Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Bioaerosols

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Indoor Air Quality

  • 156 Accesses

Abstract

The focus of this chapter are bioaerosols in indoor spaces. Bioaerosol refers to all particles of biological origin suspended in the air like plant and animal components, bacteria, fungi, and viruses. In this chapter mold, microbial volatile organic compounds (mVOC), mycotoxins, viruses, inhalation allergens, endotoxins, and viruses are presented individually in detail. In addition to a brief description of the chemical–physical characteristics and the use of the substance, an overview of main health risks and, in particular, references to further scientific literature are given. In the foreground, however, are extensive presentations of the occurrence of the substances in indoor air and in sedimented dust.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abramson SL, Turner-Henson A, Anderson L, Hemstreet MP, Tang S, Bartholomew LK, Joseph CLM, Tyrrell S, Clark NM, Ownby D (2006) Allergens in school settings: results of environmental assessments in 3 city school systems. J Sch Health 76:246–249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Afanou AK, Straumfors A, Eduard W (2019) Fungal aerosol composition in moldy basements. Indoor Air 29:780–790

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Akar-Ghibril N, Phipatanakul W (2020) The indoor environment and childhood asthma. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 20:43

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al Hallak M, Verdier T, Bertron A, Roques C, Bailly JD (2023) Fungal contamination of building materials and the aerosolization of particles and toxins in indoor air and their associated risks to health: a review. Toxins (Basel) 15:175

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allermann L, Wilkins CK, Madsen AM (2006) Inflammatory potency of dust from the indoor environment and correlation to content of NAGase and fungi. Toxicol In Vitro 20:1522–1531

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Almqvist C, Larsson PH, Egmar AC, Hedrén M, Malmberg P, Wickman M (1999) School as a risk environment for children allergic to cats and a site for transfer of cat allergen to homes. J Allergy Clin Immunol 103:1012–1017

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Amr S, Bollinger ME, Myers M, Hamilton RG, Weiss SR, Rossman M, Osborne L, Timmins S, Kimes DS, Levine ER, Blaisdell CJ (2003) Environmental allergens and asthma in urban elementary schools. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 90:34–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andrejko KL, Pry JM, Myers JF, Fukui N, DeGuzman JL, Openshaw J, Watt JP, Lewnard JA, Jain S (2022) Effectiveness of face mask or respirator use in indoor public settings for prevention of SARS-CoV-2 infection. MMWR 71:212–216

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Araki A, Kanazawa A, Kawai T, Eitaki Y, Morimoto K, Nakayama K, Shibata E, Tanaka M, Takigawa T, Yoshimura T, Chikara H, Saijo Y, Kishi R (2012) The relationship between exposure to microbial volatile organic compound and allergy prevalence in single-family homes. Sci Total Environ 423:18–26

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arbes Jr SJ, Cohn RD, Yin M, Muilenberg ML, Friedman W, Zeldin DC (2004) Dog allergen (Can f 1) and cat allergen (Fel d 1) in US homes: results from the National Survey of Lead and Allergens in Housing. J Allergy Clin Immunol 114:111–117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arbes SJ, Sever M, Mehta J, Collette N, Thomas B, Zeldin DC (2005) Exposure to indoor allergens in day-care facilities: results from 2 North Carolina counties. J Allergy Clin Immunol 116:133–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asadi S, Wexler AS, Cappa CD, Barreda S, Bouvier NM, Ristenpart WD (2019) Aerosol emission and superemission during human speech increase with voice loudness. Sci Rep 9:2348

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Augustyniuk-Kram A, Dmowska E (2013) Spectrum and concentration of culturable fungi in house dust from flats in Warsaw, Poland. Aerosol Air Qual Res 13:1438–1447

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bari MA, MacNeill M, Kindzierski WB, Wallace L, Héroux M-E, Wheeler AJ (2014) Predictors of coarse particulate matter and associated endotoxin concentrations in residential environments. Atmos Environ 92:221–230

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barnig C, Reboux G, Roussel S, Casset A, Sohy C, Dalphin JC, de Blay F (2013) Indoor dust and air concentrations of endotoxin in urban and rural environments. Lett Appl Microbiol 56:161–167

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett KH, Kennedy SM, Brauer M, Van Netten C, Dill B (2004) Evaluation and a predictive model of airborne fungal concentrations in school classrooms. Ann Occup Hyg 48:547–554

    Google Scholar 

  • Becher L, Gena AW, Alsaad H, Richter B, Spahn C, Voelker C (2021) The spread of breathing air from wind instruments and singers using schlieren techniques. Indoor Air 31:1798–1814

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett JW, Klich M (2003) Mycotoxins. Clin Microbiol Rev 16:497–516

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Birmili W, Selinka H-C, Moriske H-J, Daniels A, Straff W (2021) Ventilation concepts in schools for the prevention of transmission of highly infectious viruses (SARSCoV-2) by aerosols in indoor air. Bundesgesundheitsbl 64:1570–1580

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bloom E, Bal K, Nyman E, Must A, Larsson L (2007) Mass spectrometry-based strategy for direct detection and quantification of some mycotoxins produced by Stachybotrys and Aspergillus spp. in indoor environments. Appl Environ Microbiol 73:4211–4217

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bloom E, Nyman E, Must A, Pehrson C, Larsson L (2009a) Molds and mycotoxins in indoor environments – a survey in water-damaged buildings. J Occup Environ Hyg 6:671–678

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bloom E, Grimsley LF, Pehrson C, Lewis J, Larsson L (2009b) Molds and mycotoxins in dust from water-damaged homes in New Orleans after hurricane Katrina. Indoor Air 19:153–158

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bluyssen PM, Ortiz M, Zhang D (2021) The effect of a mobile HEPA filter system on ‘infectious’ aerosols, sound and air velocity in the SenseLab. Build Environ 188:107475

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bollinger ME, Eggleston PA, Flanagan E, Wood RA (1996) Cat antigen in homes with and without cats may induce allergic symptoms. J Allergy Clin Immunol 97:907–914

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borges JT, Nakada LYK, Maniero MG, Guimarães JR (2021) SARS-CoV-2: a systematic review of indoor air sampling for virus detection. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 28:40460–40473

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bos LDJ, Sterk PJ, Schultz MJ (2013) Volatile metabolites of pathogens: a systematic review. PLoS Pathog 9:e1003311

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bose S, Rivera-Mariani F, Chen R, Williams D, Belli A, Aloe C, McCormack MC, Breysse PN, Hansel NN (2016) Domestic exposure to endotoxin and respiratory morbidity in former smokers with COPD. Indoor Air 26:734–742

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Böttcher MF, Björkstén B, Gustafson S, Voor T, Jenmalm MC (2003) Endotoxin levels in Estonian and Swedish house dust and atopy in infancy. Clin Exp Allergy 33:295–300

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brasel TL, Douglas DR, Wilson SC, Straus DC (2005) Detection of airborne Stachybotrys chartarum macrocyclic trichothecene mycotoxins on particulates smaller than conidia. Appl Environ Microbiol 71:114–122

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Breysse PN, Buckley TJ, Williams DA, Beck CM, Jo S-J, Merriman B, Kanchanaraksa S, Swartz LJ, Callahan KA, Butz AM, Rand CS, Diette GB, Krishnan JA, Moseley AM, Curtin-Brosnan J, Durkin NB, Eggleston PA (2005) Indoor exposures to air pollutants and allergens in the homes of asthmatic children in inner-city Baltimore. Environ Res 98:167–176

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carreiro-Martins P, Papoila AL, Caires I, Azevedo S, Cano MM, Virella D, Leiria-Pinto P, Teixeira JP, Rosado-Pinto J, Annesi-Maesano I, Neuparth N (2016) Effect of indoor air quality of day care centers in children with different predisposition for asthma. Ped Allergy Immunol 27:299–306

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casas L, Tischer C, Wouters IM, Valkonen M, Gehring U, Doekes G, Torrent M, Pekkanen J, Garcia-Esteban R, Hyvärinen A, Heinrich J, Sunyer J (2013) Endotoxin, extracellular polysaccharides, and β(1-3)-glucan concentrations in dust and their determinants in four European birth cohorts: results from the HITEA project. Indoor Air 23:208–218

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Casley LS, Godec T, Logan JG, Pearce JC, Smith HMP, Stewart SA, Dewhirst SY (2018) How clean is your house? A study of house dust mites, allergens and other contents of dust samples collected from households. Int J Environ Health Res 28:341–357

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charpin-Kadouch C, Maurel FR, Queralt J, Ramadour M, Dumon H, Garans M, Botta A, Charpin D (2006) Mycotoxin identification in moldy dwellings. J Appl Toxicol 26:475–479

