Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Epidemiology and Risk Factors of Breast Cancer

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Breast Cancer: From Bench to Personalized Medicine

Abstract

The epithelial glandular tissue forms a major part of the breast cancer origin followed by lobular glandular tissue. The initial growth of the tumor is limited to the duct or lobule, without any symptoms and metastasis. The progression of the disease includes invasion of the neighboring breast tissue (invasive breast cancer), affecting nearby lymph nodes (regional metastasis), or spreads to other organs of the body (secondary metastasis or distant metastasis). The excessive metastasis because of tumor development leads to death of the patient. Breast cancer is considered the most common cancer with 2.3 million of women diagnosed with breast tumor and 685,000 deaths reported worldwide. During the last 5 years, 7,800,000 cases of breast tumor were reported globally. Breast cancer is neither an infectious nor transmissible illness. Other than gender (female) and age, breast tumor presents no manifestation of disease for almost 40 years of the age. Some of the significant contributing factors of the disease include harmful alcohol use, age, obesity, family history, exposure to harmful radiations, and reproductive factors. Besides, some factors are responsible for aggravating the incidence of breast cancer such as age at first menstrual period, use of tobacco, age at first pregnancy, and postmenopausal hormone therapy. The age at first menstrual period and age at first pregnancy, tobacco use, and postmenopausal hormone therapy are all variables that raise the risk of breast cancer.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 219.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 279.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

25(OH)D:

Vitamin D3 25-Hydroxyvitamin D

AFP:

Alpha-fetoprotein

AICR:

American Institute for Cancer Research

ATM:

Ataxia telangiectasia mutated

BMI:

Body mass index

BRCA1:

BReast CAncer gene 1

BRCA2:

BReast CAncer gene 2

CDC:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

CDH1:

Cadherin 1

CHEK2:

Checkpoint kinase 2

CK5/6:

Cytokeratin 5/6

DCIS:

Ductal carcinoma in situ

DES:

Diethylstilbestrol

EDC:

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals

EPIC:

European Prospective Investigation into Cancer

ER:

estrogen receptor

GLOBCON:

Global Cancer Observatory

HCG:

Human chorionic gonadotropin

HER2:

Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2

HRT:

Hormone replacement therapy

IARC:

International Agency for Research on Cancer

IGF-1:

Insulin-like growth factor 1

IHC:

Immunohistochemistry

NBN:

Nibrin

NF1:

Neurofibromin 1

NIEHS:

National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS)

NTP:

National Toxicology Program

PALB2:

Partner and localizer of BRCA2, also known as PALB2 or FANCN

PR:

Progesterone receptor

PTEN:

Phosphatase and TENsin homolog deleted on chromosome 10

SIR:

Standardized incidence ratio

TNBC:

Triple-negative breast cancer

WCRFI:

World Cancer Research Fund International

References

  • Abdelwahab Yousef AJ (2017) Male breast cancer: epidemiology and risk factors. Semin Oncol 44(4):267–272

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ahern TP, Sprague BL, Bissell MC et al (2017) Family history of breast cancer, breast density, and breast cancer risk in a US breast cancer screening population. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 26(6):938–944

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed F, Mahmood N, Shahid S et al (2016) Mutations in human interferon α2b gene and potential as risk factor associated with female breast cancer. Cancer Biother Radiopharm 31(6):199–208

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akinyemiju TF, Pisu M, Waterbor JW, Altekruse SF (2015) Socioeconomic status and incidence of breast cancer by hormone receptor subtype. Springerplus 4(1):508

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Andre F, Pusztai L (2006) Molecular classification of breast cancer: implications for selection of adjuvant chemotherapy. Nat Clin Pract Oncol 3(11):621–632

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Angeli D, Salvi S, Tedaldi G (2020) Genetic predisposition to breast and ovarian cancers: how many and which genes to test? Int J Mol Sci 21(3):1128

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Antoniou AC, Easton DF (2006) Models of genetic susceptibility to breast cancer. Oncogene 25(43):5898–5905

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arthur R, Wang Y, Ye K et al (2017) Association between lifestyle, menstrual/reproductive history, and histological factors and risk of breast cancer in women biopsied for benign breast disease. Breast Cancer Res Treat 165(3):623–631

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Balekouzou A, Yin P, Pamatika CM et al (2017) Reproductive risk factors associated with breast cancer in women in Bangui: a case–control study. BMC Womens Health 17(1):14

