Stachys - Hedge-Nettle

• Family: Mint - Lamiaceae

"Perennial herb [annual], hairy, generally glandular; rhizome slender or 0. Stem: decumbent to erect, 0.1–2.5 m. Leaf: 1.5–18 cm, proximal generally petioled, distal ± sessile; blade oblong to ovate, serrate to crenate. Inflorescence: spike-like, generally terminal, interrupted or continuous, bracted. Flower: calyx bell-shaped, ± radial, veins 5–10, lobes 5, erect or spreading, triangular, tips sharp; corolla white, yellow, pink, red, magenta, or purple, tube narrow, with internal ring of hairs generally above base, perpendicular to oblique to tube axis, generally with short, pouched spur on the lower side of the tube, upper lip erect or generally parallel to tube axis, concave, entire (notched), generally hairy, lower lip perpendicular to tube axis or reflexed, 3(2)-lobed, glabrous to hairy. Fruit: oblong to ovoid, brown to black, smooth or irregularly, minutely roughened.
± 300 species: generally temperate; some cultivated for ornamental or edible rhizomatous tubers. (Greek: ear of corn, from inflorescence) [Mulligan & Munro 1989 Naturaliste Canad 116:35–51] Stachys arvensis L., Stachys floridana Shuttlew. historical waifs." ^[Jepson]

"The genus is quite variable, and some groups perhaps deserve to be recognized as distinct genera (Baltisberger, personal communication). One of these well separated groups is often recognized as Stachys section Betonica (e.g., Ball 1972b); as Stachys subgenus Betonica (Bhattacharjee 1980); or as the distinct genus Betonica (e.g., Baltisberger 1989). Stachys officinalis, treated in detail below, is a member of this group, which includes about 12 species centered in Europe and Turkey (Jeker et al. 1989)." ^{[Small CH]}

"Stachys affinis Bunge, Chinese or Japanese artichoke, is grown as a vegetable in Asia and to a minor extent in Europe for its edible tubers.... Stachys floridana Shuttleworth ex Bentham, rattlesnake weed, a native of the southeastern U.S., also produces edible tubers, but has yet to be exploited as a significant food source (Nelson, personal communication). Some species of Stachys are grown as ornamentals, and several have been used medicinally." ^{[Small CH]}

Field hedge-nettle - Stachys arvensis

• General: "Annual herb from a taproot; stems ascending to erect, 10-30 cm tall, branched, stiff-hairy, 4-angled." ^{[IFBC-E-flora-3]}
• Leaves: "Opposite, egg-shaped, 1.5-2.5 cm long, tips blunt, bases rounded to slightly notched, margins toothed; stalks 1-2.5 cm long." ^{[IFBC-E-flora-3]}
• Flowers: "Inflorescence of 2- to 6-flowered clusters in the axils of leaf-like bracts (becoming smaller and unstalked above) forming a lax, interrupted, terminal spike; corollas pale purple, 6-7 mm long, tube 3-6 mm long, with a ring of hairs within; calyces tubular-bell-shaped, hairy, tube 2.5-4 mm long, upper part purple, teeth triangular egg-shaped to lanceolate." ^{[IFBC-E-flora-3]}
• Fruits: "Nutlets, 4 clustered together, egg-shaped, rounded at tip." ^{[IFBC-E-flora-3]}
• Habitat/Range; Waste places and cultivated areas in the lowland zone; rare in SW BC, known only from Vancouver and Victoria; introduced from Europe.
  
• Status: Exotic ^{[IFBC-E-flora]-3}

Lamb's-ear - Stachys byzantina

General: Perennial herb from a rhizome; stems erect, 30-80 cm tall, branched above, 4-angled, softly long-hairy. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-4]}
Leaves: Opposite, narrowly egg-shaped to oblong, 5-10 cm long, rounded to more or less heart-shaped at the base, toothed, the upper ones unstalked, the lower ones stalked. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-4]}
Flowers: Inflorescence a sometimes interrupted, bracted spike; bracts reddish-purple, as long as the calyces; corollas deeply 2-lipped, dark purplish-blue, 9-12 mm long; calyces egg-shaped to tubular, 6-8 mm long, long-hairy, the upper lip minutely 3-toothed, shorter than the lanceolate teeth of the lower lip. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-4]}
Fruits: Nutlets, 4 clustered together. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-4]}

