CONTENTS
Issue No. 69 VOL. II, July 2000 ISSN0254962X
Towards a More Robust Caribbean
Governance:
Community - Edain Carrington
in CARICOM: A 2000 Perspective 3
-EdwinJones
Social Partnerships and New Modes of Governance: The Barbados Experience
Falling into Place LeonardRobertson 6
-
Patrick
-
Survival and Beyond - Rex
61
I
Nettleford
Gomes
Commodity Exports: Agriculture in
IV
Post Lomd Good Morning Mr. Gauguin
-BernadcttePersaud
65
Byron
-
Bkke
70
12
A Caribbean Health Revolution A Caribbean Phenomenon: Pan is mi
-
GeorgeA.
Allqtne
75
Family -AnnLee
15
The Drama of Drugs in the Caribbean Ivelaan
-
Cover: Concept: Volderine HacketVChekama Skeete Design: Chekama Skeete
Hikry
-
Bechles
20
.
Editorial Team: Jacqui Wiltshire-Forde, Louis Daniel, Joseph Farier, Eugene Petty, KennY Baker
Persistent Poverty: CARICOM's -
Hector
-Tirn
Volderine Hackett
D
Response
OECS in Time and Sports
Editor:
Grifith
Lara and the Caribbean Imagination
CliveThornas
83
24
Removal of Language Barriers 27 losEb Farier
From One Brink to Another: Aboriginal Peoples in CARICOM at the close of the Century -JosEb
Pakcio
87
Theatre as a Teaching Tool -
Jean
Small
32
Our Coming of Age: The Standard of the Caribbean Community features a blue background - the upper part being of light blue representing the sky and the lower part of a dark blue representing the Caribbean Sea. The yellow circle in the centre of the Standard
Historical
Reflections on the Development of Anglophone Caribbean Education -
GlenfordD.
A
Howe
Century
of
35
Achievements for
A Millennial Assertion: The Dictionary of. Caribbean English Usage
-RichardAllsopp
92
Contemporary Labour Relations in CARICOM: A Synopsis -AustinJosiab %
Caribbean Vomen
represents the sun.
-
The interlocking$ in ttu.t the Caribbean Community. The narrow ring of green around the sun represents the vegetation of the Region. is the logo
of
Articles may be reproduced inpartorwholly, with due credit given to the publication.
Pat
Ellis
42
Connecting to the Century:
Order of the Community -AlbertlV.B.
Caribbean Telecommunications
-RoderichSanatan
Stamped in Time:
The Great Vest Indians and the
Sydnq
97
47
References
102
Gem of the Antilles: St Vincent and
the Grenadines:Host for the 2l
CARICOM PERSPECTIVE is published once a year and reports on the work, achievements and problems of the Caribbean Community. It is issued free of charge to readers in the Community.
-
Published by: The CARICOM Secretariat Commrmications Unit, Bank of Guyana Building
Governance
P.O.Box. 10827, Georgetown, Guyana, S.A E-mail : carisec3@caricom.org
Caribbean
Summit Country
Profile
52
in Post-Colonial Anglophone -
DapidHinds
57
Printed by Coles Printery Ltd., Mldey, St Michrel Bubados,West Indies
Page 2
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
i{t
/-)
-'4-
-/
TOWARDSA MORE ROBUST CARIBBEAN GOMMUNITY
At\o \ ?
t
\o
UNIT
"4
'4r0tu,:"
Edwin Carrington, Secretary-General of the Caribbean Community
of
Tn the Souvenir Issue (No. 55 of.1995) I of this Publication, I stated in an I"rti.l..r,ti tled'A C^aribbean Vuion into
tory to the process are in critical
Century" that for the peoples of the Caribbean the advent of a new millennium helA" un irye prcntis alhit in a wriable rcean of treacberora currenb". The realisation of that promise however, depends on the active panicipation of the people of the Region -
that reason among others, that the former Chairman of the Conference of Heads of
tbe 21"
need
resources human, financial and techno-
logical to undertake their tasks. It is for
the home population as well as the diaspora - in the regional integration process. Indeed their involvement is indispensable to building a robust
Government, Prime Minister Kenny Anthony of Saint Lucia, has highlighted the role and contribution which those in the Diaspora can and must play if this process is to be successful All hands are needed on deck! Or as we now say in another context 'Rally Round the \0est Indies!' His conviction is one I fully
CaribbeanCommunity.
share".
I
have returned to this theme on many occasions including in Volume I of this Issue (]une 1999) of this Magazine where
Treturn to this theme today convinced
in an excerpt from a Good
rlnt" building
?0uu
F _q
tr
,erg
which high-profile the involvement of the people of the Community in forging a more effective regional integration movement.
tl-h. very cover of this issue seeks to I depict some of the principal activities cultural, economic, political and social which characterise the life of the people of the Communiry. The scrolls are symbolic of the achievements of the Community and reminds us of the heights to which we must continuously strive. -
Robertson's' Falling into Pkce" conveys a
April
Friday
II
as
rro, o.rly of the truth, but also of the
"burning relevance that
of my earlier statement Q.ribban stn rcwre rquira
the North-East Regional Caribbean
mucb more tban tbe bricks supplied by the politiral, laa) and. ecornmir masoru. Itrequira
presentation at M.I.T, on
2
L999
to
Rqion
morur wbirb
Conference, I stated inter alia " For one,
the peoplc ofthe
the process requires a much wider
hol& dx Mrbs ngeiljq arld nah6 tlx stttlcture
participation (of people) than is now conceived of . . . For another, CARICOM
sturdy." This conviction finds ample
as
well
as
the other Institutions contribu-
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
to be the
support in the contents of this issue of the Perspective that emphasises subjects
virtual report card of the Communiry, since the histo
ic
Grand Anse undertaking.
It is for the reader to give his/her marks.
Nettleford's piece on the Region's artistic creativity over the last century, leaves no such assessment to be made, either of presentation or content. It depicts a people strong in the various strands of their culture.
Page 3
Persaud's
"
Good Morning
Mr. Gauguin"
continues the display of the strength of Caribbean art - a display strong enough to contradict earlier misrepresentations of it.
Ann Lee points to one of the outstanding cultural achievements of the Region, the creation of the Steel Pan by young and deprived black males. The place of that instrument in the history of 2O,h century cultural achievements
Glenford Flowe's Coming of Age sees education as a sine qua non for the process of development. He traces the
history of education from
slavery through colonialism through the postwar years and into "the crisis of the 1980s". In so doing, neither the
achievements nor the failures, nor indeed, the challenges still ahead, are
ignored. Given the imponance of
of the Region's most recent cricket icon -
education in human resource development and of the latter in the development of our societies, one cannot afford not to pay the greatest attention to such
Brian Lara - strikes at a central chord of
an analysis.
is assured.
Hilary Beckles' chronicling of the ascent
current'West Indian self-examination and development, and is well-complemented by Tim Hecto r's *Tbe OECS In Time and Spores'which goes beyond cricket and the levels of accomplishments. It goes further andlooks at the contribution of spofts as a humanising agency for the people of the OECS throughout their history. z
p
oderick Sanatan's Connecting to the
L\Gnany-Oril&anTelrcontnunicatiorutakes us not merely into the Information Age but also into
a
secror which stands at
the centre of the prospects for the social
and economic development of this Region. Its contribution to the general repositioning of Caribbean economies, ro
Joseph Farier' s Rernwal ofLang.age
furiers
touches on one of the Region's major cultural challenges ro rhe process of integration and development. Very much a product of the Region's history, language barriers need to be removed to respondto theRegion's geography, since they help to maintain fragmentation and to slovr the
pace
of cooperation
and integration.
Global developments call forthe intensification of efforts at national and regional levels for their removal. Jean Small's Tbeatre as a TeacbingTool shows us one way how.
f)at Ellis' lVomen\ Achieaement in tbe L Century goes to the very root of our struggle for change and development, by at women without whose contri bution there can and will be little or no significant change or developmenr. De-
looking
spite their many social and cultural constraints, their achievemenm have been varied and outstanding. Funher widening
of their participation and unshackling their social consrraints can unleash the thrust necessary for national and regional development. Self-fulfillrnent alone should however make such concerns a prioriry for
national policy in the 21', century. Page 4
national and regional development, to public and private sector acrivities, ro governance, and to the general functioning of civil society, makes it perhaps the single most important determining factor in the Region's developmenr prospects.
The author enjoins us to respond to the challenges of developing and utilising communication infrastructure to enhance all aspects of life ranging from systems of
governance growh.
to
patterns
of
business
Hinds and Jones both remind us of the requirements and importance of good governance as an essential element of socio-economic and cultural development. Their vision, especiallyJones', goes beyond the traditional boundaries ofthis dimension of the development syndrome and points to the indispensability of this
wider vision for the Region's true development. This question of good governance is no less critical and relevant to the Instirurions of CARICOM than it is to its constituent members.
P.I Gomes' "Social Partnersbip and Neta ofGoounance'illustrates one of the Region's most successful social partnerships as a new mode of governance . Ir may well offer valuable insights to other
Modes
Member States as they seek to establish their own new and more effective social contracts and modes ofgovernance.
/-l
live Thomas' piece on CARICOM's
\..J.sponr. to persistent poverty
war-
rants special consideration in the context of growing and widening regional poverq', in the current process ofglobalisation and trade liberalisation. As the former George Beckford Professor, Thomas as economics professor, social analyst and political activist, could not be better placed to treat with this phenomenon of which Beckford had so incisively wrinen in his book of that title.
Not only is poverty hell,
as
Calypsonian
Shadow singp so well, it affects nearly 30 per
cent of the Region's population.
It
is
therefore a widespread hell. Thus this is not amatterthat Thomas would observe in silence. Nor should we treat lightly his analysis and policy prescriptions.
Poverty also severely affects health, and certainly limited the extent of the "the Caribbean Health Revolution" to which Sir George Alleyne directs his contribution. Sir George, himself an outstanding medical practitioner and as Director of PAHO, no doubt better placed than anyone else, traces some of the major developments and significant effons and achievements in the Caribbean Health has
Sector from the early
2O,h
century to
present day. Many of the later achievements benefitted from the cooperation between Sir George's own institution -
PAHO - and the Caribbean Commu-
nity. \flhat
greater advance we would it not for the persistence of our poverry!
have witnessed were
Overshadowing all the previous achievements however is the current HIV/AIDS epidemic in which the Caribbean now has "the dubious repurarion of being the Region of the world in which the epidemic is
onlyto that of SubAfrica". This brings Sir George to
second in magnitude
Sahara
the "search for another health revolution."
Despite its devastating effect, Sir George offers two bits of good news. One is that one counrry in the Caribbean most affected by the epidemic in the past two decades has shown that the epidemic
CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
can be slowed, if not controlled and the second is that he has "every confidence that the Caribbean has the men and women to lead the new revolution." Ve all pray that Sir George is right.
basis of' his paper can be found in Belize, Dominica, Guyana, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago. He argues that generally these people have been living from one brink to
another and points to three distinct stages
The emphasis on training of skilledlabour
Dyron
ofthat process - the period up to the 1960s as they fought for physical survival as nations against extinction; anotherup to
and the development of productivity
Blake's Conrmodity Exports:
D'Agrirulture in the Post-Lornd IVEra: Implications of International Deaelop-
c nhardly be expected to be good news, threatening as it does to further weaken our economic structures through ntents
the loss of preference and of export markets and foreign exchange earnings.
It serves to drive home the urgency of the need to diversify our economic
the
1.980s,
when they formed
the
Caribbean Organisation of Indigenous
to address their basic needs within countries and across the region and thirdly, the 1990s duringwhich
Peoples (COIP)
they struggled for political and social validation.
activities and to improve our competihowever recognises that the regional structures did not exclude
f)alacio
tiveness.
I Ivelaw Griffith's Drama of Drugs in the
consideration of the Aboriginal peoples
Caribbeanreminds us - if we are ever likely
shown in Article XI of the CARICOM Cbarter ofCivil Sociery which provides that 'states recognise the contribution of the indigenous peoples to the development process and undertake to continue to protect the rights and respect the culture and ways of life of these peoples." The role of COIP in the Regional Cultural Committee is also recognised. Not widely known but of great significance was the
to forget - ofyet another contribution to our poverf,y, to the erosion of our process
of governance, to the threat of
our
national and regional security, and the subversion of our sovereignty and to the destruction to our societies' health. Moreover, since the ending of the Cold 'War, it remains for us a dubious claim to international notoriety.
winning of the CARICOM
The author's well-justified concern regarding conflicts among the many antidrug collaboration efforts must be taken seriously if we are to be successful in ridding ourselves ofthis scourge.
Quite a different challenge inheres in Richard Allsop's unique work of. Tbe
as
is
25'h
Anniver-
sary Logo by an Amerindian artist.
Palacio concludes by pointing to the reluctance of States to abide by Article XI of the CARICOM Charter of Civil Society and therefore honour the commitments to those who constitute the very root of
Dictinnary of C-aribbean Uvge. Here, despite
Caribbean society. He sees the failure to acknowledge the historical precedence of
the author's lament of the lack of
the aboriginal peoples, the lack of
widespread demonstrated appreciation of the Dictionary, both the labour involved and the resulting product would be well regarded by all, especially those to whom
autonomy at the local level and the obstacles within the judiciary to address
"Caribbean English" is their mother
themselves at the very forefront. He sees the success ofthe aborigines as the success of civil society itself, and calls for their emPowerment to move them away from the brinkmanship that has characterise their lives for centuries.
tongue. Surely the challenge must now be to ensure its wider utilisation and its furtherdevelopment.
Joseph Palacio's "From One Brinh to Arnther Ahriginal Peopla in CANCOM at
social concerns of powedess minorities as issues in which the aboriginal peoples find
-
the Close ofthe
Century" sewes to remind us
ofthe historical precedence ofthe various inhabitants of these fair lands. Palacio states that the Aboriginals who form the
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
which trade unions have played and will continue to play in improving the quality of life of the Region's people. No dispute here!
could not be more relevant at a time when
competitiveness is the Region's only assurance for survival, not only in the global market-place but even in the markets at home.
Alben Sydney's Samped in Tirne provides with an interesting philatelic history marking the development of the process of integration by the countries of the us
Caribbean. The history stretches from the
lil(est Indies Federation of 1958 to the Second Award of the Order of the Caribbean Communiry in 1995 The recognition and sign-posting of the progress of the regional integration movement by regional Postal Administrations is a most wonhwhile endeavour.
Towards Greater People Involvement 'Were
it not for recent initiatives by the political directorate of the Community, the contents of this issue of 'Perspective' would have provided a reasonably faithful picture of the face of the Community as regards people involvement. Heads of
Government have however moved to bring the people of the Communiry closer
to the centre of policy. A quick review would show that there has been a widening ofthe scope ofparticipation by the people of the Communiry in the determination of the progress of the regional movement and the development of a more maturing CaribbeanCommunity.
fh itr Seventh Special Meeting held in Ich"gu"t"-as, Trinidad last October, Heads of Government undertook a review of the matters for completion on their 20'h Century Agend4 and turned their attention to their exly 2L" Century agenda. fhe rcsult has been an aPPrcath shonting
Austin Josiah's Labour and Industrial Relations in tbe Caribbean recalls the
markedlTt greatcr people inuolaemcnt in thc Communi$t's future dcaeloptnent,
historical development of labour relations in the Region and the important role
continued on p.103
Page 5
FALLING INTO PLACE 'r'Leonard Robertson
Jn
alluding to the 25th Anniversary of
I CRnIcou,
IMr
Secretary-General,
Edwin Carrington in the introduc1998 Annual Report, said:
tion to his
"As is to be expected
in any integration
nTovenTent, the past 25 years baae seen tbe
Community saing continually from tbe heights of hope to the deptbs of deEair but crucially neoer losing sigbt of tbe goal - tbe intprovement of the quality of life for tbe people oftbe Region.'
movement and issued the Consensus of C haguaram.as. This document measures progress since the Grand Anse Declaration in which the Heads of Government of 1989 hadset out the direction inwhich they felt the Region should go as it moved towards the end of the 20th century. The
Declaration itself had provided a benchmark for the performance of CARICOM in its first sixteen (16) years. It could
be argued that the visionaries
of of
Establishment of a Caribbean Investment Fund to provide equity and venturecapital;
I
!
Arrangements forthe free movement of skilled and professional persons;
I
Intensification of joint represenration
in international economic negotiations;
I
Establishment
of an Assembly of
Caribbean Communiry Parliamentarians;
"the goal" that has undoubtedly been
1989 might not have been fully seized the mechanics of completing the tasks that
the vehicle in which the cavalcade of committed integrationists have driven through the Region in their attemprs ro
they set, resultingin time frames that were at best unrealistic and at worst impossible. Nevertheless, the Communiry has tried to
work of the Independent 'W'est Indian
weld the scattered lands together. Many times the vehicle has stalled and when the drivers and the mechanics seemed at a
fulfil the tasks and a revisiting of
!
It
is
loss,
popularwill
Consensus could put where we are
the
now
in perspective:
and sheer necessity have
The Heads of Government
been the force to propel it onward.
Market and Economy of.2000 is in itself indicative of the progress made institutionally. Added to rhat fact is that the
recalled the landmark document, The Declaration of Grand Anse, which was signed at the Tenth Meeting of the Conference at Grand Anse, Grenada,July 1989 and which set out the path for the
'Closer Association' was conductedsolely among the Anglophone territories of the Region but today's Single Market and
century: They noted the achievement of the following goals set
Economy includes the Dutch-speaking
outtherein:
The evolution from the'Closer Association' of Montego Bay 1947 to the Single
I
Establishment and completion of the
Commission;
Creation of a Council for Finance and Planning and a Committee of Governors of CentralBanks to enhance consultation,
cooperation and coordination on economicpolicies;
I
Removal of barriers to trade in goods;
I
Establishment of the regional legal
framework for the provision of air and transportarion (Protocol VI).
sea
Community towards the 21st
Suriname and the French-speaking Haiti.
Reality Check
fhepath tothat realicy, to misquote the I Secretary-General, has twisted from
I The revision of two Common Market Instruments, namely, the Common External Tariff and the Rules of Origin;
the heights of hope to the depths of
I
despair many times over and indeed at times very few were sure which of the extremes was in play! Some would say that
and Customs Administration;
we are at such
a stage
now.
The Conference of Heads of Government
Strengthened Customs Co-operation
I
Provision (in Protocol II) for the free movement of capital and its facilitation by cross-listing and trading of securities in
the existing three stock exchanges
in October 1999 at Chaguaramas con-
@arbados, Jamaica and Trinidad and
ducted their own review of the integration
Tobago);
Page 6
Leonard Robcrtson is a prioate media consultant and former Public Re lations Officer, CA RICOM Secretariat
CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
A t that time the Heads of GovernA-.nt noted that two key elements of the Grand Anse Declaration -
the
Single Market and Economy and the Caribbean Court of Justice- were close
to completion. Now the legal framework for the Single Market and Economy is in place with the signing at the 1lth Intersessional Meeting in St Kitts and Nevis of the last two of nine Protocols amending the Treaty of Chaguaramas. '\tr(ith
respect to the Court, it is expected
that it will be inaugurated later this year
with those countries that
can proceed.
A
site has already been identified and within the terms of the Agreement establishing the Court, Judges and other staff should soon be headquarters
appointed.
tarians had come together to discuss Regional issues in more than three
Region with an entrenched belief in the non-interference in the internal affairs of sovereign countries.
decades.
Also in 1996, camethe formulation of
a
plan for the Region to participate as a unit in international economic negotiations.
This subsequently spawned the Regional
it could be got right. Just ask the United States, the
deal of trial and error before
Negotiating Machinery which included from the outset the Dominican Republic
former Soviet Union and the United
and Haiti. The value of this approach to international negotiations has been under-
experience in that field.
Nations all of whom have had a lot more
scored by the battle to recognise the peculiarities of small economies in the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA).
The confidence, however, that encouraged such a move by the Community is not
The Heads of Government used the GrandAnse Declaration as the basis for their compilation. However, they did not forget another significant develop-
the immediate post-colonial era, is being replaced by an economic unit of English,
ment along the path to the improvement
It should be noted that
tfrh. shift from that position is a I momentous one and would entail a
misplaced The disparate group of territories that entered the last millennium, and indeed
French and Dutch-speaking countries with close ties to their Spanish-speaking neighbours.
That same multi-lingual
a
grouping has also
number of the areas identified in that extract from the Consensu.r are part of the revision of the Treaty
to
establish the Single Market and Economy. There are as well within
the list at least
estab-
quasi-Constitution, [Charter of Civil Society] the base for a Padiament and is about to inaugurate a Supreme Court. The last lnter Sessional Meeting in St Kitts and Nevis identified lished
three
a
areas of achievement.
portfolios of responsibility to be handled by individual leaders, introducing a Cabi-
The establishment of the Independent West Indian Commission and its sub-
net-like arrangement at the level of the Conference of Heads of Government. The
sequent work and report marked a significant mile-
Caribbean Community Secretariat is already in place as
distinct and significant
the Administrative
in the attempts to build a viable society. stone
Emanating from that rePort, Time For Actian, was the impetus for the crafting of the Charter of Ciail Soci'ety, a document which codified the social and ethical norms expected for good governance and democracy - a modern daY Magna Carta Caribbean-style without the legal obligations. The Charter was signed and adopted by the Member States
in
1997.
One year before, in Barbados,
the
Assembly of Caribbean CommunitY Parliamentarians held its inaugural session. A deliberative body' it marked the first time that Regional ParliamenCANCOM PersPective - June 2000
arm
of theCommunity. First Meeting of Assembly of Caribbean Community Parliamentarians, in Barbados, I 996.
A ll of these institutional and adminis' Arr"tirr. arrangements have been put
of the quality of life for the people of the Community. CARICOM has taken the lead in resolving political crises in Member States and indeed its role in
Haiti, prior to that country's successful application for membership, also falls into that category. The up-front role in both Guyana and St Kitts and Nevis was tangible proof of the CommunitY's growing maturity. There may be those who will carp at the results of this involvement but it should be borne in
mind that these decisions come from
together with a view to ensuring and maintaining a high quality of life for the
people of the Region. Keeping the faith could also guarantee a viable and secure place for a Caribbean society in the
coming millennium, a path that would have been cleared by the efforts and achievements over the last 50 years.
that the pieces are beginning to fall into place for the 'new' Community, the one beyond a mere Single Market and N Economy.
It
is clear
t\)
a
Page 7
.SURVIVAL The c lenlive d ivercity of C ai bbea n
that we have morc ailisrs. per squane us in what is ou r contadictory, conbntious
fascinating demarginalisation device which was source of energy for the Creole languages which are gems in the field of Caribbean communication arts from the srnan tonga of Suriname through Kweyol of Saint Lucia and Dominica toJamaica talk. They themselves were to be further sources of energy for
Prof, Bex Nenleford is Vice Chancellor,UlVl,
the orature on which Robin Dobru, Louise Bennett,
and Paul Keens-Douglas, dub poets like Mickey Smith and Mutabaruka as well as the great calypso and reggae lyricists, draw.
Mona, Jamaica
But these are not the only ones in a genuine
history
uch creativity is clearly the result of
a
marked
ancestral
by
severance
(from
heanhs) and suffering (on slave plantations, in
colonial dispensations and, to the Rastafarians, in a modern Babylon) but marked, most impoftantly, by survival and beyond. The accomplishments in the arts speak eloquently, over half a millennium of eventful history, to that survival and its premises beyond, via the exercise of the creative imagination more than by anything else.
So the passing at the beginning of this new
Caribbean literary tradition. It is Kamau Braithwaite who consistently reminded us throughout the latter decades ofthe last century that language, the stuffof literature, is more than lexicon. Rhythm, pitch and tone are vital ingredients, he insisted, and it is to the literary inventions of Caribbean forebears as well as to ancestors from among the conquerors that one must turn in grasping the Caribbean reality, through the scribal writs and oral tongues. No one epitomises this more than Derek tU(alcott who like Aim6 C6saire of Martinique, may use the
omaster's
tongue
'but
uses
it
in ways that celebrate the inner logic and consistency of a Caribbean realiry, through dialectical engagemenr between opposites that results in a dynamism and offers adynamic, which is what has taken the Region
millennium of a Lord Kitchener (the grandmaster of calypso) and Beryl Mc Burnie (a high priestess of
beyond mere survival.
Caribbean dance) could be cause and association for the celebration of life rather than for the mourning of a death. The lives and work of these two great Caribbean artists lead us back to beginnings and to the sustaining ofresistance through the activation of mind and spirit against oppression and dehumanisation. This is what indeed provided both forebears and their 20th century decendants with mechanisms of re-affirmation, and the effective invocation of that capacity for self empowermenr through the exercise of the creative intellect and the creative imagination.
CARICOM Caribbean can now claim a legacy of 20th centuryliterary giants who may be justifiably credited as seminal contributors to the revitalisation of a Literature in English in the post World \$[ar II period. They bear such names as Derek Walcott, the Saint Lucian 1992 Nobel Laureate for Literature,
The retreat into the labyrinth of the mind beyond rhe
reach Page 8
of
oppressors provided safe haven and
a
So, the
Kamau Brathwaite the poet-historian who hails originally from Barbados as does the novelist and essayist George Lamming - himself a virrual grandmaster
in the
genre
- Vidia Naipaul, Earl
Lovelace and Samuel Selvon of Trinidad, John Hearne, Vic Reid and Lorna Goodison of Jamaica, and \Tilson Harris and Martin Carter of Guyana. If. these have helped ro pur the Region on rhe world CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
AND BEYOND' 'rRex Nettleford
Iife has long led meto insist inch than is probably good for well-nigh unruly but exciting Region.
map through their display of literary excellence, others like A. J. Seymour (editor of Kyk-over-al), Frank Collymore (editor of Bim), Phillip Sherlock (editor of Caribbean Quarterly) alongwith other published literary artists such as Andrew Salkey and Jan Carew, Anthony McNeil and Slade Hopkinson, Edward Baugh and Mervyn Morris, Erna Brodber
and Olive Senior have helped
to
prepare the
Caribbean psyche to harbour that sense ofplace and purpose which is normally the perogative of the selfconfident and truly empowered. In this, as in other
manifestations of creative'endeavouring', the Caribbean remains a living laboratory of that
cultural process which is rooted in the crossfertilising encounters between myriad cultures
adults for all of four months. It is a folk musical that has developed into a distinctive form though with traces still of its origins in the English Christmas pantomime as well as in the Jamaican variety concert and teameetings. It has inspired versions in other parts ofthe Region and has been performed in Trinidad (at the time of the inauguration of the West Indies Federation) as well as in the United States and the United Kingdom. One pantomime was even based on a Guyanese pork-knocker's tale scripted by Guyanese Cecile Nobrega.
Beryl McBurnie
caught in myriad forms of relationship over time.
But the names most closely associated
I
s
with literature,
-C\the
so
with the performing arts.
name of Beryl McBurnie has already been
alluded to; but her pioneering kindred spirits
-
Ivy
Baxter of Jamaica and Lavinia Villiams of Haiti (now a member of CARICOM), Ramon y Guerra and Enrique Lazaro, respectively, of Cuba and the Dominican Republic @oth aspiring for membership in CARICOM), beartestimonyto thevibranry of the development of a Caribbean dance-theatre in the last half of the 20th century. Trinidad's Little Carib remained a flagship entity throughout the 1940s and
to
be joined by Jamaica's National Dance Theatre Company (NDTC) whose international 5Os
acclaim dating back to the sixties has inspired many
other ensembles throughout the Region, having flourished on the basis of continuing exploration of, and experimentation with, indigenous Caribbean movement, music, religion, rituals and folk legends. Barbados, Guyana, Dominica and The Bahamas have all followed suit. Musical theatre can also claim a C arib be an v er sion in the genre. TheJamaican Little Theatre Movement (LTM) national pantomime has for 60 years opened on every Boxing Day at 6'00 p.m. without fail and then plays to tens of thousands ofyouths and
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
with its development are Henry
and
Greta Fowler as producers, Noel Vaz and Brian Heap as directors, Louise Bennett and Ranny Villiams as actors and, of late, Barbara Gloudon as writer lyricist. In addition, the LTM pantomime has been the cradle of many of Jamaica's leading theatre luminaries,
Lorna Goodison
past and present.
In the theatre of the spoken word it is the significant plays of Dereck Walcott who used the Trinidad Theatre \7ork-
shop for his experiments in, and explorations of, indigenous speech patterns, folkforms and legends while
Trevor Rhone, Dennis Scott, Roderick Hill, inter alia, added to the growing body of texts for the Region's theatre during the days of intense searching and vibrant action. It was Errol Hill in his books on the history and character of carnival that called for the great festival art to be a mandate for a national theatre of Trinidad and To-
'W'alcott, Errol
Sandals Negrill
Courier No. 175
Page 9
disciplines stretching from anthropology to what is now called Cultural Studies. The names of Gordon Rohlehr, and Rawle Gibbons are associated with the chronicling of the calypso as artform and trenchant socio-political commentary since the 1930s and have made sense of the genius of Lord Kitchner, the Mighty Sparrow, Spoiler and the latter-day Rudders, Chalkdusts and Stalins, among others.
The many uses oflby calypso as "song of praise, censure, prophecy, lamentation
as
catharsis,
as
self-mocker of others
.
word-play, as source for social history, as inspiration for dance, art, literature and so on" found its parallel from the mid-Sixties in reggae spawned in the depressed zones of Kingston, spreading to the Eastern Caribbean along with the Rastafarian faith which the reggae movement appropriated and further into the wider world making superstars of Jimmy Cliff, Peter Tosh and Toots Hibbert and a megastar of the iconic Bob Marley whose album "Exodus" was voted the album of the century by Time magazine whtlehis "One Love" . . as
was declared the BBC anthem at the end of last century.
Peter Minsball
uith
Pearl Eintou Springer
ATCARIFESTA'V'
bago. This may yet to be realised since
Martin Carter
the "theatre" inherent in that pre-Lenten festival may well speak for itself. Indeed, since the last two decades it has been speaking for almost the entire CARICOM Caribbean with the format used as a tourist attraction in places like Antigua or as a
model for territory-specific versions as in Saint Lucia, with Crop-Over in Barbados and an Easter version in Jamaica. The pre-Lenten carnival has also found new form in the Caribbean diaspora in such North Atlantic urban centres as New York, Boston, Miami, Toronto and across the Atlantic in Notting Hill, London each August. It has thrown up arguably the Region's greatest designer Peter Minshall, whose eminence was to attract world recognition when he was commissioned to design the opening ceremonies of the Barcelona Olym-
Dereh \Valcott
pics.
/a arnival, like its sister festival arts ([onkonnu/ \-rMasquerade/Goombay and Hosay the gift from India through the East Indian arrivals in the 19th Century) has attracted creative scholarship which serves the academy worldwide in a range of Page
l0
Vidia Naipaul
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Aqam
It
is the music of the Caribbean which arguably has made the greatest impact worldwide rivalling the twenty-year domination of the game of cricket
throughout the Commonwealth (of nearly 50 countries) and Olympic track and field dating back to the golden achievements at Helsinki in 1948. The traditional music of the Region found a "Jobn tbe Baptist" in Harry Belafonte, AfricanAmerican of Jamaican stock whose use, with the help of composer-arranger Irving Burgie of Barbadian parentage, of early Trinidad calypsos and traditional Jamaican mentos swept the world scene long before Marley and Sparrow emerged' Now parts of !flestern Europe are hooked on zouk coming out of the Kweyol-speaking CARICOM Caribbean while its own traditional songs find new life through the choral theatre tradition ofthe post-War Caribbean manifested in the famous police Choir of Guyana singing the queh-queh and pork-knockers songs of the past, or La Petite Chorale musicale of Trinidad under Olive Valke and more recently in Pat Bishop's talented and versatile Lydian Singers. Then there are the Jamaican Folksingers under Olive Lewin and the
University Singers brought to recent international and regional attention by U\flI's director of music at Mona, Noel Dexter himself a moving spirit of the Sixties in the indigenisation of liturgical music through compositions and arrangements of hymns reflective of Caribbean melodic and rhythmic contours. 'here have also been the Hewanora Voices led by
Joyce Ogiste of Saint Lucia, the Kingstown Chorale of St Vincent under Patrick Prescod and the
Emerald Singers (Montserrat) directed by Edith Allen (laterBellot). Above and beyond all this is the steel pan - arguably the only acoustic musical instrument invented in the 2Oth century and given aesthetic eminence by the likes of pioneer Elie Manette and successor Jit
Samaroo. The pan has been duly declared the national musical instrument of Trinidad and Tobago. The recycling of old oil drums reminiscent of the xylophone of Africa and the piano of Europe to eke out melodies in a style of percussive playing (shared by the drums of West Africa and indeed of as by the tassa of Hindu and Mohammedan India) was to result in a truly Caribbean invention with the Invaders and the Desperadoes of Trinidad and the old Brute Force Band of Antigua and Barbuda bearing added testimony to the Region's ingenuity and creative
Europe's military bands
daring.
Pbagwab Festirtal Caribbean Beat No. 36
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Such, indeed, are the creative attributes of the Caribbean in its long anguished but in many ways rewarding struggle'to be'.
N 6\ t\)
Page
1l
GOOID MORNING F
S
,3flJ,}Ja â‚Źl 'r'Bernadette Persaud
The French Post-lmpressionistartist, PaulGauguin, in a letter to his estranged wife, written in 1887 from a "negroe's cabin", on the island of Martinique declared
... "it's a paradise nearthe isthmus. Below us, the sea bordered by coconut trees, overhead every sort of fruit tree, twenty-five minutes from town. Negro men and women walk by allday long with their Creote songs and endless chattering; not that its monotonous, on the contrary it's quite vaied. I couldn't describe for you my enthusiasm for tife in the French colonies, and I'm sure you'd feelthe same. Nature at its ichest, a hot climate, but with intermittent cool spe//s. With only a tittte money the re's e no ug h to be h ap py"...2 auguin's tropical vision was, of course, only a 19'h century variant of that paradlse which
Christopher Colombus glimpsed, in an earth-shattering, rapturous moment when he landed on the island of Santo Domingo, five centuries ago.
That glimpse of paradise - however fleeting and illusory - gathered more shape and substance, in the narratives, reports and illustrations of those minor European artists, explorers, topographers and naturalists who travelled through the Region in the 18'h and 1.9'h centuries.
"Art for me is a dialogue with self, a quest for tbe meaning of life and deatb,
By the time of Gauguin's arrival in Martinique, the essentially European vision of a tropic paradise had already deepened into a peculiar dream of mythic resonances - a mythic dream almost completely at odds with the monstrous reality of what overrook
the Region in the centuries following Colombus' arrival . This myth of paradise not only encapsulated a quest for hnoulan archetypal human longing for a lost, golden edge: a pursuit ofthe innocent age and a 19'h century reaction against the unh.nowable: materialism and atheism Benzadette Persaud, of the Enlightenmenr, it Guyanese Artist- (bot- was also more specific ally a tropic paradise - another tom right.)has held kind ofEden - of a strange, distinctive colouration seoeral solo exhibi- and topography, inhabited by the Other. Utterly tions in Guyana, Seductive. Repellent, Feminine. And endlessly Trinidad & Tobago, fascinating: the srrange beauty of its flora and fauna
Cayman Islands, Neu York, India,
Gauguin's lush landscapes of pure violent colours peopled by Rousseau's 'noble savage' - the Other evoked a world of crude simplicities and lazy barbaric pleasures. Here was a world of visceral splendour, distilling a heady mix of what was knowingly and unknowingly craved, feeding an Imperial hunger and a sensual appetite for the new, the alien and the exotic. At a primal level, subsumed
in
those compelling paintings was rhar grear - the \0hite God - embracing the Otber, and even more viscerally, that old Colonizer savouring the paradisiacal moment in 1492,whenin the words of Samuel Morison "the New Vorld gracefully yielded her virginity to the conquering Castillians". Such were the resonances inherent in the work of an arrisr who - ironically fleeing modern 'Western civilization - was destined to shape that potent visual myth which would infect the imagination of both the Colonizer and the colonized, throughout Mythmaker
the 20'h
century. Here, in the Caribbean, this visual
mph, surviving guises, in
in various
popular culture, became an enduring part of the
heightening i ts Otb emess.
popular imagination. The
Not surprisingly, it
perception of the Caribbean's carnival condition,
was this vision of a tropical paradise, captured in the extraordinary paintings of the great French Master, which struck a resonanr chord in the European psyche and left a challenging legacy for the creative imagination of the Region. Page 12
for instance, consolidated in the colourful, graphic
images propagated by tourist literature and tour-
Bernadette Persaud
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
ist art - images of sun, sand, sea, sex and rum constitutes not only a symPtom but also a pragmatic exploitation of the Gauguin legacy. Significantly, the greater p art of a remarkable body of art which blossomed during the 20'h century, demonstrates that the creatiae imagination of the Region's finest artists has remained uncolonized by this powerful myth. For, given the racial memories and the bitter experiences of slavery, indentureship, colonial and neo-colonial exploitation, etc., the art
which sprung from such a crucible, not only interrogated that vision of a tropical paradise' but also effectively gave the lie to it. By the close of the century, \(estern commentators
were already beginning to acknowledge the complexity and diversity of this unique body of art, so difficult to define andcategorize. Caribbean commentators and art historians, going
which made it
much further, challenged the adequacy of the use of certain classifications and terminology in the critical scrutiny of this art which inevitably reduced it to a derivative minor branch of Modern'Western art.
\ /eerle Poupeye's Caribbean,'4rr published by V Th"-.r and Hudson (1118) testifies to the changing perceptions and growing international interest in the art of the Region. Poupeye, aBelgian art-historian, based in Jamaica, points out in her pioneering work, that Caribbean people are now seen as a people for whom there is no simple cultural definition; she endorses the view that the complexity of their art arises from the "hybridity, plurality and open-endedness which are the fundamental characteristics of Caribbean culture"'
Poupeye's book represents
not only a
major
achievement for Caribbean art' as a whole but more significantly, constitutes a milor reversal of those 'Western paradigms embracing the 19'h century Caribbean, its peoples and its art. Rosseau's notion of the 'noble savage' and the myth which frames the Caribbean as a simple exotic' tropical paradise are a
farcrya'way. Even, in the work of 2O'h century European artists' following in the footsteps of Gauguin, this seminal myth merely hovers on the edge of consciousness. The work of Colin Garland and Allison Greaves, for instance - European artists based in Jamaica and Barbados respectively - evoke the paradisiacal setting and landscape so typical of the Region's island states' And yet, the land is conceptualized and painted as a dense multi-layered slice of the Earth - convulsed, dislocated, harbouring haunting memories in secret
CARICOM PersPective - June 2000
"Tropical Vegeution" PauI Gauguin, 1887 recesses. Here is aNew/Oldworld. Andparadise, only a thin veneer: a myth interrogated.
Two recent publications,
/4o dern Jamaican
Art (1998)
in Barbados (1999) published by the Jamaican
andArt Publishing House
- Ian
Randle Publishers '
showcase an impressive body of work which not only interrogate but also contribute significantly to the dispelling of those traditional PercePtions and myths which have burdened the Region's art. These
texts survey the highly accomplished work of the Jamaican and Barbadian artists, in the context of
early struggles against colonialism, the Independence and Post-Independence movements and the quest for a national cultural identity. As such, the racial, cultural and political nuances which shape the distinctive character of their art, are more pronounced. The large colour plates which lavishly illnttr"t. both texts, leave no doubt about the character and complexity of the Region's mainPage 13
stream art - an art fundamentally engaged in a dialectical encounter with \Testern Modernism/ Post-modernism, and bent on forging an aesthedc of
and a fresh wave of younger talents, could no longer be ignored.
resistance/subversion or accommodation. What is conveyed by this impressive body of creativity however, is the amazing resilience of spirit of a people whose collective historical experience has been almost totally dystopian.
Guyanese
writer, philosopher-visionary, lVilson
Harris,
pointed out that the unconscious cannot
has
colonized. The amazing work of our visionary artists demonstrate unequivocally that there is be
certainly a realm of Being which cannot
be
colonized. Their extrao rdinary,creative outpourings constitute a strong testimony to the enduring humanity and spiritual depths of the Caribbean people, as a whole. Perhaps, in this new cenrury, when the history of our art is written and re-written
Other currents of art in the Region, outside of the mainstream - Visionary/Intuitive,/ Primitive/Indigenous/Roots/Outsider movements - indifferent to 'Western art-historical traditions, are obviously not burdened by Eurocentric perceptions and myrhs. These currents - coming ro the fore in the last decades of the 20'h century - draw their inspiration from mainly indigenous religious movements or belief-systems, like Jamaican Revivalism and Rastafarianism. The work of these visionary/
and re-written, Caribbean visionaries will be seen as the founding fathers of a truly Caribbean art and the Region's very own Mythmakers.
\Y/h." the great French mythmaker arrived in W "paradise near the isthmus" in Martinique, in
intuitive artists, represents a truly indigenous and original aesthetic in the Caribbean. Their vision or world-view, shaped often by an eclectic mix of indigenous and ancesrral philosophies, inscribes notions of a paradise which is located elsewhere - in some distant sphere of longing or metaphysical
7887, all he could hear was the endless chattering and singing of the Creoles who had been freed from slavery 50 years earlier. Now, iust a century later,
if
he were to stroll through this other side of paradise he would hear the Caribbean's own mythmakers, singing with the resonance of the centuries: "Good morning Monsieur Gauguin!',
sPace.
For the Rastafari, the Caribbean here-and-now, as in Bob Marley's plaintive song, remains a Babylon, and the distant paradisiacal homeland -Zion. Ras Ishi Butcher, well-known Barbadian Rastafarian, in his diptych Tender Pknts (1994) depicts the lush tropical Edenic Garden, with colourful exotic trees, plants
and birds; interestingly, the branches
of
the
dominant tree are full of sharp, menacing thorns. Guyana's visionary painterlsculptor, Philip Moore arguably the most gifted and original of the Region's artists - reveals in his remarkably varied oeuvre, a unique consistent vision of the modern city of God, where man, nature and the cosmos are inextricably woven in a magical tapestry of organic and structural unity. This vision, of course, has been fuelled by a syncretic blend of ancestral African, Hindu and
Christian metaphysics and, more immediately, a peculiarly Guyanese yearning for that ideal state of multiracial order and harmony.
T!. currenr of.visionary/intuitive art has always I flowed, persistently and often invisibly throughout the colonial and post-colonial periods, distinct and apart from the Region's mainstream. By the 1970's the power and intensity of the work of philip Moore, Leroy Clarke, Gladyn Bush and in particular theJamaican Intuitives,John Dunkley, David Miller, Sydney Mclaren, Mallica Reynolds, Everald Browne Page 14
Alison Chapman - Andreps "A Last Day in the Country", 19g7 Barbados Gallery of Art l.taken from the title of one of Gauguin's paintings Paul Gauguin: "Tropical Paradise-,p.24.
2
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
CARIBBEAN PHENOMENON "Pan is ni Familytt Tn the lives of the ex-slave population in Trinidad I and Tobago, the steel b"ni r.pr.r.nts another Iin a series of manifestations of cultural persistence - the interlocking processes of change and
continuity.
Time, circumstances and taste had influenced transformations in festive music making amongthe exslave population. However, the essential character of
the steel band movement - its
music
in
,r-
Trinidad
and Tobago. The an-
nual Carnival, celebrated in February or March, was the focal point of their participation.
expression of
community solidariry and tendenry towards rivalry and hostility, its organization and leadership - cenainly pointed backward to a time-honoured tradition that
In a bygone era, just after Emancipation, the African popula-
pre-dated Emancipation and could be found in
tion had brought their
variation throughout the New \florld. The endurance of the movement to the present era and its spectacular development are evidence of the indomitable will of its progenitors and their descendants.
drums andrough-and-
Origins
ready instruments
into the
Carnival processions from which they had been forbidden dur-
street
i.rg the slave
f t continues to be impossible to give a precise date I to the first constitution of the musical ensemble that today we refer to as the steel band. There are some circumstances that can be accepted, however, without injury to the history of a people. The original pan musicians and innovators were young, Black males, from the yards and other communal livingspaces in and around Port of Spain, Trinidad. Many of them were teenagers who still lived in the homes of parents or adult relatives. They were subjected to the vicious conditions of existence that normally attend a landless, disenfranchised, migrant population. Trinidad, during the period between the first and second Vorld Vars, did not hold out much promise of a future to the Black, urban population. Many of the early pan men spent much of their time idling, learning to gamble and attending cinema shows. They were quite indistinguishable from the criminal element, the pimps and dandies, called saga boys, of the era. Like them, they had been raised in the hurly-burly of festive celebration that provided a counterpoint to their harsh existence. Music was central to this tradition. The musical heritage of the Africans in Trinidad and Tobago embraced secular as
well
as religious
Ann Lee
traditions: the training ground
for many an early pan man would have been the Shango palais of East Port of Spain, places like Laventille and John-John. However, it was in the sphere of secular music that the Africans made their
greatest contribution to the developing body of CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
era.
They transformed the
celebration
for
all
time, stampingitwith
the
unmistakable print of African New
Vorld
traditions.
Call-and-resp ons e
in the local
patois, masquerades that depicted the horrors of slavery and those that singing
mocked the colonizer, the kalinda processions that reflected a unique sense of community order and
inter-community hostility were expressions of
a
cultural will among an oppressed people.