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Beaber EF, Buist DSM, Barlow WE, Malone KE, Reed SD, Li CI (2014) Recent oral contraceptive use by formulation and breast cancer risk among women 20 to 49 years of age. Cancer Res 74(15):4078–4089

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Beral V, Million Women Study Collaborators (2003) Breast cancer and hormone-replacement therapy in the Million Women Study. Lancet 362(9382):419–427

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beral V, Bull D, Doll R, Key T, Peto R, Reeves G (1997) Breast cancer and hormone replacement therapy: collaborative reanalysis of data from 51 epidemiological studies of 52,705 women with breast cancer and 108,411 women without breast cancer. Lancet 350(9084):1047–1059

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhadoria A, Kapil U, Sareen N, Singh P (2013) Reproductive factors and breast cancer: a case-control study in tertiary care hospital of North India. Indian J Cancer 50(4):316–321

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birch JM, Alston RD, McNally RJ et al (2001) Relative frequency and morphology of cancers in carriers of germ-line TP53 mutations. Oncogene 20(34):4621–4628

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bird A (2002) DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory. Genes Dev 16(1):6–21

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bjerkaas E, Parajuli R, Weiderpass E et al (2013) Smoking duration before first childbirth: an emerging risk factor for breast cancer? Results from 302,865 Norwegian women. Cancer Causes Control 24(7):1347–1356

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Boggs DA, Palmer JR, Stampfer MJ et al (2010) Tea and coffee intake in relation to risk of breast cancer in the Black Women’s Health Study. Cancer Causes Control 21(11):1941–1948

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Booth CM, Li G, Zhang-Salomons J, Mackillop WJ (2010) The impact of socioeconomic status on stage of cancer at diagnosis and survival: a population-based study in Ontario, Canada. Cancer 116(17):4160–4167

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Børresen-Dale AL (2003) TP53 and breast cancer. Hum Mutat 21(3):292–300

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brasky TM, Li Y, Jaworowicz DJ Jr et al (2013) Pregnancy-related characteristics and breast cancer risk. Cancer Causes Control 24(9):1675–1685

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bravi F, Decarli A, Russo AG (2018) Risk factors for breast cancer in a cohort of mammographic screening program: a nested case-control study within the FRiCaM study. Cancer Med 7(5):2145–2152

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brinton LA, Potischman NA, Swanson CA et al (1995) Breastfeeding and breast cancer risk. Cancer Causes Control 6(3):199–208

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brinton LA, Scoccia B, Moghissi KS et al (2004) Breast cancer risk associated with ovulation-stimulating drugs. Hum Reprod 19(9):2005–2013

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne C, Ursin G, Martin CF et al (2017) Mammographic density change with estrogen and progestin therapy and breast cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 109(9):djx001

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cantor SB, Guillemette S (2011) Hereditary breast cancer and the BRCA1-associated FANCJ/BACH1/BRIP1. Future Oncol 7(2):253–261

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cardona B, Rudel RA (2021) Application of an in vitro assay to identify chemicals that increase estradiol and progesterone synthesis and are potential breast cancer risk factors. Environ Health Perspect 129(7):77003

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centre for Disease Control (2021) (Division of Cancer Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)

    Google Scholar 

  • Chang YL, Sheu WH, Lin SY, Liou WS (2018) Good glycaemic control is associated with a better prognosis in breast cancer patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clin Exp Med 18(3):383–390

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen M-J, Wu WY-Y, Yen AM-F et al (2016) Body mass index and breast cancer: analysis of a nation-wide population-based prospective cohort study on 1 393 985 Taiwanese women. Int J Obes 40(3):524–530

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chiu HY, Huang CJ, Fan YC, Tsai PS (2018) Insomnia but not hypnotics use associates with the risk of breast cancer: a population-based matched cohort study. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 27(10):1250–1256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clavel-Chapelon F, Gerber M (2002) Reproductive factors and breast cancer risk: do they differ according to age at diagnosis? Breast Cancer Res Treat 72:107–115

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Clavel-Chapelon F, Launoy G, Auquier A et al (1995) Reproductive factors and breast cancer risk: effect of age at diagnosis. Ann Epidemiol 5(4):315–320

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cobain EF, Milliron KJ, Merajver SD (2016) Updates on breast cancer genetics: clinical implications of detecting syndromes of inherited increased susceptibility to breast cancer. Semin Oncol 43(5):528–535

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Division of Cancer Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/breast/basic_info/treatment.htm. Accessed 20 Sept 2021

