (App. 2, No. 5). 4. THE WIDER CONTEXT THE PREHISTORIC BACKGROUND There was a widespread human presence in Ireland during the Mesolithic period (Cooney and Grogan 1994, 11), i.e. for at least three millenniums before the appearance of megalithic tombs. In County Donegal Early Mesolithic material is known from a beach in the Greencastle area of north Inishowen (McNaught 1998). A flintworking site on a raised beach at Dunaff Bay on the Inishowen peninsula (Addyman and Vernon 1966) dates to the Later Mesolithic. Of similar date are stray finds of distinctive Bann Flakes at five locations, one on Horn Head and the others in the general Raphoe area in the east of the county (Lacy 1983, 113). The Mesolithic era left no enduring monuments and is distinguished in the archaeological record primarily by distinctive lithic artifacts. This era, the hunter-gatherer phase of Irish prehistory, came to an end in c BC. The succeeding Neolithic period saw the development of a new way of life based on farming, both stock-raising and cropgrowing, and the appearance of new types of lithic artifacts, pottery-making and a novel monument type, the megalithic tomb. The nature of the process that resulted in the establishment of the Neolithic in Ireland remains a matter for debate around such issues as the possiblility of an influx of settlers from abroad and the way that the Mesolithic population of the country adopted, or adapted to, the new way of life. For Mesolithic populations the Neolithic represented an encounter not only with a new way of life but also with a radically different world-view (Bradley 1998, 33 5). The hunter-gatherer lived in the world as created, and the representatives of the new order wished to recreate that world. The Neolithic saw the launch of humankind s first great assault on the forest, the exercise of a measure of control over food production and the construction of an artificial landscape in the form of

82 THE WIDER CONTEXT 261 monumental structures such as megalithic tombs. Ireland seems to have been isolated from developments in Britain and continental Europe for the duration of the Later Mesolithic (c to c BC). This is suggested by the lithic technology of the Irish later Mesolithic, which finds no parallels in those areas (Cooney and Grogan 1994, 24). With the introduction of the Neolithic, Ireland became part of the wider world of Atlantic Europe. The phenomenon of building megalithic tombs was common to the lands of Europe s Atlantic coastline during the Neolithic. Instances dating to the fifth millennium BC are known in France and the Iberian peninsula (Mohen 1989, 70 77) and to the fourth millennium BC and later in these areas and in other western European countries. Although there is considerable variety in tomb design throughout western Europe, all are, in essence, walled and roofed overground structures invariably with an obvious entrance or front, which may be open or closed. Megalithic tombs are, among other things, houses for the dead, and many of them seem to have been designed to remain accessible over long periods. Whatever the circumstances of their earliest appearance, megalithic tombs seem to have flourished in the context of the changed attitudes to land use and ownership after the introduction of farming. Their widespread occurrence may point to the existence of some sort of underlying shared belief system throughout much of Atlantic Europe (M. Morris 1974, 14). The tombs vary greatly in size but are generally imposing in character. The labour involved in constructing a megalithic tomb, even the smaller ones, must have required at least a number of individual families. Others are of a scale that seems to have required the organised labour of large numbers of people. For its builders, the megalithic tomb was a visible and permanent expression of group identity. Once built, the tomb was a conspicuous mark on the landscape, perhaps a claim to ownership of the land in the vicinity. COURT TOMBS Date and culture context Court tombs invariably produce artifacts of Neolithic date (Herity 1987). Pottery finds include both decorated and undecorated round-based and some flat-based wares. A range of stone artifacts are known, usually of flint or chert, the most frequently occurring types being leaf- and lozenge-shaped projectile-heads (mainly arrowheads but also some javelinheads), concave and rounded scrapers, plano-convex knives and a range of scrapers and knives that lack the distinguishing characteristics of the recognised tool types. Among less frequently occurring items are polished stone axes, stone and bone beads, flint and quartz cores, and quartz crystals. Although the artifacts recovered at court tombs place them in a Neolithic context, the initiation of and duration of the construction phase remain to be closely dated. One chronological indicator is pottery. Decorated Neolithic pottery occurs in the galleries or subsidiary chambers of around three-quarters of the sites at which plain Neolithic wares are known (Herity 1982, ; 1987, 126). As plain wares pre-date decorated forms (Sheridan 1991, 49), the occurrence of only plain wares in some court tombs points to their construction, as well as use and abandonment, before the manufacture of decorated pottery. The date of the first appearance of decorated pottery is not known, but it does occur at Linkardstown-type tombs. As the radiocarbon dates from a number of these monuments are of bone derived from a single burial event after which the tombs were sealed, the type seems to be dated reasonably securely to the period from c to c BC (Brindley and Lanting ). Thus decorated wares were certainly in use from at least the mid-fourth millennium BC (Eogan and Roche 1997, ). There seems to be no reason to doubt that at least some court tombs were already in existence at that stage. How much earlier they were being built remains to be satisfactorily established. Radiocarbon dates are available for material recovered at quite a number of court tombs. However, such dates are by their nature imprecise. Further, many of them are from charcoal and therefore pose considerable problems of interpretation (Woodman et al. 1999, 145 6). Human bone has been found at most excavated tombs, but the number of persons buried at such sites was generally small (Herity 1987). An exceptionally large figure of 32 or 33 individuals eleven cremations and 21 or 22 inhumations was recorded at Audleystown (Dw.). At more than twenty other sites seven or fewer individuals were present, and at around half of these sites the remains of only one or two individuals could with certainty be identified. Adults of both sexes are well represented in court tombs, but adolescents and children

83 262 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND (under ten years old) occur less frequently. In addition to human remains, many court tombs have yielded animal bones, some of which are later or secondary intrusions, but others are in clear association with Neolithic material (McCormick ). Procedures relating to the use of burial chambers and the disposal of the dead appear to have been quite varied. The lighting of fires as a pre-burial activity is indicated at a small number of court tomb galleries, e.g. Shanballyedmond (Ti. 7) (O Kelly 1958) and Tully (Fe.) (Waterman 1978). Both burned and unburned human remains occur at court tombs, but it is clear that cremation was the preferred method of disposing of the dead. Deposits in court tomb galleries, usually comprising human remains with intermingled grave-goods, are found on the natural surface or in a number of instances on a paving of stones laid on the natural surface, e.g. Shanballyedmond (Ti. 7) (O Kelly 1958). The outer chamber(s) usually yield the greater amount of finds and human remains, and in some instances neither finds nor burial remains are known from the innermost chamber(s) (Flanagan and Flanagan 1966, 33 5). In some galleries the unstratified deposit of a mixture of burnt bone, burnt grave-goods, and clay and stones seems to indicate that the contents of a funeral pyre had been scooped up and deposited in the gallery, e.g. at Audleystown (Dw.). A more discriminating approach is evidenced in the deposition of small pockets of clean cremated bone, apparently carefully picked from the funeral pyre, in protected pits in the gallery at Creevykeel (Sl. 5) and Shanballyedmond (Ti. 7) (Herity 1987, 115). The evidence is much more limited in the case of unburnt remains, but it appears from the arrangement of some of the bones at Audleystown (Dw.) (Collins 1954, 34) that they had been placed in position when defleshed, leading to the suggestion that they had been brought to the site from a place of temporary storage. Although the design of court tombs suggests that they were built to allow repeated access from the court into and along the gallery, different phases of deposition are generally difficult to recognise owing to the lack of clear stratigraphic definition at many excavated sites (Flanagan and Flanagan 1966, 25). The readily accessible nature of most court tombs makes it probable that manipulation or disturbance of gallery deposits occurred during the Neolithic. In these circumstances there is potential for mixing earlier and later finds and/or burial remains, to the obvious detriment of the stratigraphic record. There is also the possibility of the removal of earlier deposits in favour of later ones. Pre-cairn activity is attested at some sites. Its true incidence is not known, as the matter was not always investigated during excavation, but the evidence at eight tombs (Herity 1987, 126 7) points to the construction of at least some court tombs on sites already the focus of Neolithic activity. Distribution and morphology The geographical extent of the distribution of court tombs in Ireland as described on the basis of 218 monuments (de Valera 1960) has not been significantly altered by the considerable numbers discovered since then. Court tombs are a feature almost exclusively of the northern half of Ireland and particularly of a broad band extending coast to coast from the Donegal Bay area in the west to the Carlingford Bay area in the east. Between a line to the south linking Drogheda, County Louth, on the east coast to Westport, County Mayo, on the west coast and one to the north linking Newcastle, County Down, on the east coast to Ardara, County Donegal, on the west coast there are 280 (68%) of the current total of 411 court tombs. The area so defined broadens from c. 60km at the east, where it is centred on Carlingford Bay, to c. 120km at the west, reflecting the considerably greater number of tombs known in the western area. It is notable that within 10km of the shoreline of Donegal Bay (ignoring bays and inlets), taken here as stretching from Belmullet in north-west Mayo around to Glencolumbkille in south-west Donegal, there are 99 court tombs, 24% of the total. Inland in all directions from the Donegal Bay area there is a lessening of the distribution density. The main band of distribution is at its weakest in the Upper Lough Erne Lough Oughter lakelands of south Fermanagh and Cavan, the area that divides the great western concentrations from the considerably smaller ones, totalling around 60 tombs, around the shores of and inland from Carlingford Bay. Northward of the main distribution, in the northern two-thirds of the province of Ulster, there are 97 tombs, 24% of the total. Although tombs are found over most of this area, most of them occur in some concentration in three locales in three different counties, north-east Antrim, coastal north Donegal and, particularly, mid-tyrone. To the south of the main distribution there are 34 tombs, 8% of the total, only nine of which are in the southern half of the country, i.e. south of a line from Dublin to Galway. These 34 tombs are of generally scattered occurrence except for a notable group of thirteen in the Clifden Cleggan area of coastal west County Galway, where only two were known in 1960.

84 THE WIDER CONTEXT 263 Court tombs vary quite considerably in size, and there is a regional character to their repertoire of forms that can be summarised. Fully enclosed courts are found in western areas, particularly around the shores of Donegal Bay, and an open-court design was favoured elsewhere. Two-chambered galleries dominate in the Donegal Bay area, and galleries of three and four chambers are better represented toward the eastern side of the country. A small number of central-court tombs represent an elaboration of the full-court design in the lands around Donegal Bay (Ó Nualláin 1976). Dual-court tombs are a special feature of the drumlin and lakeland lowland belt extending eastward from the Sligo and Mayo border across south Leitrim, Roscommon and Cavan along the southern periphery of the main court tomb province (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972, 161 2). Subsidiary chambers separate from the main gallery are of scattered occurrence across Ulster and north-east Connacht, and side chamber(s) opening off the main gallery are an occasional feature of the tombs in north Connacht. There are three instances of a rare variant form, the twin, parallel gallery design, where two galleries are set alongside each other behind a court: two in County Sligo Deerpark or Magheraghanrush (Sl. 47) and Moygara (Sl. 126) and one in County Donegal Malin More (Dg. 95). The long cairn appears to be standard at court tombs. The main features of these long cairns are quite well represented in Donegal and have been outlined in an earlier section. The functional role of the cairn was to support the gallery structure and, in particular, the tiered corbelling attested to at many sites. To do so the cairn would have had to reach the top of the gallery roof. As already noted, this is true of the two sites in Donegal, Croaghbeg (Dg. 40) and Shalwy (Dg. 113), where corbelling is best preserved. The employment of a long cairn, usually of trapezoidal form, at court tombs places them in the wider context of Neolithic Europe s long cairn/mound funerary tradition. The trapezoidal outline necessarily emphasises one end of the cairn, and it is at this, the broader, end that the court and burial gallery are positioned. The cairns are always considerably larger than would be required to support and enclose the main burial gallery and often grossly so, although their further reaches sometimes house one or more subsidiary chambers. The practice of building cairns considerably larger than was required for the functional role of stabilising the burial structure was, it may be presumed, underpinned by ritual requirements that are lost to us. At the very least it preserved an inviolable space around the burial gallery. A practical effect of cairn-building may have been the clearing of stones from land, rendering it more easily farmed, thus perhaps establishing a link between cairn construction and land productivity. The effect of piling up a great heap of stones was to lend visual impact, and, in a society where it appears that local communities each built one or sometimes more court tombs, the cairn would have served as a visual expression of a community both to itself and to its neighbours. Once built, a court tomb cairn is a significant landscape feature, and, both for this reason and perhaps as much for what they contained, they must have begun to supplant natural features in the mental geography of the population. A ready distinction, on both morphological and distributional grounds, can be made between sites of fullcourt and open-court design. Full courts are fully enclosed except for a narrow entrance gap, and in open courts the walls usually define around one-third to one-half of a circle (de Valera 1960, 18). In the overall court tomb distribution the extent of court closure can reliably be established at 72 sites: 38 full-court sites and 34 opencourt sites. The distribution of the two types on the basis of the known sites is mutually exclusive. All the fullcourt sites are in those counties bordering Donegal Bay, namely, Donegal, Leitrim, Sligo and Mayo. Twenty-six of the 38 full-court sites are within or only a little over 10km from the shores of the bay, and all but one are within c. 25km of its eastern shore or 40km of its northern and southern shorelines. An exception is the site at Ballyboe (Dg. 5) close to the north coast of County Donegal, which is at some remove from other full-court sites. In the Donegal Bay area the poor survival of courts among the twenty court tombs along the coast of north County Sligo from Sligo Harbour west as far as the Easky River and to the north of the Ox Mountains has been commented on (de Valera 1960, 41; Ó Nualláin 1976, 113). This leaves a gap in the distribution of the full-court design around the bay, which may be more apparent than real. No proven open-court sites are known closer than c. 25km from the east side of Donegal Bay or further west than the Lough Arrow area of County Sligo. They are otherwise widely distributed and display a greater geographic spread than full-court sites. There is considerable variation in court size, particularly in the case of full courts. Measurements, i.e. maximum lengths and maximum widths, are available at 36 of the 38 full-court sites. As some of these are dualcourt tombs, the available sample comprises 39 individual courts. There are four very large full courts, but, apart from these, full-court dimensions are dispersed along a range of 3m to 12.2m for maximum length and 3m to 9m for maximum width. The four very large courts are bigger by a distinct margin than all the others. These are the

85 264 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND courts at Creevykeel (Sl. 5), 14.5m long and 9.4m wide, Deerpark or Magheraghanrush (Sl. 47), 15m long and 7.9m wide, Malin More (Dg. 95), 16m long and 12m wide, and Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), 20.5m long and 8.5m wide. The last two are the largest in the court tomb series, as noted above, and stand within 3.5km of each other in south-west Donegal. The other two large courts, at Creevykeel (Sl. 5) and Deerpark or Magheraghanrush (Sl. 47), stand 18km from each other in north County Sligo on the east side of Donegal Bay. Measurements are available at 33 of the 34 open-court sites. The inclusion of some dual-court tombs brings the sample to 35 individual courts. Maximum lengths at these 35 courts range from 3m to 9.2m. Maximum widths, known at 31 of these sites, range from 3m to 10.5m. Maximum length and width are both found to be over 6m at twelve of the 31 sites where both dimensions are available. The two court designs, full and open, are perhaps born of differing attitudes to access, control and inclusivity at court tombs. There may have been, of course, some form of temporary closure across the front of open courts, as appears to have been the case at Cohaw (Cv. 22) (Kilbride-Jones 1951), and hence they may not have been as easily accessible as they now appear to be. Nevertheless, the open court in its architectural form suggests a more inclusive attitude to access to the court and the activities pursued there than is suggested by the design of the full court, where the numbers entering at any one time would have been limited by the available space. Full courts, entered via a narrow passage, demand queued entry, with its implications of precedence and seniority. The closed nature of the full courts permits a clear distinction between those within and others that may have gathered outside on ceremonial occasions. The full court lends a distinctive morphological identity to the court tombs of the Donegal Bay area, i.e. those on the coastal lowlands of north Mayo, north Sligo, north Leitrim and south Donegal. The distribution of the full court is largely limited by natural barriers, a combination of mountains and lakelands on the landward side and the sea. The mountains of central Donegal perform this role on the north side of the bay. Lough Derg, Lower Lough Erne, Lough Melvin and the mountainous area centred on Ben Bulbin stretching southward from the last lake do so to the east of the bay. To the south of much of the bay the Ox Mountain range plays a similar role. These substantial natural features are likely to have served as a bar to easy contact between the Donegal Bay coastal area and more inland areas and by the same token to have encouraged contact within the area both along the coast and across the bay. Nature has bestowed a physical unity on this incomplete horseshoe of coastal lowland, which may have facilitated the growth of a distinct and unified local identity in relative isolation from more inland areas. Court tomb galleries are divided into two, three or four main chambers, with two-chambered ones dominant. A short antechamber precedes the main chambers at a small number of sites (see below). There is a possibility that some short galleries were not segmented and were in effect single-chambered structures, e.g. Carnanransy, Glasdrummond, Altmore alias Barracktown, all in County Tyrone (de Valera 1960, 111, ), but there is no unequivocal instance of this. There is also some indication that a gallery of more than four chambers may have been present at two sites, both in the Carlingford Lough area. At Ballinran (Dw.) excavation of a levelled tomb uncovered traces of what seems to have been a gallery of five or six segments (Collins 1976). At Rockmarshall (Lh.), where there is some uncertainty about the original design, a division of the gallery into more than four chambers seems a possibility (Ó Nualláin and Walsh 1991, 38 9). If strict criteria requiring the survival of entrance and segmentation features and a backstone are applied, the numbers of court tombs at which two-, three- and four-chambered galleries have been identified with certainty are 74, eighteen and nine. There are a further sixteen sites at which more than two chambers were definitely present, but it is not possible to determine the precise numbers of chambers. There are a further sixteen sites where a gallery of more than two chambers seems likely but cannot be confirmed. The dominance of the twochambered design is emphasised when it is noted that, in addition to the 74 proven two-chambered galleries, at least as many more sites can be identified as likely to have been divided into two chambers. The two-chambered galleries are of widespread occurrence but predominate in western areas. Forty-eight of the 74 confirmed twochambered galleries are found in counties bordering Donegal Bay Donegal, Leitrim, Sligo and Mayo. Of the eighteen three-chambered galleries, seven were included in an earlier list of such sites (de Valera 1960, 23) from which three others, Ballintur (Dw.), Cleggan (Ga. 6) and Cleighran More (Le. 29), are now omitted as being somewhat uncertain. The eleven additional sites are Annaghmare (Ar.), Drumhart (Cv. 26), where the western gallery of this dual-court tomb is of three chambers, Doon (Cv.), Cornacully (Fe.), Wardhouse (Le. 2), Rathlackan (Ma.), Carnbane (Mo.), Crowagh or Dunneill Mountain (Sl. 66), Tanrego West (Sl. 74), Treanmore

