Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division.

Presentation on theme: "Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division."— Presentation transcript:

1 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning: Underlying Processes and Practical Applications

2 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. S-R Model the NS becomes directly associated with the UR and therefore comes to elicit the same response as the UR. The purpose of the US is simply to elicit the UR so that it occurs in close proximity to the NS. Example: –When bitten by a dog, a child associates the dog (NS) with the pain and fear (UR) that were elicited by the bite (US). –She experiences fear (UR) when she next encounters the dog (CS).

3 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. S-R Model

4 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. S-S Model the NS becomes directly associated with the US and comes to elicit a response that is related to the US. Example: –A child who is bitten (US) by a dog (NS) associates the dog with the bite. –Because of that association, the child comes to fear (UR) the dog (CS).

5 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. S-S Model

6 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. So which is it? Many researchers now believe that both types of processes may be involved in conditioning. Many basic conditioning procedures seem to cause an association to develop between the NS and the US. Other instances of conditioning seem to involve the establishment of an S-R association. Modern theories of conditioning have generally emphasized the establishment of S-S associations.

7 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Stimulus-Substitution Theory the CS acts as a substitute for the US. Example: –A tone paired with food results in the tone becoming a substitute for the food. –The tone elicits salivation just as the food does. It does not always explain the conditioning well. Example: –A rat is exposed to a light & foot shock. –The rats response is different for the light & shock.

8 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Preparatory-Response Theory the purpose of the CR is to prepare the organism for the presentation of the US. Examples: –The dog salivates to the tone to get ready for food. –The rat freezes in response to the light to get ready for the shock. In one case, the preparatory response is highly similar to the UR, whereas in the other case it is quite different. This theory allows for situations in which the CR and the UR are different.

9 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Compensatory-Response Model a CS that has been repeatedly associated with the primary response (a-process) to a US will eventually come to elicit a compensatory response (b-process). Example: –A heroin addict always injects heroin in the presence of certain environmental cues. –Heroin decreases blood pressure. –The environmental cues prepare him for heroin by increasing his blood pressure.

10 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Drug Addiction Drug addictions are partly motivated by a tendency to avoid the symptoms of drug withdrawal. Repeated heroin use therefore results in the following process of conditioning: Heroin-related: Relaxing effect → Tension & Cues of heroin agitation NS US UR Heroin-related cues → Tension & agitation CS CR

11 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Drug-Related Cues one of the strongest reasons why people continue to battle cravings long after they have stopped using a drug. An individual who always uses heroin in a particular environment goes into a rehab program. When she returns home to her usual environment, she will very likely become agitated. She will be sorely tempted to once more take heroin to reduce the symptoms.

12 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Drug Tolerance You have a habit of always drinking in a particular setting. Various CSs initiate physiological reactions that compensate for the alcohol you are about to consume. As a result, in the presence of these CSs, you have greater tolerance for alcohol than you would in their absence. If you consume alcohol in an environment where you typically do not drink, the alcohol could have a much stronger effect. The amount of alcohol you consume is not a reliable gauge for determining how intoxicated you are.

13 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Rescorla-Wagner Theory there is only so much associative value that can be distributed among the various cues associated with a US. Stronger USs support more conditioning than do weaker USs. Example: –The preferred food supports a maximum associative value of 10 units. –The less preferred food supports a maximum associative value of 5 units.

14 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Value Notation Tone (V = 0): Food (Max = 10) → Salivation Tone (V = 10) → Salivation V = associative value Max = the maximum associative value that can be supported by the US once conditioning is complete.

15 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Overshadowing Effect [Loud tone + Faint light]: Food → Salivation (V = 0) (Max = 10) Loud tone (V = 9) → Salivation Faint light (V = 1) → Salivation The loud tone now elicits 9 drops of saliva (a strong CR) while the faint light elicits only 1 drop of saliva (a weak CR).

16 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Blocking Tone (V = 0): Food (Max = 10) → Salivation Tone (V = 10) → Salivation [Tone + Light] : Food → Salivation (V = 10 + 0 = 10) (Max = 10) Tone (V = 10) → Salivation Light (V = 0) → No salivation The tone has already acquired that max value.

17 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Overexpectation Effect the decrease in the conditioned response that occurs when two separately conditioned CSs are combined into a compound stimulus for further pairings with the US. Conditioning can be viewed as a matter of building the subject’s expectations that one event will follow another. Presenting the two CSs together leads to an “overexpectation” about what will follow. When this expectation is not fulfilled, the subject’s expectations are modified downward and each CS in the compound loses some of its associative value.

18 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Understanding Phobias Phobias seem to represent a process of overgeneralization. A conditioned fear response to one event has become overgeneralized to other harmless events. This was first noted by John B. Watson and his student (and wife-to-be) Rosalie Rayner in 1920.

19 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Little Albert They conditioned a fear response in an 11- month-old infant named Albert. Before the training, he seemed to display an unusual level of emotional stability. Loud noise → Fear (indicated by startle reaction) US UR Rat → No fear NS —

20 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Fear Conditioning They paired the loud noise (US) with the white rat (NS). Throughout several pairings, Albert became more and more fearful of the rat. Rat: Loud noise → Fear NS US UR Rat → Fear (indicated by crying & crawling away) CS CR

21 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Overgeneralization of Fear He showed not only a fear of the rat but also of –a rabbit, –a fur coat, –a dog, and –even a Santa Claus mask. His fear response had generalized to objects that were similar to the original CS.

22 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Real Life Phobias Usually the development of phobias requires only one pairing of the US with the CS to become established. They often grow stronger over time. They are not easily countered by the pleasure derived from other behaviors.

23 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Factors in Phobic Conditioning Many people with phobias are unable to recall any particular conditioning event before the development of their symptoms. Most people exposed to extremely frightening events do not develop phobias. Several factors may be involved, including: observational learning, temperament, preparedness, history of control, incubation, US revaluation, and selective sensitization.

24 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Observational Learning Many phobias are acquired through observation of fearful reactions in others. Example: –children’s fear of air raids and their mothers’ displayed fear Display of fear by others → Fear (in oneself ) US UR

25 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Temperament an individual’s base level emotionality and reactivity to stimulation. Individuals with certain temperaments may be more genetically susceptible than others to conditioning. Example: –Jason more easily develops a phobia than does Samantha.

26 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Preparedness a genetically based predisposition to develop fears to certain types of objects or events more easily than others. Example: –A phobia of snakes is more easily acquired than a phobia of toasters.

27 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. History of Control Living in an environment where you have some degree of control over important events seems to effectively immunize you against the traumatic effects of encountering frightening events. Example: –Young monkeys and toy monsters

28 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Incubation the strengthening of a conditioned fear response as a result of brief exposures to the aversive CS. Example: –a child who is bitten by a dog and then runs away each time he encounters a dog This may be the reason for the old adage that if you fall off a horse you should immediately get back on.

29 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. US Revaluation can occur three ways: Exposure example: –skateboarding and minor sever injury, car accident and major injury Observational Learning Example: –witnessing accidents on the ski slopes Verbal Debriefing Example: –individuals who have been exposed to a traumatic event and are then given psychological debriefings

30 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Selective Sensitization an increase in one’s reactivity to a potentially fearful stimulus following exposure to an unrelated stressful event. Example: –an individual going through a stressful divorce suddenly develops severe anxiety in traffic

31 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Treating Phobias Systematic Desensitization Flooding Hybrid Approaches –exposure-based treatments or exposure therapies, in vivo exposure –participant modeling, contact desensitization, or guided participation

32 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Systematic Desensitization a behavioral treatment for phobias that involves pairing relaxation with a succession of stimuli that elicit increasing levels of fear. Mary Cover Jones (1924) with 2-year old Peter First she fed Peter cookies while presenting a rabbit at a considerable distance. Over successive sessions, the rabbit was gradually brought closer to Peter as he continued to eat cookies. Within a few months, Peter was holding the rabbit in his lap.

33 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Counterconditioning a CS that elicits one type of response is associated with an event that elicits an incompatible response. Example: –Wolpe’s room for feeding and the shock The underlying process is reciprocal inhibition, in which certain responses are incompatible with each other, and the occurrence of one response necessarily inhibits the other.

34 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Wolpe’s Treatment Procedure 1.Training in relaxation. 2.Creation of a hierarchy of imaginary scenes that elicit progressively intense levels of fear. 3.Pairing of each item in the hierarchy with relaxation. He emphasized the use of imaginary stimuli. It can also be used with in vivo desensitization meaning you work with a real-life stimulus.

35 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Effective Systematic Desensitization It works with patients who have relatively few phobias that are specific in nature. This is not for people who suffer from social phobias, which tend to be general in nature. When using imaginal desensitization, the client must be able to clearly visualize the feared event and experience anxiety while doing so.

36 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Flooding a behavioral treatment that involves prolonged exposure to a feared stimulus. It provides maximal opportunity for the conditioned fear response to be extinguished. Two basic types of flooding procedures: –Imaginal flooding –In vivo flooding

37 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Imaginal Flooding Procedures 1.The client visualizes the scenario in the therapist’s office. 2.The client practices visualizing it at home. –The fear should eventually begin to decrease and finally will be extinguished. 3.Once the fear response to one scenario has been extinguished, the fear response to other scenarios can be similarly extinguished. 4.After extinction has occurred in several scenarios, the client will likely experience considerably less fear when encountering the feared event in the real world.

38 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. In vivo Flooding Procedures The client experiences prolonged exposure to the actual feared event. Example: –A woman is extremely fearful of balloons. –The woman enters a room full of balloons and closes the door. –She remains inside the room for an hour or more. –After a few sessions of this, her fear of balloons might be eliminated.

39 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Concerns about Flooding Therapy In vivo flooding can be highly aversive. Imaginal flooding may be hard to generalize from an imagined encounter to a real encounter and it is dependent on a person’s visualization ability. The stress involved may result in medical complications. The duration of each exposure be sufficiently long (at least 30 to 45 minutes).

40 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Exposure Therapy an in vivo exposure procedure Clients are encouraged to approach the feared object as closely as possible. They remain there until the anxiety fades away. They then approach the object even more closely. This continues until the client approaches the object closely and reports the level of fear has been reduced by 50% or more.

41 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Participant Modeling also called contact desensitization or guided participation. The clients are accompanied by the therapist who acts as a model to demonstrate to the client how to interact with the feared object. The therapist touches the object first and then the client. Eventually the therapist removes her hand.

42 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Aversion Therapy reduces the attractiveness of a desired event by associating it with an aversive stimulus. Some behavior problems stem from events being overly enticing rather than overly aversive. Examples: –Alcohol can be paired with painful electric shocks or emetics, nausea-inducing drugs. –Pictures of sex offenders’ desires may be paired with paired with emetics or a powerfully unpleasant scent.

43 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Covert Sensitization aversion therapy carried out with the use of imaginal stimuli rather than real stimuli. Example: –a person addicted to smoking might imagine experiencing extreme illness and vomiting each time she tries to smoke. This therapy is dependent on the client’s ability to visualize images clearly and to experience strong feelings of revulsion in response to these images.

44 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Allergic Responses Flowers: Pollen → Allergic reaction NS US UR Flowers → Allergic reaction CS CR The mere sight of flowers elicits an allergic reaction.

45 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Weakening Immune Responses Hospital: Chemotherapy → Immunosuppression NS US UR Hospital → Immunosuppression CS CR The hospital environment had become associated with the immunosuppressive effect of the chemotherapy and is a CS for a conditioned immunosuppressive response.

46 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Strengthening Immune Responses Sweet sherbet: Adrenaline → increase immunity NS US UR Sweet sherbet → increase immunity CS CR The sweet sherbet elicits an increase in natural killer cell activity.

47 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Medical Conditioning Many patients would benefit considerably from enhanced immune functioning. Other patients would benefit from a procedure that could reliably weaken their immune system. Classical conditioning can also explain the placebo effect. Placebos could then be used to reduce the frequency with which a patient has to take the real drug.

48 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Placebo Effect White pill: acetylsalicylic acid→ No Headache NS US UR White pill → Headache removal CS CR Such effects are much more likely to occur following a period of treatment with the active drug. Repeated administration of a placebo by itself tends to reduce its effectiveness.

49 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Summary S-S approach vs. S-R approach Stimulus-Substitution Theory Preparatory-Response Theory and the Compensatory-Response Model Rescorla-Wagner Theory Classical conditioning is useful in understanding and treating phobias.

50 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Summary, continued Several factors impact phobia development, including –observational learning, –temperament, –preparedness, –history of control, –incubation, –US revaluation, and –selective sensitization.

51 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Summary, continued Treatment for phobias include: –Systematic desensitization –Flooding –Exposure Aversion therapy attempts to reduce the attractiveness of a desired event by associating it with an aversive stimulus. Each therapy above can be done in vivo or with imaginary stimuli.

52 Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Summary, continued Medical implications include –Allergic responses –Increased immune response –Decreased immune response –Placebo effect