  • Easton DF, Bishop DT, Ford D et al (1995) Breast and ovarian cancer incidence in BRCA1-mutation carriers. Am J Hum Genet 56:265–271

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Elesawy BH, Abd El hafez A, El-aty Shawky A, Arafa M (2014) Immunohistochemistry-based subtyping of breast carcinoma in Egyptian women: a clinicopathologic study on 125 patients. Ann Diagn Pathol 18(1):21–26

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis IO, Cornelisse CJ, Schnitt SJ, Sasco AJ, Sastre-Garau X, Kaaks R (2003) Invasive breast carcinomas. In: Tavassoli FA, Devilee P (eds) WHO classification of tumours pathology and genetics of tumours of the breast and female genital organs. IARC Press, Lyon, pp 13–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Susan G. Komen (2016) Breast cancer statistics. http://ww5.komen.org/Breast-Cancer/Statistics.html. Accessed 1 Feb 2016

  • Ellison RC, Zhang Y, McLennan CE et al (2001) Exploring the relation of alcohol consumption to risk of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 154:740–747

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson M, Czene K, Pawitan Y, Leifland K, Darabi H, Hall P (2017) A clinical model for identifying the short-term risk of breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res 19(1):29

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fioretti F, Tavani A, Bosetti C et al (1999) Risk factors for breast cancer in nulliparous women. Br J Cancer 79(11–12):1923–1928

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • FitzGerald MG, Marsh DJ, Wahrer D et al (1998) Germline mutations in PTEN are an infrequent cause of genetic predisposition to breast cancer. Oncogene 17(6):727–731

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flavarjani AM, Hedayatpour B, Nourian SM, Bashardoost N (2014) Study of the association between blood types and breast cancer among Isfahanian women with breast cancer. Adv Biomed Res 3(1):43

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Foretová L, Navrátilová M, Svoboda M et al (2019) Recommendations for preventive care for women with rare genetic cause of breast and ovarian cancer. Doporučení pro sledovánížen se vzácnějšímigenetickýmipříčinaminádorůprsuaovarií. KlinOnkol 32(Supplementum2):6–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Fournier A, Berrino F, Clavel-Chapelon F (2007) Unequal risks for breast cancer associated with different hormone replacement therapies: results from the E3N cohort study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 107(1):103–111

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fusco N, Sajjadi E, Venetis K et al (2020) PTEN alterations and their role in cancer management: are we making headway on precision medicine? Genes (Basel) 11(7):719

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ganmaa D, Willett WC, Li TY et al (2008) Coffee, tea, caffeine and risk of breast cancer: a 22-year follow-up. Int J Cancer 122(9):2071–2076

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Garber JE, Goldstein AM, Kantor AF, Dreyfus MG, Fraumeni JF Jr, Li FP (1991) Follow-up study of twenty-four families with Li-Fraumeni syndrome. Cancer Res 51(22):6094–6097

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gierach GL, Freedman ND, Andaya A et al (2012) Coffee intake and breast cancer risk in the NIH-AARP diet and health study cohort. Int J Cancer 131(2):452–460

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giordano SH, Buzdar AU, Hortobagyi GN (2002) Breast cancer in men. Ann Intern Med 137(8):678–687

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • GLOBOCAN (2012) Estimated cancer incidence, mortality and prevalence worldwide in 2012 [International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and World Health Organization (WHO) Web site]. http://globocan.iarc.fr/Pages/fact_sheets_cancer.aspx. Accessed 10 Oct 2021

  • Godet I, Gilkes DM (2017) BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations and treatment strategies for breast cancer. Integr Cancer Sci Ther 4(1):1–17

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldgar DE, Stratton MR, Eeles RA (1996) Familial breast cancer. In: Eeles RA, Ponder BAJ, Easton DF et al (eds) Genetic predisposition to cancer. Chapman and Hall, London, pp 227–238

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Goldhirsch A, Wood WC, Coates AS, Gelber RD, Thurlimann B, Senn HJ (2011) Strategies for subtypes—dealing with the diversity of breast cancer: highlights of the St. Gallen international expert consensus on the primary therapy of early breast cancer 2011. Ann Oncol 22:1736–1747

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Golubicic I, Borojevic N, Pavlovic T (2008) Risk factors for breast cancer: is ionizing radiation among them? J BUON 13(4):487–494

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin PJ, Ennis M, Pritchard KI et al (2002) Fasting insulin and outcome in early-stage breast cancer: results of a prospective cohort study. J Clin Oncol 20:42–51