The mayhem that erupted in the nineteenth century carnival was anathema to the colonial authorities and ruling class. This s/as the heyday of the jamet - a term used to refer to those who lived in the darkness ofdisrepute. Through the jaundiced eyes of the British ruling classes, it might well have been an epithet applicable to the mass of Poor' urban Blacks in the later half of nineteenth century Port of Spain. By the end of the century, this jamet carnival had been tamed and the drums and stick fight had been banished to the rural areas. The urban masses swiftly introduced the tamboo bamboo
band, an ensemble of bamboo stamping tubes that fulfilled the musical functions of the different
drums. The early steel band would follow similar musical
structure.
a
page 15
"Tbe Steel Pan"
Experimentation
Qo-e
scholars, notably
Junbroken
J. D. Elder, trace
The tamboo bamboo bands were the preserve of the older men. Later, in the steel bands, one would hear an
musical line between the African drum andthe steel bandwith the tamboo bamboo band as the twentieth century link. Elder argues that there was correspondence between socio-economic disadvantage andrace/ class conflict and the similarity between the nineteenth century Kalinda and the steel band. Indeed, one cannot overlook the identity ofcharacter in both ensembles and the continuity of debilitating socio-economic conditions among the generations of
the ex-slave population. However, it is equally important to note that the transformations in the musical ensembles of the various eras were paralleled by transformations in the calypso and the Carnival, the
matrix in which urban, folk traditions were nurtured. By the turn of the century, the calypso was being sung in English; the street bands of the more respectable classes were being accompanied by string bands;
and the tamboo bamboo bands, though popular with the masses, were confined to the early morning jouvay processions. The point
is that the originators of the pan "Conoex Pan"
were being influenced by avariety
of music that gave rise, perhaps unwittingly to experimentation. It is this circumsrance thar defines
the steel band as a Caribbean phenomenon, a in the New
genuine prodigy of African creariviry
\florld. The louder, brass and other ensembles of the late nineteen-thirties were affecting tasres in the Carnival of the steel band movement were generally not admitted to the middle class processions that were either lorry-driven or surrounded by ropes in the pre-World War Two decades. They, however, certainly followed along within earshot. These and the popular cinema shows they attended enhanced their appreciation of melodic instrumental music. In fact, the cinema shows were to exercise a considerable influence on the steel band movement in two otherways. Varriors, themselves, the pan men were quite impressed with the heroes of the popular war movies of the period. Several of the
street music. The innovators
earliest bands drew their names from these
-
Destination Tokyo, Night Invaders, Cross of Lorraine,
Hill Sixty, Casablanca and Red Army were either the titles of movies or important locations in them. Additionally, pan men adopted the names and attitudes of heroes of these movies. Page 16
similar testimonies of men's jealousy for their instruments. Clutched under one arm or suspended
from the neck, the first pans were heavy
and cumbersome. Prolonged thumping and striking could
result in blisters and bruises but the early pan men would resist giving up their instruments to others. They were to bring to the bamboo bands a passion for rhythmic music and a hunger for greater volume and tonal variation. There were obvious shortcomings of the bamboo ensembles. The bamboos were generally short-lived and would crack or burst aftersome hours of pounding on the streets. They were known to emit what was described as "a cracking sound" and, in comparison to the trumpet, saxophone and horn, their volume was extremely limited. In addition to finding their place
The originators of the pan zaere.. inlluenced by a
uariety of music that gaoe rise, perbaps unzuittingly to experimentation. It is tbis circumstance that defines the steeL band as a Caribbean phenomeon
in the music, the early pan men were also seeking to rectify the deficiencies of the bamboo ensembles. They tried to remedy this through the introduction of any available noise-producing object. Some were more popular and proven than others. The dustbin cover and the bin itself have found a place in history, so too, the brake drum of motor cars. The emphasis was clearly on metal objects. That vras not odd: cow bells and triangles had been adopted by the enslaved Africans and at least one pre-emancipation sketch of slaves in a communal yard, a nigger ground, shows the use of a metal pot in a communal music and dance session. In the first half of the twentieth century, the contribution of the young pan men was to effect a marriage between melody and percussion.
fh. r.q.r.nce of events, dates andidentities are the I stuff of *hich legends and folk heroes are made. A simplified, composite version of this development relates that the boys would join the tamboo bamboo bands
with their own improvised instmment, usually of
metal, to create a greater volume. Sometimes, the
bamboo instruments, known
for their
limited
durability, would burst and a player would seize upon the most appropriate object to fulfill his role in the ensemble.
For some time afterwards, bands were often a mix of metal and bamboo. On one spectacular occasion, the
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
cacophony produced by the combined metal and bamboo instruments was so exhilarating that adecision was made for the band to discard bamboo altogether and appear on the streets of Port of Spain as an allmetal percussion band. This is said to have occurred before the end ofthe decade ofthe nineteen thirties. It is definitive lore that is said to mark the beginning of the transition to all-metal bands. The date is still in dispute - nineteen thirty-five or nineteen thirty-seven. Its resolution hinges around the year a movie that the band adopted as its name was shown in Port of Spain. According to the composite version, in the final years of the thinies, youngpan men were discoveringthat the perpetual striking of certain areas on the surface of their instrument resulted invarying tonal qualities that sounded like notes. These were purposefully explored.
banners and other military paraphernalia and displayed a marked preference for military masquerades. They, too, paraded in an attitude of combat, chanting war-like refrains. One such was:
'W'ar
Two. Chaguaramas, fhen came World I T.inidrd, *as an American base, leased for ninetynine years. The Carnival street parades were banned during the war years but the progress ofthe steel band, the honing of the instrument continuedin the yards and in the illegal street processions that were countered with harsh police brutality. All too often the incipient bands would parade at night in the back streets of Port of Spain and the hills of East Dry River. The Police, listening, would catch the ring of the pan and descend upon the young men in the dreaded Black Maria, wielding the b ullpizzle, a most painful weapon.
W'e
AdoLf Hitler, here comes the enemy are quite prepared for the bad Man from
Germany. No bayonet, no gun. The beating of the steel band go mabe So,
Hitler,
be on
I mean it's tbe steel The first definitive public appearance of the melodic steel band occurred in the spontaneous VE and VJ Days celebrations in May and August, 1945. It is interesting to note that, in addition to Port of Spain, steel bands were parading in San Fernando and Princes
Town in the South, Sangre Grande in the East' Chaguanas in central Trinidad and in Scarborough, Tobago. Before the end of the decade, there would be steel bands in Guyana and in some of the islands of the eastern Caribbean.
Improvisations
him run.
your guard.
band
from Trinidad.
The enemy was anyone from an)'where. Immediately' was the
brother steel band from
a
it
community not that
far away . The last five years of the forties were marred by inter-band rivalry.Ironically, this was a time when
steel bands were enjoying tremendous popularity' if nev/spaper reports are given credibiliry. Promoterswere
organizing a number of competitions and concerts. Competitions were fiercely contested, offered little rewards and fu elled the inter-band hostility.
atradition of community
Concerts, on the other hand, were limited but
rivalry and hostiliry. The similarities berween them and the kalindabands ofthe nineteenth century are striking.
introduced steel bands to more sophisticated audiences and, encouraged a wider repertoire, including the classics that were of interest to the early pan men.
Steel bands were born into
Both were constituted as musical and military assemblies. Their leaders were referred to as captains. Some members of the band were designated as fighters while others were musicians, although one man could
paraded through the streets in attitudes of combat. The chantuels in the Kalinda bands had preceded the bands singing boastful and threatening songs and went into battle against the opponent to the refrain of chorus and drums. The twentieth century Pan men made wide use of flags,
fill both roles. They
CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
the Police were encountering a spate of .thoolg"nism" perpetrated by the "robust men" of Port of Spain, in addition to the general threat to national security that unruly mobs constitute. lt was
flfowever.
I
impossible to separate the steel bands from the bona fide criminal element. They were all part of the Black' urban zpeltanscbauung as noted earlier. The Police stepped up their anti-criminal activities, appointing Page 17
a Commando Squad inlate 1,947 to make summary arrests of loiterers, a catch net that embraced many a pan man. With the writing on the wall for the steel band movement - the threat to drive the bands underground - a group ofcultural nationalists intervened in the steel band affair. Petitioned by the Trinidad and Tobago Youth Council, Government appointed the Steel Band Committee comprising respectable members of urban Trinidad, some of them public officials and newspaper columnists, all of whomwere sympathetic to the steel
band movement. The Youth Council and the Steel Band Committee negotiated peace between the berter known warring bands and secured symparhetic treatment of pan men who had been charged for offences committed during fights.
rom November 1949, until the first official tour of a steel band in 1951, there was
overseas
under the baton of Lieutenant Griffith, represented the colony at the Festival of Britain. The eleven-member band was a great success and stayed on in Britain for other performances after the Festival. Rave reviews were reponed home, fuelling the nationalist sentimenr
that the steel band had come to symbolize. In the following year, a steel band class was introduced into the prestigious biennial Music Festival. By this rime, too, middle class or "college boy" bands had come into
themovement.
The greater social acceptance of the steel band was countered by increasing frustration and hostility within the movement. Violence flared anew. This time, it was
the fighting arms of the bands, now functioning independently on occasion, that kept up yearlong feuds. Virulent gang warfare continued to be feature of the movement until the early sixties. Any encounter between members from opposing gangs could escalate into a pitched battle. Much of the violence was often irrational. However, it appears that keen competition for scarce financial resources lay at the heart of the matter. The promise of the early years of the decade had not borne fruit.
The popularity of steel bands in Carnival and for private engagemenrs was growing steadily. Yet, it seemed, that the middle class bands were being offered the plum contracts and the older working class bands were left to squabble over the less lucrative night club
jobs. The new national government, the People's National Movement inrervened with its unemployment relief programmes to filter money into the steel bands. The first of these programmes began
in
1958
and, since that time, has been renamed and
relative peace within the steel band movement. The
Steel band Committee asserted, through their influential columnists that the steel bands were, in fact, genuine musical ensembles, against the charge of their detractors that they consriruted noise-producing ensembles. The Committee argued that the violence within the movemenr and against official authorities had its basis in socio-economic conditions. Most importantly, in that critical period of nationalist contest, the Committee identified the steel band as the major symbol of the creative will of a colonial people for self-expression.
The decade of the fifties began with a flurry of activities that augured well for the future of the steel band movement. With the assistance of the youth Council and concerned individuals, steel bands were hosting open year concerts to promote future incomeearning performances. In nineteen fifty-one the Trinidad All Steel Percussion Orchestra (TASPO), Page
)8
restructured on several occasions. Today, the programmes have fallen out of the hands of the movement bur from its outset, it served to create a relationship ofpatronage befween the Government and the movement that is yer
to be broken. The Government encouraged business sponsorship
also actively for bands in the
decade of the nineteen sevenries.
!fo*.r'.t, the problem of economics wouldpersist I lorr.r the yea.s. In the decades ofthe sixties and seventies it would encourage the exodus of pan innovators to greener pastures, Up to the present time, it would find expression in conflicts berween bands and the umbrella organization (Pan Trinbago since 1921) and between the organization and Government.
The quelling of violence within the steel band movement meant
a re-direction of energies into more creative pursuits. Steel bands became more involved in
masquerades other than the traditional military and in 1963, the steel band
sailor masques. Beginning
CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
association began to host a biennial music festival and, in association with the Carnival Development Committee, the annual Panorama competition that is still the premiere event in the steel band calendar. The decade of the nineteen sixties also witnessed the beginning of extensive touring by bands. Some did not return but the effect of these early tours was to establish pan music as world music. Today, there
are steel bands, aficionados, organizations and festivals in various parts of the world.
Jt has been lamented here, in Trinidad and Tobago, Ithat the pan man has fared better abroad and that
nationalist contest did not end with Independence. Yet, though often beseiged, the steel band movement soldiers on. \flhat is marvellous about the steel band movement is that it continues to be a vast reservoir of creative energy and a compelling musical force. It is arnazing the rapidity with which men and women create steel bands and the kind of energy that goes into assembling the bands for festivals and the annual Panorama competitions. Increasingly in the decade of the nineties composers were writing music especially for steel bands and musicians have been experimenting with varying band sizes and marriages between the pan and other instnrments.
steel bands have not received their just deserts at
home. Indeed there have been some disconcerting signs. There has been a dramatic decline in the demand for pan music in Carnival processions and
fetes.
This has often been attributed to
the
"Panorama syndrome" - the emphasis on a single tune for the competition that takes precedence over the development of repertoires. Another side to this is the age old problem of changing tastes and the steel bands have, since the nineteen seventies, been in competition with the amplified
...the steelband movement continues to be a vast reservoir of creative energy and a compelling musical force
1^\ld physical boundaries and lines of support have Vb...t eroded, in many instances but have been replaced by enduring alliances to one's favourite band.
"Pan is mi family", is a saying that rings true for many here in Trinidad and Tobago and in the steel band diaspora.
The forging of steel band movement of Trinidad and Tobago by one of the most disadvantaged sections of the population tesdfies to the resilience of a people in bondage. It bears witness to the dynamic creative force that is culture. Its chronicle defines one of a series of processes by which the immigrant labour forces reconstructed their lives and established their identities against all the odds of the harsh, repressive colonial regimes.
N 6\ t\)
music of deejays and later, live performances by calypso and soca singers. There has also been the problem of mobility on the road.
In
1994, Cabinet declared the pan the national instrument and the People's National Movement government of the time sought to introduce the pan
into the official primary school curriculum. This was met with stern resistance from the leading Hindu organization, the Sanatan Dharma Maha Saba that argued, essentially, that the pan was of Africa and meaningful to the African population but not to the Hindu population that had become used to the harmonium as the musical instrument in primary schools. Here, the challenge to the national status of the pan is a clear indication that the CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
Ann Lee, Ph.D, is a Researcb Consultant Page 19
tl\RA
- ANn rHE
caRTBBEAN
IMAGINATION 'rHilary Beckles
lTltt. Anglophone section of the \west Indian I community that now comprises CARICOM I has made its largest and longest single investment in cricket culture. From African Emancipa-
Brian Lara pulling a ball from England fast bouler Cbris Lewis to the boundary of the Antiguan Recreation Grounds to reacb a magnifi.cent 356 runs, thus becomingTest cricket's higbest scorer. Lara went on to make 375
tion and Indian Arrival in the mid-19th century to rhe Independence Era, a century later, this collective engagement has been hinged to process
the socio-political
of anti-colonial liberation,
as well as race and struggle at home. That is, the ideological contours of the game have been much larger than the sport performance aspect within the boundary. \flestlndians took this quintessentially English game, removed it from its Victorian mores, and infused it with a radical democratic mandate. This was the first great Vest
class
Indian contribution to a remarkable sport. Since the 19th century there have been many more.
From
1928, when we were granted Test status, each generation produced a superstar cricketer who became a social icon capturing the imagination of an expectant local society and receiving recognition of excellence
the world over. Learie Constantine inherited the mantle from George Challenor and passed it to George Headley who in turn secured it in the hands of the '3 W's'- Frank \ilorrell, Everton \Weekes, and Clyde
Walcott. They in turn consolidated it in the person of the unparalleled Gary Sobers who passed it to Viv Richards. The baton has since been passed to Brian Lara.He is the inheritor of a magnificent tradition of public commitment and private creativity. Unlike his predecessors, however, his time is associated with an
extraordinary amount of public contention and disturbing measure of acrimony. The question
is,
a
why?
On April 18,1994, at the age of.25,Lara broke the world Test cricket record of 365
"t-
runs set by the incomparable Sir Gary Sobers 1958 when he scored 375 runs against
..
t:=
in
)
t -
England in Antigua.
t
g' 5 I
.==
F
Two month later, on June 3rd, while playing as an overseas professional for \(arwickshire county in the English domestic comperition, he became the first player to score seven centuries
in eight first
class
innings. Lara did not stop there. Batting for his counry he proceeded three days later to record the highest first class score, amassive 501 nrns not out againstDurham, breaking the previous best o f. 424 runs made by Archie Maclaren of Lancashire County 99 years earlier in
. *--...1;hEF*{ Page 20
1895.
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
These record breaking performances were preceded by a majestic innings of.277 runs against Australia at Sydney in 1993. The locals, longing for a display of this rare qualiry in batsmanship, dubbed him the "Prince of
Cricket". The performance was described by many critics
as
the greatest ever played on Australian soil, a
fittingly wonderful prelude to the smashing of three world records the following
fl
ack home the
IJl"ngu"g..
season.
prodigy was also embraced with regal
The preference throughout the Region
was for the designation'Crown Prince', a recognition that Sir Gary remained the ruling monarch. S7ith these extraordinary feats, Lara became the most celebrated public icon in the Region. In L994, he was invested
with the award of the highest national honour of his native Trinidad and Tobago - The Trinity Cross. Finally, to crown it all, he was appointed captain of the West Indies Test Team in 1.996. Lara's almost unimaginable batting achievements were greeted with the assessment that he was the inheritor of a magnificent tradition of excellence. The pundits saw in him flashes and touches of Sir Gary, Sir Everton, and Sir Vivian. All was well within the Kingdom. But
soon the forces and logic of superior performance began to have an impact on relations of authority. Lara's less than subtle demand for the leadership of the Test team soon divided citizens to the vein, generating an intensely emotional controversy.
Leadership performance, however, proved more elusive than batting achievements. The crown of command rested wearily upon his head and by the beginning of the 2000 domestic season large sections of the public were calling for his neck as captain. The previous year the \ilCB, had announcemed that Lara was being placed on probation as captain. His response was to score a match winning double century against tVorld champions Australia in the second Test at Sabina Park, followed by another match winning
century
at Kensington Oval,
crowning it all with
a
spanking whirlwind century at the Antigua Recreation
Ground.
Lara, however, did not allow the VICB another opportunity to respond to public opinion either way. He resigned as captain and indicated, for the second time in his career, that he was unavailable for the next
'West Indies cricket encounter. Since then the
Caribbean world has had no peace. He has become the most talked about cricketer in the wodd. At home' and to some extent overseas, he has been accused of turning his back on his country. His supporters have drawn attention to the inabiliry of the VICB, and large
sections
of
scientific way the enormous pressures he experiences on and off the field. The charge is that the WICB has failed to comprehend the specific nature of his personal position on a weak team, and his public relationships within the very different socio-political circumstances of his time. For sure, not since the great George Headley carried the team on his back during the 1930's(hence his nickname Atlas) has there been such dependence on one player.
the general public, to understand in
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
a
The simultaneous performance collapse of Vestlndies cricket andthe rocket like ascent of Lara, both against the backdrop of the decline of West Indian economies and the weakening of civil society movements, have
served
to highlight unlike any other set
of
developments, the depth of post-colonial fears and tensions in the \(est Indies. The deeply emotional public sentiments on Lara's relationship to cricket culture, is in fact, a mirror in which can be seen the anxieties and hysterics of a communiry with respect to i$ future place in an uncertain global space.
'I\ To cricket icon has ever had such a divisive I\i*p"., upon the Caribbean imagina-
tion. The failure of the Test team to
compensate for the spreading sense of socioeconomicdespair has ledto an intelpretation of Lara's success as anti-social and individualistic, constituting a rupture with the golden age of the nationalist tradition. The super hero of $flest Indies cricket within this paradigm is expected to conform to political and ideological standards established by the
popular democratic movement. \Tithin this *unavailabilities" have
constnrct Lara's two been read as unpatriotic and subversive of an
Hilary
Beckles
is
Professor of
Economic History, Director of tbe Centre for Crichet Researcb, and Pro-Vice Chancellor at U\Y/I. His recent book, Tbe Deoeloprnent of Ily'est Indies Crichet: Vol.1, The
Age of Nationalism; Vol. 2,
Age of
Globalisation(Tbe
The
Press
UIVI/ Pluto Press Lon. 1999) has been described lry \VISDEN crichet magazine, Aug. 1999, as " probably the most important cricket book eoer uritten".
already frail nationalism.
The historical uniqueness of Lara's wider political context is shaped by the considerable extent to which the popular democratic movement has shuffled to a halt, and is considered defeated in some quarters. The leadership of the region's principal public institutions, including that charged with the administration of cricket, is nowdictated by
one stakeholder, the professionally and politically conservative corporate grouP that see the compromise of political sovereignty and national identity as an unavoidable condition for successful global integration. But the private sector is also an
ideologically divided c tegory. The politically progressive group is in the minoriry; the conservative element is politically dominant and has been the principal benefi ciary of privatization politics. Page
2l
Having won the political debate on development, the conservative element, with the aggressive supportive
intervention of the North Atlantic multilateral financial institutions, having moved in and out took
;"JJ$:i :fi ll,?,hiXt:f"
::T.aHfi
HxtLt :r, Jil
#;mi"','fl rru,:J:l;Jii
maturity at the same pace of rhe rate of Rousseau's assertion of totalitarian power. Lara's generation,
drawn mostly from the Region's working
class
:,:nT,;;tlf :lil:ff li;*:::1;:"'.'"',"'::# locked in contest with cricket's newpolitical leaders.
fhe general rurbulence that surrounds Larais but a I pan of the renegotiation of cricket culture within the nationalist discourse. In effect, this process is all about the changing power and class relation of the
fhe effective demonisation of Lara, therefore, can I be read as a function of the VICB winning the propaganda war against him, largely with the assistance of the regional media. \fhile all of Lara's decisions are
subject to critical reporting those of the VICB go largely unreported. In the same way, and for similar reasons, the objectives oforganised labour are downplayed because ruling political parties are committed to implementing the structural adjustment programmes of the neoJiberal right that is waving in triumph the flag of its global dawn. \fhile cricketers are running to business agents in protection from the'WICB, workers in flight from the reach of anti-labour Labour Parties are seeking shelter and wholistic leadership within the walls of an evangelical movement that now commands the kinds of large crowds once associated with cricket matches and political meetings.
of the time when cricketers control of theirdestiny and the explosion of born-again religious escapism, signal the political The retreat to memory
seemed in
The general turbulence that surrounds l-ara is but a. part of the renegotiation of cicket culture within the national discourse, In effect, this process is all about the changing power and cl.ass rel.ation of the widcr societj
defeat of Caribbean radicalism within development discourse. Both trends highlight the degree to which the future of cricket mayverywell be unhingedfrom the politicalprocess within which it came to maturity since the 1920's. Vhat in fact the Region is trying to understand and cope with is the growing realisation that the parry political culture is in trouble as a popular
mobilising force, and that cricket leaders wish to wider society. The agenda of cricketers,
citizens more so than ever,
as
is to
with all
participate autonomously in the wealth being generated by the refashioned international circumsrance. The division
of public opinion on Lara's suitability to lead and represent \(est Indian aspirations is telling us a grear deal more about the nature ofthese changed contests.
Increasingly citizens are getting around, and going
beyond State structures and official approaches in search for betterment. Like the cricketers they are attempting to break free of traditional constraints. Lara's image and reputation as a cricketer and leader immeasurably on accounr of the fact that there is no organised social movement within the democratic tradition to which he can attach his resistance to the unilateral exercise of power by the \flICB. This fact alone distinguishes him from earlier leaders such as Sir Frank \forrell, Clive Lloyd and Sir Viv Richards. New modes of political agitation in cricket culture, be they industrial strikes on the eve of tours, refusals to sign non-negotiated contracts, has suffered
objecting
to the decisions of
selecrors,
or
just
confronting the authority of managers, will continue to characterize cricket relations. The abiliry o f.Lara or any other leader to champion their cause will depend entirely on whether public support can be won. Page 22
distance themselves from rePresentation of power.
it
as a less
than legitimate
ln fairness, therefore, the turbulence resulting from the nature of Lara's decision making - belongs properly to the realm of social effects associated with the weakened political paradigm. The Rousseau kind of corporate mentaliry that found centre stage within the
politics of economic decline following the IMF structural adjustment'pogroms', is the central cause of the discord that has engulfed \flest Indies cricket. There is a dialectical relation between the rise of Rousseau and the posturing of Lara. In some ways they are products of the same process, which is why they
both seek maximum control over the cricket enterprise.
An important feature of Lara's verbal expressions
is an
indication that while he wishes to be admired and respectedhe has no warmth forthe traditional forms of authority within \fest Indies cricket. To some exrent he reactingto the long line of abandonedformer heroes who fill his space with hard luck stories about selector and managementvictimisation.In general, he does not trust the press, is wary of spectators, and sees the \7ICB ashis enemy. This circumstance has had adisturbing effect on the West Indian psyche. This reality is not is
CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
generally understood.
It is however effectively
manipulated by the mediawho have successfully pitted Lara against the public that once crowned him as their prince.
f,motions are running high. No surprises here. A destructive tendenry in young nations, particularly those emerging from a still fresh colonial experience, is
I-)
to
personalise social contests
that result from
underlying structural change and transformation. But \West Indian cricketers and communities need not be acrimoniously divided on the matter. It is the absence of an effective conceptual grasp and understanding of the process that has enabled the media and society to
see
his corporate sryle and global connections
and
will perceive their futures in much the
VICB which
as
The deeply emotional public
ents on Lara's relationship to cricleet culture is in fact a mirvor in which can be seen thc anxieties and hystcrics of a communiSt ntith respect to its future place in an uncertain global space.
the game's interest by virtue of its many decisions being hostile to players and spectators alike.
performances tear apart the souls of cricketing folks.
J
it
makes
to
revised notions of
development. There is no turning back. Lara, the first multimillionaire cricket entrepreneur from the'West Indies has opened doors for the next generation. It will
sentin
late 1990's will not be allowed to define exclusively what is in the interest of players. Indeed, the thinking across the Region is that these officials are not in
a scenario in which nationalism and "Laraism" are juxtaposed as team disturbing
contribution
The
lost much of its public credibility in the
construct
The unhealthy and anti-intellectual focus on Lara's latitude rather than the process of socio-political change has blurred the critical issues. The new paradigm - cricket in the Age of Globalisation - in which Laraand leadingworld cricketers see themselves as entrepreneurs should not be moralised in the terms established during the Age of Nationalism. It has to be negotiated on its own terms and judged for the
the ideal,
same way.
ara, then, remainstheesteemedheroofayounger
I-generation in search of new forms of self representation. His declaration of freedom to determine the context of his career represents for the youth a riumphalist mentality that is not intimidated by
convention rooted in the authority of self-serving, conservative elders. For this reason alone the youth are in support of his style and strategic reactions. I[Lara fails, they believe, then'West Indies cricket would have turned its back on the independence of young minds at a time when other nations are promoting such a circumstance
as
the course to sustainable develoPment.
The question of cricket's divorce from nationalism, and the alleged abandonment of national sentiment under Lara's leadership, has more to do with how the younger generation is systematically preparing for the difficult challenges ahead than sterile notions of illdiscipline bandied about by unthinking authorities. Young people are calling for a more relevant nationalism, one that can be lived beyond the reach of punitive State power and which offers them equal stakeholder status with respect to the develoPment agenda. The traditional rhetoric that carried nationalist sentiment no longer holds their imagination. They are calling for a frontal relation with reality and the
adoption
of a flexible,
consultative approach to
decisionmaking.
*
The
)
'W's:
l, to n Frank Worrell,
Cliue Walcott, Euerton Weekes, "capturing the imagination of an expectant local societY and receiuing recognition of excellence the world ouer", CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
Finally, the self-confidence of Lara's generation, bolstered by the global knowledge exPosure created by the new information and communications technologies, and rooted within a postnationalist construct of identity, can only produce in future more of like mind. It follows, then, that the protection and promotion of the game will be essentially part of new strategies of selfempowerment and self-definition. It is here that the text of Lara's personal journey should be read and understood.
*Q\
Page 23
"Sports
in tbe OECS ruas not a source
financial emancipation from colonial tbraldom, but as hurnanising a.gency... Asserting that nothing of
human uas alien to us"
THE OECS:
fornrne.
in Time and Sports
tlth. myth that the English planters I and merchants brought cricket with
'r'Tim Hector
I should begin this discussion of sports as culture, that is, as humanising agency in the erhaps
Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) territories, with a quotation about the life and times of these OECS states, and what passed for culture in our early
hisory.
airtue of our fair fsexJ is said to be superior to tbe arts of seduction, infidelity to tbe marriage bed being rarely hnotan on tbeir parts. I uisb I could say as much for the men." The picture of plantation life and culture which emerges, is that of opulent feasts and balls, with the downpressed slaves as attendants if so, in rags.
By culture I mean what was distinctive or distinguishing in the way of life in these islands of the OECS. Here is this extract
barely clothed, and
from Oliver's History of the Island of Antigua describing Antiguan society in
Afghanistan, masked behind a veil, or a chador, with peep-holes. The white merchants and planters were on the contrary, licentious
1786.
The white plantation women looked like Muslim women in
"Tbe ordinary drink of tbe men of tbis is punch or grog; Madeira wine and porter are introduced at tbe tables ofsuch persons as are said to lioe utell; but at
of their life with the hapless female slaves, whose off-spring could be bought and sold on a whim.
public enturtainn ents and at the houses of the principal ntercbants and planters
Obviously the social distance between
Claret is tbe rage.
male planters and male slaves was
place
and promiscuous having the time
continental in both
"Tbe tables of the opulent and also
many zabo can very
ill ffird it
of
are
cooered utitb a profusion knoun only in
this part of tbe world; tbeir attendants numerous, but it is not uncoftinton to see tbem waiting almost destitute of clotbing, and tbe little they bave mere rags." 'We
need to continue with this at once fascinating and terrible description of the life and culture ofthese islands.
"Tbe ladies, inbabitants of tbis place, in tbeir u.,isbys [buggiesJ aithout masks or oeils, not, I presume altogether ds a preseroative to tbeir complexions, being frequently seen at a distance unmasked, but seldom walk the streets or ride
space and time. As is colonial governor born in St Kitts, SirThomas Shirley, rulingin the early 19'h century, and who was described
attested to by
planters and merchants were not schooled in the islands, but returned to England, and hardly ever made their way back to the islands from which they derived their
a
thus:
them as part of their colonising baggage should now be laid to rest. The culture
they brought, in these small islands, where they were very few in number, was the culture of terror. The terror of a terrified minority faced with an overwhelming majority, not as human beings, but as devilish property, listed along with the mules and carts in the planter merchant inventories. Conspicuous consumption, as a cultural form, was an assertion and visual statement of white supremacy.
Cricket came not by way of the planters, but by way of the English military which sought to repel Napoleon's conquering forces in these islands. Obviously, the African slave in these islands entertained themselves, and asserted their humanity against their daily and continuous dehumanisation by playing at night board games brought
as 'Warri, the board game equivalent of chess. They revived
from Africa, such
African dances and music interlaced "He was attended by an army of servants, but he would not allow any of the black servitors about him to wear shoes or stockings, their legs being rubbed with butter so that they shone like jet; and he would not, if he could avoid it, handle a
with European
step and instruments.
Cricket came not by way of the planters,
but by way of the English military which sought to repel Napoleon's conquering forces
in
these islands.
letter or parcel from their fingers. To
These English soldiers, wrote the very
escape the indignity he designed a golden instrument, like a tongs, with which he held any article which was given him by a
fine cricket historian Hilary Beckles, "entertained themselves with bats and leather balls within garrisons while taking respite from bowling cannon balls at the French". \fhen rhe colonial wars of conquest ended it was replaced, so to speak, by contests of the field
black servant."
In this apartheid-sryle society, the social
as soon as tbey are approached near, up goes the oizor, tbro'zahicb, by a couple of
distance was more than continental,
the islands of the OECS are miniscule. Play
of play berween the English merchants
peep-boles about tbe size of an Englisb
then, in the form of sport was unknown between white and black. The young boys, like the girls, the children of the
and planters and rheir white employees,
sbilling, they bave tbe opportunity of staring in tbe faces of all tbey meet. Tbe Page 24
though
and their white military
prores-
ters.
CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
'\fle
may take this as generally true of the OECS, as it was of Barbados in 1869 as
described
by Rev. Grenville John
Chester.
"TIte kbouring
classes
in
Barbados are
badly offor amtrsenTent. Tops and marbles seem almost the only sport of the school children, but u.then encouraged thqt abe
bindly to cricket. But it is bard to find pkces to play in, and parocbial uicbet clubs are eitber abope or beloza the
virtue
of
tbe local clergy. This dancing is almost tbe only amusement, and tbe people dance uell
and gracefully."
Had he lived in the Leewards then, Rev. Chester would have found another African game called "stones", in which a number of stones are grasped in the hand, thrown in the air,andcaught, and those dropped are picked up by throwing one in the air, while picking
who was so good that he stayed to play for Derbyshire for some eight consecu-
In the Windwards namei like H.O.
tive
F.O. Mason and of course, that very fine
seasons.
Incidentally, there is a wonderful picture of cricket being played in the late 1.9'h century in Antigua, and a young batsman in tattered clothing batting under the watchful eye of. a middle aged woman who is remarkably poised and elegant, seemingly in no threat of being hit, though she is at square-leg. The
young fielder at slip is in the familiar crouch, his palms cupped, eager-eyed and waiting. It seems certain that the young had learnt more than the rudi ment of the game. But we come now to the modern game of cricket and others. The Leewards
Cricket Tournament was established in
f
am trying as you can see, with only
Isparse information available, to do here what Caribbean anthropology and sociology has not done, to show how through sports, the enslaved in the Caribbean
work, and humanised themselves through sports as culture, the better to challenge their resisted their dehumanisation at
dehumanisation, into mere chattel.
By the late 19'h century cricket was well established in all territories ofthe region, and on cricket tours ofthe lJnited States, one or two (white) players from the \flindwards mainly, made it on those tours.
Ponchat, na dashing middle order batsman" from Saint Lucia hit 5 sixes and fours in the match against Philadelphia, in 1881, the only match the West Indies
7
did not lose by an innings in
the
Philadelphia!
By 1900 when the Vest Indies cricket team first toured England, C.A. Oliviere
of St Vincent was a leading batsman, CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
of the blacks from the Windwards to play for the West Indies, to be followed by Grayson Shillingford, Mike Findlay and perhaps the finest batsman I have seen other than Sir Vivian Richards, the three \7s and Sir Gary Sobers, Irving Shillingford. It is greatly to be regretted that he was not found a place in the West Indies in his prime and in his pomp. He made it all too late.
It is well to remember, Dominica's Alec Reid who was to play in and for New Zealand, easily the best wicket keeper the \7est Indies would have had before
Jackie Hendricks. Prejudice deep and abiding saw to his exclusion.
at work, and
humanised themselues thrcugh sports as culture, the better to challenge their dehumanisation into ,nere chattel.
20th century,
developed hand and eye co-ordination, like few other games.
batsman the late Alfie Roberts, the first
,Jhrough spons, the enslaued in the Carihbean resisted their fuhumanisation
up those on the ground, before catching those coming down from in the air. The game has now disappeared in the onrush of the cultural invasion from the North. But experts say that 'stones'played by both boys and girls of African descent
from the 18'h to the mid
Crick, T.O. Redhead, Mindoo Philip,
l9l2
and later the Windwards Tournament. Amazingly, in the Leewards,
where there was no carnival, unlike several of the \(indwards, cricket was the centre piece of cultural life.
Jt was cricket, like nothing else, which Iga.re the people of the Leewards and u(indwards a distinctive sense of belonging. Remember well, that we of these islands w'ere alienated from all aspects of life, large- scale agriculture' commerce of. any kind, and the civil service only became open to merit in the mid 20'h century.
It is the Leewards and S(indwards cricket tournament which give to people of these OECS islands a sense of
belonging, of identity of a home and habitation in space and time. Rooted as
it
were, not
in our lost fatherland,
(Africa) but in a new motherland (our
individual islands).
In the Leewards, a cricket tournament was special. The Governor and the Executive Council had a special box erected at the Antigua Cricket Pavilion since 1920 from which the high and
mighty watched the proceedings. This was long before boxes were commonplace on hallowed cricket grounds around the world. Sydney Valling of Antigua is justly famous, born poor and very humble, was the first genuinely black man to captain a territorial side anywhere in the cricketing West Indies, and that since 1934. He was to go to Guyana in the 40's and score centuries for the Leewards there, only to remain invisible to the West Indies selectors.
F.O. Mason of St Vincent and Hubert Anthonyson of Antigua were by far and away the fastest bowlers and the best fast bowlers, in the \(est Indies, in the fifties. Their decided inferiors such as Page 25
Jaswick Taylor, Frank King, even medium fast bowlers, like Esmond Kinlish, who put in a splendid performance against England in 1954 were chosen before genuine fast bowlers, Anthonyson and Mason. Not to speak of the Atkinsons, Dennis and Eric of Barbados who were gentle medium, the genuine articles, excluded.
which was to sweep the entire world transforming spectator participation in cricket, is in mI, perhaps jaundiced, view, but apale reflection and a remembrance of
OECS @as not a source of fi.nancial emancipation from colonial tbraldom, but a humanisingagency, tbrougb zabich tbe utbole people of the OECS, utbether players or not, asserted with Goetbe, tbat
times past.
nothingbuman
doubledecker, \fest Indies Oil Stand, and
asked I would say that McMahon of St
Kitts was the best Leewards batsman never to play for the \fest Indies, Sydney 'Walling, excepted. But some would argue
alien to
us.
se_\
Truth to tell, andfollowingMarcelProust, a Leeward Islands Tournament was an occasion in which
If
c.t)as
nation met ro express of itself in dread conditions. It was the human personality rising above both dread and angst. I know of nothing like it an)'where else.
its
a
humanisation
for H.A. Mannix, and allwould agree that
Austin Eddy who called
himself
"Spofforth" off the great Ausrralian fast bowler, was ademon spinner.
Imagine awinning team being greeted at the pier - there was no air travel then - by
a
steelband and
masquerades.
the story of the OECS long I-lexclusion from Vest Indies cricket is
flrt
not my brief here.
\(hat is more to the point was the distinctive character of Leewards cricket. There being no Carnival in these parts before L957, Leewards cricket was the main field of national and therefore cultural expression, both on and moreso off the field. A Leewards cricket Tournament, played after the sugar crop, when bonuses were
paid, brought sugar factory and field worker, waterfront worker, tradesmen, middle strata administrator, whites large and in charge to the cricket ground.
There would be too, srand-up comedians
with bellowing voices, rising way above the din with superb one-liners, on the
an
assorrment of
And all this
absolutely
spontaneous. Nothing gave me a deeper '\i?'est sense of being Antiguan. Later Indian cricket gave me an abiding sense of being West Indian. Later yet, West Indian literature of Naipaul, Guillen, Lovelace, Kincaid and Carpentier, of St Omer and
Derek Walcott would gave me
a sense
of
being Caribbean, the entire archipelago mymotherland. But I am omitting women. That St Vincent and the Grenadines has produced the best
netball team in the OECS for the past 15 years, with Skiddy Francis fit to rank among the best there ever was in the Region.
Andwhile on StVincent, how can anyone ignore RodneyJack who plays Division one football for the English Club Crew Alexander.
characteristics of this or that player. There
OrPamenoes Ballyryne, undoubtedlythe
would be acrobats somersaulting over agricultural forks on the dismissal of a
best distance mnner
batsman, a splendid catch taken, or a huge hit for six. \tr?omen sold ordinary delights. It was an occasion like no other for an entire people. Friends shared with less fortunate friends in rhe ring-side, drinks, eats and laughs. It was a celebration of a joyin life andliving. Andtoo, overcoming transplantation, with anew sense ofjoy in home and homeland.
in the Caribbean
thesepast six years, winningthe marathon
in
Barbados, Trinidad, Guyana and
Jamaica.
But who would have thought that a tiny island with a mere 12,000 people such as Nevis would have produced not one Test cricketer in Elquemedo Willet, but Derek Parry, Keith Arthurton, and Stuart \flilliams, withRumako Morron to follow shonly.
Tim Hector is a noted bistorian and Deputy Leader of the opposition United Progressioe Party in Antigua and Barbuda. He is ako tbe Editor of the "Outlet" Neuspaper in Antigua.
The joy the world saw when first Test matches were played in Antigua from the
Page 26
I do declare and
ffirm,
tbat sports in the
CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
The importance of communication between Member States with different cultural heritages has, overtime, been reflected in conscious efforts on the part of regional and and institutions to remove hindrances to this communication.
extra-regional governments
Removal of Language Barriers 40 Years on -
Two perspectives of a Kittitian
Joseph Farier,
Director, Corporate Serui
CARICOM Secretariat
Reminiscences rowingup in St. Kitts, my teenage life was heavily impacted, both positively and negatively, by differences in language and the benefits of transcending language barriers. I wonder today at the significance of my formative years and how my job functions at the Secretariat have placed me in a central
position to contribute to advances in this are
distance and fragmentation. The difference in language has since become,
.
First of all, readers may recall that St. Kitts' historical development was influenced by the colonial rivalry between the linguistic empires of France and England, one half
of the island occupied by each opposing power. But one of the distinctive features of my youth in Sandy Point located at the western end of the island was my close relationship with French creole-speaking families from Fahies (pronouncedFoy's), an old French Estate on the outskirts of
the town. The La Places were my childhood friends, though I spoke not a word of creole. In Sandy Point, we grew up also in the shadow of the British fort Brimstone Hill - and on a good, clear day it 'was easy to appreciate the military and
strategic imponance
of the unusual
outcrop of land and its connections with imperial domination, political conquests, strategic communication and control in the Caribbean. Romantically, folklore had it that this configuration of land was
spewed
for one of my eldest sisters. I grew up increasingly aware that she spoke a language - Dutch - which no one else shared at her infrequent visits from St. Eustatius and later Curagao. I recall my early fruitless gropings with a foreign language from a book she left behind. I nostalgically recall the joy of seeing her, mixed with awareness of difference and
out of the volcano of Mount
Liamuiga in times immemorial.
Not far away are the Dutch Islands of Saba and St. Eustatius. I could look fondly in that direction of Dutch-speaking lslands C,ANCOM Perspective - June 2000
ironically, a love of transcendence of fragmentation, a leveraging of knowledge, andskills.
A most decisive factor in my life was Arh. r.ttling in Basseterre, the Capital of St. Kitts, in the early 60s, of a Chilean citizen with her eldedy mother and aunt. Shewas trilingual andtaught both Spanish
and French at the St. Kitts-Nevis Grammar School for boys. A core of highlevel policymakers and professionals in
the St. Kitts diaspora was honed in language skills. Looking back at how she
broke the language barrier, one sees important lessons. Each class was an immersion course where it was forbidden to speak other than the language being taught. I vividly recall the penalty of 25 cents paidfor an error in speaking English in the French / Spanish Club, which she organised for students, in the commitment to promote foreign languages. Language learning was 'sweetened' by excellent 'foreign' pastry, served at regular Friday afternoon 'soirees' when we gathered for games and song at her home, at her expense. Holidays were celebrated
with
the successes of her cultural diplomacy.
Many of us were transported in the 60s to Guadeloupe and Martinique on French minesweepers
!
lJnfortunately, we had then a choice of Spanish or French and I chose to pursue French even at University. Here again, across language and culture barriers, my scholarship at U\(/I was supported by a Jewish Philanthropist livingin HongKong
which my language teacher arranged. Mrs.Z.llatzen,now in her 80s, retired, hard of hearing and failing in sight, even more frail, still bears this eternal flame of love for her former students. Through this article, I pay trftute to her selfless devotion to her students, and to me in particular. Forty plus years of efforts to breakdown language barriers.
At the regional level, a cadre of officials representing St. Kitts/ Nevis abroad and in regional institutions has been indelibly marked by their teenage language experiences under the tutelage of Mrs.
Katzen. Theirvery success in developing an understanding ofthe issues surroundirg regional co-operation is ample testimony to her ffemendous contribution to the building of their language
foundation. They have broken through the shackles of cultural fragmentation. They have an intuitive understanding of the factor of language in transcending the boundaries of history, in expanding trade, building cultural bonds, and promoting human resource development.
Amongthe joys of Mrs. Katzen's students is the fact that our countries now enjoy Page 27
trade and co-operation arrangements with Spanish-speaking countries: Chile, Mexico,
Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, Cuba
Idcntitlt and Regionalism in the Caribbean", she especially points to the challenge of disseminating official information in Spanish. However, she high-
Ilnknown and another, Contemporatl Idcas, andawhole world was opened up,
leading to familiarity Diplomatique.
with le Monde
and the Dominican Republic. The establishment of the ACS has also provided an institutional framework
promoting the Spanish language and
Language since has been
within which cross-cultural solidarity and
cultural exchanges between the English-
objectives could be pursued.
and Spanish-speaking Caribbean.
into the world of thinking, developments and challenges across
In
cultural barriers. The twenty-first century demands that we strive more and more,
lights the impact of migration
as a
factor in
respect of French, the fledgling cooperation I knew in the 6Os with France hasgrown into aregional language training project in which officials of the countries and regional institutions are offered
training in French, in Martinique and Guadeloupe. Efforts are being pursued to promote a project related to the twinning of Secondary Schools. The concept of training in French for Secretariat officials, perhaps in a programme of support to the University of Guyana, is still in the air. Under the Caribbean Regional Programme with the European lJnion, the
q
Zenaida Katzen across language and cwlture barriers
programme of co-operation across language barriers
with the French Depart-
a
primary tool for
reaching
not to
see
English
as
the only important
with our neighbours' languages, ways of perceplanguage but to become familiar
tions, cultural patrimony as bases for enhanced co-operation and interactive development. An understanding of our neighbours' languages is critical to the negotiation and resolution ofconflicts and the strengthening of co-operation.
Building on Past Initiatives at Proiect Level
tTh. importance of communication I b.t*..n Member States with differ-
ments is a vibrant idea. This Lom6 programme also promotes support for
ent cultural heritages has, overtime, been reflected in conscious efforts on the parr
closer interaction across language barriers through a project on cultural centres.
of regional and extra-regional governments and institutions to remove hin-
Ve
drances to this communication. Refer-
often
think of "invaliant effon by ECLAC/ CDCC in the 7Os to promote a project specifically
I recall
a
entitled "Remoual of la.nguage Barriers", although an evaluation of that project's successes rcday rr'ay not be scintillating. Nevertheless seeds have been sown, and many swords have been converted into ploughshares.
consequential conver-
sations" or
grammar
lessons when we think of language learn-
ing or per-
haps In the CARICOM Secretariat, staff have enjoyed, for a number of years, language training courses in Mexico (recently also in
lan-
guage as oP-
posed
Colombia) and have benefitted from
to technological and pro-
language training materials and equipment provided by Mexico in the late 80s.
fessional skills. My
For St. Kitts and Antigua, Jessica Byron
wereopened
own
eyes |,,io language
recently showed the successes and
to the use of language to
limitations of the movement and cultural
philosophy, politics, management and diplomacy through language learning. I began with the books loaned by Mrs.
integration
of
Dominicano Spanish-
speaking peoples into these States and the challenges that remain to be addressed. In
a paper titled Page 28
"Migration, National
access ideas,
Katzen: withAlexis Carrell's book, simply translated from French as Man, the
barrier here!
His Excellency Rend Prdaal, President of Haiti and Mme. Prdral taith Chairman of CARICOM Dr, the Hon. Kenny D. Anthonl, Prime Minister of Saint Lucia at a reception in honour of the Cbairman's tLisit to Haiti in December 1998.
