Mamifere fosile 2.

Mamifere fosile 2

1 Mammaliaformes 5.3 Infraclass Eutheria 5.3.1 Order Leptictida
5.3.2 Order Apatotheria 5.3.3 Order Pantolesta 5.3.4 Order Insectivora Suborder Erinaceomorpha Suborder Soricomorpha 5.3.5 Order Macroscelidea 5.3.6 Order Dermoptera 5.3.7 Order Chiroptera 5.3.8 Order Scandentia 5.3.9 Order Plesiadapiformes Order Primates Order Anagalida Order Lagomorpha Order Rodentia Order Cimolesta Order Condylarthra Order Mesonychia Order Litopterna Order Notoungulata Suborder Notioprogonia Suborder Toxodontia Suborder Typotheria Suborder Hegetotheria Order Astrapotheria Order Xenungulata Order Pyrotheria Order Dinocerata Order Arctostylopida Order Embrithopoda Order Creodonta 1 Mammaliaformes 1.1 Order Haramiyida 1.2 Order Morganucodontia 1.3 Order Docodonta 2 Subclass uncertain 2.1 Order Gondwanatheria 3 Subclass Prototheria 3.1 Infraclass Yinotheria 3.1.1 Order Monotremata 4 Subclass Allotheria 4.1 Order Multituberculata 4.1.1 Suborder "Plagiaulacida" 4.1.2 Suborder Cimolodonta 4.2 Order Triconodonta 5 Subclass Theria 5.1 Infraclass Pantotheria 5.1.1 Order Symmetrodonta 5.1.2 Order Pantotheria (Eupantotheria) 5.1.3 Order Dryolestida 5.2 Infraclass Metatheria 5.2.1 Order Alphadontia 5.2.2 Order Dasyuromorphia 5.2.3 Order Deltatheroidea 5.2.4 Order Peramelemorphia 5.2.5 Order Diprotodontia Suborder Vombatiformes Suborder Phalangeriformes Suborder Macropodiformes 5.2.6 Order Paucituberculata

Order Carnivora Suborder Caniformia (Dog-like carnivores) Suborder Aeluroidea (Cat-like carnivores) Order Xenarthra (Edentata) Suborder Vermilingua Suborder Tardigrada Suborder Cingulata Order Pholidota Order Tubulidentata Order Bibymalagasia Order Proboscidea Order Hyracoidea Order Desmostylia Order Sirenia Order Cetacea Suborder Archaeoceti Suborder Mysticeti Suborder Odontoceti Order Perissodactyla Suborder Hippomorpha Suborder Ceratomorpha Order Artiodactyla Suborder Suina Suborder Tylopoda Suborder Ruminantia

Mezozoic - Triasic Adelobasileus Genus Adelobasileus Genus Tricuspes
Genus Hadrocodium Family Sinoconodon Genus Sinoconodon Adelobasileus cromptoni is a species of an extinct genus of proto-mammals from the Late Triassic (Carnian), about 225 million years ago. It is known only from a partial skull recovered from the Tecovas formation in western Texas. Adelobasileus predates the most advanced non-mammalian cynodonts (tritylodonta and trithelodonta) and all other known Mammaliaformes by 10 million years. In fact, distinct cranial features, especially the housing of the cochlea, suggest that Adelobasileus is a transitional form in the character transformation from cynodonts to Triassic mammals. For this reason, it is thought to be the common ancestor of all modern mammals or a close relative of the common ancestor. Tricuspes is an extinct genus of cynodont that lived in what would be Europe during the Triassic from 203.6—199.6 mya, existing for approximately 4 million years.[1] Three species are known: Tricuspes tubingensis Huene, 1933, Tricuspes sigogneauae Hahn et al 1994 and Tricuspes tapeinodon Godefroit and Battail, 1997, which are all from the Late Triassic (Rhaetian) period in continental Europe.

Mezozoic Hadrocodium wui is an extinct basal mammal species that lived during the Lower Jurassic (approx. 195 million years ago, during the Sinemurian stage) in what is now the Yunnan province of China. Hadrocodium was a mere 3.2 cm (1.35 in) in length (about 2 grams), and is one of the smallest mammals of either the Mesozoic or Cenozoic eras. Hadrocodium is the earliest known example of several features distinctive to mammals,[1] including mammal-like mandible and middle-ear structures and a relatively large brain cavity.[2] The discovery of Hadrocodium suggests that the origination of these distinctive mammaliaform features was much older (45 million years older) than previously thought. Whether Hadrocodium was endothermic or cold-blooded has not been settled, although its apparent nocturnal features would seem to place it in the endotherm group Sinoconodon rigneyi is an ancient proto-mammal that appears in the fossil record in the late Triassic period, about 208 million years ago. Although the animal seems more related to Morganucodon than anything else, it differed substantially from other Mammaliaformes in its dental and growth habits. Similar to reptiles, it replaced many of its teeth (its incisors, canines, and postcanines) throughout its lifetime (polyphydont), and it seems to have grown slowly but continuously until its death. Therefore, Sinoconodon is generally considered more primitive (less mammalian) than related Mammaliaformes, including docodonts and morganucodonts, which appear a few million years later. Some label it the most primitive mammal taxon, while others do not label it a mammal at all.

Mezozoic Order Haramiyida Family Haramiyidae Genus Haramiya
Haramiya is a mammaliform that is a lineage either unrelated or a paraphyletic parent to multituberculates[1] from the Mesozoic era. Only Haramiya's teeth and skull have been found; judging from these it has been constructed as a 12 cm (5 in) creature with a resemblance to modern voles. It is presumed to have fed on the leaves of tree ferns, as it had broad cheek teeth for crushing tough vegetable food

Mezozoic Order Morganucodontia Megazostrodon Family Morganucodontidae
Genus Eozostrodon Genus Erythrotherium Family Megazostrodontidae Genus Megazostrodon

Mezozoic Eozostrodon was one of the earliest mammals. It lived during the late Triassic and the early Jurassic, about 210 million years ago. Eozostrodon was one of the largest early mammals, measuring more than a meter long. As with most early mammals, the classification of Eozostrodon is uncertain. Like modern monotremes, this mammal laid eggs. Young were then fed with milk from their mother's mammary glands. Its teeth were typically mammalian, being differentiated into molars and premolars with triangular cusps. With its long snout, four legs, eight toes, clawed paws and a long hairy tail, Eozostrodon resembled a shrew Erythrotherium is an extinct genus of basal mammal from the Lower Jurassic. It was related to Morganucodon. Only one species is recorded, Erythrotherium parringtoni, from Red Beds, Stromberg Group, Mafeteng and Upper Elliot Formation and Clarens Formation, from Lesotho and South Africa. Megazostrodon is the only well-known genus of the family Megazostrodontidae. The other members of this family that are currently known to science are Indozostrodon, Dinnetherium, Wareolestes and Brachyzostrodon.

The megazostrodontids used to be classified as members of a group of mammals called the Triconodonts, which are thought to have evolved from a specific group of reptiles (the cynodonts or 'mammal-like reptiles’)[6] during the late Triassic and early Jurassic periods. However, recent classifications consider the megazostrodontids to be mammaliaforms just outside the Mammalia proper, while the triconodonts remain in the (crowngroup) Mammalia. One must keep in mind that the distinction between true mammals and mammaliaformes is purely a cladistic and phylogenetic one: mammaliaforms are mammals in every other way. These early mammals developed many traits which were to make them well-suited for a very active lifestyle. They developed four types of teeth incisors, canines, premolars and molars, which enabled them to chew and therefore process their food more thoroughly than their reptilian cousins. There is evidence that the inward-closing movement of the mandible suggests a shearing action to chew food.[8] Their skeletons changed so that their limbs were more flexible (they became less laterally splayed,[9] allowing for faster forward motion) and they developed a shorter ribcage and larger lungs[7] to allow for faster respiration. The structure of their jaw bones changed, the lower jaw becoming a single bone — the dentary (as opposed to the seven different bones found in reptilian lower jaws). The other bones which once made up the jaw moved to the middle ear[1] to create a hearing system. Probably the most important aspect of change in the evolution that led to these first mammals was that their direct ancestors (the cynodonts) had become warm-blooded. This meant that they relied on the food they ate to help sustain their body temperature rather than depending on their surrounding environment, which enabled them to maintain higher activity levels during the day than reptiles could (as reptiles frequently have to perform temperature regulation activities such as sun basking and seeking shade) and even to become nocturnal — a major advantage in a world where most predators were active during the day. Despite all the mammalian traits that Megazostrodon acquired, it is thought that they still laid leathery eggs like, similar to the extant monotremes. Live birth and the placenta would be later evolutions for mammals

Mezozoic Order Docodonta Late Triassic–Late Jurassic
Family Docodontidae Genus Castorocauda Castorocauda lutrasimilis. Castorocauda was a genus of small, semi-aquatic relative of mammals living in the mid Jurassic period, around 154 million years ago, found in lakebed sediments of the Daohugou Beds of Inner Mongolia. It was highly specialized, with adaptations evolved convergently with those of modern semi-aquatic mammals such as beavers, otters, and the platypus.

Mezozoic Subclass uncertain Order Gondwanatheria Family Sudamericidae
Sudamericidae is a family of gondwanathere mammals that lived during the late Cretaceous to Eocene. Its members include Lavanify from the Cretaceous of Madagascar, Bharattherium (=Dakshina) from the Cretaceous of India, Gondwanatherium from the Cretaceous of Argentina, Sudamerica from the Paleocene of Argentina, and unnamed forms from the Eocene of Antarctica (closely related to Sudamerica) and Cretaceous of Tanzania.[1] Genus Dakshina; Genus Gondwanatherium; Genus Lavanify Genus Sudamerica Family Ferugliotheriidae Ferugliotheriidae is one of two known families in the order Gondwanatheria, an enigmatic group of extinct mammals. Gondwanatheres have been classified as a group of uncertain affinities or as members of Multituberculata. The best-known representative of Ferugliotheriidae is the genus Ferugliotherium from the Late Cretaceous epoch in Argentina. A second genus, Trapalcotherium, is known from a single tooth, a first lower molariform (molar-like tooth), from a different Late Cretaceous Argentinean locality. Another genus known from a single tooth (in this case, a fourth lower premolar), Argentodites, was first described as an unrelated multituberculate, but later identified as possibly related to Ferugliotherium. Finally, a single tooth from the Paleogene of Peru, LACM , perhaps a last upper molariform, may represent a related animal. With its low-crowned teeth, Ferugliotherium may have been an insectivore or omnivore, like similar multituberculates such as Mesodma, which is thought to have eaten insects, other arthropods, seeds, and/or nuts. The wear on Ferugliotherium teeth suggests that the animal may have eaten some plant material.[36] The high-crowned sudamericids are thought to have been herbivores feeding on abrasive vegetation, although their precise diet is not known.[37] In the evolutionary history of gondwanatheres, hypsodont teeth are thought to have evolved from brachydont precursors. Gurovich hypothesizes that the anterior molariforms of sudamericids may have evolved from bladelike premolars as seen in Ferugliotherium.[38]

Mezozoic Subclass Prototheria Infraclass Yinotheria Pseudotribos
Family Shuotheriidae Shuotherium; Shuotherium is a fossil relative of the monotremes from the Jurassic. The original holotype is composed of a partial dentary and seven teeth (two which are incomplete). The holotypes for other species of this genus are solely represented by teeth. Shuotherium, along with Pseudotribos has been placed in the Order Shuotheridia, Family Shuotheriidae as a sister taxon of the Australosphenida (see, Yinotheria). Its remains have been found in the Forest Marble of England as well as the Shaximiao Formation of China. Pseudotribos ("false chewing")is an extinct genus of mammal from the Middle Jurassic some 165 million years ago of China.[