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon NH (2003) Socioeconomic factors and breast cancer in black and white Americans. Cancer Metastasis Rev 22(1):55–65

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harris HR, Willett WC, Vaidya RL, Michels KB (2017) An adolescent and early adulthood dietary pattern associated with inflammation and the incidence of breast cancer. Cancer Res 77(5):1179–1187

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hartmann LC, Sellers TA, Frost MH et al (2005) Benign breast disease and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 53(3):229–237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hatse S, Lambrechts D, Verstuyf A et al (2012) Vitamin D status at breast cancer diagnosis: correlation with tumor characteristics, disease outcome, and genetic determinants of vitamin D insufficiency. Carcinogenesis 33(7):1319–1326

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heitzer E, Lax S, Lafer I et al (2013) Multiplex genetic cancer testing identifies pathogenic mutations in TP53 and CDH1 in a patient with bilateral breast and endometrial adenocarcinoma. BMC Med Genet 14:129

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson TO, Moskowitz CS, Chou JF et al (2016) Breast cancer risk in childhood cancer survivors without a history of chest radiotherapy: a report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study. J Clin Oncol 34(9):910–918

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holick CN, Newcomb PA, Trentham-Dietz A et al (2008) Physical activity and survival after diagnosis of invasive breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 17(2):379–386

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoskins LM, Roy K, Peters JA, Loud JT, Greene MH (2008) Disclosure of positive BRCA1/2-mutation status in young couples: the journey from uncertainty to bonding through partner support. Fam Syst Health 26:296–316

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M et al (2020) SEER cancer statistics review, 1975–2018. National Cancer Institute, Bethesda. https://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2018/, based on November 2020 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER web site, April 2021. Accessed 19 Sept 2021

  • Hu ZY, Liu L, Xie N et al (2020) Germline PALB2 mutations in cancers and its distinction from somatic PALB2 mutations in breast cancers. Front Genet 11:829

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Innes KE, Byers TE (2004) First pregnancy characteristics and subsequent breast cancer risk among young women. Int J Cancer 112(2):306–311

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jeong SH, An YS, Choi JY et al (2017) Risk reduction of breast cancer by childbirth, breastfeeding, and their interaction in Korean women: heterogeneous effects across menopausal status, hormone receptor status, and pathological subtypes. J Prev Med Public Health 50(6):401–410

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • John EM, Phipps AI, Knight JA et al (2007) Medical radiation exposure and breast cancer risk: findings from the Breast Cancer Family Registry. Int J Cancer 121(2):386–394

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jordan I, Hebestreit A, Swai B, Krawinkel MB (2013) Dietary patterns and breast cancer risk among women in northern Tanzania: a case-control study. Eur J Nutr 52(3):905–915

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karsli-Ceppioglu S, Dagdemir A, Judes G et al (2014) Epigenetic mechanisms of breast cancer: an update of the current knowledge. Epigenomics 6(6):651–664

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelsey JL, Gammon MD, John EM (1993) Reproductive factors and breast cancer. Epidemiol Rev 15(1):36–47

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerlikowske K, Gard CC, Tice JA et al (2017) Breast cancer surveillance consortium risk factors that increase risk of estrogen receptor-positive and -negative breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 109(5):djw276

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim Y, Yoo K-Y, Goodman MT (2015) Differences in incidence, mortality and survival of breast cancer by regions and countries in Asia and contributing factors. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 16(7):2857–2870

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kluźniak W, Wokołorczyk D, Rusak B et al (2019) Inherited variants in XRCC2 and the risk of breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 178(3):657–663

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kotsopoulos J, Lubinski J, Moller P et al (2014) Hereditary breast cancer clinical study group timing of oral contraceptive use and the risk of breast cancer in BRCA1 mutation carriers. Breast Cancer Res Treat 143(3):579–586

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuchenbaecker KB, Hopper JL, Barnes DR et al (2017) Risks of breast, ovarian, and contralateral breast cancer for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. JAMA 317(23):2402–2416

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar V, Abbas AK, Aster JC, Robbins SL (2013) Robbins basic pathology. Elsevier/Saunders, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumar V, Cotran R, Robbins S (1997) Basic pathology. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia

    Google Scholar 

  • Kurian AW, Fish K, Shema SJ, Clarke CA (2010) Lifetime risks of specific breast cancer subtypes among women in four racial/ethnic groups. Breast Cancer Res 12(6):R99