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chen Q, Hildemann LM (2009) Size-resolved concentrations of particulate matter and bioaerosols inside versus outside of homes. Aerosol Sci Technol 43:699–713

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng VCC, Chen JHK, Yip CCY, Wong S-C, Chuang VWM, Tsang OTY, Sridhar S, Chan JFW, Ho P-L, Yuen K-Y (2020) Escalating infection control response to the rapidly evolving epidemiology of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) due to SARS-CoV-2 in Hong Kong. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 41:493–498

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chia PY, Coleman KK, Tan YK, Ong SWX, Gum M, Lau SK, Lim XF, Lim AS, Sutjipto S, Lee PH, Son TT, Young BE, Milton DK, Gray GC, Schuster S, Barkham T, De PP, Vasoo S, Chan M, Ang BSP, Tan BH, Leo YS, Ng OT, Wong MSY, Marimuthu K (2020) Detection of air and surface contamination by SARS-CoV-2 in hospital rooms of infected patients. Nat Commun 11:2800

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chirizzi D, Conte M, Feltracco M, Dinoi A, Gregoris E, Barbaro E, La Bella G, Ciccarese G, La Salandra G, Gambaro A, Contini D (2021) SARS-CoV-2 concentrations and virus-laden aerosol size distributions in outdoor air in north and south of Italy. Environ Int 146:106255

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cho SJ, Ramachandran G, Grengs J, Ryan AD, Eberly LE, Adgate JL (2008) Longitudinal evaluation of allergen and culturable fungal concentrations in inner-city households. J Occup Environ Hyg 5:107–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choi H, Schmidbauer N, Bornehag CG (2017) Volatile organic compounds of possible microbial origin and their risks on childhood asthma and allergies within damp homes. Environ Int 98:143–151

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chu DK, Akl EA, Duda S, Solo K, Yaacoub S, Schünemann HJ (2020) Physical distancing, face masks, and eye protection to prevent person-to-person transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 395:1973–1987

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cowger TL, Murray EJ, Clarke J, Bassett MT, Ojikutu BO, Sánchez SM, Linos N, Hall KT (2022) Lifting universal Mmsking in schools – Covid-19 incidence among students and staff. N Engl J Med 387:1935–1946

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox J, Mbareche H, Lindsley WG, Duchaine C (2020) Field sampling of indoor bioaerosols. Aerosol Sci Technol 54:572–584

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Csobod E, Annesi-Maesano I, Carrer P, Kephalopoulos S, Madureira J, Rudnai P, de Oliveira Fernandes E (2014) SINPHONIE. Schools indoor pollution and Health. Final Report, EUR 26738. https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC91160

  • Custovic A, Green R, Taggart SC, Smith A, Pickering CA, Chapman MD, Woodcock A (1996) Domestic allergens in public places. II: Dog (Can f1) and cockroach (Bla g 2) allergens in dust and mite, cat, dog and cockroach allergens in the air in public buildings. Clin Exp Allergy 26:1246–1252

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Custovic A, Simpson A, Pahdi H, Green RM, Chapman MD, Woodcock A (1998) Distribution, aerodynamic characteristics, and removal of the major cat allergen Fel d 1 in British homes. Thorax 53:33–38

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Custovic A, Simpson B, Simpson A, Hallam C, Craven M, Woodcock A (1999) Relationship between mite, cat, and dog allergens in reservoir dust and ambient air. Allergy 54:612–616

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cyprowski M, BuczyÅ„ska A, Szadkowska-StaÅ„czyk I (2013) Indoor allergens in settled dust from kindergartens in city of Lódz, Poland. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 26:890–899

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dales R, Miller D, Ruest K, Guay M, Judek S (2006) Airborne endotoxin is associated with respiratory illness in the first 2 years of life. Environ Health Perspect 114:610–614

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dassonville C, Demattei C, Vacquier B, Bex-Capelle V, Seta N, Momas I (2008) Indoor airborne endotoxin assessment in homes of Paris newborn babies. Indoor Air 18:480–487

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Blay F, Heymann PW, Chapman MD, Platts-Mills TAE (1991) Airborne dust mite allergens: comparison of group II allergens with group I mite allergen and cat-allergen Fe/d I. J Allerg Clin Immunol 88:919–926

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Gier B, Andeweg S, Backer JA, RIVM COVID-19 surveillance and epidemiology team, Hahné SJ, van den Hof S, de Melker HE, Knol MJ (2021) Vaccine effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2 transmission to household contacts during dominance of Delta variant (B.1.617.2), the Netherlands. Euro Surveill 26:2100977

    Google Scholar 

  • DECOS (2010) Endotoxins. Health-based recommended occupational exposure limit. The Hague, The Netherlands. https://www.healthcouncil.nl/documents/advisory-reports/2010/07/15/endotoxins-health-based-recommended-occupational-exposure-limit

    Google Scholar 

  • Degen GH, Partosc F, Muñoz K, Gundert-Remy U (2017) Daily uptake of mycotoxins – TDI might not be protective for nursed infants. Toxicol Lett 277:69–75

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Delfino RJ, Staimer N, Tjoa T, Gillen DL (2015) Relations of exhaled nitric oxide and FEV1 to personal endotoxin exposure in schoolchildren with asthma. Occup Environ Med 72:830–836

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ding Z, Qian H, Xu B, Huang Y, Miao T, Yen HL, Xiao S, Cui L, Wu X, Shao W, Song Y, Sha L, Zhou L, Xu Y, Zhu B, Li Y (2021) Toilets dominate environmental detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in a hospital. Sci Total Environ 753:141710

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dinoi A, Feltracco M, Chirizzi D, Trabucco S, Conte M, Gregoris E, Barbaro E, La Bella G, Ciccarese G, Belosi F, La Salandra G, Gambaro A, Contini D (2022) A review on measurements of SARS-CoV-2 genetic material in air in outdoor and indoor environments: Implication for airborne transmission. Sci Total Environ 809:151137

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Döhla M, Wilbring G, Schulte B, Kümmerer BM, Diegmann C, Siba E, Richter E, Haag A, Engelhart S, Eis-Hübinger AM, Exner M, Streeck H, Schmithausen RM (2020) SARS-CoV-2 in environmental samples of quarantined households. medRxiv preprint https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.28.20114041

  • Douwes J (2005) (1 fi 3)-b-D-glucans and respiratory health: a review of the scientific evidence. Indoor Air 15: 160–169

    Google Scholar 

  • Du C, Li B, Yu W (2021) Indoor mould exposure: Characteristics, influences and corresponding associations with built environment—a review. J Build Eng 35:101983

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duchaine C (2016) Assessing microbial decontamination of indoor air with particular focus on human pathogenic viruses. Am J Infect Control 44:S121–S126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dybendal T, Elsayed S (1994) Dust from carpeted and smooth floors. VI. Allergens in homes compared with those in schools in Norway. Allergy 49:210–216

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EASA/ECDC (European Union Aviation Safety Agency, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control) (2021) COVID-19 Aviation Health Safety Protocol Operational guidelines for the management of air passengers and aviation personnel in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic. Issue No: 03. https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/Joint%20EASA-ECDC-Aviation-Health-Safety-Protocol-issue-3-17-June-2021.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  • ECDC (European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control) (2020) Risk assessment guidelines for infectious diseases transmitted on aircraft (RAGIDA). Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Stockholm, Sweden. https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/risk-assessment-guidelines-infectious-diseases-transmitted-aircraft-ragida-middle

    Google Scholar 

  • Eduard W (2009) Fungal spores: a critical review of the toxicological and epidemiological evidence as a basis for occupational exposure limit setting. Crit Rev Toxicol 39:799–864

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EFSA (2020) Mykotoxins. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/mycotoxins

  • Engelhart S, Loock A, Skutlarek D, Sagunski H, Lommel A, Färber H, Exner M (2002a) Occurrence of toxigenic Aspergillus versicolor isolates and sterigmatocystin in carpet dust from damp indoor environments. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:3886–3890

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Engelhart S, Bieber T, Exner M (2002b) House dust mite allergen levels in German day-care centers. Int J Hyg Environ Health 205:453–457

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ertl H, Portner C, Plegge V, Teutenberg T, Türk J, Butte W (2007) Quantification of 7 mycotoxins in house dust by HPLC-MS/MS and MSn screening for mold markers as well as other toxins. Poster

    Google Scholar 

  • Escobedo LE, Champion WM, Li N, Montoya LD (2014) Indoor air quality in Latino homes in Boulder, Colorado. Atmos Environ 92:69–75