Mezozoic Order Monotremata Family Ornithorhynchidae Genus Monotrematum
Monotrematum sudamericanum Obdurodon Steropodon Family Kollikodontidae Genus Kollikodon Family Tachyglossidae Kryoryctes Genus Zaglossus Zaglossus hacketti Zaglossus robustus Genus Megalibgwilia Family Steropodontidae Genus Teinolophos Steropodon Middle Cretaceous–Recent Steropodon

Mezozoic Order Monotremata Middle Cretaceous–Recent
Family Ornithorhynchidae Ornithorhynchidae is one of the two extant families in the order Monotremata, and contains the Platypus and its extinct relatives. The other family is the Tachyglossidae, or echidnas. Within Ornithorhynchidae are two genera, Obdurodon and Ornithorhynchus Genus Monotrematum Monotrematum sudamericanum Obdurodon Steropodon Family Kollikodontidae Genus Kollikodon Family Tachyglossidae Kryoryctes Genus Zaglossus Zaglossus hacketti Zaglossus robustus Genus Megalibgwilia Family Steropodontidae Genus Teinolophos

Mezozoic Steropodon galmani was a prehistoric species of monotreme, or egg-laying mammal, that lived during the Lower Cretaceous period. It is the second-earliest known relative of the Platypus. Steropodon is known only from a single opalised jaw with three molars, discovered at the Griman Creek Formation, Lightning Ridge, New South Wales, Australia. It was a large mammal for the Mesozoic, being 40–50 cm long. The lower molars are 5–7 mm in length, with a width of 3–4 mm. A length of 1–2 cm is more typical for Mesozoic mammals. Also from Lightning Ridge is Kollikodon ritchiei. The molars "bear striking resemblance to the tribosphenic pattern characteristic of living therians..." (Pascual). However, there are also differences: there is no entoconid, and an absence of wear seems to suggest that the upper molars (as yet unknown) did not have a protocone, and so implying that there was a double origin of tribosphenic teeth, one group represented by the living placentals and marsupials, and the other group being the monotremes bearing 'pseudo-tribosphenic' teeth. Woodburne (2003, p. 212) reports that the holotype is a right mandible named AM F The preserved molars are m1–m3. Page 237 includes: "In Steropodon, the mandibular canal suggests the presence of a bill, with a bill also known in Obdurodon dicksoni and Ornithorhynchus anatinus."

Mezozoic Subclass Allotheria
Order Multituberculata Late Jurassic–Eocene Suborder "Plagiaulacida" Family Albionbaataridae; Albionbaataridae is a family of small, extinct mammals within the order Multituberculata. Fossil remains are known from the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous of Europe and Asia. These herbivores lived their obscure lives during the Mesozoic, also known as the "age of the dinosaurs." They were among the more derived representatives of the informal suborder "Plagiaulacida". The taxon Albionbaataridae was named by Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Ensom P.C. in 1994. Members of Albionbaataridae were "Shrew-sized taxa that differ from all other multituberculates in having relatively flat, multi-cusped anterior upper premolars, with cusps arranged in three rows, rather than 3-4, rarely up to nine high cusps in two rows, and in having lingual slope of all premolars covered by prominent, subparallel ridges...," (Kielan-Jaworowska & Hurum, 2001, p. 414). Family Allodontidae; Allodontidae is a family of extinct mammal that lived in what is now North America during the Upper Jurassic period. Allodontids (from ancient Greek "ἄλλος" "ὀδούς", different tooth) were members of the order Multituberculata. They were relatively early mammals and are within the informal suborder of "Plagiaulacida". The family was named by Othniel Charles Marsh in Two genera are recognized: Ctenacodon and Psalodon . Family Eobaataridae; Family Hahnodontidae; Family Paulchoffatiidae Family Pinheirodontidae Pinheirodontidae is a poorly known family of fossil mammals within the order Multituberculata. Remains are known from the earliest Cretaceous of Europe, (predominantly Portugal and Spain), but are so far restricted to teeth. These small plant-eaters lived during the "age of the dinosaurs". They're part of the informal suborder "Plagiaulacida". Family Plagiaulacidae; Plagiaulacidae is a family of fossil mammals within the order Multituberculata. Remains are known from the Upper Jurassic of North America through the Lower Cretaceous of Europe. These small plant-eaters lived during the Mesozoic era, also known as the "age of the dinosaurs." They were among the more derived representatives of the informal suborder of "Plagiaulacida".The taxon Plagiaulacidae was named by Gill T.N. in It is also known as Bolodontidae, a name developed by Osborn H.F. in 1887. 'Ctenacodon' brentbaatar requires renaming. It's not part of the genus Ctenacodon, although it was originally so assigned. Until it receives a new name, zoological nomenclature requires the inverted commas. Family Zofiabaataridae

Mezozoic Suborder Cimolodonta Superfamily Djadochtatherioidea
Superfamily Taeniolabidoidea Genus Lambdopsalis Genus Prionessus Genus Sphenopsalis Genus Taeniolabis Superfamily Ptilodontoidea Genus Neoliotomus Family Eucosmodontidae Genus Eucosmodon Genus Stygimys Family Microcosmodontidae Genus Acheronodon Genus Microcosmodon Genus Pentacosmodon Family Kogaionidae Kogaionidae is a family of fossil mammals within the extinct order Multituberculata. Representatives are known from the upper Cretaceous and the Paleocene of Europe. This family is part of the suborder Cimolodonta. Other than that, their systematic relationships are hard to define.These small multituberculates were named by Rădulescu R. and Samson P. in 1996, who stated they"Share with Taeniolabidoidea the general shape of the skull, with anterior part of zygomatic arches directed roughly transversely and very short basicranial region, which gives the skull a square-like appearance, but differ from them in having a strongly elongated snout and different dentition," (Kielan-Jaworowska & Hurum 2001, p.418) Genus Hainina Family Cimolomyidae Genus Buginbaatar Genus Cimolomys Genus Meniscoessus Family Boffiidae Genus Boffius

Mezozoic Order Triconodonta Late Triassic–Late Cretaceous
Family Repenomamidae Genus Repenomamus Family Jeholodentidae Genus Jeholodens; Jeholodens was a primitive mammal belonging to the Triconodonta family, and which lived in present-day China during the Middle Cretaceous about 125 million years ago.Known only from a single specimen, the holotype consists of a virtually complete articulated skull and skeleton, it shared its corporal characteristics with most other Mesozoic mammals; it was a long-tailed, nocturnal tetrapod (with prehensile fingers and toes) which hunted insects, its food, during the night.Jeholodens jenkinsi fossil displayed in Hong Kong Science Museum.It is suspected to be a nocturnal creature because it had very large eyes which were roughly 5 cm across. This would have allowed it to have better night vision for catching insects. It was a relatively advanced mammal for its time and had larger shoulders blades and collar bone; it also had grasping hands. It had forelimbs and it was likely to be capable of an upright stance.According to "Biology" 9th edition by Mader, this mammal had the sprawling hindlimbs of a reptile but its forelimbs were under the belly, as in modern mammals Genus Yanoconodon Family Gobiconodontidae Genus Gobiconodon; Gobiconodon is an extinct genus of carnivorous mammal. It weighed 10–12 pounds and measured 18-20 inches, and might have resembled a large and robust opossum.

Mezozoic Subclass Theria Infraclass Pantotheria
Order Symmetrodonta Late Triassic–Late Cretaceous Superfamily Spalacotheroidea Genus Maotherium Family Zhangheotheriidae Genus Zhangheotherium Family Spalacotheriidae Genus Akidolestes; Akidolestes cifellii is an extinct mammal which dates to the early Cretaceous period, million years ago. It is part of the Yixian formation in Liaoning, China. The description is based on a nearly complete skeleton, partially complete skull, and an impression. It is notable in that it displays characteristics of monotremes but appears to be more related to modern therian mammals. Akidolestes has no modern relatives. It is an early offshoot of mammal related to therians (the subclass containing marsupials and placentals). It clearly belongs within a group of theriiform mammals known as the Spalacotherioidea. Unlike other members of this superfamily, however, Akidolestes has some very prototherian features. Family Kuehneotheriidae Genus Woutersia Genus Kuehneotherium Order Pantotheria (Eupantotheria) Late Triassic–Late Jurassic Order Dryolestida Family Dryolestidae Genus Crusafontia

Mezozoic Order Apatotheria Family Apatemyidae Genus Jepsenella
Genus Labidolemur Genus Unuchinia Order Pantolesta Family Pentacodontidae Genus Coriphagus Genus Aphronorus Genus Pentacodon Genus Protentomodon Genus Bisonalveus Bisonalveus browni (60 Ma) Bisonalveus is an extinct mammal once believed to be related to the modern pangolin. It was discovered in 1956 in Alberta, Canada. It is known primarily from fossil jaws dating back 60 million years ago, during the Palaeocene epoch. This ancient mammal was probably something like our modern shrews. Interestingly, the canine teeth in Bisonalveus have grooves that may have been used for delivering a venomous bite. The canines that would contain venom do not correspond with the lower jaw, rendering these teeth as deadly fangs, as in many species of venomous snakes. There are few modern mammals that are venomous. The male platypus has a hollow foot spur attached to a venom sac. The only other venomous mammals are four species of shrew and the two species of solenodon which have venomous saliva, and the slow loris which has poison glands on its arms. Possibly like the modern solenodon, Bisonalveus bit its victims to inject its toxic saliva and buried the remains in a cache for later consumption. However, because other nonvenomous mammals, such as baboons and other primates, have similar grooves some scientists have questioned whether these grooves truly indicate venom delivery.

Mezozoic Family Pantolestidae e is an extinct family of semi-aquatic, placental mammals that took part in the first placental evolutionary radiation together with other early mammals such as the leptictids.[1] Forming the core of the equally extinct order Pantolesta, the pantolestids evolved as a series of increasingly otter-like forms, ranging from the Middle Paleocene (60 mya) Bessoecetor to the Middle Eocene (50-40 mya) Buxolestes. They first appear in North America from where they spread to Europe. [2] The pantolestids were fish predators with a body length of about 50 centimetres (20 in) and a tail about 35 centimetres (14 in) long. The anatomy of these archaic "insectivorous" mammals is best known through well-preserved Middle Eocene Buxolestes specimens found at Messel in Germany and a few other less complete specimens,[1] such as the Palaeosinopa found at Fossil Butte in Wyoming, estimated to have reached body weights of up to 1,400 grams (3 lb), making them relatively large early mammals.[2] They had moderately strong canines and multi-cusped cutting teeth supported by the strong jaw muscles[1] to which cranial cavities were adapted. This combination of dentition and muscles has been interpreted as an early adaptation to a hard diet such as clams and snails.[2] Freely articulated forearm bones (radius and ulna) permitted their powerful forelimbs wide rotational movements, while their digits had large bony claws — indicating they could dig and build underground dens. Their powerful hind limbs could not be rotated in the same way, but the prominent transverse processes of the first tail vertebra suggest that they used their powerful tails to propel through the water like modern otters. [1] In later pantolestids there is a prominent cranial crest combined with strong spinal processes, indicating the presence of strong neck muscles needed by swimmers that constantly hold their heads above the water surface.[2] Genus Propalaeosinopa Genus Bessoecetor Genus Palaeosinopa Genus Paleotomus Genus Pantomimus Genus Pagonomus Genus Todralestes Genus Nosella?