Habitat/Range; Waste places in the lowland zone; rare garden escape on S Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands; introduced from Europe.
Status: Exotic ^{[IFBC-E-flora]-4}

Medicinal Use

• Leaf:
  • S. byzantina Vulnerary ^[Rigat,2015] Leaf decoction - demulcent. "Traditionally used in (as): Infected wounds, Cutting (43)" ^{[Naghibi,2005]}
• Antifungal: "Strong was observed in EOs [Essential Oils] of Achillea millefolium, Mikania glomerata (Asteraceae), and Stachys byzantina (Lamiaceae). ^{[Rai FMDR]}

Cooley's Hedge-Nettle - S. chamissonis

Family: Mint - Lamiaceae Family
Other Names: Hedge-nettle (coastal hedgenettle; Lamb's-ear^[E-flora]

Identification
SUBTAXA PRESENT IN BC

• Stachys chamissonis var. cooleyae ^[E-flora]
  

General: Perennial herb from rhizome; stems erect, 70-150 cm tall, mostly unbranched, 4-angled, bristly-hairy on the angles. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Leaves: Opposite, wedge- to egg-shaped, 6-15 cm long, 2.5-8 cm wide, coarsely blunt-toothed, long-hairy; only somewhat reduced and shorter-stalked upward; stalks 1.5-4.5 cm long.^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Flowers: Inflorescence a series of clusters of several to many flowers, the lower subtended by slightly reduced leaves, the upper by bracts; corollas tubular, deep red-purple, the tube 15-25 mm long, 2-lipped, the upper lip erect, simple and somewhat hood-like, the lower lip 3-lobed, 8-14 mm long; calyces tubular, 8-11 (13) mm long, glandular-hairy, ring of hairs within near base of tube, teeth broadly lance-triangular, shorter than the tube, spine-tipped. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Fruits: Nutlets, 4 clustered together. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Habitat/Range: Wet to mesic swamps, waste places, roadsides, open woodlands and forest margins in the lowland and lower montane zone; common in SW BC west of the Coast-Cascade Mountains, rare on the Queen Charlotte Islands; S to OR^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora]

Medicinal Uses

• Root: "The Saanich used the roots for a spring tonic. According to Paul (1968) "it really puts the life back into you." The roots were pounded and steeped in hot water. Harry (1969) noted that it was eaten by wounded deer also." ^{[Turner&Bell]}
• Stems: "Stems apparently chewed by Haida of the Queen Charlotte Islands" ^{[Turner&Kuhnlein]}
• Flowers: "flower nectar sucked by Quinault of Washington" ^{[Turner&Kuhnlein]}

Stachys mexicana

Stachys mexicana

Stachys mexicana

Mexican Hedge-Nettle - S. Mexicana

• Family: Mint - Lamiaceae Family
  
• Other Names: Mexican hedgenettle ^[E-flora-2]

Synonyms

• Stachys ciliata Douglas ex Benth. ^[E-flora-2]
• Stachys emersonii Piper ^[E-flora-2]
• Identification
  General: Perennial herb from rhizome; stems erect, 30-100 cm tall, simple or branched, 4-angled, spreading-hairy on the angles, some hairs glandular. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-2]}
  Leaves: Opposite, narrowly egg-shaped, 2-12 cm long, 1.5-8 cm wide, coarsely blunt-toothed, sparsely-hairy; stalked; somewhat reduced and shorter-stalked upward.^{[IFBC-E-flora-2]}
  Flowers: Inflorescence of several to many flowers in open terminal clusters, often with additional flower clusters in leaf axils, subtended by slightly reduced leaves or bracts; corollas tubular, pink or pink-purple, the tube 8-13 mm long, 2-lipped, the upper lip erect, entire, the lower lip 3-lobed; calyces tubular, spreading-hairy, sometimes glandular, ring of hairs within, teeth broadly lance-triangular, shorter than the tube, spine-tipped.^{[IFBC-E-flora-2]}
  Fruits: Nutlets, 4 clustered together.^{[IFBC-E-flora-2]}
• Habitat/Range: Moist to mesic forests, forest margins, swamps, thickets and clearings in the lowland zone; infrequent in coastal BC; N to S AK and S to CA. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]-2}
• Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora]-2

