Fundamental of Surveying by KZS

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FurmAI,lENTALS OF SURVEYING
by S.K.Roy
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Contents

'1,
Preface xi
1. INTRODuctION
1-6
1.1 Definition 1
[,2 Classification of Surveying
1.3 HistoryofSurveying 2
1.4 ModemTrendsin Surveying 4
[.5 The Shope and Sizeof the Earth 4
1.6 Horizontal and LevelDistances 5
References 9
2. ERRORS IN
'7-28 ..
2.1 .'Introduction 7
2.2 Types of Errors 7
2.3 Accuracyand Precision of Measurements 8
2.4 Natureof RandomErrors 8
, .
_.)
Measuresof Precision 11
2.6 The E
9U
and Errors 12
2.7 Propagation of Random Errors 13
2.8 Error ofaSeries 20
2.9 Error ofaMean 21
2.10 Weighcs of Measurements 22 . .
2.11 Theory of LeastSquaresApplied to Observations of Unequal
Weights 22
2.12 Calculating Weights andCorrections to FieldObservations 23
Problems 27
3. MEASUREMENTOF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES 29-,6.1
3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Methods of Measuring Horizontal Distances 29
..
:>.:> ChainingandTaping Accessories 30
',.'
3.4 Measurement byChain 33
3.5 Reductions to Measurement inSlope 34
3.6 Sysrematic Errorsin LinearMeasurement byChalnor Tape:' 37
3.7 Random Errors 40
3.8 ChainandTapeSurveyofa FklJ 48
3.9 Errorin 50
v
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vi Contents
3.10 Instrumentsfor SettingOutRightAngles 51
3.11 Miscellaneous Problems inChaining 53
3.12. FieldWorkfor ChainSurveying 58
Problems 62
t" ELECTRONIC DISTA:\CE 65-85
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 BasicConcepts 65
4.3 Classificationof Electromagnetic Radiation 66
4.-+ BasicPrincipleof Electronic DistanceMeasurement 68
4.5 Computingthe Distance fromthe PhaseDifferences 69
4.6 BriefDescriptionof Different Typesof Instruments 71
4.7 TotalStation Instruments 73 .
4.8 Effectof Atmospheric Conditions on Wave Velocity 74
4.9 .Instrumental ErrorsinEDM 75
4.10 Reduction of SlopeMeasurements inEDM 76
References 84
Problems 84
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LEVELLING I 86-116
5.1 Introduction 86
5.2 BasicDefinitions S6
5.3 Curvatureand Refraction 87
.sA LevellingInstruments 89
::;.5 Classificationof Surveying Telescope 91
5.6 LensFormula 92
5.7 Engineer's Levels 95
I
5.8 TiltingLevel 103
5.9 Automaticor Self-levelling Level 104
5.10 Some ImportantOptical Terms 106
5.11 Some ImportantOptical Defects 107
5.12 The LevellingSl:lff 108
5.13 P:lr:lllel PI:lte Micrometer 110
5.14 TemporaryAdjustments ofa DumpyLevel 112
:3.15 TermsUsed in Levelling 114
5.16 DifferentMethodsof Levelling 114
Problems JJ5
6. LEVELLING II 117-155
6.1 Introduction 117
6.2 Differential Levelling 117
6.3 LevelBook 118
6.4 .Checkingof Levels 127
6.5 Errorsin Levelling 128
6.6 Reducinz Errors
..
:1nJ Eliminatinz Mistakes in Levellins
.....
130
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Contents vii
6.7 Collimntion Correction 131
6.8 CheckLevelling 135
6.9 Fly Levelling 135
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6.10 ProfileLevelling 136
6.11 CrossSectional Levelling 139
6.12 Reciprocal Levelling 142
6.13 TwoPegTest 144
6.14 ThreeWire Levelling 146
-6.15 Error, Adjustment andPrecision ofLevel 147
Problems 152
156-161
7. PERMANENTADJUSTMENTS OF LEVELS
7.2 Permanent Adjustments ofa Dumpy Level 156
7.3 Adjustments of aTiltingLevel 159
7.4 Adjustments ofAutomatic Level 160
Problems 161
162-172
8. ANGLES
8.2 Different Types of Horizontal Angles 162
8.3 Direction of aLine 164
8.4 Bearings 164
8.5 Azimuths 165
173--196
9:
CQi,,!PASS SURVEY
9.1
Introduction 173
9.2
Principle ofCompass
173
9.3
Declination 173
9.4
Prismatic Compass
174
9.5
Surveyor'sCompass
176
9.6. Trough Cornpass 177
.9.7
Magnetic Declination Problem
179
9.8
Compass Traverse
184
9.9 Local Auractlon
185
9.10 Adjustment of 1I Compass Traverse
191
9,11 Errors inCompass Surveying
192
Reference 193
Problems 193

10. THEODOLITES
10.1 lntrcduction 197
10.2 Main Pansof 1I Vernier Theodolite 197
!OJ Some B:15k Definitions ::!D3
IDA Fundamental Planes and Lines ofaTheodolite 203
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10.5
10.6
10.7
r
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
10.12
10.13
10.14
FundamentalOperations of theTheodolite 205,
Verniers 206
Accurate Measurement of anAngle
Errorsin TheodoliteAngles 213
MistakesinTheodolite Angles 223
PermanentAdjustments of aVernierTheodolite 223
Micrometer Microscope 227
OpticalTheodolites
ElectronicTheodolites 231
MeasuringAngles withDirectionTheodolites 232
11. TRAVERSE SuRVEY
ILl
1l.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
I J.l0
lUI
11.11
I J. J3
11,14
1J. J5
Problems 237
2H-283,
Introduction 141
Deficienciesof OpenTraverse 242
ClosedTraverse 142
MeasurementofTraverseAngles 242
Measurementof Lengths 244
SelectionofTraverse Stations 245
Angle Misclosure 246
Traverse Balancing 248
Checksin an Oren Traverse 249
Methodsof TraverseAdjustments 250
Rectangular Coordinates 252
Gale's TraverseTable 253
UscofAnalytical Geometryin SurveyComputations 257
Problemsof Ornined . 266
Finding inTraversing 275
Problems 279
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12. CURVES 284-349
11.1
12.1
12.3
12A
\2.5
11.6
\2.7
12.8
\2.9
12.10
,12.11
12.12
Introduction .284
BasicDeli nitions 284
Intersectionof a LineandCircle 298
CompoundCurve 310
Reverse Curve ::; \8
TransitionCurve 32\
Centrifuga] Ratio 323
Length of TransitionCurve 323
IdealTransition Curve 325
Characteristicsof aTransitionCurve 332
Setting Out the Combined Curve 335
The Lemniscate Curve 336
Problems 3-/7
l
c.
Contents ix
350-3iO
13. VERTICAL CURVES
13.2 GeneralEquationof a Parabolic Curve 351
13.3 Computntions for an UnequalTangent Curve 353
13.4 Highor LowPoint on a Vertical Curve 353
13.5 Vertical CurvePassingthrough aFixedPoint 354
13.6 Designof VerticalCurve 355
13.7 Sight Distnnce of Vertical Curves ataSag 358
Problems 369
371-40$9
1.t AREASANDVOLUMES
14.2 Methods of MeasuringArea 371
14.3 Volumes 385
14.4 Volume through Transition 395
14.5 Volume from Spot Levels 397
14.6 Volume bySimpson's CubatureFormula 398
14.7 Volume fromContourPlan 400
14.8 MassHaul Curve 403'
References 445
Problems 445
...
15. TACHEOMETRY 450-499
15.2 Instruments 450
15.3 DifferentTypesofTncheometric),lensurements 451
15.4 Principles of Stadia Method 452
15.5 InternalFocussingTelescope .456
15.6 Determination ofTacheometer Constants 457
15.7 Distanceand ElevationFormulae 458
15.8 Movable HairMethod 461
15.9 Jangentinl Systemof Measurement 463
15.10 Subtense Bar 464
15.11 Computations withIncompleteIntercepts 465
15.12 Relative Merits ofHoldingthe StaffVertical orNormal 473
15.13 Problems in PracticalApplication ofTnngentiul Method '476
15.14 Tacheometric Calculationsand Reductions 480
15.15 ErrorsinTacbeometricSurveying, 486
15.16 UsesofTacheometry 486
15.17 vIiscellaneous Examples 487
Reference 496
Prob/ellls 496
.. 500-525
16. PLANE TABLE SURVEYING
16) EquiprnentsRequired 500

16.3 Working withPlane Table 504
16,4 Different MethodsofPlaneTableWork 505
16.5.
Errors in PlaneTable 511
16,6 Advantages andDisadvantages ofPlaneTableSurvey 512
16.7 Analytical andGraphical Solutions 514
Problems 524
17. TOPOGRAPHICALSt.:RVEYl:\G 526-537 c,
17.2 Control forTopographic Surveys 526
17.3 Plotting of Contours 527
j7.4 Characteristics of Contour 528
17.5 Methods of-Locating Contours 529
17.6 Field MethodsofObtainingTopography 530
17.7 Sources of Errorsin Topographical Surveys 531
17.8 Interpolation ofContours 532
17.9 Uses of Contours 532
Problems 536
18.. COi\STRUCTIONSURVEYI:\G 538-547
18.2 Equipments forSetting Out 538
18.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control 538
18A Selling Out a PipeLine 539
18.5 Selling Out of Buildings andStructures 541
18.6 StakingOut a Highway 543
19.U!\DERGROU;\D SURVEYS 548-579
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Application of Underground Surveys
19.3 Aligning theTheodolite 551
1904 Determination ofAzimuth byGyroscope 553
19.5 Weisbach Triangle 555
19.6 Problems inTunnel Survey 566
19.7 Analytical Derivations of Underground Surveys, 566
Problems 5iB
20. CO:,\IPUTE,R SURVEYI;\G 580-595
20.2 Explanation of thePrograms 580
.4l1slI'ers to Problems 597-600
Bibliograplzj' 601
Index 603-606
!,

.. Preface

Modern surveying involves useof sophisticated scientific instruments. mathematical -
methods and computational techniques. In writing this book on surveying. I have
tried therefore to explain comprehensively the principles of surveying instruments
and derivarion of mathematical formulae. Separate chapters have been written on
'Underground Surveys' and 'Computer Programs in Surveying' to incorporate the
recent developments in this field. .
I acknowledge my gratefulness to ail the authors listed in the Bibliography
as their works form the background of this book. I am also deeply indebted to
Mr. John Gamer and Dr. John Uren of the University of Leads. Dr. R. Baker of
the University of Salford; Engineering Council (UK). the Institution :of Civil
Engineers (UK) andotherUI< universities for permitting me to use theirquestions
in this book. I have also utilized the-questions from the examinations conducted
by the Institution of Engineers (India) and some figures and tablesof the standards
prepared by the Bureau of Indian Standards. for which I express my sincere
thanks to them. I amgrateful tomycolleague in the Civil Engineering Department,
Dr. K.K. Bhar, who rendered immense help by collaborating with me in writing
the chapter on 'Computer Programs in Surveying'.
I 'owe' my gratitude to the Vice Chancellor, Bengal Engineering College
(Deemed University), my colleagues in the Civil Engineering Department and to
the staff of the University Library for extending full cooperation during the long
and arduous task of writing this book.
I wish to express my appreciation to my wife, Subrata and my sons and
daughters-in-law, Santayan and Riya, Saptak and Bamali, for their encouragement
. and support throughout the course of writing the manuscript.
Finally, I express my deep appreciation to my publishers Prentice-Hall of .
India for their excellent work in editing the book thoroughly. .
S,K. Roy
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Introduction
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1.1 DEFINITION
Surveying is basic to engineering. Before any engineering work can be started we
must prepare a plan or map of the areashowing topographical details. Thisinvolves
both horizontal and vertical measurements.
Engineering surveying is defined as those nctivities involved in the planning
and execution of surveys for the location, design, construction, operation and
maintenance of civil and other: engineering projects. The surveying activities
are:
1. Preparation of surveys and related mapping specifications.
..
2.. Execution of photogrammetric and field surveys for the collection of
required data including topographic and hydrographic data. .
3. Calculation, .reduction and plotting cf survey data for use in engineering
design. '
4. Design and provision of horizontal and vertical control survey networks.
5. Provision of line and grade and other layout work for construction and
mining activities..
Thus the scope of surveying is very wide and inter-disciplinary in character.
Basically it involves accurate measurements and accurate computations. In surveying
we use modern sophisticated instruments, e.g. electronic instruments for
measurements and modern computational tools, e.g. computers for accurate
mathematical computations. Hence thorough knowledge of basic science-say,
physics and mathematics-c-is required in grasping modern surveying.
.\
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING .....
Surveying is a very old profession and can be classified in many different ways.
Classification Based 01l Accuracy oj Two general classifications of surveys
are geodetic. and plane. If! geodetic surveying the curvature of the earth is taken
into account. Surveys are conducted with a high degree of accuracy. However in
plane surveying. except for levelling, the reference base for field work and
computations is assumed to be a flat horizontal surface. The error caused by
I
.2 Fundamentals of Surveying
assuming the earth to be a plane area is not serious jf the area measured is small
say, within ..
Classification Based 011 Usc or Purpose of Resulting Slap. This canbe classified
:IS follows:
(a) Control surveys establish a network of horizontal and vertical points that
serve as a reference framework for other SUT\'e)'s.
(b) Topographic surveys show the natural features of a country such as
rivers, streams, lakes, forests, hills, etc.
(c) Land, boundary or cadastral surveys establish property linesand corners.
(d) Hydrographic surveys define the shore lines and depth of water bodies,
e.g. oceans" reservoirs and lakes.
(e) Route surveys are done as a preliminary to construction of roads 'and
railways.
(f) Mine surveys are done above and below the ground to guide mining
operations under ground.
Classification Based on Equipments Used. In chain, theodolite, plane table;
tacheornetric surveys, theequipment named is the major equipment used in survey
work. Inphotogrammetric surveying, major equipment is a photogramrnetric camera.
Classiflcation Based 011 Position of Instruments. When measurement is done
on the ground by say chain, tope or electronic distance measuring equipments it
is ground survey; when photographic observations ore token from air; it is aerial
survey,
1.3 HISTORY OF SURVEYIKG
The earliest preserved writings on surveying ore those of Heron the Elder; a Greek
who lived in Alexandria about 150-100 B.C. His writings include a treatise,
Dioptra (Surveyor's Transit); 0 geometry book, Measurement; and an optical work,
Mirrors. In Measurement, he describes the method used in determining the area
of 0 triangle from the lengths of three sides. Thedioptra couldbe used for measuring
angles and levelling (Fig. l.l). '.
In contrast to the Greeks, the Romans were more interested in practical
applications of mathematics and surveying for civil and military works. To layout
a route fora road theRoman surveyors used a few simple instruments forestablishing
horizontal lines and right angles. For Joying out right angles, they used a groma
adopted from an Egyptian device. For long distance measurement between cities,
theRomans had an ingenious invention, the hotlotneter, With the fall of the Roman
empire, the ancient civilized world came to an end. All technical disciplines,
including surveying were no longer needed when even the basic laws protecting
life and property could not be enforced.
During the Dark ages, the" art of surveying was.almost forgouen. It was not
until the beginning of Renaissance that a revival in exploration trade created
Introduction 3
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Fig. 1.1 Heron's dioptra.
new interest in western world in navigation, astronomy, cartography and surveying.
During the thirteenth century, the magnetic compass \vas invented by Neckarn, Don
Englishman DoS an aid to navigation.
In 1571 Thomas Digges an English mathematician known as the father of
.modern surveying published a book describing a new "topographical instrument"
developed from the quadrant which became known. as the "theodelitus", This
simple instrument had all the essential features of modern theodolite except for
the telescope. .
The plane table was described almost in its present form by Jean Practorius
in 1590.
Development of the telescope in the late sixteenth century greatly increased
the speed and accuracy of surveying. Although several scientists share credit for
this discovery, it was Galilee Galilei who perfected the instrument in 1609:
The first man who attempted to tie established points together by triangu-
latlon was a young Dutch mathematics professor Willebrod Snellvan Roijen .
(1531-1626). .
B)' the end of the eighteenth century many instruments and tools used by
modern surveyors had been developed. The Construction and Principal Uses of
Mathematical Instruments published in 1723 by French writer Nicholas Bion
showed sketches of rulers, compasses, dividers. protractors. and pantograph. Also
shown were ropes, rods, chains and pins for surveying plus angle and level
instruments mounted on tripods. Advances of eighteenth century left nineteenth
century engineers and surveyors a remarkable heritage in tools and instruments.
Surveying methods and instruments used at the beginninj; of the twentieth
century were basically the sameas those used in the nineteenth century. However.
new licht weizht metals and more advanced callibration techniques in
development lighter and more accurate instruments needed for the precise
layout requirements of high speed railroads and highways.
- --- --- ----------
4 Fundamentals of Surveying
Use of aerial photography for mapping began in the 1910s, and advanced
rapidly during the following decades. By 1950 photogramrnctric methods had
revolutionized survey procedures, especially in route surveying andsite selection.
1,4 MODERN SURVEYI:\G
Recent developments in photogrammetric and surveying equipment have been
closely associated with advances in electronic and computer technologies. Electronic
distance measuring instruments for ground surveying now are capable of printing
output data in machine-readable language for computer input andlor combining
distance and angle measurements for direct readout of horizontal and vertical
distances to the nearest 0.001 of a centimetre. Theincorporation of data collectors.
andelectronic field.books with interfaces to computer, printer, andplotterdevices
has resulted in the era of total station surveying. -
The recent refinement in global positioning systems and techniques developed
for' military navigation has led to yet another dramatic change in surveying
instrumentation. Inertial surveying, with its miniaturized packaging of accelerometers
and gyroscopes and satellite radio surveying have already revolutionized geodetic
control surveying and promises to impact all phases of the sun-eying process.
The principal change in levelling instruments has been widespread adoption
of the automatic level. in which the main level bubble has been replaced with a
pendulum device which afterthe instrument has been roush levelled, automatically
levels the line of sight. Lasers are being used fOT acquisiticn of vertical control
data in photograrnrnetry and for providing line and grade in construction relat'ea
surveying,
As a result of the technological breakthroughs in surveying and mapping the
survey engineer of 1990s must be beuer trained in a much broaderfield of science
than the.surveyorof.even a decade ago. A background in higher mathematics,
computer technology, photogrammetry, science and electronics is necessary
for today's survey engineer to compete in this rapidly expanding discipline.
1.5' THE SHAPE A!'D SIZE OF THE EARTH
Since in surveying we are mainly concerned with measurements on the surface of
the earth, it is necessary to know as fully as possible the shape and size of the
earth. The surface of the earth is not of a regular shape because of presence of
mountains in some parts and oceans in other. This surface is the topographical
surface. The force and direction of gravity at each point varies with the shape of
the topographical surface. The surface which is normal to the direction of gravity
is defined as a geoid. It is the surface to which the waters of the oceans would
tend to conform if allowed to flow into very narrow and shallow canals cut
through the land. Geoid is veryirregular and to helpin mnthemnticnl computation
a spheroid (which is obtained by rotating an ellipse about its minor axis) is
assumed which nearly fits the shape of the earth. Different countries have their
own reference spheroid because they base their computations on the spheroid
which fits the geoid with part of earth's surface in their respective countries.
Introduction 5
Figure 1.2 shows the three surfaces. The angle between normal to geoid
and normal to the spheroid is known as deflection of lite vertical or station errol: .
The standard reference spheroid has the following dimensions:
Semi-major axis (/ = 6378388 m
Semi-minor axis b = m
. Flatteninzf == (/ - b = .0033670034
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Spheroid
x

A x: ,
Geoid
Q
PQ = to spheroid; RS =Normal to geoid: a = Deflection of the vertical.
Fig. 1.2 Approximate shape of the earth.
1.6 AND LEVEL DISTAKCES
A horizontal plane is perpendicular to the plumb line at a point but a level surface
is at all points perpendicular to.the local plumb line. The twosurfaces arecoincident
at the instrument station but diverge with increasing distance from it due to the
earth's curvature. Hence there is a technical difference' between a horizontal distance
(HO) and a level distance (LO). Figure 1.3 shows how horizontal distance is
measured in plane surveying and this distance is independent of elevation. Thus
; HO (1) is the right triangle component of the slope distance.
. However, of a long and/or steep distance measurement is be
preserved, then convergence of the plumb lines becomes important and horizontal
Plumb lines assumed
parallel
Vertical angle
. Horizontal distance
HD (1)
Fig. 1.3 Rig.ht horizontal distance,
I
distance becomes elevation dependent. Figure IA shows how horizontal distance
between two points can be variously defined when curvature of the earth of
various approximations are taken into account.
Fig, 1.4
o
Horizontal di.s,t:mce between two points. HD(2)':-The distance between two plumb
lines in a pJanetangent to theearth at the instrument station: ijD(3)---Thechord
distance between two plumb lines, The two end points have the same elevation
and the chord is perpendicular to the vertical (plumb line) glil>, at the chord mid.
point. HD(4)-The arc distance along some level surface between two plumb
lines. HD(S)-Ihe arc distance at mean sea level between two plumb,lines.
HD(6)-the distance along the geodesic on the el1ipsoid surface between IWO
plumb lines. ,0 =Centre of Earth.
REFERENCES
1. Cornmiuee on Engineering Surveying of the Surveying Engineering Division.
"Definition of the Term Engineering Surveying", Journal of the Sun'eying
Engineering. Vol. Ill, No. 3. August 1985. pp 161-164.
2. Kreisle, Williarn E., "Hlsrory of Engineering Surveying", Journal af Sun-eying
Engineering ASCE. Vol. 114, No.3. August 1988.
3. Sahanl, P.B., Ad"anced Surveying, Oxford & IBH, 1971.
4. Burkholder. EMI F.."Calculation of.HorizontallLevel Distances", Joumal afSun'eying
Engineering ASCE. Vol. 117. No.3; August 1991.
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Errors in Measurement
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Surveying isbasedonmeasurements andwhenever wetakemeasurements, sayof
. alengthorofanangle, wemakeerrors.Theseerrorsaredueto(i) Naturalcauses
(ii) Instrumental imperfectionsand(iii) .
Examplesof natural causes are variation in speed of \vind, temperature,
humidity. refraction,gravityand magnetic.declination. Atapeorchain which is
:normally of30 mlengthdoes notremainsoif thetemperature changesandas a
resulterrorinthemeasurementoflengthoccurs.Howeversophisticatedaninstrument
maybe,itisneverperfect.Graduations ofthehorizontalcircleofatheodoliteor
onalevellingrodmaynotbeperfectlyspacedandthismayleadtoerrors.Finally
therearelimitationsofthehumansensesofsightandtouch.Howevermuchwe
, maytry it is difficult to bisect exactlya rodwhiletaking measurements of an
. angle.
2.2 TYPES OF ERRORS
Very broadlyerrorsareof twotypes;
(a) Systematicor cumulative.' .
(b) Accidental, randomorcompensating.
Thethirdtype,l.e.mistakeorblundercannotbeclassifiedunderanycategoryof
error because theyare due to carelessness or callousness on the part of theobserver,
can be correctedonly if discovered. Comparingseveral measurements of
thesamequantityisoneof thebestwaysofisolatingmistakes:
Systematicerrors can always be corrected because their magnitude and sign
can both be determined. For example. if a chain is of standard length under a
particularpull andtemperature and if the pullor temperature changes. we can
compute its effect on the lengthof the chain. l.e. whetherit will increase or
decrease and byhowmuchandthenapply suitablecorrections.
Accidental. random orcompensatingerrors01\ theotherhand,aresubjectto
chanceandhence followthelawsofprobability,Themagnitude andsignoferrors
are not definitely known. They are sometimes positive. sometimes negative,
7

sometimes of small magnitude. sometimes of large magnitude and hence cannot
be computed or eliminated. However, by taking a large number of observations
we can make an estimate of magnitude of the error likely to be involved.
2.3 ACCURACY AND PRECISION OF MEASUREl\1ENTS
We have already said that whenever we take measurements we make errors.
Hence the true value of a measured quantity is never known. Accuracy is the
closeness or nearness of the measurements to the "true" or "actual" value of the
quantity being measured. The term precision (or repeatability) refers to the closeness
with which the measurements agree with each other. Figure. 2.1 explains the four
possibilities of measurements.
III
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III

True Value
0
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1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Measurement Measurement Measurement Measurement
Fig. 2.1 Accuracy and precision of measurements. 1st Measurement-accurate andprecise.
2nd Measurement-not accurate but precise. 3rd Measurement-not accurate;
not precise. 4th Measurement-accurate but not precise.
2.4 NATURE OF RANDOM ERRORS
Random errors or accidental errors are unpredictable both as regard to size and
algebraic signs.They are truly accidental and cannotbe avoided. There are, however,
three basic characteristics of random errors: (i) small errors are more frequent
than large errors; (ii) very large errors do not occur at all; and (iii) positive and
negative errors of the same size occur with equal frequency. .
The above three characteristics can be graphically represented by means of
a bell shaped curve called the probability clln'e or the normal error distribution
curve. Such a curve is shown in Fig. 2.2. The equation of the curve.is
}' = ke-
h2z 2
(2.1)
in which y is the relative frequency of occurrence of an error of a given size, x
is the size of the error, k and hare constants that determinethe shapeof the curve,
and e is the base of the natural logarithms. In practice true error is never known
as true value of a quantity cannot be determined. Instead, we find most probable
value and residual error. Most probable value is that value of a quantity that has
the most frequent chance of occurrence or that has the maximum probability of
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Errors in Measurement 9
! Y
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.0
x
Fig. 2.2 Prob3bility curve.
occurrence. The difference between the observed value and the most probable
value is known as residual error. A residual error is treated as a random error in
every .respect. It follows the laws of probability and can be expressed in the form
= ke-
h2u2
y (2.2)
where v is the residual error. Figure 2.3 shows the probability curve of residual
error.
y
o
VI-+!
Fig. 2.3 Probability curve of residual error.
y = k
e
-fl
2
V
2
v
The probability of residual error VI is the area of the probability curve at
this value. Area is equal to the ordinate of the probability curve at vI multiplied
by an arbitrary increment V. Hence
1,2u
2
. PVI = = ke" I
"
PU2 = = ke- 2 dV
- -
10 Fundamentals of Survcying
~ L1:!
PL'n = )'1I.:1V = ke" n L1V
According to the laws of probability; the probability that a set of events will occur
simultaneously is the product of theirseparate probabilities. Therefore theprobability
of residual error Ulo U:! .. '. Un occurring simultaneously is obtained by the product
of ", : .'
PL'Io PU2 .. . . PUn
Therefore
, 22' '2
, -II l ~ -Io"lIj -Io"t'"
P(UIo U:! U,,) =(ke L1V) (ke L1V) ... (ke n L1V)
'''OJ ,
=e L1V
n
e-h'(l'i +li +.. + l';>
(2.3)
The expression is maximum. i.e, probability is maximum when uf + ui + ... +'
u; is minimum. This gives us the theory of least squares which says that the most
probable value or the value of a quantity which has the maximum probability of
occurrence is obtained when sum of the squares of the residuals is minimum.
Let a quantity be.rneasured II number of times and let its value be 111
10
M:!
... , M". Let M be the most probable value. Then
, (. , '
Ul =M) - M Vj = 1.1, - M)-
; !
l):! =M
2
- M
, u ~ =("1,- M):!
U" = Mil - M
U,; = (M" - Af)2
Then from the theory of Ieast squares L u
2
i.e. (M, - M)2 + (M
2
- Mi + ... +
(M
n
- M)2 should be minimum. Thus
d ~ f 1: u
2
should be zero
2
d 't" ' h ld b ..
and --, J.. u- S ou e positive
dM-
PUlling
2
~ [ ( u ) = - 2(M, - M) - 2(A1
2
- Al) + .:. + - 2(M
n
- M)
=0
Ii
II
I!
'I
i
J
iJ
'll'
'%
i!
"

we get
11;11 +M
2
+1\.1
3
+.,.+lv/n
J'y' =
1
. n .
whichis nothing but the arithmeticmean oftheobserved values:
r v
2
=2 + 2 + 2 +....=a positive quantity indicating a minimum.
dAJ-
Inpractice the number of observations being limited. wegetthemostprobable
value by takingmeanof the observedvalues andinstead of true errorsweget
residuals byobtainingdeviationfromthe mean.
2.5 OF PRECISION
Though the shape of the curve moreor less remains the same, the spreador
2
dispersion changeswith the valuesof b and intheequation y =ke-
1h
. In
'0
Fig. 2.4(a) most of the data are close to themean value andhence the measurements
aremore precisethanin Fig. 2.4(b) where there isconsiderablescatter.
y y
..
Mean Mean
(a)
(b)
. Fig. 2.4 Dispersion oferror.
Statistically, precisioncan bemeasured bymeans ofaquantity a known as
standard deviation orstandard error andisgiven by
2
II:.v
a=,:-
(2.4)
111 - 1
where I =sumof thesquaresoftheresiduals
II =no.of measurements.
Thesmallera becomes thegreateristheprecision. Theterm(n- 1)inEq.2.4
represents the degree of freedom, i.e. number of extra measurements taken to
'determine avalue. a isalsoknown asestimated standard value asthedeviations
aremeasured notfromthetruevaluebutfrom themean value. Intermsofactual
measurements when theestimatedstandard deviation isknown theequationy =
canbe writtenas: .
Error v Error v
12 Fundamentals of SU0'eying
v = 1_
(2.5)
. O','2n
in which y is the relative frequency of occurrence of a residual of aiven size. This
- , 2
v
curve is known as the normal distribution cun'e. It is noted that}' = ke-
h
- is
the probability curve and Eq. (2.5) is the curve representing the distribution of
errors derived from an actual set of measurements. We then have
k = _1_, lz'l =_1_
O'../2i 20'2
As k andh increase. the precision of the measurements also increases. The quantity
h is known as the precision modulus of the measurements.
Example 2.1 measured six times, the observed values being
4923'00",4923'20",4922'40".4922'20",4923'40". and 4924'00". Calculate
the most probable value of the angle and the standard error of the measurement.
.. Standard deviation a =
Solution
Angle Residual v
4923'ooN
4923'20"
4922'40"
4922'20"
4923'40"
4924'00"
- 10"
. + 10"
- 30"
- 50"
+ 30".
+ 50"
100
100
900
2500
900
2500
L 6 x 49 + 139' L v = 7000
2
, r7
jll -
- + /'000
- -"-6-
'I - 1
= 37.41"
From the study of the residuals it can be observed that four residuals are
within 37.41". This is a characteristic of standard error.Approximately 2/3rd of
the residuals will lie within standard error.
2.6. THE E
so
E
90
A!'I"D E:RRORS
Similarly we can find out the limit within which 50, 90 and 95% of the errors will
lie. They bear a relation with standard error and are given by the following.
Ei = 0.6745 a
=1.6449 a
Egs =1.9599 a
Errors ill MeaslIremellt13
E
50
or 50% error was previously known as probable error i.e. the limit within
which 50% of the error will lie. This can also be interpreted as stating that an
error has equal chances of lying within this limit as outside it, i.e, the probability
of lying within the limit is 1/2.The term'probable error' is not used nowadays
as it isa misnomer. It does not indicate that this error.is more probable than any
other value. All these are explained in Fig. 2.5. . .
Probability of frequency
Value of error
Fig. 2.5 Typical probability curve showing 50' M.27' 90 and 95'
2.7 PROPAGATION OF R4.1'.'DOM ERRORS
Suppose a length is measured in three parts whose random errors are say E.r' E,.
. and E: respectively. Then the random error of the sum is given by. .
Probable error (50% area)(.6745a)
Standard error (68.27% area) (c)
/ EgO (1.6449a)
:/' E
g5
(1.9599a)
, ,
, .
,
.
. ,
.
-3a -2a -1a Mean +1a +2a +3a
This can be derived as follows (Fig. 2.6):
. I'
X
.:.
Y
'1
0
-----...,....---H--,.;-----O 0
A B C
It
U
Fig. 2.6 Propagation of random errors.
The length AC is measured in two parts AB and Be. Let
AB = X
BC= Y
AC= U
Then
U=x+Y
If X is the mean value of X. X
j
is any measured value and Xi corresponding
residual. Then we can write,
14 Fundamentals ofSurveying
X
2
= x+X2
X; = x+ X;
X
n
= x+x;
"
Similarly
Y
1
= y+ Y\ .
Y
2
=Y+)'2
.Y =y+Yn
n
IfiJ denotesthe mostprobablevalueof the sum of thetwodistances obtained
byadding X+ Yandif Ii; denotes thedifferences between iJ andthe valueV;
obtained by addingthe measurements X; +Y
j
then .
VI= U+1/) =X)+ Y
1
= X+xl + Y+)')
V
2
=U+1/2::X
2
+ Y
2
=X +X2 + Y+)'2
~ D ~ ~ ~ i ~ P h
But u=x+y
Hence
u\ =xl +)'1
U2 =Xz +)'2
I/n ='en +)'"
Squaringbothsidesand addinggives
, , 2 '
I/i =xi + XI)' +)r
u? =xi +2X2)'2 +)2
Z
1/2
n
=
2
+ 2x
n. n
+ V X
n
"
. "
2
Lit!=L).'- +2 Lx)'+Ll (2.6)
ThemeasurementsXj forABandthe measurementsY; forBeareindependentand.
uncorreJated andhencetheirresiduals also are independentanduncorreJated. In
sucha case thetermL.loy tendtozero.Hence Eq. (2.6)canbewrittenas
LIl
2
= L .-(l + Ll (2.7)
I

Dividing both sides by n .: 1
LII
2
_ Lx2 L)'2
----+--
1/-1 n-l 11-1
..
or a;,
=a;
+a;

and
au = a,; +a;

i.e. E
sum
= E; +E)7 (2.8)
The above deviations can be still more generalized with the help of calculus. Let
u =j{X, Y, Z.....Q)
wheneach independent variable is changed by a small quantity dX, dY, dZ and dQ
the total change dU in U is given by
au . su >:: au
dll ax' dx +aY' dy +... +aQ .dq
Taking dX as ."Cit dY as y; ... dQ as qi and dU as II;and putting I, 2. 3 etc. in place
of i, we get
au au au
III = ax
XI
+ay
YI
+ " ' + aQql
au au au
112 = ax X2 + aY Y2 + ... + aQ q2
au au au
I'll =ax '''C n + ay)i, + ... + oQ qn
(2.9)
Squaring both sides and adding
'! _ (aU)2 '2 ?(au)(auJ... . (au)'!.,! (au)'! '!
III - ax '''C
1
+- ax ay X\)I +... + ar )1 + aQ ql + ...
u - ? au au au - au - ..
(a ')( J
. = ax
+-l ax ar X2)2 +... + ar )' + aQ) qi +...

(au)'! (au)(au) (au)'! (au)':!
II,; = ax X,; +2 ax ar + ar + iJQ q,; +."
__
\Ve canrewritethisintheform
III
2
= Ix
2
+ 2( I.\),
, ,
au-'5' au-'5' 2 2
+(ay) +"'+(aQ) a q
(2.10)
+ othersquare terms+ crossproductterms
Ifthemeasuredquantities areindependentandarenotcorrelatedwithoneanother,
thecrossproductstendtozero.Then
2 au 2 au
)2
. 2
()2
2 .au
Iu =
(
ax
)
2
I.t +(ayIY + ... + aQ Iq
Diyiding bothsidesby (11 - 1),weget
III
2
(aU)2 Ix2 (au)2 I y2 (au)2 I q2
h'""':l =ax .11 - 1 + aI' nT- + ... + aQ . 11 - 1
(
.J'
or
2 _ au -. 2 au 2 . 2 au. :1 2
a/I - ax a,r + ( aI' ) 0'), +... + ( aQ) aq
(2.11)
Nowif U = X + I' + Z
(
au)2= (au)2= (au)2= 1
ax ay ez
... ., ., . .,
Hence
a,; =a; + a;
or a - /,..,2 + ,.., 2 + ,..2
""" "':
IfU =X-I', 0'2 =0'2 + 0'2
" :r ."
f' ,
or
au = 'Va; + (2.12)
If U = xr
au (au)2 2
aX = I' and ax = l'
Similarly
au . (aU)2 ,
al' =X and aI' = X-
Then 0'2 =1'1. 0'2 +X
2.
0'2
II s y
or
a =fr
2
a
2
+X
2
a
2
(2.13)
"" z }'
'"C\
,
Finally if-U =AX, where is aconstant
au =A
(
au):! =A2
and aX
ax
a
2
= A
2
. 0' 2
II ":t
or 0;, ;:A a.r (2.14)
Example 2.2 AlineAD is measured in threesections, AB, BC andCD with
length andstandard errorsas givenbelow:
AB= 125.85 m .021 m.
BC = 205.72 m .290m.
C ~ = 246.205 m .025m.
Whatis thestandarderrorinthetotal length AD?
Solution Here
AD'=AB+ BC+ CD
andisof theform
U=X+y+z
..
Applying Eq, (2.8),wehave
I' , ,
0'" = 'YO'; + 0';+ 0';
= ~ . 0 2 1 2+ (.290)2 + (.025)2
= .292 m.
Example 2.3 What is the area of therectangular field and its errorfor the
following data?sides85.45 0.012mby 145.050.020m
Solution Area = Length x Breadth
;: 85.45x 145.05
2
= 12394.523 m
Thisisof the formU= XY.
HenceapplyingEq.(2.13)
0'" = . 0 1 2 2 (145.05)2 + (.020)2 (85.45)2
2
= 2.439 m
Example 2.4 Twosidesand the included angle of a triangle were measured
with the following resultsa ;: 155.25 mand O'a = .03 rn, b =71.25m and
OiJ = .02m,C;:4020'and0'" =20". Compute theareaofthe triangle and
standard errorof thearea.
Solution
Areaof triangleA = ab sin C.
= X 155.25 X 71.25sin40
c20'
=3579.6817 m
2
Thestandarderror of theareafrom Eq.(2.11), is

' ,
aA - aA - aA

-
aA=\(aaa
ll
) +(ab
a b)
+(ac
a
..)
I
Here = b sin C=lx71.25 xsin 4020'
=23.05m
2/m
.
. = a sinC= x 155.25 xsin4020'
2/m.
=50.241 m
aA =1.ab :cosC=1. x71.25x 155.25 xcos4020'
aC 2 2
2/rad.
=4216.09 m
.. =20",expressed inradian
=20 x 0.00000485
=0.000097 rad.
dA=;J(23.05 x.03)2 +(50.241 X.02)2+(4216.09 ><0.000097)2
2
= 1.286 m
Example 2.5 One sideandtwoadjacent anglesofa trianglearemeasured in
ordertodeterminethe lengths oftheothertwosidesbecausethevertex opposite
themeasuredside is inaccessible (Fig.2.7),The sidec measures 320 .02m,
angleA measures 7030' 20"angleB measures 6010'40".Computeangle
C.side a andside b. Compute thestandard errorofeachquantity.
A
8 c
a
Fig.2.7 EX:lmple2.5
Errors ill Measurement 19
I
Fundamentals of Surveying
ab e cosB
as = sin C
_
-
320cos6010'
sin 4920'
= 209.88 mlradian
db sinB sin60010'
ac = sin C = sin
= 1.144 mlradian
(
' 2 2
2 ab- 2 ab 2 ab 2
"b = -) .Cfe +(-) '''B +(-) ."c:
- - de dB - de -
- -
-=(314.47)2 (44.72)2(.00000485)2 __
+ (209.88)2 (40 x .00000485i + (1.144i (:02i
=.006833
"b = .08266 m
2.8 ERROR OF A SERIES
Sometimes a series of similar quantities such as the length of a line are measured
a number of times with each measurement being in error by about the same
amount. The total error in the total series of measurement is called the error of
the series and is designated as E,eries' If the error in each measurement is E and
no. of such measurement is n then .
:.
. ! .,.., .,
E
m ie
, = + E- + E- + ." + upto11 terms
.-, r;;
= \'nE- = E... l1
The above equation shows that when the same error is repeated 11
is proportional to square root of the number of observations.
(2.15)
times, the error
Example 2.6 The standard error in a tape of 30 m tapelength is .008 m. A
distance of 1200 m is to be taped. What is the expected 90% error in, 1200 m?
Solution No of 30 rn tape in 1200 m = =40
90% error = 1.6449"
=' 1.6449 x (.008)
= 0.013159
Escries = ..;n
= 0.013159 ..p;o
= 0.083226
.-
L .___ _ __
ErrorsinMeasurement 21
2.9 ERRo"R OFAMEAN
When a numberof like measurements are taken, theerrorof the sum= E.,J;;,
where E is the standard errorof an individual measurement and11 isequal to
numberofmeasurements. Nowmean issumdivided by numberofmeasurements.
Hence thestandarderrorof mean
E..[I; _ .
Em =-n- - -rn
where

n - 1
therefore Em =(=g' (2.16)
l1(n - 1)
2
similarly = 0.6745 fLu (2.17)
r.u
2
(EgO)m =1.6449 , (2.18)
lI(n - 1)
Theseequations show that theerrorof the mean varies inversely as the
square rootofthenumber ofrepetitions. Thustodouble the accuracy orreduce
theerrorby onehalffourtimes asmany measurements should be made.
Example2.7 In Example 2.1whatis the standard errorofthemean?
Solution Standard errorof a single observation = 37.41"
Therearesixobservation"
Standard errorof themean =
= 15.27"
Example2.8 Specifications formeasuring angles ofann-sided figure limitthe
total angularclosure toE. How accurately must.each angle bemeasured forthe
following valuesof11 and?
(i) n=4, E=20sec
(ii) 11 =10, E=1min
Solution
(i) Here = 20sec
II = 4

- .... --;=-
- - "':n
---.-----.!/
I
J
22 Fundamentals of Sun'eyillg
(ii)Here ,

11
an;le
'I
- + = 10sec
- - N
"
=60sec
=10
60
--
- ..jiIJ
= 18.97 sec
2.10 WEIGHTSOFMEASUREl\1ENTS
Sometimes it is obvious toa surveyor that onemeasurement is moreprecisethan
another. There may be many reasons for this. It, may be that' one equipment is
more sophisticatedthantheotherorthe field conditions during onemeasurement
may be much superior. Insuch a casewe can take this variation into account by
assigning differentrelativeweights todifferent measurements. Wealreadyknow
thatprecision is indicated bystandard deviation a. Squareofstandard deviation
<T is variance and weight is taken as inversely proportional to variance and
directly proportional to11
2
which isknown asprecision modulus.
2.11 THEORY OFLEAST SQUARES APPLIED TO OBSERVATIONS
OFUNEQUAL WEIGHTS
LetMit M
2
M; be asetofmeasurements withvarying weightsPI' P2 ... .
Pn andthecorrespondingresidualsUI. Ul.....Un'Theprobability P thatVI' V2 ... .
u, will occurin thesetisasfollows.
. .,.,'
PUt =Yj.1V =l; exp(-hjuj).1V
., .
=:'2.1V =kz e,xp
., "
PUn = =k
n
exp L1V
Probabilitythatresiduals will occursimultaneouslyisequal totheproduct oftheir
separate probabilities
P(v\t U2 .... un) =(k
l
exp (-1J? Uf) L1V) (k
2
exp(-lziu?) L1V) ...
o. exp(- L1V)
or P(UIt V2 ".un) =(kJ, k
2
... . k
ll
)
n 1"" " " 2
(L1V) exp [- (li Uj + +..."tlz;v
n
) ]
Most probable valueofthequantity isobtained whenPis maximum. Insucha
case. t e negativeexponent
he nezati
0
f
e must
b" ,,,,, ,"" /2
n
2.
eminimum. i.e. IjVi + 1
2V2
+...+ InU
=minimum. NowweightP isproportional toTt
2
therefore
I
r
ErrorsinMeasurement 23
2 '? ?
FIU
I
+P2ui +...+Pnu,; =minimum
2
or Lpu =minimum
Let iV bethemostprobablevalue ofaquantity whose observed valuesare:
MI. M
2
... . ll,ln
Then VI =M
I
- M
V2 =M
2
- l'g
V
n
=M; - iJ
Fromthetheoryofleastsquares,
.PI(M
1
- M)2 +P2(M
2
:- M)2 +...+Pn(M
n
- iVif=Minimum
Differentiating withrespectto M
2PI(M
1
- M) +2p2(M
2
- M) + ."+2Pn(M
n
- M) =0
M= p.M. +P2
M
2 +.. +PnMn
P. +P2 +...+Pn
LpM' .
(2.19)
= Lp .
Thisistheweighted meanoftheobservations andthemostprobable value ofa
quantity withunequal weights. .
In linewithobservations of equal weight the following formulae canbe
derived forobservations of unequal weight .
1.Standard errorofsingleobserV:ltion of unit weight = ~ ~ \ (2.20)
l,PU
2
2.Standard erroroftheweighted mean =,)L (2.21)
p(n - 1)
2.12 CALCULATING WEIGHTS ANDCORRECTIONS TO
FIELD OBSERVATIONS
Thefollowing are therelevantrules forcalculatlngweightsandapplying corrections
to field observations:
1.Theweightofameasurement variesdirectlyasthenumberofobservations
made forthatmeasurement.
1
Weight isinversely proportional tostandard errorasshown before.
. . . .
3.Inthecaseoflevels. weightvaries inversely asthelength oftheroute.
-t Corrections tobeapplied tovariousobserved quantities are in inverse
proportion totheirweights. Hence correction to anobservation isdirectly proportional
to standard error. Correction for a lineof level is directly proportional to the
lengthoftheline.
Example 2.9 Find(i) the probable errorof a singleobservation which when
repeated onthesameangle gavevalues of4320' plus: 10",30", 10",20",00",
40",00", 10",30",00", 10".
(ii) Thebestvalue ofa quantity which measured fourtimes bya method
having a probable errorof 3 units,gave an average value of 1800units and
measured nine times by a method having a probable errorof6 units gave an
"average value of 1808 unitsof(L.U.)
. Solution
(i) Observed value Deviation Squares of
frommean deviation
4320' 10"
- 04.5" 20.25
30"
+.15.5" 240.25
10"
- 04.5" 20.25
20"
+04.5" 20.25
00"
- 14.5" 210.25
40"
+25.5" 650.25
''',
00"
- 14.5" 210.25
10"
- 04.5" 20.25
30" ,
+ 15.5" , 240.25
00"
10",
- 14.5"
- 4.5"
210.25
20.25
Mean Value 4320'14.5"
k=O L 1862.75
p.e, of asingle observation =
=9.20"
(ii) Probable errorofmeanby Ist method
= .1= units
Probable errorofmean by2ndmethod
= = 2 units
'\"9' ,
Weights are inversely proportional tosquares' ofprobable error
"- .--:- - .
4.1
1\'1 : H':!=9' .4
Errors ill Measurement 25
Most probable value = weighted mean
x 1800 +*x 1808
= 4/9 + 1/4
= 1802.88 units
Example 2.10 The following are the observed values of angles ina triangle of
a triangulation survey. Adjust the angles. :
A =8735'11.1" weight 1
B =4315'17.0" weight 2
C =4909'34.1" weight 3
[A.t\1:IE A.S. Winter 19S5]
Soiutlon . The angles of a plane triangle should sum 180. Here
A + B + C =18000'2.2"
.Hence .there is a total error of 2.2" and correction - 2.2"
As per rule 4 of Sec. 2.12 corrections are to be distributed inversely to
weights of observations.
Therefore C
' C 'C .. 1.1.1 "6'3'2
A' B' c"I'2'3" ..
Hence C
A
= - 1.2"
C
B
= - 0.6"
C
c
= - 0.4"
Example 2,11 A, 8, C, D form a round of angles at a triangulation station, their
observed values taken with a theodolite are:
A =11020'48" weight 4
13 ::: 9230'12" . weight 1
C =5612'00" weight 2
D = 10057'04" weight 3
Adjust the angles A. B, C, and D closing the horizon. [AMIE A.S. Summer 19S91
Solution . The sum of four angles closing the horizon =360
Here the observed angles add to .360
000'0-\."
The error is 4" and the correction- 4" which should be distributed inversely
to welghtuge. Therefore,
'C 'C . C - I , I. I . 1 ;.. 3 ' I" . 6 . 4
C
.", B' c, D-'4'j'2'3- . -, ,
4 .." 0 'S"
C
." = - 15 x J = - ,"t
1-
26 Fundamentals of S/llWyil:g
CB =- 7
4
X
_:>
12" =- 1.9:!"
.
Cc =- X 6" =- 0.96"
C
4
D =- 25 X
4" - 0,64"
= _4.00"
Example 2.12 The following are the observed values of an
Angle Weight
4020'20",
4020'18"
4020'19"
Find
2
2
3
(1)
(H)
Probable error of single observation of unit weight,
Probable error of weighted arithmetic mean.
Solution Weighted arithmetic mean
Then
=4020' + 2 x 20 + 2' x 18 + 3 x 19
7
=4020'19"
,
pu'l U u
+ 1 1
2
- 1 1 2
0
0 0
--
L pu'l = 4
Probable error of a single measurement
.
= 0,6745
II -
::: 0,6745 g
. '/"2.
Probable error of weighted mean'
=
(.
2
. '. oOJpu
=::t 0,674:> ..
= 0,6745
= 0.3605

.'
...._ ...... _...._----

..
PROBLEl\IS
2.1 What causeserrors in measurements?
2.2 What are thedifferent typesoferrors?
2.3 Distinguish between accuracy andprecision?
2.4 Derive thetheory ofleastsquares.How doesitchange when measurements
areweighted'? .
2.5 What are therulesforadjustments ofweighted fieldobservations?
2.6 Thefollowing-are sixequally reliable anddirectmeasurements ofabase line
in meter.
702.0; 701.4; 701.8; 701.6; 701.5 and 701.9.
Calculate themost probable valueanditsprobable error.
[A;,,'lIE A.S. Winter 1978J
2.7 (a)Explain theterms: Residual ofanobservation. most probable value.
(b)Following observations wererecorded fora plane triangle ABC
LA =77 14'20" wt 4
LB =4440'35" wt 3
LC =5304'52" wt 2
Compute the'adjusted value of theangles. [AMIE A,S. Winter 1979]
2.8 (a)Explain theterms:
(i) Systematic errors,(ii) Accidental errors. (iii) Mistakes.
(b)The following angles were measured at a station 0 so as to close the
horizon.
a =8342'.28.8" weight 3
b =10215'43.3" weight 2
c =9438'27.3" weight 4
d =7923'23.6" weight 2
Findthemostprobable valueofangles. [AMIE A.S. Winter 1980]
2.9 Define theprinciple of leastsquares andexplain how this lawcan be applied
toobtainthemost probable value ofaquantity.[AMIEA.S. Summer 1932]
2.10 Explainthefollowing:
(i) Mistakes. Systematic error, Accidental error.
(ii) Normal distributions.
(iii) Probable error,
(i\') Least square method.
[ ~ l I A.S. Summer19S3)
r-
28 Fundamentals ofSwwyillg
2.11 What istheweightofanobservation?Whatconsiderationsweigh indeciding
it? [A!\lIEA.S.Summer1986)
2.12 Explain clearly thetheory ofleast squares asapplied totheadjustment of
survey measurements. Arethere anyassumptions involved inthemethod?
[AMIE A.S.Winter1987]
2.13 Explain thefollowing terms:
(i) Standard deviation,
(ii) Normal distribution,
(iii) Mostprobable value,
~
(iv) Leastsquaremethod,
.(v) Weight of an observation.
[AMIE A.S.Winter1990]
\
.,-----< .
r.
r

")
3
Measurement of Horizontal
Distances
I t?d'i;:\ ,
3.1 INTRODUCTION "'1:"'/ffit.J c. lU
r:
Oneofthemostimportant insurveying is ofhorizontal
distance between twopoints. Ifthepointsareatdifferent elevations, thedistance
isthehorizontal length between e.lumb linesatthepoints.
3.2 METHODS OF MEASURING HORIZONTAL DISTANCES
Depending ontheaccuracy desiredandtimeavailable formeasurement, there are
many methods of measuring horizontal distances. Theyare: (i)Pacing, (ii)Odometer
readings, (iii)Tacheometry, (iv)Electronicdistance measurement, (v)Chaining,
and(vi)Taping. While chaining and taping are mostcommon in ourcountry,
electronic distance measurements aregradually being increasingly used:
. " ! <\.r.
3.2.1 PACING I
fJ
Pacing is an approximate method of measuring distance. Initially thesurveyor
C11 must walk aknown distance a number oftimes in his ownn'iltur:ll waysothat his
jpei>/. natural isknown. Tocount thenumberofpacesapedometerorapassorneter
maybe used. '
. . ( , .
3.2.2 {u'c1o'Y"l h-)).
An odometer convertsthenumber of revolutionsof awheel of aknowncircumference
toadistance.Thismethod canoftenbeusedtoadvantage onpreliminarysurveys
where precisedistances arenotnecessary. Odometerdistancesshouldbeconverted
tohorizontal distance when theslopeof theground issteep.
3.2.3 TACHEOMETRY . . )(:; "'"
(aJ/
Here distance ismeasured notdirectlybutindirectly withthe helpofanQRtic,a.! -<
" instrument calledtacheorneter, Atheodolite with threecrosshairs can also be used
o 'l)1 J 13i>.....
1"t:s'JI'SJGltl
l1
' ('ith the intercej2t ona levelling staff between the top and bottom crosshairs
bya giving thehorizontal distance. Insubtense barmethod,
r1m ;.;:!i>(lJrv!JJ 29
V
./
I
!
30' Fundamentals of Surveying
the angle subtended at the end of a line by a known horizontal base at the other
end is measured and the horizontal length is geometrically obtained.
3.2.4 ELECTRONIC DISTA:\CE MEASUREMENT (EDM)
This is a modem development in surveying where ell;.c:.!:'"()111agnet!c waves are
utilized to measure distance. They are basically of two types: (1) Electro optical
instruments which uselightwaves for measurement of distances suchas geodirneter,
rnekometer andrange master. (ii) Microwave equipment, which transmits microwaves
with frequencies in the range of 3 to 35 CHz corresponding towavelengths of
about 1 dm to 8.6 mm. --s1:;,L7i:..('....
/:; 1111
3.2.5 CHAINS0<YJ"i . '. .: _ I'
Chains are used to measure distances when very great is not required.
In our country it is frequently used though in other countries it is being gradually
replaced by tapes. The chain is robust, easily read and easily repaired in the field
if broken. It does not. correct length owing to wear on the metal
to metal surfaces, bending of the links, mud between the bearing surfaces, etc,
Also the weight is a disadvantage when the chain has to be suspended..
In India link type surveying chains of 30 m lengths are frequently used in
land measurement. Nomenclatures and dimensions of different parts of a chain are
given in Fig. 3.1. Details of a 30 m chain are given in Fig. 3.2. For 5 and 10m
chains the shape of tallies and the corresponding distances are shown in Fig. 3.3.
There is also 30 m chain with 100 links (instead of 150) so that each link is
0.3 rn, There are tallies at every 3 m. .
3.2.6 TAPES
Tapes are used for accurate work and may be of (i) cloth or (ii) metal,
. (iii) steel. (iv) invar,
Tapes used for surveying are30min length andgraduated in meter, decimeter
and centimeter. Cloth or metallic tapes are made of high grade linen with fine
copper wires running length-wise to give additional strength and prevent excessive
elongation. They come in enclosed reels and are not suitable for precise work.
Steel tape is superior to metal tape, is usually 6 to 10 mm wide and is more
accurately graduated. It cannot. however, withstand rough usage. Ifthe tape gets
wet, it should be wiped with a dry cloth and then \...ith an oily rag. Invar tape is
used for veryprecisework. Itis made of 35%nickel and 65%steel. The coefficient
of thermal expansion is very small, about 1/30 to 1160 of that of an ordinary steel
tape. The invar tape is 'soft and also very expensive. .
3.3 CHAINING AND TAPI;\G ACCESSORIES
The. small instruments and accessories used with chain or tape are (i) Arrows,
(ii) Pegs, (iii) Ranging rods, (iv) Offset rods. (v) Plumb bobs. ..
Arrows or chain pins are used to mark the position of the ends of the chain
on the ground. Details are shown in Fig. 3.4' .
'Wooden pegs are used to markthe positions of the survey stations or the end
'.
..
..
r
,
I
200- "I- . 161 1 '1
I! II:
r , LARGE 4
L1NK

'-CONNECTING L1IlK
.....
(OVAL SHAPED)
::;
Fig. 3.1 Nomcuclnture lind dimensions of different parts of'chain (all. dimensions in mm).

iii
::s
....
I f
5m .' ism ! 5m I. 5m I 5m I 5m
..,
N
-
tJ
;;;.
1m.
g

e
i')
III
EVERY IoTRE lNGTH/ '.
'"
w
Fig. 3.2 30 Meter chain.
r:'::
L
""---<D' , .3t1
-I"':'__, I I I I 1.1
75
l
I
32 Fundamentals oj Sun'eying

@j
Z).

16
I.) 60
60
60
For 1 m
For 2 m
For 3 m For 4 m
For 5 m
and 9 m
and 8 m
and 7 m and 6m
Fig. 3.3 Shapes of tallies for chains (5 m and 10 in).
Eye
4 mm dia
400 mm
15 mm

Rounded
end
Fig. 3.4 Details' of arrow or chain pin..
Measurement of Horitontal Distances 33
pointsof a surveyline.The typicaldimensions are 25 mmx 25 mm incross
sectionand 150mmlongwitha nailat'thetop.
Ranging polesand rods are used to makemeasurements alonga straight
line.Detailsareshown in Fig. 3.5.
200_mm
L
r
200 mm
2m
'200'mm
Fig. 3.5 Details of ranging rod.
Plumbbobs are usedtoprojecta pointontheground upto thetapeor to
project a pointonthetapedown to theground. DetailsareshowninFig. 3.6.
3.4 BYCHAIN
There are basically two types of measurernents-e-Ii) On level ground. (ii) On
uneven ground. .
In level ground the line to be measured is marked at bothends and at
r String
Fig. 3.6 Plumb bob.
intermediate'pointwhere necessary sothata clearsightisobtained. Sometimes
a theodolite is usedforranging. Thefollower holdstherearendofthechainat
thestationpointandbymovements ofhisarmsdirectstheaITOW orranging rod
heldbytheleaderforthepurposeintotruealignment. Theleaderthenpullsthe
chain taut and inserts anaITOW in theground to markthe end. After relevant work
inthischainlineisover, theleaderagain pullsonthechainleaving anaITOW to
markthepositionoftheendofthefirstlength.The follower holds therearend
ofthechainagainstthisanddirectstheleaderintoalignmentasbefore. Afterthe
chainhasbeenpulledtautandthefurther endmarked bythesecond aITOW, the
follower picksupthefirstandcarriesitwithhim.Thenumber ofarrows inthe
..
hand ofthefollower atanytimewillindicatethenumberofcompletechain lengths
measured. After 10chains havebeenlaiddownthefollowerhands overtheten
arrows totheleaderandthesameprccedure iscarriedoutforthenexttenlengths.
Inunevenorsloping groundthedistance maybedirectly measured insmall
horizontal stretchesorstepsasshowninFig.3.7aorindirectly bymeasuring the
slopingdistancealongtheslope and then getting thehorizontal distanceanalytically
by measuring the slopeby means of'a clinometer or measure thedifference in
elevationbetweenthepoints(Fig.3.7b).
For accurate measurements and in all important surveys. thelengthsare
nowmeasured with a tapeandnot witha chain.For higherprecisiona taping
tripodortapingbuck must be used.Thetapingbuckusually (i)isrigidin use.
(ii) iseasilyaligned,(iii)isportable,(iv)permitseasytransfer ofchaining point
toor from theground(\')caneasilyactas a backsight.
Sincetapingisusually doneon theslopewhen tripods are used, theelevations
of the tops of tripod must be ascertained simultaneously as the tapingproceeds to
determine thehorizontal distance.
3.5 REDUCTIONS TO IN SLOPE
Therearetwowaysinwhich thisreduction canbe made. Whentheslopeangle
a is knownthe horizontal distanceis
-
-
.-...........
l
Measurement of Horizontal Distances 35.
1 chain
1 chain
(a)
~ ~
1
Horizontal distance I
(b)
Fig. 3.7 Measurement on slope: (a) chain held horizontally, (b) chain held on slope. '
H =S coszr
(3.1)
where S is the inclined length.
'To determine the accuracy with which the vertical angle must be measured
. in order to meet a given relative accuracy in the resulting horizontal distance, we
differentiate the above equation with. respect to' a and get
(3.2)
dH =- S sin a da
Relative accuracy is then
dH =_S sin ada = _ tan ada (3.3)
H Scos a
When the slope is expressed in terms or difference in elevation as in Fig. 3.8, we
have
H= ..'/S'2_h'2
(3.4)
The expression on binomial expansion becomes
It" ~
(3.5)
H=S----
25 8S
3
~
~ FII1lda17lcIltais of Surveying
c
h
A./ I '0
H
Fig.3.8 Reduction inslope.
Ifweneglect the3rdterm
11
2
C=S-H= 2S
(3.6)
and
_ 1Idll
dC (3.7)
- S .
If bothsides aredivided byStherelative accuracy becomes
dC hdh
(3.8)
T=sr
Slightly different expressions canbederived asfollows:
Correction=hypotenusalallowance
=AC- AD = AD seca, - Ap
"a,2. 5a,4 )
=AD 1+ T + 24 +,.. - AD
(
=AD
T
a,2
(3.9)
. If theslopeisexpressed as 1 to11 a,=1.
11
Example3.1 Inchaining alinewhatisthemaximum slope(a)indegrees and
(b) as1 in11 which canbeignored iftheerrorfromthissource isnottoexceed
1 in 15007
Solution
(i)Leta, beexpressed in.degrees.
aO =~ ~ radian
AD
Erroris 1in 1500=: 1500
AD '= AD (CtiC)2
1500 2 180
",
Measurement of Horizontal Distances 37
arr
180= 'lTIOO
a= 180 / 2
tt \ 1500
a = 2.092"
2
AD a AD AD
(ii) =-, =--
2 ' 2n- 1500
/1500 = 27.386.
11=" 2
Therefore slope is 1in27.386.
Example 3.2 With whataccuracy mustadifference inelevation between two .
endsof a 30 m tape beknown if the difference inelevation is2.28mand the
accuracy ratiois tobeatleast1 in 25,000.
Solution
de hdh __1_,
,We have
- =-=r - 2'000
S S .I,
S2(l)(1)
dh = 25,000 x h
..
2(1)(1)
I,
30 = .0157894 m
= .. _-_-..-..._-_.
3.6 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS IN LINEAR MEASUREMENT
BY CHAIN OR TAPE
Theprincipalsystematicerrorsinlinearmeasurement made withachainortape
are(i)'Incorrect length; (ii) Tapeor chain not horizontal, (iii) Fluctuations in'
temperature, (iv)Incorrect tension orpull,(v)Sag,(vi)Incorrect alignment, and
(vii) Chainor tapenotstraight.
3.6.1 I?'CORRECT LENGTH
Incorrect length of atape or chain is one ofmost important errors. It issystematic.
Atape orchainisofnominal ordesignated length atthetimeofmanufacture but
with use it will seldom remain at its original length. It should be frequently
compared withastandard length tofindoutthediscrepancy.Thecorrection tobe
applied isknownasabsolute correction C
n
andisgivenby:
C = True length- nominal length (3.10)
n
If the truelength is shorter than thenominal length thecorrection should be
1
38 Fundamentals of S:tn'cyir:g
subtracted while if the true lenph is greater than the nominal length, the correction
is to be added.
3.6.2 CHAIN OR TAPE O T HORIZONTAL
When' the chain or tape is inclined but assumed to be horizontal an error in
measurement is introduced. The horizontal distance is always less than the inclined
length, hence the correction is always subtractive. The correction is given by
Eqs. (3.6) and (3.9)..
3.6.3 FLUCTUATIONS L ~ TEMPERATuRE
A chain or tape is of standard length at a particular temperature. If the ambient
temperature changes, the length of the tape also changes, the change being
1.15 x 'w-sloe. The temperaturecorrection c, is, therefore
C, =La (T - T,)
(3.11)
where L is the length, a is the coefficient of thermal expansion, T is the temperature
at which the measurement is made and T, is the standardization temperature.
Temperature effect is less pronounced on a cloudy day or early in the morning or
late in the afternoon, Since the coefficient ofinvar is very small (3.6 x W-il"C) ,
invar tapes will give better result thansteel and should be usedin surveys of high
order.
3.6.4 INCORRECT T ~ S O ~ OR PULL
A tape or chain is of standard length under a particular pull. In field operation the
pull applied may be moreor less which will introduce an error. Steel beingelastic
therewill be extension. or contraction given by the expression
(P - Ps)L
(3.12)
A'E
which should be applied as pull correction C. Here P is the actual pull applied
P, is the standard pull, L is the length of the chain or tape, A is the cross sectional
area and E is the modulus of elasticity of steel. E for steel is 2.1 x 10
7
N/cm:!.
For important work a spring balance should be used to determine the exact pull.
Otherwise, sometimes morepull or sometimes less pull will be applied though the
tendency is to apply less pull than the standard. .
3.6.5 SAG
A tape or chain supported at the two ends will always sag, i.e. the mid point will
be at a lower level compared to the two ends. As a result the chord or horizontal
length will be lessthanthecurved length. Assuming thecurve to take an approximate
shape of a parabola, the difference between sagged length .and chord length is
given as ~
8u
2
(3.13)
L
,
- d = 3d
,
I'
where
L, = unsupported length of tape
d = chord length
= sag in the middle.
Also by taking moment about one of the supports for half the tape length we get,
wd:!
Plu = -S-
where w is the weight of the tape/unit length and PI is the pull.
Combining .the two equations. sag correction becomes
2
d
3
_ Su'l _.!. (Wd'"J'" '_, w
L, - d - 3d - 3d SP
I
- 24P?
Substituting L in place of d to simplify the result, we get
2
L
3
w
Sag correction C, =--, , (3.15)
24P"
1
Sag correction is always negative as the correct length is always less than
the measured length.
Normal tension when applied to a tape or chain wnnncrease the length in
such a way that sag correction will be compensated so that no sag correction will
be necessary. This pull P; is given by the expression:
" p. _ 0.204W .JAE
(3.16)
n-
which is to be solved by trial and error.
Free tension is that tension which when applied will eliminate the need for
corrections required due to' tape standardization, temperature, sag and tension.
This means '
C
n
+ C, - C, + C
p
=0 (3.17)
Like Eq. (3.16), Eq. (3.17) can also be solved by trial and error to find the free
tension PI'
Equation (3.16) can be derived as follows:
. ll2I! W:! L
Sag correction = --->r =----.,
24P,;' P,;'
. Pull correction = (P
n
:s) L , where P, is standard ,pull
Equating
w
2
L (P
n
- Ps) L
?4p2 = AE
- /I
_I
-l
P. = .fAE .\\,(_1
" 'P. P. .,
" ,,- S --+
..[XE W(0.204) 0.204 w,rAE
= - P, =
- Ps
3.6.6 INCORRECT
In taking a number of chain or tape measurements along a line the tape or chain
may be off line and thus introduce systematic error. Equation (3.1) can be used
to determine correct horizontal length with a being the horizcntal off line angle
instead of the slope angle. The correction is always subtractive...
3.6.7 CHAIN OR TAPE NOT STRAIGHT
When a chain or tape is not straight but bets bent due to bending of the links of
the chain or bending of part of tape, the reading will always be more than the
actual distance and the correction will be always subtractive. However, the magnitude
is difficult to obtain unless compared with a standard chain or tape.
3.7 RANDOM ERRORS
The difference between systematic 'and random errors has already been explained.
The systematic errors in chain or tape survey may become random when there is
uncertainty about their magnitude and sign. Some of the random errors in chaining
or taping are: (i) Incorrect determination of temperature, (ii) Incorrect application
of pull, (iii) Deflection of plumbbob due towind, (iv) Incorrect fixation of taping
pin, (v) Incorrect reading.
Table 3.1 summarizes different characteristic of the types of errors discussed.
Errors can be instrumental (l), natural (N) or personal (P):
Table 3.1 Classification of Errors
Type of errors Classification Systematic (5) or random (R)
Tape length I S
Temperature
N S or R
Pull
P S or R
Sag . N.P S
Alignment
P
S'
Tape not level
P S
Plumbing
P
R
Marking
P
R
Interpolation.
P
R
Example 3.3 A 30 m tape weighs 12 glm and has a 'cross 'sectional area of
0.020 cm
2
It measures correctly when supported throughout under a tension of
85 newton.and at a temperature of 20
cC.
When used in the field, the tape is only
"
Measurementof Horizontal Distances 41
supported at itsends,undera tension,of85newton. Thetemperature is 13SC.
Whatis thedistance'ofzeroand30 markundertheseconditions?.'

Solution There is variation from standardized condition as regards
(i)Temperature, (ii) Support attheendsinstead of throughout.
(i) Correction fortemperature
= L aCT - T
J
>
= 30x 1.15x 10-
5(20
- 13.5)
= .00224rn,
This correction is additive as the length of the tape is more than thestandard
because of risein temperature.
'. w
2
V
(ii) Sagcorrecti-on = --.,
. 24P-
Weight oftape=12g/m =.012kg/m =0.12N/m.
. ., 3
C == )
J . (24)(85"")
=.00224m.
Thesagcorrectionisnegativeasthecorrectlengthisalways lessthan themeasured
length. ' .
Total correction =0.00224 - .00224=0
.;
Distance between.'0 and30mark= 30m.
Example3.4 A30msteeltape measured 30.0150mwhenstandardized fully
supported undera70 newton pull at a temperature of20C.The tapeweighed
0.90 kg (9N) and had a crosssectional area of0.028 cm!. What is the truelength
of therecorded distance AB for thefollowing condition? (Assume allfull't;pe
lengths inthelastone.)
(i) forabsolute length = + 30.00) x 114.095
= + 0.0570m
(ii) Temperature correction =La (T - T
J
)
= 114.095 x 1.15 x 10-
5
x (12-
= - 0.01049674 m
(iii) Pullcorrection = (P L
I -
l
42 Fundamentals of Sun-eying
= (100 - =+ .0058211 m...
(0.028)(2.1 x10')
2L
. S . W ( ive)
(IV) ag correction = 24p2 negative
92X 30) . (fax 24.095)\24.09)
= (24x1002 (3)+ 24 X 100
2
;
= .030375 + .005,245 =.0356208 (negative)
. d
2
(v)Correction for slope= - 2L ..
2.5 x 2.5
= - 2x 100=- .03125 mlloo m
For 114.095 m, slopecorrection
= - .Otcig
5
x 114.095 =- .035?546 m
Hence total correction
Corrected length = 114.076 m.
..
Example 3.5 Asteel tapeoflength30mstandardizedonthe flatundera pull
of49N has a width Of 12.70 mmanda thickness of 0.25mm.It is tobe used
onthesiteto measure lengthsof30mto an accuracyof 1/10,000. Assuming
thattheends of the tape are held at the same level and that thestandardizing
temperature for the tape obtainsonthesite,determinetheincreases intensionto
be applied to realiz.e that accuracy. Take the density of steel as 7750 kglm
3
,
Young's Modulus as 20700 MN/m
2
and the acceleration due to gravity as
9.806 mls'-. [Salford]
Solution
Permissibleerror on 30 m= -; = 3 mm
I.
Weight of unit length of tape = .01.27 x .00025x 1x 7750
.
=
,
.0246q6 kg/m =.24129N/m
LetP be thepull applied.. .
. (P - 49)(30)
Pullcorrection = (.0127 x'.00025)(20700)(106)
, Measurement of Horizontal Distances 43
3
Sag correction = (.24129)2 x 30
24p
2
1 .
When the error is 10,000' .
(P - 49)(30)(10
3
) (.24129)2 X 30
3
1 3
+ 3 mm = - x 0
- (.0127 X .00025)(20700)(10
6
)
.= (P _ 49)(.045646) _
. P-
Solving by trial and error, when
P = 50 RHS = .045646 - 26.199 =- 26.153
P = 100 RHS'= 2.3279 - 6.5498 = - 4.22
P = 150 RHS = 4.610 - 2.911 =1.698
P =200 RHS =6.892 - 1.637 = 5.255
- 3 will lie between 100 and 150 App. value = 107.5 N
+ 3 will lie between 150 and 200 App. value =167 K
Example 3.6 A tape which was standardized on the flat under a tension P, was
used in catenary to measure the length of a base line. Show that the nominal
corrections for pull and sag must be modified by factors of oPI(P - Ps) and
+20PIP respectively if an error of oP occurred in the applied field tension P.
The length of the line was deduced as 659.870 rn, the apparent field tension
t-eing 178 K Determine (i) The nominal corrections 'for pull and sag whichwould
have been evaluated for each 30 m tape length, and (li) The corrected length of
the line if the actual field tension was IS5 K .
The tape which had a mass of-0.026 kg/m and a cross-sectional area of 3.25
mm'1 was standardized on the flat under a pull of89 N. Take Young's modulus as
155,000 Ml':/m'1 and the acceleration due to gravity as 9.806 mls
2

Solution
Theoretical Part
(
.) P II ' .'. C (P - Ps) L
I U correction p = AE
8C = 8P' L
p
AE
. oCp oPL AE 1
C
p
= AEL(P-P
J
)
- + --!.!...
- - (P - Ps)
L3
(ii) Sag correction C, = 24p
2
l
1- ..
+f Fundamentals of Surveying
oP
sc =--_._.,
s 24 p3 -
sc, ._w= L
3
oP 24p
2
_ is
+ - +--
- C, . 24 p3 ,...2L3 - p'
Mathematical Part
_. (178 - 89)(30) x1000
Pullcorrectionfor. 178N= 3.2 x155000
= +5.383 mm
i
, w
2
L3

Sagcorrectionfor 178:N = - 24p2,
.(.026 X 9.806)2 x30
3
x 1000=...;. 2.3 mm .
= - 24X 178
2
oP
Modification factorforpull= p _Ps
(185 -178) _
= + (178 - 89),= +.0/865
Modification factor forsag= - 2;P =- 2 ;8
7
.=- .07865
1
Change.in correctionfor30mtape =(5.38)(.07865) - (2.3)(.07865)
=.423137 - .180895 =.242242
:...659.87_ 22
No.of 30 m tapes
- 30 - ...
Correction = .242242x 22=5.329324 mm
Correctlength =659.870+.005=659.875m
Example 3.7 Asteel tape, 30 mlongwas standardized on the flat, undera pull of
89N. Ifthetapehadacross-sectional areaof3inm
2
andamassof0.024kg/m,
determine the field tension to be applied in order that the correction in
tension was equal in magnitudeto the correction for sag. What error wasinduced
in thesagcorrectionby an errorof+6N in that tension?Young'smodulus=
]55.000MN/m
2

Solution.
Pullcorrection= (P L (P- 89)(30)(1000)
.AE - (3)(155,000).
Sagcorrection= w
2
L3 ..:. (.024 x9.806)2 (3'0
3
) ; :
24p2 - 24p2 (1000) rom
;
1:
1"
3 rnrn
5)
.\2
.Jlof
g/m.
n'in
reed
. ::::
J
Measurement ofHorizontal Distances 45
By trialP =140 N Pullcorrection=3.29 }
Sagcorrection=3.16
P =138 N Pullcorre,ction=3.16 }
Sagcorrection=3.27
P=139 N Pullcorrection =3.22 },
Sagcorrection='3.22
.Ch' . 32? - 2aP
angeIn sagcorrection =- ._x p
= -
3.22
._
x
....
2 x 6 _ 0.27798 mm.
Example 3.8 A copper transmission line12.7 mmdiameter is stretchedbetween
two points 300 m apartat the same level, with a tension of 5 kN when the
temperature is 35C.It is necessary to defineits limiting positions when the
temperature varies.Making useof thecorrections for sag.temperature,andeJasticit:
normally appliedto baseline measurements in catenary, find the tension at ,
temperature of-15C andthesllg inthetwocases.Young's modulus forcoppe
is 68.950 M.N/m
2
, itsdensity8890kg/m
3
anditscoefficient oflinearexpansior
15x rov-e. [London University
Solution Weight of transmission line/m
=: =11.043125 N/m
, 10 .
Initial lengthofline
=300+(11.043125)2(300)3 =305.48777 m
(24)(5
2)(106
)
Withthislength oflineabetterapproximation forsag
=(11.043125)2(305.48777)3 =5.79403
. (2,4)(5)2(10
6
) ,m,
Hence correct length ofline=305.79403 m
. ' wL
2
(11.043125)(305.794)2
Amount ofsag= 8T = =2,').81 m
Whenthetemperature falls to-15C, letT[ bethetension.
Total presentlength oftransmission line
2
L
J
300+ \l' =300+(11.043125)2(305.794)3 =300+ 145.29
24T[2 (24)(106)(T) '2 7,,2
Contraction ofwire Lea
=(305.794)(15)(10-6)(35 - (-15 =0.2293455 m
t
46 Fu-ndamentals of SUM-eying
Extensionduetoincreaseintension= (T\ - 5)(305.794)(10)3
(rr/4)(1257)2(68950)
Equating,
300+145.;9 =305.79403 - 0.2293455 +0.03573(T
1
- 5)
r,-
I .
Bytrialand error T
1
=5,11 kN
(11.043125)(305.564)2
N =25.222 m
.ewsag= (8)(5.11)(1000)
Example 3.9 Atapeofnominal length30misstandardized incatenary at40N
tensionandfoundtobe29.8850rn.Ifthemassofthetape.is0.015kg/m, calculate
thehorizontallengthofaspanrecordedas16m.
Solution' Standardized chordlength=29.8850m
. C (.015 X 9.806/40)2 x 30
3
S
agcorrectlo,n I = (24)
= +.0152m
Standardized arc length =29.9002
Standardization errorper 30rn = - .0998 m
Recorded arc length =16.000 m
. (16.000)(-.0998) 0532
d
S d = = - . tan ar izanonerror m
30
Standardized arc length =15.9468 m
16 00)3 .'
Sagcorrection =C, x =- .0023 m
(
Standardized chordlength=15.9468 - .0023= 15.9445 m
(0 Tape used vertically'for measurement
Whenameasurement istakenkeepingthetapeverticalsay. inminingoperations,
the tape will extend under its own weight which can be. obtained as follows
(Fig.3.9).
Let m =massof tape/unitlength
g =acceleration duetogravity
A =cross sectional areaof thetape
E =Yourrg's modulus
Force actingon elementdx =mg oX
l
I
I
!
f
. 1_._
(ii) :
whe
whc
the.
(3.1
isr,
Exr:
..
wei,
mas
r
I
__ J
l
Measurement ofHorizontal Distances 47-
1
, ,
L
I
i
x
I
L
=) dx
Fig.3.9 T:lpe measured vertically.
to mg -xox
Extension oe= AE
,
. mgx-
Integrating e= 2AE + C
Whenx varies from 0 toL.
mg .L
2
e= 2AE
(ii)Sagcorrection withthesupports not(If. thesamelevel
When the supports arenotatthesame level, sagcorrection
.' (WL )
C.: = cos
2
e1+ P -slne
(3.18) .
whentension P is applied atthehigher endandisequal to
C:, cos
2
e(I - 'Sine)_ (j.19)
whentension P isapplied atthe lowerend. Hereeisthe angleofinclination with
thehorizontal and when eissmall C.: becomes C., cos
2
e. Theaboveformulae
(3.18)and(3.19)include theeffectofslopeandassOchseparate slopecorrection
is notnecessary.
.Example 3.10 Calculatetheelongation ofa30mtape suspended underitsown
weightat(a)30 mfrom top;(b) 10mfrom top. Given th:lt E= 20.7(I0
10)N/m2
,
massofthetape is 0.0744 kg/m andthe cross sectional areais9.6(1O-6)m
2.
Solution
mg .L
2
=
(i) e=2AE
(2)(9.6)(10-6)(10.7)(10Ill) = 0.0001652 m.
(ii) At 10m from top.r=20m.
e= . (.0744)(9.806)(20)2 =.00007342 m.
(2)(9.6)(10-6)(10.7)(10
1
)
_____ _ _ _ ----.J
Example3.11 Anominal distance of"3D m' wassetoutwitha30mtapefrom
amark onthetopofonepegtoamark onthetopofanother. thetapebeingin
catenary underapullof90N. Thetopofonepegwas0.370mbelow theother.
Calculate the horizontal distance between the marks on the two pegs.Assume
density ofsteel kg/m}, section oftape3.13mmby 1.20mrn, Young's
modulus 2(10)5 N/mm'2.
Solution
Weight of tape/unit length e (3.13)( 1.2)(10)-6(7.75)(1 ::: .029109 kg/m,
w'2L
3
Correction forcatenary ::: 24p2,
(i.9'109 X 9.806)2(30)3(10)-' = .0113 m
::: (24)(90)'2
e::: tan-I ::: 0.7066
,
sine::: 0.01233, .cos e=0.9999
cos'2 e::: 0.9998
When tensionisapplied atthetopend
c; =- (.Oll3)(.9998)(1+
=- (.0113)(.9998)(1 + .0000391) =- .0112981 m
Horizontal distance=30,- .0112981 =29.9887019 m.
When tensionisapplied:H thelowerend
C; =- .0112972 m.
Horizontal distance= 30.....0112972 ::: 29.9887028 m.
3.8 CHAIN AND TAPE SURVEY OF AFIELD
Afield maybecompletely surveyed byachain andtapeorbytapeonly. Infact
,thiswastheonlymethod available beforeinstruments formeasuring angleswere
developed. Now equiprnents havebrought thismethod to useagain.
The method consists of dividing a field into a number of triangles and
measuring the sides 'of eachtriangle. The field may becovered by a chain of
triangles as in Fig.3.10orbya number oftriangles with acentralstationasin
Fig, 3.11. The triangles.should be such thatlengths of the'sidesdo notdiffer
widely when they becomewell conditioned triangles. If they differwidely the
triangle is' :'ill conditioned". Thistype ofsurvey issuitable forsurveys ofsmall '
extent on open groundwith simpledetails, However, the following basic principles
should be followed: .
H
A
L v
r \/ I 'y
E
M
Fig.3.10 .Chain oftriangles.
Fig.3.11 Polygon with central station.
1. Always work from thewhole to thepart.The areashouldalways becovered
. withas big triangles as possible. The. tielinecanthenbeplotted tofix
details.
. 2. Alwaysmakeprovisions foradequatechecks.Hence wehavechecklines.
InFig. 3.10.A. B. C,D, .., arestationpoints, AB. BC, AC. BD, ... are
chainlines,'FIH isa checklineandKLisa tieline.
The interior details are usually plotted with respect 10 the chain line by
takingmeasurements perpendiculartothem when wehave perpendicular offsets
and sometimes taken at an angle to the chain line when we have oblique
offsets.
InFiz. 3.12 AB is thechainline,PQandRS areperpendicular offsets. In
Fig.3.12 ~ c n beplottedifAQandPQareknown where PQistheperpendicular
offsetandAQ is thechainlength.Similarly inFig.3.13Pcanbeplotted ifAP.
PQ andAQ are knownwhereAP.PQareoblique offsets andAQ is thechain
length.Toavoiderror offsetsshould beassmall aspossible.
I
l
\
p
A B
Q S
Fig. 3.12 Perpendicularoffsets.
Q
Fig. 3.13 Obliqueoffsets.
A B
3.9 ERROR IN OFFSET
Theoffsetmaynotbesetexactly atright angletothechainlinebutdeviate from
rightanglethrough asmall anglea. Thehorizontal displacement PP
2
inplotting
isthen1sinalS ern, where1=length of offset in meters and S=scale(l em =
S meter) as shown in Fig. 3.14.
P21 ./ P
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a.'
.
A C
Fig.3.14 Errorinoffset angle.
When thereis error bothinlength anddirection thetotal errorisPP
2
as
shown inFig.3.15. Taking PP.P
2
asarightangled triangle
. PP
2
=~ P P I +p,pl
PP. =Of and P
IP2
= 1siri a .
. fr , ,
giving
. PP
2
= 'i 01-+ (/sina)-
L
./P
P
2
T 0,
. jl 1/
-.- --
C
Flg. 3.15 Error in length and angle of offset.
Example 3.12 . Find the maximum permissible error in laying off the direction
of offset so that the maximum displacement may not exceed 0.25 mm on the
paper, given that length of the.offset is 10 meters, the scale is 20 m to 1 em and
the maximum error in the length of the offset is 0.3 m.
Solution
PP2 = 5t'! + (t sin a)'!
Here PP
2
= 0.25 rnrn
51 = x 10mm=0.15 mm
1 = x 10mm =5 mm
0.25 = + (5 sin a)2
or (5 sin af = 0.25'! .:. 0.15
2
. - 0.15
2
or Sin a = .
;)
or a =2.292 =217'31"
3.10 INSTRUL-,lENTS FOR OUT RIGHT ANGLES
The instruments used to set offsets at right angles to the chain line are (i) Cross
staff. (ii) Optical square, and (iii) Prism square.
3.10.1 CROSS STAFF
The cross staff is the simplest instrument for setting out right angles. Two types
of cross staff are shown in Fig. 3.16(0.) and (b). Figure 3.16(0.) shows the open
cross staff with two pairs of vertical slits giving two lines of sights at right angles
to each other. Figure 3.l6(b) shows a French cross staff. It is essentially an
octagonal brass box with slits cut in face so that opposite pairs form sight
J
r
-1
I
Vertical slit

;
Octagonal
Vertical slit
brass box
slit
(a) . (b)
Fig.3.16 (a)Schematic diagram of opencrossstaff.(b)Frenchcrossstaff.
lines.The instrument is mounted overa shortranging rodand two sights, are
observed through slitsat right angles toeachother.Theothertwopairsenable
angles of45 and135 tobesetout.
3.10.2 OPTICAL SQUARE
. Thisisahandyinstrument with three openings andisbasedonoptical principle
as shownin Fig. 3.17(a).If twomirrorsA andB arefixed atanangleof45,rays
fromapointP willgetreflected atfirstmirror.4andthenagain getreflected at
B tomeettheeyeE. Thelines PA andBE areatrightangles which canbeseen
fromFig.3.17(b).
.'
E Viewing window
Viewing window
(3)OptiC31 square,
L
?
Measurement ojHorizontal Distances S3
c
Normal to
Mirror A
.... oJ ,.
. .

45 + a
E
o
Normal to
Mirror B
P
(b) Pathofraysinoptical square.
Fig.3.17 Optical Square,
If theincident rayPA makes anangle awiththenormal, thereflected ray
ABwill alsomakethesameangle.Hence
LCAB '= 90 - a
with LC = 45
0
LABC =45
0
+ a
lind therefore LABE = 90
0
- 2a
Hence LAOB =
In theopticalsquarethemirrorBishalfsilvered. Tosee whether thetwo
lines areat rightangles, observerat Eseesa polelit Q through theunsilvered
portion andtheimage ofthepoleatP through silvered portion of the mirrorB.
When the two poles appear coincident the twolinesPO andEQ areatrightangle
and0 is thefootof theperpendicular from P onEQ atO.
3.10.3. PRISM SQUARE.
Theslime principle as described in optical squareis followed in the working
of prism square as shown in Fig. 3. I8. Theadvantage of prismsquare is that the
angle 45.
0
is always fixed and needs no adjustment unlike in the optical
square.
3.11 i\IISCELLA);EOUS PROBLEl\IS IN
Inpractical surveying many types of obstacles areencountered which can be
. ,
classified as(i) Obstacles toranging butnotchaining. (ii) Obstacles tochaining
butnotranging. and(iii)Obstacles toboth chaining andranglng.
elise(i) can befurther subdivided into two groups:
-.-J
54 Fundamentals of Surveving
Normal '
B (;:'
/45
0
,
,
.
.

E
I
I
I

e ! I' I ..
,

I
:p
Fig.3;18 .Pathofraysinprism square.
(a) When bothendsofthelinemaybevisible from intermediate points onthe
line.
(b) When bothendsarenotvisible from intermediate points.
In case (3) recourse is to be taken to.reciprocal ranging. As shown in
Fig.3.19 twointermediate points M) andN
1
areselected suchthatfrom M) and
N) andB arevisible. Similarly from N
J
both/If1andA arevisible. Firstarange
man etM
1
willasktherangeman atN
l
tomoveto such thatM)N
2B
are in
oneline. Similarly rangeman atN
2
willaskrangeman AI) tomove toM
2
such
that areinoneline.Theprocess willberepeated till A, M, N, B areinone
line3S shown inFiz. 3.19.
.
B
A
N
M
,
M
2

M,
..
Fig.3.19 Reciprocal, ranging (twoendsvisible).

In case (b) as shown in Fig. 3.20, a random line AB
I
should be chosen such
that B. is visible from Band BB
I
is perpendicular to the random line. Then
computing C
1
CandDIDfrom consideration of proportionate triangleCandD cqn
be plotted. Finally CD is joined and.prolonged.
8
1
A.
. .
. C,
. D,
90'
..90' .
.
.
Rand?m.
line
90'
A C D B
.Fig. 3.20 Reciprocal ranging (two ends not visible).
Obstacles to chaining but not ranging are encountered while crossing rivers.
Obstacles to both chaining and ranging occur while chaining across a building.
These are exemplified by solving a few typical problems. -
Example 3.13 A survey line ABC crossing a river at right angles cuts its banks
at Band C (Fig. 3.21). To determine the width BC of the river, the following
operation was carried out.
c
80 m
H I
8 k \.
I
40 m G D "'l.
A
Fig. 3.21 Example 3.13.
1
r
!
Aline BE 60 m long..... as set ou.t roughly parallel to the river. LineCE
was extended to D and mid-point F and DB was established. Then EF was
extended 10 GsuchthatFG =EF. AndDG wasextendedtocutthesurveyline
ABCatH. GH andHB weremeasured andfound to'be40 mand80mrespectively.
Findthewidthof theriver.
[A?\HE, Summer1981]
Solution AsBF =FD andEF =FG, BE andGD areparallel andequal.
Hence GD =60m
Fromratioandproportion
or'
or
Example3.14
BE CB 60
HD =CH =100
CB 60.60
CH ":"" CB =100 - 60 =40'
CB =80 ~ 60=120m.
A riverisflowing from westtoeast.Fordetermining thewidth
oftherivertwopointsA and B areselected onsouthernbanksuchthatdistance
AB =75ern (Fig.3.22).PointA iswestwards. The bearingsof atreeConthe
northernbankare observed10 be38 and338 respectivelyfrom A andB. Calculate
thewidth oftheriver.
[AMIE, Summer1982]
c
N
w+.E
5
~ J
'0
o
75 m I'
338"
.r:
Solution Let CD be thewidth ofthe river.
AD
CD = ~ n 38
.DB .
.CD =tan22
.AD = CDtan38
Hence
. DB = CDIan 2 2 ~
AD+ DB =75= CD(Ian 38+ tan22")
Adding
CD=t 8 ~ 75I . ~ = 63.27rn
or
an.' + an__
Example 3.15 ABis a chainlinecrossinga lake.A andBareon theopposite
sides ofthelake.AlineAC,800m longisranged10 theright(IfAS clearofthe
lake. Similarlyanother lineAD, 1000mlongisranged10 theleftofABsuchthat
the points C, B. andD are collinear (Fig. 3.23).The lengthsBC andBD are
400m and600 m respectively. If the chainageatA is 1262.44 rn, calculate the
chainage ofB. [A:'IIE, Winter1985]
o
A
Fig.3.23 Example 3.15.
Solution FromtriangleACD.
., C.,
CD
2+AD--A
-
cos D= 2AD.AC
_ 1000
2
+ 1000'1 - 800
2
= 068
.- (2)(1000)(800) .
~ B ~
BD'!. + AD-- A -
From AADB, cos 0.= 2DB.AD
or
AB! =BD'!. + AD'!. - 2DB AD cos D
= 600
2
+1000
2
_ (2)(600)(1000)(0.68)= 544000
AB = 737.56356 m
58 Fundamentals of Surveylng
Chainage at B =1262044 +737.56
=2000.00 m
Example 3.16 A survey line AB is obstructed by a high building. To prolong the
line beyond the building, a perpendicular BC 121.92 m long is set at B. From C
two lines CD and CE are set out at angles of 30 and 40 with CB respectively
(Fig. 3.24). Determine the lengths CD and CE so that D and' E may be on the
prolongation of AB. If the chainage of B is 95.10 mfind the chainage of D. Draw
a sketch showing all the points.
c
121.92
A
E
40
' I
B
D
95.10
Solution CD cos 30= =121.92 m
CD = 121.92 =140.78 rn
cos 30=
CE = 121.92 .
cos 400 =159.16 m
BD =121.92 tan 30 =70.39 m
Chainage of D =Cbainage of B + BD
=95.10 +70.39 = 165.49 m
3.12 FIELD WORK FOR CHAIN SURVEYIKG
In chain surveying only linear measurements can be taken with the help of chain
or tape. No angular measurement is possible. Hence the principle of chain survey
or chain triangulation as it is sometimes called, is to provide a skeleton or frame-
work of a number of connected triangles as triangleis the only simple figure that
can be plotted from the lengths of sides measured in the field. The intersection
points of the sides are called stations and these are established by placingranging
rods at station points after reconnaissance survey of the site. The following points
should be considered while selecting survey stations or survey lines.
.
. Measurement of Horizontal Distances 59
1. Surveystations shouldbemutually visible.
2. Numberofsurvey lines shouldbeassmall aspossible.
3. Thereshould beatleast onelongbackbone lineinthesurveyupon which
thesurveyor forms thetriangles.
4. The linesshould preferably runthrough level ground.
5. The triangles formed shouldbe well conditioned.
6. There should besufficient checklines.
7. The offsetsshould beas'sbcn as possible. Hence thesurveylines should
pass closetotheobjects.
3.12.1 BOOKING THESURVEY
Thedataobtained inthefield arerecorded systernarically inanoblong book of
sizeabout200mm by120rnrn which isknown asfield book. Itopenslengthwise
andusuallyhastwolines spaced about15 to20mm apartruled down themiddle
ofeachpage.Thisis double linefield book andthedistance alongthechain line
.isentered within the double lines.Theimportant steps before starting asurvey are:
1. Make a rough sketch inthe field bookshowing theJocations ofchosen
stationsand chain lines. .
2. The bearing from true ormagnetic north ofatleastoneofthellnes should
be shown.
3. The stations should be located from three or more points and enough
information should beplottedsothatthey can berelocated ifnecessary.
Thefollowingaretheguide lines in recording afieldbook.
1. Begineachlineatthebottom ofapage.
2. Sufficientspace should bekept inthe field book between different chainages.
Plottinginthefield bookneednotbetoscale.
3.Smal1 details should beplottedinanexaggerated scale.
4. Clear sketches ofalldetails shouldbe shown inthefield book. Nothing
shouldbelefttomemory..
5. Bookingsshouldbe donesystematicallystarting with the sidehaving more
details. . .
Figures3.25,3.26and 3.27showtherough sketch of a plot.thestation
points and thedouble lineentry in thefield book.
3.l:!.2 CONVEi'-lIONAL SYMBOLS
Different features in survey are represented bydifferent symbols and colours.
Figure 3.28 shows someconventional symbols commonly used.
3.12.3 DEGREE OFACCURACY OFCHAli\I:\G
Thedegreeofaccuracy whichcanbeanaineddepends on(i)fineness ofgraduation
ofthechaln.(ii) nature oftheground, (iii) timeandmoney available. (iv)field
J
l
A B 75.8 .J:...
ac: C
,'9\ : , , ,
, , , N
'\' \ : " ,
" ,
'" ,
, ... 792 ...
, . ,
: 80.4
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
. ,
,
''I.':.,' .
.. 6 D
Fig. 3.25 Rough sketch of the plot, stations and chain lines.
Tree
(\l ..
Building
corner
..k ",..
.-
............
........
--
-.
..
.......

.
,
,
,
,
,
, .
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
...
... BUilding
/ '. '\ . corner

Fig. 3.26 . Fixing of a station.
L
---
---
-' .
Measurement of Horizantal Distances . 61
B LirieAB ends
b.
63.4
........9
57.5
15.4
43.7
35.7 .
y .
22.1
3.4
4.7
15.7

11.2
....V
10.5
4.5
b.
Station A
Line AS begins
Fig. 3.27 A typical page of double entry field book.
Itt til rr! t t IJ -e:::t:::>-<O-
..
HEDGE &AT ,,,,,,,poUIID WAU,
FENCE
....._.... -
-+tt+t+H
. _....--
.. _---_.-.
FIJDTPnH CAI?T TIi'ACA' ROAP lUll. WAY

"

BR/.f)(j
CUrT/Nt; MBAHKMENT
- t::"111
:, --:. ---U"LJ"'
6TRAM BU/LLJ/N6
J%'\ 'l? q q
.
q V :"
fl9q,9
9
t(p'i
f
';.
:: :: ..
. I I I ..
MAcSCltYl?Y CONCRETE

;--..
!.
TREE FORQ'r MARcH CON TOo
Fig. :U8 Conventional signs or symbols.
J
1
[,
conditions, (v)technical competence ofthestaff, etc.Thefollowing accuracy of
chaining canusually beobtained under most suitable conditions.
I. Formeasurements with chain onrough orhillyground 1in250.
2. Formeasurement withtested chain, plumb bob 1in 1.000.
3. Formeasurement with steel tape 1 in2,000to 1in20,000.
4. Formeasurement with invartape 1in20,000to 1in 1,000,000.
.
Theaccuracy varies from 1in100to1in200when measurementisdone through
pacingorpedometer.
PROBLEMS
3.1 .Givedifferent methodsof measuringhorizontal distances.Giveanadvantage,
anda disadvantage ofeach.
Explain theprinciple ofchain surveying.
3.3 Whatisawell conditionedtriangle?Why itisnecessarytousewellconditioned
triangle?
3.4 Statethe principlesinvolved in choosing stations for achain andtapesurvey.
3.5 What isanoffset? What are types ofoffsets? Whyoffsets should
beassmallaspossible?
3.6 Explain the various points which youwill keep in mind while recording
entries in afieldbook.Give aneatsketch ofa pageofthefield bo6K.
3.7 A30mchainwas found tobe15 Col longafterchaining 1524 m.Thesame
chain was found to 30.5 COl too long after chaining a total distance of :
3048m.Findthecorrect length ofthetotal distancechained assuming the
chain wascorrect atthecommencement ofchaining. [AMIE, May 1966]
3.8 Band C aretwopoints ontheopposite banks ofa riveralong achain line
ABC ' vhich crosses theriveratright angles to the bank. From a pointP
which is45.720mfrom B along thebank,thebearing ofA is215"30' and
thebearing ofCis305
c30'.
Ifthelength AB is60.960mfindthewidth of
theriver. . tAMIE, May 1966]
3.9 Atape 100mlongwas ofstandard length underapullof4kgat l2C.It
wasthen usedincatenary inthree equal spans of 10013 meach tomeasure
alevel linewhich was found tomeasure 3400m.Calculate thetruelength
of thelinefrom thefollowing data:
Pull on tape=10kg
Cross section of tape=5 mrnx t rnrn
Weight oftapepercubic emof steel =7.7. gm
Mean'field =20"C
Coefficient ofexpansion =0.0000113
E =21x lOs kgicm
2
[AMIE,AdvancedSurveying, Winter 1978]
3.10 (a) Explaintheprinciple,construction anduseof anopticalsquare,'
(b) Whenisitnecessary toadoptmethod ofreciprocalranging?Describe
the procedureindetail.
(c) Explainbrieflythe methodofchainingon slopingground.
Surveying,Winter1982]
3.11 (:1) AsurveylineAB is runningalongdifferentslopes asdetailed below:
Thereisadownwardslopeof1in10from stationAto chainage138m.
The groundhasanangleofelevation of 815' from chalnage238m
to chainage465 m.There isa riseof 25 m from chainage465 m to
station B having chalnage of 665 m. All the measurements of
chainageshaveactuallybeentakenalongtheground.Itwasalsofound
that the20 mchainusedforchaining was5 cm too longthroughout
the work. Calculate the correcthorizontal distance from stationA to
stationB.
(b) Stateclearlythedegreeofaccuracy required to be achieved inmeasuring
horizontal distancesunderdifferent conditions.
(c) Draw explanatory sketches to show (i) Well conditioned rriangle,
(iil Tle line,(rll) Checkline. [AMIE,Surveying,Summer 19831
3.12 (a) What factors should be considered in selecting stations of a chain
survey?
(b) What areoffsets?Discusstherelatlve merits of differenttypesof offsets?
Whyis itdesirable' thatoffsets shouldbe asshort as possible?
(c) AandB aretwopoints150mapartonthenearbankofariverwhich
flows from east to west.The bearings of a tree on the far bank as
observed fromAand Bare N50
0E
and N43Wrespectively. Determine
thewidthof theriver.
Surveying, Winter" 1984]
3.13 (a) Explainwithsketcheshowtochainpast(i) a river,(ii) a building.
(b) Tworangingrods,oneof2.50mandtheotherof 1.00mlengthwere
usedin orderto find theheight ofan inaccessible tower. In the first
setting.therodsweresoplacedthattheirtopswereinlinewiththetop
ofthetower. Thedistancebetween therodswas 15m.In thesecond
settine
-
therodswereranzed onthesame lineasbefore.This timethe
....., .
distancebetweentherodswas30m.Ifthedistance betweenthetwo
longerrodswas 90 rn, findtheheight of thetower. .
[AMIE, Surveying,Winter1984]
3.14 (a) Describethemethodofranging alineacross aridgewhentheterminal
stationsare not intervlsible
(b) AB isachainlinecrossingalakeAandB are, ontheoppositesidesof
thelake.AlineAC800 mlongis ranged to the rightofAB clearof
thelake,Similarlyanother lineAD 1000 mlong israngedto the left
..
ofA8 such thatthepointsC.8 andDarecollinear.The lengthsBC
and 8D are400 m and 600 m respectively. If the chainage of A is
m,calculatethechainageof8.
Winter 1985]

..
__J
1
3.15 (a) Draw the conventionalsigns, asusedontopography mapforthe following
objectsand indicate theircolour:
(i) Puccabuilding, (ii) Temple, (iii) Surveyed tree,(i\') Embankment,
(v) Rood culvertonadrain, (vi)Railway bridge overriver.
(b)Describe anythreeof[he following operations inachain surveying:
(i) Measurement oflengths onsloping ground,
(ii) Criteria forselection ofchainsurveystations, ,
(iii) Crossing a wide riverasanobstacle tochaining,
(iv) Bookingchainage andoffset measuremententries inafield book.
"",
j
4
Electronic Distance
Measurements
4.1 Il'iTRODUCTION
Electronic distance measuring instruments, as the name implies utilizes
electromagnetic energy for measuring distances between two points. To facllitate
understanding, basic electronic concepts are first discussed.
4.2 BASIC CONCEPTS
Electromagnetic waves can be represented in the form of periodic sinusoidal
waves as shown in Fig. 4.1.
:, , ,: F
B 1\ :
---r----
.
,
,
,
,
I
I
A
,
'rr
G
'2
D 3rr
2
Fig. 4.1 Wavelength.
The time taken for an alternating current to go through one complete cycle
of values is calledperiodof the wave. Onecycleof the wave motion is completed
when one period has been completed and the number of cycles per unit of time
is called frequency, The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz) which is one cycle per
second. The linear length). of a wave is the wavelength which can be determined
as a function of the frequency f and the velocity of electromagnetic radiation C
as ). = Clf. . . ; .
Oscillators convert DC drawn from an energy source (battery) into an AC
of ccntinuousslnewaves. Acontinuous wave does not include any information or
intelligence but it can be effectively used as a carrying agent.
65

. Sinusoidal wave
I
r
66 Fundamentals of SlIn'ryil:g
The fundamental inforrnatlon transmitted by thecarrierwave inelectronic
surveying isasinusoidal wave form tobeused formeasurements,Theprocessof
superimposing thedesired sinewave orotherperiodic signal on10 thecarrierwave
iscalledmodulation.
Threemain typesofmodulation arefrequently used inelectronic distance
measurements, Theyare: (i) Amplitude modulation, (ii)Frequency modulation.
and (iii)Phasemodulation. .. '. '
In amplitude modulation, the'frequency and the phaseof tne carrierwave do
not change butthestrength and amplitude V
e
ofthecarrierwave, V =V
e
sin I
alternates sinusoidally with an amount V( =a' V
e
Thecoefficient a indicatesthe
depthorthedegree ofmodulation;it isdefined as whereV; istheamplitude
ofmodulation wave. During modulation. theamplitude of thecarrierwave thus
alternatesbetweenthelimits \Ie+v; and V, - V;' assh,own inFig.4.2.
v
... j
j
V
c
J
....... "
.
Fig. Amplitude modulation.
Infrequency modulation (Fig; 4.3)theamplitude ofthecarrierwave iskept
COnstant butthefrequency varies accorqing totheamplitude and pclarityofthe
modulation signal. The carrierfrequency is increased during one half cycle of the
modulation signalanddecreased during theOther halfeyelet.thusthefrequency
isleastpositiveandhighest when themodulation is mostpositive.
Inphase modulotion (Fig. asinfrequency modulation theamplitude of
thecarrierwaveremainsconstant but thephase of thecarrierwave is vanedaccording
tothephaseofthe modulation wave.
tJ CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRO!\IAGNETlC
Thetotalspectrum of electromagnetic radiation usedinelectronic andelectro-
optical distance measurementsencompasses wavelengths fromthevisiblelightof
about 5(lOr
7
to about3(10
4
) mattheradio frequency region. Frequencies are
large numbers and always positive powers of the.basicunit, the hertz; periods are
., small numbers and always negative powers of the basic unit.Table4.1 lists
."
Electronic Distance Measurements 67
v

v
(a)
. (b)
v
I,' ! 111.\ l I, f \ Ill.1 f I. I' ,t.
(c)
v
....
(d)
Fig. 4.3 Frequency and phase modu!;1tion: (:I) Modul:ltion wave, (b) Carrierwave,
(c) Frequency modulated carrlerwave (frequency changes). (d) Phasemodulated
carrierwave (phase changes), (Ref. 2) .
_J
l
!
\
6S Fundamentals of Surveying
Table Relationship ofFrequency, Period and Wavelengths (Ref. 2)
.Frequency Period W;l\'e1ensth
r=
.A =cT
Hertz (Hz) 1 sec 3 (10)' m
kHz = 10
3
Hz 1msec=10-
3
sec
3 (0)5m
MHz =10
6
Hz 1)J sec;= 10 sec.
. 3 m
GHz = 10
9
Hz 1nsec=10-
9
sec 3(lOr' m
THz ;= 10
12
Hz 1p sec=10-
12
sec
3 (10)"-4 m
relationshipsoffrequency,periodandwavelengthswhenthepropagation velocity
c is giventhe approximate valueof c=3(10
5
) , kmlsec.Table4.2 gives a commonly
usedclassificationofdifferentfrequencyand wavelength. .. . .
Table4.2 Commonly Used Frequencies andWa\'elel1gths (Ref. 2)
Classification Symbol Frequency Wavelength
Very lowfrequency VLF 10-30 kHz
.30,000-10,000
Lowfrequency LF 30-300 \;Hz 10,000-1,000
Medium frequency :-'1F 300-3000 kHz 1,000-100
High frequency HF 3-30 MHz 100-10
Very highfrequency VHF 30-300 MHz 10-1.0
Ultra high frequency l:HF 300-3000 MHz 1.0-0.1
Superhighfrequency SHF .' 3-30 GHz 0.1-0.01
Extremely highfrequency EHF
.30- GH7.
0.01-
4,4 BASIC PRIl-\CIPLE OF ELECTROl\IC DISTAKCE
i\IEASUREMENT
Inmeasuringthe distance betweenrwopoints electronically, an alternating signal
travelsfromonepoint totheother. itisreflectedorreturned insomemannerand
theniscomparedwiththephaseoftheoriginalsignaltodetermine thetraveltime
for the round trip. If the distance is to be measured bydirecttimecomparison
with an accuracy corresponding to the nearest COl. a time of approximately
67 sec mustbe distinguishable. Thisintervalof time is difficult tomeasure
directlybutitcan be resolvedbyaphaserneasurementofasignalwitha period
of67(10-
9
) seccorrespondingto15mcpersec.Thissignalfrequency istoolow
fordirect transmission.so a much highercarrier frequency isemployedand the
signalappearsasa modulationfrequency, Dependingonthetypeofcarrlerwave
employed,EDMinstruments can beclassified :IS:
1. Microwave instruments.
2. Visiblelight instruments. ..
3. Infraredinstruments.
Light frequencies permit the use of optical corner reflectors at the section stations
.
l
\'
butrequiresanoptically clearpathbetween thetwostations.Microwavesystems
canoperatethrough fogandcloudsalthough anopticallyclearpathisrequiredif
the .vertical anglebetween two stations mustbe determined.to convert into a
horizontaldistance. Thepresenceof.fogorcloudsmaycause a lossin accuracy
andpreventareliableestimate.
4.5 THE DISTANCE FRO:'rITHE PHASE
DIFFEREI\CES
Onecompletecycleatthem
04
,+lnQ,Qp frequency corresponds tothetimerequired
forthesignaltotravel onehalfwavelengthinbothdirection.Thedistancebeing
measuredcorresponds tomany halfwavelengths ntthemodulationfrequencyplus
some fractionof a half wavelength. All the instruments use data from. several
frequencies toovercome thisambiguity.
Fourmodulation frequencies are used indetermining the totallength being
measured.Several measurements aremadeatoneofthesefrequencies inorderto
reduceinherentelectronic errorsinthesystem. Thefourfrequencies are Is- Ic
undiD' Thecorrespondinghalflengthsare).",/2, )'812, hn and).on. Thewavelength
i. is related toc, thevelocity of propagation andthe-frequencyj"by;>'
(4.1)
).=7
Representative nominal values for thesequantities aregiveninTable4.3.
Table4.3 Nominal Frequency andHalfWavelengths
Frequency incycle/sec' Halfwavelength inrn
I... =10.00 (10
6
)
Is =9.99 (10
6
)
i' A =3(10)5=15 ..
. 2 2(10)' .
)'8 I .. )'A 15
T = T ::0.999
Ie ;,. 9.90(10
6
)
.10 =9.0 (10
6
)
ie 15
T::0.99
i. 0 _ 15
T=0.9
.
Withtheexception of themodulation wavelengths arenotuseful directly but
the wavelengths assoclcted with the frequency differences allow the ambiguity
introducedb)'thelongpathtoberesolved.Theserelations aregiveninTable4.4.
Phasedifferences needed inthedetermination ofdistance d can bederived
:IS follows:
.4 _B = _ 2cl = (1 _ .. = (I _f B) (4.2)
)'B I'A I'B I'A IA

"I
I
I
iO Fundamentals of Surveying
Table 4.4 Frequency Differences and Equivalent Half Wavelengths
Frequency differences in cycles/sec Equivalent half ...... avelength in meters
)."-B _ 3xl0 =15.000
. 14 -Is= 10
4
T=2xl0
4
). .4-C =1,500
IA - Ic = 10'
2
). ...-D =150
IA -ID = 10
6
.-
2
I" r Io =10; )'A =15.
Equation (4.2) can be rearranged to obtain an expression for the distance d.
A - B = d f ~ _ fs) =2d' fA'" Is = ~
.' c c c;.,\_s/2
or
d = (A _ B) }.A-S
2
in which half wavelengths are obtained from Table 4.4 and the phase differences
from theinstrument readings. Ahypothetical example of how distances are derived
and total distance obtained is shown in Table 4.5. It can be seen from the table
that only The first figure to the right of the decimal point is used in calculating the
coarse contributions to d since other significant figures are included in later terms
of the summation. All significant figures beyond the decimal point in the A'- 0
term are used. The final length is obtained by summing all the part lengths,
Table 4.5 Summation of Distances Contribution from Phase Difference
Hypothetical phase Eqcivalent Distance contribution in meters
difference in cycles ). 12 in meters
0.9(). .4-8) =13.500.00
A - B =0.92 15.000
2
., ()....c> = 300.00
A - C =9.21. 1,500
0._. -2-
0.1 ().... -D) = .
A - D =92.11 150 15.00
2
(). A-O) _
A - 0 =921.124 15
0.124 ---y- -
1.86
13.816.86 m
.
Modern EDMs use the decade modulation technique. When the modulation
frequency is 15 MHz. the half wavelength is 10 m. The phase meter reading then
gives distance between0 and9.999rn-When the modulation frequency is brought
down to1.5MHz.thehalfwavelength is 100mandthephasemetergivestens
of meters. When it is stillbrought downto 0.15 MHz, thehalfwavelength is
1000 mandwegethundreds ofmeters.Finallya15 kHz frequency willgivethe
number ofthousand meters. The distance13,816.86 mwill thenbeobtained as
summation of6.86, 10.00, 800 and 13.000.
4.6 BRIEFDESCRIPTION OF DIFFERENTTYPES OF
IiI\STRUl\IENTS
Geodimeters. All geodimeters employ visiblelight as thecarrier. The measuring
setconsists of an activetransmitter and receiver at oneend of theline to be
measuredanda passiveretro directive prismreflector at theotherend.Continuous
lizhremission in the transmitter is intensity (amplitude) moduJated,usiM a

precisionradiofrequency generatorandanelectro-optical
..
shuttertoformsinusoidal
lightintensity Thedistance isobtainedbycomparingthephases ofoutgoing
modulation waves with thosereceivedbythereceivingcomponentafterreflection
from thedistnnt reflector, Allreflectorsinthemodem instrumentsarebasedon
theretrodirectivity principle. Each unitinthereflector isaretro directive prism
made ofthree mutually perpendicularreflecting surfaces..
Theprismisoftencalledacorner rejle-ctorbecause, forstabllity.Itis-made
bycutting a cornerfrom asolid glass. cube. Light entering the prismreflects from
eachofme three surfacesandafterwards this triplereflection returns totheinstrument
parallel totheincident beam, Asregardsilluminationpower, thealignment ofthe
reflector with respect tothegeodimeterinstrument isnotcritical andalignment
errors oftheorderof 10 maybe tolerated.
Tellurimeter. ,The'tellurimeter usesmicrowaves at about 3.10or 35 GHz asthe
carrier. Themeasuring set consistsof twoactiveunits with a transmitter or receiver;
oneiscalled themasterandtheothertheremote unit. Thecarrierfrequencies of
thetwounitsdifferslightly makingitpossible toutilize intermediate frequency
(IF) amplification.. Because the carriers are microwaves. the beam widths are
narrow-s-between 2and20.Measuringcanbecarried oneitheratnightorday
time, through haze or light rain, although heavyrainfall may reduce theworking
range, Thebareoutlines of themeasuring principle consistofafrequency modulated
carrierwave from themasterstation beingsenttothe remote station where itis
received andretransmittedto the masterstation. Therethe phasedifference between
., the transmitted andreceived modulation orpattern waves iscompared. Knowing
thephase difference or bydecademodulation technique distance can be determined.
Hewlett-Packard 3800. This is a modern instrument. Block diagram of
theinstrument isshown in Fig. 4.4.The transmitter uses a GnAs diodewhich
emitsamplitudemodulated infraredlight.Frequencyofmodulation isprecisely
controlled byacrystal oscillator.Theintensity variation oramplitude variation is
properlyrepresented bysinewaves, Environmentalcorrectionfactorcan bedirectly
dialedintothetransmlnertoslightly varythefrequencysothata constantwavelength
ismaintained despite atmospheric variations. Hence noadjustment ofdistance is
.
72 Fundamentals 0/ Surveying
-
Chopper
splitter
..
Transmitter
. ,
Frsqvency
generator
..
Dlsplay
Rstro reflector
L..../

1/ .
<,
-,
l\
L.....>
Variable filter
.,
Internal beam
-
-l
I
1
( External beam
' "-
f'.
"-
r
Interference
filler
Receiver opticsand
phase difference
circuits
Phase
meter
Fig. General flowdiagram of Hewlett-Packard 3800.
necessary at a laterstage. Humidity has little effect on thepropagation of infrared
light andhenceis notmeasured.
With the refractive index /I = 1.0002783 andCo = 299,i92.5 krn/sec the
basicmodulation frequency representing 10m distance is/1 =14.985 :'-1Hz. The
othermodulation frequencies are: .
h = 1.-i9S5 MHz
/3 =149.85 kHz
h=14.985 kHz
Thetimesnaringbetween thetransmitted signals andthereference signals
is made in the chopperbeam splitter whichdivides themodulated light coming

fromtheGa-As transmitted diodeinto twoseparate beams alternately. Thelight
signal tobe transmitted isthenfocussed intoa beam. Thisbeam issenttothe
Electronic Distance Measurements 73'
distant reflector. Both external and internal Iigh't' signals then pass through an
interference filter located just in front of the receiver diode. This filter helps to
reject signals of other wavelengths (e.g. visible sunlight) without eliminating the
modulation signal from the carrier. None of the beam splitting, chopping and
,filtering processes will cause phase shifts between the' transmitted and reference
"
light signals. The internal and external beams are then converted to electrical
energy. A phase meter converts the phase difference into direct current having a
magnitude proportional to the differential phase, This current is connected to a
null meter which automatically adjusts itself to null the current. The fractional
, wavelength is converted to distance during the nulling process and displayed on
instrument dials.
Mcdern of HP 3800 is fully automatic and a built-in computer
averages the distance measurements without beingaffected by interruptions of the
beam. The digital light emitting diode display gives the operator the distance and
classifies its measuring quality in three ways. Asteady numerical display indicates
a good, solid measurement within the instruments specified accuracy; aflashing
display means that conditions are such that the measurements are marginal, and
a flashing "0" displaywarns the operator that under present conditions a valid
measurement cannot be rnade. '
4.7 TOTAL
Modern surveyingsystemtypicallyconsists of anelectronic total station, electronic
field book and softwares used in the office for processing data. ' ',"
The total station's function is to measure horizontal and vertical angles and
slope distances in a single integrated unit. It is usually connected to nn electronic
field book. The field system (totalstation and field book) is usually controlled via
the field book. The principal reason for this is that the field book keyboard does
not transfer the force used to press the keys to the total station.
In, operation the total station is set up over the required point and its height
over the survey station measured. Then the operator points at a prism/target and
initiates a reading; Usually this is done by pressing a key on the field book. In '
some systems it may be a key on the electronic, total station. '
While the basic data sent by the electronic total station consist, of slope
distance, horizontal angle and vertical angle, other data maybe included in the
. ,
datastream. This mayinclude units settings, partsper million (pprnj.value (for the

electronic distance meter EDM), prism constant being used, etc. Addltlonally,
calculated values such as coordinates, azimuths, and horizontal distances may be
transmitted. Electronic total stations can also have a variety of functions to improve
efficiency andaccuracy, Some of thesemay becorrections for collirnations, curvature
and refraction and horizontal and vertical angles to compensate for the tilt of the
vertical axis.
The electronic field book's basic function is to store the raw' data gathered
in the field, including horizontal and vertical angles, slope, distances, heights of
instruments and targets, temperature and pressure, point numbers and descriptive
codes." .