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fakunle AG, Jafta N, Naidoo RN, Smit LAM (2021) Association of indoor microbial aerosols with respiratory symptoms among under-five children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Health 20:77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fan L, Han X, Wang X, Li L, Gong S, Qi J, Li X, Ge T, Liu H, Ye D, Cao Y, Liu M, Sun Z, Su L, Yao X, Wang X (2021a) Levels, distributions and influential factors of residential airborne culturable bacteria in 12 Chinese cities: multicenter on-site survey among dwellings. Environ Res 212(Pt C):113425

    Google Scholar 

  • Fan L, Wang J, Yang Y, Yang W, Zhu Y, Zhang Y, Li L, Li X, Yan X, Yao X, Wang L, Wang X (2021b) Airborne culturable fungi under general living scenario: on-site investigation in 12 typical cities, China. Environ Int 155:106669

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Faridi S, Niazi S, Sadeghi K, Naddafi K, Yavarian J, Shamsipour M, Jandaghi NZS, Sadeghniiat K, Nabizadeh R, Yunesian M, Momeniha F, Mokamel A, Hassanvand MS, Mokhtari AT (2020) A field indoor air measurement of SARSCoV-2 in the patient rooms of the largest hospital in Iran. Sci Total Environ 725:138401

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farokhi A, Heederik D, Smit LAM (2018) Respiratory health effects of exposure to low levels of airborne endotoxin – a systematic review. Environ Health 17:14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fears AC, Klimstra WB, Duprex P, Hartman A, Weaver SC, Plante KS, Mirchandani D, Plante JA, Aguilar PV, Fernández D, Nalca A, Totura A, Dyer D, Kearney B, Lackemeyer M, Bohannon JK, Johnson R, Garry RF, Reed DS, Roy CJ (2020) Persistence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in aerosol suspensions. Emerg Infect Dis 26:2168–2171

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fiedler K, Schütz E, Geh S (2001) Detection of microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOCs) produced by moulds on various materials. Int J Hyg Environ Health 204:111–121

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Foarde K, Berry M (2004) Comparison of biocontaminant levels associated with hard vs. carpet floors in nonproblem schools: results of a year long study. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 14:S41–S48

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foster A, Kinzel M (2021) Estimating COVID-19 exposure in a classroom setting: a comparison between mathematical and numerical models. Phys Fluids (1994) 33:021904

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fox A, Harley W, Feigley C, Salzberg D, Toole C, Sebastian A, Larsson L (2005) Large particles are responsible for elevated bacterial marker levels in school air upon occupation. J Environ Monit 7:450–456

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Frankel M, Beko G, Timm M, Gustavsen S, Hansen EW, Madsen AM (2012) Seasonal variations of indoor microbial exposures and their relation to temperature, relative humidity, and air exchange rate. Appl Environ Microbiol 78:8289–8297

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fromme H, Heitmann D, Dietrich S, Schierl R, Körner W, Kiranoglu M, Zapf A, Twardella D (2008) Air quality in schools – classroom levels of carbon dioxide (CO2), volatile organic compounds (VOC), aldehydes, endotoxins and cat allergen. Gesundheitswesen 70:88–97. [in German]

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fromme H, Bischof W, Dietrich S, Lahrz T, Schierl R, Schwegler U (2013) Airborne allergens, endotoxins, and particulate matter in elementary schools, results from Germany (LUPE 2). J Occup Environ Hyg 10:573–582

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fromme H, Gareis M, Völkel W, Gottschalk C (2016) Overall internal exposure to mycotoxins and their occurrence in occupational and residential settings – an overview. Int J Hyg Environ Health 219:143–165

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Furuse Y, Sando E, Tsuchiya N, Miyahara R, Yasuda I, Ko YK, Saito M, Morimoto K, Imamura T, Shobugawa Y, Nagata S, Jindai K, Imamura T, Sunagawa T, Suzuki M, Nishiura H, Oshitani H (2020) Clusters of coronavirus disease in communities, Japan, January–April 2020. Emerg Infect Dis 26:2176–2179

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gehring U, Douwes J, Doekes G, Koch A, Bischof W, Fahlbusch B, Richter K, Wichmann H-E, Heinrich J (2001) β(1→3)-glucan in house dust of German homes: housing characteristics, occupant behavior, and relations with endotoxins, allergens, and molds. Environ Health Perspect 109:139–144

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gehring U, Wijga AH, Koppelman GH, Vonk JM, Smit HA, Brunekreef B (2020) House dust endotoxin, asthma and allergic sensitization through childhood into adolescence. Clin Exp Allergy 50:1055–1064

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gent JF, Kezik JM, Hill ME, Tsai E, Li DW, Leaderer BP (2012) Household mold and dust allergens: exposure, sensitization and childhood asthma morbidity. Environ Res 118:86–93

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh B, Lal H, Srivastava A (2015) Review of bioaerosols in indoor environment with special reference to sampling, analysis and control mechanisms. Environ Int 85:254–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giovannangelo MECA, Gehring U, Nordling E, Oldenwening M, van Rijswijk K, de Wind S, Hoek G, Heinrich J, Bellander T, Brunekreef B (2007) Levels and determinants of β(1→3)-glucans and fungal extracellular polysaccharides in house dust of (pre-)schoolchildren in three European countries. Environ Int 33:9–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gottschalk C, Bauer J, Meyer K (2008) Detection of satratoxin G and H in indoor air from a water-damaged building. Mycopathologia 166:103–107

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guo ZD, Wang ZY, Zhang SF, Li X, Li L, Li C, Cui Y, Fu RB, Dong YZ, Chi XY, Zhang MY, Liu K, Cao C, Liu B, Zhang K, Gao YW, Lu B, Chen W (2020) Aerosol and surface distribution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in hospital wards, Wuhan, China. Emerg Infect Dis 26:1583–1591

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haines SR, Hall EC, Marciniak K, Misztal PK, Goldstein AH, Adams RI, Dannemiller KC (2021) Microbial growth and volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from carpet and drywall under elevated relative humidity conditions. Microbiome 9:209

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hammond A, Khalid T, Thornton HV, Woodall CA, Hay AD (2021) Should homes and workplaces purchase portable air filters to reduce the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and other respiratory infections? A systematic review. PLoS One 16:e0251049

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hamner L, Dubbel P, Capron I, Ross A, Jordan A, Lee J, Lynn J, Ball A, Narwal S, Russell S, Patrick D, Leibrand H (2020) High SARS-CoV-2 attack rate following exposure at a choir practice – Skagit County, Washington, March 2020. MMWR 69:606–610

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heinrich J, Hölscher B, Douwes J, Richter K, Koch A, Bischof W, Fahlbusch B, Kinne RW, Wichmann HE (2003) Reproducibility of allergen, endotoxin and fungi measurements in the indoor environment. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 13:152–160

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heinzerling LM, Burbach GJ, Edenharter G, Bachert C, Bindslev-Jensen C, Bonini S, Bousquet J, Bousquet-Rouanet L, Bousquet PJ, Bresciani M, Bruno A, Burney P, Canonica GW, Darsow U, Demoly P, Durham S, Fokkens WJ, Giavi S, Gjomarkaj M, Gramiccioni C, Haahtela T, Kowalski ML, Magyar P, Muraközi G, Orosz M, Papadopoulos NG, Röhnelt C, Stingl G, Todo-Bom A, von Mutius E, Wiesner A, Wöhrl S, Zuberbier T (2009) GA(2)LEN skin test study I: GA(2)LEN harmonization of skin prick testing: novel sensitization patterns for inhalant allergens in Europe. Allergy 64:1498–1506

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holme JA, Øya E, Afanou AKJ, Øvrevik J, Eduard W (2020) Characterization and pro-inflammatory potential of indoor mold particles. Indoor Air 30:662–681

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holst G, Høst A, Doekes G, Meyer HW, Madsen AM, Sigsgaard T (2015) Determinants of house dust, endotoxin, and β-(1→3)-D-glucan in homes of Danish children. Indoor Air 25:245–259

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holst GJ, Pørneki A, Lindgreen J, Thuesen B, Bønløkke J, Hyvärinen A, Elholm G, Østergaard K, Loft S, Brooks C, Douwes J, Linneberg A, Sigsgaard T (2020) Household dampness and microbial exposure related to allergy and respiratory health in Danish adults. Eur Clin Respir J 7:1706235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horick N, Weller E, Milton DK, Gold DR, Li R, Spiegelman D (2006) Home endotoxin exposure and wheeze in infants: correction for bias due to exposure measurement error. Environ Health Perspect 114:135–140