CARICOM Perspec'tive - June 200()
ence was made to earlier efforts pursued
by ECLAC/CDCC under the Project entitled "Remoual of l-anguage Barriers in the Caibbean". The Project which started in 1978 was designed to promote economic, social and cultural integration in the Caribbean by improving oral and written communication between countries with different linguistic heritages.
Jn this regard, Iehmens'
the Project had as its main
preparation of national and O regional language plans and policies consistent with the development needs of the member countries of the Caribbean Development Co-operation Committee (CDCC);
O
Suriname accedes to the Caribbean Comntunity adding Dutcb to the language of the Community: Foreign Minister Subhas Mungra presenting his country\ instruments of Accession to Secretary-General Edzain Catington, in 1995
establishment of a regional data bank of existing language institutions, projects, programmes and available human resources in the Caribbean;
Montego Bay in 1997. On the occasion
O
integration process to include otber CARIFORUM countries, ubile v)e
provisionoftrainingforforeign
language teachers, translators and interpreters in member countries of the
of their Meeting, CARICOM
Heads
adopted the Montego Bay Declaration $uly 1997) inwhich rhey affirmed,inter
alia, their resolve "to utiden our strengthen
our
linkages
uitb
partner
countries in the Association of Caribbean Sates(ACS)".
CDCC. In a Resolution passed by the CDCC at its 15'h Session
in
1994, the Organisation
reaffirmedthe importance of initiatives in this field as follows: Rccognisinp subsequent adttances in social, cultural and economic deoelopment and
integration and the essentinl role of muhilingualism in these processes;
supported under the CRIP 2'd Financial Protocol (Regional Economic Integration and Co-operation with the
EuropeanUnion)
At the level of the ACS and CARICOM Secretariats, discussions have been held on organisational Work Programmes for the 2000-2001 period, and areas have been
identified in which inter-Secretariat co'
operation might be usefully pursued.
The Heads of Government at that Meeting held in Montego Bay also recommended that "Empbasis rnust be placed on improoing literaq, numeracy and deoeloping muhilingual skills at an early age".
A t the tertiary level, the University of Arh. \f.r, Indies (UV-! has promoted
Representatives of the CARICOM and ACS Secretariats have identified Linguistic Integration and Co-operation among the focal areas of the Work Programmes. Trade, Transportation, (Other areas ^re Tourism, Environment and Sustainable Development, lndustry, lnvestment, Intra' regional Movement of Goods and People,
andEducation).
in ligbt of
the establishment of a Latin American Caribbean Centre pACC). The LACC is an institute of the U.W'I identified in the University's Strategic Plan (1997-2002) as
r e c e n t deu e lop m ents in re gi o na I in t egr a tio n and uking particukily into account the
an important vehicle for promoting regional integration and trade. The LACC
formation oftbe ACS;
serves the English-speaking countries as
recent Secretariat document acknowledged
well as non-English-speaking CARI-
this, noting
Mindful of the
urgenq of removing language barriers in the increased
Caibbean and of creating institutions to make tbis possible, especially
Rcaffittns its strong cornmitment to pr o rno te nx t4 I ti - li ngua lism in tb e Caibbe an, by accordingtbe project the higbest leoel of national
an d region
aI
Pr ioriry.
The issue of language barriers also recently attracted the attention of CARICOM Heads of Government in CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
FORUM members and observers in the Region. According to this University document, "The principal problems being ad.dressed
by
the
formation of
the
LACC
are tbe rentopal of knguage and cubural b arri ers tb a t b inder trade a n d t h e m ouetrt ent of people aithin the Latin American and
Caibbean Regions". This Project
is
The ACS, through its Special Committee
on Trade Development and External Economic Relations, has to date recorded significant achievements in respect of co-
operation in the area of Education. A as
follows:
Tlte ACS has increased co'operation on education nxatters and has serrted as a veh icle for
susainabb darclopment thro ugb
Linguistic Integration Programme athicb invohtes promoting the teaching of official languages of the ACS; developing centres of excellence for language teacbing and
a
Page 29
and curriculum for research,
deaeloping a common tbe teacbing of English,
O
1995
-
Assistance
including assistance
to
Haiti
with Haiti's literacy
campaign;
operation. fVorking Document for the Meeting of the Caribbean Community
mission Scholarships Programme: In 1.996
and ACS on Inter-Institutional Co-
Member States
operation, 3 April 2000,
In
developing
its
p25).
programme for
achieving foreign language competency,
the CARICOM Secretariat has been working with Ministries of Education, as well as regional institutions and agencies. In October 1998, a Technical \Torking Group met in Trinidad and Tobago to develop a Regional Action Plan for Foreign Language Competency at all levels of the Community.
The Secretariat's Work Programme in
this area has included activities aimed at strengthening training programmes
for teachers. To this end, twelve teacher trainers from twelve Member
States were trained in Mexico in JulyAugust 1999. This must be seen in a context in which, between 1993 and
1.999, some 144 teachers had been trained in earlier phases of the programme aimed at enhancing capacity to deliver training in Spanish foreign language. Indeed, language
as a
teaching and immersion courses accounted for over 60 per cent of training awards under technical co-
CARICOM/CubaJoint Com-
some 25 scholarships were offered to Annual Repo rt
,p 4t) ; TheCARICOM-ArgentinaCooperation Agreement was signed in
September 1998;
The CARICOM
Secretariat implemented a project that will expose
students to the French language by twinning schools with parallel institutions in French-speaking countries ; O CARICOM Secretariat and the Government of Chile, through its Agency for International Co-operation, organised a fiveday workshop for Secondary School Spanish-language teachers at the LfWI,
Mona, inJuly 1998;
O
Under co-operation
arrangements, the Government of Cuba has agreed to training of up to two (2) teachers
from each Member State on
the techniques of teaching Spanish
a
second language shortly);
O
lJnder
a
(to
as
commence
recent Agreement
with
the Government of Spain, it has been agreed to establish a Translating and
Interpreting Training Unit (through AECI).
operation agreements with external donors.
Among the significant resuhs of past initiatives are the following:
O
The Department of Modern
Languages and Literatures ar [JWI, Mona has offered
a
two-year MA Programme in
Translation over the past five years. This programme follows the traditional MA model of a combination of Translation Theory and Practice and requires the preparation of a Thesis;
O
In respect ofaddressing the linguistic and cultural implications of widening the Caribbean Community, rhe Secretariat, through its Technical Action Services Unit
(TASU), has been insrrumental in facilitating the active participation of Suriname by putting in place a coordinating mechanism that would encourage the country's involvement in
the predominantly
English-speaking
Caribbean Community and Common Market. Through the services of a
Language Institute
consultant, a Co-ordinating Unit for CARICOM Affairs has been established in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
that Institute and National Operating Units;
Suriname. The CARICOM Co-ordinating Unit in Suriname which has a core sraff of three officers is assisted in its tasks by
Establishment
of a Caribbean
with a Regional Board appointed by Member and Associate Member Countries, National Chapters of
O
1995-AdmissionofSurinameas
the fourteenth and first non-Englishspeaking Member of the Community; Page 30
the divide of
Suriname, in
CARICOM focal point officers who represent the various ministries, with a
language,
law
and
administrative practices to enhance a sense of Caribbean solidarity and unity.
(Secretary-General's
1997
O
O
of the Republic of
Georgetown. The aim is to reach across
Frencb and Spanish. Progress bas abo been made in tbe area of inter-Uniztersiry Co-
O
supportive role played by the Embassy
Regarding
Haiti, one of the
major
achievements has been the strengthening of relations with Haiti since 1996. A key
initiative in this connection was the launching of a literacy programme for the
of Haiti. The Secretariat in Georgetown, received donations from four private sector companies who along with Sweden donated US$85,000 to assist in the publication of 50,000 literacy people
manuals for H aiti in 199 6. GUYSUCO,
Guyana Pegasus Hotel and Demerara Bank of Guyana, Suriname Airways of Suriname, Grace Kennedy ofJamaica and the Nation Publishing Company Limited
of Barbados, were instrumental in providing the initial funds towards the realisation of the project. In7997,3O,OOO literacy manuals were handed over to Haiti. Underlying this initiative is the twin
objective of recognition of Creole as a major language mediumin the Community and the need to deepen the sense of
solidarity with the Haitian population.
InJuly 1997,Heads of Government took
the momentous srep of enlarging the Community by agreeing to admit the Republic of Haiti as a Member, on terms and conditions to be negotiated. Since then, plans have been put in place for the establishment of a CARICOM Office in Haiti to assist the country indevelopingits
capacity to fully discharge its responsibilities andparticipate fully in the integration movement, parriculady in the areas of Cusroms and Trade; the Single
Market and Economy; and Information andCommunications.
Conclusion
pat*.tn'reminiscences',
I)
current
projects and the way forward there
needs
to be a variety of forms of
'connections" between language and cultural groups in the Region. At the attitudinal level this requires layingdown
mental
3"d perceptual bridges to communlcate across stereotypes and CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
categorisation boxes that tend to isolate people from others in the hemisphere. This is going to require political will on both sides, because it is not in our genes.
language, but find common ground in nationality or regionality. To the extent that we progressively get beyond traditional
and cross-cultural exchanges and translations. In the Caribbean an important symbolic step has been taken
boxes in our thinking and acting, to that
through the translation of Martin
Indeed, Eduard de Bono, while not
extent we help
specifically speaking of language barriers,
reaching further across barriers, whether linguistic or cultural.
Carter's poems in Spanish. Such actions should be both reciprocal and expanded, taking into account the role that might be played by Casa de las Americas and
warned us in Parallell Thinking (1994) just how inadequate traditional Vestern thinking tools are in creating bridges and
enlarging possibilities. In traditional thinking approaches we think of thesis and
create potential for
The confluence of trends, which bytheir progress across national borders and regions, is referred to
as
globalisation,
will
antithesis, we find contradictions, we give emphasis to judgement as a decision step
inevitably leave the Caribbean severely challenged for its survival. The battle is
by classifying people and groups into boxes and taking action (or no-action)
pitched already in terms of trade, finance and transitional economic arran g,ements to the new order.
discontinuity between "is" *us" and "them". Current and "is not", based on the
thinking virtually ignores the range of possibilities that exist between things that are not identical. Further progress in the
of
language barriers would
planning. Nadine Gordimer (Cooperation
South , p I7-L9) warns that if cultural globalisation is to be meaningful, as
contradictory realities.
None of this is necessarily easy as Geert Hofstede points out in an article on Cultural Differences (t99+). But it takes significant efforts to unlearn the "mental
I am not forgetting the important role schools can play in the formative years of individuals in inculcating
language
skills when people are most receptive to
learning. Not waiting too long to unlearn embedded prejudices and judgement boxes is imperative.
f,! ut cultural globalisation could also I-Dt"ke its toll if we fail to factor a response in our strategic thinking and
therefore require us to adopt new thinking techniques that reveal creative possibilities hidden in different and even apparently
removal
national publishing houses.
distinct from one-sided, we must strive to overcome the presumPtion of the superiority of any language (especially those of so-called civilised cultures) and engender an ethic and strategy of mutual
In tomorrow's world, translingual and transcultural understanding would be essential strategies for the achievement of international competitiveness and diplomatic respositioning of the Caribbean. It will have to be one of the bases on which the multi-lingual
Caribbean can achieve joint
management of the Caribbean Sea as a zone of sustainable development.
Furthermore, there is little hope of survival without adiustment in the
programmes" that have become embedded
enrichment by valuing other languages and cultures. This would mean that we must prepare ourselves to appreciate
in our minds under the impact of social
others
through more personal contact
competences which are the wherewithal
skills, attitudes and
environments in which we were brought
linguistic
continued on
up: controversies based on claims to
p
35
territory; diplomatic situations that apPear to put groups of states against others in respect of preferential markets; diplomatic efforts to inhibit investment in other states subject to border claims; suspicious deployment of largesse in support of diplomatic objectives; unsettled maritime boundaries around the Caribbean Sea' All these issues perceived in a traditional framework do not easily engender
deliberate efforts
to build
to cooperate.
lDiplomacy
qh$ 5.4
I
DiPh&Y 13.6
lnlernational Nâ‚Źgotiations
trTEining ot Spanish Tâ‚Źache rs D French Language
lTourism
bridges of
understanding and practical cooperation. But little will be achieved if the "software of the mind" that influences how we act towards others cannot be unlearned so that we can see and act for fresh things and possibilities. It is ourprogrammes of the mind that impede us from seeing that we don't need to have identical views and
interests
PERCENTAGE OF AWARDS PER SUBJECT
34"
I
Small & Medium S@le Business Promotion lWaste Management
Tshniques S.aleB0dn6s Prmdim B Spanish Language
I Tainiryd
SFdshTead*
Nutrition
lOther
Moreover,
everyone simultaneously belongs to different levels: they may be different in
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Page
3l
As a Teaclring Tool 'Jean Small
This article relatesto the experience of 'doing theatre' in a foreign language, while leaming the language and the literature in
which that language is embedded.
...inter-island cultural exchanges should be organised to foster closer ties among our people in the shaping of a Caribbean identity
ling the recent production DELIX CONTES AFRICAINS - an adaptation of rwo of Birago Diop's folktales - which ran last March for the Modern LanguagesDepanment of the Universiry of the \flest Indies, Mona Campus, the article seeks to show the value of theatre for the learner and how the process can enhance the learning ofboth language and literature.
Having chosen two of Birago Diop's folktales: Les Mamelles and Le Salaire, a call was made for students who were interested in panicipating. Nine students responded. I did not know these studenrs. I did not know their level of French. I did not know their year of study. All I knew was that they were students of irench andthat theywere interestedin acting in aFrenchplay.
Jean Small is
a
Guyanese,/f amaican educator, actress, poet,
plyarigbt. A graduate of tbe
UW in Foreign
Language Teaching, her Eeciahy is French.
Currently Tutor/Co-
ordinator of
The
Pbilip Sherloch Centre for the Creatioe Arts,
all tbe cultural eoents of the Centre and is explor-
she co-ordinates
ing the use of perfornting arts as a teacbing tool.
After a brief and passionate introducdon on the structure and intention of folktales, I made them read the text and do a little bit of singing (as I intended to use song in the production) to help me decide on the cast. 'What
was the objective
of the experience? To provide
them with an understanding of the African ontology; the African theatre aesthetic; the significance of the didactic nature of the folktale in an oral culture; the eloquence of silence and the fantastic and lyrical aspects of storytelling. I believe that our rhearre mode in the Caribbean is storytelling which has irs source in our traditional African heritage. I wanted them to know intimately through the use of their body language andtheirvoices, thepower of the role of the storyteller. This was not ve ry easy at first, because the text seemed to be uncomplicated - even simple - and I feared they Page 32
might think the plays were not for their age group and so as soon as they were gaining some competence in mastering the language and control of the text, the multifaceted musician Mbala, was engaged to join the group so that they could appreciate the discourse and the "textes" of the drum very much in the way that Niangoran Bouah t conceived of "la drummologie" In this case, the actors wouldvoice the text; thedrums and other musical instruments would engage in a discourse with the spoken word. There were times when the drum would have to speak in the place of the actor. They soon saw that the text was not so simple or uncomplicated. e tales are set in atropical setring reminding us that our ancestors came from West Africa which is an agricultural environment. Our animal tales are set mainly in the forest inhabited by animals which are strangely similar to human types with which we are very familiar. There were symbols in the set, in the colour of the costumes, in gestures that evokedthe culture.Central in the set was a tamarindtree. As the griot said, 'L'arbre ne s'6llve qu'en enfongant ses racines dans la terre
nourricilre" and this treesymbolizes that rootedness in culture. The tamarind tree like our Cotton Tree is the abode of the spirits.It is therefore a sacred tree. One to be respected. The presence of'la brousse' on all sides indicates the closeness of man to nature. It was unfornrnate that this performance could not have been done in a natural environment, for spatial organisation is one of the most essential elemena intheAfricantheatrical aesthetic. The placement of the audience in the round, the
ability to move
in
and out of the performance
is
impossible with the proscenium arch theatre.
CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
This aspect of African theatre they did not experience because the stage was at a higher level and far removed from the audience. In traditional African theatre the subject of discussion in the play is a subject that concerns the entire community and so, of necessity, members of the audience ought to be able to get up and
participate in the performance.
/\
griot was created to be the link between the tales. -faThis characteris notinthe original text byBirago Diop although he gives extensive description of the place and function of the griot in French \?est African culture. There is wide vocabulary that has developed surroundingthe griot,the repository of the wisdom and
the history of the clan. So in this attempt "griotisation", I
as
"griotiseur' created
a
at
griot to be
something of a narrator / director, giving explanations
where they were required and commenting on the action of the tales. The centrality of the griot was shown in his centralposition atthe openingof theplay. He is seated, in silence, while the drums, the flutes, the shak-shaks, the mbira, the tambourine tell the entire story of the two tales in the form of an overture , a composition of all the accompanying music used throughout the entire production of the two tales.
These would be easily recognized later during the production. The griot composes what may be called grio-poems, speaking and chanting ritualistically' appeasing the Gods so that all should go well, calling for'Verite', for the truth to be told, assuring the Gods thatthis beautiful race of black peoplewouldnot bring shame to them. At one time the musical rhythms
accompany his poetic lines, at another, they
are
with his spoken words. One
gets the voice and his between feeling of the 'call and response' of characteristic is so the musical instruments that heavywith lumbers offstage African music. Thegriot the weight of his wisdom, as the tale begins.
interspersed
The first tale is an explanatory story of a physical phenomenon, the existence of the mountains LES Maur,rlEs which are given thatname because they look like two breasts. How did they get that shape and why are they jutting out of the sea? This tale helps the actors to understand about polygaml, what causes a man in that culture to take a second wife, what' therefore, a man values in a wife and the ensuing relationship between the two wives. It is generally believed that co-wives live happily together sharing the one husband. This tale shows that it is not always so and
that envy and jealousy are not pleasing to the Gods. The presence and the influence of the supernatural is very strong. . Man, Gods, spirits and nature are closely bound and one has to heed the voice of all that is present in the universe. There is an explanation at
another level that good is rewarded and bad CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
is
A scenefrom Le Salaire.
punished, as in this case of the caring wife and the one that allows herphysical handicap to prevent her from being the right kind of wife. There is a lesson to be learnt here. Tales are essentially educational.
Flrh" I
second tale is an animal
tale in which the
take on the characteristics of types of
"nimals human beings with particular experiences of life. The King's daughter was lost in the swamp and so an order was given to have all the swamps dried up and all the crocodiles killed. The daughter was found at the bottom of the hole of the oldest crocodile, but he has been displaced. He is now wandering about in the bushes, lost. The question is, when you do a good turn what do you get in return, another good turn or some misdeed? Diassigue the crocodile begs the boy, who went to help him to the river. After getting there he turns around to eat the boy because he is dying of hunger. Both the cow andthe horse do not have very good experiences in life to tell. They have both given good service, but in their old age they are totally neglected. The hare resolves the problem by tricking the crocodile into beingeaten bythe boyandhis family instead of the other way around. Apart from this very philosophical discussion, the student who played the role of Diassigue, the crocodile, experienced the state
of displacement which is a common theme
in
Caribbean Literature, because loss has been one ofthe traumatic experiences in the history of our people in the diaspora. Diassigue, used to being in water now Page 33
finds himself in the bush, he cannot find his way . He wants to go back to where he belongs , very much like the repatriation movement to Africa. This is such a real way of explaining topics such as loss, displacement and repatriation. The trickster Hare makes a parallel with
our Anancy and punishment is meted out to the dishonest and ungrateful, to the amusement of Hare. Participating in the performance of a play such as this allows the actor to experience a situation that is similar
to real life: displacement, migration, repatriation, exploitation of the other, interdependence of man and animal justice and injustice. This is considered an experience of cathanic cleansing.
The actors learnt to work in harmony with the music and the music to complement the performance
of the actor, like at the opening performance when an actor had a nervous 'trou de memoire' and the drums spontaneously came in , filled the gap and helped her to regain composure. That was perhaps the best example of co-operation between voice and
musical instrument. Sound and music was a key language in the play and they learnt to combine them for wordless expression. The musician created sounds to accompany the moods and the body movements of the characters: sounds that described tiredness at the end of the day, anger, jealousy, busy
activity, wading through water, the moo of
a cow,
horse, the slow rhythmical movement of the female carryinga heavy load on her head and best of all, a man attracted to a woman and deciding
actorsput on theircosrumes thar rhey Jt Ibegan to really become their characters. The griot felt the grandeur of his role and his gait changed
the neigh of
immediately. The brilliance and expanse of his white boubou, the necklaces which seemed to embody special powers gave the lines that he uttered and the chant that he sang new significance. He became griot. Choice of colours also for the wives, blue for the unhappy, miserable first wife who felt abandoned by
to take her as his wife and the wife lovingly caring for her husband. This was an introduction to total
was when the
God, contrastedwith the sunfilledyellow of the second ,happy wife and so emphasized the opposition berween the two wives. Colours have a deep and powerful effect
on the psyche, so the colour becomes costume, language andtherapy. \fhite is worn, in this case, by the who establishes truth. Yellow is the warm colour of the sun and a dark blue to depict the dark mood of the first wife.An attempt was made to create masks for the animals that were not realistic in design, bur they also had a magical effect on the body language as well as the voice of the actors. It became quite believable to them that man and animal can consort and communicate in one
this world of the'fabulous'.
a
theatre where the elements of the spoken word, dance , music, poetry and prose came together in harmony for communication.
I ll of the above testify to the ability of the folk tale ,( \o discuss literary themes,to teach the moral code of a culture and to integrate the word, music, dance and gesture in total theatre. They understand better the act
oftouching the soil to show appreciation rather than bowing to the audience and the language of the hands that says, 'I wrap him around and tie him up". There were also personal discoveries. \fle found in the process, as we got to know each other better, that there were no third year students in the cast and that three of the seven were in fact students who had started French
at the University in the Beginners French Course.
Yet, they were complimented for their clear
Heidi Mulrain as Fass-lecheval in "Le Salaire"
Page 34
CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
articulation and good pronunciation. Those who had some problems with some of the words and expressions had an opportunity by force of the repetitions in the text of certain lines and by force of the "repetitionso, the rehearsals, had an excellent opportunity to work hard at the text for perfection. Once they knew that they had mastered the correct pronunciation, this gave them a tremendous sense of confidence which will carry over into their course work. In all the theatre work that I have done with French students, a marked improvement has always been seen in their oral proficiency and level of selfconfidence. One student said she now feels 'French'. This comes from knowing that their French was understood by members of the audience, by a native Frenchman and a native Senegalese. It takes a gre^t deal of courage to make that leap into the foreign language and even more so to stand on a stage under the lights to perform in a foreign language. The
result of this is that they now have brief
conversations among themselves with their tutors.
in
French and
/\ nother positive effect on the lingusitic side is the flnu-b.. of new words they learnt such as " v6rit6, mamelles, bosse , bossu(e), tam tam, m6pris, canaris, nanas, teter, fille-genie, calebasse, marigot, caiman, mechancet6, natte, ficelle/ficeler, bont6, palfrenier, barbotage, auge, bride, cordonnier, crouPe, entrave' brousse, bambin, forgeron," and expressions such as ,"
avoir le coeur noir comme du charbon", "6tre aigri comme du lait qu'un genie a enjamb6" ,"a la voix aigre et acide comme du jus du tamarin", "en plein iour", "je t'en sais digne", "le point culminant", "puiser de I'eau",
recurer les calebasses" "lAche-moi". As the students said, they
will
because
they discovered the meanings within
never forget these words and expressions
pleasant and entertaining reinforcement of
language and song.
Most of all they made new friends because they didn't all know each other that well before. They learnt to be respecdul of each other's time by simply arriving on time for rehearsals andto apologize to everyone if they were late. They learnt to work together' to co-oPerate' to be tolerant ofeach other's weaknesses and therefore to help each other improve, they learnt to pick up the slack when it was necessary to do so, they learnt to share ideas and the director learnt to resped and accePt their ideas in turn. This cast did r'-ot have a stage manager, nor a costume mistress, nor someone in charge of props. We all had to do everything ourselves and so we cut branches for the bush, fetched stones' ironed our costumes, fetched drums and other musical
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
an opportunity to interact with other Caribbean in the process to look objectively at
people and
themselves and be able to better define their own culture. To have heard other Caribbean lecturers speaking French fluently made a deep impression on all and to have made friends with students from another island was a widening experience.This indicates that not only should there be more events such as this among the campuses of the University but also inter-island cultural exchanges should be organised to foster closer ties among our people in the shaping of a Caribbean identity .
I"trom this small experience, this group of seven -F tt"r built up a camaraderi e and asolidarity and
there is such a feeling of success and recognition of the value of learning through theatre that they have expressed the desire to remain together as a French TheatreTroupe.
\ (Bcmooal of la.nguage Barriers) continued frorn p 31
of information resources creation' value-added innovation , knowledge of international best
practices and the required cross border networking and partnerships for the promotion of trade' investment, finance and services development.
a
practical context. The structure of the folktale which is one of repetition based on the numbers 3 and 7 allows
for
instruments back and forth and conscientiously struck the set immediately after each performance. To have travelled with the play outside of Jamaica to another Caribbean island was amajor experience in the lives of some. So not only did they get exposure to a French African culture, but they had
There is a skeptical saying:
k
mbme cbose. 7he more remain the same. tbings change, tbe m.ore they
Plus ga cbange plus c'est
\(e
need
a
dose of optimism as in
the
words of
Robert Goddard: for the dream of and tbe reality of yesterday is tbe bope of today "lt is dfficult
to say uthat is impossible
tomorroTa"
Quotation Dictionarv, p 104.
think of Goethe's words:
Orwe
can
"l fi.nd
tbe great
thingin
this utoild is not so rnucb uthere
ue stand, as in uhat direction
zae
are mooing".
\ Page 35
-'1R
Our Coming of Age: Historical Reflections on Developments in Anglophone Caribbean Education 'rGlenfordD. Howe Introduction
A
s the Region enrers the new
before, be the most critical factor in the Region's abiliry to prepare its people to be
^trt';;.",;il;il:'dl'1,,'il:
key players in the already pronounced globalized and technology-driven world
new millennium is the Region's biggest challenge, our hope and confidence in our ability to wisely navigate and overcome the challenges of a rapidly evolving world
society and economy. So also, will their ability to effectively integrate the formal education they provide with the broader non-formal and informal educational experiences provided by workplaces, the
unpredictabiliry of what the future holds. But, if copingwith the uncertainty of the
environment may be kept alive and bolstered by reflecting on how farwe have come as a people, and the invaluable role ofeducation in that progress. In this anicle Iwish to do justthis by highlightingsome
of the main institutional and curricula advances made by the Region in the area of education and how these developments
have helped to define our development and identity as Caribbean peoples. The
enhanced capacity
of the
educational institutions,
as
processors of knowledge Page 36
Region's
generators and will, as never
community, the media, cricket and matches and, other such
football
environments.
The SlaveryEra
f)rior to the entry of rhe Europeans in I the \flest Indies there existed no systems of formal education or schooling
among the Amerindian populations and, there was no need for any such systems. The skills and values necessary ro ensure survival and communal life were imparted
to successive generations through the institutions of the family as well as through the village collective. Similarly, during the era of slavery education was, at least initially, more informal and non-formal among the black slave population, while formal education was more of. a reality among the white population, at least those who could afford it. Only about 5olo of the West Indian slaves ar the point of
emancipation in 1834 possessed basic literacy, that is, possessed the ability to read and write or understand simple written material and convey coherent and legibly written information. Slaves were generally not thought by their European owners to need any formal education to perform theirduties as labourers. Indeed, educating slaves was regarded by slave owners and government officials alike as being a dangerous rhreat to social order, and the very lives of the whites. Thus,
CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
where slave education was allowed, under the auspices of the
especially
established churches, its objectives were to help reinforce the relationship berween
master and slave and, more generally, slaves and instill in them the
civilize the
virtues of obedience and respect for authority. Those free coloureds in slave society who could afford to did, however,
try to
ensure that their children acquired
some degree of formal education, both locally and in the metrople. They were acutely aware that formal education was a main means of moving upwards within the rigidly stratified class and colour conscious \fl est Indian societies.
However, despite the expectations of the coloured freed men to be accepted by Vhite society as a result of educational and cultural achievements, they were more often than not never really fully accepted by white society. This was not surprising because
as
the Jamaican writer,
Bryan Edwards noted in his 18t9 publication: 'It very frequently happens that the lowest White person, considering
himself as gre
iy
superior to the richest
and best educated Freeman of colour, will disdain to associate with a person of the
latter description, treating him as the Egyptians treated the Israelites, with whom they held it an abomination to eat bread.' In Barbados free coloureds were not permitted in local literary clubs or
libraries. Indeed, 'even White and coloured children who attended the same school in Europe and developed close relationships there would no longer mix with each other on their return to the West lndies.' Roughly
60olo
of the
\fhites were literate
though most of the "landless 'Whites" were illiterates. lVhile the
Vhite
generally opposed the provision of education for non-\?hites, they themselves for most paft were only interested in education for their own children and not
for all whites in general, especially the poor \7hites. Overseas education at some of the most prestigious schools including Oxford, Cambridge and Harvard, was seen by the wealthy uflhites as a means whereby their children would be able to access
rhe higher echelons of British
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
society, and also symbolized the wealth and status of the West Indian planter. In the main,lVhite females unlike their male counterparts were educated locally in such subjects as music, needle work and other skills deemed necessary to make them
goodwives andmothers. The Post-Emancipation/Colonial Era 183+194s
FJ1he endingof slavery in 1834, however, I witnessed a significant expansion in the availability of formal education to the 'Whites ex-slaves, coloureds, poor and subsequently the Indian population, all of whom formed the lower strata of Vest Indian society. The main mechanisms
through which the spread of formal education was facilitated was the Negro Education Grant. Undertheterms of this scheme which was instigated by the British Government and the protestant missionary societies of that country, an annual subsidy of 30,000 pounds sterling was provided between 1835 and 1845 (with a gradual reduction after 1841) to construct schools and pay the salaries of teachers. Though a measly sum, this money created the basis for the spread of mass education
in the British colonies. Another main provider of elementary schooling in the period after emancipation was the Mico Charity, a nondenominational, but protestant oriented, educational trust. The Mico Charity schools, apart from providing moral education also taught English and served to spread British
and changes in regional education. The reports addressed a wide range of issues
including the production of text books which focussed on the indigenous history and environments of the islands; compulsory primary and secondary education; the need for "female" education; the need for greater expenditure on primary education; the development of tertiaryluniversity education; the development of island scholarships; and greater efficiency in education management. Further reforms and developments were to be recom-
mended
run by the
whose mandate was to administer
advances,
a
major
The outbreak of the Second World War, however, led to some delay in implementation of the Commission's far reaching recommendations, but the years after the war saw a rapid expansion in world trade which brought major erparuion and benefits to the economies of the trading nations of the Caribbean. As the economies of the Region expanded, so too did the striving for greater seH-government and the need to get rid of Crown Colony government where it existed. Throughout the late 19th and eady 20th centuries a number of newspapers
'E ffir"ffi"ffi
il
Between emancipation and the 1930s a number of reports were commissioned by local andBritish officials to investigate the state of education in the West Indies. Amongthe most notable of these were the Keenan Report of 1869; the Mitchinson Report of 1875; the Lumb Commission
institutional and curricula
that
imperial grant forthe social andeconomic development of the region.
colonial
1943, and the Irvine Report of. 1945. Collectively, these reports led to major
of
1938. The recommendations
commission led to the establishment of a regional planning mechanism labelled the Colonial Development and \Uelfare,
governments had also emerged in several ofthe territories.
Report of 1898; the Mayhew-Marriott Report of.1931-2; the Kandel Report of
the
of the
1930s which were investigated by the Moyne Commission in
values and customs in the colonies. By the 1840s anumber of nondenominational or
secular schools
in the aftermath of
disturbances
Glenford
D. Houe,
Ph.D.,
Commonueabb Scbolar,
Unioersity
of London. He is
Researcb Officer
&
a Uln
for
â‚Ź'
is a graduate of tbe
tbe Board
cunently
for Outeacb
Distance Education, Caae
Hill,
U\W,
Barbados.
Page 37
and Black radicals sought to educate the
to be established in the newly con-
masses
of the need for an education more rooted in the Caribbean experi-
quered territories.
but as we shall see, their politics and opinions were often characterized
Arguably, however, the most potent instrument of British indoctrination during the nineteenth century was the education systemusedboth as ameans of social control and of enlightenment.
ence,
by ambivalence. Nature & Content of Colonial
Education
tTth. provision of education in the I port emancipation era was principally intended to meet the goals of the key stakeholders, including missionaries, the local Vhite oligarchy, and the British Government, involved in the provision of that education. As such, at
both the primary and secondary levels, religious and moral instruction were
to the curriculum,
as was emphasis on teaching the ex-slaves to accept their place, (as with the lower classes in England), within the existing social and economic structure of the essential
Realizing that the scale of violence for the purposes of inducing social conformity had to be reduced following emancipation, oneJamaican newspaper warned:'A greatdury lies before us, which is to rightly inform theNegro mind, andprepare him for performing those duties to himself, his neighbour, his master and the country, so essential to the welfare of all, and to the
citizenship and
a
British culture was transferred effectively to the colonies thereby creating the basis for ensuring loyalty between
whoargued: Every colonizedpeople
-
in otherwords,
Indeed, by 1914 the majority of the
burial of its local culrural originality- finds itself face to face with the language of the civilizing nation; that is, s/ith the culture of
the mother country. The colonized is elevated above his jungle status in proportion to his adoption of the mother country's cultural standards. He becomes as he renounces his blackness, his
and exhibited British ideals and customs.
whiter
Centuries of alienation, indoctrination, creolization and suppression of the remnants of African cultural practices had, by the outbreak of World \J(ar One, created staunchly loyal black Britishers in the colonies. Britishpractices, institutions
jungle.
of l0ilest Indians. The physical impress of British ideas was everywhere evident in place names, road patterns, naval and military bases, military bands, architecrure,
surnames and sporting activities like cricket. The various theories and material practices of colonization were often very specific, ranging from the layout and planning of towns to the social structure Page 38
the
plantations
T.A Marryshow
country.
and religion fashioned the consciousness
role of labourers primarily for
peoples has been well articulated by Fanon
every people in whose soul an inferiority complex has been created bythedeath and
of each colony had adopted, internalized
society
should be equipped through education for their divinely sanctioned stations and roles in life. This meant that girls of the lower-class were to be instructed in the art of house keeping while the boys were to undergo training to perform the
deep regard for
authorify. The imponance of the English language as an aspect of culture shaping the consciousness and identiry ofcolonial
inhabitants of the British \v/est Indies had been conditioned as faithful patriots, and social progress was, in part, measured locally by the extent to which the subjects
that the various classes of
happiness of society'. Former deputy Governor-General of The Bahamas, Sir Henry Taylor, has recalled that aroundthe end of the L9th century the children were continuously taught patriotism, good
society. However, an even greater goal which shaped the curriculum of the schools in the \0(est Indies was the desire by the British government to ensure that
the colonies' inhabitants and the mother
aspirations of Blacks. The elites in the colonies, whose attitudes were significantly influenced by aspects of Victorian ideology, felt justified in insisting
Yet, from a functional perspective this process was critical to educated Blacks in particular since it enabled them to gain access to those social and economic opportunities such as jobs within the lower echelons of the civil service from
crucial to the perpetuation of civilization in the colonies.
There were of course, several Black intellectuals and professionals like IJ. Thomas, Edward tilfl ilmot Blyden, T.E.S. Scholes, Robert Love and T.A. Marryshow who throughout the 19th and early 2Oth
centuries articulated various strands of Black nationalist and'Africanist' ideologies. Yet, while these Black intellectuals held strong views on quesrions of race pride, human dignity and progress, and frequently engaged in fierce denuncia-
'civilizrd'society.
tion of British colonial policies, they assiduously discouraged extreme expressions of their beliefs or the severing of cultural, social and political ties with England. Indeed, their attachmenr to, and display of British social and cultural values formed the basis of their 'respectability' in \7est Indian society. As such,
Nevenheless, the education system was also intended to curtail and control the
Black intellectuals had, our of necessiry, to articulate their protests within the context of notions of British justice and
which they had been historically excluded. The 'mastering' of the imperial cultural practices allowed the colonial subject to demonstrate his suitability to parricipate in
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
the equality of all races. Thus, although these educated Blacks regularly condemned racism, and the multiple social,
direct from England or the British Isles. If he had been domiciled already in any of the other islands, he fails. If he is a
economic and political inequalities within the $fest Indies and the empire, to a large extent their framework of analysis precluded their protestations being translated into more explicit anti-
coloured man,
hegemonic action.
Ambiguity
vacillation were characteristic features of educated Blacks politics in relation to Britain and the impoverished populations they claimed to represent. and
no matter his
attain-
the outstanding Black politician and possibly the most prominent politician of any racial origin inJamaica between 1890 and 1914. To Rupert Lewis, historian and
preoccupation. The brilliant Caribbean scholar and politician, Eric Villiams in
ments, he is hopeless. This is a coloured
describing his educational experience
man's paper. It is a coloured man speaking the truth on behalf of his race. '\tr(e want our people to secure the best
young colonial echoed the following
and highest education possible...If any but a cultured and refined Englishman is made head of the Boy's Secondary School, that institution is going to burst; it is going to collapse; it will have to be closed.
Robert Love, for example, has been described by historianJoyce Lumsden as
of the Region, the pursuit of these elusive
British ideals was their paramount as a
sentiments which bears striking similarity to those ofJames: "To say tbat my equipment was British, is
only anotber way of saying tbat it utas un-West Indian. My traininguas diporced frorn anytbing remotely suggestiae of Trinidad and tbe \Vest Indies. Tlte diporce pirnary school. My aritbrnetical problems deah witb pounds, sbillings and began in
expressions and beliefs symbolirevealed the extent to which the British had been successful in achieving
Quch
Jcally
pence in tbe ckssroom, but I bad to reckon
consensus by circumscribing, controlling
went shoppingfor my mother. Tlte toal disregard of tbe enoironment u)as naturally pronounced in tbe secondary scbool
in dollars and cents when I
political analyst, Love represented the
and distorting the consciousness of many, if not most, of the inhabitants of
'most radical figure inJamaican politics at
the region.
utitb a
For those Blacks who succeeded in getting into the 'better' schools -
syrnpatlry, or all tbree. In my special subject,
meaning those with stricter adherence to British values and more sophisticated methods of cultural transmission - the indoctrination was even more thorough. Reflecting on the years he spent at the
references to the West Indies, but
the turn of the century'. Though proud
of
his colour, Love nonetheless spoke of his desire to acquire
unashamedly
British values. '\?'e desire to be English' he declared, 'in spite of some faults which we see and feel, there is much that is good and sound in the great heart of England, and we have confidence in Her good
intentions'. To Love, the Negro born undertheBritish flagwas an English man regardless of his African heritage.
Queen's Royal College in Trinidad where he studied the classics, C.L.R.
convinced that 'the education given to British subjects should have a distinct Britishpersonaliry aboutit so as to impress on the minds of the trained a respect for British consciousness and ideals.' This was the same man whom the Governor of Grenada described to the Colonial Office as being well known locally for his antipathy to Europeans. Although the
'It
was only long years after that I
understood the limitation on spirit, vision and self-respect which was imposed on us
by the fact that our
masters, our curriculum, our code of morals, everything began fromthe basis thatBritain was the source of all light and leading, and our business was to admire, wonder, imitate, learn; our criterion of success was to have
in approaching that distant ideal - to attain it was, of course, succeeded
serious reservations about the education system it too was sure that the British way of life was most desirable. On the question of selecting a head-master for the boys'
impossible. Both masters and boys accepted it as the very nature of things.
To win success in a secondary school in Grenada the Headmaster must come
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Britisb Colonial History, there vrere sorne
in
thq uere
terms of European diplomaqt and
Europeanwar, lYbat I kneut of skoery andtbepknution econorny came from Roman history.
I
could discass quite learnedly tbe Latin
Tluoughout ttre late fgdr and eaaly 2oth centurlcs a nunber ot new3lEpeF and Black radlcab had out of neceesltlf, to adculate ttreir protects wttbin the contert of notlons of British lucdce and the equattty of all race3.
nationalist Federalistnewspaper had
secondary school in Grenada the paper was adamant that:
taining
Englisb by birtb,
Iames wrote:
A newspaper editor like Love, T. Albert Marryshow, Grenada's leading intellectual
and Black nationalist, was equally
suf
dictum,
tbe
pknution
aly, but I bad not
econonTy
ruined
tbe slightest idea
ofbout
it
bad ruined tbe lYest Indies and'r!)as eaen tben ruining Trinidad. It uas not until 1939 tbat \Vest Indian history zaas included the secondary cuniculum. Eoen so, it was only at School Certifi.cate leael, and baae been told by teachers tbat it uas
in
studied
I
onb
b
the "weaber boyf;
a
their function to do this, if they thought about it at all; and as for me, it was the beacon that beckoned me on".
"stronger" boy uould, it was ckimed, be distracted by it from tbe improaernent of bisfoundation in Englisb History prEaratory to the more advanced bistory of tbe island scholarship cksl If anytbing is needcd to underline tbe inferiority and disparagement of things \Vest Indian it is that tbe Vlest Indian enoironment sbould, if studied at all, be studied by ueaker boys.
Among the educated Blacks and coloureds
Tbere ans no problem
The masters could not be offensive it because they thought it was
about
in rny day.
Tbe
Page 39
Bitisb education of the y oung colonial
was
not distracted by the lVest Indian enpiron-
ment. liJ/bat is more, tbis uas fully by the community. lX4tat tbe
endorsed
school diEaraged, the sociery deEised".
Such was the nature of the colonial enterprise in the \il(est Indies, and its
impact on education
in the
Region. However, as the ambiguous beliefs and
attitudes
improvement of education in the region. One was the funher expansion and improvement in regional economies. This mainly on exponable agricultural goods, mining for raw materials, and import substituting manufactures. Even though the development of the economies followed the was accomplished by focussing
achieved political independence. These included, Trinidad & Tobago (1962); St Vincent (1979); Jamaica (tlOZ); Saint Lucia (1977); Guyana (1966); Grenada (197a); Belize (1981); Barbados (1966);
Antigua (1981); and The Bahamas (1973). ln Trinidad, for example, the government underthe leadership of DrEric \filliams
patterns andebb and flow ofinternational
believed that many
trade the general prosperity
associated
of the problems
with education,
and society
general, were due to its
of the educated
in
colonial
orientation. As such, that government, as with others in the region, made great strides to !(est Indianize the curriculum and rectify many of the other structural
blacks suggest, hegemony is usually, perhaps always, fractured, contested and subject
to manipulation
because of its own contradictions. Also,
problems
in the
education system
the various hegemonic institutions in the colonial setting were frequently plagued by
including inequality of access to secondary education, the lack of integration in the
problems which further fa-
pendence on external examination.
teaching service,
cilitated contestation. Thus, for example, weaknesses in
as well as the de-
teachers and finance, and the
Throughout the Eastern Caribbean, governments also began to expand and enhance the capacity of their respective terti^ry level institutions including na-
tendency of many parents to
tional colleges and community colleges.
use their children in estate employment instead of send-
One of the main failures or oversights of all these reforms, however, was the
the education system, includ-
irg insufficient
schools,
irg them to school, limited
the
hegemonic influence of that institution. This limitation which was, for example, evident in the persistence of African
folklore which were common knowledge among children in the \(est Indies. It was in fact these anti-hegemonic influences, both ofinternal and external origin, which laid the basis for a more coherent, persistent and pronounced nationalist assault on the socio-political strucnrres of the Region, especially from the 1960s. These nationalist strivings and their
outcomes were
to
have far reaching
implications for the further democratization and expansion of educational opportunities in the region, as well as for changes in the content of education in the region.
Post-'Var Expansion of Educational
Opportunities
A fter the Second \Torld War to the late Ar.lr.rrti.s Caribbean territories underwent two profound experiences which
facilitated major changes in the education curriculum, andthe general expansion and Page 40
Erir \Villiz.ms
inadequate attention paid to the increasing marginalization of males in the teaching
the corresponding feminization of the profession. Another profession and
of the islands allowed them to invest heavily in housing, education and other social services, and unemployment rates fell significantly,
as
governments became
It did not seem to matter much as several \flest Indian academics, and others of the "New \florld" group argued at the time that major employers.
inadequary was the failure to really devote as much attention to the area of education and training for agriculture in the light of its critical importance to regional econo-
mies, and the stigma attached to it as a result of the slavery experience. Even
greater problems were however,
to
develop,
greater integration into the international
the region entered the decade ofthe eighties.
economy would increase the level of dependency and vulnerability of Carib-
The Crisis of the 1980s
as
beaneconomies. The other main development to impact in amajorway on Caribbean education was the escalation in the nationalist movement
which gained momentum especially from the 1930s, during and after the Second \forld 'War, but rooted in earlier
nationalist philosophies of people like Marcus Garvey. As a consequence of the nationalist enterprise, which was boosted by trade union affiliated parties, by the
early 1980s many of the countries had
D D
etween the late seventies and the early
nineties, most Caribbe* ,r"r., .*p.rienced very trying economic times
characterizedby spiralling infl ation and heavy international indebtedness, which impacted quite negatively on all aspects of society especially the social sectors like health and education.