--.J
I
One ofthemostcrucialaspects of theelectronicdatacollection conceptis
dataflow. Traditional surveyingtechniques forceonetoviewsurveying asadata
gathering activity. This viewdoes not recognizet ~ e fact that oncea design is
completed basedonthesurveydatathereusuallyisaneed totransferthisdesign
ontothetopography. In modern surveying, therefore, settingoutisgivenequal
importance asdata gathering.
4.8. EFFECTOF ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIO:\S O ~
WAVE VELOCITY.
Thevelocity ofelectromagneticradiationis constantinvacuum (atthe velocity
oflight) burwhenaffectedbytheatmosphereit isretarded indirectproportion
tothedensity ofair.Becauseofrefractionthedirection andspeedchange.The
refractive indexusuallysymbolized as11 isrelatedtothedielectric constantJ.l of
.theairinthefollowingway: .
11 = .[ii
Theinstantanecus velocityc oftheradiationatanypointwithintheatmosphere
isafunction of thespeed of lightCo and therefractiveindex11 andis givenas
c = colli
where Co isa constantand istakenas 299,792.5 krn/s,
Refractiveindexisafunction oftemperature,pressureandbumidity, Humidity
isgiven asthepartialpressureofthewatervapourinair.Infieldobservations it
isalmost always obtainedbythesimultaneous observations ofwetanddrybulb
readings ofapsychrometer.
Inelectro-optical instruments the light forms groups of waves of slightly
different lengths even if it is monochromatically filtered. Sincethe velocityof
sucha groupwavediffers a littlefrom the velocityof equivalent or effective
wave, a special group index of refraction.must be determined. International
Association ofGeodesyGeneralAssembly (1963)hasrecommendedthattheBarrell
andSears (1939)formulamaybeusedtocalculateliS orgroupindexofrefraction
when A. istheequivalentoreffective wavelengthof radiation in micrometers.
_ 1) 10' - 287604 3(16.288) 5(0.136)
(
Il
g
-. +. J,2 + A ~
Forthekinds of light usedinEDM'sthe valuesof A. are:
(a)Mercury vapour= ~ 5 5
(b)Incandescent = 0.5650
(c)Redlaser=0.6328 .

:(d)Infrared = 0.900-0.930
Tocompute the ambientrefractiveindex for Iightwaves, the Barrelland Sears,
(1939)formula is usually applied asfollows:
L
I
N = [nz- 1....L _55(10)-8 e] 106
n 1+ at 760 1+ at
where s, =(ll
a
' :'" 1)10
6
.
P = Total pressure
e = Partialpressure of' .... atervapour inmillimeters ofmercury
a = Heatexpansion coefficient ofair0.00367
t = Temperature indegree Centigrade.
Theeffect ofwatervapour issmallonpropagation oflightwavesbutisofgreat
. significance when microwaves areused. Formicrowaves Essen-Froome formula
canbeused which isasfollows:
N
m
= 103.49 (P _e) + 8626(1
7
574.8)e
r .r T.
where T is in Kelvin units,P ande areinmm ofHe.
. Toinvestigate thesensitivity ')fthe parameters T. Pand e or
theirpartial effectonN,partia! differentiation>ofthe-formulae is: tobedone. If
erroristoberestricted toonepartpermillion (ppm) theallowablestandarderrors
inobserving T, P ande are:
For
mr = 1.0
c
C
mp ; 3.6mb(millibar)
m
t
= 25.6mb (millibar)
Formicrowave
mr= 0.8
cC
mp = 3.7mb
111
t
= 0.23 mb
. . .
From above, itisobvious thattheallowable uncertainty inobserving temperature
andpressure isofthe' samemagnitude ineachcase. Humidity isthemost critical
parameter to be observed in connectlonwithmeasurements made by using
r'diowaves. Therequired accuracy bywhich humidity mustbeknownisabout
100times greaterin radiowave propagation than it is when light emission is
utilized. Inhighprecision geodetic orgeophysical applications, therefore, light is
the carrying agentofpreference. ..
4.9 INSTRUMENTAL ERRORSINEDM
Apart from errorduetoatmospheric refraction, errorin mayoccurfornot
having theeffective centreofthereflector plumbed overthefarendof theline
asshown inFig.4.5.
Thedistance throughwhichlighttravelsinthe glass tubeduringretroreflection
is a + b + c which intumisequal to2t.Thedistance tis measured from theface
I
r-t---l
1.5171 ,
..
....
.'
.....
..'
.............
FromEDM
.....
a
.'
....
R .
.........
"
'.
"
" C '.
'.
'.
... ..
"
To EDM
r-..
",

I.---

Fig. 4.5 Reflectorcorrection.
of thereflectors to thecomer of theglasstube. The equivalent air distancethrough
which thelighttravels is 1.517 (2r) onaccount oftherefractive indexofglass.
Theeffective'comerofthecube isatRandrepresents theend oftheline
andhence C
R
is thecorrection tobeapplied tothemeasured line.As different
combination ofreflectors areused atdifferenttimes ofmeasurement the"reflector
constant" is not the samefora1\ setting of theinstrument. Thishas to bedetermined
foreach reflector-instrument combination known asCt. Thiscanbe obtained by
measuringadistance electronicallyandalsovery accurately bymeansofaninvar
.tape. "
Another way ofdeterrninlngC,istotakemeasurementsAB, BC andAC all
inastraight line.Then
(Measured AB +C
1
) +(Measured BC +C
1
)
=Measured AC+C
1
or C
t
=Measured AC - (Measured AB +Measured'BC)
Microwave instruments maysuffer from aphenomenon known :IS GroundSwing,
Thisisduetomultiple reflection of microwaves fromground or watersurface.
Errors from thissource canbe byelevating themaster and remote units
ashigh above ground aspossible and averaging anumberofmeasurements taken
from both ends. . .
4.10 REDUCTION OFSLOPE
EDM measures slopedistance between stations. Manyinstruments automatically

reduce thehorizontal distance. Insome cases, it is to bedone manually. Reduction
of slope distance to horizontal canbe based on difference in elevation or in
vertical angle. Themethod is explained with thehelpofexamples.
Example4.1 (i)If electromagnetic energy travels299,792.5 kmlsec undergiven
conditionswhatunitofdistancecorresponds toeachmillimicro secondoftime?
(ii)Thespeedofelectromagneticenergythrough theatmosphere ntastandard
barometric pressureof760rnm of. mercury.isaccepted as299,792.5 kmlsec for
measurements with an EDM instrument. What time lag in the equipmentwill
produceanerrorof 15m in thedistance toa target 80 krnaway?
(iii) (a)If anED);! hasapurportedaccuracycapabilityof (5mm+5ppm)
whaterrorcanbeexpectedinameasureddistanceof800m?(b)If acertainED);!
instrument hasanaccuracy capabilityof(7mm+ 7ppm)whatistheprecision
of measurements in termsof 1/.\ forlinelengthof3000rn?
Solution
tn1millimicro second = 10-
9
sec
Distancetravelled/sec = 299,792.5 krn
Distancetravelled in 1millimicro second
= 299,792.5 (10-
9
) krn
= 2.997925 (lo-l) krn
=2.997925 (l0-1) m
= 29.97ern
(ii) 15m =.015 km
Velocityoflight =299,792.5 kmlsec
Hence,timelag
- .015 - 50034- 10-8
- 299,792.5 sec -. ... :> x sec
(iii) (a) Accuracy = (5mm + 5 ppm)
= (5 + = 9mm
(b) Accuracy . = (7mrn + 7 ppm)
3
. =.(7 mm + 7(3000)(10 )
. . 10
6
.= 28mm
_ 28 1
In termsof 11:c
- (3000)(10
3
) = 107,142
=_1
107,000
Example 4.2 Whatistherefractive indexofredlaserlightatatemperature of
20'C andbarometric pressure of710torr?Neglect theeffectof...rapour
Whnt is thevelocitythrough thisair?Whatisthemodulated wavelength if the
rnodulatlng frequency is24MHz?

Solution Forredlaserlight).=0.6328.Hence refractiveindex ofstandard
airforthelasercarrieris given by .
(lI _ 1) 107 =2876.04 + (3)(16.288) , 5(0.136)
g ,2 T

=2876.04 + 3(16.288) + 5(0136)
(0.6328)2 (0.6328)4
=3002.3078
n
g
=
Refractive index in air under given atmospheric condition neglecting effectc
vapourpressure.
. [11 - 1 p]
N =-'-_.- 10
6
n 1+at .760
,
.0003002 )(710) 6
=
(
1+(0,00367)(20) 760 (10)
=(.000261272) (10
6
)
(n
a
- 1)(10
6
) =(.000261272) (10
6
) .
lin =1.000261272.
Thevelocity of light through thisatmosphere
.,
V _ Co
.(
a - no

whereCo isthe velocityoflight'in vacuum.takenas299,792.5 km/s
)
. 299,792.5 ?997142'1km/
=1.000261272 =- , . . s
Modulated wavelength
= 299,714.21 =(12488.092)(10-6)krn

=12.488092m
Example 4.3 Microwaves aremodulatedat afrequency of70MHz. Theyare
propagated. throughanatmosphere at a temperature of12
c
C,atmospheric pressure
of712torr, andavapourpressure of7.6torr.Whatisthemodulated wavelength
of thesewaves?
Solution For microwaves,
Nm =103.49 (P _
T
.:: 103.49 (712
. 285
e) +8626(1+5748)e
T T
_ 76)'+86.26 (1 . 5748)76
. 285' +.285 .
L. _
'-i'"
Electronic Distance Measllremcnls79
=255.78371 + 48.693013
= 304.47672
11
m
= 1 + .0003044
=1.0003044
" 299,792.5 ?99 70? 47 k' I
m =1.0003044 =- , _. .m sec.
Modulated wavelength
o.
299.702.47 =4.2814638 m.
}. = (70)(10
6
)
Example 4.4 In a straight line ABC, AB measures 354.384 rn, Be measures
282.092 m and AC measures 636.318 musing 11 particular 'ED:vr reflector
combination. A line measures 533.452 m with this instrument-reflector combination.
What is the correct length of the line?
Solution
C/ =Measured AC - (Measured AB + Measured Be)
=636.318 - (354.384 + 282.092)
= -0.158 m.
Correct length of the' line = 533.452 - 0.158
= 533.294 m.
Example 4.5 The height of an EDM set up at /vI is 1.495m. The height of the
reflector set up at P is 1.295 m. The height of the theodolite at M used to measure
the vertical angle is 1.615 m, The height of the target.at P on which the vertical
sight is taken is 1.385 m. The slope distance after meterological corrections 0 is
1650.452 m. The measured vertical angle is + 302'32". What is the horizontal
distance between M and P?
I
Solution
In Fig. 4.6
From the data given
Therefore,
Therefore,
E = Position of EDM
T = Position of theodolite
R =Position of reflector
S = Position of target .
J\-/E = 1.495 m MT = 1.615 m
TE = MT - ME = 1.615 - 1.495 = 0.12 m
PR =1.295 PS =1.385
SR =1.385 - 1.295 =0.09 m
. I
SO FundamentalsofSurveying
s
1.615 m T
3"01'32"
3"02'32"

1.385 m
j
T
E
1.495 m
1
p
M
. R

Fig.4.6 Example,4.5., .,.
From E,ER'isdrawnparallel toTSgivingRR'=O.I2- 0.09=.03m
. . Rf(cos0: _ (0.03)(cos302' 32") (206,265) sec
.10: In sec= ER' . - .:1650A52 .
=3.74396"
0:+ t10: =302'35.74"
Horizontal distance =ERcos(0: + ja)
1650.452 cos3
e02'35.74"
=
= m
Example 4.6 In Fig. 4.7 a vertical angle of - ge06'20"wasrecorded. The EDM
instrument was standard mounted and offset a distance of 0.20 m above the
theodolite axis.If thetheodoliteandreflectorheights areequal, what is thecorrected
horizontal distancefora recorded slopedistance of75.65 m?
Solution
Measured angleam (by Theodolite) =- se06'70"
L10:;;=0.20 (206,265)"
I:J. :> ., .
=539.87" .
- Electronic Distance Measurements 81
EDM.
Horizontal
Fig. 4.7 Example4.6..
=am + L1av =806'20" + 08'59.87"
= 815'19.87"
Horizontal length = 75.65 cos815'19.87"
.= 74.866 m
Example 4.7 Aslope distance of 940.07 m(corrected for meteorological conditions)
was measured fromA to B whose elevations were 643.41 rn and 568i39ni
above datum respectively (Fig.4.8).Find the horizontal length AB if heights
oftheEDM!and reflector were 1.205 mand 1.804 rn above theirrespective
.
.stations.
. .
Solution
'Here CD =L 1.205 m
h,.:: 1.804 rn.
d =643.410 + h, - (Elev, ofB + h,.)
= 643.410 + 1.205 - (568.39 +
I
::73.911 m
H :: - d
2
= .J9J,O.07"!. - 73.911
2
:: 937.1599 m
__-..J
c
1
he
Ts
d
hh.
Elev. A =643.41 rn
TI
t
h
r
--l
Elev. S =568.39 m
Example 4.8 The formula given in a manufacturer's instruction manual for
computing the atmospheric correction (C
m
) to measure electro-optical distance
measurement is
1.00028195
C =l"'""'""::'"' _.
m
u.uw194335 P 1
-----x-+
I + 0.00366086 t 1013
where t =ambient atmospheric temperature ~ C
P =ambient atmospheric pressure (mb)
Corrected slope distance =measured slope distance x C
m
The modulated wavelength of the instrument (i-s) is 20.00000 m corresponding to
3 frequency of 14.985400 MHzot specified meteorological reference data of l2
cC
(1) and 1013 mb (P) and carrier wavelength (i.) of 0.860 urn.
A survey line forming part of a precise test network was measured with the
instrument anda mean valueof 2999.097 rn recorded. Themean ambient temperature
1 and pressure P were 13..+
cC
and 978.00 mb respectively.
Compute theatmospheric correction using theformula given in the instruction
manual and from first principles. ana compare the results. Assume the velocity of
electromagnetic radiation in free space to be 299,792.5 kmls. .
It was later discovered that the field barometer was in error by + 24 mb.
o Compute the correction in the distance due to this error. What conclusions- can be
drawn from these calculations?
Aidememoire:
n - 1 P
11 =1+ X ---
" ' at' 1013.25
.: l' [1
8
'760 3x 162.88 5 1.36] 10-
3
11, - + _ ."T + .2 + X X 0.1
,
Co
x, =Ins
where
nIl = grouprefractive index of atmosphere,
11, = grouprefractive indexofwhite light(1.000294),
n
s
= grouprefractive indexforstandard conditions,
a = 3.661 x 10-
3
K-
1
,
T = ambient temperature (K),
P =:ambient pressure (mb),
)..S = modulated wavelength (20.000000 m),,'.
,). =carrierwavelength (0.860 IJm)'
Co =velocity ofelectromagnetic radiation infree space(299792.5 km/s)
f = modulation frequency (14.98540 MHz) [Eng. Council]
Solution Frommanufacturer's formula:
1.00028195
c; = [ 0.000294335 P ]
1+ 0.00366086t x 1013 + 1
1.00028195
- [ 0.000294335 '978.00 ]
1013 +1
=1.000011.
S'+ Fundamentals ofSurveying
_ 299i92500 _.,
}.s- . A A A ~ A A A ~ ~ _ 0.00. ,AA - ...
Attemperature of 13.4
CC
and978.00mbof pressure,
0.0002943' 978_
11 =1 + X ~ = = = =
/I 3.661 X 10-
3
x286.4 1013.25
=1.000270919
. - 1000281993 0000 1
ratio=1.000270919 =1. 1
- -n,-1 p-
11/1 =1+aT X ":""::7':"':.
- Il
g
- 1 '0P
on/l =----aTx101325
.00029433513 0P
= x--
3.661 X 10-
3
X 286.4 1013.25
= 2.i7046 x 10-
7
oP
017/1 X 10
6
=.277 oP
withoP =+ 24
011/1 X 10
6
=.277x 24=6.648
With length 2999.097 m
Correction indistance =2999.097 x6.648 x 10-6
=.02m
Errorduetoincorrectreading ofpressure issmall.
REFEREKCES
I. Hamson,A.E.,"ElectronicSurveying: ElectronicDistanceMeasurements",
Joumal ofthe Surveying andMapping Division, Proceedingsof theAmerican
Society ofCivilEngineers, Vol.89.No.503.October1963, pp,97-116.
2. Laurila Sirno,H" Electronic Surveying andNavigation, NewYork: John
Wiley & Sons, 1976.
PROBLEMS
4.1 Explain the principles ofelectronic distance measurement.
4.2 'Howdoeselectro-optical instrument differfrom EDM instrument?-
4.3 If anEDMinstrumenthasa purportedaccuracycapabilityof(5rnrn +5ppm)
what error canbe expectedina measureddistance of(a)600m(b)3krn?
4.4 If a certain instrumenthas an accuracy capabilityof (7 mrn + 7
ppm)whatistheprecisionofmeasurements, intermsof forlinelengths
of (a)30 m(b) 150m(c) 2000rn?
4.5 Tocallibratean EDMinstrument, distancesAC.ABandBCalongastraight
lineweremeasured as2436,24rn,1205.45 mand 1230.65 mrespectively.
Whatistheinstrumentconstantforthisinstrument? Compute thelength of
eachsegmentcorrectedfortheinstrument constant?
4.6 Discusstheerrorsin electronicdistance measurements.
4.7 Whichcausesa'greatererrorin a linemeasured withanED:-'U?
(a) A 2Cvariationof temperature from thestandard.
(b) Aneglected atmospheric pressure difference fromstandardof2 01 of
mercury.
4.8 Calculatethehorizontallengthbetween AandBif inExample 4.7.h,.h,
elev.;eleVa andthemeasured slopelengthLare 1.7m,1.45 01, 275.25 01,
329J2m and428.09tn respectively. "
4.9 Calculate the horizontal length in Example 4.6 if'the vertical angle is
+ 1045'30". EDMinstrument isstandard mounted andoffsetadistance of
0.2501 verticallyabovethetheodolite axisandtherecorded slopedistance
is 59.83m.
4.10 Whatisthevelocityofmercuryvapour lightat atemperature of lOoC and
barometric pressureof 710torr?
4.11 Microwaves are propagated through an atmosphere of 75F, atmospheric
pressureof 715torr and a vapourpressure of 12.5 torr. Ifthemodulating
frequency is30 MHz.whatis themodulated wavelength?
4.12 Determine thevelocityofredlaserlightthrough anatmosphere at30Cand
elevation1700m.
.'
-)
5
Levelling I
..
5.1
. . .
. . . . .
Levelling involves measurements in vertical direction. With the help of levelling
difference in elevation between two points or level of one point with respect to
another point of known elevation canbe determined. Levelling helpsin (i) knowing
the topography of an area, (ii) in the designof highways. railways, canals. sewers, .
etc, (iii) locating the gradient lines for drainage characteristics of anarea,
(iv) laying out construction projects, and (v) calculating volume of earth work,
reservoir, etc.
5.2 BASIC
Figure 5.1 illustrates some of the basic terms defined below as used in levelling.
Horizontal Iin!.- .....__ )
Level SLJrtacepaSSin9lhrOLJgh A
/
1;
Difference

elevation
between
-A and B
Vertical line
..
,Fig. 5.1 . Basic terms in levelling.
R6
Levelling 1 87
Vertical Line. It follows the direction of gravity at any point on the earth's
surface and is indicated by a plumb at that point.
".
. Horizontal Line. A line at any point which is perpendicular to the vertical line
at that point.
Level Surface. It is a continuous surface that is perpendicular to the plumb line.
Alarge body of still water unaffected by tidal waves is the best example of level
surface. For small areas level surface is taken co be a plane surface.
Mean Sea Level. The liserage height of the sea's surface for all stages of the
tide over a very long period (usually 19 years).
Datum. Any level surface to which elevations are referred (for example, mean
sea level).
Bench M\lrk (B..\1.). . It is a point of known elevation above or below a datum.
It is usually a permanent object; e.g. top of a metal disc set in concrete, top ofa
culvert, etc.
5.3 CURVATURE A:\D REFRACTION
From Fig. 5.1 it is apparent that difference inlevel between A and B .is measured
by passing level lines through the pointsA and B. However, levelling instruments
providehorlzontal line of sight and as Q. result curvature error occurs. In addition
due to refraction in the earth's atmosphere the ray gets bent towards the earth
introducing refraction error. Figure 5.2 illustrates these errors.
Neglecting small instrument height 5.4, 0,4 can be taken as the radius of the
earth..
From geometry of circle
... .,
AB(2R + AB) =d-
, . '
As AB is very small compared to diameter of the earth
AB' 2R =d'1
or
AB- d'1
(5.1)
- 2R
The diameter of the earth is taken as
12.734 krn
Hence curvature correction
d'1
AS =12.734 krn
= 0.078 d'1 m (5.2)
when, d is expressed in krn.
88 Fundamentals of SI/li'e)'ing
d
Horizontal line ofsight
Mean sealevel
.-----.....Level surface
through the
instrument
axis
Fig.5.2 Curvature and refraction correction: l =instrument station; S =staffstation;
AB =curvatureerror;BC =errordue to refraction: AC=combined errordue
tocurvatureandrefraction;SB =staffnorma) toearth'ssurface; /B =d. distance
ofthe staff fromthe instrument.
Theradiusof therayIebentduetorefraction istaken asseventimes the
radius oftheearth.Consequentlytherefractioncorrection istaken as lnthofthe
curvature correction. FromFig.5.1, it can be seen that refraction correction reduces
thecurvature correctionandhence thecombinedcorrection is6nth of.078d
2
rn,
i.e.O.067d
l
mwhend isexpressed inkrn, .
Thecorrection is subtractive from thestaffreading.
Example 5.1 Determine the distance for which the combined. correction is
5 mrn,
Solution Correctioninm =O.067d
2
, 'whered is inkrn
d2 =.005
.067
or d
~ 5 0?73k'
= .067 = .- .m
..
~ 273 m
Example5.2 What willbe theeffectofcurvatureandrefraction at adistance
'.
of(i) 100 m(ii) 1km (iii)50km(iv) 100km?
I
I
I
Levelling I 89
Solution
(i) E(, =0.067(.01)2 =6.7(10-6) m
(ii) E
b
= .067(1)2 = .067 m
(iii) E
L
, = .067(50)'! = 167.5 m
(iv) Ed =.067(100)2 =670 m
From the above result, it is seen that curvature and refraction correction may be
neglected for small lengths of sights but should invariably be taken for long
sights. .'
Example 5.3 A sailor standing on the deck of a ship just sees the top of a
lighthouse. The top of the light house is 30 m above sea level and the height of
the sailor's eye is 5 m above sea level. Find the distance of the sailor from the
light house. . . [AMIE, Summer 1979J
Solution
II = 0.067 d'J. m
where a is in rn, dis inkm .
hi =30 = .067 Dr
or D
1
= 21.16 km
Similarly
D2 = O ~ = 8,64 km
Hence totaldistance D =21.16 + 8,04 = 29.80 km
Mean Sea Level
~ Sailor's eye
hI = 30 m
h ~ = Sm
5.4 LEVELLING I:-;STRUi\lENTS
In levelling. distant objects are to be viewed and measurements taken. A measuring
telescope and not a viewing telescope forms the main part of a levelling instrument.
Telescopes are broadlyof two types. Figure5.4(:1) shows a Kepler's or astronomicul
telescope. R:I)'s from the 'object AB after refruction from the objective O. are
I
r--
brought to focus before they enter the eyepiece E and in consequence :J real
inverted image is formed in front of the eyepiece. If the lens is so placed that ba
is situated within the focal length, the rays after refraction at E appear to the eye
10 proceed from b'o', a virtual image conjugate (0 ba. The object AB thus appears
magnified, inverted and placed at b'a', In Galilee's telescope (Fig. 5Atb)) therays
refracted by the objective 0 are intercepted by :1concave eyepiece E before :J rC:JI
image is formed. On entering the eye. they therefore appear to diverge from the
vertical image ab which is magnified and erect,
For viewing purpose Galilee's telescope is more suitable than Kepler's
telescope as an erect image is obtained in the former. However, for measuring
purposes Kepler's telescope is more suitable as a real inverted image is formed
in front of the eyepiece. In surveying telescope there is :1 diaphragm carrying
.crosshairs placed in front of the eyepiece. The line.joining the intersection of the
B
c
Real object
t\ 0
b'
_.>_- -'1
':
,
,
.
,
I
,
,
,
.
:...--:- Virtual inverted
Real inverted image
............
Eye
-7
". : image
Eyepiece
'. ,
.........: a'
Fig. 5.4(1I) Kepler's telescope.
a
.' .
Eyepiece ~ ~
: / '.
Objective .. '
..
..'
l' A
,
......................
nC'cu vUJC',,",'
Virtual direct
'.I b 'image
Fig. 5.,.I(b) Galileo's telescope.
.
r
. ,
Levelling I 91
crosshairs withthecentre oftheobjectiveprovides adefinitelineofsightknown
as line of collimation. Insurveying telescope, therealimageCo; formed in the
. planeof the crosshairs. The eyepiece magnifies both the image and the crosshairs
simultaneously'and distortion orotherdefectsproduced inthepassage oftherays
.through the, eyepieceaffectsboth to thesamedegree. .
5.5 CLASSIFICATIONOFSURVEYING TELESCOPE
The surveying telesc-ope is broadly of two types-(i) External focussing;
(ij) Internal focussing.
Byfocussing is.meant bringing theimage oftheobjectin theplane ofthe
crosshairs. Ifit isdone bychanging theposition oftheobjective relative to the .
crosshair, itis external focussing, Ifit isdonebymoving anadditional concave
lensbetween theobjectandcrosshairs itisinternal focussing. Figure5.5(a)shows
a section through a!l external focussing telescope while Fig. 5.5(b) showsa section
through aninternalfocussingtelescope. Inexternalfocussing telescope the objective
which ismounted onthe inner tube canbemoved with respect tothediaphragm
.which isfixedinsidetheoutertube.The movement isdonebya rackandpinion
. .
<ID
Focussing screw
t
Eyepiece
. '- Outertube
.(n)
..
<r:D
Eyepiece
.Focussing screw
Diaphragm carrying crosshairs
(b)
Fig. 5.5 .(a) External focussing telescope. (b) Internal focussing telescope.
.---!
arrangement operated by focussing screw:As can be seen from Fig. 5.5(b) in the
internal focussing telescope, boththe objective andthediaphragmcarrying crosshairs
are mounted inside the outer tube and the distance between them is fixed. An
additional double concave lens is mounted on a short tube which can move to and
fro between the, diaphragm and the objective by means of focussing screw.
5.6 LENS FORMULA
The lens formula 1 + 1 = -fl can be applied to find v when u andf are known.
II . U '
The conventions to be followed in this book are:
Distances are measured inwards towards the lens.iand
II = object distance and is positive in a direction opposite to the direction of
rays coming from the object
.' u = image distance and is positive in the direction of rays
f = focal length. positive for convex lens and negative for concave lens
Figure5.6(a) gives the ray diagram for external focussing telescope. Figure5.6(b)
gives that for an internal focussing telescope. Theadvantages of internal focussing
are:
Diaphragm
.
Staff
,f .:.
o-j
I
(a)
/
Diaphragm carry-
ing crosshairs Focussing lens
Objective
Staff
(b)
Fig. 5.6 (:I) R5)' diagram for external o u s s i ~ g telescope, (b) Raysinan Internal focussing
telescope.
.'
s:;
,
'\t;
'.1
1
i
Levelling 1 93
(1)Less overalllength'of thetubeof thetelescope.
(2) Less imbalance.
(3) Less wearof rack andpinion.
(4) Better opticalproperties..
(.5) Line ofsight is not affectedmuch duringfocussingoperation.
(6)Whenusedas a tacheorneter, additive constant isvery small.
.,
Itsdisadvantages are:.
(i) Less brightnessof the image.(ii) Interiorof the telescopecannotbe
cleared an? repaired in the field.
Example S.4 Aninternal focussinglenshasanobject glassof 200 mmfocal
length.The distance between the object glass and the diaphragm is 250 rnm.
When the telescope is at infinity focus the internal focussing lens is exactly
midway betweentheobjectiveanddiaphragm. Determinethefocal lengthofthe
focussing lens.
At infinity focus the opticalcentreof the focussing lens lies on the line
joiningtheopticalcentreoftheobjectivelind thecrosshairsbutdeviates laterally
0.025mmfromitwhenthetelescopeis'focussed at7.5rn, Calculatetheangular
errorinsecondsdue to thiscause. [L.U.J
125 mm----j--125 mm--j
f-x-J
Fig.5.7(a) Example 5.4.
Solution Using the lensformula
1+1=1
U lC 1
Withoutthefocussing lens
II ':" e.. andispositive
1= 200
1 1 _ 1
-+---
U co 200
giving u = 200mm
.r= i5 mm
~
I
I
Forthefocussing lens,object distance isnegative astheyaremeasured towards
thelensinthedirection oflight butimage distance ispositive,
"
1 ( 1) 1
-75+ +125 =7
1 _ 1 1 2
or
7- - 75+125 = - 375
or f = - 187.5 mm (concave)
when thetelescope is focussed at 7.5 mwithout thefocussing lens
1 1 1
-+-=-
v u f
. 1 1 1
. -+----
lJ +7500- 200
1 1 1
or
U=200 - 7500
or lJ =205.479 mm '
withtheshifting ofthefocussing lens. Let
II =x
then
U =.T +250- 205.479
=x+44.521
Using thelensformula
1 1 1
-+-=-
U u f
1 _1=__1_
x +44.521 x 187.5
which gives x = 71.77 mrn
The distance between thelensand objective then becomes 205.479 - 71.77 =
133.709 mrn.
When the focus is at 7.5 m with lateral displacement of concavelens
.025rnrn the position of thelenses areasshown inFig. 5.7(b).'Ulisthedisplacement
at the level of 1st imagebecause oflateral displacement of 0.025 mmof the
concavelens.
From Fig. 5.7(b)
XTI .025
44.521'=44.521 +71.77' .
or
'tXt =.00957 mm
-I
. ; , 1 = , ; ! d ; l , \ 3 I P )
p u c ' ; l l n J ! l C l J J O w f c H { d c ! G ( J )
. ( q )
I C )
. s u c d U ! C l U r n o j S U ! U ! C 1 U O J
e q m l C I C l w C S ! 1 1 ' S U ! S s n : - O j I c u m u ! , \ I l C W J O U S ! ( 0 1 , \ ; 1 1 . { d w n p c j o ; l Q O J S ; I ; l
\ C J ! l J : l . \ S I ! 1 1 1 0 q C ' C l U l l \ d I C I U O Z ! J 0 4
; l L { 1 U ! p C l l C 1 0 J ; : q U C J C l d o , $ l \ ; l C l q 0 1 S ! l U C l W n J I S U ! C l L { l U < l 4 , \ \ p O d ! J 1 j o
d o i U O P C l , \ \ ; l J : : l S s 1 ' J E I J J r I J , \ ! . I J s e ' C l l C \ d J : l . \ \ O \ C l l l 1 ' 1 [ - 1 I U q ] J J C l 4 1 P C l l l t l J S !
; r C j d I C l l l t J t ! d r e d d n C l t l 1 ' S . \ \ C l J : : S S U H \ C l , \ C l \ ; C l J 4 1 , ( q u c d n P \ ; , 1 4 S ; , 1 1 \ : \ d \ C l \ l c J e d 0 . \ \ 1 ) 0
p t C l 4 3 U H I ; l , \ C l \ C l 4 1 ' p t ; L { S : : ! l I C l , \ ; l 1 ; , 1 4 1 ) 0 1 C l : p O S C l l l l U ! ; l I P U ! d S C l l { l
' C l : : l C l ! d C l U O 5 C J C l l l l C l g O l ; J C ; i P U ! d S \ t : : : l ! l J C l . \ C l 4 1 p u c . . q m C l d O : : l S C l \ C l 1 C l 4 1
. U ! U . \ ' , O l l S I C l , \ ; \ J : d w n p U J O W t l J Z t : 1 P J p C W ; t p S C l l ! l
p o d P 1 v
P C C l \ { i U ! I \ : l A C l \ y ' t
< I \ p u ! d s \ C J ! U C l , \ y '
; l q n l c - I q q n q Y "
C l d o J S ; . 1 I C l l V . r
: : m : \ C l , \ C l \ , ( d U i n p I I ) 0 s u r d J O f c U J 0 1 4 1
, . . u r c s " ' l l l 5 ! ; t p ' S J " ; l ! P 5 ' . . d , < l C l \ { l ) O U 3 ! S ; ; J ; l l l l j z n O L { l
' ! C l , \ ; : 1 J l ; s , J O : : l ! l t ' w O i n \ " ( ! ! ! ) p u c \ 0 1 , \ ; : \ Z U ! l l ! J . q ! )
\ " , \ ; \ , \ d : l J n a W : ; J t ! ; $ ; 4 1 s , J ; o ; u p i u : l J O S . . d , \ l \ ' C J ; U ; 3 ; J C ; J ; l l l
" , '
. . = .
L . . . . . . c n ' " . \ ' 0 .
( c 9 - 0 ' - ) ' \ ' - ' ' " - - r J
n ' \ J . . g 6 0 0 ' - ' S X - I S
I
I f
I .
l l . \ 5 ! s J O & U n )
,
. . I . . . f ]
U J W = 2 : 0 ' I \ . . . , . _ _ . _ . . . .
. . ' \ . . . . . . j . . . . . I
' " A
Y j I X
I
s u a l x e A U O : J
0 1 e n p a 6 e w ! 1 0 U O ! l ! s o d
. - - : . . . .

r
96 Fundamentals (If Surveying

Dia::>hragm
___ 1-
I .
Tripod
\ Db' .
Jectlve
levelling
screws
j-- Vertical
I spindle
III
Tribrach
.. Trivet stage
E)'epiece
Vertical
axis
Dumpy level.
Objective Lens. A single lens h;JS many defects like (i) chromatic aberration,
(ii) spherical aberration, (iii) coma. (iv) astigmatism, (\.) curvature of field. and
(vi) distortion. To avoid the first two defects as much as possible the objective
lens is composed of both and flint glass as shown in Fig. 5.9.

Crown glass

_I
Flinl Sloss

Fig. 5.9 Objective lens.
As a result, chromatic aberration andspherical aberration arenearly eliminated.
To minimize loss due to reflection. the lenses nrc given a thin uniform coating
which has an index of refraction smaller than that for glnss.
Lens, The negative lens should be mounted on a sliding tube co-
axially inside the tube carrying the objective lens. The optical axis of both the
lenses should be the same and movement of the negative lens during focussing
operations should not introduce deviation of either of the lens axes.
Diaphragm: The diaphragm carries thereticlecontainfng a horizontal ana vertical
hair. The diaphragm is fined inside the. main tube by means of four capstan
headed screws with the help of which the position of the crosshairs inside the tube
I
,
Levelling I 97
can be adjusted slightly, both horizontally and vertically and :l slight rotational
movement is also possible. Previously the crosshairs were made of spider web or
filaments of platinum or glass stretched across an annular ring. In many modern
I
instruments, a thin glass plate with lines ruled or etched and filaments of dark
metal deposited in them, serves as reticle. Sometimes, two additional horizorual
Jines are added, one above and another below the usual horizontal hair, The:
additional hairs are known as stadia hairs and are used in computing distances
by stadia tacheometry, Figure 5.10 shows the diaphragm and reticle. Figure 5.11
shows different arrangements of crosshairs,
I
Diaphragm ring
Reticle
Crosshairs

Adjusting screw.
Fig. 5.10 Diuphragm currying crosshairs.
..
Fig. 5.11 Different types of crcssbairs.
Eyepiece. . The eyepiece lenses magnify the image together with the crosshairs
in order to give the surveyor ability to sight and read accurately the levelling rod
graduations. The image formed bythe objective and the focussing lens is inverted,
Some eyepiece erect the Image to give a normal view when it is known as erecting
eyepiece. Karmali}'. however, the image is seen magnified and inverted through
the eyepiece,
Ideally. the eyepieces should reduce chromntlc and spherical aberration.
Lenses of the same rnnteria! are achromatic if their distance apart is equal to the
average of their focal lengths. i.c,
!
-- J
98 Fundamentals 01Surveying
d=.,
I
(/1 +h)
..
If their distance apart is equal to the differences between their focal lengths,
spherical aberration isreduced. i.e,d=II - h.
Forsurveying purposes thediaphragm mustbe between theeyepieceand
theobjective. The mostsuitable isRamsden's eyepiece(Fig.?.J 2).
I-- 1,J
Af -+ 1
Fig', 5.12 Ramsden's eyepiece.
It canbe seenthatthis eyepiece satisfies theconditionforelimination of
neitherchromatic aberration norspherical aberration. Here,
d = I instead of1lf + fJ =I .
= I instead ofI- I = 0
Huygen'seyepiece(Fig. 5.13) satisfies the.conditions but the focal plane lies
betweenthelenses.This eyepiece.however. is not generally usedwiththe telescopes
formeasuring instruments because itdoesnotcorrecttheimageofthediaphragm
which isputbetween thetwolenses andisthusonlyviewedthrough oneofthem
with theconsequencethat itsimage isdistorted. This introduceserrorinmeasurement.
However it isused inGalileetelescope.
Chromatic condition t (3f+ f) 2f=d
Spherical condition 3f- f = 2(::;: d
Fig.5.13. Huygen'seyepiece.
. Levelling I 99
.,
The third type of eyepiece is erecting eyepiece (Fig. 5.14). As seen in the
figure. it consists of four plano-convex lenses. It gives erect image of the object.
Its disadvantages are: (i) Loss of brilliancy of the image due to two additional
lenses, (ii) Uncertain definition. and (iii) Larger length of the eyepiece.
Fig. 5.1-1' Erecting eyepiece.
Level tube works on the principle that the surface of a still liquid. being at
every point normal to the direction of gravity is :I level surface. It is of glass tube:
sealed at both ends that contains a sensitive liquid and small air bubble. The liquid
must be non-freezing. quick acting and relatively stable in length for normal
temperature variation. Earlier. alcohol. chloroform OJ sulphuric acid or petroleum
ether was used as a liquid. Nowadays. purified synthetic alcohol is used. The
. upper surface of the tube-and sometimes also the lower surface-is ground to
form a longitudinal circular curve. The sectional elevation and the plan of a level
tube are shown in Fig. 5.15. The capstan headed screws at .rhe ends help in
adjustment of the level tube. '
The sensitivity of the level tube depends on theradius of curvature (R) and
is usually expressed as an angle (8) per unit division (d) of the bubble scale. This
angle may vary from 1" to 2" in the case of a precise level. upto 10" to 30" on
an engineer's level. The radius to which the tube of an engineer's level is ground
is usually between 25 to ,50 m. This can be determined in the field by observing
the staff readings at a known distance from the level by changi ng the bubble
position by means of a foot screw or tilting screw as shown in Fig. 5.16. From
Fig. 5.16
tan /18
I
Since 8 is very small, tan n8 =/18
or =SIl
S
=/II
8 . =
III
where S = difference in stuff readings (I nnJ b
1/ = number of divisions the bubble is displaced between rcudings
I = distance ofstaff from instrument '
r--- -----
I
1
\
'j'
I
Bubble tube axis
I

Metal case
Top of telescope axis
(a)
0([11111111111 ill)
(b)
Fig. 5.15 A bubble tube: (a)Cro,;,; section. (b) plan,
r
-1
R
Reading (a)
S=a-b
/ Staff.
..
Fig. 5.16 Sensitivity of bubble lube:
Levelling I -}01
If d = lengthofonedivision of thebubble tube then
d = R8
rJd
or R = dIe
ndl
=-S
Atube issnldtobemore sensitive if thebubble movesbymoredivisions fora
,given changeintheangle.Thesensitivenessofabubbletube canbeincreased by:
(a) Increasing internal radiusof thetube.
(b) Increasing diameter ofthe tube.
(c) Increasing length of thebubble.
.(d) Decreasing roughness of the wall
(e) Decreasing viscosity of theliquid.
Thesensitivity ofthebubble tubeshould tallywiththeaccuracyachievable
with otherpartsofthe equipment. If thebubble isgraduatedfromthecentre then
anaccurate reading ispossible bytakingreadings at theobjectiveandeyepiece
ends(Fig.5.17).
From Fig.5.17
L =Length ofbubble
=0
1
+ E
1
=O
2
+ E
2
.
xx
0
1+1
2 -E1
IT= O
2
+ E
2
2 - O?
. .O. - E
1
- 0,
Total movement n- + -
- 2 2
Figures 5.18 and5.19showthedetails of an adjustable leg ofatripodstand
and afixedlegtripod asperI. S.Anadjustable tripodisadvantageous forsetups
in rough terrain but thetype with fixed legmay be slightly more rigid. Asturdy
tripod in goodcondition is necessary to obtain thebest results for a fineinstrument.
Example 5.5 Athree screw dumpy level, setupwith the telescope parallel to
two footscrewsissighted onastaff100maway. The lineofsightisdepressed
bymanipulating thefootscrews untilthebubble onthetelescope reads 4.1atthe
object glass end and14.4 at the.eye pieceend. these readings representing divisions
from a zero at the centre 'of the bubble tube. The reading on the staff was
0.930m. By similarlyelevating thesightthe bubble readings were-O 12.6, E 5.7
and staffreading1.015 m.
c .102 Fundamentals of Surveying
,}iCenlre of bubble
!/Zero of graduations
Object glass end
x
:x

I I
I
I
,
I
I
,
Eye. end
.
I
I
:..
,
,
,
,
,
,
I
0
1
,
,
,
,
I
,
I
,
:..
,
,
I
,
.
,
,

E
1
."
:y

I
y
I
,
,
,
,
,
---'

,
E
2
1-. ..
Movement of bubble
Fig. 5.17
Determine the sensitivity of the bubble and the radius of curvature of the
bubble tube if the length of one division is 2.50 mm. [L.U.]
Solution-
. 0
1
- 1 E
2
- 0,
n- +. -
- 2 2
== 4.1 - 14.4 + 5.7 - 12.6
2 2
=_103.:'" 6.9 == _ 1 == "':' 8:6 divisions
(Negative because the line of sight is depressed and the bubble moves to the
eyepiece end initially.)
Sensitivity of bubble 8
m
=
_ 206265(1.025 - 0.930}
- 8.6(1oo}
== 22.78"
....
..( . fQ .,
-
;:::e..B! AU a _. . 29 $
.._.
#. 4 t b .If"!'
Levelling 1 103
Circular Bubble
. Bracket lor fastenir,g
carrying bell
u
o
Rinu
All dimensions in millimetsrs
Fig.5.l8 Dimensions andnomenclatureof tripod forsurveying Instruments (adjustable leg).
. R =" .d' i =(8.6)(2j)(I00)
S .095
= 22631.5 mm
= 22.631 m
5.8 TILTING LEVEL
In dumpy level. if the level is in adjustment and if the line of sight is made
horizontal by bringing the bubble to the centre of its run, the vertical axis
autornaricully becomes truly vertical.In tilting level. the line of sight can be made
horizontal by a tilling screw even though the vertical axis is not exactly vertical.
It was initially developed for precise levelling work but nowadays is used for
general purpose. Abull's eye(circular) spirit level is available forquick approximate
levelling or a b:111 and socket arrangement (with no levelling screws) permits the
~
10.+ Fundamentals of S/I/1'eying
Circular bubble
Brackets for fastening
carl)'ing belt .
9
\
215
. ~ o t s o
with sharp
point
All dimensions in millimeters
Fig. 5.19 Dimenslons and nomenclature for fixed leg tripod for surveying instruments.
head to be tilte9 and locked nearly level. The exact level is obtained by tilting or
rotating the telescope slightly in a vertical plane about a fulcrum at the vertical
axis of the instrument without changing its height. A micrometer screw under the
eyepiece controls this movement. When the level is not horizontal. the observer
sees the main level tube as two half images of opposite ends of the bubble. These
half images are brought into superposition and made visible by a prismatic
arrangement directly over the bubble. The observer then tilts the telescope until
the two half images are made to coincide in which position the bubble is centred.
Figure 5.20 shows a split bubble before and after coincidence.
Advantages of tilting level are accuracy and quickness. The level can be
made horizontal just before the observation. Figure 5.21 shows schematically a
tilting level. ..
5.9 AUTOMATIC OR SELF-LEVELLING LEVEL
. .
This is the most popularvariety of levels. The ease and rapidity with which the
..
instrument makes error free readings has made it popular,
L
Levelling I' ,105
((
r?
\S I
\S I
. Fig. 5.20 Coincidence bubble.
10
2 4
3
9
.::
11
12
13
Fig, 5.21 Tilting level: 1.Telescope. 2. Eyepiece. 3.Ray shade. 4. Objective end. 5.Level
tube,6. Focussingscrew. 7. Footscrew, 8.Tribrach, 9. Diaphragm adjusting
screws, 10.Bubbletubefixingscrews. II. Tilting screws.12.Springloaded
plunger. 13.Trivetstage.
Alllevellingoperationsdepend ontheestablishmentoralineofcollimation
perpendicular tothedirection ofgravity. Inmaking aconventional levelready for
;i operation theskillandtimeoftheoperatorisneeded foraccurate centring ofits
sensitivetelescope bubble.Butinmaking anauto level ready foroperation only
t
approximate levelling-of itscircular bubble is neededlind then its in-built compensator
~
takesoverand makesthe levelreadyforoperation automatically in notime.
~ ~ :
Asapparentfrom Fig,5.22.thecompensator(which freely hangs incorrect
i
~
vertical position) takes the horizontal rayfrom thestafftothe centre of diaphragm
for correct readings inspiteof any possible residual tilt.Technical data of an
Indianautomatic levelisas follows:
f ~
Telescope
Image
Magnificatlon
Multiplication constant
Shortestreading distance
Longest reading distance
Clearobjective aperture
- Erect
- ~ times
- 100
- 15 m
- 200m
- 35rum
r-
4
support
Horizontal
line of
sight - - - - l-
Fixed prism
Horizontal
crosshair
- ... - - -I - - - - - - - .....J
Fixed prism
Compensating prism
(a)
Horizontal
lin.e of
sight _
. Horizontal
crosshair
(b)
Horizontal
crosshair
(c)
Fig. 5.22 Compensatorofaself-levelling level:(a)Whentelescopetiltsup.ccmpcnsator:
swings backward. (b) Telescope horizontal. (c) When telescope tiles down
compensator swingsforward.
Circular level
Automatic levelling
Horizontal circle
lit'""
Sensitivity - 10mml2 mm
Settingaccuracy = 0.8 sec
Compensator range= 15 min
. Diameter - 110mm
Graduation interval - 1
0
.
5.10 SO:\rE OPTICALTER\iS
Resolving Power. ItIs.the abi'lity oflens' fordistinguishing details. Its, valueis
...__._-------_._----------
-
Levelling I 107
/>.
usuallystated as the maximum number of lines per millimeter that can be seen as
separate lines in the image. The resolving power depends on the diameter of the
objective lens actually used (effective aperture). It is given by the empirical formula
R = 140sec
D
where D is the diameter of the lens aperture in rnrn. If D is 30 mm R comes to
4.67.To distingulsh.details humaneye requires a minimum resolving powerof 60.
This can be obtained with an instrument with R = 4.67 if it is magnified 13 times.
Magnification. It is the ratio between the angle subtended at the eye by the
virtual image and that subtended by the object. Magnlfying power of telescope is
measured as the ratio of the focal length of the objective to that of the eye piece.
Large magnification causes (i) Reduction of brilliancy of image. (ii) Waste of time
in focussing, and (iii) Reduction of the field of view. Usually, therefore, magnification
is restricted to 2 to 3 times60/R.
Definition. The quality of definition in a telescope is its capacity to produce a
sharp image. It depends on eliminnring optical defects like chromatic aberration
and spherical aberration from the eyepiece and objective.
5.11 SO:\IE ~ P O R T N T OPTICAL DEFECTS
Chromatic Aberration. When white light is refracted through a glass prism it is
split into its component colours, the red end of the spectrum being refracted less
than thevioletend. This phenomenon, known as dispersion, makes accurate focussing
difficult, the image beingsurrounded by a rainbow likeboundary, This is chromatic
aberration is shown in Fig. 5.23(a). To remedy this defect two lenses, oneconcave
of flint glass and the other a convex lens of crown glass are cemented together
with balsam as already explained in Section 5.10.
Spherical Aberration. It arises due to the spherical.surface of the lens and
. prevents accurate focussing dueto the rays incident on. the lens being refracted
more than the rays incident :H the centre (Fig. 5.23(b. This can be remedied by
using only the central portionof the lens which alsocuts down the amount of light
entering the eye. Usually. therefore a combination of lenses is used so that aberration
of one eliminates that of the other. For example, in objective a convex and a
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5.23 (:1) Chromatic aberration. (b) Spherical aberration.
~
108 Fundamentalsof Surveying
"
concavelensarecemented together. In Ramsden's eyepiece two planoconvex
lensesarekeptatafixeddistance apart.
5.12 THE LEVELLING STAFF
A level staff is a graduated rod of rectangular section. It is usually madeof
teakwood. It mayalsobeoffibre glass ormetal. Twomainclassesof~ are:
1. Self-reading which can beread by the instrument operator whichsighting
through thetelescope andnoting theapparent intersection ofthecross.wireson
. therod. Thisis themostc::ommontype. . .
2. Target rods havinga movable target that'is' set by a rod person at the
positionindicated bysignalsfrom theinstrument-man. '
A levelling staffcan beof
,. (a)Solid, l.e, of'onepiece-Fig. 5.24(a).
(b)Folding when it canbefolded tosmallerlength-Fig. 5.24(b).
(c)Telescopic whenthestaffcanbeshortened byputting onepieceinside
another-Fig. 5.24(c). ' .
Brass cap
Brass cap
Brass cap
Spring
clamp
/
/
!Z2
T
1.25 m
Solid
Spring
clamp
I.. Handle
2m
1]
/
Hollow,
1.25 m
3m
04-- One
Hinge at
piece
2m
Handle
2m
1.5 m
1
./
Brass cap
(a)
(c)
Brass cap
(b)
Fig.5;24 .Different typesof levelling staff.
I,
L
, Levelling I 109
..
Solidstaffbeingofone'piece gives more accurate reading. Folding staffIs
lightandconvenienttohandle. AsperlS-1779-1961,thewidthandthickness of
..
staffare75 rnrn and 18mm respectively.Thestaffcanbe folded to2 mlength.
Toensureverticalitythestaffhasacircularbubble of25 minute sensitivity. Each
meterissubdividedInto200subdivisions,thethickness ofthegraduation being
5 mm.Detailsofalevellingstaff(Foldingtype) areshown'inFig.5.25(n) and(b).
Inrelescopic.staff showninFig.5.24(c), thetopmost partissolidandtheother
twopartsare hollow.
Cap

()z::::::=:J
t:::::::m
t::::=!:J
'
()-"
:
6
,
.
",
: 'I Il:::l:D

;r,,@MliS"'"mild

2.5 mm
Locking
device
5 mm
5 mm
Folding
handle
II:IImI
o;m:ml

rzm:&I o
Cap
l!:l'.:::!II
o
lll:!!:Jl:D O
",1:\-
O
:':': .
75mm
mm
[',,.XO{J:!jJ:.. \1
-l-
I
H'NJ 0
...
, I
e,

'="' .\..
, .
)
':
-,
1
rts:Mi"i..:td, '

70mm
.
1
ediil ...>:-:t....
. 1
511'''''9 , _5mm
5mm
I.i!i'riW- T:
.L
5 mr:-. t'@!$lf#1i#A

f--r
, '
; iliQ!&iiij Q
' .'
, . .
35
1
' $i1.tttj,lil
'" Ig;.USO-g '.'
I I
t:.:':'.",
, " ..
(:l) (b)
fig. 5.25 (a) Levellingstaff(folding type), (b)Typica! derailsofgraduations.
I
, ~
110 FundamentalsofSurveying
..
Thetwotoppieceswhen pulled uparekeptinposition bybrass flatspring
clamps atthebackofeachpiece fixed atitslowerend.While using thetelescope
staffcareshould be takentoensure thatthethreepartsarefully extended. The
telescopic staffisnotasaccurate asafolding staffbecause ofpossible slippage
between theparts.
Target staff has slidingtarget equipped with vernier. It is used for long
distance sighting when it becomes difficult to take staffreading directly. The
targetisasmall metalpieceofcircularoroval shapeabout 125 mm diameter. It
ispaintedredandwhiteinalternate quadrants. Fortaking reading thelevel man
directsthestaffrnan to raiseorlowerthetarget till itisbisected bythelineof
sight.The staffholder then clamps the target and take the reading. Apparent
advantage oftarget staffisaccurate reading butittakesmore time. Ontheother
handself-readingstaff isquicker. Moreover. for self-readingstaffonly one trained
staff. that is. Instrument man is required but for target staff readingboth instrument
.man andtargetman shouldbeadequately trained.Fig.5.26gives detailsofa
targetstaff. ..
Target
IT]
fig. 5.26 Target staff.
5.13 PARALLELPLATE M I R O ~ I T R
As shown in Fig. 5.27aparallel glassplate is usually fittedinfront of the objective
of aprecise or geodeticlevel. It enables theinterval between thehorizontal crosshair
and thenearest staffdivisiontoberead directlyto 0.1 mm. Theparallel glass
plate can be'tilted forward orbackward by means of amicrometer head at the eye
endofthetelescope. Duetorefraction aray oflightparallel tothetelescope axis
is displaced upwards anddownwards by an amount proportional to theamount of
. tilt. When the plate is vertical nodisplacement occurs. Theplate is tilted till afull
readingof thestaff coincideswiththecrosshair. The displacement d givesthe
fractional reading which is.obralned directly from the micrometer drum.The
theorycanbederived3S follows:
4.
i
I
l_
LevellingI 111
"
Telescope
objective
StaN
Refracted
ray
. Fig. 5.27(a)
....
....
"
"
"
" ....
....
"
. 1 .
. " cos f3
"BC=: t5 =ABsin (Cl- f3)
_ t
- cosf3 sin (a- fJ>
= ---!"'-f3 (sin ex cos f3 ":'cos ex sin fJ>
. cos ,
=t(sin CI. _ cos a sin f3 )
cos f3
,=1sin a(1 _ C?S ex . sin f3 )
Sin a cos f3
From 1:1\\'5' of refraction

Parallel plate micrometer.
Fig. Derivation of equation.
Let J.I. be index of the glass used in the, plate (Fig.' 5.27b).
From bABC,
ABcos f3 =: AC=t, thickness of the glass plate
AB=:,-t-
..
sina
or
sinf3 = sina .
or
P
cos p= (Si:af
sinf3 = P
which gives
0= t sina [1 _ a ., sinaJp
Sin a Jl-(sinaJP)'!.)
2
= t sina[I -sin a J
. II/'!. .'
v - sln-a
!fa issmall sina andsin
2
a 0,arid
o=ta(1 - .!..)
. . J1.
J1. -1
=ra'--
J1.
=ka where k r J.L - i
J.L
which showsthatthedisplacementisdirectlyproportionaltotheangleofrotation
a oftheplate provided,Theangle a issmall. .
..'
.,;",' '1, :,. .. .1, .
. Example 5.6 If the index ofrefraction from air to'glass is 1.6 and the parallel'
plateprism is16mmthick, calculate theangular rotationoftheprism togivea
vertical displacement of theimage of 1 mm.
Solution
o=taJ.L-l
J1.
1= 16a1.6-1
1.6
a;"-l&..... .
16(0.6) =0.1667rad
= 933'
5.14 TEMPORARYADJUSTMENTS OF' ADUMPY LEVEL
Temporary adjustments aredone atevery settingoftheinstrument inthe field.
..
-
.._.
L
~ ~ ~ ~ _ _ ~
:1
Levelling I 113
I<
1.Setting Up:" Initiallythetripodissetupataconvenient height andthe
instrument is approximately levelled. Someinstruments are provided with a small
'I
circularbubbleonthetribrach tocheckapproximate,le\elling. Atthisstagethe
':1
levelling.screwshouldbeat the middleofitsrun. .
2.Levelling Up: Theinstrumentisthen accurately levelled with thehelp
of levelling screwsor footscrews. For instruments withthreefoot screws the
following steps aretobefollowed:
(a)Turnthetelescopesothatthelevel tube isparallel tothelinejoiningany
twolevellingscrewsasshownin Fig.5.28(a).
(b) Bring thebubble to thecentreof its run by turning thetwolevelling
screws eitherbothinwards or outwards.
(c)Turn thetelescope through 90
a
sothattheleveltubeisoverthe third
screw or' on the line perpendicular to the linejoining screws 1 and Bring the
bubble tothecentreofitsrunby thethirdfootscrewonlyrotatingeitherclockwise
or anticlockwise Fig.5.28(b). . .
(d) Repeat theprocess till the bubble is' accurately centredinboth these
conditions; .
(e) Nowtumthetelescope through 180
a
sothatit isagain parallel tolevelling
screws 1and2 (Fig.5.28(a. If thebubble stillremains central. theadjustment
isallright.If not.thelevel shouldbechecked forpermanent adjustments,
3
02
CG
I \
I \
I \
I \
, I \
I \
I \
. I
I \
I \
II ~ \\ '
I \
. \
I ~
I
'
\
1 2:/ J -.1 I -- \
2;' I c:::::J I "
(;\ , ,_0
3,- ----~ a ~ - - - - - e
0----------'- ---G
(b)
Fig. 5.28. Turning footscrews tolevel bubble tube.
3. Focussing: Thisisdonein twosteps. Firststep is focussing the eye-
piece. This isdone by turning the eyepieceeither in or outuntil the crosshnlrs are
sharpand distinct. This will vary from person toperson as it depends on the
1'0"
vision of theobserver. Thenextstep is focussing the objective. Thisisdone by
means of thefocussing screw wherebythe image ofthestaffisbrought to the
planeof the crosshairs. This is checkedbymoving theeye upor down when
. reading the crosshairdoes not change withthemovement of the eye as the image
andthecrosshairbothmove together.,
..
S.lS TERMS USED IN L V L L l ~
Thefollowing termsare frequently used inlevelling
1. Station: This is apointwherea levelling staff is heldforlakingobservations
withalevel.
2. Height of the Instrument (HI): Thishastwo meanings. It may mean
heightoftheinstrumentabovetheground atthestationwhere theinstrument is
placed.However, usuallyitmeans elevationof thelineofsightor lineofcollimation
withrespect to the datum. Lineofcollimation isan imaginary linejoiningthe
optical centre of the objectivewith theintersection of crosshairsand its continuation.
3. Back Sight: It isthefirstreading taken atastation ofknownelevation
aftersettingupoftheinstrument.Thisreadinggivestheheightoftheinstrument
(elevation ofthe line ofcollimation) as...
Elevation of lineofcollimation =Knownelevation+ Backsight..
4. Intermediate Sight (IS): Asthename suggests these arereadingstaken
between the Istandlast reading before shifting theinstrumentto a newstation.
5. Fore Sight (FS): This isthe. lastreading taken before shifting an instrument
toa newstation.
6. Turning Point or Change Point: Forlevelling overalongdistance, the
instrument has to be shifteda number oftimes. Turning pointor changepoint
connects oneset of instrumentreadings withthenext serof readings withthe
changed position of the instrument. Astaffis held on the turning point anda
foresight is taken before shifting theinstrument. From thenextpositionofthe
instrument another reading is taken at theturning pointkeeping thestaffundisturbed
which is knownas back sight.
7. Reduced Level (RL):Reduced level ofapointisitsheight relative to
thedatum. The level is calculated orreduced with respect tothedatum.
5.16 DIFFERENT METHODSOFLEVELLING
In levelling it is desiredto findoutthedifference in level between twopoints.
Then iftheelevationofonepointisknown. theelevation ofotherpointcanbe
easilyfound out. In Fig. 5.:29. the instrument is placed at C roughly midway
between twopointsA andB. Thestaffreadings are shown inthefigure.
From the figure the reduced level of B canbe derived as 100;50+ 1.51
- 0.57= 101.44mm.Fromthereadings itcanalsobeobservedthatif thesecond
reading is smaller than the Ist reading, it means that thesecond point isat a
higher levelthan the first.Thisisalsoknown asdirect levelling, .
In trigonornetrical levelling thedifference inelevations is determined indirectly
from thehorizontal distanceandthevertical angle. Sincetrigonometric relations
areutilized in findingthedifference inelevation it is known astrigonometrical
levelling. It isusedmainlytodetermine elevations ofinaccessiblepointssuchas
mountain peaks.top of towers, etc.asshown inFig.5.30.
In barometriclevelling,theprinciple thatpressuredecreases with risein
Levelling / ' 115
..
,Line ofcollimation - HI = 102.01
I
1.51
A
Fig.5.29 Directlevelling.
T
1
I 8
7TTT77T
A
I, D 1
Fig.5.30 Trigonornetrical levelling.
elevation is used. Hence it is possible todetermine the difference in elevation
between t\VO points by measuring the pressure difference between the points
by eithermercury barometer or aneroid barometer. As theaneroid barometer is
strongand sturdyit ispreferred tothe mercury barometer which is fragile and
cumbersome.However. aneroidbarometerisless accurate compared tothemercury
barometer. "
PROBLEl\IS
5.1 Explain howsurveyersandengineers canoften ignoretheerrorcausedby
curvatureand refraction inlevelling work.
, .
5.2 Whaterrors maybeintroduced inusing telescope's focussing screws?
5.3 Defineopticalaxisofalens.
5.4 Listintabularform. forcomparison. the advantages anddisadvantages ofa
tilting levelversus anautomatic level.
5.5 Describethe method ofoperation ofa parallel plute micrometer inprecise
levelling.Iftheindex of refraction from airtoglassis 1.6 andtheparallel
plateprismis15 rnrn thick.calculate the angular rotation oftheprismtogive
a verticaldisplacement oftheimage of0.000I m.

';:

, ..
s
,;XI

6
Levelling II
6.1 INTRODUCTIO?'l'
Direct levelling can be broadly classified as:
(i) Differential levelling, (ii) Check levelling, (iii) Fly levelling. (iv) Profile
levelling. (v) Cross sectional levelling, and (vi) Reciprocal levelling.
6.2 DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING
Figure 6.1 shows the plan. and sectional elevation of aroad way along which a
line of level is being taken. The figure also explains the different terms used in
connection with differential levelling.
8.M.
X
X
o Q,
/
x
A 8 x
.X X
E F
1.815
8.M.
R.L.=
100.545
Fallbetween
8.M.andA.
1.645
A 8 c D E F. G
Fig. 6.1 Differential levelling.
117
11 S . Fundatncutals of Surveying
The instrument is set up :it a convenient position P and the level staff is
placed over the B.;\'I. of reduced level 100.5-1-5 m. This is the first reading taken
.after setting up the instrument and is known as back sight. Let its value be
0.515 m. The staff is now held at points A. Band Cin tum and readings known
as intermediate sightsare taken. The last rending taken with thisset upof instrument
is at D. It is found that no further readings are possible after D due to (i) poor
..
visibility and (ii) change in level of the ground surface or some obstacle in the
line of sight. The last rending on D is known ssfore sight. Afterthis. the instrument
is shifted to point Q. The point D is called change point or tum point because it
is the.stnff position during which the position of the level is being changed.
. The instrument. is then setup atQ. levelled and a staff reading is again taken
on. point D.This is back sight for the second set up of the instrument. Intermediate.
sights are taken on E and F and the last reading, a fore sight is takenat Gbefore
the instrument is shifted again.
6.3 LEVEL BOOK
Instead of writing the readings in a sketch and giving suitable descriptions, the
whole process of levelling is systematically shown in a level book and reduced
levels of different points found out. There are two methods of reducing levels.
(i) Rise and fall method, and (ii)Height of collimation method, Complete bookings
and reductions in the two methods are given in Table,6.1.
Table 6.1 Rise and Fall Method
Back-
sight.
Inter-
sight
Fore-
sight:
Rise Fall Reduced
level
Distance
in m
0.515
1.815
1.525
1.095
6 ~ 5
1.515
0.430
0.130
1.010
0.550
100.545
99.535
99.965
99.415
99.545
0
30
60
90
1.715
1.605
1.655
0.100
0.110
0.050
99.645
99.755 .
99.705
120
150
180
L =2.330 L 3.170 L 0.770 L 1.610
Remarks
Bench mark
Staff Stn. A
Staff Sm. B
Staff Sm. C
Staff Sm. D
(Changepoint)
Staff Sm. E
Staff Stn. F
Staff Sill. G
Check: I Back-sight- I Fore-sight
'I =(2.330) - (3.170) = - 0.840
I Rise - I Fall
=(0.770) - (1.610) =- 0.840
Last R.L. - 1st R.L..
= (99.i05) - (100.545) = - 0.840
6.3.I RISEAND FALL METHOD
.'
Each reading is entered on a different line in the applicable column, except at
I
I
'-':('"
Levelling II 1i 9
change points where a' fore-sight ' and a back-sight occupy the sameline, This is
to connect the line of sight of one set up of the instrument with the line of sight
of the second set up of the instrument. From Fig. 6.1. itcan be seen that they are
not at the, same level. R.L. of change point D is obtained from the first line of
sight by comparing intermediate sight 1.64-5 with foresight 1.515. i.e. a rise of
0.130 rn. For theR.L. of nextpoint E. backsight 1.815 iscompared withintermediate
sight 1.715. i.e. a rise of 0.100 m (Table 6.2). At the end of the table arithmetic
checks are shown.
. The checks are:
r Backslghrs L -Foresights =1: (Rises) - L'"(FalIs) ,
=Last R.L. - First R.L.
Table 6.2 Height of Colllmarlon Method
B:lck Inter- Fore- Ht. of , Reduced Distance Remarks
sight sight sight collimation level
0.515 10L060 1 5 ~ 5 'B.M.
1.525 .
99.535
1.095 99.965
1.645 990415
1.815 1.515 101.360 99.545
1.715 99.6.15
1.605 99.755
L655 99.705
L 2.330 . L 7.535 L 3.170
, Check:, 1: Backsights - i: Foresights = 2330 - 3.170
.= ":" O.S;fO
Last R.L. - First R.L. =99.705 - 100.545
=- 0.840
, 6.3.2' HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION METHOD
The height of collimation is obtained by adding the staff rending which must be
backslght to the known R.L. of the point on which the staff stands. R.Ls. of all '
t h ~ other points are obtained by subtractingthe staff reading from the height of
collimation. When theinstrument is changeda new height of collimation is obtained
by again adding newbacksight with R.L.of the lastpoint obtained fromprevious
set up of the instrument. The arithmetic checks to be applied are:
i: B.S. - I F.S. = Last R.L. - First R.t.
In this case intermediate R.Ls. remain unchecked compared with rise and fall
method where errors in all R.Ls. are detected. However. reduction is easier with
height of collirnatlon method when the intermediate sights are large in number.
When a reading ends on an lnrermedlate sight. for checking purposes it should be
taken as a foresight. For checking for subsequent reading this may be considered
~ 4 ,
as backslght. To check Intermediate R.L.s the following formula may be used:
------
120 Fundamentals of s/II"cy[,!g
L Reduced levels less the first + I.S. + L F.S.
=Height of each collimation x i'o. of applications.
For the example given:
L.H.S. = (99.535 + 99.965 + 99.415 + 9 5 ~ 5 + 99.645 + 99.755
+ 99.705) + 7.585 + 3.170
= 708.32
R.H.S. = (101.06)(4) + (101.36)(3) = 708.32
No. of applications can be further explained as equal to: No. of I.S. and F.S
deduced from it.
In the first set up of instrument we have 3 J S ~ and 1 F.S. making total 4.
In the second set up of the ins,trument we have 2 I.S.and 1 ES. making total 3.
. Example 6.1 . Complete the levelling table given below. If an even gradient of
1 vertical in every 7 horizontal starts 1 rn above peg 0, what is the height of the
gradient above or its depth below peg 7? [I.C.E. Lond]
Table 6.3 Example 6.1
; Station Pist. Back- . Inter- Fore- Rise Fall R.L.
sight sight sight
B ~ 3.10 193.62
0 0 2.56
1 20 1.07
2 40 1.92 3.96
3 60 .1.20 0.67
... SO 4.24
5 100 0.22 1.87
6 120 3.03
7 140 1.41
Solutlon Complete levelling table is
Station Distance Back- Inter- Fore- Rise Fall R.L. R.L. of
sight sight sight gradient
BJ'\f,
3.10
193.62
0
O
.2.56 0.54 194.16 195.16
1 20 1.07 . 1049 195.65
2 40 1.92 3.96 2.89 192.76 .
3 60 1.20 0.67 1.25 194.01
4 80 t24 3.04 190.97
5 100 0.22 1.87 2.37
-
193.34
6 120 3.03 2.81 190.53
7 1-10
.. J.41-
.1.62 192.15
.
193.16
L 6.44 L 7.91L 7.27 LS.74
.,,, ....
Levelling II. 121
Check: 6..g - 7.91 =-1.47 m
7.27 -. =- J.47 m
Last R.L. - l st R.L =192.15 - = -1.47 m
H::ight of gradient above peg .7 193.16 ...; 192.15
= 1.01 rn above'.'
Example 6.2 .In order to find the rail levels of an existing railway, 0. point A W:lS
marked on the rail, then points :It distances in multiples of 20 m from A and the
following readings were taken: . ... .
Backsight 3.39 m or a.8.M. 23.10. ... .
Intermediate sightson A,A +20 and A +40,2.81. 2.51 and 2.22 respectively.
A + 60: change point: foresight 1.88, backsight 2.61. Intermediate sights on A +
SO and A + 100. 2.32 and 1.92 respectively; and finally 0. foresight of 1.54 on A
+ 120, all being in meters. Tabulate theabove readings on the ccllirnatlon system
and then assuming the levels at A and A + 120were correct, calculate the amounts
by which the rails would have to be lifted at the intermediate points to give a
uniformgradient throughout. Repeat the tabulation on the riseand fallsystem and
apply what checks are possible in each case.
,.-
Solution (i) fleig/It of Collimation Method
Check: :E (B.S.) - L (F.5.) = 6.00- 3.42 = 2.5S m
- Ist. R.L. = 25.68 - 23.10
= 2.58 m
l. Reduced levels less the Ist. + r 1.5. + L F.S.
= (13.68 + 23.9$ + + 24.61 + 2-'1.90 + 25.30 + 25.68) + 11.78 + 3.-'12
= 187.62 m
- -
i
I Each instrument height x l:\o. of1.5.and F.S. deduced from it)
=26.49 (4)+ 27.22 (3)
=187.62 rn
(ii) Rise and Fall Method
Table 6.6 Example6.2
.Backsight
lntersigh; Foresight Rise Fall R.L. Distance Remarks
3.39 ., 23.10
2.81 0.58 23.68 0.00
2.51 0.30 23.98 co.eo
2.22 0.29 40.00
2.61 . 1.88 0.34 24.61 60.00
. 2.32 0.29 24.90 80.00
1.92 OAO' 25.30 100.00
1.54
. 0.38 25.68, 120.00
z6.00 L 3.42 :E 2.58 L 0.00
Check: r B.S.- r F.S. =6.00- 3.42= 2.58
r Rise- r Fall = 2.58- 0.00= 2.58
LastR.L.- lst. R.L. = 25.68 - 23.10=2.58
Example6.3 Theunder noted readings inmeterson::I levellingstaffwere taken
along aroadway AB withadumpylevel,the staffbeingheld inthe l stcaseat
::I startingpoint A andthenat20mintervals: 0.765,'1.064. [0.616], 1.835. 1.524.
Thelevelwasthenmoved forward toanotherposition andfurtherreadings were
taken. Thesewereasfollows; thelastreadingbeing atB: 2.356. 1.378, [2.063],
0.677.2.027.The level ofA is41.819m.Set outthereadings andcomplete the
bookings. Calculatethegradient from A toB.(Figtires inbrackets denoteinverted.
staffreadings) . [R.LC.S.]
Solution Thereadinssaresetoutinthe Inverted staffreadinss
aretaken asnegative.
.
Table 6.7 Example6.3
HI of
Backsight Intersight Foresight collirnatlon R.L. Distance Remark
0.765 42.584 41.819 0 A
1.064 41.520
[0.616) H.2oo 40
1.835 W.749 60
2.356 1.524 43.416 41.060 SO
\.378 42.038 100
[2.063) 45.479 120
0.677 42.739 140
:2.027 41.389 160 B
:E :{121 :E 2.2;5 L 3.551
-
- -
Levelling l/..123
Check: L B.S.....:EF.S. =3.121- 3.551
= - 0.430
LastR.L.- 1stR.L. =41.389 - 41.819
= - 0.430.
", " . .
. I
I Reduced level lessthe 1st+L1.S. +LF.S..
=344.00
LEachinstrumentheightx (1':0. of1.S: andF.S. deduced from it)
=42.5S4 x4+43.416x 4
=344.00
GradientfromAtoB = =J in372.09
Example 6.4 The following figures are staffreadings taken in order on a
particularscheme,.the backsightsbeing underlined.
asu,2.170,2.90S;2.630,3.133,u.i2.,3.277,1.899,2.390,illQ,1.542,1.274,
O.6..D.
Thefirstreading wastakenon abenchmark 39.563. Enterthereadingsinlevel
bookform,'checktheentries,andfind thereducedlevel ofthelastpoint.Comment
onyourcompletedreduction.
Solution
Backsight Intersight Foresight Ht.of R.L. . Remarks
collimation
0.813 40.376 39.563 8.M.
2.170 38.206
2.908, 37,468
2.630 37.746
3.752 .3.133
3.277 37.718
...
...
1.899
- .039.096 .
1.810 2.390 ..
,.
38.605

39.873
I 7375 . L
I 5.513 .
Difference of LBacksightandLForesight
(Lastintermediate sightshouldbeconsidered asforesight)
=7.375- 5.523- 1.542
=0.310

1:!4 Fundamentals of Surveying
Difference oflast R.L.andfirstR.L.
= 39.873 - 39.563
= 0.310
~ R.L.lessthe 15t + L 1.S. + L ES. = 305.955 + 14.426 + 5.523
=325.904
L Eachinstrument heightx (Nos.of1.S. andES. deduced from it).
=40.376 x4 + 40.995 x3 + 41.415 x3
= 325.904
Example 6.5.Apageofanoldlevelbook hadbeendamaged bywhiteantsand
thereadings markedx are missing. Findthe missing readingswiththehelpof
available readings and apply arithmetical check..' [ ~ n E Summer 1979]
Distance B.S. 1.5. F.5. H.I. R.L. Remarks
in m
x x 209.510 B.M.
0 1.675 x
30 x 210.425
60 3.355 209.080
x 0.840 x 209.520 x
c.p
J::!O x 208.275
150 x 210.635 Underside of
bridgegirder
x x 2.630 x x x
. 210 x
206.040
240 1.920 205.895
2iO x
205.690.
Solution Missingreadings canbe obtained asfollows: .
(i)Difference in R.L.between 240 and2iO
. = 205.895 - 205.690
=0.205
Hence ES. readingcorresponding to270mchainage
=1.920+ 0.205 = 2.125m
(ii) R.L.at 210 = 206.040
R.L.at 240 = 205.895
Difference in R.L. = 0.145
Levelling II 125
...
Hence intermediate sight correspondingto 210
=1.920+ 0.145
=2.065rn
(iii)
WithR.L. =205.895
and1.5. =i.920
Heightof instrumentbecomes 207.815.
(iv)After150m distancewill be 150+ 30=180m
ES. =2.630andH.I.=209.520
With
R.L.at 180 =206.890m
Corresponding backsight=207.815- 206.890
=0.925m
(v)
At ISO, R.L. = 210.635
Ht: of instrument =209.520m
Inverted staff reading =1 5 m
At 120m1.S. =209.520 - 208.275 =1.245 m
(vi)
(vii)After 60 mdistance will be90 m
withbacksight 0.840andH.I. =209.520
R.L. = 208.680
(viii)Difference InR.L.between 60 and90
=209.08 - 208.68
.= 0:400rn
F.S at 90 m = ~ 5 5 + 0.400 .
Hence
= 3.755
H.I. = 209.080 + 3.355
=212.435 m
At30 rn, R.L. =210.425
(ix)
H.I. =212.435
1.5:'= 1.010
Hence
j
126 Fundamentals ofSutveying
(x) With I.S. =1.675
R.L = 212.435 - 1.675
= 210.760 m
Writing themissing readings, wehave thefollowing table:
Table6.10 Example 6.5
Distance B.S. I.S. F.S. H.!. R.L. Remarks
.
inm
2.925 '.212-:435 .209.510
0 1.675 210.i60
30 2.010 210.425
60 3.355 209.080
90 0.840 3.755 209.520 .208.680 C.P.
120 1.245 208.275
150 1.115 210.635 Undersideof
bridgegirder
staffinverted
ISO 0.925 2.630 207.815 206.S90 C.P.
210 1.175 ~ 0 6 . 0 : 0
2-10
270
1.920
2.125
205.895
205.690
..
~ 4.690 L 8.510
Difference ofLF.S.- LB.S. = 8.510- 4.690
=3.820
Difference of 1stR.LandLast R.L. = 209.510 - 205.690
= 3.820
Example6.6 The following consecutive staffreadings weretakenon pegsat
15minterval onacontinuouslysloping ground: 0.895,1.305,2.800,1.960, 2.690,
3.255, 2.120, 2.825,3.450.3.895. 1.685. 2.050(Stn.A)R.L.ofstationA where
thereading 2.050was taken isknown to be50.250.
From the last position of theinstrument twostations Band C withR.L.
50.S00 and 51.000 respectively are to be established without disturbing the
instrument: Workout the staffreading at Band Candcomplete all the workin
level book form. [AMIE. Winter1982]
Solution Since it isacontinuously sloping'ground withsameset upof
instrument therewill becontinuous increase ofreading.Whenthereisasudden
change, it indicates changeof instrument point.The readings are tabulated as
follows:
i
g
.. _ _ ~ . _.. . _ . _ _-_.._-
'0';
.r.

Ley.I!!/it!8 II 127
Distance B.S. r.s. ES.
s ~ .. Fail Ht of
instrument
R.L... Remarks
0
15
30
45
60
75
.90
105
120
0.895
1.960 .
:
2.120 ~
1.685 .
1.305
2.690
2.825
3.450
2.050
1.500
2.800
3.255
3.895
1.300
56.485
55.645
54.510
52.300
55.590
55.180
53.685
52.955
52.390
51.685
51.060
50.625
50.250
50.800
5 LOOa
c.P.
. c.P.
c.e
.Statlon A
Station 8
Station C
L 6.660 13.820 11.250
Check: :E B.S. - r F.S. =6.660 -:- 11.250 =..,. 4.590 .
lst R.L. - Last a.i; =55.590 - 51.00 = - 4.590
:E R.L. less the Ist + :E I.S. + :E F.S. = 519.62 + 13.82 + 11.25
= 544.69
..
:E Each Instrument Height x (:-:0. of 1.5. and F.S. deduced from it).
= 56.485 x 2 + 55.645 X 2 + 54.51 X 3 + 52.3 x 3 = 544.69
6.4 CHECKIKG OF LEVELS
The arithmetic checks carried out after each. example above indicate onlycorrectness
of arithmetical computations..They do not indicate that levels of the points are
also correct. There will alvvays be errors in field work and it is always necessary
to get an ideo. of the magnitude of error. This can be obtainedby taking the. level
backto the original benchmark or to another pointof known elevation or benchmark.
It is advisable to make the length of foresight and backsight equal to eliminate
common instrumental errors. Figures6.2(a):ind 6.2(b) showthe two. types of check.
In Fig. 6.2(:1.) to check the'level difference between A'and B, the line.oflevel
- . . .'
CP3
Stalion B
Station A
original B.M:
CPS
Fig. 6.2(a) Checking- of levels (closed circuit).
_-.J
1:8 Fundamentals of StllTcyfllg
is broueht back to the oricinal station A. In such a case station B has 10 be made
_. .
a change point, that is, after taking foresight at B instrument should be changed
to a new position and backsight taken.
In Fig. 6.2(b) line of le\'el is taken to another point P of known R.L. In both
cases we can compute the error in levelling. In the first case the level difference
should be zero. In the second case, it should be known R.L. The discrepancy
represents the error of closure of the circuit and should be very small. If a large
difference occurs there must be some mistake in either (i) computation or, (ii) in
reading of the rod or (iii) in entering the field notes.
6.5 ERRORS IN LEVELLIi\G
As explained earlier, in levelling it is possible to make blunders, systematic errors
and accidental errors. Proper notekeepingand systematicfield work will eliminate
the first two while multiple readings can reduce the third to a minimum. Blunders
in levelling may occur due to, (i) using a wrong point for a benchmark,
(ii) reading rod incorrectly, (iii) reading on the stadia cross hair instead of the
middle crosshalr, and (hi) reading wrong numbers. Systematic errors occur when
the instrument is out of adjustment; for example, when the line of sight is not
horizontal when the bubble is at the centre of its run. When a survey starts from
a point and loops back to the same point, the accidental errors in reading, sighting
andatmospheric conditions areproportional to the numberof setups and/ordistances
..
between benchmarks. . .
Original CP1
Slalion a,M.
CP4
CP3
8.M. at
Point P
Fig. 6.2(b) Checking of levels with n o ~ n R.L.
Errors can also be classified as (i) Instrumental errors, (ii) Personal errors,
(iii) Natural errors.
6.5.1 INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
t. Level OIlT of adjustment Normally when the bubble is.in the centre of its run
line of sight is horizontal. But with imperfect adjustment, with bubble at the
centre, lineof sight remains inclined. Thiscan be removed by checking the permanent
adjustment of the level frequently, It can alsobe eliminated by keeping the backsight
and foresight equal. Figure 6.3 shows the error caused by inclined line of sight.
This is known as collimation error.
If D.-\ =DB, el =e::!and the difference of reading is the true difference of
level between A and B as the errors gel cancelled. ,
As DC> DA, e3 > e, and the difference of rending does not give the true
difference. .,.
Levelling J[ ,129
F
L
'e,
83
E I =:::",.,.....=== I I K
A '0
Instrument'
station
Fig. 6.3 Collimation' error.
(2) Other instrumental errors are: (i) Sluggish bubble, (ii) Defective staff,
(iii) Defective tripod, (iv) Faulty focussing tube..
Sluggish bubble and faulty focussing tube will lead to inclined line of sight
and hence erroneous reading. Defective staff will give wrong reading and so also
defective tripod.
~ 6.5.2 PERSONAL ERRORS
1. Bubble not properly centred " This is a very serious error because of line of
sight will be horizontal only when bubble is central. Hence a habit should be
, formed for checking at the beginning and ot the end of each reading. . ,
2. Parallax Parallax, that is, when the image and the' crosshair do not
exactly coincide, leads to error in rod reading. This can be avoided by proper
focussing and checked by moving the eye 'up and down. . .
3. NOli '.. ~ i i c l i l of lite slal! The rod should be plumbwhen the rending
, is made. Some levelling rods are fitted with circular levels at the back'so that
verticality can be ensured by keeping the bubble central.This can alsobe done
by moving the rod slowly backward and forward arid taking the minimum reading
as' shown in, Fig. 6.4. From the figure it can'be seen that,
.' '
, AB" cos 8 =AB
or AB" =AB sec 8
1
'S c
...
A
I-Instrument Station; AS-Vertical Staff; AS'. ASN-:'Inclined Staff
Fig. 6..J Error due 10 ncn-verticaliry.
Theerrordue to non verticality is given by
e=.4.B" - AB= AB(sec e- 1)
It isobvious that thiserror increasesasAB increasesoraseincreases.Henceit
is advisable to usesmallheightof the staff.
4. Telescopic staffnot fult extended In India telescopic staff is more
frequentlyused.Whenworkingwithtelescopicstaff,itshould befullyextended,
all the partsof the staff shouldremain truly vertical andgraduationshould be
continuous from one piece of staffto another.
5.Sightingerror Error insightingoccursinpoorweatherconditionsand
inlongsights.It isalsodependentonthecoarsenessofthecrosshairandthetype
.' of rod.The error is accidenral.
6.5.3 NATURAL ERRORS
1.Curvature and refraction Thiserror has already beenexplainedisSec.5.3.
It isofnegligiblequantity for'ordinarylevelling.It canbepracticallyeliminated
bykeeping thebacksightandforesightdistances equal.Inpreciselevellingwhen
the backsightand foresightare not equal, a correction shouldbe applied as already
explained in Sec.5.3.Moreover,levelling maybe discontinued for a fewhours
duringmiddayor shorter sightsmaybe taken.
2.Wind vibration Highwind shakestheinstrumentandthusdisturbsthe
bubbleandtherod.Preciselevellingworkshouldneverbedoneunder.highwind.
.3. Temperature variation Temperature may cause unequal expansionof
the various parts of the instrument.. One. end of the bubble tube may be heated
morethantheother,thebubblethenmovestothewarmerendcausingerror.The
levelshould, preferably,beprotectedfromthedirectraysofthesun.Therodmay
alsoexpanddue to temperature. Forprecise work inverrodsmaybe.used..
4.Settlementoftripodorturningpoint Ifthetripodsettlesbetweentaking
thebacksight andforesightreadings,theobservedforesightwill betoosmalland
theelevation of the turningpointwillbe toolarge.Similarlyifthechangepoint
settlesbetweentakinga foresightandthefollowingbacksight, the nextobserved
backsight will be too great and H.I. calculatedwill also be toogreat. Thus settlement
oftripod orC.P.leads to systematicerror as the resultingelevationwill always
betoohigh.
6.6 REDUCING ERRORS A;\D ELIl\llNATING 1\USTAKES
LEVELLING
Errorsinlevellingcan bereducedbut neverfully eliminatedbysysternaticadjustment
andmanipulation ofboththelevelandstaff.The followingpointsshouldbekept
inmind foran accurate levelling:(i) bubbleshould becheckedbefore andafter
eachreading, (ii)rodwithcircularbubbleshouldbeused:(iii) lengthofforesight
and backsight should be made equal; (iv) usual field check should be done;
(v)usual fieldbookchecks shouldbe observed;(vi) telescope should beshaded
Levelling II 131.
from sun; (vii) line of sight-should be 0.3 m above intervening
This will reduce errors and detect mistakes. . . .

6.7 CORRECTIO:,\
It is not alwayspossible in practice to make backslght equal to foresight. It is also
not possible to always ensure horizontal line of sight. Hence collimation error
invariably occurs and a collimation correction should be applied. This is also
known as Csfactor correction in which C represents the inclination of the line of
sight when the level bubble is centred.'In Fig. 6.5(a).the line of collimation is
inclined upwards even if the bubble is central. The error is D tan .. Da as a
is small and the correction is - Da. This is often expressedas CD where C is the
Inclined line of sight
E
C
Horizontal line of sight
A B
I.' D
'I
(:I)
Horizontal line
ofsight
Inclined line
of sight

'"'!"_--.:..
b
2
z
.
D
1
'J
B
,I.
I
.Inclinedlioe ofsight
A I.... ,--d:
(b)
Horizontal
(c)
aj
----
- - - - - - - - - \" ;nClined
Ali-
I
- - - -
a'.
I
Fig. 6.5 (:1\ lin: or collimatlon inclined upwards. (b) Set up 1. (c) Set up :2.
I
--
I
correction factor. InthiscaseC= - a. HenceifCispositive thelineofsightis
inclined downward. Todetermine C,set uptheinstrument between A and Bas
shown in Figs.6.S(b) and (c). Thelineofcollimation is assumed to be downward,
i.e, C positive. Fromthefigures,
-.
a\a2 =Cd, b
lb2
=CD\
a;a2 =CD
2
bIb!' =Cd
2
For Set lip ]
Correct difference between A and B
=Aaj - Bbl
=Aa2 + Cd, - (Bb
2
+CD) (6.1) .
. For Set up 2
Correct difference between A and B
=Aal-Bb{
=Aa2 +CD
2
- (Bb
2
+Cd
2
) (6.2)
Equating (6.1)and(6.2),weget
Aa2 + Cd, - (Bb
2
+CD) =Aa2 +CD
2
- (Bbf + Cd
2
)
'.0 C _ (
Aa
2 +Bbl) - (Bb
2
+Aa2)
T
ransposmg - (D) +D
2
) - (d) +d-:J
_ Sumofshort distance reading - Sumof iongdistancereading
- Sum of longdistances - Sum of short distances
Once the C factoris known. thiscan be applied for necessary correctionfor
unequal backsight andforesight asshown inFig.6.S(d).
Thecorrection tobeapplied asshown intheFig.6.5(d) is C factortimes
(L F.S. intervals - LB.S.intervals).
This
correctionis
tobe applied
Errorin.L
I
r
I
___ _ ----- I 1 Errorin
back.' I - - - - I
--
1- - .. _.
sight j -- -", ..
--
I --_..... -'-:- -
readings
l-- L B.S. 'I' LSumof intervals --1
intervals 1*-. LB.S. -or- LF.S. intervals-i
intervals .. - LB.S.
intervals
Fig. 6.S(d) Collimation (backsights and foresights not equal).
-------------- ----._-------- -- - ---
1
I
.
Levelling II 133
Example 6.7 A level set' up in a position 30 m from peg A and 60 m frompeg
Breads 1.914 m on a staff held at A and 2.237 m on a staff held at B,the bubble
having been carefully brought to the centre of its run before each reading. It Js
known that the reduced levels of the top of the pegs A and Bare 87.575 m and
87;279 O.D respectively (Fig. 6.6). Find (a) Collimation error; (b) The readings
that would have been obtained had there been no collimation error. . [L.U.]
Solution
___I
B
A f--- 30 ." m --k
60 m
I
Let us assume that the error is positive, i.e. the line of collimation is upward.
True difference of level between A and B
= 87.575 - 87.279
= 0.296
and A is at a higher. level than B..
This is equal. to.(Bb
l
- bib) - (Aal ..,. Dla)
= (2.237 - 60a)-(1.914 ":' 30a)
= - 30" + 0.323 ..
Therefore 0.296=' - 30a+ 0.323
or 30el=0.027 m
.it = 0.027 per 30 m upward
Rending at A = Aal - ala
= 1.914 - 30a
=1.914 - 0.027
=1.887 rn

Reading at
. B =2.237 - 60a
= 2.237 -
=2.183 m
b
1
I _.. ( ="'x c==:=J ( . I b
. . /. I \
Example 6.8 The following staffreadings wereobtained when running aline
oflevelsbetween twobenchmarks AandB.
1.085(A). 2.036. 2.231. 3.014.change point.0.613, 2.003. 2.335. C.P.,
1.622.1.283. 0.543.C.P., 1.426, I.i95.0.911.
Enterandreducethe in an acceptedform of field book. Thereduced
!
levels ofthebench marksatAandBwereknowntobe43.650 mand41.672 m
I
'-:
respectively.
It is found afterreadings have been taken with the staff supposedly vertical
as indicated bya: level on the staff that the level is 5 in error in theplane of the
staffandinstrument. Is thecollimationerrorof theinstrumentelevated ordepressed?
What isitsvalueinseconds ifthebacksights andforesights averaged 30mand
.60rrr respectively? -(L.V)
. . . . . .
Solution The dataaretabulated in levelbook form andtheR.L.of the
different points calculated.'
Table 6.12(3) Example6.8
Distance B.S. I.S. ES. H.L R.L. Remarks
1.085
44.735 43.650 A43.650
2.036 42.699
-.
2.231
0.613 3.014 41.721
2.003 40.331
1.622 2.335 39.999
1.283 40.338
1.426 0.543 41.078
1.795 40.709
0.911 .t1.593 B41.672
:E 4.746 :E 6.803
Difference between ES.- LB.S.
= 6.803 - 4.746= 2.057
Difference between lst R.L.andlastR.L.
=43.650- 41.593
=2.057m
Butthestaffwasheld 5off theverticalhence.
Corrected staff reading =(observed reading)cos5
Correction = - (1 - cos 5) x staffreading
= - 0.0038x staff reading
. . Levelllng II 135
A second table is drawn with the corrected staff readings for backsight and
foresight only. ..
Example 6.8
B.S. 1.S. F.S. H.I.- R.L: Remarks
1.081 4t731 43.650 A 43.650
- 0.611 3.003 42.339 41.728
1.616 2.326 41.629 40.013
1.42 L 0.541 42.509 41.038
0.903 41.601 841.672
I 4.729 I 6.778
Diff =6.778 - 4.i29 =2.049 43.650 - 41.601 =2.049 Actual difference
= 1.978
The observed difference in level is too great as the actual difference is 1.918 and
as the foresights exceeded the backsights in length the coliirnation is upward.
2.049 - 1.978 ?06'6 . d
C
o
II
"
rmation error = 2-W _ 120 x - .. :> secon 5
,.
= 122 seconds
,
,

Foresight
Backsight --0;.------,--
4 x 30
4 x 60
=120 m
=240 m
. z
A B
Fig..6.7 Example 6.8.
6.8 CHECK
It is used for checking of elevationsat the end of day's work.
6.9 FLY LEYELLI)iG
It is a quick but approximate method of levelling. Long distances are taken as
sights. It is used for reconnaissance oi an area or for approximate checking of
I.:\'eIs.
----
6.10 PROFILE
Asthename suggests, itshowsaprofile,thatis,alinedepictingground elevations
at a vertical section alonga survey line.This is necessary beforea rail road,
highway, transmission line.side walk or sewer line can be designed. Usually
a lineof level is run alongthecentre line of the proposed workas shown in
Fig.6.1. Levelistakenevery 15 mor30minterval.atcriticalpointswhere there
is asudden change of levels, at thebeginning or end of curve. Thebasic objective
is to plotaccurately the elevation of the points along the line of levels. The
procedure isexactlythesame asindifferential levellingasexplained inSec.6.2.
Itisnecessary totakestaffreadings along thecentreline,bookthemproperly in
thelevel book.computetheR.L.'sofdifferentpointsandapplysuitablearithmetic
checks; It is.also necessary tostartfrom a B.M. ofknownR.L. alsoclosewith
. aknown R.L. so that suitablefield checks are applied.It ishowever. notessential
to-puttheinstrumentalongthecentreline. ItcanbepIacedanywhereifnecessary,
offthecentreline,so thatlarzenumber ofreadinss canbetoken andforesights
and backsights are madeapproximately equal. It-isnow necessary to plotthe
profile or longitudinal section. Toshow thedistortions of theground the elevations
are plotted on a muchlargerscale after taking a suitabledatumthan the longitudinal
distances. Basedontheexample given inSec.6.2a typical longitudinal section
is shown inFig.6.8. .
B
'i\.
F
G
A
I
:r
.\
I I \ I
.\
I
Datum
99,00 m
L/') L/')
L/') L/') L/') L/') I.l)
I.l) 0
M t!l .... '<l" ,...
ro-
L/') (l) I.l) c.o
""
ci ci
R.L. in m ci ci
(l)
ci ci
(l) (l)
(l) (l) (l) (l) 0)
I
Distances 0
150' 180
30 60 90
120
in meIer
Fig. 6.8 Longitudinalsection.Scale: horizontal 1cm = 15rn, vertical 1em=20em.
Afterthelongitudinalorprofile section isdrawn. it isnecessary tohavea
smooth surface: This is known as zrade line which is selected on various
considerations like: (i) minirnurn am;unt'of cutting and filling of earth work;
(Ii):balancing the cut and fill; and (iii) keeping the slope within allowable
limit. .
II
I
..
Le...iellingIl ,137

-IfpointsAandGarejoined byaStraight linetheslopeofthelinebecomes
(99.705 - 99.535)/180 or 111059 whichis .. ;erysmall and is within allowable
limit.This maynot, ho\vever,'ensureequalvolumes of cut andfill andsuitable
adjustments ofgradeline may benecessary toensure thlsconditlon. '
Example6.9 The
,
levellinzshowninthefield sheetgivenbelowwasundertaken
,-
during thelayingoutofasewerline.Determine the heightof thegroundateach
observed point along the sewer linearid calculate thedepth ofthe trench atpoints
X andY if theseweris to have a gradient'of 1in200"downwardsfrom A to8
andis tobe 1.280mbelow thesurfaceatA "[RJ.C.S]
Solution The tablesshow theproblem andsolution.
R.L.ofsewerlineatA =99.645- 1.280 =98.365 m
, ,.,,; 40
AtX. 40 m fromA
R.t. =98.36:> - 200'
,=98.165 m
At)'.120mfromA
R.L. = 98,365 _ 120,
200
= 97.765
Hencedepth of at X =99.919- 98.165
=1.754
-,
Depth of trenchat Y =100.204- 97.765
= 2.439 '
B.S. 1.5. F.S. Distance (m) " Remarks
3.417 . B.M.98.002 m
1.390 1.774 0
1.152 20
"3.551 '1.116 40 PointX '
0.732 1.088 60
2.384 3.295 80
1.801 100
1.999 120 PointY
1.936 2.637 140 PointB
1.161
. B.M.IOOJ24
DetailsofFieldsheet.
B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fal1 R.L. R.L.of Distance Remark
sewer
3.417 98.002 .
1.390 1.774 1.643 99.645 98.365 00 A
1.152 0.238 99.883 20
3.551 . 1.116 0.036 99.919 98.165 40 X
0.732 1.088 2.463 102.382 60
2.384 3.295 2.563 99.819 80.
1.801 . 0.583 100.402 100
y
1.999 0.198 100.204 97.765 . 120
1.936 . 2.637 0.638 99.566 140 Point B
U61 0.775
..
.100.341 B.M. 100.324
L 13.410 :E11.071 L 5.738 .:E3.399
LB.5.- :L ES. =13.410 - 11.071 =2.339
LRise - :L Fall= 5.738 - 3.399= 2.339
LastR.L.- FirstR.L.=100.341 - 98.002=2.339
Example 6.10 In running fly levels from a benchmark of R.L. 183.185, the
following readings wereobtained: .
Backsight: 2.085, 1.025. 1.890. 0.625
Foresight: 1.925, 2.820. 0.890
Fromthelastpositionoftheinstrumentfivepegs3t25 meters interval aretobe
set out on an uniformlyfalling gradient of line 100withthe lst peg to have a R.L.
of 182.350. Determine thestaffreadings required forsetting thetops of thefive
pegsonthegivengradient . [AMIE. Summer 1986]
Solution Thedataandtherequired readings aregiven inatabularform.
Table 6.15 Example6.10..
S. No. Dist. B.S. I.S. F.S. H.I. R.L. Remarks
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
25
50.
75
100
2.085
1.025
1.890
0.625 .
0.825
1.0i5 .
1.325
1.575
1.925
2.820
0.890
1.825
185.270
. 184.370
183.440
183.175
183.185
183.345
181.550
182.550
182.350
182.100
181.850
181.600
181.350
B.M.
Peg 1
Peg2
Peg3
Peg4
.Peg5
L5.625 . L4.800 . :E7.460
Levelling II 139
'.
Check:L B.S. - L F.S.=5.625 - 7.460 =- 1.835 .
LastR.L."- Ist R.L. == 181.350- 183.185= - 1.835
L RL. lesstheIS(+LI.S.+ L F.S= 1456.695.+ 4.800 + 7.460
= 1468.955
L (Eachinstrument heightx No. of,I.S. and F.S.from it)
=(185.27)(1) +(184.37)(1) +(183.175)(5)
= 1468.955
6.11 CROSS SECTIONALLEVELLING
For layinga pipeline orsewerlineonlylongitudinal sectionisadequate because
the width of the line is small. In the case of roads and railways apartfrom
longitudinalsection, crosssectionsat rightanglesto the centre line of thealignment
arerequired atsome regularintervals.This isnecessary toknowthetopography
oftheareawhichwill berequired fortheroads andrailwaysandalsotocompute
thevolumeofcutand fill forthe construction work. Figure 6.9(a) shows theplan.
Figure6.9(b)shewsthecrosssectionand thetable shows theentryin the level
book.Cross section isusuallyplottedin thesame horizontal and vertical scale.
\ ~
\()
~
o
~
\()
c<:,?J.
\ ~
c<:'?
cS\ C'.s'a.
Fig. 6 : 9 a Plan'
Station Distance (m) 8.5. 1.5. F.S. H.1. R.L. Remarks
L c R
8.M 1.415 106.820105.405
A 0 1.875 104.945
5 1.795
. 105.025
10 1.625 105.195
15 1.540 105.280
5 1.535 105.285
10 1.685 105.135
-
15 1.805
105.015
- --_.. -----
1
1';;0 Fundamentals of Surveying
Datum
-
[trrnJ
104.00
0 L., II) lI'l
II) It) It)
co OJ N <:1' c::l M ....
R.L. N .... q N ....
0
u1 U"l' II) <:1' u1 u1 L';

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
.... .... .... .... .... .... ....
Distances
I I

-
15 10' 5 0 5 10 15
Fig. 6.9(b) Cross section I. Scale: Horizontal I em =2.5 m, Vertical Icm =a.Sm.
. ..
6.1 L1" SIGHT RAILS AND BONING RODS
Sight rails and boning rods are used for excavation purposes associated with the
grading of drains and sewers. The sight roils are established at fixed points along
the excavation line at a height abovethe formation level equal to the lengthof the
boning rod. The formation level compared with the surface level gives the depth
of excavation. When the boning rod is in line with sight rails the excavation is
correct depth (Fig. 6.10).
Sight rail
Boning rod
length of
boning rod
\;;.
..
Fig. 6.10 Sight rails and boning .rods.
' '.."
- -
-Levelling Il 141
"
Example 6.11 A. B. C. D; E and F are the sites. of manhole's 100 m apart on a
straight sewer. The natural ground can be considered as .a plane surface rising
uniformly from A to F at a gradient of 1 vertically in 500 horizontally, the
ground level at A being m. The level of the sewerinvert is [0be 28.956 m
_at A. the invert then rising uniformly at -1 in 200 to F. Sight rails 'are to beset
up at A. B. c. D. E and F so that a,3 m boning rod or traveller can be used.
The backsights and foresights were-made approximately equal and a. peg at
ground level at A was used as datum, Draw a level book-showing the readings.
[L.U.]
Solution
Line of sight
., Sight rail at F
- ,31.956 f
34.456
Sight r
-- ------- -- ---,------- ----- ----- ..--r---.--- -
at A
Natural ground
1 in 500
F
31.394 .
0
,IE>,
e
B-
A
Formation gradient 1in
200
28.956
(i) Ground level at A =31.394
Invert level at A =28.956
Difference in level = 2.438
(i,i) Ground level at B =31.394 + =31.594
Invert level at B =28.956 +- =29.456 :
Difference in level = 2.138
(iii) Ground level at C ='
Invert level at C =29.956 .. -
Difference '
=
1.838
Difference at D
=
1.538
(i").
Difference at E
=
1.238
"
Difference at F
=
0.938
The level book is shown in Table 6.16.
While crossing 3 river or ravine it is not possible to put the level midway so that
the backsight and foresight are equal. Sight distance, however, is long and errors
due to (i) collimation, i.e, inclined line of sight. (ii) curvature and refraction are
likely to occur. To avoid these errors two obser... ations are made. As shown in
Fig. 6.12 instrument is placed near station A and observations are made on staffs
at A and B. Similarly instrument is placed near Band staff readings are taken on
B lind A.
From first set of readings:
in level =d =BB. =at +c +e - r - hI
=(al - hi) 1- (c - r) +e
From second set of readings:
difference in level';' d =.-\.4, =- +c + e - r -
= (a:! -; h,J - (c - r) - e
(-sign as difference is measured at A instead of at B)
By adding
2d =(a\- bl)+ h:)
I
1
I
I
I
I
j
1
I
I
.
Levelling II 143
(3)
Line of collimation
rI
b
----------"""'-
Horizontal
Linedueto refr
\. Station B
Levelline through B
r . -
or
tl =2" [(al - bl) +(a2 - b
2
)]
Subtracting
2(c - r +e) =[(a2- b
2
) - (al - bl)]
. .
.. .. .. 1 ... _ .
or
. c - r +e =2' [(a2 - b
2
) - (al - bl)]
Here
c =curvature error
r =refraction error
e =error.due,to, colllmation
If the combined error dueto curvature and refraction are knownerrordue to
collimation can befoundout.
Example '6.12 The results of reciprocal le.... elling between stationsAandB
250m apart on oppositesides ofa wideriverwereas follows.
Levellit Heightofeyepiece (m) Staffreading
I
1.399 2.518on8
8
A
1.332 0.524 onA
f
c
1
t
a\
T
LIne of collimation
Linedue to
refraction
I. ....- .f I
<zGO:-._ JeT , :J..
a
(b)
Fig. 6.12 Reciprocal levelling.
Find(a)The true differenceoflevelbetween thestations.
(b)The error due to imperfect adjustment of the instrument assuming the
meanradiusof theearth 6365kill. (Lll.)
-- --.--_.--
Solution Sincethe staffis'veryclosetoA andBin lst and2nd setup
respectively, theheightof theeyepieceis takenasthestaffreading.
TI"'Je difference oflevel= [Cal - b
l
) + (a2 - b:\)]
= t[(1.399 - 2518) + -
= - 0.964m
indicatingthatA is at a lowerlevelthanB.
Totalerror='2
1
[(a2 - b
2
) - (a\ - b
l
)]
. - (- 1.119)]
= + 0.156m
Error duetocurvatureandrefraction
L
2
=2R[1- 2 m]
..
250
2
= 2(6365)(1000) [1 - 2(.07)]
,
= .00422m
Errorduetocollimation =+ 0.IS6 - .004
= + 0.152in 250 m
Henceerrorll00 m =+ 0.06 m
6.13 TWO PEG TEST
Thetwopegtestisafamiliartesttofindtheerroroflineofcollimationofalevel.
Figure. 6.13shows the fundamentals of the test. Initially thelengthABismeasured
andthelevelisplacedatthemiddleoftwopegsAandBandthestaffreadings
taken(Fig.6.13(a)).Thedifference ofreadingsgivesthetruedifference inlevel
betweenpointsA andB. Thelevel isthenshiftedalonglineABeithertowardsA
orBthroughaknown distanceandthereadingstakenasshown in(Figs. 6.13(b)
and (e)). Fromthe readings and the known distances it is possible to calculatethe
collimation error.
Example 6.13 Amodemdumpy levelwasset upata'position equidistant from
twopegs.4andB.Thebubblewasadjustedtoitscentralposition foreachreading
asitdid.notremainquitecentralwhenthetelescopewasmoved fromAtoB.The
..
readingsonAandBwere 1.481 mand1.591 mrespectively.Theinstrument was
thenmovedtoD so that thedistanceDB was about fivetimesthedistanceDA
and thereadings with the bubble central were 1.560' m and1.655 m respectively..
.Was the'instrument in adjustment? .
. L.
-,
Levelling II 145

. Line of collimation
Staff

at B
B
A -

D!2
D/2
.'
+
c
(a)
Line of collimation
B
Line of collimation
A
"
f--d,
, I
-
d, +d
2
=D
d
2
(b) .

Line of collimation --r
C A B'
f- d, ....o+!........,-.--:--:----:-:---
D

(c)
..
Fig. 6.13 Two'peg test.
Solution Figure 6.14 shows the two positicnsof the instrument 'v...ilh
corresponding staff readings.
L.-. "
True difference of level =1.591 - 1.481
..
= 0.110 m
A is III n higher' level than B.
r
1.591
Inclined line of
. collimation
1.481
horizontal
t
A B
I
-
-
.'.
,
-
-

A '
I-- DA
Inclined line of

horizontal
o B
-r
, .
1
Fig.6.14 Example6.13.

Inthesecondsetofreadings asanglea ofthelineofcollimationisconstant,
iferror onA ise, on B it isSe. Hence '

Bb + 5e - (Aa + e) = 1.655 - 1.560
or (Bb - Aa) + 4e =0.095 m
ButBb - Aa =' truedifference in level
= 0.110m
.Hence,
4e = 0.095-'0.110
= - O.Dl5
or e = - .004m
, indicatinglineof collimationwasdownward,
6.14 THREE WIRELEVELLING
In ordinarylevelling staff is readagainstonly the middle horizontal crosshair
whereas inthree wire levelling staff is readagainst all the threehorizontal crosshairs
and recorded. These threereadingsareaveragedto get a better value". Sincethe
wiresareequallyspacedthedifference ofreadingbetweentheupperandmiddle
wiresshould beequaltothatbetween middleandlowerwire.Iftheydonotagree
withintheaccuracy of the instrument, the observation shouldbe repeated.The
J

\
I
II
LevellingII 147
differencebetweentheupper and lowerreadingprovides the staffinterceptnecessary
to calculate thesightdistance and to checkwhetherbacksightandforesight are
.
equal. A typical pageof thelevel book used for three wire levellingin given
below.
serr
. "
Distancereading
station B.S. ES. H.I. R.L. Remarks
B.S. ES.
-
(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

CPI
CP2
CP3

Ariiametic check
6.15. ERROR,ADJUSTi\IENT AND OF LEVEL
Inlevelling errorislikely tobemorewhen thelengthofthelineis more'or the
number of setup of theinstrument is more. Since standarderror orprobable error
is directly proportional tothesquare rootof thelengthof a nneandweightis
inverselyproportional tothesquareofprobableerrorweightisinverselyproportional
tothelength ofalineinalevel circuit.Similarlyweightisinversely proportional
tothenumber ofinstrumentsetups.Weight alsovaries directlywiththe number

of repetitions. Therefore adjustment orcalculation of most probable valueof R.L.
of a point in a level lineisbasedon theaboveprinciples. Whenmisclosure of
levelis known, l.e.when levelling endsat apointofknownelevation orat the
starting point, discrepancy isadjustedinproportionto'length fromthestarting
point.In multi loopcircuits a benchmark shouldbemadecommontoboththe
circuits.Though theoryofleastsquareis the bestmethod for adjusting such a.
.circuit,approxlmateadjustmentscanbemade.Theouterloopshouldbeadjusted
first. The adjustmentrequiredforthecommonpointis' found out. Fromtheadjustment
necessaryfor thecommon point,theadjusted valueofthestartingpointisfound.
. out as also misclosure in theinner loop. This rnlsclosure is, again adjusted. Finally,
the outer loop is again adjusted based on new adjustment'.of the inner loop.
Examples 6.17 and6.18 show the procedure.
Example 6.14 .Thedifference in levelbetween twopointsA andB was found
bythreeroutes-(l)vlaCandD, (2)vlaE, F andC, (3) viaH, distances being
as follows:
Route 1AC =180m CD =282 m DB=228 m
Route2AE = m EF =156m
FG = m,CS= 270m
Route3AH = .m HB =369 m
The sections on Route1were levelledeighttimes, thoseon Route 2 twiceand
those on Route 3 four times and the differences in level were found to be 8.2iS
m, 8.292 m and 8.285 m respectively, If the probable error in any section for a
single levellingis proportional to the square root of the length of thatsection, find
the most probable value of the difference in level between A and B. (Salford)
Solution Most probable value is theweighted mean of the observed values.
Weight is inversely proportional to the square of probable error and directly
proportional to the number of repetitions.
wI : w2 : w) = 11\11
1
: 112/12 : lIil).
where lilt "2 and 11) = no. of repetitions
II, 1
2
and I) =corresponding lengths
Here 111 =8 112 =2 113 =4
1\ =180 + 282 + 228 =MOm
1
2
=144 + 156 + 324 + 270 =894 m
I) =264 + 369 =633 m
Most probable value =Weighted mean
_ \"\-'"\ + I ~ X 2 + \\'3-'")
- \\'\ + \\'2 + \\'3
(8.275) ~ ) + 8.292 (2-) + 8.285(.i-.)
_ 690 894 633
- 824
-+-+-
690 894 633
i
=8.279 m
Example 6.15 Ina topographical survey, the difference in level between two
pointsA and B is found by three routes-via C, D, E, and F, via G and H and via
I, the distances being
Route 1 AC =120 m CD = 162 m DE =300 m EF =258 m FB =132 m
Route 2 AG =240 m GH =306 m HB =384 m
Route 3 AJ = 294 m JB = 462 m
The sections on Route 1 are each levelled four times, those on Route 2 eight
times, and on Route 3 twice; the established differences in level thus obtained
being 30.81 m, 30.57 m and 31.08 m respectively. If the probable error in any
section at each levelling is proportional to its 'length, and the usual laws for
combination of readings hold, find the most probable value for the difference in.
level between A and B. (L.U., B.Sc.,)
Solution From the given data,
[I =120 + 162 + 300 + 258 + 132 = 972 m
[2 = 240 + 306 + 384 =930 m
[) =294 + 462 = 756 in
,.
WI .: '2 :. w) =4/9ii. : 8/930: 2rl56
Levelling II ' 149
Mostprobable value::: Weighted mean '
4 8" '2 ','

- (30.81)+ - (30.57) + - (31.08)
_ 972 ' '930 756 '
- ,4 8, 2
-+-+-
972, 930 756
_ 0.1268 + 0.2630 + 0.0822
- 0.00411 + 0.0086 + 0.0026
=30.72m
Example 6.16 A line of levels'is carried from B.M.A whose elevation is
146.522 rn, to a new B.M.Prequiring 10set ups. The measured difference in
elevation is- 3..436rn, A lineiscarriedfromB.M.B whose elevation is146.851 m
toB.M.Prequiring sixsetups. Themeasured difference inelevation is- 3.755 m.
A lineiscarriedfromB.M.e whoseelevation is 132.768 mtoB.M.Prequiring
fourset'ups.Themeasured difference inelevation is + 10.312 m. Compute the
weighted elevation of B.M.P and thestandard errorof thiselevation. r;"'Ioffit)
Solution Standarderrorisproponional tothesquare rootofthenumber
ofsetups required. Hencestandard errors oflines 1, 2 and3areproportional to
.JfO.[6 and .J4 respectively. Weights areinversely proportionalto square of
standard errors,hence,
... .:., v -' I . 1 . 1
\ 3 - 10' '6 .'4
Level ofB.M.P. by-1st route=146,522 -:3.436
;,143.086ITi
by,2nd route = 146.851 - 3.755.
= ' 143.096 m.
by3rd route =132.768+ 10.312
=143;080 m
Weighted elevation'
_to (143.086)+ i +*(143.08)
- 1..+1+1
10 6 4
= 143.08632m
Standard errorof theweighted mean
v\ =143.086 - 143.08632 = - .00032
1.'2 =143.096 - 143.08632 = + .00968
u3 = 143.080 - 143.08632 = - .00632
uf = 1.024 X10-
7
.P;l.lf =1.024(l0-S)
150 Fundamentals oj Surveying
=9.37x 10-
5
P:
.
u;
-
=1.562(10-
5
)
vi =3.99x10-
5
=
. . .
L pv
2
=2.562 x 10-
5
Standarderrorof theweighted mean
2.562 x 10-
5
=
0.5167 x2
=.004979
Standarderrorofeachof themeasured elevation
/2.562 x 10-
5
- 2
= .003579
0"\ =(.003579)(10) = .03579
0"2=(.003579)(6) =.02147
0"3=(.003579)(4) =.01432.
Example 6.17 Figure6.15shows a closedcircuitoflevels withdifference of
levels betweendifferent pointsandthelengthbetweenthem.Computetheadjusted
valuesof thelevelsof different points.
. Solution
8

R.L.100.00 A
c
'\P
'" co

o 3
3
E
.. 1
o
Fig.6.15 Example6.17.

Levelling11 151
Misclosure = +' 3.52 of: 2.15 - 1.05 - 2.67 - 2.10
=- 0.15 m length of 6.05 km
Elevation adjustment at B = 100.00.+ 3.52 +
=103.559 m
' 2 - 0.15(2.6)
:It
C
=
100
+.
3 5
?
- + .1;) + 6.05'
=105.734 m
3
., ? 15 10' 0.15(3.85)
at
D
=
100
+ .;)- + _. -.;) + 6.05
=10-1-.6-1-5 m
. .
".J 2 1- 1 O ? 67' 0.15(5.25)
E 100
.;) ":" -. . 6.05 at:::; + ".;)- + .;) - +
= 102.08 m
at A = 100 + 3.52 + 2.15 - 1.05 .,. 2.67 ., 2.10
0.15(6.05)
+ '6.05
= 100 m
Example 6.18 A level line is run from B.M.A and closes on the same point as'
shown in Fig. 6.16. B.M.B is included in both the loops. In the outer loop there
are five change points while in the inner loop there are four change points. The
elevations observed at different points are as follows:
Elevation observed 1st correction 2nd correction
B.M.A = 100.00
C.Pl = 101.50
. B.lvlB(I)
= 101.85 101.85
C.P.2 = 104.35
. 104.29
C.P.3 = 103.75 103.63
C.PA = 105.45
105.27
C.P.5 = 103.45
103.21
B.M.B(2) = 102.15
. 102.85 101.93
C.P.6 = 101.30
101.00
B.M.A = 100.14.
99.8-1- 100.00
Solution First the outer circuit, Le. Loop 2 is adjusted. Starting with
..
B.'t'.I.B(l) as 101.85 it closes on B.M.(2) as 1O:!.15 giving a mlsclosure of
+ 0.30 m. In Loop 2 there are 5 instrument set ups and hence a correction of
- 0.30/5 = - 0.06 rn/set up. 1(1) is to be reduced by 0.30 m. As C.P.6 and
B.M.A is based' onB.M.B as reference they are also reduced by the same amount
Loop 2
'3
.
.
givingR.L. ofB.M.A as'99,84 m. Thisgives a misclosure in loop1 as- 0,16and
isequalto0.16/4= 0,04 mpersetup.Thevaluesin loop2 arenow adjusted.
B,M.A isadjustedbyfourinstrumentsetupsandB.M.B by2instrumentsetups.
Detailsareshownas 1stcorrection and2ndcorrection intheexampleitself.
PROBLEMS
6.1 Drawapageof a typicallevelling'fieldbookandexplainhowthe readings
arerecorded. . .
6.2 Describeindetailthemethodsofreduction oflevelsandexplaintheirmerits
anddemerits. . .
6.3 Name thedifferentsourcesoferrors inlevellingandexplainhowthey can
beeliminatedor minimized.
6.4 (a) Derive an expression for the combined effect of earth's curvature
andatmosphericrefractioninlevelling, giventhe diameterof earth as
12,740krn, '
(b).Thefollowingnotesrefertoreciprocal levels:
Instrumentnear Staffreadings on Remarks
P Q
P 1,850 2,850 PQ = 1055m
Q
1,000 2.200 R.Lof P= 126.100
."
Determine
(i) thetrueR.L.ofQ(ii) thecombined correction for curvature and refraction
and (iii) the angular error, if any, in the collimation adjustment of
instrument. . [AMIE,Sec B,Winter 1984]
L
Levelling II 153
,-
.
6.5 (a) Definewith thehelp of neatsketches thefollowing:
(i)Levelsurface,(ii) Horizontal surface, (iii)Backsight,(iv)Foresight,
(v)Height of instrument,and(vi) Reduced level.
(b) Thefollowingfigureswereextracted.from a"level fieldbook",someof
theentriesbeingillegible.Insertthemissing figures,checkyourresults,
andre-bookall the figures usingt h ~ "riseand fall" method.
Station B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise, F:lll ..R.L. Remarks
-
1 2.285
!
B:i\! No.1
2 1.650
3 2:105
4 x 1.960
5 2.050 1.925 0.300
6 x x 232.255 B.M No.2
7 1.690
.x .
0.340
8 2.865 2.100
9 x x 233.425 8.M No.3
[ ~ l l E Winter1956]
. . .
6.6 (a) Show that the reciprocal levellingeliminates effects of atmospheric
J
refractionandearth's curvatureaswellaseffectofinadjustmentofthe
lineof collimation. .
(b).The following consecutivereadings were taken witha leveland3 m
levellingstaffoncontinuouslysloping groundatacommoninterval of
20 rn. .
0.605, 1.235, 1.860,2.575,0.240,0.915, 1.935,2.875, 1.825, 2.725
Thereducedlevelofthe 1stpointwas'192.120. Rulea pageofalevel
fieldbookandentertheabovereadings. Calculatethereducedlevelsof
the points and also the gradientof thelinejoining the first and last
polnts, . .. [AMIE, Summer 1987].
6.7 (a) Discuss the effects of curvatureand refraction in levelling.Find the
correctlon due to each and the combined.correction. Why are these
effectsignoredinordinarylevelling?
(b) InlevellingbetweentwopointsA andB onoppositesidesofariver. the
levelwasset upnearAandthestaffreadings onAandB were 2.645
mand3.230m.respectively.Thelevel wasthenmovedandsetupnear
B, therespectivestaffreadingsonAandB were 1.085mand1.695 rn.
Findthetrue difference of levelbetween A and B.
[AMIE,Winter 1987]
4 .....
6.8 (a) Describethemethodoflongitudinal levelling withthehelpofasuitable
diagram and sketcha typical longitudinal section.
(b) The following is the page of a level field book from which several
valuesaremissing.Reconstruct thepage andfillalltheentrieswherex
markis present.Applyall necessary checks.
Station B.S. 1.S. F.S. Rise Fall
R.t. .
Remarks
I 1.385
100.00 .
2 1.430 x x
3 x 0.395 x
4 1.275 x x
5 .0.630 0.585 0.310 x
6 0.920 x 100.13
7 x 0.210 x
8 .
1.740 x x
B.M.
..
-'
T.P.1
T.P.2
[AM1E; Summer 1988]
.' . .
6.9 (a) Deriveexpressionsforcurvature andrefraction correction along with
diagrams inlevelling. .
(b) Explain the operation ofbalancing backsight andforesight with the
helpofa diagram anddescribeitsadvantages.
(c) Thefollowing consecutive readings weretakenwith alevel and3m
levelling staffon acontinuously sloping ground.
0.602,1.234, 1.860, 2.574,0.238,0.914,1.936,'2.872,0.568, 1:824,
2.722
Determine thereduced levelsofallthepointsofR.L. iffirstpointwas
192.122 m.
6.10 Reproduced belowis thepage in a levelbook.Fillin the missing data.
Applytheusual checks.
l

i' "":1:; 41""
r "1.-,/"
'r .. .
Levellingl/ 155,'
Staffreading onB.M. A(R.L. 10.750) =0.i50
Staffreading onB.M.B(R.L. 11.750) =1.750
..
.
(i) Was the lineof collimationinclinedupwards or downwards and by.
howmuch?
(il) Calculate the readings thatsbould beobtained onA andB tohave
." a horizontal.llne ofsight.
(iii) State inwhat direction and by howmuch the, diaphragm has to be
moved foradjustment. Winter1980]
6.12 (a);Write inbriefabout thespecialpoints of 'autolevel'.
(b)Thefollowing consecutive staffreadings were taken onpegsat 15 m
interval onacontinuously sloping ground.
0.895, 1.305, 2.800, 1.960,2.690,3.255, 2.120, 2.825, 3.450,3.895,
1.685, 2.050(station A)
.R.L.ofstation A where thereading 2.050 was taken, isknowntobe
l
50.250.. " ",' .' " "",.
From thelastposition oftheinstrument two stationsBand CwithR.L.
50.800 and51.000 respectively are tobe established without disturbing

J
complete allthe\....orkinlevel bookform..
{,
[AMIE, Winter1982]
6.13 (a) Drawofneatsketchofaninterval focussing telescopeofalevelshowing
clearly alltheimportant parts. Statethe function ofeachpart.
(b)Calculate the errorin staffreading onaccount of (i) Curvature of earth,
. (ii)Normal refraction inlevelling operations if thestaffis heldat a
distance of800mfrom theinstrument.
(c) Showtheabove twoerrors clearly ona neatly drawn sketchandalso
thecombined correction tobeapplied inthis case.
(d)Following observations were taken fortesting ofadumpylevel:
(i) Instrument exactly'atthemid-point oflineAB
Staffrendingatstation A=1.855
Staffreading atstation B =1.605 .
.(ii) Instrument very near tostation B
Staffreadinz atstation'A 0.675 .
- .
Staffreading atstation B,= 0.925
Findoutfrom theabove observations.whether the lineofcollimation
is in adjustmentor not.Ifnotin adjustmentwha: is'the nature and
!
amount oferror indistance AB? What w111 bethecorrectreadings on
staffatA and B from stationB when the lineof collimation is adjusted?

F
-.
'
Summer1983]

.>'....
I
7
Permanent Adjustments of
Levels
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Two types of adjustments are made on any surveying instrument-(i) Temporary;
(ii) Permanent. .
Temporary adjustments are those performed each time an instrument is used
and should invariably be done each time. the instrument is set up in the field.
Permanent adjustments 'are usually done by the instrument makers. They should
however, be checked periodically by the users and, if necessary, sent to the maker
or may be done by the users themselves if experts are available.
7.2 PERMANENT ADJUSTMENTS OF A DUMPY LEVEL
The correct axes relationships for a properly adjusted level is shown in Fig. 7.1
They are as follows: .
Line of sight
hair
(Perpendicular toVA)
Bubbletube axis
I i
+-- Vertical Axis
VA
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.1 Axes relationships of a level: (a) Sid'e view. (b) Front view.
156
I
1
i
A, -'I
I
.. '.
I, ,:1 i
I
,iP
I
/'
Ii
\)
I
". 'I;
I
I
Permanent Adjustments of Levels' 157
1.Theaxisof thebubbletubeshouldbeperpendiculartothevertical axis.
oftheinstrument.
..
.
.
, , 2. The horizontal crosshairshould lie in a planeperpendicularto thevertical
axis.
3;Thelineofsightshouldbeparallel totheaxisof thebubblerube.
7.2.1 FIRSTADJUSTMENT
Purpose' Tomaketheaxisofthe leveltube perpendicular to, thevertical ~ x s
Test Setupthelevel,centrethebubbleandrevolve thetelescopethrough 180.
If the bubble' remains central,no adjustment is necessary. If not, thedistance
through whichthebubble movesoff thecentral positionis doubletheerror.
Correction
1. Bring thebubble halfway backbyraising or loweringoneendof the
leveltubebymeans ofcapstan headedscrews.
2.Theotherhalfiscorrectedbymeans ofthetwolevellingscrewsparallel
to'thetelescope. ' '
3.Nowrotatethetelescope throughlS0 toseeif the bubble stillremains
central. 'Ifnot,theadjustment has to berepeated tillthebubbleremains central
during onecompleterevolution of the telescope.
#
Explanation Theadjustment is basedontheprinciple of reversal which states
thatreversing theinstrumentposition'bv
.
rotation inahorizontal orvertical plane
doubles anyerrorpresent, enablinga surveyor todirectlydetermine howmuch
,
correctionisneeded.Thiscanbeeasilyshownwiththehelpofasetsquare where
thesidesAB andBC arenotexactlyperpendicularbutthereissmallangularerror
e. Ifthe set squareis nowturnedaboutBC, theerror is doubledas shown in
Fig.7.2. '
c c c
e
A r ! 8 A
A
(a)
Fig.7.2 Principle ofreversal.
Thesame principle isappliedinthisadjustment. Figure7.3(a)shows how
level tubeis brought tothecentreof itsrunwhen the vertical axisis riot truly
vertical.Thisis initialcondition. When the instrument is nowrotated through
180, cd remains :IS itisbutthe newposition ofab becomesa'b' as theangle
8
(b)
-----'
Level tube a'
/
c
K
a i I b a l-=",=C:::: I b
b'
Inclined
e
I
vertical
axis :-.True vertical axis
I
I
d
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.3 Adjustment ofbubble tube axis.
90
o
- e remains fixedandac becomes cb'. Hencetheerrorfrom thehorizontal
is2e which isdoubletheerrorbetweentheleveltubeaxisandthevertical axis.
Hence half the error is adjusted by the'capstan headedscrews as shown in
Fig.7.3(b).
7.2.2 SECQND ADJUSTMENT
Purpose Tomakethe horizontal hair truly horizontal whentheinstrument is
levelled.
Test SightsomewelldefinedpointP with oneendofthehorizontalhair-. Rotate
-thetelescope slowlyonitsverticalaxis.Ifthehorizontalcrosshairmoves overthe
pointP throughout its length,the horizontal hair is trulyhorizontal. Ifnot,the
,instrument is outofadjustment.
Adjustment Loosen the fourcapstan screws holdingthe reticle carrying the
crosshairs, Rotate the reticle throughthe required smallangle so thatthehorizontal : .
hair becomes truly horizontal. Thescrews should be carefullytightened in itsfinal
position. Checkagain by sightingpointP as before andrepeattheprocess, if
neces:sary.
Fig. 7.4 Adjustment of horizontal crosshair.
7.2.3 THIRDADJUSTMENT
Purpose. Tomakethelineofsightparallelto'theaxisofthebubble tubeorto
make the lineofsight horizontalwhenthe bubbleis hithecentreofits run.
'J
L ..
/
Permanent Adjustments of Levels 159
..
Test This is doneby meansof Two-peg test.The instrument is firstplaced
..
midway betweentwopegsA andB which areatleasttwochainsapartasshown
inFig.7.5.
C
Fig.7.S Initialmidposition of level.
Since the instrument is placed atthe middle even if the line of sightis
inclined. thedifference ofreadingsAa andBb willbethetrue difference oflevel'
between A andB. '
Now the instrument is placed at one end D very close to the pointA.
ReadingonA,Aa' is taken by' sightingthrough the objective lens. Thereading on
B, Bb' is takenintheusual way(Fig.7.6).Ifthedifference inreading between
Aa' and Bb' is thesameas'the previous.reading: Aa - Bb, the lineofsightis'
horizontal andnoadjustmentis necessary.
a
A I I I I I
'b
B
b' .
a'
B
D A
Fig.7.6 Secondposition oflevel(twopegtest).
..
..
Adjustment,Ifdifferenceinreadingisnotthesame, compute thecorrectreading'
atB byaddingorsubtracting fromthereuding :itA,'thetruedifference oflevel
between AandB. Loosen thetop(or bottom) capstan screw holding the reticle
and. tightenthebottom (ortop)screwtomove thehorizontal hairupordown to
get the required reading at B. To'get the correct value several trials will be
necessary.
7.3 ADJUSTMEI\TS OFA L T l ~ LEYEL
The tiltinglevelhasthreeadjustments:
I
1. Horizontal crosshair should be truly horizontal when the bull's eye bubble
is centred.
2. The circular bubble should stay in the centre as the telescope is rotated
about the vertical axis.
3. Line of sight should be horizontal when the main sensitive bubble is .
centred.
Theseadjustments closely follow theadjustments of dumpy level with minor
modifications.
7.3.1 FlRST ADJUSTMENT
The test is same asin dumpy level. Apoint P is seen at the end of the horizontal
crosshair, The telescope is now rotated about its vertical axis to see if the point
P remains in the horizontal hair. If not, adjustments are to be made by the capstan
and rotating the crosshalr reticle.
7.3.2 SECOND
Purpose The purpose of this adjustment is to make the plane of the circular
bubble perpendicular to the instrument's vertical axis.
Test The telescope is turned 180
0
in azimuth. If the bubble docs not remain
central, it is brought half way back to the centre in both directions by raising or
lowering thebubble mount bymeans of capstan screws or spring screws as required.
Thisadjustment is not essential as precise bubble tubeis usedto obtain a horizontal
line of sight. .
7.3.3 . THIRD ADJUSTME:--:T
Purpose This adjustment makes the precise bubble tube axis parallel to the
instrument's line of sight.
Test The two-peg test is applied to find out if the line of sight is horizontal
when the bubble is centred.
Adjustment Ifnot, the correct reading at B is computed and the crosshairs
are brought to that reading by rotating the telescope's tilting drum. The precise
bubble is then centred using the bubble tube adjusting nuts. If the bubble is the
coincident type, raising or lowering one end of the bubble vial will bring them.
into coincidence.
7.4 OF AUTOMATIC LEVEL
Automatic levels have two principal adjustments: (i) Circular bubble; (ii) Line of
sight. . .
/'
,
I
I
!
: k
.i
i
1
'.
. l
Permanent Adjustmentsof Lei'eis 161
Adjustments are the same :IS stated earlier. Before these adjustmentsare
done on automatic levels, it should be checkedthat the compensator isfunctioning
.
.
properly.

7.1 (a) Whatisthedifference betweenthetemporary adjustmentandpermanent
adjustmentof a dumpylevel? .
(b) Describethepermanentadjustmentsofadumpy level.Howcanthese be
testedanddonein thefield'? Summer1978]
7.2 (a) Drawa neatsketchof a dumpylevel andnamepans thereon.
(b) List the 'temporary' and 'permanent' adjustments of a dumpylevel.
(c) Describe thefunctionofcrosshairsandstadiahairs.
[AMIE, Winter1979]
7.3 Listoutthepermanentrelationshipsthat should existbetweenthedifferent
principallines of a perfectdumpylevel. rAMIE,.Winter1980]
"

1-
8
Angles and Directions
8.1 . INTRODUCTION
Measurementofangles isbasic t,o surveyoperation.When anangleismeasured
in.a horizontal planeitishorizontal angle, whenmeasured inavertical planeit
isvertical angle.Anglemeasurementsinvolvethreesteps: (i)Referenceorstarting
line;(ii) Direction ofturning; (iii)Angular value(Value oftheangle).Theseare
showninFig.8.1.
Direction ofturning
"..... -1--..... I
Vertical
_/ ........ I
/' Reference orstarting line 'lC..
plane
/ -- "
Vertical angle
(elevation)
Reference or
./" starting line
-\1--....1..,: .......- ..... , -jf--""'<"--'
Direction of
turning
I Horizontal plane
- /
_L / distance
Vertical angle
Direction of (depression)
turning
Fig.8.1 Measurement ofangle.
8.2 DIFFERENT T\TPES OF HORIZONTALANGLES
AsexplainedinFig. 8.2horizontal anglescanbe(i) Interior angles,or(ii) Deflection
angles. Interiorangles canbeclockwisewhen the direction ofturningis clockwise,
or anticlockwisewhen thedirectionof turningis anticlockwlse,Similarly deflection
162
.
,
1
I
..
!
I
I
"V,
AlIglesalldDirections J63
E
D
E D
(a)
(b)
8
.
.
A
B
C
A
C
D
Anticlockwise leftdellection angle
\
B
Clockwise
..
\
\
Right
deflection'
angle
,<"
e"
(c)
Fig.8.2 Differen;types of angles: (3)Closed polrgon-instrument statlon.-t. B.C. Dand
E,all angles measured clockwise. (b) Closed pol)'gon-:-instrumem stations A.B.
C. D lind E.all angles measured anticlcckwise. (c) Del1;:':lion o : : ~ : c ~
1-
angles are measured clockwiseor towards right and anticlockwise ortowards left.
Figure 8.2explains the different measurements.
. .
8.3 DIRECTION OF A LI:\E
Direction of a line is thehorizontal anglefroma referencelinecalled the meridian.
Therearefourbasictypesof meridians:
1.Astronomic meridian It is animaginaryline on the earth'ssurfacepassing
through thenorth-south geographical poles.
2. Magnetic meridian It isthedirectionofthe vertical planeshown bya.
freely suspended magnetic. needle. .
3. Grid ~ r i i n A linethrough apointparalleltothecentral meridian or
y-axisofa rectangular coordinate system: .
. 4. Arbitrary meridian Anarbitrarychosenline with a directional value
assigned bytheobserver. Theseareexplainedgraphically inFig.8.3.
Astronomic north
Magnetic
Variation or
Mapping\ declination
Angle
Magnetic north
Arbitrary or
Assumed north
Fig. 8.3 Different north directions.
8.4 BEARINGS
Bearing ofaline is measured from the north or south terminus of a reference
meridian. It isalwaysless than90and isdesignatedbythequadrant inwhich
it liesasshown inFig. SA. From the figureitcan De seenthat
Bearing ofOA = N40
0E
08 = S 25
cE
OC =S 30=W
OD =N4S=W
SincebearingiswithreferencetoN-Slineanglesaremeasured clockwise inthe
lst (NE)andIIIrd(S.W)quadrants. Iris measured anticlockwise in2ndand4th
Quadrants(NWandSE). Whenbearings aremeasuredwithreferenceto astronomic
ortruemeridian itistruebearing. Ifthebe:iringisfrommagnetic meridian, itis
\-,
Angtes and Directions 165
N N
o
)( E
A E
..
.
w
C S 6
Fig.8.4 Quadrantal bearing.
magnetic bearingandwhen fromagriditisgridbearing. Iftheinstrument isset
upat 0 and bearing of OA is taken itisforward bearing. Butif theinstrument
issetupatAandbearing ofAO.istaken. it isforward bearing ofAObutback
bearing of004. Hence backbearing of040is 4 0 ~ W Backbearings thus havethe
samenumerical value butopposite letters.
8.5 AZI:\IUTHS
Azimuths areangles measured clockwise from anyreference meridian. Theyare
measured fromthenorth andvaryfrom 0to360' anddo notrequire letters to
identify theirquadrant. Figure 8.5shows theazimuths ofdifferent lines whose
bearingsare giveninFig.8.4.
N
c s B
.. '
./'
Fig.8.5 Azimuth orwhole circle bearing.
Azimuth of 0,.\=-to'
OB = 180= - 25' = ISS"
OC =180 + 30' =210'
OD =360:- 45' =315:
AE o
Vl { _ ~ 7'l1 E
As stated before, forward azimuth of OA is 40. The back azimuth of OA is
forward azimuth of AO and from the figure it is clearly equal to 40 +. 180 =
220. Thus the forward azimuth and back azimuth differ by 180. As before
azimuths are true, magnetic, gridor assumed whentheyare measured with reference
to true, magnetics grid or assumed meridian respectively. From a study of the
bearings and azimuths of the lines OA, OB, OCand OD, the following observations
are made:
(a) When a line is in the 1st quadrant the azimuth varies from 0 to 90 and
azimuth and bearing of a line are the same (line OA).
(b) When a line is in the 2nd quadrant the azimuth lies between 90 and
180 and it can be obtained from bearing by subtracting it from 180 (line OB).
(c) When a line is in 3rd quadrant the azimuth lies between 180 and 270
and it can be 'obtained from bearing by adding 180 (line oq. '
(d) Finally, when a line is in the 4th quadrant, the azimuth is obtained by
subtracting the bearing from 360. The azimuth will lie between 270 and 360
, (line OD).
To convert azimuth to bearing the following rules should be followed:
(a) When the azimuth is between 0 to 90, it lies in 1st quadrant and the
.bearing is the same as azimuth with the symbols NE.
(b) Between 90 to 180, the linelies in the 2nd quadrant and the bearing
is obtained by subtracting azimuth from 180 with the symbols SE.
(c) Between 180 and 270, the line lies in the 3rd quadrant and bearing is
obtained by subtracting 180 from azimuth with symbols S\\'.
(d) Finally, in the 4th quadrant; azimuth is subtracted from 360 to get
bearing with the symbols NW.
Usually azimuth is known as wholecircle bearingand bearingis designated
3S quadrantal bearing or reduced bearing. Table 8.1 gives a comparison between
bearing and azimuth.
Table 8.1 Comparison between Bearing and Azimuth
Point Bearing Azimuth
1.
2.
Angle
Designation
Varies from 0 to 90'
It always lies between any
two of the four letters
N. S. E and W
Varies from 0 to 360
No letter is necessary
..
3. Measurement (i) Both clockwise and
anticlockwise measurement
is necessary
(ii) Measured from north and
south
Measured always
clockwise
Measured only from north
.
.';
~
":'"1'
,
:\
..

"
v-;
:j
:11
III
, -
;i!
:!I
!II,
!'I
:
'
I
'.
I'
i:}
,
Angles andDirections 167 II
Ii
Example8.1 Convert the following azimuths tobearings
'. .
.
.OA =5420' , OS
.
= 15425' OC =26125'
OD =31238' ' ,
From Fig. 8.6 (i) bearing of 004. e=N5420'E
Fig.8.6(ii)bearing ofOB, 8=180- 15425'
=5 2535'E
Fig. 8.6 (iii) bearing ofOC 8 =,26125'- 180
=58125'W
Fig. 8.6(iv)bearing ofODe=360 - 31238'
, =N4722'W.
N
NpA
W l ~ E
w---or-
E
.i
S' ,\8
(i) (ii) ,
o
N
w E
312'38'
S
(iv)
, '
Example8.2 Convertthe following quadrantal bearingstowhole circlebearings, ,
OA= N 1510'E OS'='53750'E
OD, =N80
025'W
OC=S 4940'W . -,
From Fig. 8.7(i)whole,circle bearing ofOA 8=1510'
Fig.8.7(ii)whole circle bearing of08 e=180 - 3750'= 14210"
Fig. 8.7(iii) whole circle bearing ofOCe=180 +4940'=22940'
Fig.8.7(iv)whole circle bearing of008=360- 8025'=27935'
b
Example8.3 Thewhole circle bearings ofthe sides ofatraverse ABCDEF are
given below. Compute the internal angles.
Bearing ofAS =29045'
Bearing ofBC =250"43'
Bearing ofCD=19612'
Bearing ofDE=17524'
c
(iii)
------ -- ------- -- ------ ---- - ----- - --------- -- ----- -- --_._- -- _._--
--
.
A
I\
.,
.
0
I
o r >JU
B
(i) (ii)
D
e
~
49"40'
c/
I
(iii) (iv)
Fioe.. 87 Exam I
Bearing of EF . P'8.2.
B ,. =11218'
earmz
""
of FA
=
.
3000'
e"
Solution The backbearings andforebearingsdifferby 180.
e n c e ~
~
Bearingof BA =11045'
Bearing of CB =70"48'
BearingofDC =1612'
f
Bearingof ED == 35524'
v-
Angles and Directions 169
.
Bearing of FE= 29218'
BearingofAF = 21000'

Fromthe Fig. 8.8
8
A
=BearingofAB ::- Bearing ofAF
. = 290=45' - 210=00' .
= 8045'
8
s
= BearingofBC- Bearing ofSA
= 25048' - 110=45'

8
e
.=Bearingof CD - Bearing of CS
= 19612' - 7048'
125
Q24'
=
8
D
= Bearingof D.E - Bearing ofDC
= 17524' - 1612'
12'
From theFigure
BE := Bearingof EF + (360
0
- Bearing ofED)
= 11218' + (360=- 355=2n
=11654'
8
F
= BearingofFA + (360= - Bearing ofFE)
. = 3000' + (360 - 292=18')
. =
Totalinternalanglesofa closedtraverse
= (211 - 4) Rightangles
..
.= (2x6 :- 4) Rightangles
= 720
8
A
+ 8
s
+ 8
e
+ e
D
+ 8
E
+ 8t = 8045'+ 140=03' + 12524'+ 15912' + 116
Q54'
+ 9742' = 72000'
Calculationsshouldalwaysbebasedonaproperlydrawn sketch.
Example 8.4 Thesameproblemwhen thebearings of thesidesareexpressed
inquadrantalsystem.
Line Bearing
.J.8 K 6915'W
.. BC S 70
0
48'W
CD S 16=12'\'1
DE 5
EF 5 6742'E
30
000'E
F.4
Solution .. The backbearlngsof thelinesare obtained byjust changing N to
S. E to Wand vice versa.
Bearing Backbearing Value
AB' BA S6915'E
N70
048'E
Be CB
\ I CD DC N 1612'E
DE ED NQ436'W
EF FE N6742'W
S30
000'W
FA AF
Drawing separately each node
N
.From Fig. 8.9(i)
8
A
= 180-:- (6915' +3000')
E
=8045'
A
s
F
(i)
From Fig. 8.9(ii)
8
s
=7048' +6915'
=14003'
\
A
(ii)
B
From Fig. 8.9(iii) -.
w -).1(' J
E
8
c
= 180- 7048' + 1612'
= 12524'
I )
B
w
c
o
(iii)
...
AnglesandDireaions 171
c
r :-
From Fig. 8.9(iv)
8
D
= 180 - (1612'+436')
w E
=15912"
(iv)
From Fig.8.9(v)
8
e
=180 - 67:142' +436'
=11654'
F
s
(v).
E
A
From Fig.8.9(vi)
8
F
=6742'+3000'
w
E
=9742'
S
(vi)
<
Example8.5 Compute andtabulate thebearings ofaregular hexagon given the
starting bearing ofsideAS=S50lO'E(Station Ciseasterly from B).
",
.'
Solution Thetotal internal angles ofaregular hexagon are(2/1 - 4)right
...,. '
angles, i.e.2x6- 4=Sright angles =720. Each angle. therefore. is120. The
,
.rouzhsketch ofthehexaaon
-
isshown inFig.8.10.
.. ...
.Whole circlebearing ofA8 =180;- 50:110'
= 12950'
o
W '" ,<::
F
...
... E
I-
I
o
!
F
W-"'"!<:--
c
8.10 Example 8.5.
Theexternal anglesareall60andthedeflection atB from AB toBe is60
towards leftoranticlockwise. Sincewholecirclebearingismeasured clockwise,
thisissubtracted from theprevious bearing. Hence .
'I
. .
BearingofBe =12950'- 60 = 6950'
BearingofCD=6950'- 60 = 950'
BearingofDE=950'- 60 = - 5010'
Bearing negative meansithascrossed theN-Slineintheanticlockwise direction
by5010'(Fig.8.11).It isanticlockwise becausewe aresubtracting60,thatis,
moving inananticlockwise direction by 60.
Truebearing then becomes 360.- 5010' =30950'
Bearingof EF= 30950'
_ 60

1
: .
I
_ 60
I
18950'
I
I
- 60
12950'
B
E
9
Compass Survey
\..
9.1 'INTRODUCTION
The compass has been used by navigators and others for many centuries. The
surveyor's compassisan instrument for determining difference indirection between
any horizontal line and a magnetic needle, the needle pointing towards the magnetic
north. Magnetic compasses, though of limited .accuracy, hove the advantageof
.giving reading directly in terms of directions or bearings referred tomo.grie'tic
north. Prismatic compasses can either be used independently or in conjunction
with other angle measuring instruments in orienting a mop or plane table and .
making a surveyor traverse.
9.2 OF CO)IPASS
The earth acts as a powerful magnet and like any magnet forms field of magnetic
force which exerts a directive action on a magnetized bar of steel or iron. Afreely
suspended magnetic needle will align itself in a direction parallel to the lines of
magnetic force of the earth at that point and indicate the magnetic north. The
imaginary line on the surface of the earth joining a point and the true North and
South geographical poles indicate. the true north or Astronomical North. The
horizontal angle between true north and magnetic north is known as declination,
The. earth's. magnetic force not only aligns a freely suspended magnetic needle
along magnetic north and south but also pulls or dips one end of it below the
I
horizontal position. The angle of dip varies from 0" near the equator to 90 at the
magnetic poles. To overcome this dip a small weight is placed on one side of the
needle so that it can be adjusted until the needle is horizontal.
9.3 DECLINATION
. '
Declination may be towards east or west. When the magnetic north is towards the
west of true north, the declination is west or negative, when towards east, it is east
..
declination or positive. Figure 9.1 explains lhis.
The declination at an)' location can be obtained (if there is no local attraction)
by establishing a true meridian from astronoruical observations and then ng
the compass when sighting along the true meridian. A line on a map or chart
connecting points that have the same declination is called isogonic lines. An
agonic line consists of points' having zero declination.
,
-.. ;,
. tl
T.N. TN. l.tN. M.N.
Fig. 9.1 (:I) West ornegative decllnation. (b) East orpositive declination.
Thedeclination ataplacedoes notremain constantbutchanges withtime.
Thesechanges are(i) Secularchange,(ii) Annual change,tiii) Diurnalchange,
.and(iv)Irregular change.
Secular variation of declination occurs over a long period of time
approximately for 250 years. Themagnitude also is very high. However, this
variation doesnotfollow anygeneral lawormathematical law. Itcanbeobtained
onlyfrom detailed chartsandtables derived fromobservations. Forexample. in
London, thedeclination was11cEin1580 and in 1820. In Paris it was11 cE
in 1680to22
eW
in1820.Secular variation isvery important intheworkofthe
surveyorandunless mentioned otherwise variation indeclination means secular
variation. .
Annual variation means variation over a year. It is roughly l' to 2' in
amplitude. It varies fromplace toplace.
Diurnal variation means variation overaday. It depends onthefollowing.
fourfactors:
1. Locality-It is greaternear poles andlessnearequator,
2.Season-Itis greaterinsummer thanin winter.
3.Time-Itismoreduring dayandlessduringnight.Therateofvariation
over hrisquiteirregular.
.... Year-The dailyvariation changes fromyeartoyear.
Irregular variation iscaused by unpredictable magnetic'disturbances and
storms.The magnitude of variation ismore thanadegree.
9,'" CO:-'IPASS
The names of different components of the prismatic compass are shown in
Fig.9.2. They.are:
Sigluing system The siahtins system consist; of sizhtlnz vanes hinsed
.... ..... ., ........ ....
II
'I
II
il
"
il
II
I'
Ii
Ii
II
Ii
II
I:
II
!I
!
II
:!
'I
II
Ii
II
11
II
\1
II
II
!
.------------_.._- __,
Compass Sui...e.r 175

Sighting Vane
with Hair Line
Filter
Mirror
Fig. 9.2 Prismatic compass, non-liquid.
diametrically opposite to each other on the outer case, The eyeing vane .has a
vertical line slot in the metal housing of the magnifying prism and the front or
sighting vane has a fine vertical hair line sight. .
Magnetic assembly The magnetic assembly consists of a thin bar magnet
fitted. to a conical agate sapphire and pivoted on a sharp pin point.:
Bearing indicating system The system consists of a graduated circular nrc
which forms an integral part of the needle.' .. .
Damplng-cum-antlwear system The system consists of If device to lift the
needle when the former is moved by one of the vanes normally kept folded when
not in lise.
Dip adjustmentslide The dip adjusting slideconsists of a small metal rider.
which may slide along the needle to balance it in the horizontal plane. .
Protective cover The protective cover consists of a disc of glass fitted on
top of the brass case to protect the needle and the graduated circle.
Reading system The rending system consists of a magnifying prism auached
. to the outer case.
Coloured glasses Red and green glasses are provided near the eye vane
which C;lO be placed between the eye andprism to see objects againsr sunor other
source of illumination.
Magnetic Needle .
Outer Case
6
With thecompass held level andsighted along thelocalmagnetic meridian, the
following partsof thecompass should lieinthesamevertical plane. (a)Centre
oftheprism slideblock;(b)Slotintheprism bracket;(c)Southlineintheouter
box below the prism: (d) Tip of the pivot: (e) North line of the outer box;
(f) Centreline markedonthehingelug;and(g) sightinglineonthevane.
Thegraduations onthealuminium ringincreaseclockwise from 0to360
0
withthezeroofthegraduations coinciding with thesouth endoftheneedle.The
figures areengravedinverted onthealuminium ring.This arrangement directly
gives the bearingof a line.When the needle points towards the north, the observer
reads the south end of the needlethrough the triangular prismandreads 0 which
isthebearingoftrue north..When theobjectvaneisrotated,sayclockwise, the
reading increases. Whenit points exactly to the east the reading is 90, when'
.towards west,the readingis270. These areshowninFig.9,3.
N
Direction

N' 180
0
-.--.
of
sight
90
0
W ,
I I
E
270
0
\A.," ___ i 1
IE
.

. .
taken here Direction
Readingis
0
. S0 of sight
taken here
(b)
N 180
0
w E
Direction Readingis
of sight taken here
Fig. 9.3 Graduations ofaprismatic'compass.
9.5 SURVEYOR'S
Figure9.4showsthe essential partsofa surveyor'scompass. Asshownin the
.
-,
figure, thegraduatedringisdirectly attached totheboxandnotwith theneedle..
Hencethegraduatedcardorringisnotorientedin. themagneticmeridian asin
the case of prismatic compass. For reading the graduated scale,the objectis
..
sightedfirstwiththeobjectandeyevane andreadingis takenagainst thenorth
s 0
0
(c)
,"f.
Compass Sur:rey. 181
Case 2 When change in declination is given.
When there is an annual change of 'g' in.magnetic declination for a period of /I
.
..
years, then the original and present declination 'can be.related as:
. . .

"
a' = '(YEw e+-D!\\' IIg) , . , . (9:4)
. . '. { 1 if thechanze in declination iseastward.
where t%w' = .. -.... .
- 1 if thechange Indecimation IS westward.
If the right hand side of Eq. (9.4) is positive then y'Ew=1 and a' =East.
If it is negative then y' E\\' =- 1 and li' is west.
Z = [;EW . {3 + 90 (2 - - ?EW';:-:S)] ..:.. CE\\ng, (9.5)
It is interesting to note that Eq. (9.5) is a function of only the changes in
magnetic declination, the original and present magnetic declinations are not needed.
If' Z' is greater than 360=, subtract from it. if it is negative add it.
Example 9.2 Suppose the.magnetic declination.of aline is S in 1950.
If the annual change is2' eastward, wh::ft is the magneticbearing inJ993?::
. -, .' ",-
Solution Given {3 = S4530'\V, hence
= - I, =- 1
n =43, (1993-1950)
g =2'
Ocw, =1 as change is eastward.
z: =45=30'+ 90[(2 - (- 1) ":' (- 1)(- i)] ,
- (1)(43)(2)
=4530' + 90 [2 + 1 - IJ -126'
= 4530' + 180:1 - 126'
=
Corresponding reduced bearing is .
9.7.2 GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
Magnetic declination problem can be solved easily by drawing sketches of true
north, magnetic north and also change of declination. .
Example 9.3 At the time a survey was run. the magnetic declination was 650'E.
The magnetic bearings of several lines observed at the time were as follows:
AS = (l;26:20'\\,; BC =S:F40'E.
CD =;\2:15'E: DE=S5S:00'E;
EF = (l;8S:30'\\".
These lines are [0 be retraced using acompass when the declination is
What bearings should be set off on the compass?
Solution (1) By graphical methods (Figs. 9.7(a) to 9.7(e.
Line AB (Fig 9.7a)
M.N.

./.
T.N.
L
M.N.
6"50' E
30W
w E
w ., E
A
s .
Initial Condition Final Condition
Fig. 9.7(a) Example 9.3.
Initial true bearing = 2620' - 650' = NI930'W
Final observed bearing = 19"30' - 30' = NI900'W
Line BC (Fig. 9.7b) .
M.N. M.N. T.N.
M.S.
'. C T.S. M.S.
Fig. 9.7(b) Example 9.3.
Initial true bearing = 650' - 440' = S210'W
Final Observed bearing =2\0' + 030' =S240'W
Line CD (Fig. 9.7c)
. T.N. M.N.
M.N. T1N
6"5Q'
D I
D
C
c E w c E
.-
T.S. .. T.S.
.Fig. 9:'(c) Example 9.3. ..
Compass Survey 183
Initialtruebearing =650'+215':: N905'E
Finalobserved bearing:: 905' +030'=N935'E
'-
,
Line DE (Fig. 9.7d)
i
M.S.
Fig. 9.7(d) Example9.3.
Initialtruebearing =5800'- 650'=S5101O'E
.Finalobserved bearing =5110'-:- 030'=S50040'E
Line EF (Fig:9.7e)

M.N.
650'
0""30'
F
.
E
E
T.S.
58
COO'
E
E
Fig.9.7(e) Example 9.3..
Initialtruebearing e 8830'- 650'::'N8140'W.
.. Finalobserved bearing =8140'- 030'=N8110'W.
(ii) By analytical methods
Presentmagnetic azimuth
It';.-
Z' = +90(2 - - NS)] +YEW' (J - Y' EW (J'
Line AB. fJ =N2p020'W.
=1 = - 1
. (J =650'E YEW:: 1
f1 =0030'W YEW =- 1
Z' = (- 1)(1)' 2620'+90(2- (- 1)- (-1)(1)]+(1)(650')- (- 1)(030')
:: 341
Quadrantal bearinz 19W
- .
Line BC. /3 =S4'40'E
= - 1
I
184 fundamentals ofSurveying
fE\Y =+ I'
Z' = (+ 1)(- I) 440' + 90(2 - (+ 1)- (+1)(-1)]
+ 1(650') - (- 1)(030')
= _ + 180 + 650' + 030'
=18240'
Quadrantal bearing =S2:l40'W.
Line CD f3= N 215'E
....:
=1

,Z'
=1
=(1)(1) 215' + 90[2 1'- (1)(1)]
. + 1(650') - 1)(030')
= 215' + 650' + 030'
:: 935'
Quadrantal bearing = N935:E.
Line DE .f3 .'= 55800'E.
=.- 1
.fEw
Z
= + 1
= (+ 1)(- 1)(5800') + 90[(2 - (- 1)- (- 1)(1)]
. ,
.
+ 1(650') - (- 1)(030')
=- 58
cOO'
+ 360 + 650' + 030'
=309Z0'
In quadrantal system S50:l40'E .
LineEF f3 = N8830'W
:,r"
= + 1
= - 1 . (
Z' =(-1)(1)(8830') + 9.0 [2 - (- 1) - (- 1) (1)]
+ 1(650') - (- 1)(030').
,.
= - 8830' + 360 + 650' + 030'
=27850'.
In quadrantal system = 360'- 27850' = N8110'W
9.8 COMPASS TRAVERSE
This instrumentisnormallyusedforrapid and exploratorysurveys. Insuchacase
it is held in the hand and traverse sides are made long so that.centring effect is
i
1",
<-I
.'.:
, Compass.Survey 185
.
reduced. But for accurate work, thecompass 'is set over tripods and lines'are
measured withachain or tape.Thefreeneedle method ofsurveyingisused in
. .;')
..
which theneedle isfloated beforeeachreadinz sothatreadlnzateachstation is
takenwith respecttomagnetic meridian. The-usual stepsin surveying
are:(i)Reconnaissance, (ii)Markingandreferencing stations, (iii)Runningsurvey
.',II
lines, (iv) Taking offset to the details, (v)Observing forebearings andbackbearings
ateachstation. ' ,
Figure9.8showsa typicalcompass traverse andhow measurements and
offsetsaretaken.Lengths AB, BC, CD, DE, EF andFA are measured. Ateach
station two bearings are taken. Forexample, at,4., bearing of AD and AF are
measured. Thenproceeding from A to a, theoffsets ontherightaretaken.
B
Fig. 9.8 Comp:1SS traverse,

9.8.1 OFANGLES OFA,CLOSED TRAVERSE
Fromthebearings obtained from compass, theincluded angle ateachstarlon can
becomputed.Theyshould addto(2n - 4)right angles where n isthenumber of
sides. There maybe small discrepancy and this may be distributed equally among
alltheangles.Ifit issuspected thatlarge errormay occurataparticularstation,
the whole or majorpart of the error maybeadjusted at that station. The errormay
also be adjusted in the bearings of thelines. If thetotal error of thebearing of the,
lastlineist andnumber of linesaren, thebearing of the1stlineisadjusted
bye/n, thatofsecond line2e/lI, andsoon,sothat adjustmentofthelastlineis
neln =e. ' '
9,9 LOCALATTRACTION
Normallya magnetic needle points towards magnetic north andassuchremains
parallel to itself at :111 stationsof thecompass survey. However, if there are
magnetite in the ground, wirescarrying electric.current, steel structures, iron
pipes near a station. theydeflect theneedle and the needle no longerpoints to the
truemagnetic north.Thedifference between thetrue magnetic north andthenorth
, pointedbythemagnetic needle ataparticularsuulon isknown asLocal attraction
at a stationand should be corrected before truebearings of the linesrna]' be
I
I
I
obtained.Normally thebackbearing andforebearing of a lineshould differ by
180.Ifthey donot, it may beduetoobservational errororlocalanraction. If
observational andinstrumental errors areeliminated, thelocal attraction canbe
computed. Computation oflocalauraction andadjustmentofcompasstraverseare
shown,through different examples.
Example 9.4 Theforebearing andbackbearing oflinePQ wereobserved tobe
20530'and240'respectively. It was known thatstationQ wasfree from local
attraction.Ifthebearingofsunasobserved fromstationP atlocal noon is3580',
find thetrue bearing oflinePQ andalsothedeclination atstationP.
[AMIE Winter 1982]
Solution Theforebearing andbackbearingofalineshould differby180.
,Herethe difference is20530' ..,. 240'=18130',
Hence local attraction =18130' - 180
=130'
As station Q is free from local attraction bearingat P (freefrom local
attraction) is180 +240'=204
Truebearing ofsunatlocal noon =360
Observed bearing =358
Hence errorduetolocal attraction anddeclination combined = - 2
(Correction tobeadded toobserved bearing)
Errorduetolocal artractlon =+130'
(Correction tobesubtracted from observed reading)
Hence errorduetodeclination =- 2- 130'=- 330'
Correction fordeclination =+330'
When corrected fordeclinationbearing becomes 204+330'=20730'
Example 9.5 Following arethedataregarding aclosedcompass traverse PQRS
takeninclockwise direction.
(i) Forebearing andbackbearing atstationP =55and135 respectively.
(ii) Forebearing andbackbearing oflineRS =211 and31respectively.
(iii)'Included angles LQ =100, LR =105.
(iv) Local attraction atstation R =2W
(v) All theobservations were free from alltheerrorsexceptlocal attraction
Fromtheabove data calculate(i)local attractions atstations P andS(ii)corrected
bearingsofallthelinesandtabulate thesame. [AMIE Winter 1982]
Solution Sincetheforebearing andbackbearing ofRS differ by(211-
31)=180, local attractions atRandS arethe same.
Local attraction atR =2W
Local attraction atS'=2W
Hence Correct bearing ofRS =211 .,2=2 9 ~
, .
"
;
"
I'
"
I'
1
,I
I
I,
I
. I
1
~
I,
! .
','I
.
I
~
I
I'
,
'I ~
.I
I'i
I i
'j
!!
: I
-::1
'j
- iI
.:1
~
I
I
II
'I
il.
II
I'
I' "I
i
1;
Iii
III
Ii
\I
'I
!1
Ii
\1
II
I'
iI,
II
.. II
!I
II
.
"
Iii
Iii
r
Iii
Iii
II
II
II
:.1
\1
Ii
'I
'I
II
II
II
II
II
II
I(
..
-
I
,
I
~ ~ I : I
.y
Compass Survey 187
Q
"
R
Fig. 9 ~ Example 9.5.
Correct bearing of SR = 31 - 2 = 29
Correct bearing of RQ =209
0
+ 105 =314
0
Correct bearing of QR = 314 ...;, 180 =134
Correct bearing of QP= 134 + 100= 234
.Correct bearing of PQ ::: 54
Correct bearing of PS =134
0
Correct bearing of Sf =314'
Observed bearing of PQ = 55
Hence Local attraction at P is 55 - 54 =lOW
, Local attraction at S =,2W "
Example 9.6 The forebearings andbackbearings of thelines of a closedcompass
traverse are as follows: ' .
Line Forebearing Backbearing
AB
' 3 2 ~ 3 0
21430'
BC 12430' 303IS'
CD 18100' 100'
DA . 289"30' 10845'
." Correct the bearings for local attraction and determine the true bearings of the
lines if the magnetic declination at the place is 330'W.
..
Solution From the observations of the bearings of different lines, it is
found that the forebearing and the backbearing of the line CD differ by 180.
Hence the two stations C and D are free from local attraction.
Observed bearing of CD =18100'
330' .
Declination W
S
Hence CorrectbearingofCD 17730'
Correctbearing ofDC + 18000'
~
'.
35730'
Observed bearing ofDA = 28930'
.
Declination W = - 330'
"'
CorrectbearingofD.4. = 28690'
Correctbearing ofAD, subtracting 18000'
10600'
It differs fromobservedbearingof 10845' by(10845'- 10600')= 245'W.
Errordueto magnetic declination =330'W .'
Hence' Localattraction atA = 3pO' - 245'
=0045'E
Observedbearing ofAB = 3 ~ 3
Correctbearing of.AB = 3230'- 245'
= 2945'
Correctbearing of BA =20945'
Observed bearingof BA = 21430'
Hencecorrection atB = 445'
Observed bearingofBC = 12430'
CorrectbearingofBC = 12430'- 445'
= 11945'
CorrectbearingofCB = 11945' + 180
= 29945'
. Observed bearingof CB = 30315'
SinceCis free from local attraction, error is due onlyto declination of
330'W.
Hence
Correctbearing atC = 30315'- 330'
'.
=29945'
as obtained before
Example 9.7 The followingforebearings andbackbearings wereob'served in
traversing withacompass. '.
Compass Survey 189
Line
Forebeering
Backbearing

PQ
QR
S 3730'E
S 4315'W
N 3730'W
N 4415'E
RS
N 7300'W
S '
ST
N
S
TP
N
S
Calculate the interior angles lind correct them for observational errors.
Solution ,
Interior angle lit P =37:30' +
=
R ,
Q

, ,
Interior angle at Q = 180
11
- '(3730' + 43 15'>.
= 180'-8045'
= IS'
Interior angle at R = + 7300'
=
Interior angle atS.= - + ,
=95
,t
Interior angle at T .= 1315' + 9000' + (90 - 60)
=13315'
Sum of interior angles = 541 15
Theoretical sum = (2/1 - 4) rt angles
=(2 x 5 - 4)(90)
=540:
Hence
Error =54115' - 540
0
=1:15'
.__
-.. .....
I
Distributing the error equally in all angles. correction at each angle =
- (115')/5 =- 15' ".
The correct angles are
LP =; 9630' - 15' =
LQ =9915' - 15' =
LR '= 11715' - 15' =
LS = 9500' - 15' =
LT =13315' -15' =
.
.'
9615'
9900'
11700'
9.445'
13300'
Example 9.8 (i) The magnetic bearing of sun at noon was 175. Show with a
sketch the true bearing of sun and themagnetic declination. '
(ii) In an old map a survey line was drawn with a magn.etic bearing of 202
when the declination was 2W. Find the magnetic bearing when the declination
is 2E.
(iii) The true bearing of a tower T.as observed from a station A was 358
and the magnetic bearing of the same was 4. The back bearings of the lines AB,
AC andAD when measured with a prismatic compass were foundto be 296,346
and 36 respectively. Find the true forebearings of the lines AB, AC and AD.
[A..\1IE Summer i991]
Solution . From the Fig. 9.11(i) the declination is 5E .
(ii)
~ i i
E
N M.N. W
E W w
Fig. 9.11
(ii) From Fig. 9.11(ii)
. True bearing = 202 - 2 = 200
Magnetic bearing when declination is 2E
.
.
=200 - 2 ="198
From Fig. 9.11(iii) Declination = 4 + 2 = 6W
Backbearing of AB = 9 ' ..
Compass SII 11:(!)' 191
.Forebearig ofAB =
..
Declination =6
0
j
Correctforebearing=
Backbearing ofAC = 346
0
.
ForebearingofAC
TruebearingofAC =160:0
Backbearing ofAD = 36
0
Forebearing ofAD = 216
0
TruebearingorAD = 210"
9.10 ADJUSTMENT OF A TRAVERSE .
Acompass surveyis usually plottedbydrawing the length ofaside withknown
bearing and then plottingother sides fromthe included angles. For accurate work,
thecoordinates ofthetraversestationsarecomputed from thelengthandbearings
oflinesandthenplotted. . .
Whileplotting aclosedtraverseitisusually found thatthelastpointdoes'
notfall exactlyon the startingpoint. This introduces what is called a closing
error. UsuallyBowditch'sruleis usedforadjustmentof theclosingerror.According
tothisrule,theclosingerroris adjusted by,shifting eachstation by an amount
which is proportional to its lengthfromthestarting station.Let ABCDE be a
closed traverse. AsshowninFig.9.12,the plotted traverse isABCDE Al' Here
..
A4
1
istheclosingerror.Themovement ofthe stations shouldbeparallelto the
closing error and the amount should be,for' .
/
B = I xAA
I
/1 + /2, + I) + 1
4
+ /5 ,
C= /1.+/2 xAA
Perimeter .

- Perimeter x
E =II + + I, + I
J
Perimeter
and finally AI should,joinA by moving
itself.
I
AA
I
xAA
. I
/1 + + 1
5
X AA
1
i.e. AA
I
Theadjustment canalsobedonegraphically.Theperimeter of thetraverse
is drawnonasuitablescale.Letitbeaa' asshown inFig.9.12.Ata' theclosing
erroris plotted in original direction andintruemagnitude. Let it be (lCZI' Join
aa'anddrawparallelsthrough b, e.d, e which cuts roOI inb
J
, Cl' II' el' Theplotted
points B, C,D, E andAI shouldnowbeshifted by lengths bb
l
, CCI' ddt, eel and
a'a\ respectively. AB\C\D\EIA istheadjusted traverse.
n
r- ;1
1\
,I
I
192 Fundamentals of SIII1"f'ying
"
II
"
II
E,
~ !
A
_.-
"
.
'"
Ii
I,
1\
II
I'
D
c
~
,
b c,
.
~
a I, b 1
2
C 1
3
d 1
4
e . 15' a'
(b)
!I
II
Fig. 9.12 Graphicaladjustmentofcompass traverse.
!1
9.11 ERRORS. INCOMPASS SURVEYING
I'
i
.. Errorsincompass surveying maybeduetothefollowing causes:
II
(a) Instrument Errors
(1)Compass outoflevel.
(2)Needle notstraight.
(3)Movement oflevelsluggish.
(4)Magnetism ofneedle weak.
(5)Plane of sightnotvertical
(6)Lineofsightnotpassingthrough centreof graduated ring.
(b) Personal Errors .
(1) Compass not properly levelled.
(2)Compass notproperly centred overthestation.
(3)Ranging rodorsignalnotaccurately bisected.
(4)Incorrect readingandrecording ofthegraduated ring.
(e) Natural Errors . .
.'.
(1) Variation indeclination
(2).Local attraction.
(3)Magnetic changes inatmosphere duetocloudsandstorms.
.' .
(4)Irregular variation inmagnetic storms.
,
r:
Compass Survey .193
REFEREl'ICE
.
.
1: Easa, !'of. Said, "Analytical Solution of }'13gnetic Declination Problem", ASC
Journa! ofSi/rl'iyillg.EnginceringVoL ,115. No. 3.August 1989, pp,32+'329.
.'
II
PROBLE:-'IS
III
9.1. (0.) Whataretheadvantages anddisadvantagesofcompasssurvey'?Describe
thelimitsofprecisionofcompass surveying. Where iscompasssurvey III
normallyused'?
(b) Whatore thedifferent forms of 'bearings' of a line'? How wouldyou
convertoneform of bearings totheothers? Summer 1978]
II
9.2 (0.) \Vh:!:t islocalattraction? Brieflydescribe it.
(b) Acompasswasse't onthestationAandthebearingofABwas3091:>15'.
Then thesameinstrumentwasshiftedtostationBand the bearingof
III
,BA was found tobe 1291:>15'. !s there anylocal anracrion atsraticn A
or at tbestationB? Can you givea precise answer? . ..
State yourcomment and support itwithrational arguments..
(c) Describein tabularform the relation between:
(i) Magnetic bearing and truebearing.
II
I
(ii) Porebearlng and backbearing.
(iii) Whole Circlebearing andreduced bearing.
IfI
.' [AMIE Winter1978]
,I
9.3. While making a reconnaissance survey through woods. asurveyor with 0.
I
handcompass, startedfromapointAandwalked 1000stepsinthedirection
Iii
I S67Wandreached a point B.Thenhechangedhisdirectionandwalked
Iii
512 steps in thedirection N lO=E andreachedapoint C.Then again he
changedthedirection and walked 1504 stepsin the directionS 65E and
I
reachedapointD.Now thesurveyorwanted toreturntohisstartiug point
Inwhichdirection musthemove withthehandcompassandhowmany
III
steps musthewalktoreach thepointA?
[AMIE Summer.1979J
ill
9.4. (a) TabulatethedifterencesbetweenQ prismaticandsurveyor's compass.
i'l
I
(b) The following bearingswere taken inrunning a compass.traverse:
Line EB. B.B..
.AB 48=25' 23000'
Be .17i=J,5' 35600'
CD. 104=15' 2841:>55'
DE 165'15' 34515'
EA 295=30' 79'00'
I;;
(i) State what stations are affected by local auractlon and by how much.
(ii) Determine thecorrected bearings.
Iii
(iii) Calculate thetrue bearingsifthedeclination was 1=30'W.
. Summer 1980]
.,;'
.
.
L
"
Compass Survey 195
..
sun. wasobserved.to be 184"30'atlocalnoonwithaprismaticcompass. '
.
Calculate themagneticbearingsandtruebearings ofallthesidesofthe
.
traverse. Tabulate the resultsanddrawaneatsketchto showtruebearings.
[Al\lIE Summer1983]
9.9. (a)Whatis meantbyclosingerror inaclosedtraverse? Howwould you,
adjustitgraphlcally.'
(b)\Vrile abrief note'on variarions inmagnetic declination.
(c) The forebearings and backbearings of the lines of a closed compass
traverse areas follows:
Line Forebearing , Backbearing
AB 32"30'
BC, 124"30' 303'15'
CD 181"00' 1=00'
DA 2S,;)=30' 10S=45'
Correct thebearingsforlocalattraction andde:c:rminethe truebearingsof
the lines.ifthe magneticdeclination at theplace is330'W.
Summer1984]
9..10. (a) Whatarethesourcesoferrorincompasssurvev?What precautions will
you take toeliminate them? ' . .
(b) Convert the following whole circle bearings to quadrantal bearings:
(i) 32'30' (ii) 17022'(iii)217"54' (iv)
(c) Distinguish betweenthe following terms:
(i) Truemeridianand magnetic meridian
(ii) Local attractionanddeclination.
(iii) Trough compassandtubularcompass,. [A}.lIEWinter 1987]
9.11. (a) Differentiate betweenprismatic andsurveyor's compass..
(b) Explain thefollowing:
(i) Magnetic meridian
(ii) Truebearing
(iii) Declination
(iv) Whole circle bearing
(v) Isogoniclines
(vi) Secular' variation.
(c) A linewasdrawntoa magnetic bearing ofS32W. whenthemagnetic
declination W:IS4\V.Towhat bearingshouldit besetnow ifthemagnetic
declination is 8"E?
..
(d) The following forebearings andbackbearings were observed in traversing
withacompass wherelocalattraction wassuspected:
Line FB . BB
.4.8 6530' 145=30'
CD 126=30'
Be 104=[;'283=00'
DE 326:15' 1-14=45'
Determine the corrected FB, BS and truebearing of the linesassuming
magneticdeclination to be 5: 2(I'\\'. EWint.'r 1993J
Q
HINTS TO SELECTED .
9.1 (a) Advantages'are: (i) Giving direct reading for direction (ii)Quicksurvey
..
.
for roughwork (iii) Valuable tool for geologists. foresters and others
(iv)Bearingof oneline has noeffect upon the observed direction of any
otherline(v)Obstaclessuch astreescanbepassed readily byoffsetting the
instrument bya short measured distance fromline.
Disadvantages are: (i) Not accurate. due to various instrumental errors
andundetected magnetic variations. Notsuitable except forrough surveys
(ii) Computational corrections forlocalattraction isnecessary.
Limits ofprecision ofcompass survey: (i)Angularerrorshould not'exceed
15x-JII minutes, where 11 isthenumber ofsidesofthetraverse (ii)Linear
errorshouldbe about lin500.
Used forpreliminary and rough work..
9.6 (b) (i) False,included ansleisnotaffected asboththesidesareequally
- affected bylocal attraction. .
(ii) Correct, then whole circle bearing isdirectly obtained.
(iii) False,dipisvertical angle ofdepression ofthemagnetic needle.
(iv) False, they'areprovided to read againstSun01' othersourceof
illumination.
(v)Correct, bearing will change withchange of declination.
(vi) Correct,permanent adjustment ofsurveyor's compass isdone by
ballandsocket arrangement
.-
.'
0-
""
10
..
Theodolites
10.1
The theodoliteisa veryusefulinstrumentforengineers, It is usedprimarilyfor
measuring horizontal and vertical angles.However. the instrument can be used for
otherpurposes like(i)Prolongingaline,(ii)1vIeasuring distancesindirectly. and
(iii) Levelling..
Theodolitesthesedavsare0.11 transittheodolites. Herethelineofsiehtcan'
.. .-
berotatedin
.
avertical planethrough 180= about itshorizontal axis.Thisisknown
as transittingand hencethe name "transit".Theodolitescanbebrondl)' clussified
us(i5Vernier theodolites. (ii) Precise'optical theodolites.
.As the namesuggests.invernier theodolites verniersare usedto measure
accuratelythehorizontal andvertical angles.Generally 20"verniertheodolites are
used. '
Thepreciseopticaltheodolites usesanoptical systemtoreadbothhorizontal
and vertlcal circles.The precision of anglescan' beas highas 1".
10.2 PART5 OF AVERZ'\IER THEODOLITE
Figure 10.1 showsthemainpartsof a vernier theodolite. The maincomponents
are describedbelow..
. Telescope
As already explained in detail in the chapteron levelling. the telescope is of
measuringtype,hasanobjectglass.adiaphragm andaneyepieceand isinternal
focusslng. Whenelevatedordepressed.it rotates aboutitstransversehorizontal
axis(trunnionaxis)whichisplacedat right angles tothelineofcollimationand
thevertical circlewhich isconnected to thetelescope rotates withit.Typical data
of a telescope usedfor a transit theodolite available in Indiaare: .
Objective Aperture =35 mm
Magnification =15 times
Tubelength =I i mrn
Nearest rocusslng distance =3 m
Fkkl of \lew =I: 30'
1')7
....
....
198 Fundamentals of Surveying .
:;1
I

,.
..,
,l..,.!

14

t
:::>:
UPi' er plaIt
I';'?/'/@
---,-j

Lev.el.':'n, need
.-
lower plale

Tal' of I!ipod
0:
.:
Fig. 10.1. "Diagrammaticalsectioria1 drawing, of. a .theodolltetj l) Tribrach and trivet
':;(2) screwfor centring (4) Lowerplate (5)Gradu:lled
arc (6) Upper plate(7) Standards (8) Telescope (9) Horizontal axis(10) Verniers
(11) Vertical circle (12).Tripod top (13) Vernier frame (14) Arm of vertical
circle clamp (15) Plate levels (16) Vertlcal circle clamping screw (17) Level
on vernier arm (18) Hook for plumb bob.
. Stadia "ratio =100
Addition constant =0.416
The trunnion axis is supported at its ends on the standards which are carried by
the horizontal vernier plate. The function of the telescope is to provide the line
'of sight.
Vertical Circle
The vertical circle is rigidly connected to the transverse axis of the telescope and
moves as the telescope is raised or depressed. The vertical circle is graduated in
degrees with graduations at 20'. The graduations in each quadrant are numbered
from 0 to 90 in opposite directions from the two zeros placed at the horizonl:l
l
'"
I
j trivet'
aduated
-ernlers
vertical
',) Level,
tied by
line
. 'pe and
in
'::fJbered
jjizontal

'\
1
J
I
!
..
" ,
i..
Theodolites 199
.diameter of the circle. When the telescope is horizontal, the linejoining the two
zeros is also horizontil. The :usual diameter of the circle is 127 mm, graduations
on silver in degrees is 113 or 20'. Vernier reading with magnifier is 20". Figure
10.2 shows the position of the vernier with respect to the axis of the telescope.
The vertical circle is used to measure the vertical angle.
Vernier
Eyepiece
Objective
Vernier
Fig. 10.2 Vertical circle. .vernler lind telescope.
Index frame (or T frame or vernier frame)
It consists of a vertical portion called dipping ann and 'ahorizontal 'portion called
an index arm. At the two extremities of the index arm are fitted two verniers to
, read the vertical circle. The index. ann is fixed and is centredon the trunnion axis.
Reading is obtained ';"ith reference to the fixed when the vertical circle
moves. A bubble tube often known as altitude bubble is fixed on the T frame. For
adjustment purposes the index. anncan be' rotatedslightly with the help of a clip
screw fitted'to the clipping armat its lower end as shown in Fig. 10.3. The index
arm helps in taking measurements of vertical angle with respect to horizontal
" .
Altitude bubble
Vernier
Springarrangement,
Vernier --
Trunnion axis
'I Vertical leg
ClipScrew
Fig. 10.3. Functioning or clip screw lind vernier (vertical circle).
Upper Plate
Vernier
Vernier
Horizontal scale
Lower plate
Upper clamp
Lower clamp
'(a).
Tribrach
Levelling screw
Clampingscrew
Spindle oflower plate
Spindle ofupperplate
(b)
Fig. 10.4 (a) Longitudinal section through upperplateand lower plate. (b) Cross section
ofspindles. .... .,:.. ;..; ..' :""
The standards or (A frame)
Twostandards resembling letterA are fixed onthe upper plate. The trunnion axis
ofthetelescopeissupported onthese'A frames. TheT frame and alsothearmof
thevertical circleclamp areattached 10theA frame.
The Upper Plate
Alsocalled thevernier plate supports thestandards at itsupper surface. As shown
in Fig. 10.4, the upper plate is attached 10 theinnerspindle andcarries two
verniers-with magnifiers at.two extremities diametrically opposite. Itcarriesan
upperclampingscrewand acorrespondingtangentscrewfor purposeof accurately
fixing ittothelower plate. When theupper plate isclamped tothelowerplate
by means ofupperclamping screw, thetwo plates can.move together. Theupper
IVertical
I'.'

itl'll
lL
'JIi

leveli'li
i
f
1The q,k
! ..:'
I
0to360
I . ",.
\ tnbrach.
I'
tofthe
.
10'
; mOlionc
; graduatic
: is20".l
i
fThe 1el't,
i It usuil\!:
tribrach:
lowerplt
levelling
shapes.1
thetop0:
from ah
over the
The Sllif.'
Itis aee
,usually L
untighten
.levelling
therefore,
the tripor
Other ae.
(11)'
withaci:
(b)
genm.l1)'
telescope
Tripod.
s: The theoe
has alrell'
" .
telescopic
l:" . The
.:;: are gi"en",
t ,-.

r-<
-,
"
"
,;
-
Theodolites : 20l'
plate carriestwoplatelevelsplaced atright'angles toeachother.Oneofthe plate
levels iskeptparalleltothetrunnion axis.Thepurpose of the platelevels isto
makethe vertical axistrulyvertical,
The Lower Plate
Also called the scaleplate, it carries the circular scale which is graduated from
oto3.60. It is attached to theouterspindlewhich turnsina'bearingwithin the
tribrach ofthelevellinghead.Thelower plateisfixed tothe' tribrachwiththe help
of the lower clampingscrew.There is also the lower tangent screwtoenableslow
motion oftheouterspindle.Thediameterofthetypical circularscaleis127 rnrn,
graduation onsilverindegrees is 1/3 or20'andvernierreadingwithmagnifier
is20".Lowerplateis used tomeasure thehorizontalangle.
The levelling head
It usuallyconsistsof twotriangular parallel plates. The upperone isknown as .
tribrach andcarries threelevellins.screwsatthe three ends of thetrianaie>:rhe
- - - .'
lowerplatealsoknown asfootplatehas threegrooves toaccommodate thethree
levelling screws.Thelowerendsofthegrooves areenlarged intohemispherical
shapes. Thereisalarge central holewiththread inthetrivet.The thread fitsinto
the top of the tripodwhen mounting the theodolite. Aplumbbob can besuspended
fromahookat thelowerendoftheinnerspindle toputthe instrument exactly
overthestation.Tne levelling headisused tolevel theinstrumenthorizontal.
The shifting head
.
It isa.centringdevicewhich helps incentring the instrument overthestation. It
usually lies below thelowerplatebutabove the tribrach, When the device is
untightened, the instrument andthe plumb bobcan bemoved independently of the
levelling head whenthefootplatehasbeen screwed on, to the tripod. Usually,
therefore, theinstrumentisfirstapproximatelycentredoverthestationbymoving
.thetripodlegs;Exactcentringisthen donebyusing theshifting head.
Other accessories
. '
I (a)Magneticcompass-theodolites ofsimplertypesmaybeobtained,fitted
witha circularcompass boxinthecentreoftheupperplate.
I
(b)Forroughpointing ofthetelescope towards theqbject, thetelescope is
generally fittedwithapairofexternal sights.They areprovidedonthetop ofthe
.[
I
telescope foreaseofinitial sighting. . .
I
I
Tripod "
I
:', The theodolite isfitted on astrong tripod when being used in the field. The tripod
, hasalreadybeenexplained indetail inconnection with levelling(Fig.10.5). The
telescopic tripod isusedfortheodolites where accurate centring is required.
The following terms'arefrequently used inconnection withtheodolite and
aregivenherefor ready reference.

RinU
o
All dimensions In millimeters
Fig. 10.5 Dimensions and nomenclature of tripod for theodolite (Telescopictype);
1. Alidade: The term alidade is applied to the whole of that part of the
theodolite that rotates with the telescope.
2. Centring: Bringingthe vertical axis of the theodoliteimmediatelyover
a mark on the ground or under a mark overhead.
3. Least COI/Ilt: Measure of the smallest unit which a vernier will resolve.
4. Limb: It consists of the 'vertical axis. the horizontal circle and the
illumination system.
5. Standard: Two vertical arms of the theodolite which bear the transit
axis, telescope, vertical circle and vernier frame.
6. Stridinglevel: Asensitivelevel mountedat right anglesto the telescope
axis and used mainly in astronomical observations for levellingthe horizontal axis
or measuring any error in the level of the axis. .
.. .
7. Transit, horizontal or trunnion axis: The axis aboutwhich the telescope
and vertical circle rotate. ..
Theodolites 203
..
.
8. Tribrach: The part of the thecdolite carrying the levelling screws.
9. Trivet: An underpart of the theodolite which may be secured to the
tripod top with which the toes of the levelling screws make contact.
10. Vertical axis: The axis about which .the alidade rotates.
10.3 50;.\1 BASIC DEFINITIONS
1. Line of collimation: It is an imaginery line joining. the intersection of
the cross hairs with the optical centre of the objective.
2. Atis of the plate level: It is the straight line tangential to the longitudinal
curve of the plate level tube at its centre. .
3. Axis of tile altitude level tube: It is the straight line tangential to the
longitudinal curve of the altitude level at its centre. .
4. Face left condition: If the vertical circleis on theleft sideof theobserver.
it is known as face left condition. Since normally the vertical circle is on the left
side. it is also known as normal condition.
5. Face r i ~ t condition: If the vertical circle is on the right side of the
observer, the theodolite is in the face right condition. The telescope is then in the
inverted form and hence the condition is known reverse condition.
6. Plunging tile "telescope: This is also known as transitting or reversing.
It is the process of rotating the telescope through 180
0
in the vertical plane. By
this process the direction of objective and eyepiece ends are reversed.
7. Swinging the telescope: .It is the process oftumingthe telescope clockwise
or anticlcckwise about its vertical axis. Clockwise rotation is called swing right
and anticlockwlse rotation is called swing left. . . .
. . .
8. Changing face: It is the operation of changing face left to face right and
vice verso. .. ".
9. Double sighting or double centring: It is the operationofmeasuring an
angle twice, once with" telescope in the normal condition and another in the reverse
condition. .'.
, :
lOA FUNDAMENTAL PLANES AND LINES OF A THEODOLITE
There are basically two planes and five lines in a theodolite. The planes are:
(i) Horizontal plane containing the horizontal circle with vernier, and (ii) Vertical
. plane containing the vertical circle with vernier. .
The lines are: (i) The line of collimation or line of sight. (ii) The transverse
or horizontal axis of the telescope, (iii) The vertical axis, (iv) Altitude level axis.
and (v) The plate level axis,
Theselines and planes beardefinite relation to one another in a well adjusted
instrument. They are:
(a) The line of sight is normal to the horizontal axis.
. -
(b) The horizontal axis is normal to the vertical axis.
20J" Fundamentals of Surveying
(c)The verticalaxisisnormal totheplanecontainingthehorizontal circle.

(d)The line ofsightisparallel totheaxisof the telescope bubble tube.
(e) Theaxes of the platelevels lie in a'plane parallel to the horizontal circle.
,
Condition (a) ensuresthat lineof sight generates aplanewhen the telescope
isrotated about the horizontal axis.
Condition(b) ensures thatthelineof sight will generate a vertical plane
whenthetelescopeisplunged.
Condition (c)ensures thatwhenthe horizontal circle ishorizontal (as indicated
by theplatelevel) thevertical axiswill betruly vertical.
Condition(d)ensures thatwhen thetelescopebubbleisatthecentreofits
run', theline of sight ishorizontal.
Condition(e)ensures thatwhen theplatebubbleiscentral. thehorizontal
,circleistruly horizontal, , ", , , ,
Inadditiontotheabove, foraccurate readingsomeother requirementsare:
(a)The movement ofthefocussing lensin andout when itisfocussed is
parallel to the line, ofsight. .
, (b)The innerspindle and theouterspindlemustbeconcentric.
(c)The linejoiningtheindices oftheA andB verniers must passthrough
thecentreof thehorizontal circle.
, An instrument,however, isnever inperfectadjustment andassucherrors
do or-cur whentakingmeasurements. Theseerrorscanbegreatly minimized by
t:J.!dng observationswith double centring andalsoreading bothverniersA andB.
'Uv;tundamental Iinesandplanes areshown schematicallyinFigs. 10.6and10.7.
Horizontal'
axis
Plate
Bubble
Vertical'
Tube axis
Axis
(a) Front View
p line of sight
H
(b)Top View,
, Fig. 10.6 ' Fundamental lines 9f a.theodolite.
-,
--" '" - --_
"

.j
,1
B
C
,
Theodolites .205 .
,
\

Telescope bubble
tube axis
I
_'- ..I--+-:]---;
. A'
(b) Front View
C'
Plate bubble tube axis
Vertical axis
(a)Side View. . , .
Fig. 10.7 Position of the fundamental lines in II schematic dlagram of atheodolite.
10.5 FUNDAME:"iTAL OPERATIO:"iS OF THE THEODOLITE
1. Vertical rotation of the telescope is controlled by the vertical motion
clamp and vertical tangent screw.
2. , The upper plate clamp locks the upper and lower circles together; the
upper tangent screw' permits a small differential rotation between the two plates.
., .
3. A lower plate clamp locks it to the levelling head. The lower tangent
screw rotates the lower plate in small increments relative to the levelling head,
I
4. If the upper plate clamp is locked and the lower one unlocked, the upper
'il
and lower one rotates as a unit, thereby enabling the'sight line to be pointed at
I.
!
an object with a preselected angular value set on the plates.
5. With the lower clamp locked and the upper clamp loose, the upper plate can
II
be rotated about the lower one to set a desired.angular value. By locking the upper
clamp, an exact reading or setting is attained by turning the upper tangent screw.
10.5.1 TEMPORARY OF A THEODOLITE
The following are the five temporary adjustments of n theodolite: (i)Setting up,
(ii) Centring, (iii) Levelling up, (iv) Focussing the eye piece, and (v) Focussing
the objective. These follow more or Jess the procedures explained for setting up
.. a dumpy level in Section In seuing up a theodolite thetripod legs are spread
and their points are so placed thnt the top of thetrlpod is approximately horizontal
and the telescope is at a convenient height ofsighting.
Next centring is done to place the vertical uvls exactly over the station
mark. Approximate ce:mi:1g is done by means tripod legs, The exact centring
~ 6 Fundamentals of Surveying
isdonebymeans oftheshifting head orthecentringdevice.Thescrew clamping
ringof theshiftinghead isloosened andtheupper plateoftheshifting head is
slid over the lowerone until the plumb bob is exactly overthestulion murk.
Tighten the screwclamping ringafter theexactcentring.Sinceangle measurement
is involved, the instrument should beexactly overthestation and henceexact
centringisveryimportant.
Forlevelling up andfocussing. the procedures already explained inconnection
withlevellingshouldbefollowed.
10.6 VERNIERS
In a theodolitethere are twoangular verniersformeasuring horizontal and vertical
.. angles.For. horizontal measurements the main scale is 011 the lower plate,the
vernierisontheupperplate. Forvertical angles. themainscale isonthevertical
circle.thevernierisontheT frame. Boththeverniers haveleast countequalto
20" which canbeobtained asfollows:
L.C= 1x Smallest division ofthemain scale
II
Themain scaleforhorizontal circleisgraduated from 0to360. Each degreeis
divided into3parts, hencethe smallestdivision of themain scale is 20'./I isequal
to 60 assixtydivisions of the vernier coincides with 59 divisions of the main
scale.Hence vernierconstant is 1/60
and L C
- J.. ~ O - "0"
, - 60 x - --
Similarly forthe vertical circle.
10.6.1 1,,1EASURING AHORIZONTAL ANGLE
A'horlzonta] angleismeasured byfirst fixing thezeroofthevernier intheupper
platetooeoo'OO" of thecircularscaleof the lower plate. Forfixing to 0-0 the
upperclamping screwandtheupper tangent screw istobeused. Then loosening
thelowerclampingscrew. theline ofsightisbacksighted along thereference line
fromwhich theangle istobe measured. The upperclampisthen loosened and
thetelescope rotatedclockwise independently ofthecircleuntil thelineofsight
is,ontheforesight target. Thefine adjustment inthisoperation isdone bylower
tangentscrewwhich becomes operativewhen thelowerclampingscrewistightened.
Thisisexplained withreference to Fig.10.8.
.'
Theprocess can besystematized withthefollowing steps.
(a)Loosen bothclampsandbringthe0circlemarkroughly opposite the
vernierindexmark.
(b) Tighten the upperclampand bringthe zero(000'00")mark of thecircle
into precise alignment with the vernier index, usingthe upper tangent screw.
, .
When upper clamp is tightened,circle and vernier(upper. plate)arelocked together
::IS onerotating unit.
Theodolites 207
..

A staff (backsighl) .
t
B
Instrument
Horizontal
station
angle - 60'40'20"
C Staff
Fig. 10.8 Single: measurement of n horizontal angle.
(c) With the 10\\ er clamp still loose. point telescope (rotating upper and
lower plate unit b)' hand) to backsight.
(d) Tighten lower clamp and use lower tangent screw to align the vertical
cross wire along the bccksight. . -. ..
(e) Loosen upper clamp andromte upper plate until the telescope roughly
points to the foresight. .
(f) Tighten the upperscrew and focus accurately the foresight by means of
upper tangent screw.
(g) Read the value of the angle by taking the main scale reading and adding
the value of the vernier reading. : . . .
iO.6.2 LAYlr\G A HORIZONTAL ~ G L
The following are the steps:
(a) Fix the 0-0 of the vernier with the 0-0 of the main scale with upper
fixing screw and the upper tangent screw. . .
(b) Loosen the lower screw and rotate the two plates as a whole to point to
B. The fine adjustment .should be done by the lower tangent screw, .
Staff B
for backsight
Line o! foresight
-.
Staff C
Instrument from foresight reading
station A
.c
.
Ii
e';
(c)With lowerclampfixed loosen theupper fixing screw andsetthevernier
to therequired :Ingle.
(d) Iftherequired angle issay31 ..W". the vernier should be roughly
,;
,
fixedat bytheupper fixing screw andthenfinally adjusted to
bytheupper tangent screw.
(e)Thelineof sightisnow alongtherequired angle andpointCcanbe \. \
established bydepressing thelineofsight.
";
10.7 ACCUR\TE OF
Atheodoliteisneverinperfectadjustment andthelinesandplanes arenotideally
related tooneanother asrequired inSection lOA. Tominimize errorasmuch as
possible, anangle is measured anumber oftimeswithinstrument: (1) Faceleft
(vertical circle on the leftof thetelescope) swingright (clockwise movement).
approach left(approaching thetarget from theleftside);(ii) Faceleft,swingleft,
approach right; (iii) Faceright, swing right,approach left;(1v) Faceright,swing
left;approach right.
Theoperation canberepeated withadifferent"zero"orinitial value. Thus
if theinstrument is filted with two verniers and three"zeros" are taken, thetotal
number ofangular readings will be 4 x 3 x 2=24. Theaverage of the above 24
readings will givea verygood result.
The, following aretheadvantages oftheaboveprocedure.
(a)Theeffect ofswinging thetelescope rightandthenleftandofbringing
thecrosshair intocoincidence approaching fromleftintheformer caseandfrom
right in thelattercase eliminates: (i) the error due to twistof the instrument
supportandbacklasherror, and(ii)slipduetodefective clamping arrangement.
(b)"Face left'land"Face right"observations eliminate theerrors duetothe
non-adjustment of thelineofcollimation andthetrunnion axis.
(c) The"changing ofzero" eliminates the errors due todefective graduation.
(d)The"readingof both verniers" also minimize errordue to defective
graduation. Butitprovides immediate checkonthepersonal errorinreading the
verniers ormicrometers.
(e)The"averaging" ofallobserved valuesminimizes thepersonal error.
However, theerrors duetocentring ornon-levelling oftheinstrument cannotbe
eliminated bytheabovementioned process.
10.7.1 MEASURING HORIZONTAL ANGLES BYREPETITION AND
REITERATION
Horizontal angles can be measured.accurately by either of the two methods.
Thesearedescribed below. (i)Method of repetition; (ii)Method ofreiteration.
Method of Repetition
It involves thefollowing steps.
.'
. Til
alion
Iged
II
'erted
:-C
2
=
elesco
s agal
. The t
perfec
at the
.ards
)f the
clock
: cross'l
Both
I:lmpinl
'1
Theodolites 209
I. Obtain the first reading, of the angle following the'procedure outlined.in
detail in Section 10.6.2; Read' and record the value. '
.
t
2. Loosen lower clamp, plunge.(transit) the telescope. rotate upper/lower
plateunit i.e. the whole instrument with angular reading fixed at initial value and
point to backsight. '
3. Tightenlower clamping screwand point accuratelyat the backsight with
the help of lower tangent screw. The telescope is now inverted and aligned on
backslght with the initial angle reading remaining set on the horizontal circle.
4. Loosen upper clamp; rotate upper plate, and point at foresight..
5. Tighten upper clamp and complete foresight pointing using .the upper
tangent screw.
6. The vernier reading now shows the angular measurement as the sum of
flrst and second angle. Divide the sum by t\VO (or the. number of repetitions) to
determine the average value of the angle.
The advantages of this method are as follows.
, I. Since the average value of the final reading is taken, the angle can he
read to a finer degree of subdivision than what can be read directl)'; .
2. An error due to imperfect graduation of the scale is eliminated or reduced
to a .mlnimum as the reading IS measured on several parts of the scale and then
averaged.
" .
3. Errordue to inaccurate bisection is minimized as the average value of the
final reading is taken. .
, 4. Personal error in reading the vernier is reduced.
The disadvantages are:
I. Error due to slip and error due to the trunnion .axis not being exactly
horizontal. '
2. When the number of angles are large more time is required by this
method compared to the method of reiteration.
The precision attained b)' this method of measuring an angle is to a much finer
degree than the.Ieast count of the vernier. Assume an angle of 8427'14" is
measured with a 20" transit. A single observation can be read correctly to within
.
20". Hence the angle will be read as 8427'20" (error is + 6" and possible error
,.
limit 10"). Measured twice the observed reading to within 10" is 168 54'20".
Divided by 2 , the average is 8427'10" correct to one half of the vernier's least
count. error -4" and has an error limit of 5". Measured four times', the angular
reading correct to 20" is 337=49'00", divided by 4, the average is 8427' 15'; and
error + I" (within limit of 2.5"). Thus if no. of readings is11, precision auained
will be 20/211 or least countl2 tirnes no. of observations.
. .
In short. measuring an angle by repetition (i) improves accuracy.
(ii) compensates for systematic errors. and (iii) eliminates blunders.
210 Fundamentals of SII/'"C'yillg
10.7.2 LAYING OUT BY REPETITION
Sometimesitis necessarytomeasure ananglemoreaccuratelythanisavailable
with theleastcountoftheinstrument. Supposewewanttosetanangleat2430'47".
With20"transit availabletheinstrument issettemporarily at14
Q
30'40"
Theangle is then measured4times. Letthe valueof the 'Inglebe 2430'44"
05". Thedifferencebetweentherequired valueof theangleandthe valueof the
angleset out is 2430'47"- 2430'44" =03".Sincethis value is verysmall, it
.' cannotbesetout bymeansofanangularmeasurement. But itCoin beconverted
to lineardistanceifthe length ofthesideof theangleis known.Ifthelengthis
say200m, the linear distanceis 200x (radianmeasure of the difference).
For03".this isequal to
zco . 03..!.- '00 29088
- x 60x 60x 180 - . m,
This isshowngraphicallyin Fig. 10.10.
Final setting
Measured value
A
2ti
a
30' 44" OS"
..
, Temporary
selting at 2430' 40"
" 20"
B Occupied station
InitialLine
Fig. 10.10 Laying angle by repetition.
10.7.3 EXTENDING ASTRAIGHT LINE
Supposeitisnecessarytoextend alineAB toD whichisnotdirectlyvisiblefrom
A. The instrument is then shifted to B. A is backsighted, the upper and lower
platesclamped,telescopeplunged andthenewpointD' issightedwhichisonthe
prolongation of AB. This procedure is repeateduntil D is sighted. It'is more
accurateto plungethetelescope thanturn 180 withthe horizontalcircle.
Iftheinstrumentisnotinproperadjustmenttheaboveprocedurewillgive
errorneous result as shown in Fig.10.11 and "Double Centring"should be adopted.
Doublecentringor doublesighting consistsofmaking:1measurementofahorizontal
or vertical angleonce withthetelescope inthedirectorerect positionand once
with the telescopein the reversed, invertedor plunged position. The 'let of turning
the telescopeupside down.thatis.rctatiog it -about thetransverseaxis iscalled
"plunging"or"transiuing"thetelescope.AsexplainedinFig.10.12,theinstrument
isset lipat B andA is backsighted, The telescopeis plungedand a point C
1
is
,,;.---
. Theodolites . 211
..
.
.
,
station and
. Erroneous. line when
the instrument is not in
adjustment
Instrument
telescope plunged
BA, backsight
Extending a straight line.
>
A a
Instrument Foresight
. station telescope inverted
Fig. 10.12 .Double centring. CIC!=Twice the error, CIC= CC! =1/2 elc!. '.
obtained along BC
I
'in contlnuationofAB. Then with the telescoperemaining
inverted, the instrument is rotated in azimuth through Jsao. A is again backsighted
the telescope is againplungedand a second mark C
1
is obtained. The two foresights
will have equal and opposite errors if the instrument is not in perfect adjustment.
The correct location of C \vill lie between C
I
and C
2
.
10.7.4 METHOD OF REITERATION
This method is used when several angles are to be measured ai the same station
(Fig. 10.13). The instrument is placed at A and pointed towards B, the initial
station with 0-0 vernier reading in one vernier. The reading of the other vernier
is noted. With instrument "face left" the telescope is turned clockwise (swing
right) to sight C. The upper fixing screw is clamped and the crosshalr brought
into coincidence approaching from the left (approach left). Both the vernier
readings are recorded and their mean gives LBAC. Now unclamping the upper
.:! I.:! F/lI1l/l1I11CII/{/[S oJ Surveying
D
Fig. 10.13 Method ofreiteration.
clamping screw, the instrument is further rotatedto sightD. The mean of the
vernier readings now giveangle BAD. Thedifference of angles BAD and BAC
giveCAD. Otherreadingsaretaken withface right,swingleft,approach right
asexplained before., '
10.7.5'MEASUREMENT OFVERTICAL ANGLE,
Avertical angleis an angle measured ina vertical planefrom ahorizontal line
upward ordownward togiveapositive ornegative valuerespectively. Positive or
negativevertical anglesaresometimes referred toaselevationordepression angles
respectively. Avertical angle thus liesbetween 0 and 90.Azenith angle isan
angle measured in a vertical plane downwards fromanupward directed vertical
linethrough the instrument. Itis thus between 0 lind 180. Someinstruments
suchasthetransittheodolite measure vertical anglewhilemost optical theodolite
measure zenith angle.
Asthealtitudebubble ismoresensitive comparedtotheplate bubble. the
former is used in measuring the vertical angle. The altitudebubble is usually fixed
overtheT frame asassumed inthefollowing discussion.Thestepsformeasuring
vertical anglesare givenasfollows:
1. Leveltheinstrument initiallywiththehelpof platebubbles.
2. Bring.the altitudebubble parallel to one pairof footscrews. Bringthe
altitude bubble tothecentreofitsrunbyturningthetwofoot screws eitherboth
inwards'oroutwards,
, 3. Tumthetelescope through 90 sothatthealtitudelevelisoverthethird
foot screw. Bring thebubble tothecentreofitsrunbyturning thethird foot screw.
4. Repeat the process tillthe bubbleremainscentral inbothpositions.
S. If the permanentadjustments of the instrumentlire correctthe bubble
will for lI\I positions of the telescope. With correctpermanent
odjustments and no index error,the" vertical circle verniers will read0-0 when the
lineof sightis horizon!:!\.' .
" 'j
Tlzeodofitt!s213 .
. .
6. To measure venicalungle, then. loosen the vertical circle clamp and
direct the telescope towards the object P whose vertical angle is required. Clamp
"
, the vertical circle and bisect P exactly by the finendjusiment tangent screw.
7. Read both verniers. The mean of both vernier readings gives the vertical
angle. .' ' ..
8. Change the face of the instrument and again. take mean of both the
readings of the vernier,
9. IThe mean of the face left and face right readings \Viii be. the required angle.
Important points in measuring vertical angles:
1. The clip screwshouldnot be touched while measuring the vertical angle.
The clip screw is used for making the permanent adjustments.
, .'
2. Indexerror (vertical circle not reading 0-0 when lineof sight is horizontal)
cannot.be eliminated by taklng reading with only face left or iiu:e right. However.
it can be' eliminated when readings with' both faces are taken and their mean i5
recorded.
}1).8 ERRORS ix THEODOLITE
The following errors occur in rheodcllte measurements.
10.8.1 Ii'\STRl ERRORS
Error due to eccentricity of inner and aliter arms
As already explained, a theodolite has two spindles. The inner spindle carries the
two verniers while the outer spindle carries the horizontal circle. The centres of
these tWO spindles should coincide. Otherwise, errors will occur. Errorswill also
occur if the two verniers (He not exactly 180
0
apart. This is known as eccentricity
of verniers, This is examined.with reference to Fig. 10.14.' Let 0
1
be centre of
vertical axis and O
2
centre of graduated circle. Then 0
1
0
2
is eccentricity and
A,B1.AiB2. A:B) are differeruposirions of the twoverniers which are apart
i.e. there is no eccentricity of verniers. The observed angles are elllnd the
correct angle will be 9. Hence the is
a, == e, - forvernier
,
= 9- e for vernier B
1
1
..
_I. 0
1

Ctl =.t:ln A::
c sin 0
-I .
= Ian r _ e COS"
Since C'.ls and cos llcs between 0 and 1. t! cos 0 can be neglected
in comparison to 1'.
~ /4 Fundamentals oj SIIITC'yillg
o
I' -IE? .-, \I
I :;;'71 7 \
8
1
Eccentricity elf innerandouteraxis,
270 90
8
3
A3
Fig. 10.14
CCI"" I! sin
Therefore
,.
~ ~ .. C lOin
Similarly
r
If the verniersare 1SO" apart,""O,B
I
lie inone straight line. Rearranging
. =8
1
- CCI = ~ +Cl1 .
SinceCl! .. CC1, 29 =8
1
- (.(1 + ~ +Cl'i
..=8, + B:
0= 81 +(J,
or
. 2-
Thus theaverage of tworeadingsgive thecorrect value
FromFig. 10.14itCan beseen that(i) alongI02' ex =0;(ii) atrightangles
to this line Cl is maximum.
When the instrumenthasboth eccentricity of axes and eccentricityof verniers,
errorwilloccurduetobothcauses, ThlsisshowninFig. 10.15.Fromthefigure.
..
it can be seen' that the total-error of 2nd vernier8, ;: 0
1
=A. +2a where A. isthe
indexerrorand indexA I is <It 0".
Whentheindex ~ =O. thetotal erroroftheothervernierA
2
=O:! =2ex- A..
When thereis no eccentricityofverniers A. =O. Hence when there is no eccentricity
ofaxesorverniers0, = =O. IfthereiseccentricityandA andBare 180
0
apart,'.
thenfor thetwo positionsAI at00and ~ at 0..
01 = =constant

Tlu:odolircs 215
, .
90' " 90
0

.
,
t
AO'/.........c:::= !?2
a
11180: l6Zr
r

_. " J "'" A." _ I
2m' 2m'
Fig. lO.tS Eccentricity of verniers und axes.
1I' there ls no eccentricity of axes but A and 0 nrc not ISO" apart, then + 01 =
- i.e. 8
1
and nrc equal but opposite in sign. Finally if there is eccentricity
of axes und,A and B are not I RO' apart. then 0
1
and will vary in magnitude as
zero sening is consecutiveI)' changed around the circle of centre O
2
but their
difference will remain constant as D
I
- =). + 2Ct - (2Ct - ).) = 2)..
By rending both verniers und adopting a mean or both the readings. error
due to both causes C,1n he eliminated.
Error due to line of collimation 1I0t being perpendiclllar to the trunnion axis
If the line of collimation is not exactly perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the
instrument it would not revolve in a vertical plane when the telescope is raised
or lowered. In fact. it will generate u cone. the axis of which coincides with the
horizontal axis of the instrument'(Fig. I0.16).CE ls the line of sigb: which is not
at right angles to the trunnion axis. ZDE is the horizontal plane and () is the
projection of angle e on the horizontal plane. From figure,
DE
tan () =- but ZD= CD cos a
ZD
DE DE '
thnt is. tun () = " but - =tan e
CD co:' " CD
Hence tan () =tan esec Ct.
II
As () and E are both small.
jill
() =C sec Ct
:i
I'I
1f for two observations on the same face. angles of elevuticns nrc "I and
then the net error 8
1
- =E(sec ((I - sec a:I. On changing f:lcc. the error will'
be of equal value but opposite in sign. Thus iherneun of the face left and face I
right readings. l.e. double centring eliminates this error. The error incrcnses with
III
increase in angle of depression or clevmion.
III
;_ ... '":rl
t
,
I
Vertical
Axis
D
Fig. 10.16 Line of collimation not perpendicular to trunnion axis,
Trunnion axis 1I0t perpendicular [0 [he vertical x ~
If the trunnion axis or horizontal axis is not perpendicular to the vertical axis.
when the telescope is rotated about the horizontal axis. it would not generate a
vertical plane but would generate an inclined plane. An error will occur if the
foresight and backsight are inclined at different angles to the horizontal.
From Fig. 10.17
ABCD-vertical plane swept out by the line of sight when the trunnion axis
is truly horizontal.
Vertical Axis
A
B
E
'line of
sight
Inclined
plane
lilted
horizontal axis

E c
e ,
I
Fig. 10.17 Trunnion axis norperpendlcularto vertical axis.
Tllt'ot/vlilt'.'> 217
.
.
ABEF-inclined plane sweptout by thelineofsightwhentrunnion axisis
inclinedat anangleE to thehorizorual,
.
AE =lineofsight.
t
Ct.= angle of inclinationof lineofsight.
e=Errorin measuringhorizontal angle
From the figure:
... EC
sin e =ED
But EC = Be tan e
. 0 . BC ton i.'
SIn = ED
BC _ AD
BlIt
BC =AD
ED - ED =tan a'
or sin e= tan a tan e
.since eande aresmall, e= C' tan a.
Ontransitting thetelescope; the inclination of thetrunnionaxis willbein
theoppositedirection asshowninFig.10.17butofequal magnitude thusdouble
centringeliminates thiserror.
Vertical axis not trulyvertical
Ifthetheodolite isoutof-adjustment. thevertical axiswill notbe trulyvertical
evenif theplatebubbleisatthecentre ofits run.IfE isthe: anglebywhichthe
vertical axisis nottrulyvertical. the horizontal axiswill not betrulyhorizontal
bythesameangle E. Thustheerrorinmeasuring horizontal anglewillbeE tana.
E. however. doesnotremain constant for all horizontal anglesof thetelescope.
When thedirection ofpointing is in thesame direction as the inclination of the
vertical axis,theerroriszero.nomatterwhateveristheverticalangle,Theerror
ismaximum when the: pointing isatrightanglesto directionofInclination of
.the vertical axis,Thiserroris noteliminated bvdouble cenrrlnu as thevertical
axls doesnot change inposition or'inclination'nsthechange of face is done.
Figure 10.1S showsthe difference in effect of change of face when the
trunnion axisisnotperpendicular to thevertical axisandwhenthevertical axis
is nottrulyvertical.
Fig. to.19shows theerror in measurement of onangle when the vertica]
axisis nottruly\ertical.
Observedangle
A:08:
Correctangle
AIOB
1
",-.-
..-10.,
= - C, +
= 04:08: - E
l
tan Cl
i
+ E: tnn 0.:
where, and :1rI: theangles bywhichthevertical uxis L, notll'lIly vertical und
((1' Ct.: - direction (If pointing or thelinelit"
218 Fwu!(/l/lCII!(/!S of Surveying
Horizontal axis
Vertical axis
"
Face left
Trunnion axis
Vertical axis
Face right
line
Horizontal
Horizontal .
. line
Face left Face right
Fig. 10.lS Vertical axls not truly vertical,
~ oJ
o
Fig. 10.19 Error in angle measurement,
Vertical circle index error
To obtain correct vertical angle, when the telescope is horizontal, i.e, altitude
bubble is. central, the line of collimation should be horizontal, and the vertical
circle index should read 0-0. If not, error in measurement of vertical angle will
occur. Let, . -.
Theodolites 219
,0
a ,= Correctaltitude angle.
ai_ a2 =Observedangles ofaltitude.

=Collimation error.
e =Indexerror.
, "
Figure 10.20 shows the differentangles forboth face left and faceright
observations whenthe bubbleis madecentral b)'means of clip screws.
"
Line of sight Line of sight
--- j
Line joining
zeros on the
vernier
Line of sight
Telescope axis Face left
Fig. 10.20
From Faceleftobservation '
Objective - Collimation
end of the error
instrument
ZeroZero of
Incex -' L :;;>}Afr1[ 4 ) the vernier
error
/
Telescope axisA'
J
Line of sighl
Vertical circle index error.
Index
error
Face right
a =al - - e
From Face rightobservation
a =a2, ++e
a =ell +C{2
Taking mean
2
If the altitude bubbleis notcentral,the line connecting the vernierzeros
would beinclinedtothatlineobtained when thealtitude bubbleiscentralandany
movement of the altitude bubblewould causean equivalent rotation of theline of
vernier zerosin thesamedirection. If ' '
OR =Reading oftheobjective endofthebubblewith face right
0L =Readingofobjectiveendofbubble witl: 'face left
E
R
=Readingofeyepieceendwithface right
\
" =Readingofeyepieceend with face left
. f h . dex f 0 .. - EN e" h" ; I
'.
TIlen rotauon 0 t e III exframe= "
.,
w tuce nuH

- 0, - " e" when iuceIdt.
- .,
where fI' =angular\':t111C ofonedivision ofthebubble tube.
Ii0
1
isgreater thanE:., then
'?t:.
Fundamcinals of Surveying

.
.. ;" .. ...
.
'i\

ewill be decreased by 1. COL - E
L
) e"
2
.
and cr = cr. - - {e - (OL - E
L
) en}
t '.
When OR> E
R
ewill be increased by 1. (OR - E
R
) (J'
2
nnd
a= cr! + + {e or (OR - E
R
) en}
Taking mean of the two readings :
. 'I en ,. .
a = - (cr. + cr,) + - (:E -L E)
2 - 4 '
Error due to imperfect graduations 011 horizontal scale
If any graduations on the horizontal circle are not uniformly spaced or if the scale
is not properly centredthe horizontalanglereadings will not be correct. This error
can be minimized by taking observations over different portions of the horizontal
scale so that they are spacedover the entire scale and their mean come close to
the correct value.
. From the above discussion it is clear the effect of error is greatest .when
observations are taken with (i) line of sights at different vertical angles, (ii) of
different lengths.
However. these errors can be almost eliminated bv takins mean of two angles
taken face left and face right observations as half-the readings are-too
large while the other half too small. Averaging the sum gives the correct angle.
10.8.2 PERSONAL ERRORS
These errors result from limitations of human eye sight and are accidental in
nature,
1" accurate centring
If the instrument is not set exactly over the station point there will be error in
measuring horizontal angles there. This is shown in Fig. 10.21 where 8 is the
station point and A and C are the observed stations,
..
B. = Required station point,
8
1
=Actual station point,
x = Displacement of 8\ from B,
8\ = Observed angle from B
1
8 = Required angle from B.
L
.:,' ..,.
Theodolites 1
. .
.

B
C
Fig.IO.!1 Inaccurate centring.
Error in measurement: 8
1
- 8 == a + {3
ABS
I
= 9, then
Let
. .r sin 0
Sin a =--:-

.. :;
As a is small sin a= ({ radian
, . "06"6-
a In second = - - :l.X sin'" '

"06"6- _ . = .:.::>.r sfn (J
c
as AB = AS
l
=c. '
Similarly
/3 in second = 206265.r sin (8 - )
b
?06"6- ,(Sin sin (8- 9,'J
Total error
a +
{3
'
=- _::>.r -'+
, ' " c b
For maximum and minimum values
, , dE = 206165 s [cos _ cos (8.:... 9l] =0
d " C , b,' "
cos cos(8 - 0)
--= '
or
C b:
or cos =E. (cos 8 cos + sin 8 sin )
b
Dividing by sin ,
cot = (cos ecot + sin 8)
csin f)
or
cot v =
b - c cos e
when" = cor =O. Hence sin e=O. or 0 = 0' or ISO".
222 Fundanicutals of S/lrrcying
Ifb c. then cot 0or-+ 90:>. i.e.themaximum errorexistswhen
tends towards 90relative 10 theshorter line.
Thuscentring errordepends on:(i)lineardisplacement x. (ij) direction of
the instrument 8
1
with respect tostation B, (iii) length of linesband c. It is
" ..
maximum when thedisplaced direction isperpendicular totheshorterline.It is
more when length ofsightissmall. Angular erroris about l'when the errorof ...~ ~
.... .. '
"
centring is 1 em andthelength ofsight is35 m.
Error of pointing
This errorhasthesameeffect asshown inthepreviousparagraph. Greatercare
must beexercised onshortersightdistances anda narrowerobject.
Misreading a vernier
An accidental' erroroccurs if the' observer ~ s notusea reading glassor ifhe"
does notlookradially alongthegraduations whenreadingtheverniers. Correct
reading however, depends onexperience.
Improper focussing (parallax)
While taklng measurements. the cross wires shouldbecarefullyfocussed. Then
the image of the object should be brought in theplaneof the crosswires. Horizontal
and vertical angles sufferinaccuracy whenimproper focussing causesparallax.
Level bubble not centred
Theposition of the bubblecentre should be checked frequently and, if necessary,
should be recentred, However, it should not bedoneinthemiddle of ameasurement,
i.e. between a backsight,andforesight.
Displacement of tripod
Theinstrument manshouldbeverycareful inwalkingaboutthetheodolite. The
tripodiseasily disturbed. particularly when itissetupinsoftground. Inthatcase
theinstrument should bereset.
10.8.3 NATURAL ERRORS
These areduetoenvironmental causes likewind, temperature change andother
atmospheric conditions suchasthefollowing.
(a)Poorvisibility resulting from rain, snowfall or blowing dust.
(b) Sudden temperature change causing'unequal expansion of various
components ofatheodolite leading toerrors. The bubbleisdrawntowards the
heated endofthetheodolite.
(c)Unequal refraction causing shimmering of thesignalsmaking accurate
sighting difficult.
(d) Settlement of tripod feet onhotpavement or softorsoggyground.
(e) Gusty or high velocity winds that vibrate or displacean instrument,
move plumb bob stringsandmake sightingprocedures'.difficult. '
Theodolltes '
.
For accurate and precise, work these errors con be'minimized by (i) Sheltering'
the instrument from wind and rays of the sun, (ii) Drlvlng stakes to receive the
tripod legs in unstable ground. and (iii) Avoiding horizontal ,refrocticln by not

allowing transit lines to pass close to such structures as buildings, smoke stocks,
and stand pipes which radiate a great deal of heat:
'",;:;.
10.9 l\HSTAKES IN THEODOLITE Ai'iGLES ;..' '
'.
Mistakes occur due to carelessness of the observer. Some of them are: '.
(0) Forgetting to level the instrumerit.
(b) Turning the, wrong tangent screw.
(c) Reading wrong numbers, say. 219 instead of 291.
(d) Dropping one division of the main scale reading say 20'.
(e) Reading wrong vernier (in the case of 0 double vernier).
(f) Reading the wrong circle (clockwise or anticlockwise).
(g) Reading small elevation'angle as depression angle or 'viceverse. ...
(h) Notceritring the bubble tube before reading vertical angle.
(i) Sighting on the wrong target. .
(j) Missing the direction in measuring deflection angle. ' .
10.10 OF A VERNIER THEODOLITE .
The primary function of a theodolite is to measure horizontal and vertical angles.
As already explained in Section 10,5, there are two planes and five lines ina
theodolite. These lines and planes bear definite relation to one another in a well
adjusted instrument. They are: '. . ,
(a) The line of sight is normal to, the horizontal axis.
(b) The horizontal axis is normal to the vertical axis.
(c) The vertical axis is normal to the plane containing the circle.
. (d) The, line of sight is parallel to the axis of the telescope bubble tube.
(e) The axesof the plate levelslie in a plane parallel to the horizontal circle.
" .
Based on above the principal ,adjustments of avernier theodolltcare: (ij Plate
bubble tubes, (ii) Crosshairs and line of sight. (iii) Telescope bubble tube,
(iv) Horizontal axis, (,') Vertical vernier, and (vi) Horizontal vernier.
10.10.1 PLATE BUBBLE TUSE
Purpose' To make the axis of each plate level bubble perpendicular [0 the
vertical-axis.
Test : The plate bubble tube is levelled by means of foot screws. It is then rotated
in azimuth through 180=. If the bubble remains central [he adjustment is correct.
Correction Bring the bubble half way back by the capstan headed screw at one
end of the level and the other half b)' the foot screws.
J
--_...-
------'1'1
II,
!
i
I
.1
224 Fundamentals of S1I11"Cyil/g
!
Explanation Figure 10.22 (a) shows the initial condition when the bubble is
II
levelled. The bubble level becomes horizontal but as it is not at right angles to the
il
I vertical axis, the vertical axis is not truly vertical. The plate is. however. lit right
,
t'
I
angles to the vertical axis. Figure 10.22 (b) shows when the bubble is rotated
I
I
II about vertical axis through ISoo. As the vertical axis and the angle between the
vertical axis and the bubble tube remains unaltered, the bubble now makes on ".A
I
angle of 90
o
- E on the left side of the vertical axis. Figure 10.22 (c) shows how
,,. I:
the vertical axis is rotated through E (half the deviation) by means of foot screws
!I
to make it truly vertical. The plate level which still remains at an angle E is made
II
horizontal by means of capstan headed screw.
i
1...- True
r... True
Vertical
vertical
Axis not
Vertical
I Bubble
vertical
Axis
levelled
truly vertical
Plate
angle 10the
vertical axis
Plate at right
I
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 10.22 . PIJle bubble test,
10.10.2 CROSSHA1RS A:-\D LINE OF SIGHT
There are three ddjustments:
Adjustment of vertical cross hair
Purpose To place the vertical crosshair in a plane perpendicular to the horizontal
axis of the instrument.
...
Test The test is to that of horizontal crosshair in the adjustment of .'
dumpy level. One 'end of the vertical hair is brought to some well defined point
and the telescope is revolved on its transverse axis to see if the point appears to
move along the hair. If it does not. the crosshair is not perpendicular to the
horizontal axis.
-,
Correction Loosen oil, the capstan screws and rotate the reticle carrying the
crosshairs so that vertical hair becomes truly vertical and perpendicular to the
horizontal axis. Repeat the test .
Theodolites 225

Adjustment of line of sight
.
Purpose The purpose of this adjustment is to make the lineofsight perpendicular

to the horizontal axis. This will allow truestraight line extension when transiulna
. . . ..-
the telescope.
, Line 01 sight after
. 2nd Transit
L
c
D
A'
A
B
Line of sight .
after first transit
Test Here double centring method of prolonging aline is applied, The stepsare:
(i) Level the instrument and backsight carefully on a well defined point 'A'
about a chain away (Fig. 10.23).
(ii) Transit the telescope and see another point B at approximately the same
elevation as 'A' and atleast two chains away. If the instrument is. lnadjustment :
point B will be on the extension of the straight line.
. (iii) With the telescope still in the inverted. position, unclamp either plate,
turn the instrurnent on the vertical axis. backsight on the first point A again and
. clamp the plate. . ....-. . ,. .
(iv) Transit the telescope again and set a point C beside the first foresight
point B.
(v) Since two transittings are involved distance between Band C is'jollr
times the error of adjustment.
Correction Loosen one of the side capstan screw and tighten the otherso that
the vertical hair moves through 1I4th the distance Be to point D. Repeat the test
till 'A' is again seen after reversing backsight A.
Adjustment of horizontal crosshalr
.;
.. Purpose To bring the horizontal hair into the plane of motion of the optical
centre of the object glass so that line of sight will be horizontal when the telescope
bubble is in adjustment and the bubble is centred, This is necessary when the
transit is used as :1 level or when it is used in measuring vertical angles.
Fig. 10.23 Adjustment of line of sight.
I
r
.2:!6 Fundamentals of Surveying
Correct line
Line of sight
of sight
telescope plunged
C
sight (telescope
normal)
Fig.10.24 Adjustment of horizontal crosshair,
Test Set up and level theinstrument atA andmark twostationsatBand C,
the distance between them being at least 3 to 4 chains (Fig. 10.24). Take.
readings of horizontal crosshair at Band C with telescope both normal and
inverted. If the.difference inreadings atBand C inbothconditionsisthesame,
,then thelineofsightis trulyhorizontal whenthetelescopebubbleisatthecentre
ofitsrun. '
Correction If not at the centre. the reading is brought to mean of the two
readings atC bymeans ofcapstan screwsonthetopandbottomofthetelescope.
Repeatthelest andadjustment until thehorizontal hair readingdoesnotchange
fornormal and plunged sightsonthefar point.
Adjustment of horizontal axis
Purpose Theobjectofthisadjustment istomakethetelescope'shorizontal axis
perpendicularto the transit's vertical axis, In such a case when the plates are
levelled,the horizontalaxisis trulyhorizontal and the line ofsight moves ina
vertical plane as thetelescope israisedor lowered.
Test Set up andlevel theinstrument atadistanceof 10mfromatallvertical
wall. the telescope through a verticalangleof andsightsomedistant
pointAonthe wall.Plunge thetelescope to0andmarkapointB onthewall.
Rotate the telescope through 1SO, reverse the telescope and sight A again.
Plungeagainthetelescope to andmarkapointConthe wall.IfBand C do
not coincide, the horizontal axis is not truly horizontal and needs adjustment;
(Fig. 10.25),
Correction SetapointDhalfwa)'between Band Candsightonit.Withplates
clampedelevatethetelescope andbringittopointA byusingthehorizontal axis
adjusting screwwhich raisesor lowersthe end of the cross armuntil the crosshairs
are brought to A. TIghten theclampandcheckthe adjustmentby repeatingthe
Test.Thisis knownasSpire Test,
10.10.4 ADJUSTMENTOFTELESCOPE BUBBLETUBE
Purpose To maketheaxisof thebubble tubeparallelto thelineof sight.
Test Same as thetwopegtestofdumpylevel.
'"
-.

'4
'.
i
l
j, ...
;
B
c
".*
Theodolites 227
Fig. 10.25
Correction The correctreading for'marking the line of sight horizontal is
computed anditissetonthedistantrodbymeans ofvertical Circle slowmotion
screw.The telescopebubble isthen centred byturning thecapstan screws atone
endof thelevelvial.
10.10.5 OFVERTICAL
Purpose Toensure that vertical circlereads, zero when the line of sightis
horizontal.
Test Level theinstrument with bothplate level bubbles. Using thevertical circle
slow motion screw, centrethetelescope bubble.Thevertical circlereading should
now bezero.If not, there is. index error. . .
Correction This adjustment isperformed intwo ways.
Method 1 This is usedifthere is novertical vernier bubble tube. Set up andlevel
theinstrumentandthen using thevertical.lockandslowmotion. centre
the telescope bubble. Ifthevertical vernier does notreadexactly
carefully loosen thevemlermounting screws, move ittoareading of
exactly andrefix.
Method II Thisisusedifthevertical vernierhasabubble tube. Setupandlevel
the instrument, then, usingthevertical lock and slowmotion, centre
thetelescope bubble. Setthevernier toareading ofexactly0using
the vernier slowmotion screwandcentre-the vernier bubble using the
bubble tubeadjusting screws.
10.11 i\IICROSCOPE
Verniers intheodolites canread upto10". Precise verniers may readupto 10".
With micrometermicroscopes readings may betaken onlarge' geodetic theodolites
i
r
2:28 Fundamentals of Surveying
to I" and on smaller theodolites direct to 10" or 5" and estimated to 2" or 1".
Figures 10.26 (a) and (b) show the details of a micrometer microscope and how
readings are taken. The low powered microscope is fined with a srnall rectangular
mctul box ut a point ncar where the image of the graduations formed by the
objective will be situated. The box with windows in the top andbottom is fitted
with a fixed mark or index and with a movable slide carrying a vertical hair -or
pair of parallel hairs placed \'1:1')' close together, These hairs are filled so that they
will lie parallel to the images of the division marks ofthe graduated arc. The slide
can he moved by 'me:Jns of a milled head on the outside of the micrometer tube.
The pitch of the screw is such that a complete revolution moves the slide through
two successive divisions of the graduated arc. Fractional parts of a revolution of
a drum, corresponding to fractional parts of a V division on the horizontal circle
may be read on the graduutec drum againstan index mark fitted to the side ofthe
. box. The function of the eyepiece is 10form a magnified image of the index.
movable hairs and the image of the graduutions formed by the objective,
The method of using and reading the micrometer will be understood from
Fig. 10.26(b) which shows the view in the eyepiece together with graduations in
the adjoining drum. When the drum reads zero, one of the graduations should be
in the centre of the V, and this graduation should appear to be central between the
two movable hairs.
objective
./graduaied drum
Drum
Milled Movable hairs
. screw for
Capstan index
loosening
headed
drum
screw
Knurled
clamping and
adjusting rings
~ y e
(a)
piece
(b)
Fig. 10.16 (:I) Micrometer microscope, lb) Reading in a micrometer microscope.
In this example, the horizontal circle is graduated to J 0' of are, the graduated
"
drum is divided into 10 large intervals and each of the large intervals into 6
small ones. Therefore. each of the' large divisons on the drum corresponds to
J' of arc and each of the small divisions to 10" of arc. To take a reading, note
the divisions on either side of the V and take the lower one. FromFig. 10.26(b)
it is 106.50'. To measure the fractional part, the mlcrometer is turned until the
graduation 106 50' lies midway between the movable hairs. The index beside
the drum is now between the graduations 4' 20" and 4'30" and by estimating
"
.. ' Theodolites .229"'
: 0 :
,-
. . . .. .
tenths the reading on the drum may be taken as 4' 27". n ~ the complete
reading is 106
0
54'27". . . .
r
10.12 OPT'leAL THEODOLITES
These are used for precise survey and have many improved features compared to
vernier theodolites. The)' can be both double centre and directional. Their main
improved features are as follows: .
1. The instrument is lightweight and compact and easy to operate weighing
only about 5 kg. . .
2. Their vertical axis is cylindrical and rotates on precision ball bearings.
3. The circles andoptical systems arecompletely enclosed and the instrument
is dust proof and moisture proof.
4. The horizontal and vertical circles are made of glass and have precisely
etched graduation lines and numerals.
5. Angles are read through an optical system consisting of a microscope
and series of prism. An adjustable rnirror on the outside of the instrument housing
reflects light into the reading system, abattery powered light provides illumination
for night work.
6. All circle readings and bubble position checks can be made from the
eyepiece end it is not necessary to move round the instrument.
7. Telescope is shortand internal focussing and equipped with a large objective
. lens to provide sharp views even at relatively short ranges. The alidade can be
detached from its mounting or tribrach.
8. The horizontal line of sight is established by first centring the vertical
circle control bubble and then setting off a 90
0
zenith ringle using the vertical
clamp andtangent screw. Some theodolites contain a pendulurn compensator which
minimizes "index error". .
9. The inner spindle of most theodolites is hollow in order to provide a line
of sight for the optical plummet which takes the place of the plumb' bob used to
centre the theodolite over the point to be occupied.'
10. Optical reading repeating theodolite hasan upper motion, a lowermotion
and a vertical motion together with appropriate clamps and tangent screws. Direction
theodolite on the other hand, does not have thelower clamp and lower tangent
"
screw. There is' only oneclampscrewand one tangent screw. The horizontal circle
setting screw can be used for changing the position of the horizontal circle.
1\. Vertical circles are graduated from 0 to 360
0
, 0 corresponding to
..
the instrument's zenith. With the telescope level. in normal position, a zenith
angle of 90 is read, in inverted position the angle is 270
0
Optical reading
systems of direction instruments permit an observer to simultaneously view the
circle at diametrically opposite positions. thus compensating for any circle
eccentricities.
10.12.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPTICAL MICROSCOPE AND OPTICAL
PLUMJ\,1ET
Figure 10.27 showstheschematic diagramof anoptical microscope andoptical
plummet together. Light falling into the mirror after reflection and refraction
throughsuitablyplaced prisms. passespartlythrough thegraduationsofthehorizontal
circleand partly through the graduations of the vertical circle.They then pass
";.
iI",'
through a parallel sided glass block C which con rotate abouta vertical axis.
FinallytheyarefocussedontheplateD. TheblockClsrotatedbythemicrometer
sellingknob and its position is indicated by the graduated sector scaleS. Through 't..'.a!
thereading eyepieceatD theobservercansee verticalcirclegraduationsin the
window V aportionofhorizontal circlegraduationsin windowH anda portion
ofthesector scaleinwindowS. windowhasafixedreference.lineormarker
..'
!
'GlassblockC
Vertical
.
i
I
."
/'
D
o
Circle i : T?eye
A1- ----
- - - - -
__
...J pIece
. .
I --- I S
axis I i
I I 'I
I i

Vertical i Sector
V"
Circle I !!ll , scaleS
.c:
till"

0..
;:1

r I: ii
I I I 1
Optical plummet
I
eyepiece
I I
:JI __ !
E -tw:-:
Horizontal
circle
I' II
I
- - - Vpnsm I j
Horizontal circleTogroundstation
10.27 Schematicdiagramofnncpticalmicroscope and anoptical plummet.
. I
..
Theodolites 231
..
,
and as the block Cis rotated: the pictures of the scales moves across the windows.
To read the horizontal angle the window marked H is viewed. The micrometer
screw is turned until the degree mark is exactly on the reference line. As the
micrometer screw is turned, the micrometer scale reading also changes and. it
gives the fractional part in minutes and seconds. The total reading will, therefore,
.. be equal to full degree reading plus a fractional part. Similarly for the vertical
angle viewed in the window marked \'.
However, to ensure the above, the thickness of the block C and the length
of the scale S must be so adjusted that a movement of the scale from 00'00" to
20'00" causes the pictures in the windows.V and H to move-distance of exactly
one division 20' of the circle scales. ..
The optical plummet helps in centring the theodolite over the station. It is
obtained by fitting lenses into the hollow central axis of the instrument so as to
form a small telescope pointing vertically downwards. From the ground station
line of sight passes through the lens and then through a reflecting prism to an
eyepiece at the side of the instrument. Through the eyepiece the observer can
view the ground station in relarion to a diaphragm mark in the optical system.
The optical plummet sight is very useful for optical centring. But to be
effective the sight line of the centring telescope shouldbe vertical. This is ensured
by doing simultaneously the levelling and centring operation which ls .time
consuming. Its use, however, becomes obligatory when there is high wind or
when the ground mark is at the bottom of a hole, or in some other special
circumstances. Figure 10.27 shows the line of sight of an optical plummet.
10.12.2 BY CENTRIKG ROD
This is another way of accurately centring the instrument over a ground station.
The centring rod is a telescopic plumbing rod, the bottom of which is pointed and
is set into the station mark. The verticality of the centring rod is ensured by
bringing the bull's eye bubble attached to the centring rod to the centre. The top
of the rod is moved laterally by means of the tribrach (with which it is attached)
which moves over the top face of the tripod. The upper end of the rod and
consequently, the tribrach is then locked into position by means of aknurled
clamping nut at the upper end of the rod. . . .
In this method, the theodolite can be removed andcan be quicklyinterchanged .
with an Eo:\I, reflector or a sight pole without disturbing integrity of the tripod!
tribrach set up. This technique ls referred to as "force centring". Advantages of
forced centring are obvious-instead of three separate setups at every station
(foresight, theodolite occupation, and backsight), only one placement of the tripod .
or tribrach is necessary, Two causes of accidental setting up errors have been
eliminated.
..
.10.13 ELECTRO:\IC THEODOLITES
Electronic theodolites use the principle of electronics to read, record and display
horizontal and vertical angles. Generally. light-emitting diodes (LEOs) or liquid
crystal diodes (LCDs) are used for display. The data obtained can be stored
l__
J
232 .Fundamentals of S/lIwying
directly in an electronic data recorder for later retrieval, and computing by a
microprocessor either in the field or in the office.
Sometimes the theodolite is equipped with an when it becomes a
total station instrument or an electronic tacheorneter, The instrument can then be
used for measuring and displaying horizontal and vertical angles, horizontal distance.
and elevation difference. With the help of in built computer slope distances can
be reduced and horizontal distances can be corrected for curvature and refraction.
,.
1.
,
Coordinates for the occupied station can be obtained when coordinates of other
points are known.
io.i l\'IEASURING A!\GLES WITH DIRECTION THEODOLITES
I
The direction theodolite reads "directions" or.positions on its horizontal circle. It
does not provide for a lower motion as is contained in a repeating instrument. For
measuring the horizontal angle ABC, setup the instrument at B. With the horizontal
clamp loose, make a rough pointing towards A, tighten clamp and make the
perfect pointing with the horizontal tangent screw. The circularoptical micrometer
enables directions to be read to the nearest second or less. Let the reading be
2115'27" as shown in Fig. 10.28. Next loosen the horizontal clamp and observe
the sameprocedure to point towards C.The reading, say, is The included
angle is. then 4227'41" - 2115'27" or 2112'14".
A

O'()<:J
. e0
-e
"",.
'2-\ .
0 ... .
I}.\
Observed direction
42
0
27' 41"
Angle 21
0
12' 14"
Fig. 10.28 Measuring single angle with direction theodolite.
Figure 10.29showshowa number of angles canbe more accurately measured
with a direction theodolite. Set up the instrument at A and pointat B, the left most
station of the set. Initializing on B permits directions to be read in a clockwise
sequence. Then as in single angle measurement observations should be taken on
B, C, D and E. This is the first step. Next, loosen the horizontal clamp, rotate
allidade through 180 and reverse the telescope and point again to E. The reading
will differ by approximate 180 from the first reading. Sights are then taken to D,
C. and B in the counter-clockwise direction. This completes the 1st position or set
of angles. The mean of the two second values is suffixed to the direct reading of
degree andminute togivethe mean value. In thiswaysighting errors andinstrumental
r
Theodolites 233
"
,

C!l

A
To'E'
Fig. 10.29 A,ccurate measurements of angles by direction theodolite.
errors are eliminated but not random errors. From the directions the included
angles can be obtained as before. A second set of readings can then be taken and
a third set and so on. The initial reading for the second set will depend on the
number of sets to beobserved. The second set will start from the original reading
plus 180/11 where It is the number of sets. If there are two sets, added value will
be 90
Q
if three, it will be 60. The final angles arc then the means obtained from
all the sets. '
Example 10.1 List the factors which determine the magnitude of the angular
error due to defective centring of the theodolite. '
The centring error in setting up a theodolite over a survey station is 1 mm.
,
Compute the maximum and minimum errors in the measurement of clockwise
angle ABC induced by the centring error if the magnitude of the angle is
approximately 120:) and the lengthsof thelines AB and BC are approximately 5 m
and 20 m respectively. , _, " ,_.
What conclusions can be .drawn from this computation? [Eng. Council]
, .
B
A
c
'.
Solution Theoretical portion has been explained in Section 10.8.
For maximum error . ' ,
c sin e
cot =
b - c cos e
r
2 3 ~ Fundamentals of Surveying
5sin 1:0
2
- ~ o - 5cos1:0:>
=0.192
=79.106
i
E =206265 x e: (J +sin ~ l))
= 206265 x 1(Sin79.106+ sin(120- 79.106))
1000 5 20
-.
=206.265.(.1963957 +.032733) .
=47,26".
Minimum erroris zero. .' . . .
Conclusion: (i)AngularerrorE ismaximum whenthedisplacement tends
tobeperpendicular totheshorter line.(ii)Majorcontribution inangularerroris
fromtheshorterside.
Example 10.2 Deriveanexpression fortheerrorinthehorizontal circlereading
ofatheodolite(11) causedbythelineofcollimationriot beingperpendiculartothe
trunnion axisby a smallamount C. .
Atheodolite undertestforerrorincollimationandalignmentofthetrunnion
axisis setwithits axistrulyvertical. Exactly20.000mawayisavertical wire
carryingtwotargetsatdifferentlevels. Anaccuratescaleperpendiculartotheline
ofsightisgraduatedfrom - 100 mmto+100mmandismounted justtouching
thewireand inthesameplaneasthetrunnionaxis. Thezerograduation coincides
withthe wire.
.'1
Thetheodoliteisfirstpointedal atarget,thetelescopeisthenlowered to
readthescalewiththe results given below. Determine themagnitude andsense
oferror incollimation ofthetheodolite andtheinclination ofthetrunnion axis.
Target Vertical Angle ScaleReading
A 6527'15" +4.11 mm.
B 3043'27" - 6.24mm.
. .
(Theerrorinhorizontalcirclereading causedbya trunnion axismisalignment t
"ist tan a wherea isthealtitude). [Bradford]
Solution Let both thecorrections to horizontal anglebepositive. Then
1.Lineof collimation bearstotheright..
2.Trunnionaxis is high ontheleft.
Let x bethe angularcollimation error.
e bethe angulartrunnion axiserror
.
Then
e tana, +x sec Cil= -
'.
.
e tan a; + x sec Ci, = +
- .
Here . Ci,
tanCil
sec Ci,
a2
tan a2
sec a2
Therefore

Theodolites 235
~ x 206265"
20.000 - .
6".1 .'
~ x 206265"
20.000'
=6527'15"
=2.19
=2.41
=3043'27"
=0.59
=1.16
2.19 e + 2.41 x =- 42.39
0.59 e + 1.16 x = + 64.35
Solving. .\" =147.62"
~
Which ispositive. hence collimationbears totheright.
e =- IS1.74", hencetrunnion axis ishigh ontheright.
. .
Theoretical portion hasbeen covered inSection 10.8.
Example10.3 Ifthehorizontal axisofatbeodolitemakes anangle of90 + a
with the vertical axis and if the instrument is otherwise in adjustment. show
that the difference between circle left and circle right measurement of the
horizontal angle subtended by twotargets whose elevations are8 and-above
horizontalis2a (tan 8- tantP). Inacertain theodolite thehorizontal axisis0.025
mm out in 100 rnrn andthe instrument is otherwise in correct adjustment.
Findthe difference. to thenearest second, between circleleftandcircle right
values of thehorizontal anglesubtended by twotargets whose elevations are
5530'and2200'. [LondonUniv.].
Solution For horizontal axis errora for each reading clockwise correction
is (added/subtracted} ifthe axisishigh onthe(left/right) anditsvalue isa tan
e. Sinceinmeasurement, two sightscorresponding toclockwise horizontal angles
{31 < /3z willbetaken atvertical angles eand ~ = 8f31 - 8f32 = + a (tan e-
tan) forface left reading when. say. axis is high ontheleft.On transiuing for
circle rightreading axis ishigh ontheright andcorrection
8{3 =8{3; - of>! = - a (tan 8 - tan ).
Hence on face leftcondition theobserved rending will becorrect value ofthe
angle - a(t:Jn 8 - tan 9). Similarly for face right condition observed reading will
be correct value + a(tal1 e- tan 91.
Hence difference in reading .2o(t:ln e- tan ).
..
.
.:. 0,0.25
a---x
"06"6-"
100
Here .. _:l
e:: 5530' tan 5530' = 1,455
= 2rOO', tan 2200' = OAOt
Hence 2a (tan e- tan )
=2 'x 0.025 x (10455 - 0.404)
. .
. = 108.39" = I' .
Example 10.4 An angle of elevation was measured by vernier theodolite
.and it was noted that the altitude bubble was not in the Centre of its run in
either the face left or face right positions. Deduce the value ofthat angle from
the data given below. 0 and E refer to the objective and eyepiece end respectively
of the bubble, and one division of the altitude level is equivalent to 20 seconds.
[I. Struct. E]
Face Vernier readings
Altitude level
0
I
E
Left 2521'00'" . 3.5 div, 2.5 div,
Right 2011'00" 25:!l 4.5 div, 1.5 div,
Solution If the bubble is not central during observations (face left and face
right) the apparent index error; is given by (1"1 + 1"2)/4 where 1"1 = (a. - b
l
) and
r:! = (o:! - b:!) a, b. being readings of the ends of the bubble. If a\ and a'2 are the
the correctangle is
I e"
a = - (a
l
+ a,) + - (r., + r,)
2 - 4 -
. e: '. 20" "
-(r.\' + I;) = - (1 + 3) =20
. 4 - 4 .
Hence a' =2511'00" + 20"
= 2521'20"
J-
I
i
Theodolites 237
..
PROBLEi\IS
..
.

10.1. (a) Definefor arheodolite (i)Vertical exls.fii) Bubbleaxls, (iii) Collimation
axis, (iv) Horizontal axis.
(b) Whatrelationships exist gmong theaboveprincipal axesof thetheodolite
(c) Describe the 'spire test' for a theodolite explaining in detail the
(i) Object, (iij Necessity,(iii)Test (iv)Adjustrnent.,
[AI\'lIE Advanced SurveyingSummer1935]
10.2. (a) Howis theprinciple ofreversal applied while adjusting'theaxisofa
plate bubbleof a theodolite?:.
(b) Under whatsltuationts)can there be difference between the vernier
readings of horizontal circles of a theodolite? How will you eliminate
the error (s) inoneor bothofthem? .,
(c) Bringout thedifference inatheodolite. if any: between the(i) Horizontal
axis and trunnionaxis,(ii) Line ofcollimation and lineof sight..
(d) What is index error in a theodolite? Brieflydescribe a method to
remove it. AdvancedSurveyingWinter 1985]
10.3. (:1) What is the basic difference between temporary and permanent
adjustments ofatheodolite? ' .
(b) Classify as temporary or permanent adjustment: (i) Focussing of
eyepiece, (ii) Renderlnguunnlon axis horizontal, (iii) Centring a
theodolite over ground mark, (iv) Bringing the imageof an object
exactlyin theplaneofdiaphragm containing crosslines.(v)Making
bubbleaxis horizontal. (vi)Adjusting vertical axes trulyvertical.
(c) There are two vertical axes for the t\VO horizontal plates top and
bottomof a theodolite. Saywhat willhappen and whatyoumustdo
if thetwoverticalaxesare:(i)Inclined toeachother, (ii)Parallelto
each other,(iii) Coincident.
(d) Whyis modemtheodolite called a transit in USA?
Advanced SurveyingSummer1986]
IDA. (a) Bring out the maindifferencebetween the following pairs: (i) External
, and internalfocussing telescopes. (ii)Kepler'sandGalilee's typesof..
telescopes.(iii)Transitandnon-transit 'theodolites. (iv) Vernier and
microptic theodolites.
(b) Explainthe following misnomers: (i)Thediaphragm ofa surveyor's
telescopeis said tocontain; 'crosshairs'butthere are no 'hairs'. (ii)
The trunnionaxis isalsocalled 'horizontal axis' but then, it is not
always. 'horizontal' unless special efforts are periodically taken.
(c) Account forthefollowing: (i)according tothe principleof reversal,
the apparent error onreversal is twice thereal error, (saywith reference
to bubble axis of telescope) (ii) theerrordue to eccentricityof the
verniersof a theodolite 80m eliminated byaveragingthevemiers.
Advanced SurveyingWinter1936]
10.5. ,(a) Mentionthe permanent adjustments ofacommontypeof theodolite.
(b) Describein detailthecollimatica adjustment of a transit.
[A:-'UE Advanced SurveyingWinter1987]
238 Fundamentals of S/l/wyillg

-. :
.
---'.
10.6. (a) Describethemethodofrepetition formeasurementofhorizontal angle
.
'-, ...
theodolite. '
(b) Explain the differences between, (i) Chainsurveying and traverse
surveying, (ii) Transluing and swinging, (iii) Freeand Fast needle

" .
method of traversing. [AMIESummer1988]
10.7. Givealistof thepermanent adjustments of atransittheodolite andstate
theobjectofeachoftheadjustment. Describe howyouwould makethe
trunnion axisperpendicular tothevertical axis. __
[AMIE Advanced Surveying Summer1988]
10.8. Differentiate between temporary andpermanent adjustments ofa vernier
theodolite and namethe temporary adjustments. Explain howyou will
carryout the adjustmentof verniertheodolitefor obtainingthe relationship
horizontal.axis perpendicular tothevertical axis.. .
.[AMIEAdvanced Surveying Winter1989]
10.9. (a) What arethepermanentadjustmentsnecessaryinaverniertheodolite?
(b) Briefly discuss how (i) line of collimation and (ii) trunnion axis
adjustments are made.
(c) What are the advantages of making 'face left' and "face right'
observations inthetheodolite survey?
[AMIEAdvanced Surveying Winter1990]
10.10. (a) Describe thefunctions of thefollowing partsof a theodolite: (i)Vernier
(ii)Tangentscrew(iii)Clipscrew(iv)Tribrach plate(v)Footscrews
(vi)Vertical circle.
(b) What are the basic between 'transit' and.'non-transit'
theodolite?
(c) What is meantby 'face left', 'face right', 'swing left' and 'swing
right''intheodolite operation. .
(d) Duringatheodolite observation, ifthe'crosshair' isnotinitsproper
position,"vhaterrorwilloccur?Howwould youbringthe'crosshair'
to itsproperpositon? [AMIEWinter, 1979]
10.11. (a) Give a list of all permanent adjustments of a common type of
theodolite.
(b) Describethefieldoperations formeasuring avertical anglewhen the
availabletheodolite hasperhaps afaulty trunnion (transit)axis.
10.12. (a) Enumerate thepermanent adjustments ofatransittheodolite.
(b) What is the effect on an observed horizontal angle if thetrunnion axis
isnotperpendiculartothevertical axisinatheodolite? Illustratewith
asketch.
(c) Explain howatransit theodolite istested andifnecessary adjusted so
.thatit maybeusedtoreadvertical angles correctly.
- .
Theodolites 239
.:
HINTS TO SELECTED
10.2 (b) Difference in vernierreadings canoccur(i) if thecentre of thegraduated

. horizontal circle does not coincide with'the centre'of the vernier
plate. Reading againsteither vernier will..beincorrect. Thiscan be
.ellmin:nedbytaking average oftworeadings. (ii)Ifthere isimperfect
graduations ofthehorizontal circle. Thiscanbeminimized bytaking
mean of several.readings distributed overdifferent portions of the
horizontal circle.(iii) If the zeros of the vernier arenot at the ends of
thesamediameter, thiscanbeeliminated bytaking mean ofthetwo
readings. ..,
(c) (i)Trunnion axisofatheodolite istheaxisaboutwhich thetelescope
and vertical circle rotate. It is the line passing through journalswhich
fit into the bearings at the topof the standards. When this lineis
horizontal, itbecomes thehorizontal axisof theinstrument. (ii) Line
of sight is any line. passing through the eyepiece and the optical
centre of the objective of the telescope. Line of collimation is an
imaginary particularlinejoiningtheintersection of thecrosshairs of
thediaphragm andtheopticalcentre oftheobjective. Thislineshould .
be perpendiculartothehorizontal axis andshouldalsobetrulyhorizontal'
when thereadinz onthevertical circleiszeroandthebubble onthe
or on7he vernier frame is at the centreof its.run.
10.3. (a) Temporary adjustments arerequired tobemade ateachstation before
taking readings. Permanent adjustments which usually lastforalong
timeputthefundamental lines, e.g.vertical axis, horizontal axis,plate
levelaxis,etc.inproperrelation tooneanother.
.(b) (i) Temporary (ii) Permanent (iii) Temporary (iv) Temporary
(v)Temporary (vi)Permanent.
(c) Non-parallelismofthetwovertical axesiseasilydetected bycarrying
outthelevelling upprocess round oneof theaxesandthen rotating
theinstrument abouttheother. Iftheaxesarenotparallel thebubble
willbehave asif theinstrument isnotlevelled.
Ifthe axesareparallel but' notcoincident itleadstoeccentriclty,
If the theodolite has two verniers placedat diametrically opposite
points, thedifferenceofthereadingsofthetwo willnotremain constant
but will vary periodically round the circle, if there is eccentricity:
However mean ofthetwovernierswillbefree from eccentricityeffect.
(d) Thetelescope inamodem theodolitecanberotated aboutitshorizontal
axisthrough 0.complete circle.Thisgivesthename 'transit',theword
'transit' means topassoverorcross overandthelineofsightofthe
transit can bemade tocross overfrom oneside to the otherbyrotating
.. -,.
the telescope aboutitshorizontal axis.
10.4. (b) (i) The crosshairs usedinsomesurveying instruments areveryfine
threads taken from thecocoon of a brown spider. Many instrument
makers useflnely drawn platinum wires. someusefine glassthreads
andothersusea glassdiaphragm onwhich lineshavebeen etched..
L
(ii) Trunnion axis istheaxis about which thetelescope rotates. This
axis should be horizontal so thatthe telescope generates a vertical
plane. Hence thename'horizontal axis'.
.
10.5. (b) (ii)Transitting is theprocess of turning thetelescope overitssupporting
axisthrough 180
0
ina vertical plane.
Swingingthetelescope means turning thetelescope inahorizontal
plane. Theswing istermed rightorleftaccordingly asthetelescope
isrotated clockwise oranticlockwise.
10.9. (c) Faceleftandface rightobservations removeerrorsduetoimperfect
adjustments of'(i) the horizontal axis or trunnion axis not being
perpendiculartotheverticalaxis; (ii)thelineofcollimationnotbeing
perpendicular tothehorizontal axis, (iii) thelineofcollimation not
.beingparallel totheaxisofaltitude levelortelescope level.
.'
.,
..
..
.
11
Traverse Survey and
Computations
11.1
Atraverse isaseriesofconnectedlineswhoselengths anddirectionsaremeasured
inthefield.The surveyperformed to evaluate suchfieldmeasurements isknown
astraversing. .
.Therearetwobasictypesoftraverses: (i)opel} and(ii)closed. Bothoriginate
atapoint.cfknownlocation.Anopen traverse terminates atapointofunknown
position. Adosed traverse terminates at apoint of knownlocation. Figure ILl
shows an open traverse.This is 11 typical layoutfor11 highway ot a pipeline.
Figure 11.2 shows two closed traverses, In Fig, a.Z(a) ABCDEF represent a
proposed highway routebuttheactualtraverse begins atA' andendsatF'. This
.. typeofclosedtraverseisknownas"geometricallyopen,mathematicallyclosed".
Figure 1I,2(b)showsatraversewhich covers aplotoflandintheform ABCDEA.
Notethatthe traverseoriginatesand terminates at thesamepoint.
B D
E.
Fig. 11.1 Open traverse.
B
B 0 F
/\
,

'"
,
, (Known
'.F' A
A C E
'\ point)
,
,
A' (Known point)
(a)
Fig.11.2 Closed I reverse.
E-
(b) .

Thistypeof closed traverse is"geometrically andmathematically closed".
Traversing isused(i)todetermine existing boundary lines. (ii)tocalculate
areawithinaboundar)', (iii)!oestablish control points formapping andalsofor
photograrnmetric work,(iv)toestablish control points forcalculating earthwork
quantities, and(v) for locating coriirolpoints forrailroads highways, andother
construction work.
11.2 DEFICIENCIES'OF OPEN TRAVERSE
Anopentraverseisusuallyrun forpreliminary SUT\'ey. Thereisnoarithmetical,
checkfor fieldmeasurements. Otherdeficiencies are:
.(a) Thereis no checkonsummation of.angles based onmathematical conditions.
(b) Thereisnocheckonposition ofintermediate points asthereisnoknown
or assumedpositionexcept thestarting station.
Theremedial steps are:
(a) Eachdistanceshouldbemeasured inbothdirections andalsoshouldbe
roughly checkedbyusing thestadia hairs ofthetheodolite.
(b) Angles should be measured bymethod of repetition andshould alsobe
checked by magnetic bearings.
(c) True azimuths or bearings of some of the lines should be determined
with reference to thesun or stars depending on the importance of the
survey.
Inanycaseit is alwaysdesirable toavoid opentraverse. Sometimes. it maybe
desirabletorunaseparateseriesoflinestoclosethetraverseortoobtaincoordinates
ofthestartingand closingpoints bytying to marksof known positions.
11.3 CLOSED TRAVERSE
When aclosedtraverseoriginates andterminates at thesame pointand all the
internal angles are measured wecanutilizethemathematical condition thatsum
oftheinternal anglesofaclosed traverse is(2/1 - 4) rightangles whereII isthe
number of sides.This affords a check on theaccuracy ofthemeasured angles.
Moreover. by plotting the traverse or by mathematical calculations (to be
explained later) it is possible tocalculatethe closing error which gives an indication
oftheaccuracyofmeasurements.There is..however. nocheckonthesystematic
errors of measured length and hence, systematic errors should be detected
andeliminated.
Incaseatraverseoriginates and closesonknown points. thereischeckfor
bothlinearandangular measurements.
11.4 MEASUREl\lENT OFTRAVERSE ANGLES
Traverseanglescanbe(i)Interiorangles. (ii) Deflectionangles. (iii) Anglestothe
right.(iv)Azimuth angles.(v)Compass bearings:

"
..: ..
"
t,
Traverse Survey and Computations 243
Interior angles
Interior angles of a closed traverse should be measured either clockwise or
" t
anticlockwise.Jt is good practice, however. to mC3Sure311 angles clockwise. Figure

11.3 shows measurement of interior angles. " "
B
A
'.
Fig. 11.3 Interior angles.
Deflection angles
Open" traverses, e.g, route surveys are usually run by using defleciionangles or
anglesto the right. Adeflection angle is formed at a traverse station by an extension
"of the previousline and the succeeding one. The numerical value of a deflection
angle must always be followed by R or L to indicate whether it was turned right
or left fromthe previous traverse lineextended. Figure 11.4 shows an open traverse
and how a deflection angle is measured and noted.
A
F
Fig. 11.4 Deflection angle.
.Angles to the right
Angles measured clockwise from "a backsighton the previous line are called
angles to the right or azimuths from the backline. This can be used in both open
or closed traverse. This is shown in Fig. ~ The angles C3n be improved by
taking repeated readings and roughlyrchecked by means of compass readings.
Rotation should always be clockwise from the back sight. This conforms to the
graduations of the scale in the theodolites which increase clockwise.
Fig. 11.5 Angks to the right.
14-t Fundamentals of Surveying
Azhnuth angles ..
A traverse can be run by reading azimuth angle directly. ..\s shown in Fig. 11.6
azimuths are measured clockwise from the north end of the meridian through the
angle points. At each station the transit is to be oriented by sighting the previous
station with the back azimuth of the line JS the scale reading.
A
N
F
Fig. 11.6 . Azlrnuth angles, '
Suppose the' azimuth of .4B is 16029'20". The 'azimuth of BA is then
34029'20". Now if the theodolite with the reading 34029'20" is pointed towards
A from B, the 0 reading will always point towards North. This pointing towards
A should be adjusted by lower tangent screw when the reading will remain
unchanged. If the upperscrew is now unclamped and sight is taken along C, the
clockwise circle reading will give the azimuth of BC directly. As a result it is.not
necessary to add or subtract angles to find the azimuth of a line. However, this
method does not allow the use of double centring which eliminates most of the
instrumental errors. The method; therefore, cannot be used where high precision
is required. . .
Compass bearings
Here a compass can be used to get the bearings directly of all the lines of a
traverse from which included angles can be obtained. However, the accuracy of
a compass is very low and as such it is rarely used in a theodolite traverse.
Sometimes. the theodolite is fitted with a compass. Insuch a case usually the
bearing of the first line is measured with the help of the compass and all the
angles are measured to obtain the bearing of the other, lines. While the' first
method is known as loose needle method of bearings, the latter is known as fast
needle method.
11.5 MEASUREMENT OF LENGTHS
.;
Depending on the accuracy required. the length can be measured by chaining,
taping, tacheometry or electronic distance measuring equipments. For low precision
workchalningor tacheornetry canbeused. In tacheornetry distance can be measured
in both directions and average value taken. '
.
..
Traverse Sur..ey and Computations 245
11.6. SELECTION OF TRAVERSE STATIONS
..
.
Traverse station should be selected so that they facilitate the survey work. For
property survey it will usually be a closed traverse with the traverse stations at the-
perimeter of the traverse. For route survey, it will, however, be an open traverse
and the traverse stations are located at each angle point and at other important
points along the centre line.of the route. To improve precision, the length of the
traverse lines should be long and number of stations minimum. The stations
should be located orr firm ground so -that the instrument does not settle during
taking of observations. The stations should be so located that from the traverse
lines all the details of the area can be plotted. ;
11.6.1 MARKING A'ND REFERENC,ING OF TRAVERSE STATIONS'
Traverse stctions should be properly marked andreferenced on the ground. Otherwise
like benchmarks they will be lost. Usually a square wooden peg with a nail on the
top is used as a traverse station. The top should be almost flush with the ground
so that it is not knocked off. This is shown in Fig. 11.7(a). In Fig. n.7(b)is
shown a permanent station with a steel bolt fixed in a concrete block. For referencing
. a station it is measured with respect io three or more permanent objects as trees so
that the point can be relocated as and when necessary, as shown in Fig. 11.7 (c).
Nail
y
Square
peg
Concrete
block
(a)
(b)
~
.'
SRlt..
-'.,
tree tree
(c)
j J ~ ~ } : ~
Fig. 11.7 (3), (b), (c) Marking and referencing :1 station.
\
11.7 A:\GLE . ' .' . <-,
For closedtraverse. thesum of the interiorangles shouldbe equal
angleswhereII is thenumber of sides. However. inpractice, because of miperfections
inequipmentanderrorsmade bysurveyorsthesumofthemeasured anglesdiffer
from thetheoretical value.The permissible misclosure isbased ontheoccurrence
ofrandom errorsthatmay increase ordecrease thesumofmeasured angles.It is
given bytheformula:
. .
C=k..{ii
(1Ll)
where 11 isthenumberofanales andk is'afraction oftheleastcountofatransit
vernier 'smallest atheodolite scale.Thefraction depends onthe
number of repetitions and theangular accuracy required.. For ordinary theodolite
traverse k =20"(leastcountofa theodolite). Forafoursidedtraverse
C=20{4=40".
Henceasthetheoretical sum is360. theacceptable value willHe between
35959'20" and36000'40". If theangle rnisclosureis greaterthanthe permissible
value. theanglesshouldbererneasured togettheacceptable value.
Thealgebraic sumofthedeflection angles inatraverse is360.clockwise
angles beingtermedpositiveandanticlockwise negative. Thisruleappliesifthe
lines do notcrisscrossorcross anevennumber oftimes. When thelines ina
traverse crossanoddnumber oftimes, thealgebraic sumofdeflection anglesis
zero. Whenever possiblemagnetic bearings of lines should be taken to act, as a
checkon bearingcomputedfrom deflection angles. For a closedpolygon traverse,
thebearing ofthefirstlineshould always berecomputed using thelastangleas
acheckafterprogressing around thefigure.
, In anazimuth traverse, afterstarting from the initial station and going round
thetraverse, theinitialstationshould beoccupied again andazimuth oftheinitial
line again measured. Thisshould tally with the originalazimuth..
11.7.1 BALANCING THEAi\GLES OFATRAVERSE 0/'
Iftheangle misclosure is within the allowable value. it should be distributed
amongst theangles sothatthesumisequal tothecorrectgeometric total.Three
methodsof angleadjustmentsare: (i) arbitraryadjustments, (ii)averageadjustments,
and(iii) adjustments basedonmeasuring conditions. Formostordinary,traverses.
theadjustment can beapplied arbitrarily tooneor moreangles.
In the averageadjustment method. the totalrnisclosure is divided by the
;
number of angles and applied to all the angles. However applying corrections
equally sometimes give falseimpression ofprecision. Forexample. if the least
countoftheinstrumentis20" and10"correction isapplied toallthe angles. it
willbeinappropriate. Instead 20"correction shouldbeapplied tooneangleand
nocorrection shouldbeapplied tothenextangle.
Sometimes. it is possible tosurmise thaterrorhasoccurred inaparticular
angle due to adverse measuring conditions. e.g. obstructions in line of sight.
making accuratesighting difficult. Whentwo adjacentsides of a traverseare
, .
:'.:;
much shorter compared to other sides, error is more likely to occur in the angle
containing the shorter sides. Hence larger-correction should be applied to this
. angle. This is known as adjustments based on measuring conditions. . .

.
10.7.2 .ANGLE DISTANCE RELATIONSHIP'
Surveyors must strh:e to strike a 'balance' in precision for angular and linear
measurements. As the final error depends on error caused due to both angular and
linear effects, it is no use making angular measurements very precise while not
being able to maintain sameprecision in linear' measurements. The relation between
linear and angular measurements can be derived as follows: .
. Let 8 be the angle measured 'and length I be the linear measurement to give
the point P (Fig. 11.8). If there is angular error of Set the point P shifts to P'. If
there is linear error Sl, the point P' shifts to give the final position?".
,
..
A I
B
Fig. 11.8 Angie-distance relationship.
If the linear error is to be equal to the angular error
108 = ol
Or
= ~
If the angular measurement is made with an accuracy of 20" (least count of
an ordinary theodolite). .
ol = 20"
.1
1 r. d'
="0 x x - ra Jan.
- 60 x 60 ISO
= 9.6963 X 10-
5
= 10,100
---1-
- 10,000
This, shows that with a 20"theodolite. linearerror is to be restricted to
1110,000. Table ILl showsthecompatible relation between angular error and
Ii near error.
Table 11.1 Compatible Angular andLinear Error
I .
Angular error Linear error
5 ~
01'
30"
20"
10",
05"
oi" .
1
688
1
3440.
'. 1
. 6880
1
10,300
1
20,600
1
41,200
1
206,000
11.8 TRAVERSEBALAKCI1\G
Even ifthe anglesof a traverse isbalanced, ifwetrytoplotthetraverse either
graphically oranalytically bymeans ofcoordinates, itwillnotcloseasshownin
Fig. 11.9. The amount bywhich itfailstoclose'is knownasclosing error. The
y
B
c'
!
Q'3
~
.6.Y=
---r
i
I 13 I
I
I
r
I'
I
Q'4
11
D
J
II
I IE
II
.,
I I
II
I I
r r
I
0 -+I.6.X1
X
..Fig.11.9
Traverse balancing.
..
traverse will be balanced when the closing error is made zero. The latitude of a
lineis the distance it extends in the north or south direction. In terms of rectangular
..
.

coordinates latitude is the Y coordinate of a line obtained by multiplying its length
with cosine of the reduced bearing. From the Fig. 11.9 latitude of AB = II cos al'
.Similarly for BC it is equal to 1
2
cos a2' and so on;
The positive direction of Y corresponds to Korth and hence the latitude ,of
ABwhose projection points towards the North is positive. Latitude of BC whose
projection along the Yr axis points towards the South is negative. Departure of
a line is its orthographic projection on the east-west axis of the survey. It is along
the X-X axis of the rectangular coordinate survey and is found by taking sine of
the reduced bearing of aside. For example, departure of AB =I. sin ai' of BC
= 1
2
sin al and so on. East departures are considered positive, west departures are
negative. For a closed.traverse with proper algebraic signs. sums of both latitudes
and departures must be zero. However, if thetraverse does not close, the.sum of
the latitudes will not be zero, and there will be a small discrepancy in latitude
known as latitude mlsclosure, Similarly, a small discrepancy in departure will be
known as departure misclosure. Fromthe figure it canbe seenthat latitude misclosure
isLlX'anddeparture rnisclosure is .1yand the misclosure inlength ill =..Jl1,y2 +..1y
2

If .1X or .1Y is large it shows somewhere a mistake has been committed.
Mistake may be in computation or in fieldwork. Fieldwork mistake may be in
measuring angle or in length. By analysing the traverse closure it is sometimes
possible to identify the line in which mistake has been committed. The ratio of
the closure error to the perimeter of the traverse is known as closure precision.
It is usually expressed in the form 1 in 11, n will depend on the accuracy of the
survey desired. The closing error is due to random errors rather than systematic
error if the traverse begins or closes on the same point. However, ifthe traverse
begins in a known point and closes at another known point, the closing error is
due both to systematic error and random error..
11.9 CHECKS I;S AN OPEN TRAVERSE
There is no reliable check in open traverse. As the traversedoes not close, the
mathematical condition of summation of angles cannot be applied. Except the
starting station, other traverse stations cannot be checked as they are all unknown
stations. To improve measurements of open traverse-(i} each distance should be
measured in both directions and should be roughly checked using the stadia hairs
of theodolite, (ii) angles at the stations should be repeatedly measured by
method of repetition, and as ri further check magnetic bearings of lines should be
observed, and (iii) the directions of some selected lines should be checked by
astronomical observations, i.e. by observing the sun or stars. .
The following checks can also be applied to part of the traverse.
Cut off lines method
The open traverse can be checked by running cut off lines between certain
. intermediate stations. In Fig. 11.10. A is one cut off line. 1 is another. The
. \
L
250 Fundamentals of51111'(.'"in8
G
A E J
Fig.11.10 Checking oftraverse.
bearingofAE shouldbetaken both atA andE.Theyshoulddifferby I The
distanceAEshouldbemeasuredand checksfortheclosed traverseABCDEshould
be applied. Similarlywiththecutoffline1.
Sighting'apromlnent object. .
A object 0 stations A,DandGof thetraverse, i.e.
bearingsofAO. DO andGOaremeasured asalsothelengths AO. DO andGO
(Fig.ll.ll).FromtheclosedtraverseABCDO. coordinatesof0 canbecomputed.
This should tally withthecoordinates of 0 computed from theclosedtraverse
ODEFGO. "
O'
/-"',
/ \ ,
/ \
.,
'
/
/ . \ '
,
/ \ <,
/ ,
o B \ ,
/ D '
/ '
/ F G
A H
Sighting :I prominent object.
11.10 METHODS O,F TRAVERSEADJUSTMENTS
Beforea traversecan beplotted. itsclosing errorshouldbemade zero.Thisis
known astraverseadjustments. Atraverse involves twotypesof measurements:
(i) Measurement of length. and(ii) Measurement ofangles.
We canhavethefollowing three basicconditions:
. 1.The angularaccuracy is higher than the linearaccuracy Suchacase.
may occurin traversing ina hilly terrain if we measure angleby means of a
,.
theodolite whichisexpected tobeaccuratebutmeasures distances horizontallyby
meansoftapes.The accuracy oflinear measurement willbelow..
2. The angularaccuracy isthe sameas the linearaccuracy. Thisislikely
-.
tooccurwhentheangles aremeasured bymeansoftheodolite butdistances are
measured withanEDM. .
3. The angular accuracy is lower than the linear accuracy Thisis the
condition when.angles are measured withcompass which gives less accurate
valueswhreas lengthsaremeasured bymeans of EDMs:

Depending on 'which category the traverse belongs appropriate methods
should be applied for adjustment of the traverse. ,
..
. Five basic methods of traverse adjustments are: (i) Arbitrary Method,

(ii) Transit Rule, (iii) Compass or Bowditch Rule, (IV) Crandall Method, and
(v) Least Square Method.. . . .
11.lC).1 ARBITRARY METHOD
As the name suggests in this method there is no fixed rule for distributing the
closing error in latitude and departure. However, engineering judgment is used.
If there is reason to believe that because of field conditions or types of
instruments used measurement of one line is less. reliable than others, it
would be reasonable to adjust only the latitude and departure of that line so that
algebraic sums of latitudes and departures are made'zero. This method of adjust-
ment is very simple and in effect gives weightage to the expected accuracy of
individual rneasurements.:
11.10.2 TRANSIT RULE
In the transit rule the correction to latitude of a line is in proportion to the
magnitude of latitude and departure correction is in proportion to the departure or
the line. Symbolically,
Latitude of AB x latitude misclosure
Adjustment in latitude of AB
= Absolute sum of latitudes
' . >J f AB Departure of AB x departure rnisclosure
Adjustrnent 10 departure 0 = : : ; ; : ; ~ _ ; _ _
Absolute sum of depart.ures .
Theoretically, the transit rule should be used to balance a traverse where the'
angular measurements are more precise than the linear measurements. However:
as different results are obtained for different meridians, this rule is seldomused.
11.10.3 COMPASS OR BOWDITCH RULE
Bowditch rule is used most frequently as this rule is applicable when the linear
and angular measurements are equally precise.. The probable error in linear
measurement is taken to be equal to {i. Corrections are made by thefollowing
rules: .. . . ..
Adjustment in latitude AB =length ofAB x latitude misclosure
perimeter of traverse
..
Adjustment in departure AB = length Of B x departure misclosure
perimeter of the traverse
The bearing of each line of thetraverse will bealtered afterapplying the Bowditch's
rule. The method is most suitable for compass survey where the probable error of
angular measurements and linear measurements tally. However, the method is
most commonly used for an average engineering survey since(i) it is easy to
apply (ii) Thecorrections donotaltertheplottings significantly.
11.10.4 CRANDALL METHOD'
In thismethod, it is assumed thatlinear measurements contain largerrandom
errors than theangularmeasurements. Initially, theangle misclosureisdistributed
equally amongst all angles. The angles then remain unchanged. The linear
measurements arethen corrected byweighted leastsquare procedure.
11.10.5 LEAST SQUARE METHOD
This is the most rigorousmethodof adjustmentof traverse and is basedontheory
of errors developed in Chapter 2. By applyingsuitable weights difference in
measurement' accuracy of lengthsand angles of a traverse can be taken into
.account. The adjustment is based on the principleof making the sum of the
squaresoftheweighted residuals aminimum. Sincelargecomputationisinvolved,
themethod iscomputerbased. .
After the adjusted latitude and departure of a line has beendetermined, the
newlength andbearingofthelinecanbedetermined fromtherelation
L =,/(latitude)2 + (departurej?
-1 (Departure)
Reduced bearing== tan Latitude
Thequadrant'beingobtained from thesignsof latitude anddeparture.
.11.11 RECTANGULARCOORDINATES
It isalready seenfromSection 11.8, thatthe rectangularcoordinates areusefulin
computing the latitudeanddeparture of a line andalso.theclosing error of a
traverse. Usually N-S linecorresponds with theY-Y axis andthe'East-Westline
with theX-X axis.Thecoordinates oftheendpointofalinewith reference toits
initial pointarecalledconsecutive coordinates or dependent coordinates of the
endpointoftheline.Theconsecutive coordinates areequaltothelatitudesand
departures with proper signs.Thecoordinates of a pointwith respect to acommon
originareknown asindependentcoordinatesofapoint.Theyarealso calledtotal
latitude ortotaldepartureofapoint. Figure11.9 isreplotted inFig.11.12 with
adjustment of closing error, i.e. closing error madezero. In thatcase A' will
coincide withA.
Theconsecutive coordinates of
B = 1.
1
cosall 11 sin at
C=- i
l
~ al' 1
2
sin a2
andsoon."
1
s..
....
.

y
B
.
I
Iy",
I
o X I I
of51.:1tion _
If.the coordinates ofA arexAandY.ol. the independent coordinates ofBare
(VA +11 cosal), (xtl + 11 sin al)' Theindependent coordinates ofC:: (y,(' +11
cosa
l
- 1
2
cosCl:) and(x,( +11 sinal +1
2
sinCl2) andso on.
Therefore total latitude ofanypoint =Original latitude +algebraic 'sum of
latitudes upto the point. .
Total Departure = Original departure + algebraic sum ofdepartures upto
thepoint. .
Itisconvenient toselecttheorigin sothatthewholeofthetraverse lies in
theNorth Eastquadrant andallthepoints have positive independent coordinates
asshown inFig.. 11.12.Therectangular coordinates areuseful in(i)Calculating
thelength andbearing ofaline,(ii) Calculatingareas ofthetraverse, (iii)Making
curve calculations, and(iv)Solving various problems oftraverse calculations.
11.12 GALE'S TRo\VERSETABLE
Inthefield usually lengths andinward angles ofaclosedtraverse aremeasured.
In addition bearing of a line istaken. Foradjustment of thetraverse, the field data
andcomputations aresystematically recorded in a tableknown asGale's Traverse
Table. Thesteps involved are:
(a)Write thenames ofthetraverse stations incolumn1ofthetable.
"
(b)Write thenames ofthetraverse lines incolumn 2.
(c)Write thelengths of thevarious lines incolumn 3.
(d)Write theangles incolumn 4. .
(e)Sumup nil the angles andseewhethertheysatisfy thegeometricconditions
'.
asapplicable, i.e.(i) sumofnil interior angles =(211 - 4) right angles, (ii) sum
...ofallexterior angles =(2n +4) right angles.
(f)Ifnot,adjust thediscrepancy asshown inSection11.7.1.
(g)Entercorrections incolumn 5.
I
I
I
I
I .I;
I
c
5 ~ Fundamentals of Surveying
(h) Write the corrected angles in column 6.
(i) Starting from the actual or assumed bearing of the initial line, calculate
the whole circle bearings of all other lines from the corrected angles and enter in
column 7.
(j) Convert the whole circle bearings to reduced bearings and enter in
column 8. .
(k) Enter the quadrants of the reduced bearings in column 9.
(I) Compute the latitudes and departures of the measured' lines from lengths
and bearings and put in proper columns la, 11, 12 and 13 as applicable.
(rn) Sum up the latitudes and departures to find the closing error.
(n) Calculate corrections by applying Transit rule or Bowditch's rule as
desired. .
(0) Enter the corrections in appropriate columns 14 to 17.
i
(p) Determine the corrected latitudesand departures and enter in appropriate
columns 18 to 21. They will be corrected consecutive coordinates..
. (q) Calculate the independent coordinates of all other points fromthe known
or assumed independent coordinates of the first station. As a check the independent
coordinates of the first point should be computed. It should tally with the known
or assumed value.
\
All these details are shown bymeans of the example below.
Example 11.1 The mean observed internal angles and measured sides of a closed
traverse ABCDA (in anticlockwise order) are as follows: .
Angle Observed value Side Measured length (m)
DAB 9741' AB 22.11
ABC 9953' BC .58;34
BCD
7 ~ 3 .:
CD 39.97
CD.4. . 8959' DA 52.10
Adjust the angles, compute the latitudes and departures assuming that D is due N
of A, adjust the traverse by the Bowditch method; and give the coordinates of B.
C, and D relative to A. Assess theaccuracy of these observations andjustify your
assessment. [I.C.E.]
Solution Solution is done with the help of Gales' Traverse Table. As D is
due North of A, the approximate shape of the traverseABCDA. (in anticlockwise
order) will be as shown in Fig. 11.13.
N
c
D L 7 t
'.
A
B
--
, ...
. Traverse Survey and Computations 255
Whole circle bearings of lines can be computed-after applying
corrections to inward angles. Total discrepancy' of inward angles is 4' which is

distributed equally amongst all the angles.
Computation of Bearings
Bearing of AD = 0"0'00"
Bearing of AB =. 97:>42'00"
.'
+ 180"00'00"
,Be:lring of BA= 277"42'00"
LABC =
377"36'00"
360"00'00"

Bearing of BC = 1736'00"
Bearing of CB 197"36'00"
LBCD + 72"24'00'"
,.
-
Bearing of CD_ 27000'00"
- 180
90"00'00"
90"00'00"
-
Bearing of B.4 180"00'00"
Total angularerror is 4'. Since the angular reading is correct upto 1 minute,
4' error is permissible in measurement of four angles ar four stations, Rest of
. calculations are shown in Gale's Traverse table (p. 256).
. "
Example 11.2 The following lengths, latitudes, and departures were obtained
for a closed traverse ABCDEFA.'
Length Latitude Departure
AB 183.79 o + 183.79
., BC 160.. 02 + 128.72 + 98.05
!"
CD 226.77 + 177.76 .- 140.85
DE 172.52 - 76.66 - 154.44
EF 177.09 - 177.09
FA 53.95 - 52.43 + 13.08
Adjust the traverse b)' the Bowditch method. [L.U.B.Sc.]
Solution Computations ore given in Table 11.3 (p, 256)
0.00
,...
Table 11.2 Galc's Traverse T:lhlc (Example 11.1)
' 1'
..
..
CUIISCClIlivc CurrccliIIS Cun""le" h"kl'"",klll ..
..
v
...
c
Cnonlilllilics. (nnwdilch Rille) Cnl1scculivc C..urdimllc5 (\"I...liIlO1lc,"
.. '1:
...
c v
"
"
1: Ii c c
'-'II. I)el' Lal. ()el'. . Lal. D"!I
"
.s u .., -o C
c .c 0 U U v v
" v
.9 DO '1: v
0.5
u
.;;
N S H W N S I! W v
"
;; c c

l: l:
.c :i -a
"
Iii ::J
v
.s
0 0
:>- v
" (+1 H
(+)
H + -
.+
-
(+)
H
(T)
H ..J U U ... .D C1
(I) (2) (3) (1) (05) (,) (7) (3) (9) ( Ill) (II ) ( 12) (1.1) (I") (IS) (1(.) (17) .. (ill) (I'}) (20) (211 (2Z) CUI
1\ 97<11' +1' 9742' U.IHI U.lKI
/Ill 22.11 1.J742- Sf; 2.% 21.'" -.U7 +.US J.OJ 21.%
n 1)9053' +1' 99054' -J.ll.l 121.'JC,
IIC SSj4 NE 055.(,1 I7.M -.18 +.11 0505.-1;1 17.7H
C 7223' +1' 722," +S2AO +J'}.71
CD 39m SW ll.llll 39.')7 -.13 +.1Il
..
0.13 3'/.1l7
D 89"059' +1' 9000' +052.27 -IHI.1.1
01\ .52.10 IKloIXJ'lHr'" SE 052. III U.1lI1 -.17 +.IJ 052.27 IHUJ
1\ OO.IIU IHUHI
172.051 3S,}OS6' +4' 3(>llolKI' SS.c.I 505.06 39.0505 39.97 -.0505 +.42 0505.43 55.43 3'/.87 39.li7
L L,I = + 0.0505 Tnl"l clo_illg error = .J..sS
2
+ .42
2
=0.(,1) m. Del' = - 0.<11. I'red_ioll = !flcfJ} = I ill 2050.
e-
?

::;
;;;-

::;
..;
'--:
:;:.

Llne Lellglh
J"llilllcic 1)C1",""re . Cnrrccti<Jn Correct..,1
+ - +
-
Lalilude Del'"""re I.lllilucI" 1.hI""llIrc
/III 183.79 O.llll 111.\.79 -0.0(, + Il.II7 - O.(K, + 111.1.8(.
nc I(,1l.1I1 12S.72 ')li.OS -lUIS + 0.0(, + 1211.(.7 + '}II.11
CI) 22('.77 177.7(, (,1(1.805 - 0.117 +ll.m + 177.(") -1,111.7(,
Dr. 172.052 7(,.(,(, 15..... \ -lUIS + O.lll, - 7('.71 - 151..\11
/'1-" 177.11') 177.11') IUXI -1I.ll5 + 0.07 - 177.11 + 11.07
/.;\ SJ.9S 052.'13 13.08 - 0.111 + OJl2 -52AS + 1.I.1ll
L 974.14 30M8 ;1116.18 21)4.'/2 2'/S.1'} - O.JO + 0.:17 IXI.IHI IHI.OII
L 1"liulIl" =+ 11.:111 L '1e,""I"'" =- 11..17 .
-.
.,'
7
Traverse Surrey and Computations 257
:;
..,
11.13 USE OFAZ'iALYTICAL ixSURVEY
COMPUTATIO:-\S
< I .
Sincerectangular coordinates areusedincomputing latltudeand departureof a
line, rules of analytical geometry can be suitably applied in solving survey

computational problems. Moreover, withcomputers theyarehighlyefficientalso.
Thefollowing formulae ofanalyticalgeometry areuseful insurveycalculatlons.
1.DistanceDbetween twopointswithrectangular coordinates(XI')'1)and
(x:. )':). .. .
.D = ,'(XI -:('2): +(YI _.'":)2 (IL2)
2.Point(x,y) dividing thejoin of(XI' YI) and(xr- Y:) intheratioofk :I
isgivenby
_ 'Ixi +k:c: ._ 1.'"1 +kY2
(11.3}
x- I+k .\- I+k
where k andI have the samesignfor internal division and opposite signs for
externaldivision.
.3.Theslopeof aline(notparallel tothey-axis)
111 =tan e= - ,\'1
(11.4)
.'t'2 - XI
whereeistheinclination ofthelinewithpositiver-axls and(X\I YI)and(x:. )'2)
areanytwopointsof the line(Fig. 11.1-l.a). .
4.Theangle(I., measured counter-clockwise from nline,L
I
of slope111\. to
aline ofslope111: isgivenb)'
1112 - nil
(I1.5)
tanCJ. =1+1111
111:.
Twolinesareparallel ifnil =1112 andperpendicular iftIli/l/2 =- 1.
5.Areaofa triangle joining three vertices (.... " ,vI). (X2,Y2) and (x), j') in
orderis
..}- [XICr2- )') +.'('2(Y3'-- )'1)+'\)(\'1 - .....2)J
(11.6)
For polygon ' vith11 sides
Area ::1 t[XI(\':- YII) + X2(\'}- YI) + ... +
.t,,_I(\'n - ,\'n-:)+X,,(YI - ,\'11_1 ,
(11.7)
6. Equations ofastraightlineare(Figs. Jl.l -lb, c, d):
(a) Point-slope form;..y -,\'I =11/(.-: - XI)
(I1.8)
(b) Slope-intercept form. Y=IIIX +C.
(11.9)'
y-axls
./1(xz yz)
~
.// I(x,. y,)
I I
/
/
, I
/ I I
/
/
I I
/
I I
/
(J I I
o x, xz .
x-axls
(a)
4
.:!
. '
/
m=tane =y - y,
. .
/
x- x,
/
/
/
/
/
o
(b)
y y
- clb
P(x,y',)
-,
d -
- -
c+ax, +by,
b
+-======'-'
~ a +b
2
o a x o . ,. - cia
x
(c) (d)
. Fig. 11.1... Equations of :l str:lig'htline. ' ..
T
/
y
x Y
a+ti=1
-Traverse SurveyandComputations 259
(c) Intercept form
:+1..-1 (11.10)
a b - .
(d) Normal form:
c>O
b.'1
c<O (11.11)
(e)General Equation: ax + by + c =0 (b;: 0)
slope= - a/b.
y intercept =- db.
7. Thedistance of(XI. )II) fromthelineax+ by + c =0 is givenby
c+ ax\ '+b.'i
0) c>O
+b
2
according as(Xl, )',) isontheoriginornon-origin sideof theline.
;- c + ax\ +b)\
(ii) c<O
;- +b
2
according as(XI' Yl)ison theoriginornon-origin side.
N 30
Example11.3 Thefollowing traverse was runfrom stationItostationVbetween
which there occurcertain obstacles.
Line Length (m) Bearing
I-II
351.3 . N 8228'E.
041'E.
II-III . 149.3
III-IV 4-l.7.3 S 8143'E.
IV-V 213.3 S 8621'E.
It is required topeg themidpoint ofI-V.Calculate thelengthand bearing of a
linefrom stationIII totherequired point. [I.C.E.]
Solution The solution is giveninthetabular form below.
Coordinates of midpoint ofI-V, 96:j7, 107;.97 or 48.14, 539.99
Coordinates srm 17-L42,
Lengthof theline=171.13 m.
Table n.s Example 11.3
Point Line Length Bearing
Latitude '
N S
Departure
E \V
Independent
coordinates
I
" .
I-II 351.3 N 822S'E 4 6 ~ 348.27
0
I
0
II 46.04 348.27
II-III 149.3 N 30"41'E 128.38 76.22
III 174.4:! 424.49
IV '
III-IV 447.3 S 8143'E 64.57 442.61
,
109.85 867.10
IV-V 213.3 S 8621 'E 13.58 212.87
V 96.27 1079.97
() with north =tan"! 424.49 - 539.99
174.42 - 48.14
_1115.50 42')'6'41"
=tan - -- =- _
126.28
Hence reduced bearing of the line = S 4226'41"E (Fig. 11.15).
N
174.42,
424.49
IV
V
I .-.'c::::::: ~
0,0
E
Fig. 11.15' Example 11.3
Example 11.4 It is proposed to extend a straight road AB in the direction of AB
"
produced. The centre line of the 'extension passes through a small farm and in
order to obtain the centre line of the road beyond the farm a traverse is run from
B to a point' C, where A, B, and C lie in the same straight line. The following
." .!
Traverse Survey and Computations . 261
. .
angles and distances were recorded, the angles being measured clockwise from
the back to the forward station. .
ABD = 87'42' BD = 29.02 m
BDE = 28236' DE = 77.14 m
DEC = 29106'
Calculate (a) length of line EC; (b) angle to be measured at C so that the
centre line of the road can be extended beyond C; (c) chainage of C taking the
chainage of A as zero and AB = 110.34 m. [L.U.]
Solution Figure 11.16 gives a graphical presentation of the problem.
Since BDEC is a closed traverse, projections of lines along and perpendicular to
line BC will be zero. From the figure,
L.EDF = 87'42' - (360' - 28236')
. = 10"18'
L.DEC = 360' - 291'06'
= 6854'
,L.ECB = 360 - (77'2r + 6354' + 9218')
.=1212r
Angle to be measured at C for prolongation of BC = 180 - 12124'= 5836'
Projectlng along BC.
- 29.02 cos 8742' + 77.14 cos 1018' -1
2
cos 5836' - II = 0
Projecting perpendicular to BC.
29.02 sin 87'42' - 77.14 sin 10"18' - sin 5336' = 0
= 29.02 sin 87"42' - 77.1.+ sin 10=18' = 17 8? m
hence I
, sin 58:36' . -
11 =77.1'+ cos 10"18' - 17.S2 cos 58"36' - 29.02 cos 87"42'
= 65.71 m.
Chainage of C= chainage ofA + AB + BC
= 0.00+ 110.34 +65.71 = 176.05 rn,
.
.
Example 11.5 Atraverse T.4BP wasrun between thefixed stations T andP of
'which the. coordinates are:
E N
T +6155.04 +9091.73
P +6349.48 +9385.14
Thecoordinatedifferences forthetraverse legsandthedatafrom which theyare
calculated are: .
Length Adjusted Bearing 6.E 6.N
TA '354AO 21041'40" .,180.91 .- 304.75
'AB
275.82 50"28'30" + 212.75 + 175.54
BP 453.03 20"59'50" +. 162.33 +422.95
Applying theBowditch's rule, calculate thecoordinates ofA 'and B.
Solution
Correct difference of
Easting between T andP = 6349.48 - 6155.04= 194.44
Correct difference ofNorthing =9385.14 - 9091.73 =293.41
Observed difference ofEasting =212.75 + 162.33 - 180.91 =194.17m.
Observed difference ofNorthing- 304.75+ 175.54 +422.95 = 293.74m
Closing errorinEasting =194.44 - 194.17 =+0.27
Closing errorinNorthing == 293.41 - 293.74 = - 0.33.
Perimeter ofthetraverse = 1083.25.
Corrected 6.E
6.E Correction. Corrected Value
TA - 180.91 + 0.09 - .180.82
AB + 212.75 +0.07 + 212.82
. BP
+ 162.33 +0.11 + 162.44
Corrected 6.N
llN Correction Corrected Value
TA - 304.75 - 0.11 '- 304.86
AB . + 175.54 .;0.08 + 175.46
SP + 422.95 - 0.14 + 422.81
Traverse Survey arid Computations 263
Coordinates of A
+ 6155.04 - 180.82 =+ 5974.22 E
+ 9091.73 .... 304.86 = + 8786.87 N
Coordinates of B
+ 5974.22 + 212.82 = + 6187.04 E
+ 8786.87 + '175.46 == + 8962.33 N
Check
Coordinates of P
+ 6187.04 + 162.44 = + 6349.48 E
. + 8962.33 + 422.81 '= 9385.14 N
Example 11.6 The coordinates of (our points A, B,C. D are given below. Find
the coordinates of the point of intersection of the line joining A and D with the
line joining Band C.
Point .r )'
A 410.26 605.28
B 408.20 64-U2
C 402.34 595.06
D 361.50 571.46
Solution Equation of the straight line AD
:t' .... 410.26 )' .... 605.28
410.26 .... 36150 605.28 - 571.46
Equation of the straight line BC
x .... 408.20 Y .... 64-1-52
408.20 .... 40234 =64452 .... 595.06
Putting x 400 = x'
and y 600 ::: y'
the equations reduce to
x' 10.26 =48.76 =144
v' 5.28 33.82 .
x' - 10.26 =1.44y' .... 7.60
x' .... 1.44y' =2.66
I 8?0 .y' .... 4..U2
:, .... .- =.:....-..,,..,,......,..,,.....-
Similarly
5.86 49.46
or
x' - 8.20 = 0.118y' - 5.25
or
:c' .... 0.118y' = 8.20 .... 5.25 = 2.95
. Solving :,' = 2.975
..
/=0.219
:!64 Fundamentals ofSurveying
giving y = 600.219 ..
x = 402.975
Example11.7 Thecoordinates ofthe three pointsC,DandParegivenbelow.
Point :c y
C 402.34 m 595.06 m
D 361.50m 571.46 m
P 375.20m 580.22 m
Find (i)thelengthof thelineCD
(ii)Equation of theline CD andpointsat whichitcutstheaxis.
(iii)ThelengthoftheperpendiculardroppedfromPOl).thestraightlineCD.
Solution
(i) Lengthof lineCD = - 40234)2 +(57L46- 361.50)2
=284.99 m.
(ii)Equationof a inintercept form

wherea andb arethe intercepts ontheaxes
40234 +595.06 = 1
a b
+ = 1
or t(1.478 - 1.580)=- 2.8079 X
or
, b =363.26 m. .
a =- 630.52 m,
, Hence theequationoftheline
x Y
- 63052 +363.26 = 1
,Itcutsthex-axis at (- 630.52, 0) andy-axisat (0, 363.26).
(iii)Theequationof thelineintheforma." +by +C =0 is,
+363.26x- 630.52y+229042.7 = 0
Equation inthe normalform
3'63.26 630.52
_ +630.52
2
X _ +630.52
2
Y
+ ,2290427 . =0
- -./36326
2
+63052
2
Traverse Survey and Computtuions 265
. .
The algebraic sign of the radical in the denominator is chosen to be the same as
that of b.
Equation of the straight line then becomes
- 0.4992x + 0.8665y - 314.7589 = 0
Substituting the coordinates of P(375.20. 580.22) in the above form we 'get the
distance of the point P from the straight line CD. Hence the distance is
- 0.4992(375.20) + 0.8665(580.22) - 314.7589 =0.7019 m.
y
....1-
- 630.52 a
"'- X
Here c is negative and the point P is on the non-origin side. Hence the
distance is positive.
Example 11.8 . The following are the latitudes and departures of a series of
survey lines in meters.
Line Latitude in m Departure in m
AB 99.405 298.095
BC 195.375 70.110
CD 154.840 119.520
DE 41.760 129.540
A line is to be set out frorn.stationE on. a bearing of 342
0
Calculate at which
distance from A it intersects line AB. [AMIE, Nov. 1964]
Solution Taking coordinates orA as (0.0) coordinates of E
y coordinate =99.405 + 195.375 + 15.+.840 + 41.760 =491.380
x coordinate =298.095 + 70.110 + 119.520 + 129.540 =617.265 m
The bearing of the line set out from E = 4 ~
The equation of a line in point slope form,
y -.vI = m(x - ,'(1)'
-----
m = tan 8 where 8 is the angle with positive x axis. tan 8 is positive for acute
angle and negative for obtuse angle. Here 8= 90 + 18 = 108 and tan 8 = - 3.077.
As the line passes through the point (491.380, 617.265) the equation of the line
y - 491.380 =- 3.077 (x - 617.265)
=-3.077x + 1899.324.
Equation of the line AB
y - 99.405 99.405
x - 298.095 = .298.095 =0.3334
or )' - 99.405 =0.3334(x - 298.095)
=0.3334x - 99.3764
Solving x = 700.994 m
y =233.740 m
Distance from point A =../700.994
2
+ 2 ~ 3 7 4 2 = 738.936 m
11.14 PROBLEMS OF O:-'UTTED MEASURE1\.fENTS
Closed traverse is always preferable as they provide necessary checks. For such
a traverse algebraic sum of latitude is zero. Similarly, algebraic sum of departures
is also zero. Symbolically,
r,L=O r,D=O
or I, cos 8, + /2 cos O
2
+ + In COS 8
n
=O.
and
I, sin 8
1
+ Ii sin 8
2
+ + In sin 8
n
= O..
where I is the length and 8 the reduced bearing of a line.
With these two equations we can solve two unknowns or missing quantities.
The unknowns may be lengths only, bearings only or length and bearing together.
The following cases may occur
1. Bearing or length or both of one side omitted (Fig.11.18). In the closed
traverse ABCDEA, if the length, bearing, or both of the side EA has not been
measured, they can be computed utilizing the two conditions of a closed traverse,
i.e. r. D = 0 and r. L = O.
2. Length of one side andbearing of an adjacent side omitted. This is shown
in Fig. 11.19.
Here lengthof side EA and the bearing of adjacent side AB is unknown. Join
BE. BCDE is now a closed traverse and therefore, length and bearing of BE can
be determined. With known bearings of BE and EA, the inward angle a can be
determined. Applying sine principle to triangle ABE, we can write
AB BE
sin a - sin r
Traverse Survey and 'Computations, 267
..
.
B
Fig. 11.18 Bearing or length omitted.
E
Length unknown \
/ J
~
/ I
o
N I
. / \
II I
y I
A
\
I
I
c
\
Bearing unknown
{3.
Fig. 11.19 Lengthandbearing omitted.
Hence r canbedetermined.
Bearing ofAB =Bearing ofAE -+: r.
Withr known, f3 '= 180
0
- (a +r)
. .
and AE = s ~ n f3 BE.
. Sin r
Frequently, therewillbetwosolutions andapproximate shapeofthefigure must
thenbeknown. .
3.Lengths oftwo adjacent sidesomitted. Herelengths ofAE andAB are
unknown. Fromtheconditions of closed figure L L = 0 and L D =0, two
algebraic equations involving 11 and 1
2
can be obtained and solving them
simultaneously 11 and1
2
can befound out. However, as before, length and bearing
ofBE canbefound out(Fig. 11.20).
- . Since thebearings ofBA, AE andBE are known, internal angles a, f3, and
ycanbecomputed. Applying sinerule,
AB BE AE
sina = sin'I = sinf3 .
B
263 Fundamentals of SI/11'C)'ing
E
Unknown length 11 \ <.
/al
/
/ I
Unknown /"
/ I D
I
I
I
f3 I
A
length 12 ..
-.!-_---c
B
Fig.lUG Tw.o lengths emitted.
or
AB =BE s ~ a .
Sin r
and
AE = BE s ~ t3
Sin r
4. Bearings of two adjacent sides omitted. Suppose the beatings of AE and
AB have not been determined. As before length and bearing of BE are known. In
the triangle ABE lengths of the sides are known. Area of the triangle in terms of
sides.
E
b
A
c
B
Fig. 11.21 Bearings.
A = s s - a)(s - b)(s- c)
where s = a +~ +c
The angles a, t3 and r can be obtained from the relation.
lb' 1.(.1 lb'
A = 2: C Sin r= 2:
ca
SIn ~ =2: a SIn a.
5. When the two affected sides are not adjacent: In Fig. 11.22(a), the omitted
measurements are line AB and CD. Omissions may be in lengths, bearings or
in both. Since the latitudes and departures of equal parallel lines art equal,
thisproblemcan besolvedbyshiftingtheline CDuntil it isadjacenttoAB, so
as toform theclosedfigure shownin Fig. 11.22(b). Fromthe knownsidesAF,
FE, ED and DD', the length andbearingofAD'can be determined,Thenthis
becomesaproblemofomittedmeasurements ofadjacent sidesandcanbesolved
asexplained before. . . . .
B
N}, ~
IIB
..
I I
/
/ .. C
.
AB I I CD
N I I
/ . I
I /
A I I / D'
1/
I
A
o
D
F
E
(a)
Fig.1l.22 Two. non-adjacent sides ornined.
. Example11.9 Anopentraversewas runfromAtoE inordertoobtainthelength
andbearingsofthelineAEwhichcouldnot bemeasured directwiththefollowing
results:
Line AB .. BC CD
Length 102.5 108.7 92.5
W.C.B
26141; 906' 28222'
Find bycalculation therequired informati?n. . [L.V.]
Solution This is acase oflength andbearing of one line missing. The
solution isdone in tabularformgivenbelow.
Table 11.5 .Example 11.9 .
F
(b)
Line Length W.e.B R.B. Northing Southing Easting Westin;! I
AB 102.5 26141' S8141'W 14.796 101...26
i
I
Be 108.7 9
c06'
N906'E 107.331 17.190
I
CD 91.5 182'22' N773S'W 19.815 90.352 f
!
DE 125.0 7['30' N7Lo30'E 39.663 118.540
,
L
166.809 14.796 135.730 1 9 1 i 7 ~
:
,
Diffof Ncnh-South = 152.Q13 m
.
Dif(of East-Wes:
"
= 56.048 m
I ? ?
Length ofAE = +56.048- = 162.016 m
' d" d' beari fAE -I 56.048 "0013'1?"
R
e uce eanng0 = tan. 152.013 = - -
Bearing of EA is inSouth andEastquadrant. Hence bearing ofAE is in
North andWest quadrant.
. Hence wholecirclebearing ofAE is360
0
- 2013'12" =33946'48"
Example11.10 Aclockwise traverseABCDEA wassurveyed with thefollowing
, results: ' .
AB 101.01 m : LBAE = 12810'20" LDCB = 8418'10"
BC 140.24 m
CD 99.27m LCBA = 10204'30" LEDC = 12130'30"
TheangleAED andthesides DEandEA couldnot bemeasureddirectly.Assuming
no error in survey, find the missing lengths arid their bearings if AB is due
North. , [L.U.]
Solution Toobtaintheangle AED, wehave,
LAED =(2x 5':'".4)90 - [12810'20".+8418'10"
+ 10204'30" + 12130'30"]
=540=00'00" - 4363'30"
= 10356'30"
10204'30"
8
101.01
o
C "
'.
12130'30"
E
Fig. 11.23. Example u.io,
Traverse SurveyandComputations. 271
Theproblemreducestothatofemittedmeasurements oftwoadjacentsides.
The Iength andbearing'ofAD isdetermined from thetable:
Table 11.6' Example 11.10

Line Length W.C.B
,
R.B. t'orth South E:lst West
AB 10l.01 0'00'00" N 0'00'00"E ' .10\.01
BC 140.24 77:55'30" N 7755'30"E 29.34 137.14
CD 99.27 173'37'20" 5622'40" E 98.66 11.03
L
130.35 98.66 148.17
-
Difference of NorthandSouth = 31.69.
Difference of EastandWest =148.17.
LengthofAD. = .}31.69
2
+148.17
2
=151.52 m
Reduced bearingof AD.= tan-
1
148.17
. 31.69
= N 7755'48"E.
BearingofD,4 is in South andWest quadrantandhence bearing ofADisinNorth
andEastquadrant.
Wholecircle bearingof DE = 17337'20" +(180 - 12130'30")
= 232'06'50"
, .
Wholecircle bearingofDA = 25755'48"
LADE = 25'43'58"
Wholecircle bearingof AE= 128'10'20"
Wholecircle bearing ofAD =7'755'4'8":
:",LDAE = 5014'32"
" .
Hence LAED = 180- (2548'58" +5014'32'')
=103'56'30"
Applying sine rule
15152 _ AE = DE
sinlOJ
l
56'30" - sin 25:.+8'58" sin50'1'+'32"
= 15152 . 2-
0
.
1
8'-S"
or
AE
10'" -6'''0'' sin ,)'t ,)
Sin J') J
=67.99 m.
DE = 151.52 sin5014'32"
sin 10356'30"
= 120.01 m
Bearing of AE = 12810'20"
Bearing of EA =+ 18000'00"
30810'20"
Bearing of DE = 23206'50"
Example 11.11 . In a traverse the following lengths and bearings were measured.
Side Length em)
Bearing
AB 130.00
N 3842' W
BC 180.00 .
N 4530' E
CD 163.00
N 6234' E
DE 180.00
EA
Compute the missing length and bearing..
Solution. This is a case of omitted measurements of adjacent sides. Here
bearing of DE and length of EA are missing (Fig. 11.24).
D
B
A
l" ',.
.Northing of AD =130cos 384i' + 180 cos 4530' + 163 cos 6234'
. =101.46 + 126.16 + 75.10
=302.72 m..
L- _
Traverse S/lrve)' andComputations 273
.
I
Easting of AD = -1.30 sin 3842'+ 180 sin"4530' + 163 sin 6234'
=:- 81.28 +128.39 + 144.67
,
,
= 191.78
Length of AD =358.36 m
Bearinz of AD - tan-I 191.78
'" - 302.72
= N 322100''E
Bearing of'AE =7500'00"
Bearing of AD = 3221'00"
LDAE = 4239'00"
Applying sine principle
AD _ DE _ AE
sin AED - sin DAE- sin ADE
sin AED._ ADsin DAE
- DE
= i ~ ~ sin 4239'40"
= 0.914
LAED =6606'00"
LADE = 180 - (4239' + 6606')
= 7115'
AE - 35836 sin 7115'
- 0.914
= 371.27 m
Bearing of DA =3221'00" + 18000'00",
= 21221'00"
LADE =7115'00"
Bearing of DE = 14106'00"
Example 11.12 In a traverse the following lengths and bearings were measured:
Side Length (m) Bearing Side Length Bearing
AB N 3030' E DE S 2015' E
Be 140 m S 8015' E EF 155 m N 8530' W
CD 185 m S 1515' W FA '115 m N 1812' W
..
Compute the missing sides.
27.J Fundamentals of Surveying
',' '. Solution Thisisaproblem where length oftwonon-adjacent sidesofthe
closed traverse aremissing. Arouzh sketch of the closedtraverse isshown in Fi!.
- . - . "'"
11.25 (a). .
' .
.
Bymoving parallely, the two non-adjacentsidesAB andDE aremodeadjacent,
(Fig. 11.25b).
B
E
N '"
/ ,
" \
\
N
/
" \
, \
/
,
" \
\
/
/
. . \ 'B'
/
c --___ I
A..-----------
. -----;".J
/
A
D
c
\
\
\
,E -, ,
(a) (b)
Fig..11.25 Example 11.12.
Total latitudeofAB' = +140 cos8015'+185cos 15
c15'
- 155 cos853Q' 1)15.cos'
= 140x 0.169 +185 x 0.96 155x 0,078- 115 x 0,949
. . . .'
= +79.92 m.
Total departure ofAB' = - 140 x sin8015'+185sin 1515'
, '
+155 sin8530'+115sin 1812'
= - 137.97 +48.66+154.22+35.92
=+101.13 "'.
Length AB' = ..f79.92
2
+101.13
2
=128.89 m.
. , '
BearinzofAB' =tan-I 101.13 =
o 79.92 .
. .... .- 3030' .
Bearing ofAE =2110'48".
BearingofB'E.= N20
015'W
WholecirclebearingofB'E =33945'
. : '..
WholecirClebearingofB'A,=
; :.
, '
.. L AB'E 10804'12" .. ==
t .",

Traverse SlIT>Jey and Computations. 275

,LAEB.', = 180 - (2110'48' + 10804'12")

Applying sine rule
AB'
sinAEB'
B'E
AE
= 180 :... 12915'
= 5045'
= B'E = AE
sinB'AE sinAB'E
=AB' B'AE
smAEB'
128.89 x sin 2110'48"
=
= 60.18 rn.
Ail' x sin AB'E
= ':"':'::;-s-=-'i :....=.
c
= .:.;12:=,,!S:::.;.S:.:;9....,;x-:-=si-:=:n=,=,107'8:-:o.+;:..c'c...';,,:1 2:-"
'sin 5045'
= 158.231 m
11.15 FINDING l\IISTAKE IN TRAVERSING
For a closed traverse, theclosing error can always be computed, either analytically
or graphically. If a line is found to be parallel to the closing error, it can be
surmised that the closing error is due to faulty measurement along that line. The
amount of closingerror is thelinear mistake andthe measurement of the concerned
, line shouldbe checked. However, when the closing error is not parallel to anyline
the perpendicular bisector of the closing error when produced passes through the
opposite station. In that case, mistake is suspected at this angle and a correction
to this angle will swing the traverse through an arc to eliminate the closing error, .
These are shown in Figs. 11.26(a) and (b). .
Example 11.13 The field results of a closed traverse are: ,
Line Whole circle'bearing Length (m)
AB 50.60
BC 6349' 91.08
CD 8913' 67.06
DE 16055' 61.57
EF 26402' 41.15
258
018'
FA, 121.62
The observed values of the included angles. Check satisfactorily but there is ?
mistake in the length of a line. Which length is wrong andby how much? As the
.. --0
276 Fundamentals of Sun'eying
B
A
\\
~ \ \ \
-,
Closing line "-
... parallel to BC '\ D'
Ii
'-- ---1 C
Perpendicular to
closing error
II
II
'I
A
Swing of the arc
(b)
Fig. 11.26 Mistake in traversing.
lengths are measured by an accurate 30 m chain suggest how the' mistake was
made. [I.e.E.]
Solution Total Northing and .Southing:
=50.60 cos 000' + 91.08 cos 6349' + 67.06'cos 8913'.
_ 61.57 cos 1905' - 4US cos 8402' - 121.62-cos 7818'
= 50.60 + 40.19 + 0.92 - 58.19 - 4,28 - 24.66
.. -,
= 4.58 m
Total of Eastlng and Westing
=50.60 sin 000' + 91.08 sin 6349' + 67.06 sin 8913'
.' t
..
+ 61.57 sin 1905' - 41.15 sin 8402' -"121.62 sin 7818'
=0.00 + 81.73 + 67.05 + 20.13 - 40.92 - 119.09
= 8.9 m
_Traverse Survey and Computiuions 277
'i.
Closing error=";458
2
+ 8.9
2
= 10.00 m
Bearing ofclosing error=tan-I ~ : ; ~

=62'46'9.63"
which isclosetobearingofBC .Hence itcanbesurmised thatamistake inlength .
of10mhasbeenmade inthelineBC. Themistake isduetotalliesbeingsimilarly,
looking for10 mand20rn, a difference of 10rn.
Example ~ The tablebelowgives theforward and back quadrantal bearings
of a closed compass traverse. Tabulate the whole circle bearingscorrectedfor
local attraction indicating clearlyyourreasons foranycorrections,
Line Length (m) Forward bearing Backbearing
AB 130 N 55" E S 54 \V
BC 66 S 67
1
/
2
E N 66' W
CD 65 S 25 W 1'1 25 E
DE 56 S 7;' W 1'1 75
1
/
2
' E
EA SS 1'1 64
1
/
2"W
S 63
1
/
2
E
Agrossmistake hasbeenmadeinthemeasurement orbookingofoneofthe
lines. Statewhich lineisinerror. Using thiscorrected lengthadjustthedeparture
andlatitude of each lineof the traverse toclose,usingBowditch's method of
corrections. (L.U,]
Solution From checkingofforbearing.and backbearing, itcanbeseen that
line CD isfreefrom local attraction. Hencethestations CandD are free from
local attraction.
Thewhole circlebearingofthelinesare:
F.B. B.B.
AB 55 234
Bt
.. 112
1
/
2
294
CD
DE
EA.
Bearing of CB =29-1-
Bearing ofBC = 114
Observed benring ofBC
Local attraction atB
Bearing ofBA
Bearing ofAS
Observed bear:.1g ofAB
Local attraction atA
205" 25
2 ~ 7 75
1
/
2
295
1
/
2
.116
1
/2
=112
1
/
2
= 1
11
2
=235
1
ho
= 55
1
/
2
= 55
= 1/2'
278 Fundamentals ofSurvcyin;
Bearing ofDE =
Bearing ofED =77
Observedbearing ofED =
Local attraction atE =
Correctbearing ofEA ='295'/-/ +1'/
2

= 297
Bearing ofAE =117
Observed bearingof.4 = 116'ho
..
Local attraction atA = 112
Hencethelinesandthecorrected bearings are:
Diffinlatirude=15.23
Diffin departure = 6.99
Closing error = 16.75 m
Bearing:::: tan-I S 24.65W
:>.-
Table11.7 Example 11.14
Line Length(m) Whole Q.B. Latitude Departure
circlebearing
N S E W
AB 130 55'30' N 5530'E 73.63 107.14-
BC
66 .
114' . S 66'E 26.84 60.29
CD 65 205' S 25"W 58.91 27.47
DE 56 257' . S 77 W 12.59 54.56
EA 88 297
0
N63W 39.94 78.41
113.57 98.34 167.43 160.44
Sincethebearingoftheclosingerrorisalmost parallel tolineCD. theerrorhas
occurred inthisline.Furthertheamountofclosing errorisverylargecloseto .
20mchainwhichmayhave been used. Hence itcanbetakenthatlength of CD
shouldbe65+20 = 85 m.
Adjustment ofthe traverse.
Table Example 11.14
Line Length w.e. bearing Reduced bearing Latitude Departure
N S E W
AB 130 5530' N 55"30'E 73.63 107.14
BC 66 114"00' S 6600'E 26.84 60.29
CD 85 205'00' S 2500'W 77.04 35.92
DE 56 25700' S 7700'W 12.59 54.56
EA 88 29700' N 6300'W 39.94 78.41
L
113.57 116.47 167.43 168.89
"
diff =2.90 diff =1.46
----- __..___._ .
..... ... _.........._- -_._--_.---
Traverse Sur vey and Computations 279
.'
.
Corrections
Tobie 11.9 Example 11.14
Line N S E W
Corrected values
x S E \V
AS + 0.89 + 0.45 74.52 107.59
BC - OA5 + 0.23 26.39 60.52
CD - 0.5S
.; 0.29 76046 35.63
DE - 0.33 - 0.1-9 12.21 5U7
EA + 0.60 - 0.30 40.54 75.11
L
01- 1.49 - 1.-11 + 0,68 -O.iS 115.06 115.06 168.11 16S.11
PROBLE:\IS
11.1 (a) Amantravels fromapointA toduewestandreaches thepointB. The
disrance betweenAandB = 139.6 rn. Calculate the latitudeanddeparture
of theline AB. . .
(b) What is'closingerror'ina theodolite traverse?Howwouldyoudistribute
the closing errorgraphically? .
(c) Inaclosedtraverse 'latitudes' anddepartures ofsideswerecalculated
and itwas observedthat .
L latitude= 1.39
2. departure = -,2.17.
Calculate thelengthof bearingofclosingerror. [AM1E, Winter1978]
11.2 Fromacommon point A, traverses are conducted oneither side of a harbour
asfollows:
Traverse(1)
Line Length(m) Bearing
AB 200 8526'20"
Be 100
1isolO'40"
Traverse(2)
Line
'AD
Length (rn)
.,,-
__ J
. Bearing
17350'00"
DE 500 8506'40"
CalculatethedistancefromCtoapointF onDE duesouthof Candthe
distanceEF.
[AMIE Winter1979J
11.3 Inordertofix apointF. exactlymidway betweenAandE, atraverse was
run as follows:
Line
AB
BC
CD
DE
Length Bearing
-WO m 30
500m 00
600m 300
0
400m 30
Assuming pointA as origin.calculate(a) the independentcoordinatesof
pointsC.E and F; (b)thelengthandbearingof CF.
.. [A!\lIE Summer 19S0J
11.4.'An abstractfrom a traversesheetfor a closed traverse is given below:
Line Length(m) Latitude Departure
AS 200 .- 173.20 + 100.00
BC 130 0.00 + 130.00
CD 100 + 86.00 + 50.00
DE 250 +'250.00 +0.00
EA 320 - 154.90 - 280.00
...:'
(a) Balance the traversebyBowditch'smethod.
(b) Giventhecoordinates ofA,200N,OOE, determinethecoordinatesof
otherpoints.
(c) Calculatethe enclosedarea inhectares bycoordinate method.
[AMIEWinter 19S0)
11.5. The bearings of two inaccessible stationsA and B taken from stationC
were 225
e
OO' and 15316' respectively. The coordinatesofA andB were
as under:
Station Easting Northins
. c
A 300 200
B
,400
150
~ V
Calculate the independentcoordinatesof C. [AMIEWinter 1981)
11.6. It isnotpossible to measurethelengthand fix the direction of lineAB :
.directly on account of an obstruction between the stations A and B. A
traverse ACDB was,therefore, runand following data wereobtained:
Line Lengthinm Reducedbearing
AC 45 N50
0
E ,
CD 66 S 70
0
E
DB 60 S 30
0
E
~ ..
Findthe length and directionof line BA. It was also required to fix a
stationEonlineBA. ItwasalsorequiredtofixastationEonlineBA such
thatlineDE willbe.perpendiculartoBA. Ifthereisnoobstructionbetween
stationsA andE calculatethedatarequiredforfixingthestation.Graphical
solutionwill notbe accepted. [AMIESummer 1982)
.Traverse Survey andComputations 281
'..
11.7. (a) Explainbrieflythe different methodsofchecking the correctnessof
angularobservations in an opentheodolite traverse.
.
,
(b) Following table give data ofconsecutive coordinates in respectof a .
closedtheodolite traverse ABCDA.
Station N S E W
A 300.75 200:50
B 200.25 299.25
C 299.00 199.75
D 200.00 300.50
From theabovedatacalculate:
(i) Magnitude anddirection of closingerror...
(ii) Corrected consecutivecoordinatesofstationB using transitrule,
(iii) Independent coordinates ofstationB if thoseofA are 100,100.
Winter1982J
11.8. (a) Explain why transit rule is more suitable than Bowditch rule for
adjustment ofaclosed theodolitetraverse.
. (b) .Partofdataandcalculationsinrespectofaclosed theodolitetraverse
ABCD.4. areas under:
Line Lengthinm R.B. Northing. Southing Easting, Westing.
AS
S 30.00
BC N45E 49.50
CD
DA 51.65 63.15
Complete theabovetableinallrespects ifthereisnoclosingerrorfor the
traverse. Summer 1933]
11.9. Statethevarious methodsofbalancingaclosedtraverse.Stateunderwhat
circumstances eachone is preferred.
11.10. AlineACof2krn length was measured tobesetoutat rightanglestoa
givenlineAB.This was done bytraversing fromAto Cas follows:
Line Length Bearing
AB 360
0
<
AD 750 m 120
0
DE 500 m
SOo
EF 600 m 105'
Compute thelengthand bearing ofFe. Summer 1935]
Ll.ll. (a) What are the different rnathernaticul methods of adjusting a closed
traverse? Explainclearly wherethesemethods are usedand why.
(b) A andB are twostations of:10 opentraverse andtheirindependent
coordinates areas follows:
Station Latitude (rn) Departure (01)
A 27'+56.8 6007.2
B 26936.0 7721.6
. Itisproposed toconstruct arailway track from Croughly south-ofA. to
D.roughly north ofB. While CandDarenot intervisible, the perpendicular
offsets from thetraverse stations totherailway track aremeasured tobe
AC=104mandBD =57.6m. Determine thewholecircle bearing ofCD.
o [ ~ H Winter 1986)
11.12. (a) Whatis meantbyclosingerror in a closedtraverse and how is it
..adjusted graphically?" .
(b) The measured lengths andbearings of thesideof a closedtraverse .
ABCDErun in thecounter-clockwisedirectionandaretabulatedbelow.
. Calculate thelengths CD andDE.
AB 298.7 0"0'
.
BC 205.7 N2512'W
.
CD ? S75"06'W
, .
DE ? S5624'E
EA 21304 N3536'E
[ ~ l I Summer 1989).
11.13 Thefollowing notes refertoII closedtraverse.Computethe missingquantities.
AB 715 S60"00'E
BC 1050 ?
CD 1250 ?
DE 950 S5530'W
EA 575 S02"45'W.
[AMIEWinter1990)
11.14. Tofix astation F, exactlymidway between stations A andE. a traverse
wasrunasfollows:
AB 400
300'
BC 500 00".
CD 600 300
0
.
DE 400 30
0

'.

AssumingstationA, as,origin, calculate-s-
(a) theindependent coordinates ofstations C,E andF. '
(b)the andbearing of CF. Summer1991]
HI:\TS TO SELECfED
. 11.1 (0) Graphical method basedon Bowditch'srule.has been explained in
Chapter9forcompasssurvey. Sometimes itisalsoused foratheodolite
traverse oflowaccuracy.
11.8 (a) In the transitrule, the angles are changed lessbut the lengths are
changedmore. Compared to thisinBowditch's rule,thelengths are
chanzedlessandtheanzlesarechanzedmore. Intheodolite traverse
angl;s areaccurately measured withilieodolite whereas measurement
of length withchain or tape is of lesseraccuracy. Hence for adjustment
transitruleis more appropriate.
..
: ,
12
.Curves
12.1 INTRODUCTION
avoid abrupt changeofdirection curves areintroduced between two straights
both in the horizontal and vertical plane. Curves can be broadly classified as
follows. .
Curves

*

Horizontal curve Vertical curve.
t

Circular Transition Combined
!
J J
*
Simple Compound Reverse Cubic Clothoid Cubic Lemniscate
Parabola Spiral
12.2 BASIC
Figure 12.1 shows a simple circularcurve.
C
Forward

II
I
II
o
Fig. 12.1 Basic elements of a curve.
2S-t
.'
.....,
..
I
, ,
.,
..
'9:-'::
. .__J
CII/"\'es 285
Two straight lines AB and BC intersect at the point B. The cur.... e TIDT!
to make the change of direction from AB to BC smooth. AB is the back tangent
or rear tangent. B is the vertex or point of inter section. L1 is the deflection angle.
.
,
It is the angle by which the straight line Be deflects from the straight line AB. T
1
is the point of curvature. It is a point on the back tangent from where the curve
starts. T
2
is the point of tangency. It is a point on the forward tangent at the end
of the curve. TIB and T
2B
are tangent distances. They are equal. BD, the distance
between the vertex B and midpoint D of the curve is called external distance. T
1
T
z
is the long chord. E is the middle point of the long chord and DE is the mid
. ordinate. T
1DT2
is the length of the curve. Ifthe deflection angle is clock wise,
the curve is II right hand curve. When the deflection angle is aruiclockwise, the
curve is aleft hand curve.
12.2.1 DESIGNATION OF A CURVE
A curve can be designated either in terms of radius (R) or the degree of a curve.
The degree of a curve (D) is defined as the ringle subtended at the centre by 110
arc or chordof standardlength which is usually thelength of a chain. Arc definition
is generally used in highway practice and the chord definition in railway practice.
.. .
Relationshipbetween radius and degree of a curve: According to arc definition
the degree of a curve is equal to the angle subtended at the centre by an arc of .
30 m. From Fig. 12.2(a),
D-(3600) (30) _ 1718,87
(12.1)
a - 2rrR - R
o
(a)
o
(b)
Fig. 12.2 Degree of a curve.
..'
According to the chord' definition the degree of acurve is equal to the angle
subtended at the centre by a chord of 30 m length. From Fig. 12.2(b)
. D,. 15
Sln- =-
2 R
For small angle sin :: DJ2 radian. Therefore,
2S6 Fundamentals ofSurveying
D =360.!1
or
r tt R
_ 171887
(J2.2)
- R
It is seenthatthe arc definition and thechorddefinition giveidentical results
when thedegreeofcurveissmall.
12.2.2 ELEMENTS OFASIMPLE CURVE
The following equations canbederivedfrom Fig. 12.1.
1. Lengthofcurve(1): Length ofthecircularcurve T
1DT2
isgivenby
2i.R) rrRJ
1=(360 (J)=1800'
2. Tangent lengthT: Tangent lengthis given by
TIB=T
2B
=RtanfJ2.
3. Chainage oftangentpoints: Thechainage of intersection pointB is
generally known, Subtracting thetangent length T,
Chainage of T
1
=chainage ofB- T.
Chainage of T
2
=chainage ofT
1
+length ofcurve(l)
h . f T rrRJ
=c amage a " I + 1S00
Chainge isusuallyexpressed asnumberoffullchainsandpartlengthofachain.
Forexample, a chainageof4125.5mwith 30mchain=137fullchains+ 15;5
m=137+15.5. .
To avoid confusion lengthofthechain should beclearlyspecified.
4. Length of longchord=TIET,. =2 xR sin&2
= 2R sintJ/2.
5.External distance orapexdistance =BD.
=OB- OD=R sec &2 - R.
6.Midordinate=OD- OE
=R- Rcos tJ/2 = R(l - cosfJ2).
12.2.3 SETTINGOUTOFACURVE
Acircularcurvecanbesetoutby(i) Linearorchainandtapemethodwhenno
anglemeasuringinstrument isused;(ii)Instrumentmethods inwhich atheodolite.
tacheometer ora totalstationinstrument is used. "
."
..
. ell ryes 287
Chain and tape methods
.

1. Offsets from tile long chords Usually the lines AB and BC (Fig. 12.3) :ire
.. already plotted on theground. The deflection :lngle .!1 may be set out very accurately
o
Fig. 12.3 Offsets from long chords.
by means of a theodolite. Lengths BT BT! and TIT! are calculated, Points TIl T!
and the midpoint E of T
I
T! are obtained on the field. If L is the length oflong
chord TIE = U2 -.
and
OE = ~ R 2 _ (U2)!
and DE =R - ~ R - (U2l
To get y at any distance x from E, from the triangle OPP.
x! + O P ; ~ =R!
or
(0 + y)! =R" ., ...(!
R ~ ~
OE + Y =" --.'t'-
,
(12.3)
Dividing the long chord into an even number of parts, points on the curve can be
obtained with corresponding values of .r.
2S8 FllIldamcntals of Surveying
2. Offsetsfrom the tangents Curves can also be set out by measuring offsets from
the tangents. The offsets from the tangent be either radial or perpendicular to
the tangent.
Radial offset (Fig. 12.4): From the triangle OT
1
Q
. OT? + 1jQ2 =
or '
or
or
2
R- +.r =(R + y)
R +Y = ../R
2
+x
2
)' = ../R2 +x
2
- R
" _ '( ')' ,
'=R 1+
R2 '
= R(l +L) -R
2R
2
";;
= -
2R
(12.4)
.
A
.0
c
Fig. 12.4 Offsets from tangents.
Perpendicular offset: From the triangle OPP
1
(Fig, 12.5)'
, Op
2
=OP
I
2
+ pp?
R
2
=(R _ )')2 + .r?-
(R - y)2 = R
2
- .r?-
.'
;. ,
-J' .,
R -)' = R- - x:
(l2.5)
Curves 289
..
,
.
.
A c
Fig. 12.5 Perpendicular offset.
=R _ R (1- ,\,2)112
. R
2
:
i
=R-R+-"
2R
(12.6)
2R
3. Offsets from the chord produced This method has the advantage that not all
the land between T. and T
2
(Forward Tangent point, not shown in Fig.jneed be
accessible. However, to have reasonable accuracy the length of the chord chosen
should not exceed RIlO. The method has a drawback that error in locating is carried
forward to other points.The method is based on the premise that for small chords,
the chord length is small and approximately equal to the arc length (Fig. 12.6).
F'
..
A
Fig. 12.6 Offsets from chord produced.
o
o
Fromthe property of circleit" the angle LBTIF = 8,
TheangleatthecentreLT, OF = 201
C
J
= chord T,F::. arc T,F = 'loIR.
or
01
C
1
=2R
Thefirstoffset 0, =",D,
C, C,l
= C,2R = 2R
Thefirstchord C, iscalled asubchord. The lengthof thesubchordisso
adjusted that the chord length when added to the chainageof T, makes the
chainageofF afullchain.SubsequentchordlengthsCll C
3
; ... areallfullchains.
T,E isnowproducedto F' suchthalFP= C
l
, a fullchain.
= c,(C, + C
l
) .
.;. 2R 2R
~
=2R (C1 + C2)
Similarly
C
3
0 3 = 2R (C2 + C3)
but
C
l
=C
3
=C
n
- 1
hence
Thelastoffset. (12.7)
whereC
n
_, isafullchainandC
n
isthe lastsubchordwhich isnormally lessthan
onechain.
Instrumental Methods
1.Tape and Theodolite method Inthismethod atapeisusedformakinglinear
. measurements and a theodolite is used for makingangularmeasurements. The
method isalsoknownastheRankine method, thetangential angle methodorthe
deflection angle method.The method is accurate and is usedin railways and
highways (Fig.12.7). .
..
LetT,FH bepartofacircularcurve with Tittheinitial tangent point.Then
T,F is the[irstsubchordwhich isnormally less than 1chain, .
Then frompropertyofcircle
C, = ~ i R
"Curves 291"
o
Fig. 12.7 Tape: and thecdolhe method.
or
.'
C1 180
= 2Rrr
" .
C
1
180 x60 minute
= 2R t:
= 1718.87 ~ I minute (12.8)
Therefore, tolocatethepointF withthehelpofatheodoliteandtape,theinstrument
isset at T\ and the lineofsight isputatanangle 8.ascomputedabove. Then
withthehelpofatapeandrangingrod,thetope isputalongthelineofsightand
distance CI is thenmeasured tolocateF along thelineof sight.Similarly,
s, = 1718.87
C ~
Ii minute
ot_
Sincethe theodoliteremainsatT
I
, H issightedfromT.by mensuring d,+ ~ =
.1: from the tangent line.The pointH is located with the help ofa" tope and
rangingrod.The tapewiththerangingrodissoadjusted thatthetapemeasures
FH = C"and the ranging rod liesalongthelineofsightTIH.
Similarly.
Ll" =8
1
+ 5z + 8
J
+ ... + 8"
Inpractice C\ is thefirst subchord andCII the last subchord, C
2
=C
3
=.. , =C"_1
arefullchain lengths.Asacheckthedeflection angle Ll" forthe: lastpointT: is
equal to ~ where.1is theangleof intersection.
292 Fundamentals of 5111....eying
2. Two-thcodotites method In thismethod 1\\"0 theodolites areused oneatT
1
and
theotherat T
2
(Fig. I:!.S). FrC'111 thegeometry ofacircle ifthetangential angle
BT1F is 01' then the angle at the circumference is also 8
1
, ()J can be
.
..
,.
computed :IS before.One theodolite isplaced atT
1
and theangle 01 issetoutwith
respect to tangent TJB. Similarly thesecond theodolite is placed at T,! and the
angle6
1
is measured withrespect to Aranging rodis moved suchthat it
intersects boththelinesofsights andlocatesthepoint F. TolocatethepointG.
theinstrument at T\ issetoutat 0\ + 02 = Similarly instrument at T
2
is set
at62 6
1
+ 8
2
from T:.TI' Theintersection ofthetwo lines ofsightlocates the
pointGwhich isfoundwith thehelpof a ranging rod. Themethod isaccurate
though expensive astwotheodolites withtwoinstrument menareinvolved. Ii is
specially convenient when theground is rough and accurate chaining is notpossible.
..Theerror is notcarried forward a,s eachpointisfixed independently.
v, z-:::;,. ') T2
IE
o
Fig. U.S Two-iheodolhes method.
3. Total station instrument method A total station instrument consists of an
opticaltheodolite tomeasure angle andanE.DS1 tomeasure distance. Theradial
stakeout technique is used forthesettingoutof 3 curve (Fig. 12.9).
The following are thesteps:
(a)Theinstrument issetupatA whosecoordinatesareknown fromprevious
control survey.
(b) Takeaback'sigbt to another pointB ofknown coordinates.Thereference
.azimuth canthen becalculated as:
',.
aAS =tan:" E
s
- E
A
(12.9)
No -
(c) Coordlnates forcurvepointsare determined by the deflection angles
from.the tangent which are computed before hand. Let the coordinates of the
intersectionofthetangents beNpt.E
p
/. azimuth'of-the back tangent eel. intersection
angle.J andcurve radiusR. then thecoordinates ofthepointof curvatureare:
-I

B
(Ne.E
a)
.a
2"
Curves. 293
Fig. 12.9 .Total station instrument method.

(12.1 0)
. Nrc =Nn - R tan tJ/2 cos Ct,
(12.11)
Epc::; En - R tan tJ/2 sirt (XI
(d) Curve point coordinates are then calculated as:
(12.12)
N.r =N + (2R sin .1x) cos (X, + Lir)
pc
(12.13)
E = Epc + (2R sin Lit)'sin (Ct. + Lir)
z
Here .d.r is the total deflection angle for point .r. It is positive for clockwise and
negative for counter-clockwise rotation. -
(e) The required layout angle is then given by .
. -I (E.r - Ell) . (12.14)
Layout angle tan . N _ N - (XAB.
. .r. A .
where the measurement is clockwise from the reference backsight.
(f) The horizontal distanceis computed from coordinates.
. '. . , .' '.
(12.15)
Layout distance [(J'l:" - NAf + (E,! - E,\)2]ln
12.2.4 PROBLEMS IN SETTING OUT CURVES
The following difficulties rna)' occurinsetting out 3 curve: (i) point of intersection
., of tangents not visible, (ii) initial tangent point not accessible. and (iii) final
tangent point not accessible. '
Point oj intersection oj tangents not accessible (Fig. 12.10)
1. Locate points M and N on AB and Be respectively.
o
29-l Fundamentals of Surveying
;"...1
.'
.

c
Fig. 12.10 Point of intersectionof tangent not visible,
2. Measure angles a andf3 with a theodolite and length lItNwith a chain or
tape.
BM MN
3. Then
sinj3 =sin .J
or
BA! = MN sin f3
sin J
Similarly
BN =M ~ s i n a
SIO L1
4. Calculate MT
1
=BTl -BM
NT
2
=BT'1- BN
5.: Thus T. and T
2
can be located from M and Nrespectively and the curve,
can be plotted from T
I
Initial tangent point not accessible (Fig. 12.11)

In this case. the 'CUrve has to be set out from the second tangent point T
2
Let the
first chord be T
2E.
The anglesubtended at T
1
=11/2 - ae.
This is equal to BT
2E
as the angle between the chord and tangent is equal
to the angle at the circumference. Since the scale graduations read clockwise the
vernier should be set :It 0-0with pointing towards T
2B
and should be set out at
360
0
- (,1/2 - aE)or'360 - tJ/2 +aEfor pointing towards T
2E.
Similarly to locate
Dangle reading should be 360
0
- (LV2 - aD)' ",
Final tangent point not. accessible (Fig. 12.12)
. . .'", .
1.Two pointsMandNareselected on Bewhichare accessible. By measuring
MQ and QN and if MQN is'made a right angle then MN = ~ M Q +QN
2
7-
Curves 295
'.
:
A
c
Fig. 12.11 Inaccessible Initial tangent point.
M

..
N
A
c
Fig. 12.12 Inaccessible, final tangen] point.
2. BT
2
is known and Bivi Is measured, hence MT
2
is known.
3. T2N then is equal toMIY ':'MT;'.
4. The chainage of N is equal to chainage of T
I
plus length of the curve T
1
T2
12.2.5 OUT CURVE I;';TER:-'lEDlATE POINT
Two cases may arise:
. .
CASE I The instrument is set up at a point D which is visible from T,. the initial
tangent point (Fig. 12.13).
1. Let point D be visible from T
1
but point is not visible.
2. Shift the instrument to D and make the reading 0-0.
-,
A
. i
c
III
I
Fig, 12.13 Selling outfrom intermediate visible point.
3.Pointtowards T
1
andthen plunge thetelescope sothatDD' isobtained.
4.Thedirection ofDE isthen obtained bymeasuring clockwise ~ ~ = ~ j +
i,
....
Os asoriginally obtained.
'
,.
CASE 11 Whentheinstrument issetupata pointE which isnotvisiblefromT
1
(Fig. 12.14).
, 1.Setu ~ theinstrument'atE andfix vernierat~ D
2.Pointtowards Dandreverse thelineofsight.Thepointing isnowalong
ED'.
A
c -,
..
Fig; 12.14
o
o
Sellingoutfrominvisiblelntermediate point.
-------_.. - - --- -
. CIlT1leS 297
;
'.
.
3. Rotate the upper plate through Os + 06. i ~ m k e the total reading .6
6
to
locate point F.
, '.
f
12.2.6 SEmNG OUT THE CURVE FRO;:..t THE POINT OF INTERSECTION
Theprocedure is based on the following geometrical relations. Let D be the point
which is to be located (Fig: 12.15). DD.is perpendicular on the tangent BTl' GD
is drawn parallel to BTl' In the triangle BD1D
DD
1
TIG'
tan c
=BD. =BT. - D
J
Tj
=
r.G
B1j - GD
R - R cos 8
., tan c
=
R tan.6 12 - R sin 8
1- cos 8
=
tan.6/2 - sin 8
o
Fig. 12.15 Setting out from the point of intersection.
If the curve is divided into ten equal parts.
2.6 .
81 =.dIIO, 82 =10' .... 8n =.6
To locate the point D. the instrument is set up at B and making an angle ell
calculated corresponding to 8i- As the rotation is anti-clockwise if the reading is
zero-zero along BTl. the reading along BD will be (360 - ell)' The length TID
will be I11O. With zero of tape at T
to
and ranging rod at I110. the tape is swung
till the angle ell is bisected. Similarly for other points.
A
c
12.2.7 PASSING A CIRCLLAR CURVE THROrGH A FIXED
It is necessary to find the radius of a circular curve tangential to AB and Be and
.-
passing through the point P. Let the origin of the coordinate system be at B. the
.
intersection point, X axis along the back tangent and Y axis at right angles to it
as shown in Fig. 12.16; Then the coordinates of the point 0 are - R tan &2 and
- R. If the length BP and the angle eare known, the coordinates Xp and Y
p
of the
.point P are known. Here
Xp =- BP cos 8 =- 2 cos 8
Yp = - BP sin 8 = - 2 sin 8
o
A
c
I
Fig. 12.16 Passing a circular curve through a fixed point.
Equation of a circle having origin at 0 (- R tan &2, - R) and passing through the
point P (-2 cos e. - 2 sin. e) is:
R
2
= (- 2 cos e+ R tan 1:./2)2 + (- Z sin e+ R)2
As Z, e, L1 are known a solution for R can be found.
12.3 lNTERSECTION OF ALINE A1\"D CIRCLE
This can be determined if the equation of the straightline and the equation of the
circleare known. Let coordinates of A and B be (X
A
YA) and (X
s
, Y
s
) respectively
(Fig. 12.17). The equation of the straightline passing through A and B is
Y
s
- 1':4 _ Yp - 1':4
X
s
-: Xp -X....
..
Similarly the equation of a circle of radius R, centre 0 (X
o,
Yo) and passing
through point P (Xp Y
p
). is given by
. , . . . , '. ;. 2 ..
R- = (X
p
, -X
o
)- + yo) _. _.
Clines 299
Y
o
(X
o
Yo)
x
o
Fig. 12.17 Intersection of a line and :I circle.
Solving the above two equations simultaneously a quadratic equation-of the form
ayt + bYp + C = 0
is obtained from which Y
p
and then X
p
can be obtained.
12.3.1 OF TWO CIRCULAR CURVES
I
This can be solved by writing equations when coordinates of the centres of the
curves and radii of the curves are known (Fig. 12.18).
I
y .
,I"
,
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
R
2
...
...
...
...
...
I
I
,
R
l
...
...
J
I
I
.
0\ (X
OI
' Y
OI
)
X
Fig. 12.18 Intersection of two circles,
The equation of a circle passing through (Xp i'p) with radius R1 and centre
01(XOI' Yo,)
I
i
II
is
Similarly with O
2
at centreandradius R
2
(Xp - Xo:'l +(Yp - Yo:i = Rj
Fromtheabovetwoequations two unknowns Xp, Yp canbeobtained.
12.3.2 CURVE PASSING TANGENTIAL TO THREE U;--:ES
LetAD, DE andEe be three lines (Fig. 12.19). It is requiredto drawacircle
touching thethreelines.Ifthecircle touches thelinesatTitT
3
andT:!o then from
Fig. 12.19 ". "
TID =DT
3
= R tan0:12
. .
T-jE =ET
2
=R tanfJl2 "
Then.
R tanaJ2 +R tan[3/2 =DE
or
R =_--:-:"=..D=..E_'
tana/2 +tan[3/2
'.
A
,-'0,
Example 12.1 Forthecircular curves having radiusR (a) 250rn,(b)500m,
(c) 1200rn, what is thl7ir degreeof curve by (i) arc definition; (ii) chord
definition?
a
Fig. 12.19 Curvetangential to three lines.
Curves 301
Solution.
(a)
D 360" x 30 =' 360x =6.8750
II 2;:R 2rrx2:>0

DC' =' 2sin-I 1;:;;2sin"! 2
1;0
=6.879"
_ 360"x90 _ 3
(b)
Do - 2;rx 500 - ....
? -I . 15 3 4.... 8
D
C' = - sIn.500 = ...) -
D =. 360x 30 =
(c)
. II 2;rx 1200
D
-? . -I :...!.L - '1 4"''''
r - - sIn 1200 - .'-
From theabove itisclearthatthedegreeofacurve byarcdefinitionandchord
definition ispractically thesameforcuries with large radius,i.e.flatcurves but
differwhen theradiusof the issmall,thatis,steepercurves.
Example12.2 Tworoadshavingadeviation angle.of4548'aretobejoinedby
a 1SO mradius curve.Calculatethenecessary data ifthecurveistobeset(a)by
chainandoffsets only;(b) a theodolite isavailable.
..
Solution
(a)By offsetsfromthelongchords(Fig. 12.20)
A
o
. Fig.12.20 Example
Length of tangent =R tan ;))2.,
= ISO
2
=76.03 m :::: 76 m
Chainage of T. = 3123.8 - 76 = m
Length of the curve = R Xdo
x
ir = 180 x:r = 143.88 m
Chainage of T
2
= 3047.8 + 143.88 =3191.68 m
T
1
T
1
= 2R sin 45;48' = 180 sin 22
c54'
, =140.08 :::: 140 m '
T]E =70 m
Central offset ED = i (1 - cos tJ2) ='180 (1 - cos 22.9) = 14.187 m
Starting from E offset distances at 10 rn interval.
"
Y =,IR
2
-,l::! - - (Ll2):!
..
0. = ,/1S02 - 10
2
- ..JIS0
2
- 70
1
=i79.722 - 165.831 = 13.89
O
2
=-{IS0
2
-: 20
2
- 165.831 =
'.
0
3
= ,/]80
2
- 30
2
- 165:831 = 11.65
0
4
= ,/180
2
- 40
2
- 165.831 =9.67
o, = 50
2
-165.831 =7.09.
0
6
= ,!Is0
2
- 60
2
- 165.831 =3.87
0
7
= ,/180
2
- 70
2
- 165.831 = 0.00
.' ."
These offsets are shown in Fig. 12.20.
(b) By offsets from the tangents:
2
y =.J + .1: - R
chainage at T. = 3047.8 in =101 ch + 17.8 m
1 ' , ,
Taking XI = 30 -17.8 = 12.2 )\ =,180- + 12.2- - 180 =0041 m
X2 = 30 + 12.2 Y2 =.J180
2
+ 42.2
2
- 180 ::: 4.88 m
x3 = 60 + 12.2 .,)) = + ....; 180 =13.94 m
I
-'"4 = 76 " )'4,= .J180
2
+76
2
- 180 =15.38 m
"
". ' ...
'Curves 303
(c) By perpendicular offsets:
r
, - ., '
y == R - "4 R - x
, .
, .
,y'..
Taking'
XI =12.2 )'1= ISO .:.. - 122
2
== 0.41 m
... ' '
f., ., ,
x:! =42.2 )'2 = 180 - ,'ISO - 42.2- == 5.02 m.
..
:(3 = 72.2 )'3 =180- ,1180" - 72.2
2
=15.11 m
.l'o! =76.0 Yo! = 180 --./180
2
- 76
2
= 16.83m
(d) By offsets from the chord produced:
Length ofIst subchord =12.2 m
C? 12.2
2
0 1 == 2R == 2 x 180 ==
:... C2 (C C)"': 30 (12'''' 30) .; 3 -16
O
2. - 2R I + 2 -2 x 180 .- +-.) m
. C;
.,
30
2
,
0
3
=-- ==-==5m
R 180
chainage of T
2
== 3191.68 m =106 ch + 11.68 m.
',' I
, .
Length of last subchord == 1t.68 m
..
Last offset =On = ;,R (C
n_1
+ Cn)
= _ (30 + 11.68)
== 1.352 m
(e) With the help of tape and theodolite 'Length of 1st subchord =12.2 rn
1: 171887 CI .' , 1718.87 x 12.2 .
UI = . If mmute 180' minute
== 116.50' = 156' 30': .
02 == x 30 minute = 286.45' =446'29" "
03 =0", = ..\ =0n_1 =02
last subchord =11.68 m
1718.87 x 11.68 minute
On = 180 '
= 151'30"
L
JV""; J." "'HJl.AII"./il(4I.i LJj ,.)H/I c"..,,/i,g
Readings from the tangent point
.:1
1
= "] = 156'30"
.6
J
=15] + oJ =1'56',30" + = =6:'43'00"
=01 + 02 + 03 = + 446'29" = 1129'28" = 1129'20"
6
4
=0, + 02 + 6
3
+ =1129' 28" + 446'29"
= 1615'57" = 1616'00"
..6
5
=01 + 02 + 03 + Sot + 05 = 1615'57" +446'29"
= 2102'26" = 2102'20"
6
6
=0\ + 02 + 03 + 04 + 05 + 06 =2102'26" + 151'30"
= 22.53'56" = 2254'00"
6
6
= =,pJ2:
The last reading indicates the values which can be obtained with a 20" theodolite.
Example 12.3 The intersection point C of two railway straights ABC and CDE
.
is inaccessible and so convenient points Band D in the straights are selected
..
giving BD = 183 mangle CBD = 924', angle CDB = 1036' and the forward
chainageof B =2750.00 m. The conditions of the sight are such that it is decided
to make B the first tangent point. Determine, the radius of a circular curve to
"
connect the straights. tabulate all the data necessary to set out pegs at 20 m
intervals of through chainage and show your calculations check. (L.U.)
Solution From (Fig. 12.21), Deflection angle 6 = 924' + 1036' = 20
, 183 _ CB _ ---.Q
sin 160 :- sin1036' - sin 924'
E'
\ 0
\
\
\
\
\
\
, \
,
\
,
'"-'
,
,
,
A
,
,
,
,"\ '
..... <0. '
'
" ,
Fig. Example
--------._.... -
C/lrI'es 305
' ='183 xsin'1036' =98'4;
Therefore CB
. " . - m
, sm ,',
'.
1
. 92.,,1'
CD = .' x SIO ='87.39m
sin160
2
, '
't'
R [and/2= CB ,,= 98.42 "
R = 98.42 =558.l67,m'
or
[an 10 '
.. . .
Chainage ofthe Isttangentpoint=2750.00rn, With 20 mchain[hisisequal to
137 ch + 10m.
Hencethe lengthof 1stsubchord = 10m.
Length of curve = 20=
_ rr x 558.167
- 9
='194.837m '
'= 9 ch+ 14.837 m
Lengthof las! subchord = 14.837 m,
, .'
A _ _ 1718.87 x10 - 30'48"
LJI - (,.'1 - ,558.167 -
.1
2
= 01 + 8z = (20+'10)= 132'23"
20
.1" = 2 = .1/2. '
Example 12.4 Inimproving anexistingrailway curveby insertingtransition
curves4 chainsin length, 6 chains of the existing 25chainsradius curve are taken
upat each endandreplaced inpart'by curvesofsharperradius. Determine the
radius of the sharpened curves,also the totalcentre linelengthof trackto be
relaid. [L.U.]
Solution LetR
o
and R
n
(Fig. 12.22) be theoriginal and amendedradii '
respectivelyandlet,theshifts = = "4
16
? _ =0.0267 ch(approximately as
-t II _ x_:>
hereR
II
hasbeensubstituted forR
n
)
.FromFig. 12.22
Ivers f3 = 1- cosPI
(i)

O'
. ,t
' But {3 = rad = ;5 rad =0.24 =1345' ..
and 1 - cos {3 =1 - cos' 1345' =0.0:!865
.,
L
2
4:! 2
But actual =?IoR ="'R =3R
_""t Q n a
Substituting in (i) =(RlJ - R
n
) vets {3 =(R(} - Rn}
, " n " .
'R:!' ?'iR "?3"61 - 0 '
or
n- -. n."':-- -
or
R, ='24.032 ch
AC =R
n
and
Now
aC R
o
AC = 24.032 x 6 =5.768 ch
25 '
.The transition replaces ari equal amount of circular curve. Hence AQ =2,000 and
.since the shift AA' bisects the transition PQ; the tracks to be replaced at each end
is 7.768 ch. '
Total centre line length of track = 15.536 ch.
' .
Example 12.5 A single circular highway curve will-join tangents XVand VYand
also be tangent to BC. Calculate R, L and stations PC and PT in Fig. 12.23.
BC = 190 m
;.. R tan 34 -i-R tan 21.5
. , 2 ,2
.,... ..
Clines 307
.
.
y
x
190
or
tan 17
0
+ tan 10.7) - 0.305 + 0.1 89
=384.61 m
Length of curve = trR ~ g
r. x 38-k61 x 55.5
= 180
= 372.55 m
Chainage of PC =10 x 30 - 384.61 x 0.305
..
=182.7 m
-,
= 6 ch+ 2.7 m
Chainage of PT= 372.55 + 182.7
=555.25' in =18 ch + 15.25 m
Example 12.6 After a back sight on the PC with 000" set on the instrument,
what is the deflection angle to the following curve points (Fig. 12.24)7 .
(a) Setup at midpoint, deflection to PT.,
(b) Instrument at mid point of curve. deflection to 3/4 point.
(c) Setup at 1/4 point of curve, deflection at 3/4 point.
Solution
(a)
The deflection angle
=180 + al2
Fig. 12.24 (i)
o
. R = 190 , _ _
308 FUlldamenTals of Surveying
(b)
P.T
o
(c)
o
Thedeflection angle
= 180
0
+ J/4 + .jig
=1800 + 3.:1
8
Fig. 12.:!4 (ii)
Thedeflectionangle
= 180 + &8 +
=180 + 3f.
Fig.12.24(iii)
Example 12.7 InFig. 12.25 thecoordinates-ofpoints A and0 areXI. = 80.00,
Y
A
=130.00and X
o
=210.00.Yo =250.00. If the azimuthoflineAB is 3928' .
and the circular curve radius60.00rn,calculate the.coordinatesof intersection
pointP.
Solution Let thecoordinatesofthepointofintersectionbeX
p
andY
p
Fig.
12.25. Weget
x, - X .,....!.p_-....,...;..80;,.:....00;,;.
tan = ' =..,.,
Yp - Y
A
Yp - 130.00
..
.
"' .
N

A
Fig. 12.25. Example
,
I
i'
- ,
. Curves 309
") 3 _ Xp - 80.00 .
or ,,":. O8
. - ,- Y
p
-130
,, or Xp = 0.823Yp - 26.99
Forcircle withoriginat0.
, "
(X
p
- xoi +(Y 1'"0):1"'= R:1
or exp - 2io.00)2+V'p- tso.oop =60:1
Substituting
. .
(0.823 Y
p
- 26.99-'210.00)2 (Yp - 250.00):1 =60
2
or 1.677 rj - 890.08Yp + 11506U6 =0
or Y
p
:: 307.95,408.176
. Xp ::226.45, 308.93
Example 12.8 Coordinates ofacircleofcentre0,are X0
1
=330.00mandrO
I
=330.00mandforcirclewithcenireOi. X0
2
470.00 mandY0
2
::200.00 rn.
'R
l
=100mandR:1 =120m. Compute thecoordinates.ofinteresection pointP
shown in the Fig. 1:!.26. .
Solution (Fig. 12.26)
.
.
e
y P - - - - --:-_
.... JCLI . - \
.... \
\
\
\
\
..... " . ,., \
"" ....
" \ :,
.
'0
102
= - XOj!' +(Yq - roi
:: - 470.0)2 +(330 - 200)2,
:: 191.05m
tane= - xq::470.00 - 330.00 ::
rq- Y0
2
330.00- 200.00 130
e=t3n-
1
.!. ::47.l:!.o
. 13 '

310 Fundamentals of SlI/w.\"illg
Fromthe lawof cosines
a. = cos" + - 1:!0::
;(100)(191.05)
= 32.85
a = COS-I 120
2
+ 191.05
2
-100
2
:! 2(120)(191.05) .
=26.87
Azimuth of OIP = 180- + 32.85)
=100.03
Azimuth of0
2P
= 360 - 26.87)
'... .
.. =339.35.
Coordinates of P from0
1
Xp =,330.00+ 1"00 sin79.97
= m
Yp =330.00- 100cos79.97
=312,48m
Check(coordinatesfromO
2
)
Xp = 4iO.00 + 120sin20.25
= m
r, =200.00 + 120cos20.25
= 312.58 m
12.4 CURVE
A compound curve consists of a' numberof circular' curves of differentradii
joinedtogetherwithcentresofthe curvesalllyingononesideofthecurve.The
pointofcurvatureofthenextcurveis thepointoftangency oftheprevious one.
Figure12.27shows acompound curve. The equationsof thecompoundcurve'can
bederivedbyconsideringtheFigs. 12345 asaclosedtraverse andapplying the
usual conditions of a closed traverse, i.e. algebraic sumof departures and latitudes
arezero.Assumingthedirection of1-2 astheNorthline, theazimuth andlength
ofotherlinescan be tabulated as follows: . ..'.
The following threeequations can thenbe derived:

T
1
+ T
2
cos .11 - R
2
sin .11 + (R
2
- R
I
) sin.111 =0 (12.16)
. . .: ...."
T
2
sin .11 + R
2
cos.11 - (R
2
,- RI) .C?S .6
1
- R
1
= 0 (12.17)
(12.18)
l
Curves 311
.
Fig.12.27 Elements ofacompound curve.
Table12.1 Data ofTraverse 1-2-3-4-5.
5
Side Azimuth Length Departure Latitude
E W N S
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-1
0
0
90'
90' + L1
180
0
+ L1
L1
1
R,
T
I
T
1
R
2
R
2-R1
0
.r,
T2 cosL1
(R
2-R1
) .
sinL1
1
R
2
sinL1
R
I
(R
2-R,)
cosL1
1
I
2
sinL1
R
2
cosL1
Thereareseven unknowns T;. T:!; s; ..
.' . Sincethere arethree equations.outofseven unknowns fourmust beknown
before theequations canbefully'solved.
Example 12.9 Arailway siding is to becurved through a rightangle andinorder
toavoid buildings. Thecurve istobecompound. and radii of the twobranches
are 240 mand 360m.Thedistance from the intersection point of the endstraight
tothetangent point atwhich the240mradiuscurve leaves thestraightis 300 m
(Fig. 12.28). Obtain thesecond tangent length ofwhole curve.
Solution Thethree equations ofcompound curve are:
T
1
+ T
2
cos d - R
2
sin:d + - R
I
) sini3. = 0 (1)
sin:d+ R
1
cosL1 - (R
1
-R
1
) coszl,- R
t
= 0 (2)
t1
1
+ L1;! = 6 (3)
3I:! FUlldaTllcIlI{j[S oj Surveying
'. ~
,,'!!
2
Here
T
1
=300 m
.1 =90
R
1
=240 m
.

R
2
=360 m
Equation (l) then reduces to
~ + 0 -360 + 120 sin zi, =0
.. 60 05
Sin .1, =120 = .
. . ,
11, =sin'" 0.5 =30
.1
2
= 60
Equation (2) gives
T
2
+ 0 - 120 cos 30 ":" 240 = 0
T
2
= 240 + 120 cos 30
.
= 343.92 m
'
Example 12.10 Referringto Fig. 12.29, if T
1
= 100rn, R
J
= 140 m,.6
1
= 1815', .
.6 =4210' and the chainage of the point of intersection is at station SO + 19.70.
,
Using the arc definition of degree of curve, compute T
1
, R
2
and .6
2
. and the
chainages of the point of compound curvature and the point of tangency.
Solution The three equations of compound curve: are:
I
Curves 313
".
",."1
/
/ ..
T\+ T
z
COS .1 - R
z
sin ~ + R ~ - R
1
) sin .1
1
:: 0 (1)
Ti sin .1 + R
z
cos L1 .: (R
2
- R
1
) cos L1
J
- R
1
=0 (2)
.1
1
+ .1
2
= .1 (3)
Here T
l
;. 100 m
R
1
= 140 m
.1
1
= 1815'
-
.1 = 4210'
Equation (1) then reduces to .
100 + T
z
cos 4210'. - R
z
sin 4210' + (R
2
- 140) sin ISo15' = 0 ~
. Equation (2) reduces to
T
2
sin 42;)10' + R ~ 'cos 4210' - (R
l
~ 14q) cos iso15' - 140 =.0 . (5)
Equation (3) reduces to
1815' +. .12 = 4210' (6)
From (6) .1
2
= 2355'
From (4)
100 + T
2(0.74)
- R
2(0.67)
+ R ~ - 140) (0.31) = 0
From (5)
T
z(0.6i)
+ R::(0.74) - (R:: - 1 ~ 0 (0.95) - 140 =0
or
0.74 T
z
- 0.36 R
1
=- 56.6
314 Fundamentals (if Surveying
0.67 T: - 0.11 R
2
= 7.0
Solving T ~ =167.90 m
R ~ =502.3:; m
Chainage of point of intersection =50 + 19.70
=1500 + 19.70
Chainage at the beginning of curve (assuming 30 m chain) = 1500 + 19.7 - 100
=47 + 9.7
Length of first curve =140 x .1) (radian)
. = 140 x
".
18.25 x 'IT.
180
T
1
=44.593 m
Chainage of point of compound curvature = 41 + 9.7 + 44.593
= 47 +.54.293
= 48 ch + 24.293 m
Chainage of the point of tangency =48' + 24.293 + Length of second curve
Length of second curve = 502.35 ~ ~ l ~ x if =369.732
..
Chainage of point of tangency =48 + 24.293 + 369.732
=48 + 13 + 4.025
= 61 ch + 4.025 m
'Examp1e 12.11 The following data refer to a compound circular curve which
bears to the right (Fig..12:30).
: '.
Angle of intersection (or total deflection) = 60 .
Radius of 1st curve = 20 chains.
Chainage of point of intersection =164 ch + 15.2 m.
Determine the running distances of the tangent point and the point of compound
curvature given that the latter point is 4.25 chain from the point of intersection
af.' a back-angle of 2943d (ro'm the 1st tangent. Assume 30 m chain.
Solution Angle ABD =360 - 29430'
"
.
= 6530'
Radius of lst curve =20 x 30 =600 m
. ,
Chainage of intersection point = 164ch'+ '15.2 m
'-1
- <: ' .
Curves 315
'
,.
"'J.
From triangle ABD
"
or
(sin.1
1
12)2 =127.5' 650)0' '= 0.09 .
.1
1
/2. = 18.115
0
.1
1
== 36.23
0
=36
0
13'48", '
.12 = 60
0
-
= 23
046'
12"
AS= ED =R
1
ton.4"2,.
=600 tan 18.115
= 196.284 m
BE 196.284
sin 78.27 =sin 65.5
BE =
, SJ :r
= 211.176 m
= 164x30+ 15.2 ,
= 4935.20 m
4.25 ch ;,. 4.25 x .30='127.50 m
sin.1/2 sin65
0
30' sin65
0
30'
127.5 = AD =2 x600sin.1
1
/ 2
EF =211.176 x
sin23.77
:!11.176 x 0.866
=
0.403
= 453.79
ChainageofA =Chainage ofB - BE - AE =4935.2 - 211.176 - 196.28
= 4527.74
EF =453.79 DE = 196.284 DF= 257.51 =R
2
tan 11.885
R
2
= i 223.56 m
"Length"ofcurve AD =" x xn . '
::: 379.399 m
Chainage ofpointofcompound = 4527.74 +
=4907.14
, x ?377
Length of 2nd curve= - --1800 -. xir
=507.61
Chainage ofPT= 4907.14 + 507.61
=5414.75 m
Example 12.12 A200mlength ofstraight connects twocircularcurvesbothof
which deflecttothe right. The radius oftheIstcurveis250mandthatofthe
2nd is 200 m. The centralanzle for thesecond curve is 30. The combined curve
istobereplaced byasingle curvebetween thesame tangentpoints.Find
theradiusofthecurve.Assume thatthetwotangent lengths oftheearliersetare
equal.Alsodetermine (a)centralangleofthenewcurve(b)central angleof 1st
curveofradius200 m.
Solution Sincethecombined curve istobereplaced byasinglecircular
curvebetween:thesametangentpoints, thetangent lengths must beequal.Figure
12.31 shows the original curve with a straight portion in between. The dotted line
showstheproposed circularcurve. . .
Sincethe tangent, lines remain the same,thestraight lines A0
1
andDO'}.
whenproduced will iritersect at0, thecentreofthenewcurve.
DrawO'}.C
I
perpendicular toOIB. '
OIC
t
=.OIB -BC
t
But 0lB = 0IA = radiusof 1stcurve = 250m
BC
I
" = = radius'of2ndcurve.:. 200m
.... ','
CII riles 317
.:

. .
Hence
0IC
I
== 250 - 200 = 50 m
0\02 = 50
2
206.2 m .
and
"
e =tan -I 0
1
q = tan" lQ.. =14.03
. 02Ci ' .' 200 . . .
='142'
At point
2
, 010'.0 + e + 90 + .12 =180 ..
Therefore, . 01020 =180-(6 +90+ .1z)
.=isoo.- + 90 + 30)
o
Fig. 12.31Example 12.12.
From triangle 0
1020
.
OOr =o.o; + OOr - 20102002 cos 4558'
(R - 250)2 = 206.2
2
+ (R - 200)2 - 2(R - 200)(206.2)(0.695)
or R
2
_ 500 R + 250
2
=206.2
2
+ R"l - 400 R + 200
2
- 286.61 R + 57323.6
Solving, R =414.458 m.
00
1

sin 0
1020
=sin
00
1
= R - 250 = 164.458 m
00
2
=R - 200 =214.458 m
31 S Fundamentals of Surveying
l64A58 2l4.458
Hence =----
sin45=58' sinoqO'l
214.458 x sin45
c58'
164.458
= 0.9375
L0010i =69.63"
.6 = 1SO" - (69"37' 48" + 45"58') = 64"24'l2"
'.6
1
= .6 ., ~ '= 6424'12'" - 30" = 34"24' i'2"
1.2.5 REVERSE CURVE .
A reverse curve is composed oftwo simple curves turning in opposite directions
as shown in,Fig. 12.32. '
O
2
a2
I
I X2
I
I
:R
I
I
I C
T
2
Fig. 12.32 Reverse curve.
Reverse curves are used when the straights are parallel or intersect at a very small
angle. The use of reverse curve is limited to unimportant places like sidings and
cross overs, Sometimes reverse curves areprovided on roadsand railways designed
for lowspeeds. High speeds'cannot be provided on reverse curvesfor thefollowing
reasons:
l. They .involve sudden change of super elevation (cross slopes) at the
"
junction of two branches of ihe curve.' '
f
2. Steering is dangerous in' case of highways.
12.5.1 G N R ~ EQUATION OF REVERSE CURVE
AB and AC are two straights meeting at an angle 4J: T
J
and T
2
are the two tangent
A
,
r ' .
, , '/
a2 - X2 / I
--, --
p
..
I '. OII1/es 319 o
points. Tisthepointofcommon'tangency.Thecommon tangentA'TCmakes an
angleof a
1
and a: withAB andAC respectively. aj and a2are also angles
, ' . subtended at the centres by arcs of radii rand R respectively,
LetLAo'TIT:lbe.'tl andLAT,],T
1
beXl'T.hen LTIOIM=xI andL.TP2N='.tz
as0iMancl02Naredrawnperpendiculars toTIT
z.
OzN isproduced andOIPis
drawnparallel toMN so they intersect atP.FromFig.12,32, the f9110wing
derivations canbe made: . 0 0"
::a'=m'+'a,
1 . 'i'
or
=al - a
z
Similarly
Xt =+X2
or
, =XI .'t2 ,
Hence,
al -: a2 ; 'XI - .'t2
al - 'tl=ai.:.. .tl'.
FromFig.12.32,
TI,\-f =z sln.'tl'
l'-fN =0lP=(R+ r) sin(a2- .t2)
NT
2
=RsinXl'
Hence
T
IT2 =TtM +MN +NTI
" .-
0.'= r sinXI +(R+r) sin(a: - x2)+RsinXl
Similarly
0IM =PN=rcos .tt
.02N=R.
='02N+ OIM=Rcos'Xl +rcosXI'
=(R +r) cos(a2,- .t2)
,or
When the t\VO straights are parallel ;.' '"
=co (infinity) and al.=Ct: =(X(say)
'.' , .
Then T
I
T
z
=TIT+.TT
2
=2(R+r)tanaJ2 .
e.
. .
Common tangent length = =(R+r) tanaJ2
, Example 12.13 Twoparallel railwaylines are to beconnected by a reverse
curve, eachsection"having the sameradius. Ifthelines are10mapartandthe
maximum distance between tangent pointsmeasured parallel tothe straights is
,040 m,find themaximumallowable radius. If,however. both theradiiaredifferent,
calculate theradius ofthesecondbranchif thatofthelst branch is50rn, Also
calculate lengths ofbothbranches.
Solution From Fig. 12.33, wehave
,
.J
3:20 Fundamentals of Surveying
o
.'
T,

x
Fig. 12.33 Example 12:13.
. .' .' 10' " .
(i) tan 6)/2 = - =0.25
40
6)/2 =tan"! 0.25 = 1402'
61 =2804'
When the radii are equal, let the common radius be R. Then
.,
XT =Rsin 6) =TY
XY =XT +IT=2R sin 6) =40
40' 40 '
R =, =. =42.50 m
" 2 sin A 2 x 0.47 '
(ii) Let the radii be R) and R
2
;then
Xi' = XT + TY =R
1
sin 6) + R
2
sin .1)
=(R) + R
2
) sin 6)
=40
40 40,''
R) + R
2
= -.- =- =85.02
sinL\ 0.47
IfR) =50, R
2
= 85.02 - 50 = 35.02
,. ': . rrRA it x50 x284'
Length of1st branch = 180 = 180 .
'.
,
=24.49 m
.,' 1rx35.02x284'
Length of_nd. =: 180= '... 180
.=17.15 m
l.
I
Curves 321
12.6 TRANSITION CURVE
Atransition curveisacurveofvarying radiusintroduced betweenastraight and

, ..
a circularcurve or betweentwocircularcurvesto facilitate change overfrom
straight to curve or fromone'curve' to another,As 'soon asa vehicleora train
entersacurve,itexperiencesacentrifugal forcewhich tendstocausederailment,
overturning. or side slippingof vehicles. Toavoid this, super elevation isprovided
which means raising theouter edge of a curve over the inner one.Transition curve
helps in(i)providingsuperelevation.(ii)increase,ordecreaseincurvaturegradually.
12.6.1 SUPERELEVATION
It istheraising of the.outeredgeoftherailway orroadsurfaceabovetheinner
one as shown in Fig.12.34.Whena vehiclemoveson a curve there are twoforces
acting:(i)Weightof thevehicle,W, (ii)Centrifugal forceP. '
,"
Inclined
Surface
w

Fig.12.34 Super elevation. "
Inorderthatthereisnolateral thrusttheresultant forcemustbenormalto
theinclinedsurface.
, " '?
" ',' \VIr
The centrifugal force P =gR
, ,
\ "
Hence tan ()=
Centrifugalforce\Vv
2
1"
- -- x -
Weightofthevehicle - gR \V
where u =velocity
9 =accelerationdue togravity
R =radius of thecurve
If B =width of theroadinm
G =gauge of therailway in m.
322 Fundanieutals of Surveying
then
.... T
=. f?rrail.\\'ays
........ -'. . "
" , ,
or...', ':'.'.: . lz =Btan8 = - onroads
gR . " ,
......0 ::,'"
',I ..
. .'.-, ., .' ,,: ',' .
'.
G
v
= gR onrailways
:.' : -:':'.
In railways if thecant elevation isprovided bythe'aboverelation, itis
known'as equilibrium cant, Ifless cant is provided the'track'will'have cant
deficiency. lit railways'cant' isusually.restrlcted " ',.' ,
: ;.,.. ' .'. :... ;.,. . I I.'.i :;; .!:,i.'(; .... . ',' ',"'
'12.6.2 SUPER O:--IHIGHWAYS '
In'highways the friction between the tyreof the vehicleandthe road surface
comesintoplay whenthevehicle nesotiatesa curve.Thisfrictional forceacts
parallel tothepavementofthe is intermsofthesidefriction
factor(j) whichistheratioofthe sumofforces duetofriction actingparallel to
thepavement to sumofforces normal tothepavement. '
FromFig. 12.34, :',"':"
Forces'normaltothepavement'=P sin 8+Wcos' 8
, , ,
Forces parallel tothepavement.e P cos 8 - nrsin 8
" ."
Henceside factorf ='Pc?S 8- IVsin8 '
, PSin 8+Wcos8
or P cos 8 - \Vsin8=f(P sin 8+H'cos 8)
'p 8'+/';058 '
,.or
W=cos87'fsir) 8
. .:.
tan8+f
=1- ftan 8
Now
v
2
tan8+f.
Hence
gR=1-ftan8
v
J
< tan8+f '
forsafedesign. (12.19)
gR- 1- ftan8
"
; .': .
As 8 is small, tan8 is small andftan8 is still smaller and hence.can be neglected.
Theusualvalueoff istakenas0:15 forspeeds greaterthan5D kmlh'r and0.18
forspeedslessthan50 kmlhr. .'',,'
." .Equation(12.16)showsthatcentrifugal force isbalanced partlybyfriction
, ".-
Curves 323
.
..
andpartlybysuperelevation.Ifwe.wanttobal:l.nce.Pentirely bysuperelevation
, f is taken to be zeroandwe, get. . .,.. .' . _. .
..'
2"
I)'.
R= tan8.
,.
g .
Ifmaximum superelevation .tha't
. . : ",'
", '. :,.'g'R -_1/4..
. ','
. ':'.
. 4L,'2
and R = --'--.
g
=1/4, then.
Iftheentirecentrifugal force istobebalancedonly bythefriction thene=0and
, ., .
L'
-=1
gR .
.. . . '?
and .R - v'
.-.-g/ .
If themaximum value of 1is takenas0.25
. .1)2 .' 41):! ..:' ':.
R = 0.25g =g .
..
.'
12.7 CENTRIFUGAL RATIO
, ..
Theratioof thecentrifugal forceandweightiscalledthecentrifugal ratio..
'. Wu
2
2
Thuscentrifugal ratio="P/W ='gRW = ,
Themaximum value ofcentrifugal ratiois I/4forroad andforrailway itis. 1/8.
Thusfor roads . ,
. 2 '. .
. lJ ' =1/4
R
. 8
(12.20a)
or
.forrailways
.
..
12.8 LENGTH OFTRANSITION CURVE
Lengthofa transition curvemaybetaken inthefollowing manner:
, (a)Asanarbitrary valuefrompastexperience say50 m. .
(b)When superelevation isapplied atauniform ratesay0.1 min 100 m.
Forcant of lrmeterlengthofcurve =1000 11
Gv
2
=1000 x gR
If
G=1.5m
V =kmlhr
1000 V
= 60 x 60 m/sec
; LensthL == 1000 x 15x (1000 x V)2 . R1
.0 .... (60X 60)2 X 9.81
v
2
=~ 2 4 . 7 ~ If
V
2
. - 4?4 7 .
~ - . If
(c)When superelevation isapplied atanarbitrary timeTate ofr unitsper
second-Jet ussay.
L =lengthof transition curvein meters
11 =' amount.of superelevation. '
v =speedof vehicle in rn/sec.
r =timerate em/sec.
"
V =speedin krn/hr,
Time takenbythevehicletopassover thetransitioncurve'
1 =L sec'
v
Superelevation attainedinthistime
1 x r em =L . r em
v
Lr
v x100
Gv
2
But 11 =--
gR
whenG=1.5m V =kmlhr
"
'. t.. IS (VX'IOOO)2
1
11 =vl00 =9.81 x 60x60 R

, , 2
L=vxlOOx15 x (VX1000)
or
rx 9.81 xR 60 x 60
.:
Curves 325
.. : , .,
.: ~ YX 1000x 100X 15 x (VX 1000)-
. 60x60 9.81xRr 60x60
'V3
=0.3277 Rr
(d) By therateofchange ofradialacceleration: Inthismethodthelength
ofthetransitioncurveisdecided so that thepassengerdoesnotexperience any
discomfortduetosuddenapplication ofcentrifugal force.W.HShorttgivesarate
of changeof radialacceleration of about 1/3mlsec
3
as a comfortlimi: above
which side throw willbe noticed.
Ifu= speed inrn/sec, timetakentotraveloverthetransition curveisUu
sec.If .
a = ~ mlsec
3
isthepermissiblerateof change' of radialacceleration.
Acceleration attainedduringthistimeis
1X .b. m/sec
2
'
3 u '.
Thisshould be equal to v
2
/R. acceleration at the beginning of i r ~ l l r curve..
Hence
.'
or
IfVisexpressed inkmlhr
L =3 ( YX 1000) 3 1.. .
. 60 x 60 ':R
". ......
. .
. " ..
. y
3
'
.= 6430If
12.9 IDEALTRANSITION CURVE
In a transition curve super elevation is graduallyprovided. It is zero at the straight
andreachesits maximum value at the beginning of thecircularcurve: Thus
ha: 1
2 2
but
h= bv hence
bu 0: I
. gr
gr
Ifb,v andg areconstants


I .
- ee 1
r
or
lr = constant =LR
where L is the total length of the transition curve and R, radius of the curve at its
end (i.e. minimum radius). Thus thefundamental requirement of a transition curve
is that its. radius of curvature r at any point shall vary inversely as the distance
J from the beginning of the curve. Such a curve is the clothoid or the Glover's
spiral and is known as the ideal transition curve..
12.9.1 INTRINSIC EQUATION OF THE IDEAL TRANSITION CURVE
Fig. 12.35 shows an ideal transition curve. Here
. .
T = tangent point = beginning of the transition curve
Tc = initial tangent "
A = any point on the transition curve at a distance J from the origin T
r = radius of curve at point A ': ' <:: .,
qJ =angle which the tangent at A to the' curve makes with the initial tangent
Tc
s =spiral angle, i.e. the angle between the initial tangent and the tangent to
the transition curve at the junction point D.
R = radius of circular curve
L = total length of the transition curve.
X, Y = coordinates of the junction point D.
x, )' = coordinates of any point A of the transition c.urve.
D
y
.' ~ :
. c"
It has already been shown that for an ideal transition curve
lr = constant = LR
I 1
or
r= LR
a
T
A
1
A
20i
O
2
x 'I ,.
. I'
X . 'I
" I'
Fig: 12.35. I d ~ l transition .curve.
, ' Curves',327,
~
.;. :
But
or d=1.JlL
, .LR'
Integrating, weget
, '
1
2
,9 = 2LR.+, c
" .. .
at1= 0,9= 0,C = 0.Therefore '
" '
(12.21)
Thisistheintrinsicequation ofthe d ~ a l transitioncurve.Itcanbefurtherdeduced
, 1 =..J2RL =k..{ (12,22)
where
k =..J2RL
whenI =L, i.e,at thejunction
"
.' ",
12:9.2 EQUATrONS OFTHE:CURVE INTERMS"OF CARTESIAN,
COORDINATES '
Fromcalculus,
.'
But
"
Substituting
... 4 '0_
Integrating
....
dx =dl cos~
= dl( } ~ i + ~ -',;.J '
1= k Ii
k 1 .
dl = '2' ~ 1/2d ~
. 3/2 . ;/2 )
d. .:...1 1\-1/2 _,L+L - d
1:' - 2 .'t'. 2! 4! ...
(
Theconstantc =0 3S .'1: =0when =0or
(12.23)
But
~ = I: and1..1
k-
=2RL
x =I (1- ~ ~ 8 -
10 k 216 k
..1
)
or
.
(
x=l.l-
. .: .
/
4
,,+
~ O R- L-
1
8
3456 R
4
L
4
-
)
...
Similarly,
dy. = dl sin~
= dl ( - ~ ~ + ~ : ...J.
k 1
Substituting,
dl = '2 III d
,.,. 5/2 iii 9/2 )
_.k 1/2 'r'''' .
(
WI
dy - '2 ~ - -6- + 120 - ... d ~
(12.24)
Integrating
.Putting.
l=k./
(12.25)
PUlling
. 'I

(12.26)
"'.$ .,
Curves 329
FromFig. 12.35
_. . .
.. . . '. ( )12' 7f21112 )
v k -3- - "'42+ 1320 - ...
tan a =:.. = .
x ( ,0, 5/2 . .... 9/2. .,)
.. '.112 .". \0' . .
k -10+216-'"
3 5
(12.27)
="3 + 105 + 5997
This is \'ery closelyapproximated by theexpression
.9 l s
tan/3 = "3 + 8Tt 18225
Hencetan a = tan/3
or a .:;; '913 as botha and aresmall
. 1 . /2" /2 .
(12.28).
= '3 .2RL = 6RL radian
1800P
= rrRL minute
(12.29)
. .
"
Consideringonlythe 1st termthe followingapproximateexpressionscon beobtained.
x = I
.andfinally
Xl
Y = 6'RL
'.The expressiony = the equation oro cubicspiral, Here only one
approximation hasbeenmade,i.e. sin = .'But intheform

'
V=--"
..6RL.
whichisexpression foracubicparabola,twoapproximations i.e,
sin = and cos = 1
havebeen mode. Thecubicparabolais. therefore. inferior tocubicspiral.
The expression a =l3 is approximate, Forlayout of true spiralsor for
applications requiring more accuracy, asmall correction must besubtracted toget
anexact relation,
a = 913 - c"
wherec" is a correction expressedinseconds andfound byc" = 0.00309 (1' +
0.00228 -s
where is in decimal degrees. The correction is small and can be neglected in
most work. Table 12.1 shows the typical values, c" is a nonlinear function of O.
increasing at a greater rate for larger 's.
Table 12.1 Corrections \0
(deg.) c"
5 0.4
10 3.1
15 10.46

30
. --
..
84.11
35
133.88,
40 200.39
12.9.3 RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF A CUBIC PARABOLA

The equation of a cubic parabola y ,=
,.
=Mx
3
.,
radius of curvature r, = .lo-_--.-_oL-..
'For cubic parabola
dv .
-:... = 3 Mx',
dx
iv '
=6 Mx.
dx
dv '
But .-' = tan 9
dx ."
3 M.\2 = tan '
'{tail
(12.30)
x =
,

tan d-\,' .
'vW
.'
--:--T =6 M:c =6 /If -31f
dx- jl
=
.:.-,..
. " . . . .,. . i.".;..
Curves 331
.
to
r=
" ' " 1
(12.31)
=.J12Mtan,=
The radiusr will beminimum when thedenominatorisa maximum. Then
d '
- (sin , cos
s
9) =0
do "
or
cos? r)- 5sin,'cos.l t/J ' sin 9=O.
or
cos
2
- 5 sin:! 9 = 6',
or
t:10
2
=1/5
or
or
Substituting the valueof inEq.(12.31)
" 1
rmin = x 0,04082. x
1
1.762-{fJ
i
with
M=-
,,' : 6RL
1
= ----.,,;=---,...
rmin
1.762 4
=1.39...'RL (12.32)
Thederivationshowsthattheradius ofcurvatureof a cubicparabola decreases
from=0whenitisinfinityto= when itis1.39 ...'RL.Beyond that
it increases and violatesthefundamental equationof a transition curve.This is '
duetothenpproxirnations madeinderiving theequation ofacubicparabola from
theintrinsicequationof ntransition curve.So beyond =2..P05'41". thecubic
parabola cannot be used:I:) a transltion curve. '
332 Fundamentals of SlIn'eying
12.10 CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRA:\SITlON CURVE
To O1ccommodate a transition curve. the oricinal circular curve is usuallv shifted
- .
slightly inwards as shown in Fig. 12.36. Sometimes. however. in an old track. the
main curve is either sharpened or sharpened and shifted in order to accommodate
the transition curve.

E

'- I ,/
A
Original circular curve
Shifted circular curve
D
4
Tangent at E
Circular
C
\
" \ 6 - 2s t'
"
I ' .
\ \ -
Circular \ \ I" "
\
, \ \ t.. I Transition curve T
Tangent at 0 ' \ r\' '" ,---v "
Os' \ \ "
\ I I
\ \ I I
\1\ I
Y
o
Fig. 12.36 Characteristics of transition curve'.
In the Fig. )2.36. TB is the original tangent and D:.D3D4 is the original
circular curve. DE is the shifted circular curve and TD is thetransition curve.
D is the point of junctionof the circularcurve withthe transition curve and
1.< is the angle which the tangent to the curves at D makes with the original
tangent T.B.
Some equations are derived in the following lines below
Shift of the circular curve
GD. part of the transition curve Is approximately equal to the circular portion.
DID.
From Fig. 12.36,
L
But
rp,< =2R'
where L is the length of the transition curve.This means at G, the transition. curve
is bisected. Further,
TG == TD
2
= '2
L
. ,. ':'.
Curves 333
--
.-
. . . ., . .
- __ L' _L'" -
DH =6RL =6R =
where DF is perpendicular to
FD
1
=OD
t
.:.. OF "= R - R cos 9"
. '(
=R-'R 1--"
, ?I
. _.,
, ,
,- 0-
=R-R+R'-'-'
2!
.J.
- 2!
-
.= SR '
L
2
L
2
L
2
=6R -, 8R =24R =sbift of thecurve,,

."
As = theshift ge,ts bisectedat the pointG. _ _
Moreaccuratevaluesof theshift canbeobtained as follows:
shift5 = FD
2
' - FDa
=DR-FD
1
,[-(1m 7I2 11I2] -
= k T - 42 +1 :320;.... - R [l -cos$]
'" "['.'(,
- k -"- - -"- + -"-' - R 1- J_ -"+-$
- 3 42 1320 2! 4!
. - .
.

." ...
Taking k = andsimplifying
( 12.33)
5 = ( J - + -... )-
where9.. is inradian
Total tangent length
(a)Truespiral:BT =SO! + TD!-
= (R + 5) tan + (TH - HD:.>
=(R + 5) tand/2 + (X - OF)
I
II
33-t Fundamentals ofSurveying
;"\
?\ow X =L
(
1-
lO
J
L
But
9
,
=2R
L2 1)
X =L
(
1- 4R
2
1O
2
1- ---.,
L )
,
=L. ( . 40R7,
DF =Rsin 9,
. " . 3 ).
. L' L. .:
= R(9, - . 6J 2R - 48R'
2
BT =(R+S)t'an,Ll/2 L , ) ' L(1-
. " 40R-
..
(
'.' ,.)
L L-
-- 1---
-"
,
2 . 24R
2
.= Ll/2+
",
. L('S)
=.(R.+S)tan Ll/2 + '2 1- 5R
In theabove. expression.StanLl/2 is called theshift.incrementand(X- RsinJ)
or(L/l) (l- S/5R) iscoiled asthespiralextension.
(b)Cubicparabola.Asbefore
BT =(R+S)Ian .112 + (X- Rsin ,)
=(R+S)tanLl/2 + (L- R
. . .
. =(R +S)tanLl/2 +V2
"
.
Lengtl: ofcombinedCU/1'e. Anglesubtended atthecentreofthecircularcurve =
(.!1 - 29,) degree.
, ,

Lengthofcircular curve= - 2,)

i;
180
. - 2 )
Hencecombined length ofcurve= . __ 1 +2L
- "..
'"
Curves 335
12.11 OUT THE COMBL"'ED' CURVE
The following data are required for computations of various quantities required
for setting' out the transition curve:
1. Deflection anlZle',d between theorizincl tansents.
. .... , ......
2. Radius R of the circular curve.
3. Length L of the transition curve. ,
4. Chainage of the point of intersection.
The following calculations should then be made.
= L
2/24R
(a) Shift of circular curve S
(b) Spiral angle 9J = U2R radian.
(c) Total tangent length =(R + S) tan 612 + L/2.
, . . rrR(.a- 29 s)
(d) Length of the.combined curve = . + 2L'
The following are the subsequent steps:
'I. From the chainage of the PI subtract the length of the tangent to get the
chalnage of T, the beginning of the curve.
2. Add the length of the transitioncurve to get the chainage of the junction
point D. ',,'
. ' 3. Add the length of the circular curve to get the chainage of the other
.
.'
junction point E. ' ,
4. Add again the length of the transition curve to get the chainage of the 2nd
tangent point T ' , ,
5. The transition curve should beset out from the point T by the deflection
angle method when a =deflection angle = minutes.
For setting out the curve by linear method any of the following formulae
should be used depending on accuracy desired: ' ,
, [3: (,., [4 ' ),
(0) y = 6RL 1- 56R2L2 ,
[3
(b) Y = 6RL . : .
3
x
0' (c) s = 6RL
For transition curve chord length istaken as 10 rn while the 1st and last chord will
usually be subchords,
The circularcurve is to be set out with respect to tangent at D by the formula
.. '
8 = 17!9 minutes for angular method
bl/(bl/_
I
+ bl/)'
or
8" = 2R for linear method as explained before..
12.12 THE Ct.:RVE
Theform oftransition curveusually used inmodemroadways istheBernoulli's
Lemniscate. The curveis symmetrical tothemajorandminoraxesandis very
much suitable whenthedeflection angle between thestraightsislarge duetothe
following reasons:
(a)Theradiusofcurvature decreases morerapidly.
(b) The rate of increase ofcurvature reduces towards the endof the transition
curve.
(c) It is close to the 'autogenous curve" (i.e, the path traced out by an
automobile when movingonthecurve).
12.12.1 EQUATION OF BER:\OULLI'S LEMNISCATE
Figure 12.37 shows the different elements associated withBernoulli'sLemniscate.'
D
Inthefigure.4. DandAE= tangents at theoriginA.
.AA'= major axis
BB'= minor axis
P =anypointon thecurve.'
PP\ = tangent to thecurve atP
= anglewhichthetangent atP makes withthestraightlineAD
p =AP=polarrayofAP
a =deflection angleofP.i.e:anglebetweenAP andAD
{3 = anglebetweenpolarrayAP andthe tangentPP
1
atP
The polarequation ofBernoulli's is
p =k 2a (12.34)
15"
Fig.12.37 Lemniscate curve.
--
. .'.
Curves 337
From theproperties ofpolar:oordin,ates ,
. da
tanf3 =p . dp'
By Eq. (12.34)
do kcos2a
da =.Jsin2a
or
tanp= . .,fSfnfa.,fSfnfa
kcos2a
=tan2a.
or f3 =2a.
Again . =C1.+.f3'
. =qc +ia=3a
Thus forthelemniscate curve,derivation angle isexactlyequaltothree times
the polar deflection angle a. In case of clothoid or cubic parabola, this is
approximately true.' .. .
Forpolarcoordinates, theradiusofcurvature (r) atanypointisgiven by

!
':(d
P
)2.. . 'd
2
p )
p-+2- -p-
da da
2
substitutingthevalues ofdplda andd
2plda.'l
in theaboveequationandsimplifying
weget
k .
r,3";sin2a
p
As
k =";sin2a
."4"
P
r = 3sin2a .
, p'l
Also
It :=-
sin2a.
, 9'
- p. ,.
- k
2
k
4
=9
p
'l;
,.' .,
t: =,) pr
k =
At theendof the curve r= R.1=Land (I =(II = The major axis AA'makes
an angle of 45
0
to AD. The polar ray to B makes an angle of 15
0
with AD. The
triangle ABB'is equilateral.
Length of circular curve = (62.5 - 13.556) (iT)
= 153.76 In
(iv) Total tangent length =(R+ S) tan J./2 + U2
'Ii
6"" ..P"9
= (180 + 0.42) tan +
2 2
,
.
=130.78-
(v) Chuinage of intersection point = 1092.18 m
Deduct tangent length = 130.78 111 .
Example 12.15 Show how the computed 'values of Example 12.14 change when
more accurate formulae are used. '
Solution
-,
(i) . L2 ( 9: )
ShIft S = 1- 48 + 1320
- 04" (1- (0.1183)2 (0.1183).1)
- . - 48 + 1320
= 0.41 (l - 2.9156 X 10-1 + 1.49376 x lO-
i
)
0.42 (0.9997) = m
Fundamentals (If Surveying
(ii) Total tangent length for true spiral.
= (R + S) tan J'2 + (1 -J-)
_ )R
={180 +OA19874) tan 62.5 + 42.592 (1- OA19874)
2 2 S x 180
= 109.48146 + 21.286065
-s
'= 130.76753. _
lt can, therefore, be seen that change is very very small and as such use of
accurate formula is not necessary. '
. '
Example 12.16 . A curve connecting two which deflects through an
angle of 12 is transitional throughout (Fig. 12.38). If .the junction of the two
transition curves is 5.00 mfrom the'intersection.point of the straights determine
(to the nearest meter) the minimum radius of curvature of the curve and the length
of each tangent. [Salford] , ,
6
D
-,
B
Fig.I2.3S ' Example 12.16:
Solution, ..
radian = 6 x 1C ,.
180
a = t 9= = 2
In the triangle A!3C
sin 94 'sin 2
-r-=-s-
. r =sin94 . 5
or
sin 2
=,146.69 m
Similarly

Be 'AC 5
sin 84 = sin 2 = sin 2
Ct
. . sin 84 , .

or
Be =5.' -:--2' =142.88 m,
Sin .
,,'
.'
Curves 341,
Taking curve lengthapproximately equal to.the chord length as 2' is a small
angle. __
, 0'
R = Lx180 = x 180 =682.2 m
2x6x" 12x"
Exnmple'12.17 " Asymmetrical highway curvejoining straights having
totaldeflection angle'of is to be transitional throughout. Show that an'
angleof isrequired tolocatethe intersectionofthetwo transition curves
fromthetangentpointononeofthestraights {Fig. 12.39).If thedesignvelocity
is 100kmlhrandtherateofchangeof radialacceleration is II} m/s
3
; determine
(:1) thelengthandminimum radius of 'curvature of each spiral: (b) the tangent
lengths.' '[Salford)
Solution
.'it'
r--:.
1-
D
F
5
A
c
,;'
Fig. 12.3? Example 12.17.
Total deflection angle=2830'
=14"15'
radian=0.2487
0= 913 =445'
'(a) From thecondition forrateof changeof. radial acceleration
1- u
3
,( 1000)3 ,
= .3,6..
or
,LR= 64300.412
.
..
Asthecurveisspiral,
L =2R9
= 2R 14,25 xr.
ISO
=0.4974R
Therefore,
0.4974 64300.412
----.-------- -------.J
"n Fundamentals vf Surveying
R =359.55m
L = R= (359.5:')
= m
(b) Fromthe figure
tangentlength = X + Ytan
x=+-
'178.84 (1- 0.2487::)
_ 10
= 177.73,
. - -
.L'( ')
Y =..- 1--
.....'
. 6R ' .. 14
';'" 178.84:: ('1 _0.2487::)
. '6x359.55 14
-,
=14.76 m.
Therefore, tangent length = 177.73 + 14.76 x t:1O IU5
lf
'i =181.48 m

Example 12.18 Thecurveconnecting twostraightsisto be\\:holly transitional
without intermediatecirculararc andthejunction of the twotransitionsis tobe
5In fromtheintersectionpointofthestraightswhichdeflectthrough anangle of
1So (Fig. 12040). Calculate the tangent'distances and the minimum' radius of
curvature,Ifthesuperelevationislimited to 1verticalin 16 horizontal. determine
the correct velocity for thecurveandtherate of gainof radial acceleration.
[L.U.]
Solution
. B
. 5
A ,.:.f:
--= ?"7:> D c
3 ( ---
..;:
Chord Transition Chord Transition

Fig. IVO Examplel::!.Ut.
Angle at E =18/2 =9.
AD makes 1/3 x 9 =3 atA withtangent
AB 5
Tangent distance
sin96 =sin3
, ..... '.....7"",
Curves 343
AB _5. sin96
or
- sin3:1
,.
:::: 95.01' m
L=2RwhereR=minimumradius ofcurvature
Froma ADB
AD 5
sin81) ='sin3)
or

Sin3)
=
=L
R=-..b... = 9..U6x180
29 2x9xtt
=300;35 m
.. '..,'
. 1 lI-
tan a = 16=Ii
..g
:z . _.9.806 x300.35
or U
- 16
.. or
u = 13.567 m/sec
or u =48.84 kmlhr
, u
3
(13.567)3
a :::-. ::: .
. LR. 300.35 x 94.36
::: 0.088 m/sec
3
Example12.19 .Two straights deflecting at anangle of 4840' are to beconnected
.byanarcofradius 300mwithclothoid transition curvesof theform 8=m.f
llnd75m longateachend(Fig. 12.41).Employing the Ist twoterms only ofthe
expansions forsinpandcos9, calculate (0) the cortesioncoordinates ofthefirst
junction point taking thetangent pointasorigin and thestraightas the .. axis.
"
o

Junction
Point
'\
Circular
3.+.+ Fundamentals oJ
(b) theshift; (c) thetangent length from theintersection point; (d) thetotal length
ofthecurve.
You arenotrequired 10 prove any oftheexpressions used inthesolution.
(L.U.]
Solution
(a)
x,atjunctionpoint = -. ..
, "
2
=.75(1 .;0.125 ) " '
, . ,.10
= 74.8828
Y f:)
_ (_0.125
2
)
-:- 6 x 300 ,I 14 "
. .
=' 3.1215 m.
. ' 'I ( 2 iP
4
)
(b)
.ShiftS = 1- 48 + 1320 .,'
_ ' . 75 ( 0.125
2
0.125
4
)
- 24 x 300 1 - + 1320
,= 0.7825 - .000253+ 1,4375 X 10-
7
= 0.i81 m
(c) Tangent length
=(R + S) tantJ/2 + 1- 5
SR)
- ("'00 . 0781) ?4
0
?0" i5 (1 0.781)
-;) T.: tan - - TT - 5x 300
.= 136.016 + 37.480
= 173.496 m.
7R(J - ?)
(d) Total length ofthecurve = '180- .' +?L I
I
,
IL
l
I
- . .. ..
... ' " ~
. ~ ~ ...
Curves 345
.
, .
n(300){48.67 - 2 x 7.16) 2 7-
= 180 + x .)
= 329.856m
Example 12.20 A circular curve of radius 500 m deflects through an angle of
35. This curve is to be replaced byone of smaller radius so as to admit transitions
100 mlong at each end. The deviation of the new curve from the old at their
midpoints is 0.5 m towards the intersection point (Fig. 12.42).
Determine the amended radius assuming that the shift can be calculated
with sufficient accuracy on the old radius. Calculate the lengths of the track to be
lifted and of new track,to be laid. ' . '
Solution
Old curve
~ .' ..'
.R'= OTt :,500 m.. ,..
Tangent length = R tan 11/2
=500 tan 35/2
= 5 7 ~ 9 m.
.
1M = R (sec 11/2 - 1) = 500 (sec 17.5" - 1)
.
=2-t.264 m,
500 x 35 x 1i
Length of curve I T ~ = 500 x ~
= 180
= 305.-t3 01.
F/lndamelltals 0/Surveying
Shift(usingoldradius) =
100
2

24 x 500
=0.833 m.
IN= shift X secjJ2 = 0.833 x sec17.5
0
=0.873m.
NM' =1M- MM'- IN
=24.264 -0.500- 0.873.
= 22.891 m
. NM' = R'(secfj/2 1)= R' x (0.04852)
But
'..= 22.891
or
R' =471.696 m
. L2
.Shiftusingnew radius =.24if

=24x471.696
= 0.883m.
Thelength ofthenewcurveT{Ti. .
= 2T{M'
Making suitableapproximation
= 2(T{Q' + Q'MT
= 2(T(R
I
+ RIQ' + Q'Ji)
Asthetransition curvegetsbisected atRI
T{R
1
= U2
andRIQ'isapproximately equal (0 thecorresponding circular portion.
Hence thelengthof the newcurve
=L+ Length of circularportion
= 100+ R'x ..1
. 9 35x tt
=100+ 471.6 6x ---rso-
= 388.142 m
which is the length of the'newtrack to be'laid
1----
: ~ .. ~ . ~ ~ .
I
II
Curves 347
Length of old track to be lifted' .
= T{T
I
+ TIM
PI, =(R'+ shift) tan lJ/2'
. = (471.696 + 0.883) tan 17.5
" '=149.00 m
Ti'I'='T{P+PI
= 1 ~ 0 : + 149.00.
=199.00 m.
T( T
I
=T( I - TIl
= 199.000 - 157.649
= 41.351 m
. Hence length of old track [0 be lifted
= 2(T(T
1
.+ TIM)
= 2 x 41.351 + 305.43
=388.132m
PROBLEMS
[AZ\.IJE Summer 1980]
~ Fundamentals of Surveying
12.3 (a) Supplementing with neat sketches differentiate between simple.
compoundandre\'erse curves. .
(b) Twoparallelrailway tracks weretobeconnected byareverse curve,
each sectionhavingthe sameradius. The distancebetween. theircentre
lines was:!O m.Thedistance between tangent pointsmeasured parallel
tothe trackwasSO m.Determine theradiusofthecurve.Iftheradii
weretobe different, calculate:
(i) the radius ofthesecond ifthatofthefirstwas 90m.
(ii)"The lengths'ofboth branches ofthecurve'. [AMIE \Vinter 1980J
. .
12.4 A'200mlengthofstraight connects twocircularcurves deflecting tothe
right. The radiusoftheIstcurvewas. 250mandthatofthesecond curve
was200m,The'centra) angle for thesecond curvewas1558'. Thecombined
curve is tobereplacedby a singlecircularcurvebetweenthesametangent
points. Find theradius ofthecurve." [AMIEWinter 1981J
-12.5 (a),Show thevarious elements ofa compoundcurveona neatly drawn
sketch.Alsostatetheformulae.tocalculatevarious quantities inthis
case when necessary dataareknown.,
(b) Prove that theshiftbisects the transition curveandtransition curve
bisects theshift. [AMIE Winter 1982]
12.6(a) State the conditions to be fulfiled by a,transition curveintroduced
betweenthetangent andcircularcurve.
(b) Draw a neatsketch ofa reverse curveprovided tojoin twoparallel
o.
straights.Using theusual notations statetherelationship between the
severalelements ofthecurve. .
(c)TwostraightsABandBCmeetat aninaccessible pointB.Theyare
. tobejoinedbyacircularcurve0(450mradius. Two pointsPandQ
wereselectedrespectively onABandBe,Thefollowingobservations
'were made:LAPQ= 160, LCQP =145,distance PQ =125 mand,
chainage of P= 1500.00m. Calculatethe chainages of intersection
point B. pointofcurvatureandpointof tangency.
,[AMIE Winter 1983J
12.7 (a) Listthe requirements tobesatisfiedinsettingoutatransition curve,
(b) Deriveanexpression forthesuperelevation to beprovided in atransition
curve,
(c) A 10 m wideroadistobe deflectedthrough anangle of3530'. A
transitioncurveistobeusedateachendofthecircular curveof500
mradius.It'hastobedesigned'forarateofgainofradial acceleration t'
of 0.2 rnIs
2
and a speed of 60kmlhr. Calculate the suitable length of
the transitioncurveandsuperelevation. [AMIE Winter1985J
12.8 (a) Draw a neatsketch andshowthe various elements of asimple circular
.
.
curve,
(b) What is atransition curve andwhereis it used?How will youdetermine
thelength ofatransition curveandtheamountofsuperelevation to
be provided?
'. .". ~ ..:-: .

Curves 349
(c) Two straightsTIP and'PT
2
are intersected byathird line AB such that
LPAB,= 4624', LPBA =3236' and dlstance AB ,;;, 312'in. Calculate
the radius of the simplecircular'curve which will be tangential tet the
three lines TiP, AB, and TPi and the ehainage of the point of the
, curve (T
I
) and point of tangency (T
2
) if the chainage of the-point P is
2857,:5 m.' '[AMIE Summer 1986]
12.9 (a) .Give any five general requirements ofa transition curve..
(b) A road pend which deflects 80 is to be'designed, fora maximum
speed of 120km/hr, a maximum centrifugal ratio of 1/4and a maximum
rate of change of acceleration of 30 cmlsec
2
The curve consisting of
a circular arc combined with two cubic spirals. Calculate (i) the radius
of the circular arc; (ii) the requisite length of the transition;
(iii) total length of the composite curve, [MvfIE.:Winter 1987]
12.10 (a) Explain the.following terms for a simple circular curve:
, (i) ~ c k and forward tangents. (ii) Point of intersection, curve and
tangency. (iii) Deflectionangle to any point. (iv) External distance. (v)
Degree of curve. ,
(b), The two tangents of a simple' circular cur.... e intersect at chainage 59
, +60, the deflection angle being '5030'; It is proposed to set out the
curve by offsetsfromchords by taking peg intervals equal .to 100
links.The length of thechainconslsting of 100links is 20 rn. Determine
the lengths of all offsets to setout a curve of 15 chains radius. '
rAMIE Winter 1988J
.'.
1
13'
..- ..
Vertical Curves
13.1 INTRODUCTION
For highways and railways whenever there is a change of grade in thevertical
plane, a vertical curve is required to smoothen the change. It is usually parabolic
as parabolic curves provide a constant rate of change of grade. A vertical curve
should be so designed. that "
(i)
..
it gives smooth riding qualities which again will occur if (a) there is a
constant change of gradient, (b) uniform rate of increase of centrifugal force; and
(ii) adequate sighting distanceis available thevehicle reaches the summit.
t.
"
There are four types of vertical curves as shown in Fig, Sag curve;
(b) Crest or summit curve; (c) Rising curve; (d) FaIling curve.
In a sag curve, a down grade is followedby an upgrade. In a summit curve
an upgrade is followed by a downgrade. In a rising.curve an upgrade is foIl owed
by another upgrade, In a falling cU0'e.a down grade is followed by another
downgrade. '.' .
II
I
II
1\
II
1\
,I
__.
(b)
(a)
350

Vertical Curves' 351

'....
13.2 GEl'iERAL EQUATION OF A CURVE
The generalequation of a parabolic curve.is, ..
y = +Bx +. C
at x = 0 Y =. C
dv
Differentiating -:.. = 2A.t + B
d.r:
,;,-..
at x = 0
(
d
Y
) =8
d.r: 0
which means B is the slope of the tangent at origin
=1x (:) =rate of change of slope
= ,2A =a constant.
Hence the statement that for a parabolic.curve 'rate .of. change of slope is a
constant. This is shown in Fig. 13.2. If an upward slope of g,is followed by
another slope g2 the changeof grade is g2 - gl' If the change occurs over a length
L. the rate of change of grade is (g2 - gI)/L: Therefore
(c) Cd)
Fig. 13.1 Different types vertical curves: (:I) Sag curve: (b) Crest or summit curve.
(c) Rising curve. (d) Falling
or
Fisure 13.3 shows the nomenclature of a vertical curve when inserted between
two grades, Here point A is the beginning of vertical curve (BVC). point B is the
end of the vertical curve (EVC)"gl is the upgrade andt: is the downgrade. The
. equation of aparabola
- -
Y1
. 'X-':: 0
e
,L....t- X
011+'---
Fig. 13.2 Parabolic vertical curve.
e y
92 downgrade

eve
(beginning of A B EVe (endof
vertical curve) ,e2, ' vertical curve)
Anypoint on-thecurve
}lave
x
datum
Fig. 13.3 Equation of a vertical curve.,
y =A\..2 +Bx +C
can now betransformed to
.-
y =M +81
x
+Ysvc
'as
81 =B
and
C _=)'svc.
e,

with
A
'- 82 - 81,
,- - 2L
'y = 81}x
2
+ ,+)'SI'C ': " - (13.1)
Vertical Curves' 353
.: g2 - gl
If
r - L
..
}' = x:!'+ gl't' +
(13.2)
r should be used with proper sign.
Taking upward grade as positive and downward grade as negative, r has the
following signs.
Fig. 13.1:
(3) sag curve r is positive.
(b) summit curve r is negative.
(c) rising curve r is negative.
(d) Falling curve r is positive.
When a vertical curve is laid out such that thepoin; 'of intersection of the grade
lines, i.e. C (PVI) lies midway between the two ends of the curve' measured .
horizontally thenIt is an equal tangent parabolic curve. The points on the vertical ' .
curve can therefore be plotted by using the parabolic equations of the curve. The
points on the vertical curve'can also be plotted from the grade lines by utilizing
the following properties of an equal tangentvertical parabola:
1. The offsets from the tangent to the curve at a point are proportional to
the squares of the horizontaldistances fromthe point. This is shown in Fig. 13.3
where PP' ==
2. The offsets from the two grade lines are symmetrical with respect to the
point of intersection of the two. grade lines. . .
3. The curve lies midway between the point of intersection of the gradelines.
and the middle point of the chord joining the BVC and EVC i.e, CC
I
= C
I
C
2
.
.. " - . ,.' '
The method of plotting the points on the curve from the corresponding points on
the grade is known as method of tangent offsets or tangent corrections. These
methods are explained in detail through illustrative" examples. .
13.3 COMPUTATIONS FOR AN UNEQUAL CURVE
An unequal tangent curve is simply acombinationoftwo equal tangent curves.
Figure 13.4 shows such a curve. .
Here BVC to CVC is one equal tangent curve and from CVC to EVC is
another equal tangent curve. A and B are midpoints of BllCVand VEVC respectively.
Fromthe elevations of A and B, the gradient of the lineAB can be computed. The
two equal tangent curves should be computed as explained before.
13.4 HIGH OR LOW POINT ON A VERTICAL CURVE
It is often necessary to locate the highest point'(in the case of summit) and the
lowest point (in the case of a valley) for a vertical curve. This helps in lnvestigating
35-1- Fundamentals of Surveying
v
Fig.l3.4 Unequal tangent curve.
drainage conditions, in computing clearance beneathoverh,ead structures, or cover
over pipes or sight distance. At the highest or lowest point, the tangent to the
curve will be horizontal and slope will be zero.
dv : .....
Now ,ix = 2A:c +B.
and A =:g2 - gl
With,
, 2L
d.\' g g
2 - I X + gl = 0
d.r = L
giL giL
or .t = - = ~
g2 - 81 gl - g2
where x is the distance from the origin to the point.
..
gl is tangent grade through BVC
g2 is tangent grade through EVC, and L is the curve length.
13.5 VERTICAL CURVE PASSING THROUGH A FIXED POINT
While designing a vertical curve,,it is,often necessary that it passes through a
fixed point of known elevation. This is requiredwhen a newgradeline must meet
an existing railroad or highway crossing or a minimum vertical distance must be
maintained between the grade line and the underground structures.
From Fig. 13.5
L )2 ,',
YI = ~
(
! -Xo with res,pect to tangent AB.
. . ,
L )2
Y2 = ~ 2" +xo
with respect to tangent BC.
( ... f.
Therefore
When )'1, }'l and .to are known L can be found out from.the quadratic equation.
Vertical ClIl1'eS . 355
.,
.'
A
U2
~ U2
~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - = - c
Fig. 13.5 Vertical curve passing through a fixed point..
13.6 DESIGN OF VERTICAL CURVE :
The length of a vertical curve is based on two conslderatlcnsvIl) Centrifugal
effect; (ii) Visibility.
In sags and in summits of flat gradients, centrifugal effect is the main
consideration. At summits visibility .isusually the determining factor.
Centrifugal effect
Acceleration due to moving in a curve
.,
a =!:!.:
. R
If the permissible centrifugal acceleration =0.75m/sec
2
2
R =v
a
100 x 1000)2
(
R = 60.x60 ...
If V = 100 km/hr,
0.75
= 1028.8 ::: 1000 m
..
. d
2yld\:z
Curvature = - - - = - - - ~ ~
{I +(dyld\)2J31f2
As vertical curvesare usually flat curves (dylcf.Tf is ',erysmall andcan be neglected.
Hence
d
2
\' 1
Curvature = dT
2
= R = 2A
L
or
R
- gl
!.min with R =1000 m
=1000 (82- 81)
Iftwo gradients 1 in 50 meet in asag
Lmin =1000 [ S1
0
- (- ;0) ]
=lOOOx2=40m'
SO
,Sighl distance
'At summits the length of the curve is controlled by sight distance. A minimum
sight distance is required to 'avoid accident. '
Two cases mayoccur: (i) when sight distanceS is entirely on the curve, i.e.
S c L, and (ii) when sight distance S overlaps the curve and extends on to the
tangent S >L. '
CASE 1 S <L
AI_
-1-
--.oJ,I C
U2 U2,
Fig, 13.6 Sight S< L.
Let "1 =height of driver's eye above the roadway.
,
"2 = height of object or hazard on the travelled road.
.
Line of sight DBE is tangential to the summit of the curve at B.
It is already shown" y =
'g2 - gl ..2
, 2L ,"
..
Vertical Curves 357'
'.
When ."C =a, y =hi' Since hi 'is positive. while 'r is negative in summit
, .
,. .
- _g2 - 81 a1
II
I - 2L
or
Similarly
{h;'

But sight distance S =,a + b
=

(.,fii; + ..[h;)
.
81 -82
, ,
Usually 82. gl' are expressed in %, e.g. 1%. 3%so that8 becomes 8/100 and the
expression reduces to
S . noor- ({h; +..[h;)
(13.3)
'.
...
The value of hi is usually taken as 1.05m and h
2
as 0.15, m.
If hi = hi = h, Eq. (13.3)reduces to
, 28.2S'..[[h
"/8\- 82
CASE II: S >' L ,
Lh,l91
h,
L
s
. .. .
Fig. 13.7 Sight distance S > L.
Assuming scalar value for 81
, S = U2 + hl/g
l
+ h
2/g2
. Setting the final derivative of S to zero, we get
.
- it dg
l
- dg:! = 0
gl 82
To make S a minimum, the rate of change of 82 will be equal and opposite tothat
(If gl' '
or
or
h ~ _ l r ~ = 0
gj 85
{Tr;
or
g ~ = h gl
or
rEi
or
gl + ~ = A = gl + "-1- 81
. " 11
.jh;
or g = xA
I ..jii;+.,fh;
,fh; x A
82 =
{fl; + .,fh; .
Substituting the values of 81 and gl
(13.4) or
At the summit ~ is negative, hence with proper algebraic sign the expression
becomes:
L = 25 _ 2(..[h; + f l
8\ g ~
(13.4a)
.

13.7 SIGHT DISTANCE OF VERTICAL CURVES AT A SAG
Design of vertical curve in sag is based on minimum stopping sight distance. It
is stipulated that the head light of a vehicle which is normally 0.75 m above the
",:
' ..."
".._0.
Vertical Curves 359
roadsurfacewiththebeam oflightinclinedatanangle of1
0
tothehorizontal will
illuminate thisdistance.
CASE 1: S<L
A
I
S
F
Parabolic Curve
h
J
8
1
0
G . C
I,
L
' I
Fig. 13.8 Sight distance at S:lg S <L
I
I
Itis already deduced
I
and AC = 2 ~ ~ 8 e
But EG =h +Stan 1
0
As h =0.7.5 m
EG =0.75+Stan 1
Equating.
82 - g. S2 =0.75+StanI"
2L
or
_ (g2 - gl)S2
- 2(0.75+ 1 7 ~ S)
(13.5)
I
C....SE Il. WhenS> L
Fig. 13.9 . j t distance at sag S > L
Inthiscase EO= (g2- 81)(S - U2)
But EG = lz + Stan 1
0
11 + Stan.1
0
= (g'l ; gl) (2S - L)
. .
withlz = 0.75 m.
0:75 + S (0.0174)= g2 ; ~ ~ (2S - L)
~ =2S _ (1.5+ 0.035S)
or (13'.6)
g2 - gl
..
Example13.1. A + 3.5% grade meets a -1.5% grade at station 60 + 15 and
elevation250 m(Fig. 13.10). An equaltangent paraboliccurve 300 m long has
beenselectedtojoin the two tangents. Compute and tabulate the curve for stakeout
atfull stations.Check bysecond diffeiences:AssuJ:ne 30 mchain.
Solution
C
'. Chainage
60 + 15
elevation 250 m.
.
.
Chainage of C= 60 + 15 = 1815 m
-U2 = - 150 m
Beginning of VerticalCurve (BVC) = 1665 m
. Fig. 13.1Q .Example 13.1.
r = (- 1.5.,.. 3.5) _1_= ..,; 0.000167.
300 100 ..
-A check oncurveelevations isobtained bycomputing thefirst and second differences
between [he elevations of full stations as shown in the right hand columns of the
table. Unless disturbed by rounding off all second differences (rate of change)
should be equal.
The elevation of the curve's central point
. ~ 244.75 + 0.035 x ]50 - ~ ] 6 7 (150)2 = 248.]2
This can be checked by the property of the parabola, that the line joining the
vertex and the midpoint of the long chord gets bisected by the curve. _
Elevation of midpoint of the
. .
chord of t h ~ parabola =244.75 +2 247.735 =246.2425
-Elevation of the curvec'entte = 246.2425 + 250.00 = 248.12 m. (check) _
2
Example 13.2 Agradeof - 3.5% meets anothergrade of + 0.50%. The elevation
of the point of intersection is 267 m and chainage is 780 m (Fig. 13.11). Field
coordinates require that the vertical curveshould pass through a point of elevation
268 m at chainage 780 m. Compute a suitable equal tangent vertical curve and
fullstation elevations.
w-
'0
Elevation 267 m.
Chainage.780 m
Solution The general equation of a parabola
y = Ysvc + gt
X
+ (I}x
Z
3.5 .L 3.5 + 0.5 ( L) Z
(268)= ,267 + 100 '2 + 2L(100)' "2 _-
3.5 -
100 . L/2
or 268 ::: 267 + .0175L.f' .005L -
= 267 + .005L
.0175L

or
1
L= .005 ..
= 200 m
-
Vertical Curves 363
FilII Staiion Elevations .
.:
Chalnage at mebeginning ofthecurve = 780- 100 = 680m
..
=22+20m
Elev"ation at thebeglnning ofthecurve ~ 267+ t4 x 100
Example13.3 A+4.00% grade meetsa -2.00% grade atstation50+ 00and
elevation 400m.Length of1stcurve is180 m andthat of2ndcurveis120.00 m.
Compute andtabulat;fullstation elevations.." ."
Solution
(i) Elevation ofBVC =400- 1 8 f ~ 4 ~ 392.8m
Elevation ofA =392.8 + 9 ~ ~ 4 =396.4m
"Elevation ofEVC = 400 - 160 x 120 = 397.6m
Elevation ofB .=400- 160 x 60= 398.8m
Grade AB =396.4 - 398.8 =1.6%
ISO .
---
---
These elevations are shown in Fig. 13.12
Chainage 50 + 00, Elevation 400 m
~
........ --
...
Fig. '13.12 Example 13.3..'
(ii) For the first curve 81.='+ 4.00%' ,
82 =:: + 1.6% .' '.
:'r' 1.6- 4.0"'1 .
'2 =, 2(180) x 100
=- 6.67 x lO-
s
For the second curve
1 6
Df. - 2 - 1.6 1
81 =+ . -/0 '2 =2(lX 20) x 100
..
82 =- ~ . O =- 1.50 x' 10'-4
The rest of the calculations are given in Table 13.3.
Station x
SIX
n?/2 Curve First Second
elevation difference difference
44 + 0 0 O'
o .'
' 392.80
1.14
45 + 0 30 + 1.2 - 0.06 393.94 0.12
1.02
46 + 0 60 + 2.4 - 0.24 394.96 0.12
0.90
47 + 0 90 + 3.6 - 0.54 395.86 0.12
0.88
48 + 0 120 + 4.8" . .; 0.96 396.64 0.12
0.66
49 + 0 150 + 6.0
,,;,.. L50
397.30 0.12
0.54
. ~
50 + 0 180 + 7.2 - 2.16 397.84' ..
+ 0.34
51 + b 30 0.48 --0.14 398.18
+ 0.26
..
,
+ 0.08'
52 + 0
60 0.96 ..: 0.54 398.26
+ 0.28
- 0.20
53 + 0' 90 ' 1.44 - 1.22 398.06
+ 0.26
-0.46
54 + 0
120 1.92 - 2.16
.' 397.60
, '
'.e
o
Vertical Curves 365
Example 13.4 What is the minimum length"of vertical curve to provide a
required sight distance forthe following conditions?
(i) Grades of + 3.4% and - 2.4%, sight distance 230 m.
(ii) Grades of + 4.8% and - 3.4%, sight distance 270 rn.
(iii) Grades of + 0.5% and - 1.2%, sight distance 400 rn.
Solution At summit hI = 1.05 m, h
2
= 0.15 m.
If S < L
..
'
S = (.,fh; + ,'h;,)
81 - 82 ' ,

or

g;-=g; = (.jh; + ..[h;.)
2L ' S2
or
81 -,82 (.jh;.+ ..[ii;)2
or
For case (i) . '
.'
L = 230
2
(3.4 - (-2.4 _1_
2 (-./1.05 + ;,)0.15)
_ 230
2
X 5.8 x,_I_
- 2 x 2.15 100
= 720.23> 230. -:
270
2[4.8
L _ - (- 3.4)]
For case (ii)
- . 100 x 2 x 2.13 . ,
, = 1403.24 =?' ,270.
L_ 400
2
[05 - (-12)] .
For case (iii)
- 100 x2 x 2.13 '"
=638.49 > 400 m.
with hi =h
2
= 1.05 m the formula reduces to
2(5.8)
- 230 - 333 - ?"'O
For case (i) L
- (8)(1.05)(100) - .:> > -" .
. 270
2(8.2)
_ _.:: '9 76 ?70
For case (ii)
L - (100)(8)(1.05) - v-t. > -

366 Fundamentcls of Surveying
"9-65 400
. For case (iii) L
=(100)(8)(1.05) =_:>. <.
For case(iii) the result is not valid ::IS L <S whereas the assumption was L >S. '.
Hence the formula to be used.
II
with "1= III
811
L=2S---
8\ - 82
II
=2(400) _8x x 100
II
=258.8.2 rn c 400m.
Example 13.5 A parabolic vertical curveof length 100 m is formed at a summit
between grades of 0.7 per cent up and 0.8 per cent down. The length of the curve
is to be increased to 120 m, retaining as much as possible of the original curve
and adjusting the gradients on both.sldes to be equal. Determine this gradient,
II
[L.U. BSc]
Solution Let f.} be the length' of the new vertical curve. Taking axes ::IS
shown (Fig. 13.13), the equation of the parabola may be written as:
II
I,
)'=Ax
2
o x
I r- L'
Newapproach c%
Old exitb%
-,L-l+-E'_
L
y
Old approach a%
As change of slope is very small chord lengths are assumedto be thesame lengths
as the distance along the curve, i.e. assumed to be Land lJ respectively
)' =At
1
il
d"
II
=2Ax
II
or
Equating tblssuccessivelyto the gradients (a +b) and then (c +d). we get
. -. _.. -. '.- , "-'" ",'
.:.;.. '.
II
I
. I
or,
Similarly
;'"
J:"',-'
...
~ .. ertical Curves 367
L =2 ~ (a:-.b)
1 L
2A = a +b
L' =: ~ (c'+'d)
. L '
=(a+ b) (c+ d)
HereL =100.m a =.0.7%, b= 8 ~ L' =120 m
Letg bethenewgrade bothupanti down
100 =_1,(0.7 + O.S)
2.-\ 100
1?0 - _1(2!.)'
- ~ 2A 100
,
100 = 1.5 x 100 '
or
120 100 2g
or g = 0.9%
~
Example 13.6 Onastraightportion ofanew road an upward gradient of1in
100 wasconnected to'adownward gradient of 1in 150bya vertical parabola,
Summit curveoflength 150,m (Fig. 13.14). ApointP,atchainage 5910.0 rn, on
thefirstgradient, wasfound tohaveareduced levelof45.12mandapoint Qat
achainage of 6210.0 monthesecond gradient of44.95m.
1 iri150 "
1 in 100 ".T ~
A B
(i) Find thechainages andreduced levels of the tangent points tothe curve.
(ii)Tabulate thereduced levels ofthepoints onthecurve:It Intervalsof20
m from PandOnts highest point.
Find the minimum sighting distance to theroadsurface foreach of the
following cases: ' ,
(iii) The driverof acar whose e)'eis 1.05 m above the surface ofthe road
(iv) The driver ofa lorry for whom the similar distance is 1.80 rn.
Solution Let the point ofintersection R has chainage.t.
Hence
45.12+ (.t- 5910.0) x 160
= 44.95 + (6210.00 - x) x ~
..
or x = 6019.8 m
(i) Ch,ainage at_tI1e lsttangent point
=6019.8 --75
=5944.8.m,:
Chainage at the 2nd tangent point
..
=6019.8 + 75
=6094.8m
R.L of1st tangent Point =45.12 + (5944.8- 5910.0)
100
= 45.12 + 0.348
= 45.468 m
R.L of 2nd tangent point
. '. 1
= 44.95 + (6210.0 ~ 6094.8) 150
== 45.718 m.
(ii)The R.L's ofdifferentpoints onthe curve at 20 mfrom P are given in tabular
form below.
Highest point occurs at a distance x = --1.!!:.
8\ - 82
1 '
_ TOO x 150
- 160 - (- 1;0)
= 90 m
Chainage of points at 20 m interval of P = 5910, 5930, 5950 and so on
chainage of 1st tangent point =5944.80
(iii) When S < L
:... I(200)(L) (Jh; + .,fh;)
S -. 8\ - 82
- "c:.
--
-, ".:,,!, to"
,,"
":', ... (
Vertical Curves 369
.
Chainage x
81''(
r:r/2 Curveelevation Remarks
"
--
59+tSO

5950.00
5970.00
5990.00
6010.00
6030.00
6034.80
6050.00
6070.00
6090.00
609-t80
0.00
5.20
25.20
45.20
65.20
85.20
90.00
105.20 '
125.20
145.00
150.00
0.00
0.052
0.252
0.452
0.652
0.852
0.900
,1.052
1.252
1.450
1.500
0.0000
0.00150
0:03528 '
0.11350 '
0.23616 '
0.40328
0.44995
0.61483
0.87083
1.16806
,1.25000
45.468
45.519
45.685
45.807
45.884
45.917
45.918
45.905
45.849
45.750
45.718
Bve
HighestPoint
Eve
(200)(150) (.Jt.05+ ";0.15)
=
1,... (-0.67)
(20?).(150) {1.024 + 0387)
=
=189.11 > L hence invalid
(iv)When S> L
'0-
,s =f. + (.[ii;+ .Jji;)l
2 81 - 82
,150 (1.411)2
=- +....,..:..--.:--
2 .01 + ,0067
=75+ 119.22
= 194;22 > 150m,
, when hi 1.80 m
S = 75+ -(M+ {ffi)2
.01 + .0067
,= 75, +,'178.93,'
.
= 253.93 > 150m.
PROBLEMS,
13.1 Why aparabola isusedasa vertical curve? Whynotacircle?
13.2 What ismeantbyrateofchange ofgrade onvertical curvesandwhy itis
important?
13.3.Tabulate station elevations for an equal tangent parabolic curvefor the
data givenbelow:
3iO Fundomemals oj
A + 3%grade meets a- 1.5% gradeat station60 + 15and elevation
300 m,350mcurve.stakeoutat fullstations.
13.4 Fieldconditions require a highway curveto passthrough a fixed point.
Computeasuitableequal-tangentvertical curveandfull station elevations,
Grades of- 3.5%and + 0.5%,PVIelevation 260.00 matstation 26
+ 00. Fixed pointelevation 261.00mat station26+ 00
-,.. /
13.5Compute andtabulatefull-station elevationforanunequal tangentvertical
curvetofittherequirements below:
A + 4.00%grademeets a- 2% gradeat station40+ 00 andelevation
400.00m.Length of 1stcurve200rn,secondcurve133m,
13.6 (a) Explain whythesecond differences ofcurveelevations areequal for
aparabolic curve. . .
(b)Why areparabolic curvesnotgenerally used forhorizontal.highway
curves?
13.7 Indetermining sightdistances on verticalcurves, howdoesthedesigner
determine whetherthecarsorobjectsareonthecurveor tangent?
13.8 Calculate theminimum lengthofcurvetoprovide required sightdistance
inthefollowing cases.
(a) + 3.5%and- 2.5% sightdistance200m.
(b)+ 4.5%and- 3.5% sightdistance m.
(c) + 0.5%and- 1.20% sightdistance400 m.
.
.
HI:--lTS TOSELECTED QUESTIONS
13.1'Because parabolasprovide a constantrate of change of grade, theyare
ideal for vertical alienrnents used for. vehiculartraffic. Circle doesnot
. provide constant graM.' .' ,. .
13.6'(a).Seconddifference indicates,rate of change. As rate ofchanze of a
parabolic curveisconstant, seconddifference'isconstant. -
(b) Onhighways. parabolas areseldomusedbecause driversareableto
overcome abrupt directional changesatcircularcurves bysteering a
parabolic pathastheyenterandexitthecur:ves.
..
. '
... ..
.".,
. C"," '/
...........--'"
.
.- ....>: .
. .
-,--------,-' --,-- -----

-::. .
J..
14
Areas .and.Volumes
14.l I:-;TRODUCTlO:-<
It isoften necessary tocompute thearea'of.atractoflandwhich may beregular
orirregular inshape.Landisordinarilyboughland soldonthebasisofcost per
unitarea,To compute volumes 'o(earlh\\'ork,tobe cut or filled in planning a
highway, it'isnecessary tocomputethe areas ofcrosssections. In,S.Iunits the
areais measured in squaremeters, hectares or square kilometers. 1hectare =
, ..
10,000 m
2
Therelationshipbetweenacresand hectaresis: 1hectare=2;471 acre
or 1acre=0.4047hectare.':
.,"
14.2 METHODS OF AREA
Therearemany methods for measuring area,Theyare: (1)geometrical methodswhen
theareais dividedintoa numberof triangles. rectangles or trapeziums; (2)by
taking offsetsfromastraightline;(3)doublemeridian distances; (4)coordinates.
When the plan or map of an area is available, however irregular it may be,
planimetercanberunovertheenclosinglinestocompute theareaoftheplot.The
areaofa triangle whose sidesareknowncanbecomputed by the formula, .
area=..[S(s- a)(s-b)(s- c) (14.1)
where a, b, C aresides ofthetriangleands= t (a+b+c)
14.2.1 AREA OFATRAerWITHIRREGULAR BOUNDARIES
Iftheboundaries ofatractareirregular, itisnotpossible torunthetraverse along
the boundaries. The traverse is usually run at a convenient distancefrom the
actual boundaries. The offsets from the traverse to the irregular boundary are
-.
taken atregularintervals orifnecessaryatirregular intervals. The areabetween.
thetraverse lineandtheirregular boundary isdetermined by
1.Midordinate rule.
2.Average ordinate rule.
3. Simpson'srule. ' '
371
..,-----'}
ill
:1
ill
,
III
ill
ill
iii
I
'!
ill
I:
I'
",I
!I,
III
,
"
II
ill:
!
'II
:I
i
ill,I
l
III
,
III
1,'1'"
: I
Iii
Iii
:\lid ordinate rule
Figure 14.1 explains the application of this rule.
Total area of the irregular plot: ..
A =MId+/I1-:.d + Mjd+ M
4d
+ Msd +M
6d
+Mid+Msd+M
9d
. .
=d(M
1
+ /11
2
+ M) + M4+ /11; + M
6
+M,+Mg +M9)
L .
= - (M
1
+ M
2
+ M) +/11
4
+ M
s
+M6+M,+M
8
+ M
9
) (14.2)
11
Average ordinate rule.
Figure 14.2 explains this method.
-,
0, IO
2
I0
3
I0 4 .1 Os I0
6
. 10
7
10
8
d
I. . L 'I
I
Fig. 14.2 Average ordinate rule:
I If OJ, O:! ... . Osare the ordinates to the boundary from the baseline
Average
di
or mate =
OJ +
+ 0) + '" +0, + Os
8
and area =average ordinate x length
= OJ + O
2
+ ... +0
8
X L (14.3)
The area can also be computed by applying the trapezoidal rule which is obtained
by considering each part as a trapezium and then adding the part mass together.
Therefore, total area .
.
.
A
- 01 +O2 d O2 +0) d
- . 2 + 2- +...+
06 +0,d
2 +
0,+08 d
2
..., I '. "1

,-
AreasandYolumes 373
0\ + 0
8
" )
'
= d f + 0:!+..o3+ 4 '+ o.s.+ 06 + 07
(
If the number of segments is n, d =viz and no. ofordinates-e n + LTherefore'
, L(O\ + On+'! ,,' , ";
, A = It 2 ' + O2 + 03 + ... +, On)" ,
(14.4)
The ,trapezoidal role can, therefore,be stated as:
Area is equal to product of the common interval d and sum of intermediate
ordinates plus average of the first and last ordinates. If the intervals are not
equal the areas of the trapeziums have to be computed separately and added:
together. .
Simpson's rule
In the roles stated above the irregular boundary consists of a number of straight,
lines. If the boundary is curved, it can' be approximated as a series of straight
lines.Alternatively, Simpson's rule is. applied. assumes that the short lengths
of boundaries between the ordinates are parabolic arcs. Figure 14.3 shows an area
with a curved boundary. '
.'
'0
2
0
3
0
1
" B,'
d

",
Fig. 14.3 ' Derivation or Simpson's rule.
The area ABCDEF consists of two parts:
(a) Area ABCDGF which is equal to
0\ + 0
3
X 2'd = d(O\ + 03)'
2 ,
(b) Area DEFGD
= x area of enclosing parallelogram FHEIDG.
H
F
o
374 Fundamentals ofSun'cying'
? '
=3' x ('2.d)(DEF)
2 (
3
+0
1
)
='3 x(2d) X O
2
- 2
= d X l20
2
- (03 +01)]'
Total area= q+0\ x2d +2d [20, - (01 +11.)]
23- VJ
= %[30
1
+3
3-
+40
2
.,20i - 203]
,d ,', '"
="3[01 +402 +3]'
Areaofthenexttwosegments

d '
. ="3 [03+404 +Os]
Taking alltheareastogether, totalareabecomes
d ' ,
A =3'[(01 +40
2
+03) +(03 +404 +Os)
-.
+ (Os +40
6
+0,) +...+(On-I +40
n
+On+I)]
=3'
d
[01 +0n+1
'-
+4(02 +0 4 +0 6 +...) ,
,+2(03 +Os +0,+...)] (14.5)
Since we are taking'2 at'a 'time, the segments11
alwaysbeevenanathenumberofordinatesodd forSimpson'sruletobeapplicable.
Inwords, theruleis"TogettheareabySimpson'srule,add1standlastordinates
tofourtimestheevenordinatesandtwotimestheoddordinates andmultiplythe
sumbyonethirdthecommon interval."Theaccuracy ofSimpson'sruleismore
than the trapezoidal rule forcurved boundary. Whetherthe area'computed is more
orlessthantheactual value depends on whethertheareaisconcaveor convex
to thebaseline.
, Thereexistsanotherformula (known as'Simpson's3/8formula)whichassumes
athirddegree polynomial passing through fourconsecutive pointsoftheground
profile asshown in Fig. 14.4. It takesthefollowing form,
Toapply Simpson's 3/8formulato a sequenceof intervals,the number of intervals
must bedivisiblebythree. - ' . ,
Areas and Yolumes 375
f(x)
3rd degree polynomial
I
I 0
3
I
I
I
I
0
0
1. Meridian distance method.
2. Double,meridian distance method.
, ..
3. Double parallel distance method.
4. Departure and total latitude method,
. Meridian distance method
The meridian distance of a line is the perpendicular distance from the line's
midpoint to a reference meridian (North-South line). To avoid negative signs. the
reference meridianis generally chosenas passing through the most westerly comer
of the traverse or further away from it. Figure 14.5 shows the different associated
terms. EF is the meridian distance of AB.
GR is the meridian distance of BC. Mathematically meridian distance of BC
is equal to meridian distance of AB plus half the departure of AB plus half the
departure of BC. Similarly, meridian distance of CD is equal to the meridian
distance of Be plus half the departure of BC plus half'the departure of CD. Thus
the meridian distance of any line is equal to the meridian 'distance of the preceding
line plus half the departure of the precedingline plus half the departureof the line
itself. For applying this rule, the sign of the departure should be considered.
Easterndeparture beingpositive and Western departure negative. Similarly. latitude
..
is positive towards North and negative towards South.
Taking the North-South line passing through 'A', (Fig. 14.6)
EF =meridian distance of AB.
M;/ =latitude of AB.
HG = meridian distance of BC.
D
..
I
MeridiandistanceCD
J
I
.'
CL- ;- Latitude of CD
c
Cll Meridian distanceBC
'5
"L: G B.r:::: H:- '-= -Departure of CD
Q)
E
/'i - - - C - I Latitudeof BC. .
Q)'
o E
c
distance AB../ F , Departure of BC
Q)
... A~ --.. Latitude of AB
Q)
Qj
a:
Departureof AB
II
I'
II
,.>
II
Fig. 14.5 Meridian distance method.
N
0
J
L
N -7 C
-.
A
H
E
M
..
\- - -...,L- - - - - -
S
Fig. 14.6 Derivation of area by meridian distance method..
MN =latitude of BC.
lJ =meridian distance of CD.
ON =latitude of CD.
LK =meridian distance of DA. .
OA =latitude of DA.
.
Area ABCD =- AMB +NMBC +NCDO - ODN
=(- AM) x EF +NM x HG +Jl x ON +LX x (- OA)
(14.6)

I
I
I
, I
Areas and Volumes 377
Here all the departures are positive asA, the most westerly station has been
chosenasorigin.As regards signof latitude, from thedirection of arrows it is
clearthatlatitudesofAB andDA pointdownwards, i.e,towards south,andhence
is negative. '
Symbolically A = LL x M
d
where L =latitude
and M
d
' = meridian distance.
Double meridian distance method
Inordertoavoidworkingwithhalfdepartures, surveyors usethedouble meridian
distance, i.e.,twicethemeridiandistance inmakingcomputations,ThustheD,I,[D
ofBC isequaltotheDJJD ofAB plus thedeparture ofAB plusthedeparture of
BC. Thefollowing are therulesforcomputing DJlDs fora closed'traverse.
1.TheDMD ofthefirstlineisequal tothe departure ofthe lstline. Ifthe
lst lineis chosenas the onethatbeginsat thewestern mostcomer, negative
DMDs canbeavoided. ,', ',' ,
'2. TheDMD ofeachsucceeding lineisequal to'the D,'"ID oft,he previous'
lineplusthedeparture oftheprevious lineplus.thedeparture of thelineitself.
3. The DMD of thelastlineof a balanced closed traverse is equal tothe
departureof thelinebutwithopposite sign.
.' Ithas already beenshown
AreaABCD =(- AM) x EF +m,l x HG +JI x ON + LK x (- 0.4).
Thiscanberewrittenas:
= .!.[(-o4J1) x2EF +NM x2HG +ON x2JI +(- OA) x2LK)]
' "
,
2
.
1
= '2 [(- AM) xDMDAlJ +NM xDMD
sc
+ON,x DMD
cD
+(- OA) x DMDD,d
=t[LLxDMD]
f .
or 2ABCD ::;;, 2Lx DMD.
i.
Heresummation of products ofm"ID andlatitudes oflines ofaclosedtraverse
withpropersigngivestwice theareaofthetraverse. Ifthetraverse iscovered
clockwise, theareawillbenegative,ifcounterclockwise, theareawillbepositive.
Doubleparallel distance method
Inthismethodperpendicular distancesof mid pointsof differentlines aremeasured
from areference parallel.Thereference parallel isusually takenthrough themost
southerly pointof thetraverse along theeast-west line,i.e.perpendicular tothe
reference meridian. Thedouble parallel distance istwice theparallel distance of
i
<--
aline.TheDPD foranytraverse lineisequal totheDPD oftheprevious lineplus
thelatitude oftheprevious lineplus latitude ofthelineitself. Thetraversearea
canbecomputed by multiplying theDPD ofeachlinebyitsdeparture, summing
",
theproducts and taking halftheabsolute value ofthetotal,
Departure andtotallatitude method
II:
Iii
Totallatitudeofapointisequal toitsdistance from thereferencestationmeasured
parallel 10 the reference'meridian.
Fig. 14.7 Totallatitudemethod.
Area oftheclosed traverse ABeD,
A =ABb+Bbc+DeeC +ADe- CcB.
=t (- L
1
) DAB + t (- L,) be+ t(L
2
+L
3
)(- Dco)
+2'
1
(L
3
)(- Do.... )- 1/2L"2
bc
, 1
=112(- Lt)D
AB
+'2(- L.)Dsc
+t(L
2
+L
3
)(- D
co)
+ t(L
3
)(- D
o
.... )- 1/2L
2
(- DsC>
_ 1 1
- '2 (- L.)(DAB +Dsd+'2L2(Dsd
1 ' 1 "
+'2L3(- Dco - D
oA
)- "?L
2(Dco)
,'. <'it'
I
II
'I
L __~ _
Reference
meridian. -1-
L
3
1 L2
-A
Reference
station
- L,
II:
ill
1\
D
Dco --1 lill
. D
OA
Dj.,9
"'I
Iii
111
t
Iii
Iii
II
C
Li
I
c
Reference
II
"
meridian
,Dec
B
~
Areas and VO[IIJnes 379
, '.
1 '. .
='2 {(-L1)(D"s +DsC> +(L
2)(+
D
sc
- D
co)
+ L)(- D
co
- Do,,)}
. ... ..
or2A = {(-L1)(D"s + Dsd +(L
2)(Dsc
- Dco) +(L
3
)(- D
co
-
= L total latitude of a point
x (algebraic sum of two adjacent departures).
Hence following steps should be followed in computing area by this method:
1. Compute the total latitude of each station from a reference station,
2. Compute the algebraic sum of departures of lines meeting at thi;; station..
3. Find the product of total latitude of each station and the corresponding
algebraic sum of departures; ..
4. Half the algebraic sum of these products gives the required area.
14.2.3 COORDINATES
In this method independent coordinates of thepe"ints are used in the computation
. of areas. '. .
y
" .1
A
(X". YA)
Fig. lt8 Coordinates method.
.
To avoid negative sign, the origin 0 is chosen at the most southerly and westerly
point.
Total area of the traverse
A =t(X
c
+XB)(Y
c
- Ys)+(X
o
;XcJ(Y
o-
}c)
_(X
s
; _Y
s
) _ ( X
o
; X"')<Y
o
-
.(X
o
. YD)
0' v -.__. +x
_,
or 2(A) = +XsY
c
+X'Y
D
+XDY
A
"
- - X,Y
s
- XDY
c
- XAY
D
= (XAY
s
- XSY
A)
+(XsY
c
- X,Y
s)
+ (XCY
D
- XDYc)
+ (XDY
A
- XAY
D)
(14.7)
The above relation can be expressed as follows for easy remembrance.
YAxX
A
..
YsXX
s
Y
c
Xc
yDXX
D
- Y XX
A A
The coordinates can also be listed in the following form:
X
A
X
s
Xc X
D
X
A
(14.8)
Y
A
Y
s
Y
c
Y
D
Y;
Two sums of products should be taken.
1. Product of all adjacent terms taken down to the right, i.e,
XAY
S,
XsY
c,
XCY
D,
XDY
A
2. Products of all adjacent terms up to the right.
YAX
S
, YsX
c,
YCX
D,
YDXA
The traverse area is equal to half the absolute value of the difference between
these two sums. In applying this procedure, it is to be observed that the first
coordinate listed must be repeated at the end of the list.
14.2.4 OF AREA BY PLANIMETER
The planimeter is a mechanical instrument. It measures the area of a plan or map,
however irregular its shape may be, very accurately. There are two types of
planimeters:
1. Amsler polar planimeter,
2. Roller planimeter
. The Amsler polar planimeter is more frequently used and hence explained
here in detail.
Figures 14.9(a) and (b) show theessential parts of anAmsler polar planimeter
which are described as follows:
1. Pole block or anchor Ir is a heavy block. This is fixed on the plan by
... a fine retaining pin called the anchor point.
._"
I
l_
..
)
Measuring or
Integrating unit
Poleblock
(Heavy weight)
(a)

III
'II
I.

.'
Complete
revolution dial'.
(geared
I
Disc' spindle
Integrating
disc
(b)
Fig. 14.9 (a) Schematic diagram of Amsler polar planimeter. (b) The integrating unit
2. Pole ann or anchor arm This is a bar whose one end is pivoted about
the pole 'block and the other end about the integrating'unit.' . '
3. Tracing arm This may be either fixed or variable in length. Its one end
is attached to the integrating unit while the other end carries the tracing
point or opticaltracer, , '
4. The integrating unit or measuring unit It consists of a hardened steel
integrating disc carried on pivots. The disc spindle is connected to a primary
drum or roller which is divided into 100 parts. By means of a vernier,
readings upto 11l000th of a revolution oJ the roller is obtained. The roller
is so designed that when it completes one revolution, anotherdiscconnected
with the roller shows one dimension. This disc is divided into ten divisions.
The disc, therefore completes one revolution after every 10 revolutions of
the roller. The reading of a planimeter is in 4 digits. If the reading is say.
3456 it shows: (i) 3 on the disc indicating 3 full rotations of the roller,
(ii) 45 on the roller which means out of .100 divisions roller has moved
through 45 divisions, and (iii) 6 indicates the vernier reading of the roller
which is in thousandth,
III
!
Iii
The planimeterwhenplaced over a planor mapwhosearea is to be measured
restsonthreepoints:(i) anchorpoint, (ii) drumorroller, and(iii) tracingpoint
ortracer, Theareaismeasured bymoving downthetracerovertheoutlineofthe
planormap ina clockwisedirection. The areaisthenobtained as:
A =M(F.R. -1.R. 10N C) (14.9)
where M = Multiplyingconstantorplanimeter constant andisequaltothe area
perrevolution of'the roller.Thisvalueis marked onthetracing arm.
FR. =Finalreading.
I.R. =Initialreading.
N =Numberof full revolutions ofthe disc. Asonerevolution of thedisc
is10units, itismultipliedby 10intheaboveexpression. Plussignistobeused
.when therotation is clockwiseandminussignwhenanticlockwise,
C= Constantoftheinstrumentusuallymarkedonthetracingarmjustabove
thescaledivisions. Thisconstantwhen multiplied byM givesthe'zerocircle.It
. .
istobeaddedwhentheanchorpointiswithinthecircleandistakentobezero
when theanchorpoint is outsidethe circle.
While using a planimeterthefollowing pointsshouldbeobserved:
1. Thetracerpointshouldbeguidedbyatriangle orstraightedgethough
usually it issteeredfree hand.
2.Theanchorpointshouldpreferably beplacedoutsidethetraverseasthis
will avoid theadditiveconstantC.
3. The movement of the disc should be.carefully watched and clockwise or
anticlockwise rotationofthezeromarkofthediscagainsttheindexmarkshould
benoted.
4. The tracingpointshouldalways be moved clockwise.
5.Sinceareaobtainedbyplanimeter isnotnecessarily anexactvalue,itis
good practice totrace afigureseveral-times andtakean average oftheresults
thusobtained. It is also desirableto trace the figure one or moretimes in the
opposite directions and averagethese valuesalso. The different values should
agree within a limitof 2 to5 units. .
Thelengthof the tracingann of theplanimeter canbeadjustedandaccordingly
value ofM willvary.Sincethebarsettingmaynotbeperfectitisbesttocheck
the planimeter constant by running over the perimeter of a carefully laid out
square 5cmonasidewithdiagonals 7.07 cm.Theareashouldbe25 cm:!. If the
difference inreadingis, say,'100, .
. . 25 2 0 ., .
1 Unit =100 cm = .25cm-.
If the observed differenceinreading is 1125, areais 0.25x 1125 = i81.25 cm
2

Ifthescale themap is.1" ~ = 100 m.. .
or 1 cm
2
= 100x 100m
2
Area= 281..25x 10
4
m
2
.
,
..
The planimeter isuseful in measuring irregularareas. It is often used in measuring
cross-sectional areasof highwaysand incomputing areasof propertysurveys.

Partitioning land'
It is oftennecessary to partitionland into twoor morepieces for sale or distribution
to family members, heirsand so on. Initiallya boundary survey is tobe made,
latitudes, departures computedand after proper balancing of the traverse total area
of the traverse is calculated. For regular shapesand in some casesvanalyrical
solutionispossible for division ofan area'intorequired pans.Someproblemsand
theirsolutionsareoutlined below..
c
B
E
A' ..'F,'
Fig. 14.10 Panitioning by II line between two points.
I .. -
1.AreacutoffbyalineBE between twopoints. Itisnecessary tocalculate
theareasBeDE andABEF. Knowing the coordinates of Band E, lengthand
bearing of BE canbeobtained.Hencelatitude anddeparture ofBE areknown.
Now by applying DJfD methods areas of the pans BCDE and BEFA can be
obtained.
If insteadof lineBE, theareaisdividedbytheline'BE', either eor EE'
mustbeknown. IfEE' andhenceFE' areknown, considering BE'FA asaclosed
traverse, length and bearingofBE' canbeobtained. Ifeisknown, lengthEE'can
beobtainedbyapplying thesinerule.tothetriangle BEE' andthenareaBebEE'
orABE'F canbeobtained.' . .
2.ToCUt. offarequired areabyaline.from aclosed traverse through afixed
point. . ....' . '. ,. .
LetABCDEFA beaclosed traverse (Fig.14.11). LetGbethegivenpoint
onDE. Findoutastationpointwhichwillapproximately dividethetraverse into
required areas. LetitbeA.ComputetheareaABCDG. This will notbeequalto
therequired areaAI'Let theareatobe addedbeA
2
andisequaltoAGH.
.Applying sineruletheareaof thetriangle is
,
AH . AG.sinGAH t
SincebearingofAG is known angleGAH canbedetermined. Therefore
tAN .sin G.4H =A
2
...
S ~ Fundamentals of Surveying
c
A
A
2
........
..
o
B
E
F
Fig. 14.11 Partitioning by a line through a fixed point
. . 2A
2GAH'
or
AH = AG. sin
Knowing. the angle AOH. bearing of GH can be determined.
3. To cut off a required area by a line running in a given direction: As before
the line should initially pass through a station point say E. to give an area close
to the required area AI' If the discrepancy is A
2
which is to be added to the initial
..
area BCDEF the line EF is to be shifted parallely to OH such that the area EFIJ
is equal to the required area A
2
(Fig. 14.12)
"
The area EFIJ = FE x h - ~ h'- tan e- t It'-tan cP
In the above equation the only. unknown is It as other values. viz. area EFIJ.
tan eand tan cP are all known. Further
. FI =It sec 1/1. '. JE= It sec' e
and IJ = HO - h t ~ n + tan (J)
c
o
A
K
Fig. 14.12 Partitioning by a line running in 3 given direction.
Areasand Volumes 385
The line 11 can be located from the distances IF, FE. and E1.
A general direct method for land has been suggested by Easa,

14.3YOLUMES
Surveyors are often required to compute volumes of earthwork either in cut.or in
fill when planning a highway system. To compute stockpiles of.coahgravel or
other materials knowledge' of volume computation is required. There are basically
three methods for this: (i) Cross section method, (ii) Unit area or borrow pit
method, (iii) Contour area method.
14.3.1 CROSS SECTION METHOD
This is employed for computation of volumes for highways, railways and canals.
Here a series of cross sections are taken along the length of the line at regular
intervals. These are obtained by measurements in the field. They can also'be
obtained by photograrnmetry, The cross sections are plotted on a sheet and over
the cross section design templates are superimposed. The difference in the two
areas will be the amount of cut or fill. This is shown in Fig.J4.13.
/_b -I"
EXisting ground '>"'"\..:\..4
profile "\
... T
c
...
... h
r
...
...
-,
bI2 + Sc -----1+ bI2+ sc .,
I
Existing groun . profile
Area to be filled up
,Fig. 14.13 Cross section of existing ground profile.:
The following five types of cross sections generally occur in practice:
1. Level Section
2. Two level Section.
3. Side hill two level Section.
4. Three level Section.
5. Multi level Section.
Whlle different formulae can be derived for different types of cross sections. it is
useful if all the areas are derived by using one method only, i.e. by considering
the figure as a closed traverse. The coordinate axes are the finished grade and the
centre line of the cross section. The general formula for area is

II
---- ------------ --------------_.------ --- --------------
I
A = t [XI(Y
z
- Y
n)
+ - Y1) + Xj(Y4 - Yz)
II
II!
."
+ ... + Xn(Y
I
-
I
II
or
A = '2
1
[Y1(X
z
- X
n)
+ Y
Z(X3
- XI) + Y
3(X4 - X2
)
ill
:i
"\
l +Y
4(XS
- X
3
) + .., + Yn(X
I
- X
n_I
)
Sinceforacrosssectioninearthwork, Ycoordinates oftwo points arezero,the
II
computation willbeshortened if thesecondequation isused.
I,
Level section
ill
Coordinates ofA,B, C andD, fromFig, 14.14, :1
II
A
I-
t
!
I
h
II
! len:
-I nh
B
1- b/2 -1- b/2--1 nh 1-
..:... I
Fig. 14.14 Level section.
Point x Y
.4
- (b12 + nh)
h
B
- bl2
0
C
bl2
0
D
.(b/'l + nh)
11
AreaA = t [h{- b/2 - (b/'l + IIh) + 0 {b12 - (- (b!} +
"
.
'1- 0{b12+ nli- (- bll)} + h{- (b/2+ nh)- (b/2)}]
= t[h(- b - nh) + h(- b - nh) !\
(14.10) !/
=- + nh).
I
Thenegative sign isimmaterial andshouldbe ignored.
I
I
Two-levelsection in cutting.
'I
coordinates of
)'
. 0
A
- bl2
B
+bl2
o
hi .
C +WI
'.h2
E -'1\'2
Areas and 'loll/mes 387
, .
WI
.. C
'.

I
h,
1
b/2--J,.

..,
or
sn + (h +. ::).n .=WI
or b/2+nl: wI(1 - nlm)
(
m- n)
=WI ---
. m
. m
or WI =(bl2+nh) --
. m - n
Similarly
lV2 =(b12 +nh) .-.!!!.-
. m+n
AreaiIfterms ofcoordinates
=![0 + 0 +(h
l
)(- W2 - bl2)+ (h
2
) (- bl2 - WI)]
=- 1/2[bl2(lt
l
+h
2
) + h
l
H'2 + h
2
wtl
= -1/2[b/2(1t
1
+h
2
) +(h +::)lV2 +(h - WI]
. .
=- 1/2[bl2(h
l
+1t
2
) + + (14.11)
-,
:\ .
Two-level section in filling .
Fromgeometry ofthe Fig.14.16
WI =(b/2+nit) _11_1_
111 +11
Fig. 14.15 Two level section incutting.
From the.geometry ofFig.14.15
h+w-fm =h.
bl2+htn=WI
388 Fundamentals (If Surveying
AI'" b/2j. B
t
h,
C .L,
n
-I
....:.........1
W2-
h
2
I
Fig. 14.16 Two level section in filling.
, J1l
=(b/2 + nil) --' ;
',., 111-/1
hI =11 - "',1m "2 =h + 1'/2/m.
The same formula as derived above is applicable. Hence if b, li, II, m are given
h, 11
2,
"'I and W2 can be computed and the area obtained as shown above.
"
Side hill two-level section
From the geometry of Fig. 14.17
'.
1\'2 = /l2h2 + bl2
From similar triangles HGF and FIC
/1,17, + b/l - m17
"2
/11
= .. mh
ml1
2
=112112 + bl2 - mil
"2(m - "2) =:: bIZ - mil
W
2
h',
n,
B ---L
w, '1-
b/2
I-n
2
h
2
----+-1
H A '? I" ,
----- I
t
n.,
h
2
Fig. 14.17 Side hill two-level section.
II
I
Ii
II
j,
'I
Areas and Volumes .389
..
Iii
b: =b/2 - mil
m - n2
, .
n2 . 1,1
W2 =--[b12 - mlr]+b/2
or
m - nz .
=112'bl2- nZmh +bl2 . m - bl2.nZ
m-nZ
=--.J!L...;. (b12 - nzh)
m - 112 .:
WI =-.!!L- (b/2 +nlh)
Similarly
m- nl
Areaofcutting = ih
l
(b/2+mh)
But
bl2+nlh
l
=WI
1 . .
or
hi =n! (WI - bIZ)
...
, . . I' 1
Area ='2. ~ (WI - bI2)(bI2 +mh).
Hence
Substituting the valuesofWI' wehave
. Areaofcutting =1(bl2+mh)'-
(14.12)
2 m-nl
Areaoffilling =1(b/2 - mh)z (14.13)
Similarly,
2 m- ,nz
Three level section
Here atleastthreelevelsarerequired todefine tl1e ground slope.Theshapes in
cutting andfillingareshowninFig.14.18(a).
Coordinates .
y
x
Points
o
- b/2
A
..
o
+bl2
B
hi
C
WI
h
o
D
h!
E
- ~ z
Area=t[0(b/2 +\l'z) +0(1\'1 +bIZ) +ht(O - bl2)
+It(-wz - \1'1) +It:(- bl2- 0)]
II
w, m,
,
,
,
,
E f ~ W2 ---l I "
...... I h "
I),,'"
hI
h
21
In -, ,
I
-'- A ... ,
IF B
f- b/2 -1- b/2 _I
I'
Fig. 14.18. (a) Threelevelsection,
=t [- b;' - hew, +"'2) _ b ~ 2 ]
=- 2'
1[b
2' (hi +
"
~ +hew, +W2)
]
,
As before ..
W, =b/2 +nh,
=m,(h, - h)
or h,- 11 =w,
. m,
or
h, = -
w,
+h
m.
wI =b/2 + n (::+hJ.
or
w,
(
m,- n)
=b/2 +nh
ml
'.
or
WI = ml (bl2 +n")
ml -n
Similarly
W2 =
m ~
~ (bl2 + 11")
.
1172 /1 ,
, W,
hI =h +-.
nI,
71
2
=h - W2/m2.
T
'-
I
G
.f\ I
. Areas and Vol limes 391
Hence if h and slopes mi'm2 and n are given, hi'h
2
wI and W2 can be computed
and hence the area. .
'.
Multilevel section
#
Figure" 14.18(b) shows a multilevel section where more than three levels are
required to define the transverse slope ofthe ground. For a multilevel section the
coordinate method of determining areais convenientThis hasalreadybeen explained
. in Section 14.2.3. '
o
E
I
' I L-
.r\-" I
h
)' /J
I
A
b/2 '
8 I
..,
w, W4
Fig. 1.U8(b) Multilevel section.
14.3.2 FOIU..IULAE FOR COMPUTATION OF VOLUMES
Volume by average end areas
The volume by this method is given by
V ='2
1
(A
o
'
+At) L
(14.14)
, =Average end areas x Length between the sections.
Prismoidal Formula
The volume is,
V =
'L
"6(Ao +4M +AI)
(14.15)
.. '.' .
-. :
Here Ao, AI are the end areas where as M is the area of the middle section.
The prismoidal formula very nearly gives the correct volume of the solid.
.
The error in the use of the end area formula arises chiefly from the fact th:lt in

its application the volume of a pyramid is considered to be one-half the product
of the base and the altitude whereas the actual volume is one-third the product of
these quantities. The area of the middle section is obtained by raking dimension
of the middle section and computing the area or by computing the area of a
section whose dimensions are Intermediate of the end dimensions.
bymean area method
Inthismethod the mean cross sectional areaof the various sections is firstcomputed
as:
A = Al + A2 + ... + An

m 11
Volume V= Am X L where Lis the length between the first and last section.
Trapezoidalrule for computing volumes
If we have a series of sectional areas AI. A
2
;" Amat an equal interval of D, by
end area methods:
A
l
+ A.,
Volume between A
l
and A
z
= .2' - D
, . _ A
2
+ A
3
between A
z
and A
3
-- , _ D
An_I + An '
between A
n-t
and An =
-_-D
Total volume then
. [At + An' ' ],
V= D 2 + A
z
+ A
3
+ ... + A
n
-
t

..
This is known as trapezoidal rule.
Prismoidal rulesfor computing volumes
1,-
The volume of aprismoid
L '
v= 6(A
o
+4M+A
1
)
If three consecutive sections AIt A
z
and A3are taken at interval of D. L= 2Dand
the formula becomes
, V
t
= 2f(At + 4A
2
+ A
3
)
The next prismoid
.,.
.J
2D ' "
V
2
= 6"' (A
3
+ 4A4 + As)
. 2D
.
.v" =T (A,,+I + 4An+ 2 '+ An+3) .
Adding
v=f (At -+ A
n
+3 + 4(A:z + A,4 + ... + And
+ 2(A
3
+ As t ... + A
n
+
l
) ]
(14.17)

.Areas and Volumes 393
In other words, the prismoidal formula states that the total volume
V = Interval betw.e;n the sections x (Area of 1st section
+ Last section +4 times the even sections +2 times the odd sections]
To use the prismoidal rule the number of sections must be odd. If the number of
sections is eventhe prismoidal formula cannot be applied to the last two sections
which should be treated separately. Either the trapezoidal rule or the end area rule
should be applied to compute the volume of the segment. If prisrnoidal rule is to
be applied the area of the mid section should be computed separatelyand then the
formula should be applied. The volume obtained by the trapezoidal-rule is always
greater than the volume obtained by the prisrnoidalformula.
..
..
14.3.3 PRISMOIDAL CORRECTION OR PRISMOIDAL EXCESS
. .-
It is the difference between the volumes computed by the trapezoidal rule and the
prismoidal rule. As the volume calculated by trapezoidal rule is greater than that .
calculated by the prismoidal formula, the correction is negative and should be
. subtracted from the prismoidal formula to get the result of the prismoidal rule.
Correction Cp = Volume by the trapezoidal rule
- volume by the prismoidal rule
D D .
="2 (AI + A
z
) - "6 (AI + 4A
m
+ A
z
)
D
="3 (AI - 2Am +A
z
)
14.3.4 CURVATURE CORRECTION.
In computing volumes it is normally assumed that sections are parallel to one
another. However, in a curved path the sections are radial and not parallel to one
another. Hence the above formulae do not givecorrect results andsuitable corrections
are to be applied. This is based on Pappus' Theorem which states that the volurne :
swept out by an area revolving about an axis is equal to the product of the area
and the length of the path traced out by the centroid of the area. Therefore, if the
area is constant .
.,
Volume =Area x distance travelled by centroid
From the Fig. 14.19. distance travelled by centroid,
Dc =(R - e) . 8
where 8 is in radian and is given by DIR, whereD is the distance along the centre
line. .
Hence D, =(R - e) . D
R
I
!
394 Fundamentals 0/ Surveying
<
Centreline
Centroid line
((\
Fig. 14.19 Curvature correction.
When the centroid is away from the centreline
...
D; =(R +e)
Hence the volume by Pappus Theorem
'.
V =Area x (R +e)
Ifthe area is not constant but AI and A
2
with eccentricities el and el
A
I
+A.
. Average area = _.
I-
. _ el +e.
and Average eccentncity e =--2--
and v = (AI ; A
2
) X (R , e) (14.18)
The above formula can be split as:
v= (A,.+Az)XD(At +Az)XDX e ..

.. -- 2 _ 2 . . - " R
=Volume by trapezoidal rule Correction.
.
Plus sign is to be used when e is on the inside of the curve andminus.sign when
,
outside. The eccentricity of a particular cross-section canbe determined by locating
its centroid. The centroid is determined by dividing the cross section into small
triangles andby taking moments about any line. The correction is normally small
but when R is small the correction becomes large.

I
i
I
I
!I
I
"
I
11
,I
Iii
,
II
'I"
III
I
',
I,
iii
Jii
III
'ii
"
f
J
I
II
I
III
I
I
I
II 1
II
'II
'Ii
'I
II 'II
I'
II
I'
.I

14.4 VOLmm THROUGH TRANSITION
In the caseof railroad or highway construction there is both cut andfill. However,
t
it is transitional. For example, there may be a number of full fill-sections and a
number of full cut-sections. In between there may be a section of partial fill and
cut. This is shown by a number of sections as in Fig. 14.20.
(a)Cutsection-:-Sec.1-1
."
Partiallyfill
(0) Partially cutandpartiallyfill-Sec. 3-3
Fillsection.
(d) Smaller fillsectiOn-sec.4-4[
Fill section.
. "
(e)Fillsection-Sec. 5-5
Fig. 14.20 Cross sections in a highway.
-',

The volume between section 2-2 and section 4-4 consists of both cut and
fill. The volume of thecut is computed usually taking cut areas at section 2-2 and
.
section 3-3. The volume of fill between section 22 and 3-3 should be computed
as a pyramid with the formula volume =base x altitude/3. Here area of the fill
section at 3-3 is the base and the distance between sections 22 and 33 is the

...-
altitude. Similarly the volume of cut between sections 3-3 and 4-4 is obtained as
a pyramid withpartiallycut area as the base andthe distance between the sections
as altitude.
Easa
4
has however suggested that the volume should be computed as frustum
t.
of pyramid.
Figure 14.21 shows the geometry of a pyramid frustum. For a frustum of
pyramid the ratio of the corresponding dimensions of the end areas is constant.
This ratio is given by.
C2 b
2
h - d

I
--:----
h
A,
..
If' t
\.
Fig. 14.21 Geometry of pyramid frustum.
Also, the areas of "the end cross sections
1 b
..
A
1="2 lC, ..
"A2 =t blCl
The area of the middle cross section is computed as:
1
Am ="2 bmcm
where b
m
and C
m
are given by
': =(b
l
; b
2
J f
C
m
_
_.
(CI +
2

Substituting for b
m
and cm.gives
. 1 . ..
Am = 8' (blc, + b
2
c
2 + b
1
C
2 + b2 cJ

and Volllmes:' 397
But
bici =2A
I
b
2
C2' = 2A
2

and
blc:! := ,b
2
c
I =2,JAIA2
, 1 'rTT
. Thus
Am = '4(At+ +
Finally substituting forAm.
v =f(A
I
'+,JA
IA2
+ Az)' (14.19)
which istherequired pyramid frustum formula. It isinteresting tonotethatthis
formula requires only'theareas of theendcrosssections.
14.5 VOLUME FRO:\I SPOT LEVELS
When the area excavation issquare, rectangular orconsists of a numberofvertical
sides, as in the case offoundation of a water tank,underground reservoir, etc. The
volume canbecomputed bytaking levelsofnumber ofpoints alongagrid. The
difference between theformation levelandtheexisring levelof theground will
..
givetheheightoffillorcut.at thecorresponding points. .
Thevolume ofanysquaresay,a, b, c, d (Fig. 14.22)
a
d
b f
c e
Fig.14.22 Volume from spotlevels.
L1V = average heightx areaofthesquare abed.
lI
a
+ h
b
+ h + h
d
= 4 (' x area ofthesquare abed
Similarly volume ofbeef
h
b
+ h. + hot + hi
= 4 x areaofthesquare bee]
If theareasofthesquares areallequalandisgiven byA,summation ofvolumes
canbeexpressed as
.....
_'otI"" 4 UJ a u t :
v=1 (L "i + 2 L 112 + 3 L + 4 L "J (lUO)
where L h, =sum ofdepthusedonce
L 112 =sumofdepthused twice
L "3 = sumofdepthusedthrice
L h
4
= sumofdepthusedfourtimes
which isthemaximum number of timesa vertical heightcanoccur.
Iftheplanareais-divided intoa numberoftriangles, thevolume.1V will
bethatofa triangular prism. l.e.
hn+ lIb + he- A
.1=
V
3 .x
Ifall thetriangular areasareequal
.. k ...
V == "3 (L h)
where" istheverticalheight.
V (L "I + 2 L "2 + 3'L "3 + .'.. + 8 L "s)
(14.2l)
...
where hi =surry of depthused once
h: =sum of depth used twiceandsoon.
n.s VOLUME BY CUBATURE FORMULA
Volume canalsobecomputedbyanonlinearprofileformula known asSimpson's
cubatureformula whichisapplicable onlywhenthegridhasanevennumberof
intervals ineach direction.Thisisderivedas follows: .
Take therectangulargrid ofFig.14.23 wr.fsesidesaredivided intoIII and
/I intervalswhereIII andII areeven.Theexcavationdepthsj{x;,Yi) attheintersection
points(x;. Yi) withi = O. 1.....III andj = O. 1...../I areknown. Tocalculatethe
excavation volume ofthegrid basedonSimpson'sl/3 formula. firstweconsider
theunitgrid(2x 2 intervals) shaded in Fig. l4.23.
The volume of the unit isgivenby
..
u = f(x.y) dy . dx
.fO .'0
Firsttheinnerintegraliscalculated usingSimpson's 1/3formula. giving
f
'T' Ji.
t..' = .-j [j(x.)0) + lex.)'2)] dx
Jo ..
Ji. f'f) . ' fn fn '
= j [ f(x.)b) dx+ 4 '.f(x. lJ.'I: + f(x.'2)d\'].
,
,

'.
Art;'as and Yolumes . 399
I
Yn =d
T
Yn-l
T
Y2
k
+
Y,
k
l- 1
Yo =c
I
I
I
I
i
....
Xo =a
x, Xi' Xm-l ' 'X
m
=b
. .
~ h ~ h ~
..
Fig. 1t23 Rectangular grids with equal intervals (m and n are even).
...
Xi ='\"0 +ili i =0, 1. '" III
.
>, =)'0 +jk j =0, I.....II
Then the composite formula for calculating the volume of the total grid \.' is
v =f,r", f'''"!(,\'. y) dy dx
,ro '0

Fundamentals of Sun-eying
For the whole grid
'.
hk m n
V =- L L ).1-.
9 1=0j=O IJ IJ
(Composite Simpson's Cubature Formula) (14.23)
in which Aij =the corresponding elements of the Bmatrix
I, ' 4 2
...
4 2 4 1
4 16 8
...
16 8 16 4
B=
I
2
8,
'.
4
...
8 4
8"
2
, "
4 16 8
...
16 8 16
4'
2 8 4
...
8 4- " 8 2
4 16 8
...
16 8 16 4
1 4 2
...
4 2 4 1
The matrix corresponds to the grid points shown in Fig. 14.23. Note that the
second and third columns are to be repeated as well as second and third rows.
Thusto calculate V, one needonlymultiply eachof the depths/;j bythe corresponding
element and sum the results for all points. The method can be computerized.
, .
14.7 VOLUME FROM CONTOUR PLAN
The contour plan can be utilized for computing the volume of earth work between
different contour lines. There are four different methods:-
, 1. By cross sections.
2. By equal depth contours.
3. By horizontal planes.
4. When the finished surface is a level surface (reservoir problem).
By cross sections
From the contour plan cross section of the existing ground surface can be plotted
as shown in Fig. 14.24. When the formation level'of the proposed road is known
this can be superimposed on the cross section. This will give us the required cut
and fill at various sections at the centre line, of the proposed road. The area of the
cross section is determined from the depth at the centre and side slopes. The
volume of earth work is computed using the trapezoidal rule or the prismoidal
formula.
I

I
I
I
)
I
I
1
Areas and Yolumes . 401
(a)
Original ground.
~
Fig.. 14.24 Volume from cross section.
By equal depth contours
In this method the contours of the finished or graded surface are. drawn over the
...
contour map at the same interval as that of the contours. If the original contour
is plotted with finn lines, the contour of the proposed surface is plotted with.
dotted lines. At the intersection of full line contour.with a dash line contour,
depths of cutting or. filling can be determined, By joining the points of equal cut
or fill a set of lines are obtained. These lines are the horizontal projection of lines
cut fromtheexisting surface by planes parallel to the finished surface. Theirregular
areas bounded by theselines are obtained by planimeter. The volume between any
two successive areas is determined by multiplying the average of two areas by the
depth between them (Fig. 14.25). .
.. By horizontal planes
In this method, the volume ofearth work is computed by taking horizontal sections
on thecontour plan. The existing contours are plotted as finn lines. The proposed
formation surfaces are shown by dotted lines. The volume can be computed by the
following steps:
(a) The dottedlines and thefinn lines intersect at some points. Theyrepresent
points of no cut or fill. All these points are joined to give a curve.
(b) Within these curves the original ground surface is at a higher level than
the proposed grade surface and as such excavation of the ground is necessary.
(c) Similarly, outside this line fill is necessary.
(d) The amount of cut or fill at each section is plottedand from the hatched
figure areas of cut AI' .4.
3
, As and fill Al. A
4
, A6 can be computed.
o
109
109
108
108
\ 105
104
... 103
102 .
- 101
100
101
100
Fig. 14.25
(e)Compute the volume of theearthwork betweentwo successivecontours
using the average end area method. Thepyramidal formula should be applied for
the end sections (Fig. 14.26).
100
. I
I
ground surface
99
Volume from equal depth contour,
Fig.14.26 Volume from horizontal sections.
. Capacity of a reservoir
. .
Twogeneral methodsareused for-computingthe reservoir.volume-(i)Bytaking
horizontal sections; (ii) By taking vertical sections.
Inthefirst method thewhole areaundereachcontourline incomputed. Let
the":lbeA
h
A
2
~ Ifthe trapezoidal rule is applied the vOl.ume
...
'[AI+ All ...' . ]
.
V
=
/
1 2 +A
2
+A) + ... +A
II
_
1
where h is equal to contour interval. Ifnecessary prisrnoidal formula C3n also be
applied (Fig. 14.27).' .
104
I
, .
..
Fig. 14.27 Contour lines of a reservoir,
The second method is applied when the reservoir is regular in shape. From
the contour mapdimensions of the vertical cross sections are obtained. Thevolume
is then calculated from the cross sectional areas.
14.8 MASS HAUL CURVE
Inhighwayandrailroad construction it is necessary tocompute volumes of earthwork
tobecut or to be filled in and distance through which cut earthis to betransported
for filling 'purposes. This will determine the cost of the earthwork portion of the
project. Mass haul curve where the-curnulative volume of earthwork i.s plotted
against distance helps in computation of the same. The curve is usually plotted
below the longitudinal level section and is shown in Fig.'14.28.
The following information may be obtained from the mass-haul diagram.
1. An inspection of the mass diagram shows that a rising curve indicates cut
and a falling curve indicates fill.
2. Maximum and minimum points on the mass curve occur at grade points
on the profile.
,.
3. The algebraic difference of ordinates between any two points indicates
the volume of earth work between the two points.
4. If a horizontal line is drawn tointersect the diagram at twopoints excavation
and embankment will be equal between the two stations represented by the point
404 Fundanientals ofSurveying
,
Fill Cut Formation line Cut
"!""'"'"> -'- I
(
I I _ , I I \
I I I t F'II I :;7
I I I I I
I I I ground I :
Fill
f I I surface f I
I f I I I
Maximum
Maximum
I I I .. I I
Q)
. I I .. I Longitudinal I I
E
:J I 1 1 section f I
"5
\ I \ I Base'\
>
Q)
I .1 I I I' I
I I I Minimum I.. me. I

I I I (. I I I
co
'S
I
___ 1/ ............. I

I
Maximum
. .
--+Distance
Fig. Mass haul curve.
of intersection. Suchahorizontal line is called a balancing linebecause theexcavation
balances theembankment between thetwopoints atitsends.
, 5. Sincethe ordinatesto thediagramrepresentalgebraicsumsof the volumes
ofexcavation andembankmentreferred totheinitial ordinate,thetotalvolumeof
"
cutsandfillswill beequalfrom onezeroordinate toanotherzeroordinateorif
theinitial positive ordinateisequal to thefinal negative ordinate,
When a material is cut anddeposited in a fill, it does not cometo its original
volume. Initially when cutitexpands involume butfinally whencompressed by
overburden atthe top, itmayshow alesservolume orshrink. Theshrinkageis
.usually 5to 15%depending onthe character of the material handled and the
condition of.thegroundon which the. embankment isplaced, .
Thefollowing termsareused- incomputing thecostofearthwork utilizing
mass haulcurve. .
Haul; hauldistance,averagehauldistance
Theyare all connected withmovement of earth from one point to another usually
from cuttofill.Hauldistance isthe. actual distance from thepointofcuttothe
pointoffill.Average haul distance isthedistance between thecentreofgravity
of cut to the centre of gravity offill. Haul, however, means product of volume of
cutandaverage hauldistance. Itisalsoequal totheareabetween themasshaul
curveandthebalancingline.Haul is volume multiplied bydistance. Henceits
unit is m
3
x m.However, it is usuallyexpressed as station meter which means 1
m
3
ofearthworkmovingthrough 1station. .
.
.
Freehaul; overhaul
. .
Contractor is tobe paid. for carrying the excavated material. Usually two rates are
used forpayment tothecontractor. One"is based onfreehaullimit(distance) for
which thecontractor is not paid anyextra. Another isoverhaul which ismore than
thefree haullimitandfor whichcontractor istobepaidextra.
Borrow and waste
Normally thebalancing line is'so adjustedthat theamount of cutand fill are
equal.However, this may require long overhaul. Sometimes,'therefore. it is
economical to fill an embankment by borrowing earthfrom outside.This isknown
as "borrow". Similarlysometimes it iswise to leavethe cut material inspoil
banks when the transportation distance is verylargeand willinvolve largeoverhaul.
Thisisknown as"waste". . '
Limit of economic -haul (LEH)
"
,,'
It isthemaximum limitofhauldistance-beyond which itisnoteconomicaltouse
thematerial obtainedfrom cuts.Beyond thelimitofeconomic haul,itismore
economical to wastethematerial or totakethe:materialsfrom the borrow pits
thantohaul it.
Lead and lift
Leadisthehorizontal distance through which'theexcavated material ismoved
from thecut to the required embankment. Liftis thevertical distance through
which anexcavated material froma cutis moved totherequiredembankment,
Leadand liftaregeneral termsandcanbeusedforany construction material,e.g.
sandorcement.
Balancing line
If a horizontal line is drawn to intersectthe mass haul curve at twopoints,
excavation and embankment (with proper shrinkage correction) will be equal
betweenthetwostationsrepresentedby thepoint of intersection.Suchahorizontal
lineiscalled abalancing linebecause theexcavation balances theembankment
between thetwopoints atits ends. .' '. . .
Shrinkage
Earthwork.when cutoccupies a greatervolume than itsoriginalposition. Solid
rockwhen broken upoccupies a muchgreatervolume than its original value.
However when placedon embankment andcompacted thevolume will beless.
Exceptrock, thefinalresultisusually shrinkage and ashrinkage factor hastobe
appliedto the excavated volume to compute thevolume of embankment that
would befilledup.Theshrinkage is usually 5 to15%.
Swelling
Asalready explained, rocky soilwhenexcavated usually expandsinvolume and
the ratio of the expanded volume and the volume in in-situ condition is the
swelling factor. Table 14.1 givesan idea of the expansion and contraction in
volume when excavated andsubsequently compacted,
t
I
Table14.1 Expansion andContraction inVolume (Volume before excavation 1m
3
)
Materia) Volume immediately Volume after
3 3
afterexcavation m compaction m
"
Rock(large pieces)
Rock(small pieces)
Chalk
Clay
Lightsandy soil
Gravel
1.50
1.70
l.80
1.20
0.95
1.00
1.4v
1.35
1.40
0.90
0.89
0.92
14.8.1 USEOFTHEMASS DIAGRAM
Thefollowing pointsmaybenoted whenusing themass diagram.
1. Points beyond whichitisnotfeasible tohaul material define thelimits of.
amassdiagram. Alimitpoint maybethebeginning ofaproject, theend
of a project, the bankof ariver or anedge of adeep ravine where a bridge
willbeconstructed. .
2. Since the ordinates to. thediagram' represent thealgebraic sums of the
volumes of excavation andembankment referred to the initial ordinate. the ~
total volumes oftheexcavation and embankment will beequal where the
final ordinateequals theinitialordinate.Ifthefinal ordinate isgreaterthan
theinitialordinate, there isanexcess ofexcavation, ifitislessthanthe ..
initial ordinate,thevolumeofembankmentisgreaterand additionalmaterial
mustbeobtainedtocomplete theembankments.
3. Grade lineisusuallyfixedkeeping inmind thatitshould notexceed the
permissiblelimit. Balancinglines should bedrawnovermoderatedistances.
Long balancing line though ensures balancing of earthwork maymean
longoverhauldistancesand more cost:Insucha caseitmaybe economical
to wastematerial at oneplace andobtain the volumes necessary for filling
.from borrow pitslocated along the rightofway.'
4. Costing of earthwork may becomputed byusing a mass diagram. The
limitofeconomic haul(LEH) isthedistance beyond which itischeaper
toborrow orwastematerial. Itis determined from thefollowing:
LEH=Freehaul distance +Costofexcavation
Costofoverhaul
Forexample, ifthe freehauldistance is300rn, thecostofexcavation isRs.3/
.m
3
, theoverhaul isRs.2perstation meter(I station meter ismovement of1m
3
ofmaterial through 1station'say, 30m)
.. LEH=300m+3/2x 30=345rn,
. . . . ' .
Suppose thedistance is 400,m,i.e.100mbeyondfreehaul distance.
., . 100x2
o s t ~ f overhaul.;: .30 =Rs.6.67.'
I
Fig. U.29. E:lrthprofile..gradellne and mass haul curve.
(a) When theloopof a masshaulcurvecutoffbya balancinglineisabove
thatline,theexcavatedmaterialmustbemoved forwardtotherightinthe
directionoftheincreasing abscissa.However, whentheloopisbelowthe
balancingline.the material mustbe moved backwardsto theleft inthe
oppositedirection. For.thebalancing line.CD, themovement isfrom Cto
D asmass CIC.[ fillsthevoid[d
ld2
Forthe balancinglineFG, themovement
is from G toF as thecut gtg2m fillsthe'void112m.
(b) Haulisproductofvolume ofearthwork anddistanceoftravel.Hencearea
ofthemass haulcurveabove balancing lineisthecorresponding haul.For
example,the areaBCLDFTQSB inFig. 14.29indicates thetotal haul between
BandF. Similarlythetotalhaulbetween C andD istheareaCLD. IfCD
. isthefreehauldistance,thevolumeofearth CSwhichwillbalance[he fill
DT isbeyondfree haullimitandmust bepaidat theoverhaul rate.
(c) Thec.g..of thevolumeofearthandthe.distance tbroughwhichitshould
be moved canbeobtained graphically asfol1ows. BisectthelineCSat U
anddrawtheline UV parallel tothebasecuttingthemass haulcurveat
, V. Then\'isthec.g,oftheportion BVCUS ofthecurve.SimilarlyYisthe
c.g,of theR.H.Portion.Hence theoverhaul distanceisVY andtheover
hauledvolume ofearthwork isCS. Theoverhauldistance isdetermined
by(implicitly)assumingthatcentroid isthelocationatwhichithasequal
. ,
volumes onbothsides.Despite thesimplicity.of determining thecentroid
bythisprocedure, itdoes notgive the correct locationof the centroid. The
centroid.bydefinition, is thelocation atWhich the moment of thetotal
volumeofthesectionabout anypoint isequdl tothesumofthemoments
of incremental volume of thatsection aboutthe samepoint.This does
Areas and Yolumes , 407
Costof excavation=Rs.3.00.
Hence it will be more economicalto takematerial from the borrowpit than to
. " haul it fromthecut. .
Figure 14.29 shows the earth profile.gradeline and themass haul curve.
CD. FG and/1arethebalancinglines.Tominimize costthe)'arenotnecessarily
equal. Thefollowing information maybe obtained from astudyofthemass-haul-
. curve.
C2
I .
A
I
_ : I 'C=:i=::>' , I
IR K
I
-!
4U::S r unaamentats OJ ':>III"I'C,\ I I I ~
notnecessarily mean thatthevolumes onboth sidesofthecentroid are
equal.
(d) Thehaul overanylength isaminimum when thelocationofthebalancing
lineissuch that thearithmeticsum of areascut off by it,ignoring the sign,
isaminimum.
(e) Wheneverthereisavertical interval between successive balancing lines,
there is a wasteif thesucceeding balancing lineis above thepreceding
balancingline.IfweconsiderAK asabalancingline,thereisnowaste or
bOIT9Wing but the length BF beirig largetherewill be overhaul if the,
length CD isthefreehaullimit. Butifwewant toavoid overhaul and keep
thebalancing lineswithin freehaul limitasCD, FGandlJ, there will be
wasteorborrowing.AslJ is aboveFG,there is a wasteofmaterialbetween
Gand1. Similarlythereisborrow ofmaterial between D andF.
(f) Minimum haulwillnot.always ensure minimum costasinthatcasethere
, may belargewasteand,borrow. Minimum costwilldepend upon freehaul
"distance, overhaullimitofeconomichaul;costofexcavationandborrowing.
Example14.1 The following offsets were taken from achainlinetohedge:
Distance o 20 40 60 80 120 160 220 280
Offset 9.4 10.8 13.6 11.2 9.6. 8.4 7.5 6.3 4.6
d, =:: 20
9.4 + 10.8
./If,= 2
=10.10
d ~ = 20
10.8 + 13.6
~ = 2
= 12.20 .
d
3
="20
.: '13.6 + 11.2
/11) = 2
=] 2.40
d
4
= 20
11.2 + 9.6 =10040
M
4
= 2
d
s
= 40
9.6+ 8,4
Ms = 2
= 9.00
d
6
= 40
8.4 + 7.5
/.1
6
= 2
= 7.95
d
7
= 60
7.5 + 63
M, = _
;.. 6.90
d
s
= 60
6.3 + 4.6
M
s
,= _
=5.45
TotalArea= Midi + M
2d2
+ MJd
J
+ + M
5
d
5
..
+ M
6d6
+ Midi + M
sd3
.
, = (20x'10.10)+ (20x 12.20)+ (20x + (20x 10040)
+(40'x 9.00)+..(40x 7.95)+ (60x 6.90)+ (60 x 5.45)
=2321 squnits.
,(ii) Average ordinaterule:
Average ordinate = 9.4 + 10.8 + 13.6 + 11.2 +::.6+8.4 + 7.5 + 63 + 4;6 ,
= 9.Q.44.
Area = 9.044x 280
=2532.32sq units
(iii) Astheintervals arenotallequal, Simpson'sruleshouldbeapplied in
parts. BySimpson'srule,takingthreeata time",
, ,',d ' '
Area="3 [
1
+ 402+ 031

Areafrom lst to3rdOrdinates' ,
20
."
=3 [9.4+ 4(10.8)+ 13.6]
=441.333
Areafrom3rdto5thordinates
, = 3
20
[13.6+ 4(11.2) + 9.6]
= 453.333
Areafrom5th to7thordinates,'
"40 '
= 3 [9.6+ 4(8.4) + 7.51
= 676.000
Areafrom7th to9thordinates:
60 '
=- [7.5 + 4(6.3)+ 4.6]
"
3
= 7-i6.00
, .
"
Hencetotalarea = 4H.333 + 453.333 + 676.000+ 746.00
=2316.67 sq.units
(iv) Trapezoidal rule
(
01+ Oil
A =d . 2
1
+ O
2
+... + 011_1)
-,
Considering 1st five ordinates
Al
(
9.4 + 9.6
=20 2
08 36 )
+ 1 . + 1 . + 111
= 902.00
Considering 5th to 7th ordinates .
. A
2
=40.(9.6; 75 + 8.4) .
.=678.00
Considering 7th to 9th ordinates
A
3
60 4.6 63)
=741.00
..
Total area =902.00 + 678.00 + 741.00.
= 2321.00 sq. units.
It can be observed from the above results that the mid ordinate rule and the
trapezoidal rule give the same results, .
Example 14.2 The following perpendicular offsets in in are measured from a
straight line to an irregular boundary at regular intervals of 10 m..
hi = 8.25
h
2
=13.85
h
3
=12.25
hoi = 10.85
h
s
=12.25
h
6
=13.60
1t
7
= 15.25
hg =16.85
hI} =14.95
h
lo
= 17.35
h
ll
= 20.05
hl'2. = 15.90
h
l 3
= 12.25
It.
14
=12.00
. Compute the area lying between the straight line and the irregular boundary by
(i) Trapezoidal rule.
(ii) Simpson's one-third rule (a) using hi as the first offset, (b) using h
l 4
as
the first offset.
Solution
(i) Trapezoidal rule
d[
OI + 011
Area =, 2
.. .. ]
+ 02"+ -0
3
+.... + II-I
.
.
l _
i
1
;
, .
..
(ii) Simpson's 113rd rule: No. of ordinates must be odd.
(a) Using hI as, first offset and applying upto "13'
~ {8.25 + 12.25 + 4(13.85 + 10.85 + 13.60 + 16.85 + 17.35
+ 15.90) + 2(12.25 + 12.25 + 15.25 + 14.95 + 20.05)]
= 1745.33 sq. m..
Area of last two offsets by trapezoidal rule .
= 12.25; 12.0 X 10
Hence :
= 121.25
Total area = 1866.58 m
2
rule;
(b) Taking h l ~ as first offset and h
2
as last offset for applyingSimpson's
10
A .= 3" h t ~ + h
2
+ 4(h
t3
+ h
ll
-+: h
9
+ h
7
+ h
s
+ h
3
)
+ 2(h
12
+ h
10
+ h
08
+h
06
+ ho.;)]
= ~ [12 + 13.85 + 4(12.25 + 20.05 + 14.95 + 15.25 + 12.25 + 12.25)
+ 2(15.90 + 17.35 + 16.85 + 13.60 + 10.85)]
= 1743.1667 m
2

Area of last two offsets by trapezoidal rule
= 8.25; 13.85 X 10 =? 110.5
' 1
Total area = 1853.67 m
2

. .
.
," ;,
Example 14.3 A closed traverse ABCDA is run along the boundaries of a built-
up area with the following results:
Side
AB
BC
CD
DA
W.C.B.
6955'
166"57'
24420'
3-l-7" 17'
Length
262.0
155.0
268.0
181.0
Coordinate the stations B, C and D on A as origin and calculate the area of the
traverse in hectares by'
.'
(i) Meridian distance method.
(ii) Double meridian distance method.
(iii) Double parallel distance method.
(iv) Departure and total latitude method.
(v) Coordinate method. .
.Solution The computation of independent coordinates of the points B, C
and D with A as origin is shown in Table 14.2.
(i) Meridian distance method gives
---------
1 ' '."w r, 1''nitW !... :', ,,, .' nUl l 'WiJillifltHifl II wi' i ,," e :lIillil
',: ,',. . . ,.
- f
"ruble 14.2 Example 14.3
Stiltion Line Length W.C.D. Quadrantal Latitude Departure Independent Coordiuates
in m bearing
N s E w N s E W
1\ 500 500.00
AD 262.0 6955' , N 6955'E 90.04 . 246.04
(+ 0.25) (+ 0.35)
n 590.29 746.39
IJC 155.0 16657' S 1303'E 151.00 35.00
C '439.29 781.39
J)
CD 268.0 24420' " S 64"2O'W 116.10 241.55
323.19 539.84
b
D/\ 11\1.0 34717' N 1243'W 176.56 39.84 .
(+ 0.25)
A 500 500.00
.
L 266.60
: + (0.50)
L 267.10 L 281.04
(+ 0.35)
281.39

n
...
'1:1
::s
Adjustment of computational error is shown in parentheses.

'"
...
.r:..
..-
w
"114 r unaamentats OJ Surveying
(iii) Double parallel distance method:

DA
AB
BC
CD
Line
+ l76.81
+ 90.29
- l51.00
' - 116:10
Latitude
+ 176.81
+ 176.81 + 176.81
+ 90.29 = 443.91
443.91 + 90.29 - 15LOO
= 383.20
: '383.20 - 151.00 - 116.10
== 116.10
Double parallel Distance
- 39.84
+ 246.39
+ 35.00
- 241.55
Departure
+ 134p.00
- 28043.95
+ 109374.98
D
pD
x Dep,
- 7044.11 .. '.
. L - 87698.915
Hence area ;:: 8 7 6 9 ~ 9 5 ;:: 43849.46 m2
;; 4.38 hectare. ' ..
(iv) Departure and total latitude method: The formula is
2A ;:: ~ total latitude of a point x (algebraic sum of two adjacent departures).
Total latitudes of points B, C, D with reference to the reference point A is
B ;:: 0 + 90.29 ;:: 90}9
C =90.29 - 151.00 =- 60.71
D ;:: - 60.71 - 116.10;:: - 176.81
Algebraic sum of the departures of the two lines meeting at B. C, Dare
point B ;:: 246.39 + 35.00 ;:: 281.39
- C;:: 35 -, 24-1.55 ;:: - 206.55-
- D ;:: - 241.55 ... 39.84 ;:: 281.39
2 Area;:: 90.29 x 281.39 +(- 60.71) x (- 206.55) + (-176.81) x (- 281.39)
;:: 87698.32 m
2
Area ;:: 43849.16 m
2
;:: 4.38 hectare.
(v) Coordinate method.
Coordinates of X
Y
2 Area;:: (XAYB,- XBY
A)
+(XsYc"'-XcY
s)
+ (XCYD-XDYC> +(XDY
A
-X.o\Y
D)
;:: (500 x 746.39 - 590.29 x 500) + (590.29 x 781.39":" 439.29
x 746.39) + (439.29 x 539.84 - 323.19 x 781.39)
. .' . ... ~
+ (323.19 x 500 - 500 x 539.84)
500.00
746.39
781.39
539.84
A 500.00
B 590.29
C 439.29
D 323.19
.

Art'Q.J and Yolumes 415
=78050+ 133370 - 15391 - 108325.
..=87704 m
2
.
2
Area ='43852 m = 4.38 hectares-.
Example 14.4 Calculate.the areaof a planfrom the following readings of a
planimeter.
Initialreading=7.456.
Finalreading=1.218.
The zero of the disc passed the fixed index markthrice in the clockwisedirection.
Theanchorpointwas.placed outsidetheplanand[hetracing pointwasmoved in
theclockwisedirection. TakeM =100 cm
2
Solution
A = M(F.R.. ":" I.R. 10N + C)
As theanchorpointwasplaced'outsidetheplanC=O. Therefore,
. A:: M(F.R. - I.R 10Iv)
I-!ereN =3and the sign is plus as the zero markpassed iii the clockwisedirection.
Therefore A=' 100(1.218 - 7.456+ 30).
2
= 23.762m
Example 14.5 Determine theareaof afigurefrom thefollowing readings ofa
planimeter.
Initialreading =7.462 .
Final reading =2:141
M =100cm
2
c :: 20.5
Thezero mark of the disc passed once in the,anticlockwise direction. The anchor
point wasplacedinsidethe figure and the tracingpointwasmoved in the clockwise
directionalongtheoutline',' .: . .
. - ..
Solution InthiscaseN:: 1andthesignforN isnegativeasthezeromark
passedin theanticlockwisedirection.' .
,.' ..
A :: M(F.R. - I.R. ION + C)
.
:: 100(2.141 ,... 7.462,... 10+ 20.5)
2
. :: 517.90cm
Example 14.6 Findtheareaofthezerocirclefrom thefollowing observations.
Take M =100cm
2
(i) anchorpointoutsidethefigure:
... j o r unaanicntats oj Surveying
Initial reading 70452
Final reading 3.412
The zero ofthediscpassed thefixed index mark onceintheclockwise direction.
..
(ii)Anchorpointinside thefigure
Initial reading 3.722
Final reading 5.432
Thezeroofthedisc passed thefixed index mark twiceintheanticlockwise
direction.
Solution
(i) Asanchorpointisoutside'thefigure
C~ O
A = M(F.R. - I.R. ION) ,
= 100(3.411 - 7.452+ 10)
= 596cm
2
(ii)Withanchorpointinside
A =M(F.R. - l.R.ION + C)
596 =100(5.432 - 3.722- 20+ C)
..
or
C = 24.25
Areaof zerocircle= 24.25x100=2425cm
2
Example 14.7 ,Calculate thearea ofapieceofproperty bounded by atraverse
and circular arc described as follows: AB S 4Q
D
OO'W 122 m, BC S 80eE
122 m, CD N35
eOQ'
W 61 mandDA a circular aretangent to CD at pointD
(Fig.14.30(a. .
8
C
.
.,
Fig.14.30(a) Example 14.7.,
-r.-." -- ~ -
Volumes 417
Solution Gale'sTra..-erse Table
!
Line Length Bearing N S E
W
1
S40
000'W
AB 122 93.45
78.42
!
BC 122 S 8000'E 21.18 120.14
CD 61 N3500' W 49.96 34.98
f.'
DA
I
1:' 49.96- . 114.63 120.14 113.40
,
,
I
Latitude ofDA =114.63 - 49.96
=64.67N
Departure ofDA. =120.14- 113.40
=6.74W
Length of D.4=..J64.67! +6.74
2
=65.02
Bearing ofDA =Ntan-I W
. 6:>.0_
=N555'W
Angle between CD andDA =3500' - 555'
=2905'
Taking coordinates ofA(O, 0)
Coordinates of x y
B - 78.42 - 93.45
C +41.72 - 114.63
D +6.74 - 64.67
Equation ofthelineAD
. y - 0 - (- 64.67)
. x - 0 = 0, - 6.74
. 64.67
y =- 6.74 x
= - 9.59,t'
Equation ofalineperpendicular toAD
I
y = 959.t+C
when thelinepasses through midpoint ofAD whose coordinates are
(+ 3.37,- 32.34)
_ 32.34=1 +C
~ 18 Fundamentals of Surveylng
or C= - 32.69
Equation of the line thenbecomes
X "'? 69
y =9.59 - .'_.
Equation of line CD
, Coordinates-of C 41.72, (- 114.63),D 6.74, (- 64.67)
Equation of theline CD is
y - (-114.63)-114.63'-.(- (64.67)
. x - 41.72 = 41.72- 6.74 '
or y =- 1.428x - 55.05
. .
Equation of a line perpendicuar toCD
)' = + 1.128 x +c'
when passing throughthepoint6.74, (- 64.67)
c' =- 69.39
Equation of the.line thenbecomes
y = + 1.4;8 - 6939 .
Point of intersection of this line with the perpendicular bisector of AD can be
obtained bysolving simultaneously thetwoequations:
Y =.9 ~ 9 32.69 '
. x 69"'9
Y = 1.428 - ~
Solution givesthe coordinates ofthepointof intersection
x =+ 61.58
y =- 26.26
Length of radiusof thecurve= ,'61.58
2
.+ 2626
2
= 66.95
Area ofsector
A= R2 (rr8 _sin8)
.
360 2
where 8= angle subtended atcentreindegrees.
R = radiusof circle:
Here 8/2= 2905'
. Hence 8=5810'= 58.17
. .
A =66.952 (1rX 2x29.09 _ sin58J7)
. . 360 .. . 2'
.

=371.618
Areain terms ofcoordinates
Y
w X
0
0
A
.;. 78.42
- 93.45
B
- 114.63
+ 41.72
C
- 64.67
+
D
2Area = - XsY,,) +(XsY,- XcYs) +(XcYo - XoYc) .,(XoY"
=0x(- 93.45).:. (-78.42)x0+(- 78.42)(-114.63)
_ (+ 41.72)(-: 93.45)+: (+ 41.72)(- 64.67)- (+.6.74)(114.63)
+(+ 6.7-1)(0) - (0)(-64.67)
= 0 - 0 +8989.2&+3898.73 -:2698.03 +772.60
.. 10962.50
Area = tx(10962.50)
=5481.25 .
Area of circularportion=371.618
2
Hence netarea 5109.632 m
..
=0.510963 hectare
Example 14.8 Dividetheareaoftheplotintwoequa] partsbya linethrough
pointB. List inorder[helengthand bearings ofallsides for each parcel. Refer
. totheplot ofExample 14.7. .
Solution JoinBD.
CoordinatesofB, CandDare
Y
x
0
0
- 21.18
B
+ 120.14
, D
+ 85.16
+ 28.78
C
2 Area=(XsY
e
- XeY
s)
+ (X,Y
o
- XoY,) +(XoYs - XsYo)
=(+ 25.78 x 120.14)+ (85.16 x21.18)
2
=5:261.3l8 m
1
.Area =2630.659. isgreater than 1/2 thearea.i.e.510911 = 01
Difference =2630.66 - 2554.50
=76.l6
__ -.-J
420 Fllndamemals ofSurveying
"
LetareaoftriangleBED =76.16 m
2
Length andbearingoflineBD,
Length ofBD = .-128.78
2
+85.16
2
=S9.S9 nl.'
BearingofDB =tan"' ~ ~ : ~ ~
=S71.32W
Bearing ofDE =Bearing'ot'V,<.:' =S3500'E
AnglebetweenDBandDE =71.32 +35= 106.32
Area of triangle BDe"= ~ BDDE.sin BDE
or
DE= 2 area'
BDsmBDE
,2x76.16 6
=89.89sin106.32 = 1.7 m,
BE= ./BD
2
+DE2 - 2BD.DE.cosBDE
=~ 8 9 8 9 +1.76
2
- 2x 89.89 x 1.76 cos106.32 =90.40 rn.
BE DE
Again
sin10632=sinDBE
or
sinDBE=DEsin106.32
, , BE '
_ 1.76 xsin10632 _ 01S' 6
- 90040 - .
or DBE=1.07 =14.2'
Length andbearingof lines.
AB 122.00 S40
000W
BE 90.40 N n023'E
ED 1.76 N35OQ'W
BC 122 S SooOO'E
'
CE 59.24 N 35OQ'W
.
EB 90.40 Sn023'W.
Example 14.9 Partition theareagivenin Example 14.7 into two equal
areasbyalineparalleltoBC. Tabulate inclockwiseconsecutiveorderthelengths
andbearings of all sides.
Solution DrawDEparallel toBC(Fig.14.30b).Thetraverse tableforthe
quadrilateral BCDEis givenbelow:
L_
i
v
C
AreasandVolumes 421
Line Length Quadrantal Latitude Departure
. Bearings . :N S'
E
W
Be 122 S 80"00'E
2U8 120.14.
CD 61 N35"00'W 49.96 39.98
DE 11
NSO"OO'\-\' 0.17/
1
0.98/
1
EB 1
2
S40"00'W 0.766/
2
0.642l
2

Since BCDEis aclosedtraverse
I
49.96+0.17lj- 0.766l
2
- 21.18 =0
120.14--39.98 .;.. 0.981
1
-0.642l
2
=0
I
A
I
..,.
8
."
Fig. 14.30(b) Example14.9.
Solving II =49.87 1
2
=48.64
Independentcoordinatesof points
x y
BOO
C .120.14 -21.18
D 80.16 28.78
E 31.2937.26
B 00.00 0.00 .
2Area=(120.14x 0)- (0x21.18) +(28.78 x 120.14) - (- 21.18 x80.16)
+(37.26x 80.16) - (28.78 x31.29)+(31.29 x0)- (37.26x0.00)
=7241.65
2
"
Area =3620.82 m

..
Thisismore than (total area) = (5109.84) =2554.9 m
2
Difference inarea=3620.82 - 2554.90 =1065.92.

DrawFG parallel toDEsothatareaDEFG
=1065.92 m!
r-
1 /' II 1 .,
= DE x h +'2 1- tan 17 of '2 h: tan ~
h
l
= DE x h + 2 [tan e+tan t/J]
Here DE =49.87
e = 8000' +4000' - 9000' =30
't/J '= (360 - 80) - (180 - 35) - 90 =45
h
2
. . "" .
Hence 1065.92 =49.87 x lz +T [tan 30 +tan 45]
= 49.87h +0.788h
2
or h=16.87
GC =DC - DG =61 _ 6 8 ~ =49.07
cos 4:> .
FG =49.87 + 16.87 x (1.577) =76.48
BF = BE - FE =48.64 - 6 ~ ~ ~ =48.64 - 19.48 .:: 29.16
" cos
Length" and Bearing of Sides
Line Length Bearing
CB 122 N 8000'W
BF 29.16 N 4000'E
FG 76.48 N 8000'W
GC
49.07" S 3500'E
Example 14.10 Prepare a table of end areas versus depth of fill from 0 to 10 m
by increments of 1m for level sections 20 m wide level road bed and side slopes
2 to 1 (Fig. 14.31).
t
I h
~
I--
20 m . ----+1
Solution We have area =h(b +nh): Here b =10 m and n =2. Hence
area =, h[20 +2h]
I
f
~
..
,-i2.5 1-2.5 t-
f- 2.5 -1-2.5-1
1- 4.7 '-J
1.3
The results are given intabular fonn below:
. ,". hem} Area (m:!)
hem}
Are3 (m:!)
0 0
6' 192
1 22 7 238
2
,,48
8 2S8
3 78 9 342
4 112 10 400
5 150
Example 14.11. An irrigation ditch is with b =5 m and side slopes 2 to 1. Notes
giving distance from centreline and cut ordinates for stations 52 +00 and 53 +
00 are c 0.8/4.2, C 1.0, C 1.2/5.1 and C 1/4.7, C 1.2, C 1.3/5.1. Draw the cross
sections and compute volumes by average end area method (Fig: 14.32}.
-,- 5.1
r- 4.2 -1- 5.1 -I
(a) (b)
(a) Section at 52 +00. (b) Section at 53 +00.
Fig. 1t32 Example iuI. .
Area =J ~ (ItI + h
z
) + h(w1,+ W2)]
2
Area atsection 52+ 00 =tH (0.8 + 1.2)+ 1.0(42+5.1)] =7.15 m
Area at section 53 + 00 = t~ 1 0 + 1.3) + 1.2(4.7 + 5.1)] = 8.755 m:!

Assuming station distance 30 rn.
" ..
;. III
Volume = t(7.15 +8.755) x 30 =238.575 m ~
i
t
( .
Example U.12 For the data listed, tabulate cut. fill and cumulative volumes in
Cut between stations 10 +00 and 20 +00. Use a shrinkage factor of 1.30 for cuts.
Take 30 m stations.
~
I
424
Fundamenials of Sun-eying
Station
End area (m
2
) .
Cut Fill
Station End area (m
2
)
Cut Fill
10 + 00
11 + 00
12 + 00
13 + 00
14 + 00
14 +13.6
" ..
Solution
0
19.6'
34.8
31.7
14.6
00.0 00.0
15 + 00
16 + 00
17 + 00
18 + 00
19 + 00
20 -7 00
12Aq
23.80
30.00
26.50
15.30
11.60
..
Table 14.3 ,Example 14.12
End area m
2
Volume Cut volume Cumulative
Station Cut . Fill ' Cut
-, Fill
- 1.3 Volume
10 + 00 . 0 0.00
+196.0 .. + 150.77
11 + 00 19.6 + 150.77
+ 816.0 + 627.69
12 + 00 34.8 +778.4
+ 997.5 + 767.30
13 + 00
31.7 . + 1545.76
,-
+ 694.5 + 534.23
14 + 00 14.6 + 2079.99
+146.0 + 112.30
14 + 13.6 00.0 00,00 +2192.29
- 124.0
15 + 00 12.40 + 2068.29
- 543.0 "
1.6 + 00 23.80
+ 1525.29 .
:- 807.0
17+ 00
. 30.00 .
..
' + 718.29
. -847:5
18 + 00
-
26.50 - 129.21
, .
- 672.0
19 + 00 18.30 - 801.21
- 448.5
:20 + 00 11.60 - 1249.71
The volumes between stations 10'+ 00 and 11 + 00, 14 + 00 and 14 + 13.6 and
14 + 13.6 and 15 + 00 are computed as 1/3 base x altitude. Others are" computed
. by end area methods.
Example 14.13 From the following excerpts from field notes (i) Plot the cross
. section on graph paper and superimpose upon it a design template for a 10 m wide
road bed with fill slopes of3:1 and a subgrade elevation at centre line of 324.90 m.
Determine the end area graphically by counting squarese .
HI. =324.12 rn
I Art'dS and Yolumes . 425
.. 1.6 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.7 23 I
,
20 + 00 1., + IT 7.0 C. L 4.0 10.0'17
..

(ii) Also calculate slope intercepts and determine the end area b)' coordinate
method. Check by computing areas of triangles' and trapezoids..
Solution
(i) Elevations of the points are obtained by subtracting corresponding rod
reading from the H T. of the levelling instrument.
The new data can be written as follows:
322.52 322.42 322.12 321.91 321.42 321.82
1.6 1.7 2.0 22 2.7 23
20 + 00 L, + IT
7.0 CL 4.0 To.O IT
The cross section is plotted in Fig. 14.33:
'"
!
i
Fig. 14.33
slope of lineCD= 321.82 - 321.42= 0.40 = 0.057..
. . . 7 7 .
slope of line FE= l= 0.333..
R.L. of point C' =324.90 - 5 x ~ = 323.23 m,
RoL. of point C =321.42
~
\.
CC' =1.81m
~
Change of slope between C'E and CE
0.057 + 0.333 =0.390
The vertical distance CC' is covered in a horizontal distance of ~ ~ ~ =4.64 m
i
.......:.; .. ~ .:
'",,-'"
~ ~ :
Hence horizontal coordinate of E =10 + 4.64 =14.64 m.
Vertical distance KE = (14.64 - 5)(0.333) = 3.21 m.
32252 - 322.42 - 001
s
I
ope 0
f JH
-
- 10 - . .
slope of Glf = 0.333.
change.of slope = om + 0.333 = 0.343.
R.L. of r = 324.90 - (17 - .5)(0.333) = 320.904.
This is lower than the level of H which means fi' lies between Hand J.
.R.T,... of r == 324.90-(7- 5)(0.333) = '324.234
r r'.
R.L. of J =.322.420 .
JJ' = l.814m.
. .
.With change of slope of 0.343, this vertical distance is covered in a horizontal
.distance of 1.814/0.343 = 5.288 ",1. . . . .'
, , ,
.
" , ,. ., .
.,
.,
...
, . , ., ,. , , . I I
.
.,
., .,
.
.. ... ,. ,
. .
., ,
, . :
.,
. ,
,
,
, ,
.
, ..
, . .. ,
., I" .
, ,
. .
,
..
,
, ..
. .
., , .. ., .
,
.,
' ,
. ,
, , , ..
"
"
,
..
,
, .
... ..
. ; .. ' I .
. , ., ...
... , , ..
. .. -t .' . .'
.. ...
" .
, .
.. .. t
.,., .
..
I" , ..
., . .
, .
.
,
, .
,.
.
.. , ..
.,
...
. . , .
. .
.
. . , . . , , . . . . .. . ..
... .. , .. .. 'I' ,
.. .. , , . . . ..
' .. ,
.. .
" ,
.. . . . .. , . '" ..
"
Fig.14.34 Cross Section Example 14.13 (large scale).'
:
, ,
, .
, ,
,
fill
., .
.
,. , ,
,. ,
.
. .
, .,
,
.
, .
, , .
., .. .
., . , ,
., .
,
,
..
, , , .
,
.
' .
..
Check R.L. of E (from F)
R.L. of E (from C)
tu: of H
R.L. of H (from G)
=324.90 - (14.64 - 5) x j = 321.686
= 321.42 +
(321'.82 - 321.42)
. 7
.
x 4.64 = 321.685
Hence O.K.
= 322.42'+ 3 2 2 ~ 2 7 -=- 3 ~ 2 4 2 x 5188
=322.42 + 0.052 =322.472 m
.
,
= 324.90 - (7.288) x j = 327.47.
Hence O.K.
Area bytrapezoids and triangles, (Fig. \4.35)
." .
, '
, ,
"
-"!. ...

, '
.......
;--:: -
-- ..
, '
, ,
-
, , , ,
...;
.
, , , , I . '
i!
. ,
, ., ,#.'\
" .
'. ,
'
., ,.,"',.. ' , '.','.I ! '
,
.
' .' .. .. .,
"
, ,
' '.,.
.,
" '
, .
..
.. ' , ., .
'.'
.,
I.
" '
..
, , , , , , ,.
.
' .'
.
, .
'." . .,
, , ,
, ' ,
, , , , .' , .. , , .'
".
, .
, ...
, , . ,. I , , , " .
.
' .
I," I. I , ' , , ' .. ,' . ' .. ' ",
, ..
"
, , , ,
.
.,I.' " , ..
"""j' '" ,
. ' ., .,." . ' , ..
'
, ,
, '
., , . ...
" ,
,
..
""." ,
'
, '
.'
.
,
, , ., ' '" I'
., .... .,! ,-I I, .... "
.,.,
,
: :
., ,...' , , I." '
.! "
.' I, . " , . ,." ,.' , " ' , , . .. ,
Fig. 14.35 Coordinates of controlling points,Example
Figure
HU,
,',
, ...
, LKAJ
KNBA
NMCB
MEC
-HLG
-EFM
Area by coordinates
, ,
.,
, !
, .
'.
:

'
, . ' ,
,.,, ' ,
.' '
,
: , '
' .
, .
"- "
I'll ., '
,Computations Area,
1 "', ,',,'
2" ,x 2.48 x5.29',' 6.56
l' " ' , ,
"'2 (2.78+ 2,48) x 7.00 " 18,41 "
1 ' ' ,
'2 (2.78 +2.98) x 4.00 1L52
'2
1
(2.98 + 3,48) x 6.00 19.38
1 '
"2 x 3,48 x 4.64 8.07
- 1/2 x 2 x 2,43 - 2.43
- 1/2 x 5 x 3.21 - 8.03
2
53.48 m
Point X
K 0.00
F 5.00
E 14.64
C 10.00
B 4.00
A,
.'
0.00
. J -7.00
.
H - 12.29
G - 5.00
K 0.00
l.
r
428 Fundamentals ofSum:ying
Twice total area= - 16.07 - 90.91
;: 106.98
106.98 "49 2
Area=-2- =,)". m
Example14.14 Fromtheaccompanying final-cress section notes compute the
total volume of cut and thetotal volume of fill between station 43 +00 andstation
48 +00by the average end areamethod. The road bed is 8 min cut and7 min
fillandthesideslopesare1:1in cutand1
1
/
2
:1 infill.
Station Ground Grade Cross section .
Elevation Elevation L e R
.F3.l
F2.0 Fl.6
48+00 187.1 189.1 .
-0-
8.0 5:7
F1.6 FO.8 FO.7
47+00-. 188.6 189.40
-0-
51
.43"
F1.0 FO.3 FO.O
46 + 23 189.2 189.50
4.8 0 33
FO.6 eo.o CO.9
46+ 00 189.8 189.74
-0-
4.2 .
49
CO.O CO.6 Cl,4
45+27 190.4 189.S0
-0-
.4.0
5,4
CO.7 C1.2 C2.l
45+00 191.6 190.40
4:l 0 61
C1.3 Cl.8 C2.6
44+ 15 192.0 190.24
53 T 6:6
C12 Cl.8 C2.6
44+00 192.2 190.44
52 "0 6:6
Cl.9 C2.6 C3.0
43 + 13 193.20 190.64
-0-
5.9 ---::w
Cl.9 C2.7 C3.9
43 +00 193.50 190.77
-0-
5.9 79
Solution Fora threelevel section, theareaisgivenby
A =b14(f, + + 2"
f
Cd, +dr)
Station Area
'. 2.7
43 + 00 8/4(1.9 +3.9)+ T (5.9+7.9)=30.23C.
. 2.6 .
43 + 13 +3.0)+.T (5.9+ 7.0)=26.57C.
. ': 18--" - . .
44+00 8/4(1.2 + 2.6) + T (5.2+ 6.6)=18.22C.
Areasand Yolumes '.429
44 + 15 8/4(1.3+ 2.6) + If (5.3+ 6.6)= 18.51C.
12 '
45 + 00 8/4(0.7+ 2,.1) + T (t7 + 6.1)=12.68C.
" , 0.6
45+27 8/4(0.0 + 1.4)+ T 4 ~ + 5.4) =5.62C.
-' "0.0 .
46+ 00 8/4(0.6)+ 814{0.9) + "'0(4.2 + 4.9) =1.2F+ 1.9C.
,' " ,,03 .,
46+ 23 S/4(1.0+ 0,0) + 2 (4.8 + 3.3) = 3.2-F.
, 0.8
47 +00 8/4(1.6+ 0.7) +2 (5.7 + 4.3)= 8.60F.
2.0
48 + 00 8/4(3.1 + 1.6)+2" (S.O + 5.7)=23.10F.
Volume of cut
30.23+ 2657 'x 13+ 2657 + 1822 x 17 + 18.22 + 1851 x 15
2 2 2
;'+ 1851 ~ 1268 x 15+
12
.
68
.:5.62 x 27+ 5.62 ~ 1.90 x 3
+ ~ x 1.9 x 23 =1532.36 m
3
Volume offill
1x 11 x 3+ 11 + 312 X 23 + 3"2x 8.60x 7
3 2 2
+' 8.6 ; 23.1 x 30=568.9m
3
Example 14.15 Giventhefollowing fivelevelsectionscompute thevolume of
earthworklyingbetweenthemby (a) theaverageendareamethod,(b)theprisrnoidal
formula. Computethesideslopes
e3.4 c2.8 e2.6 c2.0
Station44 + 00 c31
142 ',8,00 0 8.0 11.9 '
e1.0 cO.7 cOS cOS5
Station45 + 00 c15
103 8.0 "0 8.0
9J
f"
Solution TheareaofFig.14.36 = .!.
2
<to d, +lb. +t d
r
) fn which ff and
'
f:
.
.
arethefillat theleftand rightedge ofthe roadbedrespectively, andd, andd;
arethedistancestotheleft andright.
Asthesectioniscut thesymbolc should besubstituted forf
AreaA =t(el .d, + c .b + e; . dr)
J,:"
~ :
--1-
d.
I r
1--
~
1-
430 Funadn2enrals ofSurveying
1- b -.; '.
.,
Fig. 14.36 Example14.15.
2
Station44+00 A.=J(3.4x142+2.8 x16+2.6x1t9) ::: 62.01 m
"
. .
Station 45 + ~ A =' (1x10.3 +0.7 X16+05 x9.1)= 13.02m
2
' ..
Volume by averageendarea=t x 30(62.01 +13.02) ~ 1125.45
. c, 3.1 1
Lefth
an
d
sideslope =d, _ bl2 =14.2_ 8 ='2
. c,._055 -1
. Right handsideslope=.1 1.1"'1 - 9.1 _ 8 - 2 ..
Volume byprismoidal rule Since theareaof themiddle sectionis notgiven,
dimensions ofthe middlesectionaretaken asmeanof thecorresponding dimensions
.oftheendsections. Hence, .
c2.3 c2.2 c1.75 er.s c1.28
M
12.25 8.0 0.00 8.0 10.5 .
Area =t(2.2x1225+175 x 16+15x'105)=35.35
V=Ii(62.01 +13.02 +4x 3535) =1082.15
Example 14.16 Given thefollowing notes for three irregular sections, compute
the volume of earthwork lying between station 15 and station 16 by.(a) the
average end areamethod;(b)bytheprismoidal formula. Theroadbedwidth is
20 mandthe sideslopes 1
1
/
2
:1. .
ABC DE FG H
Station 15 +00' Fl.5 F23.F23F3.1 F2.7 F2.6 F4,4 F6.6
123 9.7 63 2.5' o 45 14.1 20.0
A . B . C D E' F G
S t a t i ~ n '15 +15 fl.9 n.oF4.7.illn,l F3.8 @
12.8 103 7.7 .0 3.7 9.9 12.1
--
-----
AmLS andYolumes 431
."
A .'S. C D' E .F. G. H
Station16+00 FO.6 f13 FO.S Fl.? Fl.7 F3.4 r>...5 F3.4
.. 10,9 9.6. 6.7 20 0 3.9 lOA 15.1
Solution Takingtheoriginat E. thedJIJ withpropersignC3n beplotted:IS in
Fig. 14.37
..
A E F J G H
' i '-- - - ,- - - II 6.6
" , i
2.7 I .

,I
E' F'
I
.H'
lA' 1.5 1.5 1 1 11
Slope 0f1lne = =- =- = :-
12.3 -10 . 2.3 1.5 2
JVt. 6.6. 6.6. 1 111
51ope 0f 1me ri = =.- = - = :-
. 20 - 10 10 1.5 . 2 ..
.. '
1.5!23 x (123- 9.7) +23(9.7 - 63)
+ 23 3.1 (63 2.5) + 3.1 ; 2.7(2j_.0)
+ 2.7 2.6(4.5 _ 0)+ 2.6;4.4(14.1 _ 4.5)
+ 4.4 6.6(20.0 _ 14.1) - t x15x (123- 10)
1
- 2"x x (20.0- 10.0)
.=4.94+7.82+11.93 +33.6+32.45.;. 1.73- 33.0=56.01 m
2
.'
Station 15+15 The data canbeplottedasinFig.14.38
A BI C I D
E F H G
I
3.1 13.1
I

I
' G'
I
D'
E'
.. .
F'
C'
.
Fig. 14.38 Example}U6.
1.9 1.9 1'1-
SlopeoflA' = 0=18=...:>
12.8 - 1 _.
' 1.8 _1.8_
1'15
SlopeofHG =1.,'7 __ 11'\ - 2.7 - ..
Area = 1.9 -: 2.0 (12.8 _ 10.3) + 2.0 4.7 (103 - 7.7)
+ 4.7:- 3.1 (7.7 _ 0) + 3.1(3.7 - 0)
+ 3.1 -: 3.8 (9.9 _ 3.7) + 3.8 1.8 (12.7 - 9.9)
- t(1.9)(12.8 -10) - t x 1.8(12.7 -10)
. .
=4.87 +8.71 + 30.03 + 11.47 + 21.39 + 7.84 - 2.66 - 2.43
= 79.22
. Station 16 +00. The data can be plotted as in Fig. 14.39.
H
D'
IE'
G'
-I'
p
H'
' 0.6. 0.6 1'15
51
. ope .
JA
= 1n 0 _ 1n =, 0.9 ='. :
3.4 3.4 1'15
IH'
= 15.1 - 10 = 5.1 = ..
Area = t(0.6 + 13)(10.9 - 9.6) + t (13 + 0.8)(9.6 - 6.7)
11'
+ '2 (0.8 + 17)(6.7 - 2.0) + '2 (1.7 + 1.7)(2.0 - 0)
1 . 1 .
+ '2 (1.7 + 3.4)(3.9 - 0.00) + '2 (3.4 + 25)(10.4 - 3.9)
+ t (25 + 3.4)(151 - lOA) - t(0.6)(10.9 - 10.0)
,
- '2
1
(3.4)(15.1 - 10.0)
=47.6 m
2
.
(a) Volume by average end areamethod
I
,
I
. '1 ' , '
V" =2" (56.01 +
'+t (79.22 +n:60)(15)
=1965.375 m
J

, .
(b) Volume by prisrnoidal rule
V = Ii (56.(>1 + 4(79.22)+ 47.60)
= 2102.50 h1
J

Example 14.17 -Astraight level road is to be constructed on a plane hillside with
a lateral slope uniformly 9 horizontally to 1 vertically, the side slopes being like
wise 1:1 and 2:1 in cut and fill respectively and the formation width is 10 m.
Calculate the total volume of earthwork in a length of 200 m.
(i) when the areas of cut and fill in each cross section are equal; and
(ii) when the total earthwork in each cross section is a minimum stating the
volume of cut in excess of .the fill in the latter case. '
.
"
Solution From cut,
I
I
I
IX
I
I
:1: 1
--=-
1O-b+:I:' 9
orx =
(10 - b)
...:...--""""
8
Area of cut =too -b) ';1:
.
.,
,.
= (10 - br
16
From fill,
)' 1
--=-

2y + b 9
:;,

tW
ory = bn
.'
Area =.!.. b .v=.!. .b ..
2 . 2 7
.'
b
2
=-
14
(i)Sinceareas of cut andfill areequal.
(10 - b)2 b
2
..:.....-----:'- =-
16 14
Solving b = 4.83
'10- b =5.17 ..
..
. 517
2
.
Areaofcut =-'- =1.67
. . 16
Areaoffill = \ ~ =1.67
2
(ii)Total earthwork, E= (10 - b)2 + b
16 14
Thiswillbe minimurri when
dE
db= 0
2(10- b)(-I)+ 2b = 0
or
16. . 14
or b = 4.67m.
(10- 4.67)'2
Volume of cut= x 200 = 355.00m
3
16
Volume offill= \ ~
~
x 200 = 311.55 m:.
Totalvolume ofearthwork =666.55 m
3

Excess of cut overfill'= 43.45 m
3

Example 14.18 The centrelineofa highwaycuttingis onacurve of 120m
radius,theoriginalsurfaceoftheground beingapproximately level.Thecutting
istobewidened by increasing theformation width from6 mto 9 rn, the excavation
to be entirely on theinsideof thecurveand toretaintheexisting sideslopesof

~
1
1
/
2
horizontal to 1vertical.If thedepthof formationincreases uniformlyfrom
2.40 mto 5.10 mover a lengthof 90 m(Fig.14.41), calculatethe volume of earth
to be removed in thislength. . [t.U.]
I
;
I
i'
f.
. Areas and Yolumes 435
9.6 =t4
6.6
J==
.2.40
I
r-3 m_1 :
9 1- 1
(a) Crosssectionat the beginning-AI =2.4 )( 3=7.2 m
2
1---13.65. ,I
r----:10.65-1
5.10
..
\ Itt I
r- 3 -J,.... 3+ 3-1 I
I I \J
I---- 92 ..' I'
(b) Crosssection.atthe =3 x 5.1 =15.3 m
2

Solution
6+6.6 =6.3m . 3+9.6=6.3om.
el = 2 ".' or .2
6+10.65 =833m 'or 3+13.65 == 8.33 m.
e2 =. 2 .
. 2
1. f di fth h f "d f . " . "(6.3"0 +833)
r-iean ra IUS 0 epat 0 centro: 0 newexcavation =120 - 2 =
112.69 m.
'"
Length ofthepathofcentroid =90x 1 =84.52 m.
..
From Fig.14.41, Volume swept=L t(AI + .'
. 1
=84.52 x '2 (7.2+15.3)
3
=950.85 m
. I
.
Example 14.19 The areaswithin thecontourJines atthesiteofareservoir are

as follows:
Contour(m)
Area
at 158
.476.000
156 431,000
154 377,000
152 296,000
150 219,000
148 164,000
146 .
84,000
144 10,000
142 1,000
The levelofthe bottomofthereservoir is 142'm. Calculate(a)the volume of
water inthereservoirwhenthewater level is158 musingtheendareamethod.
(b)thevolumeofwaterinthereservoir when thewaterlevelis158m usingthe
prismoidal formula (everysecond area maybe taken as mid area) and the water
levelwhenthereservoircontains 1,800,000 m
3
Solution Since the contours are at regular interval of 2 rn, the trapezoidal
formula can bestraightawayused.
Volume= [(476000+ 1000) 2(431000 + 377000+ 296000
+ 219000+ 164000 + 84000 + 10000)]
.= 3.639x (l06)m
3
.Byprismoidal formula,
= + 1000)+ 4{lO,ooo +'164000 + 296,000
+ 431,000) + 2(84,000 + 219,000 + 377,000)].
=3.627x (10
6)
m
3
Upto 150m..
Volume = + 219.000) + 2(10,000 + 84.000+ 164,000)]
=736x (lcY) in
3

Up to 154 m
219+ 296 ,..3,.
Volume =736x (1cY) +. x2x(1V)
. . .' ,2
. + 296+ 377' x 2x = 1924x (lcY) rn
3
2 ,.
Hencethelevelof waterlies-between 152 mand, 154 m.
i
I
,-- ..
Ie
t
l
!
Areas and \'olllmes 437
.'.
Volume upto152 m =1251 x (llY) m
3
Extra volume required =549 x (1a:') m);
Let :c be the distancebeyond 15:! m;
. ........r [(3iiOOO -196.000) . ?' '? ]
extra ..olurne '2 .. 2 . .t' +_96,000 + _96.000
This must be equal to 549x,10
3
Hence.
':c (81 . 59?)
2'2.'C+-=;'
-4'9
or 20.25.il:+ 296x - 549 =0
or .t=1.665
Hence the level of water =152 + 1.665 =153.665 m.
Example 14.20 The centre line of a highway cuttingIs on a circular curve of
radius R. This cutting is to be widened by increasing the formation width from to
m to 15 rn, the excavation to be entirely on the outside of the curve and to retain
the existing side slopes of l vertical to 2 horizontal. The ground surface and
formation are each horizontal and the depth of formation increases uniformly at
the centre line from 5 m at chainage 2700 to 8 m at chalnage 2800. If neglecting
the influence of curvature causes the volume of excavation over this length to be
underestimated by 5per cent, determine the radius .of the curve. [e.E.!.).
.
Solution 20 m I: 1
, 15 m I
c ] :s
Sm
..
.
,
I- 5-t5
.. '
. Al =' 5 x 5
,.
8m
5m 15m S m
1---15.5 .
A
2
=8 x 5 = 40 m
2
Fig. l-tA2 Example 1t20.
.: . 5 --I
12.5 m. .,
2
= 25 m ..
21 m, r-- 5 -I
1_-
J
,
438 Fundamentals of Slln(r:ng
20 +5 =12.5 m or 15+ 10 =125m.
el = 2
2
26
-2-
+5 =15.5 m or 21 +10 =15.5 m.
e: =
2
If R be the original radius, mean radius
. (125+ 155)
of the excavation =R + 2 =R +14.
when radius is R length is 100m.
when radius is R +14 length is x (R +14)
Initial volume =lOOx (25 40) =3250 m
3
Final volume with curvature x (R +
3250(R'+ 14)/R - (3250) 5
. Underestimation = =-
3250(R +14)/R 100
or R =266 m.
Example 14.21 The centre line of a' certain section of highway cutting lies
on a circular curve in plan. This cutting is to be widened by increasing the
formation width of 20 m to 26 m, the excavation being on the inside of the curve
and retaining the original side slopes of.2 horizontal and 1 vertical. The ground
surface and the formation are each horizontal and the depth to formation over a
length of 400 m increases uniformly from 3 m to 5 m. Determirte the radius of
the centreline if the volume of excavation is over estimated by 5 percent when
the influence of curvature is neglected.
[Salford]
Solution
22+10
16 +16 =16 m or
= 16m.
el = 2
2
20 +16 =18 m, or 26 +10 = 18 m.
e2 = .,
2
IfR be the original radius. mean radius of the path of new excavation
16+ 18 =R _ 17
=R - 2
when radius is R, length is 400 m.

'f
-,
.
I
"
J
I
1
,

" 16 .;.
3m
,
.-

5 rn.
..

I
10---r
10 I
. 1
. -
82
Fig.14.43 Example IUl.
when isR - 17,length1= x(R - 17)
. . 400 x (18 +30)' .
3
Initialvolume = 2 =9600 m
Final volumes withreducedcurvature= x(R - '17) X24
.9600 x(R - 17)
= R
. . 9600 - [9600x(R - 17)/R] =2.-
Overestimation= 9600(R - 17)/R 100
. .
or R=357 m.
Accurate method Areaof new excavation =6It.
,
Foranygiven depthat thecentreline ofh.,
x = x2 =h m.
Therefore eccentricity ofcentroid ofexcavation will be 13 +h from theformer
centreline.
20 +-6--l
i:", ..
<":,'
j

'"
J
I
Distance
(m)
,.
Jz
(m)

(m
2
)

(m)
Mean distance
of centroid from
elL
"
0
50
100 .
150
200 '
250
3
3.25
.
3.50 .
3.75
4.00
4.25
18
19.5
21.0
22.5
24.0
25.5
16.00
16.25
16.50
16.75
17.00
17.25
}
}
}'
}
}
}
16.125
16.375
16.625
16.875
17.125
. 17.375
300 4.50 27.0
17.50 '}
17.625
350 4.75 28.5 17.75
400 5.00,
.
30.0 18.00 }
17.875
.. '
Total Volume of Excavation.
Volume of excavation -.
8
+2
195).
0-50
C 50(R-;6125) =50(18.75 _ .
95
50-100 C. ; 2LO). 50.( R - =50(2025 _ .
21.0 225). 50'(R - 16.625) = 50 (2L75 .. 36159)
100-150
(
. R . R
. .
2
e.
5
;' 24.0} 50(R -}6.875) = 50(23.25 _
150-200
(24.0; 25.5) 50(R -;7.125) = 50(24.75 _
200-250
(25.5 ; 27.0)- 50(R -)7.375) = 50(26.25 .. .
250-300
7
e.
0
; SO(R -R
17.625)
= 50(27.75 _,
300-350

350-400
(28.5; 30.0). 50(R -:')7.875) = 50(29.25 .
i == 50 (192.00 ..

Areas and volumes ,441
,Uncorrected volume'= [(18 + 30) + 2(19.5 +21.0 + 22.5
.
..
+ 24.5 + 25.5 + 27 +
,= 9600 m
3
9600 - 50(192.00 - 3279.72/ R)
Overestimation =
=.05
50(192.00 - 3279.72/ R),
or R = 358.7 m.
Using equivalent areas and the prismoldal formula,
Distance A
A (1-
18.0 16
IS (1 _ =18.0 _
b
16:5)
50 19.5 16.25
'19.5(1_ = 19.5 _
,
100 21.0 16.50
21.0 (1- = 21.0 _
150 '22.5 16.75
,22.5 _16;5) =22.5 .,
200 24.0
17.00,
24.0 (1 _ = 24.0 _
250 25.5 17.25
25.5 (1- 17;5) = 25.5.,
300 27.0 17.50
27.0 (1 27.0 _ 47};!
350 28.5 17.75
,28.5 (1 .: 17;5)= ,
400 30.0 ,18.00
30.0' (1 _ = 30.0 _
Volume by prismoidal formula,
=5 [18.0 + 30.0 + 4(19.5 + 22.5 + 25.5 + 28.5)
30
,
...
eS8 540.0)
+ 2(11.0 + 24.0 + 27.0) - If" + -R- - 4(316.88 + 376.88
+ 439.88 + 505.88) - 2 + 408 + 472.5) 1
442 Fundamenrals of Surveying
'.
5 [ 8 + 384 + 144 - ~ (828 + 6558.08 + 2454)J
30
..
= 5 [576 - ~ (9840.08)]
30
Volume without considering curvature = 5 x 576 = 9600
30
% overestimation.
9600 - 5 [576 :- 9840.08/Rl . -
30
. . = 0.05
5 ~ [576 -:9840.08/m
or
-... R = 358.75 m.
Example 14.22 The following notes refer to a 400 m section of a proposed
railway and the earthwork distribution in this section is to be planned without
regard to adjoining sections. The table shows the stations in 30 m units and the
surface levels along the centre line. the formation being at an elevation above
datum of 14.5 m at station 20 and thence rising uniformly on a gradient of 1.2 per
...
cent. The corresponding earthwork volumes are recorded in m
3
, the cut and fill
volumes being prefixed respectively with the plus and minus signs.
(i) Plot the longitudinal section using a horizontal scale of 1 ern =24 m and
a vertical scale of 1 ern: =10m.
(ii) Assuming a balancing factor of 0.8 applicable to fill volumes, plot the
mass haul curve on a horizontal scale of I em =10 m and a vertical scale of
1 cm = 1000 m).
(iii) Calculate the total haul in station meter and indicate the haul limits on
the curve and longitudinal section. '
(iv) State whieh of the following estimates you would recommend: (a) No
free haul at Rs. 20.00 per m
3
for excavating, hauling and filling. (b) Free haul
limit of 100m at Rs. 15.00 per m
3
plus Rs. 2.00 per station meter for "overhaul"
or haul distance exceeding 100m.
One station meter =1 cubic meter hauled through one station, i.e. 30 m.
Station Surface Volume Station Surface Volume
level (m) (m
3
) level (m) m
3
20 17.6
~
_J 15.7 )
.+ 1400 - 100.00
21 19.1 24 14.9
22 17.8
+'1160
25 13.2
- 820.00
-
+ 416 - 1540.00
L.
..
,
O O ' 0 t 9 i : 9 = 9 L I t x = E W r a d s ' } ! @ J O ( n )
s ' } ! = 9 L I t x 0 ( : ; , [ n a q [ 1 : 1 0 1 E W 0 0 ' 0 ( ; s ' } ! l V
. .

E
W
9 L I t = O O t t + 9 L 6 i : =
a q O J J O [ 1 : 1 0 l ( ! )
. '
S J l l J l U / l S 3 I S O : )
. . . . .
. . .
E I l ! . \ J . U I I S J O S / f ] J U i J I l l V P I l I l . : ! t t t
Areas and- \'o{llTr,es
. ....
Costcfoverhaul __
hiAB. ofeanhwork..U- =2.25_x 1000 =2250m
i
: . -
," .... "
Distanceofmo\'cmcnr,KN- =6A x 2';
- =153.60
=- 125? =11520.
.InBC Volume ofc.:llthwor"-. 0.55, x 1000=550m)
Dlstancecfrnoverncnt. SV =5.35:-: ::: USA m
. .
.S' ,550x )2SA ')3'
laltonmeter=,. '=_)4
30.-.-
Totalstationmeter=11520+ =
Cost @ Rs. 2.00perstationmeter =Rs.
. . .. .", .
Total cost,=62640"t 90388;00,
1st scheme is'pre:fer::;.ble.
. ...

l. M.;"Estimating Pit Excavaricn Volume Using Non Linear Ground
Profile", ASCE .lournul of Surw.\,;llg Ellgineering. Vol. 114,No.2. May 19S8.
pp.71-83. . _ . , .
2. Easa,SaidM.."GeneralDirect_Method of Land Sub-divlsion", ASCE,Joumal of .
Sltr.'t!)'jng Engineering, Vol ns.No...t. No\'ember.1989.pp.402-411:
3. Easa. Said M.. "Improved Methodof Loc:iting Centroid of Earthwork", ASCE
Journal of Sun'e)'ing Engineering. Vol. 114. No.1. February 1985, pp.13-25.
4. Easa,Said Frustum Formula forComputing Volumes atRoadway
TransitionAreas", ASCEJournal of SI/n'e)'ing Engineering, Vol. 117, No.2.
1991. pp. 98-101. '
PROBLDlS'
14.1 Aplotof landABCDA hasfoursides.ThesidesAB and BCarestraight
, .
.andthesidesCD andD.4. are irregular. The plotwas surveyedby chainand
tapebythemethod ofchainsurveying. fixing fourstationsatA,B, C,and
D andW:lS moved andmeasured inthe clockwise direction. Thestraight
t
distances, measured from onestation tothe otherareas follows:
AB =150 m.BC =165 m,CD = 155 m,D.4. =162 mandAC =230m
The offsets measured from chain lines CD and DA to the[rregular
boundaries areas follows:
fW
1 .:146 FUl1damentals of Surveying
DistancefromC(m)
o
30
60
90
120
155
DistancefromD (m)
b
30
60
90 ..
120
162

..
f::::-

-t

Offsets (m)
o .
.
1.50left
2.00left
2.25 left ..
1.75 left
0.00left
Offsets (m)
0
1.62right
2.45.right
2.30right
.1,;22 right.
0.00right
Calculate theareaoftheplotABCDA. [AMIE Sec, B.Civil Winter 1979].
14.2 Anabstractfromatraversesheetforaclosed traverse isgivenbelow:
.Line Length Latitude
AB 200m - 173.20
BC 130m 0.00
CD 100m +86.00
DE 250m +250.00
EA 320m - ]54.90
(a) Balancethetraverse byBowditch's method
Departure
+100.00
f
+130.00
+50.00
0.00
- 280.00
(b) Given the coordinates of A200N. 00 E determine the coordinates of
otherpoints
(c) Calculatetheenclosed areainhectares bycoordinates method.
[AMIE Sec.BCivil Winter1980)
14.3 Inorderto layout apondinapublic parktwoperpendiculars AD andBC
of40mand80mlength respectively wereerectedateitherendofaline
AB oflength240m. Ifthepondistohavestraightsides lyingalongAB
andDC. theendsbeingformed ofcirculararcstowhich AB. DC andthe
endperpendiculars aretangential, calculate: (i) theradii ofthetwoarcs,
(ii) theperimeterofthepond. [A!'.lIE Sec.BCivilSummer198]]
14.4 Theformation widthofacertainroad embankmentwas20m.Bankslopes
are 2 horizontal to 1 vertical. Fonnationlevelat thestarting point was
161.00.The groundlevelsalongthecentrelinewereasfollows:
Distance (m) . 0 ]00" 200 300 400
,.
Ground level ]55.0 ]54.0 154.0 152.5 152.5
Assuming theground to belevel transversely, calculate the volume of
earthworkineubicmeterby(a)Prismoidalformula (b)Trapezoidalformula,
rAMIE Sec.BCivilSummer1981]
J
I
j
I
Areas and Yolumes 4.. n
1.
r '
14.5 (a) Explain.the termslift and lead inearthwork,
,
(b) Writeexplanatory note on prisrnoidal correction in computation of
.,;
i earthworkquantities,
;
(c) Following data refer to a site of :1 rcservoir,
I
I
'. Contour(m) Areaenclosed(hectare)
610 12
615 110
! ' 610.:
410
j'
6' - 890
630 1158
,
I
-:>
The areasgivenaretheoneswhichwill becontainedbytheproposed dam
and contourlines asgiven above. Calculate thevolume of waterin the
reservoir. [AMIE Winter1982J
14.6 (a) Thefollowing perpendicularoffsetsweretakenfromachainlinetoa
barbedwire fence -
j
chainage(m) 0 20 40 60 80 95 110 140 170
(
offsets (m) ,6.7' 5.8 10.3 12.8' 9.7 8.8 6.9 8.2, 6.5
I .
I'..
Calculatetheareabetweenthechainline, thebarbedfence,and endoffsets
by (i) trapezoidal rule,(ii) Simpson's rule.
(b) A roadembankment 500 mlong is 15 mwide at' formation level and
has side slopes2:1. Thegroundlevels at every 100 malongthe centre
line are asfollows:
Distance(m) o 100 200 300
400,
500
R.Ls(m)' 105.2 '. ,106.2 107.6 107.2 ' 108.3 108.8
I
I The formation levelatzerochainageid07.0mandtheembankment has
arisinggradientof 1:100whilethegroundislevelacrossthecentreline.
Calculatethevolume of earthworkby theprismoidal rule.
rAMIE Summer 1986]
, 14.7 The following levelreadings weretakenonthe centreline of a highway
alignment. The designed crest level andthecrestwidthofthe proposed
embankmentat reduced distance (R.D.) 1500m is 61.80m and 10 rn.
respectively witha fallinggradientof 1in 100andsideslopes1:1.
R.D. B.S. 1.S. F.S. R.L. Remarks B.M.
1.425 60.00
1500 1.400
1530 1.425
.
1560' 2.000 1.9:25
1590 2.200
1620 2.550 2.700
1650
3.050
1680 2.750
Assumingthegroundtobe level acrossthe alignment,calculatetheeanhwoik
-,
infillingfromR.D. 1530mto R.D. 1650m. [ ~ n Winter1985]
14.8 Thefollowing notesrefertothreelevelcrosssectionattwostations50m
apart
Station Cross section
1.9 3.0 4.8
TI 0- 10.8
3.1 3.9 7.1
2
"9.T 0- 13.1
Thewidth ofcuttingattheformation level,is ii m.,Calculate"thevolume
, ofcuttingbetweenthetwostationsusing trapezoidalformula.' :
, [\lIESummer 1987]
14.9 (a) Derive an expressionforthe area of a three level 'section with the help
ofaneatsketch. '
" .
(b) A railway embankment 600 m long has a formation levelwidthof
11.5 mwithsideslope2to1.Ifthegroundlevelandformation levels
areasfollows, calculatethevolumeofearthwork.Thegroundislevel
across thecentreline:
..
Distance (m) o 100 200 300 400 500 ,600
Ground level(m) 105.2' 106.8 107 103.4 105.6 104.7 105
Formation level(m) 107.5 108.6 108.5 104.5' 106.9 105.6 106
[AMIE Summer1988]
14.10 A railway embankment, 500 m long,has a width at formation level of
9mwithsideslopes2to 1.Thegroundlevelsatevery100malongthe
centre lineare: ' '
.Distance (m) o 100 200 ,300 400 500
Ground level(m) 107.8 106.3 110.5 111.0 110.7 112.2
Theembankment has a risinggradient of 102mper 100mandtheformation
level is110.5 at zerochainage. Assuming the ground to be level across the
centre line,computethevolume ofearthwork. [ ~ l l Summer1989]
14.11 In aproposed hydroelectric projecta storage reservoirwas required to
provide a storage of 4.50 million cubic meters between lowestdrawdown
, (L.D.D) andtopwaterlevel(T.W.L). Theareascontainedwithin thestated
contours and upstream faceof thedam were asfollows:
Contour (m) 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65
Area(hectares) 30 25 23 17 15 13 7 02
,
IfL.D.D. wastobe 68" calculate T.W.L. for 'fullstorage capacity. (Note:
Calculate volumesusing endarearnethod.) '. [AMIE Summer1990]
,14.12 (a) Whymustcut andfill volumes be totalled separately?
(b) Discuss comparative sideslopesin cut andfill.
(c) Why a.roadway in cut isnormally wider than the sameroadway in fill?
L
..... -."
.
'. ,
, ,
(d) Listtheinformation whichcanbeextracted from a massdiagram.
(e) State, two' situationswhereprismoidal corrections mustbeapplied.
llo13 Describe'whh.neat 'sketches an "e'urthwork'mass curve",'stating the
relationshlpftbearstothecorrespondinglongitudinalsection.Showconclsely
howthe"haul" maybeascertained from the curve,alsothe"overhaul" for
an assumed freehaullimit. ' , [U.L.]
14.l4 Withreference tocivilengineering practice explainwhatismeant bythe
following: '
(a) Trapezoidal andprismoidal rules.
(b) Prismoidal correction. ,
(c) Haul,freehaulandoverhaul.
(d) l\.fass diagram.
14.15 Acuttingistobethrough groundwhere thecrossslopevanesconsiderably.
AlA thedepth ofcutwas3 m atthe centre lineandthecrossslope was
10to 1.AtBthecorrespondingfigures were 5 mand 12to1andatC 4
mand8to1.AB andBe areeach30m.Theformation widthis10mand
thesideslopes1
1
/
2
to 1. Calculate thevolume of excavationbetween A
...
and C. [I.C.E] ,
14.16 Aroadembankment35mwideatformation levelwithsideslopesI:I' and'
,withan.average heightof 12misconstructed withanaverage gradient 1
...... ,in30from contour140mto580m.'Theground hasan average slope of
12to1indirectiontransverse tocentre line.Calculate (i) thelength ofthe
road,(ii) volume of.theembankment incrrr', [AMIEWinter 1993]
1tl7 (a), Define a prismoid. State andprove theprismoidal formula. Discuss
,theprismoidal correction. '
(b) Thewidthofformation levelofa certain cuttingis 10.0mandthe
,sideslopesare1:1. Thesurfaceoftheground hasauniformsideslope
of 1in 6.If thedepthsof cutting atthecentreline of three sections
50.0mapartare3.0 m,4.0mand5.0mrespectively determine the
volume ofearthwork involved inthislength ofcutting.Explain your
,answerwithneatsketches. [AMIEWinter
HI:'-i-rS TOSELECTED QUESTIONS
lt12 (a) Earthwork incuttingandfilling ofwork and
hencepaymentat different rates. Moreover, if there is insufficient
material from cutsto make therequired fills,thedifference must be
Q
borrowed. .
(b) Sideslopesinfillusually areflatter than thoseincutsbecause infill
. (
soilisinartificial statewhereas incutssoil remains innatural state.
,.
(c) Roadwaycutisnormallywiderthan tillstoprovide fordrainage ditches.
,
(e) (i) Whenthemiddle areaisnottheaverage of theendareas.
.(ii) Centreheightis greatand width at onestation andthe
centreheightis smallbutwidth large at theadjacent station.
i
i, .
"1
_-----.J
I
.
._.
':,
15
Tacheometry
"
15.1 INTRODUGTION
Tacheometric surveying (also called stadia surveying) is a rapid and economical
surveying method by whichthe horizontal distances andthe differences in elevation
are determined indirectlyusing intercepts on a graduated scaleandanglesobserved
with a transit or the theodolite. The stadia method has many applications in
surveying practice including traverse and levelling for topographic surveys, The
value of stadia surveys can be appreciated in rugged terrain and in inaccessible
#'
areas where conventional methods are difficult and time consuming. The accuracy
attained is such that under favourable conditions the error will not exceed 1/1000.
.'
15.2 INSTRUMENTS
The following are the two.main instruments:
(a) Tacheometer, and .
(b) Stadia rod.
Tacheometer
It is a vernier theodolite filled with stadia diaphragm. It has three horizontal hairs,
one central and other t ~ equidistant from central hair at top and bottom. In
modern instruments these three lines are etched as also the vertical hair. Figure
15.1 shows different types of stadia hairs used.
A tacheorneter differs from an ordinary theodolite in (i) High magnifying
power; (ii) Large aperture of the obJective-35.45 mm diameter.
-,
Stadia rod
For short distances an ordinary levelling staff with 5 mm graduation can be used.
For long distances, a special large staff called a stadia rod is used. It is usually
3 to 5 m long and in one piece. The width is between 50 to 150 mm. The
~
graduations are very prominent so that they can be read fromlong distances. The
graduations are generally in rn, dm and em. Figure 15.2 gives a typical graduated
..
stadia rod (part view).' .
450
Tacheometry 451
'.
L1h
{ i I "
. I i .I
u
II
(a) (b) (c)
II
Ii
(e)
Fig. 15.1 hairs.
(d)
. -"
0
0.990
0
..
,
0.950
Red
0.900
0
0
0.850
Black
0.800
-
I
Fig.. 15.2 .. Stadia rod,
15.3 DIFFERE:\T TYPES OF MEAS.UREMENTS
There are basically three types of tacheornetrlc measurements.
-.'
1. Stadia system which again can be divided into-(i) Fixed hair method,
'I
and (ii) Movable hair method.
..
2. Tangential system.
3. Subtense bar system.
In the fixed hair method, as the name suggests, the hairs are flxed in position. l.e.
the distance between them remains constant, The staff intercepts. i.e. the readings
452 Fundamentals of Sun-eying ..
. .
at which thehairs intersectthestaffvaries asthedistance ofthestafffrom the
instrument stationvaries.This isshown inFig.15.3.
upperstadia
reading
Central
stadia
reading
Lower
Centralcross
stadia
hair
reading
Constant I
Staff.
vertical
Inthemovablehair method.asthe'name suggests. thestadiahairs;i.e.the'
top and bottom hairs are movable and this is done by means of micrometer
screws. The staff intercept S. however. iskeptfixedat'a constantspacingof
usually 3 m.Whiletakingreadingsatdifferent distances micrometer screwsare
adjusted suchthat the top andbottomhairsintersectthefixedtargets.As it is
difficult tomeasurethestadiainterval accurately andadjustthestadiahairevery
timeanobservation istobetaken,thismethod israrelyused.Ontheotherhand,
thefixed hairmethodis frequently used.
Inthetangentialsystems.thestadiahairsare notessential. However,two
readings aretobetakenatthetwotargets atafixed distance 'S' apartinthe staff.
Thisisshown inFig. 15.4. Thisrequires twosettingsoftheinstrument at8
1
and
', (J2 andonlyonehair-top, central or bottom shouldbeused fortheintersection.
Bottom Cross hair' Staff vertical
Fig.15.3 Fixed hair method.
S

Bottom target
. 8 .
2 .
-----=-.- - -'- 9,.1 - - - - - - - -. - - - - - --r-
D ."":1
Fig. 15.4 Tangential system.
Inthesubtensebarsystemaspecialstaffwithtwotargets attwoendsata
..
fixed distance apartknown as subtensebarisplacedhorizontally andthe angle
between the targets from theInstrument station is measured. This is shown in
Fig.15.5 whereplan.... iew of the subtensebar is shown.
15.4 PRINCIPLES OFSTADIA METHOD
Figure15.6shows how the rays fromthe stadiahairsin anexternalfocussing
. Tacheometry 453
Instrument
. station'
Target
T
S = fixed :

Target
Fig. 15.5 Subtensebar,
A.-
I
u
o
Fig. 15.6 Principle of St:ldi:l. method.
telescope intersects the staffheld atadistance D from theaxisoftheinstrument.
From theprinciple ofoptics AB willbethestiffinterceptScorresponding to the
stadia interval'i', From similartriangles aob and AoB
oc ab
-=-=-
oC AS S
u
or -=- (15.1)
It S
where II = distance ofthestafffromtheobjective
u = distance ofthestadia hairsfromthe objective
AsII andu arethe conjugate focal distances theyare related bythelens formula.
.1=1+1
I II U
whereI is thefocal length oftheobjective. or'
. III
1t=1+-
u
/I S
But -=-
I: i
Therefore
Rearranging terms. we canwrite
, .....,;;. .....
-
-(f) S +f
It - i
05.2)
From the Fig. 15.6, the distance of the staff from the axis of the instrument
D=Il+d
05.3)
=(?) S +if +d)
This is usually written as ' .'
.
D =KS +C
where K =~ =multiplying factor
I
C =f +d ::: additive constant (15.4)
hi an external focussing instrument when focussing is done by moving the objective
lens d slightly changes with focussing and it usually lies between 0.3 to 0.6 m.
To avoid the additive constant Poro in 1840 devised the external focussing
anallactic telescope. Here an additional convex lens, called an anallactic lens is
placed between the diaphragm and the objective at a fixed distance from the latter.
As a result the triangle AoB converges at the point 0' from which D is measured.
Figure 15.7 shows the optical diagram of an external focussing anallactic
telescope. The rays coming from A and B (corresponding to stadia hair a and b)
along Ao' and Bo' are refracted by the object glass and meet at F'. The anallactic
lens is placed at a distance rfrom the point F' wherer is the focallengthof the'
anallactic lens. Henc;e the rays passing' throughF' will become parallel after being
refracted by the' anallactic lens. Thus ab is the inverted image of the length AB
of the staff. Without the intervening anallactic lens. the image would have been
virtual and at b2a2 which is at a distance f2 from the object glass.
J
D=~
Anallactic lens.
f1
A
T
C
S
From the conjugate relationships of principle of optics,
I 1 1
---+- 05.5)
i" fl h.

'"
.. Tacheometry 455
As the length ab and alb2 are proportional to their distance from the objective 0
SJ;
7=7;
(15.6)
For the anallactic lens, is the object and ab is the image and 'applying the
conjugate relationship:
L= _ 1
(15.7)
f' . (j - n) . (m - 1/)
The minus sign before - n) has been used as bothab and a2
b2
are on the same
side of the' anallactic lens. .
Since the length (l:bi are proportional to their distances from the
centreIV of the anallactic lens, we get, .
I '.
, i' _ h - n
(15.8)
Multiplying Eq. (15.6) and Eq. (15.8), we get
f
...
-
From Eq. (15.5)
or
Similarly from Eq. (15.6)
or
i
,
.
?
Hence

;h.m-n
. 11
h =/1// - 1
=1.-1
I
h= III
/1-1
h-n [i r n
--=--1
f' . m-n
h-n. . h-n .
m-n=-r+
1
_h-n+f'
- f'
.._Ji-Ih-n+f
i- I r
=II - I
-
. \, II - I
n+I'}
I r

456 Fundamentals 01 Surveying
I II +(/1 - f> (f' - II)
= If'
II(/+f' - II) 1(11 - /.')
= If' + If'
or
!J =-? _It + I(n-f')
I
D=(!I+d)
= If' .. _ 1(/1 - f') +d
(/+f' - II) i 1+ f' - /I ..
=KS + C .(15.9)
. . If' '. . .. 1(1\ -f')
. where
.K= (j!' randC=d-'I f' '
+ -/II . +-1\
In orderthatD =KS additiveconstantCshouldbe zero,
len - f') =d
or
I+f'-n
or
fn - If=[d +I'd - nd
or n(f +d) =!(d +f) +df
. dl
or (15.10)
n=f+ I+d
Insuchacasetheapexofthevertical triangleAF'B willbecome A'o'B. K willbe
equal to 100whenthe multiplier
'. If' =100
(f +f' - n)i
land/I beingalreadyfixed!andi can besuitablyadjusted to makethe multiplying
constant 100.
15.5 FOCUSSl;";G TELESCOPE
In an internal focussingtelescope,thereis aconcavelensbetween the eyepiece
and theobjective.The purposeoftheconcavelensistofocus thetelescope.that'
is. to bringthe image of the objectinthe planeof thecrosshairs, The equation
..
can'bederivedas follows..
The focal length of the objectlens isf The focal length of the internal
,.
focussinglensisIt- If.therewasnointernal focussing lens,theimageofthepoint
P will beatP' (Fig. 15.8). .
The lens formula is
1+.1-=1. (15.11)
lip' . I
P
\
Tacheometry 457
Diaphragm carrying
cross hairs ,Concave lens
Objective

staff

__ - -';' , -.J
P" , -
u
I t= I jl+--'.-
Fig. 15;8 Internal focussing telescope.
or
v,=L
(15.12)
u -I
Then treating P' as an object before thefocussing lens giving an image at 1'"
gives.
",
1 . 1 1
(15.13)
v -.I - v' -.I =I,
...
(Negative sign is used as both the object and the image are on the same side).
or
11 =(u - 1) (u' - 1)
(15.14)
Cross multiplying,
Il(v - u
')
= (u' -1) (u' - I)
Substituting,
11 -
fi t ) (fit
- 1
)
(u-l) U ,- = -
,
(
u-I ' II-I, ,
"1 ' '.
or
(II -I) 1- - (U(II - /) + IIfJ 1- VIlJi
+VIII +tiff1 + vffl= 0 (15.15)
This is a quadratic equation in 1 and can be solved to give 1 in terms of f, 110 v
and II. Heref, 11 and v are constants,"only u is a variable on which 1 depends.
When the'fonnula of the type D = KS + C is applied to observations through
internal focussing instruments, it is found that the value of K changes slightly

when focussing the Internal lens.This change is almost compensated for throughout
the range of focus by a corresponding change in the value of C. This fact allows
the consrant C to be neglected, i.e, C =O. The value of the stadia interval factor
:.
is then assumed to be constant throughout the focussing range.
'.
15.6 OF
are two ccnstann in an external focussing tacheorneter: (i) Multiplying
K; (ii) A\!ditive constant C.

,./:' .

The additive constant C =f + d.
By focussing a distant object say 300 to 400 m away and measuring the
distance between the objective and the crosshairs, the focal length of the objective
can be determined. The telescope is thenfocussed at an object between 100 to 150
..
m, The distance between the objective lens and the centre of the instrument is
then measured. This is the distance d and the constant C can then be obtained.
The multiplying constantj7i is obtained by taking a number of readings on
a fairly level straight line 100 m to 200 m. length at an interval of 15 m. For
internal focussing instrument the distances are measured from a point which is
directly under the instrument. For external focussing instrument the distances are
measured froma point which is if + d) em in front of the axis of the instrument.
Then distances D
1
, D
2
.D
3
:.'and correspondingstaff intercepts SI' S1' S3' ... are
noted. Then D =KS gives the formula D\ =K\S\, D
z
=KzS
z,
... and so on.
The mean values of K\, K
2
and K
3
gives the multiplying constant K.
. Alternately, the formula D =KS + C can be applied to a number of pairs
of distances D\ and D
2
and getting' corresponding stadia intercepts C
J
and C
2

Solving a number of such simultaneous equations and taking their mean values
will give the value of K.
15.7 DISTANCE AND ELEVATION FOR.T\1ULAE
,,'
In tacheornetry the most general approach will be to derive expressions when the
telescope is inclined to the horizontal. and the stadia rod inclined to the vertical
at an arbitrary angle. However, usually the stadia rod is kept either vertical or
normal to the line of sight. Hence formulae are derived for the above cases only.
Inclined sight and staff. vertical
(e, an angle of elevation} .
The three points on the staff which are cut by the three stadia hairs are A, C and
B. C being the point of intersection of the central hair. Here AB is the staff
intercept. Draw A' 8' perpendicular to IC. the axis of the telescope which makes
an angle e with the horizontal (Fig.. 15.9).
D
v
. -
E
p
Fig. 15.9 Inclined sight (elevation).
.

Tacheometry .459
As A'CA =8,A;B' =AB cos 8withthe of LCA'A and
LCB'B beingconsideredrightangles.ActuallyCA'A is &2 andCB' B is
- 812. . . '.,.... ..
4'
ButAB is the.staff interceptSand
Hence .'
Horizontal distance
Similarly
A'8'=S'. 'hence 5'=5 cose .
D =KS'. +C
..;,
= KS cos e+ C
. (15.16)
H =D cos 8=K5 cos
1
8+Ccos8
V =IC sin e
(15.17)
= (K5 cose +C) sin 8
= KS cos 8sin 8+Csin 8
= tKS sin28 +C sin ()
(15.18)
...
As theadditiveconstantiszeroforanexternal focussing telescope fittedwithan
anallactic lens andit is verysmallforaninternal focussing telescope.the terms
containing C can be neglectedand wecan write
H =K5 cos
1
8 (15.19)
v = tK5 sin28
(15.20)
TheR.L. or'P isknown. HenceR.L. ofQ canbeobtained as
R.L. ofQ=R.L. ofP +II + V - CQ
where CQis thecentral hairreading.
When the angle 8is an angle of depression (Fig: !5.1'O) .
, H . 'I
I

B '. .' '. I.
AI A' V
c-L
o
A'B' =S'
AS =S
Fig. 15.10 Inclinedsight (depressicn).
L_
As before
D = 1\5' + C
=KS cos 8 + C
H =D cos 8 =K5 cos:! 8 + C cos 8
V = D sin 8 = KS sin 8 cos 8 + C Sill 8
R.L of Q = R.L. of P + " - V- CQ
where CQ is the central hair.reading.
Inclined sight with staff normal to the line of sight (8 an angle of
elevation)" Fig. 15.11.
In this method, the staff is held normal to the lineof sight, that is, ICis perpendicular
to AB=S .. , .'
P
Fig. 15.11 Sight normal (when' eis angle' of elevaticn).
Ir
Hence
D =KS + C
If the distance of the middle hair reading from Q. i.e. CQis taken as r, then
RQ = CQ sin 8 =r sin 8
and CR =CQ cos 8 =r cos (J
Hence horizontal distance between P and Q
IQ' = IC' + C'Q'
=,D cos 8'+ r sin 8
. =. (KS + C)cos 8 + rsin 8

R.L. of Q =R.L. of P + (I + V - CR

=R.L. of P + IJ .j. D sin 8 - r cos 8

Tacheometry 461
'When the line of sight is deprnud do...n...arrJ (Fig. 15.11)
r-;
Fig.15.12 Sight .normal (When 8 is angle of depression),
As before
IC = D =KS + C
...
IC' =IC cos e= (KS + C). cos e
If the distance of the middle hair CQ =r
CE =Q'C' =. CQ sin e= r sin e
QE = CQ cos e=r cos e
Hence-horizontal distance between P and Q
IQ' =IC' - Q'C'
=IC cos e-r sin e
=D cos e- r sin e
=(KS + C) cos e- r sin e
R.L. of Q= R.L. of P + Iz- CC' - EQ
,=R.L. of P + 11 - D sin e- r cos e
, 15.8 MOVABLE HAIR
As already explained in fixed hair method. the stadia interval is fixed while the
staff intercept changes with distance of the staff from the instrument station.This
is shown in Fig. 15.13.
In the movable hair method. stadia interval varies with the movement of the
hairs and as such the tacheornetric angle /3 is not constant but changes to /31'

and /3j. Corresponding to stadia intercepts i
l
. l: and i
J
However. thestaff intercept
j
,
S is kept fixed by having targets at 0. fixed interval say 3 m apart. This is shown
in Fig. 15.14.
'":r

i
. ::i:'._.
.J
I
I
T
_2- __
S
S3
______ ll,
~ ~ I . L
-n77'T
Fig. 15.13 Fixed hair method.
... . T
... JJ- Jl
D, ~
. ~
I. D
2
D
3
Fig. 15.14 Movable hair method.
Figure 15.15 shows the optical diagram ofa subtense theodolite with movable
hairs.
B'
C'
,/"
___ - -I A'
I "
0,
o ~
~
staff
Fig. 15.15 Subiense rheodollre,
As before. the formulae which C:1O be derived from the above figure are
D = (PilS + if + d)
,.
and
D
1
=(jlil)S + (/+ d)
Hence the general formula for movable hair method is the same'as the fixed hair
,.

method. But; is now a variable and is measured by :l micrometer, If p =pitch of
the screw on the micrometer andr =number of rums and part of a tum (measured
on the' micrometer drum) to bring hairs to the targets. then.
i =px
__
Tacheometry 463
and therefore "D = IS + (j+lf)
ps

KS
=-+C
(15.21)
.r
where K =jlp
15.9 TA:"GE:"TIAL SYSTEM OFMEASURBIE('I,'T
In thismethodtworeadingsare takenwiththecentral hairat twotargetsspaced
at a knownfixeddistanceapartsoy2 mor 3 m.figures15.16 (i) to 15.16(iii)
showhowtheobservationsaremadewhen:(i) bothanglesareanglesofelevation,
(ii) bothangles are anglesof depression.and(iii)oneangle, angle of elevation
and theother angleof depression.
1..
S
TT
....
__ '! V
o .. I
___1_[ ...L.
h:.:..L _
T
---I Horizontal
0-1-'-
p
f. H
(i) ,
Horizontalj .
6 . . /
-j'-r
2
l' .... 6 ..'.
P .' ." .L '.
D 01'
(ii) 'I'
Horizontal '\
,
..
!
____l
p
T
ST
t i V
r
1
--"'-------;.: 0
D
(iii)
Fig.15.16 Tangential system ofmeasurement.
Case i When both angles are angles of elevation.
From Fig. 15.l6(i) v = H tan 8 ~
'.
V + S = H tan 8
1
or S = H(tan 8
1
- tan ~
"
or
H = S
(15.22)
tan e
l
- tan e
2
V = H tan (), = 8 S 8 tan e
2
- ta!l I'" tan:J .
Scos 8
1
cos 8
2
sin 8
2
= sine, cos 8
2
- cos 8
1
sin 8
2
cos 8
2
. _ S cos e1sin 8 ~
(15.23)
- sin (8
1
- 8
2
)
R.L. of Q =, R.L.. of P + h + V - r
Similar equations can be derived for case (ii) and case (iii).
15.10 SUBTEr\SE BAR
, .
,.
It is a bar of accurate length mounted horizontally over a tripod with a levelling
head. The outer steel casing is hinged at the middle .and contains invar wires
anchored there and tensioned by springs at the target ends. The target holders
themselves are of brass. Invar is used so that error in length due to variation of
temperature is minimum. Fig. 15.17 shows the plan view of the subtense
measurement.
o E""'""=t
8
Fig. 15.17 Subtense bar (Plan view),
The theodolite is locatednt '0. The two targets
midpoint of the targets is ,3t C. From Fig. 15.17
are at A and B and the
, ,
f3/
"
tom - =
AC
OC
or
. I I' h)'
OC,(the perpendieu ar engt =
AC
tan 2
;
512 .' 5'
='WI {J/2 =2 tan {JJ2 '
i
I
I
I
Tacheometry 465
If13 issmalltan{312'= /3!2 where 13 is in radian.
"- 1 f3
=2" 206265
..
iff3 is inseconds.
As 1radian =206265 seconds;
D=S x206265
(15.24)
13
where f3 is insecond
UnitofD willbeunitofS.Sis usually 2 m.Atable issupplied withthe
subtense barwhich givesdistances irimeterscorresponding to'values of13. The
instrument forsubtense measurement shouldbeaccurate to1"of angle or Jess.
Thisaccuracy can be obtained by measuringtheangle with a.1" theodolite in
several positions ofthecircle.Thereis no need toreverse thetelescope inthese
measurements because bothtargets areatthesamevertical angle andattheslime
distance fromthetheodolite.Also theangleisobtainedbythe difference between
the twodirections to the targets. Thus an instrumental errorfor one pointing
equalsthatfortheotherpointing. These errorsareeliminated bythesubtraction
...
ofonedirectionfrom theother.' " .
15.11 CO:-'lPUTATIOl\S WiTH INTERCEPTS
.

Forlongsightsandlargevertical angles,thestadiaintercept may exceed therod
length. Thereforereading boththeloweranduppercrosshairs isnotpossible. In
practice this problem is overcome by observing thehalf-intercept between the.
centreandlower(orupperj-crosshairs anddoubling theobserved value foruse
withthestandardstadiaformulas. Doubling, thehalf-intercept orquadrupling the
quarterinterceptprovides theprecise fullintercept-only forhorizontal'sights. For
inclinedsights,thecomputedvalue wouldbedifferentfrom the actual full intercept
because thehalforquarterintercepts arenotequal.Theresulting discrepancies in
thecomputed horizontal distance anddifference inelevation may besubstantial.
To eliminate these discrepancies, it is necessaryto determine the precise full.
intercept thatcorresponds totheobservedhalforquarter intercept.
Whenit isnecessarytoobserve the half(orquarter)intercept, thecorresponding
stadia interceptS is notgenerally equal"to twice (orfour times) theobserved
value.
Establishing Sfor half-intercepts
ThestadiainterceptSisthesumofthelowerhalfintercept I andtheupper half
intercept II. Thus
S=I+1I
I andII areequalonlywhen a =O. Forpositive a, r isalways smaller thanIt and
viceversafornegative a. On theother hand halfinterceptsofS' arealways equal.
Fromthetriangle PEO, EO =1/cosa, EP =II sina and from triangle PEP'
L
v
---,---L'
Fig. 15.18 Computations with incomplete intercept.
EP'=EPtan e=usinalan e
OP'=S/2 =OE - EP'=ucos a - usina tan e
e:
where eishalftheanglebetween theupperandlowercrosshairs.
Rearranging,
.
S'
,
u= - (15.25)

2(cos a - sin a tan 9)
Similarly. fromthetriangles QQ'O andQQ'F. thefollowing relationship can be
obtained . .
S'
,1= - - (15.26)
2(cosa + sina tane)
Substituting u andI in theequation
S=u+[
S' = S(cos a - tan asin a tan: (J) (15.27)
5'
As '
.tan e=2H'
. S' I
r ' .
tan e= 2(KS' '4o C) == 'lK
.sinceCisvel)' smallcompared toKS' . .
The second termin parentheses on the right handside ofEq. (15.27) is quite
.
I
negligible comparedto cos a (For a =SOD. K =160. thesecondtermequals
2 x 10-
5
) . Eq.(15.27)thenreduces to
. S'= Scos'eX
..

v, '
Tacheometry 467
. I
Substituting forS' andtan e
Scan be expressed in termsofII and 1..
'.
,
S =2u(1 _ta;:) (for'thebaliintercept II) (15.28)
=2{1 + ra;:)(fOrthehalfintercept f) (15.29)
Asexpected. thetwohalfinterceptsareequalfora =O. Fora> 0.1< u andfor
a< 0, l u. .
Forthelowerhalfintercepts, thestadiaformulae changes to
- '. (. IanCt) .~ .'
H =2Kl 1+ ---vr cos- a+ Ccosa (15.30)
v (15.31) =Kl (1+ ta
2n:)
sin2a + Csin a
Example 15.1 Atheodolite is fitted withanordinary telescope in whichthe
eyepiece endmoves infocussing, the general description beingasfollows:
Focallength ofobjectivef =22.5 ern
~
Fixeddistance c betweenobjectiveandvertical axis=11.25 ern
Diaphragm linesareonglassincell whichmaybewithdrawn. '
..! It is desired toconvert the instrument intoananallactic lens tacheorneter by
inserting anadditional positivelensintubeand ruling anew diaphragm soasto
givea multiplier of 100forinterceptsona vertical staffandinthisconnection
itisfound that18.75 ern willbeaconvenientvalue forthefixeddistance between
theobjective andtheanallactic lens.Determine (a)asuitable value forthefocal
lengthj" oftheanallatic lens(b)theexactspacing ofthelines onthediaphragm.
. .
Solution Bysimple conjugate relations
. f(d:- f')
c= ,
(i)
... (fff-d)
andbythe.generaltheorem
. ff'
100= i(f+ f'- d)
or
d= (f+f')- ~ i
~
- =22.5 (18.75 - /')
By (i) 112
. ,) 3.75 +I'
a:
.
or
/' =11.25 em
i = f f' = 225 x11.25
l00(f+ f'- d) 100(215+ 1115 - 18.75)
=0.16875 em
~ g Fundamentals of Surveying
Example 15.2 In a telescope the focal lengths of the objective and anallaciie
lens are 22.5 and 11.25 respectively and the constant distance between these is ::0
cm for a multiplier of 100. Determine the error that would occur in horizontal
distance D when reading intercepts S, also in m, with an error of 1/500 of :l em
in the 0.175 ern interval between the subtense Jines.
Solution We have
.J
,.
II'S
D = (I +1'- d)i
'Differentiating,
'&J
, f /,S t.i
=,- '(f +1'- d)j2 ,
225 x 11.25 S x 100 1
= - (225 + 1115 - 20) ..500, (0.175)2,
= - 120.22 S ern where S is in m
Example 15.3 An internal focussing telescope has a negative lens of IS ern focal
length, and the fixed distances from the objective to the diaphragm and vertical
axis are 22.5' ern and 10 ern respectively, the focal length of the objective being
20 ern. A subtense interval is to be scribed on the diaphragm so as to give an
anallactic multiplier of 100 for a horizontal sight on astaff held vertically 100 m
horizontally from the axis of the theodolite. Determine the exact spacing of the
subtense Jines.
"t'
Solution
II = 10000.,.. 10 = 9990 ern
h
'ffJ
= h _I
20 x 9990 '
= 9990 _ 20 = 20.04 em
f
=/d +If' - d
2
1 /-d+1'
=2004
.
or
225d +225 x 15 - d
1
225 - d + 15
='004
- .
or d
1
- 42.54d+ 414 = 0
or d =15.07 ern or 27.48 ern
Admissible d =15.07 cm
or
f
-1- L(/- d +/') s
J -j f'
9970 =2;0 e
25
... \ ~ 7 + 15) 100
, '
or i= 0.3 cm
I.bi 1J1KAJ,Lt J, 4 2iI $ a
&t2iZii a
2U I. iiJ.t&J czz 31. 6alLiiSJL r
Tacheametry 469
i
Example15.4 Thereadingsgiven belowweremadewith:I tacheornetrictheodolite
havinga multiplyingconstantof 100andno additiveconstant. Thereduced level
atstationAwas100.0mandtheheiehtoftheinstrument axis 1.35 mabovethe
ground.Calculatethegradient asthe distanceonemeterrise
or fallverticallybetweenthest3tion'sBand C(Fig. 15.19).
Station
To
A
" B
C
Wholecircle
bearingfromN
45'00'
13800'
Solution FromstationA toB
Vertical
angle
+ 1130'
.- 17:00'
Stadia
readings
2.Q..lSIJ.524/1.000
2.11211.356/0.600
J 1130'
B.
A
oJ
H =NScos
2
e
Here K =100, S =2.048- 1.000=1.048
e =1130'
H 100x 1.048x cos
2
1130'
=100.634m
V=tJ(S sin 28
R.L.ofstationB
!
FromstationAto C(Fig. 15.20)
H
1 . .
= 2' x 100 x 1.048 x sin 23
= 20.47m
= R.L.ofA+ 1.35 + 20.47- 1.524
= R.L.ofA+ 20.296 m
=KS cos
2
e
=100(2.112 - 0.600)x cos
2
17
= 138.28rn
c.
j'
;
l
Fig, 15.20 Example
.V =tKS sin29
=t x. 100x 1.512 x sin34
= 42.27m
R.L. ofstationC =R.L. ofA + 1.35 - 42.27- 1.356
= R.L. ofA - 42.276
1
Difference of level between BandC(Fig.15.21)
= 62.572 m
I
'.
BC =(l00.634
2
+
= 171.022
. . _ 62.572
slope BC.,... 171.Q22
=
A
B
C
Fig. 15.21 Example 15:4..

Tacheometry 471
Example 15.5 .Two sets of tacheornetric readings were taken from an instrument
station A the reduced level of. which was i5.05 m to a staff station B.
- .
(a) Instrument P-muitiplying constant 100, additive constant 360 mm, staff
held vertical.
(b) Instrument Q-muldplying constant 95, additive constant 380 mm. Staff
held normal to line of sight.
Instrument At To . Height of Vertical Stadia
.instrument
.: _ern)
angle readings
(m)
p
A B
. 1.38
+ 30 0.7L-1-/1.0071
1.300
Q
A B 1.36 + 30
What should be the stadia readings with instrument Q?
Solution
Instrument P
A
H =KS cos
2
e+ c cos 8
Here.K =100, S =(1.300 - 0.714) =0.586
8 =30
,. .' .
H ::: 100 X 0.586 x cos" 30 + 0.36 X cos 30 .
=44.26 m
V = ;s sin 28 + C sin 8
_ 100 x 0.586 . sin 60:1 + 0.36 x sin 30
- 2
::: 25.55 m
.: R.L. of B = 15.05 + 1.38 + 25.55 - 1.007
::: 40.973 'rn
---------- ....J
Instrument Q...
H =D cos e+rsin e
D =KS+ C
=95S+0.38
44.26 =(95S +0.38)cos30+ r sin 30
=(95S+0.3S)(0.866} + r (0.5)
=82.27S+0.33+0.5r
or 82.27S+0.5r =43.93
(l)
V=D sin8=(95S+0.38)0.5
=47.5S+ 0.19"
R.L. of B =R.L. of A + 1.36+(47.5 S+ 0.19)- 0.86 r
or 40.973 =15.05 + 1.36 + (47.5S + 0.19)-0.86 r
or 47.57S- 0.86r =24.37 (2)
Solvingsimultaneously (l)'and (2)
r =0.896
S =0.528
5/2 =0.264
Hencereadingsare: 0.632/0.896/1.l60
Example 15.6 You aregivenatheodolite fitted with stadiahairs. theobjectglass
of telescope being known tohavea. focal length of 230 mmand10beatadistance
of J38rnm fromthetrunnionaxis,You aretoldthatthemultiplylng constantfor
theinstrumentisbelivcd tobe 1SO. Thefollowing tachcometricreadingsarethen
taken from an instrumentstarionA, thereduced levelof which is J5.05 m.
Instrument Heightof To Vertical Stadia Remarks
at instrument angle readings
(m)
A 1.38 B +30 Staffheld
1.620 vertical
R.L. of B
=40.94m
..\ 1.38 c +45 St:lffheld
1.330 normal to
lineofsiaht
w
Whatistheerrorin thecalculatedreduced level ofCifthemultiplying constant
oftheinstrument istakenas ISO? Calculate thehorizontal distance ACusing the
,
correct multiplying coostarn.
I
,
Solution
v=;S sin 20 + Csin0
Here
S :: (1.620-1.225)
=0.395m
() =30)
C =230+ 138= 368 mm
=0.368m
Tacheometry 473
v = 0.395sin 60"+ 0.368 sin 30"
=0.171 K + 0 1 8 ~
R.L.of B =R.L.ofA+ h + V - centralhairreading
.- - . .=:15.05 + 1.38+.0.1710K + 0.184- 1.422
or 40.94 =15'.05 + 1.38-+ 0.1710K+0.184- L422
. .
or K - 25.748
-0.171
=15057
Error =KSsin8
= (180- 150.57)(1.330 - 1.032)sin45"
=29.43 x .298x
1
r;:;
v2
=6.202m
H =(KS + C) cos 8+ r sin8
.
=(150.57 x',298+ 0.368) cos45"+ 1.181 sin45",
:: 32.83m
. .
15.12 ..RELATIVE MERITS OF HOLDING THE STAFF
VERTICAL OR NORMAL
Vertical holding
Thisisusuallydonebyfitting asmallcircularspiritlevelorasingleleveltube
withitsaxisperpendicular tothefaceof thestaff.In somecasea plumbbobis
" attached to ensure that the staff is held vertical while holding. Effect of non
verticality ondistancecanbestudied. Let thevertical staffABCD tiltbackward
or forward throughasmallanglef3. Assuming thatLBXXr- LBYC. B1XA
1
and
B.YIYareall rightangles. thenfromFig. 15.23(i) with8anangleofelevation.
XY=AC cos8=Scos8
XIY
I
=AIC.cos (8+f3) =SIcos(8+f3)
fi'

-,'
i
II
D
Fig. 15.23(i) Staff deviated from vertical.
Assuming XY=X1Y
1
5 cos 9 = SICOS (9 + 13)
S = 51 cos (8 + 13)
or
cos 8
This gives thecorrected reading S with staff vertical compared with the actual
reading 5. taken on the inclined staff.
The error e in horizontal length
H
r
- H), = KS cos
2
9 - KS
I
cos
2
e
I'S cos (8 fJ> 1'(' 2 J . 2 l:l
= I cos o - 1\., cos
. cos 8
r;J
_ KS 29 [cos (8 13) 1]
- I cos cos 8 -
Expressed as a ratio.
H
r
-H), = cos(8/3)_1
H", cos 8 .
cos 8cos /3; sin 8 sin /3 - cos 9
=---..:...--c-o-s-:e:--'....:----
=cos 13 +tan esin 13 - 1
If fJ is small and is less than So
cos /3 == 1
sin fJ :: f3
H
r
-H",
HI. = 13 tan e
Tachcometry 475
It can be observed that error, is dependent on 0 andit increases very rapidly with
increase of 0 as tan 0 incre:lses, very rapidly with Increase of O.
Normal holding
Figure 15.23 (ii) shows what happens when the staff deviates from normal by a
small angle {3. Assuming .'
A.C. =AC = 5
AIC
I
= ~ C ~ cos /3
i.e. 5 =5. cos {3
KS
1
- KS 5
't ..
.Then the error ratio = " KS = I - 51 = 1 - cos{3
1
Staff normal
Staff deviated
from normal
. Fig. 15.23 (ii) ,Staff deviated from normal.
Thus the ratio is independent of the angle e
l'O\V H ~ D cos' 0 + r sin e
~ ~ = - D sin e+ r cos e.
or eH =(- D sin e + r cos e) cO
To keep the staff normal to the line of sight; a small collimator. provided
with a lens and a reflecting mirror is attached to the staff and the staff man looks
through the reflector inclining the staff at the same time till the light flash is
obtained which happens when the line of sight strikes the object glass of the
tacheorneter,
Example 15.7 In a tacheornetric survey. an interval of 0.825 m was recorded on
a staff which W:lS believed to be vertical and the vertical angle measured on the
theodolitewas 15.Actuallythestaffwhichwas4 mlongwas 150mmoutof
plumband leaningbackwardsaway fromthe instrumentposition.If the multiplying
constant of the instrument is 100what is the error in horizontal distance? In what
conditionswilltheeffectofnotholdingthestaffverticalbemostserious?What
alternativeprocedurecanbeadopted insuchcondition?
Solution
.f3 =tan-I. =2.1475
S =SIcos(8+/3) =0.825 cos(15 +21475)
cos 8 . ' cos 15
oH =KS cos2 8[cos (8+'/3) 1]
. I. ' cos 8 .
. ,'. -'
=100 cos
2
150 I-cos17.1475.,1]
, , L.cos15
, . "[09555 ] .
=100(0.825)(9.
933
) 0:9659 - 1 = - 0.831In
..
Theerrorwillbe veryseriouswhen theangle8,verticalanglemeasured onthe
theodoliteisverylarge.Insuchacasestaffshouldbeheldnormal tothelineof
sight.
15.13 IN PRACTICALAPPLICATION OF
TANGENTIAL METHOD .
Intangentialmethod8
1
, and'Sare to be measured. Therearetwo options:
(a)Constantbase,i.e,Siskeptfixedwhile8. and areobservedforeach
positionof the staff. .'
(b) Variable base i.e. S is variable for each staff stationbut 8
1
and 8
2
are pre-
selected. '
Itis alreadyderived
H- S
- tan 8. - tan 8
Itis possible to select 8
1
and 8
2
such that tan 8
1
and tan 8
2
becomesimplefraction
of 100,suchas, 0.03 or 3%,0.02or1%.Then
I.
H
- S S -l'OOS
- -- -- = .01 -
Thisenablesquickerandsimplercomputation ofS.Fromtrigonometrical tables
it is found that
tan0 34' 24"=0.01
,..,."".
. .
t.. .. ~ _ ~ ...
Tacheometry 477 .
. tin 1
0
OSi 4?" =" 0.02.
tan 1
0
43' 06" =0.03
Similarly angles for other percentages. can be obtained from tables. Though
computation becomes easier it is difficult to set angles at suchodd values. Furgusson
has solved this problem by dividing a circle inscribed in a circle in eight octants.
This is shown in Fig. fS.24:Each linesuch as OB is divided into 100 parts. Lines
ore then drawn from the centre to these points, thus dividing each octant into 100
unequal parts. The points of division on the circle are marked 0 to 100. The
divisions are further read to O.Qlof a unit by means of special drum mlcrometer,
25 50 75 100
75
50
.25
a
25
50
75
100 75 50 25 a.25 50 75 100
Fig.. 15.24 Fergusson's chm.(Tangemi:ll method, smaller divisions not shown.):
Effect of Angular Error in tangential measurement can be rnathematlcally
studied. It is known
H= S
tan eI - ten e2
when e
l
and ~ are both angles of elevation. If the probable error of measuring
each of the angles is 20". then oBI = + 20" and oth, = - 20".
S .
Then
HI = "
tan (e
l
+ 20 ) - tan ~ - 20")
Let
tan (8, + 20") = tan 8
1
+ (II
tan (e: - 20") = tan e: - {I2
H _-=-_---"'S_-;;-__
Then
I =tane. + o. -tan8
2
+ 02
_ S
- (tane
l
- tan8i) + (01 +

Forsmall differencesinangles 8
1
and8
2
thetangentdifferencesareapproximately
equal.Hence 01 =1'12 =a.
Iftan8
1
- tan 8
2
is takenequalto q
S=Hq
S= H. (q + 2a)
H'q'+'20
or
H. =-'-q-
H- HI _ 2a
or
HI - q
e 2a
or
HI =q
wheree is theerror in horizontal lengthH - H.
Then,Ratio oferror
H. H
20 2a 2aH
or r =- =-- =--
q SIH S
Asanexample let H =100 rn, 8. =5 and S =3 m
.tan5 =0.0874887..
..:
O(}I = 5"
a =0.0000978
2aH- 2X 0.0000978 X 100
r =S= 3
I
=153374
Undersuch conditionif r isnottoexceed1/500, weget
1 2 X a X 100
500 = -
cr
a= 3
. - 500-x 2 X 100
=3 x '
tan5 =0.0874887 '
tan (5 + x) =0.0875187
" .
--------- - --------
I, _

Tacheometry 479
or
5 + x. = 5.0017058
. '
or
.'C =.0017058
, = 6.14" . "
Thusthepermissibleangularerror'is '6.14". ,
Example 15.8 The verticalangles to vanes fixedat 1m and 3 mabove the
footof staff held vertically at a station 'A' were 3"l()' and 524' respectively
(Fig.15.25). FindthehorizontaldistanceandthereducedlevelofA iftheheight
oftheinstrumentaxisis 138.556meters abovedatum.
[AMIESurveyingSummer,1987]
_J.sm
.A '
, , 1 m
ItllJrJII
524'" A
x
R.L. ;. 138.556 m
Fig.15.25 Example .15.8. '
Solution
Here
,s = 3 - 1 =2 rn, 8
1
=524', =310'
H =S -
tan8
1
- tan 8
z
,
. 2
-.tan524' - tan310'
2
0.0945278 - .0553251
= 51.0168 m
R.L.ofA = R.t. of I +51.0168 tan5"24' - 3.00
.... :. .
= -138.556 + 4.822- 3.00
=140.378m
Example 15.9 Anobservation withapercentagetheodolite gavestaffreadinzs
as1.155 and2.655forangles ofelevation4.5%and5.5%respectively.On
thegraduationcorrespondingtotheheightoftheinstrumentaxisabovetheground,
theverticalanglewas5%.Computethe horizontal distanceandtheelevation of
thestaffstationif theinstrument has an elevationofSOO.512 m.
Solution
tan 8
1
= .055
tan 8
z
=.045
480 Fundomcnizts of SI/11'Cying
H :::: 5 :::: 2.6S? - I.l5.S
tan8\ - tan8
2
.05::> - .04::>
:::: 150.00 m.
V :::: H tan 8
2
:::: 150.00 x .045
:::: 6.75m
Lettheangletothe graduation correspondingto the heightoftheinstrument be
CIJ so thattan CI) :::: 0.05
IfS isthe. correspondingstaffintercept
S' 5'
H :::: =...."...."..,;:--=-=
tan8\-.tan8) .055 - .05
or S :::: .005 x 150=0.75
Ifr be the reading corresponding to the height theinstrument
r 2.655 - 0.75::::'1.905 m
R.L. of staff=R.L. of fA +V- 1.155
,..."
:::: (500.512 +1.905) +6.i50 - 1.155
=508.Q12 m
15.14 T CALCULATIOl'\S AND REDUCTIONS
Thegreatdisadvantageoftacheornetry isthatitrequireselaboratecalculations to
find outthehorizontaldistancesandelevationsofpoints.Tohelpincomputations
(i)stadiatables.(ii) stadiadiagrams, (iii)stadia slide rulescanbe used.Special
..:,;;: . StadillArcandJeffcotDirectreadingtacheometerenable
. .immedjate.reductions.ofhorizomaldistancesand elevationsofpoints.
...."-,,:-.,.
. Braman stadia arc'
"
This isa mechanicalde' .. ice filled to the vertical circle of a tacheorneter(Fig.
15.26).Therearetwoscales: one for calculating horizontal distances andtheother
for verticaldistances. In tacheornerry for inclinedsihts H =K5 8.
Ifthe line of sight isassumedhorizontal' .
H' =KS
Hence If- H :::: KS(1 - cos: 8)
=KSsin:'8
Thehorizontalscale, therefore. thevaluesof thepercemagecorrecticn 100
sin
2
8 that shouldbe subtractedIrorn1005.The graduationsonthescale meant
.f
forverticaldistaneesare terms 100x sin [asV=KSisin28Jandare'
read againstan indexmark.. The centralgraduation.or the Vscaleismarked 50
anda readingof less than 50 indicatesthat the telescopeis inclineddownward
L_
Tacheometry -loSl
r.tr-..
Fig.13.26 Beaman stadia:l1'C (schernadc diagram).
whilea reading greaterthan 50showsit is inclined upwards. The valueof V is
thengiven by V =Sx (Readingon V scale- 50).
The graduations on the vertical.scaleisbased on thecomputation thar
l
2
sin 28 for each graduationisa magnitudeof0.01. Hence the first division is0.01,
second division 0.02and.so on.The corresponding anglesof 8 whichgives
t sin 28 =0.01 ore= ~ 3 4 2 3
t sin2e ~ 0.D2 ore=108'46"
andso on.
'Ifthe index is notagainstthe whole number reading of the V scale, it is
brought to a whole number by the tangentscrew. This does not appreciably change
thevalue ofS and'hencetheresult.. '. .'. . , '\., ",'
Example: Centralhair reading - 1:315 m
ReadingonV scale - 55
ReadingonH scale - 3 .
Staffintercept = 1.145
Elevation of LA. = 1-1-0.50
.';'.
Assume K = 100 and C= 0
if =1.145 x (55- 50)= + 5.725
Elevation of staff = 140.50 + 5.725 - 1.315
= 14-lo.910 m
Horizontal Correction = 1.145 x 3
= 3,435 m
Horizontal distance = 1.145 x 100 - 3.435
= 114.500 - 3.435
= 111.065 m
Ieffcot direct reading tacheometer
This is the tirst direct reading tacheometer which was invented by H.H. Jeffcot
to directly obtain the horizontal distance andvertical intercept and thus avoiding
tedious tacheometer computations. The diaphragm consists of three platinum"
iridium pointers. The central one is fixed while the other two are movable and
actuated by cams. The two cams are fixed in position but so shaped that the
interval between the pointers is adjusted automatically with the variation of the
vertical angle of the telescope. The intercept between the central pointer and the
bottom pointer on the right side multiplied by 100 gives the horizontal distance D
and the intercept between thecentral pointer and thetopleft hand pointer multiplied
by 10 gives the vertical component. Figures 15.27(a), (b), (c) and (d) explain
::

2
(a)
.l
I sa =
1
I. reticle 2. F'lU'd reticle Swilch ring HI at 0 Swi1ch ring set at H
3. Follcvoer 4. Cam

. Fie. 15..27 r: of Jeffcot dir:;t fr.1ding tacheometer,
5cY'2 sin 2a
5:,'2

4S3
the principle. The stadia rod readings are taken.by first setting the fixed pointer
ata whole decimeter mark andthen readingthe other two pointers. Ifthe rC:lding
of the fixed pointer. is 'greater than that of height pointer, the vertical intercept (\')
is positive and "ice versa..
Example Let the readings of the
distance pointer .=2.850 '
height pointer =
fixed pointer =2.000
Horizontal distance =100 x (2.850 - 2.000) ,
'f.' = 85' m
r' -}
Vertical intercept =,10(2.0000 -0.350)
=10(1.650) =+ 16.50 m
This instrument is not much used these days because: (i) Pointers cannot be read
easily, (ii) It is difficult to, measure half intercepts, and (iii) Parallax error is
difficult to avoid. .'
S:epessy direct tacheometer
It is a very popular direct reading tacheorneter of the tangent group, It uses
percentage angles. Ascale of tangents of vertical angles is engraved on a glassarc
which is fixed to the vertical circle cover of the instrument. The scale is divided
to 0.005 but marked at every om. As the graduation is in percentage 0.005 means
an angle whose tangent is 0.00005 or 0.005%. A number of prisms reflect the
scale in the view of the eye piece and when the staff is sighted the image of the
staff is seen along with the scale as shown in Fig. 15.28. The following are the
steps for using the tacheorneter: ..
TT
2S +
1]
Fig. 15.28 Szepessy tacheometer,
___I
(a)Sightthe stadiaandclamptheinstrument atsomeconvenient position.
(b) By the vertical circle tangent screwbring the axial hair to a whole
numberdivision.
(c) Read the stadia between two consecutivewhole numbers. The staff
interceptmultiplied by 100gives thehorizontal distanceD.
(d)Theverticalinterceptisobtained bymultiplyingthestaffinterceptwith
. theaxialhairreading.
For example, if the staff intercept S=1.45 and theaxial hair readins is 17,
then
H = 1,45x 100= 145rn
V =1,45x.12 =17.40m
. .
Self reducing tacheometers
, ,
Theydifferfromconventional tacheometers inthefact thattheintervalbetween
thestadialinesvariesautomatically withthetelescopeinclination. This ismade
possiblebyhaving stadialinesetchedonaspecialglasscirclecalledadiagram
I .
throughwhich'the lineof sight is directed, This replaces thediaphragm in the
'telescope.The diagramrotatesaboutthetrunnion axis as it isconnectedto the
telescope throughasystemofgearssuchthatdifferentpartsofthediagramand
hencedifferent stadialinesareseeninthefieldof viewasthetelescopemoves.
Figure15.29 showsthefieldofviewofatypical diagramtacheorneter, Insteadof
conventionalstadia lines, there are threecontinuous curved lines. The lower curve
is calledthezero curveandit is placedon a convenientfull graduation on the
stadiarod.The uppercurveis thehorizontal distancecurve.Thestadiainterval
betweenthe upperand lower ~ r v multipliedby100givesthehorizontal,distance
p.Themiddle curve determinesjhevenicaldistanceintervaltogetherwiththe,
.factPJ:for thatp ~ ,ofthecurve whichisbeingused.
Horizontal distance
curve
Vertical distance
curve
Datum curve
K = 100 '
Fig. 15.29 Self-reducing'tacheometer,
l_
Tacheometry 4S5
Example
Let the lower curve reading = 1.000
Upper curve reading = 1.615 m
The difference =0.615 m
and the horizontal distance = 0.61 )( .1 00
= 61.5 m
If the middle curve reading = 1.435
with 'F =11'2
v = t (1.435' - 1.000) x roo =21.75 m
"
~ . ,J ,.
Theory
The baslcstadia formula D= KS cos
2
e. '
= (jIi) 5 cos
2
8
in ordinary theodolite i 15 .fixed but in self reducing tacheorneter the interval i
varies with 8 as i cos
2
8. Hence ' .
D =(. ) 5. cos? 'tJ =4.5
1
=KS
1
/2
" I cos 8 I
SI is the interval between the upper or horizontal distance line and the datum line.
In ordinary tacheometer
v=leKS sin 28)
= (Iii) ~ sin 28
Indiagramtacheorneter the stadia interval (52) used for obtaining height differences
varies as t (i sin 28) so thnt
v= / ' 52.
I (. . -2 sln?8
. 2' I Sin 28) ,-
= ({) 52 = KS
2
52is the stadia reading between the middle curvelineand thelowercurve reading.
I.e. the datum line. As 52 varies with.} (i sin 28) it becomes verysmall for angles
less than about 2 5 ~ . So curve of i 51n 29. (2.5) i sin 28 and (5) i sin 28 are
introduced. This magnifies the value of 5: which must be reduced accordingly.
Hence multi plying factor or diagram constant 112, 0.2 or 0.1 are marked on the
middle curve with positive or negative sign indicating elevation or depression of
the telescope.
15.15 ERRORS TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING
Theerrorscanbeclassifiedinthreegroups (a)Instrumental errors, (b)Errorsdue
to manipulation and sighting,(c)Errors due,to natural causes.
..
Instrumental errors
Theaccuracy ofstadiameasurements islargely dependent ontheinstrument and
therod used.For longer sights errordepends on themagnifying power the
telescope, thecoarsenessofthestadiahairs andthetypeof rodused. Errordue
toimperfections in thegraduation of therodcanbe kepttominimumbystandardizing
therod.Errorsoccurdue toimperfect adjustments ofthetacheorneter whichare
dependent upon(i)adjustmentofaltirude level,(ii) indexerrorand(iii) accuracy
ofreading ofthevertical circle. .
Itshouldalwaysbechecked thataltitude bubbleisat thecentreof itsrun
whenreadings are taken.
. Errors may also occur if the multiplying and additiveconstants are not
checkedfromtime to time.
Errors du'e to manipulation and sighting .
These are due to (i) inaccurate centring, levelling and bisection. (ii) incorrect
estimation ofthestaffintercept, (iii) inaccurate reading ofthevertical angle,and
(iv)errordueto non-verticality ofstaff.
Errors due to natural causes
Theseerrorsare due to--
<l?('jracrion ... '. occurs-due to varying densiiv of differentair strata due to
.: To error. readings \\'ltn lirie ofslghi passifrg'
within I mofthe groundsurface should be avoided.
Sun Working directly underhotsunshould beavoided.
H7nd Working understrongwind should beavoided asitisdifficulttokeepthe
staffvertical or normal undersuchacondition.
Poor visibility Workingunderpoorvisibility shouldbe avoided as undersuch
conditions readingswill be incorrect.
15.16 uSESOF
(a)Itisa rapidmethod ofsurveying though nOt highlyaccurate. Sowherelow
accuracy isacceptable, thisisrecommended.
(b) It is useful for topographic survey where distance andelevationsof
pointsarebothrequired.
(e) It is used in planetable survey intheformof telescopic allidade.
Tacheometry 487
.. (d)Tacheometerisused,[0 completefieldsurveyrequired ferphotographic
mapping. ' . ,
(e) It can alsobe profitably used indifferentiallevelling. profile levelling
and in indirecttrigonomctric31 (e\etJing. .. " '
15.17' EXA)lPLES
Example 15.10 Upto what vertical angle may sloping distancesbe taken as
horizontaldistances without the error exceeding I in 200. the staff being held
verticallyand the instrumenthaving ananallactlclens? .(V.L.)
Solution
'$
TruehorizontaldistanceD = KS cos
2
8
Slopingdistance L =KS
Slopingdistance
L _ KS =sec
2
8
Horizontal distance ::: D - KScos
2
8
.Permissibleerror 1in200.'
L, 200+1 .201
D =200= 200
2
, . ?01
or
sec 8 = 200
8 = sec"' 201
200
=COS-I .: =4.04
0
=402'24"
. , 201 .
Example 15.11 A tacheorneter was set up.at station 'A' and the following
readingswereobtainedon a verticallyheldstaff.
.Station Staff station. Vertical Angle Hair readings Remarks
A B.M. - 218' 3.225,3.550, R.L. of B.M.
3.875
+ 8
036'
B 1.650,'2.515, = 425.515m
3.380
CalculatethehorizontaldistancefromA toB and theR.L.of B if the constants
of the instrumentsare 100and 0.4.
,..
Solution
H = KS cos
2
8+ Ccos 8
. KSsin'28 Csin8
\' = ., .
8 = '2')IS'
when
I
I
t
4SS Fundamentals ofSurveying
,
i
cos 8 = 0.999
,.
sin 8 = O.CHO
sin 28 =O.OSO
V = 100(3.875 - 3.225). +0.4(0.04)
=

2.6+ 0.016
= 2.616m
Forangleofdepression
Elevationof staff.station
= Elevationof.Instrument station+h - V - r (axial hairreading)
425.515=[Elevation ofinstrument.station+ It] - -:-3.550
or, [Elevation ofinstrument
.,
station +11] =425.515 +2.616 +3.550
.
=431.681
.
Forangleofelevation
Elevation of staffstation:
= Elevation ofinstrument station+It + V - r
V =100(3.380 _1.65) sin + OAsin 8
c36'
=100(1.73) + 0.4(0.1495)
=25.578+0.0598 =25.6378m
Elevation.ofstaffstation =431;681 - 2.5150 =454.8038 m
H = ,cos:! e+ ccos e
. ,
=100(1.73)(cos836'Y 0.4cos836'
=190(1.73)(0.988):! +(004) (0.988)
= 169.268II m
Example15.12 Aninternalfocussing telescope has3 length 1from theobjective
tothediaphragm.Thefocal length oftheobjective andtheinternal focussing lens
aref. andf2 respectively. Find the distanced ofthe focussing lens from the
objective whenthe object focussed isat a distance III fromtheobjective.
Solution For theobjective'(convexlens)
I I I
. u;- = fl - Ii;
III - I,
=
--
--
.:
u, _
Tachrometrv 489
. ,
. .'
.y"
Objective
v /" Inlemal.'OC\JSSirig lens'
.. . .dia;Wagm .

.. Uz =VI -.2J'
i
Fig. 15..30 EXJmplc. 15.12.
Fer the focussing lens (concave)
_.1... =_..L+..L
L:
14
2 L'2
or
r : 1 '1'
12 =IlL- v2
1 1
=VI - d- 1- d
or
(ul - d) U-d) - c!) -!:.(VI-c!)
or
d"1-d(l + VI) + (lvl VI)} =0
or
-d(l + VI) + lUlU +h) -h.I}=0
Solving
d = t [(I UI)' - 4(u
ll
+VJ!2 - ?f2)}]
=1[(l +'1) +4h.(1 - '1)}]
1 .
='2((l+vJ)"//(l- VI)(l +412 - vJ)}]
Example 15.13 In a telescope, the object glass offocal length 180 mmis located
220mmawayfrom thediaphragm.Thefocussing lensismidwaybetweenthese
whenastaff 18rnawayisfocussed.Determine thefocal lengthofthefocussing
lens.
Solution
Ii =0.18 rn
u. =18.000 rn
I 1 1 1 1
ii;" =II -;;= 0.180 - 13.00
=5.500 or V. =0.182
Intemal
focussinglen
he__ l,- Diaphragm
Objective
18m
't'=- -:"0
Forthefocussing lens
U2= VI - 0.110=0.182- 0.110=0.072
V2 =0.110
1 1 . 1
- =-+-
h U. V2
1 .. 1
=- 0.072 +0.1JO
=- 4.7979 m
f. = - 0.208 rn =- 208rnrn
i.e.Thelensis concave.
Example15.14 In aninternally focussing telescope, theobjective ofthefocal
lengthJ25mrn,is' 200mmfromthediaphragm. iftheinternalfocussing lensis
offocal rnm, findits distance fromthediaphragm when focussed at
infinity.
. Solution For theobjectivefl =125 mm andthus theposition ofF. will
be 125mm from C
I
. Therefore,
C
2Ft
=125-d
r{
Intemal
focussing lens
&/Objective
c\
-- d
V,
1==200

I
For theinternal focussing lens
I:
I ~
v2
I
-
I:
1
- 250
Tacheometry 491
=- 250
=- (l2S - t!)
=200 ~ d
1 I
=-+-
1/2 U ~
1, I
=- (125 - d) + (200 - d)
., '
r' ~
or - (125
or - (25000
or
- d) (200 - d) =- 250 (200 - d) + 250 (125 - d)
- 325 d + d"!)= - 50,000 + 250 d - 250 d + 31250
d"! -' 325 d + 6250 '';'0
'd. =304.47'or 20.51 '
V2 =200 -20.52,
"= 179.48 mm
Thus theinternal focussing lens willbe 179.48 mmawayfrom the diaphragm
whenfocussed toinfinity.
Exarilple15.15 Deriveexpression forthespacingof thestadialines togivea'
multiplying factor K fora given sightdistance D if j =stadiaintervalandS=
stadiaintercept. . .
Solution
Mechanical
-----.;...--...VAxis
~
o
Fig.15.33 Example \5.15.
1
Objective
focussing len..s - - -
" ~
a
" =-- <:d-l
U 2 ~ ......... , ,
~ I V2
Fortheconvex lens,i.e.objective
-S
a
= -
VI
=1111'
III
where IlII =magnifying power
'S l.'1 S
I.e. a = - =1lI1
III
l
.:192 Fundamentals 01 Surveying
For the concave lens (internal focussing)
i u, '. v'
- = ....:. =111" I.e. I =Q ....:. =III, a
a 112 - U2-
or i = 11111112 S
D = KS
Dm,l7l:
S = 12..

K
Example 15,16 An internal focussing telescope has an objective 140 mm from
the diaphragm. The focal lengths of the objective and the. concave lens are 120
rnmand 240 mmrespectively. Findthe distance apart of the stadialines to produce
a multiplying factor of 100 when the 150 m a..... ay.
Solution Here / = 140 rnrn, J.. = = 240. K = 100. D = 150 m
At 150 m, u\ =150.00 - = 149.93 m
as the axis lies midway between the objective and diaphragm. For the objective,
1 1 1
Ii; = II - II;
U\ -II
= u;r;-'
Udl
or
VI = III -I,
. =149.93 x 0.120 x 1000
'. 149.93 - 0.120 .
= 120.096 mm .
/ + VI = 140.0 + 120.096 =260.096 mm
/ - L', =140.0 + 120.096 =19.904 mm
,

0= 150 m .:
Slaff
L..
Tacheometry 493
d =t [(t + tll) -./(1- UI) (l+ 41: - L'I)]
=t .[260.096 -./19.904 x 9 7 ~ . 9 ~ ]
.-
=t [260.096 . 139.656]
:::: 199.876 or 60.22
However 199.876 is inadmissible as it does not fit physical conditions.
V2 =I - d = 140 - 60.22 =79.78 mm
r'
Itz =VI - d =120.096 - 60.220 =59.876 mm
DVI V2
i = KUI ll2
150 x 1000 (120.096) (79.78)
.= (100) (149.93) (59.876 (1000)
== 1.60 mm .
Example 15.17 What errors will be introduced if the above instrument is used
for distances 30, 100 and 150 m?
Solution . At 30 m
UI :: 30,000 - 70 = 29,930 mrn
29,930 x 120
vI =29,930 _ 120 =.120.48
1 + til =140 + 120.48 =260.48
1- VI =140' - .120.48 := 19.52
. 1 ..
d =2" [(1 + VI) .v(l- vI)(l + 412 - UI)]
=. t[260.48 .v(1952)(97952)]
= t [260.48 138.28J
=199.38 or 61.10
[199.38 does not fit physical conditions hence inadmissible]
Vz =.[ - d = 140 - 61.10 = 78.90
112 =Vl- d= 120.48 -61.10 =59.38
S =i X 1t11l/UIU2
1.60 x 29.930 x 5938
= 120A8 x 78.90
= 299.1403 mm
The value should be 300 mm
Error = 300 - 299.1403
= 0.8597 mm
Therefore D = 29.914 m and should be 30.000 m.
',.
Hence error =0.086 ml30 m
At 100 m
"I =100,000 - 70
= 999,30 mm
999,30 x 120
VI= 999,30. _ 120
=120.144mm
I + VI =140.00 + 120.144 =260.144 mm
1- VI = 140.00 - 120.144 = 19.856 mm
d = i [(l + tqL .Jff - v ~ + 412- VI)
d = t [260.144 ";09.856) (979.856)] .
..
= t [260.144 -/(19.856)(979.856)]
. .
r ~
= t [260.144 139.484]
= 199.814 or 60.33 .
As before. d = 60.33.
V2 = 140 - 60.33 =79.67
"2 =120.144 - 60.330 =59.814
S
"1"2
=i x " l,,',
"" .
_ 1.60 x (99930) (59.814) .
- 120.144 x 79.67
=999.129 mrn
The value. should be 1000.00 mm.
Error';' 1000 - 999.129
= 0.881 mm
Therefore D = 99.9129 m
and should be 100.00 m
Error = 0.0871 m/l00
.
m
.
At 150 m
error =0 as the diaphragm spacing has been set accordingly.
Tacheamary 495
-,
Example15.18 Theconstant foraninstrument is800andthevalueofconstant
C= 0.45 m.The interceptS =3 m.Calculatethedistahcefromthe instrument
to the staff when the micrometer- readings Jre4.:65 and4.267 and the: line of
sight is inclined at + O ~ 3 6 The staffW:lS heldvertical
Solution Sum ofmicrometer readings =4,265+ 4.267=8.532
D =.K i +(1+ d)
. . n
For inclined sights
,;,,'1.' .
D =KS cos
2
e+ if + if) cos ()
n .
- SOD x 3 .cos
2
10036' + 0.45cos 10036'
- -.532 .
= 271.77+ 0.44
= 272.21 m
Example 15.19 The following values were recorded during a theodolite
tacheornetricsurvey
Stadia readings : 3.33 (top)2.20(middle) 1.07(bottom)
Vertical angle : 1140'
Instrumentheight : 1.48m
Height of collimation : 269.01 m
Find the horizontal distance between thestaff andinstrumentstation, and the
reduced level of the staff station. Assume that the telescope is anallactic, the
multiplyingconstant 100 and the staff vertical.Determine the error in the horizontal
andvertical distancesdue to anerrorof 5 minutes of arcin the measurement
of the vertical angle.
.Solution
with
Reduced level of the staffstation
[CEl]
H =KS cos
2
e+ ccos () .
C =aandK = 100
H =100Scos
2
()
= 100(3.33 - 1.07) cos
2
II40'
=.100 (2.26) (0.979):!
=216.75 m
= R.L.of instrument station+ h + V - central hair reading
t!
~
_
-
KS sin 2()
2
J
4
496 Fundamentals of Sun'eying
= 100 226 sin 2 (11040')
>
.
= 100 226 (.396)
=44.75 m
Hence reduced level of staff station
= 269.01 + 44.75 - 2.20 = 311.56
as,height of collimation =R.L. of instrument station + height of instrument h =
269.01 m
", H =KS cos
2
(t'
dH ':' _ KS sin 2e
de
dH '= KS sin 28, de
, , ',', 5 1r
= 100 (2.26) sin 2(11
040')
60 '180
(5) (n)
= 100 (2.26) (0.396) (60) (180)
= 0..130 m
V= sin 28
dV = KS 2 cos 28
d8' 2 ,
dV = KS CbS 28 d8 " ,"
'= (l00) (2.25) cos 2 ({1"40') to
= (l00) (2.26) (0.918) (;0)
= 0.30 m
REFERE:\CE
1. Eau. Said M. of Stadia Surveying with Incomplete Intercepts", ASCE
0/ EJ:ginttrillg. \'01 116. :"\0. 3. Augus; 1990. Pi' 139-148.

15.1 A t3chcomcter is p13c:d at II station A and readings on a staff held upon
a B.M. 0( R.L. 100.00 and I stlltiOD B, are 2.200, 3.760 and 0.010,
2.1:0 and 4.230 ]'e$peethc!y. Theangle of deprcssicn of the telescope in
.
- Tacheometry 497
"
thefirstcaseis- 619'andinthesecondcase- 742'.Findthehorizontal
. " distance fromA 10 Band the R.L. of statlonB. Assume fli =100 and
if + Q) ::: .3 m. [ ~ l I Surveying\\imer, 1978]
15.2 (a) Drawaneatdiagramandderivefromfirstprinciple anexpression for
thehorizontal distancebetween a tachcornctcr and a vertically held
stafffora horizontal lineofsizht, .
- ,
(b),Findtheerrorthatwouldoccur in horizontal distancewith:10ordinary
stadiatelescope ifanerrorof0.0025ernexistsintheinterval between
stadiaJines.
Focal lengthofobjectglass::: 25ern
Multiplying constant =100
"\. Additive constant::: 35 ern
[ ~ I I Surveying Summer 1980J
15.3 Twosetsoftacheornetric readingsweretaken fromaninstrument station
A (R.L. 100.00) toastaffstationB.
p
Instrument
Q
Multiplying constant 100 95
Additive constant 30 em 45 em
Heightof instrument 1.40m 1.45 rn
Staffheld Vertical Normal to
lineofsight
Instrument At To Vertical Stadia
angle readings
p
A B 544' 1.090.1.440,
1.795
Q A
B 544' ?
Determine
(a) Thedistance between instrumentstationandstaffstation.
(b) R.L.ofstaffstationB. .
(c) . Thestadil readings withinstrument Q.
. [A.\HE Surveying Winter1980J
15.4 (a) Describe the procedure to determine the constantsof atacheorneter in
thefield. . .
(b) The stadia readinzs with horizontal sight on a vertical staff held50 m
awayfrom atacheorneter were1.28-1- and 1.780. Thefocal length of .
objectglasswas25 em.The distance between t ~ e objectglass and
trunnion axis ofthetacheorneterwasi5cm.Calculate the stadiainterval.
[ ~ I I Surveying Winter1981J
15.5 (a) Derivethe distance equations forthe tangenrial systemofracheomeiry'
whenboth the sightingsareanglesofdepression.
(b) Staff readingsobserved with a percentage theodolitecorrespondi..,g to
angles ofelevationof4%and5%are1.525 and2.9:25 respectively, If
"
theverticalangleonsighting thestaffreading equal 10the of
the trunnion axis aboveground was 4.5%, calculate. (i) thehcrizcmal
distance betweeninstrument andstaff:(ii) theelevation oftl;: st"if
station if thatofhe instrument station was493.700.
rAMIESurveying Summer ]981]
15.6 (a) Explain inbriefanydirectreading tacheorneter youknow.
(b) Atacheoineterwassetupatanintermediate stationConthelineAB
andfollowingreadings wereobtained: .
Staffstation. .Vert.angle . Staffreadings
A - 620' 0.445,1.675, 2.905
B
.. + 420'
0.950,1.880, 2.810
Theinstrumentwasfitted with-an anallacticlensandtheconstant was 100.
Findthegradientofthelinejoiningstation k andstation B.
.[AMIESurveying Summer 1982]
15.7 (a) Explaininbrieftheessentiai features, themeritsanddemerits, ofthe
.Jeffcotdirectreadingtacheometer,
(b) Alinewaslevelled tacheometrically\\'ith.atacheorneterfitted with an
anallactic lens, the valueof theconstant being 100. Thefollowing
observations weremadewith thestaffheldvertical oneachstation:
Instrument HLof Staff Vertical Staffreading Remarks.
station axis station angle
p
1.60 B.M. - 218' 1.650.2,500; .
3.350
p
1.60 Q + 836' 1.720,2.670,
3.620
.
Q
1.50 R + 1042' 1.055,2.055,
3.055
R.L. ofB.M.= 250.250
Determine thegradientof thelineQR. rAMIE Surveying Winter 1984]
15.8 (a) Whatisananallacticlens?Explaintheobjectofprovidingananallactic'
lensin a tacheometer,
(b) Explainhowyouwillobtain in thefieldthe constants of atacheometer.
(c) Thetopof a hillsubtends anangle of930'ata pointA. Thesame
point on the topof the hillsubtends anangleof 1230' at pointB
e ,
whichisindirectlinejoiningpointAandtopofthehill.DistanceAB
was measured andfound to be 1600m, Determine the elevation of the
top of .the hill and its horizontal distance frompointA, given the
elevationof pointA is430.650 m. [AMIE Surveying Summer
f
..

Tacheometry 499
15.9 (a) Comparethefixc:d hairstadla andtangential methodof tacheometric
survey. .
(b) Derive expressionfordeterminingtheelevationofstaffstationandits
distancefrominstrumentstation.....henOne vertical angleisofelevation
and the other. of depression. Sketchtheillustrativediagram.
(c) A traverse ABCD was'runby a tachecmeter fittedwith an.anallactic
lens andhaving:l multiplyingconstantas100,Thefollowingreadings
were taken with the staff held normal: .
Line Bearing Vertical angle
Staff intercept
AB-
27"3S'
1.90
,.
BC 300"2-l'
: I
+ 4"32'
1.47
CD 23645'
- 210'
1.75
Find the length and bearing of DA.
SurveyingWinter 1989]
,
-'" I
16
Plane Table Surveying
16.1 INTRODUCTION
The plane table surveying is a very quick method of surveying where field
observations and plotting of the plan proceed simultaneously. The necessity of
transferring the field data to office and preparation of map is completely 'avoided.
The plane table-alidade combination is an extremely useful and a versatile
instrument. It can perform all the usual survey functions with the exception of
field astronomy. It is also v.ery useful as a basicinstrument for teaching fundamental
concepts of surveying because the geometric principles are readily grasped and
the objective of a survey operation is clearly indicated in the map sheet. While
photogrammetry is being extensively used for topographical surveythese days,
thereare features whichcan be mapped in moredetail by groundsurvey techniques.
In large scalemapping of built-up areas where a considerable volumeof underground
, >.detail and paved surfaces is encountered, plane table method can adequately plot,
.: th"eoetails. Even in construction layout staking, plane table method is very useful.
16.2 REQUIRED
The following equipments are required for plane table survey,
I. Plain table
2. Alidade for sighting
3. Plumbing fork and plumb bob
4. Spirit le...-el
5. Compass
6. Plane table sheet of suitable drafting media.
The plane tabl
Itconsists of a small drawing board mounted on light tripod in such a way that
the boards can be rotated about the vertical axis and can be clamped in any
position. I.S. 2539-1963 specifies three types of boards with, dimensions given
below:
soo
..
.'
Designation
Di:nensions (mm)
A B
C
L ~ e ;50 600 15
Medium
600 500 15.
Small SOl) ~ O O 15
The details of the board, the brass circulardisc which finnl}' secures the clamping
assembly to theboard and the clarnplng assembly along with tne tripod arc given
in Figs. 16.1 and 16}. The plane table stand is 1:!50 rnrn in heigh; from the top
of the clamping head to the shoe.
. \CirCU!ar Disc of Brass
. \ Battens
E ~ ~ , ,uI
.... ~
B
o 0
o
o
o
o
o 0
160 mm
MIN
o 0
o
o
o
o
o 0
Protecling. Strip. . I
-11+--.--
"i
A
Fig. 16.1 Plane Table Board.
Alidade (sight rille) .
This may be (i) PIJin or(ii) Telescopic. The details of a Plain alldade are given
in Fig. 16.3. The materials and dimensions of sight rules are given in Table 16.l.
"The sight rules are made of wood or metal but the sight vane is made of metal
only. The front or object vane and the rear or sight vane are of folding type. It
is possible tosuitably clampthemin vertical position. The front vane has a thread
across its length andthe rear vane has :I fine slit to view through it. The two vanes
can be linked through :I thread when required for sighting at high elevations or
depressions. The stretched thread, object vane thread and sight vane vertical slit
are coplanar and this plane is parallel to the edge of the sight rule and normal to
the plane table board when levelled. The bonorn surface (If the sight rule is truly
plane and has bevelled edges.
..
502 Fundantentals of Surveying
Fig.16.2 Clamping Assembly,
Table 16.1 Material and Dimensions ofSight Rules
Hexagonal Brass Countersunk Brass
Nuts in Recess /" Wood Screw

I ';-. I
I
..
. ..
Designation L
A
B C D Material
Large 750 25 50 15 3 Brass oraluminium alloy
Medium 600 25 50 15 3. Brass oraluminium alloy
Small 500 20 30 10 2 Wood, brass oraluminium
alloy
or or or or
25 40 15 3
'.';......-::-;1.,-, " '.-
A telescopic alidadc consists of a base or blade composed of either a plainor
articulated fiducial straight edgethatrestsdirectlyontheplanetable.Onthebase
is: (i) a pylon or pedestal, (ii) a trunnionaxis, and (iii) 3. telescopewhich can
rotateagainst the trunnion axis,
Thetelescope eyepiece is generallyswivel mounted so thattheobserver's
eye neednot be aligned with the telescope's longitudinal axis.All alidades are
equipped with a circle for measuring vertical angles. The horizontal distance
betweentheinstrument and thepointsightedcan becomputedbystadiareadings
onthestaffkeptat the point.Theelevationofthepointcan alsobecomputedby
usingusualtacheornetric relations. ...... adays ismountedonallidadeand
facilitates plane table operations,(Fig. 16A).
Plumbing fork
'f
Thisis:I V-shapedpiece ofmetalwithparallelarms'ofequallength,aplumbbob
beingattachedto the free end ofthe lowerarm. The point of theupperarmand
the plumbline are in the samevertical line;The plumbing fork is used for
Table Surveying -503
x
--/1 7.5 '. _2.0_-
I I
rr Thread
. atX
Notch
.
W
RearVane
100
::::---- Focussing
- screw
Magnifier
Eyepiece
.........- L----------J
Fig. 16.3 Sight Rule (Alldade). (AlI dimensions in rnillimeters.) ,
Vertical--'\..-lJo-'
Circle
LevelTube
Fig. 16.4 Telescopic allidade,
1
I
II
I
I,
50.. Fundamentals of SIII1'Cyl'Ilg
Centring the table Here the upper end of the plumbing fork is placed over the
planed point and the plane tableis so adjusted that the plumb bob is on the station
point below.
Transferring of/he ground point Herethe plane table is centred over theunderground
point by means of the plumb bob while the upper arm of the forkgives the point
to be plotted on the drawing sheet (Fig. 16.5)
u-Iork
Lplumbbob
Fig. 16.5 U-fork and plumb bob.
Spirit level
A small spirit level either of the tubular variety or of the circular type is used to
check th:lt the plane table when in use is level. This can be ascertained by placing
the level in two directions at right angles 10 each other and observing that the
bubble is central in both cases.
Compass
Usually a troughcompass is used. The longer sides of the trough are .._.. "
f1:n side can be used-us a ruler or !:lid-dOwn to coincide ",itha
on the paper. . - , '. - .
Plane cable sheet
It shouldbe of superior quality and shouldbe moistureproof and non-hygroscopic.
The dimensions of the sheet should remain stable under variable conditions of
temperature and humidity. It should be capable of withstanding repeated erasures.
It should also be stiff and tough and suitable ror longtime archival, quality storage.
16.3 WORKIl'iG WITH TABLE
Before mapping work can start with plane table. the following steps are needed:
Fixing The plane table should be fixed to the tripod. The working sheet should
be carefully mounted with spring clips. thumb screws or drafting tape.
Levelling The plane table should be levelled. for small work. it is through eye
estimation. For more accurate work spirit level is to be used.
Centring The table should be so placed that the plotted point a is exactly over
the ground point A. This is done throughplumbing Ll-fork,
\
.-.
- Plane Tcbl.: 505
Orientation Thisisdone: byrotatingtheplanetablesuchthatplotted linesinthe
planetablesheetare: :lll paralleltothecorrespondinglineson meground.This is
essentialwhenmoret.1.ln oneinstrument stationistobeused.Orientatlon isdone
by(i)Troughcompass,(ii) Back sihting.
Orientation bj' trough compass
Thisisan approximate butquick method oforientingthe: plane table.The usual
method is toplacethetroughcompass on theplanetablesheet and 10 rotatethe
planetable: till the: needle110.m centrally,Thisisthedirectionof magneticnorth
and a line pencilline is ruled ag3inst the long side of the box. At any other
station.wherethetableIs tobe oriented. thecompassisplaced agai.nst thisline
, .:
andthetable isturnedtilltheneedlefreelyfloatsinthemiddle.The tableisthen
saidtobe oriented.
Orientation by back sightillg
Thisisa moreaccuratemethodand two cases rna)'arisedepending on whether
itispossibletoset theplanetableon apointalreadyplottedon thesheetbyway
ofobservationfromprevious station or not In thefirstcase orientationisdone
by back sighting. Suppose the line ab has been 'plotted on the plane table
corresponding tothegroundline AB. Aftershifting theplane table fromAto B,
orientationwillbe: doneby(i) placingthepointb exactlyover theStation B with
thehelpofU fork.(ii) byrotatingtheplanetablesuchthat.fromstationB, alidade
whichis placed on ba sights the pole a.t A.When this is achieved, theline ba
coincideswiththe- groundline13.4. andorientationisachieved.The tableisthen
clampedin position.
When'the plane table cannot be placed over a plotted point method of
resectionhas tobe applied.This has beenexplainedinsubsequent sections.
16.4 OF PLANE TABLE WORK
There are four methods of plane table work: (i) Radiation. (ii) Intersection,
(iii)Traversing.and(iv)Resection.
. '., . '.
16.4.1 RADIATION- '.
Hereplane tableisplacedoverstation pointP and alidadesarepointed-townrds
A. B, C, D, E andF. Thelengths are measuredandpoints0. b. c. d. e andfare
plottedas shown inFig. 16.6. -
16A.2 l:\TERSECTION
Oneof thegreatadvantages ofplane table: istheease.with whicha pointcan be
locatedby intersection. HereP and Qareknownstationsand theplanetable is
firstplacedoverstationP andalidadepointstowardsPQ;-The linePQ ismeasured.
andpq isplottedonthesheet(Fig. 16.7).TolocatepointsA andB raysaredrawn
from p towardsA andB. The instrumentisthenshiftedto Q and it is so placed
506 Fllndall/elllels of Surveying
B
"'I---
c
---
- .. -
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,. ,. L..-__.......
F
E
Fig. 16.6 Radiation method,
A B
I" "
. I " " ,
I " ,"
I , , I
I .......... .: ,
I _ .,.,. \
, ,", I
I ' , ,
I ,," ""'.....,

P . 0
Fig] 6.7 Method of intersection
that q is over Qand pq corresponds to the line PQ. In such a case the plane table
is properly oriented at Q., With the alidade pivoted at q, rays are drawn toward A
and B on the plane table sheet. The intersection of corresponding two rays defines
the mapposition of A and B. The difference in elevation between A and P anc that
between A and Q can be obtained if the vertical angle to .-t' has been measured
from each set up. The product of the distance APt scaled from the map-and the
tangent of the vertical angle at P is the difference in elevation between the alidade
at P and A. The difference in elevation between the alidade at Q and the point A
can be determined in the same manner.
16A.3 TRAVERSl;-.1G
,. ".
A traverse consists of a series of straight lines connected together. In a plane table
traverse, the angles are directly plotted without measuring them (Fig. 16.8). Here
initial station A is occupied and then :\Bis sighted measured. Then station B
D
Plane Table Surveying. 507
d 0
c
Fig. 16.8 Traversing,
Y./'.
. >.
is occupied and BA. sighted. The distance BA is measured and the average of A8
and 804. used in laying out ab. The next point C is observed with t!'le blade
touching b, distance BC ang"CB -measured and.average value ploned :IS be. In
similar fashion, succeeding points can be occupied and traverse lines plotted.
Whenever possible, check sights should' be taken over previously occupied points.
Small discrepancies are adjusted but ira plotted point is missedby an appreciable'
distance, some or ali measurements must be repeated.
16.4.4 RES ECTlO:S
Resection is a method of orientation used when the table occupies a position not
yet located on the map. There are two field conditions: (i) the three point problem,
and (ii) the' t\VO point problem, . .
Tile three-point problem
Here three points in the field and their corresponding positions in the plane are
known. The plane table.is placed in an arbitrary position from where the three
points are visible. It is necessary to locate the position of the observer. The
solution enables the surveyor to place the plane table at any suitable position for
taking details. The point can then be located by observing three known points
such as church steeples. water towers, flag poles or any other prominent object.
The three-point problem has long been employed in navigation to ascertain 0.
ship's position b)' observing with a sextant on three recognizable features on the
shore. There are man)' methods for solving the three-point problem. They are:
(a) Tracing paper method,
(b) Lehmann's method,
(c) Analytical method,
(d) Graphical solution.
Treeing paper method This method consists of the following steps.
(a) Here A. B. C are three known stations and G. b. e arc their plotted points
on 0. drawing sheet.
(b) is set up atpoint P. It is required to locate the corresponding
point p on the sheet. .
I
I
J
508 Fundamelita!s of SlII1'Cyillg
(c)Orientth,table approximntely with eyeorcompass sothatAB isparallel
toabo .
(d)Fixatracing paperonthesheet andlocatethepoint P approximately as
p' bymeansofplumbing fork.
(e)Sightthestations A, B andCanddraw p'd, p' h' andp' c' onthetracing
.'.
paper.
(f) Thetracing paperisthen moved above thedrawing sheetuntil thethree
radiating linesp'd, p' b' and p'c' pass through corresponding points a, bandc
previously plotted onthemap.
(g)Thispointismarked andtheboard turned tomake thelines radiate to
thesignalsA, B, andC. ontheground.
(h)Theboardis then clamped (Fig. 16.9).
~
A
.I
B
I
, .
,
\
,
I
,
I ~ C
,.
I
I
,
,
I
,
,
,
,
'1
,
,
I
,
" ,
I ,
,
, I ,
I
,
\ I
a\I a' ,b ' b' .C
" I. I," 'I
, I' " C
\\ ( "
0( I'
p'I" P
Fig.16,9 Tracing papermethod.
Lehmann's method Thisistheeasiestandquickest solution. Theprinciples of
themethod arcas follows:
(a) When the board isproperly oriented and thealidade sighted toeach
control signalsA. B nnd C.rays drawn from theirrespective signals willintersect
ata unique point .
(b) When rays aredrawn from control signals, theangles at their intersections
aretrueangleswhetherornottheboard isproperly oriented.
Procedure
1. Set thetableoverthe newstation P andapproximately orient it.
2.Withalidade onasightA. similarly sightBand C.Thethree rays Aa. Bb
andCc will meet ata point iftheorientation iscorrect. Usually, however. they
will notmeetbutwillform asmall triangle known asthetriangle oferror.
3.Toreduce thetriangle ofe r r ~ r t o zero.anotherpoint p' ischosen asper
Lehmann's rule.,
4.' Keepthealidadealong p' a androtatethe tableto sightA. Clampthe
- .. SI4... . D.
"
Ptan Table S/tr\t)";ng S09
table, This will give next approximate orientation (but more accurate t,!un the
pervious one). Then sight B with alidade at b and C w ith alidade at c. The rays
will again form a tri:lOgle of error but much smaller.
5. The method has to be repeated till the triangle of error reduces to zero.
Lehmann s rilles There are three rules to help in proper choice of the point p'..
1. If the plane table is set up in the triangle formed b)' the three points (l.e.
P lies within the triangle ABC) then the positionof the instrument on the plan w ill
be inside the triangle of error, if not it w ill be ouuide.
2. The point p' should be so chosen thaI its distance (rom the rays A.a. Bb
and Cc is proportional to the distance of P from A. B :I:1d C respectively. Since.
the rotation of the t:lble must have the same effect on each ray,
3. The point p' should be: so chosen that it lies either 10 the right of 311 three
rays or to the left of :111 three r3)'S. since the table is rotated in one direction to
locate P.
c
, p
... Fig. 16.10 , Triangle of error.
Referring to the Fig. 16.10:. . ..
By rule 1 p is outside the small triangle as P is outside the triangle ABC.
Byrule 2. using the proportions for the perpendiculars given by scaling the
distances PA. PB and PC, it must be in the lett hand sector as shown.
By rule 3. it cannot be in either of the sectors contained by the r:lysPA. PE
and PC
'Failure of the fix When the three points A, Band C and the instrument position
P are so chosen that they nil lie on the circumference of a circle, there is failure
of the fix and the solution becomes indeterminate. This is because no matter how
the board is oriented. the rays will meet at a point. though not at the same point.
Because the two angles subtended by the three points at the circumference of the
cirucurnscribing circle will always be the same. Hence the rays will always meet
. at a point. Hence the observer should choose the prominent points such that they
do not lie on a circle.
Analytical and Graphical Solutions are given in Section 16,7.
The two point problem Heretwo points.4 andB arevisiblefrom theinstrument
station Candthecorrespondingpointsa and b aregivenintheplanetablesheet.
Twocasescan arise either thepointscanbeoccupied bytheplanetable,or the .
pointscannotbe occupied.
Case I Whenthe points canbeoccupied bytheplanetable;Leta andbbethe
corresponding points of the groundpointsA andR
(a)TheplanetableissetupatBandoriented bysightingA.FromBaline
bxis drawn towards C..
(b)ThetableisthenshiftedtoC andoriented bybacksightingBalongxb
andclamped.
'-
. (c)Tolocate potnt C whichisonthelinebx, thealidade is placedovera
andA issighted.The lineAa whenproduced backward cutsthelinebx atctofix
thepointC (Fig. 16.11). .
a'----='-"'i----------+----'=-----'" b
A B
Fig. 16.11 Two-pointproblem.case 1.
Case. II When the plane table cannot be placed in the controlling stations,
lflg. 16.12): "
(a)Anauxilliary station pointDistobechosennearC.Setthetable:ItD
insucha waythatabis approximatelyparallel toAB.Clampthetable.
(b)Withalidade at a, sightA anddrawaline.Similarlywithalidade at b
sight B. The two rays intersect atpointd.
.(c)From station D and keepingthealidade at d sight C.MeasureDC by
estimation and CJ.
(d)Shift the table to C,take backsightto Dwithreference toC).
(e)Withalidade ata, sightA.Thisrayintersects thepreviously drawnray
from Din ThusC2 represents Cwithreference totheapproximate orientation
.
(f) FromC2sightB.Draw theray tointersecttheraydrawnfromdtobin
b', Thusb' istheapprox.imate locationofB withrespecttotheorientation made
at D. ' .
(gl The angle between ab and ab' is the error in orientation.The board
I
'I'
!
I
I
" .
Plane TableSurW)';J1g 511
A
a 1----7'
d
""i--'T""""- P
c
Required tum
D
Fig. 16.12 Two-point problem. caseII.
should berotated.through theanglebab', Thisis'done byfixing apoleatP such
thatitisinlinewithab'. Theplanetableisthen rotated tillab comes inlinewith
P. Thetable is thus'correctly oriented.
(h)Fromthisnewposition drawrays Aa andBb, They will intersect atc
(notshown) which will bethepointcorresponding toC.
Two'point problem doesnotgiveaccurate result aswith finite distance of
thepointP'it isdifficulttorotate andorient the table atC. Moreover. thesetting
up of an auxilliary station involves more work in a twopointproblem compared
tothethree pointproblem.
16.5 ERRORS 1:\ PLANE TABLE
. ,
.Threetypes oferrors areinvolved: (i)Instrumental errors. (i'i) Errors inplotting.
(iii) Errorduetomanipulation andsighting.
Instrumental errors
These mayconsists of thefollowing:
(a)Thetopsurface of the' planetable may not beperfectly plane.
(b)Thefiducial edgeofthealidade may notbestralght,.
(c) Theplane tablemaynotbeStable duetoloose fittings'
(d) If themagnetic needle is sluggishaccurateorientation may not bepossible.
(e)Ifthe sightvaneisnotperpendiculartothe base ofthealidade, there will
beerrorinsighting.
(f) With defective level tube.plane table will notbehorizontal evenifthe
bubble isinthecentreofits run.
'. "J
Errors illplotting
(a)Ifthedrawingpaperisnotofgoodquality, withtemperature changes it
willshrink orexpandand therewillbeerrors in plotting,
(blPlouing error will occur if the alidade is not properlypivoted against the
pointorifthickerpencilsareused. This isparticularlysoifthescaleofdrawing
is small.
Errors illsighting andmanipulation
(a)If the plane table isnot exactlyover the station point, centringerror will
occur.
(b) If the plane table is not properly oriented there will be angular error in
location ofpoints '
(c)If theplanetableis notproperlyclamped,between observations itwill
moveandthere willbe error. ' '
(d)Sightingerror willoccuriftheobjectis notbisected at themiddle.
16.6 ,ADVANTAGES A ~ D DISADVANTAGES OFPLAj\ETABL,E
SURVEY
Advantages
(a)The mapis made whilelooking at the area.Henceminutest detail can
be ploued.
(b)1'\0 field bookis necessary,
(c) Irregularlinessuch asstreambanksandcontourscanbechecked.
(d)Theplanetablecanbe,usedeveninmagnetically sensitive areaswhere
compass surveyis not possible.
(e)It is very rapidand lesscostly, '
Disadvantages
(a)The methodis not very accurate,
(b) Itis not possible [0 workunderrain orscorchingsun.'
(c) Without anyfielddata,itisnotpossibletoreplottheplaninadifferent
scale,
(d) Morefield time isrequired as theplottinghas to bedone in thefield itself.
(e) The control points are usuallyfixed by triangulation and interiorfillings
onlyaredoneby plane table.
(f) Theworkersare tobe veryskilled:IS fieldworkandplottinghastobe
doneslmultaneously and necessarycomputations have to be done in thefield
itself.
Example16.1 The planetableoperatorsetsoveranunknown ground-point and
measures adistanceof1.:!9mfromthegroundtothealidade,Therodmanholds
therod on:I pointwhose elevationis~ S 7 S m.The planetableoperatorreads
a stadia interval of 1.664 m, a V-scale reading of + 8. anda centre crosshair
reading,of \.78 m on the rod. Computethe elevation of the unknown ground
point.
Plan Table SurwJing . 513
Solution
Stadla interval = m
\Sc3Ie :; + S
Product =+ 8 x J.66-'
:; + 13J12m
Elevation of Known point = 482.75 m
Central bair reading =+ l.iS m
m
- V,D:; 13.312
=
Elevation of Instrumem Axis:; 471.218 m
- Elevation of alidade =- 1,290 in
Elevation ofground = 469.928 m
Example 16.2 Derive an expression for inaccurate centring of the plane table.
In setting up the plane table at a station P the corresponding point on the plan Was
not accurately centred above P. If the displacement of P was 30 em in :I direction
at right angles to the ray. how much on the plan would be the consequent
displacement of a point from its true position if
I I
and
..L?
r:; 2000'
r:; 200
20
Solution Let P, the original point andp the plotted position of point P. Let
A andB be the two sighted stations. The plottedangle then is APB, and the correct
A B
Pc =
b'
.. f P
Pd = 30 em
Incorrect posltlpn 0
p
Fig-, 16.13 Example 16.2.
angle APBandthe errorinangle isthedifference between APB andApB.The
linear errorincentringisPp. Angularerrorincentring isa+{3 = i'.a'andb'are
thecorrectpositionsofAandB.
The errorin the plotted positions are
,. Pc:
aa=pa Sin ex =po . a=pa x AP
bb'=pbsin{3=pb{3 =pbx
If R.F. = r
pa =APx r
pb = RPxr
aa' _ APxrxPc=rxPc
- liP .
bb' = BPx.;/Pd =rxPd
InthiscasePc=Pd=e=30em= 300 mm
(i)whenr= 2'doo' ao' = 2doo x 300
=.15mm. (small)
(
0' ) hI. , 1 "00
II W en r = 200' aa =200 x;,
=1.5mm.(large)
(ii 0) h . 1 , 1 300
III W en. C. = 20' Ga =. 20x
=: 15mm. (verylarge)
16.7 GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS
In three-point method it is necessary to fix a pointby makingobservations to
threeknown points.The sclctien of thisproblemmeans thecomputation of the
position ofastationfromobservations tothreeknown points.It maybefrequently
found necessary tolocateadditional points that arcsubsequentlyused asinstrument
stations.
Analyticalmethods
From station A.E, Care observed, Hence (i)The observed angles 8
1
, 8
2
and
(ii) lengths AB,BC.i.e. 1..
1
&:. (iii) anglef3 are known.
Method I (Fig.
sin exl =BPsin8J
InsABP
4
In sBCP
..!.. a.:.let!!.Ii ; J. . i.. . t. . . B4 .
_.a.USldt. j [

','
InABCP, .
or
Plane SIS
B
c
A
Fig. 16.1" AnJI),tic:ll solutionor threepointproblem.
s.in al = s.in e!. = K
sina:! L
s
Sin fh
al + a:= 360-- (9
1
+ e: + (3)
=: .
,al = ( - a:) orsinal =siri (rfJ - al) =K sina!
sin cosa!- cqs.tP sinal=K sinal
Dividing bycosa:
sin'r/J - tanal cosrfJ = K tan a2
sin
or
tan c- =K r"
- + cos'I'
fromwhich alcanbefound out. ThenAP, BP andCP canbefound outapplying
thesine rule.
MethodllFromtriangle ABP (Fig.16.14)
PB= L. sinal
sin8
1
From triangle PBC
PB
=
L
I
sinal _
..
sin 8
1
-
L:! sinal
sin8
2
L-:. sinal
sin8!
L
1
sinalsin8!
or sina!
=
.......
L: sin8
1
al - C(:
If
11
=
2
if!
=al.+ a!
516 FilII damentaIs of SlIn''ying
L1 sine,
and tane = L . e-
:/ Sin I
then
tan 1JI = cot(e + 45) tan 9/2
Thiscanbe derived as follows:
tan (al - a:) sint (al - al) cost (al + a:/)
tan (al + al) = sin (a, + cost (al - al)
_ sinal - sina:
- sinal + sina2
1
tan (al - a:) _ 1 _ tane
Therefore
tanJ,(al + a:) - 1+ tane
Now
tan(A +B) =tanA + tanB
1- tanA tanB
or
cot (A + B) =1 - tan.4 tanB
tanA+tanB
If A istaken to be 45
10
andB istakentobe 8
cot + 8)= 1- Ian e
1+ tane
tanJ, (al - a:)
i = COl (45
10
+ 8)
tan '1 (a I +
or tan t,:I = cot + 8) tan/2
From theaboverelation(0'1 - 0':) canbe'foundout.As(0'1 + 0':) isknown,Cl'1
and Cl': can be computed.
11I Tienstra's-Method.
Letthe coordinates ofA. 8. CbeE.... N... : E
s
lola andEe,N
e.
The coordinates of
P canthenbe determined byTlenstra'sformulae whichstate '
1' = Kif" +K:Es +KjEe
K
1
+K
2
+ K
3
B

.8
C
Plane Table Suruying 517
p
Fig. 16.13 1ienSIl'3'S method.
In the above formulae
_ 1
K1 - ,. ,.
(cot BAC - cot BPC)
1
, =
(cot CBA - cot CPA)
1 .
K
3
=
cot ACB - cot APB
Angles are measured clockwise as shown .in Fig. 16.15.
Graphical solution
Let At Band C be the three known points. e'l and e the measured angles.
l
Method I Join AC. At A draw a line AD making an angle e
l
and at C draw a
line CD making an angle er- These lines intersect at D. Draw a circle passing
through At D and C. Join DB and produce it to cut, the circle in Pwhich is 'the
required point (Fig:,16.16). " .
0'
A C
i
,I
II,
"I
p
Fig. 16.16 Graphical solution of three point problem I).
Proof LDAC = LDPC = e'1' LDCA = LAPD = e
1
asA, D, C,Pare concyclic,
'"
Method II JoinAB andBC. AtA andB draw 90:- e. withAO. and B0
1
respectively. Theycutat 0\. Similarly draw90- 9
2
atBand Cwhentheycut
at 02' With 0.ascentre'draw acircle throughA andB andsimilarly whh 0'1 as
centredrawacirclethrough Band C;'Thecircles intersect attherequired point
P (Fig.16.17).
A
Fig. 16.17 Graphical solution ofthreepointproblem (Method II).
.'
1 1
Proof LAPB =2' LAOIB =2' 29. =8
1
asA,P, Bare concyclic.
Similarly
Method III JoinAB' andBC. AtB draw alineatanangle of90- 0
1
andat
'A drawa perpendicular. Theyintersect atE. Similarly drawalineat8 atangle
of 90- 8: and <1 perpendicular at C.Theyinteresect at D.Join ED. Dropa
rrrrendicul:lr from'8 onED. ThiscutsDE atP which istherequired point(Fig.
16.18)
B
A
c
o
Fig. 16.18 Graphicalsolution ofthree pointproblem (Method III).
-
4 $ "'. 4 p 4. . :.
,.
.Plan S/lrw)'ing 519
Proof AsA,B.P and E areconcyclic LAPS - LAEB =8.
1
and L BPe =
L BDC =e:. .
l\Iethod IV Bessel's method-s-L Set up and 1<:\<:1 the: plane l.1ble over P.
2.\\'ith the along basightA. II beingtowardsA. CllllllP and pl3CC
the alidadeover b iosight C. Draw the line: dblr. Fig. 16.19(i).
3. Unclamp and with the alidade :Ilong ab sight B. b being towards B.
Clamp and sight C with th;:'alidJdc passing through a cutting d'bd :11 d.
fig. J6.19(ii). .
4. Vnc!L-:17I1' and sight C with thl: al idadealongik: and clamp, The: tableis
noworientedwiththehelpofalidade draw A.7. Thiswill intersectcd producedat
p !I) P.Bbshould now pass throughp, fig. 16.19(iii)
to C
toA
to B
,
I
\
T ,10 C
I
\
/
I
/
I
l
Bf
\
I
/
/ .
I
.\
I . /
/
\
I
I .
\ /
.

I
" / d'
I / d
\ / .
a \ /
d' b 1/
I
c
a
dr-
(ij .(ii) (iii)
Fig. 16.19. Bessel's solution (PlaneTable over stationP).
Proof From field observations .
abel' =APeandbad = BPC
.. bda =APe- BPe:::APB..
But bpc =BPC
.. bpc =bad.
.. b, a, p, d are concyclic. Hence bda =bpa
.. apb =APB
Hencep simultaneously subtendswitha, b.c the required anglesAPB andBPe.
Example16.3 ThesidesASandBCofatriangleABCwithstationsinclockwise
order are 200Imand 3114mrespectively andthe angleABC is 1540.24'. Outside
thistriangle,astation0 isestablished.thestationsBando'being: on theopposite
sidesofAC. The positionof 0 istobefoundb)'threepointresectiononA,Band
C, theanglesAOB and BOC t-eing respwively 12'and3606'. Determinethe
distances 0:\ and Oc. (V.P.)
520 Fundamentals of Sww)'ing
Solution
A
c
", 0
Fig. 16.20 , Example 16.3.
Method I
sin CCI
"sin CC2
~ sin 8
1
3114' sin 24"12'
= L. sin 8
2
=2001' sin 3606'
= 3114 x 0.4099
:!001 x 0.5892
~ 1 08"6 =K
.-
al + a2 = 360 - (24"12' + 36"06' + 154"24')
=14518' =.
tan a ~
= 0.5692
1.0826 - (0.822 I)
=
0.5692
02605 = 2.1850
a ~ = 65.40 = 65"24'
at = 145"18' - 65"24'
I
'I
LABO
=79"54'
:: ISO" - (7954' + ~ 4 1 2 )
=75"54'
."
LOBe = 78"30'
II
I
I
Plane Table Sur:.. .521
Applying sine rule
A8 _ 08 _ 0:\
sin 2..=12 - sin79=5.. ' -'sin
r.
08 -
!
- sin
i
= 2001X .93-'5 - 7'
OAw') - ...m
0,\ - 2001 x sin75:5":' . 200] x0.9695
. - sin2":'j2' :: O."09\J
=4734.60 in
Be _ oe
Similarly
sin36=06' - sin78"30'
oe - 3114sin7S030'
or
- sin36=06"
_'3114 x0.9799 '
- 05892
=5178.93 rn,
MethodII
sinCC2 _ L
1
sin 8
1
_ 2001sin3606'
sinCCI - !.'). sin8. - 3114sin2412'
:: 0.9237 =tanB
or o =42.7287.
tan", =cot(45+B) tan/2
=cot87 tan 7239'
=0.0396 x 3.2=0.1267
'" =7.2238
al - a2 =14.4476
al +al =145.3000
or 2al =159.74
al =79.87
a2 =65.43
Restcanbe-computed as before.
Example16.4 Thecoordinates ofthreestationsA, 8,andCaregiven inTable
1.Apoint0 issetupinside thetriangle andthe observations inTable 2aretaken.
Calculate thecoordinates ofstation O.
t
1-
Table 1 Example 16.4
Station
A
B
C
Easting (m)

:8377.67
Northing (m)
29236.48
31493.20
29661.04
..;
Table.2 Example 16.4
.t-ng1e Adjusted value
BOA
COB
AOC
14248'32"
9212'22"
. 11459'06"
Solution From the coordinates
. . .
AB =[(26266048 - + (31493.20 - 29236.48)2)1(2
=3143.53 m.
BC = [(28377.67 - 26266.48)2 + (31493.20.- 29661.04)2)1(2
=2795.34 m.
CA = [(28377.67 - 2';078.31)2 + (29661.04 - 29236.48)2)112
=4320048
, C')
AC
2
+ AB- - B -
LBAC ;: cos'" ( . 2 x x AB'
= cos.1

....' '+ + of.'. _,- -.1 ..:-.. -
:! x >: 3143.53
= cos"! 0.7633
= 14' 24"
LCBA =COS I A8: + BC""' - AC
2
-I
= cos
3143.53
2
+ 2795.34
2
- 4320048
2
2 x 3143.53 x 279534
= 939'36"
LACS =cos"! Co,;;' + CB""'- AS:!
2 CA CS
= cos'" &2
0
.
4
8
2
+ 279Sj4
2
- 3143.53
2
.:
2 x 4320.48 x 2795.34
= 4635'2.+"
I
I
l._
, ..
Surveying
check:
+939'36" +
=17959'2-l" :::
Coordinates of O. as given by Tienstra's Iormulaeare;
523
E
o
_
-
K.E,4 + +K)E
c
I' I' I'
n.1 + +"'3 .
Where
u
no
_
-
KINA +K:
2
N
s
+K)N
c
.
K
I
+K
2
+K
J
,.:.,,:,t-f.
KJ -- , "'. ,.. 1 _ -... __
..
K
2
1 .
=cot 4014 '24" - cot 92'12'22
.
_ 1
- 1.18149+.0385
=0.8197
_ 1
- __ ... ,..n.. . __ .I
_ 1.
- cot 939'36" - cot 12459'06
i
,
_ 1
- - .0552 - (- 0.6998)
1
=0.6446 =1.5513
K
3
-
- - .. .I.,..,...
1
... _ .....
1
- cot 46"35'24" .; cot .'
...
.'
= 0.94598 - (-131787)
=2.2J385 .=OA417 .
K, + K2 + K
J
=0.8197 + 1.5513 + OA-H7
=2.8127
E
o
- 0.8197 x 2407831 + 1.5513 x 26266.48 + 0.4417 x 28377.67
- 2.8127'
=25960.322 m
---.
N _ K
1
N.4 +~ N B + ~ N c
o - K
I
+K.
_
+K
3
0.8197 x29236.48 +1.5513 x31493.20 +0.1417 x29661.04
= 2,8127
=30547.81 m
PROBLEMS
16.1 Whatare the different methods of 'plane tabling'? Describe them fully
withneatsketches. [AMIESurveying Summer 1978].
'16.2 (a) State theadvantagesanddisadvantagesof planetablesurveying.
(b) Explainwith neat sketchesanyone methodof solvingthe 'three point
problem' . [AMIESurveyingSummer 1980).
16.3 (a) Enumerate the differentmethods of plane tablingand highlight the
topographicalconditionsunderwhich eachone' is' preferred:
(b), Explain with neat sketches anyonemethod of planetablingfor locating
~ the'details. [AMIESurveying Winter 1980]
16.4 (3) What is meant by"two pointproblem" inplanetablesurvey?
(b) Explainwithneatsketches thesolutionof"twopointproblem" inthe
field. [AMJE Surveylng Winter 1981].
16.5 (a) Describe the advantages anddisadvantagesof plane'table survey.
(b) What do you understandby orientation in plane table survey? Explain
different methodsof orientation. [AMJESurveying Summer 1983]
16.6 (a) What are the accessories requiredfor a planetablesurveying?
(b) State three point problemin plane tabling.Describe its solution by
trial and error method. Briefly indicatethe ruleswhich may befollowed
inestimating the positionofthe pointsought.
. . '[AMIESur\'cying Winter 1984).
16.7(II) State the advantagesand disadvantagesof plane, table survey over
other types of survey,
(b)Explain withsketches anyone methodofsolving thethree point problem.
I ~ l l Sun'eying Winter 1984]
16.8 (a) Withthe helpof neat sketches describethe planetablesurvey operations
of radiation and intersection..
(b)' Explain what is understoodby orientation of a plane table and howthe
methodof resectionisuseful for thispurpose.Definethe threepoint
problem and with the help of neat sketches. Describestepwise the
solution of the probleminfield by theLehmann'!'.rules.
. [A1\'llE Summer 1986)
16.9 (a) Enumerate differentmethods ofplanetablesurvey, Underwhatfield
.conditlons each methodis used?
.(b) Whatdoyou understand b)'strengthoffix? Explain withthehelpof
neatsketches, the terrnsgoodfix. badfix and failureof fix.
. I
,Plane Table Surveying S25
(C) Enumerate thevarioussourcesof error in plane table survey,\Vh:ll
precautions willyou takeagainsteach?
- SurveyingWinter 1956]
16.10 (a) What is three point problem?Howisit solvedby Bessel's method?
.'
(b) Comparetheadvantages and disadvantages of plane tablesurveying
, ,_'with thoseofchainsurveying." '
. -
. (c) In settinguptheplanetableata stntion ',\'. thecorrespondingpoint
on theplanwasnot accuratelycentredaboveA. If'the displacement
. ofAW:lS 25eminadirectionatrightanglestotheray,howmuch on
,the planwould be theconsequentdisplacement of thepoint fromits
trueposition, if (i) scale 1cm =100mand(ii) 1ern=2 m.

f,' SurveyingSummer1957]
16.11 (a),Explainwithsketchesthe methodsoforientingplanetable b)' back
sighting.
(b) Describe,withneatsketches,the application of Lehrnanns' Rulesin
solving three pointproblem. SurveyingWinter 1990]
16.12 (a) List theaccessoriesusedinplane tabling highlighting theirpurpose.
(b) Enumeratethe methods of plane tablingarid state the conditions under
whicheachoneis preferred, ,
(c) Describethe methodsoforientinga-plane table
[A},!IE SurveyingSummer1991]
16.13 (a) List theinstruments andaccessories usedinplane tablesurvey.
(b) Describethegraphical methodof adjustment ofplanetable traverse.
(c) State the methods usedfor plane tabling" Underwhatconditionsis
each of these preferredto? :'
(d) What istwopointproblem andhowitcanbesolvedin thefield'?
, . [A.\llESurveyingWinter1993]
16.14 (a) Whatismeantby planetabling?Whendoyou recommend it? State
the edvantages anddisadvantages of planetabling. .
(b) Describewithneatsketch,themethodorresection. For whatpurpose
it is used?, .' . ",.' , .
.(c) Explainclearly the twopoint problemand howit issolved.
'. [..1,.\IIE SurveyingWinter
16.15 (a) Discusstheadvantages anddisadvantages of planetablesurveying.
(b) Explain the three-point problem and show how it is solved by (i)
tracingpapermethod(ii) trial anderrormethod.
(c) InsettinguptheplanetableatastationA. itwasfound thatthepoint
a. representing the stationAon the planwas notexactly above the
corresponding stationA on theground.Ifthedisplacement ofa ina
,. direction at rizht ansles to a rav to P (AP) was 30 ern, find the
consequentdi:place;;ent of p its trueposition, given that (i)
scale of planis 1cm=150rn, distanceAP =2000rn,(ii) scaleofplan
(RF)=1/600, distance ofAP = mand(iii) scaleofplan is 1ern
=2 rn,AP =20 rn, Surveying Summer1996]
I

17
Topographical Surveying
17.1 INTRODUCTION
""
The object of topographical surveying is to produce a topographic map showing
elevations, natural and artificial features and forms of the earth's' surface. It is
drawn from field survey data or aerial photographs. Instruments required include
transit, plane table and alidade, level, hand level. tape and levelling in various
combinations. Total station EDM'sare used to advantage in topographic surveying,
Though aerial photographic methods areextensively used in preparing topographic
maps. ground methods are still required for checking aerial photogramrnetry and
alsofor plotting derails, For anyengineering project topographic surveyis a must.
Whether it is laying a railway or highway or design of an irrigation or drainage
system, the topographical features of the place must be known so that correct
engineering decisions may be taken.
17.2 CONTROL FOR TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
A topographic map should drawn in three phases as given in the following.
1. Develop horizontalcontrol producing a frame work for plotting details.
2. Plot all points of known elevation and locations of artificial or natural
features for vertical control,
3. Construct contour lines from plotted points of elevation, drawing all
features and symbols.
Horizontal control is provided by twoor morepoints on theground precisely
fixed in position horizontally b)' distance and direction. It is the basis for map
scale and locating topographical features. Usual methods are traversing, triangulation,
trilateration or inertial or satellite methods.
Vertical control is provided bybenchmarks in or nearthe tractto be surveyed,
Elevations are found out at all traverse points.
Once the horizontal control is obtained, any other point can be obtained by
usinggeometric principles as shown in Fig. 17. L The following informations are
required:
516
;;' .
",l ..,
>,fT.;;' '''.?'
. Topographkal SurwJillg 5:!i
4LiL
. B A B
A B
. (a) Two distances from (b) Two angles
(c) An;!.: .:It A.on"
A and 8 are required-
distance AP
P/I.
p
'p
~ :xc
0
~ . B C A
A B
A C
(d) Angle ot A and (e) Distance AC or BC (0 From intersection of
distance PB and distance CP two known lines AB
and CD
...
\ t A ~ C
p
.(g) Two angles at P from known stations A,B,C
Fig. 17.1 . Locating a point P.
(a) twodistances:
(b) two angles;
. (c) One angle and adjacent distance; ..
(d) One angle and the. opposite distance. The' solution is' not unique as two
points can be obtained; - . . .
(e) One distance and a right angle offset;
(f) The intersection of two known lines;
(g) Two angles at the point to beloc:l.ted.
17.3 PLOTTI;\G OF CONTOURS
In a topographic map the elevations of different points are shown by. means of
contours. From thestudy of thecontours the surface features such as hills, mountains,
depressions or undulations of the earth can be easily understood (Fig. 17.2). A
contour line is an iraaginary line containing points of equal elevation and it is.
obtained when the surface of the ground is intersected by a level surface.This can
be understood by studying the contours of a hill. Suppose a hill is cut by
L
120.00
110.00
100.00
90.00
Fig. 17.2 Contour of a hill.
(Fig: 17.2) imaginery level surfaces at 90.00, 100.00, 11 0.00and 120.00. Then the
plan of the cut surfaces will give the contour line. The contour lines will be
circular if the level surfaces cut a vertical cone, elliptical if they cut a sloping
cone. straight lines if the surface is uniformly sloping.
The vertical distance between any two successive contours is known as
contour interval. The contour interval is kept constant for a contour plan. otherwise
interpretation of contour will be difficult. The contour interval depends on
(i) nature of the ground, (ii) scale of the map. (iii) purpose and extent of survey,
(iv) time and expense of field and office work.
The contour interval should be small when the ground is flat. the scale of
the map is large, the survey is detailed survey for design work and longtime and
large cost can be accepted.
The contour interval may be large when the ground is of steep slope. the
scale of the map is small, the survey is preliminary and the survey is to be
completed in a short time and cost should be small.
17.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOUR
1. Contours must close' upon themselves though necessarily within the map.
2. Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.
3. The slope between contours of equal intervals is assumed to be uniform
and difference in contour divided by the distance gives the steepness of a slope.
Hence if the contours are widely spaced the slope is gentle, if the contours are
closely spaced the slope is steep. When the contours are evenly and parallel
spaced, it indicates uniform slope.' .
4. Concentric closed contours that increase.in elevation represent hills. If
they decrease in elevation it is a pond. Depression contours will have inward
facing radial marks to avoid confusion.
I
I
.
Topographical Slln't)'inS 529
5. Contours of different elevation never meet except on a vertical surface
such :IS overhanging cliff or cave (Fig. 17.3).

120
11 0
100
vertical surface
120
110
100
Fig. 17.3 Overhanging cliff with vertical surface.
6. Two contour lines having the same. elevation cannot unite and continue
as one line. Similarly a single contour cannot split into two lines. Two contours
of same elevation meeting in aline indicates knife edgecondition whichis seldom
found in nature.
7. Contour linescross at right anglesridge crest in the fonn of U's, Similarly
it crosses a valley also at right angles in the form of Vs. As shown in Fig. 17.4
contour lines go in pairs.up valleys and sides of the ridges,
901{\
soJA \

(a) (b)
Fig. 17,4 Contours of (a) Ridge. (b) Valley.
17.5 METHODS OF CONTOURS
There are two principal methods of locating contours (1) Direct method also
known as trace contour method; (2) Indirect method also known as controlling
pcim method.
In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the
530 Fundamentals of Sllrrcyit:g
sround.Only thosepointsaresurveyed which h-',.,..,h., '0 1--.. p'''''' d. S Dr...
r
- ""..', ....'1 . t.. .... .I'" .J:'f J".
of.pointA is 120.45 m, Ifelevation ofthe is 1.(15 :n.' iil. = I:
(FIg: 17.5). Ifwe to plotcontourlines.ofI19.120. 121. C::. 1':.J
readings shouldbe_.:l, 1.5 and0.5respectively. Therodperson hasto til .
different pointsX, Y, Z to locate thedifferent contour points,This:nethoo bf
plo:ting .is accurate and is useful for an :ngineeringstud)'
drainageorimgauon.Howeverthemethod becomesImpractical astoomuch time
isrequired withordinary methods ofreducing stadiainterval togettherequired
difference inelevation.
121.50
1.5
--_./:.._----
y
8
Fig.17.5 Direct method ofcontouring.
In the indirectmethod, thecontoursare located by determiningtheelevations
of well chosen points fromwhich thepositions of pointson thecontours are
determined byinterpolation. With theinstrument setatA elevations ofpointsB.
C,D, E canbeobtained.B, C,DandEarethe controlling points from which
contours willbeinterpolated bytopographer fromexperience andbyjudgment.
17.6 FIELD METHODSOF TOPOGRAPHY
There are many methods forobtaining contours. Two data areobviously required..
(i)Locationof thepoints,(ii) Elevation ofthepoints.
Instruments like transitor theodolite, plane table, hand level,' ED!'v11 are
used in variouscombinations to plotthepointsand computetheirlevels.The
different methodsforobtaining topographyareasfollows. '
Radiation method
In this method. the traversestations (previously plotted)are occupied with a
transitortheodolite andangles10desiredcontour' pointsandfeatures are measured.
Levels are takenalongtheseradial lines atmeasured distances from the centre.
Interpolation isusedtogivethecontourline.Thismethod isparticularly suitable
forcontouringsmallhills.Themethod isquickifsophisticated equipment likea
combinationtheodolite-EDMI (total station instrument)with selfreduction capacity
isused.
Stadia method
Inthismethoddistancesandelevations ofpointsareobtainedbystadiainterval.
azimuths and verticalangles.Themethod is'rapidandsufficiently accuratefor
mosttopographic surveys.
=--------_.. """-' ".... "
Topographical Sur....eying 531
Plane table survey
Here plane table procedures are employed to locate a point. A stadia distance
and vertical angles are 'read. Sometimes, the observation of vertical ancle is
avoided 'by using the alidade as a level.' Contour is plotted immediately ;t the
slte either by direct or indirect method. This ensures correct reproduction .of the:
area.
Coordinate method
Here the area is divided into a number of squares. the side of he square depends
on the terrain and accuracy of the survey, The instrument is then placed at a
suitable position and readings are taken at the corners of the squares, Contours are
then interpolated between the corner elevations by estimation or by proponionate
distances assuming the slope between points to be uniform. .
Cross section methods
This is usually done in connection with route survey. The longitudinal profile is
drawn along the centre line of the route. Levels are then taken at rightangles to' .:
the centre line at suitable intervals and at all break points so that atrue profile of
the area is obtained. These cross-section data can be used for compiling contours.
They can also be used for earth work computation. On some surveys contour
points are directly located along with any important change in ground slope. For
example, if 2 m contours are required, the page of the field book will be as
follows:
L at: R
so 78 .76'. 74 70 72.5 76 78 80
8.0 .
6.7 5.5 '.4.8 3.0 0.00 2.0 3.5 4.8 6.2
Contours by hand level
A hand level can be used for finding. the. height of a point when very high
precision is .not required. In this method from a known elevation and measuring
theheight of the eye of the observer," theelevation of theobserver's.eyeis known.
When levelling uphill, the point at which the observer's eye strikes the ground is
noted. The observer then moves to the new station and adding again observer's
height a new elevation is obtained.
17.7 SOURCES OF ERRORS TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEYS
Instrumental errors
(i) Since while plotting contours different instruments like transit, theodolite,
place table, hand level, are used, errors will OCCur if there are maladjustments
i!" the instruments. (ii) Errors may occur in the instruments.
.531 FUlldamc/lTcls of Surveying
Errors may also occur due To
(i) Control traverse not being properlyestablished.vchecked and adjusted.
(ii) Control points not properly selected foreasy coverage of the area, (iii) Instrument
points not properly selected for clear visibility of distant points or for contour
delineation.
r r ~ s may also occur ill mapping due to
(i) inaccurate line work from blunt or too soft pencil. (Ii) inaccurate angular
ploning with a protractor. (iii) inaccurate plotting to scale. (iv) improper selection
of scale,
Mistakes
. .
Mistakes may occur due to (i) instrument (iij misorientation. (iii) misinterpretation ' .
of field notes, (iv) inadequate number of .contour points, (v) omission of some
topographical details. ' " '
17.8 INTERPOLATION OF ,CONTOURS
Interpolation is a process' of spacing the contours proportionately between the
plotted ground points established by indirect method. It can be done by
1.Estimation Herethe positions of contour points between the guidepoints
are located by estimation based on experience 'and judgment,
2. Direct calculation The intervening horizontal distance between the guide
points is measured and contour points are located by arithmetic calculations using
theory of proportion.
3. Mechanical interpolation A rubber band marked wlthuniform series of
marks can be stretched to find the correct interval for each1ine.
4. Graphical method In this method, the interpolation is done with the help
of a tracing paper or tracing cloth. In the first method parallel Jines are drawn on
the tracing cloth representing different lines of elevation. For interpolation of
contours between two points A and B of known elevation, the tracing paper is
placed over A and B in known elevation Jines. The intermediate elevations are
thenpricked on the line. In the second method converging lines are drawn OJ:! the
tracing paper. Moving the tracing cloth over the plan so that point A lies on the
radial line representing elevation of A and point B on the radial line representing
B, the points having other elevations can be pricked. These-are explained in
Figs. 17.6 and 17.7. .
17.9 USES OF CONTOURS
The following are the important uses of contours.
1. Drawing 0/ sections From the contourlines the section alongany given
direction can be drawn. This is shown in Fig. 17.8. The levels of the points where
--------.... -- .
.
SUfw.\";ng 533
. . .
C
2
C
./

106
.
105
C, ./8
-:
104
103
102
101
100
Interpolation of contours' (A 101.2, B 104.6,' C
1
102. C:! 103 and 104)
Fig. 17.6 Tracing paper method (parallel lines).
102
101
100
a
Interpolation of contour 'A 101.2, B 104,6, C
"
C;, - 102, 103, 104 respectively. Adjust the
tracing paper so that AB is parallel to PO.
Fig. 17.7 Tracing paper method (converging lines).
the section iinecuts the contour lines are known and they can be plotted
to a scale and the profile of the section obtained. .
2. Intervisibility between points Fromthecontour lines intervisibility between
two points A and B can be determined. The points A and B are joined by a line
and section of the ground is drawn. From the lccatloo of the points in the section
and the ground profile, it is possible to find out whether A and Bare intervisible
(Fig. 17.9).
3. Plotting contour gradient and location of route Contour gradient is a
line lying through O';! on the surface of the ground and preserving a constant
53'; FlIl1damcllials oj Surveying
o
x
.(a) Section along AB
y
105
100
9S
90
A
A
93
92
91
95 96 97 9796 95 .94
(b) Contour plan
Fig. 17.8 Sectionfrom planof :1 contoured area.
105 -
104
103
102
101
100
99
98
97
96
95
94
'-'!> ......
Line of sight
...
......
..
B
90
Section AS
A
.\
\
. J 105100
I
I
95
~
C
n O ~
I
\
1 0 ~
. I
\
,
105
I
100
\
1
94 93
o ~
...::>
I
~
95
Contour Plan
A and B are notlntervlsible A and C are visible
Fig. 17.9 Inrervisibiliryof points,
. ~
"
Topographical Sun'()';l1g 535
inclination to the horizcntal: If :I. highway. railway C L n ~ or any other commcnicarion
line is to be laid al a constant gradient, the alignment can c35ily be plotted on the
plan or map, tr the Contours are at an interval of-m meters and if the gradien: is
I in n, the horizontal distance to cover m meters is min "meter. From the initial
point A. an arc should be drawn with" distance mln to locate the Ilrst point a,
Similarly from a lob and so on. The distances should be in the same scale as
contour map.
Fig. 17.10 Plotting contour gradient.
4. Determination of catchment area . A study of the contour enables us to
calculate the catchment area of a river, The catchment area of a river has a typical
pattern with ridgesand saddles. Watershed line is defined as the line which separates
the catchment basin of a river from the rest of the area. This line crosses the
contour lines at ridges and saddles at right angles. This area can be calculated
with the help of a planimeter (Fig. 17.11).
"J.'
90
Fig, 17.11 Catchment area,
'- '. .
5. Estimation of reservoir capacity .From astudy ofthecontour lines, the
reservoircapacityofadam canbecomputed.nieareas betweendifferentcontour
linescanbemeasured byplanimeter. Average areainto'depth gives thevolume
between contour'inter.a!. . '.' . . .
Wallof
dam
x
150
140
(a)
'" 130
120
110
Wall ofdam
/

-,
/
(.
.......
\'Valer level
(b)
fig. 17.12 Estirnatlon of reservoir capacity from contour.
PROBLEMS
17.1 (3) What arethedifferent methods of 'contouring'?Describe anyoneof
them.
(b) What are the usesof a contourmap? How will youdetermine the
intervisibility of apointifthecontourmap isgiventoyou?Explain
by giving anexample. Surveying
17.2 (a) Whatisa contour?Define and explain.
(b) Describe themethod ofsquares forfinding thecontours ina map of
aplotofland. .
(c) What ismeant by (i) contourinterval, (ii) Contouring bydirect method,
(iii)contourgradient? [AMIE Surveying Winter 1979]
. 'Topographical Surveying 537
17.3 .(a) Show with neat sketches. the characteristlc features of contour lines for
the following: ' ,
(i)Apond.(ii) Ahill. (iii)'A ridge,(i..,)Avalley,(v) Avertical ctiff.
(b) Enumerate the uses of contours and illustrate one such use with :1
sketch. { ~ U E Summer 1930]
17A (a) Listthe usesof :1 contouredtopographic map, Showwiththehelpof
neat sketches. the characteristic formation of contour lines for the
'following'topographic'features: .
(ijVcnical cliff (ii) Over hangingcliff.(iii) Valley. and(iv) Ridge.
(b)The areas enclosed by contour lines Jt 5 m interval for. a reservoir
upto the face of the proposeddamareasshownbelow:
Value of
Contourlines (m) 1005 10lD 1015 1020 1025 1030 1035
Area (m
2
) 400 1500 3000 .8000 18,000 25,000 40,000
Taking 1005m and1035masthe bottom most level and the highest water
levelachievableofthereservoirdetermine the capacityofthereservoirby
(i)Trapezoidal formula and(ii) Prisrnoidal formula..
I t ~ ~ "
:,J.
. ~
18
Construction Surveying
18:1 L\/TRODUCTION
In everycountry construction is a major activity and setting out, therefore, becomes
an important work for the surveyor. Nortnally surveying involves preparation of
a map or plan showing existing features of the ground. Setting out is the reverse
process of fixing on the ground the' details shown in a map or plan.
18.2 EQUIPMENTS FOR SETTli':G OUT
Normally ordinary equipments as described' before. e.g. levels, theodolites, tapes
and EDMl's are used. However, for vertical control Automatic laser levels are
being frequently used these days. They provide a continuous sharp beam of visible
light at a given grade (selectable by the operator) and maintain it at the same
grade precisely at all times. The laser beam can be intercepted at any point by a
special target. This way one knows one's own level without anyone giving readings
fromthe instrument end. An extended development of such laserlevel is to provide
a continuously rotating beam with a given grade thereby giving a plane in the
same grade. They can be applied fer tunnel alignment. machine alignment, elevator
shaft alignment, pipe laying. false roofing installation, etc. They expedite placement
of grade stakes over large areas such as airports, parking lots. ctc. Laser methods
have the advantage of being (i) convenient, (ii) quick, and (iii) accurate. However,
they are quite expensive, Theodolites combined with ~ l l s that canautomatically
reduce measured slope distances to their horizontal and .vertical components and
"total-station" instruments are also very convenient for construction stakes.
18.3 HORIZONTAL A:,\DVERTICAL CO:'\TROL
. . .
The importance of a good frame work for horizontal and vertical control in 3
project area cannot be over-emphasized. It is important fora surveyor in charge
of a project 10 describe and reference all major horizontal control monuments.
Methods shown in Fig. 18.1 can be used with intersection angle as close to 90
0
as possible.
To preserve vertical control monuments (benchmarks) it is recommended
538
COils/merion Surve....ing 539
Fig. '18.1 Horizonra] control.
thnt an adequate number of difrerential lcvel circuits hi: run to establish supplementary
benchmarks removed from areas of construction and possible displacements, yet
close enough for efficient use by construction personnel.
For brge projects, it is common engineering practice to establish :1 rectangular
srid system. Usuallv such a system is based on a local coordinate svstem. The
- oJ , .-
ends of major .r and y grids are fixed by concrete monument supporting a metal
disc. Interme?i:itepoints' are fixed. by wooden stakes 50 x 100 mm.
OUT A PIPE LINE
.,.".,.
Pipelines are of two types (i) Gravity flow lines. (ii) Pressure flow lines. Slopes
must be very carefully maintained in gravity flow lines because it utilizes only the
force of gravity for maintaining flow. In contrast, pressure flow lines generally
depend upon a pump to provide movement of liquids through the line. There are
mainly two methods: (i) Conventional Methods of using sight rail, boning rods;
etc. (ii) By means of laser. . ..-
Conventional methods' .
The steps in the conventional methods are as follows.
Principal points such as manhole locations and the beginnings and ends of
curves are established on the ground along the designedpipelinecentre line locaiion.
An offset line parallel to the pipeline centre line and farenough.from it to prevent
displacement during excavation and construction is established. Marks should be
closer together on horizontal and vertical curves.than.on straight segments. A
marker stake is placed behind the grade stake (The side of the grade stake opposite
the pipe centre line). On the flat side of the marker stake is marked "C" to the
invert or pipe flow line and the grade stake's stationlocation. On the reverse side
is shown the horizontal offset from the pipe centre (Fig. 18.2).
On hard surfaces where stakes cannot be driven, points are marked by paint,
spikes orby other means. . .
The workis usually done in two steps: (i) excavation with trenching machine
and setting of guide line (Fig. 18.3), (iij-transferring the invert grade fromguideline
to pipe invert. For transferring.invert grade the following procedure needs to be
followed.
. (a) Grade boards are erected bydriving a 5 x 10 em upright each side
of trench and nailing a 2.5 x 15 board to them.
5";0 Fundamentals (1Sur.... eying
Marked .
here C2.12
\
Cut
\
. Vertical Interval
from top of grade
Offset distance on
stake down to"
back of centre line
invert of pipe"
2 mE
"Station"
\
location of grade
Marker stake
stake 15 +00
12x 50 x 1.2 m
.tB- stake
Pipe centre line
" Edge of trench
\
\
Fig. 18.2 Layingapipeline(conventional method).
.
Contractor's .....
Stake
eGrade stake

Marker
stake
2m
GIL of pipe
. ) . ..
)." . >J Pipe
;..: ...".-;_. .
Invert of pipe
F1g:18.3 Excavation withtrenching machine.
(b) The top edge ofthe cross or arade b'oard is set at a full no vertical
i nterval (3 m in thiscase). ".... " .

L
(c)A nailis drivenintothetopedgeof thegradeboard tomarkhorizontal
alignmeRt and a stringor wirestretchedbetween eachalignrnern nailto provide
acheckinglineforpipeinstallation. ,.\ pole(!,,::; woodenpole with a richt
anglefoot on its bouorn end) tra:15fer; invert;rJJ:: fromguide line 10 rir..:
invert. . . ,
of C= :US'm. Guideline string' is::;0fixedthJt itis 3 rn(:1 full
meternumber) above invertof pipe,Hence guideline isto besetO.S5 mabove
gradestake (Fig. 13.4).
250 x 150
c: '::=
50 x
upright
Grade pole
Nail ,atcentre line of pipe
Marker stake,
It
100
0.85 m
stake
2.15 m
J-.--
j
Invert ofpipe
Fig. 18.4 Transferring grade to pipe invert.
Laying pipeline through laser
Laserequippedsurveyinstrumentscanalsobe used inlayingaccuratelypipeline.
Though laser replaces guidelines and much gradesetting and checking work.
conventional surveymethods are stillrequired for correct positioning and alignmenl.
As alreadystated lasermethodshavethefollowing'advantages: (i) LessLabour
isrequired(ii) Lineandgradecan.beaccurately staked (iii)Ongoingworkcan
beeasilychecked (Iv)Trench canbebock filled assoonasthe pipe isinstalled.
Figure 18.5,shows howthe laserbeam provides a horizontal and vertical
alignmentand replacesthe guideline. '
Figure 18.6showshowthelaserbeam canbeplaced inside 11 pipelineand
aligned along centre lineandslope.
18.5 SETTISG OUT OF STRVCTURES
The first task in sellingout a building or a structure is to locate the ownership
line.This isrequiredfor(i) to abaseline forlayout.fii) tocheckthatthe
proposed buildingdoesnot encroach onadjoining properties.
542' Fundamentals of Surveying
Laser beam
Laser u n ~ ~ --L{ ":'-_---' Target
n
... x.
Invert of pipe
Fig. 18.5 Laying pipeline through laser,
Laser .unlt
.~ _ ~ ~ j} ~ __ -fLaser beam
; . A. A A X. X. .><,. A. ~ x
Fig. 18.6 Laser beam inside pipeline.
Stakes may be set initially at the exact building corners as a visual check on
positioning of the structure but these points are lost as soon as excavation begins.
Hence batter boards are necessary. Figure 18.7 shows a typical batter board.
Wire or
sIring
Fig. 18.7 Typical bauer board.
It is usually set 1 to 2 m from each end of theintersecting building lines.
Top of the cross pieces are nailed a full number of meter above the footing base
or at first floor elevation. If possible all batter boards should be set at the same
elevation so that a level line is created. Comer stakes and baiter board points are
checked by measuring diagonals for comparison witheachother and theircomputed
values. Benchmarks (beyond the construction areaarerequired to control elevations.
After erection of batter boards, excavation of the structures' footings or basement
can begin.' ' . '
Stakinz out a building can be quickened by taking minimum instrument
c _,' _ ,
...
..
Construction Surveying 543
setups and staking many points from a single setup of the Final buildinz
dimensions, however. should be checked by tapes, ere, -
18.6 OUT A HIGHWAY
. .
. The staking 'of ahigh,way project is, usually done in the following steps.
1. The first step is to provide the contractor with stakes showing point,:;
marking limits of the construction project. This will enable the contractor to clear
the site and hence these stakes are known as clearing stakes. They are 1.5 ern x
2.5 ern x 1.25 rn.woodenlarhe and are placed 1 chain apart.
2. Next, rough cut stakes are to be provided so that, the contractor can
undertake "rough-cut" grading operations. .
These stakes are set (i) along the project centre line at 15 m interval, (ii) at
the beginning and end of all horizontal curves, (iii) at any other grade or alignment
transition. The stakes are 2-.5 cm x 5.0 cm x 45 cm. On the stakes are marked C .
or F indicating cut or fill.
"",iX'
....;tr).
Indicates stake is set
on Gil of road
Indicates vertical interval
above or below ground
surface to finished grade
\
Gil of construction
Fig; 18.8 Typical marking on stakes.
3. To guide a contractor in marking final excavations and embankments
.slope stakes are driven at the slope intercepts (intersections of the original ground
and each side slope) or off set a short distance perhaps a meter. Figure 18.9 shows
the principles of stakes: .
. Grade stakes are set at points.that have the same ground and grade elevation.
Three transition sections normallyoccur in passing from cut to fill and a arade
i"s each one. Figure 18.10 shows slope staking and grade at
transition sections.
Example 18.1 Describe the procedure of setting out of atwo storeyed building
with 200 mm thick 10::1d bearing outer walls all round. The foundation width is
750 mm. The building is absolutely rectangular and outside dimensions above
plinth level are 12.000 mm X 18,000 mm. Draw the 'foundation plan' of. the outer
5-W- F!ll1da'JJCI110!S of Surveying
IGIL of construction
Gatchpoint '
...---.._;-. -' +.-',-
., r-W/2-r .':
. I..
Offset stake and
marker SIS 1.5 : 1
Hinge point
H.\.
-(
Offset stake
and marker
./
Fig. 18.9 Principles of slope stakes.
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
I
.'
\\'311s soo".;n& all the dimensions (not to Scale). In the' above plan show lhe
c{ ,hfferentpeg.s required, for seuing out of 3Nl\C building.
Sur,cling Winter 1978)
Solution '..The 00uide dimensions are

12,000 mm x J8.000 mm
- -
14
Cocstrucston Survryir:g 5';5
Withwalls 200 mm thick centre line dimension's of building
. "..
r-:
,(12.000 - 200) x (18.000 - 200)
or 11.800 x 17.800
\\'ith foundation width 750 mrn, the outside dimensicns of foundation WJII arc:
.12.550 x 18,550
Inside dimensions are 11,050 x 17.050. These are shown in Fie. 18.11.
. .' . ~
Since this is asmall building. batter boardsmay notbe required. Insteadoffset
pegs are used.The following are thesteps:
. '
. . ...
(i) Murkthe centre line of the longest wall011 the groundby stretching a
string betweenoffset pegs I-I,
1Q'i!-" -
. ~ .
1
-
150--
2
11 .- -
116
12
9
13

I
I

.' I 3
I
17050
I
'
I
I
r
----ell
l
17800
18550
-10
_1 -r14
0
0
c:J 0
,... 1..1')
'r'" 0
,...
,...
~ l 1 5
1
2
,
l 9
12
16
Fig. 18.11 ' Example 18,1 (notto scale).
(ii) Similarlystake strings along 22, 33 and44.
(iii) Obviously33 should be at rightanglesto 11,22atrightangles to33.
44 at risht anglesto 22. The pegshouldproject15 to50rnrn abovetheground
level, ' ,
(iv)The strings intersect at 5, 6. 7. 8 andobviously57 and68should be
equal. Toensureright angles at thecornersoptical squareor theodolite may be
used or rizht ancled trianales should be formed by measuring sides in theratio
3 : 4 : 5.-If the-distance;57 and 6S are not equal" the right anglesshould be
checked,
5..;.6 Fundamentals of Surveying
(v)Similarly lines9-9, 10-10, 11-11,12-12, 13-13. 14-14, 15-15, and 16-
16should beslaked andtheequalityofthediagonalsofthepointsofintersection
checked...
(vi)Thepegs withnailat thetopshouldbefixed 'atleast1-2 rnfrom the
outsideexcavation"line sothattheyare notdisturbed duringexcavation.
Example 18.2 Duringredevelopment inacityareaablockofflatsrectangular
in planistobebuilt withthelongelevationoriented dueeast-west.
Line Wholecircle
Horizontal
.bearing distance (m)
AP 251cOO' 80.69
PQ
283
cOO'
20.64
The building, whichis to measure 86 m longby 21 mwide,islocatedinitially
bymeans ofapegat thesouth-west corner(PointA, 1,200 mE,600m N). The
remainder of the buildingcannotbe set out 3S existingproperties have notyet
beendemolished and it isessential to checkits clearancefromaproposednew
buildingline. TheobservationsintheTablearetherefore made. PointQislocated
on the proposed building line which is straight with a WCB of 13
Q30'
(Fig.
18.12). Calculate the minimum distancefrom the proposed development to the
newbuilding line. [Salford]
C
~ o
'6"v
~
Solution
wcs of AP = 251-oo
.S 71
cOO'
Reducedbearing = W
,WCB of PQ = 2 8 3 ~
Reduced bearing =N7700' W
Fromthedam the followingchartcan be obtained.
EquatingNonhing and Southing
4.64+ 0.97 1) = 26.27+ 21.00
R
s
25P
1330' D
0,
Surveying s-n
\ : ..
18.1 IS.! ,
"
Line .Length R.B. Latitude
(m) '" r-;' 5
A,P 50.69 571
4
W 16.:n 76,:9
PQ 20.!H' W .t.&.; 10.11
QR II,
' E..
0.97/
1
0.23 II
RB
N E

SA 21.00 ' 5 lSfYE 21.00 0
or {).97 II. = 42.63
II = m
, .
EquatingEastingandWesting
0.23 II + 1
2
= 96.40
1
2
=96.40 - 0.23x 43.94
=86.29 "
. RC = RB - CB = - 86 = 0.29
, ..
Minimum perpendicular distance =0.29sin7630' =0.28m.
I
l
- -
19
Underground Surveys
19.1
Underground surveying embraces survey operations performed beneath the
surface of the earth in connection with. tunnelling, exploration of. caves and
construction in subterranean passageways.
Underground surveys arc essentially similar to three-dimensional surveys on
the surface in that the purpose of all 3nleand distance measurements. is to obtain
the horizontal and vertical coordinates of <1 point. the positionofwhich is unknown
with respect to a point of established location.
The following peculiarities of underground surveys.indicate how they differ
from surface surveys. . '. .
1. The lighting in underground passageways is generally poor and artificial
illumination must be provided 10 view instrument crosshairs. to read verniers, to
sight targets, and to permit normal movements of survey presonnel in executing
their duties.
2. The working in is often cramped.
3. In certain types of operations. lines must be carried through locks
in pressure chambers.
4. In many instances the underground workings arc wet, with considerable
water dripping from the roofs of passage ways and running along the floors.
5. Instrument stations and benchmarks for levelling must often be set into
the roof of a passageway to minimize disturbance from the operations being
carried on in the workings.
6. Instrument stations are set with some difficulry since plugs must be driven
into drill holes in rock.
7. Lines of sight are frequently very.short either because (If crooked passage
or because aligninent must often be brought down from the surface through
small shafts. Care must therefore be taken in all surveying operations involving
the alicnmcnt of tunnels or the runninz of undercround traverses.
.
8. The sights taken in shafts and sloping passageways are often sharply
-;:,,.::.;[, .

:
.
. '<';"
inclined and it is frequently necessary to observe both horizontal and vertical
angles through a prismatic telescope or eyepiece or through an auxilliary telescope
mounted either above the main telescope: or to one sic:: of the instrument standards,
9. It is much more difficult to keep satisfactory survey notes when the
workings are wet or dirt)' and the illumination is poor.
10. Plumbing down the shaft constitutes a special problem which is peculiar
to underground surveying.
. 11. Two vertical dimensjons, from a line of sight to both the floor and
ceiling of the passage are involved in underground surveying whereas only' one
vertical dimension is normally encountered in surface surveys.
19.2 OF SURVEYS
The major application of underground surveys is in the construction of tunnels
and other underground utilities. Tunnel is constructed when open excavation becomes
uneconomical usually when it is more than 20 in. It (1) reduces the grade;
(2) shortens the distance between given points separated by a dividing mountain
or meets the demand of-modern rapid transit in a city. Tunnel is a very
costly venture, hence it must follow the best line adopted to proposed traffic and
it must be economical in construction and operation. Hence survey of tunnel is
very important and explained in detail. -
The following engineering operations are 'to be performed in any tunnel
construction. (i) exact alignment, (ii) proper gradient, and (iii) establishment of
permanent stations marking the line or the proposed route.
The survey. work in connection with tunnelling can be divided into four
types: (a) surface survey, (b) transferring the alignment underground, (c) levels in
tunnels, (d) underground setting out.
19.2.1 SURFACE SURVEY
Surface survey connects points representing each portal of a tunnel. A traverse
connecting the portal points determines the azimuth, distance nnd differences in
elevation of each end of the proposed tunnel. The methods to be adopted for
connecting surveywork'depends on local conditions and length of proposed tunnel.
Itis always advisable that the survey is based on suitable local coordinate system.
The alignment is permanently referenced b)' a system of monuments within an
area outsideeach tunnel portal. Aworking sketch of howtunnellingworkproceeds
is shown in- Frg. 19.L _
Centre line and grade stakes within the tunnel are usually set in the roof to'
avoid displacement arid destruction by the constant flow of people and machinery
as construction proceeds. If stakes are set on the floor they should be offset into
an area along the tunnel's edge'. .
. . .
19.2.2 VERTICAL SHAFTS
For long tunnels' excavation are carried inward from bethportals. But vertical
550 Fundamelltals of Surveying
monuments
.Fig. 19.1 Surface survey suspended from hooks fitted in roof.
shafts are also sunk upto required depth along the alignment of the tunnel at
intermediate locations along the routes. The vertical alignment can be done by
(i) Plumb bob, (ii) Optical collimator, (iii)' Laser.
A heavy plumb bob (5 to 10 kg) is suspended on either a wire of heavy
twine. Oscillations of the bob can be controlled by suspending it in a pot with
high viscosity oil. The bob is suspended from a removable bracket attached to the
surface side of the shaft. ..'.
Optical plumbing becomes important with the increase in depth of internal
shaft. Various types of plummet are for upwards and downward sighting
to allow the establishment of a vertical line and these are normally manufactured
so as to be interchangeable with theodolites on their tripods. As the line of sight
of a theodolite in adjustment will transit in a vertical plane, it can also be used
to check perpendicularity,
Pentagonal prisms attached to the objective end of the telescope of a theodolite
can facilitate transfer of a given bearing to different levels as in the case of
surface and underground lines as well as upward and downward plumbing.
Mark painted on
heading
, Roof
Transit or theodolite used.
to "double centre"
alignment

... --_.. --- ---_ .. ..... -
Permanent
I
.f
Fig. 19.:! Pentagonal prism.
. The advantages of :10 optical collimator are: (i) convenient than a
plumb bob. (ii) Can be used to set marks directly on the floor of a completed
shaft, (iii) 1\0 w ires. as in case of plumb bob. is necessary.
A laser equipment can be, used to, provide J vertical line of sight. The laser
--------
l
. Underground Surveys 551
generates a light beamof high intensity and of low angulardivergence andcan
be projected over long distancessince spread of the beam is very small to
provide a visible line forconstant reference.userusedinsurveying equipment
isheliumneongaslaserwhichproduces abrightredbeamwhichclearly intersects
ascaleorrule.Here).=0.6328X 10-
6
mand/::-!.74 x IO
I J
Hz,It ischaracterized
byanextremely long rangeof upto"100 krn, Relativelygoodaccuracy (5mrn
to I.'rnm/krn) possible with laser carriers since laser is a source of very
coherentandstableradiation.Thedisadvantagesoflaserare(i) BUlky(ii)Requires
more electrical power(iii) Can damagethe eye.
19.:U LEVELS
In transferring levels underground, littledifficultyisencountered <It theendsof
the tunnelbut at theshaft use ismade of (i) steel tape, (ii)chain, (iii) specially
constructed rods,(i... wires.Inallcasesthemainideaistodeduct theheight
oftheshaft measured from thetopof <I benchmark of knownvalue. In modem
days isalso used,Figure19.3 howdepthismeasuredbyasteeltape.
...."
I . support for Tape
I ..and Weight
0
1
Surface'
..
Depth ofTunnel
. = 0
1
- 2
, : Tape
r- Tunnel
Levelling lnstrument : Bottom of
Tunnel
8 to 10 kg. ,/
Fig.19.3 Transferring level underground.
Figure 19.4showshowdepthismeasured byED:\II.Theimportantfeatures
of laser measurement are: .
(a) ED:;...n unit and reflectorsshouldbein thesame vertical line.
(b) Both are mountedon stablesupport.
(c) Visibility should begood fat Em,,1I to operate.
19.3 ALIG:\I:SG THETHEODOLITE
Thereisdiversityinpracticeastothepositionofthetheodolite atboththesurface
andthe bottom oftheshaft.Theabovegroundsurveyislinkedwith theworking
. Laser instrument
Stand
~
',11n .-'
~ l
. I
R.L. of reflector =R.L.
of laser-V.D.
Reflector
. c- R.L. of the Ilne known from
'.'conventional levelling.
Vertical distance
.measured bylaser'
8.M. on ceiling to
.be set by
conventional
\; 9
Fig. 19.4 Useof Laser.
surface of a tunnel through vertical shaft. Transfer of surface alignment 10
underground may bedonethrough plumbbobsorbyvertical collimator. Transfer
of alignmentdown shaftby. l u ~ b bobsis shownin Fig. 19.5..
Permanent
monument
I
Ordinary theodolite
Control pc'nts on ceiling
1\
"
~
- ....
...... .. ..
.-'::i..A..;:-
II
(
1/1\
Instrument i:1 Uris
with wires
Fig. 19.5
II
Theimportant features of thisare:
r '//)
Wire
Alignment mark on
face of t"leading
v
Plumb bob 5- 10 kg
Transferof alignment.
1. Thetheodoliteis placedon'thecorrectalignmentat thesurface.
"II
2. Two wires with plumbbobs'are suspendedfrom points alongthealignmenl
marked by theodolite paintings.
Underground Surve....s 553
3. Theodolite' at the-tunnel floor is now aligned in line with the two plumb
bobs. .
4. With the aligned theodolite controlpoints areset on the tunnel roof.
In the case of vertical collimator. two points on the top of shaft are transferred
on the floor through vertical line of sight. These points are utilized In a precise
double centringoperation to prolong the tunnel alignment.
19.4 OF BY GYROSCOPE
Reliable azimuths are ordinarily determined in survey work by measuring angles
from existing reference azimuthal' by making observations on the sun or the stars.
However, in many situations such :IS in underground mine surveys or where the
area is perpetually overcast with clouds, these methods would not be possible.
The gyroscope, on the other hand," permits the determination of reliable azimuths
under these adverse: conditions.
A gyroscope, is usually attached to the top of a theodolite. Inside the
gyroc0:tmpass a gyrornctor is suspended an a thin tape similar to a plumbbob. The
uppeffend of the tape is connected to the upper end of the'tubular housing at the
top. A schematic cross sectional view of the gyrocompass is shown in Fig. 19.6.
The moving mark oscillates with the gyroscope. This mark is converted to a
V-shaped index which is viewed through the eyepiece. The eyepiece is
attached to the instrument and as such it .is fixed with respect to the allidade of
the theodolite.- ..
Suspension tape
Light source

Moving mark
. Gyroscope
I
I
I
1
. Fig. 19.6
V-shaped index
I ....... " .
Viewing eyepiece
Schematic diagram of gyrocompass.
\
I
, In practice, the-theodolite telescopeis set up.roughly pointing towards the
North by means of prismatic compass or tubular compass (taking into account the
declination of the compass needle).The gyrocompa.ss is then fitted on the theodolite
with the telescope in the face left position. The gyromotor is now turned on and
allowed to run UPiO full operating speed. As the spinner oscillates about the
meridian. the gyroindex mark can be observed through the eyepiece as moving
"ftCfOSS the-graduations.contained in the eyepiece scale. Thus if the mid-position
of the oscillations is established, the telescope line of sight at the station is oriented
towards the north and the purpose of all observations is to determine that position.
- .One method of doing the above is the Turning Point Method. Here the
observer follows the oscillation of the moving mark and tries to. keep it at the
centre of the V-index by turning the horizontal circle tangent screw.. When a
turning point is reached, the moving mark will remain stationary on the V-shaped
mark and the corresponding horizontal circle reading has to be obtained quickly.
The observer then follows the movement of the moving mark following the v-
index until the opposite turning point is reached. The horizontal circle is again
read and recorded. If the three successive turning points are 'I. '2 and r). the mean
value ro is given by
. '1'+ 2r2 + '3
'0 =
4
.This approximate value is known as Schuler Mean. If the readings are more than
three. mean of the Schuler means of three consecutive values is taken. This gives
the reading for True Nonh. The azimuth of a reference mark is then obtained. The
azimuth of a reference line is established by sighting on a reference mark with
both face left and face right conditions and taking the mean of both readings. If
,\1 is the mean circle reading of reference mark and N is the true North reading,
the azimuth of the line is At -.\1 as shown in Fig. 19.7.
True North
Line of sight for True t ~ r t
Reference mark
reading 1.1
Fig.19.7 Azimuth of line.
If, however, the direction of the line of sight of the telescope of the theodolite
was not on the symmetrical line of the oscillatory mark and differed by angle E
then azimuth of the lines becomes
A=M-N+E
as shown in Fig. 19.7. The procedure may take 20 10 30 min but yields an azimuth
Underground Slln'(ys555
with a standard deviation of -20"'. The instrument is"expensive and can be used
profitably only in large projects.' . .... . . , . . .
. The other method of determining azimuths using the -gyrocompass is the
transit method. The theodolite is. firs: set up and' oriented to approximate :'\onh.
the clockwise' horizontal circle is read.With the help of :1 stop watch the time tL
taken for the moving -mark to move fremthe \'-inde:x. to the left and back to the
V-index is noted'. This is known -as positive swing time. Similarly, the negative
swing timetR is the time taken for the moving mark ro travel from the V-index
to the right and back to the \':indcx (negativeswing time). If the average: tL is
equal to the average then the line of sigbt points to the true north (except for
E). If not. and' the differenceis t.1r a correction i.1.V must be applied to the initial
circlereadingY to get the 'true north N. 11'1 is givenby the expression
iJ..iI,' = caat
where c is aproporticnality factor relating scale readings to time, a is the mean
of amplitudes left" and right and L1t is equal to tL - fR' Then,
N = N + tlV
"', ' .
the proportionality factor c two observations shouldbe made directions
N{ and N5. about 15' to the west and east respectively of the middle oscillations
of the moving mark. The following two equations are then obtained
. . ,"' :'
N = + cL1r1 a1'
.. . -'. --
Solving
19.5 WEISBACH TRIAl';GLE
This is a method of connecting the surface and underground surveys and avoids
direct alignment Here tlie theodolite is set up at C near and almost in line with
AB so that the effect of error inBC or AC on eis least when eis least, e=ACB
being usually less than 30'. The angle eis measured very accurately as also the
distances AC, BC and as a check, AB (Fig. 19.8). In order to get a check on 8,
the anglesACD, BCD which AC arid BC make withanyline CD may be measured,
ebeing found by subtraction. If desired, the offset CE from the verticalplane of
AB can be calculated and a line parallel to the centre line set out. The weakest
A
o
, Fig. 19.8 Weisb:lch triangle. .
556 Fundamentals oj Suneying
point inthemethod isthefact thatlines andanglesaremeasured from unsteady
points AandB, rendering itnecessary totake theextreme positions oftheplumb
wire.
Example 19.1 The following notes refer to the alignmentdown a shaft bymeans
ofWeisbach triangle, A andB beingtheplumbwires. C andD therespective
surface and underground theodolite stations. and P and Q thereference points
accordingly. Determine theanglebetween thereference lines CP andDQ. given
thatzeroreadings weretaken onthereference pointsoneach case.
Station Line Length Angle
inm
C CA 4.34 7216'25"
CB 8.83 7216'21"
AB 4.48
D DA 4.91 1i64'36"
DB 9.40 1764'27"
Solution
. p
c / .
'<;.L 7216'21" .
0" 8.83.
4.34 .
A B
Fig. 19.9, Example 19.1.
011 the surface For smallangles (Fig. 19.9)
"'\ .. '" -" -
CBA = -;-:;-s x 4.." ... =.).S/:>
....... .
Therefore eAo: :1 + 3.Si5 ::: 7.S75"
and eOA:: PCA - CAO
,.. -7.875"

Underground Similarly(Fig. 19.10)
9x4.91
DBA .-
4A8
=9.87"
o
""'--------,
a
.." ..
Therefore,
and
But
Hence anglebetween
",,I'f; "
9.8T'
B
A.4.40 m
, .
M
Fie:: 19.10
DA.\f
DMA
CGA
CP andDQ
, Surveys 557
'Ex3mpte 19.1.
=9+ 9.87=18.87"
=176'4'36" - 18.87"
==
== 7216'17.125"
== 10348'0.005"
Example 19.2 Two plumb wires A and B in a shaft are 3.642 m apart. A'
theodolite wassetupat Cslightly off the lineAB andatadistance of6.165 m
from thewireB. The angleACB wasfound tobe121" (Fig. 19.11). Calculate the
rectangular distance fromC to thelineAB produced. (logsin 1" 6.6855749)
, ' , n.C.E]
A
3.642 m 8
121"
D
c
Solution
sin ),
If'
or
e
., 6' 165 sin2'1"
-" . 3.6-l2
=3'24.82"
= AC sin
= (3.642 + 6.165) sin
=9.807 x 9.93 x
== 97.38 x m=9.738 mm
Example 19.3 Thecentrelineof a tunnel AB shown inFig.19.12 is[0 beset
outtoa givenbearing.A' shortsectionof the main tunnel hasbeen constructed
I
I
558 FUlldamell1als ofSurveying
along theapproximate lineand access isgained to itby meansofaditconnected
to.1shaft.TwowiresCandDareplumbed down theshaftandreadings aretaken
ontothem bya theodolite setupatstationEslighlyoffthe lineCD produced.
Apoint Fislocatedinthe.tunnel andsighting,is takenontothisfrom stationE.
Finally a furtherpoint G islocated in the tunnelandthe angle EFG measured.
From the surface' survey initially carried out, the coordinates of CandD have
been calculated andfoundto beN1119.32 andE 375.78 and N 1115.70 andE
375.37 rn respectively. Calculate thecoordinates of station F andG. [I.e.E.]
_----:TL!.nne_l__. -- B
A
G
( ,;;;
Shaft .
; ; 7 ;' _ ; ; ; ) ) I ; , , ) 7 7 ) ; r. , I ; ;; ; ; 7 ; } ;
Fig. 19.12 Example19.3. CD=3.64m,DE =4,46 rn, EF = 13.12 rn,
FG =57.50m, Angle DEC =38",AngleCEF= 16710'20",
Angle EFO =87"23'41".. '
Solution
LDCE = 4.46 x
3.64 ..u
:: 46.6"
CE ..... CD+DE
=3.6-t +4A6
. =? 8.10m
CE
_ 3.64
sinCDE - sin.3S"
Csin3S"
or sin CDE :: "6-l
S.lO .'
- - S'n "I
- 3.64 1,_
LCDE =84.56"
::
or
Thisisexternalangle.
Bearing, of DC
Coordinates.ofC = 1119.31 mE375.78 m,
.CoordinatesofD =S 1115.70 rn E375.37 m
,. . ("'-'7"
-.
375"'7)
-' '. B'"' aofDC -I " .
: I,;;]n,n,:. 0 .' . -. IJn 111931 -:- .1115.70 .E
= 627'42.4" E
Bearing of ED =:\ (6'27'42";" - O1'2U6")E
=N 6=26'17.S4" E
BearingofEF = 626'17.8":'" +33" +167'W20"
=173'37'15.S..r
Quadrantal bearing =S0622'44.16" E
Bearing of FG =17337'15.84" - (ISO'- 8723'41")
= 17337'15.84" - 9236'19"
=N 81oa54.84" 1;
Coordinates ofF = Coordinates ofDLatitude/Departure of
DE Latitude/Departure of EF
'BearingofED =N 626'17..84" E
.
BearingofpE = S 626'17.84"W
Latitudeof DE = 4.46 cos626'17.8"
=4.432 m
Departureof DE = 4.46sin626' 17.8"
=0.500 m
Bearing of EF =S0622'44.16" E
Latitude ::: 13.12 cos0622'44.16"
=13.038 m
Departure-= 13.12 sin0622'44.16"
. ,=.1.457m
Bearing of FG =N8100'54.84" E
Latitude =57;50 cos 8154.84"
=8.9798 m
Departure =57.50 sin Slo00'5..L8..r'
=56.79+1- m
Latitude of F = 1115.70 -4.432- 13.038
=1098.23 N
Departure of F =375.37.-0.500 + 1,457
= 376.327 E
Latitude of G =1098.13 + 8.98
=1107.21 N
Departure of G =376.327 + 56.794
=433.121 E
Example 19.4 Bore holes are sunk at points A, Band C to locate a coal seam.
Thecoordinates of Band C relative to A are respectively in m (N 1334, E 33) and
(N 167, E867) (Fig. 19.13). The data levels andbore hole depths to the seam are:
A ~ 200 M.S.L. and 506 m, B 187 m M.S.L. and 460 rn; C,= 213 M.S.L.and 587
m. Find the magnitude and direction of the dip of the seam.
33
1334
A
1167
c
. 167
.,t :,,;
(0, 0)
867
Fig. 19.13 Example 19...t
Solution Data arc given in the tabular form below:
Table 19.1 Example 1904
Point Coordinates Ground. Scam R.L. d Level
level depth scam relative
N E 10 C
.,4 o o :WO
:(JS - ::(i(,
+ 6S
B
. 1334
33 IS7
~ 6 0
~ ~
- .;./.'
+
101
C
, 167
867 213
587,
- 3 7 ~ 0.00
-I 1167' ., -I 1"'4 -... "'90
a =tan S67' =t..n ..;)' .=::I.'."
BC =11 67 cosec 53.39'
=P53.S rn.
Let F be the poin: in the scambelow DC :I: t ~ : : sarne Icvel 3\ the SC:1m at A.
CF
63 BC 6:'; 1'-"S' 9-... -9
Th
en = 101 x =lOl
x
.. ~ . =, . / ~ . I rn
For CF
Lat. =978.79 sin a
. =978.79 x 0.802
= 7SS.78m
Dep. =- &78.79 cos ce. =...; 583.72 rn
. . . . .
Hence F is 167 + 785.78= 952.78 m. North of A
and 867- 5S3.n =283.28 m East of A
. -
LAFC = 180 - (a + {3)
=180 - (53.39 + 73.44)
=53.17 =r
Drop a perpendicular CG from C onto AF. Then CG is the line of the greatest
slope of the seam (i.e. the dip of the seam)..
Length CG = CF sin i'
=978.79 sin 53.17
= 783.44 m
Angle
8 =90 - r =36.83
1] =90 -ce =90 - 53.39 = 36.61
.. Whole circle bearing of GC, the direction of the dip of the seam
;:; 180
0
-73.44 =106.56
. and magnitude of dip == u8 min 783.44 m
= 1 in 11.52 m
. '. .
Example 19.5 The following table gives the coordinates and reduced levels
of two points P and Q on the centre line of a straight tunnel; together with those
of three points A.. Band C 'on the upper plane surface of a stratum 'of rock
as determined by bore holes. Determine the coordinates and reduced level of
the point at which the 'centreline of the tunnel meets the upper surface of the
stratum.
562 Fnndamcntols ofSurveying
Point Coordinates (m) ReducedLevel(rn)
N E
p
Q
A
B
C
67.00
200.00
370.00
o
100.00
0.00
700.00
430.00
470.00
700.00
265
272
335
262
215
Solution Takethe origin of three dimensional coordinates at the projection
on todatumoftheoriginofthe twodimensional N-E coordinates.Takethe.\"
-axistoruneast,they-axistowardsnorth andthez-axisverticallyupwards. The
equation ofthestraightlinejoining points (XI' YI' ZI) and (x::, Y2' are,
,x - XI Y - )1 Z - ZI
=
X2 - XI )'2 - )1 Z2 - ZI
Therefore theequationofthelinePQ joiningpoints P (0,67,265)andQ (700,
200,272)
.!..=...Q =Y - 67 =Z - 265 =A. (s: )
, (19.1)
700 133 7 say
Theequation oftheplanepassingthrough thethreepoints(430,370,335),(470,
0, 262)and(700, lOa,215)is .
x )' .,Z
1
430 370 335 1
=0
470 000 262 1
700 100 215 1 ,!, "
0'
or
x
100
4.3
4.7
,.
'100
3.70
0.00
100
3.35
2.62
=0
7.0 1.00 2.15
or
x
100x.
3.7
a
1.0
335
2.62
2.15
.1.0
1.0
v
...:--x
100.
1.0.

i.O
335
1.62
2.15
1.0
1.0
1.0
43 3.7 1.0 4.3 3.7. 335
+ .Z' x
100
4.7
7.0
0.0
1.0'
1.0
LO
- 1
4.7
7.0
0.0
1.0
2.62
215
=0
i a .4$#414.: # :.a.a.:, Aka
llndcrgrowidSunt)"f, 563
the determinants .'
or 2,469 - + 8.91 -3S65 =0
(19.::!)
." . .. .. - r
From Eq. (19.1) x = 700 ).
09.3)
, .)' = 67 + 133 ).
09,0$)
,,": =265 + l). '
(19.S)
Substituting in Eg. (19.2):lnd simplifying '
,). =0.S57
Substituting the values of). in Eqs. (19.3) to (19:5) we 'bet
x =iOO x 0.857 =600 m E
)' = 67 + 133 x 0.857 = 180.93 m i'\
z = 265 + 7 x 0.857 = 271 mR:L.
19.6 Using the Schuler mean calculate the bearing of reference object
B the following observations taken at station A using a gyro theodolite.
Horizontal circle readings to B: face left 4226' 15"I face right 22226'25"
Angular readings of successive gyro turning points were as follows:
left 27620.1' right' 28032.4'
27621.6' 28030.8'
'27623.3' 28029.5'
The calibration constant of the instrument is + 2.6'. [Bradford]
Solution Schuler mean of three turning point observations is 'given by the
expression
(aI' + 2'12 + a3)'
4
2760:201' + 2(2800:32.4') + 2760:21.6'
Hence
1st Mean = 4
=27829.675'
28032.4' + 2(27621.6')+ 280OJO.8'
2nd Mean = 4
- = 27826.60'
2760:21.6' +2(28030.8') + 276233'
=4
= 27826.625'
2800:30.8' + 2(2i6233') + 280295'
. Ath Mean =
4
l_
FundamentolsofSlln'eying
.. 'Mean value =27826.6'
Theazimuthof J line
A=M-N+E
where M is the mean circle reading of Referencemark.
N = Truenorthreading
E =Calibration constant
Here /If =Corrected reading fromface left andface right observations
N = 2is026.6'
But M - N.becornesnegative hence360should be added.
Therefore
Example 19.7 The following 'transit' observationswererecorded witha gyro
theodolite attachment on alaboratory baseline bearing
Observationslast oftrue north
Horizontal circle readingduringtransitoscillations=1530.00'
Horizontal circle readingto reference object= 1B032.45'
Transit times:0 min 0 s, 03 min57.7 s, 07 min 20.5 5.11 min 18.5s, 14min
41.1 sAmplitudes- 10.8,+ 8.3,- 10.7,+ 8.2..
Observations we-SI oftrue north
Horizontal circle reading duringTransitoscillations= 15
c
OO.00'
r:,.
Horizontal circle reading to reference object=1B
c32,45'
Tir:H:S or transit: 0 min 0 s, min05.7 5
07 min 2004 5,11 min s, 14min41.:! s.
Amplitudes: + 7.9. - 5.6. + 7.9. - 5.5
DeterminetheadditiveCOnstantandtheproportionalityfactor forthisparticular
attachment stating carefully the unitsofboth. [CEI]
Solution
Timc of transit limeof swing lime diff Amplitude Meanamplitude
!eft + (5) .1t(5) reading reading
o ,<:.t) s
03min57.7 s ;... 137.7 - 10.8
07min20.5s + 202.8 - 34.90 + 8.3 10.05
11 min 18.5s -138.00 - 35.20 - 10.7 9.50
min.;1.1 $ + 202.6 - 35.40 + 8.2 9.45
_ $ 2.0" :.14 IPa tN.t .4- _..;4 4.cast. ShSld. $ ai-au k aAtJi..0_4.,( . AU 04 ..tP ; t. .0. , II
-
MC3n =- 35.17 S
amplitude aE. .= 9.67
Table J9.3 Eumple 19.i
Time oftr.1nsit Time of s'o\o ing .
left + (s)
Time dlff
.1'(5)
Amplitade
rColding .:
amplitude
rC.lding
omin 00.0 s
Q-$ min OS.7 s
07 min 20A s
I! min 26.0 s
min 41.1 s
+ 2.t5.7
-
+ 2.t5.6
- 195.2
51.0
50.2
SOA
+ 7.9
- 5.6
+ 7.9
.;; 5.5
6.75
6.75
6.iO
Mean = 50.77 s
Mean amplitude Gw =6.73
X aE = - 35.17 x 9.67 = - 340.09
LJ.rw x aw =+ 50.77 x 6.73 =+ 341.68
- 1500.00'
C = 341.68 _ (_ 340.09)
30
= 681.77
=.044'ls
CawtJtw =0.044 x 34i.68 =15.03'
Ca
E
.1t
E
=0.044 x 340.09 =14.97'
. For the eastern setting
Corrected - N'+ E
=14332'27" -(1530'00" -14'58.2")+ E
E =26.8"
For the western setting similarly
E =43"
., '9" 0 - '"
Average E ="'.... :::: .:>:) ..
_ J
I
566 Fundamcntols of Surveying
19.6 PROBLE:\lS l ~ T U ~ ~ SURVEY
Asalready explainedtunnellinginvolves (i) Surfacealignment. (ii)Transferring
thealignment underground usually through verticalshafts.Hence fourcases may
arise.
1.Surfacealignment ispossible anddepthisnotgreatsothatvertical shaft
can easilybe constructed.Here vertical shaft is to be constructed andsurface
alignment istransferred underground asexplainedinSection19.3andFig.19.5.
2.Whenthe vertical shaftcanbe constructedbut surface alignment isnot
possible.Thisoccurswhen tunnelling intown orotherbuiltupareas.Twoproblems
may arise: (a) It is impossible to set out the lineon the surface. (b)Theshafts
cannotbeplaced on thecentrelineofthe tunnel.In thefirstcase. theposition.
direction andchainageof thecentrelineat any specifiedpointcanbeobtained
bytheuseof a precisetraverse andthecorrectedcoordinatesofthetraverse. In
the secondcase whichoccurswhenthe tunnel is under a major highway. it is.
necessary touseaneccentricshaft,thelatteristhenconnectedwith thetunnel by
means of an 'adit' orentry tunnel. This is explainedin Example 19.3.
3. Whenthedepthbelowthesurfaceistoogreatfor shafts tobesunkbut
surfacealignmentis possible.Here brickor concretestructuresstyled 'observatories'
are erected atdifferent pointsA, B, C, D, E, F. etc. with a separate pier for
carrying the theodolite. Work progresses simultaneously from both ends and
alignment ischeckedfrombothBand C.Shaftsare constructed attheendsfor
alignment purpose.
opa are on theproposed
centre line W
3E3
atthelevel
ofthetunnel. Ell E
2
W
2
-
o
BrickPillar
Fig. 19.14 Surface alignment.
4. When both vertical shaft and surface alignment are not feasible. Here
surface alignmentisdonethroughtriangulationandtunnelling operation through
bothendsas in case 3..' .
19.7 ANALYTICAL DERIVATIONS OF U!\'''DERGROU:\D SURVEYS
Sloping plane surfaces
Let A.A and BB be plane contours or horizontal lines in the planeAB, a the
t.. ,
..
Eastside
Westside
Forchecking
L
Ur.dusro:mdSurveys 567
B R 0
I
B
a
A
1--'
a ----....,
(a)
A
o
(b)
P A
p4---.-l
a tan ()
--'-_
a cosec
0'
(c)
Fig.19.15 Sloping plane surfaces,
distance betweenthese linesand ethe angleof steepest slopeinAB
(Fig. 19.15 a. b). . . . .
1. IfAA be theassumed direction ofmeridian anda line PQ of bearing.
'and,inclination wtothehorizontal lieintheplane(Fig.19.15b),Thensincethe
heightofB above AorPisa tan. e. it isequalto'the.height of Q aboveP.
tan OJ = alan e.
Hence
acosec
=tanesin
or sin =
. tane
2.If. however,thedirection III isprescribed foragiven slope ()) along' PRJ
cuttingwillresult if/II>andfillingif 111< when()) risesfromPtoRandthe
difference-in elevation between Rand B will be
a (tan e- cosec ljI tanw)
3.The lateralslope). inthestratumatrightanglesto. PQ. asshowndotted
will besuch that a sec (90"+ - 90") tan ;. =a tan e
or t::ln). =tan
seq'
while at right'anglestoPR, butinthesurface.
tan).= tOlO e .
secljI
Three pointproblem
Given theboringsto threepoines on astraturn to determine dip andstrike.
:c,.) Fundamentals of Surveying
A' .tJ
90 f
Fig. 19.16 'Three point problem.
Let A, Band C the positions of the bore holes. A is the highest point and
B is the lowest point. At A. AA' is drawn perpendicular to AC and CC is drawn
at C perpendicular to C. 'a' represents the level difference between A and Band
c (small) the level difference between B andC. Join ArCand when produced it
cuts AC produced at E. Join BE which is the direction of the strike. Drop
perpendicular AF from A to line BE at F, Draw AlY perpendicular to AF and equal
to a. Join D'F (Fig. 19.16). LAlY F = angle of dip e.
Analytically
AE::: a X AC
(a - c)
From the triangleEAB
1 '
AE - AS _ tan 2' (0 - y)
:i.E + Ali - tan -t (0 + y)
or
tan t(15 - y) = . tan (0 +r)
= AE-EB Ian 1 {l so:> - (a - f3))
AE+ EB 2 "
Hence t (0 - r) can be calculated.
Also t (0 + r) =t {180 - (a - m') The bearing of the strike will be
- -.' .
IS0 + f3 -8 ora + '(
where a and f3 are the given bearings.
AD' a
tan 8 = Af::: AB sin <5
Underground Sur. f)'s 569
Intersect/oil of the centre line of atunnel .,.iJh a rock strtlJUtlf
LetA. B. Cbe theplansofthe.hertngs andP. agivenpointofthe centreline(If
thetunnel whose coordinatesor bearingsanddistances areknown.lei8 bethe
datum pointso that the a. p and c of pointsA. P andC are lno\\n.
Letthecentre line PQ of the: tunnelcutAB inD and AC in E. At P. PP' is
drawnperpendiculartoPQ andequal'to p, Atf. EE: iserected perpendicular ,to
PQ andequal to p +PEln where: n is thegradientof theline.Join P'E', AtA.
perpendicularsA-\' andAX' equaltoa aredrawn, A'Bisjoined.AI D. perpendicular
DO' isdrawn. DF isdrawn perpendiculartoPQ andmadeequal to DD'. AtC.
ee' iserectedperpendiculartoCA andequaltoc. Here Cisassumedtobebelow
B and henceit is drawndownwards. A"C' isthenjoined.From f.perpendicular
isdrawnoverAC which cutsA"C'atM. AtE. EN isdrawnperpendiculartothe
centreline PQ and is madeequal toEM. FS isthenjoined whichcuts lh:: line
P'E' atXwhichistheelevationofthepoint0 where thecentre lineintersectsthe '
uppersurface of thestratum. Henceto locate O.perpendicular is droppedfrom
Xon thecentre line (Fig. 19.17).
Analytically, with AB andAP beingknown
.
A'
Gradientline=-_-- Q
1 in n
--.:=-z..------T-7 C
C'
Fig.19.17 Intersection oftunnel with rock stratum.
AD =AP . siny
PE=AP .sin(a+c5}
", SIO(CC+Y) , SIO(a +Y+c5)
siny
PD =AP . sina
AE =AP -si-n-(,,-+--'-y-+-:8::").
SIO(a +y)
Thenlevel of D onABwith respect to B
DD' =...E.- BD
AB '
Level Of D in PQ relativeto P
PD
=P+-
11
I .
From fig. 19.17
_'(PD + DY - PO) DF
- .DY
Crossmultiplying
.
(pn + PO) DY = (n PD + n DY - nPO) DF
or PO.DY +11 PO.DF = n(PD +DY) DF - pn DY
or PO(DY + nDF) + DY) DF- np.DY
PO = 1l{(PD +Dr) ..oF - p.DY}. .
or
. DY +nDF .
Example 19.8 The coordinates and surfacelevels of three exploratory bore holes
At!3 andCaregivenbelowtogetherwith thedepthstoametalliferous ore-body.
Afourth borehole is to bedrilled atpointD, thecoordinates and surfacelevel
of which are also listed. Allquantitiesarein meters.Calculate (i) thedirection
andrate offulldip oftheorebodywhichmay beassumed tobeuniform; (ii)the
boreholedepthat which the ore bodywould be'intersectedat pointD.
Borehole Easting Northing Level Depth
AOD Orebody
A 2960 1920 : 90 400
B 40::!O 2850 260 300
C 49iO 1830 100
.s-
D 3680 430 390 ?
[Eng.Council]
Solution The points A, Band Care plottedIn the Fig. 19.18. From
coordinates lengthof
360
/1 D'. F S
C 4970, 1830, (- 400)
E .(
D (3680. 430)
Fig. 19.18 Example 19,8.
f ..
Underground Slln'qs 571
AB = - 2960):.+ (2850- 1920)2
" .
=1410.1-4 m.
Be = - 4010)2 +(1350 -.)S30)2
=J393.37m
CA = - 2960)2 +{1920 - 1830)2
. =2012.00.m
BE AE BE - AE AS
360 =90 = 270 =270 .
BE =1Q xAS == 360 x14I01-l
270 270 .
'". .
=1880.19
, ."nT.C. bearing ofBA = 180
Q
+t"'n-
1
4020 - 2960
,if'lJj;,: lY .. .. 2850- 1920
=180+48.74=228.74
''iT C -b . (7 ifBC - 180" -1 4970 - 4020
n. . eanng 0: - - 2850_1830
=180
Q
- 42.96=137.04
ABC =228.74 - 137.04 =91.70
1 . BE - BC 1
tan '2 (5- r) = BE +Be tan'2(8830)
48632 .A 1-0
= 32.74.06 tan"H. :>
t(5- r) =8.20 or 5 - r =16.40
5+r =88.30
5 =52.35
r =35.95
Q
BF BC sin52.35
0
= 1103.60W.C.B ofBF = +37.25
. =174.29
. 360 1
dip = 1103.60 =106
Length BD = - 3680)2 +(2850 -
=2443.76 m
.
tan 8
8
LEBD'
BE
sin(35.95 -+40.75)
or
ED'
Depth of ore at D
4020- 3680
= 2850_ 430
=7.99
=48.74-7.99
= 40.75
_ BD'
-. sin35.95
= BEsin 35.95
sin76.70
= 1134.24 m
360
_~ x
1134.24 1309.52
x =130952x360
1134.24
=415.632m
Level AOD of D =390.000
Level of orebody :: - 400+(- 415.63)
l:: - 815.63
bore holedepth :: 815.63 +390.00
.:: 1205.63 rn
Alternative Solution of Example 19.8
Equation ofa'plane passingthrough threepoints:
A (2960. 19:!O. - 310)
B (4020. 2850. - 40)
C (4970, 1830.- 400)
Equation ofa plane passingthroughthesethree polnts.
x
2960
4020
4970
y
1920
2850
1830
- ...
-310
o
~ W
~ O O
1
1
1
1
=0
-.
or
x
-
1000
2.96
4.02
4.97
..L
1000
1.92
2.85
1.83
. .:,
_.
1000
- 0.310
- 0.0-+0
-DAD
1
1
1
1
=0
1
..,..,.

1.92
-0.310
.r
or
1000 x 2.8.5 - 0.0.:.0
I I.S3
- o..sco
,,' ,- .... ,.. -

.. .".,...
2.96 1.91 2.96 1.92
, -0.31
+ --::.- x
4.02 2.8S .. 1 x 4.02
2.85 -0.04
1000
4.97 ' 4.97 1.83 1.83 -OAO
Expanding the determinants
- .059.t:c + 0.6381 )'- 1.9647 z - 1658.335 =0
AtD. .r = 3680.).= 430,: .::: - 815.693
390- depth oforebody =-815.693
depth ofore body = 390+ 815.693 =1205.693 rn.
coordinatezero,equation'ofthe line- 0.0594 .l' + 0.6381 \.= 1658.385
perpendiculardistanceon the from point(x, y) .
. 0.0594 0.6381 1658.385
- x + . .}' - -,..---:; ":"'
+ 0.6381:! + 0.6381
2
..'/0.0594
2
+ 0.6381
2
From thepoint(4020.2850)
di I di . 0.059.t 40'0
perpen ICU ar Istance = - I ., .. x _
-v0.0594- +0.6381"
0.6381
+ + 0.63812 x 2850
1658.385
- + 0.6381
2
= - 122.629 (negative signisnotsignificant)
40 1'
slope= = --. as.before. '
122.62 3.065. ..:
Example 19.9 The table gives dataconcerning position of a plane rock
stratum at three stations A, Band C. Determine the coordinates of the point
.at which the formation centre line of a cutting and tunnel constructed at a
downgradeof 3 in 106fromA would find the stratum when drivenina north.
easterly direction. At what depth'will this point be below the surface, the
cunins starting at ground le.... el ar A'? If tunnelling commences when the
w
formation is 18.0 m below ground level locate where the cuttinz finishes
-
(Fig. 19.20).

57.+ FUlldml!Cllfa!s ofSurveying
Station
B
c
192.0 Ground level 150.0 177.0
:lbo\'c OD (rn)
Depth [0 rock (rn) 13.5 3t5
Coordinates (N. E) 0.0 90.330
. 10.2
13.5
\
G ,
A I(0, 0)
10.2
(90, 330)
(t.owest point)
Solution, Levels of rocks atA == 150.0- 13.5:: 136.5rn
B :: 177.0 -3.+.5:: 142.5 m
C= 192.0- -i0.5 = 151.5 m
Length ofAB = +
= 2.+1.867 m
- -I 30 -I.L
O
.-\B - Ian 2.W - ... n S- .--
Length Be :: - 90): + (30 330)=
:: 335Al
-I 300
()
Be :: tan 150
:: 63.43
LABD :: 7.125+ 63A30
::
LDAB ::: .+5 .;. 7.125
:: 37.875
LADB ::'JSO - (70.555+ 37 .Si5)
::: 71.57
sin'7f.5r _ sin 70.555 .: sin 37.875
241.867 - AD - DB
AD = si? 70.555 x 241.867
Sin 71.57 '
=240,4
'D'8 = "4] 867
Sin 71.57 x - .
=1"56.51
Depth at D =6+ x 156.51
=10.2
Let the two lines AF and GH cut at a distance of x, Then
,
0+ '.10.2 =135 - 'x
x =190.86 III
v =10.1 x 190.86 - 8 098
, 240.4 -', m
Level of the intersection point
= 136.5 +8.098
=144.598
Difference of surface between Band C
=192.0 -177.0
..
= 15.0
Ground level of point of intersection =150 +27 = 177.00 In
42
A

"
.
576 Fundamentals' of Sltrl'(?ying
Level of intersection point=1-+-+.60 m
Hence depth ofsurface = 3i40 m
Letthe formation be 18.0m from G.L atadistance x from A.
I
l
x y
z
1
0 0 136.5 1
=0
240
30 142.5 1
90 330 151.5 1
-
x )'. z
-.:.
100 100 ]00 11
0 0 1.365
or
2.4 0.30 JA25
i1=0
0.90 3.30 1.515
' ..
Expanding the determinant Equ:ltion of the: plane
- .00153.f"\ .00306)" + .07.65 =.- 10.44225 =0
Equ3tion of a line passing throu;h the point (.ft. :'1, =.) and hav direction
cosines f. m, n . . .
:r - ,f, \'- \'\ : -:, ( .)
=' . = =I. say
I . m n .
If the line passes through ;-\(0. O. 150) and it moves in north easterly direction
I = = and the slope is 31106. 11 = - .02829.
'\'2 '\''2 .
Then the equation of the line
x - 0 v - 0 z - 150
-r = .:..-.y- = - = I .
_l:i
. - --
'\'2 '\'2
or x = 0.707 ;., y = 0.707 ). and z = 150 - .02829 ).
Since it intersects the plane, substituting these values in the equation of the plane.
."If . _ .00153, X (.707) }. .00306 (O.707 ;.)
+ .0765 (-..02829 ). + 150)
- 10.44225 =0
}. = 190.920
x = .707. x ). = 134,.98
y = 134.98
z = 150,- .02829 X 190.920
= 144.598 m
Coordinates of corresponding points A, B, C on the ground
A =0,0, 150
B = 240, 30, 177
C = 90, 330. 192
Equation of a plane passing through these three points:
..
:c
y
;: . 1
0
240
0
30
150
177
1
=0
1
90
330 192 1
or
x
-
100
0
2:4
L
100
0
0.3
-
..
100
1.5
1.77
=0
0.90
3.30 1.92
578 Fundamentals of SurW\'[1I 0
.... . ..::.
or - .00765 x - .00765 Y +.0765 z-11.475 =0
, ' ,
or .0765: =1104;5 +1 (.00765) (134.9S)
or .:= 176.996.
difference =176.996 - 14-+.598
= 31.398m
=distance below thesurface.
Equation of theline ofcutting.
x' v :-150 -,
-=-'-= =A
0.707 0,707 - .02829
Theequationof the plane' of ground
- .00765x - .00765 )'+.0765 z- 11.475 =0
Lettheformation is 18mbelow ground level atcoordinatesofthe formation
-"It z\ andcoordinates oftheplaneX:!. )':!. ::2' At that point
Substituting.
- .00765i.' x 0.707 - .00765 i.' x ;707
+.0765(- .02829).' + 150+ 1S) - 11.475 =0
or i.
'
= 106.075
gh'jng Xl =75 )'1 = 75 ZI:= 147 :2 =165.00
distancealongx y plane=,'2 x is =106.05 m..!/
;'

19.1 Brieflydiscuss howina typical tunnel survey the surface alignmentand
levels are transferred to the underground tunnel- and how underground
" settingout is done. [AMIE Advanced Surveying Summer 19S3j
19.2 (a) Describe the surveying operations necessary, in transferring a given
surfacealignmentdownashaftinordertoaligntheconstructionwork
of a newtunnel,
(b)A and B weretwo vertical wires suspended in tunnel shaft andthe
bearingofAB \\'3S 55 10'30"; Atheodolite at Cmeasured the
ACB and its value was 0:':W'25". The distances.-tC and ell \\ Co':
6AiS2 mand 3.2998 m respectively, The point CW:IS on the :-if!:l
handside whileproceeding fromA to B. Calculatetheperpcndicul-"
distance fromCtoAB produced, the bearingof c.-t and the:In;;k111
be set out from Be toestablishCE paralleltoAB.
[AMIEAdvanced SurveyingWil1h:r .II.lS.-:)
Surveys 579
19.3 What are the broadsteps in tunnel surveying? E.\pta.in the Wcisbxh triangle
method of tunnel alignment underground.
, Ad.. anced Surveying Winter 199J J
19..1. Two surface reference stations X and r having coordinates of 1000.00 m
E and 1000.00 m ;-.: and 1300.00 m E. 1500.00 m !\ respect]..e1y were
observed during a sh3ft plumbing exercise. A theodolite was set up. at
surface station A near to the line xr and readings in the following
Table recorded.
Pointing direction- . Horizontal circle reading
x
y
Plumb wire P
Plumb wire Q
27342'24-"
93
Q42'08"
,
9S=00'50"
9s000' 40" .
The distances from the theodolite to X and P were 269.12 m and 8.374 m
IX whilst p. and Q were 5.945 In apart, P being nearer to A than Q.
",r',. the bearing of PQ. [Salford]
19.5 A and B are points on the centre line of a level mine roadway nndC and
D are points on the centre line of a lower 'roadway having a uniform
gradient between C and D. It is proposed to connect the roadways by a
drivage from point B on 0. bearing of 16535'. Given the following data,
calculate (i) the actual length andgradient of the drivage, (ii) the coordinates
of the point at which it meers the lower roadway.
Point Northing Easting Reduced Level
A
B
"C
D
2653 m
2763 m
2653 m
2671 m
1321 m
1418 m
1321 m
1498 m
462.5 m
462.5 m
418.2 m
441.8 m
[C.E.I]
.: .
.'
20
.
..
Computer Programs In
- Surveying"
. b
20.1 INTRODUCTION
As in all other subjects computers are being widely used in surveying also. In this
chapter a few computer programs on solution of examples in surveying arediscussed.
The listings of the programs are given at the end of the chapter, with sample input
and output data. All the programs are in Fortran 77. Though the programs are
interspersed withcopious comments and explanations; it is assumed that the reader
has some knowledge of computer programming.
. .
20.2 EXPLANATION OF THE PROGRAMS
(3) Program J Solves problem on normal tension using method of Bi-section.
The normal tension in surveying is that tension which will stretch an unsupported
measuring tape by an amount which is exactly equal to the decrease in length due
to the sag. The normal tension 3S given in 3 (Eq. 3.16). - .
P, - w...f"AE
" - ..}P
n
- P,
This can be rewritten as:
P =(p} . P, + 0.204
2
W
2
AE)I/3
n
This non-linear equation is solved for P" using method of Bi-section.In Example 3.7.
L =30 rn, P, =89 N, A = 3 mm:!, IV= 0.024 kg/m.
.and . E 155,000 N/mm
2
Trial and error solution givesP, = 139 N. Solution by Program 1 yields Pn =
138.957323 N.
"'This chapter has been written in association with Dr. K.K. Bhar, Assistant of
C.E. B.E. College (D.U).
Computer Programs in SSl
(b) Program 2 Here the same problem issol..ed using No.1on-lUphson Method_
Solution b)' this program gives P
IO
=133.9573
USU.1Il)' Newton-Raphson method works !:lo;::r tl't.3n Bi-section method. It
required 11 iterations whereas the lJaer took JS iterations. Although both worked
well, Newton-Raphson method is preferred.
(c) Program 3 It calculates the: ordinates or :l transition CUll'C. For a transition
curve, referring Eq. 12.23 and Eq. 12.25 .
( ]
.1: = fll - 10 + lli- 9360 + '"
3 S 7
and
. (9' 9 9 0 )
Y = 1 3" - 42 + 1320 - i5,600 + ...
1
2
",'here
9= 2LR
L
/ )2

s =2R
fP=
(
L s
":,.;1!.,..
For a given x value, 1is to be determined from the non-linear Eq. 12.23 using any
iterative method, e.g. Newton-Raphson Method and using that value of I, y is to
be determined from Eq. If.25. .
Considering Eq. 12.23. let .
1. 96
8 = TO - 216 + 9360 + ...
Then x = 1( 1 - 8)
or
.f(l) = x -1(1 - 8) = 0
This equation is to be solved for I, using Newton-Raphson's method, which gives
. /(1;)
li+l = Ii - 1'(1;)
where i is the iteration index.
Now' . j{l) =:c - 1(1 - 8)
9
6
( 2 ]
= :c - \ 1 -. TO + 216 - 9360 + ...
[1 ]:: /, r(! I . J
= :c - 1 1 - L'1.' s / 10 +_L" 9;; / 216 - ...
(
[
---
= 1
9
)
. IOL4 Y.! . 116 LX ...
Therefore, f(f) 0- (I - + .: -...J
Neglecting the 2nd and higher term, we get. f'(f) =- I.
Hence
Ii + I = l, + fili) = Ii + Xi - I,{1 - B
i)
= Xi + liB, (20.1 )
This is the recursive equation to be used to determine 1 for a particular x, In the
computerprogram uptothe fourth terms withinthe parenthesis (in the expressions
for x and y, Eqs. 11.13 and 12.25) are considered.
First, discrete values of .r are generated from the beginning and end of .r
value and the no. of divisions for x. For each of these discrete values of X,
corresponding value of I is determined from Eq. 20.1 using an iterative scheme.
This value of / and corresponding is then used to determine )' from Eq. 12.5.
(d) Program 4 In this program, the area under a curve is compu:ed by trapezoidal
rule.
(e) Program 5' In this program, the area under a curve is computed by Simpson's
1/3rd rule.
Example 20.1 The following offsets were taken from a chain lineto a hedge.
Distance (m) 0 30 ,60 90 120 , 150 180
Offset (m) 9.40 10.8
, 12.5
10:5 ',14.5 13.0 7.5
Compute the area includedbetween the chainline. the hedge ana theend offsets by
(i) Trapezoidal rule, (ii) Simpson's rule, (iii) by Program 4 and (iv) by
Solution
(i) Area by Trapezoidal rule:
=3 [9.4 + 7.5+ 2 (10.8 + 12.5 + 10.5 + 14.5 .+. 13.0)]
20
= 15 [139.5] =
(ii) Area by Simpson's rule
:' 33 [9.4 + 7.5 + 4(10.8 + 10.5 + 13.0) + 2(12.5 + 14.5)]
= 2081 nl
(iii) by Program 4; area =2092.5 rri
2
(iv) by Program 5, area = :WS 1 m:! '
(t)Program 6 This program calculates the independent coordinates of the stations
of a closed traverse after applying corrections by Bowditch's rule. Finally the area
of the traverse is computed in terms of the coordinates.
r>
us :au au I!IIt
Computer Programsln SUTw:";ng 583
Example 20.2
(i)Asurveywascarriedout in:1 closedjraversewith si.\sides.\\iththetraverse
labelled anticlockwise as shown in Fiz.:!O.l. the d.ll.l inTable :!O.l were obtained.
- . -'",
c
F
20.1 Evarnple 20.:!.
Table 20.1 Example 20.2.
B
o
InternalAngle Length
..\
130:18'IS AS
B
Be 85.771
C
99=32'35" CD 77.318
D
116=1S'02" DE 28.222
1L EF 53.099
F
. 65.914
ThecoordinatesofpointA are 1000mE,1000 m!\andthewholecirclebearing
or lineAF is 166=45' 52".After adjustment byBowditch's methodwhat are the
.coordinatesof the other five traversestations? [Salford/C10Bl
(ii) Compute also the areaof thetraverse in01
2
Solution
(i) The solution is presentedin theform ofGales Traverse inTable20.2.
(ii) Area intermsof Coordinates.(Ref. Fig.20.1) .
Area ='2
1
[YA,(X
B
-X,) +Ys(X
c
-
.
+ YC<X
D
- X
B
) +YD(X
E
-Xc)
+ '1(XF-X
D
) +YAX", -X
E
)]
=t[1000.00(937.311 ":" 1015.1(4) .
+ 1006.485 (92.U75- 1000.00)
+9-1-8.411 (966.355 - 987.311)
+883.624 -
+886.954 - 966.355)
- -, . "
+ 935.835 (1000.000 - 994.374)]
= _6725.988 01
2
ByProgram 6.Area = - 6726.048 rrr.
N(+)
VI

(-) W +E (+)

S (-)
Table 20.2 Example 20.2 Gale's Traverse Table

-
I
I:) .'
Sin. Line Internal Corrected ;tv.c. Quadrantal [Length Latitude Departure
Ind.:
;;;-
Angle Angle Bearing bearing coordinates

A J30 IW45" 130
018'43" I
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected N
+ 1000.00
13
+ 1000.00

::s
I'Ii
'AU 29704'35" N 6255'25" wi 14.248 + 6.485 + 6.485 - 12.686 - 12.6H9

II . u0 23" 1I0
0
18'21" + + 9M7.311

DC 22722'56" S 4722'56" W! 85.771 - 58.676 - 58.074 - 63.118 - 63.136
C 9932'35" 9932'33" + 94l.t41 L + 924.175
CD S 3304'31". I; ii 77.318 - 64.789 -.64.787 + 42.196 + 42.180
0 11618'02" . J1618'00" I + 883.624 + %6.355
DE 8313'29" N 83\3'29" e 28.222 . + 3.329 + 3.330 28.025 + 28.019
E 11946'07" 119
046'05"
+ + 994.374
EF 2259'34" N 2259'34" E 53.099 + 48.880 + 48.881' + 20.741 + 20.730
r 14346'20" J4346'18" + 935.835 +1015.104
fA 34645'52" N 1314'08" Wi 65.914 + 64.163 + 64.J65 - 15.091 - 15.104
A + 1000.00 + 1000.00
L 720"'O(J'12" noO(l'{)O" 324.572 - O.OOH (WOO +U.067
.0.000 .
. f
""A
X
..
;
, .
1
c
c
c
i:-:;, The ir.r-ut\ are the C'f Ih: in
c
Ps Ihc SI.l.'1c!.l:d tcnvicnin Sc: ....ton.A i,the a.rC.1 in
c
rn:n:! JnJ E i,the mvdulu\ of eINi.:it) in This
c the Bi-section method.
c
................................................................................................................................................................................
implicit double (a-h. o-z)
c OF':nin; inr:ut andoutputfile...
(10, file='JJtJI . in')
open (II.file ='dataI. out')
c Readinginputvalues: (Fromfile I .in)
c PS: Standard tension. W:Weight.S.-\: Sectional area,
c E: Modulusofelauicity,eps: precision factor
read(10... )
read(10, ..) PS,W.SA,E,eps
c Form of the' equation: =a
c or': ftx) =x"J-:I..\"2b =O. wherex=Pi':and
a=PS
"'"

.:'.( .
b =W"'\V"SA"'E"'0.204*0.204
C Methodofbisection: Initial valuesof x aretx\ =1000 Nand x2=0 N
xl = 1000.0
:<2 =D.O .
yl =xl**3- a"xl*x.\ - b
y2=:<2*.*3.:'" :1*:<2*:<2 - b .
c Maximumnumber- of iteration forbisecricn is takenas 100
do 20 i = I, 100 ,
x3=as' (xI +:(2)
y3 = x3**3 - a*;(3*x3 - b
if (abs (>'3) .Ie.eps)go to30
if (yI"'y3 .gt, 0.0)then
xI =:<3
yl = y3
else
x2=:<3
y2 = >'3 .
endif
20 continue
write (II, *) 'Doesnot converge after100 iterations'
write (". *) 'Doesnotconverge after 100iterations'
stop' ,
30 write (11.40) i.:<3
write(*. 40) i, x3
40 formal(lx.'Converged after',i3,' iterations?
11x, 'The normal tension iscalculated as', fI2.6: Newton')
end
II
!
I
:
Inputfile:datal, in
Values of standardtension (N).weight (N),sectional area(mm"'2), E.(N/mm":!) andeps
89.07.06031 3.0 155000.0 0.0001
II
II
,I
L
_ _ . _.__:7-_____.....
586 FllIldomcl/lals of Surveying
.. .. .
Output file:datal.out
after38 iterations .
Thenormaltensioniscalculated as 1.3S.957323 Newton
PROGRAM 2
c
c This programdetermines thenormal tension relatedwithchain
c surveying. The basicinputs are theweight of the tape in Newlon
c Ps is thestandardtension in. Newlon. Aisthe sectional arealn
c mrrizand E isthemodulus of elasticityinNewtonlmm2. This program
c usesthe,Newton-Raphson method..
c
implicitdoubleprecision (a-h,o-zj
c Openinginputandoutputfiles
open(lO, file ='datal'.in')
open(II, file ='datal .out')
c Reading input values: (From filedatal .in)
c PS:Standardtension. W: Weight. SA:Sectional area,
c E:Modulus of elasticity. eps:precision factor
read no, *)
read(l0. *) PS.W. SA.E,eps
c Formof theequation: PN"3-P:'-l"2"'PS-Q.:!04/12*-W/l2*SA*E=0
c or:f(x) = x"3-ax/l2-b :;: O. where x:;: PNand
a=PS
b =W*W"SA"E*0.204li<0.204
c Newion-Raphson Method: Initial valueofx is: xl = 1000N
xl ::: 1000,0
x = xl
c Maximum numberof iteration for Newton-Raphson Method
c istakenas 100
do 20i =I, 100
fx = x*"'3 - a*.x*x- b
fdx ::: 3.0x"'x - 2.0*a*x
if(abs(fdx).le. 1.Oe-QS) go to 50
'..
x =x- fxlfdx
if (abs(fx).le. eps)go to30
29 continue
write(11,*) 'Doesnotconverge after 100iterations'
write(*, *) 'Does notconverge after 100iterations'.. ,
stOP' I
30 write(lJ, 40) i, X
write(*, 40) i, x
..
format (lx,'Convergedafter',i3,' iterations?
IIx, The normal tensioniscalculatedas',fl2.6,' Newton')
SlOP' ,
50 write(*, *) 'fdx is toosmall'
51"p' ,
end
1.
"
Computer Programs in .587
I,
Inputfile:datal. in
Valuesof tension(i'). weight scctiolUl ar.:.1 (m.-n#o2). E a:tdC't's
89,07.060-,_ 3.0 155000.00.0001 .
Outputfile: datal, out
Convergedafter 11iterations
The normal tension iscalculated as 13S,9SiJ:!3
3
c ...............; , 0 .
c Program to calculate the: (x, y) coordinates of a transitioncurve
c which are given 35 follows:
c. x=1(l-f":!JIO + ("'-4/:216-("6/9360.+ ...) and
c v =l<f13 - ("3/42 + r"'5/1320- (-"7175600 + ..).where: .
c f =1''':!I(:!LR) =(tIL)":! (5: fs =U:!R.
c Fora givenx, firstto find 1 andthen to calculate y
c .............I .
real L. Li, R.Xo,Xrn,delx,theta, Is,xr,eps
realcord (50. 2)
c.e Opening inputandoutputfiles

>.
open (10, file='data2 .in')
open (11,file='data2 .out')
c Readinginputvalues:(Fromfiled':lIa2. in)
read (10, *)
read (10, "') \ .
read(l0,"') L,R, Xo,Xm,Nx,iter. eps
debt =(Xrn - Xo)!Nx
xi =Xo-delx
fs =U(2.0*R)
do 100i =1,Nx+1
xi =xi +delx
Li =xi
do70 k=I, iter
f=fs* (LilL.) *"'2
theta=**2/10.0 - f**41216.0 +**6/9360.0
xr=xi-Li* (l.Q-theta)
if(abs (xr).le.eps) go to80
Liexi +Li *lheta
70. continue
write (*, *)'Ooes not converge after'Jter,' iterations'
. write (11; *) 'Doesnotconverge after" iter.'iterations'.
stop
80 write (*, *) 'Convergedafter',k,' iterations'
yi=Ii'" (f/3.0- f**3/42.0+("'*5/1320.0 - f**7n5600.0)
cord0.1)=xi
cord (i, 2)=yi
I
100 continue
write (11, 200)
I
200 format(The coordinates of thetransition curve areas follows?
I' .'/
1-
2' xi yr/
._-----------\
sss Fundamentals of Surveying
r ; .')
write(11.210) (cord(i. I), cord(i, 1), i = J. 1)
210 formal (f8A. 2x, flOA) ,
write(II, 220)
\f
220 format C .')
end
Input file:dala2.in
Length. RadiusR,initialvalueofx.final value ofx,no.delxvalues;no.ofiterations, eps
75 3000.0 74.882895 20 1000.00001
Output file:data2.out
.Thecoordinates. of the transition curveare.asfollows:
xi yi
.0000 .0000
3.7441
7.4883 .0031
11.2324 .0105
14.9766 .0249
18.7207 .0486
22.4649 .0840
26.2090 .1334
29.9532 .1991
33.6973 .2835
37.4414 .3889
.51i7
44.9297 .6722
I:
48.6739 .8547
52.4180 1.06iS
56.1622 1.3137
59.9063 1.5948
f
)"
' ':: .
". ,.
63.6505 1.9137
67.3946 2,2728
71.1388 2,67-+5
74.8829 3.1215
.
..
PROGRAM4
c
c This Programcomputesthe areaunder a curveby Trapezoidal,
c ruleof numerical intezration. .,'
c The trapezoidal rule be stated":is follows:
c
I =A= h[yll2 + (y2 + )'3+ ... + )'n :.. 1)+ )'nl2}-:
c
whereylis the ithordinateofthecurvey= f(x), n is the total.
c numberof ordinatesand h is theinterval between two successive
c ordinates(constant).The basicinputs are:n,yi, i =1, .. nandh.
c I " "' 1 I ..
dimensiony( I00)
c 'Ojll:ning inputand- output files
oren (10.file = 'dat:l3.in')
::t '
'!lUi..; . *
c
c
c
:::!oo
210
220
c

10
230
Computer Programs
open (11, file='d3!33 .out')
Re:lcing input values: (From file d3tU. in)
n:Totalnumberof ordinates: h is thc uniform intcr.3]
read (10. *)
rC:ld(\O,)n.h "
)(i): of lhecurve )' =r{.\)
read (10, .)
read(10, ., i=I, n)
Wrilingihegivenvalues
\\Tile (11.
format(:Ot. 'Trapezoidal
1h,'Given ordlnates.- 'I .
2' '/
33:\.No.',' Ordinate?
2' .')
write(II,:!10) (i, )(i). i =I, n)
Iormat(2:<. i3, 2:\,flOA)
write(11. 220)
fermat (' .')
Trapezoidal method
sum=0.5"(y(I) +)'(n))
do 10i =2, n - 1
sum=sum+y (i)
continue .
A =hO!< sum
write (II, 230)A . .
write(*, 230)A
.
of numerical integration?
format (12x., 'Using thegiven ordinates, theareaunderthecurve'!
12:<, 'iscomputedas', flOA, 'units')
end.
Input file: data3. in
No.of ordinates andInterval
730.0
Ordinates
9.40 10.80 12.5010.5014.5013.00 7.50
Outputfile: data3. out-
Trapezoidal Method of numerical integration
.Givencrdinates.->
No. Ordinate
9.4000
2 IO.SCOO
3 12.5000
4 10.5000
5 lUOOO
6 13.0000
7 7.5COO
the slven ..e the ar..... underthecurve

.'1'= ..... ::: .........- .. .. Iolo
iscomputed:IS units
590 ofSurveying
PROGR.-\!\1 5
c
c
This Programcomputesthe areaundera curve by Simpson's
c
l/3rd rule of numerical integration, .
c The l/3rd ruIecan be statedas follows:
c I =A =(hJ3) [yl + 4)'2 + 2)'3 + 4)'4 + 2y5 ." + 2yn - 2+ - 1) +-yn]:
c where yi is theith ordinate of thecurve y=f (x), nis theIotaI
c numberof ordinates (must beodd) andh is the intervalbetweentwo
c successiveordinates (constant). .
c The basicinputsare: )'i, i = I, ..n and h.
c
dimensiony{lOO)
c Openinginput and output files
open (10. file ='dala4 .in')
open (11.file ='data4 .out')
c Readinginput values:(Fromfile dala4.in)
c n:Totalnumberof ordinates: h is the uniforminterval
read no, "')
read (10, *),n, h
c yti): Ordinatesof thecurvey :: f(x)
read (10, "')
read (lO, *) (y{i), i =1, n)
c Writing the given values
write (11, :l00)
:00 .. format(20x. 'Simpson"s one-thirdruleof numerical integration?
12,X. 'Glvencrdinatesc-'I
2' '1
33x.'No.': Ordinate"
2' .')
write(II, 210) (i. yO), i =I, n)
210 formal(2x. i3, :?x. flOA)
write cu. 220)
220 format(' .')
c Simpson's 1I3rdrule
sum =(yO) -
do 10i =2. n - I. 2
sum =sum +.to*y(i) + 2.0*), (i + I)
10 continue
A =h'"sum/3.0
write (II, 230) A
write ("',230) A
230 formal(/2:\. 'Using the givenordinates, the area under. thecurve'l
12x.'is computed as'. flOA. 'units') . .
end .
Inputfile: in
No. ofordinates and Interv::!1
7 :0.0
IO.RO 12.50 10.50 I.. J3.00 7.50
Outputflle: out
Simpson'sone-thirdruleof numerical integratlon
Givenordinatesr-c- . . ..
Ko. Ordinate
1 9.4000
2 10.8000
3 12.5000
.. 10.5000
5 14.5000
6 13.0000
7 7.5000
Lsing thegivenordinates, thearea underthecurve
iscomputed3S 2031.0000 units
6
C .J.,t; ," ..,. I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
cr.' Computation of independentcoordinatesof thestationsof a. closed
c traverseafterapplyingBowditch'srule.The basicinputsare:
c (1) No.of stadons, n, (2) included angleat each station.(3) lengthof
c each side,(4) wholecircle bearing (WCB) ofthelinejoining stations
c 1and 0, andthecoordinatesof thefirststatlon.
. '. .' .'
c 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 IO. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 1010 .. 10 10 10 10 t t'10
integer deg (15), min(15), sec (15) .
realal (15), cd (15, 2), angle(15), WCB(15), delE(15), delN(15)
c
10.10 10 10 10 10. IO 10.10 IO ......10 IO 10 10 "" ....10 10. 10 10 10. 10 10 10 10 10 10 .....10 10 10 10.
open(10, file ='d:ua6.in')
open(11, me ='d:l.ta6, out')
c 'n. Numberof stations
read00.*)
read(l0. *) 0
c Included angleat eachstationindegree,minute andsecond
read (10. *)
read(l0. *) (deg(i), min(1). sec(i), i = 1.n)
c 31: lengthofeach side '
read no. *)
read no, *) (:II (i), i :: 1,n)
c \\'CB ofthelinejoining stations landn
read (10.*)
read(10. *) 01. n2.n3
WCB1=n1 *3600 + n2*60 + n3
c Ccordinates of the 15t station
rc:1J 00,*j
rc:!J (10 ) cd (1. 1). cd (I. 2)
c D:1tJ complete
.... ri:e (11,
(10:t,. 'Computation of errorsin a closed traverse?
, iis,. rule'i1:t 'Given {'-'/2:t,
Fundamentals 0/ Surveying
2 'Station Internalangle Side Length')
write (11, :!Oi)
do 15i =1,n
il=i+l
if (il .glo n) il = 1
write(ll, 205) i. deg (i), min(i). sec(i), i, n,al (i)
205
format (2x.i3. lOxi3, 'd', i2,'rn',i2.'s', 4x. i2. -.i2,2:<,'fS.3)
15 continue
write(11. 207)
format(48 C-'
c 1.Angular error:
c angle-c-observed angle in seconds
c AT-Total included angle(theoretical)
c ATl-Total includedangle (observed)
AT=(2*n - 4) "90*3600
ATl =0.0
do 20i = I,n
angle(i) =deg (i) *3600+min (i) "'60+sec (i)
AIl =ATl +angle (i)
ao continue
c err: Error in observedangles
errl=ATl - AT
c Distributingtheerror to each angle
errl =-errl/float (n)
c Correctedangle
write(11.209)
:09 format(/2x, 'Correction for internal angle:-')
write(11; 211,)
write(11. 210)
110 format(2x. 'Angle Observed value Correction Adjusted
1 ' (second)
(second)')'"
write(11. 211)
211 format(54 ('-'J)
A12 =0.0 :
do22 i =1.ri
an=angle (i)+errl
A1"2 =AT2+an
write(11. 212) i, angle (i). errl, an
angle(i) =an '
212
format (2x. i3.5:-:. no.o. 8x.f5.1, 6:-:. flO.O)
22 continue
<U. 211)
wrltef lI, A11. AT2
214
format (5x, 'Total\ no.o, 19x.flO.O)
,c
Computationof wholecircle bearings'
al =ISO.0*60.0"'60.0
\\'eB(1) =WCBI + angle (1)
do 30i =2, n-
WCB(i) =WCB(i-J) + angle (i)
if(WeB (i) .ge, al) then
WCB(i) :::WCB (i) - al
I
I
I
j
'L _
I
Computer Programs in 593
else
WCB (i) =WCB (i) +31
endif
30 continue
c Determinnion of and difTcter:ces. delE.ddS
c fact-PVC180-3600)
fact = 136311e - 06
err2 =0.0
err3=
tl =0.0
do 32 i = 1,n
II=tl +31 (i)
dr = wen (i) -fact
delE (i) =:II (i) sin (dr)
(i) =31 (i) "cos (dr)
err2 =err:! +delE (i)
err3 =err3+ (i)
continue
c Correctedcasting andnorthings
write(11,215)
215 format (12:1., 'Correctionstoeastingsandnorthings:-'/
.,,a'IP'66('-')/
.. 2' Line
WCB Length delE
delN'/
3' (second) actual corrtd actual corrtd
4'/66('-'
s1= 0.0
s2 =0.0
s3 .,; 0.0 .
s4 =0.0
do 34i = 1.n .
al =delE(i) - err2*al(i)/tl
a2 =delN(i) - err3*al(i)/tl
sl w sl s- al
s2 =s2+a2
53 =53 +delE (i)
54=54+delN (i)
il = i+1
if(i1.gt,n) il=r:
write (11,216) i, u,WCB(i). 011 (i), delE(i). al,delN (i), a2
216 format (2:<, i2,'-', u, no.o, 8.3,4 (flO.3 .
delE (i) =al
.ddN (i) =a2
34 continue
write: (11.217)s3. s1,s4,s2
217 format(66('-')12",. 'Total'. 4 (rIO.3
do 36 i =2. n .
cd (i, 1) =cd (i - 1, 1)+delE (i - 1)
cd (i, 2) =cd (i - 1,2) + delN(i - 1)
36 continue
write(11,
. format 'Corrected.eastingsandnorthingst-e-')
write(!1. 230)
Flmda11lt'll1a!s of Surveying
write (11.
format(1x.. 'Station Easiing delE l\Clrlhing- dc1X)
write (II.
write (11. (i. cd (i. 1),delE 0), cd (i, delN (i), i =I. n)
format (2:<,D. 5:<, no.s, 3x.f8.3. 1x. no.s, 3:<. f8,3)
write (II, 230)
230 format(54{'-'
c Computation of the areaof the traverse
area=0.0
do 40i =I, n
il.= i-I
i2= i +' 1
if(iI .eq.0) iI =ri
if (i2 .gt.n) i2= 1
area =area + (cd (i, 2)* (cd(i2. I) - cd (i l , I*0.5)
continue
write (II, 240) abs (area)
format(/2x, 'Area (Ifthe traverse =", flO.3 units')
end
Input file:dataf, in
Numberof stations. n
6
Included angle at each station in degree. minute, second'
1301845
110 18 23
99 3235
.J J6 18 2
1J9467
14346 20
Length of each side.
85.77J 77.318 :3.22253.09965.914
WCB of the linejoining stations 1ond n
"16645 52
Coordinates (If the 15t station
1000.01000.0
Output file: dat:l6.out
Computation of errors in a closed traverse
,.: using Bowditch's rule
. ",
.... Given dat:l:-
Station .Internal angle Side Length
1 130d . 18m 45s 'I - 2 .
2
1l0d 18m 235 2 -3 85.771 .
3
99 d 32m 35s 3-4 77,318
4
Il6 d 18m 2s 4-5 28.222
5
119d 4'6m 7s 5-6 53.099
6
143d 46m :!Os 6 - 1 65.914
I
I
Computer Programs in Surveying .595
Correction for internal angle:-
Angle Observed value Correction Adjusted value
(second) , (second)
1 469125. - 2.0
~ 9 23.
2 397103. - 2.0
397101.
..
> 358355. - 2.0 358353.
4 418682. - 2.0 418680.
5 431167. - 2.0 431165.
6 517580. -2.0 5175'78.
. Total 2592012. .2592000.
Corrections to eastings and northings:-
Line WCB Length delE
.
delN
(second) actual comd actual corrtd
1-2 10694i5.. 14.248
-'12.686 - 12.689 6.485 6.486
2-3 818576. .85.771 - 63.118 - 63.135 -58.076 -58.074
3-4 528929. 77.318
'" 42.196 42.180 - 6..U89 - 64.787
A -ft.r
299609. 28.222 28.025 28.019 3.330 3.330
",'
5-6 82774. 53.099 20.741 20.730 48.881 48.882
6-1 1248352. 65.914 - 15.091 - 15.105 64.163 64.164
Total .066 .000 - .006 .000
Corrected eastings and northingst-e-
Station Easting
. delE
Northing delN
. 1
1000.000 - 12.689 1000.000 6.486
2 987.311 - 63.135 1006.486 - 58.074
3 924.175 42.180 948.411 - 6t787 ,
4 966.355 28.019 883.624 3.330
.5 994.374 20.730 886.954 48'.882
6 1015.105 - 15.105 935.836 64.164
Area of the traverse = 6726.048 units.
. \
Answers to Problems
CH.-\PTER 2
2.6 701.7 rn, 0.0966 rn.
2.7 (b) 53'=04'5S"
2.8 (b) 83'42'2S.li". 10215'42.35",
94"38'26.83", 79:23'22.65"
CHAPTER 3
"
3;7 3068.,,2 m
3.8 30.94 m
3.9 3400.1126 m
3.Il 661.55077 m
3.12 (c) 70.612 m
3.13 (b) 5.5 m
3.14 (b) 1999.44 m
CHAPTER 4
4.3' (a) 8 mrn
(b) 20 rnm
4.4 (a) 4161.88'
(b)
(c)
4.5 0.14 m, 2436.38 rn, 1205.59rn, 1230.79m
4.8 424.718m
4.9 58.826 m
4.10299710.38 km/s
4.11 9.989902 m
4.12 299726.11 km/s
CHAPTER 5 '
5.5 l'1'5.32"
5.6 - 320.0326 rom (concave)
5.10 99.00605 m
5.11 (b) 42.49 km
5.12 25.2 rom
597
593 FlIlldmlll'l)fals of Surveying
CHAPTER 6
6.-l (b) 125.00 rn, 0.0751335 m,- .1i51 rn
6.5 (b) IJ:!5 rn
6.6 (b) 25...l3
6.7 (b) - 0.5825 m
6.8 (b) 99.310(R.L.at stn.S)
.6.10 1.925 (F.S. at stn.9)
6.11 (b) (i) downward
(ii) 3.750.2.750 .
(iii)Diaphragm hasto bebrought downward
6.13 (d)collimation is inclined downward by0.500 m
CHAPTER 9
9.2 (b) Nolocalattraction. or equal local attractions at AandB.
9.3 (b) 745.0.f4 steps, N..1-530' W.
9A (b) At A =- 30', B =+1c05'. C = - ..W'
CorrectedforLocal attraction Corrected for Declination
.fS
e55'
AB .f725'
BC 1i640' .17510'
CD 10.+55' 10325'
DE .
16515'
259
030':
EA }5S000'
9.5 (a) 200C:OO'
,;t)"
(b) 10 E
(c) Line Truebackbearing Forward bearing
AB 280=00' 100'
AC 330';00'
150
AD 20:00'
200
0
9.7 (a) 20600',declination is2 E
(b) (i) R:: 2 W. S :: 2 W
"';'.
(ii) RS =209. SP=314
0
PQ=54 QR:;
9.8 (b).. Line True bearing
Magnetic bearing
Be 11cOO'
1530'
CA 251:1 25530'.
AB
13P 135=30'
9.9 Truebearingat
AB == 2945'
BC:: 12245'
CD :;
DA:: 2S6
cOO'
t\n,n,'(TS (0 Problems 599
9.10 (b) N3230' E
S E

x W
9.11 (c) S 20= W
(d) True bearingat
AB = 60=10'
BC=98=55'
CD=
D.-\ =319:15'
CHAPTER 11 .
11.1 (a) 0.00, 139.6 mW
(c) 2.577 m. S E
11.2 m. 252.497 m
11.3 (a) +846A1,+200.00
+ 1492.S2, - 119.62
,if +746Al, -59.81 .
:,f (b) 278.3.9 rot 24857'
1104 (b) B 25.220K 100.00 E
C24.193N230.00 E
D1090403 j\280.00E
E357.428N280.00 E
(c).6:0227 hectare
11.5 250,'350
11.6 134046 rn, K 10'12" W
LengthofBE=45.848 mBearing i': 70" 10'12"W
11.7 (i) 2.828.S 45E
(ii) '300.1485 N,200.099 W
(iii)'400.1485 N,- 100.099 W
11.8 32.15, 38.31
11.10 523.68 rn, 3208'24"
11.11 16316'12"
11.12 CD=760.23 rn, DE=837.176 rn
u.n CD =1\82=31'48" W, BC=N E
CHAPTER 12
12.1 Length of 1stsubchord - 0.22 m.JI =1'20"
12.2 LengthofCircular curve- 600m
12.3 R=85 m. =80.2rn, /1 =42.30 =37.69m
12.4 576.82m
12.6 rn, 1420.653 m, 1852.613 m
12.7 46.324m,56.6 em
12.8 457.29 m. 2490.29 m,3121.6.t7 rn
12.9 453.052m.272.50 m.905.71 m
12.10 (b) 0l=0.2m = 1m
600 FIIJldaIllCIl1(/[s of S/l1wyillg
CHAPTER 13
13.3 (3) 602.736 rn, (b) 1808m, (c) 683.100 m
CHAPTER 14
I ..U 24881.614 m:!
14.:! 5.10077 hectare
lt3 21.656 rn, 36.697 In, 549.119 m
14.4 (3) 106416.67 m;\, (b) 104375
14.5 10,000 m;\
14.6 (3) (i) loW5.50 m:!, (ii) 1458.67 111:!
.(1.) 3
II _.'.__ m
lt7 ]228.425
.14.8 2556 m' .
14.9 16765.667 01
3
H.IO 32816 01
3
14.11 95.7J In
]4.15 4684.15 m:i
14.16 13,200 rn. x io' m)
14.17 (b) 5718.25 m
3
.
CHAPTER 15
. 15.1 414.735 m; 77.933 m
15.2 - S
15.3 (3) 70.094 m, (b) 106.98901, (c) 10413. 1.780,2.148
15.4 2.48 mm
15.5 140 01, 500 m
15.6 (bY I in 10.5
15. i (b) 1in5.376
15.S (c) 152I.54 m, m
15.9 (c) 23t638 111, S 5210'30" E
CHAPTER 16
16.15 (e) (i) .02 rnrn (ii) 0.5 111m (iii) 1.5 m01
CHAPTER 17
17.4 (b) (i) 378. 500 01;\, (ii) 367, 333.33
CHAPTER 19
19.2 (b) .03994 rn, 23531'41.51" 0041'36.51"
19.4 3516'00" .
19.5 rn, 1 in 3.5959.2665.4155. 1343.087,434.48.
Bibliography
Anderson, :-'1. and Edward Introduction (II Surveying,
Bcok Company. New York..
Arora. K.R. (1990). Surveying, Vol. Standard Book House. New Delhi.
Bannister, Arthur and manu Baker Solving Problems ill Surveying.
ELBS with Longman, London.
Bannister. A. and S. Raymond (1997). SI111L,ymg. ELBS and Pitman. London.
Brinker. Russell C. and Roy Minnick (1987). The Sllr\'t'yillg Hand Book. Van
Nostrand Reinhold. New York.
BrirllJr: Russell C. and Paul R. 'Wolf (l9S4). Elementary Surveying, Harper and
Row, New York.
Clark, David (1956). Planeand GeodeticSurveying. Vol. I, Constable andCompany.
London.
Fenves, Steven, J.(1969).ColllpWef Methods ill Civil Engineering, Prentice-Hall
. of India Private Limited. New Delhi.
Higgins, Arthur and L. Lorat (1956). Higher Surveying, Macrnillan and Company.
London.
Hussain, S.K. and }'LS. Nagra] (1983). Text Book of Surveying, S. Chand and
Company Limited, New Delhi.
Mahajan, Santosh K. (l9S3).Ad\'GlIcedSlm:eyillg, Dhanpat Rai and Sons.New
McPherson, D.H. and P.N. Ray (1953) Surveying, Macdonald. London. .'
Metheley, B.D.F. (1986). Computational Models ill Surveying and Photogranvuetry,
Blackie, Glasgow and London.
Moffit, Francis H. and Harry Bouchard (1982). Surveying. Harper and Row,
New York.
Natarajan, V. (1976}. Advanced Surveying. a.t, Publications. New Delhi.'
Punrnia. B.C. (1991). Surveying, \'01s. 1 and II. Lnxrni Publications. New Delhi.
Shahani, P.B. (19i I). Advanced Surveying, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co" Calcutta.
Som. P. and B.1':. Ghosh (19S2.l.A.dwlI/ad Surveying, Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi. . .
Thomas. w, Norman t 1965). Surveying, Edward Arnold. London.
Uren, J. and W.F. Price (1983). Sll1wying for Engineers. ELBS and lucmlllan.London
..
I I
Index
Aberration 107 quadrantal 165
chrornatlc 107 reduced 166
spherical . 107 true
Accurccy 8 whole circle 165
Additive constant 454 Bench mark 87
Adjustment Bernoulli's lemniscate 336
level 11 2 Bisection method 580
permanent 156 Boning rods 140
temporary 112 Bowditch method 251
theodolite 205
permanent 2.::!3
temporary 205 Centring 231
Angles 162 Chains 30
azimuth' 24.1- Chromatic aberration 107
balancing 246 Clussification of surveying
deflection 242. 243 Compass 173
horizontal IS2 prismatic 174
interior 243 .. surveyor's 176
rnisclosure 246 traverse I
to the right 243 trough 177
traverse 242 Compass Survey'
vertical 162 adjustment 191
Angle distance relationship 247 errors 192
Areas 371 Computer programs 530
averaze ordinate rule 371 Construction surveying 538
coordln:lte method 379' Contours 527
departure and total latitude characteristics 528
double meridian distance method 377 Interpolation 532
double parallel distance method 377 methods of locating 529
meridian distance method 3i5 uses 532
. rnidordlnate rule 372 Conventional symbols 61
Simpson's rule. 373 Crandall method . 252
trapezoidal rule 373 Cross st:.lff 52
Azi rnuth 165. 553 Curves
compound 310
degree 285
. Beaman Stadia Arc 4$0. minimum radius of curvature
Bearing 164 . reverse 31 S
udjusuneut (,f IS5 out 2$6
buck 165 simple
"I , ,
compass
_......
tran-ition 321
forward Curv ature 87
magnetic It.:\ corrccticn 8$
(-.11.i

604 .FUf/da/llcllTals of Surveying
Datum 86
Dedin:llion 173
graphical solution lSI
magnetic 179
D::-fcCIS oflenses 107
Depanure
Diaphragm 95
Dip 173
Direct method of contouring 519
Distribution of angularerror 185
Diurnal variation 174
Dumpy level 95
Earthwork calculation 385.'+03
Eccentricity of circles 13
verniers 197
Electronic distancemeasurements 30. 65
amplhudemodulation 66
instrumental errors 75
wavelength 65
Errors 7
accidental 7
offset 50
planetable
random 8.40
residual ,9"
standard 13
systematic 7
tachecmeter 486
topographical surveys 531
Eyepiece 95
Ramsden's 98
Huygen's 98
Faceleft :!03
Failureofii,>;, 509
Fergusson's chart 77
Fieldrook 60
Focussing 92, 113
external 91
internal 92
Gale's traverse table 253
Geodetic surveying
Geodimeter ; I
Gyroscope: 553
Hewlett packard 71
Heightofcollimation 114
History of surveying 2
Horizontal angI.: 162
Horizorual distance 5
Indexerror 219
Internal focussing telescope 92
Interpolation of contours 53:!
lmermediate sight 118
Invartape 30
Isogonic lines 173
Jeffcotdirect readingtacheometer
Latitudes and departures
Laying off horizontal angle 210
byrepetition 10
Least square 10
Leastsquaremethod 252
Lensformulae 91
Level
automatlc 1
dumpy 95
engineers' 9'+
tilting 103
Level book IIS
I17
adjustment 112
benchmark Si
change point .;jl';
checking 1:!7
collimation correction 12-1
crosssectional 1:9
datum 86
differential 117
',. errors 128. 147
fly 117
heightof instrument 1P
.permanentadjustment 156
profile 136
reciprocal 143
staff lOS
temporary adjustrnen; 112
trlgonomctrical 115
Lineof collimation :03 "
Local attraction .155
Longitudinal section 136
Magnetic declinatlon 173
dip 1i.3
I
I
lndex 605
IT\Ctt'ro 50S
10;
t)triccc 93
h.Jul cu/'\C 403
error S
definition
li:-,c ;;
, 'I use 405
fl-J .'3
lcve!
R-=.:it'fl'CJI fJ:':;in;

;3
.:lrbilrJI)'. 16-t
R....:tJn;ul.Jrcocrdinares
astronomic 164
Rcdu-:::J NJringl66
grid 16-t
Refraction 81
r.1J;netic 1
11
Micrometer 110
:O,S
rnicroseope :!.27
R-:,::r\oirI:aj'Jdty .536
rlr:llld plate 110
Resolving power' 106
7
Risl: and fJlI method J18
magnetic li3
S:ll; 33
:\e\\Ion Raphscn's method .531. 586
correction 39
Sorm:lltension 39
Schulermean
Sections
cross 139
96
longitudinal 136
Obsracles inchaining 53
Secularvariation 174
Odometer 29
Sekction ofsurveystation 58
Offsets 49
Self reducing tacheorneter
oblique 49
Sensitivity.of bubble tube 100
perpendkul:lr 49
Settingout
Omitted measurements 266'
" building 541
.Optic:ll defects 107
pipeline 539
Optlcalsquare 52
Shapeof earth 4
Sightdistance 355
S3g 358
Pacing 29
summit 356
Parallil:( 222
Simpson'srule 373
Partitioning 383
Spherlcalaberration 107
Plane surveyi ng I
Stadia 450
intersection 505
hair. 451
lehman's method 508
rod 45L
orlentatlon 505
serr
radiation 505
cross 51
resection 507
.folding .108
traversing 506
k\'cllin
::
a
lOS
trbngle of error .509
target 110
Planimeter 380
St:lking SB
Plumbbob 34
SuperelC:\':ltiun I
.Plumbingfork 502
Symbols. con- entional 6L
r:lnging 33 dir::ci reading uchconictcr 4S3
Precision S
Prism square 5J
Prismatic cornpas. J7::'
't.
TJ..:hc:"metr: 29.
Prisrnoldal correction :;91
errors 456
Probabilitycurve S

Fundamental of Surveying by KZS

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Fundamental of Surveying by KZS

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Rs. 295.

+-l ax ar X2)2 +... + ar )' + aQ) qi +...

Thestandarderror of theareafrom Eq.(2.11), is

is made in the chopperbeam splitter whichdivides themodulated light coming

EDM measures slopedistance between stations. Manyinstruments automatically

u1 U"l' II) <:1' u1 u1 L';

tothenumber ofinstrumentsetups.Weight alsovaries directlywiththe number

4 8" '2 ','

Fig. 9.8 Comp:1SS traverse,

(c)The verticalaxisisnormal totheplanecontainingthehorizontal circle.

surveying, (ii) Transluing and swinging, (iii) Freeand Fast needle

anticlockwise.Jt is good practice, however. to mC3Sure311 angles clockwise. Figure

. angle. This is known as adjustments based on measuring conditions. . .

line, rules of analytical geometry can be suitably applied in solving survey

Table 11.6' Example 11.10

Traverse SlIT>Jey and Computations. 275

Traverse Survey and Computations 283

Fig. 12.9 .Total station instrument method.

Initial tangent point not accessible (Fig. 12.11)

306 Fundamentals of Surveying

Atransition curveisacurveofvarying radiusintroduced betweenastraight and

11 =vl00 =9.81 x 60x60 R

326 Fundamentals of Surveying

=6R -, 8R =24R =sbift of thecurve,,

Lengthofcircular curve= - 2,)

-,--------,-' --,-- -----

(iii) Double parallel distance method:

Difference inarea=3620.82 - 2554.90 =1065.92.

to be entirely on theinsideof thecurveand toretaintheexisting sideslopesof

Fig. 14.41 Example14.18.

. =. (KS + C)cos 8 + rsin 8

,,' ,- .... ,.. -

the slven ..e the ar..... underthecurve

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