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horstman R, Rahai H (2021) A risk assessment of an airborne disease inside the cabin of a passenger airplane. SAE Int J Adv Curr Prac Mobility 3:1263–1271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyvärinen A, Roponen M, Tiittanen P, Laitinen S, Nevalainen A, Pekkanen J (2006) Dust sampling methods for endotoxin – an essential, but underestimated issue. Indoor Air 16:20–27

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IATA (International Air Transport Association, Medical Advisory Group) (2020) Restarting aviation following COVID-19. Medical evidence for various strategies being discussed as at 25 May 2020. https://www.iata.org/contentassets/f1163430bba94512a583eb6d6b24aa56/covid-medical-evidence-for-strategies-200525.pdf

  • IATA (2022) COVID-19: A summary of current medical evidence relevant to air travel. Version 13–28 April 2022. IATA Medical Advisor/Medical Advisory Group. https://www.iata.org/globalassets/iata/programs/covid/restart/covid-public-health-meausures-evidence-doc.pdf

  • JakÅ¡ić D, Sertić M, Kifer D, Kocsubè S, Mornar Turk A, Nigović B, Å arkanj B, Krska R, Sulyok M, Å egvić KM (2021) Fungi and their secondary metabolites in water-damaged indoors after a major flood event in eastern Croatia. Indoor Air 31:730–744

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jang S, Han SH, Rhee J-Y (2020) Cluster of coronavirus disease associated with fitness dance classes, South Korea. Emerg Infect Dis 26:1917–1920

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis BB, Miller J (2005) Mycotoxins as harmful indoor air contaminants. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 66:367–372

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jefferson T, Del Mar CB, Dooley L, Ferroni E, Al-Ansary LA, Bawazeer GA (2011) Physical interventions to interrupt or reduce the spread of respiratory viruses. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 7

    Google Scholar 

  • Jiang Y, Zhao B, Li X, Yang X, Zhang Z, Zhang Y (2009) Investigating a safe ventilation rate for the prevention of indoor SARS transmission: an attempt based on a simulation approach. Build Simul 2:281–289

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jovanovic S, Felder-Kennel A, Gabrio T, Kouros B, Link B, Maisner V, Piechotowski I, Schick KH, Schrimpf M, Weidner U, Zollner I, Schwenk. (2004) Indoor fungi levels in homes of children with and without allergy history. Int J Hyg Environ Health 207:369–378

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karlsson A-S, Renström A, Hedrén M, Larsson K (2004) Allergen avoidance does not alter airborne cat allergen levels in classrooms. Allergy 59:661–667

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasel U, Wichmann G, Bleck M (1999) Ochratoxin A in house dust. Umweltmed Forsch Prax 4:301–303. [in German]

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim JL, Elfman L, Mi Y, Johansson M, Smedje G, Norbäck D (2005) Current asthma and respiratory symptoms among pupils in relation to dietary factors and allergens in the school environment. Indoor Air 15:170–182

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim Y, Ryu H, Lee S (2018) Agent-based modeling for super-spreading events: a case study of MERS-CoV transmission dynamics in the Republic of Korea. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15:2369

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirchner S, Derbez M, Duboudin C, Elias P, Gregoire A, Lucas J-P, Pasquier N, Ramalho O, Weiss N (2008) Indoor air quality in French dwellings. Proceedings Indoor Air 2008, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitagawa H, Nomura T, Kaiki Y, Kakimoto M, Nazmul T, Omori K, Shigemoto N, Sakaguchi T, Ohge H (2022) Viable SARS-CoV-2 detected in the air of hospital rooms of COVID-19 patients with early infection. Int J Infect Dis 7:S1201-9712(22)00589-6

    Google Scholar 

  • Klompas M, Milton DK, Rhee C, Baker MA, Leekha S (2021) Current insights into respiratory virus transmission and potential implications for infection control programs: a narrative review. Ann Intern Med 174:1710–1718

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kojima R, Shinohara R, Kushima M, Horiuchi S, Otawa S, Miyake K, Yokomichi H, Akiyama Y, Ooka T, Yamagata Z (2022) Exposure to House Dust Mite allergen and endotoxin in early life and sensitization and allergicrRhinitis: the JECS. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19:14796

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korpi A, Järnberg J, Pasanen A-L (2009) Microbial volatile organic compounds. Crit Rev Toxicol 39:139–193

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kotwa JD, Jamal AJ, Mbareche H, Yip L, Aftanas P, Barati S, Bell NG, Bryce E, Coomes E, Crowl G, Duchaine C, Faheem A, Farooqi L, Hiebert R, Katz K, Khan S, Kozak R, Li AX, Mistry HP, Mozafarihashjin M, Nasir JA, Nirmalarajah K, Panousis EM, Paterson A, Plenderleith S, Powis J, Prost K, Schryer R, Taylor M, Veillette M, Wong T, Zhong XZ, Mc Arthur AG, Mc Geer AJ, Mubareka S (2021) Surface and air contamination with SARS-CoV-2 from hospitalized COVID-19 patients in Toronto, Canada, March–May 2020. J Infect Dis Nov 27: jiab578

    Google Scholar 

  • Laußmann D, Eis D, Schleibinger H (2004) Comparison of mycological and chemical-analytical laboratory methods for the detection of mold infestations in indoor spaces. Bundesgesundheitsbl 47:1078–1094. [in German]

    Google Scholar 

  • Lednicky JA, Lauzardo M, Fan ZH, Jutla A, Tilly TB, Gangwar M, Usmani M, Shankar SN, Mohamed K, Eiguren-Fernandez A, Stephenson CJ, Alam MM, Elbadry MA, Loeb JC, Subramaniam K, Waltzek TB, Cherabuddi K, Morris Jr JG, Wu CY (2020) Viable SARS-CoV-2 in the air of a hospital room with COVID-19 patients. Int J Infect Dis 100:476–482

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee T, Grinshpun SA, Martuzevicius D, Adhikari A, Crawford CM, Luo J, Reponen T (2006) Relationship between indoor and outdoor bio-aerosols collected with a button inhalable aerosol sampler in urban homes. Indoor Air 16:37–47

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lei H, Li Y, Xiao S, Lin C-H, Norris SL, Wei D, Hu Z, Ji S (2018) Routes of transmission of influenza A H1N1, SARS CoV, and norovirus in air cabin: comparative analyses. Indoor Air 28:394–403

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leitmeyer K, Adlhoch C (2016) Review article: influenza transmission on aircraft – a systematic literature review. Epidemiology 27:743–751

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leung TF, Wong YS, Chan IH, Yung E, Sy HY, Lam CW, Wong GW (2011) Domestic exposure to aeroallergens in Hong Kong families with asthmatic children. Pediatr Pulmonol 46:632–639

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leung NHL, Chu DKW, Shiu EYC, Chan KH, McDevitt JJ, Hau BJP, Yen HL, Li Y, Ip DKM, Peiris JSM, Seto WH, Leung GM, Milton DK, Cowling BJ (2020) Respiratory virus shedding in exhaled breath and efficacy of face masks. Nat Med 26:676–680

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li L, Niu M, Zhu Y (2021) Assessing the effectiveness of using various face coverings to mitigate the transport of airborne particles produced by coughing indoors. Aerosol Sci Technol 55:332–312

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liebers V, Brüning T, Raulf M (2020) Occupational endotoxin exposure and health effects. Arch Toxicol 94:3629–3644

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Linde KJ, Wouters IM, Kluytmans JAJW, Kluytmans-van den Bergh MFQ, Pas SD, Geurtsvan Kessel CH, Koopmans MPG, Meier M, Meijer P, Raben CR, Spithoven J, Tersteeg-Zijderveld MHG, Heederik DJJ, Dohmen W, COCON Consortium (2022) Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in air and on surfaces in rooms of infected nursing home residents. Ann Work Expo. Health 7:wxac056

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindemann V, Schmidt J, Cramer B, Humpf HU (2022) Detection of mycotoxins in highly matrix-loaded house-dust samples by QTOF-HRMS, IM-QTOF-HRMS, and TQMS: advantages and disadvantages. Anal Chem 94:4209–4217

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindsley WG, Blachere FM, Davis KA, Pearce TA, Fisher MA, Khakoo R, Davis SM, Rogers ME, Thewlis RE, Posada JA, Redrow JB, Celik IB, Chen BT, Beezhold DH (2010) Distribution of airborne influenza virus and respiratory syncytial virus in an urgent care medical clinic. Clin Infect Dis 50:693–698

