Biology Final Review Packets KEY

Biology EOC Review NAME_______________________________________________________ Goal 1: Learner will develop abilities necessary to do and understand scientific inquiry. 1.01 Identify biological problems and questions that can be answered through scientific investigations. 1.02 Design and conduct scientific investigations to answer biological questions (create testable hypotheses, identify variables, use a control or comparison group when appropriate, select and use appropriate measurement tools, collect and record data, organize data into charts and graphs, analyze and interpret data, communicate findings). You have measured the rate at which a fish breaths at various temperatures by counting the rate at which its gills open. The data is below. Graph this data. “Y” axis – breathing rate; “X” axis – Temp. Breathing rate Temperature 19/min 5 deg C 25/min 10 deg C 30/min 20 deg C 34/min 30 deg C 37/min 35 deg C What is the independent variable? The dependent variable? Temperature Breathing rate What is the best type of graph for this data? Why? Line (each point has two numbers) What happens to breathing rate with increase in Temp? Breathing rate increases What would be a good control for this experiment? Measure breathing rate of fish in regular environment How do you think the breathing rate was measured? Counting movements of gill cover or mouth openings What do you think would happen if you raised the temperature even more? Fish might die at some point – living systems cannot handle too much increase in T. Why would it be a bad idea to do this? Death of fish 1.03 Formulate and revise scientific explanations and models of biological phenomena using logic and evidence to: explain observations, make inferences and predictions, explain the relationship between evidence and explanation. An experiment was done that measured the Effects of Nitrates on the Growth of Algae. Growth of algae was determined by how well the water transmitted light. The less the light transmission, the greater the algae growth blocking the transmission of light. Important! Looking at the graph on the next page what conclusions can you draw about algae growth and nitrates in the water? As weeks progress, the level of nitrate has a bigger impact on algae growth. What other data would you like to have? Optimum nitrate for algae growth, temperature, amount of light What would you predict would happen if this same data was gathered at the end of week 8? The algae might have overgrown and died – light transmission might increase. Why do you think that nitrates have this effect on algae growth? 1 Biology EOC Review Nitrates are fertilizers; improve growth; needed for building amino acids and nucleic acids 1.04 Apply safety procedures in the laboratory and in field studies. (Recognize and avoid potential hazards, safely manipulate materials and equipment needed for scientific investigations.) What kind of care must be taken when working with bacteria? Use gloves; goggles; do not expose bacteria to air unnecessarily. Why must care be used when working with bacteria? Bacteria can cause disease and should be handled with care. What are the issues surrounding the use of animals for research? Answers will vary – animals should not be tortured or used in a way that causes great pain. 1.05 Analyze reports of scientific investigations from an informed scientifically literate viewpoint including considerations of: appropriate sample, adequacy of experimental controls, replication of findings, and alternative interpretations of the data. Read the following article and answer the questions. SPINACH MAY CUT STOMACH ULCER RISK - May 15, 2008 Vegetables rich in nitrates, such as spinach, may help to protect against stomach ulcers thanks to bacteria in the mouth, a Swedish study suggests. The work challenges earlier suggestions that a diet rich in nitrates could pose a health risk. Joel Petersson was awarded his PhD by the University of Uppsala on May 9 for the study, which shows that rats fed on a nitrate-rich diet had a thicker layer of mucus lining their stomachs, protecting them from hydrochloric acid in gastric juice and cutting the risk of ulcers. Petersson found that mouth bacteria play a vital part in the process. Nitrates in food are absorbed in the gut and enter the blood stream. From here they get into saliva but are reduced to nitrites by oral bacteria. After being swallowed, the nitrites are reduced to nitric oxide by stomach acid. Nitric oxide, an important signaling molecule, triggers an increase in the flow of blood to the stomach, helping to renew and thicken its mucus lining. When Petersson gave rats an antibacterial mouthwash to kill the oral bacteria, he found they were more vulnerable to stomach ulcers. He suggests that people using these mouthwashes regularly may be at risk, especially if they are also frequent users of nonsteroidal pain killers like aspirin which can also damage the stomach lining. 'There are other much safer ways of blocking the production of the sulphur-containing compounds in the mouth if you have bad breath,' he said. Between 60 and 80 per cent of the nitrates consumed in a normal Western diet come from vegetables, with beetroot, celery and spinach containing particularly high-levels of 1-3g per kilo. Studies in the 1970s suggested a link between high nitrate levels in drinking water and both stomach cancer and the rare blood condition in babies, methaemoglobinaemia. 'We have since wasted millions in trying to reduce nitrate levels in drinking water when there is no real evidence to show that it is harmful to humans. If you do eat a lot of nitrate it is very easily dealt with - you just pee it out,' Petersson said. 2 Biology EOC Review "The Swedish study has shown this further effect in animals and I would certainly expect the same mechanism to exist in the human stomach " - Nigel Benjamin Nigel 'Ben' Benjamin, now a consultant in acute medicine at the Peninsula Medical School in Plymouth, UK, discovered a different protective mechanism for nitrates in the 1990s. He showed that the combination of nitric oxide and acid controlled the growth of dangerous bacteria like salmonella in the gut. 'The Swedish study has shown this further effect in animals and I would certainly expect the same mechanism to exist in the human stomach,' said Benjamin. 'This is exciting work and gives us further reasons for eating a diet that contains lots of fresh vegetables.' John Bonner QUESTIONS: The experiment above was done on rats. Is there any reason to think that it might apply to humans. Rats are mammals like humans and their genetics and functions are similar. What else would you like to know about this topic before you start eating spinach every day? Have other experiments confirmed these results; are there any harmful effects to eating a lot of spinach? There is conflicting data from the 1970’s. How do you decide what is the most scientifically accurate? Look for further studies. Look for recent studies. Goal 2: Learner will develop an understanding of the physical, chemical and cellular basis of life. 2.01 Compare and contrast the structure and functions of the following organic molecules: Macromolecules Function Subunits Carbohydrates Quick energy; plant cell walls Monosaccharides such as glucose Proteins Serve as enzymes, antibodies, plasma membrane Amino acids inclusions; carrier molecules (hemoglobin); structural Lipids Long term energy storage, insulation, plasma membranes Glycerol and 3 fatty acids Nucleotides (sugar, Nucleic Acids Carry instructions for making proteins; also carry those phosphate, Nit. base) instructions to the ribosomes Specific Molecule Starch carbohydrate Cellulose carbohydrate Insulin protein Glycogen carbohydrate Glucose carbohydrate Enzymes protein Hemoglobin protein Fats lipids DNA Nucleic acid RNA Nucleic acid Function Plants store glucose as starch – source of energy Subunits glucose Form the cell walls of plants glucose Used to help store glucose in liver as glycogen Amino acids Animals store glucose as glycogen – source of energy Glucose Simple sugar used in cellular respiration (aerobic and anaerobic); energy is released Catalysts for chemical reactions (both synthesis and decomposition) Oxygen carrier molecule found in the blood Amino acids Amino acids Used for long term energy storage and insulation – as well Glycogen and fatty as forming cell membranes acids Found in nucleus – carries instructions for making proteins nucleotides Form the ribosomes, forms mRNA to carry genetic info to ribosome, forms tRNA which carry amino acids to ribo. nucleotides 3 Biology EOC Review Describe the following nutrient tests: Nutrient Starch Type of Test For presence of starch Negative Test Stays brownish gold Positive Test Turns blue black Lipids Brown paper bag No greasy mark Has a greasy mark Monosaccharides Benedict’s Test Stays turquoise blue Protein Biuret’s test Turns brick red (orange) Turns pinkish violet Stays deep purplish blue Explain the importance of shape to enzyme function. Enzymes function by lock and key – each enzyme has to fit the molecules that it joins together or breaks apart; if it does not fit, it cannot function. Explain what determines the shape of an enzyme. The order of the amino acids determines the secondary and tertiary levels of structure. Explain why enzymes are specific. 2.02 Investigate and describe the structure and function of cells including cell organelles, cell specialization, and communication among cells within an organism. Fill in this chart. Also give the letter or number of the part as seen in the diagrams below. Cell Part and Letter Structure Description Function Nucleus Porous nuclear envelope; contains Carries code for what proteins to A, 6 chromosomes (DNA) and nucleolus make (inherited information) Plasma Membrane Phospholipid bilayer with embedded Regulates what leaves and enters cell K, near 11 proteins, etc. Cell wall Composed of cellulose; surrounds Gives structure to plant cells PLANTS only J plasma membrane Mitochondria Two membrane layers; inner membrane Where parts of aerobic cellular L, 1 folded to incr. surface area respiration takes place Vacuoles G, 3 Membrane bound sacs Sacs -hold food or water; in animals, Large in PLANTS small vesicles hold materials Chloroplasts I Structures containing stroma and grana Site of photosynthesis PLANTS only Ribosomes Small beads of RNA found on ER or in Site of protein synthesis (“read” the F, 13 cytoplasm code found on mRNA) Which cell is the plant cell (left or right)? (LEFT) Which structures are found only in the plant cell? Chloroplast, cell wall, large central water vacuole Which structures are found only in the animal cell? centriole 4 Biology EOC Review Microscope Use: Put the following steps for making a wet mount slide in order. A. Once the object is located, without moving the adjustment, change to medium power B. Put the tissue on the slide C. Switch to high power and bring the object into clear focus again. D. Add a coverslip E. Place the slide on the stage of the microscope F. Add a drop of water G. Try to locate the object using low power and coarse adjustment H. Use fine adjustment to bring the object into clear focus. 1) ___B__ 2) __F___ 3) __D ___ 4) _ E ____ 5) __G___ 6) __A___ 7) __H___ 8) _C____ How do you determine total magnification of a microscope? (Assume the eyepiece magnifies 10 x and the objective magnifies 40 x) 10 times 40 = 400x Draw how the letter “e” would look as view through a microscope? Upside down and reversed left to right Put the following in order from smallest to largest: Organ systems __cells_____ Cells _tissues___ Organs _organs____ Tissues ___organ systems__ Below are a variety of cells from the human body. Label these cells (red blood cell, sperm cell, white blood cell, muscle cell, nerve cell) Nerve cell on left, sperm is top middle, white blood cell is lower middle, red blood cell top right, muscle cell bottom right Which cell is adapted for movement? What structure makes this movement possible? What organelle is very plentiful in these cells in order to provide the energy for movement? Sperm cell; flagellum; mitochondrion (for cellular respiration) Which cell has no nucleus? What is the function of this cell? Red blood cell; to carry oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from cells Which cell is involved in the immune system? White blood cell (B cells, T cells, macrophages) Which cell helps in movement of bones? What happens in these cells to make that movement possible? Muscle cell; contraction involving muscle proteins (myosin and actin) Which cell is adapted for transmitting messages? What is the direction of these messages? How do the messages get from one cell to the next? Neuron (nerve cell); from top (dendrites) to bottom (axon); neurotransmitters 5 Biology EOC Review Hormones: What structures produce hormones? Glands How do hormones travel throughout a body? Through the circulatory system What is the function of hormones? Regulation of body functions; growth; metabolism, etc. What is a feedback mechanism? When hormone product increases that concentration slows production of the hormone; if hormone product decreases, that concentration triggers release of hormone (negative feedback) The diagram below shows many proteins and other molecules embedded in a cell membrane. What are some of the functions of these proteins and other molecules? Molecule channels; proton pumps; some enzymes/hormones (temporary); antigens for cell recognition; connection to other cells; 2.03 Investigate and analyze the cell as a living system including: maintenance of homeostasis, movement of materials into and out of cells, and energy use and release in biochemical reactions. Explain what has happened in the diagram to the left. Water passed to right; starch could not move through membrane – too large. Why did the large dark molecules NOT move to the left? Too large for membrane pores How is the semipermeable membrane like a cell membrane? Cell membranes have pores that selectively move materials in and out. If the dark molecule is starch, where is the starch concentration greatest (left or right)? If the white molecule is water, where is the water concentration greatest at first? On left In osmosis, water moves from an area of __high________ to an area of ______low___ concentration. If the dark molecules could move, in what direction would they move? From right to left Why? High concentration is on right; low is on left and molecules move from high to low concentration. In diffusion, molecules move from an area of ___high_____ to an area of __low______ concentration. What is osmotic pressure? The difference between concentrations of molecules on each side of membrane – greater the difference, the greater the osmotic pressure. Draw arrows to show which way water will move in each of the following situations: 6 Biology EOC Review a. Salt inside the cell = 65% and outside the cell 40%. 🡨----------------------------------------b. Sugar inside the cell 27% and outside 80%. --------------------🡪 What is homeostasis? Regulation of internal environment; maintenance of balance and stability How do cells maintain homeostasis: Consider pH, temperature, blood glucose, water balance (negative feedback of hormone systems maintains homeostasis); insulin and glucagon work together to maintain blood sugar; osmosis regulates water; temperature regulation through sweating, shivering, blood vessels opening wide and becoming smaller; pH through buffers and H ions. Comparison of active and passive transport Requires energy? Low to high concentration or high to low concentration? Examples PASSIVE TRANPORT NO ACTIVE TRANSPORT YES High to Low Low to High Osmosis of water; movement of glucose Neurons – sodium/potassium pumps or iodine in thyroid Energy Use the following diagram to show where energy is released and where energy is used. Also use arrows on the lines attached to the circles to indicate the direction of the energy. What cellular process produces ATP? Cellular respiration What is ATP energy used for? Give examples. To provide energy for all cell processes that require energy – active transport for example. 2.05 Investigate and analyze the bioenergetic reactions: aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, and photosynthesis. Label the following molecules in these equations (water, glucose, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ethyl alcohol) A) water + carbon dioxide = glucose + oxygen gas (Photosynthesis) B) glucose + oxygen gas = carbon dioxide + water ( Aerobic Cellular Respiration) C) glucose = ethyl alcohol + carbon dioxide (Fermentation; anaerobic cellular respiration) A) B) C) Which of the above reactions is photosynthesis? A Which of the above reactions is fermentation (anaerobic cellular respiration)? C Which of the above reactions is cellular respiration (aerobic)? B Which reaction(s) requires or stores energy? A Which reaction(s) release energy (ATP)? B anc C Which reaction releases the most energy? B Why? Oxygen allows complete breakdown of glucose Which reaction requires chlorophyll? A What is the purpose of the chlorophyll? Trap sun’s energy 7 Biology EOC Review Which reaction requires light? A What is the light used for? Provides radiant energy which is stored as chemical energy in glucose Which organisms carry out process A? plants Which organisms carry out process B? all organisms except anaerobes Which organisms carry out process C? anaerobes (bacteria) and yeast Which process uses chloroplasts in eukaryotes? Photosynthesis Which process uses mitochondria in eukaryotes? Aerobic Cellular Respiration What factors could speed up (or slow down) process A? amount of light; water, carbon dioxide; temperature; pH What factors could speed up (or slow down) process B? amount of glucose; amount of oxygen; temperature; pH What factors could speed up (or slow down) process C? amount of glucose; temperature; pH 2.04 Investigate and describe the structure and function of enzymes and explain their importance in biological systems. What is the function of enzymes in biological systems? Why are they necessary for all biochemical reactions? To speed up the combining or break down of substances; the reactions would be too slow to be compatible with life. Explain why enzymes can be reused over and over again. Not changed by the reactions that they catalyze. Why is there only one kind of enzyme for each biochemical reaction? Enzymes function by shape (lock and key) so there is just one enzyme for each type of reaction. How do extreme pH and extreme temperature affect enzymes? Extremes in pH or temperature can alter the secondary and tertiary bonds of a protein; altered shape means altered function. Explain the lock-and-key model of enzymes and substrates. The substrate fits the enzyme like a lock fits a key; there is an active site where the substrate fits into the enzyme. Goal 3: Learner will develop an understanding of the continuity of life and the changes of organisms over time. 3.01: Analyze the molecular basis of heredity including: DNA replication, Protein Synthesis (transcription and translation), and gene regulation. Below is a strand of DNA. DNA in the cells exists as a double helix – what else needs to be added to this strand to make it a double helix? Give the nucleotide sequence. Another strand that is hydrogen bonded to the nitrogen bases – left to right (C T G G C T) What are the black pentagons? What are the nitrogen bases? If the strand of DNA above undergoes transcription, what will the sequence of the mRNA be?C U G G C U After translation, what would the amino acid sequence be for this section of mRNA? leu ala What is a codon? 3 mRNA bases that code for a specific amino acid. Compare RNA and DNA in the following table Sugars Bases Strands Where In Cell RNA ribose AUCG single Nucleus and cytoplasm DNA deoxyribose ATCG double Nucleus 8 Biology EOC Review Function mRNA – carry code to ribosome; tRNA – carry amino acids to ribosome; rRNA – read code and connect amino acids in order Contains the code to make proteins What kind of bonds hold the amino acids together in the protein that is formed? Covalent peptide bonds What are the three types of RNA and what are their functions? See chart above: What kind of weak bonds hold the two strands of DNA together? Hydrogen bonds Why is it important that these bonds be weak? They will need to be broken for replication and for transcription What happens to DNA when a mutation occurs? The code is changed (different bases are in the DNA strand) How does this affect the mRNA? Bases in mRNA will be different How can this affect translation? This may mean a different amino acid is in the protein strand How does this affect the structure and shape of the resulting protein? This can cause a change in the shape of the protein (change in tertiary and secondary bonding) Cell Cycle: Look at the diagram of the cell cycle. When does the duplication of DNA occur? What is this phase called? Interphase (S phase – synthesis) What do GI and G2 represent? G1 – equals growth after cell division; G2 is growth after DNA replicates. Does mitosis include cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm)? NO Gene Expression and Regulation In the diagram to the left, what is the role of the RNA polymerase? Helps make MRNA What is the role of the repressor? Stop transcription The gene codes for lactase, an enzyme that digests milk sugar (lactose). When lactose is present what happens to the repressor? The repressor bonds with the lactose and does not bond to DNA to prevent transcription When the repressor does not attach to the repressor region of the gene, what happens to gene expression? The gene is expressed; RNA polymerase can transcribe the DNA into mRNA – for building lactase. 9 Biology EOC Review If all the cells in an organism (cells with nuclei) have the same DNA, explain, in terms of genes, how a nerve cell functions differently from a muscle cell. Different genes are turned on in different types of cells. Why does a pancreas cell produce insulin in great amounts but a white blood cell does not? Because the insulin gene is turned on in the pancreas cell but not as much in a white blood cell. There are advantages and disadvantages to the overproduction of proteins by a cell. Describe the advantages and disadvantages for an injured cell. Overproduction in an injured cell can help it heal if the proteins are needed; but overproduction of unneeded proteins could hinder healing. Describe the advantages and disadvantages in a cancerous cell. Too much of certain proteins in a cancerous cell could promote tumor production in other cells. 3.02 Compare and contrast the characteristics of asexual and sexual reproduction. MITOSIS Asexual MEIOSIS Sexual 2N 2N 2N 1N 1 division 2 divisions Number of cells produced 2 4 When does replication happen? SOURCES OF VARIATION Crossing over Random assortment of chromosomes Gene mutations Nondisjunction fertilization interphase interphase NO NO YES YES YES NO NO YES YES YES Type of reproduction (Asexual or sexual) Chromosome number of mother cell (1N=haploid or 2N=diploid) Chromosome number of daughter cells (1N=haploid or 2N=diploid) Number of cell divisions Put the following stages of mitosis (cell division) in order. C, B, E, A, D 10 Biology EOC Review 3.03 Interpret and predict patterns of inheritance: (dominant, recessive and intermediate traits, multiple alleles, polygenic traits, sex-linked traits, independent assortment, test cross, pedigrees, and Punnett squares) In the Punnett square to the left, T = tall and t=short. Give the genotype for the parents. Tt Give the phenotype for the parents. tall What are the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring? TT – tall, Tt – tall, tt - short What is the genotypic ratio of the offspring? 1 TT: 2 Tt: 1 tt What is the phenotypic ratio of the offspring? 3 Tall: 1 short What environmental factors might affect the expression of these genes for height? Explain. Nutrition, exercise, disease Some genes produce intermediate phenotypes. Cross a pure breeding red flower (RR) with a pure breeding white flower (WW). Give the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring. RR x WW = all RW Red parent crosses with white parent gives all pink offspring. Explain the inheritance of the following disorders: (autosomal dominant? Autosomal recessive? Sex-linked dominant? Sex-linked recessive?) Sickle cell anemia: Autosomal recessive (but sort of incomplete) Cystic fibrosis: Autosomal recessive Huntington Disease: Autosomal dominant Blood type If a woman with type A blood has a child with a man with type B blood and their first child has type O blood, give the genotypes of the woman and the man and do the cross. (Alleles are IA, IB, and i) Parents are IAi and IBi because that is the only way to get an ii child (type O) What are the odds that they will have a child with type O blood again? 25% What are the odds that they will have a child with homozygous type A blood? 0% Their children will be IAIB, IAi, IBi, and ii What are the odds that they will have a child with type AB blood? 25% A blood test is done to see if one of three men is the father of a child. The child has type O blood, the mother has type A blood. Man #1 has type AB blood, Man #2 has type A blood, Man #3 has type O blood. Are there any men that can be ruled out as the father. Explain. Man #1 is ruled out; child needs to get “i” from each parent. Polygenic traits Some traits are considered to be polygenic. What does this mean? Traits that are controlled by more than one gene. 11 Biology EOC Review Using 3 genes (A,a and B,b and C,c) explain hair color in terms of these genes. How many phenotypes are possible? AABBCC would be darker hair than AaBbCC; the lightest hair would be aabbcc. And there would be all shades in between. Sex Chromosomes What are the male sex chromosomes in humans? XY What are the female sex chromosomes in humans? XX Colorblindness and hemophilia are sex-linked traits. What chromosome are these genes found on? X Cross a female who is a carrier for hemophilia with a normal male. XHXh x XHY What are the odds that they will have a child with hemophilia. 25% What are the odds that they will have a daughter with hemophilia? 0% What are the odds that they will have a daughter who is a carrier for hemophilia? 25% Why are males more likely to show a sex-linked disorder? They only need to get the disorder allele from their mother not from both parents. Karyotype What is the gender of the person whose karyotype is shown to the left? female What is the disorder that this person has? What is your evidence? Trisomy 21 (Down Syndrome); there are 3 # 21 chromosomes What are some of the characteristics of this disorder? Mental retardation; shorter stature; simian palm crease; low set ears; thick tongue; some heart defects sometimes. Pedigrees What is the inheritance pattern shown by this pedigree? Autosomal recessive How do you know? Both males and females; parents don’t have it; kids do. Using A,a, what is the genotype of person II4? aa What is the genotype of person I3? Aa Test Cross Describe the test cross that a farmer would use to determine the genotype of an animal that shows a dominant trait. Use the following Punnett squares and the letters A and a to explain your answer. cross the animal with a recessive; if the animal is Aa crossed with aa – then ½ of the offspring will be recessive; if the animal is AA crossed with aa – all offspring will show the dominant trait. Mendel’s Laws 12 Biology EOC Review Explain each of Mendel’s Laws and explain the experiments he used to determine these laws. 1) Law of segregation of characters (alleles) When meiosis occurs, each of the pairs of alleles is separated and end up in different cells. Each gamete only receives one copy. 2) Law of independent assortment (of alleles) Each pair of alleles separate randomly. As long as alleles are on different chromosomes they will assort into the gametes independently of each other. Where one allele ends up does not affect where an allele from a different gene ends up. How does meiosis lead to segregation and independent assortment? In meiosis, during the first division, the alleles separate with one allele of each pair going to one cell and the other one to a different cell. Each chromosome assorts independently of the others. A problem to solve: A brown mink crossed with a silverblue mink produced all brown offspring. When these F1 mink were crossed among themselves they produced 47 brown animals and 15 silverblue animals (F2 generation). Determine all the genotypes and phenotypes, and their relative ratios, in the F1 and F2 generations. B = Brown; b = silverblue Parents of F1 are BB and bb. Offspring are Bb – all brown Parents of F2 are Bb and Bb – offspring are ¼ BB, 2/4 Bb, and ¼ bb – or 3 brown to 1 silverblue 3.04 Assess the impacts of genomics on individuals and society (Human genome project and applications of biotechnology) What are the goals of the human genome project and when were they established? Started in 1990; completed in 2003; to sequence the entire human genome; store info in data bases; discover genes that code for traits, How will the human genome project be useful in determining whether individuals may carry genes for genetic conditions? The sequenced genome can be compared to individual genomes to see if there are differences that might be indicative of a genetic condition. How will the human genome project be useful in developing gene therapies? Once the effects of genes are determined, therapies can be developed. To the left is an electrophoresis gel, showing evidence from a rape case. Could the defendant be the rapist? Explain your answer. No – the bands do note match the male DNA found in the vagina. Which fragments of DNA are the longest? Explain. The fragments that are furthest from the source or top. Agarose is fibrous, smaller fragments can travel quicker through the gel. What other ways can DNA fingerprinting be useful? Forensics, anthropology (dead sea scrolls – goat versus sheep skin – can help in aging them), wildlife management (amount of genetic variation is species – migration patterns, etc), paternity Transgenic organisms: 13 Biology EOC Review Describe the process that is shown in the diagram to the left. A human gene is inserted into a bacterial plasmid and the protein product of the gene will be made by the bacteria. What is the value of this technology? Pure human proteins can be produced in mass and relatively cheaply. Pure insulin – so much better for person than horse or pig. What are some other applications of this type of technology? (Transgenic organisms) To have plants produce their own pesticide; produce better yield food crops; to produce model organisms for research This process can be used to make GMO’s –genetically modified organisms. What are some of the ethical issues surrounding this technology? Release into the environment? Human health? Stem Cells The diagram to the right shows how stem cells can develop into many types of different cells. What are some of the potential benefits that could come from the growing of stem cells in a laboratory? New organs could be grown (no rejection); cancerous cells replaced with good cells; genetic disorders replaced by new cells What are some of the ethical issues surrounding the collection and use of stem cells? Embryonic stem cells come from embryos and how those embryos are collected is problematic; 3.05 Examine the development of the theory of evolution by natural selection including: development of the theory, the origin and history of life, fossil and biochemical evidence, mechanisms of evolution, and applications (pesticide and antibiotic resistance). In the following chart, describe the role of each of the following in developing the current theory of evolution. Discussion of importance to evolutionary theory 14 Biology EOC Review Understanding of geology (Changes in the earth) Malthus’ ideas about population Growth Anatomical comparisons Understand earth changes explains why organisms might change to fit the new environments. Organisms reproduce exponentially but the world is not overcrowed by organisms – because they compete to survive Similar anatomy suggests similar ancestry Patterns in fossil evidence Following the patterns and aging the fossils suggests evolutionary trees. Acquired characteristics are not inherited because the genes have not been affected. Similar DNA and/or proteins suggests similar ancestry Lamarck’s ideas about inheritance Of acquired characteristics Biochemical comparisons (DNA and proteins) The role of variations The role of sexual reproduction The role of geographic isolation The importance of the environment Variations provide the fuel for natural selection. Those variations that are advantageous are selected for; survive and are passed on Sexual reproduction is a source of variation. Geographic isolation can lead to speciation – when organisms are evolving in two different enevironment. Environments select for the adaptations that best suit the organisms for survival in that environment. Discuss the steps in Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection. 1) populations of organisms have many genetic variations. Where do these come from? Mutations and sexual reproduction 2) organisms could reproduce exponentially but they don’t. Why not? Competition for resources – only the hardiest survive 3) Genetic variations lead to different adaptations. What are adaptations? Characteristics that fit the organism to the environment 4) Some adaptations have better survival value in certain environments. What does this mean? Some adaptations help the organisms survive better than other adaptations. 5) Those organisms with adaptations that better fit them to an environment will survive, reproduce and pass on their genes. What does it mean to be “fit” to an environment? “Fit” in an environment means the organisms is more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on those genes. 6) The next population will have a high frequency of the genes that have been selected for. Why will the frequency of selected genes increase? Because organisms with those alleles have survived to reproduce; the organisms with other alleles did not survive to reproduce (as frequently). 7) When this process continues over millions of years, it can lead to speciation. What is speciation? The appearance of a group of organisms that are different enough from their ancestors that they could no longer interbreed and produce fertile offspring with those ancestors. Describe how a population of bacteria can become resistant to an antibiotic (or an insect to a pesticide) using the steps listed above. Bacteria are exposed to antibiotic; a few of the bacteria have a variation that makes them resistant to the antibiotic; those bacteria survive in the antibiotic environment; they are the bacteria that reproduce and their genes are passed on; the new generation has a much high frequency of the resistance genes. If this happens over millions or year, speciation could occur. What are the differences between abiogenesis and biogenesis? Abiogenesis is life arising from non-living things; biogenesis is life arising from living things What did Louis Pasteur contribute to our understanding of the origins of life? Using “S” shaped flask, Pasteur showed that living things could only arise from other living things. 15 Biology EOC Review Explain Miller and Urey’s hypothesis. Organic molecules could be synthesis from the inorganic molecules in the early environment (water vapor, methane, ammonia, hydrogen gas) Why did Miller and Urey put those particular gases into their experiment? They were hypothesized to be the gases of the early environment. What type of organic molecules did they find? Amino acids, sugars, lipids, nucleotides What is the significance of their experiments? It helps explain how living things might first have evolved. Most hypotheses state that prokaryotic anaerobes probably evolved first. Why? They are the simplest; there was no oxygen in the environment; living things would have needed to get energy. The hypotheses then suggest that prokaryotic autotrophs probably evolved. Why? More complex than anaerobes, but still there was no oxygen in environment. What would enter the atmosphere as a result of these autotrophs appearing? Oxygen gas Then prokaryotic aerobic heterotrophs could evolve. What can these cells do that others before them cannot? These organisms can use oxygen to get maximum energy from their nutrients. What is the hypothesis explaining how eukaryotic cells evolved? Endosymbiotic hypothesis – bacteria began living inside other bacteria mutualistically. Over time, these bacteria became mitochondria and chloroplasts. Goal 4: Learner will develop an understanding of the unity and diversity of life. 4.01 Analyze the classification of organisms according to their evolutionary relationships. (Historical development and changing nature of classification systems, similarities and differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms, similarities and differences among the eukaryotic kingdoms, classifying organisms using a key) Explain how the organization of the kingdoms and domains have changed over time. From 2 kingdoms to 3 to 4 to 5 and then 6 with 3 domains. What is the current accepted kingdom-domain system? 