Mezozoic Dimylus Palaeoryctes Order Insectivora Late Cretaceous–Recent
Suborder Erinaceomorpha Family Erinaceidae; Genus Deinogalerix Family Amphilemuridae; Genus Pholidocercus Family Dimylidae Genus Dimylus; Dimylus is an extinct genus of insectivore mammal. The creature probably resembled the modern desman in terms of size (10–20 cm in length) and physical appearance, possessing a proboscis. Its knobby teeth were small (no longer than 3,6 mm) and covered with enamel. Coupled with powerful jaw muscles this made Dimylus capable of crushing armored creatures such as crustaceans. Dimylus has been found in Europe, in areas that were abundant with water in the time it existed, suggesting it filled the same ecological niche as the modern desmans. While their dental morphology still indicate a mostly insectivorous diet, it, to some extent, also relate to Eocene carnivores such as creodonts Suborder Soricomorpha Family Palaeoryctidae; ("old/stony digger", from Greek: ὀρύκτης, oryctes) is an extinct group of relatively non-specialized placental mammals that strived in North America during the late Cretaceous and took part in the first placental evolutionary radiation together with other early mammals such as the leptictids. [ Family Micropternodontidae Family Apternodontidae Family Nyctitheriidae Dimylus Palaeoryctes

Mezozoic MORGANUCODON WATSONI (Triassic 200 Million years ago)
Small mammals co-existed in the world of dinosaurs, albeit rather tenuously. Their survival is a testament to what would mature into the larger dominant life forms, some one hundred fifty million years later. This mini-mammal lived during the Upper Triassic. It first appeared in the fossil record about 205 million years ago. Unlike many other early mammals, Morganucodon is well represented and preserved though skeletal fossil segments. Most of this comes from Glamorgan in Wales UK (Morganucodon watsoni), but fossils have also been found in the Yunnan Province in China and in various parts of Europe and North America. Its skull was about the size of a small paper clip.

Mezozoic DIDELPHODON (Cretaceous 65-70 Million years ago)
Perhaps the most well known small mammal, nervously co-existing with the giant reptiles during the late dinosaur period. Made popular in the BBC movie "Walking with Dinosaurs," the title "hiding from dinosaurs" might be more appropriate. The largest were Opossum size and based on their teeth, all are presumed to be carnivorous. Some like to think of it as being raider of dinosaur nests. This is pure conjecture, but it's nice to think of mammals fighting back, even in a rather covert way. Little more than teeth, some jaws and skull fragments have been found, which means that the possible shape is based on existing animals with similar characteristics, combined with the imagination of BBC artists. It was probably nocturnal, hiding out from reptilian carnivores during the day. It's teeth have similarities to the Sea Otter, leading some to speculate that it may have been somewhat semi-aquatic, but nobody really knows.

Mezozoic - Eocen Leptictidium (graceful weasels), was one of the mammal species that survived the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event and lived well into the Eocene. Some perfectly preserved fossils of Leptictidium have been found in the Messel shales. They were 60-90cm long from nose to tail, weighing only two to four kilograms. They were warm-blooded, which enabled them to be active early in the morning when cold blooded animals were still sluggish. They were equipped with long mobile and sensitive noses, similar to today's elephant shrews, and with supersonic hearing that helped them to locate their prey. They were always on the hunt for food to satisfy their never-ending appetite, as a fast metabolism was the price they had to pay for being warm-blooded. They were carnivorous, eating other small mammals, lizards and invertebrates, which they hunted mainly in the early mornings and at dusk, when it was safer for them to be out in the forest. They moved around by hopping kangaroo-style, with short front legs and large back legs. (1)

Paleocen

Paleocen Titanoboa cerrejonensis

Paleocen Condylarthra
The order Condylarthra is one of the most characteristic groups of Paleocene mammals, and it illustrates well the evolutionary level of the Paleocene mammal fauna. When compared to the mammal fauna of today, condylarths are relatively unspecialized placental mammals. However, in comparison to their insectivorous ancestors, members of the Condylarthra show the first signs of being omnivores or even herbivores. Since larger herbivores were absent on land after the extinction of the dinosaurs, this shift in diet triggered the tremendous evolutionary radiation of the condylarths that we can observe throughout the Paleocene. Result of this radiation are the different groups of ungulates (or "hoofed mammals") that form the dominant large herbivores in most Cenozoic animal communities on land, except on the island continent of Australia. The term ungulate refers here to a subgroup of placental mammals (the Ungulata) that are descendants of a common ancestor, the most primitive condylarth. Among recent mammals, the even- and odd-toed ungulates, hyraxes, elephants, aardvarks, sea cows and whales are traditionally regarded as members of the Ungulata (but see discussion at the end of this article). Besides condylarths several extinct groups must be added to the Ungulata, especially the endemic South American orders of ungulates. Although many ungulates have hoofs, this feature does not define the Ungulata. Some condylarths indeed have small hoofs on their feet, but the most primitive forms are clawed. On the other hand, hoofs have been independently acquired by groups that do not belong to the Ungulata, such as the extinct Pantodonta. The majority of condylarths is known from North America, the continent that has the most complete record of Paleocene mammals. Only few Paleocene mammal faunas have been discovered in Europe, but these show that condylarths were equally important in this part of the world and were often represented there by close relatives of North American forms. Surprisingly, only a few questionable condylarths have been described from the much richer Paleocene faunas of Asia. The ecological role of plant-eating mammals was taken over there by groups like the Anagalida and the Pantodonta. Yet these were hunted by carnivorous descendants of the condylarths, members of the order Mesonychia. South America is the only continent in the southern hemisphere that has a substantial record of Paleocene mammals, and the growing number of South American condylarths establishes an important link to the northern faunas

Paleocen Protungulatum is traditionally regarded as a member of the Arctocyonidae, a family that was diverse and abundant in the Paleocene of North America and Europe. The arctocyonids are the least herbivorous group of condylarths. In fact their skulls look superficially like those of carnivores, with large canines and relatively sharp teeth, but arctocyonids had no specialized teeth for slicing meat and were probably omnivores. The limbs of arctocyonids were relatively short and showed none of the specializations that we typically associate with ungulates, like reduction of the side digits, fusion of bones or the possession of hoofs. Many arctocyonids are only known from their teeth, which show much individual variation, so the taxonomy of arctocyonid genera and species is highly unstable Reconstruction of the agile climber Chriacus, a small arctocyonid from the early Paleocene to early Eocene of North America. Length including tail about 1m. With an estimated body mass of 5 to 10 kg, Chriacus from the early Paleocene to early Eocene of North America is an example of the smaller arctocyonids. A nearly complete skeleton has been found in early Eocene rocks of Wyoming. It is essentially primitive in structure and similar to early Paleocene arctocyonids like Loxolophus that are less well known. As this skeleton shows, Chriacus was equally adept in the trees and on the ground. Among todays mammals it can be compared best to members of the racoon family and to the civets. Like most climbing mammals, Chriacus had powerful limb musculature, very mobile joints and feet bearing five digits with claws. The tail of Chriacus was long and robust. It was well adapted to be used in balancing and may even have formed a prehensile organ. As the design of the forelimb suggests, the animal was capable of digging. Chriacus may have eaten fruits, insects and other small animals. Interestingly, its lower incisors formed a kind of tooth-comb that was probably used for grooming

Paleocen Besides the arctocyonids, members of the Periptychidae were the dominant condylarths of early Paleocene faunas in North America (the so-called Puercan fauna). Less than one million years after the end of the Cretaceous they already span a wide range of size, from squirrel-sized forms like Anisonchus to the sheep-sized Ectoconus, one of the largest Puercan mammals. A complete skeleton of Ectoconus ditrigonus has been found in New Mexico, U. S. A., making this species the best known mammal of the Puercan fauna. Incidentally the skeleton shows a severely diseased elbow joint, which must have made the animal lame. The general body plan of Ectoconus agrees in many points with the larger arctocyonids, like in the massive build, the small braincase of the skull, the stout short limbs and the long heavy tail. However, the five wide-spreading digits on its feet carried small hoofs similar to those of the recent tapirs, in contrast to the clawed feet of the arctocyonids. Although Ectoconus is a nearly ideal approximation of the generalized ungulate body plan, the dentition of the periptychids is specialized in a peculiar way, which disqualifies them from being potential ancestors of the modern ungulates. Most periptychids have enlarged, bulbous premolars that probably served for shredding tough plant material. Strong grooves run down from the top of these teeth in the last surviving genus, the early to late Paleocene Periptychus, an animal a little smaller than Ectoconus but with a larger head. The characteristic premolars of Periptychus are strikingly similar to those of some pigs, and in fact a pig- or peccary-like diet, mainly vegetarian, has been proposed for the periptychids. Reconstruction of the sheep-sized periptychid Ectoconus from the early Paleocene of New Mexico

Paleocen A third family of condylarths, the Hyopsodontidae, got important later in the Paleocene when the periptychids had already passed the zenith of their evolution. Hyopsodontids were typically small animals that had little in common with our general idea of an ungulate and were more like insectivores in appearance. In some cases the resemblance to insectivores even extends to details of the teeth, and there is much debate whether some putative hyopsodontids like Litomylus are actually insectivores related to the hedgehogs. The best known hyopsodontid is Hyopsodus, a highly successful genus that occurs in the early Eocene all over the northern hemisphere and survived far into the Eocene as one of the last condylarths - although this is of course a question of definition of that group. Rare fossils from North America could indicate that Hyopsodus first appeared there in the latest Paleocene. Hyopsodus was a rat-sized gracile animal with shortened limbs and clawed feet. Its skeleton suggests that it was partly living in trees. A European subfamily of hyopsodontids is centered around Louisina from the later Paleocene of Germany and France. The related genus Paschatherium must have been extremely numerous in the latest Paleocene and earliest Eocene of Europe since it makes up the majority of all mammal fossils in some fossil sites. Ankle bones of this form suggest that Paschatherium, too, was versatile in the trees and may have been similar to squirrels in adaptation. Reconstruction of Hyopsodus, a rat-sized animal from the early to middle Eocene and possibly latest Paleocene. Hyopsodus is the only hyopsodontid for which the skeleton is adequately known

Paleocen Phenacodontidae, include the ancestors of a more familiar ungulate order: The odd-toed ungulates or Perissodactyla, represented by horses, rhinos and tapirs in the recent fauna. Historically, phenacodontids form the core of the Condylarthra. Well-preserved skeletons are known for the type genus Phenacodus, which is a good model of an ancestral ungulate with beginning adaptations for running. Unlike arctocyonids, periptychids or mioclaenids, the phenacodontids are not part of the first wave of condylarths that populated North America. They first appear with the fox-sized Tetraclaenodon in the middle Paleocene of that continent. The appearance of the more advanced phenacodontids Phenacodus and Ectocion marks the beginning of late Paleocene time in North America. The type genus Phenacodus covers the large size range of phenacodontids and includes roughly sheep-sized animals. Members of the genus Ectocion were usually smaller, with a body mass of only 3 kg in the smallest species, but there is some overlap in size between the two genera. Phenacodontids were the dominant mammals in the latest Paleocene of North America and account for up to 50% of all mammal specimens in faunas of that age. Both Phenacodus and Ectocion survive until the middle Eocene, but phenacodontids become less common after the end of the Paleocene. Remarkable exceptions are local mass occurrences of the dog-sized phenacodontid Meniscotherium which forms real bonebeds in some places. Meniscotherium is mainly early Eocene in age, although first individuals may already have been present in the latest Paleocene. Phenacodus spread into Europe in the early Eocene as part of a major faunal exchange between the Old and New World, but it never became an important component of the European fauna. Reconstruction of the late Paleocene to middle Eocene Phenacodus, a sheep-sized herbivore with improved capabilities for running

Paleocen PHENACODUS (Lower Paleocene/Mid Eocene)
A long extinct sheep size mammal from the late Paleocene through middle Eocene, about million years ago. It is one of the earliest and most primitive of the ungulate (hoofed) mammals found to date. A multiple toe/hoofed mammal with five toes terminating with a small hoof on each. Its substantial canines, with rear teeth more suited for eating vegetation, lead one to presume that it was omnivorous

Paleocen Order Macroscelidea Order Dermoptera Paleocene–Recent
Family Paromomyidae Family Plagiomenidae Genus Planetetherium is an extinct genus of herbivorous gliding mammal (not unlike Colugo) endemic to North America during the Paleogene living from 56.8—55.4 mya, existing for approximately 1.4 million years.[1] Fossils have been discovered in strata formed from ancient cypress forests, suggesting that this was the animal's preferred habitat. Plantetherium measured around 25 centimetres (10 in) in length, and its skeleton closely resembled that of its modern relatives. Its teeth already included the comb-like structure distinctive to modern colugos. There is no direct evidence that Planetetherium had the membrane of skin that allows modern colugos to glide, but its bodily proportions suggests that this was likely the case. Family Mixodectidae

Paleocen Order Condylarthra Paleocene–Eocene Family Arctocyonidae
Genus Arctocyon Genus Chriacus Family Periptychidae Genus Ectoconus Genus Oxyacodon Family Hyopsodontidae Genus Hyopsodus Family Mioclaenidae Family Phenacodontidae Genus Meniscotherium Genus Phenacodus Family Protungulatidae Genus Protungulatum Family Didolodontidae Genus Didolodus Family Sparnotheriodontidae

Paleocen Hypothetical restoration of the Early Paleocene Purgatorius, one of the earliest known primate-like mammals Restoration of the widespread genus Plesiadapis, showing the clawed hand and feet and the bushy tail Skull of Plesiadapis tricuspidens from the Late Paleocene of France, vaguely resembling that of a rodent with its enlarged incisors and the long diastema in front of the cheek teeth. Note that the orbits of plesiadapiforms are not yet completely enclosed by bone, unlike those of true primates

Paleocen Hypothetical restoration of the Latest Paleocene Planetetherium as a glider similar to today's colugos or "flying lemurs". Restoration of the Latest Paleocene Carpolestes simpsoni, firmly grasping a branch with hands and feet

Paleocen

Eocen Reconstruction of late Eocene (Duchesnean) animals from the "Mammal Quarry" of the upper Clarno Formation at Hancock Field Station, Oregon (scale from R.B. Horstalle for Scott, 1913; others original with inspiration from Stock, 1936; Russell, 1938; Scott, 1945; McGrew, 1953; Radinsky, 1963; Mellett, 1969; Langston, 1975; Hanson, 1989; Savage and Long, 1986; Dixon and others, 1992). (click on image for an enlargement in a new window)

Eocen Many groups of "modern" animals made their first appearance in the eocene. These include the first members of the orders of elephants, bats, whales, even-toed hooved animals (artiodactyls) and the odd-toed perissodactyls. The first horse, Hyracotherium (aka eohippus), appeared in the eocene. It is the earliest member of the family equidae, which includes all extinct horses and the modern genus Equus.

Eocen Coryphodons – species of Amblypoda, widespread in the lower Eocene, at the end of which they became extinct. Genus Coryphodon developed in Asia in the early Eocene epoch and then migrated to the territory of modern North America where it probably forced out the native pantodonte Barylambda. Coryphodon’s hight was about one meter, and its weight about 500 kg. They were solid, strong built animals with mighty neck musculature. Both sexes had large canines of which the top ones were hypertrophied. Male species’ canines were larger, which was characteristic for pantodontes. The scull had explicit sagittal crest to which mighty temporal muscles were attached. Coryphondon’s limbs were rather strong, but short. Each of the limbs had five fingers. Finger phalanxes ended in small hooves. Coryphondon’s brain was one of the relatively smallest among known mammals; their brain mass was only about 90 kg. Judging by how their bodies were built, they were quite sluggish and clumsy animals. Probably, they preferred living in forests or close to water. Their diet consisted of leaves, young sprouts, flowers and various swamp vegetation. Amblypodas as animals with very small brain and rather imperfectly built teeth and limbs could not coexist for a long time with new, more progressive Ungulata that shortly took their place

Eocen ENTELODONT/ARCHAEOTHERIUM
(Lower Eocene, Oligocene Upper Miocene) Sometimes called "The Hog From Hell," it is only hog-like in appearance. Entelodont tooth marks have been found on other members of this species. This would indicate that they even fought with each other. This small brained carnivore/scavenger, with an unfriendly disposition, was among the top in the food chain. The largest lasted into the Miocene. It was called "Dinohyus" and stood almost six feet in height and had tusks rather than fangs. Biggest of the Eocene/Oligocene fanged Entelodont was Archaeotherium mortoni, which was the size of a large cow. Rhino jaws and other mammal bones have been found with bite marks on them that match the large canines of Archaeotherium mortoni. In leaner times, it is hypothesized that Archaeotherium dug for roots and tubers, as with other pig-like mammals

Eocen PALAEOLAGUS (Late Eocene/Oligocene)
Palaeolagus, meaning "ancient hare," is an extinct genus of lagomorph in the family Leporidae. While closely related to modern rabbits, its shorter hind legs indicate it ran more like rodents, to which it is more distantly related, than hopping like rabbits of today. Palaeolagus chewed differently than rodents due to having TWO pairs of incisors in the upper jaw as opposed to a single pair in rodents. Jaws are adapted for nibbling grass and plant material. While Palaeolagus was possibly highly prevalent in the environment of Oligocene North America, the size and fragility of their fossils make them extremely rare. Only two almost complete fossil bodies have been found to date.

Eocen An early horse, the size of a cat was another Eocene forest dweller. (They looked more like tapirs, than horses though.) Propalaeotherium was herbivorous, browsing leaves and fallen fruit. They didn't have hooves but had nail-like hooflets, four on the front and three on each back foot. Two species have been identified from the well-preserved fossils that were found in the Messel shales and at Geiseltal, Germany. Even the stomach content was so well preserved, that scientist could identify exactly what they ate! (4)

Eocen TITANOTHERE (Brontothere) (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene)
Looking similar to the Rhinoceros, the Titanothere (or Brontothere) is not really an early relative. Brontothere means "Thunder Beast." Herbivores, the carnivorous predators of the day probably tread carefully around these giants, who stood over eight feet at the shoulders. Picture an ancient animal looking like a giant Rhino, as large as a female Elephant, but related to neither. Brontotheres had four toes on their front feet and three in the back. Their teeth were adapted to soft vegetation. This probably contributed to their eventual extinction in the increasingly drier conditions of the Oligocene, with the resulting tougher vegetation. BRONTOTHERIUM

HORSE (Eohippus Hyracotherium to Ice Age)
(Eocene to Pleistocene) Horse evolution is probably the best example of slow change over tens of millions of years due to Natural Selection pressures of changing environment. A small one foot tall forest dweller of the Eocene called Hyracotherium a.k.a. Eohippus (Dawn Horse), had four front hoofs on each limb and three in the back. This was followed by the somewhat larger Mesohippus, with three toe hoofs. As the forests receded over tens of millions of years and the environment dried to plains, larger and taller animals tended to survive and breed with each other. The result is the graceful, fleety, single hoof modern horse that was tall and quick enough to escape predators of the plains. The horse is native to America but was hunted to extinction by the arrival of the American Indian some 10,000 years ago. It returned to this continent by the Spanish Conquistadors, who arrived on our shores some five hundred years ago, with descendants of American horses that migrated to Asia and Europe.

Eocen Andrewsarchus was a primitive, carnivorous mammal that lived during the early Eocene - 45 million years ago. This giant creodont was heavily-built and wolf-like. It was about 13 feet long and had a skull over three feet long; it was the largest creodont. It walked on four short legs and had a long body, a long tail, and a long snout. It had large, sharp teeth and clawed feet. Flat cheek teeth were perhaps used to crush bones. Fossils have been found in Mongolia; they were first found in 1923 by Kan Chuen Pao. Andrewsarchus may be an ancestor of the whales.

Eocen Pakicetus is a genus of extinct predator mammal which belonged to suborder Achaeoceti. It is the most ancient of presently-known direct ancestors of modern-day whales that lived approximately 48 mln years ago and adjusted to searching for food under water. It was endemic to the territory of present-day Pakistan. This prehistoric whale remained semi-aquatic as the modern-day otter. Its ear started to adapt to hearing underwater but still could not endure high pressure. It had massive jaws revealing its predatory nature, closely set eyes, and muscular tail. Its sharp teeth were suited to grasp slimy fish. Its exterior was reminiscent of that of a dog, but with hooves on fingers and a long thin tail; it had a skeleton suited for terrestrial life no worse than of any other Ungulata. Probably, it had webs between fingers. Its main peculiarity was that its malleolar bones were similar to those of pigs, sheep and hippos. Its skull on the other hand was very similar to those of whales. The earliest ancestors of all Ungulata mammals were probably partly carnivorous or omnivorous. The ancestors of whales diverged from Artiodactyla and transferred to the aquatic lifestyle already after Artiodactyla themselves diverged from their common ancestors with mesonychids.

Eocen Rodhocetus, a whale that lived 47 million years ago, visualized on the basis of new Eocene fossils from Pakistan. The ankle bones indicate a close relationship of early whales to hooved land mammals such as hippopotami and pigs. Forefeet retain hooves on the central digits, but hind feet with slender webbed toes indicate that Rodhocetus was predominantly aquatic. [Painting by John Klausmeyer, University of Michigan Exhibit Museum]

Eocen Moeritherium is an extinct mammal and may be the ancestor of all elephants. Moeritherium was about 3 ft long and weighed about 450 pounds, the size of pig. It had a long skull, a short trunk-like upper lip, four powerful legs and big feet. It had primitive teeth that jutted forward and two tusk-like incisors. This swamp dwelling herbivore appeared roughly 53 million years ago, living from the late Eocene until the early Oligocene. Fossils have been found in northern and western Africa. Classification: Order Proboscidea, Suborder Moeritherioides

Eocen Unitatherium was a huge, rhinoceros-like mammal (not a dinosaur) from the Eocene in North America; it has no living descendants. Unitaherium was 13 feet long and weighed about 2.25 tons. It had 3 pairs of bony knobs protruding from its snout and a very small brain. Males had large, downwards-pointing canine teeth. It walked on 4 thick legs and had elephant-like feet. This herbivore lived in forests and ate leaves and soft plants. It was preyed upon by packs of the dog-like Synoplotherium

Eocen Infraclass Metatheria Late Cretaceous–Recent Order Alphadontia
Family Alphadontidae Genus Alphadon Order Dasyuromorphia Family Dasyuridae Genus Glaucodon Family Thylacinidae Genus Thylacinus (Thylacinus cynocephalus the largest known carnivorous marsupial of modern times. It is commonly known as the Tasmanian tiger (because of its striped back) or the Tasmanian wolf.[6] Native to continental Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea, it is thought to have become extinct in the 20th century. It was the last extant member of its family, Thylacinidae, although several related species have been found in the fossil record dating back to the early Miocene. The thylacine had become extremely rare or extinct on the Australian mainland before European settlement of the continent, but it survived on the island of Tasmania along with several other endemic species, including the Tasmanian devil. Intensive hunting encouraged by bounties is generally blamed for its extinction, but other contributory factors may have been disease, the introduction of dogs, and human encroachment into its habitat. Despite its official classification as extinct, sightings are still reported, though none proven. Like the tigers and wolves of the Northern Hemisphere, from which it obtained two of its common names, the thylacine was an apex predator. As a marsupial, it was not closely related to these placental mammals, but because of convergent evolution it displayed the same general form and adaptations. Its closest living relative is thought to be either the Tasmanian devil or numbat. The thylacine was one of only two marsupials to have a pouch in both sexes (the other being the water opossum). The male thylacine had a pouch that acted as a protective sheath, covering the male's external reproductive organs while he ran through thick brush. It has been described as a formidable predator because of its ability to survive and hunt prey in extremely sparsely populated areas.[7]

Eocen Order Deltatheroidea Family Deltatheridiidae
Genus Deltatheridium Order Peramelemorphia Family Peramelidae Genus Perameles Desert Bandicoot (Perameles eremiana) Genus Chaeropus Pig-footed Bandicoot (Chaeropus ecaudatus) Family Thylacomyidae Genus Macrotis (Thalacomys) Lesser Bilby (Macrotis leucura) Order Diprotodontia Family Thylacoleonidae Genus Thylacoleo (Thylacoleo carnifex) The Marsupial Lion is the largest meat-eating mammal known to have ever existed in Australia, and one of the largest marsupial carnivores from anywhere in the world (although see Thylacosmilus and Borhyaena). Individuals ranged up to around 75 cm (29.5 in) high at the shoulder and about 150 cm (60 in) from head to tail. Measurements taken from a number of specimens show that they averaged 100 to 130 kg (220 to 285 lb) in weight although individuals heavier than 160 kg (350 lb) may not have been uncommon.[2] This would make it quite comparable to female lions and tigers in general size. The animal was extremely robust with powerfully built jaws and very strong forelimbs. It possessed retractable claws, a unique trait among marsupials. This would have allowed the claws to remain sharp by protecting them from being worn down on hard surfaces. The claws were well-suited to securing prey and for climbing trees. The first digits ("thumbs") on each hand were semi-opposable and bore an enlarged claw. Palaeontologists believe that this would have been used to grapple with and slash at its intended prey as well as providing it with a sure footing on tree trunks and branches. The hind feet had four functional toes, the first digit being much reduced in size but possessing a roughened pad similar to that of possums, which may have assisted with climbing. It is unclear whether the Marsupial Lion exhibited syndactyly (fused second and third toes) like other diprotodonts. The Marsupial Lion's hindquarters were also well-developed although to a lesser extent than the front of the animal. Remains of the animal show that it had a relatively thick and strong tail and that the vertebrae possessed chevrons on their undersides where the tail would have contacted the ground. These would have served to protect critical elements such as nerves and blood vessels if the animal used its tail to support itself when on its hind legs, much like present day kangaroos do. Taking this stance would free up its forelimbs to tackle or slash at its intended victim.[3] Eocen

Eocen Suborder Vombatiformes Family Diprotodontidae
Genus Diprotodon (Eocen 1.6 Ma – 50,000 BP, Australia) Diprotodon, meaning "two forward teeth",[1] sometimes known as the Giant Wombat or the Rhinoceros Wombat, was the largest known marsupial that ever lived. Along with many other members of a group of unusual species collectively called the "Australian megafauna", it existed from approximately 1.6 million years ago until extinction some 46,000 years ago[2] (through most of the Pleistocene epoch). Diprotodon species fossils have been found in sites across mainland Australia, including complete skulls and skeletons, as well as hair and foot impressions.[1] Female skeletons have been found with babies located where the mother's pouch would have been.[1] The largest specimens were hippopotamus-sized: about 3 metres (9.8 ft) from nose to tail, standing 2 metres (6.6 ft) tall at the shoulder and weighing up to 2,786 kilograms (6,140 lb).[3][4] They inhabited open forest, woodlands, and grasslands, possibly staying close to water, and eating leaves, shrubs, and some grasses. The closest surviving relatives of Diprotodon are the wombats and the koala. It is suggested that diprotodonts may have been an inspiration for the legends of the bunyip, as some Aboriginal tribes identify Diprotodon bones as those of "bunyips".[5]

Eocen Genus Caloprymnus Suborder Phalangeriformes
Suborder Macropodiformes Family Potoroidae Genus Potorous Broad-faced Potoroo (Potorous platyops) is an extinct species of marsupial that once lived in Australia. Subfossil remains indicate that it originally had an extensive distribution from the semi-arid coastal districts of South Australia to the Western Australian coast, and possibly as far north as North West Cape. The habits - It is clear that it avoided the fertile forested areas that its relatives the Long-nosed and Long-footed Potoroos inhabit. It is unusual amongst recently extinct Australian vertebrates in that it appears to have declined significantly before the European settlement of Australia. Preserved specimens indicate that it was smaller than the other potoroos at around 24 cm long with an 18 cm tail. The coat was grizzled grey above and dirty white below, the body similar in shape to that of a large rat. The ears were small and rounded, the muzzle fairly short, and the cheeks notably puffy. Genus Caloprymnus Desert Rat-kangaroo (Caloprymnus campestris) Family Macropodidae Genus Lagorchestes Eastern Hare Wallaby (Lagorchestes leporides) Genus Onychogalea Crescent Nailtail Wallaby (Onychogalea lunata) Genus Procoptodon largest leaf-eating kangaroo was a genus of giant short-faced kangaroo living in Australia during the Pleistocene epoch. P. goliah, the largest known kangaroo that ever existed, stood approximately 2 meters[2] (6'7") tall. They weighed about 230 kilograms. Giant short-faced kangaroos had a flat face and forward-pointing eyes. On each foot they had a single large toe somewhat similar in appearance like a horse's hoof. On these unusual feet they moved quickly through the open forests and plains, where they sought grass and leaves to eat. Their front paws were equally strange: each front paw had two extra-long fingers with large claws. It is possible that they were used to grab branches, bringing leaves within eating distance. The genus was present until at least about 50,000 years ago before going extinct, although there is some evidence they may have survived to as recently as 18,000 years ago. Their demise is usually attributed to human activities, but this remains uncertain.

Eocen Order Paucituberculata Family Caroloameghiniidae Genus Chulpasia
Family Argyrolagidae Genus Argyrolagus Genus Ekaltadeta; Ekaltadeta is an extinct genus of giant marsupials related to modern rat-kangaroos. They are hypothesized to have been either predatory, or omnivorous with a fondness for meat, based on their chewing teeth. This conclusion is based mainly on the size and shape of a large buzz-saw-shaped cheek-tooth, the adult third premolar, which is common to all Ekaltadeta. A few species actually did also have long predatory "fangs". Genus Maastrichtidelphys Genus Necrolestes; Necrolestes patagonensis ("Grave Robber") is an extinct mammal, possibly a marsupial, that lived in the early Miocene of South America. The jaw bends up at the tip, possibly supporting a fleshy appendage similar to the sensitive tentacles of the star-nosed mole. Necrolestes is also sometimes reconstructed as a mole-like creature. It probably fed on insects or worms.[1] Its classification is not firmly resolved due to it being highly apomorphic and having an anatomy unlike any other known mammal, living or extinct. It possibly belongs to the marsupial lineage (Metatheria). On the other hand, the possibility that it is an eutherian cannot be ruled out based on the currently available data, given as how, even as an island, South America had extensive lineages of both marsupial and placental mammals. A second species, N. mirabilis has now been described.

Genus Palorchestes ('ancient leaper or dancer') is an extinct genus of terrestrial herbivorous marsupial of the family Palorchestidae. The genus was endemic to Australia, living from the Late Miocene subepoch through the Pleistocene epoch (around 11.6 mya – 11,000 years ago), and thought to be in existence for approximately million years. One species, Palorchestes azael, was almost as large as a horse, being around 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) in length, and had four powerful legs. The appearance of the animal's nasal bones suggests that it possessed a short proboscis, leading to the nickname of the "marsupial tapir". Since it is unrelated to tapirs, this similarity in nose shape is an example of convergent evolution. Palorchestes front legs bore large claws, similar to those of a koala, which it probably used to pull down leaves and strip the bark from trees.[1] The long symphysis at the lower jaw of all Palorchestes species indicates that the tongue was long and protrudible, like that of a giraffe Genus Peradectes; Genus Silvabestius; Genus Simosthenurus leaf-eating (browsing) kangaroos Genus Sinodelphys ; Sinodelphys szalayi (125 Ma, China); Yalkaparidon coheni ("Thingodon", 20 Ma, Australia); Genus Wakaleo; Genus Zygomaturus; Genus Sthenurus "Strong Tail“; Genus Propleopus, carnivorous kangaroo during the pliocene and pleistocene periods (e.g. giant rat kangaroo) Wakaleo (indigenous Australian waka, "little", "small", and Latin leo, "lion"), was a genus of medium-sized thylacoleonids that lived in Australia in the early to late Miocene. It was approximately 2.5 ft (80 cm) long, or the size of a dog. Although much smaller than its close relative, the Marsupial Lion (Thylacoleo carnifex), Wakaleo would have been a successful hunter in its time. It had teeth specially designed for cutting and stabbing. The ocelot-sized predator Wakaleo, along with its jaguar-sized cousin Thylacoleo, were actually related to the herbivore koalas. Eocen

Eocen Infraclass Eutheria Order Leptictida Genus Kennalestes
Family Gypsonictopidae Genus Gypsonictops Gypsonictops hypoconus Gypsonictops illuminatus Family Leptictidae Genus Prodiacodon Genus Palaeictops Genus Myrmecoboides Genus Xenacodon Genus Leptictis Genus Diaphyodectes? Family Didymoconidae Genus Zeuctherium Genus Archaeoryctes Family Pseudorhynchocyonidae Genus Leptictidium Leptictidium auderiense; Leptictidium nasutum; Leptictidium tobieni

Eocen Leptictidium "graceful weasel" in Latin) is an extinct genus of small mammals; together with macropods and humans, they are the only known completely bipedal mammals. Comprising five species, they resembled today's elephant shrews. They are especially interesting for their combination of characteristics typical of primitive eutherians with highly specialized adaptations, such as powerful hind legs and a long tail which aided in locomotion. They were omnivorous, their diet a combination of insects, lizards and small mammals. One of the first branches to split from basal eutherians,[1] they appeared in the Lower Eocene, a time of warm temperatures and high humidity, roughly fifty million years ago. Although they were widespread throughout Europe, they became extinct around thirty-five million years ago with no descendants,[2] probably because they were adapted to live in forest ecosystems and were unable to adapt to the open plains of the Oligocene. Leptictidium lived in the European subtropical forests of the Eocene. From the beginning of this period, the temperature of the planet rose in one of the quickest (in geological terms) and most extreme episodes of global warming in the geological record, termed Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum. It was an episode of quick and intense (of up to 7°C in high latitudes) warming which lasted less than 100,000 years.[11] The thermal maximum caused a great extinction which is used to distinguish the Eocene fauna from that of the Paleocene. The global climate of the Eocene was probably the most homogeneous of the Cenozoic; the temperature gradient from the equator to the poles was half that of today's, and the deep ocean currents were exceptionally warm. The polar regions were much warmer than today, maybe as warm as the Pacific Northwest nowadays. Temperate forests reached the poles themselves, while rainy tropical climates reached 45° N. The greatest difference was in temperate latitudes; nevertheless, the climate at the tropics was probably similar to today's.[12] In the Eocene, most of what today is Europe, the Mediterranean and south-west Asia was submerged under the Tethys Sea. These two continents were separated by the Turgai Strait (an epeiric sea).[13] Due to high humidity and temperatures, most of the European continent was covered in vegetation. The region which today is Germany was in a volcanically active zone during the Eocene. It is thought that the Messel pit could have been the old location of a volcanic lake saturated with CO2. The lake would periodically release the gas it contained, creating a lethal cloud which would asphyxiate any animal in its path. This would explain the great number of non-aquatic species which have been found in the old lake-bed of the Messel pit.[citation needed] In the lush forests of this region, Leptictidium shared its habitat with animals such as Godinotia, Pholidocercus, Palaeotis or Propalaeotherium. There were also predators: Asiatosuchus, Lesmesodon, or the Messel giant ant. The alpha predator was Gastornis, a carnivorous bird almost two meters tall.

Eocen Order Tubulidentata Eocene?–Recent Genus Leptorycteropus
Genus Myorycteropus Genus Orycteropus [edit] Order Bibymalagasia ?-1000 AD Plesiorycteropus, also known as the bibymalagasy or Malagasy aardvark, is a recently extinct eutherian mammalian genus from Madagascar. Upon its description in 1895, it was classified with the aardvark, but recent studies have found little evidence to link it to aardvarks or any other order of mammals. Therefore, it is now placed in its own order, Bibymalagasia, which may be part of Afrotheria. Two species are currently recognized, the larger P. madagascariensis and the smaller P. germainepetterae. They probably overlapped in distribution, as subfossil remains of both species have been found in the same site. Knowledge of the skeletal anatomy is limited, as only limb and partial pelvis and skull bones have been recovered to date. Plesiorycteropus was probably a digging animal that fed on insects such as termites and ants. It also shows adaptations for climbing and sitting. Estimates of its mass range from 6 to 18 kilograms (13 to 40 lb). When and why it became extinct remains unknown. One bone has been radiocarbon dated to 200 BCE; forest destruction by humans may have contributed to its extinction.

Eocen Mammuthus trogontherii Order Proboscidea Eocene–Recent
Family Moeritheriidae Genus Moeritherium (no family) Genus Phiomia Family Deinotheriidae Genus Deinotherium Family Mammutidae Genus Mammut American mastodon (Mammut americanum) Borson's mastodon (Mammut borsoni) Family Amebelodontidae Genus Amebelodon Genus Platybelodon Family Gomphotheriidae Genus Gomphotherium Genus Cuvieronius Genus Anancus Family Elephantidae Genus Stegotetrabelodon Genus Stegodon Genus Elephas Elephas antiquus Elephas falconeri Subgenus Palaeoloxodon Genus Mammuthus Columbian Mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) Pygmy Mammoth (Mammuthus exilis) Imperial Mammoth (Mammuthus imperator) Jeffersonian Mammoth (Mammuthus jeffersonii) Sardinian Mammoth (Mammuthus lamarmorae) Mammuthus meridionalis Woolly Mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) Mammuthus trogontherii

Oligocen

Oligocen Paraceratherium (similar to Indricotherium) is a large, extinct, hornless rhinoceros. It was one of the largest land mammals. Adults were about 26 feet long, 18 feet tall, and weighed about tons. The skull was 4.25 feet long. This herbivore ate leaves and twigs from the tops of trees. It had four teeth; two tusk-like front teeth in the top jaw, pointing down and two on the bottom pointing forwards. This extinct ungulate (hoofed mammal) had three toes on each foot and lived from the Oligocene to the early Miocene (roughly 30 million years ago) in central Asia (Pakistan). Paraceratherium was first found by English paleontologist C. Forster Cooper in Pakistan in Classification: Order Perissodactyla (odd-toed ungulates), Family Hyrachyidae (odd-toed ungulates between tapirs and rhinos).

Oligocen DESMOSTYLUS (Very Late Oligocene/Late Miocene)
An extremely rare, large, exotic, aquatic mammal that roamed the coastal areas of Asia and Western North America, these beings have what might be the oddest teeth ever seen. It was between feet in length and weight is estimated at between pounds. In the United States, most fossils are found around Fresno, California in matrix. Their demise after millions of years was most likely caused by slowly changing coastlines and available specialized food supply. Some have argued it may have fed on seaweed during low tide. However, recent isotope work indicates that Demostylus more likely lived in freshwater or estuary ecosystems and ate aquatic freshwater plants. Only two reasonably in tact skeletons have been discovered in the United States and Japan. Sporadic remains have been found along the northern Pacific Rim from Baja, Mexico northward along the coast of California, Oregon, Washington and west to Sakhalin Island, Hokkaido, Japan, and south to the Shimane Prefecture, Japan. Despite some similarities to manatees and elephants, desmostylians were entirely unlike any other living creatures..

Oligocen Indricotherium is an extinct, hornless rhinoceros with relatively long legs. (It used to be known as Baluchitherium since fossils were found in Baluchistan province, Pakistan). It was one of the largest land mammals. Adults were about 26 feet (8 m) long, 18 feet tall, and weighed about tons. The skull was 4.25 feet long. It was one of the biggest land animal ever to live on Earth (Paraceratherium was even bigger). This herbivore ate leaves and twigs from the tops of trees. It had four teeth; two tusk-like front teeth in the top jaw pointed downwards and two on the bottom pointed forwards. This extinct ungulate (hoofed mammal) had three toes on each foot and lived from the Oligocene to the early Miocene (toughly million years ago). Fossils have been found in Asia. Two of its enemies were the carnivores Hyaenodon and Dinictis. Classification: Order Perissodactyla (odd-toed ungulates), Family Hyrachyidae (odd-toed ungulates between tapirs and rhinos).

Oligocen POEBROTHERIUM (Camel) (Oligocene)
Most people don't realize that the camel originated in the Americas and not Asia. It's migration was westward, not eastward. During this period, the Camel was barely three feet high. Over millions of years, evolutionary natural selection favored larger, taller size on the drier, cooler, plains. The late North American fossil record is replete with large size camels who disappeared with the arrival of Man. This earliest of camels was barely three feet high which worked well in it's mixed forested environment of 30 million years ago

Oligocen SUBHYRACODON (Oligocene)
An early American Rhino and probably the first in North America that can be considered a "true" rhino. American Rhinos were hornless. A herbivore somewhat larger than a cow, it was the largest prevalent American mammal of its day with the exception of Titanothere (Brontothere). Fossils have been found near woodland streams rather than swampy plains. The very largest of all land mammals was the huge Indricotherium of the late Oligocene and early Miocene which was 25 feet long, 17 feet tall, and weighed nearly 18 tons

Oligocen OREODONT EPOREODONT (Largest) (Oligocene)
One of the most numerous herbivores, it's size varied widely, usually between a sheep and a cow. They were most likely woodland and grassland browsers although they might have been omnivorous when the opportunity presented itself. The Eporeodont was about as large as a modern cow. The Oreodont may have been a herbivore, but it was not necessarily an easy mark for the predators of the day. Variations were either equipped with sharp canines or large, tearing tusks. They all had claws rather than hooves. Oreodonts probably congregated in herds and like some of today's herd mammals, might have worked together for mutual protection. They were certainly a very successful species. Existing through the Oligocene and well into the Miocene, they outlasted most of their predator adversaries

Oligocen HESPEROCYON (Late Eocene/Oligocene) BOROPHAGINAE
(Oligocene/Miocene) "Hesperocyon is an extinct genus of canid or dog family and earliest true dog found to date. Earliest fossils go back about 40 million years. Most were just under three feet in length and weighted about 3.5 pounds, but some were rather larger. Smaller examples looked more like a modern civet or a small raccoon than a canine. Its body and tail were long and flexible, although as with all fossils, the amount of fur on body and tail is purely speculative. Its limbs appear to have been relatively weak and short. Still, the build of its ossicles (inner ear bones) and distribution of its teeth showed it was a canid. Although it was definitely a carnivore, it may also have been an omnivore. The subfamily Borophaginae is an extinct group of canids in North America, surviving from roughly million years. Probably an offshoot of Hesperocyon they evolved to become considerably larger than their predecessors before extinction. Size varied from small omnivores to powerful, bear-sized "bone crushing" carnivores

Oligocen DINICTIS ("False" Saber Cat) (Oligocene)
A member of what is called "The false Cats," due to several differences in among other things, the foot bones and inner ear bones. A saber toothed predator about the size of a small Puma and in the Nimravid family. We can speculate links to later cats, but the fossil record has many gaps. This is very common between the limited fossil record of the past and what we see today. There are many variant fossils of "false saber cats." Some seem to contain qualities of both cats and canids. Several subspecies have been found in Asia (China), right through the Miocene. As with all too many Chinese fossils, you must be wary of forgeries

Oligocen Dinictis was a small, primitive cat from the Oligocene (about 40 million years ago). This extinct, sabertooth cat had a sleek body, short legs, powerfully-muscular jaws, a small brain (in a 7 in), large canine teeth, and a long tail. Dinictis was plantigrade, walking in a flat-footed manner (unlike modern cats, which are probably much faster, digitigrade, walking on their toes). Dinictis, like modern cats, had three eyelids, the third one being a nictitating membrane (or haw). Dinictis evolved into pseudailurus, which was more like modern-day cats. Dinictis was very similar to Hoplophoneus (the ancestor of smilodon) except the canine teeth were less exaggerated. Dinictis may have preyed upon Indricotherium. Classification: Family Felidae, Subfamily Machairodontinae, Genus Dinictis.

Oligocen HOPLOPHONEUS ("False" Saber Cat) (Oligocene)
Another member of what is called "The false Cats," due to several differences in among other things, the foot bones and inner ear bones. A saber toothed predator about the size of a small Leopard and in the Nimravid family. Hoplophoneus was outwardly structured like the true but much later Pleistocene cat Smilodon, including the saber-like teeth. There are many variant fossils of "false saber cats." Some seem to contain qualities of both cats and canids. Several subspecies have been found in Asia (China), right through the Miocene. As with all too many Chinese fossils, you must be wary of forgeries

Oligocen ICTOPS (Insectavore) (Oligocene)
During the dinosaur age, small insect eating mammals spent their time, consuming insects and hiding from reptiles. This is one of their descendants from the subsequent age of early mammals. Descendants are still alive today, such as the Shrews and share many similarities. Like other smaller animals, this group has survived several mass extinctions of larger mammals. There have been many climate changes and mass extinctions, with most land animals over 20 pounds in weight disappearing forever.

Oligocen HYRACODON (Oligocene)
Called "Running Rhino," it is more horse-like than rhino-like. It shared the plains with Oreodonts and others. The early fossil record proves out few lineages (the horse being a possible exception) and we can only speculate. It was a lightly built, pony-like mammal of about five feet in length. Hyracodon's skull was large in comparison to the rest of the body. Its teeth resembled that of later rhinoceroses, but it was a much smaller animal. It had a short, broad snout and its long, slender limbs had three digits. Physiologically, it bore a resemblance to the very largest of all land mammals, the huge Indricotherium of the late Oligocene and early Miocene, which was 25 feet long, 17 feet tall, and weighed nearly 18 tons .

Oligocen CYNODICTIS ("In Between Dog") (Oligocene)
A very interesting smaller but elegant predator, about the size of a female coyote. Its name was taken because it shared physical qualities of the dog and cat. This is not unique as can be witnessed by the modern Hyaena. Some feel Cynodictis had the ability to climb trees. Cynodictis had a long muzzle and a low-slung body. It had carnassial scissor teeth for slicing chunks of meat off carcasses. Cynodictis probably used its speed to chase down rabbits and small rodents, but may also have been able to dig them out of their burrows. Cynodictis lived on open, semi-arid plains that were crisscrossed by rivers.

Oligocen LEPTOMERYX (Oligocene)
A deer-like ruminant of small stature, delicacy and a severely limited habitat. They seem somewhat related to the contemporary Mouse Deer which are not true deer either. If you want to picture one, think of Bambi who never grew up. They averaged around 17 pounds, somewhere between the size of a rabbit and a medium sized dog. Leptomeryx first appeared in the middle Eocene around 41 million years ago and became extinct in the early-mid Miocene. We don’t know why they went extinct.

Oligocen BEAR DOG (Amphicyon) (Oligocene, Upper-Middle Miocene)
One of the Creodont group of carnivorous predators in the Oligocene. Called "Bear Dog," it was in fact, not directly related to the bear or the dog. The bear size Amphicyon longiramus was the largest, dominant, land predator in the mid-Miocene until slowly going extinct. Typical of early mammal predators, it was noted for a large head and small brain. The very successful Daphoenus was the size of a small female wolf or more likely, that of a coyote. Interestingly, the most imposing sub-species (Longiramus) bore more of a skeletal resemblance to a large bear than a canid. But size can be a hindrance in a slowly changing environment that favors nimbleness and speed. It probably couldn't compete in conditions more favorable to more efficient predators and increasingly fleetly prey.

Amphicyon

Oligocen Borophagines
Literally meaning “bone eaters”, these early dogs like Epicyon haydeni stood 95cm at the shoulders, making them bigger than our earliest relatives and well over three feet tall at the shoulder. With hyena-like teeth (though they were not related to hyenas), these savage predators combined the fiercest features of the grey wolf, the pit bull and a giant hyena. It’s thought they would have hunted in packs similar to wolves, bringing down great predators and terrorizing the ancient North American countryside, which was where they lived until around five million years ago. The Borophagines, as a family of early canids, begin to show diversity with their specializations and development. Very adaptive, these creatures came in all shapes in sizes. The subfamily Borophagus had specialized teeth that were cone-shaped, making them especially suited to crunching on bone and getting to the nutritious marrow inside Nyctereutes

Oligocen HYAENODON Horridus, Cruentus, Mustelinus
(Oligocene, Upper Miocene) Another nasty member of the Creodont family of predators, the Hyaenodon probably went head to head with Entelodont (above) in the killing fields of the Oligocene. In later periods, Hyaenodon may have been unable to compete with developmental refinement of other predators such as canids and cats, leading to gradual extinction over millions of years. But in the late Eocene and entire Oligocene, pure brute force was more than adequate for elevation to the top of the food chain. Another theory is that a slowly changing environment and effects on natural selection might have favored their previously slower, smaller prey. None the less, this impressive predator had a successful run of some fifteen million years, which is nothing to sneeze at. Sub-species size ranged from that of a small a coyote to a large Black Bear.

Miocen

Miocen aepycamelus

Miocen EARLY HYENAS Ictitherium Viverrinum & Adcrocuta eximia (Mid-Late Miocene) Fifteen million years ago, dog-like hyenas flourished, with 30 different species being identified. They were not canids although they did appear canid-like. Unlike some of their modern descendants, these hyenas were not specialized bone-crushers, but were more nimble, Jackal-like animals, only larger. The dog-like hyenas had canid-like molars, allowing them to supplement their carnivorous diet with vegetation and invertebrates. The best known of the Jackal-like hyenas was Ictitherium Viverrinum although others were very similar. They lived between 11 million and 6 million years ago throughout Europe and Asia. Five to seven million years ago (Late Miocene), most dog-like hyenas were out-competed by true canids traveling from North America to Eurasia via the Bering land bridge. The first bone-cracking hyena, Adcrocuta eximia, does not appear in the fossil record until the late Miocene. The skull of Adcrocuta bears a close resemblance to that of modern spotted, brown and striped hyenas. However, Adcrocuta had a very stocky build, with short, robust limbs and fuller, shorter snout skull.

Miocen Megistotherium was a huge Hyaenodont (a creodont) from the Miocene Epoch (about 24 million years ago). This meat-eater may have been a scavenger and/or an active hunter. Its skull was over 3 ft long. Fossils have been found in northern Africa (Egypt and Libya). Megistotherium was named by Robert J. G. Savage in Classification: Superorder Ferae, Order Creodonta, Family Hyaenodont.

Miocen TELEOCERAS (Mid Miocene/Early Pliocene)
First identified as being in the the Mid-Miocene, this rather odd member of the rhino family thrived until the very early stage of the Pliocene. At first glance, it had a rhino-like head with a hippopotamus-like body. Its body was long and stout, with short, stumpy legs. Males had a single, small cone-like nasal horn. Over all physical qualities would indicate a semi-aquatic life, with teeth suggesting a grazing diet. Carbon isotope analysis of teeth seem to support this theory.

Miocen Gomphotherium was a 4-tusked, primitive mastodont that was about 10 ft tall. This plant-eater mammal lived during the early Miocene until the early Pliocene (roughlty 24 to 5 million years ago). This elephant-like mammal had a long trunk, relatively small ears, a short tail, and four column-like legs. It had a long lower jaw with two parallel tusks. Fossils have been found in Kenya (Africa), France (Europe), Pakistan (Asia), and Kansas, USA (North America). Classification: Class Mammalia, Order Proboscidea, Suborder Elephantoidea, Genus Gomphotherium.

Miocen Chalicotherium was an early, herbivorous mammal from the Miocene. This forest browser was an ungulate with large, clawed feet (instead of hooves). It may have been able to rear up on its hind legs to eat leaves high up in trees. Fossils have been found in Europe (Kazakhstan). Classification: Suborder Ancylopoda, Family Chalicotheriidae

Pliocen

Pliocen Elasmotherium is the largest species of rhinoceroses that lived from Pliocene till Pleistocene. It reached 6 meters in lengths and 2.5 meters in heights, and weighed up to 5 tons. Its main distinction from other rhinoceroses was a large dome-like protuberance on its forehead, probably with an over 1.5-meter long thick horn. Elasmotheria were widespread on the territory from Western Europe to Eastern Siberia. Elasmotherium ate grass and roots on river and lake banks, such as highly-nutritious starchy roots of sedge, reed mace and cane. In times of local fodder shortages, the animal could walk long distances through elevated steppe strips from one river system to another or even migrate to the south. It is indicative that the northernmost fossils of Elasmotherium are found in river valleys, and not in steppes, as those of purely herbivorous horses or woolly rhinoceroses. Their root-based diet is also evidenced by their extremely hypsodontic teeth, which ensured protection from abrasives on this type of food, such as sand, dirt, etc. Other rhinoceroses advanced their brains as early as Miocene and developed quicker orientation and better mobility which are characteristic for modern species. Elasmotherium was inferior to them; woolly rhinoceros and later species of rhinoceros had better reactions, and were smarter, faster and more aggressive.

Pliocen

Pliocen Bramatherium is a species of Sivatheria with very unusual horns. Sivatheria normally developed very large rear ossicones, while Bramatheria – frontal. Most probably, these horns had a demonstration function; however, it is possible that they were used in males’ duels, with their solid bases and rear pair directed sideways. Bramatheria were very large Ungulata reaching 2.5 m in withers height, with relatively short legs and neck. They inhabited dry savannas and sparse forests, feeding on branches and leaves of trees and bushes.

Pliocen Synthetoceras tricornis:, Pliocene member of the Protoceratidae family, related to camels and about the size of a deer

Pliocen Kvabebihyrax – a genus of very large fossils of Pliohyracidae family. They lived only in Transcaucasia (Eastern Georgia) in the late Pliocene.They were distinguished by their large size: the length of their massive bodies reached 1.5 m. Their eye sockets were small, considerably protruding over the temple and looking sideways, and at the same time set out far beyond the skull. Judging by the relatively short and very high nasal bones, as well as by the large nasal incisure, notably stretching backwards, Kvabebihyrax could have a small proboscis. Possibly, the noted original combination of characteristics of Kvabebihyrax points to its adaptation to river and lakes habitat, among swampy brushwood of forest thickets. The protruding of Kvabebihyrax’ eye sockets over the temple, resembling that of hippopotamus, indicates the ability of Kvabebihyrax to hide underwater. Probably, in water Kvabebihyax searched for shelter in moments of danger.

Pliocen Dinohyus (meaning "terrible pig") was a large, warthog-like hoofed mammal that lived during the early Miocene, roughly 24 million years ago. This herbivore (it ate plants, including roots) had a long skull (over 3 feet long), a small braincase, a pair of knob-like protrusions on the back of the lower jaw (in the cheek area), blunt incisors, and wide, strong canine teeth. Its long legs probably made it a fast runner. The neck was short and stout and there was a hump on the shoulders formed by spines along the backbone. It was about 6 feet tall at the shoulders and was the biggest and among the last of the Entelodonts. Fossils have been found in western North America (including Battle Creek, South Dakota, USA). Classification: Class Mammalia (mammals), Order Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates), Family Entelodontidae (large, pig-like mammals from the Oligocene to early Miocene, including Archaeotherium, Megachoerus, Dinohyus, Entelodon and Eoentelodon), Genus Dinohyus.

Pliocen Deinotherium Mesohippus

Pliocen Thalassocnus (T. antiquus, T. natans, and T. littoralis)
Thalassocnus is an extinct genus of semi-aquatic or aquatic marine sloth from the Miocene and Pliocene of South America. Fossils found to date have been from the coast of Peru. They were apparently grazers of sea grass and seaweed. Over time, they apparently shifted from a preference for feeding in shallow water to a preference for deeper waters.[1] They may have used their powerful claws to anchor themselves to the sea floor to facilitate feeding, similar to the behavior of the marine iguana.

Pliocen Josephoartigasia monesi was a giant prehistoric rodent from the Pliocene, the largest known to date. It is estimated that between four and lived two million years in what is now Uruguay. It is an extinct species of rodent and as said the largest rodent in history. The species measured approximately 3 m long and 1.5 m high. In life they were about the size of a car. Their incisors were more than 30 cm long. The animal weighed about a ton, and fed on soft grasses. The fossil (the skull), more than half a meter, it belonged to a species closely related to the current hamsters, and found the first skull of an animal that was known to have existed but over which he had of remains found. Among their predators can find the cave lion and Smilodon.

Pleistocen

Pleistocen DIPROTODON (Pleistocene)
Not a mammal at all and unique to Australia, Diprotodon was the largest known marsupial that ever lived. It existed through much of the Pleistocene, from 1.6 million years ago until about 40,000 years ago. Diprotodon spp. fossils have been found in many places across Australia, including complete skulls and skeletons, as well as hair and foot impressions. More than one female skeleton has been found with a baby lying in her pouch. It inhabited open forest, woodlands, and grasslands, possibly staying close to water, and eating leaves, shrubs and some grasses. The largest specimens were the size of a hippopotamus. Visualize a super-sized Koala, which is its closest living relative.

Pleistocen Doedicurus (family Glyptodontidae) was an ancient armadillo that lived during the Pleistocene. This extinct, armored mammal had four short legs, powerful jaws, with no teeth in the front and grinding teeth farther back in the jaws. This glyptodont had a long tail with a mace at the end. Doedicurus was 13 feet long and 5 feet tall. Fossils have been found in Patagonia, South America. These herbivores may have been preyed upon by saber-toothed cats and borhyaenids

Pleistocen Glyptodon (family glyptodontidae) was one of the largest Pleistocene armadillos. This car-sized herbivore was well-armored, having dome-shaped body armor, helmet-like head armor, and rings of bony armor on its short tail. It had four short legs; the front legs each had five clawed toes and the rear legs had hoof-like feet. It had a short snout and powerful jaws with no teeth in the front but grinding teeth farther back. It was about 10 feet long and 5 feet tall. Fossils have been found in Argentina, South America. It lived from the Pliocene through the Pleistocene (between 2 million and 15,000 years ago).

Pleistocen Megatherium - Megatherium americanum Megatherium was one of the largest mammals to walk the Earth, weighing 5 tons, about as much as an African bull elephant. When it stood on its hind legs, it was about twice the height of an elephant, or about twenty feet tall.. The Megatherium species was a member of the abundant Pleistocene megafauna - a wide variety of very large mammals that lived during the Pleistocene epoch. Some recent morpho-functional analysis (Bargo, 2001) indicate that M. americanum was well adapted for strong and mainly vertical biting. The teeth are extremely hypsodont and bilophodont, and the sagittal section of each loph is triangular with a sharp edge. This suggests that the teeth were used mainly for cutting, rather than grinding, and that hard and fibrous food was not the main dietary component. Richard Fariña and Ernesto Blanco of the Universidad de la República in Montevideo have analysed a fossil skeleton of M. americanum and discovered that its olecranon--the part of the elbow to which the triceps muscle attaches--was very short. This adaptation is found in carnivores and optimises speed rather than strength. The researchers say this would have enabled M. americanum to use its claws aggressively, like daggers (Fariña and Blanco, 1996).

Pleistocen Megatherium was the largest giant ground sloth; its name means "great beast." Megatherium was a huge, bulky, slow-moving herbivore with peg-like teeth, powerful jaws, and a thick, short tail. This ice-age mammal had three hook-like claws on each hand. It was primarily a quadruped (walked on four legs). It may have eaten leaves from the tops of trees while standing upright on its hind legs, using its tail to balance. Megatherium was the size of an elephant. It lived during the Pleistocene epoch in what is now South America, going extinct about 11,000 years ago. It was about 20 feet long and weighed roughly 3-4 tons. Megatherium was named by R. Owen in 1856; the first Megatherium fossil was found in Brazil in (Cohort (many grouped orders) Edentata, Family Megatheriidae, Genus Megatherium)

Pleistocen GIANT GROUND SLOTH (Late Miocene/Pleistocene)
Another casualty of the arrival of Man to America in the form of the American Indian's crossing from Asia. Eremotherium and Megatherium were the largest, being some twenty feet tall on it's hind legs and weighing as much as five tons. Glossotherium was thirteen feet in standing height. Others were smaller but still quite large. Megalonyx jeffersoni was about 8 feet tall and weighed around 600 pounds. Capable of being dangerous when provoked, these all too trusting gentle giant vegetarians fell prey to the primitive but deadly weapons of Man during the Pleistocene Ice Age. Their much smaller tree sloth relatives survive today in Central and South America, hiding out from humanity. Sloths have been identified since the late Miocene

Pleistocen Smilodon, the largest saber-toothed cat (or saber-toothed tiger), was a fierce predator about 4-5 feet long. Its one foot long skull had 2 huge canine teeth (they were serrated and oval in cross-section) in powerful jaws that opened to an angle of about 120°. It also had very strong jaw and neck muscles that let smilodon stab prey with its deadly teeth. It had a short, bobbed tail. It may have eaten thick-skinned prey like mastodons (hairy, extinct elephants) and bison. Thousands of fossils have been found in late Pleistocene tar pits and rocks from both North America (S. californicus in California) and South America (S. neogaeus in Argentina). Classification: family Nimravidae (early cats).

Pleistocen GIANT ARMADILLO holmesina_septentrionalis
(Mid/Late Pleistocene) The Giant Armadillo, Holmesina septentrionalis was from the middle to late Pleistocene period (500,000 to 11,000 years ago). A gentle giant of somewhat over six feet, weighing between pounds and the largest of the Armadillo family. Its flexible armor was composed of hundreds of bony scutes of either rectangular or pentagon shape. The fossil record suggests that Armadillos migrated from South America by way of a land bridge to North America at the end of the Pliocene. More fossils of these animals have been discovered in Florida than any other place in North America although they were far more widespread

Pleistocen DIRE WOLF (Pleistocene)
The Dire Wolf is the largest canid that ever lived. It co-existed with the modern Grey Wolf but had a more restricted diet. Evidence indicated that it survived almost entirely on the slower, heavy boned Pleistocene Bison. The Dire Wolf's heavy boned bodies were excellent for bringing down these large beasts. But unlike the lighter Grey Wolf, it did not lend itself to the limberness for quicker, more available game. The imposing Dire Wolf existed for around one million years and then disappeared. Considering Mans short presence on earth, we can't really talk.

Pleistocen Cave bear (Ursus spelaeus ) is an extinct species of bear that lived in Eurasia in the middle and late Pleistocene and got extinct approximately 15,000 years ago. Its specific name (Lat. spelaeus) comes from the fact that its bones are often found in caves. The body length of this bear reached m, which is 30% longer than contemporary brown bear. The frontal part of its body was more developed than the rear, its legs were short and strong, and its head – massive. The skull of cave bear differs from that of brown bear by its tight-bend temple, as well as the absence of frontal premolar teeth. Probably, cave bears were vegetarian, and their ration consisted of grass and honey. However, in winter, when it was cold, cave bear could hunt Ungulata or other animals. Cave bear inhabited only Eurasia, where it formed a number of geographic races that differed in size. Evidence indicates that they were not solitary but lived in "clans." The cause of its extinction was the climate change that occurred at the end of Wurm glacial period, when forest areas decreased dramatically, leaving cave bear without food. However, hunting by ancient humans also played an important part in its extinction. Ice age Man wanted the caves as their own habitat. According to the fossil record, the final battle occurred between a large group of bears and a larger group of well armed Cro-Magnon Man in the mountains of Yugoslavia.

Pleistocen MASTODON (Pleistocene)
The late Pleistocene is the period where Man and Ice Age animals met. The result was disaster for among other creatures, the Mastodon. Shorter but broader than the Wooly Mammoth, this elephantine being inhabited wooded areas that favored lower size but broader bulk. It's teeth are very different from the Mammoth or modern Elephant, indicating a more woodland diet requiring crushing rather than grinding. Many feel that this was another animal made extinct by early man into their environment.

Pleistocen Palaeoloxodon antiquus – forest straight-tusked elephant, the largest species that survived in Europe until the end of Pleistocene. It also lived in Asia and Africa in interglacial periods. Palaeoloxodon was a large animal exceeding mammoth in size: its shoulder height reached up to 4.3 m, and weight – up to 10 tons. Its tusks were relatively straight and often exceeded 3 m in length. It lived in forests and sparse growths of trees feeding mostly on soft, easily digestible food like tree leaves and grass. At the times of glaciers, forest elephants lived in the south following the movement of forest zone. During interglacial periods, they migrated further north. Thus, throughout Pleistocene, Palaeoloxodon migrated and the area of its habitat changed considerably. Hunting by humans probably played the most significant role in their extinction.

Pleistocen WOOLLY MAMMOTH COLUMBIAN MAMMOTH (Pleistocene)
Ice Age mammal that is genetically almost exactly like the Indian Elephant. Most likely, it migrated northward and spread out into the increasingly frigid climate of an encroaching ice age. Over millions of years, ears became smaller to retain heat and they grew a thick coat of hair. The Columbian Mammoth lived in cool but not frigid areas of North America. It was larger than the Woolly Mammoth and rather less furry. We can only speculate, but their rather quick extinction is directly proportional to the entrance of Man into their environment. Over hunting? Disease jumping from Man to another species? Probably both. Tusks of varying quality have been discovered from Alaska to Asian Russia. Because of its excellent patina, finer pieces of varying sizes have been used as a medium for some beautiful carving by skilled artisans.

Pleistocen Mammoths (Mammuthus) are extinct herbivorous mammals that had long, dense hair and underfur, very long tusks, a long proboscis (nose), large ears and lived throughout the world. They lived from about 2 million years ago to 9,000 years ago. They are closely related to modern-day Indian elephants (they have common ancestor). Some tusks were straight, some were curved; the longest were up to 13 feet long. The tusks were used in mating rituals, for protection, and for digging in the snow for food. Much of our knowledge of mammoths is from cave drawings and from mummified mammoths found in Siberian ice! Mammoths had longer tusks than Mastodons, a wider head, a sloping back, flat, chewing teeth, a trunk with two finger-like projections, and were mostly taller. Woolly Mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius) are extinct herbivorous mammals that had long, dense, dark black hair and underfur, long, curved tusks, a fatty hump, a long proboscis, and large ears. They lived in the tundras of Asia, Europe, and North America. They lived from the Pleistocene to the early Holocene epoch (about 10,000 years ago). They were about 11.5 feet long, 9.5 feet tall at the shoulder and weighed about 3 tons. The tusks were used for protection, in interspecies dominance, and for digging in the snow of the ice ages for grass and other food. (Classification: Family Elephantidae)

Pleistocen WOOLLY RHINO (Pleistocene)
The Wooly Rhino is really a modern day rhinoceros whose physical appearance is a product of a slowly changing, more frigid environment. Up to thirteen feet long, its front horn was as much as three feet in length. Never as numerous as the Mammoth or Mastodon, in the battle between encroaching man, the awesome Wooly Rhino came up short through hunting and possible jumping of microbes from Man to animal. Over the years, diseases jumping from Man to another species or from another species to Man have proven disastrous, through lack of biological resistance. Unlike the Woolly Mammoth, we have no record of the Woolly Rhino migrating to the Western Hemisphere. Many Paleontologists hypothesize that the true Woolly Rhino (Coelodonta antiquitatis) originated in North East China, some 1.5 million years ago, migrating to Europe some 500,000 years ago. Remains have been found in Jilin and Heilongjiang Provinces of North East China, East of Northern Inner Mongolia.

Coelodontae are fossilized rhinoceroses which adjusted to life in the dry and cool conditions of open landscapes of Eurasia. They existed from the late Pliocene till the early Holocene and were typical representatives of Pleistocene megafauna. Coelodonta was a large, relatively short-legged animal with high withers and elongated skull that carried two horns. Its massive body reached meters in length, and meters in height. The characteristic feature of these animals was their well-developed woolly coat that protected them from low temperatures and cold winds. The low position of their head and their square lips allowed picking up their main forage – steppe and tundra vegetation. The increasingly severe continental climate affected the appearance and habits of these animals creating truly northern rhinoceroses able to survive even in the tundra. Their morphology underwent changes. The position of their head became different – it moved lower to the ground, their skulls elongated even further and narrowed, eye-sockets moved closer towards the occiput, and their teeth evolved to adjust to masticating harsh steppe vegetation. For protection from the intensifying cold, they developed dense woolly coats. At the end of Pleistocene – beginning of Holocene, Coelodonta largely disappeared. Presumably, it happened mainly due to the climate change which accompanied the end of the last ice age: due to global warming and increased humidity

Pleistocen Megaceros giganteus (also called Megaloceros) (meaning "gigantic large horn"), is the prehistoric Irish elk (more closely related to the fallow deer than the elk). It was the biggest deer that ever lived; it was over 10 feet tall and had enormous antlers 11 feet across (the largest of any deer). These antlers were shed yearly. Megaceros dates from the late Pleistocene (from about 1.5 million to 11,000 years ago). Large herds lived in what is now Europe and western Asia. It was preyed upon by giant cats and wolves and it was hunted by early humans. Class Mammalia, Order Artiodactyla, Family Cervidae.

Pleistocen The cave lion was probably the biggest lion that ever lived. It was 25 percent bigger than lions today and was up to about 11.5 ft long. This subspecies of lion lived in Europe (as far north as Denmark) until historical times; the last of these huge mammals lived until about 2,000 years ago in the Balkans (southeastern Europe). There are cave drawing of this huge feline. It probably hunted in a manner similar to that of today's lions.

Holocen

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