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindsley WG, Pearce TA, Hudnall JB, Davis KA, Davis SM, Fisher MA, Khakoo R, Palmer JE, Clark KE, Celik I, Coffey CC, Blachere FM, Beezhold DH (2012) Quantity and size distribution of cough-generated aerosol particles produced by influenza patients during and after illness. J Occup Environ Hyg 9:443–449

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lindsley WG, Blachere FM, Beezhold DH, Thewlis RE, Noorbakhsh B, Othumpangat S, Goldsmith WT, McMillen CM, Andrew ME, Burrell CN, Noti JD (2016) Viable influenza A virus in airborne particles expelled during coughs versus exhalations. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 10:404–413

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu H, Zhang Z, Wen N, Wang C (2018) Determination and risk assessment of airborne endotoxin concentrations in a university campus. J Aerosol Sci 115:146–157

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liu F, Qian H, Luo Z, Wang S, Zheng X (2020a) A laboratory study of the expiratory airflow and particle dispersion in the stratified indoor environment. Build Environ 180:106988

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu Y, Ning Z, Chen Y, Guo M, Liu Y, Gali NK, Sun L, Duan Y, Cai J, Westerdahl D, Liu X, Xu K, Ho KF, Kan H, Fu Q, Lan K (2020b) Aerodynamic analysis of SARS-CoV-2 in two Wuhan hospitals. Nature 582:557–560

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lu R, Pørneki AD, Lindgreen JN, Li Y, Madsen AM (2021) Species of fungi and pollen in the PM1 and the inhalable fraction of indoor air in homes. Atmos 12:404

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ma J, Qi X, Chen H, Li X, Zhang Z, Wang H, Sun L, Zhang L, Guo J, Morawska L, Grinshpun SA, Biswas P, Flagan RC, Yao M (2020) Exhaled breath is a significant source of SARS-CoV-2 emission. medRxiv preprint https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.31.20115154

  • Madewell ZJ, Yang Y, Longini IM, Halloran ME, Dean NE (2020) Household transmission of SARS-CoV-2: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open 3:e2031756

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madureira J, Paciencia I, Rufo JC, Pereira C, Teixeira JP, de Oliveira Fernandes E (2015a) Assessment and determinants of airborne bacterial and fungal concentrations in different indoor environments: homes, child day-care centres, primary schools and elderly care centres. Atmos Environ 109:139–146

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Madureira J, Paciencia J, Rufo J, Ramos E, Barros H, Teixeira JP, de Oliveira Fernandes E (2015b) Indoor air quality in schools and its relationship with children’s respiratory symptoms. Atmos Environ 118:145–156

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mallach G, Kasloff SB, Kovesi T, Kumar A, Kulka R, Krishnan J, Robert B, McGuinty M, den Otter-Moore S, Yazji B, Cutts T (2021) Aerosol SARS-CoV-2 in hospitals and long-term care homes during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLoS One 16:e0258151

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mangili A, Gendreau MA (2005) Transmission of infectious diseases during commercial air travel. Lancet 365:989–996

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matysik S, Herbarth O, Mueller A (2009) Determination of microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOCs) by passive sampling onto charcoal sorbents. Chemosphere 76:114–119

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mazique D, Diette GB, Breysse PN, Matsui EC, McCormack MC, Curtin-Brosnan J, Williams DL, Peng RD, Hansel NN (2011) Predictors of airborne endotoxin concentrations in inner city homes. Environ Res 111:614–617

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mendes A, Aelenei D, Luísa Papoila A, Carreiro-Martins P, Aguiar L, Pereira C, Neves P, Azevedo S, Cano M, Proença C, Viegas J, Silva S, Mendes D, Neuparth N, Teixeira JP (2014) Environmental and ventilation assessment in child day care centers in Porto: The Envirh Project. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A 77:931–943

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mendy A, Wilkerson J, Salo PM, Weir CH, Feinstein L, Zeldin DC, Thorne PS (2019) Synergistic association of house endotoxin exposure and ambient air pollution with asthma outcomes. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 200:712–720

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mendy A, Metwali N, Perry SS, Chrischilles EA, Wang K, Thorne PS (2020) Household endotoxin reduction in the Louisa Environmental Intervention Project for rural childhood asthma. Indoor Air 30:88–97

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Menetrez MY, Foarde KK, Esch RK, Schwartz TD, Dean TR, Hays MD, Cho SH, Betancourt DA, Moore SA (2009) An evaluation of indoor and outdoor biological particulate matter. Atmos Environ 43:5476–5483

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer HW, Suadicani P, Nielsen PA, Sigsgaard T, Gyntelberg F (2011) Moulds in floor dust – a particular problem in mechanically ventilated rooms? A study of adolescent schoolboys under the Danish moulds in buildings program. Scand J Work Environ Health 37:332–340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Misztal PK, Lymperopoulou DS, Adams RI, Scott RA, Lindow SE, Bruns T, Taylor JW, Uehling J, Bonito G, Vilgalys R, Goldstein AH (2018) Emission factors of microbial volatile organic compounds from environmental bacteria and fungi. Environ Sci Technol 52:8272–8282

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moniruzzaman S, Hägerhed Engman L, James P, Sigsgaard T, Thorne PS, Sundell J, Bornehag CG (2012) Levels of endotoxin in 390 Swedish homes: determinants and the risk for respiratory symptoms in children. Int J Environ Health Res 22:22–36

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morawska L, Tang JW, Bahnfleth W, Bluyssen PM, Boerstra A, Buonanno G, Cao J, Dancer S, Floto A, Franchimon F, Haworth C, Hogeling J, Isaxon C, Jimenez JL, Kurnitski J, Li Y, Loomans M, Marks G, Marr LC, Mazzarella L, Melikov AK, Miller S, Milton DK, Nazaroff W, Nielsen PV, Noakes C, Peccia J, Querol X, Sekhar C, Seppänen O, Tanabe SI, Tellier R, Tham KW, Wargocki P, Wierzbicka A, Yao M (2020) How can airborne transmission of COVID-19 indoors be minimised? Environ Int 142:105832

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mosch C, Gottschalk C, Gareis M, Völkel W, Fromme H (2015) Mycotoxins in house dust. Report of the Bayerischen Landesamtes für Gesundheit und Lebensmittelsicherheit. München, Germany. [in German]

    Google Scholar 

  • Moularat M, Hulin M, Robine E, Annesi-Maesano I, Caillaud D (2011) Airborne fungal volatile organic compounds in rural and urban dwellings. Detection of mould contamination in 94 homes determined by visual inspection and airborne fungal volatile organic compounds method. Sci Total Environ 409:2005–2009

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mousavi ES, Kananizadeh N, Martinello RA, Sherman JD (2021) COVID-19 Outbreak and hospital air quality: a systematic review of evidence on air filtration and recirculation. Environ Sci Technol 55:4134–4147

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muller N, Kunze M, Steitz F, Saad NJ, Mühlemann B, Beheim-Schwarzbach JI, Schneider J, Drosten C, Murajda L, Kochs S, Ruscher C, Walter J, Zeitlmann N, Corman VM (2020) Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 outbreak related to a nightclub, Germany, 2020. Emerg Infect Dis 27:645–648

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Munir AK, Einarsson R, Schou C, Dreborg SK (1993) Allergens in school dust. I. The amount of the major cat (Fel d I) and dog (Can f I) allergens in dust from Swedish schools is high enough to probably cause perennial symptoms in most children with asthma who are sensitized to cat and dog. J Allergy Clin Immunol 91:1067–1074

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Munir AKM, Einarsson R, Dreborg S (2003) Variability of airborne cat allergen, Fel d1, in a public place. Indoor Air 13:353–358

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muti D, Purohit A, Dazy A, Verot A, de Blay F (2012) Mouse (Mus m1) and rat (Rat n1) allergen levels in dust from private and public houses in Strasbourg, France are lower than houses in the U.S.A. Eur Ann Allergy Clin Immunol 44:93–95

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naclerio R, Ansotegui IJ, Bousquet J, Canonica GW, D'Amato G, Rosario N, Pawankar R, Peden D, Bergmann KC, Bielory L, Caraballo L, Cecchi L, Cepeda SAM, Chong Neto HJ, Galán C, Gonzalez Diaz SN, Idriss S, Popov T, Ramon GD, Ridolo E, Rottem M, Songnuan W, Rouadi P (2020) International expert consensus on the management of allergic rhinitis (AR) aggravated by air pollutants: impact of air pollution on patients with AR: Current knowledge and future strategies. World Allergy Organ J 13:100106

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann H-D (2011) Air quality and ventilation in schools. Gefahrst Reinh Luft 71:495–497. [in German]