3 domains – 2 domains of prokaryotes (each with 1 kingdom) and 1 of eukaryotes (with 4 kingdoms). What is the current seven-level classification system? Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species What is binomial nomenclature? The Genus species name of each type of organism How are DNA and biochemical analysis, embryology, and morphology used to classify organisms? All of these are used to determine relatedness which is a key factor in classification. To the left is a phylogenetic tree of some organisms. According to this tree, which pairs of organisms are most closely related? Salamanders and frogs; lizards and snakes; crocs and birds Which organism is most closely related to the rayfinned fish? lungfish Which organisms are the mammals most closely related to? Reptiles and birds 16 Biology EOC Review Fill in the following chart with the characteristics of the various kingdoms. Bacteria Archaea Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia Eukaryotic or prokaryotic Multicellular or single-celled Sexual or asexual reproduction Autotrophic or heterotrophic Aerobic or anaerobic Prokaryotic Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Single Single Single (mainly) Multi Multi Multi Asexual Asexual Both Both Sexual Sexual Both Both but not photosynthe-sis Both Both Hetero Auto Hetero Both Both Aerobic Aerobic Cell walls or no cell walls peptidoglycan Glycoprotein Polysacch. Algae YES Protozoa NO chitin cellulose none Both What are some differences between the bacteria and the archaea? Archaea can chemosynthesis but don’t use chlorophyll; some archaea are methanogens, halophiles, thermophiles; cell walls are different; only bacteria can do nitrification. Archaeans have some genes similar to eukaryotes. Archaeans not affected by many drugs that kill bacteria. Archaeans more like eukaryotes than bacteria. Use the following key to identify the tree branch to the left. 1. a. leaf is needle-like….go to 2 b. leaf is broad……… go to 5 2. a. needles are short ....go to 3 b. needles are long…...go to 4 3. a. underside of needles green…hemlock b. underside of needles silver ..balsam 4. a. 3 needles in bundle….pitch pine b. 5 needles in bundle….white pine 5. a. edge of leaf round.go to 6 b. edge of leaf serrated…go to 7 6. a. minty odor…… wintergreen b. no minty odor…..laurel needle-like, long needles, in bundle of 3 = pitch pine 4.02 Analyze the processes by which organisms representative of the following groups accomplish essential life functions including…………. Fill in the charts below showing how various groups of organisms accomplish the life functions listed. Transport of materials Protists Diffusion Excretion Diffusion Respiration Diffusion Annelids 5 contractile “hearts”; mostly closed system Paired nephridia – each segments Mainly diffusion Regulation Contractile vacuoles, etc. Small brain; ventral nerve cord; sense organs Insects Dorsal heart; open circulation Malpighian tubules; empty into digestive Spiracles along side of body Brain;ventral nerve cord; eyes, antennae 17 Biology EOC Review Nutrition Reproduction Growth and development Diffusion and digestion in cell Sexual and asexual Just cell growth Two opening digestive system Some have both sexes in each org. testes/ovaries Eggs in cocoons – hatch as small worms Transport of materials Amphibians 3 chambered heart; closed system Excretion Kidneys – empty into cloaca Respiration Lungs or gills, also through skin Regulation Internal ears, vocal sac; some poison glands Two opening; complex organs, Nutrition Reproduction Growth and development Separate sexes, external fertilization Egg, tadpole, adult Mammals 4 chambered heart; closed system – veins, arteries, capillaries Kidneys with ureter, urethra, bladder Lungs with trachea, bronchiole tubes; air sacs Glands and complex nervous system with brain Two opening system with organs – stomach, intestines, etc. Separate sexes; placentas; baby grows in mother Baby continues to develop after birth; varies with species Excretion Non-vascular Plants Diffusion through rhizoids and leaflets Diffusion Respiration Diffusion Regulation Diffusion Nutrition Photosynthesis Gymnosperms Phloem (food) and Xylem (water) - tubes Diffusion into needles and tubes Diffusion through needles Hormones for growth, etc. Photosynthesis Reproduction Spores – alternation of generations 1N to 2N Spores form gametophytes Seeds; male & female cones; fertilization Seed growth into new sporophyte (tree) Transport of materials Growth and development Compare the following two types of cells. Prokaryotic Membrane-bound organelles NO Ribosomes YES Types of chromosomes Strand and plasmid size small Two openings; different sections of system Separate – ovaries, testes, ovipositors Metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, adult) Angiosperms Phloem (food) and Xylem (water) - tubes Diffusion into needles and tubes Diffusion through needles Hormones for growth, etc. Photosynthesis Seeds – flowers – pollen - fertilization Seed growth into new sporophyte (plant) Eukaryotic YES YES Strands large Explain what the following systems do: Transport of materials Function of system Circulation of food, oxygen, hormones, etc. throughout organism. 18 Biology EOC Review Excretion Respiration Regulation Nutrition Reproduction Growth and development Synthesis Elimination of waste (urea, carbon dioxide, excess water, etc.) from organism. To bring in oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide so organism can carry out cellular respiration. Glands and hormones to regulate body functions; nervous system for communication and response to environment System for taking in and digesting nutrients into subunits that can be absorbed into the circulatory system. System that allows for reproduction and continuation of the species; often separate male and female. Meiosis and fertilization ensure variation. Changes in organism from fertilized egg to adult form. Can vary – sometimes involves metamorphosis. This is the building of materials that the organism needs. Digesting cow protein and building it into human protein, for example. 4.03 Assess, describe and explain adaptations affecting survival and reproductive success (structural adaptations in plants and animals, disease-causing viruses and microorganisms, co-evolution) Label the following parts on the flower and give their functions: Stigma, style, ovary, petal, sepal, anther, filament Top left: petals Bottom left under stamen: anther and then filament Under Pistil on right: stigma, style, ovary Fill in the following charts with the information required. Protists Annelid worms Insects Feeding Adaptations Gullets and cilia to get foot into gullet; or pseudopods to surround the food; flagellae - movement for catching food; trichocysts to subdue food. Also diffusion Muscles to move around; tentacles; engulf soil; filter feeding; predators Amphibians Specialized appendages for eating and palpating; sucking, lapping, etc. Wings and legs for hopping and flying after food. Tongue that flings out to traps insects; hopping legs, fast swimmers Mammals Claws, large teeth or teeth for grinding; 19 Biology EOC Review Protists Annelid worms Insects Amphibians Mammals Non-vascular plants Gymnosperms Angiosperms Reproduction Adaptations Asexual and sexual; join together to mate – swimming forms of cells In some both sexes in one organism; clitellum for mating; hard cover - egg Ovipositors; internal fertilization (and external); eat male after mating External fertilization in water; amplexus; Uterus for baby to grow – internal fertilization Gametophytes, sperm that swim in water when it rains. Cones, seeds, pollen, seeds that can travel in the wind. Flowers, buds, petals, pollen, nectar to attract pollinators Adaptations to life on Land Setae for moving; eating soil – filtering to get nutrients; muscles to move Hopping legs; spiracles to get oxygen from air; Legs to hop; live near water; lungs to breathe air; Legs, wings, for getting around; fur to keep warm; skin that won’t lose water. Rhizoids to absorb water, live where it is moist and close to ground Phloem/xylem, roots, cuticle to prevent water loss Phloem/xylem, roots, cuticle to prevent water loss Viruses: Describe the basic structure of a virus. Protein capsid with RNA or DNA inside. What is the relationship between disease and mutations in the agents that cause disease? Disease agent mutations that help them live in a host survive and are passed on. When an organism develops antibodies to a disease agent, the agent may develop mutations that help it be infectious again. For the following diseases, give the agent and the symptoms. Type of pathogen Symptoms of Disease HIV Virus Attack immune system T-4 cells; person gets sick from opportunistic diseases Influenza Virus Headache, congestion, fever, stomach upset, body aches Smallpox Virus Pustules all over body, fever, aches Streptococcus (Strep Throat) bacterium Very sore throat, fever, aches; can go systemic and affect other organs What is meant by coevolution? Each organism exerts selective pressure on traits in the other organism it is in relationship with. So as a flower evolves a longer style, the pollinator evolves a longer proboscis; in response to the longer proboscis, the flower evolves a longer style…….etc. Give an example of a flowering plant and a pollinator and describe how coevolution works? See above 4.04 Analyze and explain the interactive role of internal and external factors in health and disease (genetics, immune response, nutrition, parasites, and toxins) Explain the relationship between sickle cell anemia and malaria. People who are heterozygous for sickle cell have some immunity to malaria. This favors the heterozygote and increases recessive allele frequency. 20 Biology EOC Review Explain the relationship between lung and mouth cancer and tobacco use. Use of tobacco products increases these cancers – chewing tobacco and mouth cancer; smoking cigarettes and lung cancer. Explain the relationship between skin cancer, vitamin D, folic acid and sun exposure. Sun is necessary to make vitamin D, but UV radiation causes skin cancer and has been associated with reduced folic acid in pregnant women; reduced folic acid is related to spinal cord defects in fetuses; balance is needed. Explain the relationship between diabetes, diet/exercise, and genetics. A healthy diet and regular exercise keep weight at acceptable levels and reduce diabetes. People with a genetic predisposition to diabetes are particularly susceptible to weight gain and lack of exercise. Explain the relationship between PKU and diet. People with PKU have to avoid foods with phenylalanine – which they are unable to break down. Immune Response Label each of the following letters: Disposal C , Mobilization B, Recognition A, Immunity D What is the function of helper T-cells? Activate and direct other immune cells What is the function of killer T-cells? Destroy disease agents with antibodies on them What is the function of cytotoxic T-cells? Destroy body cells infected with a virus What do B cells produce? antibodies What is happening at letter C? antibodies are attaching to disease agent What kind of cells are produced at letter D that keep you from becoming reinfected? Memory B cells What is the difference between active immunity and passive immunity? Active immunity happens when the immune system responds to an antigen by producing antibodies; passive immunity is when antibodies are put directly into a person. Explain what vaccines do to the immune system. Health and Nutrition What type of diet contributes to optimal health? Balanced (protein, carbohydrate, lipid); lots of fruits and vegetables; low in saturated fats and refined sugars. What type of diet contributes to obesity? High fat and refined sugars; too many calories. What type of diet contributes to malnutrition? The wrong type of calories – not enough of certain foods and too much of others. What happens when someone is deficient in Vitamin C? scurvy Vitamin D? ricketts Vitamin A? night blindness – vision problems. Parasites (Malaria) Describe the life cycle of the malarial parasite. What is the vector? What are the symptoms? What are the treatments? Protozoan plasmodium injected by Anopheles mosquito (vector); go to liver then red blood cells as adult; gametes produced; taken in by mosquito; fertilization; hatching in mosquito – and continues; causes fever outbursts and chills; can kill mosquitos or use drugs that are quinine based. Environmental Toxins 21 Biology EOC Review Explain the effects on human health of: Lead: vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions, coma or even death; mental effects in young Mercury: nerve system poison; possible cancer trigger; 4.05 Analyze the broad patterns of animal behavior as adaptations to the environment. Type of Behavior Suckling Explanation of Behavior Used to get nutrients from mother Survival Value of Behavior Need food to survive Insects moving away or toward light Migration Phototaxis Away – to hide Toward – to get food Movement to another location Estivation Hiding in ground during hot summer Hiding in ground during cold winter Warmer climate better at some times of year Avoid too warm temperatures Hibernation Habituation Imprinting Classical conditioning Trial and error Communication using pheromones Courtship dances Getting used to a stimulus and not responding to it any more Following the first organism seen after hatching Two stimuli provided – example bell and food. Animal will respond to bell only after a while Keep trying out possibilities until one works Termites leave trails of pheromones so other termites can find food Male and/or female dance before they mate Protecting territory Avoid freezing weather If there is a continuous noise, an organism may not startle any more Mother is usually the one – will protect the young If bell means food, it is a good adaptive response Eventually one will work – like finding food or something. Keeps species alive Organisms of the same species find each other for mating Territoriality Preserves space for a particular species to live without threats Which of the above behaviors are innate (or instinct)? Suckling, phototaxis, migration, estivation, hibernation, Which of the above behaviors are learned? Habituation, imprinting, conditioned response, territoriality, courtship dances, communication (pheromones) Which of the above behaviors are social? Suckling, migration, imprinting, territoriality, courtship, communication Goal 5: Learner will develop an understanding of the ecological relationships among organisms. 5.01 Investigate and analyze the interrelationships among organisms, populations, communities, and ecosystems (techniques of field ecology, abiotic and biotic factors, carrying capacity) In the following chart, explain the symbiotic relationships Relationship Definition Example Mutualism Both organisms benefit Bee pollinates flower – flower reproduces; bee gets nectar 22 Biology EOC Review Commensalism Parasitism One benefits; the other is not affected One benefits the other is harmed Barnacles living on whale tail – barnacles get a place to live; whale is unaffected Tick gets food; dog loses blood and may become anemic Predator-Prey In the graph below, which organism is the prey? hare Which is the predator? fox Which population increases (or falls) first and why? Hare; prey needs to increase before predator has enough food to increase. Which population increases (or falls) second and why? Once fox has enough food, it can increase Sampling techniques Assume that the diagram to the left shows populations of pine trees in an area. The area is too large for a scientist to count every tree. How can the scientist use sampling to get a good estimate of the number of pine trees per 10,000 square meters. Count the number just in the small plots. And then assume it is the same all over. Assume that each small plot (square) is 10 m x 10 m. Estimate the population size of the whole area. 11/12 = x/100 x = 91-92 How could the same process (above) be used to estimate species diversity? You could sample the diversity (count how many of each kind of organism) in each plot and then assume it is the same all over. How could the same process be used to discover changes in the environment over time? Measure variables at different times of year – but only in the defined plots. Biotic and Abiotic Factors List at least 3 biotic factors in an environment. Food, trees (shelter), nesting sites (plants), waste List at least 3 abiotic factors in an environment. Temperature, slope, pH, sunlight/shade, Give an example of how biotic and abiotic factors act together to limit population growth and affect carrying capacity. Cold weather may reduce food supply and keep population from growing very large because the environment cannot support very many organisms. Graph 1: Rabbits Over Time What kind of growth curve is shown by the graph to the right? “J” curve What is the carrying capacity for rabbits? About 65 During what month were rabbits in exponential growth? June and July 23 Biology EOC Review Graph 2: Mexico and US In Mexico, what percentage of the population is between 0-4 years of age? 16% In the US? 7% Which population is growing the fastest? Mexico Which age group has the smallest number in both countries? 75-80 plus Chart 3: Trapping Geese Year Geese Number with Trapped Mark 1980 10 1 (10 x 10)/ 1 = 100 1981 15 1 (15 x 10)/ 1 = 150 1982 12 1 (12 x 10)/ 1 = 120 1983 8 0 1984 5 2 (5 x 10)/2 = 25 1985 10 1 (10 x 10)/ 1 = 100 In order to estimate the population of geese in Northern Wisconsin, ecologists marked 10 geese and then released them back into the population. Over a 6 year period, geese were trapped and their numbers recorded. Use the formula to calculate the estimated number of geese in the area studied? This technique is called __capture ____ & _release_____________ Supposing more of the geese found in the trap had the mark, would the estimated number of geese in the area be greater or lesser? fewer The graph to the left shows the growth of the human population from 1 A.D. to 2000 A.D. Describe what you see has happened. Slow growth and then exponential Predict what will happen to population growth in the future and explain your reasoning. It will be huge if we extrapolate. What factors influence birth and death rate disease, food, weather, competition 5.02 Analyze the flow of energy and the cycling of matter in the ecosystem (relationship of the carbon cycle to photosynthesis and respiration and trophic levels – direction and efficiency of energy transfer). Carbon cycle Diagram Which process(es) put carbon dioxide into the atmosphere? Burning, cellular respiration 24 Biology EOC Review Which process(es) take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere? photosynthesis Explain the Greenhouse Effect in relationship to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The more gas, the more the heat is held into the surface of the earth. This causes too much warming; melting ice, etc. What effect might increased atmospheric carbon dioxide have on the environment? See above Food Webs What are the producers in this food web? Blossoms, nuts, bark, leaves, What are the primary consumers (herbivores) in this food web? Bees, deer, mice, rabbit, insects What are the secondary consumers in this food web? Bear, wolf, toad, bird What are the highest level consumers in this food web? Fox, bear, wolf Create an energy pyramid from the food chain: leaves🡪insects🡪birds🡪redfox🡪bear bottom to top: leaves, insects, birds, redfox, and bear Where is the most energy in this pyramid? bottom Where is the least energy? top What happens to energy as it moves through the food chain/web? Some is lost as heat Assume there are 10,000 kcal of energy in the leaves? Estimate the amount of energy in each of the other levels of the energy pyramid. 10,000, 1,000, 100, 10, 1 25 Biology EOC Review What happens to matter as it moves through the food chain/web? It is recycled What is the ultimate source of energy for this food web? sun 5.03 Assess human population and its impact on local ecosystems and global environments (historic and potential changes in population, factors associated with those changes, climate change, resource use, sustainable practices/stewardship). Explain the effect each of the following may have on the environment. Factor Effect on Environment Population Size Not enough resources for populations that are too big; also waste and pollution collect more Population Density Certain areas are more polluted; or have too little food compared to other areas Resource Use Some populations use many more resources per capita Acid Rain Habitat Destruction Introduced non-native species Pesticide use Deforestation Produced by sulfur wastes; kill trees and other environments; reduce food and upset ecology Loss of species through habitat destruction to build homes and roads These frequently take over (cane toads, kudzu); native species have a hard time surviving Kill other species besides the pest; also can cause health problems in farmers and others. Less space for other species to live; less photosynthesis; more carbon dioxide in environment How do changes in human populations affect populations of other organisms? Increases in human population can decrease other populations or kill them with pesticides (bioaccumulation), What effect do volcanoes have on the atmosphere? Produce carbon dioxide What are some examples of sustainable practices and stewardship that can protect the environment? Answers will vary. Reduce, reuse, recycle; drive less; use hybrid cars; or alternative energies; change type of light bulb; crop rotation, etc. etc. 26