Ecological Indicator Information
"Shade-tolerant/intolerant, sub montane to montane, Pacific North American forb. Occurs in cool mesothermal climates on very moist to wet, nitrogen-rich soils. Occurrence decreases with increasing latitude, elevation, and continentality. Sporadic in the herbaceous understory of broad-leaved forests on water-receiving (floodplain) sites. Commonly associated with Adiantum pedatum, Athyrium filix-femina, Circaea pacifica, Oplopanax horridus, Tiarella trifoliata, and Tolmiea menziesii. A nitrophytic species characteristic of Moder and Mull humus forms.[IPBC](Information applies to coastal locations only)"^{[IPBC-E-flora-2]}

Edible Uses

• Nectar: Food-Quinault Unspecified Honey sucked out of the blossoms and used for food. ^{[NAEth Moerman]}

Other Uses

• Cooking Tool: Quinault/Makah Cooking Tools Plants used to cover steaming sprouts. ^{[NAEth Moerman]}

Medicinal Uses

• Dermatological Aid: Green River group and Puyallup; Plant used for boils. ^{[NaEth Moerman]}

Woundwort - Stachys palustris

• Habitat/Range: Northern climates. ^{[Sturtevant EPW]} "Wet stream and lake margins, meadows and roadside ditches in the steppe zone; infrequent in S BC east of the Coast-Cascade Mountains; circumpolar, N to AK, YT and NT, E to NF and S to NY, OH and AZ; Eurasia."
  Status: Native. ^{[IFBC-E-flora-5]}

Food Use

• Root: "Stachys palustris L. (marsh woundwort)—whose swollen tubers were commonly known as ‘pig tails’.... One of the correspondents provided this interesting piece of information: »The peasantry is greedy for this food that is sometimes thrown up by the plough. The poorer ones send their brood to gather the pig tails for food, but the wealthier are ashamed to do so. They gather it surreptitiously, perhaps at night in order not to be seen«." ^{[Svanberg EE]} "...herbaceous perennial and arable weed of river margins and marshes, widespread in northern Europe; rhizomes dried and powdered into flour or rhizomes eaten cooked, sometimes raw; used in northern Europe (mainly in Poland) until the turn of the 19th and 20th century."^[ETWP] "Lightfoot says the roots have been eaten in times of necessity, either boiled or dried and made into bread. Henfrey says the fleshy, subterranean rhizomes are sometimes collected as a table vegetable. Loudon says these, when grown on rich moist soil, are white, crisp and agreeable to the taste." ^{[Sturtevant EPW]} "Woundwort... is important for its edible tuberous roots, rather than as flavoring. These tubers are gathered after the plants go dormant in late fall or winter, which presents the problem of finding and identifying the dead plants. They are a valuable winter food, and can be eaten raw, boiled, fried in tempura or pickled." ^{[Tozer UWP]} "rhizomes, eaten raw, dried or powdered into flour added to soups, formerly famine food, then as children's snack". ^{[Luczaj, 2008]}
• Shoots: "Johnson says the young shoots, though of agreeable taste, are of disagreeable smell but may be eaten as asparagus." ^{[Sturtevant EPW]} "The new leaf shoots can be eaten raw, or cooked, in spring." ^{[Tozer UWP]}
• Alcohol Additive: "In Galicia, Stachys palustris was used in the making of vodka, while its roots were consumed during pre-harvest (Łuczaj et al. 2011)." ^{[Svanberg EE]}