    Google Scholar 

  • Neumann H-D, Buxtrup M, Sander A, Klus K (2018) Molds in sediment dust from classrooms. Gefahrst Reinh Luft 78:301–315. [in German]

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nevalainen A, Täubel M, Hyvärinen A (2015) Indoor fungi: companions and contaminants. Indoor Air 25:125–156

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Öder S, Weichenmeier I, Dietrich S, Schober W, Pusch G, Jörres RA, Schierl R, Nowak D, Fromme H, Behrendt H, Buters J (2012) Toxicity and elemental composition of particulate matter from outdoor and indoor air of elementary schools in Munich, Germany. Indoor Air 22:148–158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver J, Birmingham K, Crewes A, Weeks J, Carswell F (1995) Allergen levels in airborne and surface dust. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 107:452–453

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olsen SJ, Chang HL, Cheung TY, Tang AFY, Fisk TL, Ooi SPL, Kuo H-W, Jiang DD-S, Chen K-T, Lando J, Hsu K-H, Chen T-J, Dowell SF (2003) Transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome on aircraft. N Engl J Med 349:2416–2422

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oluwole O, Rennie DC, Senthilselvan A, Dyck R, Afanasieva A, Kirychuk S, Katselis G, Lawson JA (2018) The association between endotoxin and beta-(1→3)-D-glucan in house dust with asthma severity among schoolchildren. Respir Med 138:38–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ong SWX, Tan YK, Chia PY, Lee TH, Ng OT, Wong MSY, Marimuthu K (2020) Air, surface environmental, and personal protective equipment contamination by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) from a symptomatic patient. JAMA 323:1610–1612

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ong SWX, Tan YK, Coleman KK, Tan BH, Leo YS, Wang DL, Ng CG, Ng OT, Wong MSY, Marimuthu K (2021) Lack of viable severe acute respiratory coronavirus virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) among PCR-positive air samples from hospital rooms and community isolation facilities. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 42:1327–1332

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Otter JA, Donskey C, Yezli S, Douthwaite S, Goldenberg SD, Weber DJ (2016) Transmission of SARS and MERS coronaviruses and influenza virus in healthcare settings: the possible role of dry surface contamination. J Hospital Infect 92:235–250

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pan J, Harb C, Leng W, Marr LC (2021) Inward and outward effectiveness of cloth masks, a surgical mask, and a face shield. Aerosol Sci Technol 55:718–733

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Park JH, Spiegelman DL, Burge HA, Gold DR, Chew GL, Milton DK (2000) Longitudinal study of dust and airborne endotoxin in the home. Environ Health Perspect 108:1023–1028

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parker JA, Boles C, Buerger AN, Fung ES, Maier A (2021) Derivation of an occupational exposure limit for β-glucans. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 123:04959

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Passos RG, Silveira MB, Abrahão JS (2021) Exploratory assessment of the occurrence of SARS-CoV-2 in aerosols in hospital facilities and public spaces of a metropolitan center in Brazil. Environ Res 195:110808

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patchett K, Lewis S, Crane J, Fitzharris P (1997) Cat allergen (Fel d 1) levels on school children’s clothing and in primary school classrooms in Wellington, New Zealand. J Allergy Clin Immunol 100:755–759

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pavilonis BT, Anthony TR, O'Shaughnessy PT, Humann MJ, Merchant JA, Moore G, Thorne PS, Weisel CP, Sanderson WT (2013) Indoor and outdoor particulate matter and endotoxin concentrations in an intensely agricultural county. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 23:299–305

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Permaul P, Hoffman E, Fu C, Sheehan W, Baxi S, Gaffin J, Lane J, Bailey A, King E, Chapman M, Gold D, Phipatanakul W (2012) Allergens in urban schools and homes of children with asthma. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 23:543–549

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry TT, Vargas PA, Bufford J, Feild C, Flick M, Simpson PM, Hamilton RG, Jones SM (2008) Classroom aeroallergen exposure in Arkansas head start centers. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 100:358–363

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polizzi V, Delmulle B, Adams A, Moretti A, Susca A, Picco AM, Rosseel Y, Kindt R, Van Bocxlaer J, De Kimpe J, Van Peteghema C, De Saeger S (2009) JEM Spotlight: fungi, mycotoxins and microbial volatile organic compounds in mouldy interiors from water-damaged buildings. J Environ Monit 11:1849–1858

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Qian H, Miao T, Liu L, Zheng X, Luo D, Li Y (2021) Indoor transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Indoor Air 31:639–645

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rai S, Singh DK, Kumar A (2021) Microbial, environmental and anthropogenic factors influencing the indoor microbiome of the built environment. J Basic Microbiol 61:267–292

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raja S, Xu Y, Ferro AR, Jaques PA, Hopke PK (2010) Resuspension of indoor aeroallergens and relationship to lung inflammation in asthmatic children. Environ Int 36:8–14

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ramagopal M, Wang Z, Black K, Hernandez M, Stambler AA, Emoekpere OH, Mainelis G, Shalat SL (2014) Improved exposure characterization with robotic (PIPER) sampling and association with children’s respiratory symptoms, asthma and eczema. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 24:421–427

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rasuli L, Dehghani MH, Aghaei M, Mahvi AH, Mubarak NM, Karri RR (2022) Occurrence and fate of bacterial endotoxins in the environment (air, water, wastewater) and remediation technologies: an overview. Chemosphere 303(Pt 2):135089

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Razzini K, Castrica M, Menchetti L, Maggi L, Negroni L, Orfeo NV, Pizzoccheri A, Stocco M, Muttini S, Balzaretti CM (2020) SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection in the air and on surfaces in the COVID-19 ward of a hospital in Milan, Italy. Sci Total Environ 742:140540

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reponen T, Seo S-C, Grimsley F, Lee T, Crawford C, Grinshpun SA (2007) Fungal fragments in moldy houses: a field study in homes in New Orleans and Southern Ohio. Atmos Environ 41:8140–8149

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reponen T, Singh U, Schaffer C, Vesper S, Johansson E, Adhikari A, Grinshpun SA, Indugula R, Ryan P, Levin L, Lemasters G (2010) Visually observed mold and moldy odor versus quantitatively measured microbial exposure in homes. Sci Total Environ 408:5565–5574

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rering CC, Gaffke AM, Rudolph AB, Beck JJ, Alborn HAT (2020) A comparison of collection methods for microbial volatiles. Front Sustain Food Syst 4:598967

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ribaric NL, Vincent C, Jonitz G, Hellinger A, Ribaric G (2022) Hidden hazards of SARS-CoV-2 transmission in hospitals: a systematic review. Indoor Air 32:e12968

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Richard JL, Plattner RD, May J, Liska SL (1999) The occurrence of ochratoxin A in dust collected from a problem household. Mycopathologia 146:99–103

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roda C, Barral S, Ravelomanantsoa H, Dusseaux M, Tribout M, LeMoullec Y, Momasa I (2011) Assessment of indoor environment in Paris child daycare centers. Environ Res 111:1010–1017

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosca EC, Heneghan C, Spencer EA, Brassey J, Plüddemann A, Onakpoya IJ, Evans DH, Conly JM, Jefferson T (2021) Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 associated with aircraft travel: a systematic review. J Travel Med 28:taab133

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothe C, Schunk M, Sothmann P, Bretzel G, Froeschl G, Wallrauch C, Zimmer T, Thiel V, Janke C, Guggemos W, Seilmaier M, Drosten C, Vollmar P, Zwirglmaier K, Zange S, Wölfel R, Hoelscher M (2020) Transmission of 2019-nCoV infection from an asymptomatic contact in Germany. N Engl J Med 382:970–971

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruggieri S, Longo V, Perrino C, Canepari S, Drago G, L'Abbate L, Balzan M, Cuttitta G, Scaccianoce G, Minardi R, Viegi G, Cibella F (2019) Indoor air quality in schools of a highly polluted south Mediterranean area. Indoor Air 29:276–290

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan TJ, Beaucham C (2013) Dominant microbial volatile organic compounds in 23 US homes. Chemosphere 90:977–985

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rylander R (1999) Indoor air-related effects and airborne (1-3)-P3-D-glucan. Environ Health Perspect 107(Suppl 3):501–503

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sahlberg B, Gunnbjörnsdottir M, Soon A, Jogi R, Gislason T, Wieslander G, Janson C, Norback D (2013) Airborne molds and bacteria, microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOC), plasticizers and formaldehyde in dwellings in three North European cities in relation to sick building syndrome (SBS). Sci Total Environ 444:433–440

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saito R, Park J-H, LeBouf R, Green BJ, Park Y (2016) Measurement of macrocyclic trichothecene in floor dust of water-damaged buildings using gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry—dust matrix effects. J Occup Environ Hyg 13:442–450

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sakaguchi M, Inouye S, Irie T, Miyazawa H, Watanabe M, Yasueda H, Shida T, Nitta H, Chapman MD, Schou C, Aalberse RC (1993) Airborne cat (Fel d I), dog (Can f I), and mite (Der I and Der II) allergen levels in the homes of Japan. J Allergy Clin Immunol 92:797–802

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sakaguchi M, Inouye S, Sasaki R, Hashimoto M, Kobayashi C, Yasueda H (1996) Measurement of airborne mite allergen exposure in individual subjects. J Allergy Clin Immunol 97:1040–1044

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salo PM, Sever ML, Zeldin DC (2009) Indoor allergens in school and day care environments. J Allergy Clin Immunol 124:185–192

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salo PM, Wilkerson J, Rose KM, Cohn RD, Calatroni A, Mitchell HE, Sever ML, Gergen PJ, Thorne PS, Zeldin DC (2018) Bedroom allergen exposures in US households. J Allergy Clin Immunol 141:1870–1879

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salonen H, Duchaine C, Létourneau V, Mazaheri M, Laitinen S, Clifford S, Mikkola R, Lappalainen S, Reijula K, Morawska L (2016) Endotoxin levels and contribution factors of endotoxins in resident, school, and office environments—a review. Atmos Environ 142:360–369

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Santarpia JL, Rivera DN, Herrera V, Morwitzer MJ, Creager H, Santarpia GW, Crown KK, Brett-Major D, Schnaubelt E, Broadhurst MJ, Lawler JV, Reid SP, Lowe JJ (2020) Transmission potential of SARS-CoV-2 in viral shedding observed at the University of Nebraska Medical Center. medRxiv 2020.03.23.20039446

    Google Scholar 

  • Santarpia JL, Herrera VL, Rivera DN, Ratnesar-Shumate S, Reid SP, Ackerman DN, Denton PW, Martens JWS, Fang Y, Conoan N, Callahan MV, Lawler JV, Brett-Major DM, Lowe JJ (2022) The size and culturability of patient-generated SARS-CoV-2 aerosol. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 32:706–711

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sauni R, Uitti J, Jauhiainen M, Kreiss K, Sigsgaard T, Verbeek JH (2013) Remediating buildings damaged by dampness and mould for preventing or reducing respiratory tract symptoms, infections and asthma (Review). Evid Based Child Health 8:944–1000

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schijven J, Vermeulen LC, Swart A, Meijer A, Duizer E, de Roda Husman AM (2021) Exposure assessment for airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2 via breathing, speaking, coughing and sneezing. Environ Health Perspect 129:47002

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schleibinger H, Laussmann D, Bornehag CG, Eis D, Rueden H (2008) Microbial volatile organic compounds in the air of moldy and mold-free indoor environments. Indoor Air 18:113–124

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schuchardt S, Strube A (2009) Microbial volatile organic compounds in moldy interiors: A long-term climate chamber study. J Basic Microbiol 53:532–538

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz KL, Murti M, Finkelstein M, Leis JA, Fitzgerald-Husek A, Bourns L, Meghani H, Saunders A, Allen V, Yaffe B (2020) Lack of COVID-19 transmission on an international flight. CMAJ 192:E410

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sheehan WJ, Rangsithienchai PA, Muilenberg ML, Rogers CA, Lane JP, Ghaemghami J, Rivard DV, Otsu K, Hoffman EB, Israel E, Gold DR, Phipatanakul W (2009) Mouse allergens in urban elementary schools and homes of children with asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 102:125–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shinohara N, Hashimoto K, Kim H, Yoshida-Ohuchi H (2023) Fungi, mites/ticks, allergens, and endotoxins in different size fractions of house dust from long-term uninhabited houses and inhabited houses. Build Environ 229:109918

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shiu EYC, Huang W, Ye D, Xie Y, Mo J, Li Y, Cowling BJ, Yang Z, Leung NHL (2020) Frequent recovery of influenza A but not influenza B virus RNA in aerosols in pediatric patient rooms. Indoor Air 30:805–815

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Silva PG, Branco PTBS, Soares RRG, Mesquita JR, Sousa SIV (2022) SARS-CoV-2 air sampling: a systematic review on the methodologies for detection and infectivity. Indoor Air 32:e13083

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh U, Reponen T, Cho KJ, Grinshpun SA, Adhikari A, Levin L, Indugula R, Green BJ (2011) Airborne endotoxin and β-D-glucan in PM1 in agricultural and home environments. Aerosol Air Qual Res 11:376–386

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smedje G, Norbäck D (2001) Irritants and allergens at school in relation to furnishings and cleaning. Indoor Air 11:127–133

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stadnytskyi V, Bax CE, Bax A, Anfinrud P (2020) The airborne lifetime of small speech droplets and their potential importance in SARS-CoV-2 transmission. Proc Natl Acad Sci 117:11875–11877

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stein RA (2011) Super-spreaders in infectious diseases. Int J Infect Dis 15:e510–e513

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stemeseder T, Schweidler B, Doppler P, Klinglmayr E, Moser S, Lueftenegger L, Himly M, Lang R, Zumbach J, Oostingh GJ, Hawranek T, Bathke AC, Gadermaier G (2017) Exposure to indoor allergens in different residential settings and its influence on IgE sensitization in a geographically confined Austrian cohort. PLoS One 12:e0168686

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Streek H, Schulte B, Kümmerer B, Richter E, Höller T, Fuhrmann C, Bartok E, Dolscheid R, Berger M, Wessendorf L, Eschbach-Bludau M, Kellings A, Schwaiger A, Coenen M, Hoffmann P, Stoffel-Wagner B, Nothen MM, Eis-Hubinger A-M, Exner M, Schmithausen RM, Schmid M, Hartmann G (2020) Infection fatality rate of SARS-CoV-2 infection in a German community with a super-spreading event. Nat Commun 11:5829

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sun L, Miller JD, Van Ryswyk K, Wheeler AJ, Héroux ME, Goldberg MS, Mallach G (2022) Household determinants of biocontaminant exposures in Canadian homes. Indoor Air 32:e12933

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Swadi T, Geoghegan JL, Devine T, McElnay C, Sherwood J, Shoemack P, Ren X, Storey M, Jefferies S, Smit E, Hadfield J, Kenny A, Jelley L, Sporle A, McNeill A, Reynolds GE, Mouldey K, Lowe L, Sonder G, Drummond AJ, Huang S, Welch D, Holmes EC, French N, Simpson CR, de Ligt J (2021) Genomic evidence of in-flight transmission of SARS-CoV-2 despite predeparture testing. Emerg Infect Dis 27:687–693

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson MC, Campbell AR, Klauck MJ, Reed CF (1989) Correlation between levels of mite and cat allergens in settled and airborne dust. J Allergy Clin Immunol:776–783

    Google Scholar 

  • Täubel M, Sulyok M, Vishwanath V, Bloom E, Turunen M, Järvi K, Kauhanen E, Krska R, Hyvärinen A, Larsson L, Nevalainen A (2011) Co-occurrence of toxic bacterial and fungal secondary metabolites in moisture-damaged indoor environments. Indoor Air 21:368–375

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorn RMS, Greenman J (2012) Microbial volatile compounds in health and disease conditions. J Breath Res 6:024001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorne PS, Kulhánková K, Yin M, Cohn R, Arbes SJ, Zeldin DC (2005) Endotoxin exposure is a risk factor for asthma: the national survey of endotoxin in U.S. Housing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 172:1371–1377

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tortolero SR, Bartholomew LK, Tyrrell S, Abramson SL, Sockrider MM, Markham CM, Whitehead LW, Parcel GS (2002) Environmental allergens and irritants in schools: a focus on asthma. J Sch Health 72:33–38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toyokawa T, Shimada T, Hayamizu T, Sekizuka T, Zukeyama Y, Yasuda M, Nakamura Y, Okano S, Kudaka J, Kakita T, Kuroda M, Nakasone T (2022) Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 during a 2-h domestic flight to Okinawa, Japan, March 2020. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 16:63–71

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tran NT, Nguyen DKT, Tran TTT, Hauglustaine J-M, Michel O, Bouland C (2023) Indoor environmental parameters are related to house typology in the South of Vietnam. ResearchSquare

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tsuda A, Henry FS, Butler JP (2013) Particle transport and deposition: basic physics of particle kinetics. Compr Physiol 3:1437–1471

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UBA (2019) Guideline on the prevention, detection and remediation of moulds in buildings. Berlin. https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/1410/publikationen/191022_uba_schimmelleitfaden_engl_bf.pdf

  • Uhde E, Salthammer T, Wientzek S, Springorum A, Schulz J (2022) Effectiveness of air-purifying devices and measures to reduce the exposure to bioaerosols in school classrooms. Indoor Air 32:e13087

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Unfallkasse (Unfallkasse Nordrhein-Westfalen) (2014) Healthy air in schools – Part 2. Assessment of CO2 concentration and thermal comfort in classrooms. Düsseldorf. [in German]

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Dijken F, van Bronswijk JEMH, Sundell J (2006) Indoor environment and pupils’health in primary schools. Build Res Inform 34:437–446

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Morris DH, Holbrook MG, Gamble A, Williamson BN, Tamin A, Harcourt JL, Thornburg NJ, Gerber SI, Lloyd-Smith JO, de Wit E, Munster VJ (2020) Aerosol and surface stability of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with SARS-CoV-1. New Engl J Med 382:1564–1567

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dyke MW, Martyny JW, Marola J, Ramamoorthy P, Ridder A, Harbeck RJ, Rose CS (2012) Efficacy of occupant-collected dust samples in the evaluation of residential allergen and fungal lvels. J Occup Environ Hyg 9:14–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Kampen JJA, van de Vijver DAMC, Fraaij PLA, Haagmans BL, Lamers MM, Okba N, van den Akker JPC, Endeman H, Gommers DAMPJ, Cornelissen JJ, Hoek RAS, van der Eerden MM, Hesselink DA, Metselaar HJ, Verbon A, de Steenwinkel JEM, Aron GI, van Gorp ECM, van Boheemen S, Voermans JC, Boucher CAB, Molenkamp R, Koopmans MPG, Geurtsvankessel C, van der Eijk AA (2021) Duration and key determinants of infectious virus shedding in hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). Nat Commun 12:267

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vass WB, Lednicky JA, Shankar SN, Fan ZH, Eiguren-Fernandez A, Wu CY (2022) Viable SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant detected in aerosols in a residential setting with a self-isolating college student with COVID-19. J Aerosol Sci 165:106038

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vosoughi M, Karami C, Dargahi A, Jeddi F, Jalali KM, Hadisi A, Haghighi SB, Dogahe HP, Noorimotlagh Z, Mirzaee SA (2021) Investigation of SARS-CoV-2 in hospital indoor air of COVID-19 patients’ ward with impinger method. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 28:50480–50488

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vuorinen V, Aarnio M, Alava M, Alopaeus V, Atanasova N, Auvinen M, Balasubramanian N, Bordbar H, Erästö P, Grande R, Hayward N, Hellsten A, Hostikka S, Hokkanen J, Kaario O, Karvinen A, Kivistö I, Korhonen M, Kosonen R, Kuusela J, Lestinen S, Laurila E, Nieminen HJ, Peltonen P, Pokki J, Puisto A, RÃ¥back P, Salmenjoki H, Sironen T, Österberg M (2020) Modelling aerosol transport and virus exposure with numerical simulations in relation to SARS-CoV-2 transmission by inhalation indoors. Saf Sci 130:104866

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walser SM, Gerstner DG, Brenner B, Bünger J, Eikmann T, Janssen B, Kolb S, Kolk A, Nowak D, Raulf M, Sagunski H, Sedlmaier N, Suchenwirth R, Wiesmüller G, Wollin KM, Tesseraux I, Herr CE (2015) Evaluation of exposure – response relationships for health effects of microbial bioaerosols – a systematic review. Int J Hyg Environ Health 18:577–589

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walser SM, Brenner B, Heinze S, Szewzyk R, Wolter E, Herr CEW (2017) Environmental health relevance of airbornemicroorganisms in ambient and indoor air. Bundesgesundheitsbl 60:618–624. [in German]

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang Z, Galea ER, Grandison A, Ewer J, Jia F (2021) Inflight transmission of COVID-19 based on experimental aerosol dispersion data. J Travel Med 28:taab023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waser M, Schierl R, von Mutius E, Maisch S, Carr D, Riedler J, Eder W, Schreuer M, Nowak D, Braun-Fahrländer C (2004) Determinants of endotoxin levels in living environments of farmers’ children and their peers from rural areas. Clin Exp Allergy 34:389–397

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wei J, Li Y (2015) Enhanced spread of expiratory droplets by turbulence in a cough jet. Build Environ 93:86–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wei J, Li Y (2016) Airborne spread of infectious agents in the indoor environment. Am J Infect Control 44:S102–S108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler AJ, Dobbin NA, Lyrette N, Wallace L, Foto M, Mallick R, Kearney J, Van Ryswyk K, Gilbert NL, Harrison I, Rispler K, Héroux M-E (2011) Residential indoor and outdoor coarse particles and associated endotoxin exposures. Atmos Environ 45:7064–7071

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2009) WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: dampness and mould. WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark. https://www.who.int/airpollution/guidelines/dampness-mould/en/

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2020) Transmission of SARS-CoV-2: implications for infection prevention precautions. Scientific brief. 09 July 2020. https://www.who.int/news-room/commentaries/detail/transmission-of-sars-cov-2-implications-for-infection-prevention-precautions

  • Williams AH, Smith JT, Hudgens EE, Rhoney S, Ozkaynak H, Hamilton RG, Gallagher JE (2011) Allergens in household dust and serological indicators of atopy and sensitization in Detroit children with history-based evidence of asthma. J Asthma 48:674–684

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf M, Lai PS (2020) Indoor microbial exposures and chronic lung disease: from microbial toxins to the microbiome. Clin Chest Med 41:777–796

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu F, Groopman JD, Pestka JJ (2014) Public health impacts of foodborne mycotoxins. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 5:351–372

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu S, Wang Y, Jin X, Tian J, Liu J, Mao Y (2020) Environmental contamination by SARS-CoV-2 in a designated hospital for coronavirus disease 2019. Am J Infect Control 48:910–914

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xie X, Li Y, Chwang ATQ, Ho PL, Seto WH (2007) How far droplets can move in indoor environments – revisiting the Wells evaporation–falling curve. Indoor Air 17:211–225

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yang X, Dong N, Chan EW-C, Chen S (2020) Genetic cluster analysis of SARS-CoV-2 and the identification of those responsible for the major outbreaks in various countries. Emerg Microbes Infect 9:1287–1299

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yen YC, Yang CY, Ho CK, Yen PC, Cheng YT, Mena KD, Lee TC, Chen PS (2020a) Indoor ozone and particulate matter modify the association between airborne endotoxin and schoolchildren's lung function. Sci Total Environ 705:135810

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yen YC, Yang CY, Wang TN, Yen PC, Ho CK, Mena KD, Lee TC, Chen KS, Lin YC, Chen PS (2020b) Household airborne endotoxin associated with asthma and allergy in elementary school-age children: a case-control study in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 27:19502–19509

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yoda Y, Tamura K, Shima M (2017) Airborne endotoxin concentrations in indoor and outdoor particulate matter and their predictors in an urban city. Indoor Air 27:955–964

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zahradnik E, Raulf M (2017) Respiratory allergens from furred mammals: environmental and occupational exposure. Vet Sci 4:38

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang J, Qin F, Qin X, Li J, Tian S, Lou J, Kang X, Lian H, Niu S, Zhang W, Chen Y (2021) Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 during air travel: a descriptive and modelling study. Ann Med 53:1569–1575

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao ZH, Elfman L, Wang ZH, Zhang Z, Norbäck D (2006) A comparative study of asthma, pollen, cat and dog allergy among pupils and allergen levels in schools in Taiyuan city, China, and Uppsala, Sweden. Indoor Air 16:404–413

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou J, Otter JA, Price JR, Cimpeanu C, Garcia DM, Kinross J, Boshier PR, Mason S, Bolt F, Holmes AH, Barclay WS (2021) Investigating SARS-CoV-2 surface and air contamination in an acute healthcare setting during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic in London. Clin Infect Dis 73:e1870–e1877

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zock JP, Brunekreef B (1995) House dust mite allergen levels in dust from schools with smooth and carpeted classroom floors. Clin Exp Allergy 25:549–553

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute and Clinic for Occupational, Social and Environmental Medicine, LMU University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany

    Hermann Fromme

Authors
  1. Hermann Fromme
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Fromme, H. (2023). Bioaerosols. In: Indoor Air Quality. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-40078-0_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation