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Optimizing conservation of forest diversity: a country-wide approach in Mexico

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Abstract

A recent vegetation study [Palacio-Prieto et al. (2000) Bol Inst Geogr UNAM 43:183–203] showed that Mexico’s forest area has declined to 33.3%, from originally 52.0% of the country’s land area. In order to assess strategies for tree diversity conservation, we compiled a list of 846 tree species native to Mexico, and determined for each the presence or absence in 234 geographical squares of 1° latitude by 1° longitude (approximately 106  ×  106 km). On the average, any two squares shared only 6% of their species composition. Using a standard optimization method from engineering and economics [Dantzig (1963) Linear programming and extensions. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, USA, 625 p], we determined the minimally necessary land area in Mexico to conserve the 846 tree species, while securing that each species is found in an area of (approximately) 1,100 km2 of currently existing forest vegetation. Furthermore, we took into account 15 existing protected areas with a size of at least 1,100 km2 each. With these constraints, the total minimum area needed to conserve all 846 tree species is 45,136 km2 of currently existing forest vegetation, or 2.3% of Mexico’s surface. While this analysis can be refined with subsequent field work, the proposed reserve network indicates that efficient land use planning on a national scale may be able to conserve tree species diversity in a relatively small portion of Mexico, even after severe deforestation has taken place.

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Acknowledgements

This project was initiated with funding from Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX) in 1998, and we are grateful for their support. Furthermore, we thank Laura Arriaga and the team from CONABIO for providing data on tree species distributions. Eladio Velasco Sinaca helped with the data processing. Finally, several anonymous reviewers made observations that led to improvements in the manuscript.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Estación de Biología Tropical “Los Tuxtlas”, Apartado Postal 94, San Andrés Tuxtla, Veracruz, 95701, Mexico

    Martin Ricker

  2. Herbario Nacional de México, Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Apartado Postal 70–367, Delegación Coyoacán, México, D.F., 04510, Mexico

    Iliana Ramírez-Krauss, Esteban Martínez, Clara H. Ramos, Guadalupe González-Medellín & Héctor M. Hernández

  3. Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Antigua carretera a Pátzcuaro 8701, Colonia San José de la Huerta, Morelia, Michoacán, 58190, Mexico

    Guillermo Ibarra-Manríquez

  4. Instituto de Geografía, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Apartado Postal 20–850, Delegación Coyoacán, México, D.F., 04510, Mexico

    Gabriela Gómez-Rodríguez & José Luis Palacio-Prieto

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  1. Martin Ricker
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  2. Iliana Ramírez-Krauss
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  3. Guillermo Ibarra-Manríquez
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  8. José Luis Palacio-Prieto
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  9. Héctor M. Hernández
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Martin Ricker.

Appendices

Appendix 1: List of 846 tree species and their distributions in 234 geographical squares

The appendix is too extensive to be published here, and therefore is available upon request from the authors (mricker@ibiologia.unam.mx, gibarra@oikos.unam.mx, ems@ibiologia.unam.mx, hmhm@ibiologia.unam.mx). In addition to the sources of the information, it lists the species alphabetically including the plant family, species author, some (important) synonyms, maximum tree height, and the code numbers (as in the maps of Figs. 1, 2, and 5) for the squares in which the species was detected.

Appendix 2: Formulation of the linear optimization problem

MINIMIZE

$$ \begin{aligned} &0.0204 x_{1}+0.0063 x_{1a}+0.4702 x_{2}+0.1246 x_{3}+0.0438 x_{4} +0.2228 {\it x}_{5}+\\ &0.0189 {\it x}_{6}+0.2359 x_{7}+0.6334 x_{8}+0.5232 x_{9}+0.5793 x_{10}+0.5315 x_{11}+\\ &0.7871 x_{12}+0.6836 x_{13}+0.7325 x_{14}+0.4283 x_{15}+0.1425 x_{16}+0.1561 x_{17} +\\ &0.1327 x_{18}+0.2193 x_{19}+0.3199 x_{20}+0.3189 x_{21}+0.3898 x_{22}+0.4057 x_{23} +\\ &0.7778 x_{24}+0.5394 x_{25}+0.7265 x_{26}+0.7597 x_{27}+0.6779 x_{28}+0.2299 x_{29} +\\ &0.1482 x_{30}+0.4704 x_{31}+0.9054 x_{32}+0.8536 x_{33}+0.2610 x_{34}+0.0820 x_{35} +\\ &0.0283 x_{36}+0.0447 x_{37}+0.0457 x_{38}+0.2799 x_{39}+0.2967 x_{40}+0.4812 x_{41} +\\ &0.4508 x_{42}+0.5155 x_{43}+0.6796 x_{44}+0.7513 x_{45}+0.3527 x_{46}+0.0032 x_{47} +\\ &0.3079 x_{48}+0.8225 x_{49}+0.8372 x_{50}+0.5119 x_{51}+0.0060 x_{52}+0.1605 x_{53} +\\ &0.2944 x_{54}+0.2005 x_{55}+0.2380 x_{56}+0.4949 x_{57}+0.4409 x_{58}+0.4991 x_{59} +\\ &0.5953 x_{60}+0.5430 x_{61}+0.0930 x_{62}+0.0643 x_{63}+0.6040 x_{64}+0.5592 x_{65} +\\ &0.5725 x_{66}+0.3526 x_{67}+0.0048 x_{68}+0.0488 x_{69}+0.3304 x_{70}+0.1898 x_{71} +\\ &0.1150 x_{72}+0.0497 x_{73}+0.0472 x_{74}+0.2627 x_{75}+0.6300 x_{76}+0.3702 x_{77} +\\ &0.0627 x_{77a}+0.3177 x_{78}+0.1603 x_{79}+0.1385 x_{80}+0.0302 x_{81}+0.0843 x_{82} +\\ &0.1270 x_{83}+0.5045 x_{84}+0.2432 x_{85}+0.1755 x_{86}+0.1398 x_{87}+0.6228 x_{88} +\\ &0.5415 x_{89}+0.1190 x_{90}+0.0199 x_{91}+0.0244 x_{92}+0.0944 x_{93}+0.4275 x_{94} +\\ &0.1041 x_{95}+0.0284 x_{96}+0.1053 x_{97}+0.4262 x_{98}+0.8297 x_{99}+0.4561 x_{100} +\\ &0.0014 x_{101}+0.0072 x_{102}+0.0000 x_{103}+0.0419 x_{104}+0.4204 x_{105}+0.4814 x_{106} +\\ &0.0216 x_{107}+0.0044 x_{108}+0.0100 x_{109}+0.2868 x_{110}+0.5681 x_{111}+0.8654 x_{112} +\\ &0.4084 x_{113}+0.0002 x_{114}+0.2507 x_{115}+0.1011 x_{116}+0.0071 x_{117}+0.0776 x_{118} +\\ &0.3070 x_{119}+0.0843 x_{120}+0.0456 x_{121}+0.0031 x_{122}+0.0488 x_{123}+0.1313 x_{124} +\\ &0.7674 x_{125}+0.8944 x_{126}+0.1611 x_{127}+0.0074 x_{128}+0.0011 x_{129}+0.0295 x_{130} +\\ &0.0213 x_{131}+0.0080 x_{132}+0.0064 x_{133}+0.0842 x_{134}+0.1299 x_{135}+0.2214 x_{136} +\\ &0.0655 x_{137}+0.0095 x_{138}+0.0060 x_{139}+0.0701 x_{140}+0.5418 x_{141}+0.8682 x_{142} +\\ &0.7915 x_{143}+0.0836 x_{144}+0.0144 x_{145}+0.0010 x_{146}+0.0173 x_{147}+\\ &0.0117 x_{150}+0.1548 x_{151}+0.0322 x_{152}+0.0180 x_{153}+0.0025 x_{154} +\\ &0.0034 x_{155}+0.0106 x_{156}+0.3308 x_{157}+0.8302 x_{158}+0.8720 x_{159}+0.6685 x_{160} +\\ &0.0770 x_{161}+0.0140 x_{163}+0.0311 x_{164}+0.0024 x_{165}+0.0351 x_{166} +\\ &0.0550 x_{167}+0.0347 x_{168}+0.0627 x_{169}+0.0034 x_{170}+0.0003 x_{171}+0.0216 x_{172} +\\ &0.4018 x_{173}+0.8731 x_{174}+0.8402 x_{175}+0.5650 x_{176}+0.0487 x_{177}+0.0003 x_{178} +\\ &0.0011 x_{179}+0.0041 x_{180}+0.1039 x_{183}+0.0595 x_{184} +\\ &0.0059 x_{185}+0.0056 x_{186}+0.0202 x_{187}+0.3364 x_{188}+0.4533 x_{189}+0.8775 x_{190} +\\ &0.8685 x_{191}+0.3139 x_{192}+0.1628 x_{193}+0.0006 x_{194}+0.0017 x_{195}+0.0000 x_{196} +\\ &0.0006 x_{197}+0.0007 x_{198}+0.0160 x_{199}+0.0354 x_{200}+0.0006 x_{201}+0.0037 x_{202} +\\ &0.0000 x_{203}+0.2109 x_{204}+0.4163 x_{205}+0.8366 x_{206}+0.4387 x_{207}+0.2724 x_{208} +\\ &0.3141 x_{209}+0.0110 x_{210}+0.0000 x_{211}+0.0003 x_{212} +\\ &0.0000 x_{215}+0.0026 x_{216}+0.0105 x_{217}+0.0946 x_{218}+0.4736 x_{219}+0.3060 x_{220} +\\ &0.3115 x_{221}+0.0822 x_{222}+0.0532 x_{223}+0.0392 x_{225}+0.0000 x_{226} +\\ &0.0000 x_{227}+0.0000 x_{228}+0.0072 x_{229}+0.0664 x_{230}+0.0300 x_{231}+0.1076 x_{232} +\\ &0.0997 x_{233}+0.0118 x_{234}+0.0013 x_{235}+0.0000 x_{236}+0.0441 x_{237}+0.0208 x_{238} +\\ &0.0508 x_{241}+0.0389 x_{242}\\ \end{aligned} $$

SUBJECT TO

{DISTRIBUTION CONSTRAINTS:}

{Acacia acatlensis}

$$ \begin{aligned} &0.4702 x_{2}+0.7871 x_{12}+0.7778 x_{24}+0.5394 x_{25} +0.7597 x_{27}+0.2967 x_{40}+0.4812 x_{41} +\\ &0.4508 x_{42}+0.5155 x_{43}+0.5953 x_{60}+0.0930 x_{62} +0.2627 x_{75}+0.1398 x_{87}+0.8654 x_{112}\geq 0.1 \end{aligned} $$

...826 constraint inequalities in accordance with the distributions in Appendix 1...

{Zygia stevensonii}

$$ \begin{aligned} &0.2193 x_{19}+0.4704 x_{31}+0.2610 x_{34} +0.3079 x_{48}+0.8225 x_{49}+0.8372 x_{50}+0.0643 x_{63} +\\ &0.3177 x_{78}\geq 0.1 \end{aligned} $$

{CONSTRAINTS FOR SPECIES WITH A TOTAL EXTENSION SMALLER THAN 10% OF A SQUARE:}

   
Full size table

{CONSTRAINTS FOR FORCING LARGE EXISTISTING CONSERVATION AREAS INTO THE OPTIMAL SOLUTION:}

   
Full size table

{CONSTRAINTS THAT THE COEFFICIENTS SHALL BE PROPORTIONS, TAKING ON VALUES ONLY BETWEEN 0 AND 1:}

$$ \begin{aligned} &x_{1}\geq 0, x_{1a}\geq 0, x_{2}\geq 0,{\ldots}, x_{242}\geq 0\\ &x_{1}\leq 1, x_{1a}\leq 1, x_{2}\leq 1,{\ldots}, x_{242}\leq 1 \end{aligned} $$

Appendix 3: Tree species with restricted south-north range (1 square only)

Amphitecna regalis, A. steyermarkii, Anisocereus gaumeri, Antirhea lucida, Attalea butyracea, Bernardia spongiosa, B. wilburi, Bunchosia mcvaughii, Carpodiptera ameliae, Cassia hintonii, Ceiba grandiflora, Cordia bicolor, C. salvadorensis, Cyphomandra rojasiana, Ebenopsis ebano, Eremosis oolepis, Erythrina caribaea, Erythroxylum panamense, Esenbeckia flava, Eugenia sotoesparzae, Eupatorium galeottii, Hamelia longipes, Jacquinia arborea, Jatropha bullockii, Licania gonzalezii, L. mexicana, L. sparsipilis, Lonchocarpus cochleatus, L. hintonii, L. mutans, L. unifoliolatus, Malpighia novogaliciana, Mappia racemosa, Micropholis melinoniana, Mosiera contrerasii, Nectandra leucocome, N. purpurea, Nopalea inaperta, Opuntia excelsa, Parathesis conzattii, P. psychotrioides, Parmentiera parviflora, Pereskia lychnidiflora, Phyllanthus grandifolius, Pilosocereus gaumeri, Pinus jaliscana, P. maximartinezii, P. muricata, P. nelsoni, native germplasm of P. radiata, P. rzedowskii, Piranhea mexicana, Pourouma bicolor, Pouteria rhynchocarpa, P. squamosa, Prosopis glandulosa, Psychotria sarapiquensis, Quararibea fieldii, Rhacoma puberula, Rinorea deflexiflora, R. uxpanapana, Sebastiania tikalana, Sideroxylon eucoriaceum, S. excavatum, S. lanuginosum, S. peninsulare, Sloanea medusula, S. petenensis, Stenocereus eichlamii, S. laevigatus, and Xylosma velutinum.

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Ricker, M., Ramírez-Krauss, I., Ibarra-Manríquez, G. et al. Optimizing conservation of forest diversity: a country-wide approach in Mexico. Biodivers Conserv 16, 1927–1957 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-006-9112-z

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