Medicinal Use

• Fresh & Dried Herb ^[PDR]
  • Chemistry:
    • Iridoide monoterpenes ^[PDR]
    • Betaines: (-)- and (+)stachydrine ^[PDR]
    • Flavonoids: including among others palustrin ^[PDR]
  • Activities: Woundwort is said to be a disinfectant, an antispasmodic and a cure for wounds.
  • "Unproven Uses: The herb is used externally for the treatment of wounds and internally for abdominal pain, cramps, dizziness, fever, gout and menstrual disorders." ^[PDR]
  • Dosage: As an extract or poultice for external application.^[PDR]
• Tea: Boiled and drunk as a medicinal tea. ^{[Pieroni EBDBalk]}
• A wash, or poultice, of the leaves has long been used as a wound herb to stop bleeding. ^{[Tozer UWP]}
• Smoke: The leaves of some species have been added to herbal smoking mixtures. ^{[Tozer UWP]}

Cultivation: "In China and France the related S. sieboldii is cultivated as a root vegetable, and other species could be. They are grown from seed or tubers in light, moist soil. Be careful where you put them, as they can become weeds. Keep them confined, and try not to spread the tubers around when you harvest." ^{[Tozer UWP]}

Uses of other Related Sp.

Stachys officinalis - Wood Betony, Common hedgenettle, Betony, Woundwort

• Syn: S. betonica. Benth. Betonica officinalis.
  
• Range: Europe, including Britain, south and east from Sweden to Spain, Italy, Greece and the Caucasus.^[PFAF]

Hazards

• "The root of betony is toxic, and should be used only under medical supervision." ^[GrowHerbs]
• "Only Chevallier among the modern writers warns against taking betony during pregnancy." ^[TWHT]
• "Because uterine stimulation can occur, betony should not be used during pregnancy. Do not give this herb to children, and avoid using it during breastfeeding until more research is available." ^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}
• "An excessive dose can produce pain, nausea, and vomiting." "Morton (1975a) warned of the carcinogenic potential of tannin overconsumption, which might be a problem for anyone addicted to betony tea. Bunney (1992) stated that in large doses betony can be purgative and emetic."^{[Small CH]}
• Contraindications:
  • "Antihypertensives: The hypotensive effects of betony may increase the action of antihypertensives; avoid concurrent use." ^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}

Edible Uses

• Tea: "The leaves and flowering tops make a good tea substitute. Refreshing and aromatic[21, 100, 183], it has all the good qualities of tea without the negative ones[4]." ^[PFAF] "Its employment as a culinary herb is limited to occasional use as a herb tea, although the leaves have also sometimes been used as a spice with meat (Duke 1985). The leaves have a somewhat bitter and salty flavor (Morton 1976)." ^{[Small CH]}

Other Uses

• Dye: A fine yellow dye is obtained from the leaves[4].^[PFAF] "All parts of the plant can be used as a yellow plant dye for textiles." ^[GrowHerbs]
• lore: "...round the house, it protects it from witchcraft." ^{[DPL Watts]}
• Hair Rinse: "A hair rinse made from an infusion of the leaves, to be used after washing the hair, will darken gray hair." ^[GrowHerbs]

Medicinal Uses

"Medicinally, it was claimed that it could cure over 47 different ailments, including “elf sickness” in the 10th century, and was used as a tobacco and snuff in the 18th century. It is taken for nervous disorders, and should be used only under medical supervision." ^[GrowHerbs] "... it is in very common use amongst herbalists in the UK, the authors included, primarily as a nerve tonic with special reference to the head, and thus a reliever of headaches. Clearly this action cannot be directly linked to its tannin content, except in cases of headache from sinusitis and head colds..." ^[TWHT] "Wood betony was at one time commonly used as a medicinal plant in the treatment of a wide range of disorders, especially as a nervine and tonic for treating maladies of the head and as an external application to wounds[4, 7, 238]. It also stimulates the digestive system and the liver, having an overall tonic effect upon the body[254]. Wood betony is much less used nowadays, and more often forms part of a mixture of herbs[4].... It is taken in the treatment of 'frayed nerves', pre-menstrual complaints, poor memory and tension[254].... A pinch of the powdered herb will provoke violent sneezing and it has been used as part of a herbal snuff mixture in the treatment of headaches[4]." ^[PFAF]