In the late 1970s commodity prices and international trade declined sharply resulting in steep rises in inflation especially CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
in school indiscipline
from about 1980. Governments were
increase
forced to borrow heavily from overseas, resulting in burdensome national indebtedness and depletion of foreign exchange used to make interest payments on loans.
violence, a fall off in attendance, and
During this period, known as
the
Structural Adjustment Era,
successive International Monetary Fund agreements
and loan arrangements from the
\florld
Bank forced the various territories to adopt quite painful remedial economic measures. These included devaluation, layoffs, salary cuts, increases in severance
general undermining
Literacy Achievements:
and a
of the human
resources of the region. One benefit
of
the crisis was that it dramatically illustrated the fact that W'est Indian
I s noted earlier, at the point of {tmancipation only about 5olo of the slave population were functionally literate. Today,according to the
IINDP
scholarship and intellectual thought had made significant strides since emancipation. The crisis confirmed the predic-
Human Development Report, among
tions of the New Vodd intellectual group alluded to earlier who had warned of the profound dependency of
over 80 per cent with several including Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada,
other sources, most Caribbean nations
have achieved adult literacy rates of
and unemployment contributions, decreased benefits, increased taxation, and major cuts in government spending. These
measures threatened to reverse the accomplishments of the previous several decades. In Jamaica, for example, expenditure on primary education declined by approximately 30 per cent between t977 and 1987. This reduction plus the drastic increases in the cost of living made it difficult for both parents and teachers to'maintain their commitment to education', and this led to a decline in performance levels and other negative impacts. In the area of education,
governments were forced to adopt such
measures as cutting free schemes, reduce spending
text book on school
maintenance, and reduce student welfare programmes, among otherthings. Forthe first time since the nationalist impetus of
the 1950s and 1960s, the perception that free education was the "God given" right
of all Caribbean citizens underwent profound shock and reconsideration. Particularly hard questions were asked of tertiary /higher level education especially in the light of studies by \florld Bank consultants like George Psacharopoulos
in
Caribbean economies, and the consequences that may evolve. Despite the weaknesses in the process of expanding education opportunities and improving the curriculum in the region, as well as the problems associated with the crisis of the 1980s there was no disputing the
higher education had a lower rate of return than investments in secondary and especially
fact that by the start of the decade of the
primaryeducation.
though it may be said that the expansion of education in the region was uneven and was guided more by Development Plans than clearly articulated philoso-
who argued that investments
D y the middle of the nineties, the Dh.gio., had weatheredthe worst part
nineties \(est Indian education had in many respects come of age. Even
of
it
of the economic storm and the various
phies
stakeholders in education provision were once more able to turn their attention to the task of rectifying the damage of the
brought some clear benefits such as the fact that every country significantly improved its ability to educate and train its citizens to fill roles in governments, private sector organizations, the economies, and politics.
to create new educational opportunities. The cumulaeighties and begin
tive effects of the crisis included CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
an
education,
nevertheless
Guyana, Jamaica, St Kitts & Nevis, Saint
Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, and Montserrat, having achieved rates of over 90 per cent. Driven by concepts such as Education for All and Each One Matters, international and regional development
agencies such as
UNESCO,
the \florld Bank, and the Caribbean Development Bank have, through systematic collaborative effort and partnerships with regional educational institutions and ministries, been able to produce these levels of literacy as the basis of improving and enhancing the
of human resources in the region. Even though there continues to quality
be much debate about literacy and literacy rates and the relationship
between formal schooling and literacy, as well as one's ability to (continued on P 68)
Page
4l
A CENTURY OF ACHIEYEMENT FOR CARTBBEAN WOMEN 'tPat Ellis
Introduction
and. zohat baoe you acbieoed? 'W'oman:'You baoe gi,oen us ten
society viewed them. As a result, women in the Caribbean have benefitted in several ways and have accomplished
years?You men bave beenrnahinga
much.
Man:"We baae given you ten yedrs
mess
of tlte world for neaily tan
centuries nnd you expect us to fi,x
supportive and caring, rather than
it
inten?'
his exchange heard at a cocktail regional workshop to celebrate the end o{ the LIN Decade of Women in 1985, and to assess its achievements and impact in the Caribbean is still relevant as we begin the Twenty-First Century. In the minds of men as well as women there are still many
p^rty at the end of a
questions and doubts about what,
if
This article briefly highlights some of the achievements made by Caribbean women in the last century and identifies a few of the ways in which they have benefitted from the rWomen's Movement. It does so
by looking at some of
women's
Achievements in the Political Sphere Early Political Activists
Jn
the early pan of the last century, while
I*o-.r,
from the women's movement,
Parliament, they were nevertheless involved in political activity. Their
and
whether they are any better off as a result of all of the attention given to women's rights and women's issues during the last half century. Moreover, many men as well as women are of the view that too much
attention has already been given to women's issues, and that the women's
to the marginalization of Caribbean men and has done more harm than good.
movement has contributed
Since the days of slavery Caribbean women have been actively involved in the
of
in the region were not visible and did not hold high positions in the
experience of poor and unfair working conditions and their concern about social problems led women to protest. During
Ellis, Ph.D, is Managing Director of Pat Ellis Inc. Par
Participation in Party Politics
this period women initiated and parricipated
in riots, strikes and work stoppages and set the foundation for women's commitment
to workers'
struggles and their active involvement in trade unions that continues up to today. Among the pioneer political activists and trade unionists were Edith Nelson inJamaica, and Daisy Crick and Elma Francis, in Trinidad and Tobago.
their
Other women wrote anicles for newspapers
societies. This was especially true of their involvement in and contribution to the political, economic andsocial life of their
about issues like taxation and women's political rights, including their right to vote. In the 1940s and 1950s women
communities. However, it was probably in the latter half of the last century rhat a
gained adult suffrage, and by the middle
move was made topublicly recognize their roles and contribution, and to encourage their involvement in all societal processes. During thisperiod, several initiatives were taken by local, regional and international agencies that had a significant impact on women's lives and changed the way that
involved
Page 42
activist roles.
achievements in the political, economic and social spheres.
an1'thing, Caribbean women have achieved, in what ways, if any, they have benefitted
shaping and development
"Auxiliaries", the symbolism of which
is not without significance as rhey initially, and sdll to some exrent continue to perform traditional
of
the century were becoming actively
in party politics. They
had
become members of political parties, and a
few women, for example in Jamaica in 1944,began to face the polls in general elections. Gradually, female members of
political parties also began to form "\fomen's Arms" or \flings", and
Jnvolvement in party politics created Iopponunities for several women to rise to prominence and to make an input at the
highest levels of policy and decisionmaking in their counrries. Out of their struggle for recognition emerged trail blazers like IvyJoshua in St Vincent and the Grenadines, Florence Dash and Madame Ifill in Barbados, Audrey Jeffers in Trinidad and Tobago, Mary Rose Tuitt in Montserrat, women who made history by being elected to the Legislature and who, ofren as the lone female voice, helped to focus artention on
unfavourable conditions under which many women were living. Along with other women of similarpersuasions, they not only spoke out, but held leading positions in social organizations and were actively involved in social work and social welfare activities.
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Since the days ofthese pioneers, in every
regional political agendas andare not only
country, many more women have become
automatically included in debates and discussions, but have been influenced national policy. Issues like equality between men and women, the need to create more equitable societies, and to remove oppression and discrimination
actively involved in party politics and several have faced the polls, including a record number of twelve women from three political parties in Barbados in 1991. Flowever, not many of them have been successful and it is interesting to note that fifty yearslater, while women have held various cabinet positions in the Region, there has only been two female Heads of Government in the Region. However, there have been female Speakers of the
House of Representatives/Parliament, and female Presidents of the Senate. At another level of the political arena, in several countries, women have been appointed to serve as diplomats and to represent their countries at the United Nations. The Region can also boast of having had the first female Governor in the person of Dame Hilda Bynoe of
against women, have
led
several
governments in the Region to sign IIN Conventions against discrimination against women, to formulate nationalpolicies on women, andto set up specialmechanisms and machinery at the national level, such as'Women's Desks and Bureaux, as well as at the level of CARICOM, to address the concerns of women and to implement programmes to improve their condition andposition.
'$/omen in Trade Unions
\\l/omen's political acdviry has not W been limited however to their
Grenada and two Governors-General, the late Dame Nita Barrow of Barbados and Dame Minita Gordon of Belize.
participation in parrypolitics and to their election to parliament and appointment to
Political Education of Vomen
the senate, but has also been in the area of trade unionism and at the forefront ofthe
recent years rhere have been several
fight for women's rights as workers. \flomen like Ruth Ambrose and
Jn
Iattempts to encourage morewomen to become more actively involved in politics at the highest levels of poliry and decision-
making. Several conferences, seminars and workshops have been organized to increase women's political consciousness,
Earnie Dyer and Lila Simon of Antigua were members of the Antigua
A r$(/ 'Women'su
negotiating,
Council. In
alliances between women and among women, and to create women's political caucuses. These activities have resulted in, forexample, formation of theJamaica 'Women's Political Caucus in 1992, and similar organisations in other counrries with the mandate to train women in order to increase their participation in the political process.
Over the years, women's voices have therefore become more vibrant, heard more often in political debates and discussions of national issues as well as on women's problems, concerns, issues and rights. As a result these women are now common topics on the national and
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
\(ithin
the trade union movement in rhe two decades there have been anumber of national and regional programmes to train female members, to increase their last
understanding of how power is used in and by unions, and to equip them forpositions
of
leadership
within the
Today, there are
movemenr.
number of women in senior and key management positions within the trade union movement in the a
Caribbean. Like vromen before them, they
continue to agitate not only for better working conditions and equal pay f.or equal work, but worked to formulate policies addressing other issues like
discrimination, violence and sexual harassment in the workplace, health and
safety, maternity benefits
and
compensation, that affect female workers.
Achievements in the Economic Sector
fiver
the last cenrury Caribbean
\-./economies have
undergone from
signifi cant changes,
an existence on an agriculture sector dominated by sugar,
'Workers' Union who helped to
to increase their understanding of political structures andprocesses, to help them to acquire anddevelop skills in lobbying, in
to form and strengthen
union movement have caused hundreds of many female workers to benefit from better working conditions.
cocoa and bananas, to the and expansion of manu-facuring
establish the
development
and industrial
secrors,
and more recently to rhe
Trinidad,Elma
growh of the
Francois was instrumental in laying the foundation of three major
sector including tourism, offshore financial services
unions,
service
and informatics - sectors
in which large numbers of womenareemployed.
and
Chlotilda
'Valcott agitated
and was at the forefront of the struggle for wages for housework.
In Grenada, Lucy Stroude who helped to found the Commercial and Industrial Union in Grenada in 1956 was elected second vice-presidenr of the Union in 1980. The achievements of women like these, who through their commirmenr, hardwork and activism within the trade
H.E, Dume Nita Banow
The Agricultural Sector women have always worked the cane fields, on the plantations, on cocoa and other estates, in large vegetable gardens and in small backyard
faribbean
\jn
Page 43
It
is well known that more than three-quaners of all agricultural workers in the Region are women, and that women are involved in the food chain from crop production and kitchen gardens.
The rise of the tourism sector and its
increasing importance
as a
major
contributorto nationd economies, created em;tloyment opportunities at all levels for significant numbers of women.
and harvesting to marketing of agricultural produce; and that female
hucksters continue to control the movement of fresh fruits and vegetables in the Region and ensure that the population is fed.
The Public and Private Sectors
\(/'"::",:T, ff}'j' ",1"1*3"il111 '\tr0omen numbers of female employees.
three-quarters of all agricultural workers in the Region are women, and women are involved in the food chain from crop production to marketing of agricultural produce...
predominate in public the in the service, health sector and in the education sector and, over
the years, while the top echelons
of At the same time, while the maiority of women employed in the agricultural sector are still labourers, in several countries in the Region, there has been an increase in the number of women who are highly qualified in all aspects of agriculture, who hold senior positions in Ministries of Agriculture and in other agricultural agencies as agronomists, crop scientists, extensionists, agricultural
economists and agricultural planners.
these sectors
are still largely populated by men, many
more women have
climbed the corporate ladder, are now occupying senior, executive positions and are moving into the Board Room in small but growing numbers. In these higher level positions women not only have more power and authority and the
opportunity to influence policy and decision at the highest levels of the organisations in which they work, but
they ere also in high status jobs commanding high salaries.
At another levelwithin
the private sector,
while in most countries, more males than females own their own businesses, the
number of female entrepreneurs has increased. Several more women now own and manage small and mediumsized businesses, boutiques, consulting firms, travel agencies, child care and preschools, nursing homes and geriatric
been
appointed to senior positions.
Not only are
female
Permanent Secretaries now more common, but, in some countries, for example the Turks and Caicos Islands, the head of the Civil Service is a woman. In others there have been female Accountants General, Cabinet Secretaries,
Manufacturing, Industrial and Service
female "Post Masterso General, and Heads of Departments.
fn the manufacturing and industrial It.ctott, women are the maiority of workers in factories and on industrial estates which emerged in the sixties and seventies. In the last two decades they have also become the dominant group in the tourism industry, in the off-shore sector and in the new knowledge-based industries in the informatics sector. \(hile work on estates have provided employment and opportunities for many women who
would otherwise be unemployed, they have also created situations in which women are regarded as a cheap source of labour and are being exploited. As in many other parts of the world within these sectors, large numbers of Caribbean women are concentrated in the lower
A sigpifi cant number of women
are engaged
in the
private
sector and, in some cases,
example
for
in Trinidad and
Tobago, there are more women
employed in this sector than there are men. Across the Region, there has also been an
increase in the number of women in middle and senior management positions; for
example, there are several female bank managers in the banking and financial sectors, female insurance agents with their own agencies, female
actuaries, and significant number of female panners in accounting glass ceiling is still
echelons of these industries in low-skilled, low-paying jobs with little, if any room for
firms. And while the
promotion or advancement.
faidy well intact, more women
Page 44
have
The late Earlene Horne, St Wncent & the Grenadines, trade unionist, farmeti social
worker
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
homes, through which they earn their
income as well as provide essential goods and services to the community.
Thelnformal Sector
Jn the last half-century, faced with
Ithe challenges of surviving in the wake of Structtrral Adjustment Policies, women in the Region have not only been active in, but have been to alarge extent responsible for the growth of the informal secror.
Vithin this
sector women continue, as their ancestors haddone from early in the century, to buy and sell goods and to use
the income to meer their financial commitments. In many cases these activities were andcontinue to be the only source of family income.
In recentyears the sectorhas grown more sophisticated and is contributing more significantly, not only to family incomes but also to the national economy. 'Women
from all walks of life have become "Informal Commercial Importers",
women have been able to increase their incomes and to improve their living conditions and the quality of life of their families. For example, in some countries, statistics from morrgage companies reveal that more women than men were
acquiring mortgages to build their own homes.
clothes
to
'Women's
Associations in the early years
provided opportunities and space for professional women to meet, discuss matters of interest and mutual concern
to take action to improve their position. Today there are several and
professional associations to which women belong, some of these like the Business
In spite of these achievemenrs and of the high level of female participation in the
and Professional \(omen's Club,
are
women's organisations. At the same time
labour force, (40.4V), unemployment
professional women today often hold
among women is still higher than it is among men. For example, recent poverD/
positions of power and authority in mixedsex professional associations, for example, within accounting, law, medical, and other professions in which these positions were previouslyheld only by men. While these associations are mainly concerned with
studies in some countries have shown that at the lower echelons of the sociery, there are still significant numbers of women in poor urban and rural communities who are unemployed and underemployed, who have no regular source of income and who find it difficult to provide even the basic
theirfamilies. Moreover, manyof these women are heads of households and single parents of several children, and some also have responsibility for the care of other, often older relatives. needs of
managers of the suitcase and barrel trade,
and side walk and "bend down market" vendors, importing and selling any and every thing from cosmetics and designer
Federation, Dressmakers' IJnions, Business
'S/omen's Organisations
faribbean
women have a history of
professional development
of
their
members, they are also concerned with
national and other issues that impact negatively on v/omen. Several therefore play an advocacy role, lobbying on women's behalf to implementprogrammes addressing issues and problems that face all women. In the area of service clubs, the Soroptomists and the'Women's Corona Society are women's organisations, but through extensive lobbyingin the last few years women are also now Lionesses and Kiwanis no small achievement in breaking into what were formerly regarded as "men
household materials and electronic items. Other women have
\intensive and extensive involvement in activities designed to address social
expanded the food industry and many can
problems and to improve the life and wellbeing ofpeople. From early in the century,
only " clubs andassociations.
women creatd social welfare organisations and implemented self-help programmes for this purpose. Several women were also active in social welfare activities through their involvemenr in church and religious organisations like the Mothers' Union and
In the last quarter century alongside the traditional women's organisations like the Mothers'IJnion andtheYSflCA, in all of the islands there emerged a number of national and regiond organisations whose focus was on the development of women and whose aim was to improve their status and position as well as their condition. During the 1970s National Councils and
be seen selling local, home-made food
from mini-vans delivering lunches to customers at a number of workplaces. Through these economic activities many women have increased their incomes,
have gained economic independence, generated foreign currency and are making
a
significant contribution to the
economy of their countries.
'Women
in Non-Traditional Occupations
fh recent years roo, with the increase in Iopportunities for women to acquire education, training and skills in areas and jobs that were once regarded as only being appropriate for men, significant numbers of women have been able to acquire more
lucrative employment in higher paying
jobs in medicine, law, archirecture, surveying, engineering, and the construction trades. As a result, many
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Legion of Mary. Inthefirstquanerof the last century, the Child Saving League (19 1 6) and the YIUTCA (1922)
inl
amaica,
andthe Women's Self Help Society (1901) andthe Coterie of Social Vorkers (1921) in Trinidad, the Child Velfare League and Nursery Associations were early examples oforganisations that focused aftention on and attempted to improve the condition of poor women and the health and nutrition of children.
Organisations of 'Women, and Associations Vomen's Organisations were formedin nearly all countries and served as umbrella of
organisations ro promote, facilitate, coordinate and monitor activities of women's groups and organisations. These umbrella organisations begun ro focus on
increasing women's awareness and consciousness, creating programmes that
At anotherlevel, professional women also formed associations to help improve the
quality of work of employed women. Teachers' Unions, Vomen's Teachers'
enabled thousands
of women in
the
Region to identify and better undersrand the political, economic, social and cultural factors that contribute to their position of
Page 45
disadvantage vis-)-vis that of men in their societies. As a result, in addition to
social welfare activities in which women's groups and organisations were initially involved, their programmes were expanded to include and address other areas that were of concern to
women, such as unemployment,
insufficient opportunities for women to continue their education and to gain skills, political education for women, and research on women. 'Women's groups and organisations also implemented other training programmes and projects that created oppornrnities for unemployed and low-income women in rural and urban communities to participate in non-formal education and skills training programmes. Through theirparticipation in these programmes, large numbers of
women were thus able
to
acquire
policymakers, decision makers, men, and the population at large begun to pay more attention to "women's issues" and to put these on the national and other agendas. In the t970s too, several regional organisations also emerged to focus on
women's role and contribution to development and on women's issues, concerns and problems. The formation of the Caribbean'W'omen's Association (CARI\UfA), a regional NGO, gave a boost to the 'Women's Movement in the Caribbean. This organisation with the hard work and commitment of women leaders like Nesta Patrick of Trinidad, Carmeta Fraser of Barbados, Neva Edwards of Dominica, and Ann Liburd of
whom they were significantly different. The work, reputation and achievements of \fAND and of its first Coordinator, Peggy
Antrobus, its effect on the lives of women, its contributionto thewomen's movement, its impact on the region and its international acclaim are well known and in this short article will not be repeated. There is nodoubt however, that the work
of VAND was a watershed for the women's movement in the Region not only in the breadth, scope and impact of ia programmes and activities but in setting the foundation for the creation of other
more radical, women's and feminist groups, for example, CAFRA, and organisations that emerged in the eighties
Kitts and Nevis is still alive and overthe years has played a major lobbying and advocacy role. It drew attention to and
and nineties, and for ensuring that women's studies and gender studies
highlighted problems that women faced; it trained women for leadership
byUWIandUG.
St
marketable skills and to become involved
positions; organized and mobilized
in income-generating projects through which they were able to increase and
women from all levels
supplement their incomes. The broad based non-formal
and
of
Conclusion
Caribbean
society, encouraging them to speak out
education
became an integral part of the diet offered
to take action to improve their situation, and created opportunities for
in to the international
rom this very brief account there can doubt thatwomen at all levels of Caribbean society have achieved a lot during the last century. However, in spite ofthis and ofthe fact that there has been be no
Programmes
them to participate
and
debate and discussion experience a number of serious problems on matters concerning and face a number of challenges. There are
and to contribute
implemented by women's groups
organisa-
tions also served another very im-
women. Several
Portant PurPose,
women
women.
number of "women's issues" that must
international fora in which they not only
shared the
Caribbean at various
selfconfidence of
a
be addressed early in this century. For example, for women to achieve their full potential, gender equity and equality in Caribbean society; women's relations with men andwith other women; discrimination and harassment in the workplace, and
from
CARI\fA have represented the
that of building the self esteem, self worth and
someimprovementinwomen'sposition and condition, women in the Region still
expe-
violence against women, must be key
riences of Caribbean women
with their
counterparts worldwide,
also
items on the agenda of governments and women's organisations for the Twenty-
Nesta Patrick
but
Other, more radical, activist groups like the Sistren Theatre Collective ofJamaica provided opportuniry, space and time for
contributed their ideas, views, opinions of Caribbean women, through which
first century.
womento
they were able to
Editor's Note:
share experiences of oppression
anddiscrimination, to identify problems, to articulate common needs and together to seek solutions and to take action to bring about desired change. They were
the medium that gave many women
a
voice, through which, for the first time,
scores of women who were usually "invisible", afraid to speak and unheard, became visible, and through which their
voices were Page 46
heard. As a
result,
access financial and other resources for their work with
women in the Region.
Participation in Party Politics Winifred Gaskin andJane Phillips-Ga9
of
The establishment of the \flomen and Development Unit (\(AND) within the
Guyana uere also actioe during tbis period - Gaskin utas tbe Political Affairs
Extra Mural Department of U\Uil in 1978 a step taken to ensure that Caribbean women had their own identity within the United Nations context and were not regarded as Latin American women from
Committee, fore-runner of tbe People{s Progressioe Party and Phillips'Gay, an Assisant Secreury of the Guiana Industries
was
WorhersUnion.
\ CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
CONNECTING TO THE CENTURY: GARIBBEAN TELECOMM
UN
ICATIONS
*Roderick Sanatan
NEW INDICATORS OF COMMT]NICATION SERVICES Access to Information and Communications
uncertain footsteps into sharp global shifts of the Twenty-First Century, we can rake pride in the last century's connections in Telecommunications. Formlrly, Telecommunications mirrored the pure infrastructure resource platform, with Broadcasting as external short wave and space intrusions with an accompanying colonial administrative and legal structure. Today's reality - still in need of change -
\Y/ah W
Roderich Sanatan uorked in Communications Poliq for CARICOM 19831993 and sented as Secretary-General of
is robust, internationally-challenging technologies, conforming to multilateral principles in application, with accompanying policy and administration for economic development, IT applications and sophisticated broadcasting infrastruc-
tbe CTU 1994-1999.
tures.
TABLE
I[$Hunn
Dwlpd 24
Bthdm
D
AmiguaadBah&
n
Tk
N
TriridadadTohp
4l
hinica
50
$Kittsmdlftvis
5l
Cffia&
Bduoos
55
$\dneil adth
$
$islrria
63
Bdize
84
Jmica*
tm
Gryaa*
rThe* coutries e of Medim Hmm
442 25]
18J
mx7 439 48 n5 n3
14.0 3.4 r05 19.6 l0 0.9 3.9 18.2 0.8 0.5 7.5 t.4 8.0 lt6 1.6
505 6y 598 670 765 587 438 MN
318 141
l3 345
17.3
6.9
251
26
158
U 301 167 306
255
13.0
166 2.6
2.0
0.1
3.1
n1
2.8
9.1
1.4
1.5
3,8
Itrl
351
668
Cremdines
1
2.3
'l
816 1.3
16A
1.4
184
L5
76.4
134
0.9
n.l
0
0.7
213
0.6
0.3
244
53
30.0
2.7
Development.
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Page 47
Infrastructure
f
elecommunication infrastructure, in
I
the pre-Federation years, resembled
very much the traditional technology system - microwave links, old copper and coaxial cables, large earth transmitters and
similarinfrastructure gridding most of the Caribbean, except for The Bahamas and
Belize.
Belize, through Cable and
\flireless, was part of Central America. Incidentally, The Bahamas chain of Family Islands extended as vast as the Eastern Caribbean countries, with copper and coaxial cable and microwave.
Rapidly, the monopoly provider of infrastructure, under differential licencing
conditions, enabled foreign direct (pri-
vate) involvement
tions. It
in
telecommunicasaw separate entities of Telcos
Fig.
(handling domestic service) and External Carriers (handing the international service). It is to the credit of Cable and 'Wireless, and its British capital, fuelled by good profits from the Caribbean, that it invested in modern fibre optic networks, including a regional digital grid in the last decade (Fig 1). Infrastructure development has deepened into high technology systems located in ribbons' of some countries, stimulated
links with modern computer
system, VSATs and satellite systems - all of which enhance the capacity of the Caribbean to be connected to businesses in the rest of the world. Already, in the 198Os,Jamaica led the way with the Digipon in Montego
Bay. Today, free zone telecommunicaoperators and online networks
tion
lntra-regionally, there have been
sparse,
but spirited, efforts to connect the region with telecommunication systems (like the
CDB/CARICOM
fu nded Regional Space
Segment Agenry
in the
access
1990s) and to
the global spectrum through the
allotments in the
ITU-VARC of 1983 and
1988.
Today,the thrust of new private satellite systems competes for the constituents
of
the long-serving global co-operatives like
INTELSAT. Further, the new global mobile satellites take on a character of service to any part of the world. The jump
to the provision of especially cellular,
wireless services, see the reach of
will
new systems and broader citizen access to
networks of the 21" Century.
provide the 'pis aller'f.or Caribbean global electronic businesses.
Legal and Regulatory Systems
f
elecommunications generally come
I
under \flireless Telegraphy Ordi-
of the domestic utilitarian notions of the commodity. Regulation was delimited to special licensing regimes, a far cry from the nances, characteristic
resource-focus currently of spectnrmuse,
bandwidth potential, advanced technologies, computer interfaces and gateways for globaltrade. Much of the legal base of telecommunication lay buriedin the provision of services.
Competition notions and technology
rrfll{Alrtnlcrx tfu ottlc! ftnRl3rilAl
rdtO-HAUt UNr3 al{o utflt^ilNl cAlltl 3l3ttm3
advancement saw the yet unsettled foray
of Caribbean telecommunications
as a
trading tool for international services. In the last decade, States have utilised'Fair trading'instruments to settle disputes in the competitive provision and use of
telecommunication equipment. The deep ening challenges are now emerging with the right to access services and networks by anyone. The Public Utilities Commission-rype operation has been the arena of arbitration.
Belize had been part of the Cable and 'Wireless family, andwas the first country to break the monopoly in the early 1990s. The Bahamas had maintained a lucrative State corporation until 1999 when it demonopolised and innovated with an allembracing PUC Act. Page 48
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Jn the last fifteen years, significant
by citizens and entrepreneurs.
in Trinidad and Tobago,
Administrative practices were
Iconstitutional
challenges have emerged
Dominica,
lamaica and Grenada - identifying the right to free expression and speech as embracing the right of access to the infrastructure (means) to exercise such freedom. One expects that, in addition to hemispheric and global competitive trends, this consumer-citizen awareness of rights will lead to new approaches to the law. The net effect is that old telecommunication legislation is yet to catch up with such fast moving action
In the past, regulatory
systems and
domain of aMinistry of Works-type outfit,
/\ t the regional level, two organisaA.tions have come into being to
with a small technical department to
become the axis of new telecommunica-
handle the basic technology routines.
tion initiatives. CANTO,
Today, there are shifts inPolicyAdvisory
regional operators, started in the early
in
the
outfits in Ministries - a recognition that Telecommunication belongs more to Ministries of Trade, and that telecommunication sub-serves a wider socioeconomic platform for science, technology and industrial development.
II: TELECOMMUMCATIONS INSTIIUTIONAL
TABLE
New Regional Bodies
CHANGES
1980s
a
grouping of
in Trinidad and Tobago,
has
developed approaches on the technology side and has acted as a lobby for the private and government owned operations. Its membership extends to the English and Hispanic Caribbean. CANTO has succeeded in pursuing alliances to impact on global purchases for its shareholders and in trading for its membership.
The CTU, a decade old, has been old
APUA (Auftority)
New Policy
PUB/Rate Hearing
Antrgua ardBaftuda Ba6ados
FTC Proposed PUC
Belize
New
Dominica
New
Grenada
New
Guvana
New
PUC
Jarmica
old
Fair Trading Commiss ion
0ld
StKittsNevis
New
Saint
old
llcia
.ECIEL PUC
St Vincent and
SurinanB
legislation for indqendent authority
The Baharns
New
New PUC
New Policy
legislation for Indqendent Authority Regulated Authority Industries Gmmission FTC Propsd
British Virgin Islands
old
Caynnn Islands
old
Turh
and Caicos Islands
Anguilla
Kitts'Nevis, OECS Telecom Reform Project (for Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, St' ECTEL Body a Regulatory proposed has Lucia) Dominica and Saint
CANCOM PersPective - June 2000
heartland of the international system, through the CTU, with support from the
VorldBank. Several countries acceded to the \VTO's Special Agreement on Basic Telecommunication, which assumes a roll-out for competitive services, systems and practices. This has been the signal shift in demunications.
New
Trinidad and Tobago
In the closing decade of the 20'h Century, Caribbean Policy took its advocacy to the
monopolisation of Caribbean Telecom-
old
he Grendina
to be negotiated for Caribbean Telecommunication, in training the new Administrators and in developing policy guidelines for the new regulatory and business environment. rules
In the International SYstem
Broadcast ftmmission Office of Utility Regulation Montsenat
a
creature of regional CARICOM policy. It has made strides in enabling multilateral
In the ITU, the Caribbean has consistently
secured a seat at the policy-making Council (Saint Lucia holds the seat 19982002). In the hemisphere, the Caribbean
has impacted on the decisions of the OAS/CITEL in its Plan of Action. Further, the powerful international lobby of the Global Information Infrastructure Commission has had Caribbean membership since its inceptionin 1994; the result
of which has been access to
keY
international business lobbies for the Caribbean. Page 49
Human Resource Development
TABLEIII: REGIONALTRAINING
the last quarter of the century, this has had a qualitative lift in the training at high levels in law, policy, business and engineering as applied to telecommunication and at the horizontal functions of technical routines. The CTU
Jn
Isegment
has played the major role in providing training for the higher level functions. To
its credit, the latter functions were achieved in many Cable and Wireless
UWI(Janaica)
IjWIDITE
Janaica
IIWI (Irinidad
and Tobago)
Janaica
School of Communbations Faculty ofEngineering
Lhiversity
ofTahnobgr
cn Babados
Comnmity Colbge (Commmications)
Jaraica, Dominica, Saint lrrcia
Tebmrmnunicatiors Training Centres (Cable and Wireless)
Training Centres in the Caribbean and abroad. To a lesser extent, the ITU,
Gryana
I-hivenity of Gryana (Commurications Department)
CANTO, CTU and United
Trinidad andTobago
National kxtitute of Higher Educdion (Reseadl $ience and Technobgy) (NIHERST)
States
Telecommunications Training Institute (USTTD assisted.
However, there is impatience for a new orientation to skills requisite ro the nev/ environment. IT businesses and applications, economics of telecommunications, appropriate regulatory pracrices and
VariousPrivate $hools
service provision
business entrepreneurship. The current
Service
Broadcasting
thrust towards the development of services (more than 60 per cent) of the Caribbean economy requires a quantum leap in skills development. Barbados has taken the lead in importing IT skills as an input in the developmenr of the services expons for the global market.
by Internet
Providers (ISP).
Tttt. Broadcasting Sector (Radio and I Television) hasshownaquantum leap intheCenrury.
telephone assistance
to rural
health
centres; in Trinidad and Tobago, subscrib-
ers
pair
telephone technology. The
University
of the S(est Indies
has
experimented with distance teaching technology in the 1970s, which is today
the heart of the University's distance teaching programme in the non-Campus
territories. In Belize, there has been innovation in the form of a computer generated Belling System to compile local licences for revenue collection purposes.
In relation to IT, the computer spread and deepening as a business and communication service has seen the explosion ofdata services in major industries - tourism, finance, travel erc. The last decade has influenced a new classroom for the youth - oriented to IT, rhe Internet and Software
skills. It Page 50
has also given rise to
competitive
monopoly of ground networks, we are now on the brink ofalternative technologies of the pipes and mobile forms to add
to our fare. This century has seen some
From shortwave communication to
significant embryonic changes here. The attempts to create a representative institution to handle Broadcasting - as in
national radio andTV systems, the Region
the case of Jamaica (The
in th e 1.970s,a major community thrust for radio through CANA and CBU. These agencies have fostered a sense of regionalism, and, in their current technology change, remain flagships of identity has seen
Technology development has witnessed some key initiatives: in Suriname, solar powered telephone; in Guyana, Medex
Cable television has come to the Region in the post 1960s - with the introduction of television. From TVROs to a full
and cultural outpouring. CANA, in particular, was an instrument propelled by amandateof CARICOM.
Broadcast
Commission) with industry representation; the rise of local production of film
and television through sophisticated in Trinidad and
producers, especially
Tobago, Belize andJamaica.
A second indicative shifr in broadcasting has been the growth of the 'public
opinion' programmes (Call-In, Trinidad Some significant parallel experiences in broadcasting are the establishment of a Communication School at U\flI (|amaica), the early experiment with regional
and Tobago); Public Eye - (]amaica); Bus Stand Cabinet in Barbados, etc. Public Service broadcasting has now developed into entrenched citizen response.
private television by a Saint Lucian entrepreneur (Helene Television Service) and the use of independent production houses - especially in Belize,Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago. T oday, regional broadcasting interaction competition and alliance with international television systems, with varying resul6. CANA now uses a satellite system, having built, like the CBU, on funding from the FES (Germany), IJNESCO and LTNDP.
A parallel intervention has been the use of private radio ownership, sometimes through interlocking media cross ownership.
In
Montserrar, Radio Antilles
has
served in the 1970s and 1980s, as a major
indigenous regional news effort, itself carrying parallel broadcasts of major newscasts from Germany, the UK, USA and Canada.
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
'Creole' found its linguistic expression and cultural place in programming in Saint Lucia and Dominica.
Radio Central in Mandeville, Jamaica, pioneered in the 1970s with Statesponsored Community Radio. \flithin the
Our
On Balance
-fh. Caribbean has connected up I internally and with the world with most sophisticated telecommunication in the century. The new challenges of digital technology andbetteruse of the spectrum,
last twenty years, through CNIRD
competitive pricing and provision of
NGO Community Radio mainly in Dominica, Saint
services, regulatory development and new technologies - open a brave new world for us. (See Fig 2 p. 101)
Research, we have noted
Lucia and Belize.
challenge
is therefore how
establish systems
to
of governance using
communications infrastructure, how to enhance citizen participation, and how to develop business growth. In all this, we
require human intelligence, including women who are leading in informationoriented skills, and training to connect us
tothecenturyahead.
\
TABLEIV: RROATICA STTNG ACTTT'VF',TT,[ FIIflIS
Intoducticn of Radio
Irtrcductisr of Televisicn CBU'Live Television News Exchange hogranme' CBU, CANA - Regional Radio and Television (Barbados) State-Sponsored Community Radio (Jamaica) Radio Antilles - Regional Radio (Montserrat)
Qribbem Conftrence of Churches - Regioml Radio (Barbados) hrblic Call-kr Radio (Jamaica) Cbeole Programming (Saint Lucia and Dominica)
Indepeirdent Television Houses - Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Belize St Kitts and Nevis NGO Comm,rnity Radio - Dominic4 Saint Luci4 Belue, Jwrto,ica Private Radio (FM) and Television Flourish - Trinidad andTobago, Jamaic4 Barbadc, Guyana,
Belize
TABLEV:
MEVEI\TS JamaicaDgiport Opens ECFS - &veloped CANTO and CTU established
Rightto corvrnunicate cort judgements - TI 1986 De-monopolisation- Belize - 1990
CIUiWTO
- Represertation on Competitirrc
Otren for Basic
Telecommrnications Services - 1997 Ttp Bahamas - 1999 Jamaica
DeaonopolisafionAgreement
-
1999
- Septarber 1999 - Jamaica
ISPs - competing with the provision
ofdata services and sane broadcasting
Electronic Commerce Trarsactions trgislation established 1999 - Bermuda
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Page
5I
GEM OF TTTE A}TTIILEIS St. Yincent el
HOST St. Vincent and the Grenadines lies at 600 56'
\[est
longitude and 130 15'North latitude, approximately 1,600 miles southeast of Miami. St. Vincent is the largest of the more than 30 islands that comprise the nation, covering approximately 150 sq. miles.
The Grenadines
...two classically dressed women making offerings
tor the 2lst
Meeting ol the Gonterence of Heads ot Government of the Garibbean Gornmunity
before a Roman votive al-
tar.
The
first holds an ol-
ive branch, the second kneeling figure holds a bowl. A symbol on the al-
tar is clapsed hands. Motto: translated
as.
'Peace and Justice'
The Grenadines extend 45 miles to the sourhwest. The
major islands, north to south, are Young Island, Bequia, Mustique, Canouan, Mayreau, I-Inion Island, Palm Island and Petit St. Vincent.
Page 52
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
St Ylncent and the Grenadines
- Getn ol tlre
Antilles
Ciboney and came to the Caribbean from South
"Brigands 'War". Tribal forces under a chief named Duvallier burned British plantations on the windward (eastern) coast of the island, while various
America by AD120. They were followed by the Caribs.
tribes under the leadership of
1498 St. Vincent was so named 1655 Wars between the Carib and French 1675 Slave ship wrecked off Bequia, Negro
the leeward (western) coast toward Kingstown. Chief Chatoyer was killed in
1795 Second Carib \Var
Historical Background It
is believed
that the original inhabitants were called
a famed Carib Chief Chatoyer pushed British forces down
slaves
swam to St. Vincent and later produced the Black Caribs l7t9 French settlers cultivated coffee, tobacco, indigo, cotton and sugar on plantation 1748 Officially declared neutral by Britain and France, under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 1763 St. Vincent became British by the Peace of
Paris
lV2 First Carib War lV9 Restored to French rule 1783 Regained by the British under the Treaty of
or
1797
the process. Battle won by the British, over 5000 Black
Caribs shipped to Belize and Honduras, while the yellow Caribs withdrew into the nearly inaccessible nofthern region of the island.
I87t
St. Vincent became
I95I
colony of the \flindward Islands First elections under adult suffrage Member of the West Indies Federation until
1958
a
pera
of the British
its dissolutionint962 1969 St. Vincent became a British Associated State.
Versailles
1979 Following a referendum, St. Vincent became a full independent state within the British Commonwealth.
f Legendary Cttatojter (ako known as Cbauwar)' Cbief of the Bkch Caribs ubo zaas biJled daring an ofensiw agairut tlte British daring 1 794 in what b nau called the kond Ca.rib Var or Brigands lVar. Clatoyer ptslxd Britilt troop down tlx rrcton coast oftlx country but lost bis life alrn British forca
stmnedDorcrhircHill
(Painting by Lennox 'Dinks'Johnson of St Vincent Es the Grenadines on an original by Agostino Brunyas in the possession of Sir Villiam A. Young. 'Perspective' No. 54155' Jao-June 1992 based
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Page 53
Ot Vincent and the Grenadinec . (Bern of tlre Antiltec KEYFACTS Location:Situated in the Windward Islands at the lower end of the Caribbean chain; 100 miles west of Barbados; 1,300 miles from Miami; the Grenadines comprise achain of linle islands androcks between St. Vincent and Grenada
Capital area:
Kingptown 388 sq.km (150 sq miles);
Land
Population: tI} 724 (1995) Language: English.Somecolloquiallanguage spoken
Ethnic
Origin:
African, Carib, East Indian, Euro Pean
Education:
Literaq
82o/o;
Compulsory up to
â‚Źe
15
Health
(1995)
Infant mortahty rate22/ t000.Life expectanry 68 years
VorKorce Currency:
- fe
males
73
Control of the government resrs with the Prime Minister. The parliament is a unicameral body with a 15member elected house of assembly and a sixmember appointed senate. The Governor-General appoints senators, four on the advice of the Prime Minister and two on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition. The parliamentary term of office is five years, although the Prime Minister may call elections at any time. As in otherEnglish-speaking Caribbean countries, the judiciary in St. Vincent and the Grenadines is rooted in British Common Law. There are courts in three mâ‚Źisterial districts. The Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, comprising a high court of last reson is the Judicial Committee of HerMajesty's Privy Council in London.
ll
y ears; males
Approx40,000. Agriculture4Oo/o
There is no local government in St. Vincent and the Grenadines andall sixparishes are administeredby the
EasternCaribbeanDollar@C$)
CentralGovernment.
GDP Per Capita
ECONOMY
I
(at current
prices):
EC$6,412(1995)
Agriculture
I
a
GOVERNMENT The country is a parliamentary democrary within the Commonwealth of Nations. The Head of State is
Queen Elizabeth
II, represented by a Governor
General- an office with mostly ceremonial functions.
The St. Vincent economy is heavily dependent on agriculture (including forestry and fishing) . In 1998, the Agricultural Sector recorded real growth of 8.3olo and contributed !2.5o/o to GDP. Bananas - a mainstay of the island agriculture - contributed
L9.4o/otoGDP (at factor cost in constarir 1990prices) and earned some $55m. Other imporrant crops are arrowroot, sweet potatoes, tannias, taro, plantains, dasheen, eddoes and coconurs. Forestry development is strictly controlled. Fishing is mainly for the domestic market.
INDUSTRY Manufacturing Apart from a garment industry and the assembling of electrical components, the most important activities
involve the processing of agricultural products, including flour- and rice- milling, brewing, rum distillation and processing dairy products. In
ourput was an estimated EC$42.2 million, below the 1997 figure, and accounre d{or7.3o/o
1998, real
5.60lo
of real GDP - a decrease from the
8.4o/o average
maintained over rhe preceding 4-year period. Page 54
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Construction
CONTRIBUTION OFAGRICULTURAL SECTOR TO GDP rN coNsrANT (1990) PRTCES (EC$M)
ar McroR cosr
In 1998, the Construction
Sector grew by 13.8olo increasing its share of GDP from 10.5% in 1997 to 1,I.3o/o. Real output in 1998 was estimated at EC$65.5
1994
AGRICWIURE
1995
1996
t997
1998
57.6
81.9
78.7
66.6
72.2
Crops
38.8 16.8
45.9 14.6
22.0
58.5 24.9 33.6
50.9
Bananas Other Crops
62.3 27.4 34.9
3 1.3
31.5
Tourism is considered the sector with the greatest growth potential. Videly recognised as the most
I-ivestock
4.6
4.7
J-Z
J. -)
4.9 3.4
5.0 3.4
5.1
Forestry
delightful and unspoilt vacation spot
Fisheries
l 1.0
I 1.6
12.0
t2.3
t2.7
| 1.9
15.6
14.8
t2.l
12.5
million compared with
EC $57 .7
in
1997
.
. . .
Tourism
in
the Caribbean, St. Vincent and the Grenadines offers
much including:
a unique blend of
% Contribution to GDP
towering
Source:
volcanic peaks overflowing with lush vegetation and wildlife; breathtaking stretches of sea and sand;
19.4
3.5
Statistical Office, Central Planning Division
a history rich in Indian lore and legend; a citizenry that reflects a
fascinating cultural blend of Indian, African, Asian and European Heritages
and
BANIANA D(FORT EARI.{II\GS
the
oldest Botanical Gardens found 'Western Hemisphere. The Gardens w'ere founded in !763, as a commercial breeding ground for plants brought from
in the
Export
(Ianes)
r9y1
195
r9%
1947
t9s
n,%3
50,013
4.n2
3r.273
38,%.7
40.8
59.0
53. I
40.0
55.5
35.0
45.0
9.0
(2s.7)
38.8
Export Eamings (EC$million;
ExportEamings
V&wge
other parts of the
world Additionally, the Grenadines
Source:St. Vincent and the Grenadines Banana Growers Association
have become a favorite of the up-market yachting crowd.
In
1,998,
total visitor arrivals to the country
increased by l.2oh. Stay over arrivals considered the
most important category - in terms of levels of expenditure - increased by 3.2o/o. Increases in arrivals from the United St ates,7 .7o/o and the United Kingdom, 27.8 percent were primarily responsible for this improvement. Yacht visitors, have become the largest category since
The Offshore Finance Sector The Offshore Finance Sector is continuing to make encouragingprogress. Since the introduction of the new legislation
in Jawary of 1.997 , registrations in this Sector have increased
annually. There were 448 new
registrations in 1996,1207 n1997
and
TOTAL ARRIVAIS BYVISITOR TYPE
DN
1998
Tourists (Stayovers)
65,t43
67,228
3. I
Excursionists Yachts Cruise
27,789 7< )to 31.405
20,805 79,096 34.903
-24.8
TOTAL
l
VISITOR TYPE
1757 in
Source:
5.1 11.1
t.2
z02.to9
99.566
Department
ToCHANGE
of Tourism
1998.
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Page 55
Carib Family
St
Vincent
(I
8th century)
To date there are over 8,800 offshore entities on rhe Register at the Authority of. which there are 8,146 companies, 704 trusts and26 banks.
The total revenue earned by the Government from Offshore Financial Services as at November 1999 is in excess of $3.2 million, whichis about $lmillion more than the whole of 1998. Business and Professional Services Commercial Banls currently establishedin St. Vincent and the Grenadines are:-
.
. . . . Ancient Indian petroglyph made on 200 foot rock some
l3 centuries ago
National Commercial Bank of St. Vincent and the Grenadines Barclays Bank PLC Bank of Nova Scotia Limited
Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce
Limited Caribbean Banking Corporation Limited
Accounting Services Accounting firms provide sound financial services, expert advice on, and installation of, management information systems.
Photos ofSt Vincent: Escaoe Travel Guide Vol.3. No. I
Insurance Companies
CARICOMFAIVIILYFOR 21stSUMMIT
St. Vincent and the Grenadines has a vibrant insurance sector encompassing both local and foreign companies. These provide a wide range of services, and through re-insurance with larger overseas companies, are able to protect the insured against almost any
liability.
\
ST VINCENT & the GRENADINES The Rt. Hon. Sir James Mitchell
Prime ilinister Dateof
Birth.'