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kuzhan A, Adlı M (2015) The effect of socio-economic-cultural factors on breast cancer. J Breast Health 11(1):17–21

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kwan ML, Bernard PS, Kroenke CH et al (2015) Breastfeeding, PAM50 tumor subtype, and breast cancer prognosis and survival. J Natl Cancer Inst 107(7):djv087

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Laamiri FZ, Bouayad A, Hasswane N, Ahid S, Mrabet M, Amina B (2015) Risk factors for breast cancer of different age groups: Moroccan data? Open J Obstet Gynecol 5(2):79–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsson SC, Mantzoros CS, Wolk A (2007) Diabetes mellitus and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis. Int J Cancer 121(4):856–862

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee JA (2019) Meta-analysis of the association between physical activity and breast cancer mortality. Cancer Nurs 42(4):271–285

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lerner-Geva L, Keinan-Boker L, Blumstein T et al (2006) Infertility, ovulation induction treatments and the incidence of breast cancer—a historical prospective cohort of Israeli women. Breast Cancer Res Treat 100(2):201–212

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li J, Seibold P, Chang-Claude J et al (2011) Coffee consumption modifies risk of estrogen-receptor negative breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res 13(3):R49

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lim W, Olschwang S, Keller JJ et al (2004) Relative frequency and morphology of cancers in STK11 mutation carriers. Gastroenterology 126(7):1788–1794

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lu C, Sun H, Huang J et al (2017) Long-term sleep duration as a risk factor for breast cancer: evidence from a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Biomed Res Int 2017:4845059

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lundqvist A, Andersson E, Ahlberg I, Nilbert M, Gerdtham U (2016) Socioeconomic inequalities in breast cancer incidence and mortality in Europe—a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Pub Health 26(5):804–813

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luo J, Margolis KL, Wactawski-Wende J et al (2011) Association of active and passive smoking with risk of breast cancer among postmenopausal women: a prospective cohort study. BMJ 342:d1016

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ma H, Henderson KD, Sullivan-Halley J et al (2010) Pregnancy-related factors and the risk of breast carcinoma in situ and invasive breast cancer among postmenopausal women in the California teachers study cohort. Breast Cancer Res 12(3):R35

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Madanikia SA, Bergner A, Ye X, Blakeley JO (2012) Increased risk of breast cancer in women with NF1. Am J Med Genet A 158A(12):3056–3060

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mahouri K, DehghaniZahedani M, Zare S (2007) Breast cancer risk factors in south of Islamic Republic of Iran: a case-control study. East Mediterr Health J 13(6):1265–1273

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manisto S, Virtanen M, Kataja V et al (2000) Lifetime alcohol consumption and breast cancer: a case-control study in Finland. Public Health Nutr 3:11–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marabelli M, Cheng SC, Parmigiani G (2016) Penetrance of ATM gene mutations in breast cancer: a meta-analysis of different measures of risk. Genet Epidemiol 40(5):425–431

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Marchbanks PA, McDonald JA, Wilson HG et al (2002) Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 346(26):2025–2032

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marinac CR, Nelson SH, Flatt SW, Natarajan L, Pierce JP, Patterson RE (2017) Sleep duration and breast cancer prognosis: perspectives from the Women’s Healthy Eating and Living Study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 162(3):581–589

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mctiernan A, Kooperberg C, White E, et al. Women’s Health Initiative Cohort Study (2003) Recreational physical activity and the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women: the Women’s Health Initiative Cohort Study. JAMA 290(10):1331–1336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melvin JC, Wulaningsih W, Hana Z et al (2016) Family history of breast cancer and its association with disease severity and mortality. Cancer Med 5(5):942–949

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Meo SA, Suraya F, Jamil B et al (2017) Association of ABO and Rh blood groups with breast cancer. Saudi J Biol Sci 24(7):1609–1613

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Metcalfe KA, Finch A, Poll A et al (2009) Breast cancer risks in women with a family history of breast or ovarian cancer who have tested negative for a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. Br J Cancer 100(2):421–425

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Michels KB, Willett WC, Rosner BA et al (1996) Prospective assessment of breastfeeding and breast cancer incidence among 89,887 women. Lancet 347(8999):431–436

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moskowitz CS, Chou JF, Wolden SL et al (2014) Breast cancer after chest radiation therapy for childhood cancer. J Clin Oncol 32(21):2217–2223