• Harvesting: "The whole herb can be collected, dried and preserved as with other leafy plants. Michael (1980) gives detailed instructions: tie betony into bundles of five or six stems and hang upside­down in a warm airy room; when quite dry, strip the leaves and flowers and crumble finely; store in a tightly closed jar away from light." ^{[Small CH]}
• Whole Plant:
  • "The whole plant is collected when in flower in the summer and can be dried for later use[4, 254]." ^[PFAF]
    • Activities: "It is anthelmintic, antiseptic, astringent, carminative, mildly cathartic, cholagogue, digestive, diuretic, mildly emetic, emmenagogue, expectorant, nervine, sedative, sternutatory, tonic and vulnerary[4, 9, 14, 21, 165, 218]." ^[PFAF]
    • Internally: "Reducing high stomach acidity (tea); for bronchitis, coughs, asthma (tea)" ^{[Pieroni EBDBalk]}
    • Externally: "For skin complaints: wounds, burns (compress made of tea)" ^{[Pieroni EBDBalk]}
• Homeopathic: "A homeopathic remedy is made from the fresh plant[9]. It is used in the treatment of asthma and excessive perspiration[9]." ^[PFAF]
• Tea:
  • "There is a Cumbrian recommendation to drink betony tea for indigestion (Newman & Wilson), and in Somerset a cure for headache is to drink the tea hot (Tongue. 1965)." ^{[DPL Watts]}
  • "Gypsies, too, take an infusion of the fresh leaves to relieve stomach trouble, and they make an ointment from the juice of fresh leaves and unsalted lard to remove the poison from stings and bites (Vesey-Fitzgerald)." ^{[DPL Watts]}
• Combinations: "It can be taken in combination with herbs such as comfrey, Symphytum officinale, and lime flowers, Tilia species, to treat sinus headaches and congestion[254]. Wood betony can be taken on its own, or with yarrow, Achillea millefolium, to staunch nosebleeds[254]." ^[PFAF] "Trull... proposes combinations of herbs: betony with skullcap Scutellaria lateriflora or valerian Valeriana officinalis for nervous headaches, with elder flower Sambucus nigra for headache from a cold or chill, with milk thistle Silybum marianum for memory loss, and Hool’s mix with skullcap and rosemary for neuralgia or ischaemia of the head." ^[TWHT]
• Flowers & Leaves
• "There is, too, an injunction to chew a fresh betony leaf to prevent drunkenness before a party (Conway)." ^{[DPL Watts]}
  • Dosage
    • "Adult PO tea, infusion, gargle, or smoked" ^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}
    • "Adult PO tincture: 2-4 ml bid-tid" ^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}
• Unspecified Part:
• "Quincy describes betony as ‘accounted by all a very good cephalick’ and proposes its inclusion in a herbal tobacco, the smoking of which corrects rheums in the head." ^[TWHT]
  • Actions:
• Astringent (diarrhea) ^{[Nigg PRMA]} "The astringent and antidiarrheal actions of betony are a result of its high tannin content." ^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}
• "The antihypertensive effect of betony may result from glycosides present in the herb. Stachydrine, one of the chemical components in this herb, is a systolic depressant." ^{[Skidmore-Roth MHH]}
• "Musa affirms emmenogogic as well as diuretic actionsfor betony." ^[TWHT]
• "Where Quincy recommends a decoction after a hard labour, he is referring to the herb’s tonic effect" ^[TWHT]
• Wood suggests betony for Parkinson’s disease, stroke and as a restorative after concussion, as well as for insomnia. ^[TWHT]
• Eightythree patients with chronic cholecystitis and cholangitis received stachyglen (total flavonoids from the herb Stachys neglecta) for 3–4 weeks and it was found that stachyglen exerts a choleretic effect (Peleshchuk et al 1974). ^[TWHT]

Phytochemicals: "The leaves contain about 15% tannins, 0.5% betaine, 0.5% caffeic acid, and other compounds (Duke 1985). The chief alkaloids present are betonicine and stachydrine (Stuart 1979). The plants also contain several different iridoids (Jeker et al. 1989)." ^{[Small CH]}