15 May 1931
MarttalSfafus.' Married Education: lmperial College of Tropical Agriculture, University of British Columbia, Canada P rofessi o n a llPo I iti cal Career: 1966, 1967, 1972, 1974, 1980, 1984 Member of Parliament for the Grenadines 1967 - 1972: Minister of Trade, Agriculture, Tourism
and Labour 1972
-
1974: Premier
1975: President of the New Democratic Party '1984 -1998: Prime Minister 1998: reelected as Prime Minister Page 56
for the Gods - La Soufridre - St Vincent's 4000 feet still active volcano - believed by the indigenous Caribs as home of the vengeful spirit who is hiding there
Arena
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
CARICOMFAMILYFOR 21stSUMMIT
GOVERNANCE
in Post-Golonial Anglophone Garibbean
ANTIGUA & BARBUDA
* DavidHinds
- Challenges and Overview Introduction ne of the important questions aised at the time of independence by both the departing colonizers and pro-independence advocates was whether the Caribbean countries were truly ready to govern themselves.
\fhile one may argue that such a
tenets that represent both formal and
substantive democracy.
which these arrangements
or national development. This considera-
Further
tion
appraisal
leadership assuming
the mantle
of
colonial Anglophone-Caribbean against the background ofthe challenges engen-
dered
by the region's colonial
past.
Democratic governance is defined here as the government's ability to manage the inevitable conflict arising from competing demands by the various groups in the sociery while ensuring respect for and the promotion of personal liberry and human rights of its citizens; maintain the integrity of democratic institutions anduphold the democratic principles of free and competitive elections, freedom of association
is
inextricablylinked.
1962
I
contend that any proper of governance must take into consideration both the objective and
subjective limitations of the leadership that power since has held the reigns
of
independence and also the nature of the
institutions that were inherited. In this a
brief overuiew of the leadenhip and
the institutions bequeathed at independ-
1938
-B.l\. University of Michigan Barrister-at-Law, Grays Inn
P rcfe s sional / P o litical C are e r:
l97l-t993: Chairman of the Antigua Labour Pany [ALP] 197l-7976: Senator,Upper House of Parliament, Leader of the Opposition in the Senate 197 Gl99 4: Held several Ministerial Ponfolios Deputy Prime Minister on two occasions 1993 -1995: Elected Leader ofALP Served as acting Prime Minister on several occasions 1994 to present: Prime Minister.
ence is necessary. I concurwith C. L. R. James' observation
that the political class entrusted with governance of the newly independent Caribbean states had little knowledge of governance. In
a
frank assessment of the
Caribbean middle class he observed The Rt. Hon. Hubert A. Ingraham
Prime Minister Date ofBirth:4 August 1947 Marital Stat*s: Married Edacation: Studied Law in Chambers in Nassau 1972 Called to The Bahamas Bar P rcfe s s i onal / P o li tiaa I C a rc e r: |975Electedro National General Council of the Progressive Liberal Party [PLP] 1976: ElectedNational Chairman of the PLP and member of National Executive
political order based on the rule of just laws and enact policies geared towards
of power and
resources.
Democratic Linkages Daoid Hinds, Ph.D, Wsiting Professor School of Politics and Economics,
J therefore, argue that governance in I the Caribbean must be assessed
Chremont Graduate Llniv,, and Host/
in terms of the governments' record of achievement on the above democratic
ProSromne.
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Date of Birth:21 February Marital S tatus:Mar ried
1969 -
and expression, and accountability ofthe governors to the governed; and establish a
equitable distribution
PrimeMinister
Education:
Leadership
regard"
This paper attempts an overview of democratic governance in the post-
premised on the view that forms of democracy are
This approach
the two
governance is unaccustomed to governing, as was the case with the Caribbean political elite that took over the reigns of government at independence.
Hon. Lester B. Bird,
encourage
political, economic, and social equality.
consideration ought not to have been a paramount condition for independence, there can be little doubt that governance, in panicular democratic governance, is a most imponant aspect of nation building becomes more urgent when the
The former
highlighm the institutional arrangements while the latter emphasizes the extent to
Moderator,'Carib Nation'
W
Committee t977:Electedto the House of Assembly 1982: Minister of Housing & NIS Services 1987: Elected Independent Candidate 1990: Joined the official Opposition 1992
to present: Prime Minister
Page 57
CARICOM FAMILY FOR 21st SUMMIT
Governance in Post-Golonial Anglophone Caribbean -
BARBADOS
"They have no trace of political tradition. Until twenty years ago they had no experience ofpolidcal parties or
PrimeMinister Date
of Bitth:
October
17
1949
Marital Status: Married Education l97l: B.A. (Upper Second Class Honours), Economics and History, UWI; 1974: M.Sc. Economics,
according to James, was reflected in the
the Caribbean leaderships were not only
/
1979-8L: Director
e
of Economics,
Jamaica
Member of The Barbados Senate
1985-86: Parliamentary Secretary, Finance and Planning, Barbados 1993:Leader of the Opposition 1994 to present: Prime Minister
Ministry of
BEI-ZI,
Eusi Kwayana, one of the independence leaders, contends that the Caribbean leadership was part of the negotiated settlement at independence. According to him, the independence leadership arose partly out of the British "manipulation and maneuvers in selecting a congenial group of ruling cadres for the independent nation." (Kwayana 1987:3).
As regards the nature of the institutions inherited by the Caribbean at the time of independence, both Clive Thomas and Pagent Henryhave arguedthat despite the success
Date
forcing reforms in the colonial state, the
Prime Minister
state system left by the British was in essence authoritarian. Kwayana draws a direct link between the nature of the independence movement and the postcolonial order. He argues that " the form and course of the struggle for independence determines to some extent the qualiry of independence-including the size and shape of the repression apparatus later installed, the qualiry ofelectoral conduct and the level of judicial independence tolerated" (p.3).
Marital Sfatus:
1944
Married
Education: 1960: Certificate, Council of Legal Education 1966: L.L.B. Hons., Manchester University
Professional/Political Career 1
of the anti-colonial struggle in
The Hon. Said W. Musa of Birth: 19 March,
967-68: Circuit Magistrate
1968-69: Crown Counsel, Office
of
the
Director of Public Prosecution 1970: Attorney-at-Law President, Public Service Union
Member: United Black Association for Development (UBAD)
Founder Member: People's Action Committee (PAC) and the Society for the Promotion of Education and Research (SPEAR)
1974: Joined the People's United Party (PUP)
1974-79: Senator 1996: Leader of the People's United Party 1998 (August): Prime Minister of Belize
Page 58
challenged to maintain the integrity of whatever democradc forms they inherited from the British, but also to upgrade them with the aim of confronting and overcoming the endemic inequalities left
behindbycolonialism.
r:
Bauxite Institute 1983-84:
reformist outlook of the leaders, orwhat he calls "the thin substance of the class" from which they came.
IJttrfI
P tofes sional P olitical C are
to fashion a
democratic tradition they have none" (]ames 19842122-1,23). This condition,
of government... Knowledge of producstruggles, of the
tion, of political The Rt. Hon. Owen Arthur,
ernance were challenged
democratic form of governance out of fragile institutions and a less than democratic political culture. The withdrawing rulers left a political order, the democratic form of which masked a less than democratic content. In this regard,
The task of governance in the postcolonial era, then, presented the new leadership with serious challenges from the outset. The new leaders armed with very little experience in political gov-
Challenges
1-aribbean Governments were also \-ch"ll.ttged to balance the competing demands of the two dominant groups in the sociery-the middle class, including the economic elite, and the working poor. The
latter group, which had fueled the anticolonial rebellion, had definite expectations of the new political order in terms of their own material and social well being. It was also expectedthatthe alliance withthe middle class, so pivotal to the success of
the independence movement, would continue in the post-colonial era, leading to a society in which the working class would be brought into the mainstream of the independent nations.
On the other hand the economic elite those who owned and conrolled the means of production at the time of independence
-
also haddefinite expecta-
tions of the new state. These included protection of private property and the implementation of policies aimed at facilitating a business friendly economy. This balancing act was expected to be achieved within the context of an international order dominated by the demands of the Cold'$(ar, and a global economic order that militated against equality for small developing economies.
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
CARICOM FAMILY FOR 21st SUMMIT
Ghallenges and Overview
COMMONVEALTH OF DOMINICA The Vestminster Model
Guyana, incumbent parties have gracefully given up power when
Lfo* in these circumstances has I -lgorr.rrr"t.. in the Caribbean
defeated. The management of elections has also been a source of pride for the
feared these four decades? The results are mixed, though one can reasonably make the case that democratic governance has
survived. This case is premised largely on the fact that the region has succeeded in retaining the Westminster Model of liberal democracy and generally adhering to its
Caribbean. Though not devoid of controversy and charges of electoral fraud, elections have generally been free and fair, if not always free from fear.
Again Guyana, where electoral fraud has been substantiated, is the exception in this regard.
"sacred" values.
Jn
An important aspect of the \(estminster model is the paramountcy of constitutionalism whereby political change is carried out within the confines of expressed rules and procedures enshrined in the constitu-
between elecdons theparliament has
forum for some degree of activity. Although and legislative debate have generally had these deliberations
Ioperated
as a
little bearing on the lives of the citizens, and the parliaments have, for the most
tion. In this regard the Caribbean has
paft, served as rubber stamps for
stood head and shoulders above other regions of ex-colonies. The constitutional
government policy, the fact that they have not been abolished is aplus fordemocratic governance. Even Guyana during the
framework for smooth and peaceful political change, despite some tampering, has been generally adhered to. Except for Grenada 1979 -83, where the government
came
to power by non-constitutional
means and subsequently ruled by decree,
all Caribbean governments have been changed orretainedviathe ballot. Vhile the instances of Guyana t968-I992 and Grenada in the latter part of Eric Gary's rule, represented a corruption of constitu-
tionalism, these do not detract from the overall impressive record.
Allied to this record of peaceful change is a similarly impressive record of competitive elections heldwithin the constitutionally prescribed period. No government, save Guyana in 1978, has sought to remain
in
office beyond the constitutionally
stipulated limit. In fact, many of the more than 100 elections held since independence have been called well in advance of the due dates. This is a commendable feat given the fact that the Vestminster model entnxts the Head of Government with the power to determine the date of elections. \flhile election campaigns have been
characterized by intense party rivalry, which have led to instances of violence
in
countries such as Jamaica and CANCOM PersPective - June 2000
authoritarian period reained its parliament. Despite the progressive expansion of the coercive arm of the state, governance in the Caribbean has been characterizedby
Hon. Roosevelt Bernard Douglas PrimeMinister Date of Birth:15 October 1941
Education:
1963: Diploma in Agriculture, Ontario Agricultural College 1969:Bachelors Degree, Political Science and Economy, Sir George Villiams Univ.
1970:Post-Graduate Studies, McGill Univ. P rofe
i
ss o
na I
1985-1995:
/ P o Ii t ica I :
International Secretary, Dominica
Labour Pany; Elected to Parliament 1994-present: Leader ofthe DLP 1996-1999: Leader of the Opposition 2000 (f an.3
1) :
Prime Minister
Award: Black National Awards, Toronto, Canada
GRENADA
civilian rule. Despite challenges by military elements in Dominica and Grenada, there have not been any military coups. The armies and police forces have functioned under civilian command and
for the most part maintained a considerable degree of neutrality even though pledging allegiance to the
have
government. Most governments have in
desisted from using the police and army
an openly partisan manner. The to this practice have been
exceptions
revolutionary Grenada and the plural societies of Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago where the racial composition of the armed forces has sometimes drawn themintothearena of party politics. In the case of Guyana the army and police under the official doctrine
of "party
paramountcyo became openly Partisan tools of the rulingparty.
Similarly the bureaucr^cy or public service has remained relatively neutral and have not been coerced into functioning as an arm of the ruling
Dr. the Hon. Keith C. Mitchell PrimeMinister Date of Birth:12 November 1946 Status: Married
Maital
Education 1971: BSc, Mathematics and Chemistry 1975: M.Sc, Mathematics, U'WI 1979: Ph.D. Mathematics and Statistics P rcfe s s ional / P o litical C are e r:
7977-1983: Maths Professor, 1984-199 5 : Professional
1984-1989:
Howard un.
Consultant
Minister of Govt., Minister of
'!0orks, Communications and Public Utilities 1979-1984: Consultant; Head of Systems Technology and Research Corp. (private) 1995 to present: Prime Minister
Page 59
CARICOM FAMILY FOR 21st SUMMIT GIryANA
pafty. Incoming governments have generally refrained from wholesale changes in the bureaucracy. The same obtains for the judicial arm of the state where the courts, despite some constraints, have maintained theirintegrity.
Governments, though having the power to appoint magistrates and judges have not engaged in packing the couns with their supporters. The couns for their part have frequently ruled against governments, which in turn have generally abided by
H.E. BharratJagdeo
President Date of Birth.'23 January 1964 Marital Sfafus: Manied
Education:
1984: Maste/s Degree
in
Economics, Friendship University, Moscow. ProfessionailPol itical Career : 1977: joined the Progressive Youth
of
arm the People'sProgressive Party. 1990: Economist, State Planning Secre-
Organisation, youth tariat.
1992: Special Advisor
to
Minister of
Finance 1993: Junior Minister of Finance. 1995: Senior Minister of Finance.
Acted as Prime Minister on several occasions. 1999 to present: President.
IIAITI
these decisions.
political elites are indistinguishable
In the area of personal liberties and human
politicians became entrepreneurs and business people entered the political
rights the results, though not overly disappointing are less encouraging. Governments have generally used the pov/ers of the state to infringe on the freedom of association and expression resulting in a stultification of an effective Civil Society. Freedom of religion is generally guaranteed, but church leaders
who speak out against government excesses are routinely harassed and humiliated. The right to strike has remained legally intact, but there have
1970: Agronomic Sciences Univ. of Gembloux & University of Louvain, Belgium 978: Geoffprmd Sciences, Pise, lhly. Profession aU Politi cal Carcer
1
1991-1993: Prime Minister, Minister of the Interior and National Defense 1993-1995: Senior Advisor to the President 1995-1996: General Director of the Fonds d'Assistance Economique et Social, FAES 1995 to present: President of Haiti
Page 60
This alliance of the elites has led to
a
marginalization of the lower classes that manifests itself in less than satisfacrory policies aimed at bringingthem into the realm of decision making and addressing their material needs. In the course of the bdancing act the scale has generallytipped in favor ofthe upper classes. The general approach has been to mollify the lower classes with expansive promises at election
time and subsequent distribution of
anotherareain which the results have not been good. The private or independent media have come under constant attack from many governments. Some have even
what Carlene Edie refers to as a "clientistic relationship," between
at curtailing or
\ileaknesses
Date of Birth; 17 January 1938 Marttal Sfafus; Married Education:
arena-
victimization ofstrike leaders. Freedom ofexpression is
controlling the media.
President
as
been numerous incidents of
passed lavrs aimed
H.E. Ren6 Garcia Pr6val
A large part of the above assessment, both positive andnegative, are consequences of the governments'attempts to balance the competing demands from the various groups in the society, in particular rhose from the working class and the economic elite. Shortly after independence, the new political elite enteredinto an alliance with the economic elite that resulted in the promotion of government policies amenable to this group. In fact, in most Caribbean countries the economic and
\\f/hile there has been a fair amount W of promires of constitutional reforrr\ especially in the electoral systems, this has
not been matched by purposeful action. Political parties have been preoccupied with electoral victories at the cost of deepening participatory democracy and crafting
a
system that adequately reflects
the popular will of the people. The Vestminster Model, while effective in instilling in the decision-makers some positive democratic habits, has proved inadequate in addressing the larger issues of national unity and an equitable
distribution power. This problem is most pronounced in the racially segmented societies of Guyana and Trinidad and
limited patronage to party supporters in
government and the masses.
This marginalization of the demands of the lower classes has led to restlessness that has invariably tlueatenedthe prevailing order. The numerous instances ofpopular
protest and rebellions artest
to
this
phenomenon which engendered the rise of a new revolutionary leadership dominated by radical academics and trade unionists. This challenge to rhe establishment has invariably led to the invocation of the authoritative powers enshrined in the independence model of governance. The widening gap between the elites and the masses has had serious implications for the governments'
accountability.
Because the vast
majoriry
of people have been shut out from the decision makingprocess, there has been a topdown form of governance in which
governments dictate
to the rest of the
nation.
Tobago. CA N C o
M, * ro
r
"
r,
""-
f,l*'lollo
CARICOM FAMILY FOR 21st SUMMIT
GOVERNANCE IN CARICOM - A 2000 Perspective
JAMAICA
* EdwinJones The Starting Point
"To ptooifu dynatnic leadzrchiP and in partnership ntith Communitj lnstitutions and Grcups, topard thc attainment of a aiable, internationallg comprctitiae and s*stainablc Com' munitjt, vith imprcacd lpaHA of W for alL" sentice,
dysfunctional effects. These are usually expressed in the misuse of executive dorninance andshort-term corsiderations
of
populist politics, all creating space for the institutionalization of rystemic comrption. Transformation to an alternative model
remains
the explicit "mission"
of
CARI@IVL mmitment to a continuing search the omprehensive rationale of the
for good governance is
Caribbean Community and Common market (CARICOM)
as
movement' con-
institutional arrangement , and a regional development instrument. That governance philosophy is explicitly embodied in its 'mission' cited above. From the outset CARICOM was projected to sensual
a
search
for universalprinciples
that would guide coherent and sustainable regionaldevelopment. One of its efficient doctrinal principles is the distribution of
decision-making power
to benefit the
majority. As such, it relies on
a
participative process of "co-management' to clarify mutud roles andresponsibilities
remove dominant pillars of underdevelop ment - relative economic stagnation and poverry; weak organizationd capacity and systemic dependency; democratic deficits sustainedbypolitical symbolism; as well as weakness of social capital that inhibited cooperation and other goals of rapid social
around agreed definition of the public interest. This process of coalition
development.
Various strategies and techniques such as state reform, support for private sector development, and human resource development are powerful building blocks. Additionally, the design and development
Yet, elements of civic
culture, the agreed political formula that 'involves no derogation from sovereignty', and other "structural" factors ffime For Action: Chap. XII), wouldpose challenges for meeting minimum standards. We focus on the nature of that governance challenge overtime.
1-
of abstract rules and regulative principles embracing probity, transparency and accountability must guide the process.
overnment by hierarchy, concerned
\r*Jwith
maintaining
a
culture of secrecy,
topdown policies and driven by paternalistic assumptions about inabiliry of ordinary people to manage govemance risls, has been a historicd feature of Caribbean public administration. Westminster-type philose phy and frameworks have had reinforcing
CANCOM PersPective - June 2000
1963: LLB. London School of Economics
rofessio n al/P ol iti ca I Career. 1958-present: Member of PNP
P
1969-70: Leader ness in the Senate
1970-80: Elected
of
Opposition Busi-
to
House
of
RePre-
sentatives 1972: Minister, Industry, Foreign Trade& Tourism 1978-89: Deputy Prime Minister 1992 - present: Prime Minister
MONTSERRAT
instrument, requires "capacitation", socierywide.
empowering society, gruranteeing access, minimizing oppornrnities for the 'capture' of the state by established interests even
Governance
Education:
government is merely one
The expected outcome is civil society, understood in its elemental sense as
Faces
Date of Birtlt; 10 April 1935 Marthl Stratus: Single
formation and collective problem solving,
in which
of
Traditions of Government &
Prime Minister
1959: B.A. [Hons]- English, UWI
Essentially, the governance alternative represents
The Rt. Hon. PercivalJ. Pattercon
while reducing the power of the state. Moreover, at the oPerational level of public administration, governance is intended to guard against certain 'crises' that attend efforts at national development by fabricating a 'culture' focused on implementation, timely maintenance of
Hon. David Brandt, Chief Minister
Marital Sfafus; Married Education: 1970-1973 LL.B. University of the West
lndies '1973-1975
Sir Hugh Wooding Law School, 1975-'1977 LL.M. London Universi$ P rofessi on aUPol iti cal C a reer 1977: Banister at Law and Solicitor of the Easâ&#x201A;Źm Caribbean SuPreme Court. 1977-1990:l-avqBr 198& 1985: Memberof Parliament 1 98$1 991 : IndeperdentOpposition MP.
1991-1993: Minister of Communications/ Works; Sports and Deputy Chief Minister 1 99$1 997: lndependentOpposfion M.P. 1 997 to present - Chief Minister
Page
6l
CARICOM FAMILY FOR 21st SUMMIT
Governance in Caricom -
ST KITTS/NEVIS
the development infrastructure the strategic use ofincentives.
well
as
Prime Minister Date of Bitth.' 14 January 1953 Marital Stafus; Single
Education:
of
Bachelor Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery Degrees, University of the West Indies. (UWl) Prrof,essio n allPol iti cal Carer National Leader, St. Kitts Labour Party 1990: Member, delegation of NationalDemocratic Institute and Council of Freely elected Heads of Govemment which visited Haiti to demonstrate international support for its democratic transition in voter registration. 1990: Joined delegation of Council of Freely elected Heads of Govemment led by Preskient
as
an
international observer to General Elections in Haiti. 1 995 to present Prime Minister
SAINTLUCIA
some associared with a sryle of public management, manifest in ambivalence, rymbolic manipulation anddisaffection that have interfered with significant attempts to implement these concepts. Below we briefly interrogate certain issues that make up this conceptual sysrem.
Challenges & Application Governance Concepts
f)articularly
of
since the late 1970s, there
I has been disquiet abour economic failure, evident in the "intractability of social problems such as unemployment, crime, drug abuse and trafficking". Equally, there has been preoccupation with restoration of sustained growrh, usually under new
"coercive
conditiondities", engineered by the inter-
national development community (Nettleford: 5Jones: 1987). CARICOM's role in advancing governance as "sound development management" (\ilforld Bank: 7) has been largely facilitative, of a range of economic strategies, social pannerships
Dr. the Hon. Kenny D. Anthony
Prime Minister, Saint Lucia Date of Birth.'8 January 1951 M arital Sfatus; Married
Education: Attorney at Law, Middle Temple, England; B.SC., Government and History, & LL.B. (UWt), Masters in Law, (UWl) and Doctorate in Law University of Birmingham. rofess i o n a UPo I iti c a I Ca reer : 1979: SpecialAdvisor, St. Lucia Ministry of Education and Culture; P
1
980: Minister of Education;
1993: Assistant General Counsel Caribbean Community Secretariat. 1 1
996: Polilical Leaderlabourpafi. 997 to present Prime Minister
Page 62
and human capital development. Although this governance task strongly
implies improving the qualiry and performance of internal public adminis-
tration, CARICOM has not managed ro model this requirement for its member states. This is so,
partly
because of wide-
ranging decision-making constraints, reinforced by apparent overconcentration on
'reports and commissions' in place of "action". In consequence, regional admin-
istrative modernization processes have been built on country-specific initiatives, surrendering the benefits of "the pooling of talents and experiences" that would stave off high-cost demands. (Time For Action:p.473-522).
Modern governance also relates to the ways in which regional or national sociery
Together, these elements can be leveraged by CARICOM to build effective governance only if there is the social cement of 'trust'. Howweq there are otherchallenges,
Hon. Dr. Denzil L. Douglas
Jimmy Carter, Carter Centre,
as
solves its problems collectively. Operationally, this conceprualization of governance as systems of co-management requires that at least four standards be met. These are: co-ordination of social actors; re-designing appropriate policies,
institutions and incentives; fabricating consensus around roles and responsibili ties; and engendering and sustaining trust.
In shoft, " government should conceive of itself as the hub of a nerwork of social partners engaged in a process of policy
formulation and implementation...and function as strategic broker to facilitate the effective discharge oftheir respective responsibilities"(Nettleford: 5). Despite determined efforts, neither individual state nor CARICOM bureaucracy has to fully meet rhese demands. Their effons are usually contradicted by shortage of management talent and managed
symbolic politics that gives the pretence of
intervention without tackling policy problems. Of course, there is the ubiquitous obstacle in the culture of low trust. Beyond exhortation toward social
capital formation and CARICOM
has
bargaining,
few otherincentives rhat
compelcompliance. Social capital formation
the recognition of
willingness
to
a
- entailing trust, common future and
engage
in
reciprocal
endeavours and to invest in one another's enterprise, psychologically and materially-
(Fukuyama: 3) represents only one component of the governanceprinciple of capacitation. This idea seeks to increase the ability ofsociety to absorb responsibilities, improve education, training and accountability.
Vithin the context of
severe resource constraints,
CARICOM,s response to this challenge has been relatively impressive in scope and vision (Time For Action: p234-260; Secretary General Annual Repon: 1998: p.3I-37). Mobilization of "indefinite support for LfM" and generalized commitment to
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
CARICOM FAMILY FOR 21st SUMMIT
a 2000 Perspective
STJRINAME
educational reform are positive steps. A research and development agenda is also
that continue to encourage politicization and corruption, private greed, and public
being executed, alongside encouragement
cynicism about politico-administrative
of legal protection of intellectual property. Advocacy of information sharing is a persistent policy theme and a part of CARICOM's vision of 'deepening'.
processes and objects. Yet, there are some
There are active civil society forces tied to both domestic and international pressures. \(illingness to curb corruption in government and the encouragement of institutional diversity are among such forces,
Astute observers have also drawn attention to areas ofcrisis in governance, among them, "implementation gaps",
"deficiencies and derogations notwithstanding" (CARICOM Charter of Civil Society: 2). Besides, CARICOM has used
its tentacular
decisional systems to impress on its members the need to embrace other normative governance standards. One is improved relationship
between public authorities and their publics. Joint external representational
and negotiating machinery has been proposed. Social discourse, partnerships,
and other forms of direct citizen involvement sentiment
are being advocated.
is also
Public
being schooled to favour
slimmer, stronger, technocratic public bureaucracies. Among other things, human rights associations have emerged and are critical of slow-moving justice systems. The problem for CARICOM is how to institutionalize these emerging governance asseB; hov/ to stimulate fu nher institutional growth and cooperation; how to strengthen those publics and communities that have not yet cultivated these assets,
A new set of universal abstract rules and regulative principles, necessary for predictability in the policy environment and for conflict resolution has been emerging somewhat loEsidedly. This has worked to keep authoritarian tendencies strong' It has helped to deny substantive equity of
access
to the means of
Personal development and effective competition. It also helps to explain growing abuse of human righa and configurations of power
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
At the time of going to press, Suriname had concluded its General Elections, and is in the process of deciding on its new President.
important, but incomplete programmes of reform, none more contested than initiatives to change nationd constitutions and establish a Caribbean Court ofJustice.
"dissatisfaction with governance", bifur-
cated and competing decision-making systems in the administrative and legisla-
tive spheres (Time For Action: p473 497). Others (|ones: 1998) have commented on a pervasive tendency in all Caribbean public bureaucracies to abandon, if not de-emphasize maintenance of the public infrastrucfirre, depaning from a useful colonial tradition. Preoccupation
with new projects and infrastructural
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
works that are rarely underpinned by maintenance plans has become the substitute approach. Development agencies within CARICOM, for example, the Caribbean Development Bank must now strongly insist on the institutionalization of an implementation and maintenance culture, itself a foundation stone of good governance.
Hon. Basdeo Panday
PrimeMinister The Vay Forward: Governance
withoutAmbivalence
Date of Bi rth : 25 May 1933
MaritalShtus;Manied
Wlithin CARICOM, there has been on il the conceptual W po[ry
".tivism pillars we have used to define democratic governance. Yet, deep crises and public disaffection confront the process ffime
For Action: p. a%-a97). Effective rewith improving the
sponse must start
Education: 195754: LLB. Lincoln's Inn B.Sc(Econ.) London; Diploma in Drama
rofessio n a UPol iti cal Ca rcer: 965: Private Practice as a lanryer 1966: Contested General Elections as member of the Workers and Farmers Party (WFP) 1 973: Presidentâ&#x201A;Źeneral. All-Trinidad Sugar &
P 1
and rate of 'organizational learning' and social capital formation. Both require
GeneralWo*ers Union
ability and willingness on the part of constituent actors to draw lessons about and rethinkfundamental aspects of policy problems such as are identified in this
1
of NARGovernment) 1988: Founder/Memberof Club 88 1 989:Founder/Ivlember/Political Leader UNC
paper. Needed also, is the development of apublic philosophy focused on building
1990- 1995: Opposition Leader 1 995 - present Prime Minister
qudity
1
976: Founder/Member/Leader,
U
LF
976 - 86: Opposition Leader 1 986: Minister of Foreign Affairs (as member
Page 63
new leadership and the moral infrastntcture of society. For these are the foundations on which rhe sense of civic responsibility, social restraints and mutual obligation are built andsustained. These foundations would be strengthened if the for alternative constitutional forms and a new public management culture is made to accommodate extensive citizen inputs, concepts of performance measuresearch
ment, timely and fair administration of justice and generalized recognition that political and economic power is not diminishedwhen it is shared. As we have seen, challenges of governance are
sided and can
many-
only be resolved by
sustained collective acrion. CARICOM must begin by modelling these governance standards.
Conclusion
CARICOM
Speaks for
itself
\\/fithi" CARICOM, rhere has been no W shorrfall in vision about the need to pursue modern approaches to govern-
ance. However, the various factors complicate the efforts toward successful implementation. Delimitation on decisional authoriry, apolitical style reliant on symbolism and ambivalence, slowness
agreement establishing the Caribbean
Coun
In
of Justice" (p39-41).
continued from p.60
addition, significant strides have
apparently been made toward building a technological sub-culture, evidenced by
growing reliance on investments in integrated "information and communica-
tion" systems to guide overall policy b43-46). The "Foreign Policy and Community Relations"
agenda seeks
on trusr, and l^y
foundations for sustainable overall devel-
opment issue
b47-6I). Reinforcing
effects
from "Complementary acrivities
relating to (internal reform that) revolved around several issues pertaining to the roles and functions of the consultative and advisory structures for decision making . . ." h 53-68). Thus, we conclude that the vision for good governance within CARICOM appears
strong: that "agreements in principle" must now give way for programmed implementation based on distillation of
priorities; and that the principle of performance measurement and reward should articulate CARICOM in its next stePs.
to move from "agreement in principle" to
"actiono, are only some such factors. Yet
the latest Annual Report 1998 of. the
to
extendglobalreach, bridge gaps in internal
relations based
Governance in Post-Colonial Anglophone Caribbean
N 6\ t\)
Secretary-General records'movement' on
important governance principles.
On the search for sound development management, "the Secretariat continued its efforts to realise full implementation of the main elemenrs of the Single Market and Economy", placing increased emphasis on "technical support and
4". may conclude, therefore, that \-rzwhile formal democracy has flourished in the Caribbean, substantive democracy has not enjoyed the same degree of success. But the
many manifestations of democratic governance ..must be celebrated especially when one compares the region with Africa, Latin America, and Asia. And given the challenges at independence, resulting from the relative inexperience of the leadership,
coupled with the authoritarian political culture inherited from colonialism, it is not unreasonable to admit that the region has done
reasonably
well.
Governance in
with depressed economies rife vrith poverty is not an easy societies
exercise; impatience and restlessness
born of unfulfilled demands and promises test the limits of the government's democratic temper.
However, the inability to rransform the institutions and culture to meer the demands for empowerment and equality must be cause for worry. Vhile the first four decades of independence can be seen as a period of growing up, of trial and error, the reality of the current period demands an urgently new maturity. Governance in this period must move beyond forms and tackle the substance of societal needs.
completion of negotiations" on significant
"Protocols" bl3-29). Its socid capital/human resource agenda has
remained "focussed
on broad strategic
goals" ofgovernance that affecr educarion,
education health, cuhure, youth and
women in development
(p31-3S).
in articulating strengthen "Legal and
Progress has been made
strategies
to
Institutional Development", including "Treaty Revision", with the centerpiece being "adoption (in pinciplc) of the Page 64
Edwin Jones, Ph.D is Professor of Public Administration, UWI, Mona Carnpus , Jamaica
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Social Partnerships and New Modes of Governance - The Barbados Experience * Patrickl. Gomes
rowing concerns in Caribbean
mass public demonstrations had de-
Community (CARICOM) Mem
manded that the cut in public service pay be restored. Unemployment was already
ber States to strengthen democracy andpursue more inclusive relations
for national policymaking might benefit from critical reflection on recent experiments in social pannerships andthe quest for social contracts.
One of the most frequently cited in the social partnership
references
as high *s 20o/o and thousands of temporary workers were being severed. Retention of the exchange rate
in
its
current state was an inescapable imperative, in the view of the majority of the population. A currenry devaluation in an economy, extremely dependent on im-
workers implied aslowdown of demand
for
goods and services and reduced
capacity to purchase basic necessities on the pan of a significant proportion ofthe
workingpopulation. By convention, such
a situation would have prompted a reaction by the commercial class to increase the price of goods, placing fu rther
pressure on the cost of living
for that
section of the workingpopulation whose livelihood is predominantly derived from wage labour. This did not happen.
within CARICOM member the Barbados
ports for basic necessities, particularly
states is the evolution of
major food items for the domestic
experience during the last eight years,
The prevailing circumstances, fornrnately,
beginning
with an Incomes & Prices Protocol in t992. Two subsequent
population, as well as the tourist sector, would amount to economic and social dislocation. Such circumstances of
Protocols were to result in the current
enormous national significance could not
of a Social Partnership 1998 - 2000. A follow-up Protocol is expected to be
responses. Neither the trade unions
ensuring mutual gains were derived, on the basis of enlightened negotiations, for the overall management of the economy by the state, avoidance of industrial disputes, widespread hardship on the working population and the survival of local business with modest returns from
approach
Social Compact on the Implementation
signed for a subsequent 2-year period.
It would be useful to identify
the
contextual realities ofthe early 1990s in Barbados within which the inaugural Protocol was formulated and the subse-
quent development of the social partnership approach. This brief analysis is a contribution for the guidance of Member States which may want to pursue a critical examination of the fundamental philosophical principles, that may have applicability to advancing a debate on social contracts, elsewhere in
CARICOM.
The Barbados Context
\VZith a substantial financial deficit in Wtsgr and a spate of industrial unrest, intensified by * IMFJinked structural adjustment programme (SAP),
that required a reduction in public servants wages and salaries by eight percent(87d, the Barbados dollar with its exchange rate ($2.00 = US$1.00) came under severe pressure for a devaluation. The industrial unrest was extensive and
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
be adequately addressed by partisan continuing demands
to
reverse pro-
grammes of severance and reduced pay nor the government opting for an IMFimposed solution, requiring the currency devaluation, would be effective as a means ofarresting the fiscal crisis.
were encouraging enough to inspire
a
tripartite approach, with a view to
commercial transactions.
Linking Incomes to Productivity A response
based on a recognition of a
collective responsibility by both labour and government was, therefore, essential
if the national interest
was not
to
'Th. negotiating of a national adjust I -.ttt pro.ess was perceived by all the
be
imperilled. Intense and innovative discussions were
initiated to explore ways by which to contain the crisis. With public sector wages already reduced, aproposal to the unions, representing private sector work-
to also undergo a cut in salaries, was rejected with a counter-proposal that a freeze onwages could be entertained, if controls on prices were instituted. It was, therefore, recognized that involvement of
ers
the private sector would have to be integral to any national adiustment process. This was evident on account of two main factors. The reduction of salaries and
Patrick Gomes Ph.D, is Executive of the Caribbean Centre for Developmenl Administration, B arbados
retrenchment of public sector Page 65
stakeholders to be the only viable option for an economy so heavily dependent on foreign imports for basic necessities and so reliant on a tourism market that could not allow uncompetitive prices for its services. A period of protracted negotiations had been initiated in late l99I and 1992. It was to the credit of the leadership of the labour movement that, faced with a proposal
for a cut of private sector
wages and salaries, comparable
to
the
productiviry, were now advanced
as
central guiding principles for macroeconomic stabiliry and a new approach to collective bargaining. Efforts were undertaken to garner experiences from outside of Barbados, on productivityrelated pay schemes and mechanisms by which to promote and measure productivity. The subsequent establishment of a National Productivity Board is a direct outcome of this enlightened tripartite approach in cooperation between the Social Partners.
1993
-
95
A period of protracted negotiations ,( Iand public debate in L992 and early 7993 reached a critical watershed in
For the purposes of the Protocol, the Social Partners referred to were the Government, the Employers representatives and the Workers representatives. Ir
was explicitly stated Page 66
in August
1993
on which to explore the
main
to industrial relations
Attention should also be directed at the very distinct andprecise objectives which had been agreed upon -viz. Safeguarding the existing parity of the exchange rate and measures
for a more competitive
economy. The latter was of course not an
end
in itself but, to provide
has been a vital component of Barbados macroeconomic programme forthe realisation of sustained economic growth and development through increased competitiveness.
Among seven (7) factors in the Prorocol, responsible for reversing the gradual
gre ter
erosion of Barbados competitiveness, four
It may be instructive to note here that despite public protest demonstrations of
should be highlighted for their significance and applicability, as prerequisites for sustainable economic growth and development, in all CARICOM Member
almost
States. Theseare:
employment oppornrnities.
2
years previously, national
consensus had been hammered out on a
common objective for the larger good of
1. establishment of an environment of
the society, as awhole, i.e afixedexchange
greater dialogue among the Social Partners
rate of the Barbados dollar and employ-
within which fundamental
mentcreation.
economic and social policy may
issues of be
discussed; Seven years later, the Barbadian society can
reflect with understandable relief that the
2. stability and sustainability of
exchange rate has remained constant and unemployment, almost 20o/o tn 1992 has declined rn 1999, to less than IQo/o. In
industrial relations climate;
general terrns, the fundamental objective andintention ofthe 1993 Protocolhas been
employment, thereby reducingthe risk of social dislocation, particularly among youngpeople;
in an admirable manner.
The
broadening of the basis of governance by means of a Protocol binding by mutual consent and for the common good, above partisan interests is an enormous tribute to the Social Partners ofBarbados, given the record of eight-years of macro'economic stabiliry and substandal increase in gainful
August 1993 when the Parliament of Barbados adopted a resolution in support of a Protocol for the implementation of a Prices and Incomes Policy, endorsed by the SocialPartners.
platform
make Barbados goods and services more
realised
The emergence of Protocol One
process,in rejection of an IMFdemand for a orrrenrydevaluation, providedan anindinal
competitive at home and abroad.
salaries.
The bare-bones of an Income & Prices Protocol with an essential link to
FTrh. encouraging success of what I amounted to a national adjustment
tenets of Protocol 2. The preamble of this Protocol stated that the tripartite approach
employees
eight percent settlement with public servants, the counter-proposal from the unions was the acceptance of a wage/ salaries freeze. Simultaneous with that offer was a mutual understanding to have productivity as the central criterion for future increases in wages and
Protocol Twoz 1995 -97
resolution that:
The Prices and Incomes Policy shall have as its major objectives the safeguarding of the existing parity of the exchange rate and the creation and expansion of a more competitive economy which would provide for greater employment opponunities and
A
disdnctive feature
of the political
maturity in the sociery must be also recognised. The core tenets of the inaugural 1993 Protocol not only contin-
ued after electoral defeat of the then government in L994, but also received a reaffirmation for commitment and consolidation in a successor arrangement that
brought into existence an expanded Protocol
the
3. opponunities for improved access to
4. national commitment to improve productivity, increase efficiency, reduce wastage and enhance performance in the
economy. Such factors should not be treated as hard and fast rules or magical principles. They
were the outcome of a process of building national commitment, in the context of a vision for sustained economic growh and development of a service economy which was being restructured for competitiveness in the face of intense, international trade liberalisation.
Capacity to resolve conflicting demands a traditionally-strong commercial class and dominant tourism sector, with the of
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
majority of low-paying jobs occupied by Barbadians, and on the other hand, a
The sub-committee comprised six Gov-
dynamic and well-organised union movement, had to be severely tested. Business interests were represented by a Private
Ministers,
umbrella body, while the labour movement had been consolidated under a Congress of Trade Unions and Staff Association of Barbados Sector Agency,
ernment representatives, two of whom are
with an equal number of
representatives from the umbrella bodies
of the world on the basis of aqualiry of life
of unions and employers.
as a composite index reflecting life expectancy, adult literacy, school
The organisational basis for the current
enrollment and per capita GDP. Finally,
Protocol Three (1998-2000) has proven to be an effective tripartite mechanism in that no major industrial dispute has been of a protracted nature. Quarterly meet-
the fixed exchange rate has been
as an
(cTusAB)
on the Human Development Index of LIIrIDP, in 1999, Barbados is the only Caribbean country inthetop 30 countries
maintained at Bds$2
:
US$ 1.00.
W/ith the observance of Protocol 3, W rehtions among the Social Partners have attained the status of a formal
For Protocol Two, the Social Partners
ings, under the Chairmanship of the
made explicit references to circumstances,
by which the contrasting interests of
Prime Minister have been maintained, close working relations have developed
in
and a prominent role is exercised by the
collaboration and consultation on funda-
the service of a clear national commitment. The basis was mutual respect and discipline and a framework to protect worker's security of tenure and reduce
National Productivity Board. Nevertheless, instances have arisen to test the tenacity of purpose and the capacity
mental issues affecting their individual and collective contributions to all aspects of national development. This has been entered into as a Social Compact for a2-
labourdisputes.
for participatory democracy, on which
year period. Now it is being considered
national consensus could be ensured for
forfurtherexpansion.
business and labour had to be premised
The details of such a framework are not necessary for this discussion. It may suffice to note that in Protocol Two there was recognition that the entire process was to be understood in the context of the country's search for a new mode of governance. It statedthat: ...the implenrentation of
be undcraken
in a
all
aspects...will
,nanner that fully
it
has
bem entered and wbich bonours
tbe
acknowledges the
spirit into uhicb
principles of transparenq and objectioiry.
wage restraint and aprices poliry, sensitive to an unavoidable or legitimate cost
In early 1999,f.or example, strike at a State-owned Corporation was vigorously supported by the largest union in the Congress. Despite public differ-
a
increases.
ences and harsh language
in
heated exchanges betvreen union representatives andmanagement, access to consultation at the highest level of government and the spirit of the social partnership prevailed. It would be naive not to expect incidents in
the future that will te$ the nature of the Acknowledging that this Protocol marks another stage in the advancement of a process for alternative modes of governance, the Social Panners accepted and agreedthat \teps will be taken to efect the deEening and wi.dening of the social partnership'
Protocol Three and beyond
WIth the signing of Protocol Two in W A.tgurt !995, a maiorstep towards institutionalisation of the restructured relations of governance in Barbados was the agreement to administer the Protocol by asub.committee of the SocidPartners. This became the fi.rst line of consulution regarding all aspects of the itnplcmenation of.theProtocol and shall meet once per month or as often as necessary.
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
relations that require partisan interests to be
subordinate
to preservation of a macro
poliry framework of economic
structure
to
govern their continued
The document provides a format beginning with a Preamble, acknowledging a mutuality of interests among the Social Partners and the evolving process of the
preceding
five years, as well as a
restatement
of the Intent on which
poliry of industrid harmony
is
a
grounded.
The seven-year success ofBarbados social
partnerships can not necessarily be taken
as a blueprint or template for other CARICOM Member States to achieve similar economic and social results. But what Barbados has demonstrated is a capacity to pursue a vision for sustained
and
economic growth and development,
industrid stability. It appean however, that the understanding of governance that is panicipatory andpremised on inclusion, has become an integral element of the public
predicated on specific major objectives. These include political and economic values that are indispensable for every
consciousness in Barbadian society.
nationally, formulate and incorporate as basic tenets without which the likelihood
The formulation and upholding in practical circumstances of the current Protocol for the Implementation of a
of even a modicum of current survival patterns might be questionable. These
Social Partnership 1998 - 2000, caPtures the spirit and modalities by which the record of economic and social advance-
CARICOM Member State to
debate
tenets are imperatives of the conjuncture of the external environment and internal
polarisation of inequities to which most
ment has been demonstrated.
Member States are subjected. Therefore, the Barbados Protocols offer useful guidelines and lessons for adaptation in
At
searching
least four indicators are instructive. The rate of growth of the economy over the last five years has been consistently 3.54.}o/o,per capita GDP is (US)$8'200'
for
alternatives modes of
governance, in the rest ofthe region'
continued on p.69 Page 67
(Our Coming of Age) continuedfrom p 41
tions administered by overseas Boards mainly Cambridge and London. The CXC
function in today's sociery and economy,
not only replaced these external examinasubject certification for a candidate population of a wider ability range than was carered for under the foreign-based examinations.
there can be little quibbling over the assertion that this substantial educating of the peoples of the region, as reflected in literacy rates, and the far reaching
tion bodies but also provided
implications thereof, represenrs the single most impoft ant (alongside achievements .in Health) development in the evolution of Caribbean societies since the period of
Now the CXC
slavery.
which
The development, expansion, and blossoming of indigenous educational institu-
tions such
as
the University of the \(est
Indies (I07-I) and the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) have madepossible major curriculum changes in Caribbean education; changes making the education experiences and outcomes more directly relevant, meaningful and indigenous to the Caribbean environment. From the
establishment
of its first
campus in in 1948 result as a of the Irvine Jamaica
Report the U\UflI has developed reputation
as
being
a
a
center of academic
excellence capable of producing graduates
(such as Sir George Alleyne, Director
of
the Pan American Health Organization),
of the finest quality. Its
academics,
including Saint Lucian, Sir Arthur Lewis,
an economics Nobel Prize
winner,
Edward Kamua Brathwaite the Barbadian poet, and Hilary Beckles, the Barbadian historian, and Rex Nettleford the current
Vice Chancellor of the UWI, among others, have also achieved world recogni-
tion for their contribution to world scholarship and developmenr; a scholarin the experiences of the Caribbean. Equally important, the graduates of the U\(I are to be found in key positions in virtually every aspect of leadership in areas of Caribbean economy and society, including several of the current set of regional Prime Ministers.
ship rooted
The Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC) which was established in L972by fifteen English-speaking Caribbean countries likewise represents another of rhe outstanding achievements of \0est Indian education and intellectual pursuit. Before the establishment of the CXC, children wrote secondary school leaving examinaPage 68
has gone astep
further by
launching the Caribbean Advance Profi ciency Examinations (CAPE) which are to replace the advanced levels examinations are set and administered by
British
Examination Boards. The establishment of CAPE it is hoped will not only further help to benerequip students to function in the Caribbean environment, and internationally, but also help to meet the regional challenge of increasing enrollments at the tertiary level from about 5o/oto near l8o/o,
as
part of the region's
development
strategy.
However, while these achievements and
triumphs provide a rich context for conceptualizing and grasping the extent to which education contributed to rhe development of Caribbean societies, they, most especially at this imporrant iuncrure in our history and development, musr also be seen as laying the basis for Caribbean people to transcend and fully grasp future educational and developmental challenges and opportunities which have since the 1990s,
in particular, become increasing
pronounced
Current Educational Challenges: 1990s & Beyond 2000
J\uring the last two decades, and L-fespecially since the 1990s, the
Caribbean and the rest of the world have been experiencing the full-blown effects of the new globalized economic order, bolstered by neo-liberal economic philosophies. These are very evident in, for example, the rise of 'borderless' transnarional,/multinational colporations,
the creation of powerful trading blocs such as the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA); the increasing homogenization of cuhure, the multiskilled employee,
as
well
as
revolutioniz-
ing technologies such as the Inrerner. Globally, societies are in transition from being primarily producers of goods to
societies
in which information and the
means of knowledge producrion, processing and transferpredominate; and national and regional outlooks are as a result being
transformed or superseded (albeit not without contesration) by global visions and perspectives, a fact which has had direct implications for the most personal aspects ofthe lives ofCaribbean peoples.
In this new and exciting environment organizations, not least educational ones, with the challenge of changing and adapting in order to prepare for and spearhead the entry of their respecrive are faced
nation states into the new highly competitive and uncertain international socio-economic and political environment. Educational institutions through the development of effective and innova-
tive curricula strategies and content are expected to help create the type of informed and active Caribbean citizen needed to ensure the continued development of the regionin the21', century, and
the bolstering of Caribbean cultural identities. The ideal Caribbean person has
as
CARICOM
quite correctly suggested ought to:
(a)be
imbuedwith
a
respect for human life
emotionally secure with a high level of self confidence and self esreem (b) be
(c) see
ethnic, religious and other diversity of potential srrength and
as a source richness
(d) be aware of the importance of livingin harmony with the environment
(e) have a strong appreciation of family andkinship values, communiry cohesion, and moral issues
(f) have an informed respecr for cultural heritage (g)
demonstrate multiple literacies, inde-
pendent and critical thinking
ft) demonstrate
a
positive work ethic
(t value and display the
crearive imagination in the economic and entrepreneurial spheres and all other areas oflife
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
(j) develop the capacity
to create and take
of opportunities to control, "dn"nr"g. improrre, maintain and promote physical, mental, social and spiritualwell beingand to contribute to the health and welfare of the community andthe country, and; (k) nourish in him/herself and in others, itre f.rll.st development of each person's potential without gender stereorypilg'.a1d
differences and similarities
"-br".", between females and males as a source of murualstrength.
Through the nurturing of citizens with these i'haracteristics, the basis can be
firmly established for the Region to achieve the -obiectives JulY 1997 Montego BaY of the fullest Declaration development of the Region's. human
r.sorlrce, r.gional uniry, cultural identity' and the positioning of the Region to exploit global changes and oPPortunities'
nations represented one ofthe earliest and most powerful markers in the education and enlightenment of Caribbean peoples.
CONTRIBUTORS
The social and' in particular, educational development of the Region since emancipatior demonstrated not merely the c..atirre and indomitable spirit of Caribbean peoples' but more fundamental the fact titat rh. pro..tt"t of education and learning, andihe relationship between the
two, irc in need of
fundamental ourenThroughout reconceptualization.
tire history as a people, experience has is achieved shown thai orrtb.tt * "p.ople nonengages education when formal experieducational informal formal and ences in dialectical and innovative ways' This type of accomplishment will, of .orrrr., r.qtrir" continued dialogue- and collaborati,on between all levels of the education sYstem' from Primary to rcrtiary, as well as befireen the various educational stakeholders including re-
Th" d.iro..atization or broadening of access to tertiary/higher education
gional governments' non-governmental Ig.rr.i.t, local communities, businesses,
throughout the Region through upgrading and eipansion of education institutions' the introduction of new teaching/
"id agenciel, such as the Caribbean
"nd learning delivery modes such as distance
..gion"l and international funding
.\)
6\
*hi.h
2000
to
increase the efficacy of the teaching/learning process
scheme
seeks
in. the classroom also a m tot rnnovation in the
rePresents
prep"r"tion ofthe region's citizens forthe curricula reforms throughout the region to grapple with issues of regional identity, health issues, and the problems posed by globalization
.r.*..rrt,rry. Ongoing -
likewise will produce positive benefits for
it negotiates the challenges of thenewcentury'
the region
as
Conclusion
rflhe successful collective struggle by I the rl"t . populations of the Region to acquire
of
a
new knowledge anddefinition
themselves,
and to assert their
as free collective identities and humanity the countering citizens as a means of European of the hegemonicvalue system PersPective - June 2000
CANCOM
ordinator Caiibbean Lexicography
Project.
Hilary Beckles, Ph.D., Pro Vice Chancellor,
U\(I.
Byron Blake, Assistant Secretary General, Regional Trade and Economic Integration, CARICOM Secretanat'
Edwin Carrington, Secretary-General, Caribbean Communiry. Pat Ellis, Ph.D., Managing Director, Pat
Ellis Inc.
Corporate ServJoseph Farier, Director, ices,
CARICOM Secretanat'
Patrick Gomes, Ph.D., Executive Direc-
toTCARICAD. Ivelaw Griffith, Ph'D-, Associate Dean, Florida International University'
Tim Hector, Editor "Oudet"
NewsPa-
per, Antigua. Glenford Howe, Ph.D., Research Officer for the Board for Outreach & Distance Education, UV'I, Cave Hill' David Hinds, Ph.D., Visiting Professor,
School of Politics 6c Economics,
Professor Rex Nettleford, Vice Chancel-
,nd .rr.orrrage lifelong learning by having teachers anJ ,t,ld.ttts utilize available
technologies
PAHO.
Richard Allsopp, Ph-D, Director' Co-
Claremont Graduate UniversitY' Edwin Jones, Ph'D., Professor of Public Administration, IJ\(I, Mona' Austin Josiah, Commissioner of Labour, Antigua & Barbuda. Ann Lee, Ph.D.' Research Consultant'
\$n
represent steps in the right directio-n-
Pioneering EduTech
and
TINESCO.
educadin at several regional Universities Barbados'
Develop-
nient Bank, the \0orld Bank,
Sir George A. Alleyne, Director,
lor, UIVI. Toseoh Palacio, Ph.D., Resident
" Scfrool of Continuing
(Social Partners)
Tutor,
U\fI,
Belize.
continuedfrom P 67
Bernadette Persaud, Guyanese
fflhe necessitv of a stable industrial I relatiorr, .ii*.r., the Pursuit of sustainable expansion of the economy
through its c ompetitioeness, reduction of social disparaties through lz creased employ-
ment, nitional commitment to increased
produc tioity andconsolidation of thepro c es tripartiie consultation should not be
tf
dismiised with cynicism that Barbados' success is merely fortuitous' On the contrary, one should hope that the lessons
of .oniistettt and deliberate efforts to make participatory democrary a r eali, ty in a small^CaribLean State can, and will, bear
fruit to enhance the everyday life of the
individual.
Studies,
Artist.
Roderick Sanatan, former Secretary-Gen-
eral, Caribbean Telecommunications Union, Trinidad & Tobago. Jean Small,
Tutor/Co-ordinator, Philip
Sherlock Centre for the Creative Arts,
Jamaica.
Albert B. Sydney, Executive Director, Svdnev & Svdney Associates, CorPorate plitatetic &i Numismatic Consultancy Firm, Trini&d & Tobago. Professor Clive Y' Thomas, Director Institute of Development Studies, univer-
sity of Guyana. Photoeraphs:
Gratefil ihattks to, Alison
Chapman-
Gr.",r"r, The Nation Publishing Co' Felton Ince, GIS Barbados, Cole's Printery Ltd'
7t'
Page 69
COMMODITY EXPORTS Agriculture in the post Lom6 lV Era lmplications of Internationat Developments *Byron Blake
1-\ommodities,
specifically sugar,
bananas and rice, have tradition_ t\--4lly dominated CARICOM's agri_
cultural expons. Taking the period t{Z_ 1997, these three commodities accounted
for 75 per cent of the value
of
CARICOM's domestic export of agricul_
ture commodities in l9g7 andT 4 p.r...rt i\]992:having peaked at 84 peicent in
Their contribution to total domesti. 13 per cent in L9g7 and 12 per cent in 7997 , having peaked at 1 5 per cent rn 1988 and 1992 (See Table I and 199 I .
exports was
Diagrams
l
and2).
In a region comprised of highly open and goods expon dependent economies, three
commodides accounting for between one_
eighth and one-sixth 6f ,riribl.
;;;;;
earnings must be considered importa.rt.
Significantly, all three commodities are h_eavily dependent
Y"ig" (Et)
on the European
market and face major
challenges in the post Lom6 IV era.
every year excepr in 1990 when that market took 8 2.I per cent.In the other 10 years the percentage ranged between g5.2 per cent in 1997 andgl.Oper cent in 1991.
Rice has the widest range of markets. However, ir still has a dependenry of over 60 per cent on the EU market, taking into accounr that most of the exports io the "Other Caribbean Countr ies" after 7993
'were
ro Aruba and the
Antilles
yhle they were funher proc_ for the European market. The main expoft markets forthe three commodities are shown in Table II.
cent of CARICOM's banana exports in six of the eleven years between 1982
and 7997 inclusive, and over 98 per cent in all eleven years. The lowest percenrage of the fruit
taken by the European market was
98.7 per cent
the new \(/orld Trade Organisa_
inclg.ased_emphasis on strerrgth..r.i
*1.,
completed before the Decemb
19919
inequities
of the new
developing counrries began opendebate.);
Lom6 IV Convention, which culminates 25 years of structured EU and African,
1
1
Ao"GULru"oL
987:1 997
(iit) recent \[TO rulings against the EU Banana Import Regime; and
(i") EcE$reAR& rcIrAL YIAR BAMT.TAS rnrcsnc (rJs$@) qposrs-
pss'm)
of Sugar, over 85percentofCARICOM's case
.
system for be part of
tt
TradeNegotiations;
TABLE
OF
Community L.1 per cent
er
(ii) implementationoftheUruzuav Round agreemenrs, including th. ieci_ srons to re-open negodations in agricul_ ture and services and the .ffJ., ,o inaugurate a new Round of Multilateral
on 28 February 2000, with
COftil,P[xnES,
in the latter.
Page 70
(r)
cot'fTRlBL,nq'rs (FcARrcq,fs ExFoRrs oF RrcE, sucARAr,rD BAr,rANAsro TOTA D'GSTIC E.offiTS A^ID TO DOII,ESNC EXPORTS
per cent in the former year and the Caribbean
export q/ent to the EU
tions were concluded. Among the new
circumstances are:
Seattle Ministerial Meeting when the
Caribbean and Pacific (ACp) cooperation,
in7991, and 1995, when the resr of the world took 0.g
In the
prevailed when the four previous Conven_
for liberalised trade and "opin" .";p.;l: tion. (Ihe negotiations were essentially
Theperformance of the three commodi_ ties on the European Union Market has been due largely ro the Lom6 Conrrentior,, the Protocols on Sugar and Bananas anj the special arrangemenr for Rice. The
exprred
February 2000. The new partnership Agreement was negotiared in radicallv different circumstances from those whicir
tion (\7TO) with reduced tol.rai.. fo, special and differential treatment for developing countries, simulr-.o*ty *iii
Netherlands
essed
Banana is the most dependent and most vulnerable but the otherrwo commodities could also face major problems. The European market absorbed over 99 per
negotiations for a successor arrangement only completed in the early horirs of 4
rc,87 .139,878. 476,W 45an4 562,231. 514,8rc-_ 511,1t 585,A u4,s7l 582,181
Acf,cu_nnE
NB(n
DoilEsnc
1fry
294:9,n1 3,289,859 3,861,397 3,640,891 3,716,416 3,514,058
4,N.,Tn 4,859,623
4,9a,7@ 4,937.960
576,213 554,165 581,071
-
540,958 676,676
u7,O15 6s6,835
7n,w 8O,922
791,74
Ncf/)
a
geographi-
cally enlarged EU with weakened commitment to traditional trade with formercolonies. The long-term future of the sugar, banana and rice industries in CARICOMwilldepend significandy on developmenrs in the ril7TO and
on the out-turn of the negodations for the Suc_
CARICOM perspective
_
June 2000
cessor Agreement to Lom6 IV. Rice and sugar could also be impacted bythe nature of the Agreement negotiatedto govern the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)
aker2005.
Finally, sugar could also be adversely affected by developments in the United States Sugar Programme, the High Fructose Corn Sweetener ftIFCS) Industry, including the commercial crystallisa-
differential and more favourable treatment, reciprocity and fuller participa-
Article 36 that: "the Parties agree to concludc new WTO compatible trading
tion of developing countries". Vhilst the concept of special and differential treatment has not been obliterated,
anangements, remouing progressiae Ig bariers to trafu between them and enhancing cooperation in all areas releaant to tradz" .
Specifically,
respect of least developed countries. There is a strong probability that the concept of special and differential treatment for developing countries, as a group, will be further weakened in any new Round of Multilateral Negotiations
Protocols, the same Article states that " the Parties reaffirtn the importance ofthe
fructose and in the North American Free Trade Agreement
unless developing countries are vigilant
(NAFTA),
andunited.
tion of
as
it relates to trade in sugar
fromMexico.
Yet, in the increasingly
International Developments with Relevance to
CARICOM's
Agricultural Commodity Exports
tTth. Uruguay Round Negotiations I which concluded in the Agreement for the new \flTO, significantly emasculated the provisions under Part IV on "Trade and Development" introduced in 1965 into the old General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1.947 and, moreso, the 1979 "Enabling Clause on
with respect to
operational content has only been given in
rules-based
arrangement, it is the provisions for special and differential treatment which would provide the basis for the waiver needed to assure security of a nonreciprocal Successor Arrangement to the Lom6 Convention. The European Union has
conveniently read the environment
as
the
commodity Protocols, . . They agree on the need to reaieu them in the context olfthe neu trading arrangements, in particul.ar as regards their compatibilitjt tuith WTO rules . . . beaing in mind the special legal
status of the Sugar Protocol. Fonnal negotiationsfor the nep trading affangements are to start in September 2002 and conclufu for implementation on 1 J anuaryt 2009".
The Uruguay Roundcapped subsidies to
the agricultural sector in developed countries and, in cases, established commitments to reduction. It
is,
however,
requiring that the new Partnership
the domestic price support system for
Agreement stipulates clearly the intention
sugar in the European and United States
of the Parties to move to a \?TO compatible arrangement. In that context, the Partnership Agreement stipulates in
TABLE
markets which allows the remunerative price CARICOM exporters receive for their sugar in these markets.
II
Main Markets for GARIGOM's Exports of Suqar. Bananas and Rice in 1987-1997 BAMNAS
SUGAR
,EU
rJs
gmR
RCE
OITER
Elt
OT}fiR
E'
cfinnffi*il
CARffi
OilIER
862
103
3.5
$.2
08
61.7
21.3
17.0
0.0
89.6
8.9
1.5
$.1
03
708
40
252
0.0
873
10,9
1,3
9.4
05
621
144
23.5
0,0
82.1
112
6.7
$.9
1.1
6't.3
36
35.1
0.0
950
49
0.1
$.7
13
z0
21
95.6
03
85J
10,6
3.7
s.3
0.7
9.5
264
63.8
0.3
879
70
5.1
s.3
11
27.2
140
284
0r4
85.9
11
914
s.2
08
266
5&2
152
0.0
89.7
4.1
62
$.7
1.3
04
81.1
18.5
0.0
86.9
8.5
4.6
$.8
12
t2
71.9
27.3
0.6
852
108
4.0
9.5
05
2X5
2t2
39.1
92
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Page 7I
Inspite of the failure in Seattle to launch a new Round of Multilateral Negotiations, the negotiations on agriculture, a part of the Marrakesh "built-in" agenda,
were inaugurated in March 2000. A central objective, particularly of the Cairns Group, will be to reduce sharply the subsidies and other suppon to agriculture in developed countries. The current EU Banana Import Regime reflected the commirment in Protocol 5 on Bananas in the Lom6 IV Convention, for the Community to manage the market
in a manner which
assures
the ACP
exporters effective market access at
CARICOMMembeT Countries, will be required to reduce their tariffs (the Common External Tariff (CET) in the case of CARICOM) on imports from FTAA partners and the treatment of
specific products such as sugar are yet to be addressed. In the event that Mexico does not succeed in increasing its duryfree access to the United States sugar
market under the NAFTA, Mexico, together with Brazil, will certainly seek increased access early under the FTAA. The FTAA could therefore result in a reduction or elimination of the restrictions to the entry of sugar into the United States market forFTAA members. In that event,
permits the Community to reorganise the market to the extent that "no ACP State,
the United States market will be dominated by domestically produced sugar and sugar from BraziI andMexico and from Cuba when that country
traditional supplierto the Community, is placed as regards access to, and advantages in, the Community in a less favourable situation than in the past or present". The
FTAA could also reduce the advantage provided by the CET for regionally produced rice and sugar in the CARICOM
remunerative prices for bananas. The
in Annex LXXN
Joint Declaration
adverse rulings by the \(TO, while accepting the legitimacy of the preferences for the ACP banana exporters, require the EU to adjust the Regime. The adjustments are currently being negotiated. Protocol 5 on Bananas in the new Pannership Agreement does not maintain the obligation on the Community. Anicle L of the new Protocol, while recognising the importance of the Community market, simply states that "the Communiry agrees to examine. and where necessary, take measures aimed at ensuring the continued viability of their bananaexport industries and the continuing outlet for their bananas
on the Community market". (Our emphasis). This is a very significant weakening of the basis on which the EU and ACP argued the case at the various \flTO panels. Put differently, the EU has
negotiated itself
out of a firm
and
defensible obligation.
The Sugar Protocol has been retained unchanged as on all previous occasions. The EU has however begun to signal its intention to review the Protocol before 2008.
Negotiations for the FTAA stage. Details such
as
are at an early the timing and rate at
which members, in particular the small Page 72
contract has benefits but also obligations and penalties for each party. It involves:
becomes a member of the
(i)
each
of the 13 ACP
sugar
exporting states named in Article 3 of the Protocol and the three in Article 3 of the Annex to the Protocol, supplying each year the amount of sugar stipulated in
Article 3 of the Protocol
and Ardcle 3
of
theAnnex;
(it)
the16sugarexportingstates,asa
group, supplying each yearthe total ofthe quantities of sugar stipulated in Article 3 of the Protocol and Ardcle 3 of the Annex; and
(iit)
the EU purchasing and import-
ing the stipulatedtotal quantiry of sugar at a guaranteed price.
FTAA. The
market leading to increased competition from rice fromthe UnitedStates andsugar from the large producers in the hemisphere.
The contract
is specifically sated to be for an indefinite period of time. The advantage to each party would vary each year and overtime, depending on the international market for sugar, but each party obviously
determined at the time of the initial negotiation, that over the long run the arrangementwould be to its advantage.
lmplications of the International Developments for CARICOM's
Agricultural Commodity Exports
tTh. implementation of the Uruguay I Round and funher negotiations in the \fTO, the Successor Arrangement to Lom6 and the FTAA will individually and
collectively have negative implications for CARICOM's three main agricultural commodity exports. The nature and extent of the impact on the three commodities will vary however.
The EU was the beneficiary of the contract in the early years. It was guaranteed sugar at a price well below world market prices at
a time of global sugar shortage and high price. The world
market price was 50 per cent above the
Protocol price in 7975 and 35 per cent above in 1980. The European Economic Community (EEC), at the rime, was prepared to contract for two million tonnes of sugar. The ACP members were
reluctant to commit such a large quantity
given the projections
for even higher
world market prices.
Sugar
is
marketed under the Sugar
Protocol with an additional amount
under
The Sugar Protocol cannot be challenged
Special Preferential Sugar (SPS) therefore as a unilateral preferential arrangement in Europe and the Sugar agreementwhichmustsatisfyV'TOMost Quota Scheme in the united States. The FavouredNation (lr4FN) conditions. The SugarProtocolisalong-termcommercial \UflTO does not regulate long-term contractnegotiatedin 1975. Atthattime, commercialcontracts. the world sugar market was extremely tight,theEuropeanunionanerimporrer The Sugar Protocol is not immune, and world prices more than twice the however,fromtheinfluenceofther0(To. negotiatedProtocolprice. TheProtocol The Protocol stipulates that the guaranis not an ?id or even preferential teedprice"shallbenegotiatedannually, agreement for the ACP suppliers. The within the price range obtaining in the CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
the
Communitv, taking into account all relevant economic factors". (emphasis added). The price for sugar obtaining within the European Communiry has been falling as a result of low world market prices, over production of sugar within the Community and the reduction of domes-
Agreement remains at the same level as in the Lom6 IV Convention. It is set at 125,000 tons of husked rice and 20,000
will
ACP countries. This is an important provision since the tariffadvantage could be reduced in the new round of \7TO agricultural negotiations. Further, in the negotiations for the \flTO compatible agreement, the scope for and willingness
tic subsidies. The rate of price decline
accelerate as the EU implements its Uruguay Round commitments and to the extent that the new agricultural negotiations mandate deeper cuts in internal subsidies. In regard to commitments, the EU is scheduled to review its Sugar Regime in 2000. The negotiated Community price for ACP sugar stagnated in nominal terms for several years and has begun to decline.
tons of broken rice. In aJointDeclaration, the Communiry agrees to provide funds to
enhance the competitiveness and efficiency of the rice sector in the individual
to provide advantage to the ACP rice sector could be reduced.
The long-term competitiveness, indeed viability, of the
and
CARICOM rice
industry
The relationship between the rate of decline of internal prices and of the ACP guaranteed price will depend on the
is significantlydependent on the large European market which, as stated earlier, absorbs more than 60 per cent of its exports. Advantage must therefore be
capaciry of the ACP to persuade the EU to
taken of the provisions
take "into account all relevant economic
factors". This is provided for in the Protocol but The EU has resisted successfully the application of this provision, to date. In the United States, Caribbean sugarwill be negatively impacted by both quota reductions and price reductions. Price reductions will be steep derivingfrom the combined effect of increased competition from large FTAA suppliers and reduced internal subsidies from the implementation of \flTO commitments. CARICOM sugarwill, in allprobabiliry, be eliminated from this market.
The medium to long-term price movein the EU and the market competition in the United States will be critical to the viability of the Caribbean
in the new Agreement to enhance the competitiveness of the sector. Concluding Remarks
Flih. level and composition of I cnnrcoM's agriculrure commodiry
Byran Blake is Assistant Secretary General, Regional Trade and Economic Integration,
expons are likely to change dramatically in the next 10 years. This change will be driven essentially by the changing market conditions for sugar, bananas and rice,
CANCOM Segetariat
resulting from the implementation of Uruguay Round commitments and future VTO commitments by the major trading partners, the new Pannership Agreement which replacedthe Lom6 Convention and the negotiation and implementation of the
FTAA
ments
sugar industry since those two markets typically absorb about 96 per cent ofthe Region's sugar exports.
The rice arrangement with the EU is the most n-rlnerable. A formal and substantial arrangement was negotiated for the first time into the Lom6 IV Convention. The advantage provided is a tariff preference for a specified quantity. The quantity of
rice which will receive preferential treatment under the new Partnership CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
There is scope for increasing the production and export of new, organic agricultural products, especially based on more environmentally friendly systems of production. There are also opportunities for secondary products derived from the current dominant crops, particularly sugar and bananas. These are relatively few opportunities, however. They will take
significant time
to
replace traditional
agricultural commodity exports in terms of foreign exchange earnings, contribution to gross domestic product or level of
employment.
\
Page 73
DIAGRAM
I
PERCENTAGE CONTRIBUTION OF CARICOM'S EXPORTS OF BANANA, SUGAR AND RICE TO lTS TOTAL AGRICULTURAL DOMESTIC EXPORTS, 1987-1997 1000/o
9090
sov" 7ovo
F z
60%
H
soz
UT
!.1
A.
400/o
300/o
20/o 10v" 07"
1989
t990
1992
1991
1993
1994
'1995
YEARS
te'nana, Sug"r a
nrce exports
f
Oitrer egricutturat oornestic erOorts
l
DIAGRAM II
PERCENTAGE CONTRIBUTION OF CARICOT''S EXPORTS OF BANANA, SUGAR AND RICE TO ITS TOTAL DOMESTIC EXPORTS, 1987.1997 100% 90"/o aoo/o 700/o
F z!l
H lI
600/"
soz
A
400/o
30% 20/o 10./o oo/"
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
YEARS
g";=t!ag 1g!=' e"'t1!9ry Page 74
D"I
""19.-j'ry
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
A CARIBBEAN HEALTH REVOLUTION
'rGeorge A. O. Alleyne they were before, both as a point of reference and in orderto sound awarning note to the young healthworkers that we
evolutions are often points of fl K irrfl..tion in social affairs, and I \ health conditions frequently fig-
as
as prominent markers of the change. often hearour Cuban colleagues mark the significant changes in their health
must not go backwards.
ure
'We
systems and conditions as beginning after the triumph of their revolution. It has not been apparentto those who have lived and are living through the period that there has
I have little doubt that it was the health and
C ince the thrust of this issue is the )a.hi..,.ments of the last hundred years, it is fair to note that the turn of the
last century was in general not
particularly happy time for the Caribbean. There was economic depression, the benign neglect of colonialism and the Region was still feeling the effects of the post-emancipation doldrums. Many of the problems that had existed during slavery
are numerous examples of significant in the Caribbean at that time. Indeed, George Cumper believed that l92O represented the stafting point of Jamaica's health development. It was about that time that the Rockefeller
Foundation began the campaign to eradicate hookworm that infected two of every three Jamaicans, and one could discern the foundations of a public health service. Similar pictures could no doubt be painted for other Caribbean countries, and I admit that my focus on the last half of the last century is partly because it is the period that I knowpersonally. The Caribbean countries, particulady the islands, delib erately createand market an image of a healthy environmentto which
visitors are attractedto improve their own
mental health.
It is shown as an
environment that is exotic enough to be
enticing and yet free of the health problems that scare visitors. This image is not false as indeed the Caribbean as a whole is one of the healthiest of the sub-
regionsoftheAmericas. Those of
us
who have witnessed much of the change have often hadto reflect on the conditions
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
measles. I could add yaws and malaria that were the bread and butter of medical
Early Problems
change in the Caribbean health situation in the last 50 years that might bear the name of revolution. This does not in any way
changes
fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and
practice at that time.
been a quiet but nonetheless profound
detract fromthe changes that tookplace in the first half of the 20'h century and there
typhus fever, enteric fever, cerebrospinal
a
persisted. \7e have graphic accounts ofthe diseases
that affected both masters and
slaves. There was almost every infectious disease
problem imaginable, compounded
by such social practices
as
excess
drinking
'\tr(/e
get partial which was almost a sport. information from the records of the individual countries, and as one indicator of health conditions, at the turn of the century one in every three children in
British Guyana orBarbados did not live to see a first birthday. The situation was a little better inJamaicawhere 200 children of every 1,000 born died before the age of one, and in Trinidad the figure was about 150.
Inter-islandtransportwas vital, so we saw considerable attention to quarantine laws and as early as 1904 there was an intercolonial sanitary convention that indicated
measures to be taken to control the transmission of cholera, plague, yellow fever, and smallpox. It was interesting to note that this convention alluded to other
diseases that were rife, but not quarantinable. These included diseases that doctors nowdo notsee orsee rarely-
other social conditions that were the detonator for the riots of the late 30s that convulsed the Region and ushered in a period of political ferment. \(hitehall was so concerned, that The West Indies Royal Commission was appointed in 1938 to investigate the social and economic conditions and it painted a grim picture of the health situation. Infant mortality rate was high in all countries and as is typical for poor countries, this was accompanied by high birth rates. It was interesting that over the previous two decades the death
to fall, but infant mortality rates had remained high. rates had tended
Barbados q/as the colony that had the highest infant mortality rate. The Commission commented that "although the general mortality rates are not very high, yet chronic sickness among the people of the West Indian Colonies is common,t' Anemia from hookworm infestation was common. Yaws was present in its multiple forms and malaria was a common cause of "fever and ague", and as the Commission described it - "In most of the West Indian Colonies, malaria is without doubt one of
the most widespread and debilitating diseases and it constitutes a serious
Sir George
A. O. Allqne
is
Director
Pan American Heahh Organisation, (PAHO), Pan American Sanitary Bureau, Regional Office for tbe Ameicas the World Heahh
Page 75
it
economic problem." Malnurrition was
heahb
common in all age groups, although its effect was most dramarically seen in the
there sbould be
children. Sanitation was generally poor and was reflected in the prevalence of diarrhoea in children as well as hookworm and typhoid fever in adults.
I entered
WIh."
WJamaica
in
medical school in
L95L,
all the
midnight from students from British Guyana who had a fever. Children with various forms of malnutrition filled the wards and the examination of stools for ova and cysts of parasites was something everyone had to learn. The nature of fevers gave aclue to their genesis andwe heard from our elders of fever wards in which they watched and waited beside the beds of their patients to see whether the body's defenses would lead to a crisis and then a lysis of the fever or whether the physician's rolewould be one of comfon to the dying patient and afterwards to sorrowing relatives - many of whom had
to these episodes of the frequency of their
become hardened occurrence.
The reason for this situation was essentially a laissez-faire approach to colonial administration as well as neglect of the basic social and economic factors that contribute to health. In addition, the focus was essentially on cure of diseases even though the therapeutic armamentarium was limited. Equally imporranr was the lack oftrained personnel and facilities that would provide for improvement of publichealth. A delegate to the First \(est Indies Health Conference in 1929 made a perceprive cornment that was probably a reflection of
thecurrentthinking: The indioidual bas to tahe care of bimself and to learn the elernents of
Page 76
sorne
duthority in ez,ery comntunity to tahe care ofits indioiduals and to teacb
tbem the right uay of
resulted in research, publications, scien-
tific
meetings and interchange that contributed to improved knowledge of
health.
fhe cont.ibution was also in terms of I the graduates it produced to fill the
lizting, to increase their fficiency and to proaifu
posts in the Region. It was inevitable that
for their bousing.
the graduates would eventually occupy
above
conditions were common. I was lucky to escape the malaria from which many of my friends suffered. It was nor uncommon to search for filariae in blood smears raken at
because
is essential tbat
If I had to select one group of professionals
for the garland, I would fix it on the public health nurses and sanitary inspectors who really have been the anchors of the public health services, andwho more than anyone else were responsible forthe markedimprovement inthe classical health indicators such as infant mortality rates
The Contribution of Health
Authorities
positions of leadership in the health hierarchy and focus more intently on the regional problems. In Jamaica, for example, between 1945 and l97Q rhe
fhe health revolution to which I refer I perhaps began with the establishment of various authorities that began to take care of the public's health. The Royal Commission included in its recommendations " an increase in certain preventive measures", and the creation of a School of Hygiene, without which there was little
prospect of any great advance in preventive medicine. There was no recommendation for a Medical School, but the creation of the Universiry College, and its Medical School was a part of the increased attention paid to the development of the Region at thar time. I like to think that the Medical School has played
some role in the change of the health conditions. Its research elucidated some
of the causes of diseases that were common to our parrs. The seminal work on malnutrition byJohn Vaterlow and his colleagues led to a betterunderstanding of the physiology of childhood malnutrition and better ways of treating the malnourished child. The energetic advocacy of the Jelliffes led to a better public health
sanitation, ubicb in-
appreciation of the multisectoral approach and pregnant mothers. The Universiry also
clude personal cleanliness, etc. But in public
talent and created
to the feeding of young children
attracted some
of the best a
Caribbean
climate of enquiry that
number of doctors in government service increased from 130 to 307, and many of these were local graduates. It was not only graduates or professors in
the University who contributed
as
authorities. The Caribbean was fonunate to have at one time a cadre of men and women who saw it as their duty to reform the public health systems. It is remarkable
that persons like Byer in
Barbados,
\Yynter in Antigua, the \(edderburns, Peat, and
Moody inJamaica Commissiong
and Gillette in Trinidad and Tobago, Giglioli andNicholson in Guyana and of course the inimitable Kenneth Standard and Philip Boyd whose remit included the
whole Caribbean, should have brought their energies to bear on health problems at about the same
of health
time. The establishment
centers and clinics, the dissemination of treatment norms, the organization of campaigns which led to the elimination of yaws from the Region are tributes to their vision and energy.
If I had to
select one group of
professionals for the garland, I would fix on the public health nurses and sanitary
inspectors who really have been the anchors ofthe public health services, and
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
that the prevalent,andinsomecountriesuptohaH services in the caribbean were erse population ofadult women is obese' anyone than more who .r;;;r"i"". a..ia.a. ," .t"ir*ir or *" improvemenr responsible for the marked health in ihe classical r.r,".iry infant mortality rates. rhrir oride in
Thtton**ptionoftobaccoundoubtedlv
i";;;;such as d;;ili**hitrt*n*itt*"tti" *d pr;*;;;;;.n ,.r.rrt, ir,'t"h'. .;;;;tril J?#il;;;;;"r*p*rr.r-irr?ii;" " achievement became legendary
tj^" "'",-L-'-,^-'#::it#;;fiir'iir'"Ja'il"iit'*"- *n..;;5'#tril:ttffiH"TtT; r.^rr. irrt"ntional and
yrvrvv"'--Theywentwheremanyulrrsr rh.y*..,,*heremanvotr':'n*:'::i: that
;ffii;;.
go
and
pr"yt ttit iit the increased monalitv " morbidiryfromcirculatoryandrespiratory
bore Privations
",,d ;;;f*"i,,,..og,,i,.01'*"r;,;;; li1i;**Tir:*#t#:rl 4;m*:,;.*Ti;1H?rl,,:Jr:,i r,."r* t..h,,orogv, poisr ;Jet"th in malis between the ages in .d,r."ti." ;;n1g1';q ;"";; hililHT*,Ifi:f.n+:iili|;,::,'li'".T#i:.*"'.? i*orii"*.r,t ig+t i, *
th"t *as created l"*"ii" s't'""r^nd. tmpo was renamed.t', w"'T"[" i[i' in'titt'tion awareness ol the Public Health it' rsSz' o:;;i.:T.;;n"-r'.',.arn'ix'iii:r'.';;; imbued into its g,"a";; "
'r
"']t"il'liii'i";a,""*::1;[t:f"';1
:li:li:n'4li{i* the r'i""'do"' cost to 'tI:'i:'Iff
m'.xrlr.'*;,n*',$:T:#
ffi:ftfii:f'ftl:i'ffi
if:ifinT.:{i:**:i'"Til: dedicated'loo'lher;;;"rationin
,.,,,..of
health
"i"n-"
:l'*l:i",1'""ni? {#:ffit-*{;f'-i""''mgl VH;,J.J::,mortalwe look at infant ity rates we see
a dta'
was due not onry
to
. .r.
.--
^tt^-+.t,
Health
themostsignificanteffortsin
oneof most significoun- Caribbean fr."ftf, detelopmerrai*ttt"t years has A nt of the efforts in L,'"n' Healthwho try beginningt" :h'.-toi the^Ministersof deverop;;;;;;"of f..rrtt.il.i'i""of'f"M#;;'oifft"f'n*fto caribbean n': and 6os. Else*r,er., i io fo'-"litt "X.lil'health toop;;;i;;; of traditio" long a change had have have said that this
matic fall in every-
the thisinaninitiativerhey"no,d;;:iil";t'1;lii il:T:li:T:l't"fJ'^Hl;.'l of Health, who have had
*-r."frrt.rrealtlprofes;t;;
but coincided
.,arrL'L'r'4'vvvrvrE'----"-"ri5l."nCooperatlonInHealth"(CCH;
a
iongtraditionofcooperation'
with the assumPtion of toformalizeintoaninitiativewhatthey ratery..Mortarity and morbidity from poritical responsibility by the respecappropriately named in 1986 "cariball in L"rr. i.Ji".a air.rr., ,irrJ iniant the r'''igs'o In Health" (ccH)' rive counrries. Deaths rio,,'--li"Jo.", b.* boop.ration ;;r. 21 was caribbean the in rate mortality began with the specific and p"."rio"in rt"t. "ri Trris initiative i.r[r..,rlosis been has there and births per 1O00live " ,ho*r, a steady p*r.r" riJ.iine. The objective of promoting and improving steady decline in this indicator in every f;.ir. is the rise in impor- technical cooperation in health in the
the ;;;;J; caribbean through the stimulation of late g.s when the rate appeared to t"nc.oftherron-.o--.rnicablediseases interhypertension and diabe- inter-country, interagency and increase in Guyana. The average for the ,rr.t ", cancer, to It sought collaboration' *e examine mortal' institutional caribbean no * *zri", tioo irirr. bi.h, tes mellitus. \flhen and external internal disor- mobilize both which represenrs tlt of 30olo over the ;t ;;; *. {ind the. circulatory " and resources to address the priority probdisease heart as ischaemic past 15 years. These figures are lower ders su.h the list lems that were identified on the basis of than the averagefor thJ Americas as a cerebro-vascular disease heading shows the epidemiological.patterns of disease Tobagt and Trinidad of causes. whole. that existed. This initiative entered a ischaemic for rates the highest mortality ten yeafs' and the new new phase People now live longer. Vhereas the life h.art dir.ase. -after health promotion as emphasizes CCH .*p."r"rr.y"tbirthiasabout55yearsin for action in the key strategy maior the concerned tg^SO, it is now 72.6 years and has been We have become increasingly has as its main and areas' priority just increasing steadily. The average is 'the withthepossiblecausesofthisincreasein countries to 'to encourage purpose ,rorr-.o.rr-rrricablediseasesanditiswell abo,rt eqi"l ,o ,h", for the reit of developandimplementprogramswhich are they main the in Americas. The Caribbean is free of recognized that action and resources on priority p.ii.*y.ririrandthesuccessfulcampaign .".rrJd or potenriated by individual focus healthissuesofcommonconcerntothe have patterns di.r"ry to"makeme"rl.rhirtof"hasresrrliedlr, fifestyles. Th. particular .hang.d slowly but sureiy, with increascd caribbean community, with the disappearance of this disease thar was a vulnerable to given consideration fatfor scourgeofchildren. Thecombinationof irrrp&t"tiorr"rrd.onrr*ptionof thl .substitution of the groups"' measles or any other infection and e"a-pl. 1d diets with ones more typicd of *rirrorritior, *L of*n f"ral in children. tr"ditional The priority areas selected were health i-r,.a.".i.p.a.orrrr..i"r. o;;i;i,-"r.
country excepr for
a
short period in
Sosuccessfulh*.u..nit.immunization CANCOM PersPective - June 2000
Page 77
systems development; human resources
the leading cause of death among 15 to
de'elopmentr famiiy health; food anJ nutrition; chronic non_communicable
45 year olds, irrespecti". of g.nde"..
prcture is trul.r- alarming
diseases;
communicabl" dir";r;;;;;; health and environment"l t."tth-
onl.r- rhe heahh aspect,
it,. -;;'p;
Karl Theodor"
CARICOM Secretariat ""J orsan iza,i.", fpaHoj I ::'1.:lr.alth o-ut a machrnery
year lC05 Jamaica and Trinidad'aJ
Tobag.o will be incurring .ninr*u.n' annual GDp losses of e.+tt, respectivelv, and the ^;';'.;;): cost of ,..r,rn.-rri could exceed rhe whole fr""iifr"t"jg.,."
has been set up to ensure
rnat the countries themselves are vitallv
in the accomof;rf,-"r,
."a i, ;, ,roi ,ir, .on..rn'u"r.
"rrimrt.s that if the epidemic conrinues on irs course. b" ;;-;
secrerariat functions are carried out bv the
1""?l,y* estabhshed goa.ls. Specifi.
Th.
.i,fri
,rrg.,, ,J rndrcarors h ave been priority area and most"r,rUt;rn.ffo..r.i
There is some good news, however,
of rhe healrh cooperar.ron in rhe Region
as
one
q-ho assiduouslv aoolied rhe existing health technolo;y,
Charter s€v€fl
rbbean-praxis.
areas.
ols.eases
such as HIVIAIDS as
nication that are nor usually taught in Schools of Health Sciences. If behavioral change is to be the critical facror in
the approach ro rhese diseases,
the tools to achieve those changes will have ro become
demic has thro*., into relief the fact
as
that humankind will
well known
as the stetho_
scope and the scalpei.
never conquer the mi_ croorganisms that co-
D", I I)d.n..
inhabit the earth with
health measures inJuced .., ,..og"rr.. for which we are now paying thelrice
of what ,.. ."ll.d
emerging and re-(.rrlerging
diseases.
None of these are more critical for us than HIV/AIDS. The Caribbean now has the dubious reputation of being the
of the u'orld in s'hich
the
epidemic is second in nragnitude only to that of Sub-saharan Africa. Vhen the epidemic first appeared in 1982 it was thought of as a disease that affected only
countrv -the Bahamas, which was the
one mosr affected by the epidemic in the pasr tE o decades- has shown that the
epidemic can be slowed if not control_ led. As a result of an aggressive integrated approach to
pr.,r.rriLn, th.
support of a competent care team, the
invoh'ement
of many sectors and
dvnamic program leadership, there has been a -18o/o reduction in the number of reported nen- HIV cases between 1991 and 1999. and AIDS deaths have also declined. The Bahamas has shown what
has the
have every confithat the Caribbean
women and men to lead
this new revolution. th.y from disciplines as dispar.r.
-"y .o-"
,, ,h.
,rt'r, poiitics and advertising. but come rhey q'ill. and the loining of their effort, -irL those of the practitioners of the more traditional disciplines will ensure that the health of the Caribbean people will continue to improve. ,Ve have every
reason
to be proud of our healtir
advances over rhe past 1OO years and I
am confident that those who follow us s'ill continue to feel that pride.
can be done.
homosexual males, but now we see that the mode of rransmission is a mosaic of
Conclusion
pracrices.
Current estimares are that 2% of adults
are living with HIV/AIDS, and an estimated 52,000 adults and children were neu'lv infected with HIV during 1999. Ve now find that HIV has become
Page 78
The actualiza_
marketing and social commu_
epidemic rhat must be a source of concern ro all. This eoi_
homo/bi- and heterosexual
"
will. involve tools such
tion to theHIV/AIDS
region
',"i
rron of rhe Charter. if ir is ro serve to address the ..new,,
that CCH will ad_ dress, but I wish to draw special atren_
appearance
ys21q
..rr..;;;"';;',i"'8illoi3l; ii,,Tf
political reality and based on an appreciarion of likely Car_
us. The arrival of powerful anrimicrobial agents and the ,...u€ss of public
f
I
nir brings me ro search for another health revolurion. Vhereas the lasr
one was based on the application of good public health practice carried out bv dedicared groups of health professionais
a
am
bb.roCh"*., For,.Health promotion which is the of rhe CCI I Iniriarive illli",t,srraresy rnase ll. As i said when I launched rhe
cannot describe all rhehealth problems
in the
I
enthusiastic about the Crri
is
] I
now nqsclto add
ot tnstruments that are not particularlv well knou n or appreciated';";;;i:r1 crrcles. It is for this reason that
drrected rowards the
prioriry
*;
olnerenr approach. Our main rhrusr has ro be ton-ards health promotion and ,h;;;;
-i,: G:
CANCOM perspective _ June 2000
The Drama of Drugs in the Garibbean 'r'Ivelaw L.
Griffith
F|-ltt. musings of poets otten have a I remarkable way of capturing the I triumphs or travails of life's &ama,
This strategic importance has persisted over the centuries, and was dramatized in geopolitical terms during the ColdlVar.
not
However, the region's strategicvalue lies
written with a specific social reality in mind. Such is the case, for example, with the poem "You Are Involved," written
not only in its geopoliticalvalue asviewed by state actors engaged in conflict and cooperation. Over recent decades the region has been viewed as strategic by non-state drug actors, also with conflict and cooperation in mind, not in terms of
even when stanzas of their Poems are
decades ago by the late, noted Caribbean poet, Martin Carter. This poem
orr.i fo.t.
captures the essence of the contemPorary
drama of drugs in the Caribbean - and in the entire Hemisphere, forthat matter.
Carterwroter Like
geopolitics, but geonarcotics.
jig
shahes the loom; li'h'e a
ueb
is sPun tbe
Pattern
all are inaohted! all are consumed! The drama of drugs is, indeed, an allconsuming one. It is acted out on the economic, political, criminal justice, foreign poliry, security, public health, and other stages of Caribbean societies inways citizens are not always conscious about' It
knows no boundaries of race, colour, economic status, creed, gender, occupation, or other social distinction, having become
a pernicious equal
oPPortunitY
phenomenon. Moreover, it PaYs no respect to territorial boundaries or political jurisdictions. The Caribbean lies at what Cuban poetscholar-nationalist J6se Marti once called "the Vortex of the Americas"; it's a bridge or front between North America and
South America. European statesmen recognized the strategic importance of this
vortex soon after the 7492 encounter between EuroPe and the Americas'
CANCOM PersPective - June 2000
Tn
an article entitled "From Cold
\flar
edition of International Tournal, Canada's leading foreign affairs journal' I proposed the concept of "geonarcotics" as a way to examine the nexus between illegal drug
operations as social phenomenon and sicurity studies as an intellectual issuearea. The concept caPtures the dynamics of three factors besides drugs: geography, power, and politics. It posits, first, that the is
mukidimensional,
with four main problem areas
cases non-state sources exerclse relatively more power than state entities.
Politics revolves around
resource
allocation in the sense of the ability of power brokers to determine who gets milieu is not only state Power' resource
IGeopolitics to Post-Cold War Geonarcotics" in the \Tinter 1993-94
narcotics phenomenon
state and non-state in origin, and in some
what, how, andwhen. Since power inthis
Geonarcotics a
countries facilitate drug operations. Powerinvolves the ability of individuals and groups to secure compliant action. In the drug world, this power is both
allocation is correspondingly not exclusively a function of state Power' holders. Moreover, politics becomes perverted, and all the more so where it already was perverted. In a 1997 book entitled Drugs and Securitv in the Caribbean: Sovereignrv Under Siege. I examined
the
geonarcotics
of
the
Caribbean.
A few vignettes drawn from that book and from law-enforcement sources since its publication will suffice to provide a sense of the drama of drugs in the Caribbeanr
(drug
trafficking, and moneyJaundering) ; second" that these give rise to actual and potential threats to the security ofstates around the world; and third, that the drug operations and the activities they spawn precipitate
Operation Dinero, an international money laundering sting operation conducted out of a small Caribbean island fromJanuary lgg2toDecember 1994, led to the seizure of 9 tons of cocaine and US$90 million worth of assets, including expensive
both conflict and cooperation among various state and non-actors in the
amongthem.
production,
consumption-abuse,
paintings, PabloPicasso's Head. ofa Begar
internationalsystem. Geograplyt
is a factor because of the
global dispersion of drug operations' and f,..".rr. c.rt"i.t physical, social, and
political geographic features of many
Ivelaw L. Grffith, Ph.D, is Associate Dean, FIU, & President-Elect, Caribbean Studies Association
Page 79
Cocaine seizures in 1993 for just five Caribbean countries-totalled about 3,300
attempts to smuggledrugs intoto the United States among its clothing. That decision
It
kilos. Seizures during 1999 for those same five countries amounred ro 5,230 kilosalmost doubling the 1993 figore.
placedsome 55Opeople out of work.
production in the Caribbean archipelago and marijuana, cocaine, and heroin production in the Caribbean Basin; the consumption of all of those drugs; the
p.r*..n
1993
ard 1998, over
9,000
IJ)d.pon..s were rerurned ro
one
Caribbean counrry, mosr of themfordrugrelated crimes commined in the U.5.
Canada,andtheU.K.
Operation Summer Storm,
altne
Ig-26,
1997 regjonal antidrug operation, produced 828 arrests and the seizure of 52 kilos of cocaine, 340 kilos of cured marijuana, over 4,10,000
marijuanaplants, and 1 22wapons,
From December 7-15, 1998 Regional Security System (RSS) troops, U.S. Marines, and U.S. Drug Enforcement Adminisration (DEA) officers joined the Special Service Unit of one Caribbean State, in conducting what they named Operarion l7eedeater. They destroyed 1,,162,496 marijuana plants in 3t4 marijuana fields, 1,400 pounds of cured marijuana, and 151 huts used to cure marijuana. Also, they seized one 22caliber rifle,20 rounds of A-K 42 ammunition, and shotgun shells.
smugglers, and money launderers
in a
Caribbean island, resulted in the arrest of 19 people, includingmembers of the business
and social elite, and the confiscation of US$240,000, vehicles and speed boats, btuinesses, and bank accounts.
In a series ofraids across another island in the Caribbean onDecembe r t7,1997 the Police and Nadonal Guard arrested 1,039 people and confiscated 1,356 bags of cocaine, 133 bags ofheroin, SA guns, eO cars and vans, and US$205 ,5g2.
Between L995 and 1999, some 24,402 people Q2,942locals and 1,460 foreigners) were arr-ested for drug possession, peddlin g, and trafficking in a Caribbean island. Thl figure for L99A1-999 jsa whopping 3g,312 Q4,675 locals and 3,637
fo;;ig;rs).n"t
that's not all. The plot thickens.
ln October 7998,6,900 pounds of cocaine were removed from aboard the M.V. Danielsm, a 260-{oot cargo ship that had docked in the port of a South American State in transit from Panam4 to take on rice consigred to buyers in Holland.
In November
1998
at American-owned
company named CupidFoundations closed operations in another Caribbean State after 22 years.Cupid no longer could afford the
lines incurred with the seizure by U.S. Customs of irc merchandise because of Page 80
Operation Columbus, a counternarcodcs, operarion involvingthe United States and
15 Caribbean Basin countries from
September 29 to October '!.0, I9t99, resulted in the seizure of.2,g92 kilos of cocaine and 892 kilos of marijuana and the arrest of 99 people in one State alone.
On -November 24, 1999 two cargo f.reighters-Biab and Slyvina Express Iiwere seized in Miami on arrival from a Caribbean country with a combined total of 1,488 pounds of cocaineintheirfreight; and berween January 28 and February-1
2000, 2,987 pounds
O,
of cocaine, wofth
US$25.2 million, were rerrieved from five v essels (Ilarness; A n iu; Cari b bean k ah o rse,
Croyance; andRlo Sur) thathad arrived
from that same country. Operation Conquistador, conducted March
10-26, 2000 and involving the United
24 Caribbean and Latin American countries, resulted in the following: issuance of 7 JOO search warrants; arrest of 2,300 suspects; and seizure of 12,OOO pounds ofcoiaine, 120 pounds ofheroin, 150 pounds ofhashish oil, 30 pounds of morphine base, I72 States and
vehicles,
13
trafficking of those substances; and the laundering ofthe proceeds ofdrug sales.
Tth. drama of drugs has clear security I implications, not just because of the aspects menrioned above, but for four basic reasons. First, those aspects have
multiple consequences and implicationsas increased crime, corruption, and arms trafficking, among other things. such
Second, the aspects and
amongotherthings. DuringOctober-November lDT,Openaon Rain, which targeteddrugtraffickers, arms
is a multidimensional phenomenon involving four main aspects: marijuana
boats, and 83 guns.
Security and Sovereignty
fontrary to the impression held by Vnany people, and as the aborre
vignettes suggesr, the Caribbean drug phenomenon involves not merely th!
trafficking ofdrugs through the Caribbean.
their.orrr.q.r.rrJ.,
have increased in scope and gravity over the last decade. Third, they harre dramatic impact on agents and agencies of national security and good governance. Finally, the
sovereignty of many countries in the region has been under a viftual drug siege. Sovereignty itself has many dimensions. is the sovereignty of Caribbean counrries compromised by the actions of drug operadons, the issue ofsovereisntv
Not only
has been
a
sore
point of bilat.."l
"r,tii^g efforts between the United St"t.s arri some countries in the region. For example,
it led to aplunge in relatio.r, b.t*..rrih. United States and Barbados andJamaica between September 1995 andMiy 1997, over the refusal of the latter couniries to sign "shiprider" agreements that they felt stood to undermine their sovereignty. At one point U.S. officials even threatened to
decertifyJamaica
It was that drugs-centered, sovereignty_ States-CaribLean
driven United
conrroversy thatprompted the holding on
May 10,
1997
of a summit
between
PresidentBill Clinton and 15 Caribbean leaders: Owen Arthur @arbados), Dean
Barrow @elize), LesterBird (Antigua and Barbuda), Dr. Denzil Douglas (St. fitts and Nevis), Jaime Fernindei 6Do*irri.* Republic), Samuel Hinds (Guyana), Huben Ingraham (The Bahamas), Edison
Dr. !D".Tiii.d, T.ucia), SirJames
Vaughan
Mirchell
(St.
James (St.
t.*is
Vincentand
the Grenadines), Dr. Keith Mitchell
(Grenada), Basdeo panday (Irinidad anJ Tobago), PJ. patterson (famaica), RenJ CANCOM perspective _
June 2000
Pr6val (Haiti), and Dr.
prestige, and the idiosyncracies of agency leaders. It would be unrealistic
Security System (RSS) sub-regionally; CARICOM, the Caribbean Customs Law
not to expect such conflicts in the future.
Enforcement Council (CCLEC), the Association of Caribbean Commissioners
to hold discussions with
They can undermine counternarcotics pursuits within a single country. Thus, the potential dangers are increased
regional leaders. The sovereignty matter was resolved there, with adoption of the
when several countries and agencies are involved. All collaborating countries
Bridgetown Declaration of Principles and the Barbados Plan of Action. Moreover, the United States signed "shiprider" deals
and agencies should, therefore, guard against these dangers, and act to subordinate agency interest to the
with
common good: fighting the drug enemy.
Jules
Vijdenbosch (Suriname). It was the first time ever that a president of the United States had travelled to the
Caribbean
Barbados and Jamaica that were slightly different than those that had been signed earlier
with
several other Caribbean
The mulddimensional nature of the drug
threat and the challenges presented
countries.
require commensurate multidimensional counternarcotics responses. These need to
Cooperation and Confl ict
multilevel and multi-actor. Multi-level - national, regional, and international -
of Police (ACCP), and the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force (CFATF) regionally; the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD) and the Organization of American States
(OAS) hemispherically; andthe European
Union (EU), the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), and the United Nations International Drug
Control Program (UNDCP), internationally. Notable Initiatives
be
f)aradoxically, the United StatesI-C"ribbean anti-drug relationship demonstrates the inherent duality of
because drug operations and many of the
problems they precipitate are both
ver the last decade, Caribbean governments, supported by
multinational counternarcotics &alings. Cooperation is criticd. It is a necessity, not simply a desire. This is so mainly for
two reasons. First, the drug phenomenon is a transnational one. Second, all countries in the
Hemisphere
facing the drug challenge, especially those in the Caribbean, have financial, technical, manpower, and training and
otherlimitations. However, the necessity for cooperation cannot mask the reality that conflict may arise during the course of antidrug collaboration. Therefore, policy makers and practitioners should always
be mindful of at least ts/o potential conflict that could undermine collective antidrug effons: sovereignty, areas of
which was mentioned earlier,
and
bureaucratic politics. Although-or perhaps,
because-states in the Hemisphere have
adopted an inter'agency approach to fighting drugs, the bureaucratic politics challenge should not be overlooked. Often there are jurisdictional and turf conflicts involving police and army, national security ministry and home affairs ministry, drug rehabilitation agencies and
drug suppression agencies,
Bill Clinton, at the Summit held in May 1997, P P.J. Patterson & US President Clintot and l5 other Caribbean Leaders in Barbados between Clinton
Jamaicab Prime Minister
nationd and transnational. Moreover' they have to be multi-actor for the two above reasons, plus the fact that Caribbean governments lack the necessary financial and other resources to meet the threats and challenges facing their nations.
army
intelligence and police intelligence, and so
forth.
f]fence, anti-drug efforts require the I ln't olnementnotonlyof governments, but also of businesses, non-governmental
These battles generally are driven by one
or several factors, including money' CANCOM PersPective - June 2000
organizations, and international organizations, such as the Regional
goveflrments elsewhere and alongwith the organizations mentioned above, have pursued several notable initiatives and scored many successes in battling drugs. Some of the successes are reflected in the
vignettes provided earlier. Although all initiatives and successes cannot be mentioned here, many are noteworthy'
At the national level,
CARICOM
countries adopted legislation dealing, among otherthings' withdrugpossession,
Page EI
sale, and trafficking, and with money laundering and asset forfeiture. These
training activities requiring personnel for training assignments that officials lamented the shonage of manpower to
include the Misuse of Drugp (Amendment) Act (1993) and the Proceeds of Crime Act
conduct normal operations.
(1993) in Antigua and Barbuda; the Dangerous Drugs (Amendment) Act (1988) in The Bahamas; the Drug Abuse @revention and Control) Act (1990) and
the Proceeds of Crime Act (1990) in
Jir addition, the imperative of collective Iaction led to the formation of several regional agencies and the broadening of mandates by others to deal with drugs or
Barbados; the Misuse of Drugs Act (1990),
with
the Criminal Justice (Amendment) Act (1992), and the Criminal Justice (Amendment) Act (1994) in Belize; and the Drugs @revention of Misuse) Act (1988) and the Proceeds of Crime Act
drug operations. Of coune, the jurisdiction
(1993)
of
In some places, Guyana Jamaica" and Trinidad and Tobago, joint military and police operations
these bodies was not limited to CARICOM Member States. Notable in the first category was the Caribbean Financial Action Task Force (CFATF), which was formed in 1992 following initiatives in Aruba inJune 1990 and in Jamaica in November 1992. The CFATF, the secretariat for which was established in Trinidad and Tobago in 1994, was modeled on the Paris-based Financial Action Task Force, and was designed to plan and execute measures to deal with money laundering on a regiond basis. Also formed during the 1990s was the
were carried out. Most countries have adopted National Master Plans to guide
Regional Drug Iaw Enforcement Training Center (RJ,DTRAC) which was declared
their antidrug strategies and also lend
open on September 27, 1996 in St.
inDominica.
plsewhere, there was adoption of the LProceeds of CrimeAct (1992) andthe Drug Abuse (Prevention and Control) Act (L992) in Grenada; the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (Control)
Act
(1988), the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (Amendment) Acts, Nos. 10 and 14 (L989), and the Administration of Justice (Fines) Act (1989) in Guyana; the Dangerous Drugs (Amendment) Act (1994), the Drug Offenses (Forfeiture of Proceeds) Act
(I994), the Criminal
Justice
(ndministration) (Amendment) Ac.. (1994), theMoney LaunderingAct (t996), andthe
Money Laundering (Amendment) Act (L999) in Jamaica; and the Drugs
the challenges springing from illegal
Plants used in drug manufature The Caribbean 1966- I 997
CARICOM Member States also increased anti-crime operations.
such
as
rationdity to counternarcotics programme
Catherine,Jamaica and which offers the
planningandproject q<ecution. Intelligence operations too have been boosted in most places, with the creation of nationalJoint Information Coordination Centres and a regional intelligencesharing network.
Region's police officers, army and
@revention of Misuse) Ordinance (1989)
customs personnel, magistrates and other
officials, a variety of skills in drug law enforcement.
The
1990s also saw
the expansion of
and the Drug Trafficking Offences
Drug education has been expanded in
Ordinance (1990) in Montserrat.
operational missions
mostcountries and" in manycases, include
existing entities, including the RSS and the
Still elsewhere, rhere was passage of the Proceeds of Crime Act (1993) in St. Kitts
and Nevis; the Proceeds of Crime Act (1992) and rhe Prevention of Misuse (Amendment) Act in St. Lucia; the Drugs @revention of Misuse) (Amendment) Act (1993) and the Drug Trafficking Offences
Act
(1993)
in St. Vincent and the
Grenadines; the Narcotics Act (1996) in Suriname; and the Dangerous Drugp Act
(L99L) and
the
Dangerous Drugs
(Amendment) Act (L994) in Trinidad and Tobago. The Dominican Republic - a CARICOM Observer - during the 1990s passedtheDrugs andSubsance Control Act (1988)
andtheDrugs andSubstance Control. Aa (1995), among other
(Amendment) laws.
Page 82
of
several pre-
adoption
of Drug Abuse Resistance Education @ARE) programmes designed
ACCP, both of which are based in
for Primary and
Secondary School constituencies. Drug rehabilitation has also expanded, albeit slowly, but with
for which
notable accomplishmenrs in The Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago.
FJaaining, both within
Barbados, and the CCLEC, the secretariat is in St. Lucia. France's Inrer-
Ministerial Drug Control Training Centre
(CIFAD), based in Martinique, also extended its training offerings to officials outside of France's D6partment d'Outre
Mer in the Caribbean - Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana.
and outside the
I Region, was provided in virtually all areas relevant to fighting drugs-law enforcement, prosecution-involving both prosecutors and magistrates-interdicdon,
crop destruction, intelligence gathering and analysis, financial regulation, port security, rehabiliation, and drug resistance education, among other areas. Indeed, there often has been such a flurry of
CARICOM countries concluded antidrugagreements with several countries in
the Hemisphere, for insrance, with the United States when they all signed bilateral murual legal assistance agreements, dealing with maritime and air drug interdiction, technical assistance, and asset sharing, continued onp
9l
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
projected regional rate is achieved this
with the levels of development and
would appear to be inadequate to cope with the backlog of poverty and social
poverty portrayed by the other indicators.
needs in most countries of the region.
however, shown a tendency for unemployment to fall, and this should be borne in mind in evaluating the figures given in
The poputation in pouertjr (Table 2) in the region ranges between 8 - 35 percent. This represents a significant proportion of regional households. However, an interna-
tional comparison of
levels
Recent data, where available, have,
Table2. Features of Regional Poverty
of human
development based on the UNDP's global hunan dzuelopment index shows three
fertain features of regional poverty \:reed to be stressed even in this brief
of the CARICOM countries @arbados, Bahamas and Trinidad & Tobago) are classed at the highest level of human
survey. One
development, and the remainder are at the
medium level. The country rankings shown in Table 2 are out of 174 countries. The standard measure of income inequality presented also in Table 2, the Gini coefficient, which operates on 1, with zero being complete
a scale 0-
is
the markedvariation in the
levels of national poverty revealed in Table2. As with other regional averages,
that of poverty conceals more than it reveals. Second, although each country has ia own dynamics, a certain rypology of poverty has emerged. This includes a hard core of "sjtstemicpooy'', persons whom Thomas (1997) describes as being: "born poor and remain poor overtheir life time,
mainly because of the manner of their Table
l:
Real GDP Growth Rate
insertion into the system ofproduction
out ofpoverty in response to the seasonal of the Caribbean economy
features
(tourism and agriculture), as well as fluctuations in the level of economic activity due to internal and external shocks. In addition there are special categoies of persons among whom poverty is disproportionately concentrated, like the disabled, and the indigenous peoples in Guyana. Finally, there is a category of "emploged pool. These are found in healy concentrations inJamaica, and refer to persons who are
employed, but receive poverq'line.
a
wage below the
A third feature of regional poverty
is its is households incidence among rural that
very high. Finally, since these poverty surveys have been conducted at the household level, many notable characteristics of households in poverty have
1970-1998
emerged. These include 19?0-80
Bahamas Barbados
of the traditional middle classes in the region. A third group is the "transient poor", that is, persons who move in and
z8
1980-90
1990-97
1998
2.8
0.7
2.6
1.5
0.5
4.8
4.4
1.4
Br,lrae Guyana
1.6
-3.1
6.5
-1.8
Jamaica
0.1
1.5
1.0
4.7
Suriname
3.7
-t.2
-0.8
Trinidad & Tobaso
5.1
-2.1
1.9
4.5
OECS Resion
5.8
2.6
3.8
Griccrn Resion
0.1
1.8
the
significance that should be attributed to household size, composition, and headship in determining
the risk of being poor;
the placed on households constraints that lack human capital, skills and
training, with the lack of education being perhaps the single best indicator of poverty; the importance of households' access to public income; and the importance of citizens rights and households' private access to resources, credit, and productive assets, in
their ability to avoid poverty.
source:cGCED, lVorld Bank (OlA). caribbean Economic overoieu, world Bank, lvashington; Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (1999). REort arul Statement of Accounts; IADB (1999). Economic and Social Progress Report in Latin America 1998/99 Report, lYasbington.
equality and one complete inequality, shows that marked inequalities exist in the
region, as the coefficients range from 0.372 ro 0.525. This must be a matter of great concern, as it is now well established
that inequality in the distribution of income has a direct bearing on Poverty. Finally, the unemploltment rate and per capita GDP data (Table 2) are consistent
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
and asset ownership". There is also a group of "neulTt poor", that is, Persons who while not being born poor, have
emerged out of the various SAPs undertaken in some countries in the region. These would include such persons as lower paid public servants, teachers, and members of the security services, who had previously formed part
An Illustration: Three Initiatives
fhree regional initiatives directed at I pou.ny..adication will highlight the character of the work, which is in process
at the present time. The CDB's antipoverty initiatives include among other things the activities of its Basic Needs Trust Fund, which has been in operation since 1979, its Human Resource Develop-
ment focus, its Sustainable Development thrust, and the poverry reduction work led by the CPAs, referred to above. Arising Page 85
out of the CPAs, the CDB has moved projects with
Human and Social Development which is administered by a Directorate within
specific poverty reduction goals, such
the CARICOM Secretariat. This was established four years ago, and is now headed (February 2000), by a distinguished policy analyst, researcher, academic, and administrator, Professor Edward Greene, the former Director of
into the financing of
as
human settlements upgrading in Belize, and rural enterprise projects in St Lucia. It has also put in place guidelines for the analysis of its capital and technical assistance programmes to ensure poverty targeting. To ensure broad
drugs,
about "persistent poverty" are to disapareas where strengthening is required are many, and among the more imponant are the need to: (1) improve the conceptuali-zation, measurement, and mapping of poverr)' in the specific context of the region andits individual economies. A one-size fits-all menu approach would not be adequate; (2) pay closer arrention to the impact of seemingly unrelated macroeconomic measures (like the management of exchange rates, interest rates
youth and sport. The integrating theme for its work programme in the period
economic policies (e.g., industrial incen-
UWI. This Directorate coordinates Ministerial work in the fields of labour, human services, educathe ISER at the
participation and community involvement in its anti-poverty initiatives, CDB
to structure its relationship in this field with NGOs, commuhas attempted
tion, health, gender, culture,
nity-based organizations, and public agencies in the field of social policy and
2000-2001 is: "investing in human capital
development.
and striving for equity in social develop-
tTlh. second initiative is that of the I OECSZUI,tDP. Through this initia-
sharper focus
ment". This is intended to bring a to the organization and
implementation of programme activities, in order to ensure that there is a
tive the OECS Secretariat has established a Social Development Unit, whose task is
to contribute to an improved policy environment for the member states. In pursuit ofthis, data are being gathered and social indicators/benchmarks are being prepared. A social development policy framework is also being prepared at the subregional and national level, and efforts
is
Pcpulation in Polerty (Yo)
ways fail
to
recognize the important
specifically targets the reduction of poverty; (5) put in place the necessary policies and institutional/organisational frameworks directed at alleviating poverry where it does occurl and, (6) secure rural
human
development. The VayAhead
Jt
I
(land) reform, improved access to credit (in order to permit accumulation among
is clear that present regional effons to eradicate poverry will not only have to
the poor), and to provide training and skills for the poor (to compensate for lack
be sustained, but strengthened in the future if George Beckford's concerns
The third initiative is the Council on
poverq' eradication, which do not seemto "blame the victim" (the poor) for their poverty, marginalize them, or in other
reduction, gender mainstreaming, youth
izing the opportunities for
of an OECS well advanced.
tives) on poverty, income, and assets distribution; (3) adopt approaches to
linkages between the poor and the nonpoor in Caribbean societies; (4) clearly specify a growth strategy, which not only increases incomes, but provides jobs and
empowerment, and generally on equal-
tasks the preparation
and credit) as well as other general
greater social dimension to the macroeconomic determinants of the Caribbean integration process and greater sensitivity to strategies for poverty
to integrate macroeconomic management and social management are being pursued alongside this initiaiwe. To assist in these
Development Strategy
pear. The
HDI Ranking (tJNDP)'
Gini coefticient
ofeducation).
Unerryloy-
GDPper
ment Rate
cqita
(%)
N
â&#x201A;Ź_\
l 998
(Atlas metbod $US) Antieua & Barbuda
t2
38
o.52s
'7
8300
Barbados
8
29
0.4fi
t1
7890
Belize
JJ
83
0.510
ll
26tO
Dominica
33
53
0.488
l0
3010
Table 2: Selected Poverfy/
Grmedr
20
52
0.504
l6
3170
Social Indicators
Gwana
36
99
oA8
12
947
Jmaica
t6
82
0.372
t6
St Kitts-Nevis
l5
5l
o.44s
St Lucia
25
8l
0.468
l8
34lO
37
75
o.44
20
2420
2l
46
0.42n
12
4430
St
Vincent & the Crrenadines
Trinidad& Tobaso
1680 6130
Source:CGCED, (1998).and (1995); Jamaica,.SLC 1998; Gooernmmt of Guyana/IJNDP(2000); Tbonas (2000); UNDP Q999); CDB (1995), Central Banh of Barbados (2000); Kari Consuhants (1996); Gooemment of St Luciz, Budget (2000), Govemment of Trinidad ani Tobago (2000), World Banh uebsite (April 2000).Note:(1) Ranking out of 174 countries uorldwide.
Page
86
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
From One Brink to Another Aboriginal Peoples in CARICOM at fhe close of the 2F Century
Introduction he story ofthe aboriginal peoPles' in the CARICOM Region during the 20'h century was a Protracted struggle that remained to be continued during this century.2 It spoke of surviving extinction, generating their basic needs, and achieving some success in their social and
political validation within their states.
\(hile focusing on people with a distinct culture, the story pinpoints commonalities
in the collective civil character of the societies constituting this regional community. It is, therefore, as much a spotlight on a relatively unknown component of our population as much as it is a reflection on the
especially during the decade of the 90s, mtst of which remained localized and not divulged through the mass media.
My information originates fromprimary and secondary data that I have accumu-
main patterns underlining events during the last century.
a
The theme that I use is brinkmanship' which means precariously moving from one threshold to another. I start with the
powerless minoriry. This is the perspective
efforts of the various nations to form
response
of our resPective states to
thatlmaintain in this essaY.
six countries
to
- Belize, Dominica, Guyana,
Vincent andthe Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad andTobago - all atvarying degrees of development' The aboriginal p.lpl"t themselves derive from a wide t"ttg. of cultural traditions - from the
St.
highly complex Mesoamerican civilization
oi .[. Ancient MaYa in
Belize to
Amazonian nomadic hunters and gatherers in Guyana. The surrounding physical environment, a very important backdrop
for aboriginal peoples, also varies widely from the rainforests of Belize, to oPen areas savannahs in Guyana, to smallerland
of
St' Vincent and the Grenadines and Dominica but where
in the islands
Aboriginal PeoPles Vithin CARICOM
f, xploring the question of nomencla -D ture by itselfger into the heart ofthe
identity. More specifically it
pinpoints how others have referred to as against how they are increasingly asseningtheir own identity at the dawn of this century' Historically the
them in the past,
used for them in the Anglophone Caribbean is "Amerindian"' Vhile they will informally refer to themselves using this term, increasingly some leaders are
word
more often using the term "First Peoples"s in formal discourse. In Belize they have not used "Amerindian". Instead they use their own ethnic designation, such as Maya or Kekchi, or Garifuna'
organizations addressing their basic needs
wiihin their countries and across the
reduce a tremendous a short text, such as within wealtlrof data task. Aboriginal foolhardy this, can be a are foundin study this peoples includedin
Attempting
*Joseph Palacio
debate on
twenty years through lated during an extensive network of sources both within and beyond the Region. While not having been able to keep up with all the developments,I havedone an analysis that summarizes what I consider to be three the past
-
marine resources take high priority' ot Finally, there has been a rapid pace nations' .rr.nt, i"king place among all the 2000 CANCOM PersPective - June
Region through the Caribb eanOtganization of Indigenous Peoples (COIP). This
occurred during the late 1980's. As backdrop to this revival I refer in the second part of the essay to their physical
survival
as
nations against extinction,
a
process that occurred up the 1960s. In the ihird part, *hich covers the 1990s, I focus
th. continuing efforts to struggle for political and social validation' The
on
pre.a.iousnets implicit in brinkmanship is ih. do.tbt and uncertainty that dogs aboriginal peoples as they progress from orr. ,r""p ,o *oiher. It arises from a lack of po*e, on their pan to safeguard what they 'h"'rr.
they move to the next level in the struggle' The painstaking progression' therefore, is an exercise in acquiring self-emPowerment'
It
ro carefully achieved,
is a term
as
th"t hattetome such a clich6
be aware these days that most users may not
of the irrcremental and dialectical procewithin it ' dures that can be embedded
Palacio, Ph.D., is Resident Tutor, loseph 'school of Continuing Studies, Unittersiry ofthe V/est Indies, Belize; First Coordina'
io, fo, tbe COIP Secretariat 1990'92' of the English.-speaktn,g, C)ribbean on tie Board of the \V'orld
Representati.,e
Council of Indigenous Peoples 1-992-96' Studied, rlsearcbed and publisbed extensit;ely on aboriginal Page 87
fto* the name change that they are I -introducing, rhey are saying that they do not want to pe{petuate the unfornrnate
misnomer that Columbus first applied. Rather, they are projecting the anterioriry
that being here before the Europeans connotes. I have already argued for the use of the term "aboriginal" as against "indigenous" (Palacio 1995 25-40). In usingthe term "aboriginal" I am including the Maroons of Suriname. It is really a matter of expediency to avoid having to say every time "aboriginal and tribal. peoples. Indeed, the case of the Maroons relegates thedispute on terminology from an "outsider's" perspective to an "insider's", namely one that is more cognitive and experiential for the people themselves. In Suriname both the "Amerindians" and Maroons regard themselves as one set against other Surinamese. They
are thereby underlining that for botl groups their respective culture, social strucrure, and intimate ties with ancestral
lands predate European intervention. Such self-ascription is the basis of the current effort by some pafties to insert within the OAS Declaration on the Rights of Indigenotrs Peoples, a definition that includes the Maroons and other existing African tribal peoples within the New
'Worlda
It
undertheprinciple of anteriority that aboriginal peoples argue for poiitical recognition as distinct peoples, who can enter inro negotiation with state authorities. To them this principle becomes no less diluted because of their cultural and biological intermixture. On the other hand, the issues of intercultural mixing is
and hybridiry have been disclaimers thai others have hurled against them to weaken
their claim for being firstpeoples.s
If, by and large, aboriginal peoples have come ro rerrns with their hybridiry, it is not the case for census tak.r, othe,
numerical social surveyors. It"rri becomes the basis of confusion on ethnicity anJ
numbers
within respective
states. Ulti_ mately, it is self-ascription that defines aboriginal starus, namely persons who
claim that they have,,r.h
A,
-..rtry. " result, it will never be possible to sav definitively ho* **y peopds Page 88
"btriginal
live
within CARICOM, especially with the
rank associated with being "Amerindian". Using figures from the national census in the late 1980's, there was atotal figure of approximatelyT6,000 for all rhe countries, with the exceprion of Suriname. Adding the figures of 40,4006 for Suriname, the toral would become 116,800. If it is impossible to tell the exact figures in each country, we can at least arrive ar the relative propoftion in each lessened social
counrry. In the oid.i of decreasing percentage per counrry Belize is the highest with Uo/o, Suriname with 10olo, Guyana is 60/o, St. Vincenr and the
Grenadines 5.3olo, Dominica 4o/o, and
Trinidad and Tobago with .03olo. For more information on figures and the problems associated with arriving at head counts see Palacio (L99 5: 25-aO).
tTh. problems of identity, self-defini I tion, and numbers that we have highlighted also occur among aboriginal
in the other parrs of the Caribbean. A quick review shows that we peoples
in the CARICOM
have been more with them.
successful in comingto terms
There are more active chapters of the Taino narion more in mainland United States than in the homeland island of Boriken (the Taino name for puerto Rico) . There are Taino in parts of Eastern Cuba but they remain unorganized with little recognition from the state fortheir efforts
at revitalization. There are also some efforts at organization in the UnitedStates Virgin Islands (personal communicarion Palacio/Vialet). Little is known about effons forthcoming from the insular Francophone Caribbean. The nations in Cayenne periodically meet with counterparts from Guyana and Suriname for mutual support. In short, experiences in
our states
- both the good and bad _ need to be exposed for the benefit of others
within the Region and various archipela_ goes where colonial authorities almort succeeded
in
peoples, such
as
annihilating aboriginal inparts of Oceania."
Constraints
In no way, however, can we sing the
praises of ourshres as models ofprujence in dealing with aboriginal p.oplrr. fndeed,
as
this study will show, the weakness in the
states' response in turn spotlighm the following consrrainrs within the public consciousness that needs attention. The first stems from our myopic view on history. The social and cultural histories
of our srares are dominated by African slaves and others incorporated into the plantation system. The focus on cultural - first popularized by M.G.
pluralism
Smith and others in the Caribbean - needs
to be consciously applied to the history of
the aboriginal peoples, groups in the population.
"-org
oti..
The other rwo consrraints reflect a highly centralized srate system, which ..t"i* strong remnants of colonial imposition. Our governments are highly centralized in all respects with full authoriry resting on a politically elected executive. There is minimal devolution of authority to the level of the rural communiry, where most
aboriginal peoples reside. Besides, the political executive has since independence become self-replicating partisan groups that are impregnable to relarive o;iders like aboriginal peoples. Closely related are the strictures in which the judiciaryseems
to be caught. In our stares the judiciary bolsters the supreme authority of the political executive, making it difficult for citizens to seek redress against the political
authority. It has been especialllpainful gloups - who have been historically {9r
disenfranchised - to resort to thejudiciary to right wrongs against themselves.
Ff1're
last constraint that
thecondition of
aboriginal peoples brings
to light .I forcefully is the fact that we live in societies where there is still minimal public discourse and awareness of the .rrrrirorrmenr, notwithstanding mounting evidence
abour our collective vulnerability. On the o-ther hand, aboriginal peoples iradition-
ally have had an abiding affiniry with the physical environmenr. Their wisdom on
environmenral integrity is specificallv appropriate to the rest ofthe society, ifit listens. There are ample references to this wisdom within the context of environ_ menral stewardship in Agenda 21 drafted atthe l992United Nations Conference on Environment and Development.
CANCOM perspective _ June 2000
overall social structure of our states and its
(COIP). It staned in 1989 with an historic meeting in St. Vincent and the Grenadines where descendants from the region's farflung first peoples met for the first time after more than 500 years of separation.
innerworkings.
The following year the first COIP
I refer to these constraints more in passing
and
to demonstrate that the ultimate
solution to the problems of aboriginal peoples will come from revisiting the
The Decades ofthe 1970s and 1980s
\W)ithout doubt
W*i[
the 1970's and 1980's
go down in the annals of
CARICOM history
as
the classic period
in
Secretariat office opened in Belize with the author as its co-ordinator. It marked the pro.iection of the region's native peoples within the larger hemisphere, including joining the Vorld Council of Indigenous Peoples in 1992.
the rise of
self-consciousness among aboriginal peoples. In all their respective countries they formed organizations to achieve two main objectives - cultural conservation and economic development.
Assistance
from local sources
and
international development agencies was
pivotal. Among UN
organizations
TINICEF and PAHO took the lead. European, Canadian, and American NGOs operating through their Caribbean intermediaries or directly were another major source. $(hile some of the aid went to governments, others went directly to newly formed NGOs among the aboriginal peoples themselves. The undue attention that aboriginal peoples were
ThePre-1970s Era
t-l-th. relative significance of the I achievements during the 1970's and 1980's stems from the fact that up to a few years beforehand at least one nation w'as
was the hallmark of public policy toward
the Region's aboriginal peoples.8 Two samples were establishing the post of the
Protector of Amerindians in Guyana in 1902 (Anselmo and MacKay 2000: 9) and that of the Indian Liaison OfficerinBelize in 1950s. Anotherexample was granting them usufruct rights to Indian reservations in Dominica, Belize, Guyana, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. Simultaneously, the church gave them spiritual and
educational attention. These efforts, however, were meant to be complemen-
tary. Vhile the colonial
authorities
muzzled them politically, the church did its part of indoctrination through its
training and proselytizing. Throughout the society there continued extensive racial discrimination against aboriginal
still becoming extinct within the Region. Contrary to common belief that the
peoples.
extinction of aboriginal peoples only
I t the final days of the colonial era, ,( \leaders of the nationdist movements
occurred centuries ago, the death of the last member of the Atorai nation took place in Guyanaintg6l (Forte 1988: 323349). The lack of state and regional
in both Guyana and Belize won over leaders of aboriginal peoples to their political parties to form aunited front
drawing for their own development proved embarrassing to some governments resulting in some foreign NGO's being regarded with ministerial disfavour in some countries, The record of achievement was probably
best seen
in the Carib Territory of
Dominica. Projects completed by the U.S. Save the Children Federation included demonstration farm, rabbit production, housing material, toilets, and stoves, piped water, trainingin business accounting, and building the VaitukubuliT Karifuna De-
velopment Centre. Vith the assistance of DwelopmentAlternatives, anotherNGO, there was a cultural preservation project
featuring oral history, short video, and collection of archival documents. In other countries there were similar results from several initiatives.
Another major achievement of aboriginal peoples within the CARICOMduring the
late 1980s was forming the Caribbean Organization of Indigenous Peoples CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Carib Territory's New Parish Church - Dominica
recognition of this deathwas symptomatic ofthe traditional disregard by the larger society to aboriginal peoples. Indeed, from time immemorial their physical extinction had been the norm while their cultural assimilation into the social mainstream was presumed the inevitable.
of the twentieth century patronizing condescensionfromthe Colonial Office in London Throughout the larger part
against colonialism. It was historic for it was the first time in secular society that aboriginal peoples were regarded as one
with their other co-citizens in
both
countries, unitedforthe common cause of achieving independencee. As reward, the aboriginal peoples received some of the basic needs programmes in education and
health forthcoming shortly after independence. The honeymoon, nevenheless, was shortlived as the politicians never
Page 89
overcame the racial discrimination traditionally meted to the aboriginal peoples. Funhermore, in response to the slowpace
of
within
decades of independence, the aboriginal peoples like their co-citizens - resorted to massive out-migration from their communities first to towns and cities in their respective
development
countries and afterwards overseas. Others formed local community organizations for
self-help. Examples included the Carib Development Society in Belize and in Dominica the Carib Independent Organization.
held discussions with the government concerning the building a multi-purpose
projection of material culture belonging to the Maroons and Indigenous Peoples as part ofnational culture and especially as being integral to the newly emerging ecotourismindustry.
protected area around Arima.
in
of the groundwork for
activities that mushroomed afterwards. Several leaders ofthe 1990's got their early beginning during this period or received inspiration from their activist parents. As
efforts have mushroomed within the following decades, there is now a need to study how these eady groups were formed, what has been their legacy, and especially what methods of mobilization they hadused so successfully.
The 1990s
added land and political rights to their eadier struggle for cultural revitalization and basic needs development. It would be impossible to catalogue even the maior achievements. I include a few for some of
thecountries.
between the government and military leaders representing the Maroons and indigenous peoples, in t992. A few years afterwards inl995 the First Gran Krutu
(General Assembly
of
Maroons and
Indigenous Peoples) convened in Asindon-
Opo to further the dialogue among themselves and the government after the peace accord. It was followed in the next
year by another Gran Krutu at Galibi. Besides, villagers had been holding their Conferences of Indigenous Village LeadPage 90
375-acre
Guyana has also experienced several mobilization efforts around the critical areas of land ownership, mining, and The obstacles against these effons
but the successes resulting from engaging the governments in negotiations deserve
headlong thrust to attract foreign capital at the expense of thephysical environment and the weHare of the aboriginal peoples.
some mention.
In Belize some main
project. It enabled two nations of the
especially acute
are
within the country's
For more information
see
Anselmo and
MacKay(2000).
Maya, the Mopan and Kekchi, to idendfy
traditional features within their own geography. More specifically, it became a catalyst to funherpromote their claim as homeland 500,000 acres of their ancestral lands in southern Belize. Together with
the Garifuna, the Maya worked to establish the Belize Indigenous Training
Institute, which conducts training in entrepreneurship, among other life skills.
The success of the Maya in communiry operated eco-tourism has resulted in receiving prestigious international awards in both 1997 and 1999. A major workshop
co-management presented
series of options of
a wide
working together with
the government in protected areas. On the
other hand, through their National Garifuna Council the Garifuna continue
Dominica's Caribs
Vhile the above list is far from
being
exhaustive, the achievements are also relative. They indicate
a glass
that
is
more
Guatemala" Honduras, and Nicaragua.
half empty than half full within the worsening problems the peoples are suffering in some of the states, notably Guyanaand Suriname. At the least, the
In St. Vincent and the Grenadines, a group
peoples to help themselves by capitalizing
their programme of maintaining close working relations with fellow Garifuna in
list shows that it
of NGOs carried out a wide range of
For Suriname the main achievement in the 1990's was ending the six-year civil war with the signing of a peace accord
a
declining social and health conditions.
on
f,ollowing the early mobilization in the I'1970's and 1980's, the aboriginal peoples engaged in programmes that
centre and maintaining
fhe tension in the rest of CARICOM I never reached the extent of civil war
achievements include the Maya mapping
The significance of the pre-t970s period for the aboriginal peoples stems from
preparation
with the third conference taking place 1995 under Chief Ricardo Pane. Simultaneously, there was high profile ers
community development projects. The government launched the Heritage Project designed to promote the Carib area for tourism. A simultaneous project included encouraging locd crafu . The government also took a major step toward providing more land by purchasing the Orange Hill Estate.
In Trinidadand Tobago the government provided an annual subvention of$30,000 TT to the community of Arima. It also declared the community as symbolically representing all the aboriginal peoples of
the Republic.
ln
1999, the communiry
is
possible for aboriginal
on financial and technical assistance forthcoming from the government and outside sources. The example of Dominica is worth pinpointing to show how circumstances can congeal for the distinct advantage of the people themselves.
fhe foundation of Carib peoplehood in I Dominicais theirterritory. Itconsists of over 3,000 acres that the Colonial Office had given them and was recenrly extendedwith an additional82 acres. The government gave the community statutory corporate authoriry in 1978 to consolidate their rights over the land. All Caribs have righs to use part of the land for their
CAfuICOM Perspective - June 2000
subsistence and cash crops. In turn, it has yielded agreat deal to the food supply and
livelihood of the community. Furthermore, the community receives more of the
local government powers extended to villages throughout Dominica. It also receives an annual subvention from the central government. Finally, the Chief receives a stipend equal to that of a member of padiament. All of these gains have worked toward a deep sense of cultural identiry. The Carib Territory for
its
charter of Civil Society lies in systemic characteristics at the root of Caribbean
society. They include the three that I have highlighted earlier. They are the difficulty to
constraints
acknowledge the historical precedence of aboriginal peoples in the region; the lack of autonomy at the local level; and the obstacles within the judiciary to address the social and cultural concerns of powerless minorities. The aboriginal peoples find themselves at the forefront
own
of challenging all of these obstacles.
parliamentary representative. After the last general election eadier in 2000 the government created a Department of Carib Affairs housed within the Prime
Their success is the success of civil society. Finally, their success will also empower them away from the brink-
several years has elected
Minister's Office. The conditions of the Caribs in Dominica have been steadily improving within the past decades, notwithstanding the continuing economic hardships of the state.
Their case shows that within
the CARICOM Region there are stnrctures
that can point the way toward a concurrence between the state and aboriginalpeoples.
Conclusion
manship that has characterizedtheir life
forcenturies
\
CARICOM and other countries. Of signal importance in this respecr was the May l5-L7, 1996 meeting in Barbados,
which was attended by 29|participants
from the Caribbean, the United Srares, Europe, the UNDCP, the EU, the OAS, and CARICOM. Also attending were
officials from
That meeting approved the Barbados Plan of Action for Drug Control Coordination and Cooperation in the Caribbean, which didthree main things. First, it outlined the critical needs of the Region. Second, it named legislation, law enforcement, demand reduction, and maritime cooperation as the four
priority action Drama of Drugs continuedfrom
p
82
...among other things. Other bilateral accords were settled between many countries, including between Jamaica and Cuba; Trinidad and Tobago and
protect the rights and respect the culture and ways of life of these peoples". During my tenure as the co-ordinator of the COIP Secretariat, the CARICOM Secretariat in 1990 acknowledged the COIP as the voice of the Region's
aboriginal peoples. Subsequently, it a place for the COIP within the Regional Cultural Committee, its arm for decision-making affecting culture within the Region. In this capacity the COIP was a main participant in drafting reserved
the 1994 culture policy for CARICOM. The answer to the reluctance of States to abide by Article XI of the CARICOM
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
CARICOM Member States have adopted the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. As a matter of fact, The Bahamas has the distinction of being the
first United Nations member state to ratify the Convention, having done so onJanuary 30, 1989. In addition, the last decade has witnessed greater activism of CARICOM countries within CICAD and the OAS, and increased anti-drugs contacts with the LINDCP, the United States, the EU generally and European countries such as Spain, the Netherlan&, and the United Kingdom in particular.
fforts also were made by entities outside the Region to rationalize and coordinate counternarcotics assistance to, and collaboration with
for the
region.
in all the four areas, not uniformly, and with
been pursued
although
varying degrees of
Venezuela; Belize and Mexico; Suriname
As to multilateral treaties, all
areas
Finally, it identified the funding sources for the implementation of programmes and projects in the four areas. Since then, programmes and projects have
success.
Conclusion
and Guyana; andJamaica and Mexico.
Fl-trrough its Charter and Secretariat I the CARICOM is no strangerto the aboriginal peoples in the Region. Article XI of the CARICOM Charter of Civil Society adopted by the Heads of States in 1997 provides that "States recognize the contribution of the Indigenous Peoples to the development process and undertake to continue to
non-governmental
organizations involved in fighting drugs.
Js there more to be done? Can some of Ithe things being undertaken be managed better? Can more be done within and by CARICOM? These questions can only honestly be answered in the affirmative. But the answers
cannot gainsay the importance of what has been tried and achieved. Moreover, there is a subtext to the answers to the questions: Caribbean governments alone cannot do what needs to be done, even if
they
possessed
all the
necessary
resources. Indeed, the involvement of the average citizen is also important in
many areas, such as
education,
rehabilitation, and law enforcement. For the drama of drugs presents the kind of travail to Caribbean societies such that, remembering the words of poet Martin Carter, unless we all are involved, we all may well be consumed.
Page
9l
I have been atpains to saythe foregoing
A MILLENNIALASSERTION
in
order to emphasize to what extent, 'we
(who produced the Diaionary of
The Dictionary of Garibbean English Usage
Caibbean English Usage [DCEIJJ) are more than conquerorso. I say "we"
'tRichard Allsopp
father of this heavily mixed Caribbean lexicographical offspring, it has multiple god-parents who helpfully nourished its
because although I am the acknowledged
gestation.
But tbe most irnportant test of tbe success of any inztention is its acceptance fo, and usefulness to tbose it utas designed to serve
-l-h. marerialisation of the DCEU I conquered many challenges - doubt and derision, near financial collapse [and respect to the latter, my grarirude is
with have always
brought themto life-Britain's
man of lemers Dr Samuel Johnson (I7 55), James Murray (later Sir James, first a schoolmaster, in ahome-made shed, in the
1870s), \(illiam schoolmaster), V
booksellers).
It
Collins (a Glasgow & R Chambers (two
is the individual - and
immense - successes of these men's
work
that led to their adoption, first by University
Presses -
Oxford University
Press (OUP) nos/ owes it prestigious existence almost entirely to its multiple dictionaries - and then, in some cases (zof that of OUP) by national governments.
owed to : Barclay's Bank, the International Development Research Centre of Canada (IDRC), the American Council of Learned Societies (N.Y.), the Barbados Government, UNESCO, Ut0flI and especiallythe Late Forbes Burnham, the Executive President of Guyana and Vice Chancellor Preston, for financial and other assistance which faciliated the continuance of the project. But perhaps one of the greatest challenges conquered was that of time - it
took 50 years from accidental and unwitting conceprion
(as a
corrective list)
in the South of France (of which more later) in 7946, andwithin that period 25
Such a history applies to the large National Dictionaries (so titled) of
years from official recognition as a Ford-
Australia and of South Africa. Several
Proiect, in 1971, followed by CARIFTA Ministers of Education endorsement
D ic tio rarics of C-anadian English (beginning t9 67) and the D ic ti o nary of N ewfo u n d knd. English (tlt2,now wirh a 2'd edition) enjoy
Funded Caribbean Lexicography (1973)
to
acntal emergence as
a
Dictionary
in Barbados in1996.
Government subsidies; and subsidized
he National Governments of
"free" nations care
nothing
about their Dictionaries. (I restrict my statement to "free" nations, because I
believe that in totalitarian regimes all writing is monitored, regimented and
controlled
- so
Dictionaries
that would surely include
- but that is for
very unwelcome reasons of governmentally twisted learning). There is one European exception I know, France, with its Diaionnaire fu tAAcadimr'e, commissioned by Cardinal Richelieu in 1635 and
still going, in spite of the
superseding
Dictionaries ofNeut Zeaknd English and of Irish English are well on their way, if not already on the shelves.
A Dictionary of $[est African English, planned since the 1970s, has gone awry, and, although there are many significant studies of sub-conrinental lndian English, I am not aware of any duly identified as
Caibbean
end of
a
European hegemonic millennium
having survived the aforementioned challenges. But the most important test of the success of any invention is its acceptance by, and usefulness to those
was designed
it
ro serve. And this
lexicographical invention met first with
(what would certainly have to be a massive) "Dictionary of Indic English" and one must say "Indic" because
acclamation born of surprise, followed by confusion and then indifference.
Pakistan, Bangladesh and, if included, Sri
The acclamation came mainly from the region, mosrly through 9u1si.de
lanka, would promprly reject any
power of the Larousse dictionaries.
dictionary called "Indian". One must noi,
However, as far as British dictionaries are concerned, it is private individuals who
Jobson whose
Page 92
Yes, the Diaionary of
English Usage came into being at the
however, overlook the book Hobson1OOO
odd pages of
enryclopedic "Anglolndian" information is quite recognizable lexicography.
delighted reviews; but an editorial in the Barbados Advocate of July 3t, 1996
congratulated the publishers; Oxford University Press for their liberality in toleratingsuch
a book; its heading "Bond CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
orBurden: No needto be disabled", and its content were not only noteworthy for being in sharp contrastwith many other sensible published regional cornments,
the book was worked on and produced, and in the same island whose dialect its literary doyen, the late Frank Collymore,
it
important to compile
a
& Headmistresses meeting in Trinidad 1967 CIking the IJ'WI "to co mpile a list of
in
or carelessness.
lacical iretns in ezch
but
more noteworthy still as representing editorial leadership tn Barbadas where
had found
(d) Good English is just a matter of being
careful. Mistakes are just due to laziness
(e) The Governments spend a
lot of
money on education at school, and can't be expected to spend more on simple
English at Universiry. At University everybody is EXPECTED to speak and
write well. Linguistics is some new-
wrrinry and n ci?rrildre n rboo Isfw tlx g,tidarrce ofttacberc" .
dw
D.rt I have headed this arricle "A DMill.ttial Assertion" for a more important reason than complaints of the administrators' and educators' neglect which has so far characterized the
glossary of, which went
reception of
through
DCEU.
5
editions!
After half a millennium during which Europe had set its hegemonic colonial stamp upon humanlife in theselands which are still called Caribbean though quite de-indigenized, have we - the remainder, all immigrant peoples, circumstantially drawn together from every race on eafth - no right to ownership of amother-tongue
The point to be noted is
very important: over
the many voices of acclamation, there lay an undisclosed and ill-
defined area of resentment, confusion and fangled hoax, misleading people about
indifference.
Resentment:
'What's
'dialect'. As for
all this about
"Caribbean" English! We speak good English, not American or Cockney! The book threatens to belittle us. And, are we now going to be examined in'Caribbean Englisb' instead of the English of the Concise Oxford Dictionary? Some of
those academics are only "pushing
a
DICTIONARY! Of
what? Caribbean English? Let us not be
fooled. Our
scarce resources need to be
\(ell,
even if we have this Caribbean Dictionary' of which we see or hear there are good reports in the press, who can (f)
of a work,
of University time. And why should
literate status of cut-qe,force-ripe, bard-ears; orhow caklu, cooboo, juch should be spelt; or wherher tJrepostman wmt bere already / Ire
Allsopp be entitled to any royalties, when it was done in University time? And how could it be considered his intellectual property, even if he started it before we got funds for it? Ve should just let the
made his
thingdriftaway.
qta pass me / grinding uining and jamming / li.he youvex; / to weat nrnebody's feaer/ n ake bammy for somebody, etc, are problems of correctness (or something)? Let the teachers decide those things. \(hat are they beingpaid for?
Indifference: (a) It don't matter. Everybody knowwhat youmean.
\f.
hnguage is we ting. We demand respeck for "Nation Language".
0)
(c) Spelling is
not
a
serious matter.
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
conceived- an endless operation: Not only do more items emerge from the ongoing activities of the culrure and discoveries of
already listed in
however good it may be, that took 25 years
Don'taskmeaboutthe
of a people's culture is, - if properly
computer has a spell check any way .....
our children need, not
Confusion:
reflection to show that a dictionary, as an inventory
the ecology, but wofthier authentic
endorse the continuance
English!
minute's
spent on Science, Technology and Management Studies. Moreover, the
dialect" and confusing our teachers. They must be told so. GOOD READING is all
"Caribbean"
It would only take anyone a
revelations also emerge about entries
it. The obvious answer is
a second edition, but, with all
the
disclosures I have made above, together with the fact of my own age at this rime,
that is a difficult prospect. 'What
is, however, entirely practical, is a SUPPLEMENT, (with possible ongoing supplements in later years) that can
professionally accommodate the necessary
additionaldata.
(g) A regional dictionary might just give recogrition towords likeTbo&, ohah, barcoo,
will bring shame on should NOT be encouraged.
etc, which
us. It
For indeed that was the purpose of the work which their predecessors had long ago firmly endotsed: By CARIFTA Resolution in Barbados (197 3),followed
by CARICOM Heads of Government Resolution in St Kitts (1974), by successive CXC Registrars in writing (1976, 1982) - and all preceded by a cry (numbered Resolution 6) from the
Richard Alkopp, Pb.D is Director/ C o - o rdin at o r, C arib be an Le xicograplry Prolea
Caribbean Association of Headmasters Page 93
is that, the Universiry's Committee (Profesrors
The DCEU, for which data-collection obligatorily stopped in 1982 presented a
Carrington) requested in 1982, that selective editing commence, so that a practical publication date might
SELECTION of the 12 categories of content outlined below that had been
A
further fact
f\Monitoring Craig, Alleyne
Ec
[Spellings and usage to be settled
in collaboration with relevant academic workers in St Lucia and
Dominica, later using the Handfu k For ltlriting Cm le of the
gathered up to that date:-
.
Mouvman Kwdydl Sent Lisi.l
be estimated and announced? The foregoing resulted in an (unexpectedly) large amount of the material being set aside
for a promised 'larger work".
Additionally, the selection proved an (also unexpectedly) exhausting exercise that resulted in ten years of editing. When the "finished" manuscript was sent to O#ord inJuly 1992, aserious amount of material for a SUPPLEMENT already existed.
complete an inventory as practicable of the Caribbean environment and lifesryle as known and spoken in each territory, but not recordedinthe standard
2. As
ceased. On what has had to be voluntary basis to this day, and" with a correspondence
office still provided at Cave Hill, the funding of a relatively small staff and equipment for work on a SUPPLEMENT
is all that is fundamentally needed. seems
so little to ask that it
It
forces the
question, "'Why not?"
For an answer, the reader may begin by going back to the many sources of indifference listed above. But the matter is much more fundamental than that.
After half a millennium during which Europe had set its hegemonic colonial stamp upon human life in these lands which are still called Caribbean though quite de-indigenized, have we - the
remainder, all immigrant
peoples,
circumstantially drawn together from every race on earth - no right to ownership of a mother-tongue
Lexicalexplanationsof anumber
of Hindu and Muslim terms occurring increasingly in Caribbean culture from
British and American desk dictionaries.
Guyana and Trinidad. Exs: arti, Bhagwat
3. The cross-referencing of different
Jag, daru, Eid, Holi, Hosein, Phagwa, mandir, masiid, Youman-Nabi.
names for the same item throughout the
Anglophone Caribbean. Exs: -suss (Drnca, Gren, StLu, StVn, Tbgo,
Data collection by me has however never
-
/
/
assue (Baba) / /
box
Tin)
(Gu.yn) / /
meeting (Bdo) / / pardner (lmca)
/
/
syndicate(Bel).
-
of an increasing
etc. and of National Honours - C.C.H. (G uy n), C.H.B. (Bdo s), G. C. S.L. (S t Lu), Tbgo),etc.
-
ackee(lmca);cpakee(Bdos)
A rationalization andlor guide for the authentication of spellings that
doctor-bird(ECar);cpdoctor-
have remained
bkd(lmca)
so
pâ&#x201A;Źpperyot (Mos,Gro4Gryn);q pepperpot [a n gu, A n tg,J m ca)
bobol (cp buball etc.); cou-cou
8. Some guidance as to acceptabiliry of certain word-forms and usages frequently
encountered in various pans of the Caribbean. Exs: blam (vb), force-ripe (adj, vb), pretensive, stupidness, tinnen (adj, n) touchous, trouble (vb), vexen (vb).
-
-
E*pansions
number of regional acronyms - CARIFTA, CARICOM CAIC, CONCACAF, ECLA,
O.N. (,4zrg G Brbu, Jmca),T.C. (Tin G
The identifying of different items called by the same name in different territories. Exs:
4.
-
-
Some account of the status and
far.
conjecturd or experimental Exs: bazodi (cp basodee etc.); (cp
cookoo etc.).
-
The listing of
idiomatic
expressions derived from or associated with headword entries, explaining their
particularities as Caribbean wherever appropriate, giving some guidance as to status if considered necessary, md indicating their origin if possible. Exs: to cut your eye at/on/after somebody; to make your eyes pass somebody; to
certain dialectal forms
put your mouth on somebody/
(Anglophone in the particular case under discussion, though the same question applies to other regional cases)? If NOT, then who owns our mother-tongue? For there MUST be such a thing! And since there must be one, what is its nature and
particularly those that have become part of the regional vocabulary and/ or may be encountered in $flest Indian literature, proverbs or sayings. Exs:
something; to kiss/suck your teeth; to take sick.
what intellectual validity
brata, dem
does that
nature give it?
function
of
intellectual validity in the claim of an Anglophone Caribbean mother-tongue. then may make my last apped. Page 94
I
Etymological information as [N.B. This proved the most
available.
-
All-you, backra, bobol, buse, so, iumbie, iook, mamaguy, obeah, pappyshow, plimpler, shak-
to the form and
exacting and time - consuming part of the whole work, butwithoutit, as any reader will soon discover, neither the academic standing and cultural value of the book could have been established as they have nowbeen].
function of French Creole loan-words current in the spoken English of St Lucians, Dominicans and Grenadians. Exs: they were malpaliing people; poor mallwEz! To have bouchkabwit; to look
pronunciation where necessary or useful, using the symbols of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) with the
kabousd.
convenient modifications used by
shak, you-all. So let me end by laying out b.i.fly for the benefit of readers who have not read the two introductory essays to th eDCEU - arr outline ofthe nature ofits contents, and leave them to judge whether there is
-
-
-
Guidance as
-
Identification
of
regional
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
American linguists; particularly also showing differences of accentuation and
pitchthatdistinguish
literate African forebears. African require a record, that is, a proverbs and riddles, nancy stories, DlcTloNARY,keptup-todateasfaras overlaid by school-disciplined English is possible. grammar, European legends, ourown
(a) Caribbean from British and American
speech, exs:
bad-ulb / t' 2 / (CarA)'slander' ruden ess / t' 2/ (lnrca)' fornicaion' sroeet-man / I'2/ (Ecar)'an exploiting male lover'
(b) one meaning from another within some Caribbean speech communities, exs:
/ !' 2/ (CarA)'without the risk of drby' one time! /3'L/ (CarA)'there and then; insandy'
sun-
As its earliercreators die, others must keep
itimulatedanduniqueecologypullulating it alive for the enlightenment, selfwith new forms of life and perennial knowledgeandultimatelytheintellectual dazzlingthings, butalwayschangingwitha pride of its people, with an increasingly calypso-like temporariness that is far more lively than the staid and stony unwarmth
intelligent understanding of themselves.
of durope, and far more productively ThatiswhytheCARICOMSecretariat, .orttfott"blt than the socialuncertainties the Heads of Regional Governments, The
orArricaorlndia' 3x;:fr:t#"H:H*ilf'$;
one time
j ust now / t' 2 / (Bdos)'soon' justnow /2'!/ (Bdos) 'ashortwhile ago'
25.
The use of citations from 1009
literary sourc
es (ptp 627 - 666
of the book)
both validating its definitions, and signalling to the world of literature in English, the recognition that has become due to our literate expression, from the weed-seller's folklore, through the calypsonian's skilled use of words, to our international prize-winners @rathwaite, Naipaul, \(alcott et al).
I amwickedly reminded, forexample, of the whollyuninvited comment of a cyclist in Georgetown' passing a "sunday-best" young lady - powdered, perfumed and perspiring - wh-o ioudly remarked that she was "smelling technical"! Vhere else but in our Caribbean can one imagine such harmless, hilarious harassment? nd above all, we became tar 6reer neo-Caribbean sounds that must spontaneously describe
with '$(ORDS
-
the bright and
unpredictable kaleidoscopic conditions of our Caribbean life: I am wickedly reminded,
for example, of the wholly uninvited comment of a cyclist in Georgetown,
Now let the reader judge the validity of
passing a "Sunday-best" young lady
-
our claim to an Anglophone Caribbean mother-tongue, distinguished by its own character, judge why certain ways of
powdered, perfumed and perspiring
-
who loudly remarked that she
speaking developed, which mark us as ONE anywhere in the world, whY and how this happened, even though it's only in the latter half of this millennium that we were thrown together- first challengedto survive and then to rehumanize life and human communication. We have added such sharp, new, distinguishingcolours to the ENGLISH LANGUAGE that, as the
millennium ends, we have built such a remarkable edifice of world literature in English that is out of proportion to our
little population of a mere 5 million peopli, - scattered and separated by deceptive seas exceeding our horizons!
The answer is, we have done this out of
multiple self-developed dialects of a basically-structured English' but also fundamentally rooted in an obviously systemic conceptualization of our nonCANCOM PersPective - June 2000
regard it as an obligation to fund a CENTRE FOR CARIBBEAN
LEXICOGRAPFIY, the simple initial duty of which should be the production of that SUPPLEMENT to the Present DCEU. The present writer's material, which is actu ally ready f.or a DCEU 2 will surelyservethatSUPPLEMENT. g\
was
"smelling technical"! Vhere else but in our Caribbean can one imagine such
harmless, hilarious harassment? Perhaps an inappropriately comical, but I hope excusable, approach to my last
A Dictionary asserts a people's ..tltural identity. Cultural truth is vital to its worth! And it must present that truth so plainly that ANYONE can verify it! That is something one can hardly say, with certainty, about the Bible! It does a fundamental and lasting job for a people's confidence that a national fl"g can never do! It demonstrates that togetherness which we need, but which we onlY talk about: 'Whether Afric, Indic, EuroPic,
appeal:
Amerindian, Sino-Caribbean or whoever else there are among us, we do all use an English that can only be described with ONE name: Caribbean English' For
such, any disciplined PeoPle would Page 95
Gontemporary Labour Relations *AustinM.Josiah
inGARICOM-ASynopsis lntroduction he evils of the Caribbean slave trade, and of slavery in general, spawned a fei'tile environment for energetic and sacrificing rebellion by the affected constituenr - an oppressed, depressed, disadvantaged and diioriented people. From the advenr of the Italian native Christopher Columbus to this Region, followed by colonisation and the
resultant control of the mind and body of its people, its the srage was ser for
mutiny. The long, arduous hours,
dehumanizing working conditions and the absence of human rights were the order of the era of two and half centuries, which began to crumble by decree as of 1833. Freedom is often a unilateral motivation for agitation when it
is denied. the Caribbean people, it was denied for too long. Many g"ne ihei.lines
In the
case of
in attempting to recapture and, in some cases,
to capture what seemed the essence
of a satisfying life
- a life of initiative,
creativity, self esteem, belonging, choice,
aspiration and opportunity. \flithin the context of reasonable humankind expectation, the end of slavery in the Region must have been seen as the dawn of anewday of prosperity and dream fulfilment for the majority of Carihbean people. Loosened
from the
down-pressing mold of autocratism - do as you are told - and communism - live, work, eat, sleep and live at the whim of the one in clarge (owner) - the Caribbean woman and man must have envisaged a democratisation
and liberalisation of the behaviours, stnrctures and processes related to the output of rheir labour. It was in this spirit of anxious expecration, of singular and composite achievement, thatthe reality of "ownership" was heralded and celebrated.
'We
know the celebration of "ownership" and the anticipation of immediate "befterdays" were shon-lived as the indigenous people and other residents realised their perceived freedom was now
"from the fryingpan into the fire". The real ownenhip of the land resource, the the epoch
96 Page
capital and infrastructure still reposed in extra-regional authority and labour was still a comodiry. Furthermorer pâ&#x201A;Źrpetual poverry reigned among the masses because legislated control of the human resource may have appeared to have ended, but this was replaced by capitalistic conrrol with all its sinister and provocative posture which parallels and may even surpass legislated control. The world recognised the dilemma faced by workers in this cruel environment and, by the dawn of the twentieth century, concrete movement was mobilised toward the formation of a
tripartite international institution to regulate the labour environment of farmers and within the democratic, panicipatory and dialoguing format of preactive recommendations and conventions. Hence , in t9'!.9, the International Labour Organisation was born. This institution initiates and "enact" conventions which suppondirections forsafe and satisfying workin g conditions.
Formation of l:bour Unions
I l,
rmed with the knowledge of these Iconventions and recommendations,
enough became too much for rhe regional workers. To this end, they formed vibrant
trade unions to look after their affairs. Usually, these trade unions were headed by boisterous individuals (bad men and
women), whose aims were mainly to 'show these foreigners" thar the Caribbean no longer belonged to them and that its people were willing to agitate for their digniry and rights.
There is no doubt that the strategies used by the early leaders were cavalier in principle and scope, even though effective to a large degree in ascertaining their objecrives (burning offields ofrug", cane, beating opposers, sinking of barges,
destroying properq', using strong body as threats (by employees), lockous, closures, and threats of starvation - (by employers). Itwas an'us" and "them" era, language
hencetheline was always pellucidlyvisible
to all sides. During this early period, governmenr and employers were bedfellows of similar intent, element and structure, making it
more difficult
for
meaningful and to reign. This
constructive dialogue
resulted in frequent agitation anddysfunctional conflicts and much hardship for all and sundry. By the mid-fifties, more educated labour leaders emergedfrom the
rank and file, and while the agitation continued, it was better organised and
structured for effective and specific outcome. Many of these labour leaders gravitated to and obtained national leadership, notablyVere Cornwall Bird Sr. of Antigua and Barbuda; Robert Bradshaw of St. Kitts and Nevis; Errol Barrow of Barbados; Norman Manley of Jamaica; and Forbes Burnham of Guyana.
A"
Caribbean Labour Relations the eve of rhe beginning of the
\-,,zrhird millennium, the Caribbean
Labour Relations institution
is poised to effect the gains of the past into a modern, dynamic, efficient and productive element
in its single market and economy in its vision of a
perspective, and
successful, sustainable, competitive mecha-
nism in the liberalised globalism of fair trade, premised on the principles of the core labour standards of the International Labour Office (ILO). These include: o Abolition of forced labour. a Freedom ofassociation and protection ofthe right to organise. o The right to organise and to collective
bargaining. a Equal remuneration. o Discrimination.
oMinimum xge, and recently
the
elimination of the worst form of child labour.
The labour standards
or
conventions have resulted in legislative reform and srructure in the Region continued on p.99
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
STAMPEID
TTME IN Indians andthe
Ttre Gneatlltecc Order o[ the Garibbean GonnruniQr
'rAlbert V B Sydney Community was the result of a fifteen-year effort to fulfill
frhe.rtrblishment
I
I
of the Caribbean
the hope of regional integration. It started with the establishment of the short-lived British'$[est Indian
Federation in 1958.
Barbados' and portrayed a Map showing CARIFTA Countries on its 6c and Strength in Unity on its 25c stamp. Montserrat also issued a similar release on May 27, portraying a Mapof CARIFTACountrieson its 15c & 20c stamps and the Strength in Unity motif on its 35c & 5Oc stamps. Saint Lucia's release of May 29 a Map showing CARIFTA Countries on its 5 stamps and a Handclasp and names of CARIFTA Countries on its 25c 6c 35c stamps. St.
Interestingly enough, this first historic move to regional integration did not go unnoticed by postal administrations throughout the Region, and on the 22nd April 1958, all ten member countries of the Federation simultaneously released a special issue of three postage stamps paying tribute to the inauguration of the British '\(est Indian Federation of 1958. The countries that panicipated in this historic issue were Antigua and
portrayed
Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, Montserrat, then St. Christopher Nevis and Anguilla, Saint Lucia, St Vincent and Trinidad & Tobago. The
Corntrcopia andFruit
stamps portrayed
a
geographical map of the \il(est Indies
showing member countries with a portrait of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth tr.
&
10c
Vincent's release
of
July
Strength in Unity on its 2c
1
portrayed
5c and a Map Countries on its 5c & 25c
of CARIFTA stamps. Trinidad postage stamps
&
Ec
Tobago issued four
on August 6c,
I
portrayrnga
British andMember
Nations's flags 1Oc, a Map showing CARIFTA Countries 30c and aBoeingT27 100 Sunjet
in flight on its 40c.
Tt was at the Seventh Heads of Government Icorrf.r"n.e of CARIFTA in Octobe r 1972 that
The dissolution of the \flest Indian Fede rationinL962, paved the way for the beginning of the Caribbean Free Trade Area (CARIFTA). On May 1, 1968, CARIFTA came into being and a number of postal administrations paid tribute to its First Anniversary in 1969. Antigua
Caribbean Leaders decided to transform CARIFTA into a Common Market. The Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) was established by
andBarbuda released fourpostage stamps on April 14 depicting Freight Transport on the 4c & 15c, and a
Since
Crate of Cargo on the 25c & 35c. Barbados depicted on its May6 release, a MapshowingCARIFTAcountries on its 5c & 25c values and a Strength in Unity design on its 5c Er 50c. Guyana's release of 30 April was similar to
the Treaty of Chaguaramas on August
t,
t97 3.
its establishment, Postal Administrations
throughout the Caribbean have all independently released postage stamps paying tribute to the CARICOM process of stabiliry and integration. On August tt, 198t, Barbados released a stamp paying tribute to the CaribbeanFestival ofArts (CARIFESTA), and these stamps portrayed a Landship Manoeuvre 15c, Yoruba Dancers 20c, a Tuk Band 40c, a Sculpture of Frank Collymore 55c and a Harbour Scene on its
$1
stamp. The Republic of Guyana also issued a number of postage stamps honouring the CARICOM Movement. ln 1982 (18 Nov); 50c on six 15c postage stamps paid ffibute to the CARICOM Heads of Government Conference in Jamaica; 60c on $3 (July 1) for CARICOM Day !983; @c
on
Albm W B Sydnq
Director of Sydney & Sydney A ssociztes, a Corporate Ph ilatelic & Nutnismatir Consulancy Firm in Trinidad & Tobago. He bas bem invohted in tbis fi.eld for a number of years and his work bas ken exhibited tbrougbout the is the Executive
Region.
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
30) for CARICOM Day 1984; 60c on $3 ( for the Heads of Government Conference L984;
$3 (]une
July
2)
fune 28) for CARICOMDay 1985; 60c on $3 (]une28) foTCARICOMDay 1986; andforCARICOM day 1988 fiune 15) a set ofthree stamps 25c on 5c, $1.20 on 6c and $ 10 on $2, respectively. 60c on $3
Page 97
frinidad & Tobago in paying tribute to the
In t992, the Caribbean Community conferred the
I10th Anniversary of CARICOM in 1983, released onJuly 11, a commemorative stamp honouring this event. The stamp carried single 35c Stamp po rtrayrng a BVIA Lockheed L-1011 TriStar 500 Flamingo
O.C.C. on three distinguished sons of the Caribbean. These first recipients were the Late Dr. \flilliam Gilben
aircraftinflightwith amap
RamphdofGuyana.
of the Caribbean Region
in the background. For the 5'h Meeting of the Conference of the Heads of Government of the Caribbean Community in 1984, the Commonwealth of The Bahamas released a SO-cent stamp on July 4,
depicting the Flags
of The
Bahamas and the
CaribbeanCommunity.
of Trinidad 6r Tobago, Dr. Derek Alton \flalcott of St. Lucia and Sir Shridath Surendranath
Demas
These three Recipients have distinguished themselves
in their respective fields of endeavor and have made the Caribbean proud: Hon. Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana, former Attorney General and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Guyana, former Secretary-General of the Commonwealth Secretariat, Chairman of the
In t99t, the Inter-Governmental Agreement establishing the Order of the Caribbean
'West
Community (O.C.C.) entered into force. Mr. Standhope
Guyana and Chief Negotiator, Regional Negotiating Machinery.
\(illiams of Guyana designed the insignia for the Order of the Caribbean
Indian Commission, current Chancellor of the
University of the Vest Indies and the University of
Community in the form of the sun bursting forth
The late Hon. Dr. Villiam Demas of Trinidad &
in its entire splendor. This brilliant sun also represents the illustrious and distinguished
Tobago, former Secretary-General of CARIFTA,
nature of the persons who have received this high honour. The four prominent points, forming parts of
President of the CaribbeanDevelopment Bank, former Governor of the Central Bank of Trinidad & Tobago and former Chancellor of the Universiry of Guyana.
the rays of the sun, represent the four Cardinal points.
For simpliciry,
el-
egance and distinction, the centerpiece of the insignia bears the logo of the Caribbean
Community-in-
terlocking 'C' with the broken chain effect of this logo representing the freedom of the geographical chain
of
fourteen countries linked together by theircommonhistory,
former Secretary-General
of
CARICOM, former
TJon. Dr. Derek \(alcott of St. Lucia, recipient of I -the highly acclaimed Nobel Prize for Literature in 1992, distinguished and internationally recognized '\U7est
Indian Poet and Playwright, founder of the Trinidad Theatre Workshop andProfessor of Creative \(riting at the University of Boston. The Postd Administrations of Antigua & Barbuda The
Commonwedth of the Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, St. Kitts andNevis, St. Vincent and The Grenadines and Trinidad & Tobago paid tribute to the First Recipients of the Order of the Caribbean Communiry with a commemorative release of postage stamps, souvenirsheets and OfficialFirst Day Covers.
culture and
aspirations. The outer circle of the sun stands for the'O'in the initials,
Trinidad & Tobago also releaseda$6Miniature Sheet depicting the Legend of the Order of the Caribbean
thus forming
names
the
o.c.c.
Community, photographs of the Recipients and the
of the Member States of the
Caricom
Community. The Miniature Sheet also Commemorates the 20th Anniversary of Caricom.
The insignia bears tvro sigp.ificant features relating to the
nature of the Caribbean Community. The first is the Rainbow. This feature is used to symbolically reflect the multiplicity of races ofpeoplethroughout the Region. The Rainbow also represen$ the natural beauty and colorful nature of the Region. The secondfeature consists of two wavy bands, which represent the Caribbean Sea. The wonds Orderof the Caribbean Community are embosed onthe outercircle of thesun. Page 98
In t994, the Second Awardees of the Order were proclaimed at the Heads of Government Meeting. The Postal Service of Jamaica issued a commemorarive stamp release on August 23, 1995, honouring the Second Awardees
who were: - The late Right
Honourable Michael Manley ofJamaic4 formerPrime Minister ofJamaica 50c; The Hon. Sir Alister Mc Intyre of Grenada, Vice Chancellor of the University of the 'West Indies $1.10; Rt. Hon. Justice P.T. Georges of
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Dominica, Former Chief Justice of The Bahamas $1.40; and late Governor-General of Barbados $50, Her Excellency Dame Nita Barrow.
In
1998, the Third Awardees of the Order of the Caribbean Community were announced at the
Nineteenth Heads of Government Conference in Saint Lucia. The Awardees were: Sir
Phillip Sherlock ofJamaica, Caribbean Historian
and former Vice Chancellor of the University of the lU(/est Indies; The late Hon. Vere C Bird of Antigua and Barbuda, founding father, former Premier and first Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda. Sir Garfield Sobers of Barbados, former \?est Indies Cricket Team Captain, former record holder for the highest individual score (365); and National Hero of
(C ontemporary Lab o ur Rc lartons) continuedfrorn p.95 which have facilitated a clearer direction toward the freedom and expectation of the foundation fathers and mothers of Labour and Industrial Relations - a direction and system which has acknowledged, supported and maintained the rights and responsibilities of all stakeholders in the labour relations arena. These standards have been enshrined in a CARICOM labour
legislation principle agreed to by all Member States. The acceptance and practice of these principles have given recognition to the Caribbean as a labour and industrial symbol of rights and responsibilities.
'Ttr. labour sector of the economy is fast being I recognised as a major catalyst to socio-economic advancement in the Region. This new direction of thought and action has resulted in a better trained and
Barbados.
expertise-oriented workplace with regional and localised institutions geared to sustainable outcome,
His Excellency Anhur N R Robinson of Trinidad Ec of the Republic of Trinidad & Tobago; former Prime Minister of Trinidad 6r Tobago, First Minister of Finance, Minister of External Affairs,
guided by the ILO Regional Office and CARICOM.
Tobago, President
First Chairman
of.
a restored Tobago House of
Assembly, Minister Extraordinaire and Minister of Tobago Affairs, Member of the Federal Parliament of the Westlndies. To date, no Member State has released aphilatelic issue dedicated to these outstanding Recipients.
For the 25th Anniversary of CARICOM in 1998, the Postal Services of Antigua & Barbuda Grenada and St. Vincent & The Grenadines commemorated this event with the release of a $1.00 stamp, Guyanawith a $20 stamp andJamaicawith a $30 value.
fither
institutions that form an integral part of the \-/CARICOM integrationprocess have also been depicted on postage stamps throughout the Region. These have been the Organisation of the Eastern Caribbean States, The Caribbean DeveloPment Bank and The University of the West Indies.
\
The offshoot of the present ethos which is guidingthe policy directorate of the Region is aLabourRelations mechanism staffed by highly trained technicians, and the vision of a modernised Labour Management Structure which incorporates a dynamic tripartite element of social dialoguing and interaction for reasonable flexibility, tenure, benefits and p This modernised structure will work toward the
alleviation of poverty and other socio-economic ills in the Region under the theme "poverty anywhere is a threat to prosperity everywhere", as outlined in the International Labour Of{ice's Charter.
Conclusion
(^learly, the quality of Labour
and Industrial
\r**elations climate in the Caribbean will
be crucial to the future of the Region's survival in a globalised, competitive economy. The need for inter-sectoral management of the localised and regional human resource must not be minimised. In each country in the
Region, the close collaboration between labour, education and planning is an imperative to training, retraining, career paths, skilled development, standards,
productivity and peaceful socialization of our people. The Region's socio-economic destiny is too important for myopism and "turfism" objectives and PersPectives. Let us build our future on the solid foundation of
LabourandlndustrialRelations.
\
Austin M. Josiah is Commissioner of Labour Antigua & Barbuda
(;UYANA '2O.OO
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Page 99
Tontardt a more Robust Caibbean Community
continuedfrom p.
as can be
5
seen
from the following
examples,
fritical
to the
Vintegration
Region's future
and development is the
contribution of Cricket. Thus it was a unique initiative when the Heads of Government mandated the Secretariat to hold jointly with the U\7I and with the involvement of the West Indies Cricket Board (\7ICB)
a
Conference on
the Future Development of Vest Indies
Cricket to which all strands of West Indian society would be invited. The approach was to be based on individual national cricket sub-committee deliberations, press and other media discussions climaxing with a regional plenary session in Barbados. At the time of writing, it would suffice to say that the initiative was quite successful and that the results would be made available not only to the Heads of Government and the \fICB, but also to the wider Vest Indian population. A significant number of the regional cricket-loving population participated. A most significant factor was the active participation and contribution of the female population.
Opposition be brought in as partners into the framework of the consultation in the regional integration process". This decision was taken against the background
Assembly
of an already
reactivated
of
Caribbean Community Parliamentarians - the only Community
Opposition of Member States, including Associate Member States, to debate matters of regional interest. This Institution is now preparing to hold its Third Meeting in Belize.
Overall, it is true that not all aspects of these consultations are as effective as the development of the Community would require. But it is clear that the Community can only grow and become
tTth. process of wider consultation I *ith civil society is increasingly being ingrained in the way the Commu-
nity's
does business. Already enshrined
in the Community's modus operandi is
the annual consultation between the Heads of Government and the Social Partners.
ture requires much more than the
tation of the Single Market and Economy being advanced by recent field surveys
supplied bjt the political, Iegal and
a
pre-
condition for the full implementation of
Page 100
consultation and involvement of the wider civil society is built into its very methods of functioning. In firm belief of that principle, suggesrions for strengthening this consultative process are always welcome by the Community.
A further step witnessed the implemen-
Protocol
for a strategy for the development of the Community". This Encounter is being scheduled for early in the new year. A third and similar decision, and one displaying increasing maturity of the Community, was that "the Political
more robust and responsive to the needs of the people of the Region, if greater
As I have had cause to say before, I now repeat. "building that Caibbean struc-
Heads
political directorate in an Encounter entitled " Forzaard Togetber" . It was agreed that "this forum will provide for a free and wide-ranging inter-change of ideas aimed at arriving at a consensus
chinery (RNM) with which consultations with the wider public are undertaken, in forging regional policy positions to be taken to the negotiating table.
A similar decision
society to participate with the Region's
other bodies related to the Community such as the Regional Negotiating Ma-
Institution which provides for parliamentarians from both Government and
throughout rhe Region, as was taken by the of Governmenr to invite civil
fhis process of consultation with the I *ider civil society also extends to
II which deals with
Free
Movement of Goods, Services, Capital, Skilled Labour and Right of Establishment. In addition, a Plenary Consulta-
tion on the Implementation of the Single Market and Economy is carded
bicks
It requires the people of the Region to be the mortar which holds the bicks together and makes the structure sturd1t." This Publication goes part of the way to advancing this process. More remains to be done and I look forward to a mechanism such as a "Readers Write" Column being made economic masons,
available soon.
for Barbados in September.
In the same vein, a public
education
N â&#x201A;Ź\
campaign has also been launched to inform the public and to receive its reaction before the establishment of the Caribbean Court of Justice.
CANCOM Perspective - June 2000
Connecting to the Century: Caribbean Telecommunications (See page 51)
to
)tt\
aAt arl r6t t?
to
jlrt
!^lr:Rtc{s t
COtOl'ltlU-<
1
lAlt.t().
SX I.IAF.T II{'I IAAP.TEN
to Prrer(rr Alco
s'['t't{ot'tAs TAttn-c{nut
s[ Krl'l s nto,.,rrrr.ora, (. GIJ/TDELCiiPE ECr.,..sLv I
t.t|'!Et
DfzCuj,ff:t I Gfl.lt:Il
l'lrll Ci0i.E5 EFr- el
Irrf[[5-rp
r
nr,4 SI^I'OIJ5.PDIt
x t!,ARTIf.{!QUti
$'rretsar
SI LUCI,\
lr,1(n\t)().t Gnl:l
f^[)^
,lrJ[,
s,1!'
to Verrctrrelrr
Cunro & Alrrfio
CANCOM PersPective - June 2000
Page 101
REFERENCES A
Century
-
of Achievements for Caribbean Women
1 Ellis Patricia. Women, Gender and Development in the
8 Dennis Craig (ed.) Education in the West lndies: Developments and perspectiyes 1948-1988, Kingston, Jamaica: ISER, 1996.
Pat Ellis Caribbean.
9 Dennis Benn, ldeology and Political Developnent: The Growth and development of Political ldeas in the Caibbean, 17741983, Mona,
(Forthcoming from Zed Books)
2
Mondesire, Alicia
& Dunn Leih. An Analysis of Census Data
CARICOM Countries From
a Gender Perspeclive, CARICOM
Jamaica: ISER, 1987.
in
1997
'10 Elsie Le Franc (ed), Conseguences
4 National Reports on the Status of Women (several Countries)
1
5 Shepherd, Verene A. Women in Caribbean History: An Inboductory Text for Secondary Schools. lan Randle Publishers, 1999 Governance in GARICOM Prof. Edwin Jones
-
A 2000
of
Structural Adjustnent: A
Reiew of the Jamaica Expeience, Kingston, Jamaica: Canoe
press,
994.
11 Enol Miller, Marginalization of the Black nale: lnsights form the Development of the Teaching Professlon, Jamaica: Canoe Press
Perspective
1
994ed.
12 Frand. Fanon, 8/ack Skin White Masks. London, 1968
'l
Caribbean Community
(1999) Annual Report of the
Secretary
13 George Beckford, Perslstenf Poverty: Underdevelopment in Plantation economies of the Third World, New York: Oxford University press, 1972.
General 1998
2 .CARICOM Secretariat (1997) Charter of Civil Society 3.Fukuyama, Francis (1995) Trust: The Social Virtues and
14 George Psacharopoulos & Maureen Woodhall, Education for an analysis ol investment choices, New York: World
the
Development:
Creation of Prosperity, The Free Press, New York.
BanUOxford University press,'1985.
4
Jones, Edwin (1997) Govemance, Ethics
&
Transparency:
15 Glenford D Howe (ed.), Higher Education in the Caibbean: Past Present and Future Directions, Kingston, Jamaica: UWI Press,
Intemational Agencies and Caribbean Realities, Kingston
5
"
2000.
(1998) Govemance in Jamaica since 1962 In The Gleaner: 3/8/98.
6.Neftleford, Rex (1992) Report of Commiftee of Advisors
16 Gordon Lewis, Main Curents in Cadbbean Thought: The histoical of Caribbean Society in its ldeological Aspects 1492-1900, Baltimore & London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.
on
evolution
Govemment Structure, Jamaica
7 .The West Indian Commission (1992) Time For
Action
17
Havelock Ross-Brewster, "Social Capital and Development: on Barbados and Jamaica", Barbados Econonic Repoft 1995, Produced for the Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs, May
8 Word Bank (1992) Govemance,Washington
Reflections
1
Our Coming of Age - Historical Reflections on the Development of Anglophone Caribbean Education
-
Glenford Howe
1 Bridget Brereton, Race Relations London and New York, 1979
in Colonial Tinidad,
996.
18 Hilary McD Beckles, 'The Literate few: An Historical Sketch of the Slavery Origins of Black Elites in the English West Indies", Caibbean Journal of Education, Vol.11, No 1, 1984.
18T0-1900,
19 lvar Oxaal, Black lntellectuals and the Dilenmas of Race and class
2 Bryan Edwards, The History, Civil, and
Commercial
of the
in
Trinidad, Cambridge, Mass: Schenkman, 1g82.
British
20 John J. Figueroa, Sociefy, Schoo/s and progress /ndies, Oxford & New Yo*: Pergamon press, 1971.
Wesf /ndies.1819. London: T. Miller, 1978.
in the
West
3 C.L.R. James, Beyond a Boundary, London, 1963.
21 4 C.Y Thomas, The Poor and the Powerless: Economic policy and change in the Caibbean, New Yorft: Monthly Review press, 19gg.
5
Joyce
M.
Lumsden, 'Robert Love and Jamaican
politics,,
unpublished PhD thesis, Jamaica: U.W.l., 1987,
22 Keih M Lewn, Education and Developnen( Ihe /ssues and fhe Evidence (Serial No 6) Department For Intemational Development,
Caricom: Crcative and productive Citizens for the Twenty-First Century. Results of the Seventeenth Meeting of the Heads of Government held in Barbados, 1996.
London, July 1993.
6
23 Lawrence D Canington, Education and Devetopment in the Engtish Speaking Caibban: contempuary Survey, paris: UNESCO,
Caricom: Montego Bay Declaration: positioning the Caibbean the Tweng-First Century, 4 July, 1997
7 Carl
Campbell, Colony
Trinidad
&
1992.
Page 102
&
Nation:
A
Short History
of
fu
Education in
Iobago, Kingston, Jamaica: lan Randle publishers,
A
1
978.
24 M.K. Bacchus, 'The Political Dimensions of the Development of in the Caribbean', University of London, LC.S.,
Education
Postgraduate seminar: Caribbean Societies, 27 May, 19g5.
CARICOM Perspective - June 2000
Bacchus, Utilization, Misuse and Development of Human Resources in the Early West lndian Co/onles, Waterloo, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, '1990.
25 MK
remain
an underlying tension between those with more
'Cariblike'
features than those with more Negroid features (Owen 1980:264'2741 6 The figure of 40, 400 is broken down into 34,000 Maroons and 6,400
indigenous peoples.
26 Patrick Bryan,
Ihe
Jamaica People 1880-1902, London
and
Basingstoke: Macmillan, 199'l
7
27 Peter D. Fraser, 'EducatiOn and the Rekeat of Capitalism in the British West Indies,1834-1939: Some Notes', University of London,
8 The basis was the Trusteeship promoted by missionaries and eventually reaching the British Parliament in 1836 "... to formulate
l.C.S., Postgraduate seminar: Caribbean Societies, 24 January, 1982.
measures
Neftleford, Crises in Education: Ihe Biases Behind the Polbles, Kingston, Jamaica: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, '1986.
28 Rex
Waitukubuli is the Carib name for Dominica.
to
secure Justice, Protection, Civilization,
and
Christianization for native peoples in British settlements (Menezes 1577'.13). The underpinning for trusteeship was the concern in Britain to prevent the further extermination of native peoples throughout the Empire.
29 Rex Nettleford, The University of the West lndies: A Caribbean Response to the Challenge of Change, London: Macmillan, 1990.
30 Rupert Lewis, 'A Political Study of Garveyism in Jamaica London, 1914-1940', unpublished MA thesis (Jamaica: U.W.l.,
31
Shirley Gordon, (compiled by), Education, London: Longmans, 1963,
A
Century
of
and
1971
West lndian
9
,
In Guyana Stephen Campbell was elected to parliament (personal communication Palacio/Piene) and in Belize Nathaniel Cacho. Both were among the flrst aboriginal persons to be elected into their
respective parliaments,
-
Persistent Poverty-CARICOM'S Response
Prof Clive Thomas
CDB (1999) Annual Report 1998, Barbados.
32 Sir Henry faylor, My Political Memoirs. Nassau,
1987.
Cenhal Bank
a
33
new Higher Education: UNESCO/CRESALC: Towards Proceedings of the Regional Conference, Policies and Strategies for the
Transformation of Higher Education in Latin America and the Caribbean, held in Havana, Cuba, from 18-22 November 1996.
34World Bank: Caibbean Region: Access, Quality, and Efficiency in Education, Washington DC: World Bank, 1993.
From One Brink to Another Aborignal Peoples at the close of the Century - Dr. Joseph Palacio
|
1 deliberately use the term 'aboriginal peoples' instead of the commonly used 'Amerindians'. I explain the reasons later in this essay. I also use the now more accepted term 'nations' to refer to individual tribes. 2 | thank the persons who generously helped me with information in writing this essay. They include Jorge Dandler, Garnette Joseph, Osvaldo Kreimer, Fergus MacKay, Stan Malone, and Nelcia Robinson. Ms. Jenny Hackett was helpful in providing leads about informants. Our UWI (Belize) School of Continuing Studies Librarian Mrs. Lisa Rocke provided bibliographic help. The analysis I have done with the data is mine. Besides, I have not been able to submit a draft of this essay for their comments because of the shortness of time.
3 See Nelcia Robinson's 'Notes on the COIP meeting April 27,
2000'
(Personal communication).
4 In the
'1997 version, the Declaration applies to indigenous peoples as
well as "peoples whose social, cultural, and economic conditions distinguish them from other sections of the national community, and whose status is regulated wholly or partially by their own customs or traditions,...". Article 1 of the draft Proposed Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples approved by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights February 26, 1997.
5 Aboriginal peoples have not escaped the predilection for racial stratification that predominates within the Caribbean. The larger society is quick to question their pedigree if they do not display 'Cariblike' features, such as skin colour and quality of hair' In Dominica there
CANCOM PersPective - June 2000
of
Barbados (2000) Economic Review December
1999. Barbados.
CGCED
(1998)
Caribbean Economic Overview. World
Bank,
Washington,
CGCED
(1996) Povefi
Development
Reduction and Human Resource
in the Caribbean. World Bank, Washington.
Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (1999) Report and Statement of
Accounts, 1999. St Government
of
Kitts.
(2000) Guyana Survey of Living
Guyana/UNDP
Conditions Report 1999 (in
preparation).
Government of St. Lucia, Ministry of Finance (2000) National Budget
and Estimates. St
Lucia.
Government of Trinidad and Tobago, Letter
of Intent to lMF,
March
16, 2000,
-A
Note on Income Distribution and Poverty HENRY, R. (1975) Trinidad and Tobago' Research Papers, #8, pp 1-29.
IADB (1999) Economic and Social Progress Report
in
1998/99.
Washington.
Kari Consultants (1996), Country Pover$ Assessments.
CDB,
Barbados.
PIOJ/STATIN
(1999)
Report 1998.
Jamaica.
Jamaica Survey
of
Living Conditions
THOMAS, C.Y. (2000) "The Economic Development of the OECS in
the Newly
Emerging International Economic
Eastern Caribbean Studies
Ordel, Journal of
(forthcoming).
THOMAS, C.Y. (1997) "The Intenelationship Between Economic and Social Development" in N. Girvan (ed) Poverty, Empowerment and
Social Development
in the
Caribbean, lan Randle
Publishers,
Jamaica. UNDP (1999) Human Development Report 1999. New York
Page 103