86 THE WIDER CONTEXT 265 (Sl. 111) and Creggandevesky (Ty.). The number of tombs at which four-chambered galleries occur has been cited as thirteen (de Valera 1960, 23), but only nine of these are definite ones. These are Ballymarlagh (An.), Browndod (An.), Annacloghmullin (Ar.), Ballintaggart (Ar.), Audleystown (Dw.), Carrownaboll (Sl. 42), Coolmurly (Sl. 106), Moytirra East (Sl. 110) and Gortnagarn (Ty.). It now seems that three-chambered galleries are more numerous than four-chambered ones, which is the opposite of what formerly seemed to be the case (de Valera 1960, 23 4, 35). The 43 sites where galleries of more than two chambers are known are widely distributed across the northern one-third of the country from north Mayo in the west to Antrim and Down in the east. If this region is divided in half by a line running southward from Derry City through Enniskillen, 22 are found to the west of it and 21 to the east. As overall tomb numbers are much greater in the western sector, the latter figure is proportionately the more significant. Four-chambered galleries display a more marked eastern bias than threechambered galleries do. Eight of the eighteen instances of the latter type lie in the eastern sector, and six of the nine four-chambered galleries do. Three- and four-chambered galleries have a very limited association with court tombs of full-court design. Hitherto it had seemed that full courts were only found with two-chambered main galleries (de Valera 1960, 23), but more recently excavation at Rathlackan (Ma.) has revealed a three-chambered main gallery behind a full court (G. Byrne, pers. comm.). There is a similar occurrence at Correens (Ma.), where a main gallery of at least three chambers has been found behind a full court. Court tomb galleries vary considerably in length (as measured from the inner face of the backstone to the inner faces of the entrance jamb(s) or entrance sill). The lengths of 162 galleries at 146 sites (including both galleries at a number of centralcourt tombs and dual-court tombs) fall between 2.8m and 12.7m. The lengths of the majority, 123 (76%) of 162, are fairly evenly distributed over the range from 4m to 8m. Only eleven of the 162 galleries are less than 4m long, and 28 are 8m or more in length. Measurements at two-, three- and four-chambered galleries, excluding ones where the main chamber is preceded by an antechamber, demonstrate a relationship between gallery length and the number of chambers in the gallery. Gallery lengths at 70 two-chambered sites lie between 3.2m and 8.7m; at a much smaller sample of fourteen three-chambered sites they are between 6.9m and 10.6m; and at six four-chambered sites they are between 8.7m and 12.7m. Maximum gallery widths lie between c. 1m and almost 3.5m, with most between 1.5m and 2.5m. The widest galleries, those 2.5m or more, are almost exclusively in western areas in the counties bordering Donegal Bay and are nearly all two chambered. Elaboration of the gallery entrance is achieved by means of a short antechamber or simply a doubling of the entrance jambs at a small proportion of sites. These elements appear to be variant forms of the same feature. In the first case the rear stone in each instance is set back from the entrance jamb, thus defining a small antechamber or portico; in the second case a stone stands immediately behind each entrance jamb, effectively doubling it. Antechambers are readily distinguished from gallery main chambers by their small size. Court tombs where doubled entrance jambs are recognised are Clonlum (Ar.), where the outer pair has fallen, Knockoneill (De.), Grange Irish (Lh.), Gortbrack North (Ma.), the southern one of the two court tombs in the townland, Carrowkilleen (Ma. 52) (the eastern component), where the outer jamb of the doubled pair at the right side no longer survives, Rockmarshall (Lh.), where the inner jamb of the doubled pair at the right no longer survives, and Laraghirril (Dg. 78), where the doubled jambs at the east end of the structure are thought to mark the gallery entrance. There is an unusual arrangement at the front of the gallery at Dromore Big (Fe.), where the entrance jambs are laterally doubled (de Valera 1960, 119), i.e. the doubled jambs are side by side. At a number of sites only one entrance jamb is doubled, and this arrangement seems to be an original feature. At Ballyduffy (Ma. 69) the combined mass of two stones forming the doubled jamb on the left side of the gallery entrance is required to match that of the large lone entrance jamb on the right. A similar situation obtains at Treanmore (Sl. 111) and may have at Castlegal (Sl. 26), where what seems to have been the outer one of two stones at the right side of the gallery entrance has fallen. At Ballyganner North (Cl. 34) a longitudinally set entrance jamb at the left side of the entrance is balanced by two shorter ones, the outer one now broken, at the right side. The original situation at two sites is unclear. According to the published plan of Altmore alias Barracktown (Ty.), there is a doubled jamb at the left side of the entrance, but it appears that the right side no longer survives (Corcoran 1960, 118). The role of a low stone outside one of the jambs of what may be the entrance at Cool Beg (Dg. 37) is uncertain. Antechambers, reliably identified at eighteen sites, are shorter and sometimes narrower than gallery main chambers. Precise measurements are seldom available, but they appear to have been no longer than c. 1.5m. They are usually entered between two entrance jambs, but the absence of these at some sites may be deliberate. In such

87 266 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND cases the sides of the antechamber may have articulated directly with the court, as seems to have been intended at the dual-court tomb element at Carrowkilleen (Ma. 52) (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972, 107) and at Garvagh (Ty.) (de Valera 1960, 111). At three sites, Ardagh (Ma. 54), Cappagh (Ma. 86) and Drumgollagh (Ma. 77), the antechamber is distinctly narrower than the rest of the gallery. In all three this is achieved by stepping-in one side of the antechamber from the line of the gallery. Such an arrangement is also strongly indicated at Flaskagh More (Ga. 1). The sides of antechambers are normally formed by single stones, although two are known at one side at Carrowkilleen (Ma. 52). Antechambers normally occur in tombs of the standard single terminal-court design but are also known at four dual-court tombs, Glenmakeeran (An.), Flaskagh More (Ga. 1), Cappagh (Ma. 86) and Carrowkilleen (Ma. 52). Antechambers normally occur in galleries with two main chambers. To date, only two tombs, Claggan (Dg. 33) and Moygara (Sl. 126), are known where a gallery containing an antechamber appears to have had more than two main chambers. Antechambers all lie west of a line drawn between Cushendall in north-east Antrim and Athlone, the approximate mid-point of the country. The feature occurs at two tombs in north-east Antrim, Ballycleagh and Glenmakeeran (the dual-court tomb in that townland), at Claggan (Dg. 33) and Errarooey Beg (Dg. 52) in the Falcarragh Dunfanaghy area of north Donegal, and in the Crossmolina area of County Mayo at Carrowkilleen (Ma. 52) and Ardagh (Ma. 54). Three, Belville (Sl. 59), Lecarrow (Sl. 73) and Tanrego West (Sl. 75), are known among the geographically distinct group of twenty court tombs between the Ox Mountain range and the coast to the west of Sligo Harbour. The other eleven are more scattered and include, in addition to those already mentioned, Tullyskeherny (Le. 22), Killycarney (Cv. 2), Abbeyderg (Lf.) and Rosdoagh (Ma. 2). A rare entrance feature is known at three sites, Carrownlacka (Ma.), Behy (Ma. 3) (De Valera 1965, 7, fig. 1) and Moytirra East (Sl. 110). It consists of a stone set more or less along the main axis of the gallery and dividing the entrance. At the last two sites the outer end of this stone is linked to the gallery side by a stone that crosses one half of the entrance. There appears to be a somewhat similar arrangement at Grange Irish (Lh.) (Ó Nualláin and Walsh 1991, 30 33). Elaboration of gallery fronts, whether through the use of doubled jambs, the provision of an antechamber or the narrowing or division of the entrance gap, is a relatively infrequent but nevertheless widespread occurrence throughout the distribution. This points to the universal importance of the gallery entrance, the junction of the worlds of the living and the dead. Comparable elaboration of gallery segmentation features seldom occurs. However, at Laraghirril (Dg. 78), where, as already noted, doubled jambs at the east are thought to mark the gallery entrance, the segmenting sill is doubled, and at Tullyskeherny (Le. 22), where there is an antechamber, the segmenting jambs between the two main chambers are both doubled. At Craigs (An.) the segmentation between the small outer chamber, which is comparable to an antechamber, and the second chamber is formed by doubled jambs (de Valera 1960, 117). At Audleystown (Dw.) the second and third chamber of the south-western gallery of this dual-court tomb are separated by doubled segmenting jambs (de Valera 1960, 24). Central-court tombs, eight of which are known, form a small but morphologically coherent group on the coastal lands around the shores of Donegal Bay. There are two in south Donegal, Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) and Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), four in north Sligo, Cloghboley (Sl. 18), Cummeen (Sl. 44), Deer Park or Magheraghanrush (Sl. 47) and Gortnaleck (Sl. 10), and two in north Mayo, Ballyglass (Ma. 13) and Muingerroon South (Ma. 38). The main features of the type have been discussed in some detail by Ó Nualláin (1976). Both galleries at all eight sites are certainly or very probably of two chambers, and, as already noted, subsidiary chambers open into the court at two of them. The dispersal of the small number of instances of this variant court tomb type around the bay emphasises the distinctive character of the tombs in this area. Dual-court tombs are considerably more numerous and widespread than central-court tombs. Thirty-three definite ones are known, almost all of them listed by Ó Nualláin (1977, 58 9), and there are another thirteen likely or possible instances. The weight of the distribution occurs in the Upper Lough Erne Lough Oughter lakelands of south Fermanagh and Cavan, where dual-court tombs represent a significant proportion of the total number of court tombs. Within a radius of 40km of Belturbet in north Cavan, an area of lakeland and drumlin country that encompasses most of Cavan, much of Monaghan, south Leitrim, south-east Fermanagh and southernmost Tyrone, there are 57 court tombs, of which nineteen are of dual-court type and a further five are possible ones. These nineteen instances represent the main concentration of the type. To the north of this area dual-court tombs are very poorly represented, with only one known in each of the three most northern counties,

88 THE WIDER CONTEXT 267 Antrim, Derry and Donegal. Apart from one instance isolated in the south of the country in County Kilkenny, the remaining dual-court tombs are all of relatively scattered occurrence toward the southern end of the main court tomb distribution. Eight of these lie to the west of the main concentration of the type, one in Galway, three in Mayo, two in Sligo and two in north Leitrim. Two others lie to the east of the main concentration, one each in counties Down and Louth. Both courts at dual-court tombs are either open or full. Those with full courts are found in the vicinity of the shoreline of Donegal Bay. The relationship of the two galleries is clear at twenty dualcourt tombs. At sixteen of these there is a gap between the ends of the two galleries, and at a further six sites such an arrangement seems likely. At eight of the sixteen sites the galleries are less than 3m apart; at three they are between 3m and 5m; at two they are between 7m and 9m; and at three they are between 12m and 15m. At four sites the two galleries are conjoined; at two of these, Aghanaglack (Fe.) and Cloghernagh (Mo.), the two galleries share a backstone, and this arrangement is likely to have obtained at Doon (Cv.) (O Reilly 1988). So far the design revealed at the fourth site, Cohaw (Cv. 22), where a closed chamber links two two-chambered galleries, has not been noted elsewhere. Two-chambered galleries are usual in dual-court tombs, and the available evidence is that the two galleries at a site had a similar number of chambers. At nine sites, including that at Cohaw (Cv. 22), just mentioned, both galleries are of two chambers, and at six further sites one of the galleries is clearly of two chambers. At another three sites one or both galleries appear to be of two-chambered design. At one site, Doon (Cv.), both galleries are of three chambers, and at two others, Drumavrack (Cv. 19) and Drumhart (Cv. 26), one gallery is definitely divided into three chambers. At only one site, Audleystown (Dw.), are both galleries divided into four chambers. There are also at least three sites where galleries of more than two chambers are indicated. At both central-court tombs and dual-court tombs there are two main galleries at each site. The two galleries at each site tend to be of similar size, especially in the case of dual-court tombs. At nine of the eleven dual-court tombs where both galleries are measurable, the difference in length between the two is only 0.7m or less. At dualcourt tombs cairns are usually of rectangular outline (de Valera 1960, 17), although it should be noted that the cairn at the dual-court tomb at Audleystown (Dw.) is trapezoidal. At central-court tombs cairn shape may be double trapezoid or long oval (Ó Nualláin 1976, 105). Such cairns lack the emphasised terminal that signals the position of tomb structure in tombs of the standard single terminal-court design. The indications are that at dualcourt tombs and central-court tombs the intent was to accord both ends of the cairn the same emphasis. This suggests that the construction of central-court tombs and dual-court tombs may have been motivated by some notion of equivalence. The same motivation may also underlie the twin, parallel gallery design, known only at three sites. In social terms it may represent an attempt to accord equal status to competing tendencies within a group or may be symbolic of some form of alliance between two neighbouring groups. The pairing of two main galleries must also have been imbued with a considerable ritual symbolism. In a tomb type where the preference for an eastward orientation suggests some form of symbolic role for the sun in the belief system of the period, the dual-court tomb with its command of an outlook in two directions must have had enhanced symbolic potential. Transeptal or side chamber(s) opening off the main gallery are an occasional feature of court tombs in north Connacht. Such chambers are known at twelve sites in counties Sligo and Mayo, namely, Treanmore (Sl. 111), Carricknahorna East (Sl. 121), Behy (Ma. 3), Ballybeg (Ma. 31), Tristia (Ma. 45), Carrowkilleen (Ma. 52), Cartronmacmanus (Ma. 74), Lecarrowntemple (Ma. 17), Ballymacredmond (Ma. 59), Knockfadda (Ma.), Correens (Ma.) and Carrownlacka (Ma.). The last three of these are additions to those included in earlier discussions of the type (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1964, ; de Valera 1965; Ó Nualláin 1989, 105). At Carrownlacka (Ma.) a side chamber opens off the left side of the front of the gallery, and there are indications that there may be another opposite it. At Correens (Ma.) a side chamber opens off the right side of the second chamber of what appears to have been a gallery of at least three chambers. At Knockfadda (Ma.) two side chambers open off the left side of the gallery. Because there is substantial cairn survival at this site it cannot be established whether there are matching side chambers at the opposite side. This site is only 1.2km from Cartronmacmanus (Ma. 74), the only other transeptal site where two side chambers are known to open off the same side of the gallery. These are also the two transeptal sites closest to each other. Apart from Tristia (Ma. 45), which is close to the west coast of County Mayo, the distribution of sites with transeptal chambers has a distinctly linear character. Their distribution is described by an arcing line skirting the western end of the Ox Mountains, extending first southward and then eastward from three sites among the large group of court tombs

89 268 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND in the Ballycastle area of County Mayo, to the vicinity of the towns of Crossmolina, Foxford and Charlestown, and from there to the Lough Arrow area of south-east County Sligo. The distribution of the transeptal court tombs identifies a route of contact between the Donegal Bay coastal area and sites further inland. The existence of this small group of morphologically distinctive court tombs, as well as a group of similar sites among the tombs of Cotswold Severn type in Britain, suggests that the transeptal form may have its origin in the wider long-barrow tradition. Another possibility is that the transeptal court tombs in Ireland represent some form of interaction between court tombs and passage tombs, among which are found the largest group of transeptal sites (Waddell 1978, 122). This raises questions regarding the chronological relationship of court tombs and passage tombs that cannot yet be resolved. However, the morphological and distributional aspects of the matter can be considered. The linear dispersal of the transeptal court tombs has already been described. The eastern limit of this distribution is in the Lough Arrow area of County Sligo, the location of the Carrowkeel passage tomb cemetery and the likely area of any contact between the two types. The transeptal court tomb at Carricknahorna East (Sl. 121) stands high on the southern slopes of the Bricklieve Mountains and 1.3km from the Carrowkeel passage tomb cemetery atop the northern end of these mountains. Another transeptal court tomb, Treanmore (Sl.111), is 7.5km east of the Carrowkeel cemetery. When the side cells of the transeptal court tombs are compared with those of the cruciform chambers in the Carrowkeel passage tomb cemetery, the former tend to be somewhat larger, although there is a degree of overlap in size. One other comparison, though based on limited evidence, provides a potentially interesting result. It has long been noted of cruciform passage tombs that the right side cell is frequently larger than the left (Eogan 1986, 100). This is true of Carns K and M in the Carrowkeel cemetery. At only two transeptal court tombs, Treanmore (Sl. 111) and Behy (Ma. 3), do opposed side chambers provide reliable measurements. At Treanmore (Sl. 111) the two chambers are approximately the same size. At Behy (Ma. 3) the transeptal chamber to the right is noticeably larger than that to the left. This also seems to be true of the opposed transeptal chambers of the court tomb at Carricknahorna East (Sl. 121). The emphasis on the right side chamber in some cruciform passage tombs and, apparently, in some transeptal court tombs can be interpreted as indicating possible interaction between two structural traditions. Alternatively, there may have been general adherence to some universal concept that accorded ritual or symbolic prominence to the right side of the tomb. A subsidiary chamber, and frequently more than one, additional to but separate from the main gallery or galleries, is definitely present at 34 sites. At the great majority of sites, at least 25, such chambers are set laterally to the long axis of the gallery and open toward the long sides of the cairn. There are possible indications of chambers of this type at a further ten or so sites. Laterally set chambers may be placed close to the cairn edge, e.g. at Letter (Dg. 81), but are frequently set back from it and entered via an antechamber or passage feature, e.g. at Knockoneill (De.). Although the approach element may be largely concealed or lost, it is usually possible to determine to which side of the cairn the chamber opened. Laterally set subsidiary chambers are usual, but other arrangements are known. The four sites, all in south Donegal, where subsidiary chambers open into the court are referred to in an earlier section. There may be a similar arrangement at Wardhouse (Le. 4) (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972, 45 6) and Glasdrummond (Ty.) (de Valera 1960, 114). There is another variant arrangement at Ballymarlagh (An.), where a lone subsidiary chamber opens onto the back of the cairn, and there seems to be a similar arrangement at Killina (Mo.) (Brindley 1986, 2 3). At the destroyed tomb at Barnes Lower (Ty.), where there were four lateral subsidiary chambers, excavation revealed traces of a fifth, which may have opened onto the rear of the cairn (Collins 1966). At Clonlum (Ar.) a subsidiary chamber opens onto the cairn facade. At two sites, Mourne Park or Ballyrogan (Dw.) (Jope 1966, 77) and Aillemore (Ma. 89), a subsidiary chamber is set in the cairn beyond the main gallery, but at neither is it clear whether there was a means of entry from outside. At the sites already referred to in this paragraph subsidiary chambers are additional to surviving axial gallery structure. However, there are also at least five sites where the only reliable structural remains are what appear to be laterally set subsidiary chambers of court tomb type, e.g. Aghnaskeagh (Ó Nualláin and Walsh 1991, 25, no. 40) and Croaghan (Mo.) (Brindley 1986, 2). Aspects of the morphology of subsidiary chambers have been outlined (de Valera 1960, 28 9; de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972, 152; Ó Nualláin 1989, 105). They are normally rectilinear in design and range from c. 1.5m to c. 3m long and from c. 0.8m to almost 2m wide. Entry to the chamber is between a pair of jambs. The jambs may flank a low sillstone, as at Ballymarlagh (An.), or a high septal-stone, as at Tullyskeherny (Le. 22). At a number of sites single stones form the chamber sides, and these when combined with longitudinally set entrance jambs

90 THE WIDER CONTEXT 269 give a ground plan similar to portal tomb chambers, e.g. Tullyskeherny (Le. 22), Ally (Ty.) and Kilsellagh (Sl. 27). There are other subsidiary chambers that are quite dissimilar to portal tombs in ground plan in that the entrance jambs are transversely set, e.g. Mautiagh (Le. 12), or the chamber sides are formed of two and sometimes more stones, e.g. Annaghmare (Ar.) and Creevykeel (Sl. 5). Subsidiary chambers are generally associated with tombs of the standard single terminal-court design. However, they are known at two central-court tombs, Ballymunterhiggin (Dg. 9) and Farranmacbride (Dg. 56), and there is one definite association with a dual-court tomb, at Mautiagh (Le. 12), and a possible association, at Moneylahan (Sl. 16). There also appears to be a lateral subsidiary chamber at Altmore, alias Barracktown (Ty.), which may be a dual-court tomb (de Valera 1960, ). Main galleries at sites where subsidiary chambers occur are, on the available evidence, normally of two chambers. Subsidiary chambers in association with a main gallery of three chambers are known only at Annaghmare (Ar.) and Treanmore (Sl. 111). There is one definite association of a subsidiary chamber with a main gallery of four chambers, at Ballymarlagh (An.), and there are the remains of what seems to be a subsidiary chamber at the four-chambered main gallery at Coolmurly (Sl. 106). The number of subsidiary chambers at each site varies from one to seven, but frequently the original number is unclear owing to the indifferent state of many monuments. At approximately one-third of court tombs where subsidiary chambers are known, there is only one, and at a similar proportion there are two. More than two are probably or definitely present at the others. There are three subsidiary chambers at Grange Irish (Lh.) (Ó Nualláin and Walsh 1991, 30 33) and Creevykeel (Sl. 5). There are four subsidiary chambers at Edenmore (Dw.) (Jope 1966, 74) and Aghnaskeagh (Lh.) (Ó Nualláin and Walsh 1991, 25, no. 40). There were four subsidiary chambers, and possibly five, at Barnes Lower (Ty.) (Collins 1966). There are six subsidiary chambers at Tullyskeherny (Le. 22) and seven at Croaghan (Mo.) (Brindley 1986, 2). Lateral subsidiary chambers are sometimes arranged in symmetrically placed pairs behind the main chamber. To the five identified by de Valera (1960, 29) Tamnyrankin (De), Edenmore (Dw.), Tullyskeherny (Le. 22), Creevykeel (Sl. 5) and Cregganconroe (Ty.) can be added Lisnahay South (An.), Annaghmare (Ar.), Aghnagreggan (Ty.), Barnes Lower (Ty.) and Granagh (Ty.). Additionally, back-to-back subsidiary chambers are found at Aghnaskeagh (Lh.), Croaghan (Mo.) and Meenagorp (Ty.), all sites where there are no definite remains of axial gallery structure. Lateral subsidiary chambers arranged in symmetrical pairs self-evidently open onto opposite sides of a cairn. Otherwise, it seems that the left side of the cairn was favoured. There are at least eight sites of standard single terminal-court design where there is only one lateral subsidiary chamber, and in the case of six of these the side of the cairn onto which the chamber opens is known. At all six it opens onto the left side. This is so at Antynanum (An.), Knockoneill (De.), Rossinure Beg (Fe.), Tullyskeherny (Le. 23), Treanmore (Sl. 111) and Letter (Dg. 81). The possible subsidiary chamber at Coolmurly (Sl. 106) also opens onto the left side of the cairn. It also seems that the left side of the cairn was the favoured one where more than one subsidiary chamber occurs. At Barnes Lower (Ty.), beyond a symmetrically placed pair of lateral subsidiary chambers, were two others, both opening to the left (Collins 1966). At Grange Irish (Lh.) three subsidiary chambers are known, two opening to the left and one to the right. At Liafin (Dg. 82) both subsidiary chambers open to the left. Destruction of the rear of the cairn leaves some uncertainty about the original design at Creevykeel (Sl. 5), where what appears to be a lone subsidiary chamber beyond a symmetrically placed pair opens to the right. At Ally (Ty.), where there are two lateral subsidiary chambers, the one nearer the main gallery opens to the right and the other to the left. The emphasis on the left side of the cairn is sufficiently marked to suggest that it represents a deliberate preference on the part of the tomb-builders. It seems that an opening to the left side of cairns was of symbolic importance. However, the symbolism does not seem to relate to the direction of outlook from the subsidiary chambers, as this varies greatly. If subsidiary chambers were accorded a different status than the chambers of the main gallery, the clear preference that they should open onto the left side of the cairn may be emblematic of that status. Reference has already been made to the emphasis placed on the right side chamber at cruciform passage tombs and perhaps also at some transeptal court tombs. The evidence in relation to the siting of lateral subsidiary chambers at court tombs is another example of the operation of some form of conscious distinction between the right and left sides of court tombs and passage tombs. Apart from one site, Aillemore (Ma. 89), which lies close to the west coast of County Mayo, sites with subsidiary chambers are known only in Ulster and that part of Connacht north-east of a line drawn between Sligo

91 270 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND Harbour and Lough Arrow. In the rest of Connacht possible subsidiary chambers at Dooncarton or Glengad (Ma. 1) and Carrownaglogh (Ma. 100) (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1964, 2, 90) remain to be confirmed. The great majority of the sites with subsidiary chambers are found in four areas; that part of the Donegal Bay coastal area north of Sligo Harbour, mid-tyrone, mid-antrim and the Carlingford Bay area. They are notably lacking in the lakelands region of Cavan and south Fermanagh, which seems, at least in part, to be accounted for by the very limited association of subsidiary chambers with dual-court tombs. The distributions of transeptal court tombs and court tombs where subsidiary chambers are known are essentially complementary, suggesting that they are alternative means of providing burial space (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1964, 120). The two distributions overlap in the Lough Arrow area of County Sligo, where the court tomb at Treanmore (Sl. 111) accommodates both a transeptal gallery and a subsidiary chamber, the only instance of such an association. It is difficult now to form an adequate profile of the size of court tombs. The most obvious index of scale during the Neolithic period would undoubtedly have been cairn size, but this is now of limited use because of denudation of mounds at many sites and the difficulty in identifying cairn edge in the absence of excavation. The other possible indicators of tomb scale are gallery capacity and court size. Although there is a marked difference in size between the larger and smaller galleries, the majority, 76%, as already noted, are 4m to 8m long. Galleries within this range can be expected to have been considered as normal to inhabitants of the regions occupied by builders of court tombs and so can be regarded as broadly equivalent in scale. The central-court and dual-court design, which entailed the provision of two galleries at each site, enabled the construction of some quite big tombs. However, the existence of some quite small tombs of both designs, e.g. the central-court tomb at Muingerroon South (Ma. 38) and the dual-court tomb at Gartnanoul (Cv.), indicates that a desire to build large tombs may not have been the primary motivation in their development. As suggested above, they may owe their existence to a desire to demonstrate equality in the social sphere. Burial capacity at some sites was increased by the use of subsidiary burial chambers. At a number of these sites this increased capacity is of quite modest proportions, and at others it represents a significant part of overall burial area. In regard to court size, as already noted, a comparison of court dimensions identifies four sites at which the court, a full court in each instance, is considerably bigger than the norm. These, not surprisingly, occur at sites with significant gallery capacity. One of these is Creevykeel (Sl. 5), where the large terminal court opens into a two-chambered gallery beyond which there are three subsidiary chambers. It is worth noting that the gallery here appears to be the largest extant twochambered one. The morphology of the other three sites offers an interesting comparison. Two of these are the central-court tomb at Farranmacbride (Dg. 56) and the twin-gallery court tomb at Malin More (Dg. 95), which, as already noted, are close together in the Glencolumbkille Malin Bay area of south-west Donegal. The other is the tomb at Deer Park or Magheraghanrush (Sl. 47), where twin galleries open off one end of a large central court and a single gallery opens off the opposite end. This arrangement represents a combination of the designs at the other two sites. The employment, separately in the two closely sited south-west Donegal sites and in combination at Deer Park or Magheraghanrush (Sl. 47), of the rare central-court design and the even more rare twin-gallery design suggests that these three sites, whatever their precise chronological relationship, may have been built with conscious reference to each other. It may be that each of them was of somewhat more than local significance. The monument at Deer Park or Magheraghanrush (Sl. 47), the only court tomb with three main burial galleries, unusually among court tombs occupies a prominent ridge-top position and, if not surrounded by trees, as it now is, would have been widely visible. Court tombs are part of a wider tradition represented by other long-barrow sites such as the Cotswold Severn and Clyde chambered tombs of western Britain and the earthen long-barrows and unchambered long cairns of southern and eastern Britain (Shee Twohig 1990, 26). A feature of all these site types is a long mound or cairn, frequently trapezoidal in outline. The same or analogous structural elements, such as axial burial gallery or mortuary structure, lateral chamber(s) and a facade or forecourt, occur in or under the cairn or mound at these sites. The morphological similarities suggest that all the versions of the long cairn/mound tradition are broadly contemporary. However, accurate dating of the different types has not been achieved, and their precise chronological relationship is unclear. The material culture represented in artifacts of stone and clay of the Early Neolithic of the islands of Ireland and Britain is a substantially homogeneous one (Smith 1974, 105 8). As the long mound tradition in the two islands displays regional diversity, it may post-date the earliest stages of the Neolithic. A feature of court tombs is their multi-component nature. However, little is known of the structural sequence

92 THE WIDER CONTEXT 271 at individual tombs. It has been suggested of some court tombs that a change in building style may indicate different periods of construction. The difference in the size of courtstones, e.g. between the inner and outer ends of the court at Creevykeel (Sl. 5), has been pointed to as possibly indicating phased construction (Shee Twohig 1990, 20), as has the doubling of the frontal revetment at the same site (Waterman 1965, 37). The excavator of Barnes Lower (Ty.) has suggested that the gallery may have been extended to the front by the addition of further chambers (Collins 1966). Excavation at Annaghmare (Ar.) indicated that the subsidiary chambers were additions to the rear of the cairn (Waterman 1965). However, it was not clear whether the addition of the subsidiary chambers represented a phase in a continuous working programme, i.e. whether they were part of the original design or were additions to an already completed monument. Multiperiod construction, if it took place at these sites, represents secondary enhancement or augmentation of already existing court tombs. It has been suggested that an origin for the court tomb may lie in a process of multiperiod construction through the addition of an extra chamber or chambers to the single-chambered portal tomb (Corcoran 1972, 50 60). The number of sites where such a process can be postulated are few and can be as convincingly accounted for as the product of the mingling of two separate structural traditions. This matter is referred to below in a discussion on portal tombs. It seems that, although there may have been secondary construction at some court tombs, there is no reliable indication that the court tomb as a type is other than a unitary structure. The evidence from modern excavation shows that Cotswold Severn tombs likewise are unitary structures (F. Lynch 1997, 52 3). It has been suggested that the Clyde tombs have an origin in the addition to small box-like stone chambers of an outer chamber and a facade or court-like feature (Scott 1969), but this hypothesis is unproven (F. Lynch 1997, 38 9). Such a sequence, where it can be demonstrated, may have occurred after the Clyde tomb had emerged as a type. The issue of the origin and spread of the court tomb in Ireland has been the subject of detailed typological arguments (Corcoran 1960; de Valera 1960; Davies and Evans ; Corcoran 1972). These arguments are based on the assumption that the type developed or appeared first at one or other side of the country under external influence, and then in a wave of tomb-building it spread across the northern part of the island. Perhaps dating evidence will point to an earlier date for court tombs in some areas than others. The repertoire of court tomb forms leaves little doubt that typological development took place at local or regional level and that in the course of time certain design innovations were adopted in areas away from those where they first evolved or proved most popular. In this context it is possible to distinguish between court tombs that consist of a single court and main gallery at one end of a long cairn and ones of more complex design. There are 112 court tombs (27% of the total) where a more complex design is in evidence or indicated. This total is made up of central-court tombs, dual-court tombs and likely ones, court tombs with subsidiary chambers and likely ones, court tombs with transeptal chambers, and court tombs of twin-gallery design. These more complex types are elaborations of the basic form. Some of the complex forms are regional in character. For instance, the central-court tombs are a design innovation in the Donegal Bay area, and dual-court tombs may have been developed and certainly were much favoured in an area centred on modern County Cavan. It is, of course, possible that some sites of more complex design are a result of multiperiod construction. With regard to the basic form of court tomb, distinction can be made on the basis of whether the court is of full or open design and whether the gallery is divided into two, three or four chambers. These variations are usually explained in typological terms. However, the mutually exclusive distribution of full and open courts tends to suggest that they are broadly contemporary versions of the same feature rather than that one developed from the other. By the same token the very limited association of three- and four-chambered galleries with full courts, already noted above, suggests that two, three- and four-chambered galleries may also be largely coeval variants. Most two-chambered and the great majority of both three- and four-chambered galleries are between 1.5m and 2.5m in maximum width. Typological development can be suggested for the two-chambered galleries in the Donegal Bay area, where there are at least ten measuring over 2.5m in maximum width, e.g. Bavan (Dg. 12), Shalwy (Dg. 113) and Creevykeel (Sl. 5). Instances of these wide galleries are more frequently to be found along the north and east sides of Donegal Bay, in south Donegal and north Sligo, than on the south side of the bay in coastal west Sligo or north Mayo. Construction of noticeably wide chambers may reflect developments in the skills involved in designing and building corbelled roofs. As the weight of the court tomb distribution is in western areas, and particularly around Donegal Bay, it seems that the practice of building them may well have lasted longer in that region than in other parts of the country.

93 272 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND PORTAL TOMBS Date and culture context Burial and artifactual evidence for portal tombs derives from both excavation and casual discovery, and details relating to fourteen sites have been catalogued (Herity 1964; 1982, ). In recent years, excavations have taken place at three sites, Poulnabrone (Cl. 28) (A. Lynch 1987; 1988; 1989; A. Lynch and B. Ó Donnabháin 1994), Taylorsgrange (Du.) (Keeley 1986; 1987; 1988; ) and Melkagh (Lf. 1) (Cooney 1997). Human remains, both cremated and inhumed, are known from portal tombs. The available published information records the recovery of cremated remains at Aghnaskeagh (Lh.) (E.E. Evans 1935), Ballyrenan (Ty.) (Davies 1937) and Drumanone (Ro. 3) (Topp 1962). At Ballykeel (Ar.) no human remains were noted, but high phosphate readings from chamber soil samples suggest that there may have been inhumation burials in the tomb (Collins 1965, 56). At Poulnabrone (Cl. 28) a considerable quantity of unburnt disarticulated human bones intermixed with animal bones was retrieved (A. Lynch 1987; 1988; 1989; A. Lynch and B. Ó Donnabháin 1994). At least 22 individuals, sixteen adults and six children, were represented, and, to the extent that gender could be determined, it appeared that males and females were present in similar numbers. Some of the bones had been subjected to scorching or burning after decomposition of the flesh, but the circumstances of this action are unclear. A range of artifacts similar to those from court tombs and indicative of a Neolithic date is known from portal tombs. Both plain and decorated Neolithic pottery is recorded from some portal tombs, e.g. the excavated tombs at Ballyrenan (Ty.) and Ballykeel (Ar.). At the latter site, where there was full excavation of the chamber area with limited sectioning of the associated long cairn, pottery was represented by sherds of plain carinated bowls, sherds of finely decorated bowls and considerable quantities of flat-based coarse ware. Coarse wares only were present at Poulnabrone (Cl. 28), and no pottery is recorded from Drumanone (Ro. 3). A polished stone axe was recovered at each of the last two sites. Flint arrowheads are known from a number of sites, as are hollow scrapers, end scrapers and stone beads. Some excavation results contribute to a more detailed consideration of the chronology of portal tombs. Human bones found on excavation at Poulnabrone (Cl. 28) yielded radiocarbon determinations that when calibrated fall between c and c BC (A. Lynch and B. Ó Donnabháin 1994). Radiocarbon dating also indicates that there was a later burial, of a newborn baby, at the tomb in the middle of second millennium BC, during the Bronze Age. Interpretation of the significance of the dates for the construction and use history of the tomb must await the excavator s final report but for now can be regarded as tending to confirm the indications of an Early Neolithic date for portal tombs suggested by the pottery from the tomb of this type at Dyffryn Ardudwy in Wales (Powell 1973). The dates from Poulnabrone (Cl. 28) also point to long-term use of the site during the Neolithic. At Ballykeel (Ar.) charcoal from a stratum lying on top of the lowest cairn stones gave a radiocarbon determination of 3350 ± 45 BP (UB-239), which when calibrated to two sigma lies between 1860 and 1520 BC (O Kelly 1989, 347). The explanation for this Bronze Age date must be that the charcoal derives from later activity at the site. The best guide to a use period of the tomb is the decorated carinated bowls found in the chamber. These bowls can be compared to Drimnagh-style bowls found in Linkardstown-type burials, which, as already noted, appear to date to the period from c to c BC in calendar years (Brindley and Lanting ). An earlier period of use is suggested at Ballykeel (Ar.) by the recovery of plain carinated wares in positions mainly peripheral to the chamber, which, although they may represent pre-tomb activity at the site, could also be accounted for as the result of chamber clearance. That none of these plain wares was recovered in the admittedly limited sectioning of the cairn may favour the latter possibility. The excavations at Poulnabrone (Cl. 28) and Ballykeel (Ar.) demonstrate the considerable potential for mixing of earlier and later tomb deposits and highlight the possibility of periodic tomb clearance. In conclusion, it seems that portal tombs, like court tombs, were under construction from at least the mid-fourth millennium BC, and the dates from Poulnabrone (Cl. 28) suggest that it may have been in existence in c BC. Distribution and morphology Portal tombs are known only in Ireland and Britain. The 180 portal tombs in Ireland are quite widely distributed, but the 35 to 50 in Britain (F. Lynch 1969; 1972; 1997, 43) are confined to two areas at the western edge of the island, north Wales and Cornwall. The majority of portal tombs in Ireland are found in the approximate northern

94 THE WIDER CONTEXT 273 one-third of the country. Of the 180 currently known, 125 (69%) occur north of a line drawn between Drogheda, County Louth, on the east coast and Westport, County Mayo, on the west coast. Of the remaining ones 38 are in the south-east of the country, lying between Dublin and the Waterford coast. Elsewhere in the country there are four sites in the Clifden Cleggan area of coastal west Galway; there are ten dispersed sites in a wide area encompassing south Galway, south Roscommon, north Clare and north Tipperary; two quite isolated sites occur over 40km apart close to the coastline of west Cork; and there is a lone site in County Kerry just over 6km inland from the inner reaches of Dingle Bay. Aspects of the topography, siting and distribution of the type are the subject of a detailed consideration by Ó Nualláin (1983b). The distribution of portal tombs in Ireland and Wales is markedly riverine and coastal. Ó Nualláin (1983b) has shown that 43.5% of Irish portal tombs are within 8km of the coast and has highlighted the association of the type with the river system in different parts of Ireland, in particular in the south-east of the country. It may have been that such locales were the preferred areas of settlement during at least part of the Neolithic, just as they had been during the Mesolithic. The coastline and river systems were the obvious arteries of communication and travel in a densely wooded countryside. It is also possible that the siting of portal tombs near rivers and streams was influenced by ritual or symbolic factors. Portal tombs, almost invariably single-chambered structures, consist of two tall portal-stones that may flank a doorstone or sillstone at the front, with sides and back usually formed of single stones. Roofing is normally by means of a single large slab laid on the portal-stones and sloping toward the rear, where it rests on the backstone. Sometimes the large roofstone is supported at the rear by a subsidiary roofstone resting on the backstone and/or sidestones. The cairn or mound at portal tombs is frequently poorly preserved. Variations on the basic design are of relatively rare occurrence. At a small number of sites the portal-stones are flanked by one or more uprights. There are three sites where a portal tomb is divided by a segmenting feature into two chambers, Sunnagh More (Le. 39), Brenanstown (Du.) and Ballyrenan (Ty.) (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972, 166). In a small number of instances two separate portal tomb chambers share the same cairn. The complex of portal tomb chambers at Malin More (Dg. 91) is exceptional among surviving sites. There is, however, a claim that at Tamlaght (De.) several other cromlechs extended in a line east and west from the extant portal tomb there and that all were surrounded by a circle of upright stones (Lewis 1837, vol. 2, 590). It is also claimed that before 1750 two chambers stood close to the extant portal tomb at Crevolea (De.) (Chart 1940, 192). Lateral subsidiary chambers are a rare occurrence at portal tombs. There are traces of cairn or mound at around 65 of the 180 Irish portal tombs. At 28 of these sites there is a long cairn or mound, sometimes of distinctly trapezoidal outline. The dimensions of the portal tomb long cairns in County Donegal are reasonably representative of the entire complement of such cairns. As noted in an earlier section, these range from c. 17m to c. 36m long and from c. 8m to c. 17m in maximum width. Distinctly smaller cairns are known at other portal tombs, and few reach a maximum length of c. 12m. At some of these there are only scant traces of mound, and others are clearly disturbed. The small number that display a regular shape are of subcircular or roughly oval outline, as noted at Ballyannan (Dg. 3) and Straleel North (Dg. 116), to which may be added Arderrawinny (Co. 62) and possibly Springfield (Sl. 99). Although there is uncertainty about the original shape of these cairns, there is some support for the existence of small round or short oval cairns at portal tombs. Excavation at Taylorsgrange (Du.) uncovered concentrations of stones that appeared to represent a cairn of somewhat circular outline (Keeley ). Possible kerbstones at Ballycasheen (Cl. 63) (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1961, 52 3) indicate that in its original form the cairn there did not extend any further than c. 2.5m beyond the back of the chamber. Small cairns may have been purely functional, serving to support the chamber orthostats as at Poulnabrone (Cl. 28) (A. Lynch and B. Ó Donnabháin 1994). Apart from the possible kerbstones at Ballycasheen (Cl. 63) and at Banagher (Cv. 28), cairn revetment features are not recognised at unexcavated portal tombs. Limited excavation of the cairn at Ballykeel (Ar.) revealed a low slab-built wall along either side that appeared to have formed the original edge of the cairn. Excavation at the site of the levelled portal tomb at Melkagh (Lf. 1) revealed traces of cairn material including a slab-built wall thought to be a portion of cairn revetment (Cooney 1997). At Ballyrenan (Ty.) a few low kerbstones were exposed during excavation (Davies 1937). Excavation at Poulnabrone (Cl. 28), where there is a small cairn, revealed no kerbstones (A. Lynch and B. Ó Donnabháin 1994). The indications are that cairns at portal tombs did not rise to any great height. As already noted in a discussion of the morphology of portal tombs in County Donegal, a well-preserved cairn like that at Muntermellan (Dg. 104) reaches to around half the height of the portal-stones, although the great majority of

95 274 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND surviving portal tomb cairns do not approach that height. Unlike at court tombs, where heavy slab corbelling required the counterweight of a substantial and high cairn to support the roofstones, this was not a structural requirement at portal tomb chambers, where the usually massive roofstone was normally laid directly on the securely bedded portal-stones and backstone. The survival in place of many portal tomb roofstones high above the surface of low cairns, or sometimes in the apparent absence of any cairn, supports the view that the impressive roofstone and at least the upper halves of portal-stones were always exposed to view. Only at Burren (Cv. 4) is there a cairn that may have substantially enveloped a portal tomb chamber. At this site a chamber stands eccentrically within a large oval cairn, c. 2m high, the original outline of which is uncertain (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972, 106). There must be a possibility that this exception to the apparent norm was a product of secondary activity at the site. As already noted of those in County Donegal, portal tomb cairns seem to be of stone construction. However, the excavation at Poulnabrone (Cl. 28) revealed some soil among the stones there (A. Lynch and B. Ó Donnabháin 1994). Composite portal tombs are of limited occurrence both geographically and numerically. Except for one in north-east Ulster at Ballyvennaght (An.), they are confined to north Connacht and west Ulster, where their distribution is quite scattered except for a localised concentration in south-west Donegal. The best-known is the complex of portal tomb chambers at Malin More (Dg. 91). At other tombs two chambers occur in the same cairn, one toward either end of the long axis of the monument. At Kilclooney More (Dg. 70) there are a large and a small portal tomb chamber, both facing in the same direction. There is a similar arrangement at Ballyrenan (Ty.). One of the three portal tombs at Ballyvennaght (An.) is a composite one. Here one of two portal tomb chambers in the same cairn has collapsed, but it seems that each faces outward at either end of the cairn (Ó Nualláin 1983b, 89). At Toome (Dg. 123) one of two terminally set chambers has collapsed, but, as already noted, a suggested reconstruction identifies it as a portal tomb chamber that would have faced the well-preserved chamber at the other end of the cairn. A second terminally set chamber appears to have been present also at Ards Beg (Dg. 1), Ballyknock (Ma. 11) and Malin More (Dg. 90), but its nature in each case is unclear. At Glenroan (Ty.) there is a ruined chamber c. 15m east of a portal tomb, but their relationship is uncertain. Excavation at Ballykeel (Ar.) revealed the remains of a cist on the long axis of the cairn. It stood toward the rear of the cairn and appeared to have been an original feature of the design (Collins 1965). At Sunnagh More (Le. 38), where there is some uncertainty about the nature of the design, there is a portal tomb chamber at the southern end of the cairn. Toward the northern end two stones may represent another portal tomb chamber, although it is possible that they form part of a lateral subsidiary chamber. Laterally set subsidiary chambers are known at a small number of sites, all opening onto the sides of long cairns, as occurs much more frequently at court tombs. There was one subsidiary chamber at Melkagh (Lf. 1), which opened onto the left side of the cairn, and there are two at Corleanamaddy (Mo.), both of which also open to the left side of the cairn (Brindley 1986, 2). At Sunnagh More (Le. 38) there are two subsidiary chambers, both of which open onto the same side of a long cairn. If the two stones toward the northern end of this cairn are part of a third lateral subsidiary chamber and not a second main terminal chamber, all three subsidiary chambers open onto the left side of the cairn. At Ballywholan (Ty.), in a long cairn, there is a transversely set gallery-like feature c. 12m behind a terminally placed portal tomb chamber. The gallery-like feature can be interpreted either as a two-chambered gallery or as a pair of back-to-back subsidiary chambers. The presence of what seems to be an entrance feature leading from the southern/left side of the cairn and the apparent absence of a similar feature at the northern/right side may favour the first interpretation. Whichever interpretation is correct, the arrangement recalls the back-to-back subsidiary chambers found in some court tombs. There also seems to have been a subsidiary chamber at Ticloy (An.) (E.E. Evans and E. Watson 1942), but the position it occupied in the cairn is somewhat uncertain. There may have been a subsidiary-type chamber at the south side of the long cairn of the composite portal tomb at Ballyrenan (Ty.), but it is no longer visible (Foley 2000, 15). Portal tomb chambers are of rectilinear design and usually narrow toward the rear. This is true of 37 of 59 portal tomb chambers (at 54 sites) where the matter can be determined, e.g. Aghawee (Cv. 33) and Fenagh Beg (Le. 34). At another fifteen the chamber is of more or less uniform width from end to end, e.g. Burren (Cv. 4) and Arderrawinny (Co. 62), and at the remaining seven the chamber widens, if only slightly, toward the backstone, e.g. Carrickglass (Sl. 102) and Carrickacroy (Cv. 35). Chamber length, measured from the inner face of the backstone to the inner face of the doorstone or sill, can reliably be determined at 34 sites. At 32 of these, chamber lengths are fairly evenly dispersed over a range from 1.2m to 2.4m, and at two sites, Ballycasheen (Cl.

96 THE WIDER CONTEXT ) and Poulnabrone (Cl. 28), the chamber is 2.7m long. Longer chambers are known, but they are not amenable to precise measurement. At Haroldstown (Cw.) the chamber is over 3m long. The disturbed chamber at Kiltiernan Domain (Du.) seems to be c. 4m long. Maximum chamber widths, available at 58 portal tombs, range from 0.7m to 2.6m. Of these, four are less than 1m, 45 are between 1m and 2m, and eight are over 2m in maximum width. Portal-stones are almost invariably longitudinally aligned, i.e. they share the orientation of the sides of the chamber. At a small number of sites one or occasionally both portal-stones lack a particularly pronounced longer axis, e.g. Middletown (Cv. 30), Aghawee (Cv. 33) and Aghavas (Le.). At one site, Ballyquin (Wa.), both portalstones are transversely set (M. Moore 1999, 2), and at Kernanstown (Cw.) one is transversely set and the other lacks a pronounced longer axis. At Ardabrone (Sl. 41), which is not a convincing portal tomb, the putative portalstones are also transversely set. The relationship of the portal-stones to the chamber sides varies. There are at least 47 sites where the relationship is clear at both sides of the chamber. At eighteen of these the portal-stones are set inside the lines of the sidestones and almost invariably are overlapped by them, sometimes only slightly, e.g. Aghawee (Cv. 33) and Fenagh Beg (Le. 34). At ten sites the portal-stones are in line or more or less so with the sidestones, e.g. Carrickacroy (Cv. 35) and Carrickglass (Sl. 102). At nineteen sites the arrangement differs at each side, with one portal-stone set inside the line of the sidestone and the other set more or less in line with the chamber side, e.g. Wardhouse (Le. 3) and Cloonfinnan (Le. 36). The gaps between portal-stones range from as little as c. 0.3m at Aghawee (Cv. 33) and Eskaheen (Dg. 54) to the exceptionally wide gap of 2m at Ballycasheen (Cl. 63). In 101 chambers where this can be determined the gap is less than 0.6m at eighteen, between 0.6m and 1m at 61, and more than 1m at 22. Measurement of the heights of portal-stones is compromised by the presence of cairn remains and/or bog growth at many sites. By excluding sites where portal-stones seem deeply buried and allowing for some inexactness, it has been possible to compile measurements for 92 chambers. At all of these both portal-stones survive. Where the heights of the two portal-stones differ, the taller one is taken. At eleven sites the portal-stones are less than 1.3m high, but none appears to be less than c. 0.8m high. The portal-stones at 60 chambers range fairly evenly over values from 1.3m to 2.1m. In 21 cases the portal-stones are 2.2m or more in height, but at only one of these sites are the portal-stones more than 3m high, i.e. at Kilmogue/Harristown (Kk.), where they are 3.6m (Ó Nualláin 1983b, 97). Doorstones or sills are recognised at 77 portal tomb chambers, including both chambers in the same mound at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70). At fifteen of the 77 the doorstone or sill is either displaced or clearly broken. Regional variation is evident in the occurrence of doorstones and sillstones. They are best represented among the tombs in the south-east region, occurring at 22 (58%) of the 38 tombs there. They are known at 49 sites (50 individual chambers), or 39%, of the 125 sites in the northern part of the country, at four of the ten tombs in the adjoining areas of counties Galway, Clare, Roscommon and Tipperary, at one of the three tombs in counties Cork and Kerry, but at none of the four sites in coastal west Galway. There are, then, just over 100 portal tombs where doorstones or sillstones are not known, and it must remain a matter of conjecture to what extent this represents the original situation. As both portal-stones survive at around 45 of these sites, the great majority of them in the northern one-third of the country, the absence of a doorstone or sillstone tends to indicate that one was never employed. Doorstones and sills are almost invariably set back from the outer ends of the portal-stones, thus creating a space enclosed at three sides in front of the chamber proper. Excavation at Poulnabrone (Cl. 28) revealed that a setting of stones formed a front to this feature (A. Lynch 1987; A. Lynch and B. Ó Donnabháin 1994). Doorstones or sills are usually placed toward or at the inner end of the portal-stones, e.g. at Carrickacroy (Cv. 35), Crosh (Ty.) and Muntermellan (Dg. 104). Somewhat less frequently the doorstone or sill stands around midway along the two portal-stones, e.g. at Poulnabrone (Cl. 28), Melkagh (Lf. 1) and Toome (Dg. 123). In a number of instances, because one portal-stone is shorter than the other, the doorstone or sill may be set around midway along the longer one and at the inner end of the shorter one, e.g. at Ballycasheen (Cl. 63) and Camcuill (Sl. 51). Occasionally the doorstone or sill is set behind one of the portal-stones, as at Errarooey Beg (Dg. 53), Arderrawinny (Co. 62) and Carrickglass (Sl. 102), or behind both, as at Knocknalower (Ma. 20), Ballywholan (Ty.), Drumderg (De.) and Clonlum (Ar.). Doorstones or sills are almost invariably sufficiently wide to fill the space between the portal-stones. The height of doorstones and sills relative to that of portal-stones can reasonably reliably be determined at 61 portal tomb chambers. At 27 of these the doorstone reaches to or almost to the top of the portal-stones; at

97 276 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND seven it reaches to around three-quarters of the height; and at eighteen it reaches to approximately half the height. At only nine chambers is there a sill present, i.e. the stone at the front of the chamber is clearly less than half the height of the portal-stones. Tall doorstones reaching to or almost to the top of the portal-stones clearly sealed the front of the chamber. At Carrickglass (Sl. 102) the roofstone rests on the doorstone as well as on the portalstones. Even when the doorstone is not quite as tall as the portal-stones its positioning toward their inner ends, combined with the usual downward slope of the roofstone, leaves little or no space between them. Doorstones of half-height may also achieve full closure. This occurs when they are positioned at the inner end of the portalstones and a subsidiary roofstone covers that part of the chamber behind the portal-stones. It has already been noted that such an arrangement occurs at two sites in Donegal, Muntermellan (Dg. 104) and Toome (Dg. 123). Regional variation is evident in the height of doorstones (O Donovan 1993). In the south-east of the country tall doorstones predominate. Here fifteen reach to or almost to the top of the portal-stones, one reaches to threequarter height and another to half-height. In the southern part of the distribution in the northern one-third of the country, i.e. south of a line linking Ballyshannon, County Donegal, and Downpatrick, County Down, ten doorstones reach to or almost to the top of the portal-stones, five are of three-quarter height, seven are of halfheight, and there are two sillstones. There is a diminished incidence of full doorstones in this area relative to the south-east, indicating a lesser concern with full closure, demonstrated in the use of a sillstone at two sites. Account must be taken of the fact that doorstones of less than full height are not of themselves an infallible guide to the degree of closure of a chamber because, as already noted, doorstones only half the height of the portalstones in combination with a suitably positioned subsidiary roofstone may fully close the front of a portal tomb. North of a line drawn between Ballyshannon and Downpatrick, doorstones of half-height and sillstones predominate. In this area there is only one doorstone that reaches to or almost to the top of the portal-stones. One doorstone is of three-quarter height; nine are of half-height; and at six tombs, including both chambers at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70), there is a sillstone. Elsewhere in the country there is a doorstone reaching almost to the top of the portal-stones at Arderrawinny (Co. 62), a half doorstone, possibly originally taller, at Ballycasheen (Cl. 63), and a sillstone at Poulnabrone (Cl. 28), although it has been suggested that this too may originally have been taller (A. Lynch and B. Ó Donnabháin 1994). The sides of portal tomb chambers are normally of single stones. In the 68 chambers at which both sides are intact, each consists of a single stone at 60. Sides formed of more than two stones are quite rare, e.g. Haroldstown (Cw.), where three stones form one side and four the other. Sidestones usually lean inward, often against a portalstone and/or the backstone. Although it is often difficult to judge with certainty, it seems that in many of these instances the sidestones may not be deeply set. The back of portal tomb chambers is almost invariably formed of single stones, many gable topped, which frequently lean inward. Two stones form the back of the chamber at three sites, Sunnagh More (Le. 39), Leagaun (Ga.) and, as noted in an earlier section, the larger of the two portal tomb chambers in the same mound at Kilclooney More (Dg. 70). A large roofstone, either still in situ or displaced, can be recognised at 120 of the 180 portal tombs in the country. At around 45 sites it is still in its original position or only slightly displaced; at another fifteen or so it is rather more obviously displaced but still covers the chamber area to some extent. At the remaining sites it is displaced from above the orthostats. Sidestones and backstones are normally lower than the portal-stones, and as a result the roofstone usually slopes toward the rear. The effect is frequently accentuated by a diminution in the thickness of the roofstone in the same direction. At a small number of sites there is no great difference in the height of the tomb orthostats, and at these the roofstone would have rested in a more or less horizontal position above the chamber. The range of shape and size of roofstones in County Donegal, already outlined, is fairly representative of the series as a whole. An analysis of the measurements for length, width and thickness of 107 portal tomb roofstones in Ó Nualláin (1983b) identifies minimum and maximum measurements in each category of 1.6m and 6.5m, 1.1m and 6.1m, and 0.25m and 2m. A subsidiary roofstone is recognised at fifteen sites, and there is a possible displaced one at another five or so sites. These stones serve as a seat for the rear of the main roofstone, which thus may be raised to a horizontal position, e.g. Aghnacliff (Lf. 3) and Knockeen (Wa.). Subsidiary roofstones may cover that part of the chamber behind the portal-stones, as already noted of some sites in County Donegal, or may only roof the inner end of the chamber, e.g. Greengraves (Dw.) (Jope 1966, 80). As already noted of some portal tombs in County Donegal, pad-stones or corbels placed on sidestones and backstones are an occasional feature and, in addition to those sites in that county already referred to, are definitely present at Ahaglaslin (Co. 55), Arderrawinny (Co. 62), Kilmogue/Harristown (Kk.), Annaghmore (Le.

98 THE WIDER CONTEXT ), Ballyrenan (Ty.) (the western element), Crowagh or Dunneill Mountain (Sl. 65) and Burren (Cv. 4). There is evidence for some form of structural elaboration at the front of at least eighteen portal tombs. At most of these sites such remains occur or survive at only one side, either the right or the left, of the monument. However, this is not the case at two sites: Ahaglaslin (Co. 55), where there is a short funnel-shaped approach, and Ticloy (An.), where there was a shallow crescent of low stones, perhaps intended as a version of a court feature (E.E. Evans and E. Watson 1942). Although Ahaglaslin (Co. 55) is far from any court tomb, its entrance feature has been compared to the narrow courts found at some court tombs in Munster (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1982, 38). At Kernanstown (Cw.) a tall upright flanks one of the portal-stones, and these in combination with the doorstone and the other portal-stone form a slightly concave facade at the front of the chamber. The tall stones flanking the entrance at Goward (Dw.) may, in combination with the doorstone, be intended to create a similar effect. At five sites, Moyree Commons (Cl. 71), Kilmashogue (Du.), Kiltiernan Domain (Du.), Claggan (Ma. 78) and Eskaheen (Dg. 54), a stone stands in front of one of the portal-stones, and at two sites, Ballynasilloge (Cw.) and Glaskenny/Onagh (Wi.), two stones run forward from one of the portal-stones. At two sites, Menlough (Ga. 16) and Ballywholan (Ty.), a stone is set askew to the outer end of one of the portal-stones. At three sites, Ervey (De.), Tirnony (De.) and Kilmogue/Harristown (Kk.), a stone is set just in front of but outside the line of one of the portal-stones, and at Glenknock or Cloghogle (Ty.) a stone stands at the outer face of one of the portal-stones. The role of these additional stones at one or other side of the front of portal tomb chambers is uncertain. Perhaps they represent the remains of an entrance feature leading to the front of the monument. It is also possible that stones placed in front of a portal-stone represent extensions of the portico-like feature between portal-stones and in front of the doorstone, which may have been readily accessible, in contrast to the chamber, the entrance to which may have been blocked. The stones referred to are generally low relative to their portal-stones, but ones equal to the portal-stones occur at Kernanstown (Cw.) and Goward (Dw.), as already noted, and at Eskaheen (Dg. 54), Ballywholan (Ty.) and Glenknock or Cloghogle (Ty.). At the last site the roofstone lies shattered and prostrate, and Ballywholan (Ty.) lacks a roof. The roofstones at the other three sites are all notably massive. That at Kernanstown (Cw.) is apparently the biggest in the country. Perhaps the tall uprights were intended to complement the size of the roofstones, or they may have played a role in the mechanics of manoeuvring the great roofstone into position. At the western chamber at Malin More (Dg. 91) (as already noted in an earlier section) there is a stone in front of each portal-stone. One now matches the tall portal-stone behind it, and it is likely that the other, apparently broken, matched the other portal-stone, also a tall stone but now broken. The effect is to create a doubling of the portal-stones. The eighteen sites where structural elaboration of the tomb entrance is known are widely scattered. This points to a widespread focus on the tomb entrance throughout the distribution, also indicated for court tombs in the distribution of antechambers and doubled entrance jambs. Portal tombs display limited morphological variety throughout the distribution. Although there are differences in chamber size and a number of tombs are very impressive because of the employment of tall portalstones or a very substantial roofstone, the only significant structural variable is in the degree of closure of chamber fronts. Full doorstones are usual in the south, more specifically the south-east, of Ireland and in Wales. There is a decrease in the incidence of tall doorstones through the Irish north midlands, and they are least likely to occur at the northern end of the country, where doorstones of half-height and sillstones are normal. As already noted, a number of well-preserved portal tombs in the north of the country have no doorstone or sillstone. Thus it seems that closed chambers are normal in the south-east, with both accessible chambers and closed ones occurring in more northern areas. The same regional distinction can be made in regard to the occurrence of long cairns at portal tombs. These occur throughout the distribution except in the south-east, i.e. in Leinster and east Munster. Of more limited occurrence, both geographically and numerically, are composite sites, which, as noted, are rare outside south-west Donegal. The limited morphological variety displayed by portal tombs suggests that the period during which they were built was short compared to that of the more numerous and morphologically varied court tombs. Variation in the degree of closure of tomb fronts has implications for our understanding of burial rite at these monuments. This matter has been discussed by O Donovan (1993) and Walsh (1995, 124 5). Some portal tombs seem to have been conceived as closed structures that, once built and roofed, could not have been readily entered, and others are open, accessible monuments apparently intended for repeated use. It may be that variation in the degree of closure of portal tomb fronts represents a developmental sequence. It is at least as likely that the varied degree of frontal closure found in portal tombs is a response to broadly contemporary but differing ritual

99 278 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND requirements in different areas. It is uncertain whether the closure of the front of a portal tomb by means of a tall doorstone precluded later access. Unless a portal tomb was enveloped in a cairn or mound, and on available evidence this seems unlikely (see above), it is possible, as is now true of many well-preserved ones, that it could have been entered via small gaps between orthostats or perhaps over the sides, which frequently do not reach the base of the roofstone. As the roofstone almost invariably rests securely on the portal-stones and backstone, the rather modest corbelling found at some portal tombs does not serve as an indispensable roof support but acts to raise the sides of the chamber. It is feasible that such walling was periodically removed and replaced. However, it is not known whether portal tombs with closed fronts were entered in this way and, if they were, whether this was ever intended by their builders. The regional variation in burial rite suggested by the differences in the degree of frontal closure at portal tombs is consistent with the wider picture when other forms of burial in Neolithic Ireland are taken into account. Linkardstown-type burials, though small in number, are found in the southern half of the country, notably in south-eastern counties, the area where portal tombs with tall doorstones are usual. Linkardstown-type tombs consist of a single closed chamber containing the remains of one or two individuals, usually male, which was covered by a mound after a single act of burial. Such tombs are a clear expression of a rite of single-event burial in a sealed chamber during the Neolithic. Their precise chronological relationship to portal tombs is uncertain, but the recovery of pottery typically found in Linkardstown-type tombs at the portal tomb at Ballykeel (Ar.) indicates contemporaneity in the use, if not necessarily the construction period, of both types. Portal tombs with closed chamber fronts seem to represent adherence to the concept, if not necessarily the reality, of a sealed chamber. The indications are of an underlying unity in burial rite in south-east Ireland apparently different from that obtaining in the northern one-third of the country, where many portal tombs can be entered via the front and, as mentioned, seem designed for repeated use, as are the court tombs in the area. Consideration of portal tombs has tended to concentrate on their relationship to court tombs. The majority of portal tombs are found north of a line drawn between Drogheda and Westport, i.e. in the approximate northern one-third of the country. The overall extent of the distribution here coincides closely with that of the more numerous court tombs. A more detailed comparison of the distribution of portal tombs and court tombs produces a varied picture. Both are principally monuments of the northern one-third of the country, although portal tombs have a more significant presence than court tombs in the remainder of the island. Although 92% of court tombs lie north of a line drawn between Drogheda and Westport, 69% of portal tombs are so located. In the northern one-third of the country the portal tombs generally occur in the same locales as court tombs. The two types display similar altitude patterns, with 70% of portal tombs and 60% of court tombs sited below 400 feet (c. 120m) OD (Ó Nualláin 1983b, 84 5). However, it is clear that portal tombs display a greater preference for lowlying ground than court tombs. It should be noted that in County Derry portal tombs occur at markedly lower levels than court tombs (Neill 1999, 39). The ratio of court tombs to portal tombs shows quite a degree of variation (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972, 166 7). In the area north of a line drawn from Drogheda to Westport there are 377 court tombs and 125 portal tombs. Within this region it is only in coastal south-west Donegal and in the area of south Leitrim, south-west Cavan and north Longford that portal tombs occur in numbers equal to or greater than court tombs. There are small numbers of both court tombs and portal tombs in south Connacht and north Munster. The 38 portal tombs dispersed over a wide area of the south-east of the country, between Dublin and Waterford, vastly outnumber the two court tombs in the same region, one of which, Ballynamona Lower (Wa.), displays obvious portal tomb affinities (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972, 166). The morphological features relevant to the relationship between court tombs and portal tombs are set out in some detail in an earlier volume in this series (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972, 162 6). It has been suggested both that the origins of the portal tomb lie in the court tomb (E.E. Evans 1938, 14 16; de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972, 162 8) and that the opposite is the case (Corcoran 1972, 50 60). It is also possible, as suggested in an earlier section, that the two types represent separate structural traditions. Within the limits of the available chronology, and given that the two types seem to represent the same material culture, the best approach seems to be to regard them as broadly contemporary (Cooney and Grogan 1994, 59 60). If so, interaction between the two traditions could account for shared features. Whatever the origin of each, it is clear, as noted in an earlier section, that portal tombs and court tombs are distinct monument types. Court tombs, with their segmented burial galleries, entrance

100 THE WIDER CONTEXT 279 features of jamb and sillstone construction, apparently designed for ready and repeated use, and courts, open spaces where people could congregate to partake in or observe ceremonial activity, seem to be intended as longlived burial monuments and centres of communal focus. Portal tombs, as already noted, present a rather more ambiguous picture in that they may be open or closed. Whether the two tomb types are representative of some form of social differentiation or whether each type had a different ritual role or significance are matters for speculation. The absence of any consistency in the ratios of the two types from place to place seems to rule out the possibility that there was any universally recognised situation in which one type rather than the other was built. The long cairn is cited as a significant feature in discussions of the relationship of court tombs and portal tombs. It is an almost invariably constant feature of the court tomb but is known only at around one-sixth of all portal tombs. These sites are all close to or in areas where court tombs are also known. All but two of the 28 portal tombs at which long cairns are known occur north of a line from Drogheda to Westport, where almost all court tombs are found, and the remaining two are in south Galway and north Clare, where there are small numbers of both court tombs and portal tombs. There is no indication of a long cairn among the portal tombs lying between Dublin and Waterford, an area where court tombs are scarcely represented. As there are no long cairns at the great majority of portal tombs, and as the relatively small number of portal tombs at which they occur are in areas where court tombs are known, it seems probable that the court tomb contributed the long cairn to the portal tomb. It seems likely that the lateral chambers known at a small number of portal tombs, no less than the long cairn onto the sides of which they opened, derived from the court tomb, where the feature is of more frequent and widespread occurrence. In support of this the small number of portal tombs with lateral subsidiary chambers are in the northern half of the country, and these subsidiary chambers, like those at court tombs, show a preference for the left side of the cairn. The association of a long cairn with a minority of portal tombs suggests interaction between the building traditions of the court tomb and the portal tomb. The nature and significance of such interaction are uncertain. Only excavation could determine whether the long cairn at any portal tomb represents an addition to a preexisting monument or the whole was conceived as a unit. Relevant to the relationship between the two types are a small number of lateral subsidiary chambers at court tombs, largely confined to the central Ulster area, that resemble portal tombs, e.g. Barnes Lower (Ty.), Ally (Ty.), Cregganconroe (Ty.) and Tullyskeherny (Le. 22). It has been suggested that portal tombs developed from such chambers (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972, 167). It is at least as likely that chambers of this type were built to resemble portal tombs. Because they lack the emphasised portals of the classic portal tomb, it seems preferable to regard them as versions of portal tombs rather than as true instances of the type. The low portals of such chambers are perhaps no more than a practical requirement given their position at or close to the side of the cairn. However, there may have been a deliberate attempt to diminish the portal tomb and the tradition it represented. This could have been achieved by lessening the impact of the usually impressive entrance while also placing the chamber in what may have been regarded as an ancillary position in a cairn. Some court tomb main chambers, again with reduced portal-stones or jambs, also seem to resemble portal tombs, e.g. Ballyreagh (Fe.) (Davies 1942) and the rear chamber at Barnes Lower (Ty.) (Collins 1966). A distinction must be made between such chambers, whether occurring as main chambers or subsidiary chambers in court tombs, and the rear chamber of the court tomb at Drumhallagh Upper (Dg. 50), which, as noted in a preceding section, is in all respects similar to a portal tomb. It is easier to believe, as already suggested, that the rear chamber at this site is a true portal tomb that was converted to a court tomb than that the entire structure is of one period. A similar sequence may have taken place at Tanrego West (Sl. 75). It has been suggested that the origin of court tombs lies in just such a sequence of multiperiod construction (Corcoran 1972, 50 60). In this scenario the single-chambered portal tomb is seen to evolve into the two-, three- and fourchambered court tomb. However, without some evidence of a similar sequence at a number of other sites, it would be unwise to claim Drumhallagh Upper (Dg. 50) and Tanrego West (Sl. 75) as the model for the development of the court tomb from the portal tomb. It seems preferable to regard the two sites, which are far from each other, as similar but probably unrelated instances of a process whereby a pre-existing portal tomb may have been converted to a court tomb. Court tombs are generally more numerous than portal tombs in the areas where they both occur. It may have been, as suggested in an earlier section, that over time the larger tomb, the court tomb, was favoured over the portal tomb, perhaps because it offered greater scope for burial and ceremonial activity. Where morphology

101 280 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND suggests interaction between the two types, it seems that the court tomb was the dominant influence. Under this influence some portal tombs seem to have taken on some of the features of court tombs such as the long cairn and lateral subsidiary chambers. Indeed it may be, as already suggested, that at least one or two portal tombs were converted to court tombs. In such circumstances it could be envisaged that court tombs continued to be built not only in their own right but also to the exclusion of portal tombs. Aspects of the distribution of the two types can be interpreted as lending support to this contention. The matter will be briefly considered by reference to the distribution of portal tombs and court tombs along the west coast. The 45 portal tombs known in coastal locations from Galway in the west to Lough Foyle, County Derry, in the north occur in small scattered groups. As an illustration, the four portal tombs in the Clifden Cleggan area of County Galway are slightly over 40km from two sites midway along the west coast of County Mayo. These in turn are c. 30km from two south of Sruwaddacon Bay in north-west Mayo. These again are c. 25km from two portal tombs lying south of Bunnatrahir Bay on the north coast of Mayo. The sequence is maintained along the coasts of counties Sligo, Leitrim and Donegal. All these small scattered groups of portal tombs occur as part of loose groupings of greater numbers, often considerably greater numbers, of court tombs. The only exception to this trend is in south-west Donegal, where, as noted in an earlier section, court tombs and portal tombs occur in similar numbers. The relative strength of the portal tomb tradition in this area seems to be related to the construction of a notable group of composite portal tombs. Elsewhere along the west coast, where there are no composite portal tombs, court tombs are numerically dominant. It may have been that the maintenance of the portal tomb tradition required a response to a perceived need for bigger monuments. In south-west Donegal there was such a response, as shown in the construction of composite portal tombs. Where composite portal tombs were not built, the portal tomb tradition may have faded in favour of the bigger monument, the court tomb. WEDGE TOMBS Date and culture context Artifacts recovered at wedge tombs include worked flint, although diagnostic pieces are relatively rare. Metal is represented at some sites, but its context is seldom clear (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1982, 119). Pottery, recovered at over half of the excavated sites, includes some Neolithic sherds, Beaker ware, Bronze Age funerary ware, some sherds that could not readily be classified and coarse ware. Coarse ware is known from the majority of excavated sites that have produced pottery but is of little value for dating purposes (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1982, 118). Cremation seems to have been the favoured mode of burial at wedge tombs, but a small number of sites have produced both cremated and unburnt human remains. There is a regional character to the distribution of artifacts from wedge tombs. The majority of the finds are from sites in the northern half of the country. Little has been found at seven excavated sites in south Munster, and none of these has produced any pottery. In this area only one site, Toormore (Co.), produced a find that can be placed in a chronological context. This, a bronze axehead, was found with two pieces of copper outside the entrance to the tomb (B. O Brien 1991; W. O Brien 1993b, 69). The axehead, interpreted as a votive deposit, seems to date to the period calendar years BC (W. O Brien 1993b, 68 9), but it cannot be linked to activity within the chamber (W. O Brien et al ). The date of the first appearance of wedge tombs is uncertain. Two sites that produced Neolithic finds, Boviel (De.) and Lough Gur (Li. 4), were greatly disturbed before excavation, and so the relevance of the Neolithic material from these sites remains uncertain. Brindley and Lanting (1991 2) suggest that at both locations Neolithic material already on site became incorporated in a later wedge tomb. They believe that the tomb at Lough Gur (Li. 4) is dated by the Beaker ware found there and by the radiocarbon dates derived from human remains at the site (see below) and that Boviel (De.) (Herring and May 1940), where there was no Beaker pottery, is more reliably dated by the barbed and tanged arrowhead from the site, itself an indicator of a Beaker period date. The arrowhead and one other flint piece at the latter site had been burned, so it is likely that both had been included in the pyre that produced the cremated bone at the site. The considerable number of other flints at the site, including Neolithic hollow scrapers, are unburnt. ApSimon (1985 6) suggests that wedge tombs may be as early as c calendar years BC, but Brindley and Lanting (1991 2) argue against a pre-beaker date for the type. It appears from excavation accounts that

102 THE WIDER CONTEXT 281 Beaker ware found in wedge tombs is generally regarded as primary, although the information regarding find circumstances is often unclear. The context of the Beaker finds at the two most recent wedge tomb excavations, Aughrim (Cv. 14) (Channing 1993) and Ballybriest (De.) (Hurl 1998), is not yet known, as only preliminary details are available. There is some scope for comment at three sites, and at none of these can it be shown that Beaker ware is definitely primary. At Ballyedmonduff (Du.) (S.P. Ó Ríordáin and R. de Valera 1952) Beaker ware, believed to be in its original position, was found on paving that lay on the old ground surface at the front of the main chamber. This paving was considered to have formed part of the chamber floor. If the paving were shown to be an original feature, the Beaker pottery lying directly on it could reasonably be accepted as primary. There are, however, indications of earlier activity at the site. Under the paving there was a shallow hole in which was a broken slab. There were no finds in this hole, and the extent to which it may pre-date the paving is not known. At the back of the main chamber, where the paving had apparently been lost to later disturbance, there were two similar holes dug into the subsoil, one of which contained fragments of human bone. At Loughash ( Cashelbane ) (Ty.), toward the rear of the main chamber, a burnt layer immediately above till contained many flints and some unassignable pottery sherds (Davies and Mullin 1940, 150). Cremated human bone and Beaker sherds were found above the burnt layer and not normally lower than half an inch or one inch (c. 1cm or 2cm) above till. The indications are of a possible pre-beaker phase at this site. At Largantea (De.) (Herring 1938; E.E. Evans 1966, 152 3) it appears that Beaker was found only in the portico area of the tomb. Some of the Beaker was in a cist, possibly a secondary feature, built against the side of the portico. It remains to be seen whether the indications of a pre-beaker phase at the three sites referred to will find support in future wedge tomb excavations. There are radiocarbon dates for human remains found at three wedge tombs (Brindley and Lanting ), all in Munster, although none of them relates to a construction context. The skeleton of a woman, apparently a primary burial, found on the floor of the small closed eastern chamber at Labbacallee (Co. 3) is dated to 3805 ± 45 BP (GrN-11359), and dates of up to two centuries later were obtained from two skeletons found on the disturbed floor of the main chamber there. Eight inhumations represented in the greatly disturbed gallery at Lough Gur (Li. 4) date to between 3830 ± 80 BP (OxA-3274) and 3530 ± 70 BP (OxA-3266), and another inhumation at the site, notably younger than the others, dates to 3260 ± 70 BP (OxA-3271). As the gallery was greatly disturbed, the place of the burials in the depositional history of the site is not known. At Altar (Co. 61) an unburnt human tooth found in a cremation deposit inside the chamber entrance dates to 3670 ± 80 BP (OxA- 3289). The dates indicate that the tombs at Labbacallee (Co. 3) and Lough Gur (Li. 4) were in use for burial possibly as early as 2500 BC in calendar years and almost certainly within two centuries of that date. Although the date of the initiation of wedge tomb-building remains uncertain, the radiocarbon dates from Labbacallee (Co. 3) and Lough Gur (Li. 4) and the presence of Beaker pottery at the latter site and at nine other wedge tombs, all of them in the northern half of the country, demonstrate use of these tombs during the Beaker period, i.e. from around or shortly after the mid-third millennium BC. Both early and late forms of Beaker ware have been identified and indicate that it continued to be deposited in wedge tombs for perhaps several centuries (Brindley and Lanting , 25). If Beaker use in Ireland did not survive into the second millennium BC (Case 1995, 23), it can be claimed that those wedge tombs that have produced Beaker pottery were already in existence by c BC in calendar years. Regarding the south Munster sites, where, as noted, finds are few and chronologically uninformative, the only chronological indicators are the dated human tooth at Altar (Co. 61) and the metal deposit at Toormore (Co.). These indicate that both sites were in existence by c BC in calendar years. How much earlier these or other wedge tombs in the area may have been built is not known. Distribution and morphology The 532 wedge tombs currently known display a markedly western distribution. A total of 480 (90%) of the sites lie west of a line linking Coleraine, County Derry, one-third of the way along the north coast of Ireland when moving westward, and Cork City, around midway along the south coast. The great majority of these tombs are found in three broad areas. Two notable concentrations are found in Munster. One lies in the south-west of the province and comprises tombs in peninsular west and south Kerry and west Cork and, inland from the latter area, in the general Macroom Dunmanway area. Approximately 25% of all wedge tombs occur in this region. The second major concentration occurs in County Clare in north Munster, with which may be included tombs in adjoining areas of west Tipperary, north Limerick and south Galway. This area accounts for almost one-third of all known wedge tombs. Around 30% of wedge tombs are widely dispersed over a broad band of country

103 282 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND extending north-eastward from east Mayo through inland Ulster as far as the Lough Foyle area on the north coast. The wedge tomb is both the most numerous and the most widespread of Irish megalithic tomb types. With its appearance, megalithic tombs came to be built in areas where hitherto such tombs were rare, if known at all. The major impact was in Munster, where the small numbers of court tombs, portal tombs and passage tombs are vastly outnumbered by wedge tombs. Wedge tombs consist of a gallery that is usually higher and wider at one end, always the more western one. Some are single-chambered structures; others are segmented into a forward western chamber or portico, in most instances small, and a main chamber. There is a small rear or eastern chamber at a mere handful of sites. Usually there is a line of stones constituting an outer wall around the sides and narrow end of the gallery. The outer wall is normally linked to the front of the gallery by a facade. Wedge tombs usually stand in a small mound or cairn of oval, wedge-shaped or circular outline. Although the basic design is adhered to, there is variation in structural detail and in tomb size throughout the series, much of it regional in character. On the basis of 316 wedge tombs (59% of the current total) in this series to date (including those in this volume) gallery lengths range from a maximum of c m, e.g. Coolbeg (Sl. 22), Usna (Ro. 4), Cabragh (Sl. 89), Marblehill (Ga. 27) and Carmoney (Dg. 17), to barely 2m long, e.g. Derryvacorneen (Co. 27) and Eanty More (Cl. 40). Maximum gallery widths usually lie between 1m and 2m, but somewhat wider and narrower ones are known. At Baurnadomeeny (Ti. 6) the gallery is 2.4m in maximum width, and the diminutive wedge tomb gallery at Reananiree (Co.), which is 1.5m long, is only 0.75m wide (Walsh 1995, ). Given the poor state of survival of many wedge tombs and in particular the vulnerability of the often lightly constructed eastern end (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1961, 104), reliable determination of gallery lengths is frequently not possible. Nevertheless, it appears that the longer galleries are predominantly found in the northern half of the country. Of 115 wedge tombs published to date in more northern counties Mayo (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1964); Galway, Roscommon, Leitrim, Westmeath and Cavan (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1972); Sligo (Ó Nualláin 1989); and Donegal (this volume) there are at least 40 at which galleries 6m or longer are known, and at thirteen of these sites the gallery is 8m or longer. Longer galleries are both numerically and proportionately less well represented in the southern half of the country. At only eight of 201 wedge tombs in the Munster counties of Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick and Tipperary described in preceding volumes of this series (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1961; 1982) is the burial gallery definitely more than 6m long. Six of these sites are in the northern part of County Cork or in counties Limerick or Tipperary, away from the two great concentrations of wedge tombs in Munster, in west Cork and Kerry and in County Clare. Included among the County Clare sites are the distinctive box-like chambers of the north-west of that county, the sides and roof of which usually consist of single stones. There appears to be a small number of such sites in adjoining or nearby areas of County Galway, e.g. Carrownlisheen (Ga. 23) on Inis Meáin, Ballynastaig (Ga. 24) and Doorus Demesne (Ga. 31). Construction of such monuments appears to have been favoured by the availability of easily quarried large limestone slabs. The largest box-like chambers, e.g. Ballyganner North (Cl. 38), Baur North (Cl. 25) and Fahy (Cl. 92), do not exceed c. 5m in overall length and are generally only 2m or 3m long. Similarly short chambers are also known in south Munster, in Kerry and west Cork. Some of these appear to have sides of single stones, e.g. Kilmaclenine (Co. 1), Bofickil (Co. 49), Killough East (Co. 53) and Cool East (Ke. 11), and are perhaps comparable to the box-like tombs of north-west Clare (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1982, 107), but generally it appears that the sides of the small tombs of south Munster usually consist of two or more stones, as is true of most wedge tombs. Indeed there seems to be some prevalence in the southwest of a chamber design entailing two sidestones, a longer inner one and shorter outer one, at both sides, e.g. Derryriordane South (Co. 33), Cloghboola (Co. 41), Cloghboola (Co. 36), Tooreen (Co. 58) and Ballycarbery West (Ke. 12). Wedge tomb galleries normally narrow toward the back or east end. Sharply converging ones are known, e.g. Keamcorravooly (Co. 24); at others the convergence is slight; and there are some where there is no noticeable diminution in width, e.g. Poulaphuca (Cl. 20). Gallery sides are normally straight sided, but irregularities sometimes occur. The unusual design at Cabry (Dg. 15), where the gallery sides converge only to mid-length, beyond which they are parallel sided, is referred to in an earlier section, and there seems to have been a similar arrangement at two other sites, Gransha (Dg. 64) and Meenkeeragh (Dg. 100), which, like Cabry (Dg. 15), are on the Inishowen peninsula. A small number of galleries are somewhat bellied in outline, being widest at midlength, from where they narrow slightly to either end, e.g. Lisduff (Ma. 93) and Cabragh (Sl. 86).

104 THE WIDER CONTEXT 283 Roofing is normally by means of large slabs laid on the gallery sides. Small pad-stones are frequently inserted between the roofstones and the gallery orthostats to secure a level seat for the superimposed slab(s) and to prevent rocking. Corbelling is employed in the roofing structure at a small number of sites, e.g. Mountrussell (Li. 7) and Kilsellagh (Sl. 25). Some smaller tombs, including the box-like ones of north-west Clare, are roofed by single slabs, and at others two or more roofstones are employed. Gallery height can rarely be determined with any precision, but the best estimates indicate that the front and higher end of wedge tombs is seldom more than 1.5m and frequently 1.2m and less. However, the front of the excavated wedge tomb at Labbacallee (Co. 3) is 1.8m high, and the front of the box-like chamber at Berneens (Cl. 8) is 2m high. A decline in gallery height toward the east is generally but not always apparent. Because of the decline in height, the rear of many wedge tombs could only have been entered by crawling. Wedge tomb galleries are closed at the east end by a single stone usually equal in height to the adjacent sidestones. Backstones may be inset between the gallery sides, the usual arrangement at the box-like chambers of north-western Clare, may run on past the ends of the gallery or may be set beyond one side of the chamber and overlapped by the other side. Stones set at right angles to the outer faces of gallery walls and serving as buttresses are known at a number of sites in different parts of the country, e.g. Baurnadomeeny (Ti. 6), Knockane (Co. 30), Aughrim (Cv. 14) and Paddock (Lh.) (Ó Nualláin and Walsh 1991, 34 5), and they occur outside the back of the gallery at Labbacallee (Co. 3). Some wedge tomb galleries are segmented into a forward western chamber or portico and a main chamber. At many tombs there is now no evidence of any segmenting feature, but it is seldom clear whether this reflects the original design or is a result of later loss. The division between the portico and the main chamber is usually effected by a septal-stone that almost invariably blocks the gallery at the point of segmentation. Septal-stones, at least some of which do not seem to have been set in sockets, are usually the largest stone in the monument, are normally inset in the gallery sides, sometimes projecting beyond them, and rise to or close to and sometimes above the gallery sides. Smaller ones set between the gallery sides are also known. At a number of sites the demarcation between the portico and main chamber is achieved not by a septal-stone but by a jamb and sill arrangement. A recent study (Walsh 1995) based on the 505 wedge tombs then known identified 78 sites at which septal-stones divide a portico from a main chamber. At three of these, Cabragh (Sl. 86), Killybeg (Fe.) and Greenan (Fe.), the septal-stone is flanked by jambs. There are eighteen sites where the gallery is segmented not by a septal-stone but by jambs and/or sillstones. At Shesknan (Le. 10), for instance, opposed jambs form the segmentation. At Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25) and Meenformal (Dg. 99), as noted in an earlier section, a single jamb-like stone projects from one wall of the gallery. At Island (Co. 6) a sillstone is flanked at one end by a jamb-like upright. At Kilsellagh (Sl. 28) only a sillstone seems to have been employed. Thus it can be stated with certainty that of 505 wedge tombs at least 96 (19%) are divided into a portico and main chamber and that a septal-stone is employed as the segmenting feature at 78 of these. At another 49 or more sites a large transverse slab similar in all respects to a septal-stone closes the western end of the gallery. At a small number of these sites it is clear that this great stone stood at and blocked the front of the gallery (see below), but at many other sites it is unclear whether it was set in place as a closing stone at the west end of the gallery, as appears now to be the case, or it served as a septal-stone between a portico, now lost, and the remainder of the gallery. Uncertainty about the incidence of porticos even extends to the distinctive chambers of north-west Clare, where the sidestones sometimes extend a little beyond the west end of the chamber, e.g. Parknabinnia (Cl. 61). It may be that the little recess so formed fulfilled the function of the true porticos (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1961, 105), of which there are only a few possible instances in north-western Clare, e.g. Faunarooska (Cl. 5) and Cappaghkennedy (Cl. 42). Among the many sites where no segmenting features are present are some at which the western end of the gallery is accorded some prominence by a slight broadening, e.g. Burren (Cv. 3), or narrowing, e.g. Carmoney (Dg. 17), or by the presence of matched opposed orthostats, as at Caltragh (Sl. 54). Whether segmenting features were originally present at such sites is, however, unclear. The original incidence of porticos remains quite uncertain, but there is some indication of regional variation. The distribution of the large transversely set stones found at or close to the western ends of wedge tomb galleries, whether serving as septalstones or currently, if not always originally, as western closing stones, indicates that, in comparison with other areas where wedge tombs are known, such stones are poorly represented in south Munster (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1982, fig. 45; Walsh 1995, 123). It is also clear that the use of jamb and sill arrangements as segmenting elements in wedge tomb galleries is predominantly a feature of the northern one-third of the country. So,

105 284 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND although it may only be in exceptional circumstances that any individual site can be demonstrated to have not had a portico (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1982, 106), the implication of the relatively low incidence of septalstones or potential septal-stones and of other potential segmenting elements in south Munster is that porticos may be of less frequent occurrence in this area than elsewhere. Porticos seem generally to be broader, though usually only slightly, than main chambers, e.g. Marblehill (Ga. 27) and Baurnadomeeny (Ti. 6), but slightly narrower ones are known, e.g. Burren (Cv. 5). As a rule the portico is slightly higher than the main chamber, but sites where they are of similar height occur, e.g. Lough Gur (Li. 4). Porticos are normally short relative to the overall length of the gallery and are frequently formed by single opposed sidestones, usually well matched, although porticos with two sidestones at either side are known, e.g. Burren (Cv. 5) and Gorteendarragh (Le. 5). Porticos may account for as much as one-third of overall gallery length, e.g. Baurnadomeeny (Ti. 6) and Burren (Cv. 5), but the majority appear to represent a lesser proportion. There are, however, a small number of sites where the portico and main chamber are equal or almost equal in length. At least five such sites are known, three in the north of the country, Cabry (Dg. 15), Gransha (Dg. 64) and Casheltown (Dg. 31), and two in the south, Crohane (Ke. 14) and Coom (Ke. 16). The survival of covering slabs at a small number of porticos, e.g. Altore (Ro. 9), Gortakeeran (Sl. 87) and Caherdowney (Co. 8), indicates that they were normally roofed. There is a small chamber at the east end of at least three wedge tomb galleries, and there are two small compartments at the end of another. At Labbacallee (Co. 3) (Leask and Price 1936) and Carmoney (Dg. 17) the terminal chamber is roofed and separated from the rest of the gallery by a tall septal-stone, in which at the former site there is what may be a deliberately contrived ope. At Ballyedmonduff (Du.) the endchamber is a separate construction immediately beyond the tall stone that closes the main chamber (S.P. Ó Ríordáin and R. de Valera 1952). At Loughash ( Cashelbane ) (Ty.) there are two small compartments at the eastern extremity of the gallery, and these are separated from the main chamber and each other by tall septal-stones (Davies and Mullin 1940; E.E. Evans 1966, 204). The incidence of east endchambers is particularly prone to under-representation in the record, situated as they are at the lower and more lightly constructed end of the monument, which renders them prone to both concealment and removal, and it is hardly surprising that three of the four sites where the feature is known are excavated monuments. At Drumeague (Cv. 29) and Carrowmore or Glentogher (Dg. 25) a distinct rear element is suggested by an abrupt narrowing of the gallery sides, but no segmentation is present. There is evidence for an outer wall around the back and sides of the gallery at the majority of wedge tombs; outer-wall stones are present at 60% of the 316 wedge tombs included in this and preceding volumes of this series. Outer-walling may be as much as 2m or slightly more from the gallery sides at some of the larger tombs in the northern half of the country, e.g. Coolbeg (Sl. 22) and Lisduff (Ma. 93), but is seldom as much as 1m from the gallery sides in Munster; in counties Cork, Kerry, Limerick and Tipperary a distance of 0.5m seems to be normal (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1982, 108). There may be more than one line of outer-walling, as revealed on excavation at Ballyedmonduff (Du.) (S.P. Ó Ríordáin and R. de Valera 1952). Sometimes an outer wall stands contiguous to the gallery side and seems intended as a doubling of it. Instances of very close-set walling occur throughout the series, e.g. Kilfree (Sl. 125), but seem to be of more marked occurrence in Limerick and Tipperary, e.g. Curreeny Commons (Ti. 4), Baurnadomeeny (Ti. 6) and Lough Gur (Li. 4) (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1982, 108). In some such instances a further line of walling may be in place as a true outer wall. Occasionally the outer wall itself may be doubled, e.g. Oghil (Ga. 21). Outer-walling is usually around equal in height to the gallery sides but is sometimes higher, e.g. Derrynavahagh (Cl. 1) and Rathfranpark (Ma. 35), or lower, e.g. Srahwee (Ma. 91). Outer-walling along the sides almost invariably converges from west to east. At some sites it runs roughly parallel to gallery sides, e.g. Culleens (Sl. 50), but usually it converges more sharply than the gallery sides. A decline in height in the same direction is generally evident. The rear or east end of the outer-walling, which is particularly prone to concealment or loss, may be gently curved, giving an overall U- shape to the design of the sides and back of the outer wall, e.g. Usna (Ro. 4), Carrowleagh (Ma. 50) and Island (Co. 6), or may be straight ended, resulting in an overall trapezoidal design, e.g. Keamcorravooly (Co. 24) and Cabragh (Sl. 86). The incidence of outer-walling varies between the northern and southern halves of the country. Of the 316 wedge tombs included in this and previous volumes in this series outer-walling is present at 52% of the 201 wedge tombs in the Munster counties of Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick and Tipperary but at 78% of 115 wedge tombs in more northern counties, namely, Galway, Roscommon, Leitrim, Mayo, Sligo, Westmeath, Cavan and Donegal. The higher incidence of outer-walling in northern areas may owe something to the fact that the

106 THE WIDER CONTEXT 285 greater extents of outer-walling at the generally larger tombs in the northern half of the country are less prone to outright removal or outright concealment than the outer-walling at the smaller, southern sites. The possibility must also exist that some wedge tombs lacked outer-walling, and the above statistics indicate that, if this is the case, it is more likely to be true of wedge tombs in Munster than elsewhere. Only excavation could reliably determine whether the absence of outer-walling at any individual site reflects the original design. Where outer-walling is present the western end of both its sides and those of the gallery are normally more or less in line and, predominantly in northern areas, are linked by one or more orthostats, forming a flat, occasionally slightly concave, frontal facade. Facades, where present, normally consist of a single line of orthostats, but occasionally a facade-stone may be doubled, e.g. Meenformal (Dg. 99), or there may be an internal facade that is in line with the septal-stone dividing the portico and main chamber, as at Usna (Ro. 4). Orthostatic frontal facades are comparatively poorly represented in Munster. In the north of the province in the Burren area of north-western Clare there is evidence at some tombs of a design that appears to be peculiar to that area. At these sites it seems that the sides of the outer-walling extended further westward than the front of the gallery and that their ends were joined by an unbroken line of walling. In such cases the gallery appears to have been wholly enclosed within a trapezoidal outer wall (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1961, 105). No fully preserved instance of such an arrangement exists, but it is most convincingly indicated at Iskancullin (Cl. 32) and Faunarooska (Cl. 4). The degree to which this design may have been employed in the area is, however, uncertain. Elsewhere in Munster the predominant northern design, though poorly represented, is known, e.g. Inchincurka (Co. 42), Maumnahaltora (Ke. 6), Coomatloukane (Ke. 17) and Island (Co. 6). In Munster, frontal facades are poorly represented not only in absolute terms but also relative to the rate of survival of outer-walling. Of the 79 wedge tombs already published in this series in counties Cork and Kerry (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1982), the number at which facade-stones are known is slightly under one-quarter of that at which outer-walling survives. By way of comparison the number of sites at which facade-stones survive among the 101 published sites in the more northern counties of Mayo, Leitrim, Roscommon, Cavan, Westmeath, Sligo (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1964; 1972; Ó Nualláin 1989) and Donegal is almost two-thirds of that at which outer-walling is preserved. It is not clear whether the low incidence of orthostatic frontal facades in Munster reflects the original situation or is due to the perhaps greater vulnerability of the short facades there, where, as noted, outer-walling tends to be more closely set than in northern areas. This may especially be true of sites where there is very close-set outer-walling, a particular feature, as already noted, of sites in counties Limerick and Tipperary. The fronts or western ends of wedge tomb galleries may be open or closed. Where outer-walling is present and linked to the front of the gallery by a frontal facade, there is normally a gap in the facade that seems intended to allow entry to the gallery, although access along this may have been blocked by a septal-stone (Walsh 1995, 119). The facade-stones usually articulate with the gallery sides, e.g. Aghadrumgowna or Calf Field (Cv. 25) and Cabragh (Sl. 86), but sometimes they function as jambs and narrow the gallery entrance, e.g. Culdaly (Sl. 114) and Burren (Cv. 5). Narrowing of the entrance may also be effected by a single stone at one side (Walsh 1995, 122), e.g. Ballyedmonduff (Du.) (S.P. Ó Ríordáin and R. de Valera 1952) and Kilhoyle (De.) (Herring and May 1939). At fifteen sites, predominantly in the northern half of the country, the gallery entrance is divided by an orthostat (Walsh 1995, 122), e.g. Gortakeeran (Sl. 87) and Tobercurry (Sl. 117). Such stones may have had a functional role in supporting roofing structure at the wider end of the monument. It is also possible that a division of the entrance into two had some symbolic significance. Excavation has shown that the open, western end of at least some wedge tombs is marked by low sillstones, e.g. Baurnadomeeny (Ti. 6) (O Kelly 1960) and Largantea (De.) (Herring 1938). Although such stones clearly demarcate the outer end of the burial gallery, they would not of themselves have presented any bar to entry. At a small number of sites the facade forms an unbroken line across the front of the monument, thus blocking entry to the gallery. At at least two of these sites, Proleek (Lh.) (Ó Nualláin and Walsh 1991, 34 5) and Magheranaul (Dg. 89), a large western closing stone, similar in all respects to the septal-stone blocking access from the portico to the main chamber elsewhere, stands at the front of the gallery and forms part of the facade. At other sites, instead of a large western closing stone, a relatively small facade stone is used to block entry to the gallery, as appears to be the case at Knockadoon (Ma. 94) and Aghamore (Le.). The distinction made between those sites where there is a gap in the facade and those where the facade continues unbroken across the front of the gallery is open to the obvious objection that the first category simply represents sites at which the stone blocking entry to the gallery has been lost. This may have been the case at some sites, but overall it appears that the distinction is

107 286 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND valid. The inclusion in the facade of a large western closing stone, although confirmed instances of this are few, indicates that closure of the western end of the gallery was intended at some sites; at others a septal-stone was employed to close that part of the gallery constituting the main chamber, apparently leaving open the forward part, the portico. Where a jamb and sill arrangement was used as a segmenting feature in place of a septal-stone, access from the portico to the main chamber would, of course, have been possible (Walsh 1995, 119). Excavation of two wedge tombs, Altar (Co. 61) and Toormore (Co.), on the Mizen peninsula revealed no evidence of the former presence of either a septal-stone or any form of west-end closure, leading to speculation that a movable slab may have been employed at the entrance to both tombs, and it has been suggested that a low kerb of stones at the front of the first site may have provided a footing for such a slab (W. O Brien 1993a, 24; Walsh 1995, 124). The evidence in regard to the west end of burial galleries in the Burren area of north-western Clare is that they were closed. Closure by means of a single stone is known, e.g. Berneens (Cl. 8), Eanty More (Cl. 40) and Parknabinnia (Cl. 62), but at twelve sites there is a form of gallery closure that seems to be peculiar to this part of County Clare, consisting of two stones, one blocking approximately three-quarters of the front of the gallery and the other outside the first and completing the closure, e.g. Ballyganner South (Cl. 38) (de Valera and Ó Nualláin 1961, 104). Wedge tombs are usually surrounded by the remains of a cairn, often now surviving as a grass-grown or peatcovered mound. However, it has been suggested that there may not have been a cairn at some of the small wedge tombs in south Munster (W. O Brien 1999, 199). The presence of possible cairn remains on some wedge tomb roofstones, e.g. Derrynavahagh (Cl. 1) and Carrownaganonagh (Dg. 28), indicates that the cairn reached at least to roof height at some sites. At unexcavated sites cairn remains are frequently round or short oval in outline, particularly in Munster, e.g. Lissylisheen (Cl. 24), Ballyganner South (Cl. 37), Cappaghkennedy (Cl. 42), Derryvacorneen (Co. 27), Laghtneil (Co. 32) and Lackabaun (Co. 38), but in the absence of any form of kerbing or other revetment feature the present outline cannot be relied on as a guide to the original cairn shape. At some sites, predominantly in the northern half of the country, cairns are more or less wedge shaped in outline and only a little bigger than the tomb structure. The indications are that at these sites the cairn was delimited by the outerwalling and facade, e.g. Kilfree (Sl. 125), Tawnymucklagh (Sl. 127) and Lisduff (Ma. 93). At Altore (Ro. 9) the outer-walling and facade still revet a substantial cairn. Kerbing, as distinct from outer-walling, though quite rare, is known at a number of wedge tombs, e.g. Labbacallee (Co. 3). A cairn of wedge-shaped outline is indicated at this tomb (Leask and Price 1936). At Culdaly (Sl. 114) a slightly curved line of seven stones 3 4m north of the tomb seems to represent a kerb. There are a small number of sites where a wedge tomb stands in a round kerbed cairn: Casheltown (Dg. 31), Baurnadomeeny (Ti. 6) and Streedagh (Sl. 8), and there may be a similar feature at Moytirra West (Sl. 103). All the indications are that cairns or mounds considerably bigger than the tomb structure, such as occur at some other classes of megalithic tomb, are not a feature of wedge tombs. There are, however, extensive cairns at some sites, and it seems that these are mainly round or more or less so in outline, e.g. Parknabinnia (Cl. 67), Aughrim (Cv. 14), Kilsellagh (Sl. 25) and Baurnadomeeny (Ti. 6). These may be a result of secondary augmentation of an original cairn. The discovery of cist and pit burials of Bronze Age date on excavation at Aughrim (Cv. 14) and Baurnadomeeny (Ti. 6) (Channing 1993; O Kelly 1960) supports this. However, it should be noted that the excavator of Baurnadomeeny (Ti. 6) considered the cairn there to be primary. The contrast in the artifactual record between some excavated wedge tombs in Munster, specifically south Munster, and those in the northern half of the country has already been noted. The broad north south division is echoed in tomb morphology. The larger and more elaborate tombs occur mainly in the northern half of the country, and those of relatively small size and simple design are usual in Munster. The distribution map of wedge tombs (Ó Nualláin 1989, fig. 88) shows that wedge tomb density is markedly greater in the two great Munster concentrations than in the northern half of the country. This perhaps shows that the smaller and more densely sited Munster wedge tombs were more local in character and perhaps catered for smaller social units than did the larger and more widely spaced northern sites. Perhaps the builders of wedge tombs in the northern half of the country consciously aimed to replicate the size, grandeur and often imposing appearance of the many instances of earlier tomb types in that area. The wedge tomb distribution pattern in this area compares with that of court tombs and portal tombs. This suggests that, although the appearance of a new monument type, the wedge tomb, must represent some form of change in belief systems, religion or ritual, the structure and character of society may have remained much the same. In some places wedge tombs are found close to earlier tomb types, indicating

108 THE WIDER CONTEXT 287 long-term continuity of settlement. However, wedge tombs also indicate a greater preference for higher ground than court tombs and portal tombs (Ó Nualláin 1983b), perhaps, as noted earlier, reflecting population pressure on the lowlands, but whether this is a result of demographic growth, deterioration in land quality or some other factor is uncertain. It is unclear why megalithic tomb-building on a significant scale was later in Munster than elsewhere in the country. With the building of wedge tombs in Munster, megalithic tombs can fairly be described as having a presence in almost all of the country; in only two of Ireland s 32 counties, Kildare and Laois, are there no megalithic tombs. It is as if the type of society for which megalithic tombs fulfilled an ideological need had only evolved in the general Munster area by the Late Neolithic. Writing of south-west peninsular Munster, W. O Brien (1999, 275 7) suggested that there was a late adoption of a full agricultural economy in this part of Ireland. He envisages a slow transformation of indigenous forager communities to a fully Neolithic society over the period from 4000 to 2000 BC. The widespread appearance of wedge tombs in south-west Ireland is seen as marking the transformation to a fully Neolithic way of life in the area. The origin of the wedge tomb remains uncertain. The type has been likened to the allées couvertes of northwest France. It has been observed that the comparison may be overstated (Waddell 1978); nevertheless, it seems that some of the French tombs are quite similar to wedge tombs (Ó Nualláin 1989). The French tombs may be earlier than wedge tombs (W. O Brien 1999, 14) and so could provide ancestry for them. Alternatively, the wedge tomb may have developed in Ireland. How and in what circumstances this may have happened are matters for speculation. It might be supposed if this was the case that the development is more likely to have been in the northern half of the country, where earlier tomb types are numerous. Whether the origin of the type lies in influence from abroad or was a local development, there are features of wedge tombs that echo earlier types. One of the most distinctive features of wedge tombs, their wedge shape, is also a feature of the earlier court tombs and portal tombs. The long trapezoidal cairn found at court tombs and some portal tombs narrows and declines in height to the rear. Portal tomb chambers frequently narrow and decline in height to the rear, as may court tomb galleries, in particular the rear chamber. The prominence of the wedge shape in the Irish megalithic tradition shows it to have been of long-lived symbolic importance. Wedge tombs, like the other main megalithic tomb types, embody the concept of both open and closed structures. As noted, some wedge tombs are closed by a great stone at the west end; others are open and fully accessible; and at yet more only the portico was accessible, with entry to the main chamber blocked. This reflects the situation at portal tombs, which may be open or closed, and at court tombs, where the front of the gallery is invariably open but sometimes one or more inner chambers are closed by a high septal-stone. The striking difference between the wedge tomb and the other main types is the undeviating adherence by its builders to a west-facing orientation; the builders of other types of tomb displayed a less rigid preference for placing the tomb front at the east end of the structure. PASSAGE TOMBS Date and culture context Detailed comment on passage tombs must await a later volume in this series, and they are only briefly referred to in this section. Passage tombs, when excavated, invariably produce human remains, predominantly cremated, of adults and children of both sexes (Eogan 1986, 135). Finds from passage tombs (Eogan 1986, 140) include a characteristic pottery type, Carrowkeel ware, and objects that could have been used for personal adornment or wear such as beads and pendants of bone, baked clay or stone and a range of bone and antler pins. Other commonly occurring objects are small marbles or balls, usually made of chalk. Stone implements are scarcely ever found in the burial chambers, but scrapers, usually of flint, and stone axeheads are sometimes recovered from the covering mound or cairn. A series of radiocarbon dates for passage tombs at Newgrange (Me.) and Knowth (Me.) indicates tomb construction in that area from around 3400 to 2900 BC in calendar years (Grogan 1991, 128 9). Although the relevance of somewhat earlier dates from passage tombs at Carrowmore (Sl.) to the construction phase of the monuments has been questioned (Caulfield 1983, ), there is a possibility that Tomb Nos. 7 and 27 there were constructed before 3500 BC (Grogan 1991, 129). Distribution and morphology There are 235 passage tombs or likely ones in Ireland (Ó Nualláin 1989, 115). The weight of the distribution is

109 288 SURVEY OF THE MEGALITHIC TOMBS OF IRELAND in the northern half of the country. Prominent or hilltop siting is a feature of a considerable number of, but by no means all, passage tombs. A distributional characteristic of the type is the close siting of many of them in cemeteries, of which there are four major instances, Brú na Bóinne or Boyne Valley (Me.), Sliabh na Caillighe or Loughcrew (Me.), Carrowkeel (Sl.) and Carrowmore (Sl.). Half of the total number of passage tombs known occur in these four cemeteries, which are dispersed at intervals across Ireland from close to the east coast near Drogheda, County Louth, to the north-west coast in Sligo. When other sites adjacent to these cemeteries or between them are included, it is found that 63% of passage tombs occur in a corridor 30km wide stretching across Ireland (Bergh 1987, 243). A feature of the larger clusters is the evidence for some measure of intent in the positioning of tombs relative to each other (Cooney 1990, 745). This matter has received attention in recent years (Eogan 1986, 96 7; McMann 1994; Bergh 1995; Fraser 1998). A significant number of passage tombs are also found in smaller cemeteries, e.g. Kilmonaster Middle (Dg.). Rather more dispersed siting, comparable to that typical of court tombs and portal tombs, is also known among passage tombs, as, for instance, in north Antrim and in the south Dublin north Wicklow area. Covering cairns or mounds at passage tombs are almost invariably of round outline and are usually delimited by a kerb of large stones. There is considerable variety in tomb form and size among passage tombs. Small, simple, round, polygonal or rectangular chambers are of frequent occurrence. Some of the larger tombs are of more complex design, with recesses opening off the sides and back of the structure. The best-known design is the cruciform arrangement favoured at many of the more impressive sites. A notable feature is the occurrence of carved decoration at a considerable number of sites, almost all of them in the eastern part of the distribution. The relationship between passage tombs on the one hand and court tombs and portal tombs on the other is unclear. As mentioned above, there is much uncertainty about the chronology of Irish megalithic tombs. However, it seems that there may have been a degree of overlap in the currency of the three types, at least from around the mid-fourth millennium BC. The distributional relationship between passage tombs and the other types is quite varied. It has already been noted of passage tombs in Donegal that they appear to display a degree of territorial exclusivity in siting relative to other tomb types. This also seems to be more generally the case. If attention is confined to the four major passage tomb cemeteries, distribution maps (Ó Nualláin 1989, figs. 85 7) show that the two easternmost cemeteries, Brú na Bóinne (Me.) and Sliabh na Caillighe or Loughcrew (Me.), are for the most part outside the main distribution of both court tombs and portal tombs. The two cemeteries are at the southern end of the main court tomb distribution. In relation to portal tomb distribution, the two cemeteries and a number of isolated passage tombs in their vicinity are situated between the portal tombs in the northern part of the country, the bulk of the type, and the smaller but significant number in south-east Ireland lying between Dublin and Waterford. The westernmost passage tomb cemetery, Carrowmore (Sl.), stands on a low elevation at the centre of the Cúil Irra peninsula. There are no portal tombs on the peninsula and only three court tombs. These three court tombs are the most widely dispersed of the type in the north Sligo, an area otherwise rich in court tombs. The low incidence of court tombs on the peninsula in comparison to other parts of coastal north Sligo may suggest that the presence of passage tombs on the peninsula influenced the location of court tombs (Bergh 1987, 249). The passage tomb cemetery at Carrowkeel in south-east Sligo, toward the southern end of the main court tomb distribution, is most frequently referred to when comparisons are drawn between passage tombs and court tombs. In this area both the differences and the similarities in the siting and morphology of the two types are highlighted. The classic contrast between the hilltop passage tombs and the relatively low-lying court tombs is evident here. The passage tombs on the mountain ridges at Carrowkeel overlook the court tomb at Carrowkeel/Mullaghfarna (Sl. 119) on the considerably lower ground below. The same area also provides instances of what appears to be interaction between the two traditions. The transeptal court tomb at Carricknahorna East (Sl. 121) is sited high on the southern slopes of the same mountains. Further, one of the hilltop passage tombs at Carrowkeel, Site E, stands not in a round cairn but at one end of a long cairn, at the other end of which there is a feature somewhat like a court. This monument is generally regarded as representing a mingling of court tomb and passage tomb traditions. Aside from the obvious morphological differences, passage tombs are distinguished from the other tomb types by their preference for hill- and mountaintop siting, their strong clustering tendency, their distinctive finds and the occurrence of art at many of them. The other tomb types, avoiding, as they seem to in County Donegal, the agriculturally unfavourable lowlands and the inhospitable hill- and mountain-tops, are explicable as the

110 THE WIDER CONTEXT 289 burial and ritual sites of local communities, each with its own tomb and on occasion more than one. They are generally dispersed and frequently inconspicuously sited as if they were primarily of local significance. In contrast, passage tombs are often conspicuously sited either as isolated sites in prominent situations, e.g. Slieve Gullion (Ar.), or as highly visible clusters of sites. The motivation to place tombs in conspicuous situations or clusters may have been partly religious, but the effect was to render them highly visible over a wide area. It seems that their impact was intended to be much more than the local one suggested by the distribution of the other tomb types. It is likely that cemeteries functioned as regional ritual centres. It was mentioned in an earlier section that the development of cemetery siting seemed to denote the concept of a special place for the dead, one serving a wide area. There must have been a measure of agreement between different communities or social groups regarding access to and control of such cemeteries. Cemetery formation may represent the emergence in some areas of a relatively high degree of social interaction between groups. When the tombs in a cemetery are of comparable size, as in the case of many at Carrowmore (Sl.), it appears that the individual groups represented therein may have been of similar status. The construction of a small number of large monuments in and near this cemetery may have resulted from the emergence of competition among social groups (Bergh 1995, ). The high level of organisation implicit in the construction of the large tombs that are a feature of the two more eastern cemeteries, Sliabh na Caillighe (Me.) and, in particular, Brú na Bóinne (Me.), points to the existence of a dominant elite exercising some level of regional power. There may have been a conscious attempt to place passage tombs outside the realm of daily life, perhaps exemplified in hilltop siting. This is also seen in the creation of cemeteries, special places for the dead. The artifacts found in passage tombs are not the tools and weapons of daily life, such as occur in court tombs and portal tombs. Even the pottery found in passage tombs is distinctive. The lithic finds from court tombs and portal tombs appear to be symbolic of the everyday life of those buried in the tomb. The symbolism here seems to be straightforward. The symbolism of the ornamental finds at passage tombs is more complex and less easily read. The addition of art to structural stones at passage tombs is another illustration of their greater symbolic complexity. Although common themes can be identified in the court tomb and passage tomb traditions (Cooney 2000, ), we find that these themes are played out in a more complex fashion in passage tombs. For instance, aspects of the siting and morphology of some instances of both types seem to have been governed by the operation of some socially and/or ritually symbolic binary principle. This manifests itself in the differing emphasis placed on the left and right sides of some court tombs and passage tombs, already referred to, and in the close pairing of sites of both types. In the Carrowmore passage tomb cemetery (Sl.) there are some closely paired sites, e.g. Nos. 15 and 16 and Nos. 56 and 57. Pairing of tombs is even more marked in the Carrowkeel passage tomb cemetery (Sl.). In the Brú na Bóinne (Me.) passage tomb cemetery pairing is seen, for instance, in the inclusion of two tombs under one great mound at both Dowth (Me.) and Knowth (Me.). Pairing at court tombs is most clearly apparent in dual-court tombs, central-court tombs and those of twin-gallery design. As already noted, the two elements in such court tombs are usually of comparable size and perhaps were intended to accord equivalent status. This is not so at paired passage tombs, where the two tombs can differ in both size and form and seem intended not as equivalent but as complementary structures. Under the great mounds at Dowth (Me.) and Knowth (Me.) there is both a cruciform and an undifferentiated tomb. At Carrowmore (Sl.) Tomb No. 57 stands close to the smaller Tomb No. 56. At Carrowkeel (Sl.) the combination of large and small and also cruciform and undifferentiated occurs. Carn M, a cruciform tomb, stands close to another, smaller cruciform tomb Carn N; and the cruciform tomb Carn G is paired with an undifferentiated one, Carn H. Aspects of the morphology and distribution of many passage tombs suggest that they are a product of social circumstances different from those of court tombs and portal tombs. The indications that they are of regional rather than local importance and the deployment of an apparently complex symbolism in their make-up and grave-goods support this view. They are identified as representing a ranked society, in contrast to one composed of essentially equivalent and relatively autonomous social groups that may have been responsible for other megalithic tomb types (Cooney and Grogan 1994, 54 5). What remains to be explained is the relationship between the builders of the various megalithic tomb types. Examination of this matter would be greatly facilitated by the establishment of a more precise chronological framework for Irish megalithic tombs.

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