"Studies have shown antioxidant activity in a range of Stachys species and found a correlation with the concentration of polyphenols (Háznagy-Radnai et al 2006, Matkowski & Piotrowska 2006, Khanavi et al 2009) although Vundać et al (2007) argue that only the scavenging of free radicals is significant. Matkowski & Piotrowska (2006) included Stachys officinalis in their research into the antioxidant activity of several medicinal herbs. Betony, along with white horehound Marrubium vulgare, showed itself the strongest of the plants tested in inhibiting lipid oxidation." ^[TWHT]

"Until further research is forthcoming, this former panacea is probably better considered in practice as a tonic, not only of the nervous system but of the digestive system also, owing to its bitter, aromatic and spasmolytic qualities. It should not be forgotten as a herb for respiratory catarrh, while its virtue as a diuretic and urinary herb and with regard to hypertension, prohibition in pregnancy, or its true effects on the bowel should be subject to further testing, including, where ethical, clinical trials." ^[TWHT]

Cultivation: "This herb tolerates most situations. For preference, plant betony in a fertile soil in sun or partial shade. Another favored site for the plant is at the edge of deciduous woodland. I have also grown it to great effect in a container mixed with other wildflowers, using a loam-based substrate." ^[GrowHerbs]

Stachys sp;

• Host (Stink Bug): "Cosmopepla conspicillaris CONSPICUOUS STINK BUG ADULT Black with narrow white margins...BODY LENGTH 7 mm. NYMPH ...abdomen light yellow with black spots. FOOD Adult and nymph: Plants. FOUND Throughout the region. I have seen adults and nymphs in large numbers on hedge nettle (Stachys spp.)..." ^{[Haggard IP]}

Use of Various other Sp.

• Phenylpropanoid glycosides are common in Stachys Spp. ^{[Pengelly TCMP]}
• Unspecified Species; "...a decoction of Stachys (called “herb of fear”) used as a bath to wash out fears..." ^{[Seeram HM]}
• STACHYS (Hedge Nettle, Woundwort) - FLOWERING HERB. Tincture [Fresh Plant, 1:2, Dry Plant, 1:5, 50% alcohol], 1/2 to 1 teaspoon, to 4X a day. Standard Infusion, as needed, and topically as a poultice. ^{[Moore(1995)]}

References

• [Antifungal] Antifungal Plants of Iran: An Insight into Ecology, Chemistry, and Molecular Biology, Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh, Masoomeh Shams-Ghahfarokhi and Mahendra Rai, Antifungal Metabolites from Plants, 2013
• [E-flora]
• Stachys chamissonis, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Stachys chamissonis&redblue=Both&lifeform=7 [Accessed: 12/2/2014]
• [2]Stachys mexicana, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Stachys%20mexicana&redblue=Both&lifeform=7 [Accessed: 12/2/2014]
• [3] Stachys arvensis, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Stachys%20arvensis&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Nov 6, 2016
• [4] Stachys byzantina, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Stachys%20byzantina&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Nov 6, 2016
• [5] Stachys palustris, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Stachys%20palustris&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, Accessed Nov 7, 2016
• [Jepson] John B. Nelson, 2013. Stachys, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?tid=45338, accessed on Aug 7 2014
• Luczaj, 2008 - Archival data on wild food plants used in Poland in 1948, Łukasz Łuczaj, Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2008, 4:4 doi:10.1186/1746-4269-4-4
• Naghibi,2005 - Labiatae Family in folk Medicine in Iran: from Ethnobotany to Pharmacology Farzaneh Naghibi, Mahmoud Mosaddegh, Saeed Mohammadi Motamed and Abdolbaset Ghorbani, Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research (2005) 2: 63-79
• [PFAF] Stachys officinalis, Plants For A Future, Accessed November 16, 2014
• Rigat,2015 - Plants with topical uses in the Ripollès district (Pyrenees, Catalonia, Iberian Peninsula): Ethnobotanical survey and pharmacological validation in the literature, Montse Rigat, Joan Vallès, Ugo D'Ambrosio, Airy Gras, Jaume Iglésias, Teresa Garnatje, Journal of Ethnopharmacology 164 (2015) 162–179