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Muti P, Quattrin T, Grant BJ et al (2002) Fasting glucose is a risk factor for breast cancer: a prospective study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 11(11):1361–1368

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naik AQ, Zafar T, Shrivastava VK (2021) Environmental impact of the presence, distribution, and use of artificial sweeteners as emerging sources of pollution. J Environ Public Health 2021:6624569. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6624569

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Narod SA, Tung N, Lubinski J et al (2014) Hereditary breast cancer clinical study group a prior diagnosis of breast cancer is a risk factor for breast cancer in BRCA1 and BRCA2 carriers. Curr Oncol 21(2):64–68

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • National Cancer Research Institute (2021) Percent of new cases by age group: female breast cancer [National Cancer Institute Website]. http://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/breast.html. Accessed 1 Oct 2021

  • National Toxicology Program (2021) Cancer hazard assessment report on night shift work and light at night. https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/results/pubs/cancer_assessment/lanfinal20210400_508.pdf

  • Nazari SS, Mukherjee P (2018) An overview of mammographic density and its association with breast cancer. Breast Cancer 25(3):259–267

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen J, Le QH, Duong BH et al (2016) A matched case-control study of risk factors for breast cancer risk in Vietnam. Int J Breast Cancer 8:1–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niehoff NM et al (2020) Outdoor air pollution and terminal duct lobular involution of the normal breast. Breast Cancer Res 22(1):100

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nithya P, ChandraSekar A (2019) NBN gene analysis and its impact on breast cancer. J Med Syst 43(8):270

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O'Brien KM, Sandler DP, Taylor JA, Weinberg CR (2017) Serum vitamin D and risk of breast cancer within five years. Environ Health Perspect 125(7):077004

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Oh JK, Sandin S, Strom P, Lof M, Adami HO, Weiderpass E (2015) Prospective study of breast cancer in relation to coffee, tea and caffeine in Sweden. Int J Cancer 137(8):1979–1989

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orsini M, Trétarre B, Daurès JP, Bessaoud F (2016) Individual socioeconomic status and breast cancer diagnostic stages: a French case-control study. Eur J Pub Health 26(3):445–450

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palmer JR, Wise LA, Horton NJ, Adams-Campbell LL, Rosenberg L (2003) Dual effect of parity on breast cancer risk in African-American women. J Natl Cancer Inst 95(6):478–483

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park S, Lee DH, Jeon JY et al (2015) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency and increased risk of breast cancer among Korean women: a case control study. Breast Cancer Res Treat 152(1):147–154

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfeifer GP, Besaratinia A (2009) Mutational spectra of human cancer. Hum Genet 125(5–6):493–506

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pharoah PD, Guilford P, Caldas C, International Gastric Cancer Linkage Consortium (2001) Incidence of gastric cancer and breast cancer in CDH1 (E-cadherin) mutation carriers from hereditary diffuse gastric cancer families. Gastroenterology 121(6):1348–1353

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pharoah PDP, Day NE, Duffy S et al (1997) Family history and the risk of breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cancer 71:800–809

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rainville I, Hatcher S, Rosenthal E et al (2020) High risk of breast cancer in women with biallelic pathogenic variants in CHEK2. Breast Cancer Res Treat 180(2):503–509

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rinaldi S, Peeters PH, Berrino F et al (2006) IGF-I, IGFBP-3 and breast cancer risk in women: the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Endocr Relat Cancer 13(2):593–605

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Román M, Quintana MJ, Ferrer J, Sala M, Castells X (2017) Cumulative risk of breast cancer screening outcomes according to the presence of previous benign breast disease and family history of breast cancer: supporting personalised screening. Br J Cancer 116(11):1480–1485

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Romieu I, Scoccianti C, Chajès V et al (2015) Alcohol intake and breast cancer in the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Int J Cancer 137(8):1921–1930

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, Wan PC, Pike MC (2000) Effect of hormone replacement therapy on breast cancer risk: estrogen versus estrogen plus progestin. J Natl Cancer Inst 92(4):328–332

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russo J, Russo I (1999) Cellular basis of breast cancer susceptibility. Oncol Res 11:169–178

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saxena S, Chawla VK, Gupta KK, Gaur KL (2015) Association of ABO blood group and breast cancer in Jodhpur. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol 59(1):63–68

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shaik B, Zafar T, Balasubramanian K, Gupta SP (2021) An overview of ovarian cancer: molecular processes involved and development of target-based chemotherapeutics. Curr Top Med Chem 21(4):329–346

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaik B, Zafar T, Gupta S (2020) Recent studies on HDAC inhibitors acting against prostate cancer. Curr Enzym Inhib 16:74–89

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shekarriz-Foumani R, Khodaie F (2016) The correlation of plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency with risk of breast neoplasms: a systematic review. Iran J Cancer Prev 9(3):e4469

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shulman LN, Willett W, Sievers A, Knaul FM (2010) Breast cancer in developing countries: opportunities for improved survival. J Oncol 2010:595167

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sieri S, Krogh V, Ferrari P, Berrino F et al (2008) Dietary fat and breast cancer risk in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr 88(5):1304–1312

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skegg DC, Noonan EA, Paul C, Spears GF, Meirik O, Thomas DB (1995) Depot medroxyprogesterone acetate and breast cancer: a pooled analysis of the World Health Organization and New Zealand studies. JAMA 273(10):799–804

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Socolov D, Anghelache I, Ilea C, Socolov R, Carauleanu A (2015) Benign breast disease and the risk of breast cancer in the next 15 years. Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi 119(1):135–140

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soucise A, Vaughn C, Thompson CL et al (2017) Sleep quality, duration, and breast cancer aggressiveness. Breast Cancer Res Treat 164(1):169–178

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stoll BA (1999) Perimenopausal weight gain and progression of breast cancer precursors. Cancer Detect Prev 23:31–36

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stratton MR, Rahman N (2008) The emerging landscape of breast cancer susceptibility. Nat Genet 40(1):17–22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tabassum I, Mahmood H, Faheem M (2016) Type 2 diabetes mellitus as a risk factor for female breast cancer in the population of northern Pakistan. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 17(7):3255–3258

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taheripanah R, Balash F, Anbiaee R, Mahmoodi M, Akbari Sene A (2018) Breast cancer and ovulation induction treatments. Clin Breast Cancer 18:395–399

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tamakoshi K, Yatsuya H, Wakai K, et al; JACC Study Group (2005) Impact of menstrual and reproductive factors on breast cancer risk in Japan: results of the JACC study. Cancer Sci 96(1):57–62

    Google Scholar 

  • Tan MH, Mester JL, Ngeow J, Rybicki LA, Orloff MS, Eng C (2012) Lifetime cancer risks in individuals with germ-line PTEN mutations. Clin Cancer Res 18(2):400–407

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tang GH, Satkunam M, Pond GR et al (2018) Association of metformin with breast cancer incidence and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes: a GRADE assessed systematic review and meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 27(6):627–635

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor EF, Burley VJ, Greenwood DC, Cade JE (2007) Meat consumption and risk of breast cancer in the UK Women’s cohort study. Br J Cancer 96(7):1139–1146

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Terry MB, Michels KB, Brody JG et al (2019) Environmental exposures during windows of susceptibility for breast cancer: a framework for prevention research. Breast Cancer Res 21:96

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thakur P, Seam RK, Gupta MK, Gupta M, Sharma M, Fotedar V (2017) Breast cancer risk factor evaluation in a Western Himalayan state: a case–control study and comparison with the Western world. South Asian J Cancer 6(3):106–109

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson D (2002) Cancer incidence in BRCA1 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst 94:1358–1365

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tong JH, Li Z, Shi J et al (2014) Passive smoking exposure from partners as a risk factor for ER+/PR+ double positive breast cancer in never-smoking Chinese urban women: a hospital-based matched case control study. PLoS One 9(5):e97498

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tretli S (1989) Height and weight in relation to breast cancer morbidity and mortality. A prospective study of 570,000 women in Norway. Int J Cancer 44:23–30

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • US Department of Health and Human Services (2016) Report on carcinogens, 14th edn. https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/go/roc14. Accessed 2 Nov 2018

  • Ursin G, Useng C-C, Pagganini-Hill A et al (2002) Does menopausal hormone replacement therapy interact with known factors to increase risk of breast cancer? J Clin Oncol 20:699–706

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vachon CM, Cerhan JR, Vierkant RA et al (2001) Investigation of an interaction of alcohol intake and family history on breast cancer risk in the Minnesota breast cancer family study. Cancer 92:240–248

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vatten LJ, Romundstad PR, Trichopoulos D, Skjaerven R (2002) Pre-eclampsia in pregnancy and subsequent risk for breast cancer. Br J Cancer 87(9):971–973

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Verkasalo PK, Thomas HV, Appleby PN et al (2001) Circulating levels of sex hormones and their relation to risk factors for breast cancer: a cross-sectional study in 1092 pre- and postmenopausal women (United Kingdom). Cancer Causes Control 12:47–59

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Viale G (2012) The current state of breast cancer classification. Ann Oncol 23(Suppl 10):x207–x210

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vierkant RA, Degnim AC, Radisky DC et al (2017) Mammographic breast density and risk of breast cancer in women with atypical hyperplasia: an observational cohort study from the Mayo Clinic benign breast disease (BBD) cohort. BMC Cancer 17(1):84

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vogel VG (1998) Breast cancer risk factors and preventive approaches to breast cancer. In: Kavanagh JJ, Singletary SE, Einhorn N et al (eds) Cancer in women. Blackwell Science, Malden, pp 58–91

    Google Scholar 

  • Weigelt B, Reis-Filho JS (2009) Histological and molecular types of breast cancer: is there a unifying taxonomy? Nat Rev Clin Oncol 6:718–730

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams LJ, Fletcher E, Douglas A et al (2018) Retrospective cohort study of breast cancer incidence, health service use and outcomes in Europe: a study of feasibility. Eur J Pub Health 28(2):327–332

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf I, Sadetzki S, Catane R, Karasik A, Kaufman B (2005) Diabetes mellitus and breast cancer. Lancet Oncol 6(2):103–111

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolff MS et al; Breast Cancer and Environment Research Program (2016) Environmental phenols and pubertal development in girls. Environ Int 84:174–180

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (WHO), International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) 2020. International. https://gco.iarc.fr/today/data/factsheets/cancers/20-Breast-fact-sheet.pdf

  • Wu MH, Chou YC, Yu JC et al (2006) Hormonal and body-size factors in relation to breast cancer risk: a prospective study of 11,889 women in a low-incidence area. Ann Epidemiol 16(3):223–229

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu H, Chen K, Jia X, Tian Y, Dai Y, Li D, Xie J, Tao M, Mao Y (2015) Metformin use is associated with better survival of breast cancer patients with diabetes: a meta-analysis. Oncologist 20(11):1236–1244

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yari K, Rahimi Z, Moradi MT, Rahimi Z (2014) The MMP-2 -735 C allele is a risk factor for susceptibility to breast cancer. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 15(15):6199–6203

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zafar T, Narayan G, Shrivastava VK (2016) Protective effect of Persia Americana Mill. Fruit extract against 9 Gy gamma radiation insult in Swiss albino mice. Int J Adv Res 4(12):615–623

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zafar T, Shrivastava VK (2017) Monosodium glutamate induced haematological alterations in female Swiss albino mice Mus musculus. Annu Res Rev Biol 20(6):1–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zafar T (2019) Point of care devices. In: Khoobchandani M., Saxena A. (eds) Biotechnology products in everyday life. EcoProduction (Environmental Issues in Logistics and Manufacturing). Springer, Cham

    Google Scholar 

  • Zendehdel M, Niakan B, Keshtkar A, Rafiei E, Salamat F (2018) Subtypes of benign breast disease as a risk factor for breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis protocol. Iran J Med Sci 43(1):1–8

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang M, Liu HX, Teng XD (2012) The differences in CXCR4 protein expression are significant for the five molecular subtypes of breast cancer. Ultrastruct Pathol 36(6):381–386

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Kreger BE, Dorgan JF et al (1999) Alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer: the Framingham study revisited. Am J Epidemiol 149:102–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zolfaroli I, Tarín JJ, Cano A (2018) Hormonal contraceptives and breast cancer: clinical data. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 230:212–216

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laboratory of Endocrinology, Department of Biosciences, Barkatullah University, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India

    Tabassum Zafar & Ab Qayoom Naik

  2. ICMR, National Institute for Research in Environmental Health, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India

    Manoj Kumar & Vinoy K. Shrivastava

Authors
  1. Tabassum Zafar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ab Qayoom Naik
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Manoj Kumar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Vinoy K. Shrivastava
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Genetics, Research Division, The University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL, USA

    Saima Shakil Malik

  2. Department of Biotechnology, Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

    Nosheen Masood

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Zafar, T., Naik, A.Q., Kumar, M., Shrivastava, V.K. (2022). Epidemiology and Risk Factors of Breast Cancer. In: Shakil Malik, S., Masood, N. (eds) Breast Cancer: From Bench to Personalized Medicine. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0197-3_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation