INR 1100 978-93-5668-523-9 Research in Mycology Volume-I Research in Mycology Volume-I Editors Dr. Vinay Kumar Singh Prof. Shailendra Kumar Mr. Balwant Singh ©BalwantSingh2022 All Rights Reserved All rights reserved by author. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the author. Although every precaution has been taken to verify the accuracy of the information contained herein, the author and publisher assume no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for damages that may result from the use of information contained within. First Published in October 2022 ISBN: 978-93-5668-523-9 Price: Rs. 1100.00 BLUEROSE PUBLISHERS www.bluerosepublishers.com info@bluerosepublishers.com +91 8882 898 898 Book Title: Research in Mycology Editor: Dr. Vinay Kumar Singh, Prof. Shailendra Kumar and Mr. Balwant Singh Distributed by: BlueRose, Amazon, Flipkart, Shopclues Research in Mycology Preface Mycology is the specialist branch of fungal study. Fungi are the most diverse group of heterotrophic organisms and second largest biotic community after insects on earth. They are grouped into separate Kingdom Fungi. Fungi have thalloid body without cells being organized into tissues and organs. Fungi are the parasitic, saprophytic or symbiotic in nature. They also play key role in terrestrial ecosystems. Fungi are the primary decomposers of lignocellulosic material and the main keepers of great carbon storage in soil as well as dead organic materials. Their edibility, medicinal properties, mycorrhizal and parasitic association with the forest trees make them economically and ecologically important for investigation. The term macro fungi are generally applied to the fruiting bodies of fungi belonging to Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes. Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes are either Epigeous or Hypogeous, large enough to be seen by naked eyes hence they can be picked by hand. Micro fungi may cause pathological disease to the plants, animals, and human. Furthermore, most of fungi are microscopic in nature, invisible and they cause their action. Fungi economically used in the Pharmacology industry (Medicinal), Mass production, cultivation (Food industry), Biodegradation and Bioremediation. A macro fungus helps in recycling matter and maintaining biogeochemical cycle. Macro fungal (for example-Mushrooms) is characterized by their distinct macroscopic fruiting bodies of underground mycelium of certain fungi belonging to the class of Basidiomycetes and Ascomycetes. 2022 Research in Mycology The Present book supposed to includes Fungal Biology, Plant Pathology, Myco-medicinal, Mycoremediation, Fungal Degradation, Environmental researches and many more. This book emphasized all branch area of research of fungi macro fungal and micro fungal. It covers general aspects of fungi, their beneficial roles, harmful roles, medicinal aspects etc. Therefore, the present book on “Research in Mycology” has been envisaged in order to discuss various aspects of Mycological Research. Editors express sincere thanks to all the authors for contributing their ideas and knowledge in the form of book chapters. Last but not the least; Editors are highly grateful to “Blue Rose Publication” for bringing out this book in a beautiful way. Editors hope this book is helpful in academic as well as research and widely read and reach to its target audience. Editor’s 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 Content i-vii Author’s From viii-xxvii Chapter’s Abstract Chapter-1 Research on Fungi in Relation to Human Welfare and Sustainable Bioeconomy 01-10 Chapter-2 Application of Fungal Endophytes 11-21 Chapter-3 Endophytic Fungi and Their Biological Roles 22-30 Chapter-4 Plant Pathogenic Mycoflora 31-40 Chapter-5 Macrofungal Diversity of Tamil Nadu, India 41-58 Chapter-6 Morphology and Characteristics of Fungi 59-70 Chapter-7 Parasitic Fungal Disease Chapter-8 Common Fungal Disease in Crop Chapter-9 Wheat Rust Disease and Management Strategies 102-113 Chapter-10 Biochemistry of Mushroom 114-124 Chapter-11 Antioxidant Components and Properties of Mushrooms 125-144 Chapter-12 Journey of Microbial and Fungal Secondary Metabolites in Pest Management 145-172 General 71-84 85-101 Research in Mycology 2022 Chapter-13 Role of Mycotoxins in the Food Chain and their Implications of Human Health 173-192 Chapter-14 Nutritional and Medicinal Properties of Mushrooms 193-209 Chapter-15 Mushroom: As Natural Antiviral Drugs 210-236 Chapter-16 Arsenic Toxicity and Mushroom 237-245 Chapter-17 Mushroom Diversity of Uttar Pradesh, India 246-260 Chapter-18 Bioremediation for Sustainable Development of Environment with The Help of Fungi 261-289 Chapter-19 Pharmacological Activity of Mushroom 290-300 Chapter-20 Candidiasis: A Fungal Infection of Huma 301-314 Chapter-21 Aspergillosis: A Fungal Infection of Human 315-326 Chapter-22 Important Fungal Diseases of Cereals 327-353 Chapter-23 The Role of Fungi in Mitigation of Heavy Metals for Environment Sustainability 354-372 Chapter-24 Futuristic Trends of Scope Objectives in Plant Pathology 373-383 Appendix Thankfulness… About the Authors and xxviii-xxxi xxxii xxxiv-xxxvii Research in Mycology 2022 Author’s From Author Aadya Jha Ahmad Gazali Apurva Sharma Arul Kumar Murugesan Arvind Kumar Ashish Singh Bisht Ashma Ajeej Balwant Singh Affiliation Department of Botany, Scottish Church College, University of Calcutta (W.B.) India Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Biotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Bihar, India Department of Biotechnology, Swami Shri Swaroopanand Saraswati Mahavidyalaya, Amdi Nagar, Hudco, Bhilai, (C.G.), India Department of Botany, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli620024, Tamil Nadu, India Post Graduate Student, Department of Zoology, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Bihar, India G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology Pantnagar (Uttarakhand) India Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Medical Microbiology, Integral Institute of Medical Science and Research, Lucknow226026, (U.P.) India Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Botany, K. S. Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya (U.P.) India i Research in Mycology Dr. D. K. Shrivastava Dinendra Kumar Mishra Dr. Aisha Kamal Dr. Alok Kumar Singh Dr. Alvina Farooqui Dr. Anil Kumar Tripathi Dr. Anju Patel Dr. Farzana Tasneem Dr. Gopa Banerjee Dr. Leena Dave 2022 Department of Microbiology, Govt. E. Raghvendra Rao PG Science College, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Botany, K. S. Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya (U.P.) India Associate Professor, Department of Bioscience, Integral University, Lucknow (U.P.) India Laboratory of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Department of Botany, C.M.P. P.G College, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, (U.P.) India Associate Professor, Department of Biosciences, Integral University, Lucknow, India Professor and Head, Department of Clinical Haematology, King Georg Medical University, Lucknow (U.P.) India Scientist, Division of Environmental Technologies, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, India Head, Dept of Biotechnology, Surana College, Bangalore (Karnataka) India Professor, Department of Microbiology, King Georg Medical University, Lucknow (U.P.) India Assistant Professor, Dept. of Botany Govt Commerce and Sciecne College Dahej, Near GEB Office 392130 Taluka: Vagra Dist: Bharuch, Gujarat, India ii Research in Mycology Dr. Praveen Garg Dr. Sharmita Gupta Dr. Shivani Sharma Dr. Sundip Kumar Dr. Vinay Kumar Singh Hafsa Imam Heena Kausar Ishwar Deen Chaudhary Jyoti Pandey Kohila Durai 2022 Assistant Professor, Department of science VITS College, Satna (M.P.) India Assistant Professor, Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Dayalbagh Educational Institute (Deemed university), Dayalbagh, Agra (U.P.)-282005 Department of Biotechnology, Swami Shri Swaroopanand Saraswati Mahavidyalaya, Amdi Nagar, Hudco, Bhilai, (C.G.), India Professor, Department of Molecular Biology & Genetic Engineering, CBSH, Govind Ballabh Pantnagar University of Agriculture and Technology, Uttarakhand 263145, India Associate Professor, Department of Botany, K. S. Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya (U.P.) India Post Graduate Student, Department of Zoology, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Bihar, India Department of Microbiology, Govt. E. Raghvendra Rao PG Science College, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Botany, K. S. Saket P.G. College, Ayodhya (U.P.) India Assistant Professor, Department of science VITS College, Satna (M.P.) India School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli – 620024, Tamil Nadu, India iii Research in Mycology Manaswi Rani Manju L. Joshi Maria Imam Masufa Tarannum Md. Rashid Reza Mr. Danish Ahmad Mr. Sandeep Mishra Nancy Sharma Naushad Ahmad 2022 Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Dayalbagh Educational Institute (Deemed university), Dayalbagh, Agra (U.P.)-282005 Department of Botany SVGPG College Lohaghat 262524 (Uttarakhand) India Post Graduate Student, Department of Zoology, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Bihar, India Post Graduate Student, Department of Zoology, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Bihar, India Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science and Information Technology, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Bihar Guest Faculty, Department of Botany, B. P. P.G. College Narayanpur, MaskanwaGonda, (U.P.) India Guest Faculty, Department of Botany, B. P. P.G. College Narayanpur, MaskanwaGonda, (U.P.) India Post Graduate Student, Department of Molecular Biology & Genetic Engineering, CBSH, Govind Ballabh Pantnagar University of Agriculture and Technology, Uttarakhand -26314 5, India Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Computer Science and Information Technology, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Bihar iv Research in Mycology 2022 Department of Medical Microbiology, Integral Institute of Medical Science and Research, Lucknow-226026, (U.P.) India Nidhi Singh Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Medical Microbiology, Integral Institute of Medical Science and Research, Lucknow226026, (U.P.) India Parameswari Murugesan School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli – 620024, Tamil Nadu, India Pooja Goswami Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Home Science, Shri Jagdish Prasad Jhabarmal Tibrewala University, Vidya Nagari, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan, India & Guest Faculty, Department of Home Science, B. P. P.G. College NarayanpurMaskanwa, Gonda (U.P.) India Priya Dubey Division of Environmental Technologies, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, India. & Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Biosciences, Integral University, Lucknow, India Prof. Shree Ram Agarwal Assistant Professor, Department of science VITS College, Satna (M.P.) India Prof. Sulekha Tripathi Assistant Professor, Department of science VITS College, Satna (M.P.) India Rahul Purohit G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology Pantnagar263 145 (Uttarakhand) India Neha Tiwari v Research in Mycology Raju Ratan Yadav Rashmi Tewari Sachidananda Das Sakshi Tripathi Santvana Tyagi Shabir Khan Shivangi Tripathi 2022 Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Molecular Biology & Genetic Engineering, CBSH, Govind Ballabh Pantnagar University of Agriculture and Technology, Uttarakhand -26314 5, India G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology Pantnagar263 145 (Uttarakhand) India Post Graduate Student, Department of Molecular Biology & Genetic Engineering, CBSH, Govind Ballabh Pantnagar University of Agriculture and Technology, Uttarakhand -263145, India Post Graduate Student, Department of Botany, B. P. P.G. College, Narayanpur, Maskanwa, Gonda (U.P.) India Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Molecular Biology & Genetic Engineering, CBSH, Govind Ballabh Pantnagar University of Agriculture and Technology, Uttarakhand -26314 5, India Department of Microbiology, Govt. E. Raghvendra Rao P.G. Science College, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Bio-Science, Integral University, Lucknow (U.P.) India & Research Assistant, Department of Microbiology, King Georg Medical University, Lucknow (U.P.) India vi Research in Mycology Shubhangi Singh Sneha Dwivedi Sri Sneha Jeyakumar Sudeep Syed Farheen Anwar Vinodh T 2022 Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Dayalbagh Educational Institute (Deemed university), Dayalbagh, Agra (U.P.)-282005 Laboratory of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Department of Botany, C.M.P. P.G College, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, (U.P.) India School of Life Sciences, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli – 620024, Tamil Nadu, India U.G. Student, Dept of Biotechnology, Surana College, Bangalore (Karnataka) India Post Graduate Student, Department of Zoology, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Bihar. India U.G. Student, Dept of Biotechnology, Surana College, Bangalore (Karnataka) India vii Research in Mycology Chapter’s Abstracts Chapter-01 Research on Fungi in Relation to Human Welfare and Sustainable Bioeconomy Dr. Shivani Sharma, Ms. Apurva Sharma shivani.sharma1977@gmail.com apurvasharma1706@gmail.com Abstract Fungi are an understudied, scientifically valuable group of organisms. The systemic study of fungi on the basis of their taxonomy, biochemical properties, genetic constitution, their use to humans as food, medicine, etc. is known as mycology. Their unique characteristics provide a great scope for their applications in medicine, agriculture, food industry, in research field etc. In comparison to other biological sources, fungi provide a great advantage for industrial products as they can be grown in large bioreactors in a cost-effective way. Also due to their diverse variety of taxonomy with incredible useful potential they have a great economic value in several areas. But still in such a scientifically developing era, a lot of fungal species are untaped with regard to potential applications due to their diverse taxonomic species. Another important useful feature of fugal species are in the development of sustainable developed society and to unlock this potential there is a need for increased mycological research efforts. This book chapter reviews different ways by which fungi can be utilized for human welfare and sustainable economy. Keywords: Fungal species, Sustainable economy, Industries, Applications. viii 2022 Research in Mycology Chapter-02 Application of Fungal Endophytes Ms. Sneha Dwivedi, Dr. Alok Kumar Singh Abstract "Endophytes" include microorganisms that grow intercellularly or intracellularly in the tissues of higher plants without causing symptoms on the plants they live on. Limited studies are available on natural products and their role in plant growth, protection mechanism by endophytes, and characterization of the major treasure of biopotential. Therefore, this review article presents an evaluation of different plant-associated endophytes for physiology, and metabolism, which has led to the resurgence of new metabolomics research that has increased the appearance of multiple mechanistic regulations of biosynthetic gene groups encoding different metabolites. These microbes represent a biopotential source of new natural products for pharmaceutical, agricultural, and industrial use, such as antibiotics, anticancer agents, biological control agents, and other bioactive compounds. Keywords: Fungal endophytes, physiology, metabolism, biopotential. Chapter-03 Endophytic Fungi and Their Biological Roles Ms. Aadya Jha Abstract Fungi are a group of organisms that differ from plants as they lack chlorophyll. Endophytic fungi are a group of microorganisms that colonize living, internal tissues of plants without causing any symptoms of existence. Endophytes are capable of producing enormous secondary metabolites that are beneficial to mankind. ix 2022 Research in Mycology Endophytes and their biological role are important in every aspect of our lives. Keywords: Endophytic fungi, Secondary metabolites, Anticancer, Nutrient pedalling. Chapter-04 Plant Pathogenic Mycoflora Dr. Leena Dave dave_leena@rocketmail.com Abstract Among the main casual agents of plant diseases are fungi. They are having diverse strategies towards plants to cause diseases. For growth and reproduction pathogenic mycoflora rely on living host plants. For successful infection pathogenic mycoflora modify host structure and function. Pathogenic mycoflora differ as they are necrotrophic, hemi biotrophic, biotrophic. Studies of the fungal biological cycle, factors, and interaction with its host are necessary for enhancing efficient and environmentally plant protection strategies. To infect or penetrate pathogenic fungi can develop specialized infection structures Fungal pathogenesis allows us to better understand how fungal pathogens infect host plants and provides information for the control of plant diseases, including new strategies to prevent, delay, or inhibit fungal development. This cause plant disease to growth and reproduction that results in to significant losses for farmers and human health risks. This chapter provides an overview of plant pathogenic mycoflora species and the strategies they use and prevention-solution for the particular. Keywords: Plants, Fungi, Pathogenic, Host, Diseases. x 2022 Research in Mycology Chapter-05 Macrofungal Diversity of Tamil Nadu, India Kohila Durai, Sri Sneha Jeyakumar, Parameswari Murugesan and Arul Kumar Murugesan arulbot.kumar@gmail.com Abstract Biodiversity protection is critical to human society's long-term growth. Tamil Nadu has achieved notable progress in biodiversity conservation research and practise. This study examines the science underlying biodiversity conservation and its major contributions to priority research topics such as biological community maintenance mechanisms and the link between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Simultaneously, Indiaspecific biodiversity protection and management mechanisms have been largely constructed. The Indian government and scholars have conducted several investigations, scientific studies, and monitoring activities, as well as created pertinent databases. The notion of biodiversity has steadily gained popularity in Tamil Nadu as attempts to maintain and restore biodiversity and ecosystems have been made. This study seeks to highlight the progress of biodiversity conservation toward the creation of an ecological civilization, emphasising the importance of biodiversity conservation initiatives being organically interwoven with longterm development goals. Keywords: Macrofungi, Tamil Nadu, Biodiversity, Conservation mycology, Ecology xi 2022 Research in Mycology Chapter-06 Morphology and General Characteristics of Fungi Nidhi Singh, Ashma Ajeej, Neha Tiwari ns76278@gmail.com Abstract Mycology deals with the study of fungus. Here, mycologists usually focus on the taxonomy, genetics, application as well as many other characteristics of this group of organisms. This chapter includes the general characteristics of fungus and their classification which includes morphological and taxonomical classification on the other hand it also describes the classification of fungal disease in Medical Mycology and their basic Lab Diagnosis which includes specimen collection, microscopy, culture media, colony appearance and molecular. Keywords: Morphology, Character, Fungi, Macrofungi. Chapter-07 Parasitic Fungal Diseases Dr. Farzana Tasneem MI, Mr. Vinodh T, Mr. Sudeep farzana.bt@suranacollege.edu.in Abstract Parasitic fungi meet the host plants in the form of motile zoospores which can digest the root cell wall and penetrates the cytoplasm from the customize of the whole plant. They can be ectoparasites outside the host or endoparasites inside the host. Knowledge of the biology genetic diversity and adaptability of this pathogen is key for the development of novel and durable strategies to manage and related divesting fungal diseases and they comprise a plethora xii 2022 Research in Mycology of infectious agents leading to a multitude of different disease courses and thus diagnostic and therapeutic challenges. Parasites also influence host behavior and fitness and can regulate host population size sometimes with profound effects on trophic interaction, food web, competition density, and keys have species. These interactions suggest that parasites are integral components of the community and Ecosystem. They also play an important part in global biodiversity in wildlife, population, control, ecosystem, stability, the flow of nutrients, cycling, and potently even before against the emergence of virulent diseases and food chain. Keywords: Parasite, Beneficiary, Fungal diseases, Infection. Chapter-08 Common Fungal Diseases in Crops Mr. Shabir Khan, Ms. Heena Kausar and Dr. D.K. Shrivastava khansabirimteyaz786@gmail.com Abstract An overview of the fungal diseases affecting crops is given in this chapter. Additionally includes comprehensive information on the diagnosis, signs, and treatment of fungal illnesses. So that the diseases may be effectively treated, it is crucial to have a plant diagnostics laboratory determine the pathogen causing any infections in a crop. A variety of dangerous plant diseases are brought on by fungi, which make up the majority of plant pathogens. Fungi are too responsible for the majority of vegetable diseases. They harm plants by destroying plant cells or stressing plants. Infected seed, soil, agricultural debris, neighboring crops, and weeds are sources of fungal diseases. Through the movement of contaminated soil, animals, people, equipment, tools, seedlings, xiii 2022 Research in Mycology and other plant material, as well as by wind and water splash, fungi are spread. They penetrate plants through stomata, which are naturally occurring openings, as well as wounds brought on by pruning, harvesting, hail, insects, various infections, and mechanical harm. The fungi that cause several foliar diseases include Downy and Powdery mildews, White blisters, and others that are very common. Keywords: Fungal Disease, Symptoms, Life cycle, Management. Chapter-09 Wheat Rust Disease & Management Strategies Santvana Tyagi, Raju Ratan Yadav, Nancy Sharma, Sachidananda Das, and Dr. Sundip Kumar Abstract NA Chapter-10 Biochemistry of Mushroom Ashish Singh Bisht, Rahul Purohit, Manju L. Joshi, and Rashmi Tewari botanylgt@gmail.com Abstract Mushrooms are long been valued as high medicinal and nutritional food by many societies around the world. Edible mushrooms have a high protein, fibre, vitamin, and mineral content as well as low fat levels, which contribute to their nutritional value. Because they contain all the required amino acids for adult requirements and have a higher protein content than most vegetables, mushrooms are xiv 2022 Research in Mycology highly beneficial for vegetarian diets. Additionally, edible mushrooms have a wide range of bioactive substances with a variety of advantages for human health. The bioactive substances found in mushrooms can be divided into secondary metabolites, glycoprotein, and polysaccharides, mainly 𝛽-glucans. Polysaccharides are the most well-known and potent mushroomderived antitumor and immune modulating substances. Since thousands of years, edible fungi have been revered for their immense health benefits and extensively used in folk medicine. The consumption of these meditational mushrooms is good for heart, low in calorie, prevents cancer, regulates digestive system, and strengthens immunity. Keywords: Mushroom, Nutrition, Biochemistry, Meditional Value. Chapter-11 Antioxidant Components and Properties of Mushrooms Ahmad Gazali, Hafsa Imam, and Maria Imam Abstract Mushroom is the well-known and famous Fungal group which has different economic value. It may be edible or inedible, cultivable or wild, and medicinal or poisonous type. Edible mushroom has specific dietary components which increase the viability of cells by inhibiting free radicles. The process of inhibiting free radicle known Antioxidant properties which is highly determined in mushroom species. The specific antioxidant component of mushroom is phenolic compounds and total antioxidant activity of mushroom reported by the total phenolic content which binds with the free radicles and minimize apoptosis, cell death and finally ageing of cells. Antioxidant also reported to as synthetic way but xv 2022 Research in Mycology it may have side effects. In natural mean of antioxidant, mushroom is common and known to use with specific test, flavor, and aroma. Mushroom may have a lifesaving property as antioxidant property which also increase the durability of life and lifespan of human. The present chapter exclusively deals with the mushroom species and their antioxidant properties and their useful roles. Keywords: Mushroom, antioxidant, antioxidant activities, antioxidant system, free radicles, reactive oxygen species. Chapter-12 Journey of Microbial and Fungal Secondary Metabolites in Pest Management Ahmad Gazali, Masufa Tarannum, and Maria Imam Abstract Microbial pesticides offer an eco-friendly method for the management of various pests which are difficult to manage with conventional pesticides. Microbial pesticides comprise of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and cyanobacteria, they produce low molecular weight natural substances called as secondary metabolites. These metabolites unlike the primary metabolites have no any role in growth and reproduction of an organism. The milbemectins, avermectins and spinosads obtained from actinomycetes are the major insecticides of microbial origin. The strobilurins, kasugamycin, validamycin and blasticidin are the microbial fungicides effective against a wide range of pathogens. The bactericides comprise of oxytetracycline and streptomycin, while vulgamycin and bialaphos are commercially available bioherbicides isolated from actinomycetes. These microbial products being eco-friendly and xvi 2022 Research in Mycology less toxic to non-target pest emerge as a potential alternative for the management of the pest and hence can be exploited in the future for the synthesis of new products. Key Wards: Secondary metabolites, Microbial, Fungal, Pest management. Chapter-13 Role of Mycotoxins in the Food Chain and their Implications of Human Health Ahmad Gazali, Syed Farheen Anwar, Arvind Kumar, Md Rashid Reza and Naushad Ahmad Abstract Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that can be produced in crops and other food goods both pre-and post-harvest. When ingested, mycotoxins may beget a mycotoxicosis which can affect in an acute or habitual complaint occasion. Habitual conditions have a much lesser impact, numerically, on mortal health encyclopedically. Reduced growth and development, immunosupression and cancer are habitual goods that have a advanced prevalence following continual exposure to low position mycotoxin ingestion as is endured in numerous developing countries. It has been estimated that 25 of the world’s crops are affected by mould or fungal growth and as stable, natural pollutants of the food chain, mycotoxin reduction requires a multifaceted approach, including growers, government agencies, food processors and scientists. This can have a significant impact on the cost of food product. International nonsupervisory norms for mycotoxins in food goods determines the extent of global trade in polluted goods. Keywords: Mycotoxin, Food chain, Human Health, Fungi. xvii 2022 Research in Mycology Chapter-14 Nutritional and Medicinal Properties of Mushrooms Pooja Goswami, Santvana Tyagi, Sakshi Tripathi and Sandeep Mishra Abstract Fungi is the separate Kingdome and all has heterotrophic (Saprophytic, Parasitic, and Symbiotic) mode of nutrition. In the Fungi, Mushroom is one of the major groups that have macroscopic fruiting bodies. From the ancient, Mushroom were used in different purpose in which Food and Medicine are chief. The food value of Mushrooms presents and provide a link between Animal Products (Meat, Milk etc.) and Plant Products (Vegetables, Fruits etc.). It also referred as “Heart Food” because they contain Ergosterol, which converts into Vitamin-D in the Human body and deadly cholesterol is also absent in mushrooms. The mushroom produced more than 100 medicinal functions like Antiviral, Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiparasitic, Antioxidant, Anticancer, Antidiabetic, Antitumor, Antiinflamatory, Antiallergic, Immunomodulating, Cardiovascular protector, Detoxification, Anticholesterolemic and Hepatoprotective effects. The major mineral aliments are reported as Na, K, Ca, Mg and P whereas miner minerals are As, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Mo, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn reported. Mushrooms have been used as ethnomedicines by tribals to the cure of various diseases. Keywords: Indian Mushroom, Nutritional Composition, Medicinal Value, Macrofungi. xviii 2022 Research in Mycology Chapter-15 Mushroom: As Natural Antiviral Drugs Sakshi Tripathi, Shivangi Tripathi, Santvana Tyagi, Balwant Singh, and Dr. Vinay Kumar Singh Abstract Emerging viral infections such as the zika virus, dengue virus, Ebola virus, corona virus is afflicting millions of human populations worldwide. Therefore, the development of new treatments against emerging infectious diseases has become an urgent task. The availability of commercially viable, safe, and effective antiviral drugs remains a big challenge. Mushrooms are considered as an untapped reservoir of several novel compounds of great value in industry and medicine. Although exploration, and exploitation of the therapeutic importance of fungal metabolites has started early with the discovery of penicillin, mushroom’s pharmacological potential has much less been investigated. This article briefly reviews the antiviral potentials of mushrooms to combat deadly disease outbreaks caused by emerging and reemerging viruses. Altogether 69 mushroom species with potent antiviral agents and mode of action against prominent viruses such as human immunodeficiency virus, influenza, herpes simplex virus, hepatitis B and C viruses, corona viruses etc. are listed in this study. Further studies are encouraged to discover more novel potent antiviral agents or evaluate already known compounds from those mushrooms with clinical trials. Keywords: bioactivity; COVID-19; fungi; metabolites; pandemic. xix 2022 Research in Mycology Chapter-16 Arsenic Toxicity and Mushroom Dinendra Kumar Mishra dmnd14581@gmail.com Abstract The arsenic in some species of mushrooms as well as organic and inorganic forms of arsenic in the substrates where wild and cultivated edible mushrooms grow. Mushroom cultivation has been increasing rapidly in Bangladesh. Arsenic (As) toxicity is widespread in the world and Bangladesh faces the greatest havoc due to this calamity. Rice is the staple food and among all the crops grown, it is the main cause of as poisoning to its population after drinking water. Consequently, rice straw, an important growing medium of mushrooms, is known to have high as content. The objective of this study was, therefore, to determine the concentrations of as in mushrooms cultivated and to assess the health risk as well. Due to the low concentrations of As and other trace elements observed in mushrooms from Bangladesh, as well as relatively lower consumption of this food in people’s diet, it can be inferred that consumption of the species of mushrooms analyzed will cause no toxicological risk. Keywords: Mushroom, Arsenic, Health Risk, Daily Intake. Chapter-17 Mushroom Diversity of Uttar Pradesh, India Balwant Singh & Dr. Vinay Kumar Singh biosciencelifescience@gmail.com Abstract The present review expresses the diversity of macrofungal (mushroom) wealth of Uttar Pradesh based of available literatures. Based on literature, a total number of 201 species under 44 family xx 2022 Research in Mycology reported in the Uttar Pradesh. In all described macrofungal species, 59 species are edible, 109 species inedible, 4 species choicely edible, 7 species poisonous and remaining 22 species are unknown their edibility. This review will become useful and revel the capsized data of macrofungal diversity to researchers. Keywords: Macrofungal, Mushroom, Diversity, Uttar Pradesh Chapter-18 Bioremediation for Sustainable Development of Environment with The Help of Fungi Jyoti Pandey, Prof. Sulekha Tripathi, Dr. Praveen Garg and Prof. Shree Ram Agrawal jyotipandey0102@gmail.com Abstract Soil plays major role in agriculture field. Soil contains number of nutrients that help to production of good quality products. Agricultural soils are continuously contaminated due to cause’s pollution in land. Many things are available in soil like Petroleum hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and agricultural pesticides these are have mutagenic properties, carcinogenic and cause severe changes in soil such as physicochemical and microbiological characteristics, thereby representing as a dangerous to health and our environment. Hence, urgently requires the applications of many techniques such as physicochemical and biological for control the pollution of soil and to minimize the damage of soil properties and structure. Now a day, bioremediation is an advanced technique which has been shown to be an alternative source that can recommend an economically viable system to restoration of the polluted soil. In Mycology, mainly use white-rot fungi, for cleaning of contaminated land are studies. That white rot fungus is so effective and major role play in degradation of an organic xxi 2022 Research in Mycology molecule through releasing of extra-cellular enzymes, which known as lignin modifying enzymes, with low specificity of substrate, so they can act upon different molecules which is similar to lignin enzyme. The enzymes are available in the system which in used for degrading lignin includes various H2O2 producing enzymes and laccase. In this study, we address those fungi is a source of mycological bioremediation and their applications to remove surfactants. Mycology plays main role in bioremediation for the reduction of contamination from soils and to develop sustainable environment. Keywords: Bioremediation, Soil, Mycoremediation, Fungi. Chapter-19 Pharmacological Activity of Mushroom Syed Farheen Anwar, Masufa Tarannum, Hafsa Imam farheenanwar27@gmail.com Abstract Medical mushrooms are more fungi than regular mushrooms, but they also have additional nutraceutical qualities, such as a transisomer of unsaturated fatty acids, high fibre content, triterpenes, phenolic compounds, sterols, eritadenine, and chitosan, in addition to low fat and a trans-isomer of unsaturated fatty acids. Polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, phenolic compounds, and vitamins are just a few of the many bioactive substances that have been identified from mushrooms. Considering this, they can be regarded as a significant source of nutraceuticals. Only a few edible mushroom species have been commercially successful despite extensive research on their bioactivities. While various undocumented mushrooms are used in many places around the world traditionally for ages, only a small number have been xxii 2022 Research in Mycology scientifically proven to be utilized as medicines. Medicinal mushrooms are a major source of income for farmers in such regions and scientifically studied mushrooms are being grown at industrial level as well. Medicinal mushrooms are good natural alternatives for chemosynthetic drugs. These mushrooms are not only used in drug industries, but they are also part of the civilian diet. The goal of this chapter is to go through an overview about the pharmacological activity of mushrooms such as, antiinflammatory, anti-obesity, antioxidant, anti-allergic, anti-viral neuroprotective and other properties. Keywords: Pharmacology, Mushroom, Fungi, Mycoflora. Chapter-20 Candidiasis: A Fungal Infection of Human Shivangi Tripathi, Dr. Gopa Banerjee, Dr. Aisha Kamal, Dr. Anil Kumar Tripathi shivangii4.1993@gmail.com Abstract Fungal infections are most common infection in hospitals among all hospital acquired infections mainly divided in to two categories 1. Nosocomial 2. Acquired community. Opportunistic Nosocomial fungal infections are caused by yeast which is present in environment, non-pathogenic known as opportunistic mycoses. Infection becomes life threatening when reaches in seriously ill and/ or immunocompromised patients. In contrast, communityacquired fungal infections encompass not only opportunistic mycoses but also the endemic mycoses, in which susceptibility to the infection is acquired by living in geographical area constituting the natural habitat of a pathogenic fungus. Fungi frequently cause disease in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) xxiii 2022 Research in Mycology infections. The spectrum of illness ranges from asymptomatic mucosal candidiasis to overwhelming disseminated infection and life-threatening meningitis. The importance of fungal diseases among patients with HIV infection was recognized in the early days of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) epidemics. More than 100 species of Candida exist in nature; only few species are recognized as causing disease in humans. Keywords: Candidiasis, Candida, Human Fungal Infection. Chapter-21 Aspergillosis: A Fungal Infection of Human Nidhi Singh and Neha Tiwari ns76278@gmail.com Abstract NA Chapter-22 Important Fungal Diseases of Cereals Ishwar Deen Chaudhary, Dr. Vinay Kumar Singh, Sakshi Tripathi and Danish Ahmad Abstract The level of cereal yields and the quality of these yields depend, to a large extent, on a crop management system, the genetic potential of a given cultivar, but also on factors that may cause damage to plants or a reduction in yield. Such factors include fungal diseases of cereals, which may cause a reduction in yield by 15–20%, and in extreme cases even by 60%. The main factors determining the occurrence of these pathogens are the weather conditions during xxiv 2022 Research in Mycology the growing season of plants, crop rotation, the previous crop, the soil tillage system, and nitrogen fertilization. Fungal diseases of cereals limit plant growth and development, as well as reduce grain yield and quality. This paper reviews the literature on fungal diseases of cereals. Keywords: Cereal diseases, Fungal diseases, Mycotoxins, Plant protection; Disease resistance. Chapter-23 The Role of Fungi in Mitigation of Heavy Metals for Environment Sustainability Priya Dubey, Dr. Alvina Farooqui and Dr. Anju Patel priyadubeyd@gmail.com Abstract Industrial processes and mining of coal and metal ores are generating a number of threats by polluting natural water bodies. Heavy Toxic metal (HMs) contamination in the water and soil is becoming a serious severe problem. HMs contamination is toxic to environmental health. It is normally is usually found in small quantities in rock, soil, air, and water which get increased due to natural and anthropogenic activities. HMs exposure develops several diseases such as cancer, vascular disease, including stroke, ischemic heart disease, and peripheral vascular disease, and also increases the risk of liver, lungs, kidneys, and bladder tumors, tumors of the liver, lungs, kidneys, and bladder. Heavy metals lead to oxidative stress that causes an imbalance in the redox system. Mycoremediation approaches have the potential to can potentially reduce the HMs level near the contaminated sites and are procuring popularity of being eco-friendly and cost-effective. Many fungi xxv 2022 Research in Mycology have specific metal-binding proteins, which are used for immobilizing the HMs concentration from the contaminated area, thereby removing the accumulated HMs in crops. Some fungi also have other mechanisms to reduce the HMs contamination, such as biosynthesis of glutathione, cell surface precipitation, bioaugmentation, bio-stimulation, biosorption, bio-accumulation, bio- volatilization, and chelation of HMs. HMs resistant fungi have a significant potential for better elimination of HMs from contaminated areas. In this chapter, we discussed the relationship between HMs exposure, oxidative stress, and mechanism of fungi use for bioremediation. We also explain how to overcome the detrimental effects of HMs contamination through mycoremediation the ways to overcome the detrimental effects of HMs contamination through mycoremediation therefore, unraveling the mechanism of HM-induced toxicity. Keywords: Fungi, Mitigation, Heavy Metal, Environmental Sustainability. Chapter-24 Futuristic Trends of Scope and Objectives in Plant Pathology Shubhangi Singh, Dr. Sharmita Gupta and Manaswi Rani drsharmitagupta123@gmail.com Abstract Plant pathology is the science of studying plant diseases that focuses mainly on the disease-management answers to the farmers. It upgrades the disease-management approaches to conquer food security and food safety around the world. Phytopathogens or Plant pathogens are important ecological agents that may affect the xxvi 2022 Research in Mycology composition of plant populations, and in extreme cases, cause the local extinction of host species. With their rapid dispersibility and adaptiveness in variable domains, they overcome all the active sources of disease management. Plant pathology analyses the biotic and abiotic factors behind the non-fulfilment of plants to reach their genetic potential, and develops interventions to protect plants, reduce crop losses and improve food security. Keywords: Phytopathogens, food security, disease management, biotic, abiotic. xxvii 2022 Research In Mycology Volume-I Dr. Vinay Kumar Singh Prof. Shailendra Kumar Mr. Balwant Singh Research in Mycology Research on Fungi in Relation to Human Welfare and Sustainable Bioeconomy CHAPTER 01 Dr. Shivani Sharma and Ms. Apurva Sharma Introduction Fungi are heterotrophic/saprophytic, non-chlorophyllous microscopic/macroscopic organisms. Thus, the absence of chlorophyll compels them to live as parasites, thus are responsible for wheat rust caused by Puccinia graminis, late blight of potato caused by Phytophthora infestans. They are known to colonize and survive in diverse habitats, such as soil, air, water, foam, dong etc. Due to their ubiquitous nature, they are cosmopolitan in distribution and due to lack of sufficient taxonomic knowledge mapping of fungi is a challenging task. (Manoharachary et al., 2005). However, than the negative impacts of fungi, their beneficial effects are more promising. For example, in pharmaceutical biotechnology Cephalosporium, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhizopus, etc. are used in the production of vitamins, enzymes, organic acids and antibiotics. Fungi are also used as natural fermentators, biofertilizers, bioherbicides etc. for their sustainable utilization in agriculture (Mosttafiz et al., 2012). Other research areas where mycology contribute in producing nutritious and healthy foods are fungal protein in the form of nutritional mushrooms like Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom), Lentinula edodes (Shiitake mushroom), Calocybe indica (Milk 1 2022 Research in Mycology mushroom), etc. which are pharmaceutically important as they contain some bioactive compounds of medicinal values (Noble and Ruaysoongnern, 2010). Fig: - Fungal species of high medicinal values. Characteristic Features of Fungi • Pleurotus ostreatus (Oyster mushroom) Lentinula edodes (Shiitake mushroom) Trametes versicolor (Turkey tail mushroom) Agaricus bisporus (white button mushroom) A characteristic feature that places fungi into a different kingdom from plants, bacteria and animals is their cell wall constitution which is made up of chitin. 2 2022 Research in Mycology • • • • They are filamentous organisms with exception of yeast in their family. They are haploid eukaryotic organisms, contain spore forming fruiting bodies. They may be telomorphic (sexually reproducing organisms), anamorphic (asexually reproducing organisms) or holomorphic (having both sexual and asexual stages in life cycle) in nature. Some fungi are symbiotic in nature like Lichen which is a symbiosis relationship between fungi and cyanobacteria. Potential Applications of Fungi Fungi are prominent sources of pharmaceuticals, food industry, synthetic industry, etc. The potential applications of fungi are listed below: 1) Fungi as nutritious healthy food product Due to its high nutritious value Fungi is used as a food product like edible mushrooms. These mushrooms are of high medicinal importance as they boost immunity, having anticancer properties, control blood sugar level, consist of antioxidant properties, etc. Some of the examples of edible fungi (Mushrooms) with high nutrition value are• Pleurotus sp. (oyster mushroom) • Marasmius oreades (fairy ring mushroom) • Agaricus bisporus (white button mushroom) • Trametes versicolor (turkey tail) 2) Industrial applications of Fungi In industries fungi has been used as a fermentative agent for the production of various commercial products like ethanol, antibiotics, enzymes, organic acids, etc. Examples of fungal species with their use in different industries has been mentioned in the given below table- 3 2022 Research in Mycology Table 1: Industrial applications of Fungal products Fungal Fungal Applications References Products Species Dairy Industry Aspergillus Cheese Neelakantan Lipase niger, A. ripening et al. (1999) oryzae Improvement Aspergillus Saxena et al. Catalase in cheese niger (2001) quality Leather Industry Aspergillus Singh et al. Amylase Fiber splitting sp. (2016a) Organic Synthesis Aspergillus Synthesis of Singh et al. oryzae, A, Biodiesel, Laccase (2016a) flavus biosurffactants Polymerization Uyama and Pycnoporous Laccase of functional Kobayashi coccineus polymers (2002) Beverage Industry El-Zalaki Aspergillus Used in and Hamza niger, A. fermentation Amylase (1979) Jin et oryzae and breweing al. (1998) Coniothyrium Nomura Naringinase Debittering diplodiella (1965) 4 2022 Research in Mycology 3) Fungi in Agriculture Fungi are also useful in agriculture like fungal pathogens such as T. viridae and Fusarium may be used as root nibblers in maize and tomato plant that can increase the maximum uptake of water and nutrients for more yield. Some species of fungi like Collectotrichum gloeosporiordes, Septagloeum gillis are used as bioherbicides i.e., as microbial weed killer. 4) Applications of fungi in bioremediation and biodegradation In degradation of toxic pesticides like PCB, DDT and toxic chemicals like cyanides, benzopyrene, dioxin etc. fungi have been used as a degradative agent. Streptomyces sp. and Penicillium crysosporium contain peroxidase enzyme which have a biodegradable potential to degrade hydrocarbons like Amarnth dye, Heterocyclic dyes etc. Penicillium sp. of fungi is also used for the removal and recovery of heavy metals like Cd, Hg, Cu, etc. from industrial effluents. 5) Fungi as SCP (Single Cell Protein) Many Fungal species are used as a rich source of SCP like Penicillium chrysogenum, Neurospora sitoplila, Aspergillus niger, etc. 6) Fungi as pharmaceutical importance Some well-known species of fungi are used in the pharmaceutical industries for the production of antibiotics & secondary metabolites. For example, Penicillium notatum, Cephalosprium acremonium, Streptomyces sp. etc. are used for antibiotic production. Also, for the production of secondary metabolites like Ergot alkaloids, Lovastatin, etc. which have anti-tumour, antibacterial, cholesterol lowering properties fungi has been used. 5 2022 Research in Mycology 7) Fungal Applications in Biotechnology In the field of Biotechnology fungi provide a lot of scope for research. Such as in genetic engineering Yeast vectors are used for the expression of a desirable gene e.g.: - YAC, YEP, YRP etc. 8) Fungi as Biomaterials In many synthetic industries like leather, textile and plastic fungal based biomaterials are used. Due to the flexibility of mushroom-based materials it is appreciated in industries. Fungal Data Retrieval As in this whole developing era a lot of problems were faced by the scientists in research related to fungal species and their characteristics. So, to make it easy a data storage system was developed for the instant data retrieval. Mycobank is one such example of online database which provides all the nomenclature details and other descriptions related to fungi. Other one such example is NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information) which also provide all the database information of almost till known all species of organisms. New Technologies and Improved Tools to study Fungal biology For the more research on sustainable applications of fungi various molecular and analytical toolkits are available now. For example, for phenotyping infrared spectroscopy has now become a next generation technology to identify new fungal strains and their metabolic products. In the same way CRISPR based genome editing, X-ray microcomputed tomography are used to study the spatial distribution of hyphae in mycelia. 6 2022 Research in Mycology Current Research on Fungi using Biotechnology The advancement in Recombinant DNA Technology has enabled the new advancement in techniques of research. Few examples, of this are mentioned in the given tableTable 2: Modern example of Biotechnological research on fungi. Development Examples DNA and Protein For screening gene expression highChips density DNA arrays are available. Amplification of gene Enzymes and Antibiotic pathways of interest Large scale study of Neurospra crassa, Aspergillus genomics nidulans, Phytophthora infestans Secondary pathway New hybrid and semi-synthetic manipulation antibiotics Conclusion For the human welfare and sustainable development fungi are of great significance due to their extraordinary potential applications in various fields. Applied sciences on fungi offers great solutions for the future perspectives related to research on fungi. With the help of biotechnology and new technological tools it becomes easy to modify and use the characteristic properties of fungi for industrial, pharmaceutical, agricultural, bio-remedial applications. 7 2022 Research in Mycology References 1. Adrio, J.L., Demain, A.L. (2003). Fungal Biotechnology. Int Microbiol 6: 191-199. 2. Chambergo, F.S., Valencia, E.Y. (2016). Fungal biodiversity to biotechnology. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 100: 25672577. 3. Elkhateeb, W.A., Daba, G.M. (2019). The Amazing Potential of Fungi in Human Life. ARC Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 5(9): 12-16. 4. El-Zalaki ME, Hamza M (1979) Edible mushrooms as producers of amylases. Food Chem 4:203–211. 5. Hyde, K.D., et al. (2019). The amazing potential of fungi: 50 ways we can exploit fungi industrially. Springer Science and Business Media B.V. 97:1-136. 6. Kour, D. et al. (2019). Agriculturally and Industrially Important Fungi: Current Developments and Potential Biotechnological Applications. Springer Nature Switzerland. 7. Lange, L. (2010). The importance of fungi for a more sustainable future on our planet. Elsevier Ltd. 24: 90-92. 8. Manoharachary, C., Kunwar, I.K. and Rajithashri, A.B. (2014). Advances in applied mycology and fungal biotechnology. KAVAKA 43: 79-92. 9. Meyer, V. et al. (2016). Current challenges of research on filamentous fungi in relation to human welfare and a sustainable bio-economy: a white paper. Fungal Biol Botechnol 3:6. 10. Meyer, V. et al. (2020). Growing a circular economy with fungal biotechnology: a white paper. Fungal Biol Botechnol 7(5). 11. Molitoris, H.P. (1995). Fungi in biotechnology. Past, present, future. Czech Mycol 48: 53-65. 8 2022 Research in Mycology 12. Mosttafiz, S., M. Rahman and M. Rahman (2012). Biotechnology: Role of Microbes in Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Health. The Internet Journal of Microbiology, 10(1): 1937-8289. 13. Mukherjee, D. et al. (2018). Fungal Biotechnology: Role and Aspects Current Perspectives. Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 978-981. 14. Neelakantan S, Mohanty A, Kaushik JK (1999) Production and use of microbial enzymes for dairy processing. Curr Sci 77:143–148. 15. Noble, A.D. and S. Ruaysoongnern (2010). The nature of sustainable agriculture. In Soil Microbiology and Sustainable Crop Production, pp. 1–25. Eds R. Dixon and E. Tilston. Berlin, Heidelberg, Germany: Springer Science and Business Media B.V. 16. Nomura D (1965) Studies on naringinase produced by Coniothyrium diplodiella. I. The properties of naringinase and the removal of co-existing pectinase from the enzyme preparation. Enzymologia 29(3): 272–282. 17. Saxena R, Gupta R, Saxena S, Gulati R (2001) Role of fungal enzymes in food processing. Appl Mycol Biotechnol 1: 353– 386. 18. Singh R, Kumar M, Mittal A, Mehta PK (2016a) Microbial enzymes: industrial progress in 21st century. 3 Biotech 6: 174. 19. Srivastava, S. et al. (2019). Biotechnological Role of Fungal Microbes in Sustainable Agriculture. Plant Archives 19:1: 107-110. 20. Taseli, B.K. (2019). Role of Fungi in Environmental Biotechnology. Acta Scientific Microbiology 2(6): 25813226. 21. Turlo, J. (2014). The biotechnology of higher fungi – current state and perspectives. Folia Biologica Oecologica 10: 49-65. 9 2022 Research in Mycology 22. Uyama H, Kobayashi S (2002) Enzyme-catalyzed polymerization to functional polymers. J Mol Catalysis Enzyme 19: 117–127. *** 10 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 CHAPTER Application of Fungal Endophytes 02 Ms. Sneha Dwivedi and Dr. Alok Kumar Singh Introduction "Heinrich Friedrich Link" is a German botanist who described endophytes for the first time in 1809. The term "endophyte" was provided at that time in consideration of parasitic fungi residing inside plants Later on "De Bary" in 1866 provided the first definition of endophytes as " any organism that grows within plant tissues are termed as endophyte", however, the definition continues to change as per various researchers. Fungi are vital components of all ecosystems, involved in critical processes such as decomposition, recycling, and transport of nutrients in various environments. It is estimated that there may be over a million different species of fungi on this planet, of which only a small fraction has been identified. There are many bacteria that exist as plant endophytes. The existence of endophytes has been known for over a hundred years. They often live as incomplete fungi and are described as absolute parasites or true symbionts. It has been suggested that they can influence the distribution, ecology, physiology, and biochemistry of host plants. Botanists have done a lot of research on the relationship of plant endophytes, particularly in grasses, where endophytes have been 11 Research in Mycology shown to produce toxins that discourage insects and other grazing animals. "Endophytes" include a group of microorganisms that grow intracellularly or intracellularly in the tissues of higher plants, without causing symptoms in the plants they live in, and have proven to be rich sources of bioactive natural products (Li et al., 2008; Tan and Zou, 2001). Mutual interactions between endophytes and host plants can result in fitness benefits for both partners (Kogel et al., 2006). Once isolated and characterized, endophytes can provide protection and survival conditions to their host plant by producing large quantities of substances with potential for industry, agriculture, and medicine (Strobel, 2003). Secondary metabolites with a unique structure include alkaloids, benzopyrones, flavonoids, phenolic acids, quinones, steroids, terpenoids, etc. Such biopotential metabolites are agrochemicals, antibiotics, immunosuppressants, and antioxidants. Recent studies have revealed the universality of these fungi, with an estimated 1 million species of endophytic fungi in plants and even lichens. Endophytic fungi represent an important and significant component of fungal biodiversity and are known to influence plant community, diversity, and structure. Recent studies of endophytic fungi from tropical and temperate forests support high estimates of species diversity. What are endophytes? The word 'endophyte' refers to all microorganisms that inhabit the internal tissues of various host plants to spend their life cycle in whole or in part. They are asymptomatic and live entirely within the tissues of the host plant. Endophytes cannot cause any signs of disease indicators in host plants. Endophytes are potential biochemical synthesizers within the plant host, and plants have been extensively explored for their microbial endophyte support. 12 2022 Research in Mycology Isolation of Endophytes Small plant samples (leaves, stems, or roots) are collected from the field and stored in plastic bags (preferably cooler) for transport to the laboratory. Care should be taken to limit the entry of nonendophytic microorganisms into the dead plant sample. In the laboratory, plant surfaces were sterilized by soaking in 70% ethanol to remove all microbial epiphytes. Then, with a sterile knife in laminar flow, the outer surface of the sample was cut on a tissue-covered culture plate to expose the inner surface to water agar. After a week of incubation at room temperature, hyphal tips of fungal growth can be seen emerging from the plant sample. Small cuttings of this growth are then transferred onto new water agar plates or tube dextrose plates containing more nutrients and repeated plating of microbial colonies is continued until a pure culture is obtained. Morphological identification of endophytic fungal strains is based on the morphology of the fungal culture colony or hyphae, characteristics of spores and reproductive structures. Physiology of Endophytes The endophytic fungi have an enormous possibility to synthesize several bioactive metabolites. Hence, it is needed to design a suitable cultivation scheme for their marketable exploitation. It can be cultured using submerged (liquid) or solid-state fermentation (SSF). In both fermentations, the growth medium composition, pH, temperature, agitation and aeration, pCO2, and pO2 can be measured for the optimal formation of the desired end product. It is well reviewed that these parameters distress the mycelial development and metabolite fusion in different fermentation types. 13 2022 Research in Mycology Role in Sustainable Development In a variety of species that critically depend on symbionts or mutualisms to complete their life cycles, spatial distribution outlines and symbionts strongly depend on spatial symbiont circulation. The best example is orchids and various other host plants, because their seeds need to be in contact with suitable fungal endophytes to germinate and develop into a seedling. Fungal endophytes can promote orchid growth by activating rhizosphere soil nutrients. Altogether, orchids should be a resource of bioactive compounds that protect against soilborne pathogens. Symbiotic sustainable orchid germination has been developed as a comprehensive and valuable method for seed propagation. Endophytes Produce Natural Products Diverse endophytic fungi in plants represent a rich source of bioactive natural products with potential for exploitation in pharmaceutical and agricultural fields. However, it is thought that most of the endophytic fungal diversity remains to be discovered. Many of these compounds are biologically active components and the compounds include alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, peptides, polyketones, quinols and phenols, and some chlorinated compounds. Fungal metabolites from endophytes greatly affect the biology of predators. Until 2003 approximately 4,000 secondary metabolites with biological activity had been described from fungi. Most of these metabolites are produced by so-called “creative fungi” which include species of Acremonium, Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium. But research on the ability of endophytes to produce new metabolites has been lacking about 6500 endophytic fungi were isolated and tested for their biological potential. They analysed 135 14 2022 Research in Mycology secondary metabolites and found that 51% (38% for soil isolates) of bioactive compounds isolated from endophytic fungi were novel natural products. (Schulz et al., 2002) These workers concluded that endophytic fungi are a good source of new compounds and that "screening is not a random walk through a forest". The key question of how microbial endophytes gain access to their host plants has also been the subject of study. Indeed, most mycorrhizal fungal endophytes and bacterial endophytes in soil gain access through roots; But bacterial endophytes are not thought to invade plant tissue directly; Instead, they usually enter the plant through natural openings or wounds. The compound taxol (currently used as an anticancer agent) was first discovered in the bark of the Pacific yew tree. The finding that taxol can be produced by endophytes of the yew tree (Taxus sp.) by (Strobel et al.1996) Studies of endophytes in Chinese and other medicinal plants are causing an explosion. Taxol has strong antifungal properties, and its original purpose has been strongly suggested as a fungicide to protect the plant and fungi from other pathogenic fungi. A previously unknown compound showing significant bioactivity was extracted and isolated from an endophytic fungus found in the leaves of the plant Desmodium uncinatum from the highlands of Papua New Guinea. This plant is used by indigenous people to heal wounds and body wounds. The compound exhibits anti-fungal, anti-bacterial and anti-cancer activity. Endophytes Produces Antidiabetic Agents The non-peptidyl fungal metabolite [L-783] is produced by the endogenous bacteria Pseudomas saria secluded. It is harvested from the African rainforests near Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. These compounds act as insulin mimetics and, unlike insulin, are not broken down in the digestive tract. Oral administration of L-783,281 to two diabetic mouse models resulted 15 2022 Research in Mycology in a significant decrease in blood glucose levels. These exciting results could lead to new treatments for diabetes. Recently, Dhankhar and Yadav reported that Aspergillus sp., Phoma sp. and unidentified species; Glucose tolerance test for a significant reduction in blood sugar levels. GC-MS analysis showed that the main components are 2,6-di-tert-butyl-p-cresol and phenol, 2,6bis[1,1-dimethylethyl]-4-methyl. Immunosuppressants derived from endogenous plants Immunosuppressants are used now and in the near future to prevent allograft rejection in transplant patients. It can be used to treat autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and insulin-dependent diabetes. The endogenous fungi Fusarium subglutinans isolated from T. wilfordii produces subglutinols A and B, which act as immunosuppressants. In a study by these authors, it was suggested that subglutinols A and B are more effective than the immunosuppressant cyclosporine in thymocyte proliferation assays. They suggested that subglutinols A and B are non-toxic and should be studied in more detail. Pestaloside, an aromatic glucoside, and pestalopyrone and hydroxypestalopyrone, two pyrones isolated from P. microspora, have phytotoxic properties. A recently described species, Pestalotiopsis jesteri, grows in the Sepik River region of Papua New Guinea, produces testosterone and hydroxyesterone, and exhibits remarkable fungal activity against various plant pathogens. Importance of Endophytes Hyde and Soyting proposed five statements because the endophytes are so important: 1. Studies provide high taxon diversity; can be completed in the relative comfort of a laboratory with minimal fieldwork, and use a well-established traditional methodology that any motivated student can follow. 16 2022 Research in Mycology 2. Most sporulating isolates are relatively easily identified [at least to genus] as they belong to less than 50 characteristics genera. 3. Various methodologies can be applied to mycelia sterilia to promote sporulation; alternatively, molecular methods can be utilized to identify these relatively fast growing morphotypes. 4. Sophisticated statistics can be applied to the isolates which “appear” to have been derived from single random units and will satisfy the demands of any unforgiving non-fungal ecologist. 5. The relatively fast-growing and “highly” diverse endophytes provide ideal tools for screening and novel compound discovery and they can easily be lodged in culture collections. Conclusion Endogenous fungi and bacteria protect plants from insect infestation. Its main goal is the artificial inoculation of plants with entomopathogenic fungi to turn them into endophytes. Because endogenous fungi increase the uptake of phosphorus, nitrogen, and other essential nutrients by host plants, a thorough knowledge of them will help organic fertilizer users achieve optimal results. The ability of endogenous fungi to increase plant tolerance to heat stress, salinity, drought and other abiotic plant stresses adds a new dimension to plant-host-endophyte interactions and is used in agriculture to control pests and diseases in a changing climate. can also be used as an approach to entomopathogenic fungi in floods. The recent discoveries indicating that fungal endophytes provide other beneficial effects to their host plants aside mere protection against pests will go a long way in defining the huge importance of fungal endophytes in crop production for human sustainability. Also, we hope that this information would increase the effective use of fungal endophytes by exploring all their functional attributes as an integral part of the integrated pest management programs throughout the different agroecological zones worldwide. 17 2022 Research in Mycology It is presently reviewed that generation of bioactive compounds by host plants and associated fungal endophytes is an indirect or direct result of dynamic ecological interactions in nature. This book chapter exemplifies the complexity and multifaceted dimension of the fungal endophytes interactions and selected functions that drive the coevolution of fungal endophyte, biosynthesis of pharmaceutically natural bioproducts. The nonappearance of comprehensive considerate with respect to identification, physiology, and biosynthetic gene expressions is a key coerce in the strategy of feasible bioprocess for gaining the pharmaceutically applicable high-worth bioproducts such as drugs and antibiotics with high impacts that subsequently help to begin an endophytic fungal-dependent plant-sustainable strategies for the production of bioproducts. References 1. Brown K.B., Hyde K.D., Guest D.I. 1998. Preliminary studies on endophytic fungal communities of Musa acuminata species complex in Hong Kong and Australia; Fungal Diversity. 1: 27-51. 2. Dreyfuss M.M., Chapela I.H. Potential of fungi in the discovery of novel, low-molecular weight pharmaceuticals. In, Gullao VP ed., The Discovery of Natural Products with Therapeutic Potential ButterworthHeinemann, London, UK. pp. 49-80. 3. Hawksworth D.L. 1991, The fungal dimension of biodiversity, magnitude, significance and conservation. Mycological. Res.95: 641-65. 4. Hirsch G.U., Braun U. 1992. Communities of parasitic microfungi. In, Winterhoff W, ed., Handbook 18 2022 Research in Mycology of Vegetation Science, Fungi in vegetation science, Vol. 19, Dordrecht, Netherlands, Kluwer Academic. pp. 225-250. 5. Hyde K.D., Soytong K. 2008. The fungal endophyte dilemma. Fungal diversity. 33: 163-173. 6. Kogel K.H., Franken P., Huckelhoven R. 2006. Endophyte or Parasite — What Decides?. Curr. Op. Plant Biol., 9: 358– 363. 7. Lane G.A., Christensen M.J., Miles C.O. 2000. Co-evolution of fungal endophytes with grasses, the significance of secondary metabolites. In, Bacon CW, White Jr. JF, eds. Dekker, New York. pp. 341-388. 8. Li J., Zhao G.Z., Chen H.H., Wang H.B., Qin S., Zhu W.Y., Xu L.H., Jiang C.L., Li W.J., 2008, Antitumour and Antimicrobial Activities of Endophytic Streptomycetes from Pharmaceutical Plants in Rainforest, Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 47: 574–580. 9. Miller R.V., Miller C.M., Garton-Kinney D., Redgrave B., Sears J., Condron M., Teplow D., Strobel G.A. 1998. Ecomycins, unique antimycotics from Pseudomonas viridiflava. J. Appl. Microbiol. 84: 937-944. 10. Photita W., Lumyong S., Lumyong P., Hyde K.D. 2001. Endophytic fungi of wild banana (Musa acuminata) at Doi Suthep Pui National Park, Thailand. Mycol. 105: 1508-1513. 11. Rodrigues K.F., Leuchtmann A., Petrini O. 1993. Endophytes species of Xylaria, cultural and isozymic studies. Sidowia. 45: 116-138. 12. Sánchez Márquez S., Bills G.F., Zabalgogeazcoa I. 2007. The endophytic mycobiota of the grass Dactylis glomerata. Fungal. Diversity. 27: 171-195. 13. Santamaria J., Bayman P. 2005. Fungal epiphytes and endophytes of coffee leaves (Coffea arabica). Microbial. Ecol. 50: 1-8. 19 2022 Research in Mycology 14. Sridhar K.R., Raviraja N.S. 1995. Endophytes- a crucial issue. Current. Sc. 69(7): 570-574. 15. Strobel G, Yang X, Sears J, Kramer R, Sidhu RS, Hess WM. 1996. Taxol from Pestalotiopsis microspora, an endophytic fungus of Taxus wallachiana. Microbiology (Reading). 142 (2): 435-440. 16. Tan, R. and Zou, W. 2001. Endophytes: A Rich Source of Functional Metabolites. Natural Product Reports, 18: 448459. 17. Strobel G.A. 2003. Endophytes as Sources of Bioactive Products, Microb. Infect., 5: 535–544. 18. Strobel G.A., Li J.Y., Sugawara F., Koshino H., Harper J., Hess W.M. Oocydin A. 1999. A chlorinated macrocyclic lactone with potent anti-oomycete activity from Serratia marcescens. Microbiol. 145: 3557-3564. 19. Tao G., Liu Z.Y., Hyde K.D., Yu Z.N. 2008. Whole rDNA analysis reveals novel and endophytic fungi in Bletilla ochracea (Orchidaceae). Fungal Diversity. 33: 101-122. 20. Tejesvi M.V., Tamhankar S.A., Kini K.R., Rao V.S., Prakash H.S. 2009. Phylogenetic analysis of endophytic Pestalotiopsis species from ethnopharmaceutically important medicinal trees. Fungal. Divers. 38:167–183. 21. Tong W.Y., Darah I., Latiffah Z. 2011. Antimicrobial activities of endophytic fungal isolates from medicinal herb Orthosiphon stamineus Benth. J. Med. Plant. Res. 5(5): 831–836. 22. Wagenaar M., Corwin J., Strobel G.A., Clardy J. 2000. Three new chytochalasins produced by an endophytic fungus in the genus Rhinocladiella. J. Nat. Prod. 63: 1692-1695. 23. Wang L.W., Zhang Y.L., Lin F.C., Hu Y.Z., Zhang C.L. 2011. Natural products with antitumor activity 20 2022 Research in Mycology from endophytic fungi. Mini. Rev. Med. Chem. 11: 10561074. 24. Webber J.F., Gibbs J.N. 1984. Colonization of elm barks by Phomopsis oblonga. Transactions of the British Mycol. Soc. 82(2): 348-352. 25. Yang N, Pan X, Chen GJ et al. 2018. Fermentation engineering for enhanced paclitaxel production by taxus media endophytic fungus MF-5 (Alternaria sp.). J Biobased Mater Bioenergy. 12(6): 545–550. 26. Yuan Z.L., Rao L.B., Chen Y.C., Zhang C.L., Wu Y.G. 2011. From pattern to process: species and functional diversity in fungal endophytes of Abies beshanzuensis. Fungal. Biol. 115: 197-213. 27. Yuan Z.L., Zhang C.L., Lin F.C. 2010. Role of Diverse NonSystemic Fungal Endophytes in Plant Performance and Response to Stress: Progress and Approaches. J.Plant. Growth 29:116-126. 28. Zhang Y.Z., Sun X., Zechner D., Sachs B., Current W., Gidda J., Rodriguez M., Chen S.H. 2001. Synthesis and antifungal activities of novel 3-amido bearing pseudomycin analogs. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 11: 903-907. *** 21 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 CHAPTER Endophytic Fungi and Their Biological Roles 03 Ms. Aadya Jha Introduction The word Endophyte trace its origin from the Greek word ‘Endonphyton’ meaning within the plant. De Barry (1866) proposed the term ‘Endophyte’. In 1971, Ainsworth defined an endophyte as a plant living within another organism. Endophytes refer to a multitudinous group of organisms that resides within the tissues of plants and maintains an indistinguishable relationship without causing any harmful effect on their hosts. According to many scientists, endophytes and plants share a mutualistic relationship. The endophytes settle in the aerial regions of the plant tissues but neither do they show any symptoms of colonization nor do they harm the living tissues they settle in. Endophytes can colonize the host plants either parasitically or symbiotically. Endophytes are omnipresent and colonize a wide range. Endophytic fungi mainly have members from Ascomycota, followed by Basidiomycota, Mucormycota, and Oomycota respectively. On the basis of taxonomy, ecological functions, evolution, and host plants endophytes can be grouped into two categories namely: Nonclavicipitaceous and Clavicipitaceous. Species that are grouped under Clavicipitaceous are known to infect grasses only whereas 22 Research in Mycology non-clavicipitaceous infects tissues of plants belonging to higher families. “Mutualists, those fungi that colonize aerial parts of living plant tissues and do not cause symptom of disease” – Carroll (1977) “Any organisms occurring within plant tissues” - Barry (1886) “A group that colonize living, internal tissues of plants without causing any immediate, over negative effects” – Hirsch and Braun (1992) “All organisms inhabiting plant organs that at some time in their life cycle, can colonize internal plant tissues without causing apparent harm to host tissues” – Petrini (1991) VARIOUS DEFINITIONS OF ENDOPHYTES “Infection strategy is regarded as important in the definition of the term endophyte” – Wilson (1995) “Fungi as colonizers of the living internal tissues of their plant host” – Rollinger and Langenheim (1993) “Fungi that colonize a plant without causing visible disease symptoms at any specific moment” – Schulz and Boyle (2005) “True endophytes-fungi whose colonization never results in visible disease symptoms” – Mostert et al. (2000) Endophytes affecting the grasses (Clavicipitaceous) colonize the host in a systemic manner and help its host to develop resistance against diseases, improve its ability to fight against environmental 23 2022 Research in Mycology stresses, and enhance its growth by producing desired metabolites. On the other hand, endophytes grouped under non-clavicipitaceous colonize its host in a non-systemic manner. Endophytes produce a huge number of secondary metabolites that are useful in uncountable ways. Ascomycota Basidiomycota Mucormycota Oomycota Oomycota Mucormycota Basidiomycota Ascomycota Fig. Abundance of endophytic fungi History of Endophytic Studies Freeman (1904) is thought to make the earliest publications describing about endophytes by referring to four papers that were being published in 1898. Several studies were made between 19301990 that helped in better understanding of the relationship between the endophytes and the grasses. Endophytes from woody plants, palms, and grasses were studied extensively between 19902000. Studies between 2000-2012, made the concept of endophytes clearer. 24 2022 Research in Mycology Interaction Between Endophytes and It’s Hosts Fungal endophytes generally share mutualistic or symbiotic relationships with their host plants. Interaction between the endophyte and its host stretches from antagonism to mutualism, and this interaction is often referred to as a “continuum” (Saikkonen et al., 1998; Schulz & Boyle, 2005). Biological Roles of Endophytic Fungi Source of Bioactive Secondary Metabolites Endophytic fungi possess a tremendous capacity of producing secondary metabolites. It has also been found that endophytic fungi and their host share the same pathway of producing secondary metabolites and horizontal gene transfer owes to be the reason behind this. The compounds belong to different structural groups namely, quinones, terpenoids, alkaloids, steroids, peptides, organic acids, flavonoids, pyridines, and many more. Many bioactive compounds produced by endophytes prove to be an important source for medicines like Taxol, cryptocin, vinblastine, spiroquinazoline alkaloids, and the list continues with a few others. Most of the substances isolated from endophytic fungi show antimicrobial, antiviral, antibacterial, anticancer, and many other properties of great value. Secondary metabolites isolated from them aid in the discovery and development of new drugs. Endophytic Fungi as A Source of Enzymes An enzyme can be defined as a substance that helps to speed up a chemical reaction without changing itself in the process. They play a great role in industrial as well as agricultural processes. Endophytic fungi can be considered a reservoir of enzymes. Many extracellular enzymes are produced by endophytic fungi like cellulases, pectinases, amylase, proteases, laccase, lipase, xylanase, and so on. Cellulase is an enzyme that breaks down cellulose into simpler compounds. Cellulase is obtained from a 25 2022 Research in Mycology wide range of endophytic fungi such as Alternaria, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Cephalosporium, Fusarium, Trichoderma, Rhizopus, etc. Lipases are involved in acidolysis, esterification, aminolysis, and many other conversion reactions. Lipases are produced by Phyllosticta sp., Trichoderma sp., Xylaria sp., Mucor, Penicillium sp., Colletotrichum falcatum, Curvularia vermiformis, etc. Pectinase is a polysaccharide and is found in the cell walls of plants. Major endophytic fungi producing pectinases are Mycelia strata, Fusarium sp., Aspergillus sp., Mucor sp., Penicillium sp., Phoma etc. Endophytic Fungi Producing Plant Growth Agents Fertilizers and insecticides are hazardous to the environment. Endophytic fungi hold the capacity to replace the chemicals and act as agents that stimulate plant growth. Many endophytes produce plant growth hormones such as auxin, gibberellins, indole acetic acid, and ethylene. Gibberellic acid (GA) is a phytohormone that helps in plant growth. Cladosporium sphaerospermum colonizing the plant Glycine max (L). Mer is known to synthesize GA3, and GA4 along with GA7. It also induces growth in soyabean and rice plants (Hamayun et al. 2009). Paecilomyces variotii LHL 10 – an endophyte residing in the cucumber roots promotes the growth of its hosts by secreting IAA and GAs in large quantities (Khan et al. 2012). Endophytes in Nutrient Pedalling Nutrient cycling is a vital process needed to balance the nutrients in this atmosphere and make them available to every single component of this ecosystem. Endophytic fungi play an important role in nutrient cycling in the ecosystem. Muller et al. (2001) found that endophytic fungi were capable of decomposing needles of Picea abies in situ and in vitro. Phomopsis liquidambari stimulates organic mineralization. Endophytes can easily break down complex substances into simpler ones. They play an important role 26 2022 Research in Mycology in the degradation of dead matter, which are then available to live organisms again. Endophytic fungi play a vital role in the biodegradation of litter produced by its host. Bioremediation is a process of removing waste and contaminants from nature with the help of microorganisms. Endophytic fungi are very crucial for the process of bioremediation. Tissue Culture and Endophytic Fungi Tissue culture is about the production of axenic plants from an explant under sterile conditions. Even after maintaining all the necessary protocols of tissue culture endophytic fungi or bacteria can be seen growing on the nutrient medium that is generally thought of as contaminants. These contaminants can be endangered and rare species of endophytic fungi, which are needed to be protected through tissue culture methods. Anticancer Activities of Endophytic Fungi Paclitaxel along with its derivatives dominates the group of anticancerous agents. Paclitaxel is a diterpenoid produced by various species of Taxus. Paclitaxel rules out the molecules of tubulin from being depolymerized during cell division and stabilizes microtubules against the process of depolymerization. The endophytic fungus, Taxomyces andreanae produces taxol by fermentation and can be used as the best alternative for taxol production. Vinca alkaloids (Vincristine, Vinblastine) derived from Vinca rosea or Catharanthus roseus, are used in the treatment of leukemia. Sclerotiorin extracted from endophyte, Cephalotheca faveolata helps in curing colon cancer by causing apoptosis of cancerous cells. Ethyl acetate isolated from Alternaria alternata proves to be very effective against breast cancer in humans. Cajanol, an anticancer agent is isolated from Cajanus cajan and is produced by a fungal endophyte, Hypocrea lixii residing in them. Antimicrobial Properties of Endophytic Fungi 27 2022 Research in Mycology Many health diseases can easily be related to the long-term usage of the same antibiotics that lead to resistance against them. When the pathogenic microorganisms are repeatedly exposed to the same antibiotics, they do not respond properly. Research and discoveries of new drugs are never out of focus on this earth. Endophytes are treasures of bioactive compounds that have antimicrobial properties. An endophytic fungus, Phoma sp. has emerged as a reservoir of antimicrobial compounds. Other endophytes like Fusarium sp, Cladosporium sp, Cylindrocarpon sp., have shown antimicrobial properties against some pathogenic bacteria affecting humans like Candida albicans, Shigella flexneri, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis and many more. Conclusion Endophytes are a great source of natural products as well as secondary metabolites. Almost every plant on this earth is housed by one or more endophytes. The secondary metabolites produced by endophytic fungus can serve important roles as phytohormones. Endophytes are an emerging source of important drugs and can be used as a substituent. The most beneficial point with endophytic fungi is that they can be cultured easily which makes their production easy. Due to its low-cost maintenance, products from endophytes can be cheap and can be used in large quantities in several industries. Research on endophytes may lead to the isolation of more novel compounds and will also make a better understanding of their diversity. Reference 1. Aguilar AC, Barea JM (1996) Arbuscular mycorrhizas and biological control of soil-borne plant pathogens - an overview of the mechanisms involved. Mycorrhiza; 6: 457–464. 28 2022 Research in Mycology 2. Aly AH, Debbab A, Kjer J, Proksch P (2010) Fungal endophytes from higher plants: a prolific source of phytochemicals and other bioactive natural products. Fungal Divers 41(1). 3. Azevedo JL, Araujo WL (2007) Diversity and applications of endophytic fungi isolated from tropical plants. In: Ganguli BN, Deshmukh SK (eds) Fungi multifaceted microbes. Anamaya, New Delhi. 4. Backman PA, Sikora RA (2008) Endophytes: an emerging tool for biological control. Biol Control 46(1). 5. Banerjee D (2011) Endophytic fungal diversity in tropical and subtropical plants. Res J Microbiol 6(1):54–62 6. Bills GF (1996) Isolation and analysis of endophytic fungal communities from wood plants. Endophytic fungi in grasses and woody plants: systematics, ecology, and evolution. St. Paul, APS Press. 7. Chandra S (2012) Endophytic fungi: novel sources of anticancer lead molecules. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 95:47–59 8. Guo B, Wang Y, Sun X, Tang K (2008) Bioactive Natural Products from Endophytes: A review. Appl Biochem Microbiol; 44: 136–142. 9. Hyde KD, Soytong K (2008) The fungal endophyte dilemma. Fungal Divers 33:163–173. 10. Kharwar RN, Mishra A, Gond SK, Stierle A, Stierle D (2011) Anticancer compounds derived from fungal endophytes: their importance and future challenges. Nat Prod Rep 28(7):1208– 12. 11. Kumar S, Kaushik N, Edrada-Ebel R, Proksch P (2011) Isolation, characterization, and bioactivity of endophytic fungi of Tylophora indica. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 27(3):571–577. 29 2022 Research in Mycology 12. Larran S, Perelló A, Simón M.R, Moreno V (2007) The endophytic fungi from wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) World J Microbiol Biotechnol 23:565–572. 13. Li HY, Wei DQ, Shen M (2012) Endophytes and their role in phytoremediation. Fungal Divers 54(1):11–18. 14. M Rashmi, JS Kushveer, VV Sarma (2019) Mycosphere 10(1): 798–1079 15. Rudgers J.A, Koslow J.M, Clay Keith (2007) Endophytic fungi alter relationships between diversity and ecosystem properties. Ecology Letters 7: 42–51. 16. Schulz Barbara, Boyle Christine, Draeger Siegfried, Römmert Anne-Kartin, Krohn Kartsen (2002). Endophytic fungi: a source of novel biologically active secondary metabolites. Mycol. Res. 106 (9): 996–1004. 17. Sieber T.N. (2007) Endophytic fungi in forest trees: are they mutualists? Fungal biology reviews 21:75–89. 18. Tian XL, Cao LX, Tan HM, Zeng QG, Jia YY, Han WQ, Zhou SN (2004) Study on the communities of endophytic fungi and endophytic actinomycetes from rice and their antipathogenic activities in vitro. World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology 20: 303–309. 19. Xiang Sun & Liang-Dong Guo (2012) Endophytic fungal diversity: a review of traditional and molecular techniques, Mycology, 3(1): 65-76. *** 30 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 CHAPTER Plant Pathogenic Mycoflora 04 Dr. Leena Dave Introduction Plant pathogenic fungi cause very significant economic losses to crops in both temperate and tropical agricultural and forestry systems. They also occur in natural systems and play a role in mediating plant community structure, although relatively little is known about the extent of such regulation. Mycotoxin production is a characteristic of the species, so by studying the species intraspecific biodiversity can predict potential mycotoxin hazards (Cinzia Oliveri and Vittoria Catara, 2010). Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi that cause a toxic response when ingested by animals or man. Fungal species A. tereus and Penicillium were recorded in 0.5% of samples in selected study area. These fungal species were known to cause deterioration of maize and are a health risk to humans and animals due to the toxins they potentially produce (Dubale et.al., 2014). This calls for future research in the area of investigating alternative eco-friendly fungi management methods such as the use of botanicals with fungicidal effects, physical and mechanical methods that modify the suitability of the physical environment for 31 Research in Mycology the multiplication of these fungi, identifying resistant and or tolerant maize varieties, identification/screening of effective bioagents, screening of effective synthetic fungicides with novel chemistry. Fungal parasites are by far the most prevalent plant pathogenic organism. All plants are attacked by one species or another of phytopathogenic fungi. Individual species of fungi can parasitize one or many different kinds of plants. Mycotoxins can cause severe damage to liver, kidney and nervous systems of human being even in low dosages (Ishrat N and D Shahnaz, 2009). Fusarium and Aspergillus species are common fungal contaminants of maize and also produce mycotoxins (Bakan et al., 2002) Verga BT and J Teren 2005 shown that A large number of pathogenic fungi, bacteria, viruses and insects infecting and infesting maize grain cause combined worldwide annual losses of 9.4%. Fungi affect the quality of grain as a result there will be, increase in fatty acid, reduction in germination, increase its mustiness, production of toxins and finally leading to spoilage of grain in many ways. As Fungi form a large and heterogeneous eukaryotic group of living organisms characterized by their absence of photosynthetic pigment and their chitin cell wall. It has been estimated that the fungal kingdom contains more than 1.5 million species, but only around 100,000 have so far been described, with yeast, mold, and mushroom being the most familiar (Hawksworth, 1991). Arunachalam et al., 1997 explained that Fungi play a focal role in nutrient cycling by regulating soil biological activity. However, the role at which organic matter is decomposed by the microbes is interrelated to the chemical composition of the substrate as well as environmental conditions. Fungi are classified as biotrophic, necrotrophic or hemi biotrophic according to the type of parasitism and infection strategy, While the former derives nutrients from dead cells, the latter takes 32 2022 Research in Mycology nutrients from the plant but does not kill it (Green et.al., 2002). Hemi biotrophs sequentially deploy a biotrophic and then a necrotrophic mode of nutrition. Necrotrophic species tend to attack a broad range of plant species; on the contrary, biotrophs usually exhibit a high degree of specialization for individual plant species. Most biotrophic fungi are obligatory parasites, surviving only limited saprophytic phases. Below chart shows what knowledge essential for pathogens. Factors affecting on survival, infection Survival of pathogens in the lack of susceptible host Dispersal of pathogens We need essential knowledge for Factors affecting on dispersal of pathogens Mechanism of pathogens to infect host Ranges of host of the pathogens Mycoflora are common parasites for plant diseases and they feed on living green plant or dead organic materials present in atmosphere. Through producing spores which may carried out from plant to plant by water, wind, wounds and insects and can cause infection to a plant with the help of moisture and proper temperature. These diseases are most common to plants and controlled by fungicides, bactericides and resistant varieties. 33 2022 Research in Mycology 1. Mildews Mycelium, fruiting bodies and necrotic tissue. E.g., Powdery Mildews, Downey Mildews (M. Linde, N. Shishkoff 2017). Powdery Mildew Symptoms and Problem It is superficial, white to light greyish, powdery to mealy growth on leaves, disease can cause distortion and death of leaves and shoots, but even a mild case makes plants unsightly. Powdery mildew reduces the quality of cut flowers it is a common problem in gardens, infecting a wide variety of plants and reducing the quality and quantity of flowers and fruit and known fact that its affect plants in shady areas more than those in direct sun common symptoms are, look as if they have been dusted with flour, circular, powdery white spots, usually covers the upper part of the leaves, fungus might cause some leaves to twist, break, or become disfigured. Powdery mildew leaves a tell-tale white dusty coating on leaves, stems and flowers. Caused by a fungus, it affects a number of plants, including lilacs, apples, grapes, cucumbers, peas, daisies and roses. Solution Effective organic fungicides for treating powdery mildew include sulfur, lime-sulfur, neem oil, and potassium bicarbonate. These are most effective when used prior to infection or when you first see signs of the disease. Aromatic is also common victim of powdery mildew. Destroy infected leaves to reduce the spread of spores, give plants good drainage and ample air circulation, don’t over watering at night. Commercial fungicides spray with a solution of one tsp. baking soda and one quart of water as recommended by George “Doc” and 34 2022 Research in Mycology Katy Abraham, authors of The Green Thumb Garden Handbook. Plant in sunnier spots, as powdery mildew tends to develop more often in shady areas. After removing all infected leaves, stems, and fruit and destroy them, either by throwing them in the trash or by burning, after pruning off infected parts, do not allow pruning shears to touch healthy leaves and sterilize your pruners with alcohol Downy Mildew Symptoms and Problem Downy mildew symptoms are pale yellow green to yellow areas on the upper leaf surface; light gray to purplish mouldy growth on the under surface of the leaf. Blue mould of tobacco is a downy mildew disease. Deformed plant growth may result from downy mildew as in the case of sorghum downy mildew of corn or grain sorghum. Downy mildew is caused by fungus-like organisms and affects many ornamentals and edibles, crops such as broccoli and cauliflower, Often occurring during wet weather, downy mildew causes the upper portion of leaves to discolour, while the bottoms develop white or grey mold. Solution Plant resistant cultivars when available as no fungicides are available, but cultural practices can help like copper fungicides, Neem oil. Remove and destroy infected foliage, or entire plants if downy mildew is prevalent. Avoid crowding plants or watering them in the evening, and rotate edibles year to year. 2. Rust Infected plants will most of the time have many small lesions on stems or leaves, usually a rust color but can also be black or white. Rusts often produce spots similar to leaf spots with colour of bright yellow, orange-red, reddish-brown or black in color which is raised 35 2022 Research in Mycology above the leaf surface. Severe cases cause the leaf withers and dies rapidly. Some types of rust also occur on stems. Rusts are common on grains and grasses. Rust diseases occur most often in mild, moist conditions and by spores that are transferred from infected plants to healthy plants. These spores can be transferred either by the wind or by water, which is why rust disease often spreads after watering. Symptoms and Problem Rust, another fungal disease, is easy to spot because it forms rusty spots on leaves and sometimes stems. The spots eventually progress from reddish-orange to black, yellow or white spots forming on the upper leaves of a plant and leaves distortion and defoliation occur. Solution Fungicides are available. Generally, a good practice is to gather and destroy any infected plants to prevent the fungus from overwintering. Dusting plants with sulphur early in the season to prevent infection, or to keep mild infections from spreading, encourage good air circulation. 3. Black Spot Symptoms and Problem Black spot is a fungal disease commonly found on roses, but also on other flowers and fruits. While it doesn’t kill plants outright, it weakens them and makes them susceptible to other problems. In cool, moist weather, small black spots appear on foliage, which starts to turn yellow and eventually drops off. Solution The fungus overwinters in diseased canes and leaves, so remove both before winter. Keep foliage clean and dry by mulching beneath plants and planting varieties of roses resistant to black spot. Plants also can be sprayed with a fungicide to prevent black 36 2022 Research in Mycology spot. prune away infected stems and dispose - never compost, disinfect pruners are best practices. 4. Mosaic Virus Symptoms and Problem There are a number of mosaic viruses: Cucumber Mosaic Virus, tomato mosaic virus, Bean Mosaic Virus and tobacco mosaic virus. Mosaic virus causes mottled yellow and green leaves that are sometimes curled and distorted and leaves looks loke blisterlike appearance, plants exhibit yellowing, stunted growth, malformed fruits and reduced yield and more common in hot weather. Solution There are no chemical controls, but resistant varieties exist. The virus can live in dry soil for some time. Remove and destroy infected plants, roots and all, and avoid planting susceptible plants. Cucumber mosaic virus cause stunted plants. Because tobacco is a carrier, smokers should wash hands thoroughly before handling plants. Plant virus-resistant varieties, Control of weeds, soak seeds of susceptible plants in a 10% bleach solution before planting. 5. Damping-Off Disease Rapid collapse and death of very young seedling. Either the seed rots before emergence or the seedling rots at the soil line and falls over and dies. Several soil-born fungi cause this disease. The most common genera involved are Fusarium, Rhizoctonia and Pythium. Symptoms and Problem Damping-off disease, caused by several soil-borne fungi, occurred in wet, humid conditions and infects seedlings to collapse and decay. 37 2022 Research in Mycology Solution As Damping-off disease usually affects newly-sown plants, Prevention with good cultural practices we can use new pots, trays, or those disinfected with a 10 percent bleach solution. Bio fungicides and Selection of well-draining soil mixes that have ample aeration also helps. 6. Wilt Wilt symptoms are caused in a large number of broadleaf plants by several species of Fusarium and Verticillium fungi. With wilted appearance, Individual branches or even single leaves may be affected at first and Leaves develop a yellow color, V-shaped sectors between the major veins and eventually die and fall (Texas plant diseases handbook, 1980). Generalized loss of turgidity as in vascular wilts – Maple Verticillium Wilt, Damping Off and so on. Both woody and herbaceous plants are subject to wilts. Fusarium Wilt and Verticillium Wilt Both thrive with high nitrogen fertilizer, excessive soil moisture, thin stands, and deep cultivation during the growing season. Both fungi survive long periods in soil in the absence of a cultivated host. Symptoms and Problem Caused by a soil-borne fungus, Fusarium wilt affects ornamental and edible plants, including dianthus, beans, tomatoes, peas and asparagus. Verticillium wilt is a fungal disease that affects hundreds of species of trees, shrubs, edibles and ornamentals which thrives in alkaline soil. Fusarium wilt causes wilted leaves and stunted plants, as well as root rot and sometimes blackened stem rot. It’s especially active in hot summer temperatures. Verticillium wilt can live in the soil for years, make their way into 38 2022 Research in Mycology the plant through the roots, eventually clogging the vascular system and causing branches to wilt suddenly and foliage to turn yellow and fall off prematurely. It can also lead to stunted growth. Solution Control of wilt diseases is difficult but with suggested cultural practices, Rotation with tolerant plants and clean tillage to destroy infected tissue will help. Fungicides are not effective, but good sanitation practices may help. Remove and destroy infected annuals, perennials, and edibles. Sterilizing cutting tools with a 10 percent bleach solution between cuts. Conclusion Some plant-food like rice, maize, wheat, medicinal value based plants plays a key role in the food system of many countries in the world prone to contamination by mycotoxins produced by various mycoflora. Contamination by various mycoflora affects economic and public health, food safety and reducing food quality. We must focus on research that enlighten sustainable decontamination methods of mycoflora and mycotoxins, mycotoxin detection techniques, mechanisms of decontamination methods, and their effects on flora. Enhance the application of the qualitativequantitative analysis of mycotoxins technologies at an industrial scale are need of time. One can study at determining the mycoflora, mycotoxins, contaminants and antimicrobial properties of some local plants for effective inhibitor against plant diseases. strong need to train producers, traders and consumers who are involved in production and marketing chains in the area of storage pests and their effective management. Use pathogen-free seed, transplants and Resistant cultivars provide a valuable strategy for disease control. 39 2022 Research in Mycology References 1. Agrios, 5th ed. (2005) Plant Pathology WSU, OSU, U of I, Pacific Northwest Plant Disease Handbook Moore, Randy 1998, Botany 2. Bakan B, Richard D, Molard and Cahagnier B (2002) Fungal growth and Fusarium mycotoxin content in isogenic traditional maize and genetically modified maize grown in France and Spain. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry; 50(4): 278-731. 3. Dubale B Solomon A Geremew B Sethumadhava RG Waktole S (2014) Mycoflora of grain maize (Zea mays L.) Stored in traditional storage containers (Gombisa and sacks) in selected woredas of Jimma zone, Ethiopia African Journal of Agriculture Nutrition and Development; 14(2): 86768694. 4. Green A M, Mueller U G, and Adams R M (2002) Extensive exchange of fungal cultivars between sympatric species of fungus-growing ants; Molecular Ecology; 11(2): 191–195. 5. Hawksworth D L (1991) The fungal dimension of biodiversity: magnitude, significance, and conservation; Mycological Research; 95(6): 641–655. 6. Ishrat N and Shahnaz D (2009) Detection of seed borne mycoflora in maize (Zea mays L.); Pakistan Journal of Botany; 41(1): 443-451. 7. Linde M and Shishkoff N (2017) Powdery Mildew Texas Plant Disease Handbook (an electronic version) developed by Extension Plant Pathologist. 8. Verga B T and Teren J (2005) Mycotoxin producing fungi and mycotoxins in foods in Hungary; Journal of Acta Alimentaria/Akademiai; 267-275. *** 40 2022 Research in Mycology Macrofungal Diversity of Tamil Nadu, India CHAPTER 05 Kohila Durai, Sri Sneha Jeyakumar, Parameswari Murugesan and Arul Kumar Murugesan Introduction Biodiversity is quickly diminishing, owing primarily to manmade forces, and its loss is frequently seen as a significant driver of ecological changes (Hooper et al., 2012). As a result, trustworthy information on the variety of various species is urgently required to assist natural resource managers in implementing scientifically backed and efficient conservation efforts (Halme et al., 2017). Forests are key habitats for biodiversity; they are also necessary for the supply of a variety of ecological services essential to human well-being (Brockerhoff et al., 2017). Fungi are a significant component of forest biodiversity, representing a tremendous variety of species that are crucial to the overall functioning of forest ecosystems (Boddy et al., 2014). Fungi are important decomposers, mutualists, and parasites in forests, contributing to nutrient cycling, providing food for animals, and creating habitat variety for many forest creatures (Heilmann Clausen et al., 2015). As a result, understanding the variety, composition, and viability of fungal species is critical for more effective forest preservation and conservation efforts, as well as environmental policy and 41 2022 Research in Mycology management. Tomao et al. (2020) have conducted a detailed evaluation of the impact of various forest management practises on several fungal trophic groups. They show that forest management practises may impact macrofungi occurrence and production, both favourably and adversely, depending on forest type and management regime, as well as unique fungal ecological needs or reproductive methods. Despite several research on the impacts of management on the forest mycobiome, only a few have addressed how fungi with various trophic behaviours recover from natural and human disturbances and produce structural traits characteristic of unmanaged old-growth forests (Kujawska et al., 2021). An important conservation project that we investigated in this work is the identification of protected areas, such as forest reserves, and the assessment of their fungal diversity in contrast to managed forest (Paillet et al., 2015). High-throughput DNA sequencing has recently been used to estimate fungal diversity; it has revolutionised fungal taxonomy and ecology (Orgiazzi et al., 2015), frequently supplanting older methodologies based on visual observation of macrofungi. However, while next generation sequencing techniques are a valuable source of information for taxonomic, phylogenetic, and ecological research, they do not reflect the complete species composition of a sample (Tedersoo et al., 2016), and traditional field inventories and specimen-based approaches used with macrofungi produce good results for full assemblages, including rare species (Frslev et al., 2019). The forest mixed community covers a large region of the Eastern Ghats as well as central and eastern Tamil Nadu. The species richness and composition of fungal communities from distinct trophic groups that respond differentially to vegetation were compared in this location. 42 2022 Research in Mycology Physio-geographical of Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu (8°05 ′ -13°35 ′ N and 76°15 ′ -80°20 ′ E) contains 22,877 km2 of forest cover, accounting for 18% of the state (Fig. 1). Less than 10% of land is classified as a "protected area," which includes national parks and animal sanctuaries, which get higher governmental protection than reserved forests. The restricted forests (19,459 km2) and unclassified woods (1,266 km2) cover the most acreage in Tamil Nadu (Forest Survey of India, 2011). Figure 1. Forest types of Tamil Nadu (Honnavalli et al., 2015) The state is differentiated physio geographically by three features: coastal plains along the east coast, the Western Ghats Mountain range along the west coast, and the Eastern Ghats Mountain range 43 2022 Research in Mycology along the east coast. The position and extent of these prominent landforms largely dictate the pattern of forest cover in the state, and the state's vegetation profile is classified into five terrestrial ecoregions: montane rain forests and moist deciduous forests of the Western Ghats in north- and south-western Tamil Nadu, South Deccan dry deciduous forests in south-central Tamil Nadu, Deccan thorn scrub forests in central and northern Tamil Nadu, and East Deccan dry evergreen forests in eastern Tamil Nadu. (Myers, 2003; Mittermeier et al., 2004). The Western Ghats Mountain ranges are designated as a global biodiversity hotspot. As a result, wet forests in this region are relatively well protected, whereas dry forests in the Eastern Ghats and central and eastern Tamil Nadu are less well protected and subject to high anthropogenic pressures such as non-timber forest product collection, bamboo harvesting, livestock grazing, and slash-and-burn agriculture (Rawat, 1997; Jayakumar et al., 2009). Ecology of Mushrooms Fungi evolved in close connection with plants and habitat types in a wide range of environments. Many mycologists believe that the loss of adequate habitat is the most serious concern to fungal conservation (Watling, 2005). Fungi's biological environment requirements include relationships with host plants for mycorrhizae and various sorts of plant detritus for saprotrophs (Ishida et al., 2007). These connections can be highly specialised, with a fungus species being able to develop mycorrhizae or utilise the substrate of a single plant type (Watling, 1997). Because many species require habitat of a certain maturity, older stands of the same plant community may include more ECM fungus (Nara et al., 2003). Changes in the amount or chemical composition of leaf litter caused by anthropogenic habitat changes will have an impact on fungus, as this is a main substrate for many species (Carreiro, 44 2022 Research in Mycology 2005). Furthermore, species of wood-decaying fungus may require a specific quantity of dead logs of proper size and decay stage to preserve species diversity and long-term population survival (Bader et al., 1995). Earthworms lowered the organic layer of the soil and enhanced nitrification and mineralization, which may have influenced fungus. Although there appears to be no direct research on the problem in urban settings, changes in soil fauna may promote fungivore. Another effect of changes in urban flora might be the loss or restriction of myco-phagous species migration. International conservation of fungi Conservation efforts are often carried out on a local or national scale, although they are impacted by international agreements and ranking lists. However, the long-term survival of species is dependent on a continuum of habitats at suitable spatiotemporal scales rather than on country boundaries. This is especially true for mushrooms, which are excellent dispersers with frequently large but scattered populations. As a result, conservation value at the regional, continental, or ideally global scale is frequently employed to identify and establish national priorities. The IUCN Red List is a worldwide and European organisation. Many different types of creatures have red lists. Naturally, these lists, and the resulting conservation priorities, favour well-known groupings of species. The worldwide Red List includes about 45,000 species, 26,000 of which are vertebrates. In contrast, there are just three fungi listed: two lichens and the Sicilian endemic Pleurotus nebrodensis (IUCN 2009). The shockingly low number of listed fungi is due to the fact that the worldwide Red List is not systematically coordinated to examine all groupings of species, but rather is undertaken based on the interests, initiatives, and resources of people or organisations. Fungi are not mentioned in any international accords, which might explain why they have been 45 2022 Research in Mycology overlooked. However, the implementation only covers species specified in the Bern Convention, which number around 1000 species, mostly vertebrates and vascular plants, with a few mosses and insects but no fungi. Fungi are among the designated species to be monitored in some nations, notably in specific forest and semi-natural grassland types (European Commission 2006). Because fungi are not specifically mentioned in the Bern Convention, many species with specific needs, as well as key fungi habitats, such as waxcap grasslands and ectomycorrhizal fungus hotspots in forests, may be neglected. The scale of habitat required by a specific fungus may be neglected; for example, a forest type may be protected, but not necessarily the exact age and amount of dead wood required by the fungus. The literature reports low to high congruence between the biodiversity values of different groups of species (Wolters et al., 2006). For example, fungi have been reported to have both a low and high congruence with the diversity of plants in forest ecosystems (Saetersdal et al., 2004; Humphrey et al., 2000) and a low congruence in seminatural grasslands (Oster, 2008). Macro-fungi richness and community pattern Fungi can be categorized taxonomically or according to their functional functions. The most recent categorization systems comprise six phyla and four unplaced subphyla, with five major groups: Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Glomeromycota (Hibbett et al., 2007; James et al., 2006). Fungi's functional roles regularly traverse species boundaries. The contrast between saprotrophic and mycorrhizal fungi is critical. Saprotrophs obtain energy and nutrients from plant and animal waste or dead tissue. Mycorrhizal fungi create mutualistic relationships with phototrophic organisms, acquiring carbohydrates directly from their live plant partner in return for 46 2022 Research in Mycology nutrients (Smith and Read, 1997). Another distinction between macrofungi and microfungi is formed based on the visibility of fungal fruiting structures. Regardless of classification, all fungi are heterotrophic, which means they rely on and are closely interwoven with the biota with which they form communities. People gather wild edible mushrooms as a leisure activity and a source of sustenance for many different ethnic groups and nationalities. In 110 countries, over 1000 edible mushroom species are recognized (Boa, 2004). Lentinula edoles and Ganoderma lucidum have been utilized in Chinese medicine for a long time (Hudler, 1998). For their mind-altering qualities, psychoactive mushrooms are gathered and consumed (Wasson et al., 1986). Wild mushrooms, many of which cannot be grown, are picked for sale in some areas. This may stimulate the preservation of forest resources in areas where mushrooms are found (Arora, 2001). Diversity of Macrofungi From Cauvery Delta Region of Tami Nadu, total of 35 mushroom species in 23 genera and 15 families were identified in the region, with Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Pezizomycotina composing the species (Table 1). 23 of 35 mushrooms were recognised to the genus level. The family Agaricaceae has the most species variety (7 species), followed by Ganodermataceae (6 species), Schizophyllaceae (3 species), and Xylariaceae (3 species). The families Lycophyllaceae, Polyporaceae, Marasmiaceae, Psathyrellaceae, and Strophariaceae each had two species. The families Auriculariaceae, Botetaceae, Fornitopsidaceae, Mycenaceae, Tremellaceae, and Tricholomataceae have the least diversity. Boletus, Ganoderma, Leucoagaricus, Mycenea, Schizophyllum, Xylaria, and other genera were recorded. Overall, 35 mushroom species have been found, of which 9 are edible, 7 are edible and medicinal, 6 are exclusively medicinal, 6 are inedible 47 2022 Research in Mycology but therapeutic, and 3 are usually regarded edible or mildly toxic (Venkatesan and Arun, 2019). Furthermore, one species is employed in industry, and another unknown species was discovered. Basidiomycota has over 30,000 known species, accounting for 37% of the genuine fungi identified by Kirk et al. (2001). Several naturally occurring therapeutic mushrooms have been identified in Tamil Nadu's Western Ghats' Walayar Valley (Venkatachalapathi and Paulsamy, 2016). A total of 30 mushroom species are classified into 23 genera and 15 families. The groups Agaricaceae (5 species), Pleurotaceae (4 species), Polyporaceae (4 species), Tricholomataceae (3 species), and Lyophyllaceae (3 species) were dominating in terms of species contribution. Other families with fewer than one or two species included Sclerodermataceae (2 species), Russulaceae (1 species), Hygrophoraceae (1 species), Ganodermataceae (1 species), Coriolaceae (1 species), Clavulinaceae (1 species), Lycoperdaceae (1 species), Pluteaceae (1 species), Auriculariaceae (1 species), and Marasmiaceae (1 species). When these mushroom species are accessible, the Irula tribal population in that region uses them all. This large variety of mushroom species might be attributed to the presence of several types of plants and diverse microclimatic locations. This includes Auricularia auricula, Agaricus augustus, A. bisporus, A. campestris, A. heterocystis, Bovista nigrescens, Clavulina rugosa, Clitocybe nuda, Coprinus sp., Ganoderma lucidum, Hygrocybe sp., Lentinus sajor–caju, Marasmius androsaceus, Melanoleuca grammopodia, Mycena galericulata, Pisolithus arhizus, Pleurotus ostreatus, P. sajor–caju, P. Sapidus, Russula fragilis, Scleroderma citrinum, Termitomyces heimii, T. microcarpus, Trametes versicolor and Volvariella speciosa. 48 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 Table 1. Diversity of Macrofungi in Tamil Nadu, India Order Family Botanical Name Habitat of growth Agaricales Agaricaceae Agaricus augustus Deciduous woods Leucoagaricus leucothites Leucocoprinus brinbaumii Leucocoprinus cepaestipes Macrolepiota procera Gardens and parks A. bisporus Grassy places A. campestris Wood A. heterocystis Grassy places Macrolepiota Sp Grassland Bovista nigrescens Pasteureland Coprinus sp Buried wood or in grass Podaxis pisltillaris Dry sides of the islands Xanthagaricus Sp Wood debris Marasmilleus ramealis Deciduous hardwood trees Marasmius cladophyllus Deciduous hardwood trees T. microcarpus Roots of bamboo Marasimaceae Lyophyllaceae Wood debris Wood debris Woodland Termitomyces heimii White ant hill Schizophyllaceae Schizophyllum commune Decaying trees Hygrophoraceae Hygrocybe sp. Tree trunks or logs Pleurotaceae P. sajor–caju Hardwoods P. sapidus On hardwood trees Pleurotus pulmonarius Hardwoods Pluteaceae Volvariella speciosa Gardens and grassy fields Mycenaceae Mycena haematopus Stumps and well logs Omphalotaceae Omphalotus olearius Decaying stumps Lyophyllaceae Calocybe indica Evergreen forests Cyphellaceae Old stumps and dead wood Tricholomataceae Chondrostereum purpureum Clitocybe nuda Psathyrellaceae Coprinellus sp Rotting hardwood tree 49 Decaying leaf litter Research in Mycology Polyporales 2022 Soil Amanitaceae Cystoagaricus trisulphuratus Amanita muscaria Tricholomataceae Trichlomopsis rutilans Coniferous woodlands Tricholoma fulvum Birch-trees. Polyporus cinnabarinus Dead wood Cerioporus squamosus Dead hardwood trees. Microporus affinis Tropical rainforest Microporus xanthopus Dead wood. Polyporous pynosporus Fallen tree trunks. Polyporous spp. Growing on dead wood Cellulariella acuta Deadwood Trametes hirsuta Dead wood of deciduous Trametes versicolor Hardwood Polyporus alreolaris Dead hard wood Cryptoporus volvatus Deadwood L. squarrosulus Cashew nut tree Daedalea flavida Coniferous forests Daedaleopsis confragosa Hexagonia hydnoides Hardwoods Lentinus sajor–caju Dead wood Fomes excavates Woods Fomes fasciatus Hardwoods Polyporaceae Beechwood Decaying dead wood tissues Polyporus cinnabarinus Dead wood Meruliaceae Phlebia tremellosa Steccherinum ochraceum Hardwood and conifer plants. Wood Ganodermataceae Ganoderma adspersum Trunks of living trees Ganoderma applanatum Dead trees Ganoderma lipsiense Dead trees Ganoderma lucidum Stumps of deciduous trees Laetiporus sulphureus Trunk of a tree Fomitopsis spraguei Hardwood logs. Fibroporia radiculosa Decayed wood Bjerkandera adusta Deadwood Fomitopsidaceae Meruliaceae 50 Research in Mycology Hymenochaetales Phanerochaetaceae Byssomerulius corium Clusters trees. Hymenochaetaceae Inonotus dryadeus Base of oak trees Phellinus gilvus Wood Phellinus populicola Wood Phellinus robiniae Wood Phellinus sarcites Wood Phellinus tremullae Wood 2022 Tropicoporus linteus Wood Boletaceae Boletus edulis Deciduous forests Sclerodermataceae Pisolithus arhizus Symbiotic trees Scleroderma citrinum Woods and in short grass Clavariadelphus truncates Ramaria stricta Coniferous forests Russulaceae Russula delica Birch Stereaceae Stereum rugosum Deadwood Amylostereaceae Artomyces pyxidatus Growing wood Geastrales Geastraceae Geastrum saccatum Hawaiian dry forests. Auriculariales Auriculariaceae Auricularia auricular Upon wood of deciduous Gloeophyllales Gloeophyllaceae Gloeophyllum abietnum Decorticated conifer stumps Tremellales Tramellaceae Tramelea foliacea Dead fallen branches Thelephorales Bankeraceae Phellodon tomentosus ground with conifers Dacrymycetales Dacrymycetaceae Dacrymyces stillatus Wood Boletales Gomphales Russulales Gomphaceae Grows on dead wood The diversity and distribution of indigenous macrofungi in Tamil Nadu's Courtallum Hills (Bagyalakshmi et al., 2016). A total of 65 wild macrofungal species were gathered from eight distinct sites in the Courtallum Hills research region. Based on microscopic characteristics and resemblances, the mushrooms were named Cookeina tricholoma, Daldenia concentrica, Lycoperdon sp., Phellodon tomentosus, Polyporus sp., Microporus sp., Schizophyllum commune, Stemonitis axifera, Tramelea foliacea, Tricholoma fulvum, Trichlomopsis rutilans, Marasmilleus 51 Research in Mycology ramealis, Amanita muscaria, Scleroderma citrinum, Ramaria stricta, Clavariadelphus truncates, Ganoderma lucidum, Microporus xanthopus, and Polyporous pynosporus was the most numerous of these twenty species during the rainy season, whereas Ganoderma lucidum was the most plentiful during the early dry season. The study determined that macrofungal diversity in the Courtallum Region is in danger of extinction and that conservation measures are needed, particularly for edible and medicinal species. From the Chitteri Hills in Tamil Nadu's Eastern Ghats, a total of 40 species from 18 families were gathered (Meenakshi and Selvam, 2020). Eleven genera were allocated to the family Polyporaceae, seven to Hymenochaetaceae, three to Meruliaceae and Ganodermataceae, and two to Dacrymycetaceae and Agaricaceae. There is just one species in each of the following families: Cyphellaceae, Pleurotaceae, Mycenaceae, Omphalotaceae, Geastraceae, Xylariaceae, Amylostereaceae, Stereaceae, Gloeophyllaceae, Fomitopsidaceae, Phanerochaetaceae, and Fomitopsidaceae. Phylum Basidiomycota, Sub-division Agaricomycotina, Class Agaricomycetes, Sub-class Agaricomyceidae, Order Agaricales consists of five families and represents six species, namely Chondrostereum purpureum, Pleurotus pulmonarius, Mycena haematopus, Leucocoprinus cepaestipes, Leucocoprinus cretaceous, Omphalotus olearius, Sub-class Phallomycetidae Order Geastrales, Family Geastraceae and species Geastrum saccatum. The Phyllum Basidiomycota, Sub-Division Basidiomycotina, Class Dacrymycetes confirm the presence of two species, namely Dacrymyces stillatus and Dacryopinax elegans. One species of Xylaria symploci was identified in Phyllum Ascomycota, Subdivision Pezizimycotina, Class Sordariomycetes, Subclass Xylariomycetidae, Order Xylariales was reported from the family Xylariaceae. The Class Agaricomycetes comprises four orders and ten families. Thirty 52 2022 Research in Mycology fungal species were identified in the Chitteri Hills of Tamil Nadu's Eastern Ghats. Conclusion The success or failure of ecological and environmental preservation is inextricably linked to the nature of economic structure and growth. Efforts to conserve biodiversity must be organically interwoven with long-term development goals. Tamil Nadu may be regarded as a promising environment for wild mushrooms due to its greater diversity of edible mushroom species. Tribals have employed these mushrooms as ethnomedicine to cure a variety of ailments. Many mushrooms are yet undocumented, and we are unaware of their nutritional and physiological benefits. Some of them, if identified, may have significant nutritional value and serve as valuable sources of bioactive chemicals with several therapeutic uses. As a result, species-specific cultivation techniques should be created in order to commercialize and thereby conserve the species. These results indicated that, in addition to their medicinal and nutritional potential, wild mushroom species play a significant role in forest health maintenance. As a result, it is critical to investigate, document, and maintain this natural treasure. Conservation can also be accomplished through agriculture, the establishment of national parks and forest reserve areas, and the reduction of illegal wood cutting. References 1. Arora, D. (2001). Wild mushrooms and rural economies. In: Moore, D., Nauta, M.M., Evans, S.E., Rothereoe, M.S. (Eds.), Fungal Conservation: Issues and Solutions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 53 2022 Research in Mycology 2. Bader, P., Jansson, S., Jonsson, B.G. (1995). 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Saetersdal M, Gjerde I, Blom HH, Ihlen PG, Myrseth EW, Pommeresche R, Skartveit J, Solhoy T, Aas O, 2004. Vascular plants as a surrogate species group in complementary site selection for bryophytes, macrolichens, spiders, carabids, staphylinids, snails, and wood living polypore fungi in a northern forest. Biological Conservation, 115, 21–31. 32. Smith, S.E., Read, D.J. (1997). Mycorrhizal Symbiosis. Academic Press, San Diego. 33. Tedersoo, L., Bahram, M., Cajthaml, T., Polme, ˜ S., Hiiesalu, I., Anslan, S., Harend, H., Buegger, F., Pritsch, K., Koricheva, J., Abarenkov, K. (2016). Tree diversity and species identity effects on soil fungi, protists and animals are context dependent. The ISME Journal, 10, 346–362. 34. Tomao, A., Antonio Bonet, J., Castano, ˜ C., De-Miguel, S. (2020). How does forest management affect fungal diversity 57 2022 Research in Mycology and community composition? Current knowledge and future perspectives for the conservation of forest fungi. Forest Ecology and Management, 457, 117678. 35. Venkatachalapathi A and Paulsamy S. (2016). Exploration of wild medicinal mushroom species in Walayar valley, the Southern Western Ghats of Coimbatore District Tamil Nadu. Mycosphere, 7(2), 118–130. 36. Venkatesan G and Arun G. (2019). A study on the diversity of mushrooms from Cauvery Delta Region, Tamil Nadu, India. Global Scientific Journal, 7(3), 873-882. 37. Wasson, R.G., Kramricsch, S., Ott, J., Ruck, C.A.P. (1986). Persephone’s Quest. Yale University Press, New Haven. 38. Watling, R. (1997). Pulling the threads together: habitat diversity. Biodiversity and Conservation, 6, 753–763. 39. Watling, R. (2005). Fungal conservation: some impressions—a personal view. In: Dighton, J., White, J.F., Oudemans, P. (Eds.), The Fungal Community: Its Organisation and Role in the Ecosystem. CRC Press, Boca Raton. 40. Wikramanayake E, Dinerstein E, Loucks C, Olson D, Morrison J, Lamoreux J, McKnight M, Hedao P. (2001). Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: A Conservation Assessment. Washington, Island Press. 41. Wolters V, Bengtsson J, Zaitsev AS. (2006). Relationships among species richness of different taxa. Ecology, 87, 1886– 1995. *** 58 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 CHAPTER Morphology and General Characteristics of Fungi 06 Nidhi Singh, Ashma Ajeej and Neha Tiwari Introduction The name fungus was derived from the Greek word ‘mykes’ meaning mushroom (type of edible fungus). Mycology means study of fungi, a group which includes mushrooms and yeasts (Sastry, 2019). Many fungi are useful in medicine and industry too. Mycological research has led to the development of such antibiotic drugs like penicillin, streptomycin, and tetracycline, additionally other drugs, including statins (cholesterol-lowering drugs). Mycology also has an important application in the dairy, wine, and baking industries as well as in the production of dyes and inks. Medical mycology is the branch that deals with the study of medically important fungi (Sastry,2019). A fungus (plural: fungi) is a kind of eukaryotic organism which belongs to the kingdom Fungi, alongside plants, animals, protozoa, and Monera. Fungi are incredibly diverse, with commonly encountered forms including yeast, molds, truffles, and mushrooms. Most of the fungi are microscopic, consisting threadlike structures less than 10 µm in diameter named hyphae. These branching structures grow into a root-like vegetative mass named a mycelium, which acts to absorb nutrients from the environment 59 Research in Mycology rather than relying on photosynthesis. A wide variety of nutrient sources are utilized by fungi, from soil and water to decaying matter and other living organisms. Parasitic fungi that commandeer nutrients from plant hosts utilize specialized hyphal structures that allow them to penetrate host cells. Fungus cells bear a cell wall, which unlike the cell wall in plant or bacterial cells is composed largely of chitin, the same molecule used in the exoskeleton of crustaceans and insects. Basic Difference Between Fungi and Bacteria BACTERIA FUNGI Definition Microscopic, Eukaryotic, Unicellular, Multicellular, the cell Prokaryotic, the cell structure is structure is rather complicated simple Producers/Decomposers Can be both Fungi are typically producers decomposers (chemosynthetic bacteria, photosynthetic bacteria) and decomposers (Soil bacteria) Features • Cell organelles • Cell organelles are absent are present • Nucleus is absent • Nucleus is present • Cell wall is made • Cell wall is made of peptidoglycan of chitin 60 2022 Research in Mycology pH environment for best growth Neutral pH value Slightly acidic where (6.5-7.0) pH is 4-6 Shape/structure 3 different shapes Mostly thread-like structures known as • Round – hyphae but vary in cocci shapes • Spiral – Spirella • Rod – Bacilli Reproduction Asexual (binary Either sexual or fission) asexual Locomotion Flagellum Non-motile Fig.1. Difference between bacterial cell and fungal cell. 61 2022 Research in Mycology CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI Broadly classified into 2 groups: MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATIONS According to their morphological appearance there are 4 main groups of fungi is present. They are as follows: YEAST Shape – round to oval Reproduction- asexual process (Budding) Budding is a process in which cells form protuberances which enlarge and then eventually separate from the parent cells (Sastry, 2019). For Examples • Cryptococcus neoformans (pathogenic) • Saccharomyces cerevisiae (non-pathogenic). YEAST-LIKE There are some yeasts (e.g. Candida), in which bud remains attached to the mother cell, elongates and undergoes repeated budding to form chains of elongated cells which is commonly known as pseudo hyphae. These pseudo hyphae can be differentiated from true hyphae as they have constrictions at the septa (Sastry, 2019). MOLDS Molds grow as long branching filaments of 2-10 µm width called hyphae. • These hyphae are either septate (i.e., form transverse walls) or non-septate (there are no transverse walls and they are multinucleated, i.e. coenocytic) • These hyphae grow continuously and form a branching tangled mass of growth called mycelium (Baveja, 2021). MYCELIUM According to their growth on culture medium it is categorized into two parts: 62 2022 Research in Mycology • Aerial mycelium: It is the part of the mycelium which projects above the surface of culture medium. • Vegetative mycelium: It is the part of the mycelium that grows on the surface of the culture medium. Molds usually reproduce by formation of different kinds of sexual and asexual spores. Some examples of true molds are as followsDermatophytes, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Mucor, etc (Sastry, 2019). Fig.2. Morphological Classification of Fungi DIMORPHIC FUNGI Fungi which exist in both as molds (hyphal form) in the environment at ambient temperature (25°C) and as yeasts in human tissues at body temperature (37°C) (Baveja, 2021). There are some medically important fungi which are thermally dimorphic such as: 63 2022 Research in Mycology • Histoplasma capsulatum • Blastomyces dermatitidis • Coccidioides immitis • Paracoccidioides brasiliensis • Penicillium marnejfei • Sporothrix schenckii. TAXONOMIAL CLASSIFICATION According to their production of sexual spores, fungi has been classified into four different phyla. These are as follows: Phylum Zygomycota: commonly known as lower fungi, it is generally composed of the organisms that are characterized by the formation of wide ribbon-like aseptate hyaline hyphae (coenocytic hyphae) and sexual reproduction with the formation of zygospores. Phylum zygomycota is further divided into two classes, the Trichomycetes, which are obligate symbionts of arthropods and contain no human pathogens (Alexopoulos C J, 1996), and the Zygomycetes, the class containing the human pathogens. This class is subdivided into two orders, which contain the agents of human zygomycosis, the Mucorales and Entomophthorales (K J, 1992). Phylum Ascomycota: The Ascomycota, commonly known as Ascomycetes, it represents a phylum within the kingdom of Fungi, which are non-mobile, cellular organisms, whose structure is usually composed by threads called hyphae. They produce sexual spores known as ascospores and possess septate hyphae. They are different from the Basidiomycota by the organ generating spores known as ascus e.g. Aspergillus (Wijayawardene N.N. et al. 2017). Phylum Basidiomycota: They produce sexual spores called basidiospore that are typically borne, exogenously, on hornlike sterigmata (sing.=sterigma) of basidia (sing.=basidium) e.g. Cryptococcus (Whittaker,1969). 64 2022 Research in Mycology Phylum Deuteromycota (Fungi imperfecti): In case of fungi imperfecti sexual state is either absent or unidentified yet, i.e. why they are traditionally grouped as deuteromycota (Sastry, 2019). Most of them have a well-developed, septate mycelium with distinct conidiophores but some have a unicellular thallus. Except one group, all the members reproduce by means of special spores known as conidia. Some imperfect fungi lack conidia and form only sclerotia. There is a tremendous variety of morphologically different conidia produced in the form- phylum Deuteromycota. these Conidia may be spherical, ovoid, elongated, star-shaped and so on. They may be single-celled to multi-celled, with either transverse septa or both transverse and longitudinal septa. Additionally, conidia may be hyaline or coloured. Some members of this group are mostly saprobes, but some are parasitic on plants and animals, including man. Classification of Fungal Diseases Fungal Infections is known as Mycoses. More than 25,000 species of fungus are known. In which most of them are decaying plant materials and saprophytes in soil. Mycoses can be classified into following clinical types: Fungal diseases Superficial mycoses Tinea versicolor Tinea nigra Area involved Agents Superficial layer of skin Palm and sole Malassezia furfur Hortaea wreneckii 65 2022 Research in Mycology Dermatophytes Skin, hair & nail Trichophyton Microsporum Epidermophyton Subcutaneous mycoses Mycetoma Skin & Madurella subcutaneous mycetomatis, tissue Pseudallescheria boydii Sporotrichosis Skin Sporothrix schenckii Chromoblastomycosis Skin & Phialophora subcutaneous verrucose, tissue Fonsecaea pedrosoi Rhinosporidiosis Nose, Rhinosporidium conjunctiva seeberi Phaeohyphomycosis Frontal lobe Alternaria sps, Bipolaris sps, Curvularia sps Superficial mycoses: These fungal infections are strictly surface infections that involves hair, skin, nail and mucosa. Surface infections include Tinea versicolor, Tinea nigra, Piedra. Cutaneous infections include Dermatophytes (Sastry,2019). Opportunistic mycoses: Patients with immune deficiencies mainly develop opportunistic mycoses. These diseases arise from the endogenous microbial flora. They can cause life threatening situations in the compromised host. They act as human pathogen in low immunity in presence of opportunities (Baveja, 2021). 66 2022 Research in Mycology FUNGAL TOXINS Toxins produced by fungus is known as Mycotoxins. Mycotoxicosis is the disease induced by consumption of contaminated food by the fungal toxins (Bhatia, 2008). These are the following mycotoxin and mycotoxin producing fungi: Mycotoxins Alfatoxin Ascladiol Ergot alkaloid Fumigation Ochratoxin Muscarine Sciepenols Penicillic acid Rubratoxin B Cyclopeptide Ibotenic acid Mycotoxins producing Fungi Aspergillus flavus, A.parasiticus A.clavatus Claviceps species Aspergillus fumigatus Aspergillus ochraceus Amanita muscaria Fusarium nivale Penicillium puberulum Penicillium rubrum Amanita phalloides Amanita pantherine When fungus itself causes toxic effects, it is known as Mycetism. The effects are produced by eating poisonous fungi, like varieties of poisonous mushrooms that are inedible (Baveja, 2021). LAB DIAGNOSIS OF FUNGAL DISEASES Specimen collection: Collection of specimen depends on the site of infection e.g., skin scraping, nail, hair, sputum, etc. Blood sample and Cerebrospinal fluid may also be collected (Maccartney, 2007). Microscopy: 67 2022 Research in Mycology Potassium hydroxide (KOH) Preparation: 10% KOH is used for skin scrapings and plucked hair samples. Whereas, 20-40% KOH is needed for nail specimens because its take longer time to digests the keratin. 10% glycerol is also added to prevent drying (Maccartney, 2007). • Gram staining: Used for identification of yeast and yeast like fungi. • Calcofluor white stain: Most sensitive stain. It binds to chitin & cellulose of cell wall of fungi. • India ink and Nigrosin stains: Used as negative stains. • Lactophenol cotton blue (LPCB): Most simple staining used for fungal isolates. Used for the microscopic appearance of the isolates in culture (Maccartney, 2007). • Periodic acid Schiff (PAS) stain • Gomori methenamine silver (GMS) stain • Masson fontana • Mucicarmine stain Culture Media: ▪ Sabouraud’s dextrose agar: It is the most commonly used medium. It includes• 1% peptone • 4% dextrose • pH5.6 ▪ Corn meal agar and rice starch agar ▪ Brain heart infusion agar ▪ Blood agar ▪ Niger seed agar and bird seed agar ▪ CHRO Magar Colony Appearance: • Growth rate: Rapid growth (<5 days) and slow growth (14 weeks) 68 2022 Research in Mycology • Texture: Glabrous, velvety, yeast like, cottony, granular, powdery • Pigmentation: Seen on the reverse side of the culture media e.g. white, buff, purple etc. • Colony topography: Rugose, folded, verrucose, cerebriform • Opacity: Transparent(clear), opaque, translucent, look like through frosted glass Colonies of yeast are very similar to bacterial colonies. Moulds have edges, usually they turn into different colour, from the centre outwards. Serological test: ▪ Antibody detected by ELISA, agglutination test, immunodiffusion test and complement fixation test. ▪ Antigen detected by latex agglutination test. Molecular methods: ▪ Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) ▪ DNA sequencing References 1. Alexopoulos C J, Mims C W, Blackwell M. Introductory mycology. 4th ed. New York, N.Y: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 1996. pp. 127–171. 2. Apurba S Sastry, Sandhya Bhat (2019). Essentials of medical microbiology (second edition). Jaypee brothers’ medical publishers. 3. C P Baveja, V Baveja (2021). Complete microbiology for MBBS (seventh edition). Avichal publishing company. 4. Kwon-Chung K J, Bennett J E. Medical mycology. Philadelphia, Pa: Lea & Febiger; 1992. pp. 3–34. 5. Mackie & Mccartney 2007. Practical medical microbiology. Elsevier. 69 2022 Research in Mycology 6. Rajesh Bhatia, R.L.Ichhpujani (2008). Essentials of medical microbiology (fourth edition). Jaypee brothers’ medical publishers. 7. Whittaker, R.H. 1969. New concepts of kingdoms of organisms. Science 163: 150-161. 8. Wijayawardene N.N. et al. 2017. Notes for genera: Ascomycota. Fungal Diversity, 86 (1): 1-594. doi: 10.1007/s13225-017-0386-0. *** 70 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 CHAPTER Parasitic Fungal Disease 07 Dr. Farzana Tasneem, Mr. Vinod T and Mr. Sudeep Introduction There are about two million species of organisms on Earth of which fungi make up about 70000 species and many more are waiting to be discovered. Hawksworth (1991) estimated that there are about 15 million species of fungi in the world. Fungi are ubiquitous versatile eukaryotes due to their well-known adaptability to any imaginable environment. Fungi live outdoors in soil and on plants and trees as well as on many indoor surfaces and on human skin. Most fungi are not dangerous, but some types can be harmful to health. Some of the infection lies in tropical and subtropical areas of the world.US the Pacific Northwest and British Columbia. The host/immune requirements are incompletely understood and remain a challenge for research. General characteristics of fungi: Fungi are non-motile and heterotrophic eukaryotic. They are bi or multinucleated with nuclear membranes They cannot make their own food They lack chlorophyll. They depend on living or dead organisms for their food. Nutrition is based on the method of separation of nutritional groups of fungi. 71 Research in Mycology Parasites get their food from living hosts. They produce special structures called haustoria that help control feeding inside the host cell. They can be unicellular or filamentous. they consist of small filamentous structures called hyphae that exhibit apical growth and form a branch of hyphae called the mycelial tip. The cell wall is made of chitin which is called fungal cellulose and the somatic body of fungi is thalli. Bacteria are unicellular in the lesser fungal form. Fungal Diseases: Wart disease of potato, White Rust of crucifers, Late blight of Potato, Blast Disease of Rice, Red Rot of Sugarcane, Grey Blight Disease of Tea. 1. WART DISEASE OF POTATO Host: (Potato) Solanum tuberosum Pathogen: Synchytrium endobioticum Mode of Infection: Belowground quantities of the potato plant are regularly inflamed with the aid of using the potato wart pathogen. (Basim H et al., 2005; Bojnansky V et al., 1984; Hampson M C et al., 1995). Meristematic tissues are converted into huge warty galls at the decreased stems and tubers. The diagnostic signs of potato wart are galls produced on numerous plant parts. Symptoms: Symptoms of the disease appear only in the underground parts of the plant except for the roots. The verrucous growths vary in size from small protrusions to large complex branching systems. They are green or greenish-white when exposed to light at the beginning of the growing season but are creamy or black in the underground part. Mice on tubers are usually larger than those covering the entire tuber. In advanced stages, warts are dark black and may sometimes be attacked by saprophytic fungi. Warts are usually malformed spreading 72 2022 Research in Mycology branching structures that grow together in a mass of hypertrophic tissue. Control Measures:The disease can be largely controlled by soil treatment. These include steam sterilization and the application of mercuric chloride and cupric chloride 5% formalin. 2. WHITE RUST OF CRUCIFERS also called as white blisters (Ervin H Barnes, 1979) Host: Members of family Cruciferae like Brassica sp, Raphanus sativus, Eruca sativa. Pathogen: Albugo candida. Mode of infection: - White rust is because by a fungus that overwinters in midwestern soils as thick-walled, weather-resistant spores. The overwintering spores germinate withinside the spring and infect younger seedlings. As sickness improvement progresses, the pathogen produces different spores in pustules on the floor of leaves. (Govindh Singh et al., 2014). Symptoms: The disease affects all aerial parts of the plant the roots are not affected. Two types of infection can cause symptoms: local and systemic. In case of localized infection scattered spots or blisters appear on the leaves or stems or flowers. Pimples vary in size from 1-2 mm in diameter and develop in a shiny white area. Control Measures: The disease may be controlled by the following methods: Clean planting and weeding should be 73 2022 Research in Mycology practiced, Crop rotation avoids soil-based primary inoculation, and spraying with 0.8 % Bordeaux mixture or Dithane M-45 (0.2%) may be undertaken to check the spread of the disease. 3. LATE BLIGHT OF POTATO Host: (Potato) Solanum tuberosum. Pathogen: Phytophthora infections (D Arcy, C J and D M Eastburn, 2000; Bourke PMA, 1964; Folsom and Bonds, 1925; Nagarkote, 1971; Mathur Singh et al., 1971). Mode of infection: The pathogen may be transmitted from inflamed seed tubers to newly rising potato plants, wherein it produces airborne spores which could pass to neighbouring plants. The overdue blight pathogen is desired with the aid of using unfastened moisture and funky to mild. symptoms: Bright green or yellow blisters appear on the leaves. Brown and black lesions appear on the lower leaves. Growth of air bubbles (drought) and blue-grey mycelium (wet weather). Later the leaves on the tree also fell off and rotted. There are two types of tuber rotting: Dry rot: A bluish-black and reddish-brown fungus that develops on the outside and inside of potato tubers. P. Infection causes tuber rot to a depth of 5-15 mm. Downy Mildew: Potato tubers develop white colonies on the outside and ooze water. P. The infection can be said to cause rot as deep as 24-45 mm in the tuber or to attack the entire potato. 74 2022 Research in Mycology Control Measures: The disease may be controlled by the following methods: We should use healthy or resistant seeds like Kufri Amankar. Plant waste must be cleaned up to maintain the hygiene of the farm. A periodic foliar drying spray irrigation technique should be used to control late blight. Post-harvest and pre-harvest application of phosphoric acid to potatoes reduces the risk. Potatoes should be harvested in the dry season. 15 days before harvesting the upper part of the plant must be removed. The soil should be 10-15 cm. Deep. Nitrogen-fixing fertilizers should be used with caution. Seeds should be treated with 5% Ridomil and 1 kg of Goff powder. Keeping seeds at a temperature of 35-44°C is the main reason for storing seeds to reduce the risk of infection. Pollution sources such as weeds and polluted pipes should be avoided. Foliar fungicides can also be used to control late blight. 4. BLAST DISEASE OF RICE Host: Rice Paddy (Oryza sativa). Pathogen: Magnaporthe oryzae. Mode of Infection: Orizae, which overwinters in rice seeds and infected rice stubble. The fungus reproductive structures, spores, can spread from these two sources to rice plants during the next growing season and initiate new infections (GOI 2019-2020). Symptoms: Al underground parts of the plant can be attacked by the fungus at all stages of growth. However, plowing quickly after planting is sure to make the flowering period more susceptible to 75 2022 Research in Mycology blight. Leaf spot: leaf lesions first appear as small brown spots and then develop into spine-shaped spots on both sides. The center of the spot is usually brown or white with a brown or reddish-brown border. Full lesions are 1-1.5 cm long and 0.3-0.5 cm wide. Collar rot: A common symptom of brown collar rot is an infection at the junction of the leaf blade and leaf sheath. Severe collar rot can lead to complete leaf death. Collar rot can have a significant impact on results when it kills flagella or terminal leaves. Neck Cracking: Occurs when the pathogen infects the neck of the flask causing the classic symptoms of neck rot or cracked neck cracking. The affected neck is covered with gray lesions and is severely affected. Control Measures: Treat seed-preserving diseases by selecting disease-free fields to remove pathogens from roots and disinfect seeds. 5. RED ROT OF SUGARCANE Host: Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum). Pathogen: Colletotrichum falcatum. Mode of Infection: Infection of the stems occurs through direct penetration of the nodes (buds, leaf scars or roots), from the fungus in the soil or in rain/irrigation water (Butler E J, 1906; Chona and Srivastava, 1952; Chona and Bajaj, 1950; Chona and Bajaj, 1953; R Vishwanathan, 2021). 76 2022 Research in Mycology Symptoms: The disease occurs after the rainy season the leaves turn yellow from above except for the crown leaves and the stems shrink significantly. Internal tissues that are lesions with discolored red spots or white horizontal spots interspersed with internal tissues. As the disease progresses the inner tissue darkens and dries out forming an elongated cavity. Mycorrhizal fungi can be found in these dry cavities. Control Measures: Red rot of sugarcane is difficult to control because the stems on which the seed is produced are mostly infected at the time of sowing and the fungicide cannot reach the infected tissue within the diseased seed set. Before sowing each seed, the set should be carefully examined and the set showing red color should be isolated. The use of green leaves for fodder can prevent the spread of red rot during the growing season by the timely formation of damaged tubers and burning of affected tubers. If a hot water seed treatment facility is available, it can be used to red-rot the seeds (50°C water for 2 hours). Seed treatment with a fungicide such as Arsan (0.25%) is usually effective. 6. GREY BLIGHT DISEASE OF TEA Host: (Tea) Camellia sinensis. Pathogen: Pestalotiopsis sps. Mode of Infection: The fungus usually requires wounded plant tissue to gain entry and initiate infection. Spores are spread when 77 2022 Research in Mycology splashed by rain and can survive for several weeks on pruned branches left in the field (Muraleedharan Chen, 1997; Sanjay et al., 2008; Joshi et al., 2009; Horikawa, 1986). Symptoms: This is the most prevalent tea leaf blight disease, and it causes the crop serious harm. Small brown patches at first, which later engulf the entire leaf blade, start to develop. Concentric rings with dispersed, tiny black dots become apparent as the spots enlarge and turn brown or grey, and eventually the dry tissue collapses, causing defoliation. Old lesions turn grey, and against the grey backdrop, masses of conidia show as black spots. The affected areas become brittle and detach, leaving the leaves with asymmetrical wounds. Control Measures: To stop infection the next year, the blighted leaves should be gathered and burned. The crop should be frequently sprayed with a Bordeaux mixture. Water logging should be prevented because it helps the sickness. Grow tea plants at a distance that will allow air to flow, lowering humidity and the length of time the leaves stay wet. 7. WHEAT RUST Host: Wheat (Triticum aestivum). Pathogen: Black or Stem Rust caused by Puccinia graminis tritici. (A P Roelfs RP Singh,1992; B F Carvar, 2009; Gadd 1777). 78 2022 Research in Mycology Mode of Infection: Wheat leaf rust spreads via airborne spores. Five types of spores are formed in the life cycle: Urediniospores, teliospores, and basidiospores develop on wheat plants and pycniospores and aeciospores develop on the alternate hosts. The germination process requires moisture and works best at 100% humidity. Symptoms: The white, powdery spots that develop on the upper surface of leaves and stems make powdery mildew easy to identify. The leaf, sheath, stem, and floral components develop a greyishwhite powdery growth. Later, the powdery development turns into a black lesion, which causes the leaves and other parts to dry up. Control Measures: Rust-resistant varieties are available and their use can be the safest and cheapest method for controlling rust. Application of para toluene sulfonyl amide (Actidione) to the soil at the rate of 1 g/m2 is effective. Zinc sulphate has been recommended to be an effective fungicide for the control of rusts plus 15 days intervals from the first month of February are quite effective. Applications of balanced fertilizers to the crops. Eradicating barberries around the wheat field. 79 2022 Research in Mycology Fungal diseases that affect people like A. Blastomycosis caused by Blastomyces which live in moist soil in parts of the United States and Canada. Some of the infection lies in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. B. Coccidiomycosis lives in southwestern and parts of Mexico, central, and south America. C. Histoplasmosis fungus lives in an environment large amount. D. Paracoccido mycosis lives in parts of central and south America and most often affects men who work outdoors in rural areas. E. Pneumocystis pneumonia serious infection caused by the fungus Pneumocystis jirovecii. F. Mucormycosis is a rare but serious infection caused by a group of molds called mucormycetes Talaromycosis caused by Taloromycesa fungus that lies in Southeast Asia, Southern China or Eastern India. G. Fungal eye infections that have symptoms like Dryness, sporotrichosis mycetoma, and fungal nail infection are common infections of the toenail or finger nail that causes the nail to discolor, thick, crack and break infection called onychomycosis. Fungal diseases that affect people with the weekend immune system: Fungal diseases that affect people with the weekend immune systems cannot fight off infections as well due to conditions such as HIV, Cancer, Organ transplants or certain medications. Some are as1. Aspergillosis is caused by Aspergillus a common mold that lies indoors and outdoors. 2. Candida auras are often caused by emerging multidrug-resistant fungus found in a health threat. 80 2022 Research in Mycology 3. Candidiasis-Candida normally lives inside the body and skin without causing any problem. It grows out of the control or if it enters the body Economic Importance of Fungi Fungi are one of the most important organisms in human life. They are used in medicine to produce antibiotics, in agriculture to maintain soil fertility, are eaten as food, and are the basis of many industries. Importance in Human Life: Fungi are very vital to human beings at many levels. They are a vital part of the nutrient cycle inside the ecosystem. They additionally act as pesticides. Importance in Medicine: Antibiotics are the materials produced with the aid of using fungi, beneficial for the remedy of sicknesses due to pathogens. Antibiotics produced with the aid of using actinomycetes and molds inhibit the increase of different microbes. Penicillin is a broadly used antibiotic, deadly for the survival of microbes. The cause it is miles significantly used is because it has no impact on human cells however kills gram-fine microorganisms. Streptomycin, some other antibiotic is of tremendous medicinal value. It is extra effective than Penicillin because it destroys gram-terrible entities. Yield-soluble antibiotics are used to test the increase of yeasts and micro-organisms and in treating plant sicknesses. Importance in Agriculture: The fungi plant dynamic is critical in the productiveness of crops. Fungal hobby in farmlands contributes to the boom of flora with the aid of using approximately 70%. Fungi are crucial withinside the procedure of humus formation because it brings approximately the degeneration of plant and animal matter. 81 2022 Research in Mycology Importance in the Food Industry: Some fungi are utilized in meal processing whilst a few are immediately consumed. Mushrooms might be wealthy in proteins and minerals and occasionally in fat. Fungi represent the premise within side the baking and brewing industry. They result in the fermentation of sugar with the aid of using an enzyme known as zymase generating alcohol that is used to make wine. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a crucial factor in bread, a staple meal of human beings for numerous years. It is likewise referred to as the baker’s yeast. References 1. A P Roelfs, R P Singh and E E Saarin 1992. Rust diseases of wheat: concepts and method of disease management, CIMMYT Mexican 2. Anon. 1965. Plant Protection Research. Rep. Hawaiian Sug Plus Ass. Exp. Stn, 1965: 29–34. 3. Basim H, Basim E, Gezgh S, Babaoglu M, 2005. first report of the occurrence of potato wart disease caused by Synchtrium endobiactium in turkey plant diseases,89(11):1245. 4. Bentley JW 1992. The epistemology of plant protection: Honduras Campesinos knowledge of pests and natural enemies In R. W. Gibson and A. Sweet more (eds). Proceedings of a Seminar on Crop Protection for Resource-Poor Farmers, Chatham: CTA/NRI pp. 107–118 5. BF Carver Wheat Science and Trade W, Ly Blackwell Hoboken N J USA 2009. 6. Bohl W H P, Hamm P, Nolte, R C Thornton and D AJohnson 2003. Managing late Blight on irrigated potatoes in the pacific northwest. 82 2022 Research in Mycology 7. Bonjanasky V, 1984. Potato Wart paratypes Europe from an ecological point of view EPPO Bulletin,14(2):141-146. 8. Butler E J, 1906. Fungus disease of sugarcane in Bengal, Men Dept of Agriculture in India, Bot; 1(3). 9. Chona and Bajaj, 1953. Reported the occurrence in nature on sugarcane leaves. 10. Chona and Srinivastava, 1952. Found the perennial stage of the pathogen first time in India in cultures 11. Chona, 1950. and Mariani 1952 reported that the fungus is capable of growing and producing Paceville in the soil. 12. Deepak Chikkaballi Angegowda, Mothukapalli Krishnareddy, Prasanna Kumar, Hirehally Basavaraj Gowda Mahesh 2021. The white rust of crucifers: A tatus and manual of plant pathology pp 138-142. 13. Goto, K., Hirano, K. and Ohata, K. 1961. Susceptibility of the leaf of rice to blast with reference to leaf age and position. 1. Variation of susceptibility among different leaf positions and grades of the emergence of top leaf. Special Bulletin, Okayama Prefecture Agricultural Experimental Station, 58: 77–88. 14. Govind Singh Saharan, Prithvi raj Verma, PD Veena, Ashok Kumar, 2014. White rust of Crucifers, Atlas and Manual of Plant Pathology, Springer, Boston. 15. Hampson MC, coombes J W, 1995. Reduction of the potato wart disease with crushed, crab shell, suppression or eradication, Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology, 17(1): 6974. 16. Hawksworth L, 1991. Parasitism describes a symbiotic relationship in which one member of the association benefits at the expense of other parasitic fungi; The Nordic Journal of Botany volume 12(6). 83 2022 Research in Mycology 17. https://www.biologydiscussion.com/plant-pathology/whiterust-of-crucifers-with-diagram/64247, author Sughandha Ghttps://biologyease.com/economic-importance-of-fungi/ 18. https://www.slideshare.net/BooapthiN/grey-blight-inhorticultural-crops 19. S Chand, AK Sinha, RP Singh Abbott, E. V. 1938. Red rot of sugarcane. U.S. Dep. Agric. Tech. Bull 641. 20. Soumyajit D, white rust disease of crucifers; symptoms embracement/Plant pathology, Springer, Boston PP-138-142. *** 84 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 CHAPTER Common Fungal Disease In Crop 08 Mr. Shabir Khan, Ms. Heena Kausar and Dr. D. K. Shrivastava Introduction Worldwide, more than 19,000 fungi are known to infect crop plants with illnesses. They may survive on both living and dead plant tissues while dormant until conditions are right for their multiplication. Some fungi can grow inside the tissues of the host plant. By way of wind, water, soil, insects, and other invertebrates, fungus spores are easily disseminated. They might contaminate an entire crop in this way. Other fungi, on the other hand, can actually help the host plant grow and develop and are thus advantageous to it. For instance, mycorrhizae establish a mutualistic bond with the root systems of host plants. However, pathogenic fungi are responsible for diseases of plants like anthracnose, leaf spot, rust, wilt, blight, coiled, scab, gall, canker, damping-off, root rot, mildew, and dieback. The main causes of yield losses, commercial crop losses, and decreased crop quality are systemic foliar infections. Fungal diseases can grow rapidly and destroy crops if the climate conditions are favourable. The effects of fungal attacks can directly affect humans. It is an effective management 85 Research in Mycology technique to quickly identify fungal diseases by promptly recognizing their symptoms, which may assist to slow or stop their progression. If discovered and appropriately identified in time, fungal leaf diseases may be managed. Evaluation of the infections' detrimental effects on crop productivity is a step in the control of agricultural diseases. The study of well-known theories of environmental speciation requires knowledge of fungus-caused leaf diseases. Due of its environmental speciation interaction with pathogens, it can improve the host plant's physiology and growth (Sarsaiya et al, 2019; Petrasch, S. et al., 2019; Armstrong et al., 1981). There are various signs that the host itself may change, allowing plant diseases to undergo fast environmental speciation. The creation of more accurate simulations and models that incorporate the traits of the fungus pathogen and novel experimental techniques to explore them will be facilitated by the clarification of the relationships between emerging illnesses and environmental speciation. The expansion of fungal leaf diseases is brought on by these occurrences. About 30% of crop diseases are caused by pathogenic fungus (Armstrong et al., 1981). It is necessary to report fungal pathogen epidemics and the alterations they bring about to ecosystems. Here, some common fungal diseases in crop plants and their sign, symptoms and general control and managements are given below: Powdery Mildew Numerous different fungal infections with constrained host ranges are responsible for this disease. Early in the plant's growing period is when it first appears. Beginning on developing leaves, powdery mildew causes blisters that cause the leaves to curl upward and reveal their lower epidermis. Eventually, a fine white to greyish 86 2022 Research in Mycology powdery mycelial substance covers the upper surfaces of the diseased leaves. Powdery mildew infestations can prevent flower buds from opening. The leaves might eventually abscise and turn necrotic. Younger leaves with high moisture content are more frequently infected by the disease. Less frequently, mature leaves become diseased (Berman et al., 2000; Van Baarlen et al., 2007). Symptoms: When the conditions are favorable, powdery mildew can be seen as fluffy, white growths of fungal spores on the surface of the leaf and on the awns and glumes of the head. Prior to mycelial growth, early symptoms might be seen as yellow flecks on leaves. Although infection can happen at any point throughout the season if WPM spores are present and conditions allow, symptoms normally proceed from lower to upper leaves. Since rapidly expanding tissue is more prone to infection, plants in their early growth stages and after nitrogen administration are usually more vulnerable to infections of greater severity. Eventually, fungus colonies grow and combine (Gonzalez et al., 2011). The region around the lesion and on the backside of the leaf changes colour from yellow to brown. Older infections on leaves and heads turn grey and may produce chasmothecia (formerly known as cleistothecia), which are black fruiting bodies that resemble specks. From a distance, a crop affected with powdery mildew will seem yellow, much like a crop with water logging or nutrient shortage. Disease Cycle: The disease cycle can be completed in as little as 72 hours, which allows the mildew to spread quickly. To develop symptoms and produce additional spores, it typically takes 7 to 10 days from the time of infection. 87 2022 Research in Mycology Fig.: 1- Powdery mildew symptoms on common bean. (A) Powdery mildew blotches on a primary leaf by natural infection in glasshouse; (B) Symptoms on pods, stem, and leaves developed from pathogenicity test; (C) Symptoms on plant observed in field. Fig.:2- Disease cycle of Powdery Mildew. Control: Powdery mildew can be avoided, controlled, and treated using a variety of techniques (Howard et al., 1996). A. Field Monitoring: Early in the season, and periodically, inspect the fields. Examine various plants all throughout the 88 2022 Research in Mycology field with a hand lens to look for symptoms on all areas of the plant. Typically, field symptoms are noticeable and distinct enough to be quickly identified by visual inspection. B. Genetic Control: The most effective method for reducing wheat losses to powdery mildew is to use resistant cultivars. Knowing a particular wheat variety's sensitivity is crucial since new races of the fungus can emerge. C. Cultural Control: The disease should be managed by (Crop Rotation) implementing cultural techniques that limit dense stands, nitrogen fertility, and rapid development. In order to avoid encouraging heavy, succulent, vulnerable growth, avoid over fertilizing with nitrogen. Lighter planting rates enhance airflow and minimize illness. The amount of overwintering pathogen structures in the field is decreased by crop rotation and clean ploughing, while these techniques may be countered by airborne inoculum. Early Blight It frequently affects tomatoes and potatoes. Alternaria solani is the causing agent. Older leaves' lower epidermis is where lesions initially emerge. They appear as little brown dots made up of interlocking rings that are organized in a bull’s eye shape. The lesions develop as the disease worsens, resulting in the yellowing, withering, and death of the leaves. Additionally, the infection could spread to other areas of the plant. Rain, irrigation, insects, and gardening tools can all spread the infection, which overwinters in tainted plant tissue. Infected tomato seeds and potato tubers can potentially spread it. Early blight can happen at any point during the plant's growth period, despite its name. It frequently attacks stressed or undernourished plants. 89 2022 Research in Mycology Symptoms: Small, irregular, dark-brown to black dots on the older (lower) leaves are the first signs of early blight. These patches expand to a diameter of up to 3/8 inch and may eventually take on an angular appearance. Brown spot lesions might be known for first lesions on young, fully developed leaves. About two to three days after infection, these initial lesions start to develop, and three to five days later; more sporulation starts to appear on the surface of these lesions. Fig.: 3- Early blight symptoms in tomato. 90 2022 Research in Mycology Fig.: 4- Life cycle of early blight in tomato. Control: Implementing an integrated disease management strategy is necessary for this disease's effective control. Since late blight is a disease of the community, successful control necessitates community management (Rahman et al., 2018). The following techniques can help manage the illness: A. Dispose of all volunteer and cull potatoes. B. Plant seed tubers free of late blight. C. Avoid mixing seed lots as cutting can spread late blight. D. Apply a seed piece fungicide treatment with late blight control on the label (current list of fungicides can be found in the North Dakota Field Crop Plant Disease Management Guide, PP622). The seed treatments Revues, Reason, and mancozeb are suggested. E. Don't plant in trouble spots that could stay wet for a long time or be challenging to spray (the field near the centre of the pivot, along power lines and tree lines). F. Steer clear of overnight or heavy irrigation. 91 2022 Research in Mycology Late Blight The fungus Phytophthora infestans is the source of the systemic infection known as late blight. It frequently happens during plant development and may show up after flowering. Green and grey patches appear on the leaf surfaces and begin with the oldest leaves. The spots become darker as the disease worsens, and white mycelial masses appear on the lower leaf surfaces. The entire plant is at this point infested. In the soil or garden debris, this pathogen does not overwinter. It spreads through contaminated seeds, transplants, and tubers. Symptoms: First signs of late blight are wet spots, which typically form at the tips or edges of lower leaves where water or dew likes to collect. Water-soaked areas quickly grow larger in humid, chilly environments, and a wide yellow halo may be visible all around the lesion. The border of the lesion on the underside of the leaf may develop a spore-producing zone of white mouldy growth that is between 0.1 and 0.2 inches broad. Continuously rainy weather hastens the disease's progression, while warm, dry weather slows or stops it. Disease development resumes as the climate gets cooler and more humid. View images of leaves and stems with late blight. Initial symptoms of tuber lesions include fluctuating, black spots. When cut open, the afflicted tissue has a water-soaked, reddishbrown colour and extends into the tuber meat in an uneven border (Gomez et al.,1986). 92 2022 Research in Mycology Fig.: 5- Late (A-B) and Early (C-D) blight symptoms. Fig.:6- Disease cycle of late blight of Potato. 93 2022 Research in Mycology Tikka Disease The most significant foliar fungal disease of groundnut is leaf spot, often known as Tikka disease. Fungicide foliar applications prevent losses of more than 50% of possible yield The losses could exceed 70% when it is connected to corrosion. Around the world, including India, groundnut is susceptible to early leaf spot, late leaf spot and rust. The cercosporoid fungus was previously known by the names early leaf spots and late leaf spots based on morphological characteristics. However, new names for the fungus have been given based on molecular studies, and they are now known as early leaf spots and late leaf spots These fungi harm the plant by lowering the area accessible for photosynthetic activity, causing lesions, and inducing leaflet abscission. All of the plant's above-ground sections can have the disease, but the leaves are more seriously affected (Subrahmanyam et al., 1980; Ghuge et al., 1981; Vidyasekaran 1981; Melouk et al., 1984; Subrahmanyam et al., 1985). Symptoms: The look, colour, and form of the two diseases' leaf symptoms allow for easy differentiation. Both fungi cause lesions on the pegs, stem, and petiole. As the infection spreads and the heavily marked leaves prematurely shed, the lesions brought on by both species combine. In cases of severe illness, the quality and output of nuts are significantly diminished. The key factors that enhance disease potentiality include prolonged high relative humidity for longer than three days, low temperature (20°C) with dew on leaf surface, strong dosages of nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers, and a shortage in magnesium in the soil. 94 2022 Research in Mycology Fig.: 7- Early and Late leaf spot symptoms on leaves. Fig.: 8- Disease cycle of Tikka disease of groundnut. Control: Through conidia, latent mycelium, and perithecia in soil, the pathogen can persist for a very long time in the plant waste of infected plants. The pathogen is also present in the hapless 95 2022 Research in Mycology groundnut plants. Ascospores or conidia from infected seeds or plant debris cause the main infection. Conidia carried by the wind cause the secondary spread. Conidia spread more readily as a result of rain splash. The management of foliar diseases is extremely effective when the administration of fungicides and host resistance are coupled, and a number of fungicides have been developed and studied to manage the leaf spot diseases at various locations. Application of fungicides can improve genetic potential and reduce yield loss brought on by disease. Systemic fungicides prevent pathogen spore germination and penetration; consequently, an experiment is being conducted to assess the effectiveness of various systemic fungicides at various concentrations in this agro climatic region, which can reduce loss with an efficient and practical approach such as scheduled spraying (Subrahmanyam et al., 1995; Munda et al., 1997). Red Rot In Java, red rot of sugarcane was originally identified as a disease in 1893 (Went, 1893). Within a decade of Went's description of the illness and the financial harm it caused to Java's sugarcane milling, reports of its prevalence in other regions of the world began to surface. According to every account, the disease was widespread and recognised as a new sugarcane disease in nations such as Australia, India, the United States, including Hawaii and the mainland, the West Indies, Brazil, Mauritius, the Philippines, etc. The related pathogen is the Ascomycete fungus Glomerella tucumanensis (Spegazzini) von Arx & Muller. Only the anamorphic stage of the disease Colletotrichum falcatum Went (1893) is observed in outdoor settings. The fungus belongs to the Ascomycota, Pezizomycotina, Class, Sordariomycetes, and Glomerellaceae phyla. After thoroughly describing the illness and 96 2022 Research in Mycology its symptoms, showed that the fungus he isolated from the sick tissues, named Colletotrichum falcatum. The degree of red rot susceptibility of sugarcane cultivars determines how quickly C. falcatum spreads within the seed canes after planting. Although both have a substantial impact on the growth of the sugarcane itself, soil temperature and moisture considerably influence the spread of disease. Under favorable circumstances, the pathogen spreads quickly through the parenchyma and vascular bundles, and within two to three months of infection, the entire stalk tissues may have been invaded ((Mayee, 1987; Gayathri, 2018). Symptoms: Based on the stalk tissues' distinctive signs of rotting and reddening, the disease can be identified. The disease, however, attacks the crop at every stage of development. The author has previously provided in-depth descriptions of the disease's symptoms. Young crop, stalk, and foliar signs are how the disease is categorized in this instance. Pre-germination symptoms, such as the death of buds and the drying of sprouts or shoots, are visible during the germination phase. When there are infections in the post-germination phase, the settlings exhibit a yellow to orange discoloration, which causes the entire shoot to dry out (Subrahmanyam et al., 1980; Ghuge et al., 1981; Viswanathan R, 2010). 97 2022 Research in Mycology Fig.: 9- Symptoms of Red rots on/in sugarcanes leaves and stems. Fig.: 10- Disease cycle of red rot. Control: Under in vitro conditions, a number of fungicides, both systemic and non-systemic in mode of action, were found to be efficient in suppressing the pathogen, but under field conditions, 98 2022 Research in Mycology their performance was relatively lower. There have been numerous reports on the effectiveness of fungicides against C. falcatum (Viswanathan R. 2010; Rao MA, 1995). The impermeable quality of the rind and nodal tissues, which restrict the entry of fungicides or its metabolites, is the primary cause of the poor efficiency of fungicides under field settings. Because of this, chemicals take longer to reach the area where pathogens have colonized inside the stalks, or the concentration of the toxic ingredient that has been transported is insufficient to eradicate the fungus (Melouk, et al., 1984; Subrahmanyam, et al., 1985). Chemicals alone may not be successful for controlling red rot in field settings; instead, they should be used in conjunction with other management methods such seed selection, sanitation, crop rotation, and rouging of contaminated stools (Mushrif, et al., 2017). References 1. Armstrong, G.M. and Armstrong, J.K. (1981) Formae speciales and races of Fusarium oxysporum causing wilt diseases. In: Fusarium: Diseases, Biology and Taxonomy ( R. Cook, ed.), pp. 391– 399. University Park, PA: Penn State University Pres. 2. Berman, H. M., Westbrook, J., Feng, Z., Gilliland, G., Bhat, T. N., Weissig, H., et al. (2000). The protein data bank. Nucleic Acids Res. 28: 235–242. 3. Gayathri, J. (2018) A trend analysis of area, production and yield of groundnut in India. Shanlax International Journal of Economics. 6(3):15–21. 4. Ghuge, S. S., Mayee, C. D. and Godbole, G. M. (1981) Assessment of losses in peanut due to rust and Tikka leaf spots. Indian Phytopathology. 34(2):179-182. 99 2022 Research in Mycology 5. Gomez, K. A. and Gomez, A. A. (1986) Statistical procedures for agriculture research. 2nd edition, John Wiley and Sons. Pp .680. 6. Gonzalez, M., Pujol, M., Metraux, J.-P., Gonzalez-Garcia, V., Bolton, M.D. and Borras-Hidalgo, O. (2011) Tobacco leaf spot and root rot caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kühn. Mol. Plant Pathol. 12: 209– 216. 7. Howard, R.J. and Valent, B. (1996) Breaking and entering: host penetration by the fungal rice blast pathogen Magnaporthe grisea. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 50: 419– 512. 8. Mayee, C. D. (1987) Diseases of groundnut and their management. In: Plant protection in field crops, (Eds., M.V.N. Rao and S. Sitanantham), PPSI, Hyderabad. pp. 235243. 9. Melouk, H. A., Banks, D. J. and Fanous, M. A. (1984) Assessment of resistance to Cercospora arachidicola in peanut genotypes in field plots. Plant Disease. 68: 395-397. 10. Mushrif, S. K., Manju, M. J., Shankarappa, T. H. and Nagaraju (2017) Comparative efficacy of fungicides against tikka disease of groundnut caused by Cercospora arachidicola and Cercosporidium personatum. The Ecoscan. 11(1&2): 6771. 11. Petrasch, S., & Knapp, S. J. Van kan JAL, Blanco-ulate B. (2019) Grey mould of strawberry, a devastating disease caused by the ubiquitous necrotrophic fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea. Mol Plant Pathol, 20(6): 877-892. 12. Rahman SFSA, Singh E, Pieterse CMJ (2018) Emerging microbial bio control strategies for plant pathogens. Plant Sci.; 267: 102–111. 13. Rao MA, Satyanarayana Y. Chemical control of sett-borne infection of red rot pathogen. In: Singh GB, Shukla US, Agnihotri VP, Sinha OK, Singh RP, (1995) editors. 100 2022 Research in Mycology Sugarcane production constraints and strategies for Research Management of Red Rot. Lucknow: ICAR-IISR. p. 323–330. 14. Sarsaiya, S., Shi, J., & Chen, J. (2019). A comprehensive review on fungal endophytes and its dynamics on Orchidaceae plants: current research, challenges, and future possibilities. Bioengineered, 10(1): 316-334. 15. Subrahmanyam, P., Mehan, V. K., Neveil, D. J. and McDonald, D. (1980) Research on fungal diseases of groundnut at ICRISAT, Proceeding of the International workshop on groundnut, 13-17th October 1980, International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh. pp. 193-199. 16. Subrahmanyam, P., Moss, J. P., McDonald, D., Subba Rao, P. V. and Rao, V. R. (1985) Resistance to Cercosporidium personatum leaf spot in wild Arachis species. Plant Disease. 69(11):951-54. 17. Van Baarlen, P., Woltering, E.J., Staats, M. and van Kan, J.A.L. (2007) Histochemical and genetic analysis of host and non-host interactions of Arabidopsis with three Botrytis species: an important role for cell death control. Mol. Plant Pathol. 8: 41– 54. 18. Vidyasekaran, P. (1981) Control of rust and tikka disease of groundnut. Indian Phytopathology. 34: 20-23. 19. Viswanathan R. (2010) Plant disease: red rot of sugarcane. New Delhi, India: Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd. 20. Viswanathan R. (2012) Sugarcane diseases and their management. Coimbatore, India: ICAR-Sugarcane Breeding Institute. 21. Went FAFC. (1893) Het rood snot. Arch. Java-Suikerindus; 1: 265–282. *** 101 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 CHAPTER Wheat Rust Disease and Management Strategies 09 Santvana Tyagi, Raju Ratan Yadav, Nancy Sharma, Sachidananda Das and Dr. Sundip Kumar Introduction Wheat is one of the world's most important staple grains, providing the majority of calories and plant-based protein in human diets (Curtis et al., 2002). The current wheat supply is sufficient to meet global demand, according to a recent assessment of wheat production by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). In spite of this, future production must expand as the global population is projected to surpass nine billion by 2050. Continuous efforts to improve yield and quality face challenges. Wheat production is continually at risk due to factors like the lack of sufficient farmland, climate change, and a variety of unanticipated abiotic and biotic stressors. Pathogenic fungi represent a significant constraint to wheat production. The main ailments and pathogenic fungi that cause crop production are discussed in this chapter, along with any new dangers. We take into account the geographic distribution, impact, and disease management techniques, and briefly discuss the current state of molecular understanding for each interaction in each case. 102 Research in Mycology Wheat Rust Since the domestication of the crop, rust pathogens have hampered global wheat production and continue to pose a threat to the world's wheat supply (Roelfs et al., 1992). The growth and reproduction of rust fungi, which are obligate biotrophic organisms entirely reliant on nutrients received from living host cells (Cummins & Hiratsuka, 2004; Duplessis et al., 2012). Rust species differ in their capacity to infect specific hosts, and the taxonomy of frame specials reflects this varied biology (Eriksson, 1894). The Basidiomycete fungi Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici (Pgt), Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst), and Puccinia triticina (Pt) are responsible for the three types of wheat rust: stem rust, stripe rust, and leaf rust. Although less frequent than the other two wheat rusts, wheat stem rust Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici Ericks and Henn. (Pgt) is found in many parts of the world. Several studies have found this to be the case (Leonard & Szabo, 2005; Singh et al., 2015). Infected plants will commonly show masses of red-brick urediniospores on leaf sheaths, stems, glumes, and awns, and Pgt is most prevalent in warm, wet climates (Kolmer, 2005). Stem rust causes yield losses by a combination of smaller grains and plant lodging (Leonard & Szabo, 2005). Many major wheat-growing regions have seen devastating stem rust epidemics in the past, and the necessity to combat this disease was a driving force behind the Green Revolution, which ultimately resulted in the introduction of semi-dwarf, stem rust-resistant wheat cultivars (Figueroa et al., 2016). Forecasting models assuming the absence of persistent resistance predict that global losses would average 6.2 million metric tonnes per year or greater under major epidemics, despite the fact that stem rust has been largely controlled in many regions of the world (Pardey et al., 2013). 103 2022 Research in Mycology In recent years, stem rust has gained importance as novel virulence features have emerged in Pgt populations, illustrating the vulnerability of widely planted wheat cultivars around the world (Pretorius et al., 2000; Singh et al., 2015). The establishment of the Ug99 race in Uganda in 1998, its subsequent geographical extension within Africa and to the Middle East, and the appearance of Ug99 variations indicate the immediate danger to wheat production (Singh et al., 2015). According to estimates, 90 percent of wheat cultivars in the world are susceptible to Ug99, which raises food security issues (Singh et al., 2011). Similarly, unconnected Ug99 races have developed in other parts of the planet, diminishing the effectiveness of the newly identified and deployed resistance sources. A severe outbreak was generated by the 'Digalu' race in Ethiopia in 2014, and a similar race has been recorded in Germany (Olivera Firpo et al., 2015, 2017). Wheat Stripe Rust Wheat stripe (yellow) rust is caused by the bacterium P. striiformis. f. sp. tritici (Pst), a disease that is very widespread in temperate locations with cool and damp climate conditions (Chen et al., 2014). Currently, stripe rust is the most economically significant wheat rust illness causing 100 percent production loss in sensitive wheat cultivars (Chen, 2005). About 88 percent of the world's wheat Varieties are vulnerable to Pst and global losses caused by the disease. The annual cost of sickness is about $1 billion (Beddow et al., 2015; Wellings, 2011). The losses caused by stripe rust in Australia are estimated to be AU$ 127 million (Murray & Brennan, 2009). Wheat stripe rust has been documented in over sixty nations. Moreover, data implies a substantial worldwide geographic expansion Pst in the past fifty years (Beddow et al., 2015; Chen, 2005). Since the year 2000, aggressive strains of Pst that have 104 2022 Research in Mycology adapted to climates with higher temperatures have expanded to regions of the globe that were previously less afflicted by this disease (Ali et al., 2014). Although Pst populations in Europe, Australia, and North America appear to be clonal, there is significant genotypic variability among particular pathogen groups (Chen et al., 2014). According to Ali et al. (2014) and Hovmller et al. (2011), such polymorphic populations are prevalent in western China and Central Asia, consistent with the Himalayan and neighbouring regions as the centre of pathogen diversity where sexual recombination appears to be abundant. More recently, new racial groups have formed and swept through Europe in 2011, 2012,13, and 2015, and a DNA study identifies their origin in the Himalayan regions, demonstrating the importance of incursions in altering the continent's racial composition. Wheat Leaf Rust The most prevalent and widely spread of the three wheat rust diseases, leaf rust, is caused by Puccinia triticina (Pt) (Anikster et al., 1997; Bolton et al., 2008; Huerta-Espino et al., 2011). The pathogen is common in places with moderate temperatures and humidity. Infection-related yield losses are ascribed to a decrease in kernel weight and grain production per head. Although the location and timing of grain losses due to leaf rust vary, the disease has a significant economic impact (Huerta-Espino et al., 2011; Kolmer, 2005). The estimated damages brought on by Pt in the USA between 2000 and 2004 totalled more than US$ 350 million (Huerta-Espino et al., 2011). According to Murray & Brennan (2009), the disease has cost Australia 12 million Australian dollars in damages. Because of the pathogen's enormous diversity, the constant appearance of new virulence profiles, and high adaptability to a variety of climates, leaf rust is a challenging disease (Huerta- 105 2022 Research in Mycology Espino et al., 2011; Kolmer, 2005; McCallum et al., 2016). The Fertile Crescent region of the Middle East is where Pt originated, and both primary and secondary. A General Description of The Wheat Rust Fungi's Life Cycle The five different types of spores that are produced over the entire life cycle of wheat rust fungi are linked to either asexual or sexual reproduction, which takes place in wheat or another unrelated noncereal host, respectively (Jin et al., 2010; McIntosh, 2009). Urediniospores, which mediate infection through several developmental stages, such as haustoria formation, are what drive the destructive asexual reproductive phase (Harder & Chong, 1984; Staples & Macko,2004). Haustoria are structures that are crucial for acquiring nutrients as well as for delivering agents into the plant cell, which enables the inhibition of plant defences and cell reprogramming to support fungal development (Garnica et al., 2014; Panstruga & Dodds,2009; Ramachandran et al., 2016). Several species of Berberis spp. (barberry) and Mahonia act as substitute hosts for Pgt and Pst (Leonard and Szabo, 2005; Roelfs, 1985; Jin et al., 2010; Wang & Chen, 2017). Species of Thalictrum, Anchusa, Clematis, and Isopyrum are potential hosts for Pt (Bolton et al., 2008; Huerta-Espino et al., 2011). Molecular Understanding of The Rust–Wheat Interactions The molecular and genetic foundation behind the pathogenicity of wheat rust is not fully understood. Ineffective genetic transformation techniques and the inability to create in vitro. There has been little progress in defining the underlying molecular processes determining rust resistance or susceptibility using fungal cultures. However, genetic resistance research has provided a solid foundation for comprehending the fundamental components of these interactions. Either race-specific (also known as a seedling or qualitative resistance) or non-race-specific resistance to rust infection has been reported (Periyannan et al., 2017). More than 106 2022 Research in Mycology 150 genes imparting race-specific resistance to wheat rust have been genetically identified in wheat or wild relatives, with the majority conferring race-specific resistance (McIntosh et al., 1995, 2013). At least 50 of these genes are Stem rust (Sr) resistance genes involved in Pgt responses (McIntosh et al., 1995, 2013). Sr31 is among the most frequently employed race-specific genes against Pgt (Singh et al., 2006). Sadly, the evolution of Sr31's virulence led to the emergence and dissemination of Ug99. Other crucial genes, including Sr21, Sr24, Sr36, Sr38, and SrTmp, have also been overcome by the Ug99 lineage or Digalu races (Jin et al., 2008, 2009; Olivera Firpo et al., 2015; Pretorius et al., 2010). To date, the Sr2, Sr25, Sr23, Sr33, Sr35, Sr45, and Sr50 genes are regarded as the most advantageous for protection against newly created races (Singh et al., 2015). These genes have been demonstrated to condition reactions to Pst (Chen, 2005; McIntosh et al., 2013). More than 70 genes are designated yellow rust (Yr) resistance genes. However, Pst pathogenicity has been observed for the majority of these genes in numerous regions of the world. 68 Leaf rust (Lr) genes confer resistance to Pt, with Lr1, Lr3, Lr10, and Lr20 being widely utilised in global wheat cultivars (Dakouri et al., 2013; McIntosh et al., 1995). In general, the continual emergence of new rust races impedes the maintenance of effective sources of genetic resistance in the field and heightens the difficulty of controlling these diseases with genetic resistance alone (Ellis et al., 2014). The cloning of 10 race-specific genes in wheat (Sr22, Sr33, Sr35, Sr45, Sr50, Yr10, Lr1, Lr21, Lr10, Lr22) revealed that, as in other plants, these genes encode nucleotide-binding site leucine-rich repeat (NBS-LRR) proteins, and therefore resistance responses must be governed by the direct or indirect recognition of cognate Avr factors. Genome sequencing and transcript predictions suggest the presence of diverse effector repertoires in wheat rust fungus 107 2022 Research in Mycology (Bruce et al., 2013; Cantu et al., 2013; Duplessis et al., 2011; Garnica et al., 2013; Upadhyaya et al., 2015). In addition, a small number of sexual crosses demonstrating genetic segregation for virulence and avirulence traits support the notion that rust–wheat interactions correspond to the gene-forgene paradigm (Samborski & Dyck, 1968; Zambino et al., 2000). This approach is also consistent with the evolution of physiological races. Physiological races in wheat rust fungi are defined by standard This approach is also consistent with the evolution of physiological races. Standard categorization techniques create links between disease symptoms and certain race-specific genes present in distinct sets of wheat cultivars (Chen et al., 2002; Jin et al.,2008; Long & Kolmer, 1989; McIntosh et al., 1995). The emergence of virulence features that overcome deployed race-specific resistance in the field is a common characteristic of populations of wheat rust fungus, a phenomenon described as 'boom-and-bust cycles' (Hulbert & Pumphrey, 2014). These variations in pathogenicity may come from genetic recombination through sexual reproduction or somatic hybridization and serial mutations in the absence of alternate hosts (Lei et al., 2016; Park & Wellings, 2012; Wang & McCallum, 2009). Quantitative resistance to wheat rusts is conferred by non-racespecific resistance, also known as adult plant resistance (APR) (Periyannan et al., 2017). In these instances, the partial resistance traits limit inoculum accumulation and the likelihood of epidemics occurring. This resistance is demonstrated by Sr2, Lr34, Lr46, Lr67, Lr68, and Yr36 (Ellis et al., 2014). It is not well understood how these genes exert their role. Cloning of Yr36 (Fu et al., 2009) revealed that a cytoplasmic protein kinase is responsible for inducing resistance. Lr34 and Lr67, on the other hand, code for an ATP-binding cassette transporter and a hexose transporter, 108 2022 Research in Mycology respectively (Dodds & Lagudah, 2016; Krattinger et al., 2009; Moore et al., 2015). Strategies For Managing Wheat Rust Diseases In addition to chemical and genetic control, cultural control practices are employed as part of wheat rust disease mitigation strategies (Ellis et al., 2014). The elimination of inter-crop "green bridges" through tillage and the eradication of alternative hosts are examples of cultural practises that aid in the management of wheat rust diseases (Kolmer et al., 2007; Zadoks & Bouwman, 1985). Because fungicide treatments can be expensive, weatherdependent, and hazardous to the environment and human health, genetic resistance has traditionally been the preferred method. Notwithstanding, the recent emergence of new rust races for which there is no genetic resistance has led to an increase in the use of fungicides. There are several approved chemical formulations for wheat rust control. In general, the quinone outside inhibitors (QoIs), 14ademethylation inhibitors (DMIs), and the recently utilized succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors (SDHI) are efficient (Oliver, 2014). During 2003–2005, Australia spent approximately $40–$90 million annually on chemical control to prevent stripe rust epidemics (Wellings, 2007). These repeated chemical applications pose a risk of diminished or lost fungicide sensitivity (Arduim et al., 2012; Oliver, 2014). References 1. Beddow, J.M., Pardey, P.G., Chai, Y., Hurley, T.M., Kriticos, D.J., Braun, H.J., Park, R.F., Cuddy, W.S. and Yonow, T. (2015) Research investment implications of shifts in the global geography of wheat stripe rust. Nat. Plants, 1(15): 132. 109 2022 Research in Mycology 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Chen, W., Wellings, C., Chen, X., Kang, Z. and Liu, T. (2014) Wheat stripe (yellow) rust caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici. Mol. Plant Pathol. 15: 433– 446. Chen, X. (2005) Epidemiology and control of stripe rust [Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici] on wheat. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 27: 314– 337. Cummins, G.B. and Hiratsuka, Y. (2004) Illustrated Genera of Rust Fungi. St. Paul, MN: APS Press. Curtis, B.C., Rajaram, S. and Gómez Macpherson, H. (2002) Bread Wheat; Improvement and Production. FAO Plant Production and Protection Series No. 30. FAO, Rome. Dakouri, A., McCallum, B.D., Radovanovic, N. and Cloutier, S. (2013) Molecular and phenotypic characterization of seedling and adult plant leaf rust resistance in a world wheat collection. Mol. Breed. 32: 663– 677. Ellis, J.G., Lagudah, E.S., Spielmeyer, W. and Dodds, P.N. (2014) The past, present and future of breeding rust resistant wheat. Front. Plant Sci. 5: 641. Eriksson, J. (1894) Ueber die Specialisirung des Parasitismus bei den Getreiderostpilzen. Ber. Dtsch. Bot. Ges. 12: 292– 331. Figueroa, M., Upadhyaya, N.M., Sperschneider, J., Park, R.F., Szabo, L.J., Steffenson, B., Ellis, J.G. and Dodds, P.N. (2016) Changing the game: using integrative genomics to probe virulence mechanisms of the stem rust pathogen Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici. Front. Plant Sci. 7: 205. Hodson, D., Cressman, K., Nazari, K., Park, R. and Yahyaoui, A. (2009) The global cereal rust monitoring system. In: BGRI Technical Workshop. (McIntosh, R., ed.), pp. 35–46. Obregon, Mexcio. 110 2022 Research in Mycology 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Hovmøller, M.S., Sørensen, C.K., Walter, S. and Justesen, A.F. (2011) Diversity of Puccinia striiformis on cereals and grasses. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 49: 197– 217. Hovmøller, M.S., Walter, S., Bayles, R.A., Hubbard, A., Flath, K., Sommerfeldt, N., Leconte, M., Czembor, P., Rodriguez-Algaba, J., Thach, T., Hansen, J.G., Lassen, P., Justesen, A.F., Ali, S. and de Vallavieille-Pope, C. (2015) Replacement of the European wheat yellow rust population by new races from the centre of diversity in the near-Himalayan region. Plant Pathol. 65: 402– 411. Huerta-Espino, J., Singh, R., German, S., McCallum, B., Park, R., Chen, W.Q., Bhardwaj, S. and Goyeau, H. (2011) Global status of wheat leaf rust caused by Puccinia triticina. Euphytica, 179: 143– 160. Kolmer, J., Jin, Y. and Long, D. (2007) Wheat leaf and stem rust in the United States. Crop Pasture Sci. 58, 631– 638. Kolmer, J.A. (2005) Tracking wheat rust on a continental scale. Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 8: 441– 449. Leonard, K.J. and Szabo, L.J. (2005) Stem rust of small grains and grasses caused by Puccinia graminis. Mol. Plant Pathol. 6: 99– 111. McCallum, B.D., Hiebert, C.W., Cloutier, S., Bakkeren, G., Rosa, S.B., Humphreys, D.G., Marais, G.F., McCartney, C.A., Panwar, V., Rampitsch, C., Saville, B.J. and Wang, X. (2016) A review of wheat leaf rust research and the development of resistant cultivars in Canada. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 38: 1– 18. McIntosh, R. (2009) The history and status of the wheat rusts. In: NGRI Technical Workshop. (R.A. McIntosh, ed.), pp. 11– 24. Obregon, Mexcio. 111 2022 Research in Mycology 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. McIntosh, R.A., Wellings, C.R. and Park, R.F. (1995) Wheat Rusts: An Atlas of Resistance Genes. East Melbourne, Australia: CSIRO. Murray, G.M. and Brennan, J.P. (2009) Estimating disease losses to the Australian wheat industry. Australas. Plant Pathol. 38: 558– 570. Olivera Firpo, P., Newcomb, M., Flath, K., SommerfeldtImpe, N., Szabo, L., Carter, M., Luster, D. and Jin, Y. (2017) Characterization of Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici isolates derived from an unusual wheat stem rust outbreak in Germany in 2013. Plant Pathol. 66: 1258– 1266. Olivera Firpo, P., Newcomb, M., Szabo, L., Rouse, M.N., Johnson, J.L., Gale, S.W., Luster, D., Hodson, D., Cox, J.A. and Burgin, L. (2015) Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of race TKTTF of Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici that caused a wheat stem rust epidemic in southern Ethiopia in 2013/14. Phytopathology, 105: 917– 928. Olivera Firpo, P., Newcomb, M., Szabo, L., Rouse, M.N., Johnson, J.L., Gale, S.W., Luster, D., Hodson, D., Cox, J.A. and Burgin, L. (2015) Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of race TKTTF of Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici that caused a wheat stem rust epidemic in southern Ethiopia in 2013/14. Phytopathology, 105: 917– 928. Pardey, P., Beddow, J., Kriticos, D., Hurley, T., Park, R., Duveiller, E., Sutherst, R., Burdon, J. and Hodson, D. (2013) Right-sizingstem-rust research. Science, 340: 147– 148. Pretorius, Z.A., Singh, R.P., Wagoire, W.W. and Payne, T.S. (2000) Detection of virulence to wheat stem rust 112 2022 Research in Mycology resistance gene Sr31 in Puccinia graminis. f. sp. tritici in Uganda. Plant Dis. 84: 203. 26. Roelfs, A.P. (1985) Wheat and Rye Stem Rust. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. 27. Singh, R.P., Hodson, D.P., Huerta-Espino, J., Jin, Y., Bhavani, S., Njau, P., Herrera-Foessel, S., Singh, P.K., Singh, S. and Govindan, V. (2011) The emergence of Ug99 races of the stem rust fungus is a threat to world wheat production. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 49: 465– 481. 28. Singh, R.P., Hodson, D.P., Jin, Y., Lagudah, E.S., Ayliffe, M.A., Bhavani, S., Rouse, M.N., Pretorius, Z.A., Szabo, L.J., Huerta-Espino, J., Basnet, B.R., Lan, C. and Hovmøller, M.S. (2015) Emergence and spread of new races of wheat stem rust fungus: continued threat to food security and prospects of genetic control. Phytopathology, 105: 872– 884. *** 113 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 CHAPTER Biochemistry of Mushroom 10 Ashish Singh Bisht, Rahul Purohit, Manju L. Joshi and Rashmi Tewari Introduction A mushroom is a macro fungus with a distinct fruiting body that can be either epigeous (above ground) or hypogeous (underground) and large enough to be seen and picked by hand. Mushrooms have existed as a part of the fungal diversity for approximately 300 million years. Prehistoric humans most likely used wild mushrooms for food and possibly medicinal purposes. The early civilizations of the Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, Chinese, and Mexicans appreciated mushrooms as a delicacy, knew something about their therapeutic value, and often used them in religious ceremonies. With the wide spread intentional cultivation of plants for food, it was inevitable that the mushroom would eventually be cultivated. However, mushroom cultivation did not come into existence until A.D. 600 when Auricularia auricular was first cultivated in China on wood logs. Other wood rotting mushrooms, such as Flammulina velutipes (A.D. 800) and Lentinus edodes (A.D. 1000) were grown in a similar manner, but the biggest advance in mushroom cultivation in France about 1600 when Agaricus bisporus was cultivated upon a composted substrate. Mushrooms not only provide a nutritious, protein-rich 114 Research in Mycology food, but some species also produce medicinally effective products. Lentinula, Pleurotus, Auricularia, Agaricus, and Flammulina spp. account for 85 per cent of the world's total supply of cultivated edible mushrooms. Mushrooms are consumed as a medicine in Asian countries and used in ayurveda and folk medicine in India. In India, any mushroom is used as a non-traditional cash crop and commonly cultivated species are white button mushroom, oyster, shiitake mushrooms and other mushrooms cultivated in small scale are paddy straw, milky and Rishi Mushrooms. Button mushroom accounts for approximately 95 per cent of total production and exports. Button mushroom is cultivated in temperate regions of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, however the oyster, milky, paddy straw mushrooms are cultivated in the tropical and subtropical regions. The major export destinations for Indian mushrooms are Canada, US, Israel, and Mexico. Mushrooms are exported in two forms, fresh mushrooms, and preserved/ processed mushrooms. Mushrooms can be canned, dried, packed in frozen forms, including its usage in food industry in mushroom pickle and sauces. Characteristics of Mushrooms The most common type of mushroom is umbrella shaped with pileus (cap) and stipe (stem), e.g., Lentinula edodes and some species additionally have an annulus (ring), e.g., Agaricus bisporus or a volva (cup), e.g., Volvariella volvacea or have both, e.g., Amanita phalloides. Additionally, some mushrooms are in the form of pliable cups, and others are round like golf balls. Some are in the shape of small clubs; some resemble coral; others are yellow or orange jelly like globs; and some even resemble the human ear. The structure that is called a mushroom is only the fruiting body of the fungus. The vegetative part of the fungus, called the 115 2022 Research in Mycology mycelium, comprises a system of branching threads and cord like strands that branch out through the soil, compost, wood log or other lingo cellulosic material on which the fungus is growing. After a period of growth under favourable conditions, the matured mycelium produces the fruiting structure, which is called the mushroom. Most commonly paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella spp.), oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp), button mushroom (Agaricus spp.), milky mushroom (Calocybe spp.), shiitake mushroom (Lentinulla spp.) and Jew’sear mushroom (Auricularia sp.) are widely preferred for large-scale cultivation. Nutritional and Medicinal Values of Mushrooms The main sources of protein in the Indian diet are grains like wheat, rice, and maize. The addition of a mushroom dish to the Indian diet will close the protein gap and enhance the general health of communities with low socio-economic status. In the past, wealthy people liked using mushrooms in their cooking because they were seen as an expensive vegetable. Currently, the general community regards mushrooms as a high-quality meal because of its health advantages. Chemical Makeup and Nutritional Value The chemical makeup and nutritional content of edible mushrooms may be influenced by the growth features, stage, and post-harvest state. Mushrooms contain a high moisture ranging between 85– 95% approximately. Edible mushrooms are good source of protein 200–250g/kg of dry matter and most abundantly leucine, valine, glutamine, glutamic and aspartic acids. These are low-calorie foods as they provide low amount of fat, 20–30g/kg of dry matter. Edible mushrooms contain high amounts of ash, 80–120 g/kg of dry matter (mainly potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, copper, iron, and zinc). Carbohydrates are found in high proportions, including chitin, glycogen, trehalose, and mannitol; 116 2022 Research in Mycology but fructose and sucrose are found in low amounts. Besides, they contain fiber, 𝛽-glucans, hemicelluloses, and pectic substances. Mushrooms are also a good source of vitamins with high levels of riboflavin (vitaminB2), niacin, folates, and traces of vitamin C, B1, B12, D and E. Mushrooms contains natural vitamin D ingredients. Wild mushrooms are generally excellent sources of vitamin D2. Mushrooms do not have cholesterol; instead, they have ergosterol that acts as a precursor for Vitamin D synthesis in human body. In addition to the nutritional components biologically active substances like secondary metabolites (acids, terpenoids, polyphenols, sesquiterpenes, alkaloids, lactones, sterols, metal chelating agents, nucleotideanalogs, and vitamins), glycoproteins and polysaccharides, mainly 𝛽-glucans may also be found in edible mushrooms. New proteins with biological activities have also been found, which can be used in biotechnological processes and for the development of new drugs, including lignocellulose-degrading enzymes, lectins, proteases, and protease inhibitors, ribosome-in activating proteins and hydrophobins. The rich amount of proteins, carbohydrates, essential minerals, and low energy levels contributes to considering many wild-grown mushrooms as good food to enhance innate and cell-mediated immune responses and exhibit antitumor activities in animals and humans. A wide range of these mushroom polymers have been reported previously to have immune therapeutic properties by facilitating growth inhibition and destruction of tumor cells. Carbohydrates Mushrooms contain specific carbohydrates rhamnose, xylose, fucose, arabinose, fructose, glucose, mannose, mannitol, sucrose, maltose, and trehalose. Antitumor polysaccharides isolated from mushrooms are acidic or neutral, have potent antitumor activity, and have vastly different chemical structures. These compounds 117 2022 Research in Mycology may prevent stress and reduce tumor size. 𝛽-glucans are the main polysaccharides found in mushrooms and are responsible for anticancer, immune modulating, anti-cholesteric, antioxidant and neuro-protective activities. They are recognized as potent immunological stimulators. Proteins Mushrooms produce a large number of proteins and peptides with several biological activities such as lectins, fungal immune modulatory proteins, ribosome inactivating proteins, antimicrobial proteins, ribonucleases, and laccases. Lectins are non-immune proteins or glycoproteins binding specifically to cell surface carbohydrates. They have many pharmaceutical activities and possess immune modulatory properties, antitumoral, antiviral, antibacterial, and antifungal activity. Some of them exhibit highly potent antiproliferative activity toward some tumor cell lines (human leukemic T cells, hepatoma Hep G2 cells, and breast cancer MCF7 cells). Fungal immune modulatory proteins are a new family of bioactive proteins isolated from mushrooms, which have shown a potential application as adjuvants for tumor immunotherapy mainly due to their activity in suppressing tumor invasion. Lipids Poly unsaturated fatty acids are mostly found in edible mushrooms, and they may help lower serum cholesterol. Ergosterol, the main sterol produced by edible mushrooms, has antioxidant properties. A diet high in sterols has been found to be beneficial in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Tocopherols are natural antioxidants found in the lipid fraction because they act as free radical scavenging proxy components produced by various reactions. These antioxidants have high biological activity and can help protect against degenerative diseases, cancer, and 118 2022 Research in Mycology cardiovascular diseases. Linoleic acid, an essential fattyacid for humans, participates in a variety of physiological functions; it lowers the risk of cardio vascular diseases, triglyceride levels, blood pressure and arthritis. Phenolic Compounds Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites possessing an aromatic ring with one or more hydroxyl groups and their structures can be a simple phenolic molecule or a complex polymer. They are antiallergenic, antiatherogenic, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, antithrombotic, cardio protective and vasodilator effects. The main characteristic of this group of compounds has been related to its antioxidant activity because they act as reducing agents, free radical scavengers, singlet oxygen quenchers or metal ion chelators. Phenolic compounds provide protection against several degenerative disorders, brain dysfunction, cancer and cardio vascular diseases. The phenolic compounds in mushrooms show excellent antioxidant capacity. Nutritive values of different mushroom aregivenin Table1. Table1: Nutritive values of different mushrooms (dry weight basis g/100g) Mushroom Carbohydrate Fiber Protein Fat Ash Energy (k cal) Agaricus bisporous 46.17 20.90 33.48 3.10 5.70 499 Pleurotussajor-caju 63.40 48.60 19.23 2.70 6.32 412 Lentinula edodes 47.60 28.80 32.93 3.73 5.20 387 Pleurotus ostreatus 57.60 8.70 30.40 2.20 9.80 265 Vovarella volvaceae 54.80 5.50 37.50 2.60 1.10 305 Calocybe indica 64.26 3.40 17.69 4.10 7.43 391 Flammulina velutipes 73.10 3.70 17.60 1.90 7.40 378 Auricularia auricula 82.80 19.80 4.20 8.30 4.70 351 119 2022 Research in Mycology Flavour and Taste Compounds Mushroom flavour substances can be divided into nonvolatile (taste) and volatile components (smell). Terpenes, aromatic alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carbon compounds, and their derivatives are the most important aroma compounds in mushrooms. Lipoxygenase catalyses the oxidation of free linoleic acid to produce eight-carbon volatiles. Mushrooms' distinct flavour is attributed to free amino acids, nucleotides, and soluble sugars. Cooking can have a large impact on the flavour of mushrooms and the flavor profile can depend on the method of cooking. Medicinal Values of Mushrooms Specific biochemical compounds in mushrooms are responsible for improving human health in many ways. These bioactive compounds include polysaccharides, tri-terpenoids, low molecular weight proteins, glycoproteins, and immune modulating compounds. Hence mushrooms have been shown to promote immune function, boost health, lower the risk of cancer, inhibit tumor growth, help balancing blood sugar, ward off viruses, bacteria, and fungi, reduce inflammation, and support the body's detoxification mechanisms. Increasing recognition of mushrooms in complementing conventional medicines is also well known for fighting many diseases. Good for Heart The edible mushrooms are an appropriate choice for heart patients and the treatment of cardiovascular disorders since they contain low fat, a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, and no cholesterol. The mushroom's low sodium and high potassium content improves salt balance while preserving human blood circulation. Therefore, mushrooms are safe for those with high blood pressure. 120 2022 Research in Mycology Low Calorie Food The diabetic patients choose mushrooms an ideal food due to its low calorific value, no starch, and little fat and sugars. The lean proteins present in mushrooms help to burn cholesterol in the body. Thus, it is most preferable food for people striving to shed their extra weight. Prevents Cancer All forms of edible mushrooms, and white button mushrooms, can prevent prostate and breast cancer. Fresh mushrooms can arrest the action of 5-alpha-reductase and aromatase, chemicals responsible for growth of cancerous tumors. The drug known as Polysaccharide-K (Kresin), is isolated from Trametes versicolor (Coriolus versicolor), which is used as a leading cancer drug. Some mushroom-derived polysaccharides have ability to reduce the side effects of radio therapy and chemotherapy too. Such effects have been clinically validated in mushrooms like Lentinula edodes, Trametes versicolor, Agaricus bisporous and others. Anti-Aging Property The poly saccharides from mushrooms are potent scavengers of super oxide free radicals. These antioxidants prevent the action of free radicals in the body, consequently reducing the aging process. Ergo thionine is a specific antioxidant found in Flammulina velutipes and Agaricus bisporus which is necessary for healthy eyes, kidney, bone marrow, liver, and skin. Regulates Digestive System The fermentable fibers as well as oligosaccharides from mushrooms act as a prebiotic in intestine and therefore, they anchor useful bacteria in the colon. This dietary fiber assists the digestion process and healthy functioning of bowel system. 121 2022 Research in Mycology Strengthens Immunity Mushrooms can strengthen the immune system. A diverse collection of polysaccharides (beta-glucans) and minerals, isolated from mushroom is responsible for up-regulating the immune system. These compounds potentiate the host’s innate (nonspecific) and acquired (specific) immune responses and activate all kinds of immune cells. Medicinal values of some important mushrooms are given in Table2. Table 2 : Medicinal values of some important mushrooms Mushroom Compounds Medicinal Properties Ganoderma Ganoderic acid, Augments immune system, Liver protection, lucidum Beta- glucan Antibiotic properties, Inhibits cholesterol synthesis Lentinula Eritadenine Lower cholesterol, Anti-cancer agent edodes Lentinan Agaricus bisporous Pleurotus sajor-caju Grifola frondosa Auricularia auricula Flammulina velutipes Trametes versicolor Cordyceps sinensis Lectins Enhance insulin secretion Lovastatin Lower cholesterol Polysaccharide, Increases insulin secretion, Decrease Lectins blood glucose Acidic Decrease blood glucose polysaccharides Ergothioneine, Antioxidant, Anticancer activity Proflamin Polysaccharide- Decrease immune system, depression K (Kresin) Cordycepin Cure lung infections, Hypoglycemic activity, Cellular health properties, Anti-depressant activity Mushrooms, like plants, have a high potential for food production. These are a rich source of bioactive metabolites and a plentiful source of drugs. Advances in biochemistry, biotechnology, and 122 2022 Research in Mycology molecular biology are increasing the use of mushrooms in medical sciences. Aside from their pharmacological benefits, edible mushrooms and by-products may provide highly palatable, nutritious, and healthy food. Mushroom industries will play a lead role in nutraceuticals and pharmaceutical industries. The increasing awareness about the biochemistry of mushrooms for high nutritional value accompanied by medicinal properties means that mushrooms are going to be emerge as an alternate to nonvegetarian foods. References 1. Manikandan, K. (2011) Nutritional and medicinal values of mushrooms. Mushrooms cultivation, marketing, and consumption, 11-14. 2. Mwangi, R. W., Macharia, J. M., Wagara, I. N., and Bence, R. L. (2022) The antioxidant potential of different edible and medicinal mushrooms. Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy, 147, 112-621. 3. Raman, J., Lee, S. K., Im, J. H., Oh, M. J., Oh, Y. L., and Jang, K. Y. (2018) Current prospectsof mushroom production and industrial growth in India. Journal of Mushroom, 16(4), 239-249. 4. Royse, D. J., Baars, J. and Tan, Q. (2017) Current overview of mushroom production in the world. Edible and medicinal mushrooms: technology and applications, pp5-13. 5. Tsai, S. Y., Tsai, H. L. and Mau, J. L. (2008) Non-volatile taste components of Agaricus blazei, Agrocybe cylindracea and Boletus edulis. Food Chemistry, 107(3): 977-983. 6. Valverde, M. E., Hernández-Pérez, T. and Paredes-López, O. (2015) Edible mushrooms: improving human health and 123 2022 Research in Mycology promoting quality life. International journal of microbiology, 2015: 376-387. 7. Wang,X.M., Zhang, J., Wu, L.H., Zhao, Y. L., Li, T., Li, J. Q. and Liu, H. G. (2014) A mini-review of chemical composition and nutritional value of edible wild-grown mushroom from China. Food chemistry, 151:279-285. *** 124 2022 Research in Mycology Antioxidant Components and Properties of Mushrooms CHAPTER 11 Ahmad Gazali, Hafsa Imam and Maria Imam Introduction Mushroom are distributed world widely and consume as dietary component from ancient time. Mushroom has its own specific test, flavor, and aroma with edibility properties (Keles et al., 2011). Mushroom may have edible, medicinal and poisonous type. In the chemical properties of mushroom has 90% water and 10% of their matters. Edible mushroom has attractive nutritional value which can be compared with milk, egg, meat etc. Chemically mushroom contains several types of vitamins and essential amino acids, other than proteins, fats, carotenoids, organic acids etc. Energetic value of mushroom defined between 250 to 350 cal/kg. (Sanchez, 2017). Mushroom is a rich source of phenolic compounds, carotenoids, tocopherol, and ascorbic acid. Mushroom has unlimited biological active agents as a source of useful therapeutical and about 700 species of mushrooms reported to have pharmacological activities (Ajith and Janardhanan, 2007). It is accumulating a variety of compounds including steroids, polyketides, terpenes, and phenolic compounds as secondary metabolites. These compounds have 125 2022 Research in Mycology antioxidant properties. Among all the antioxidant components, phenolic compounds have large array of biological actions which include free radical scavenging and inhibition of oxidation (Keles et al., 2011; Khatun et al., 2015). Antioxidant System It estimated that molecular oxygen evolved about 2.45 billion years ago and introduced as O2 in environment. These O2 systematically evolving from photosynthetic organisms and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in aerobic life on earth. ROS may have two types with different components including indigenous and exogenous (Kosanic et al., 2013; Kump, 2008) (Fig. 1). Fig. 1. Endogenous and exogenous factors inducing ROS generation The O2 molecules has two free or impaired electrons known free radicle which can damage the cells of all organisms. A free radicle is a chemical compound that contains one or more unpaired 126 2022 Research in Mycology electrons in atomic or molecular orbitals (Alliwell, 1994). Free radical is specified as reactive molecules derived from molecular oxygen. In animals specified into human, energy production and immune function performed by the process of oxidation. In normal physiological condition of body, low level of ROS produced by oxidation which maintain normal cell function and antioxidant defense system. Whereas the ROS level exceeds (in high concentration) from normal function, it expresses harmful action by damaging nucleic acids, protein oxidation and peroxidation of lipid (Sanchez, 2017). The production of ROS can be reported by different external sources like tobacco, smoke, stress etc. or biproduct of electron transport of mitochondria or by oxidoreductase enzymes and metal catalyzed oxidation (Cederbaum et al., 2009). These reactive chemical compounds (free radicles) are components of cell especially cell wall or nucleic acid (DNA). They involve in important enzyme reaction and changing the chemical composition. By this action, the function of cell may lose or checked and results apoptosis or cellular senescence (Sanchez, 2017; Lakshmi et al., 2004; Cederbaum et al., 2009). So free radicles become a major agent of aging and degenerative diseases like immune system decline, cancer, liver disease, cardiac disease, diabetes, inflammation, kidney failure, stress etc. (Sanchez, 2017; Ma et al., 2018; Lakshmi et al., 2004; Alliwell, 1994) (Fig. 2). 127 2022 Research in Mycology Fig. 2. Representation of human cell, which can be damaged by free radicals generated from internal and external sources. Neutralizing of free radicals by an antioxidant agent Neutralizing agents of free radicles are specified as antioxidant agent which play necessary role in cell protection against ROS or Oxidative reaction through the exchange of their own electrons with free radicles. Antioxidant chemical compounds (VitaminA/Carotenoids, Vitamin-E/Tocopherol, Vitamin-C/Ascorbic acid, Polyphenol, β-Glaucon, Glutathione etc.) provide most important intra-cellular defense against deleterious effects of ROS (Sanchez, 2017; Khatun et al., 2015). Antioxidant compounds may be two types- Endogenous and Exogenous (Fig. 3). Endogenous antioxidant agents are Proteins and some low molecular weight compounds like Uric acid, Bilirubin, Ubiquinols, Vitamin-C, Glutathione, NADPH, NADH etc. Exogenous antioxidant 128 2022 Research in Mycology components are Dietary antioxidant which gain from external nutritional sources (Sanchez, 2017). Fig. 3. Representation of antioxidant system During 1950s, “Free Radical Theory of Ageing” published by Harman and express the endogenous free oxygen radicals evolved to cause damages of cells. Free radical or reactive species such as ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species), RNS (Reactive Nitrogen Species), RCS (Reactive Carbon Species), RSS (Reactive Sulfur Species) are influence the cell homeostasis and ageing. In all reactive species, ROS represent the most important and dominating category of living system and more than 90% production reported in eukaryotic cell by mitochondrial ETS (Electron Transport System) (Kozarski et al., 2015). In mushrooms (Edible & Non edible) species, several bioactive molecules are reported that shows high health promoting properties with different bioactivities like antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, anticancerous, antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulatory, cholesterol lowering, immunosuppressive 129 2022 Research in Mycology and especially antioxidant. Antioxidant activities can also say lifesaving performance of bioactive molecules. The capacity of antioxidant of mushroom is determined by mainly the amount of phenolic compounds in their extracts (Kosanic et al., 2013; Feleke and Doshi, 2017). In mushroom, main chemical is phenolic compounds like phenolic acid, tannin, lignin, stilbenes, flavonoids, hydroxybenzoic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid and polyphenols which perform a significant antioxidant activity in biological systems by inhibiting free radicles. Number of phenolic compounds in mushroom extracted as 1-6mg phenolics from 1g dried mushroom (Ma et al., 2018). Different type of methods evolved to measure the antioxidant efficiency. The working mechanism of these methods based on antioxidant defense system such as inhibition of free radicals which can induce cellular damages (Lakshmi et al., 2004). Two type of antioxidant availability have been seen i.e., synthetic antioxidant and natural antioxidant. Several natural antioxidants have been demonstrated by researchers from different natural products such as cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, leaves, roots, and Mushrooms. Natural antioxidant may consume by dietary and medicinal means (Lakshmi et al., 2004). Both type of antioxidant such as natural and synthetic are effective to reducing oxidative damage in human body by ROS. However, some synthetic antioxidants are suspective to have toxic and carcinogenic effects like BHA (Butylated Hydroxy Anisole), BHT (Butylated Hydroxy Toluene), TBHQ (Tetra butylhydroquinone) EQ (Ethoxyquin) and PG (Propyl gallate). Therefore, the desired antioxidant is reported to natural antioxidant which has a natural origin. The development and utilization of natural antioxidant are more effective (Kosanic et al., 2012; Kozarski et al., 2015). 130 2022 Research in Mycology Table 1. List of some mushroom species which has antioxidant activities. S.N. Mushroom Species Edibility References 1. Agaricus bisporus Edible 2. Agaricus compestris Edible Ramkumar et al., 2010; Ma et al., 2018; He et al., 2012; Taofiq et al., 2016 Akata et al., 2019 3. Agrocybe aegrita Edible Mujic et al., 2010 4. Agrocybe cylindracea Edible Murcia et al., 2002 5. Aleurodiscus vitellinus Edible Toledo et al., 2016 6. Amanita crocea Edible Alkan et al., 2020 7. Amanita porphyria Inedible 8. Amanita rubescens Edible Kosanic et al., 2013 9. Angelini sps Edible Alkan et al., 2020 10. Auricularia auricula Edible 11. Boletus aestivalis Edible He et al., 2012; Hussein et al., 2015; Boonsong et al., 2016; Obodai et al., 2014 Kosanic et al., 2012 12. Boletus edulis Edible 13. Calocybe gambosa Edible 14. Calocybe indica Edible 15. Cantharellus cibarius Edible 131 Reis et al., 2011 Ma et al., 2018; Kosanic et al., 2012; Vamanu and Nita, 2013 Ma et al., 2018 Ramkumar et al., 2010; Ma et al., 2018 Kosanic et al., 2013; Ma et al., 2018; Ramesh and Pattar, 2010; Kosanic et al., 2013 2022 Research in Mycology 16. Cantharellus cinerius Edible Kumari et al., 2011 17. Cantharellus friessi Edible Kumari et al., 2011 18. Cantharellus lutescens Edible Murcia et al., 2002 19. Cantharellus subcibarius Edible Kumari et al., 2011 20. Clavaria vermicularis Edible 21. Collybia fusipes Ramesh and Pattar, 2010 Reis et al., 2011 22. Coprinus comatus Edible Akata et al., 2019 23. Cortinarius magellanicus Edible Toledo et al., 2016 24. Edible Ma et al., 2018 25. Craterellus cornucopioides Cyclocybe cylindracea Edible Alkan et al., 2020 26. Cyttaria hariotii Edible Toledo et al., 2016 27. Fistulina antarcatica Edible Toledo et al., 2016 28. Fistulina endoxantha Inedible Toledo et al., 2016 29. Flammulina velutipes Edible 30. Fomitopsis pinicola Inedible 31. Ganoderma lucidum Edible 32. Grifola frondosa Edible Lakshmi et al., 2004; 55 Yeh et al., 2011 33. Grifola gargal Edible Toledo et al., 2016 34. Hebeloma sinapizans 35. Hemileccinum dipilatum Edible Alkan et al., 2020 36. Hericium erinaceum Edible Mujic et al., 2010 37. Hybsizus ulmarius Edible Ramkumar et al., 2010 38. Hydnum repandum Edible Murcia et al., 2002 39. Hydropus dusenii Inedible Toledo et al., 2016 Inedible Inedible 132 He et al., 2012 Reis et al., 2011 Reis et al., 2011 2022 Research in Mycology 40. Hygrocybe acuteconica Inedible 41. Hygrophorus marzuolus Edible Ma et al., 2018 42. Infundibulicybe geotropa Edible Sevindik et al., 2020 43. Inocybe splendens 44. Lactarius deliciosus Edible 45. Lactarius hepaticus Inedible Ma et al., 2018; Alkan et al., 2020 Reis et al., 2011 46. Lactarius piperatus Inedible Kosanic et al., 2013 47. Leccinum carpini Edible Kosanic et al., 2012 48. Lentinus edodes Edible 49. Lentinus sajor caju Edible Boonsong et al., 2016; He et al., 2012 Hussein et al., 2015 50. Lentinus squarrosulus Edible 51. Lentinus tigrinus 52. Lepista edodes Edible Murcia et al., 2002 53. Lepista nuda Edible 54. Letinula edodes Edible 55. Edible 56. Leucoagaricus leucothites Leucopaxillus giganteus Murcia et al., 2002; Toledo et al., 2016 Ma et al., 2018; Taofiq et al., 2016; Mujic et al., 2010 Akata et al., 2019 Edible Feleke and Doshi, 2017 57. Lycoperdon perlatum Edible 58. Lycoperdon utriforme Edible Ramesh and Pattar, 2010 Akata et al., 2019 59. Macrolepiota mastoides Edible Akata et al., 2019 60. Macrolepiota procera Edible Hussein et al., 2015; Akata et al., 2019 Inedible Inedible 133 Alkan et al., 2020 Reis et al., 2011 Hussein et al., 2015; Obodai et al., 2014 Reis et al., 2011 2022 Research in Mycology 61. Marasmius oreades Edible 62. Neoboletus erythropus Edible 63. Panaeolus antillarium Inedible Dulay et al., 2015 64. Panus conchatus Inedible Hussein et al., 2015 65. Phellinus rimosus Inedible 66. Piptoporus betulinis Inedible Ajith and Janardhanan, 2007 Reis et al., 2011 67. Pleurotus citrinopileatus Edible Khatun et al., 2015 68. Pleurotus djamor Edible 69. Pleurotus eryngii Edible 70. Pleurotus euos Edible 71. Pleurotus florida Edible 72. Pleurotus ostreatus Medicinal 73. Pleurotus platypus Edible Ramkumar et al., 2010; Arbayah and Umi Kalsom, 2013 Gasecka et al., 2016; Yildirim et al., 2012 Ramkumar et al., 2010; Boonsong et al., 2016 Ramkumar et al., 2010; Lakshmi et al., 2004; Khatun et al., 2015; Ajith and Janardhanan, 2007 Taofiq et al., 2016; Obodai et al., 2014; Arbayah and Umi Kalsom, 2013; Ma et al., 2018; Chirinang and Intarapichet, 2009; Gasecka et al., 2016; Iwalokun et al., 2007 Ramkumar et al., 2010 74. Pleurotus pulmonarius Edible 134 Ramesh and Pattar, 2010 Alkan et al., 2020 Arbayah and Umi Kalsom, 2013; Khatun et al., 2015; Ajith and Janardhanan, 2007; 2022 Research in Mycology 75. Pleurotus rimosus 76. Pleurotus sajor caju Edible 77. Pleurotus tuber regium Edible 78. Pluteus murinus Inedible Reis et al., 2011 79. Polyporus dermoporus Inedible Dore et al., 2014 80. Polyporus tenuiculus Inedible Hussein et al., 2015 81. Ramaria formosa Edible 82. Ramaria patagonica Ramesh and Pattar, 2010 Toledo et al., 2016 83. Ramaria stricta Edible 84. Ramaria subalpina Edible Krupodorova and Sevindik, 2020 Acharya et al., 2017 85. Russula aurea Edible Alkan et al., 2020 86. Russula cyanoxantha Edible Kosanic et al., 2013 87. Russula delica Edible Turkoglu et al., 2017 88. Russula emetica 89. Russula sanguinea Edible Alkan et al., 2020 90. Schizophyllum commune Edible 91. Suilus granulatus Edible Arbayah and Umi Kalsom, 2013 Mushtaq et al., 2020 92. Termitomyces aurantiacus Termitomyces clypeatus Edible Tibuhwa, 2012 Edible Tibuhwa, 2012 93. Inedible Nguyen et al, 2016; Ramesh and Pattar, 2010 Lakshmi et al., 2004 Inedible Inedible 135 Boonsong et al., 2016; Ramkumar et al., 2010; Obodai et al., 2014; Lakshmi et al., 2004; Chirinang and Intarapichet, 2009 Obodai et al., 2014 Reis et al., 2011 2022 Research in Mycology 94. Termitomyces letestui Edible Tibuhwa, 2012 95. Edible Tibuhwa, 2012 96. Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces robustus Edible Obodai et al., 2014 97. Termitomyces striatus Edible Tibuhwa, 2012 98. Termitomyces titanicus Edible Tibuhwa, 2012 99. Volvariella volvacea Edible Ramkumar et al., 2010; Boonsong et al., 2016 Conclusion Antioxidant is the chief and satisfactory component which increase the life of cell and delay the ageing process. Mushroom is the rich natural resource to fulfil the dietary balance of antioxidant. Plant are also rich in antioxidant properties but mushroom is better, easily available, suitable test with edibility, and economical in subject to human welfare. Phenolic compound is the chief antioxidant factor of mushroom. In subject to knowledge of antioxidant properties of mushroom, much more research is required. References 1. Abdullah, N., Ismail, S.M., Aminudin, N., Shuib, A.S. & Lau, B.F. (2012). Evaluation of Selected CulinaryMedicinalMushrooms for Antioxidant and ACE Inhibitory Activities. 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Antioxidant Properties of Wild Edible Mushroom Pleurotus eryngii Collected from Tunceli Province of Turkey. Digest Journal of Nanomaterials and Biostructures, 7(4): 1647-1654. *** 144 2022 Research in Mycology Journey of Microbial and Fungal Secondary Metabolites In Pest Management CHAPTER 12 Ahmad Gazali, Masufa Tarannum and Maria Imam Introduction During the last few decades, pesticides have played a key role in protecting our crop from devastating pests. However, the continuous and indiscriminate use of these pesticides has led to serious problems such as pest resistance, pest resurgence and harmful effect on the environment due to their residual action. Therefore, microbial secondary metabolites offer a better alternative to conquer the pollution and resistance caused by the synthetic chemicals. The secondary metabolites are low molecular weight organic compounds, varied structure and produced by certain microbial species. They do not play any role in the growth and development of organisms unlike the primary metabolites. The primary metabolites like enzymes, organic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids and nucleopeptides are essential for the growth while secondary metabolites play role in antagonism, competition and defense of an organism. These secondary metabolites are very diverse in structure and each unique metabolite is produced by a specific species. These secondary metabolites are derived from the common biosynthetic pathways which branch off the primary 145 2022 Research in Mycology metabolic pathways. A characteristic feature of these metabolites is that they are not produced during the phase of rapid growth (trophophase), but are produced during later stages of growth (idiophase). The SM are synthesized when growth become limited by the exhaustion of major nutrients like carbon, phosphorus and nitrogen. These metabolites showed potent control efficacy against various pests which are rather difficult to manage with conventional pesticides. The microbial metabolites are produced by various microorganisms like fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes. The secondary metabolites produced by various microbes and their actions are dealt in details for proper insight of these metabolites and their further exploration in the future. 1. Fungal Secondary Metabolites There are various fungi like Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana, Trichoderma spp., Alternaria spp., endophytic fungi, Tolypocladium spp., Paecilomyces fumosoroseus, Verticillium lecanii which produce tremendous number of secondary metabolites. Among these, the Trichoderma is the most extensively researched fungal biocontrol agent and is successfully used as biopesticide and biofertilizer in glasshouse as well as in field trials (Harman et al. 2004). It produces tremendous number of bioactive compounds used as antifungal, antibacterial and antitrichomonal agent (Table 1). Endophytic fungi proliferate within their host without causing any apparent disease symptoms (Petrini, 1991; Wilson, 1995). They are the novel and potential sources of bioactive compounds that can serve for the discovery and development of newer pharmaceutical product (Dompeipen et al., 2011). They have led to production of tremendous novel antidiabetic, antibiotics, anticancer, antimycotics and 146 2022 Research in Mycology immunosuppressants and more of the unexplored products are on the way (Table 2). The fungal secondary metabolites are exploited as herbicides, insecticides, nematicides and fungicides are summarized below: 1.1 Herbicides a) Maculosin: It is cyclic dipeptide, isolated from the fungus Alternaria alternata and effective against the weed spotted knapweed (Cantaeurea maculosa). b) Bipolaroxin: It is obtained from Bipolaris cyanodontis and effective against the weed Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass). At higher concentration it can manage the weeds like wild sugarcane, oats and maize. c) Cornexistin: It is a phytotoxin from Paecilomyces variotii and it can effectively manage both monocots and dicots weed except maize (US Patent, 1991). d) LT-toxin: It is a phytotoxin from Lasiodiplodia theobromae MTCC3068 and exhibit broad spectral herbicidal activity against duckweeds, carrot grass, prickly sida, jimsonweed and Euphorbia hirta (US patent, 2009). e) Cinnacidin: It is a phytotoxin from Nectria sp. DA60047. It produces the chlorosis and stunting symptoms which progresses throughout the leaves (Irvine et al., 2008). f) Mevalocidin: It is a phytotoxin from Roselliana DA092917 and Fusarium DA056446. It exhibits herbicidal activity against monocot and dicot weeds. It is a xylem as well as phloem mobile herbicide (Gerwick et al., 2013). 147 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 Table 1: Secondary metabolites of Trichoderma spp. and their biological potential Structural class Compound Producer strain Trichoderma virens Biological effect Antifungal Target pest Botrytis cinerea Trichohorzianum TA Trichorzianum TB Koninginin A, B, C, D and E T. virens Antifungal B. cinerea Rebuffat et al. (1996) T. harzianum T. koningii Antifungal, Plant growth regulator Gaeumanno myces graminis var. tritici Auvin-Guette et al. (1993) 6-pentyl–α-pyrone T. harzianum T. koningii Trichoderma spp. T. viride Antifungal, Antimicrobial , Plant growth regulator Rhizoctonia solani Almassi et al. (1991) Massoilactone δ-decenolactone Trichoderma spp. Antifungal Soil borne fungi Almassi et al. (1991) Trichodermin T. virens T. polysporum T. reesei T. harzianum Antifungal - Sivasithampara m et al. (1998) Antifungal - T. viride T. virens T. koningii T. viride T. koningii T. longibrachiat um Antibiotic, Antisporulant - Sivasithampara m et al. (1998) Sivasithampara m et al. (1998) Trichorzins TV B I, II, IV References Rebuffat et al. (1996) Peptaibols Polyketides Harzianum A Terpenes Viridin Ergokonin A, B Antifungal 148 Aspergillus sp. Candida sp. Vicente et al. (2001) Research in Mycology Other metabolites Lignoren T. lignorum Antifungal, Antibacterial Ferulic acid T. virens Gliotoxin T. virens T. lignorum T. hamatus Antiviral, Bactericide, Antifungal Antibiotic Sporobolo myces salmonicol o, Rhodotorul a rubra, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomon as aeruginosa - - Berg et (2004) Cryptocin Cryptocandin Cytochalins H, N Producer strain Cryptosporiopsi s quercina (endopyte in stem of Tripterigeum wilfordii) Cryptosporiopsis quercina (endopyte in stem of Tripterigeum wilfordii) Phomopsis sp. (endophyte in Gossypium hirsutum) Biological activity Antifungal Target pest Pyricularia oryzae Antifungal - Antifungal 149 Sclerotinia sclerotium. Fusarium oxysporum, Botrytis cineria, al. Dickinson et al. (1995) Wiest et al. (2002) Lorito et (1996) Table 2: Secondary metabolites of endophytic fungi and their biological potential Compound 2022 References Li et al. (2000) Strobel et al. (1999) Fu et al. (2011) al. Research in Mycology Colletotric acid Volatile compound (alcohols, acids, esters and monoterpenes ) Nodulisporic acid Bipolaris sorokiniana, Rhizoctonia cerealis Helminthosporiu m sativum. Colletotrichum gloesporoides (endophyte in Artemissia mangolica) Nodulisporium sp. (endophyte in Lagerstroemia loudoni) Antifungal Zou et al. (2000) Antifungal Green and blue mold decay caused by Penicillium digitatum and P. expansum Suwannarac h et al. (2013) Nodulisporium sp. (endopyte in Bontia daphnoides) Insecticida l Fleas Ondeyka et al. (1997) g) Macrocidins (Macrocidin A and Macrocidin B): It is isolated from the Phoma macrostoma and potent herbicide against the Cirsium arvense L. (Canada thistle) (US Patent, 2010). It induces the chlorotic and bleaching symptoms on the broad-leaved weeds by inhibiting the carotenoid synthesis in plants (Graupner et al., 2006). h) Phyllostictine A: It is a phytotoxin produced by Phyllosticta cirsii and is potent mycoherbicide against Cirsium arvense (Zonno et al., 2008). i) Zinniol: It is isolated from Alternaria cirsinoxia and it is used to control Cirsium arvense (Berestetskii et al., 2010). 1.2 Inseticides a) Destruxin: Destruxin A and B from Metarhizium anisopliae were the first entomopathogenic metabolites discovered. Later many isomers of Destruxin were 150 2022 Research in Mycology b) c) d) e) f) g) h) discovered and Destruxins A1, A4, A5 and Homodestruxin B is obtained from the fungus Aschersonia spp (Strasser et al., 2000) Efrapeptins: These are isolated from Tolypocladium spp. They exhibit miticidal and insecticidal activities against pests such as diamondback moth, spidermites and potato beetles (Krasnoff et al., 1991). Efrapeptins shows antifeedant activity and causes inhibition of insect growth (Bandani and Butt, 1999) Oosporein: This secondary metabolite is produced by species of Beauveria on sterilized barley kernels in submerged cultures (Strasser et al., 2000) Beauvericin: This hexadepsipeptide is isolated from Beauveria bassiana and Paecilomyces spp. It has two forms i.e. Beauvericin A and Beauvericin B (Lane et al., 2000; Miller et al., 2008) Nodulisporic acid: This metabolite is produced by endophytic fungus Nodulisporium sp. which inhabits Hawaiian plant Bontia daphnoides. It possesses the insecticidal activity against fleas (Ondeyka et al., 1997) Rugulosin: It is isolated from the fungus Phialocephala scopiformis which is an endophyte in white spruce needles. It is effective against spruce budworm (Choristoneurea fumifera) by its anti-feedant activity (Miller et al., 2008). Citrantifidiene: It is produced by the soil dwelling isolate of Trichoderma citrinoviridae. It shows antifeedent activity against Schizaphis graminum. 4-(N-methyl-N-phenylamine)-butan-2-one: This metabolite is produced by Aspergillus gorakhpurensis and shows larvicidal activity against Spodoptera litura (Busi et al., 2009). 151 2022 Research in Mycology 1.3 Nematicides a) Omphalotin A: This cyclic dodecapeptide is produced by Omphalotus olearicus. It exhibits higher efficacy than the well-known nematicide ivermectin (Mayer et al., 1999). b) Caryospomycin A, B and C: This is isolated from the Caryospora callicarpa and shows nematicidal activity activity against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (pinewood nematode) (Dong et al., 2007) c) Dicarboxylic acid: This novel nematicide is produced by Paecilomyces sp. It is effective against the nematodes Meloidogyne incognita, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and Panagrellus redivivus (Liu et al., 2009) 1.4 Fungicides a) Cryptocin: This metabolite is isolated from the endophytic fungus Cryptosporiopsis quercina inhabiting the stem of Tripterigeum wilfordii and effectively manage the blast fungus Pyricularia oryzae of rice (Li et al., 2000). b) Cytochalsins: These are isolated from the fungus Phomopsis sp. which is an endophyte in Gossypium hirsutum. It is effective against Botrytis cineria, Rhizoctonia cerealis, Sclerotinia sclerotium, Bipolaris sorokiniana and Fusarium oxysporum (Fu et al., 2011). c) Colletotric acid: This phenolic compound is isolated from the fungus Colletotrichum gloesporoides existing as an endophyte in Artemisia mongolica. It can effectively manage the pathogen Helminthosporium sativum (Zou et al., 2000). d) Rufuslactone: It is obtained from the fruiting bodies of a basidiomycetes fungus Lactarius rufus. It inhibits the growth of pathogens such as Botrytis cineria, Fusarium graminearum, Alternaria alternata and Alternaria brassicae (Luo et al., 2005). 152 2022 Research in Mycology e) Strobilurins: It is isolated from the fungus Oudemansiella mucida and Strobilurus tenecellus. These Strobilurins were too photosensitive that they were not commercially used. The synthetic analogues of this Strobilurins have been developed namely azoxystrobin, kreso-oxim methyl, trefloxystrobin and picoxystrobin, which are photostable and are used to manage many diseases 2. Bacterial Secondary Metabolites The bacteria producing the bioactive compounds can be categorized into four groups namely obligate pathogens (such as Bacillus popilliae); crystalliferous spore formers (such as Bacillus thuringiensis); facultative pathogens (such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and potential pathogens (such as Serratia marcesens). Among these, the spore formers are commercially employed at field level due to their effectiveness and safety (Roh et al., 2007). The Bacillus thuringiensis and B. sphaericus are most commonly used bacteria. The insecticidal property of these bacteria is due to crystalline proteins encoded by the cry genes. The Bacilli are rodshaped, gram positive, aerobic bacteria and motile by peritrichous flagella. The Secondary metabolites of bacilli can be broadly classified as bacteriocins, lantibiotics and miscellaneous antibiotics based on their structure and shows remarkable antiviral, antitumor, antimicrobial, immunosuppressant and antifungal properties (Table 3). Pseudomonads are gram-negative, aerobic, motile, straight or slightly curved rods belonging to gamma - Proteobacteia (Galli et al., 1992). Secondary metabolites produced by fluorescent Pseudomonads exhibit a wide range of antimicrobial activity (Thomashow et al., 1990), this makes fluorescent Pseudomonads as promising plant growth promoting rhizobacteria. Pseudomonas fluorescens produces secondary metabolites such as phenazines 153 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 (Sunish Kumar et al., 2005); phenolics (Vincent et al., 1991); polyketides (Kraus and Loper, 1995); pyrrole-type compounds (Pfender et al., 1993); peptides (Sorensen et al., 2001); 2, 4diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG) (Rosales et al., 1995); cyclic lipodepsipeptides (Nielsen et al., 2002) which exhibit various antibacterial, antifungal and antihelmenthic activities (Table 4). The various compounds of bacterial origin exhibiting herbicidal, insecticidal, and fungicidal properties are listed below. 2.1 Herbicides a) Tabtoxin: This wildfire toxin is isolated from the bacteria Pseudomonas syringae var. tabaci causing wildfire disease of tobacco. It acts by inhibiting the activity of the enzyme glutamine synthetase. Table 3: Secondary metabolites of Bacillus spp. and their biological potential Structural Class Compound Producer strain Thuricin Entomocin B. thuringiensis HD2 B. thuringiensis Coagulin B. coagulans Le Kurstakin 18 B. thuringiensis BMG1.7 B. subtilis ATCC6633 B. subtilis 168, ATCC6633 B. subtilis A1/3 Bacteriocins Subtilin Lantibiotics Subtilosin A Ericin 154 Biological effect Bacteriolytic Bactericidal entomocidus HD9 Bactericidal, bacteriolytic Fungicidal References Favret and Yousten (1989) Cherif et al. (2003) Antibacterial Marrec et al. (2000) Hathout et al. (2000) Stein et al. (2002) Antibacterial Stein (2005) Antibacterial Stein (2005) Research in Mycology Cyclic lipoheptapeptide Surfactin 5 B. subtilis Iturin 7 Polyketides macrolactone Difficidin 10 Aminopolyol Antibiotic Zwittermicin 14 B. amyloliquefaciens B94, FZB42 B. amyloliquefaciens FZB42, GA1 B. thuringiensis, B. cereus Hemolytic, cytotoxic Antifingal, haemolytic Antibacterial Antifungal Carrillo et al. (2003) Aranda et al. (2005) Yu et al. (2002) Arguelles-Arias et al. (2009) Silo-Suh (1998) et b) Phaseolotoxin: This phytotoxin is produced by Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola, the causal agent of Halo blight of bean. Its shows broad range of activity by inhibiting the ornithine carbamoyl transferase (OCT), which regulates the synthesis of arginine. c) Coronatine: It is produced by Pseudomonas coronafacience. It produces chlorotic symptoms on the leaves by inhibiting the jasmonate controlled pathways in the host (Block et al., 2005). 2.2 Insecticides a) Bt-Toxins: These widely exploited bacterial endotoxins are produced by Bacillus thuringensis and related species. Transgenic plants expressing the genes responsible for production of bacterial toxin can potentially control Lepidopteran (butterfly and moths), Coleopteran (beetles) and Dipteran (flies) insects. b) Diabroticin A: This toxin is produced by Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus cereus, which can effectively manage the Southern corn rootworm (Diabrotica undecimpunctata) (Stierle et al., 1990). 155 2022 al. Research in Mycology 2022 2.3 Fungicides a) Macrolactin A: Macrolactin A and Iturin A isolated from the Bacillus sp. sunhua. It can inhibit the pathogens Streptomyces scabies (Scab of potato) and Fusarium oxysporum (Dry rot disease) (Han et al., 2005). Table 4: Secondary metabolites of fluorescent pseudomonads and their biological potential Metabolites Producer strain P. chlororaphis P. cepacia P. fluorescens Biological effect Antifungal 2,4-DAPG P. fluorescens P. aeruginosa Antifungal, Antibacterial , Antihelmenthic, Herbicidal HCN Pseudomonas sp. P76 Pseudomonas sp. Antifungal Phenazine1-carboxylic acid P. fluorescens 2-79 P. aureofaciens 30-84 Antifungal, Antibacterial Pyrrolnitrin 156 Target Pest References F. graminearum, R. solani, Pythium ultimum and Aphanomyces cochliodes F. oxysporum, G. graminis var. tritici, C. michiganensis subsp. Michiganensis and Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae Sclerotium rolfsii, Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. michiganensis Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici, F. oxysporum f.sp. ciceris and F. udum León et al. (2009); Park et al. (2011) Lagzian et al. (2013); Lanteigne et al. (2012) Priyanka et al. (2017); Lanteigne et al. (2012) Pathma et al. (2010) Research in Mycology Pyoverdine Cyclic lipopeptides P. fluorescens 3551 P. fluorescens CHAO P. fluorescens 2022 Antifungal Competitive inhibition of phytopathogens Loper (2008) Antifungal R. solani, P. ultimum and Phytophthora infestans Tran et al. (2007); b) Syringomycin E: It is produced by Pseudomonas syringae and can potentially manage the Penicillium digitatum causing the citrus green mold (Bull et al., 1998). 3. Actinomycetes Secondary Metabolites Among the soil microbes, the actinomycetes occupy the most important place. They are source for the production of many novel biologically active substances which have been commercialized as pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals. Among the actinomycetes, Streptomycetes are best known for their ability to control pests as it produces tremendous number of bioactive compounds which have the potential to be used as fungicide, herbicide, insecticides, acaricides and bactericides. Streptomyces are gram positive soil dwelling microbe with high G+C content and comprise largest genus of actinobacteria. They are the versatile producers of secondary metabolites which exhibit potential antiproliferative, antihelmintic, antimicrobial, etc. (Table 5). The numerous secondary metabolites of actinomycetes exhibiting herbicidal, insecticidal, bactericidal and fungicidal properties are listed below. 157 Research in Mycology 2022 Table 5: Secondary metabolites of Streptomyces spp. and their biological potential Structural Class Lipopeptide Daptomycin S. roseosporus Tripeptide Bialaphos Herbicidal Streptomycin S. hygroscopicus, S. viridochromogenes S. griseus Neomycin S. fradiae Antibacterial Istamycins A and B Avermectin S. tenjimariensis Antibiotic S. avermitilis Marinone Streptomyces sp. Anthelmintic, Insecticidal Antibiotic Komodoquinone A Cyclomarins Streptomyces sp. KS3 S. arenicola Aminoglycoside Macrocyclic lactones Compound Producer strain Biological effect Antibiotic Bactericidal Quinones Cyclic Peptides Neutritogenic Antiinflammatory References Woodworth et al. (1992) Kondo et al. (1973) Singh and Mitchison (1954) Waksman and Lechevalier (1949) Okami et al. (1979) Burg et al. (1979) Pathirana et al. (1992) Itoh et al. (2003) Renner et al. (1999) 3.1 Herbicides a) Bialaphos: This tripeptide is isolated from Streptomyces hygroscopicus and Streptomyces viridiochromogenes in 1978 (Mase et al., 1984). This is a post-emergence herbicide used in apple, brassicas, vines or on the uncultivated land (Copping and Duke, 2007). The bialaphos is converted into active toxic compound phosphinothricin inside the plant (Tachibana, 2003). This 158 Research in Mycology herbicide is produced by Meiji Seika through fermentation and available in market as Herbiace. This herbicide is also available with the other common names such as phosphinothricyl-alanyl-alanine, bilanafos and phosphinothricinalanyl-alanine. The glufosinate ammonium is the chemically synthesized analogues of phosphinothricin and introduced by Hoechst (now Bayer Crop Science) as herbicide and available in the market with trade names Liberty, Basta and Ignite. b) Herbimycin: This herbicide is isolated from Streptomyces hygroscopicus. It is broad spectrum herbicide effective against both monocot and dicot weeds. It is pre- as well as post-emergence herbicide (Hahn et al., 2009). c) Pyrizadocidine: This is produced by the Streptomyces and induces symptoms like chlorosis and necrosis in the weeds (Gerwick et al., 1997). d) Albucidin: This metabolite is isolated from Streptomyces albus subsp. chlorines. This is broad spectrum herbicide and produces chlorosis and bleaching symptoms (Hahn et al., 2009). 3.2 Insecticides a) Abamectin: It is obtained from the fermentation broth of Streptomyces avermitilis. It is effective against the motile forms of broad range of suckers, beetles, mites, leafminers and other insects which attack on potatoes, vegetables, cotton, citrus, ornamental plants, etc. It acts by inhibiting the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor in insects. It is an insecticide and acaricide and effective against lepidopteran insects and nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. It is sold in market with different names as Denim, Agri-Mek, Clinch, Proclaim, Arise, Avid, Affirm and other names (Dunbar et al., 1998). 159 2022 Research in Mycology b) Spinosad: This secondary metabolite is isolated from Saccharopolyspora spinosa (Mertz and Yao, 1990; Thompson and Hutchins, 1999). It is a mixture of spinosyn A and spinosyn D and can effectively control wide range of thrips, caterpillar, foliage feeding beetles and leaf miners c) Milbemycin: This metabolite is isolated from fermented broth of S. hygroscopicus subsp. aureolacrimosus (Mishima et al., 1983). It is used to manage leaf miners, citrus red mite, kanzawa spider mite, etc. by inhibiting the neurotransmission signals in the insects. 3.3 Fungicides a) Blasticidin-S: It is product obtained from actinomycete Streptomyces griseochromogenes and has the potential to control Pyricularia oryzae (Blast of rice). It is a contact fungicide having both protective and curative action (Fukunaga, 1955). It is available in market with trade name of Bla-S as emulsifiable concentrate (EC), dustable powder (DP) and wettable powder (WP). b) Kasugamycin: This another fungicide produced by Streptomyces kasugaensis is also used to effectively control Pyricularia oryzae, scab in apple and pear (Venturia inaequalis) and leaf spot in celery and sugar beet (Cercospora spp.) (Umezawa et al., 1965). It is sold in market as wettable powder, dustable powder, soluble concentrates and granules with the tradename of Kasumin and Kasugamin. 3.4 Antibiotics a) Oxytetracycline: This antibiotic is a product of soil actinomycete Streptomyces rimosus and can effectively manage the diseases caused by Xanthomonas and Pseudomonas species (Finlay et al., 1950). 160 2022 Research in Mycology b) Streptomycin: This metabolite is produced by soil actinomycete Streptomyces griseus. It is a potential antibiotic against Xanthomonas citri, X. oryzae and Pseudomonas tabaci and widely used in fruits, vegetables and ornamentals. It is also used to control bacterial canker, bacterial rots, and other bacterial diseases. Conclusion The secondary metabolites from different antagonists such as bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes have served as a novel source of microbial pesticides. Many of these microbial pesticides are in commercial use in agriculture and pharmaceutical, but more research needs to be done in this direction, as being sensitive to UV light, heat and desiccation their efficacy is not up to the mark. Their performance in the field is also inconsistent and unpredictable. The short shelf life of these microbial products is another concern; research should be focused to make special formulation to increase their shelf life. 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Rashid Reza and Naushad Ahmad Introduction It has been estimated that 25 of the world’s crops are affected by mould or fungal growth [1]. Fungal corruption of crops can have serious profitable consequences and goods may be defiled with poisonous fungal secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins. Mortal exposure to mycotoxins may affect from consumption of factory deduced foods that are defiled with poisons, the carryover of mycotoxins and their metabolites into beast products similar as milk, meat and eggs or exposure to air and dust containing poisons Mortal food can be defiled with mycotoxins at colourful stages in the food chain and the three most important rubrics of mycotoxigenic fungi are Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium. The top classes of mycotoxins produced by these rubrics are aflatoxins (Aspergillus), ochratoxins (Aspergillus and Penicillium) and trichothecenes and fumonisins (Fusarium). The complaint performing from mycotoxin exposure is a mycotoxicosis. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is the trichothecene most frequently encountered in the field [4]. Fumonisins and aflatoxin B1 are 173 2022 Research in Mycology carcinogenic [5][6]. There is now inviting epidemiological evidence that aflatoxin B1 consumption contributes significantly to the high prevalence of mortal liver cancer in numerous developing countries, especially in individualities infected with hepatitis B or C contagion [7][8]. Ochratoxin A is nephrotoxic and a possible cause of urinary tract excrescences and Balkan – aboriginal nephropathy [6]. There are a number of other mycotoxins that beget complaint and these include zearalenone (Fusarium), an oestrogenic mycotoxin and ergot alkaloids produced on cereal grains (Claviceps) or by endophytic fungi (Neophytodium) [9][10]. The medium of action of these mycotoxins is generally well characterised [11]. There has been a major transnational exploration trouble, aimed at the identification and quantification of mycotoxins and evaluation of their natural goods in humans and creatures. The motivation for the trouble is the reports of acute mycotoxicoses in humans, the recrimination of mycotoxins in habitual mortal complaint, especially cancer and the negative profitable goods of beast mycotoxicoses and crop losses due to mycotoxin impurity [12]. Still, the mycotoxins that are likely to be encountered by mortal populations differ between countries. This reflects different crops, agronomic practices and climatic conditions which mandate the fungi that are present in a husbandry system. Two recent books give a good overview of the significance of mycotoxins in different regions of the world and in European countries [13][14]. This review describes the impact of mycotoxin impurity of the mortal food chain. 174 2022 Research in Mycology Mycotoxin Exposure and Discovery A wide range of goods can be defiled with mycotoxins (Table 1) both pre-and post- crop [3]. Aflatoxins are plant in sludge and peanuts as well as in tree nuts and dried fruits. Ochratoxin A is plant substantially in cereals but significant situations of impurity may also do in wine, coffee, spices and dried fruits. Fumonisins are plant substantially in sludge and sludge grounded products. Tricothecenes are primarily associated with grain as is zearalenone. Available substantiation suggests that towel accumulation of mycotoxins or their metabolites is veritably low and that remainders are excreted in many days. The hydroxylated metabolite of aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin M1 is excreted into milk from 1 to 6 of salutary input. Ochratoxin A has been detected in blood, feathers, liver, and muscle towel from gormandizers in several European countries Remainders of cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), aco-contaminant with aflatoxin, have been plant in meat, milk and eggs [19]. After an expansive review of the literature, Pestka concluded that trace situations of mycotoxins and their metabolites may carry over into the comestible towel (meat) of food producing creatures. Still, he concluded that to date there is no substantiation to suggest that the situations of transmitted mycotoxins pose a trouble of acute toxin [20]. Immaculately determination of exposure and opinion of a mycotoxicosis should depend upon the absence of other readily diagnosed conditions and the finding of a mycotoxin in questionable food [21]. It is not enough to have insulated the fungus as one must be suitable to demonstrate the presence of biologically effective attention of the poison. One difficulty in counting upon chemical analysis of food is that of carrying a sample representative of the food which was consumed. Another 175 2022 Research in Mycology major difficulty is analysis because of the vast array of chemical composites that are mycotoxins. Discovery of numerous of these composites requires veritably sophisticated and precious laboratory outfit and veritably professed logical druggists [22]. Operation of immunological styles to mycotoxin analysis still, has seen the development of immunoassays which are rapid-fire, unremarkable and sensitive. Mycotoxins are non-antigenic, but an antibody response can be inspired to the poison after conjugation to a protein or polypeptide carrier. The vacuity of antibodies to a number of mycotoxins has allowed the development of enzymelinked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) for the discovery of poisons in food goods and residual mycotoxins or metabolites in body fluids or apkins [23]. Marketable ELISA accoutrements, which are suitable for field use, have come available for aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxins and fumonisins. The difficulty of counting on logical data for determining mycotoxin exposure of mortal populations is the miscellaneous distribution of mycotoxins in food goods the time pause between poison input and the development of habitual complaint and the inaccuracies of salutary questionnaires for determining food input data. A further dependable and applicable index of individual exposure can be handed by biomarkers which can be determined in urine or blood. Biomarkers include parent composites and metabolites or macromolecular adducts. An understanding of aflatoxin metabolism has allowed the development of a number of biomarkers, especially the aflatoxin albumen adduct that is measured in serum [24]. This marker has been used considerably to assess mortal exposure in epidemiological studies. Lately there has been demonstration of a specific mutation in the TP53 gene and this has contributed significantly to the identification of aflatoxin B1 as a mortal carcinogen [24]. 176 2022 Research in Mycology Table 1. Some human diseases in which mycotoxins have been implicated. Mycotoxins and Mortal Complaint Mycotoxins have been associated with a number of mortal conditions, some acute and others habitual and a number of these conditions are listed in Table 1. Although mycotoxins have been intertwined in this mortal ails, only infrequently has a direct connection been established and much remains to be done to establish the aetiology of numerous questionable mortal mycotoxicoses. Beardall and Miller have given a veritably detailed account of mortal ails that have been associated with mycotoxin ingestion [25]. The numerous interacting factors in the pathogenesis of a mycotoxicosis (Fig 1) make opinion delicate as does attesting mycotoxin exposure. Habitual input is the widest form of mycotoxin exposure and the consequences of this for mortal health are bandied below. Throughout history there are cases, especially following deluge, shortage and war, when acute mycotoxicosis have devastated mortal populations [26]. Acute complaint occurrences have passed lately following high situations of mycotoxin ingestion. Acute liver complaint has been reported in India, Malaysia and Kenya following aflatoxin 177 2022 Research in Mycology consumption [27][28][29]. Bhat et al. reported gastrointestinal pain and diarrhoea in an outbreak of food borne complaint associated with high fumosin input in India [30]. Gastrointestinal symptoms including vomiting were apparent in humans after high situations of DON input in China [31]. An analogous outbreak was observed in India when original townlets consumed rain damaged wheat that contained DON and other trichotheces [32]. There have been suggestions that zearalenone caused unseasonable menarche in youthful girls in South America but these reports have not been substantiated [9]. Since the middle periods there have been occurrences of ergotism reported in mortal populations in Europe and North America [26]. The most recent outbreak of gangrenous ergotism was in Ethiopia in1978 [33]. Habitual Goods of Mycotoxins in Mortal Populations In numerous regions of the world, salutary masses, especially cereal grains contain low situations of mycotoxins. The impact of regular low- position input of mycotoxins on mortal health is likely to be significant with a number of possible consequences including disabled growth and development, vulnerable dysfunction and the complaint consequences of differences in DNA metabolism. Growth and Development Multitudinous beast studies have shown that one of the first goods of mycotoxin ingestion is reduced feed input and growth [34]. Gong et al. conducted across-sectional epidemiological Check in West Africa in which they determined the aflatoxin exposure of children between 9 months and 5 times of age and examined their growth, development and height against a WHO source population [35]. The study revealed a veritably strong association between exposure to aflatoxin in the children and both suppressing and being light. Both conditions reflect significant malnutrition and exposure of the children to aflatoxin in utero and latterly after birth [35]. The children were also co-exposed to a number of contagious 178 2022 Research in Mycology conditions and it's likely that the exposure to complaint and aflatoxin would significantly compromise growth and development through reduced food input and also the repartitioning of nutrients to maintain an upregulated vulnerable system and down from growth and development [36]. There are reports linking kwashiorkor, a complaint of malnutrition, to aflatoxin exposure Still, it has not been established if the advanced circumstance of aflatoxin adducts in children suffering from kwashiorkor is a cause or a consequence of the complaint. Immunosuppression Aflatoxin, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, sterigmatocystin, rubratoxin, fumonisins, zearalenone, patulin, citrinin, wortmannin, fusarochromanone, gliotoxin and ergot alkaloids have been shown to beget immunosuppression and increase the vulnerability of creatures to contagious complaint [3]. Substantial substantiation exists that mycotoxin can be immunotoxic and ply goods on cellular responses, humoral factors and cytokine intercessors of the vulnerable system. The goods on impunity and resistance are frequently delicate to honor in the field because signs of complaint are associated with the infection rather than the poison that fitted the individual to infection through dropped resistance and/ or reduced vaccine or medicine efficacity [40]. Also, in beast models, immunosuppressant goods of poisons occur at lower situations of input than do the poison’s goods on other parameters of toxin similar as feed input and growth rate. Recent studies in Gambian children and in Ghanaian adults show a strong association between aflatoxin exposure and reduced immunocompetence suggesting that aflatoxin ingestion decreases resistance to infection in mortal populations [41][42]. Studies by Pestka and his colleagues have shown that DON can both stimulate and suppress the vulnerable system [43]. This has been demonstrated with the effect of DON on dysregulation of IgA and 179 2022 Research in Mycology the development of order complaint in beast models that nearly resembles mortal glomerulo-nephritris IgA nephropathy. Carcinogenicity, Mutagenicity, and Teratogenicity There has been extensive evaluation of the capacity of mycotoxins to interact with DNA and modify its action [11]. Mycotoxins may be carcinogenic (eg. fumonizins), carcinogenic and teratogenic (eg. ochratoxin) or carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic (eg. aflatoxin) [11]. When it was first appreciated some 40 years ago that aflatoxin was a potential carcinogen, it was this finding that gave significant impetus for the research that has subsequently been conducted to define the role of mycotoxins in human and animal disease. Wild and Turner have extensively reviewed the mechanism of toxicity and carcinogenicity of aflatoxins [24]. There is now a significant body of evidence demonstrating human exposure in utero to a number of mycotoxins but the relevance of this exposure to birth defects or impaired embryonic developed has received relatively little attention. Cawdell-Smith et al. were able to identify some 40 mycotoxins that had been shown to be teratogenic and/or embryotoxic in animal models [44]. However, most of these mycotoxins have only been evaluated in rapid screening assays that did not seek to delineate their potential teratoenicity during early pregnancy. Aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, rubratoxin B, T-2 toxin, sterigmatocystin and zearalenone have been shown experimentally to be teratogenic in at least one mammalian species. Recent epidemiological investigations of human populations in Texas, China, Guatemala and southern Africa that rely on foods prepared from maize, which is often contaminated with fumonisins, found a significantly higher incidence of neural tube defects in babies [45]. Interestingly, fumonisins perturb folate metabolism46 and folate deficiency is a known cause of neural tube defects in human embryos. 180 2022 Research in Mycology Strategies for Reducing Mycotoxin Risk In addition to the genetic capacity of the fungus, mycotoxin production depends on many factors. Moisture and temperature are two factors that have a crucial effect on fungal proliferation and toxin elaboration. In the preharvest period, crops that have experienced significant stress whether it be from drought or insects can succumb to fungal invasion. Prior to harvest, preventive measures begin with good agronomic practices including cultivating to improve plant vigour, the judicious use of insecticides and fungicides to reduce insect and fungal infestation, irrigation to avoid moisture stress, harvesting at maturity and breeding programmes to improve genetic resistance to fungal attack [47]. During the post-harvest period, control of moisture and temperature of the stored commodity will largely determine the degree of fungal activity [48]. Moisture content depends mostly on water content at harvest and can be modified by drying, aerating, and turning of the grain before or during storage. Apart from methods that modify the fungal environment many compounds are available that will inhibit mould growth. Organic acids, especially propionic acid, form the basis of many commercial antifungal agents used in the animal feed industry [47]. Once formed, mycotoxins are very stable but many processing practices reduce the level of contamination as food commodities are processed prior to packaging for human consumption [3]. Approaches to detoxification of mycotoxin contaminated grain have included physical, chemical, and biological treatments [3][49]. Methods include dehulling, washing, density segregation of contaminated from noncontaminated kernels, food processing practices and treatment with chemicals including sodium bisulfite, ozone, and ammonia. A diverse variety of substances have been investigated as potential mycotoxin-binding agents including 181 2022 Research in Mycology synthetic cation or anion exchange zeolites, bentonite, hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS) and yeast cell wall preparations [50][51]. HSCAS is a high affinity adsorbent for aflatoxins, capable of forming a very stable complex with the toxin and hence reducing its bioavailability and thereby diminishing the adverse effects and tissue accumulation of the toxin A yeast cell wall-derived glucomannan prepared from Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been shown to efficiently adsorb aflatoxins, zearalenone and fumonisins [52][53]. A feed additive that is a stabilised bacterial species of Eubacterium can detoxify trichothecenes by removal of the epoxide group in vivo and is a novel approach to mycotoxin decontamination [54]. The foregoing discussion highlights the need to develop strategies that minimise the production of mycotoxins in food commodities both before and after harvest. A knowledge of fungal ecology, toxicgenicity and food and animal production systems are required. Such an interdisciplinary understanding supports the principles of the HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) approach for mycotoxin management [55]. However, in developing countries, these processes may not be economically feasible in many high-risk regions and that is why it is often more prudent to look for other intervention strategies. In many African countries the mycotoxin problem is related to insufficient food and the reliance on a single crop (eg. maize) [29]. In these situations, with high daily intake of the cereal, only moderate mycotoxin contamination levels are required to exceed recommended tolerable intake for mycotoxins. It has been demonstrated in animal studies and in some human studies that oltipraz is an effective agent in blocking aflatoxin adduct formation and it is believed that this predominantly reflects induction of aflatoxin detoxifying enzymes [24]. Nevertheless, the multi-phase and long-term development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) may limit the 182 2022 Research in Mycology effectiveness of chemotherapeutic agents It was the considered view of WHO that because of the interaction of aflatoxin with hepatitis B virus in the development of HCC, the most costeffective approach to intervention is vaccination against viral infection [8]. Figure 1. A simplified representation of some general relationships in a mycotoxicosis. Economic Impact Mycotoxin contamination of the food chain has a major economic impact. However, the insidious nature of many mycotoxicoses make it difficult to estimate incidence and cost [47]. In addition to crop losses and reduced animal productivity, costs are derived from the efforts made by producers and distributors to counteract their initial loss, the cost of improved technologies for production, storage and transport, the cost of analytical testing, especially as 183 2022 Research in Mycology detection or regulations become more stringent and the development of sampling plans [56]. There is also a considerable cost to society as a whole, in terms of monitoring; extra handling and distribution costs; increased processing costs and loss of consumer confidence in the safety of food products. It is estimated that in developing countries, the greatest economic impact is associated with human health [12]. Delineating economic impact reflects the complexity of a mycotoxin contamination within the food chain. A comprehensive risk and economic analysis of lowering the acceptable levels for fumonisins and aflatoxin in world trade demonstrated that the United States would experience significant economic losses from tighter controls [57]. The developing countries, China and Argentina were more likely to experience greater economic losses than sub-Sahara Africa. The disturbing outcome of this detailed analysis was that tighter controls were unlikely to decrease health risks and may have the opposite effect [57]. In other words, very stringent international trade regulations could lead to the situation were exporting countries, especially developing countries, would retain higher risk commodities which would subsequently be available for their own populations; communities which are already exposed to higher levels of mycotoxins than consumers in developed countries. Conclusion Mycotoxins are a food safety risk globally. International risk assessments have been performed by JECFA for aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin M1, DON, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, T-2 toxin and HT2 toxin [58][59]. These analyses indicate that health risks from mycotoxins are generally orders of magnitude lower in developed countries that for populations from developing regions. The scope 184 2022 Research in Mycology of the mycotoxin problem is readily understood when it is appreciated that there are many thousand secondaries fungal metabolites, the vast majority of which have not been tested for toxicity or associated with disease outbreaks [60]. In developing countries, it is likely that consumers will be confronted with a diet that contains a low level of toxin and in many cases, there may be other toxins present. For example, aflatoxins, fumonisins, DON and zearalenone may occur together in the same grain; many fungi produce several mycotoxins simultaneously, especially Fusarium species [61]. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins is of special concern, for instance, in the case of fumonisins (a potent cancer promoter) and aflatoxin (a potent human carcinogen) where a complimentary toxicity mechanism of action occurs [11]. In Africa and Asia, the co-occurrence of these mycotoxins is common and a significant percentage of the population is infected with for Hepatitis B or C which leads to the conclusion that mycotoxins in these regions can have devastating human health effects. Implicit with these conclusions are the existence of syndromes of apparently unknown aetiology and epidemiology that may involve mycotoxins and the difficulty of establishing "no effect" levels for mycotoxins. References 1. Mannon J. and Johnson, E Fungi down on the farm. New Scientist 1985; 105:12-16. 2. Jarvis BB. Chemistry and toxicology of molds isolated from water-damaged buildings. Mycotoxins and Food Safety; Adv. Expt. Med. Biol., 2002; 504:43-52. 3. CAST. Mycotoxins: Risks in Plant, Animal and Human Systems. Report No. 139. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa, USA. 2003. 185 2022 Research in Mycology 4. Miller JD, ApSimon JW, Blackwell BA, Greenhalgh R and Taylor A. Deoxynivalenol: A 25-year perspective on a trichothecene of agricultural importance. In: Summerell B.A., Leslie J.F., Backhouse, D., Bryden W.L. and Burgess L.W. eds. Fusarium: Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium APS Press, St. Paul, Minnesota 2001; pp. 310-320. 5. Marasas, W.F.O., Miller, J.D., Riley, R.T. and Viscontini, A. Fusmonisins - Occurrence, toxicology, metabolism and risk assessment. In: Summerell B.A., Leslie, J.F., Backhouse D., Bryden W.L. and Burgess L.W. eds. Fursarium: Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium. APS Press, St Paul, Minnesota 2001; pp. 332-359. 6. Peraica, M., Radic, B., Lucic, A. and Pavlovic, M. Toxic effects of mycotoxins in human health, Bull. WHO., 1999; 77:754-766. 7. Wild, C.P. and Hall, A.J. Epidemiology of mycotoxin related disease. In: Howard D.H. and Miller J.D. eds. The Mycota VI. Human and Animal Relationships Spriger Verlag, Berlin, Germany 1996; VI:213-227. 8. Henry, S.H., Bosch, F.X., Troxell, T.C. and Bolger, P.M. Reducing liver cancer – global control of aflatoxin. Science 1999; 286:2453-2454. 9. Hagler, Jr. W.M., Towers, N.R., Mirocha, C.J., Eppley, R.M. and Bryden, W.L. Zearalenone: Mycotoxin or mycoestrogen? In: Summerell B. A., Leslie J.F., Backhouse, D., Bryden W.L. and Burgess, L.W. eds.Fursarium: Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium.APS Press, St Paul, Minnesota 2001; pp. 321331. 10. Bryden, W.L. The many guises of ergotism. In: Colegate S.M. and Dorling P.R. eds. Plant-Associated Toxins: Agricultural, Phytochemical and Ecological Aspects, CAB International, Wallingford, U.K 1994; pp. 381-386. 186 2022 Research in Mycology 11. Riley, R.T. Mechanistic interactions of mycotoxins: Theoretical considerations. In: Sinha K.K. and Bhatnagar D. eds. Mycotoxins in Agriculture and Food Safety Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York 1998; pp. 227-253. 12. Miller, J.D., Global significance of mycotoxins. In: Miraglia M., van Egmond H., Brera C., Gilbert J. eds. Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins – Developments in Chemistry, Toxicology and Food Safety Alaken Inc., Ford Collins, Colorado. 1998; pp.3– 15. 13. Barug, D., Van Egmond, H. Lopez-Garcia, R., van Osenbruggen, T. and Visconiti, A. (editors) Meeting the Mycotoxin Menace. Wageningen Academic Publishers, The Netherlands, 2004;319p. 14. Logrieco, A. and Visconti, A., (editors). An Overview of Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins in Europe. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. 2004;259p. 15. Van Egmond, H.P. Aflatoxin M1 occurrence, toxicity, regulation. In: van Egmond H.P. eds Mycotoxins in Dairy Products. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, Barking, Essex, England 1989; pp.11-55. 16. Veldman, A.J., Meijs, A.C., Borggreve, G.J. and Heeresvan der Tol, J.J Carry-over of aflatoxins from cows’ food to milk. Anim. Prod. 1992; 55:163-168. 17. Leistner, L. Toxigenic Penicillia occurring in feeds and foods. In: Kurata H. and Ueno Y. eds. Toxigenic Fungi – Their Toxins and Health Hazard. Elsevier Science Publishing Company, Inc., New York 1984; pp. 162-171. 18. Van Egmond, H.P. and Speijers, G.J.A. Survey of data on the incidence of ochratoxin A in food and feed worldwide. Nat. Toxins 1994; 3:125-144. 19. Bryden, W.L., Suksupath, S., Taylor, D.J. and Prasongsidh, B.C. Cyclopiazonic acid: Food chain contaminant? In: 187 2022 Research in Mycology Acamovic T., Stewart C.S. and Pennycott T.W. eds. Poisonous Plants and Related Toxins CAB International, Wallingford, U.K. 2004; pp. 134-139. 20. Pestka, J.J. Fungal toxins in raw and fermented meats. In: Campbell-Platt, G. and Cook P.E eds. Fermented Meats. Blackie Academic and Professional, Glasgow, U. K. 1995; pp. 194-216. 21. Richard, J.L. and Thurston, J.R. (editors) Diagnosis of Mycotoxicoses. Martinus Nijhoff, Boston. 1986; 411p. 22. Cole, R.J. (editor). Modern Methods in the Analysis and Structural Elucidation of Mycotoxins. Academic Press, New York, USA. 1986; 471p. 23. Pestka, J.J. Application of immunology to the analysis and toxicity assessment of mycotoxins. Food Agric. Immunol.,1994; 6:219-234. 24. Wild, C.P. and Turner, P.C. The toxicology of aflatoxins as a basis for public health. decisions. Mutagenesis 2002; 17:471481. 25. Beardall, J.M. and Miller, J.D. Diseases in humans with mycotoxins as possible causes. In: Miller J.D. and Trenholm H.L. eds. Mycotoxins in Grain: Compounds other than Aflotoxin. Egan Press, St Paul, Minnesota 1994; pp. 487-539. 26. Matossian, M.K. (1998) Poisons of the Past. Yale University Press. New Have. 190p. 27. Bhat, R.V., Aflatoxins: successes and failures of three decades of research. ACIAR Proceedings 1991; 36:77-82. 28. Lye, M.S., Ghazali, A.A., Mohan, J., Alwin, N. and Mair, R.C., An outbreak of acute hepatic encephalopathy due to severe aflatoxicosis in Malaysia. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg.1995; 53:68-72. 29. Shephard, G.S., Mycotoxins worldwide: current issues in Africa. In: Barug D., van Egmond H. Lopez-Garcia R., van 188 2022 Research in Mycology Ossenbruggen T. and Visconti A. eds. Meeting the Mycotoxin Menace, Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, the Netherlands, 2004; pp. 81-88. 30. Bhat, R.V., Sherry, P.H., Amruth, R.P. Sudershan , R.V. (1997) A foodbourne disease outbreak due to the consumption of mouldy sorghum and maize containing fumonisis mycotoxins. J.Toxicol.Clin. 1997; 35:249-255. 31. Luo, X.Y. Outbreaks of moldy cereals poisoning in China. In: Issues in Food Safety, Toxicology Forum, Inc., Washington DC, USA 1988; pp.56-63. 32. Bhat, R.V., Beedu, S.R., Ramakrishna, Y. and Munski, K.L. Outbreak of tricothecene mycotoxicosis associated with consumption of mould-damaged wheat production in Kashmir Valley, India. Lancet 1989; 1:35-37. 33. King, B., Outbreak of ergotism in Wollo, Ethiopia. Lancet 1979; 1:1411. 34. Dersjant-Li, Y., Verstegen, M.W.A. and Gerrits, W.J.J. The impact of low concentrations of aflatoxin, deoxynivalenol or fumonisins in diets on growing pigs and poultry. Nutr. Res. Rev., 2003;16:223-239. 35. Gong, Y.Y., Cardwell, K., Hounsa, A., Egal, S., Turner, P.C., Hall, A.J. and Wild, C.P. Dietary aflatoxin exposure and impaired growth in young children from Benin and Togo: Cross sectional study. Br. Med. J. 2002; 325:20-21. 36. Elsasser, T.J., Klasing, K.C., Filipov, N. and Thompson, F. The metabolic consequences of stress: Targets for stress and priorities of nutrient use. In: Moberg G.P. and Mench J.A. eds. The Biology of Animal Stress. CABI Publishing, New York. pp 2000; 77-110. 37. Hendrickse, R.C. Kwashiokor: The hypothesis that incriminates aflatoxin. Paediatrics 1991; 88:376-379. 189 2022 Research in Mycology 38. Raisuddin, S. Toxic response to aflatoxins in a developing host. J. Toxicol. Tox. Rev. 1993; 12:175-201 39. Bondy, G. and Pestka, J.J. Immunomodulation by fungal toxins. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 2000; Part B. 3:109-143. 40. Oswald, I.P., Martin, D.E., Bouhet, S, Pinton, P., Taranu, I. and Accensi, F. Immunotoxiological risk of mycotoxins for domestic animals. Food Addit. Contam. 2005; 22:354-360. 41. Turner, P.C., Moore, S.E., Hall, A.J., Prentice A.M. and Wild, C.P., Modification of immune function through exposure to dietary aflatoxin in Gambian children. Environ. Health Persp. 2003; 111:217-220. 42. Jiang, Y.I., Jolly, P.E., Ellis, W.O., Wang, J.-S., Phillips, T.D. and Williams, J.H., AflatoxinB1 albumin adduct levels and cellular immune status in Ghanaians. Int. Immunol. 2005; 17:807-814. 43. Pestka, J.J., Zhou, R.-R., Moon, Y. and Chung, Y.J. Cellular and molecular mechanisms for immune modulation by deoxynivalenol and other tricothecenes; unraveling a paradox. Toxicol. Let. 2004; 153:61-73. 44. Cawdell-Smith, A.J., Edwards, M.J. and Bryden W.L. Mycotoxins and abnormal embryonic development. In: Panter KE, Wierenga T.L., and Pfister J.A. eds. Poisonous Plants: Global Research and Solutions. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. 2007 In Press. 45. Voss, K.A., Gelineau-vanWaes, J.B. and Riley, R.T. Fumonisins: Current research trends in developmental toxicology. Mycotoxin Res. 2006; 22: 61-69. 46. Stevens, V.L. and Tang, J., Fumonisin B1-induced sphingolipid depletion inhibits vitamin uptake via the glycosylphosphatidylinositol- anchored folate receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272:18020-18025. 190 2022 Research in Mycology 47. CAST. Mycotoxins: Economic and Health Risks. Report No. 116. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa, USA. 1989. 48. Christensen, C.M. Storage of Cereal Grains and Products, 2nd Ed., Am. Assoc. Cereal Chem., St. Paul, Minnesota.1974. 49. Cole, R.J. Technology of aflatoxin decontamination. In: Natori S., Hashimoto K. and Uueno Y. eds. Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins ’88 Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam 1989; pp. 177-184. 50. Galvano, F., Piva A., Ritieni, A. and Galvano, G.. Dietary strategies to counteract the effects of mycotoxins: A review. 51. J. Food. Prot. 2001; 64:120-131. 52. Huwig, A., Freimund, S., Käppeli, O. and Dutler, H. Mycotoxin detoxication of animal feed by different adsorbents. Toxicol. Let., 2001; 122:179-188. 53. Phillips, T.D. Dietary clay in the chemoprevention of aflatoxin-induced disease. Toxicol. Sci. 1999; 52:118-126. 54. Dawson, K.A., Evans, J. and Kudupoje, M. Understanding the adsorption characteristics of yeast cell wall preparations associated with mycotoxin binding. In: Lyons T.P. and Jacques K.A. eds. Science and Technology in the Feed Industry, Nottingham University Press 2001; pp.169-181. 55. Binder, E.M., Heidler, D., Schatzmayrg, G., Thimm, N., Fuchs, E., Schuh, M., Krska, R. and Binder, J. Microbial detoxification of mycotoxins in animal feed. In: de Koe W.J., Samson R.A., van Egmond H.P., Gilbert J. and Sabino M. eds. Mycotoxins and Phytcotoxins in Perspective at the Turn of the Millennium W.J. de Koe, The Netherlands 2001; pp. 271-277. 56. Lopez-Garcia, R. Mycotoxin management: an intedgrated approach. In: de Koe W.J., Samson R.A., van Egmond H.P., 191 2022 Research in Mycology Gilbert J. and Sabino M. eds. Mycotoxins and Phytcotoxins in Perspective at the Turn of the Millennium, W.J. de Koe, The Netherlands 2001; pp. 261-269. 57. Whitaker, T.B., Springer, J., Defize, P., de Koe, W.J. and Coker, R. Evaluation of sampling plans used in the United States, United Kingdom and The Netherlands to test raw shelled peanuts for aflatoxin. J. Assoc. Off. Anal. Chem. Intl., 1995; 78:1010-1018. 58. Wu, F. Mycotoxin risk assessment for the purpose of setting international regulatory standards. Environ. Sc. Technol. 2004; 38:4049-4055. 59. JECFA (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives), Safety evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Aflatoxins. WHO Food Additives Series 40, WHO, Geneva Switzerland, 1998; pp. 359-468. 60. JECFA (Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives). Safety evaluation of certain mycotoxins in food. Aflatoxins. WHO Food Additives Series 47, WHO, Geneva Switzerland, 2001; pp. 701p. 61. Cole, R.J. and Scheweikert, M.A. Vols I-III and Jarvis, B.B., Vol. III. Handbook of Secondary Fungal Metabolites. Academic Press, California, USA. 2003; 62. Bryden, W.L., Logrieco, A., Abbas, H.K., Porter, J.K., Vesonder, R.F., Richard, J.L. and Cole, R.J. Other significant Fusarium mycotoxins. In: Summerell B.A., Leslie J.F., Backhouse D., Bryden W.L. and Burgess L.W. eds. Fursarium: Paul E. Nelson Memorial Symposium. APS Press, St Paul, Minnesota 2001; pp. 360-392. 63. Bryden, W.L. Aflatoxin and animal production: an Australian perspective. Food Technol. Aust., 1982;34:216-223. *** 192 2022 Research in Mycology Nutritional and Medicinal Properties of Mushrooms CHAPTER 14 Pooja Goswami, Santvana Tyagi, Sakshi Tripathi and Sandeep Mishra Introduction Fungi are the most diverse group of Heterotrophic organisms and second largest biotic community after insects on Earth (Bhandari and Jha, 2017; Chaudhary et al., 2015; Panda et al., 2019). They are grouped into a single kingdom of Fungi. Fungi have thalloid body organization without forming tissues and organs (Bhandari and Jha, 2017). Fungi are the parasitic or saprophytic or symbiotic in nature that play key role in terrestrial ecosystems (Bhandari and Jha, 2017; Vishwakarma et al., 2016). Fungi are the primary decomposers of lignocellulolytic substrates and the main keepers of great carbon storage in soil and dead organic materials. Their edibility, medicinal properties, mycorrhizal and parasitic association with the forest trees make them economically and ecologically important for investigation (Singh et al., 2016). The term macrofungi is generally applied to the fruiting bodies of fungi belonging to Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes which are either 193 2022 Research in Mycology Epigeous or Hypogeous, large enough to be seen by naked eyes and can be picked by hand (Vishwakarma et al., 2016). They economically used in the Phrmacology industry (Medicinal), Mass production and cultivation (Food industry), Biodegradation and Bioremediation (Bhandari and Jha, 2017). Macrofungi helps in recycling matter and maintaining biogeochemical cycle (Paliwal et al., 2013). Macrofungal Mushrooms are characterized by their distinct macroscopic fruiting bodies of underground mycelium of certain fungi belonging to the class of Basidiomycetes and Ascomycetes (Ao et al., 2016; Chaudhary and Tripathy, 2016). More than 10000 species of mushroom are reported and about 2000 species of them, considered being edible. All of these, around 25 species are widely accepted as food and only about 12 species are considered as artificially cultivated (Chaudhary and Tripathy, 2016). Mushroom have been found in fossilized wood that are estimated to be 300 million years old and almost certainly, prehistoric man has used mushroom collected in the wild as food (Singh et al., 2017). Mushrooms are seasonal fungi which shows diverse role in nature across the forest ecosystem (Chaudhary et al., 2015). Mushrooms have been existing on earth prior to human and have been used as food by humans before civilization of history (Paliwal et al., 2013) and dominantly found during the rainy season high humid condition as well as spring season (Chaudhary et al., 2015; Singh et al., 2016). Mushroom has all economically important issues since they serve as food, medicine, bio-control agent, chemical producers of bioactive compounds etc. Mushrooms are one that widespread in nature and remain the earliest type of fungi known for Mankind (Bhandari and Jha, 2017). Mushroom play crucial role in decomposition process, because it has ability to degrade cellulose and other plant polymers 194 2022 Research in Mycology (Chaudhary et al., 2015). Mushroom is not preferred only for its flavors, taste and aroma, but it also has high nutrient value. It also rich in Minerals, Vitamin and essential Amino Acids that equivalent to those obtained from animal proteins. As it lacks lipids and sugar, it is recommended to all type of patients (Chaudhary and Tripathy, 2016). Mushroom is an accepted ideal food item and are also referred to as “Vegetarian Meat” due to it is rich in protein (35%), low fat and carbohydrates and high fiber which make them enriched food an efficient tool for recycling of organic wastes (Chaudhary and Tripathy, 2016; Tripathi et al., 2017). Macroscopic fruiting bodies of mushrooms are referred by some popular terms like Agarics, Boletes, Polypores, Chonterellos, Puffballs, Stink horne fungi, Toad stools fungi, Earth stars fungi, Coral fungi, Club fungi, Fairy club fungi, Jelly fungi, Cup fungi, Bracket fungi, Flask fungi, Corticoid fungi, Bird nest fungi, Gilled fungi (Chaudhary et al., 2015; Paliwal et al., 2013; Ao et al., 2016; Vishwakarma et al., 2016). It also referred as “Heart Food” because they contain Ergosterol, which converts into Vitamin-D in the Human body and deadly cholesterol is also absent in mushrooms (Chaudhary and Tripathy, 2016). Mushrooms are also specified by a term “Poor People’s Protein” (Tripathi et al., 2017). The mushroom produced more than 100 medicinal functions like Antiviral, Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiparasitic, Antioxidant, Anticancer, Antidiabetic, Antitumor, Antiinflamatory, Antiallergic, Immunomodulating, Cardiovascular protector, Detoxification, Anticholesterolemic and Hepatoprotective effects (Vishwakarma and Tripathi, 2019). Nutritional Properties of Mushrooms The food value of Mushrooms presents and provide a link between Animal Products (Meat, Milk etc.) and Plant Products (Vegetables, 195 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 Fruits etc.). They nutritionally compared with Milk, Meat and Eggs (Thatoi and Singdevsachan, 2014). Crisan and Sands (1978) are reported that the Mushroom contain about 90% water and 10% dry matters. In the dry matters, 27-48% Proteins, 60% Carbohydrates and 2-8% Fats estimated. Orgundana and Fagade (1981) are reported that the average mushroom has about 16.5% dry matter, out of which Crude fiber 7.4%, Crude protein 14.6% and 4.48% fat and oil are estimated. India has a vast diversity of Mushroom species and the different Mushroom species has a different Nutritional Compositions (Table-1). Table-1. Nutritional Compositions of different Indian Mushroom species. Species Agaricus arvensis Agaricus bisporus Carbohydrate 32.91 Protein 32.87 Lipids/fats - Fiber 0.14 Ash 0.18 Fiber 0.14 28.38 41.06 2.12 18.23 7.01 18.23 Agaricus bisporus Agaricus heterocystis 46.17 33.48 3.10 20.90 5.70 20.90 48.55 32.23 2.90 19.7 11.4 2 19.7 Agaricus langei Auricularia auricula Auricularia auricula Auricularia auriculajudae Auricularia polytricha Boletus aestivalis Calocybe indica 34.83 35.14 - 3.28 3.28 82.80 4.20 8.30 19.80 14.1 0 4.70 33.23 36.3 1.63 8.4 7.07 8.4 33.23 36.30 - 2.81 7.07 2.81 38.48 37 .0 0.74 21.97 6.87 21.97 52.07 32.76 - 12.13 12.13 64.26 17.69 4.10 3.40 14.9 7 7.43 196 19.80 3.40 References Kumar et al. (2013) Pushpa and Purushothama (2010) Manikandan (2011) Manimozhi and Kaviyarasan (2013) Kumar et al. (2013) Manikandan (2011) Johnsy et al. (2011) Kumar et al. (2013) Manjunathan et al. (2011) Kumar et al. (2013) Manikandan (2011) Research in Mycology Calocybe indica 49.20 21.60 4.96 13.20 12.8 0 13.20 Calvatia gigantea - 27.3 1.0 22.0 6.3 22.0 Cantharellus cibarius - 21.1 1.6 12.8 13.2 12.8 Cantharellus cibarius Clavulina cinerea 47.00 34.17 - 1.40 7.78 1.40 - 27.5 2.5 8.4 13.9 8.4 Clitocybe sp. 42.0 24.8 1.24 13.04 13.04 Cookeina sulcipes Flammulina velutipes Gomphus floccosus 50.20 28.93 - 0.16 15.7 3 6.55 73.10 17.60 1.90 3.70 7.40 3.70 - 21.2 5.3 9.2 8.0 9.2 Grifola frondosa Hypsizygus tessulatus Lactarius hygrophoroid es Lactarius quieticolor 40.77 31.47 1.49 7.0 5.13 7.0 51.20 37.80 - 12.90 9.09 12.90 42.00 44.93 - 10.58 2.00 10.58 - 19.0 2.6 14.4 6.6 14.4 Lentinus edodes Lentinus edodes 47.60 32.93 3.73 28.80 5.20 28.80 64.4 22.8 2.1 - 6.0 - Lentinus sajor-caju 68.24 28.36 02.42 - 04.8 8 - 197 0.16 2022 Pushpa and Purushothama (2010) Agraharmurugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Agraharmurugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Kumar et al. (2013) Agraharmurugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Manjunathan et al. (2011) Kumar et al. (2013) Manikandan (2011) Agraharmurugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Johnsy et al. (2011) Kumar et al. (2013) Kumar et al. (2013) Agraharmurugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Manikandan (2011) Longvah and Deosthale (1998) Singdevsacha n et al. (2013) Research in Mycology Lentinus squarrosulus Lentinus tigrinus Lentinus torulosus Lentinus tuber-regium Lepiota lilacea Lepiota magnispora Lepista irina 47.83 37.13 2.58 11.33 8.33 11.33 60.0 18.07 2.25 14.69 5.14 14.69 64.95 27.31 1.36 - - 50.2 28.93 2.17 12.17 13.1 6 6.56 49.33 28.12 - 11.98 8.09 11.98 35.00 27.55 - 5.20 3.05 5.20 50.20 26.12 - 6.08 3.16 6.08 Lyophyllum decastes 34.36 18.31 2.14 29.02 14.2 0 29.02 Macrolepiota rhacodes Melanoleuca grammopodia Panus fulvus 48.0 34.31 2.25 4.78 4.78 33.04 36.27 - 8.12 11.8 0 4.13 33.04 27.06 - 6.08 3.11 6.08 Pleurotus florida 32.08 27.83 1.54 23.18 9.41 23.18 Pleurotus ostreatus Pleurotus ostreatus Pleurotus pulmonarius Pleurotus roseus Pleurotus sajor-caju Pleurotus sajor-caju Ramaria brevispora 57.60 30.40 2.20 8.70 9.80 8.70 43.4 37.63 2.47 4.2 4.2 43.40 37.63 - 4.12 42.97 30.27 2.02 4.2 10.1 7 10.1 7 5.57 38.57 39.1 1.17 4.9 5.73 4.9 63.40 19.23 2.70 48.60 6.32 48.60 - 24.1 1.3 8.8 10.9 8.8 Russula delica 34.88 26.25 5.38 15.42 17.9 2 15.42 198 12.17 8.12 4.12 4.2 2022 Johnsy et al. (2011) Manjunathan et al. (2011) Singdevsacha n et al. (2013) Johnsy et al. (2011) Kumar et al. (2013) Kumar et al. (2013) Kumar et al. (2013) Pushpa and Purushothama (2010) Manjunathan et al. (2011) Kumar et al. (2013) Kumar et al. (2013) Pushpa and Purushothama (2010) Manikandan (2011) Johnsy et al. (2011) Kumar et al. (2013) Johnsy et al. (2011) Johnsy et al. (2011) Manikandan (2011) Agraharmurugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Pushpa and Purushothama (2010) Research in Mycology 2022 Russula integra - 21.1 4.5 6.4 11.5 6.4 Schizophyllu m commune 68.0 15.9 2.0 - 8.0 - Schizophyllu m commune Termitomyces heimii Termitomyces microcarpus Volvariella bombycina (Fruit body) Volvariella bombycina (Mycellia) Volvariella volvacea Volvariella volvacea 32.43 22.50 - 6.50 6.50 39.03 34.2 2.11 9.73 10.1 0 16.8 46.53 29.4 2.33 11.5 11.2 11.5 38.90 28.30 2.72 24.60 10.9 0 24.60 34.75 25.50 1.15 31.80 9.03 31.80 Jagadeesh al. (2010) 54.80 37.50 2.60 5.50 1.10 5.50 43.53 30.57 2.04 9.67 10.3 7 9.67 Manikandan (2011) Johnsy et al. (2011) 9.73 Agraharmurugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Longvah and Deosthale (1998) Kumar et al. (2013) Johnsy et al. (2011) Johnsy et al. (2011) Jagadeesh et al. (2010) Mineral Properties of Mushrooms Different Mushrooms recorded Ash content is usually 0.18 to 15.73% of dry matter which are shown in Table-1. Mushroom’s fruiting bodies are characterized to have a high level of mineral elements. The major mineral aliments are reported as Na, K, Ca, Mg and P whereas miner minerals are As, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Mo, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn reported (Table-2). Table-2(a). Mineral Compositions of different Indian Mushroom species. Species Agaricus Heterocystis3 Auricularia polytricha3 Calvatia gigantea1,2 Ca 81.0 P - Fe 39.0 Mn 39.0 Cu 3.72 Zn 1.9 607 - 16.3 1.3 0.3 1.0 630 330 10.7 4.41 1.39 10.3 199 References Manimozhi and Kaviyarasan (2013) Manjunathan et al. (2011) Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) et Research in Mycology Cantharellus cibarius1,2 Clitocybe sp.3 Coprinopsis cinerea1,2 Gomphus floccosus1,2 Lactarius quieticolor1,2 Lentinus edodes3 Lentinus sajor-caju4 Lentinus tigrinus3 Lentinus torulosus4 Lentinus tuberregium (Wild)1 Lentinus tuberregium (Cultivated)1 Macrolepiota rhacodes3 Pleurotus eous3 420 580 53.5 7.68 4.36 6.83 208 1910 420 61.4 75.2 2.7 6.79 9.0 23.9 6.2 11.1 1370 340 22.3 7.04 3.48 13.0 1460 420 19.4 5.32 1.41 39.4 127 493 20.1 - 0.9 4.3 - 0.10 2.37 0.12 - - Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Manjunathan et al. (2011) Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Longvah and Deosthale (1998) Singdevsachan et al. (2013) 248 - 36.2 0.6 1.2 4.9 Manjunathan et al. (2011) - 0.24 2.94 0.05 - - Singdevsachan et al. (2013) 2.66 - 0.53 0.08 0.11 0.41 Manjunathan Kaviyarasan (2011) and 87 - 6.5 1.7 1.0 4.9 Manjunathan Kaviyarasan (2011) and 195 - 85.6 3.4 9.0 3.8 Manjunathan et al. (2011) 23 1410 9.0 - 17.8 82.7 Pleurotus flabellatus3 24 1550 12.4 - 21.9 58.6 Pleurotus florida3 24 1850 18.4 - 15.8 11.5 Pleurotus sajor-caju3 20 760 12.4 - 12.2 29 Ramaria brevispora1,2 Russula integra1,2 Schizophyllu m commune3 530 510 7.17 11.4 16.7 6.76 1270 240 56.2 7.28 3.33 10.5 188 408 12.3 - 0.9 5.7 Bano et al. (1981); Bisaria et al. (1987), Rai (1994) Bano et al. (1981); Bisaria et al. (1987), Rai (1994) Bano et al. (1981); Bisaria et al. (1987), Rai (1994) Bano et al. (1981); Bisaria et al. (1987), Rai (1994) Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Longvah and Deosthale (1998) 200 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 Table-2(b). Mineral Compositions of different Indian Mushroom species. Species Agaricus Heterocystis3 Auricularia polytricha3 Calvatia gigantea1,2 Cantharellus cibarius1,2 Clitocybe sp.3 Na 39.0 K 422.0 Mg 39.0 Se - Cr - Pb - 858.4 588.4 136 - - - 0.18 22.3 150 91.2 - - 0.29 47.9 46.2 295 - - 858.4 1369.1 120 - - - Coprinopsis cinerea1,2 Gomphus floccosus1,2 Lactarius quieticolor1,2 Lentinus edodes3 Lentinus sajor-caju4 Lentinus tigrinus3 Lentinus torulosus4 Lentinus tuberregium (Wild)1 Lentinus tuberregium (Cultivated)1 Macrolepiota rhacodes3 Pleurotus eous3 0.33 52.1 43.8 0.17 - - 0.14 18.7 136 NQ - - 0.21 17.0 25.31 975 - - - - 200 - 0.140 - - 0.14 - - - - 37.3 90.8 14 - - - - 0.85 - - - - 1.2 7.53 2.45 - - - 37.3 90.8 30.4 - - - Manjunathan and Kaviyarasan (2011) 274.4 294.3 250 - - - 78 4570 242 - - 1.5 Pleurotus flabellatus3 75 Pleurotus florida3 62 Manjunathan et (2011) Bano et al. (1981); Bisaria et al. (1987), (1994) Bano et al. (1981); Bisaria et al. (1987), (1994) Bano et al. (1981); Bisaria et al. (1987), (1994) 3760 4660 292 192 - - 201 - - 1.5 1.5 References Manimozhi and Kaviyarasan (2013) Manjunathan et al. (2011) Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Manjunathan et al. (2011) Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Longvah and Deosthale (1998) Singdevsachan et al. (2013) Manjunathan et al. (2011) Singdevsachan et al. (2013) Manjunathan and Kaviyarasan (2011) al. Rai Rai Rai Research in Mycology Pleurotus sajor-caju3 60 3260 221 - - 3.2 Ramaria brevispora1,2 Russula integra1,2 Schizophyllu m commune3 0.31 35.5 217.2 5.28 - - 0.56 41.0 327 26.9 - - - - 227 - 0.133 - 2022 Bano et al. (1981); Bisaria et al. (1987), Rai (1994) Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Agrahar-murugkar and Subbulakshmi (2005) Longvah and Deosthale (1998) Ca, P, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Na, K and Mg contents in mg%; 2Se content in μg/kg; 3 All mineral contents in mg/100g; 4P and K in g/100 g and rest of the metals in mg/kg; NQ: negligible quantities 1 Medicinal Properties of Mushrooms Medical Mycology is an ancient and traditional use in which mushrooms are the major constituents. Historically is used since Neolithic Era to Paleolithic Eras (Thatoi and Singdevsachan, 2014; Samoini, 2001). Mushrooms are well known to peoples as an important Natural (Biological) Source of novel secondary metabolites (Rai et al., 2005). Mushrooms are also having different bioactive molecules that shown several different properties like Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, Anti-inflammatory, Anticancerous etc. (Table-3). Table-3. Bioactive Properties of different Indian Mushroom species Biological source Agaricus bisporus Astraeus hygrometricus Cantharellus cibarius Clavaria vermicularis Ganoderma lucidum Lentinus squarrosulus Lentinus tuberregium Lycoperdon perlatum Marasmius oreades Medicinal properties Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, Antiproliferative activity Immunoenhancing activity References Jagdish et al. (2009) Antioxidant, Antimicrobial Antioxidant, Antimicrobial Antioxidant, Antimutagenic Immunoenhancing activity Ramesh and Pattar (2010) Ramesh and Pattar (2010) Jones and Janardhanan (2000); Lakshmi et al. (2004) Bhunia et al. (2010) Antibacterial Antioxidant, Antimicrobial Antioxidant, Antimicrobial Manjunathan and Kaviyarasan (2010) Ramesh and Pattar (2010) Ramesh and Pattar (2010) 202 Chakraborty et al. (2004) Research in Mycology Phellinus rimosus Pleurotus florida Pleurotus ostreatus Pleurotus pulmonarius Pleurotus pulmonarius Pleurotus sajor-caju Ramaria formosa Volvariella bombycina 2022 Antioxidant, Antitumor Antioxidant, Antiinflammatory, Immunoenhancing activity Immunoenhancing activity Antioxidant, Antimicrobial Ajith and Janardhanan (2002; 2006) Jose and Janardhanan (2000); Jose et al. (2002); Roy et al. (2009); Dey et al. (2010) Antitumor Jose et al. (2002) Antibacterial Antioxidant, Antimicrobial Antibacterial Tambekar et al. (2006) Ramesh and Pattar (2010) Jagadeesh et al. (2010) Maity et al. (2011) Ramesh and Pattar (2010) Conclusion India with diverse habitats harbors a wide verity of Mushrooms which are potentially rich in nutritional and medicinal values. Several Mushrooms are known to be the sources of different various bioactive molecules (compounds) which has properties like Antioxidant, Antiviral, Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antiparasitic, Anti-inflammatory, Antiproliferative, Anticancerous, Antidiabetic, Anticoagulative etc. Mushrooms have been used as ethnomedicines by tribals to the cure of various diseases. Many Mushroom species are remained to be recorded whereas several Mushrooms verities are known but their nutritional as well as medicinal benefits are unknown. If discovered, some of them may have high nutritional and medicinal properties and values. References 1. Agrahar-Murugkar D, Subbulakshmi, G (2005). Nutritional value of edible wild mushrooms collected from the Khasi hills Meghalaya. Food Chem.; 89:599-603. 203 Research in Mycology 2. Ao, T., Seb, J., Ajungla, T. and Deb, C.R. (2016). Diversity of Wild Mushrooms in Nagaland, India; Open Journal of Forestry; 6: 404-419. 3. Bano Z, Bhagya S, Srinivasan KS (1981). Essential amino acid composition and proximate analysis of Mushroom, Pleurotus florida. Mushrooms News Lett. Trop. 1:6-10. 4. Bhandari, B. and Jha, S.K. (2017). Comparative study of macrofungi in different patches of Boshan Community Forest in Kathmandu, Central Nepal; Botanica Orientalis – Journal of Plant Science; 11: 43-48. 5. Bhunia SK, Dey B, Maity KK, Patra S, Mandal S, Maiti S, Maiti TK, Sikdar SR, Islam SS (2010). Structural characterization of an immunoenhancing heteroglycan isolated from an aqueous extract of an edible mushroom, Lentinus squarrosulus (Mont.) Singer. Carbohydrate Res. 345:2542-2549. 6. Bisaria R, Madan M, Bisaria VS (1987). Biological efficiency and nutritive value of P. sajor-caju cultivated on different agro-wastes. Biological Wastes. 19:239-255. 7. Chakraborty I, Mondal S, Pramanik M, Rout D, Islam SS (2004). Structural investigation of a water-soluble glucan from an edible mushroom, Astraeus hygrometricus. Carbohydrate Res. 339:2249-2254. 8. Chaudhary, R. and Tripathy, A. (2016). Diversity of wild mushroom in Himachal Pradesh (India); International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology; 5(6): 10859-10886. 9. Choudhary, M., Devi, R., Datta, A., Kumar, A. and Jat, H.S. (2015). Diversity of Wild Edible Mushrooms in Indian Subcontinent and Its Neighbouring Countries; Recent Advances in Biology and Medicine; 1: 69-76. 204 2022 Research in Mycology 10. Crisan EW, Sands (1978). A nutritional value. In: Chang ST, Hayes WA (eds). The biology and cultivation of edible mushrooms. Academic press, New York. pp. 172-189. 11. Dey B, Bhunia SK, Maity KK, Patra S, Mandal S, Maiti S, Maiti TK, Sikdar SR, Islam SS (2010). Chemical analysis of an immunoenhancing water-soluble polysaccharide of an edible mushroom, Pleurotus florida blue variant. Carbohydrate Res. 345:2736-2741. 12. Jagadeesh R, Raaman N, Periyasamy K, Hariprasath L, Thangaraj R, Srikumar R, Ayyappan, SR (2010). Proximate analysis and antibacterial activity of edible mushroom Volvariella Bombycina. Int. J. Microbiol. Res. 1(3): 110-113. 13. Jagadish LK, Krishnan VV, Shenbhagaraman R, Kaviyarasan V (2009). Comparative study on the antioxidant, anticancer and antimicrobial property of Agaricus bisporus (J. E. Lange) Imbach before and after boiling. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 8: 654661. 14. Johnsy G, Davidson Sargunam S, Dinesh MG, Kaviyarasan V (2011). Nutritive Value of Edible Wild Mushrooms Collected from the Western Ghats of Kanyakumari District. Bot. Res. Int. 4(4):69-74. 15. Jones S, Janardhanan KK (2000). Antioxidant and antitumor activity of Ganoderma lucidum (curt ex Fr.). P. Karst-Reshi (Aphyllophoromycetieae) from south India. Int. J. Med. Mushr. 2: 195-200. 16. Jose N, Ajith TA, Janardhanan KK (2002). Antioxidant, antiinflammatory and antitumor activities of culinarymedicinal mushroom Pleurotus pulmonarius (Fr.) Quel. (Agaricomycetideae). Int. J. Med. Mushr. 4: 329-335. 17. Jose N, Janardhanan KK (2000). Antioxidant and antitumor activity of Pleurotus florida. Curr. Sci. 79: 941-943. 205 2022 Research in Mycology 18. Kumar R, Tapwal A, Pandey S, Borah RK, Borah D, Borgohain J (2013). Macro-fungal diversity and nutrient content of some edible mushrooms of Nagaland, India. Nusantara Biosci. 5(1):1-7. 19. Lakshmi B, Ajith TA, Sheena M, Nidhi G, Janardhanan KK (2003). Antiperoxidative, anti-inflammatory and antimutagenic activities of ethanol extract of the mycelium of Ganoderma lucidum occurring in South India. Teratogen Carcinogen Mutagen. 22: 1-13. 20. Longvah T, Deoshthale YG (1998). Compositional and nutritional studies on edible wild mushrooms from northeast India. Food chem. 64(3): 331-334. 21. Maity KK, Patra S, Dey B, Bhunia SK, Mandal S, Das D, Majumdar DK, Maiti S, Maiti TK, Islam SS (2011). A heteropolysaccharide from aqueous extract of an edible mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus cultivar: structural and biological studies. Carbohydrate Res. 346: 366-372. 22. Manikandan K (2011). Nutritional and medicinal values of mushrooms. In: Singh M, Vijay B, Kamal S, Wakchaure GC (eds). Mushrooms Cultivation, Marketing and Consumption. Director of Mushroom Research, Solan, India. pp. 11-14. 23. Manimozhi M, Kaviyarasan V (2013). Nutritional composition and antibacterial activity of indigenous edible mushroom Agaricus heterocystis. Int. J. Adv. Biotechnol. Res. 4(1):78-84. 24. Manjunathan J, Kaviyarasan V (2010). Solvent based effectiveness of antimicrobial activity of edible mushroom Lentinus tuberregium (Fr). Int. J. Pharmatech. Res. 2(3): 1910-1912. 25. Manjunathan J, Kaviyarasan V (2011). Nutrient composition in wild and cultivated edible mushroom, Lentinus 206 2022 Research in Mycology tuberregium (Fr.) Tamil Nadu, India. Int. Food Res. J. 18: 5961. 26. Manjunathan J, Subbulakshmi N, Shanmugapriya R, Kaviyarasan V (2011). Proximate and mineral composition of four edible mushroom species from South India. Int. J. Biodivers. Conserv. 3(8):386-388. 27. Orgundana SK, Fagade O (1981). The nutritive value of some Nigerian edible mushrooms. In: Mushroom Science XI, Proceedings of the Eleventh International Scientific Congress on the Cultivation of Edible Fungi, Australia. pp. 123-131. 28. Paliwal, A., Bohra, A., Pillai, U. and Purohit, D.K. (2013). First Report of Morchella –An Edible Morel from Mount Abu, Rajasthan; Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research; 18(3): 327-329. 29. Panda, M.K., Thatoi, H.N., Sahu, S.C. and Tayung, K. (2019). Wild Edible Mushrooms of Northern Odisha, India: Data on Distribution and Utilization by Ethnic Communities; Research Journal of Life Science, Bioinformatics, Pharmaceutical and Chemical Science; 5(2): 248-268. 30. Pushpa H, Purushothoma KB (2010). Nutritional analysis of wild and cultivated edible medicinal mushrooms. World J. Dairy Food Sci. 5(2): 140-144. 31. Rai M, Biswas G, Chatterjee S, Mandal SC, Acharya K (2009). Evaluation of antioxidant and nitric oxide synthase activation properties of Armillaria mellea Quel. J. Biological Sci. 1(1):39-45. 32. Ramesh C, Pattar MG (2010). Antimicrobial properties, antioxidant activity and bioactive compounds from six wild edible mushrooms of Western Ghats of Karnataka, India. Pharmacognosy Res. 2(2): 107-112. 33. Roy SK, Das D, Mondal S, Maiti D, Bhunia B, Maiti TK, Islam SS (2009). Structural studies of an immunoenhancing 207 2022 Research in Mycology water-soluble glucan isolated from hot water extract of an edible mushroom, Pleurotus florida, cultivar Assam Florida. Carbohydrate Res. 344: 2596-2601. 34. Singdevsachan SKS, Patra JK, Thatoi HN (2013). Nutritional and Bioactive Potential of Two Wild Edible Mushrooms (Lentinus sajor-caju and Lentinus torulosus) from Similipal Biosphere Reserve, India. Food Sci. Biotechnol. 22(1):137145. 35. Singh, R.P., Vishwakarma, P., Pal, A. and Tripathi, N.N. (2016). Morphological Characterization of Some Wild Macrofungi of Gorakhpur District, U.P., India; International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences; 5(12): 207-218. 36. Singh, R.P., Vishwakarma, P., Singh, P. and Tripathi, N.N. (2017). Survey and collection of some uncommon macrofungi of Gorakhpur district (U.P.); Asian Journal of Bio Science; 12(2): 126-133. 37. Tambeker DH, Sonar TP, Khodke MV, Khante BS (2006). The novel antimicrobials from two edible mushrooms: Agaricus bisporus and Pleurotus sajor caju. Int. J. Pharmacol. 2(5): 584-587. 38. Thtaoi, H. and Singdevsachan, S.K. (2014). Diversity, Nutritional Composition and Medicinal Potential of Indian Mushroom: A Review; African Journal of Biotechnology; 13(4): 523-545. 39. Tripathi, N.N., Singh, P. and Vishwakarma, P. (2017). Biodiversity of Macrofungi with Special Reference to Edible Forms: A Review; Journal of Indian Botanical Society; 96(3): 144-187. 40. Vishwakarma, P. and Tripathi, N.N. (2019). Ethnomacrofungal Study of some wild Macrofungi used by 208 2022 Research in Mycology local peoples of Gorakhpur District, Uttar Pradesh; Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources; 10(1): 81-89. 41. Vishwakarma, P., Singh, P. and Tripathi, N.N. (2016). Nutritional and Antioxidant Properties of Wild Edible Macrofungi from North – Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India; Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge; 15(1): 143-148. *** 209 2022 Research in Mycology Mushroom: As Natural 2022 CHAPTER 15 Antiviral Drugs Sakshi Tripathi, Shivangi Tripathi, Santvana Tyagi and Balwant Singh Introduction Viral diseases are brutal killers and one of the leading global health threats (Pour et al., 2019). In the past 100 years, viral infections have repeatedly caused millions of human casualties and economic chaos worldwide. The Spanish flu (1918-1919), an influenza pandemic, caused approximately 50 million deaths (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2014), and HIV/AIDS took the lives of more than 35 million (CDC, 2020). Although more recently emerging viral outbreaks such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003, H1N1 in 2009, Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) in 2012, Ebola in 2014, have had lower death tolls, however, they had a huge social and economic impact (Global Health Risk Framework for the Future (GHRF, 2016). Currently, the world is fighting with a novel Corona virus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), as of this writing on May 9, 2020, 3 767 744 cases have been confirmed with 259 593 death tolls among 215 210 Research in Mycology Countries, areas, or territories around the globe (WHO, 2020). No vaccines and drugs are available for prevention, prophylaxis, and treatment of corona virus infections in humans (Eurosurveillance Editorial Team, 2020). Therefore, to find new preventive and therapeutic agents against emerging infectious diseases has become an urgent task. Virus-specific vaccines and antiviral drugs are considered as the most powerful tools to combat infectious outbreak diseases. A new era of antiviral drug development has begun since the first antiviral drug, idoxuridine, was approved in June 1963 (De Clercq, 1997). A freely accessible database (https://drugvirus.info/) contains 120 approved, investigational, and experimental safe-in-man broadspectrum antiviral agents (BSAAs) which inhibit 86 human viruses, belonging to 25 viral families (Andersen et al., 2020). Almost all currently approved antiviral drugs are synthetic, produced by chemical synthesis. Recently great attention has paid to find novel, effective, and safe alternatives against viral diseases due to the rapid emergence of resistance, high costs, the related side effects, and cell toxicity of synthetic antiviral drugs (Farrar et al., 2007). There are several natural compounds that have already been identified as antiviral agents (Martins et al., 2016). About fifty percent of today's pharmaceutical drugs are derived from natural origin (Clark, 1996). In this regard, the discovery and production of antiviral metabolites from mushroom, a higher fungus, have emerged as part of an exciting field in viral therapeutic and antiviral drug development. This mini-review provides an insight into the mushrooms and their metabolites, explaining their potential role as major alternatives in the treatment of various viral infections. 211 2022 Research in Mycology Antiviral Research and Mushroom Taxonomy Mushrooms produce a plethora of biologically active secondary metabolites, including a wide variety of clinically important drugs. Cochran was the first to report the antiviral substances in mushrooms (Goulet et al., 1960). The active research on antiviral drug development started only after the discovery of the first viral enzyme DNA-dependent RNA polymerase of poxvirus in 1967 (Kates, 1967). Since then, mushrooms became a hunting ground for novel drug leads. Secondary metabolites from fungi represent a substantial fraction of our current pharmaceuticals, including the most popular antibiotic penicillin, immunomodulatory agents as well as those used as cholesterol-lowering (Newman and Cragg, 2016). Accurate taxonomy is paramount for the exploitation of the numerous advantages an organism offers, especially for pharmaceutical products (Raja et al., 2017). There is a serious issue of species identification in the mushroom antiviral research. In many studies, detailed information about the specimens is lacking (Linnakoski et al., 2018). Accurate species identification is a critical step to ensure the reproducibility of the work and can unlock important information regarding a species and its possible biochemical properties. Very few studies have included morphological and molecular methods both for species identification (Raja et al., 2017). The modern molecular technique reduces the challenges of inconspicuous nature, inconsistent morphology, and indiscrimination among fungal species often associated with the traditional method of nomenclature (Nilsson, 2011). A survey based on the fungal natural product articles published in the Journal of Natural Products during 2000-2015 reveals that∼31% provided fungal identification based solely on morphology; ∼28% of them did not report any form of identification for the fungus 212 2022 Research in Mycology from which secondary metabolites were isolated; 27% of the studies used molecular data only (mostly from the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region) for fungal identification; and ∼14% used a combination of morphology and molecular data (both rRNA and protein-coding genes) to identify fungi (Raja et al., 2017). This suggests that the proper taxonomic identification of fungi in natural product research need to be addressed more seriously. Ganoderma lucidum is one of the most common mushrooms used in mushroom antiviral research. Most of the studies often cited G. lucidum as the species of the material. However, the exact delimitation of the species concept for G. lucidum, with a European type locality, has been difficult due to the lack of a holotype specimen (Steyaert, 1972). Based on molecular studies the industrially cultivated “Linghzi” and “Reishi” do not represent the G. lucidum s. str, but in fact, other species (Wang et al., 2009; Cao et al., 2012). Therefore, careful consideration is required when identifying such samples. In the advanced pharmacological exploitation of mushrooms, adoption of the recently suggested set of standard procedures and consultation of taxonomists for accurate species identification is paramount to avoid all kinds of taxonomical ambiguity. Antiviral Molecules of Mushroom Origin After the discovery of the first wonder drug, Penicillin from filamentous fungi, much more attention has been carried out in therapeutic usage of fungus, especially from medicinal mushrooms. Medicinal mushrooms contain a wide range of various compounds, such as polysaccharides, organic acids, lipids, steroids, tetracyclic triterpenes, and many others displaying antitumor, immune-stimulating, antibacterial, and antiviral effects which are of interest for medical applications. Many medicinal 213 2022 Research in Mycology functions (>100) have been reported from mushrooms. More than 600 clinical trials with mushrooms on various health disorders have been performed, and approximately 15,000 patents associated with different aspects of mushrooms were issued (Wasser, 2017). From 2005, around 250–350 patents were registered each year for Ganoderma lucidum alone. Taiwanese scientists received more than 100 patents on one species from the genus Antrodia (Wasser, 2017). From this, it may be concluded that mushrooms are the most potent, natural immune force ever discovered, and hence it can be considered as a priceless asset for human welfare. A wide range of antiviral agents has been reported from a number of mushroom species (Table 1). Antiviral effects of mushroom have been reported in whole extracts and isolated molecules that can be from both fruiting bodies and mycelia. Antiviral agents in mushrooms can be divided into two major groups of molecules; the high-molecular weight compounds such as polysaccharides, proteins and lignin-derivatives from the fruiting bodies exhibiting their effect indirectly through immunostimulant activity, and the low-molecular weight compounds small organic molecules excreted by mushrooms in a liquid culturing (fermentation) setups that directly inhibit viral enzymes, synthesis of viral nucleic acids or adsorption and uptake of viruses into cells (Brandt and Piraino, 2000). The concentration and efficacy of bioactive compounds are varied and depend on the type of mushroom, substrate, fruiting conditions, stage of development, age of mushroom, and storage conditions (Guillamón et al., 2010). 214 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 Table 1. Mushroom species with antiviral agents against various viruses and mode of action Mushroom Agaricus blazei Agaricus brasiliensis Extract/Compou nd Extract Virus Target/activity Reference Extract Polysaccharide HBV HCV Polio HSV-1 Hsu et al. (2008) Johnson et al. (2009) Faccin et al. (2007) Cardozo et al. (2013) Polysaccharides HSV-1, HSV-2 Supplement NA NA Attachment/entr y/ cell-to-cell spread NA Agrocybe aegerita Antrodia camphorata Armillaria mellea Auricularia auricula Auricularia polytricha Auriporia aurea Lectin Influenza virus Adjuvant Cardozo et al. (2014) Ma et al. (2017) Polysaccharides HBV NA Lee et al. (2002) Extract VSV NA Polysaccharides NDV NA Kandefer-Szersze et al. (1980) Nguyen et al. (2012) Hexane extract fraction NA Extract HIV-1, CoVs HSV H1N1 Protease inhibitors NA NA Boletus edulis Extract, Polysachharide fraction Extract HSV-1 NA Vaccinia virus NA Cerrena unicolor Chondrostere um purpureum Collybia maculata Coprinus comatus Cordyceps militaris LAC HHV-1, EMCV NA Extract HIV-1 RT Purine derivatives VSV NA LAC HIV-1 RT Adenosine Iso-sinensetin Hemagglutinin Polysaccharide HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1 influenza A virus Cryptoporus volvatus Extract H1N1, H3N2 Protease inhibitor Protease inhibitor RT NA NA 215 Sillapachaiyaporn et al. (2019) Hijikata et al. (2007) Krupodorova et al. (2014) Santoyo et al. (2012) Kandefer-Szersze et al. (1980) Mizerska-Dudka et al. (2015) Mlinarič et al. (2005) Leonhardt et al. (1987) Zhao et al. (2014) Jiang et al. (2011) Jiang et al. (2011) Wong et al. (2009) Ohta et al. (2007) Gao et al. (2014) Research in Mycology Daedaleopsis confragosa Datronia mollis Elfvingia applanata Flammulina velutipes Extract H1N1, H3N2 NA Extract H5N1, H3N2 NA Extract VSV Adsorption FIP-Fve Extract HPV-16 H1N1 Adjuvant NA Fomes fomentarius NA Extract HSV H1N1 NA NA Fomitella supina Extract HIV-1 Fuscoporia oblique Ganoderma colossus Water-soluble lignin Ganomycin B Ganomycin I Colossolactone A Colossolactone E Colossolactone G Colossolactone V Colossolactone VII Colossolactone VIII Lanostane triterpenes Extract Ganoderic acid Ganolucidic acid A Ganoderic acid B Ganoderic acid C1 Ganoderic acid β Ganodermanondio l Ganodermanontri ol Lucidumol B GLPG APBP Extract LAC Several triterpenoids HIV-1 Virion inactivation, inhibition of syncytium formation Protease inhibitor Protease inhibitor ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” Ganoderma lucidum HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1 HBV HBV HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1, CoVs HSV-1, HSV-2 HSV-1, HSV-2 H1N1 HIV-1 HIV 216 NA NA Protease inhibitor ” ” ” ” ” ” ” Entry NA NA RT 2022 Teplyakova et al. (2012) Teplyakova et al. (2012) Eo et al. (2001) Ding et al. (2009) Krupodorova et al. (2014) Hijikata et al. (2007) Krupodorova et al. (2014) Walder et al. (1995) Ichimura et al. (1998) El Dine et al. (2008) El Dine et al. (2008) El Dine et al. (2008) El Dine et al. (2008) El Dine et al. (2008) El Dine et al. (2008) El Dine et al. (2008) El Dine et al. (2008) El Dine et al. (2008) Li and Zhang (2005) Li and Wang (2006) El-Mekkawy et al. (1998) Martínez et al. (2019) Martínez et al. (2019) Martínez et al. (2019) Martínez et al. (2019) Martínez et al. (2019) Martínez et al. (2019) Liu et al. (2004) Research in Mycology 2022 Eo et al. (2000) Krupodorova et al. (2014) Wang and Ng (2006) Lindequist et al. (2005) Lindequist et al. (2015) Sato et al. (2009) Sato et al. (2009) Sato et al. (2009) Sato et al. (2009) Sato et al. (2009) Sato et al. (2009) Sato et al. (2009) Sato et al. (2009) Sato et al. (2009) Sato et al. (2009) Sato et al. (2009) HSV-1 NA HIV-1 HIV-1 HIV-1 HIV-1 HIV-1 HIV-1 HIV-1 HIV-1 HIV-1 HIV-1 HIV-1 Protease inhibitor ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” ” Grifola frondosa Several compounds Ganoderic acid GS-1 Ganoderic acid GS-2 Ganoderic acid DM Ganoderic acid β Ganoderiol A Ganoderiol F Ganodermadiol Ganodermanontri ol Lucidumol A 20hydroxylucidenic acid N20(21)dehydrolucidenic acid N D-fraction Mycelia extract HBV Enterovirus 71 Hericium erinaceus GFAHP LAC Lectin HSV-1 HIV-1 HIV-1 Combination Replication, RNA synthesis NA RT RT Ribonuclease HIV-1 RT Gu et al. (2007) Wang and Ng (2004a) Li et al. (2010) Zhang et al. (2014) Sterols Marmorin Lectin EBV HIV-1 HIV-1 NA RT RT Akihisa et al. (2005) Wong et al. (2008) Zhao et al. (2009) Phenolic extracts Influenza A, B NA Polysaccharides NA Feline H3N2, H5N6 HSV Viral Binding/absorpt ion NA Lindequist et al. (2005) Tian et al. (2016) Extract NA Extract HSV HIV-1 H5N1, H3N2 Entry NA NA Ganoderma pfeifferi Ganoderma sinnense Hohenbueheli a serotina Hypsizygus marmoreus Inocybe umbrinella Inonotus hispidus Inonotus obliquus Ischnoderma benzoinum 217 Gu et al. (2007) Zhao et al. (2016) Polkovnikova et al. (2014) Pan et al. (2013) Shibnev et al. (2015) Teplyakova et al. (2012) Research in Mycology Kuehneromyc es mutabilis Lactarius torminosus Laetiporus sulphureus Laricifomes officinalis Lepista nuda Lentinus edodes Extract 2022 NA Mentel et al. (1994) NA Amoros et al. (2008) Extract Influenza viruses A, B HSV-1, HSV-2, PP, VSV HIV-1 RT Extract H5N1, H3N2 NA Metalloprotease Mycelia solid culture extract JLS-S001 Extract Polycarboxylated water- solubilized lignin LAC JLS-18 HIV-1 HCV HSV H1N1 HIV HIV-1 Sendai virus RT Entry Assembly/buddi ng NA Antigen expression RT NA Lenzites betulina Lignosus rhinocerus Extract H5N1, H3N2 NA Heliantriol F HIV-1, CoVs Protease inhibitor Lyophyllum shimezi Macrocystidia cucumis Omphalotus illudens Phellinus baumii Extract H1N1 NA NA HSV-1 NA Illudin S HSV-1 NA Hispidin Hypholomine B Inoscavin A Davallialactone Phelligridin D NA NA NA NA NA Phellinus igniarius Phellinus linteus Phellinus pini Sesquiterpenoid Extract Extract H1N1, H5N1, H3N2 H1N1, H5N1, H3N2 H1N1, H5N1, H3N2 H1N1, H5N1, H3N2 H1N1, H5N1, H3N2 Influenza virus Influenza virus Influenza Mlinarič et al. (2005) Teplyakova et al. (2012) Wu et al. (2011) Matsuhisa et al. (2015) Sarkar et al. (1993) Krupodorova et al. (2014) Suzuki et al. (1990) Sun et al. (2011) Yamamoto et al. (1997) Teplyakova et al. (2012) Sillapachaiyaporn and Chuchawankul (2019) Krupodorova et al. (2014) Saboulard et al. (1998) Lehmann et al. (2003) Hwang et al. (2015) Hwang et al. (2015) Hwang et al. (2015) Hwang et al. (2015) Hwang et al. (2015) Extract CVB3 Phellinus rhabarbarinu s Extract HIV-1 Extract 218 NA NA Adjuvant (cross protection) plaque formation inhibition Virion inactivation, inhibition of Song et al. (2014) Lee et al. (2013) Ichinohe et al. (2010) Lee et al. (2009) Walder et al. (1995) Research in Mycology 2022 Pholiota adipose Pleurotus abalonus Pleurotus citrinopileatu s Pleurotus eryngii Lectin HIV-1 syncytium formation RT LB-1b HIV-1 RT Li et al. (2012) Lectins HIV-1 RT Li et al. (2008) Extract LAC H1N1 HIV-1 NA RT Pleurotus ostreatus LAC Lectin Extract NA Ubiquitin-like protein HCV HBV H1N1 HSV HIV-1 NA Adjuvant NA NA Protease Pleurotus tuber-regium Polysaccharides Binding to the viral particles Poria cocos Poria monticola Poria vaillanti Rozites caperata PCP-II Extract HSV-1, HSV-2, RSV, Influenza A virus HBV HIV-1 Krupodorova et al. (2014) Wang and Ng (2006) EL-Fakharany et al. (2010) Gao et al. (2013) Krupodorova et al. (2014) Hijikata et al. (2007) Wang and Ng (2000) Zhang et al. (2004) Extract HIV-1 RT RC28 RC-183 RC28 HSV HSV-1, HSV-2 HSV-1 NA NA NA Russula delica Russula paludosa Schizophyllu m commune Lectin HIV-1 RT 4.5 kDa protein SU2 Extract Schizolysin HIV-1, CoVs HIV-1 H1N1 HIV-1 Protease inhibitor RT NA RT Scleroderma citrinum Triterpenoid HSV NA Adjuvant RT Zhang et al. (2009) Wu et al. (2016) Mlinarič et al. (2005) Mlinarič et al. (2005) Gong et al. (2009) Piraino and Brandt 1999) Yan et al. (2015) Zhao et al. (2010) Wang et al. (2007) Wang et al. (2007) Krupodorova et al. (2014) Han et al. (2010) Kanokmedhakul et al. (2003) AIDS acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, APBP acidic protein-bound polysaccharide, c-EPL crude extract of endopolysaccharides, CMV cytomegalovirus, CoVs Corona viruses, CVB3 Coxsackievirus B3, EBV EpsteinBarr virus, EMCV encephalomyocarditis virus, FIP-Fve immunomodulatory protein, GLPG Ganoderma lucidum proteoglycan, GLTA Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids Lanosta-7,9(11),24-trien-3-one,15;26-dihydroxy, HBV hepatitis B 219 Research in Mycology virus, HCV hepatitis C virus, HHV human herpesvirus, HIV human immunodeficiency virus, HPV human papillomavirus, HSV herpes simplex virus, HTLV human T-cell lymphotropic virus, JLS Water-soluble lignin-rich fraction, KS-2 extract from culture mycelia of Lentinus edodes, LB-1b a polysaccharide–protein complex, LAC laccase, NA not available, NDV Newcastle disease virus, PCP-II a new polysaccharide, PV poliovirus, RC a protein, RSV respiratory syncytial virus, RT Reverse transcriptase, SU2 a peptide, VSV vesicular stomatitis virus, VZV varicella zoster virus. Challenges and Future Avenues Humankind has repeatedly been facing the great threat of deadly disease outbreaks caused by emerging and re-emerging viruses such as the Nipah virus, Hendra virus, Hantavirus, Ebola virus, SARS, MERS, Zika, Influenza virus, Corona viruses. To combat these viruses efficient and safe antiviral drugs need to be developed. Mushrooms are a great source for novel pharmaceuticals invention. Modern drug discovery which has its roots in traditional medicine provides avenues to newer mycomolecules-based therapies (Paterson and Anderson, 2005). There are many structurally diverse metabolites from numerous fungal species. Among them, more than 15 fungal metabolites have already approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and some of these are still dominating the drug market. Currently, many fungal metabolites are at different stages of the drug development process (Aly et al., 2011). On the other hand, only a small fraction of fungal species has been identified so far (Hawksworth and Lücking, 2017), and much less have been scientifically investigated for bioactive metabolites. As biological diversity implies chemical diversity, there is huge scope for finding many other potential drugs lead through the exploration of new fungal species, their metabolites, and bioactivity. Ease of cultivation or culture of fungal species at a reasonable time and cost will be another big beneficial aspect of fungal metabolites. 220 2022 Research in Mycology With an efficient and enhanced capability through high throughput screening facility, which is currently lacking in most fungal diversity rich countries, the antiviral fungal metabolite exploration process can be speed up. Conclusions Mushrooms metabolites with great diversity and preapproved biocompatibility can be a potential source for new antiviral drug lead. Considering, the discovery of a very small fraction of fungal species and only few percent of these fungal metabolites are investigated for various viral diseases indicates an enormous potential for finding new fungal metabolites as drug leads with a novel mechanism of action. This needs an energetic endeavor toward exploration, identification, and exploitation of unknown fungal species and developing better culture methods for drug discovery. The majority of the investigations were limited to basic screening and no mechanism of action was established for active metabolites so far. To develop commercial antiviral drugs from mushrooms, in vivo and clinical studies are other aspects that should be exploited. In addition, the establishment of more and more sophisticated antiviral screening facilities will be very helpful and a big boost to future antiviral drug discovery research. 221 2022 Research in Mycology References 1. 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Antiviral activities of Boletus edulis, Pleurotus ostreatus and Lentinus edodes extracts and polysaccharide fractions against Herpes simplex virus type 1. Physical Review Letters. 2012. 51(4):225–235. 75. Sarkar S, Koga J, Whitley RJ, Chatterjee S. Antiviral effect of the extract of culture medium of Lentinus edodes mycelia on the replication of herpes simplex virus type 1. Antiviral Research. 1993. 20(4):293–303. 76. Sato N, Zhang Q, Ma CM, Hattori M. Anti-human immunodeficiency virus-1 protease activity of new lanostane-type triterpenoids from Ganoderma sinense. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 2009. 57(10):1076– 1080. 77. Shibnev VA, Garaev TM, Finogenova MP, Kalnina LB, Nosik DN. Antiviral activity of aqueous extracts of the birch fungus Inonotus obliquus on the human immunodeficiency virus. Vopr Virusol. 2015. 60(2):35–38. 78. Sillapachaiyaporn C, Chuchawankul S. HIV-1 protease and reverse transcriptase inhibition by tiger milk mushroom (Lignosus rhinocerus) sclerotium extracts: In vitro and in silico studies. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine. 2019. 4–12. 79. Sillapachaiyaporn C, Nilkhet S, Ung AT, Chuchawankul S. Anti-HIV-1 protease activity of the crude extracts and isolated compounds from Auricularia polytricha. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2019. 19(1):1–10. 80. Song AR, Sun XL, Kong C, Zhao C, Qin D, Huang F, Yang S. Discovery of a new sesquiterpenoid from Phellinus ignarius with antiviral activity against influenza virus. Archives of Virology. 2014. 159(4):753–760. 232 2022 Research in Mycology 81. Steyaert RL. Species of Ganoderma and related genera mainly ofthe Bogor and Leiden Herbaria. Persoonia. 1972. 7:55–118. 82. Sun J, Wang H, Ng TB. Isolation of a laccase with HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activity from fresh fruiting bodies of the Lentinus edodes (Shiitake mushroom). Indian Journal of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 2011. 48(2):88–94. 83. Suzuki H, Iiyama K, Yoshida O, Yamazaki S, Yamamoto N, Toda S. Structural characterization of the immunoactive and antiviral water-solubilized lignin in an extract of the culture medium of Lentinus edodes mycelia. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry. 1990. 54(2):479–487. 84. Teplyakova TV, Psurtseva NV, Kosogova TA, Mazurkova NA, Khanin VA, Vlasenko VA. Antiviral Activity of Polyporoid Mushrooms (Higher Basidiomycetes) from Altai Mountains (Russia). International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms. 2012. 14(1):37–45. 85. Tian J, Hu X, Liu D, Wu H, Qu L. Identification of Inonotus obliquus polysaccharide with broad-spectrum antiviral activity against multi-feline viruses. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2016. 86. Walder R, Kalvatchev Z, Garzaro D, Barrios M. Natural products from the tropical rain forest of Venezuela as inhibitors of HIV-1 replication. Acta Científica Venezolana. 1995. 46(2):110–114. 87. Wang DM, Wu SH, Su CH, Peng JT, Shih YH, Chen LC. Ganoderma multipileum, the correct name for “G. lucidum” in tropical Asia. Botanical Studies. 2009. 50(4):451–458. 88. Wang HX, Ng TB. Isolation of a novel ubiquitin-like protein from Pleurotus ostreatus mushroom with anti-human immunodeficiency virus, translation-inhibitory, and 233 2022 Research in Mycology ribonuclease activities. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2000. 276(2):587–593. 89. Wang HX, Ng TB. A new laccase from dried fruiting bodies of the monkey head mushroom Hericium erinaceus. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2004a. 322, 322:17–21. 90. Wang HX, Ng TB. Purification of a novel low-molecularmass laccase with HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activity from the mushroom Tricholoma giganteum. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 2004b. 315:450–454. 91. Wang HX, Ng TB. A laccase from the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2006. 72(3):508–513. 92. Wang J, Wang HX, Ng TB. A peptide with HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activity from the medicinal mushroom Russula paludosa. Peptides. 2007. 28(3):560– 565. 93. Wasser SP. Medicinal Properties and Clinical Effects of Medicinal Mushrooms. In D. C. Zied & A. Pardo-Giménez (Eds.), Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms (1st ed., p. 541). John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2017. 94. WHO. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak situation. World Health Organization. 2020. 95. Wong JH, Wang H, Ng TB. A haemagglutinin from the medicinal fungus Cordyceps militaris. Bioscience Reports. 2009. 29(5):321–327. 96. Wong JH, Wang HX, Ng TB. Marmorin, a new ribosome inactivating protein with antiproliferative and HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activities from the mushroom Hypsizigus marmoreus. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2008. 81(4):669–674. 234 2022 Research in Mycology 97. Wu Y, Li S, Li H, Zhao C, Ma H, Zhao X, Wu J, Liu K, Shan J, Wang Y. Effect of a polysaccharide from Poria cocos on humoral response in mice immunized by H1N1 influenza and HBsAg vaccines. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2016. 98. Wu YY, Wang HX, Ng TB. A Novel Metalloprotease from the Wild Basidiomycete Mushroom Lepista nuda. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2011. 21(3):256–262. 99. Yamamoto Y, Shirono H, Kono K, Ohashi Y. Immunopotentiating activity of the water-soluble lignin rich fraction prepared from lem—the extract of the solid culture medium of Lentinus edodes mycelia). Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry. 1997. 61(11):1909–1912. 100. Yan N, He F, Piraino FF, Xiang H, Chen J, Wang Y. Antiviral activity of a cloned peptide RC28 isolated from the higher basidiomycetes mushroom Rozites caperata in a mouse model of HSV-1 keratitis. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms. 2015. 17(9):819–828. 101. Zhang GQ, Sun J, Wang HX, Ng TB. A novel lectin with antiproliferative activity from the medicinal mushroom Pholiota adiposa. Acta Biochimica Polonica. 2009. 56(3):415–421. 102. Zhang M, Cheung PCK, Ooi VEC, Zhang L. Evaluation of sulfated fungal β-glucans from the sclerotium of Pleurotus tuberregium as a potential water-soluble anti-viral agent. Carbohydrate Research. 2004. 339(13):2297–2301. 103. Zhang R, Zhao L, Wang H, Ng TB. A novel ribonuclease with antiproliferative activity toward leukemia and lymphoma cells and HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activity from the mushroom, Hohenbuehelia serotina. International Journal of Molecular Medicine. 2014. 33(1):209–214. 235 2022 Research in Mycology 104. Zhao C, Gao L, Wang C, Liu B, Jin Y, Xing Z. Structural characterization and antiviral activity of a novel heteropolysaccharide isolated from Grifola frondosa against enterovirus 71. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2016. 144:382–389. 105. Zhao JK, Wang HX, Ng TB. Purification and characterization of a novel lectin from the toxic wild mushroom Inocybe umbrinella. Toxicon. 2009. 53(3):360– 366. 106. Zhao S, Rong CB, Kong C, Liu Y, Xu F, Miao QJ, Wang SX, Wang HX, Zhang GQ. A Novel Laccase with Potent Antiproliferative and HIV-1 Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitory Activities from Mycelia of Mushroom Coprinus comatus. BioMed Research International. 2014. 107. Zhao S, Zhao Y, Li S, Zhao J, Zhang G, Wang H, Ng TB. A novel lectin with highly potent antiproliferative and HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activities from the edible wild mushroom Russula delica. Glycoconjugate Journal, 2010. 27(2):259–265. *** 236 2022 Research in Mycology Arsenic Toxicity and CHAPTER 16 Mushroom Dinendra Kumar Mishra Introduction Arsenic is occurring in our environment in many different chemical forms. The names, abbreviations and structures of the arsenic species that are more or less relevant. Because the different arsenic species exhibit different toxicities, it is essential to determine not only the total arsenic concentrations, but also the arsenic speciation in foodstuff and drinks. A second huge topic in the field of arsenic research is the biogeochemical cycling of the element. It is still poorly understood where, how and why arsenic species are transformed in the environment. From the 1980s on, a lot of work was carried out to understand the arsenic metabolism of terrestrial mammals. Most of the recent studies have been focusing on the marine biota. Within this environment, special attention has been given to lipid-soluble arsenic species Mushrooms are heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms classified in the kingdom of fungi. There are about 5.1 million fungal species in the world. Over 75,000 species of fungi exist in the European continent, of which over 15,000 species are macro fungi (fungi that form fruiting bodies or sporocarps) which are visible to the naked 237 2022 Research in Mycology eye. The fruiting body bears spores is the morphological part of the fungus that is commonly called mushroom. More than 2000 mushroom species prevail in nature, of which only about 22 species are cultivable. They have been an important part of diet in many countries especially the cultivated ones, such as Agaricus spp., Pleurotus spp., Lentinus edodes, Volvariella volvacea, and Auricularia spp. Across the world mushroom cultivation is now a multi-billion-dollar business. Commercial mushroom cultivation was initiated by the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council in Mushroom Culture Centre at Savar, Dhaka in early 1980s as Bangladesh is one of the most suitable countries for mushroom cultivation due to its tropical monsoon type climate and low production cost. Apart from Savar, mushroom cultivation has been booming near the capital and other districts of Bangladesh. In the last 20 years, mushroom consumption and production have increased at a faster rate than almost any other agricultural food products. Rice straw and sawdust are usually used as media to cultivate mushrooms in Bangladesh; of course, wheat straw, gypsum, oak and beech sawdust or chicken manure are also used as typical substrates for mushroom cultivation in many parts of the world. Generally, mushrooms from three genera, namely Pleurotus, Agaricus, and Calocybe are cultivated in Bangladesh at the rate of 97%, 1%, and 1%, respectively and they are commonly called Oyster, Button, and Milki mushrooms, respectively. Arsenic Accumulation by Macrofungi Most non-accumulating mushrooms contain less than 10 or even less than 1 mg as/kg dm. Arsenic concentrations are in general higher in caps than in stipes, although this cannot be taken as a 238 2022 Research in Mycology strict rule, and opposing results (higher concentrations in the stipe or not significant differences at all) can be found in literature as well. The ability to hyperaccumulate arsenic was first detected in the so-called crown cup Sarcosphaera coronaria (in German: Kronenbecherling;) by Stijve et al., who found between 360 and 2100 mg as/kg dm. In another study, 2100 mg as/kg dm were detected in one sample of S. coronaria as well, while a second sample of the same species contained 340 mg as/kg dm. The world record of 7100 mg as/kg dm was reported by Borovička. The second macrofungal species where over 1000 mg as/kg dm have been found is Laccaria amethystina, also known as amethyst deceiver (In German: Violetter Lacktrichterling), where one sample from a contaminated site contained 1420 mg as/kg dm. Already in 1983, the arsenic concentrations of 12 samples of L. amethystina were determined. They ranged from 34 to 182 mg/kg dm, with a median of 77 mg/kg dm. Further, two samples of L. amethystina that were collected in Slovenia contained 34 and 405 mg as/kg dm. In another study, several samples of L. amethystina from pristine areas were investigated. They also had quite high arsenic concentrations, namely on average 59 ± 55 mg as/kg dm, with a range of 4.1 – 147 mg as/kg dm. The only other sporocarp that has been reported with more than 1000 mg as/kg dm so far is a sample of Lycoperdon pyriforme (pearshaped puffball, in German: Birnenstäubling) which was collected in the vicinity of a gold mine in Yellowknife, Canada, and contained 1010 mg as/kg dm. In another study, samples of the genus Lycoperdon from uncontaminated sites contained only up to around 3 mg as/kg dm. Notably, all three hyperaccumulating muchrooms (S. coronaria, L. amethystina and L. pyriforme) are in general classified as edible, 239 2022 Research in Mycology even though they are probably not very well known and hence only collected by few people. Other mushroom samples from Yellowknife, investigated in the same study as the already mentioned L. pyriforme, but collected at the site of a second gold mine, contained up to 36 mg as/kg dm (Paxillus involutus, Psathyrella candolleana, Leccinum scabrum), and a sample of Coprinus comatus from the A B C Introduction 12 first gold mine contained 410 mg as/kg dm. Individual samples of Sarcodon imbricatum and Entoloma lividum from pristine areas also contained quite high arsenic concentrations, namely 23.8 and 38.9 mg/kg dm, respectively. Another mushroom with elevated arsenic concentrations is Laccaria fraterna, where 30 mg as/kg dm were found. As can be seen, the arsenic concentration is highly dependent on the fungal species. Vetter found large differences in the arsenic concentrations of samples of different fungal species collected at the same site. In a lab experiment, it could be shown that the arsenic uptake under the same conditions can vary a lot between different mushroom species. Nearing et al. argued that the taxonomic position (e.g., family, genus, or species) of the mushrooms is an important factor, probably the most important one, that influences the arsenic concentration. In addition, the arsenic concentration of the underlying soil can influence the arsenic concentration in the fungal fruit-bodies, as can already be seen from the examples above. Also, samples of the genus Boletus, collected in China, contained between 0.1 and 120 mg as/kg dm. The highest concentrations were attributed to elevated arsenic concentrations in the soil. A study by Mleczek et al. showed that Imleria badia (also called Boletus badius or commonly just bay bolete, in German: Maronenröhrling) is heavily susceptible to pollution of the underlying soil. While samples of I. badia from 240 2022 Research in Mycology pristine areas contained less than 1 mg as/kg dm, samples from contaminated sites had between 50 and 489 mg as/kg dm. In the same publication the authors showed that the arsenic concentrations were quite constant in mushrooms repeatedly collected at the same site over the course of four years. Arsenic Species in Macrofungi In the 1990s, quite a lot of work was dedicated to the arsenic speciation of mushrooms. This was probably triggered by the discovery that was the main arsenical in samples of the mushrooms Sarcodon imbricatus (scaly hedgehog, in German: Habichtspilz), Agaricus placomyces (now days known as Agaricus moellerior inky mushroom) and Agaricus haemorrhoidarius (now days Agaricus silvaticus or Scaly Wood Mushroom, in German: Kleiner Wald-Champignon). This was the first report ever of the occurrence in a terrestrial organism. Until then, it was believed that exists exclusively in the marine biota. Two years later, also for the first time in the terrestrial environment, reasonably high concentrations of also traces of TETRA were detected in mushroom samples from old smelter sites. Especially striking was the arsenic speciation of the well-known mushroom Amanita muscaria (fly agaric, in German: Fliegenpilz) where accounted for more than 25 % of the total arsenic, making it the second-most abundant arsenical in these samples, after (60-70 %). Further, several unidentified arsenic species were found in methanol-water (9+1) extracts of muscaria with cation-exchange chromatography. Another important step was the detection of an arsenosugar (the phosphate sugar) in a sample of Paxillus involutus (poison pax, in German: Kahler) collected next to a gold mine. 241 2022 Research in Mycology Arsenic Biotransformation in Macrofungi It is long known that microfungi have the ability to transform arsenic. Already in 1933, Challenger et al. discovered that the microfungus Scopulariopsis brevicaulis (old name: Penicillium brevicaule) processes inorganic arsenic into TMA. From this observation, Challenger derived his well-known biotransformation pathway for inorganic arsenic, already discussed above. Besides S. brevicaulis, other microfungi have been found to transform arsenic as well. Discussion The total arsenic concentrations in the six investigated samples ranged from 1.7 to 61 mg kg−1dm, with a median of 18 mg kg−1dm. Extraction with water resulted in an extraction efficiency of 90 ± 10%, and a column recovery of 93 ± 5%. The main arsenic species in the extracts was unambiguously AB, accounting for 84 ± 9% of the extracted arsenic. We also detected small amounts of as(V), MA, DMA, TMAO, AC, TETRA, trimethylarsoniopropanate (TMAP or AB2) and dimethylarsinoylacetate (DMAA) in all six samples. Their identity was confirmed with spiking experiments and co-chromatography. The most important results are given. Concentrations of all detected arsenic species can be found in Appendix A, Table S4. TMAP and DMAA are known compounds from the marine environment and DMAA has been identified as urinary metabolite of arseno-sugars, but they have never been found in natural terrestrial samples before. Further, we found several unassigned peaks in the anion- and cation-exchange chromatograms. With spiking experiments, we excluded dimethylarsinoylethanol (DMAE), dimethylarsinoylpropionate (DMAP), 242 2022 Research in Mycology dimethylarsinoylbutanate (DMAB) and the glycerol-phosphate-, sulfate- and sulfonate- arseno-ribose’s as possible candidates. Oxidation experiments proved that no known thiol-arsenic compounds were present. One of the detected unknown compounds (UNK A) was attracting our attention, because it was eluting from the cation-exchange column very late, even after the permanent cation TETRA. Thus, UNK A was isolated by injecting an aqueous fungal extract multiple times onto the cation-exchange column and collecting the respective fractions. The mobile phase was removed by freeze-drying, and the residue was dissolved in a small amount of ultrapure water. The presence and concentration of UNK A was controlled with HPLC-ICPMS. Next, the isolate was subjected to HPLC single quadrupole ES-MS to get an idea on the molecular mass of the compound. At the elution time of UNK A (as specified with HPLC-ICPMS), we found a signal with m/z 179. With this information, we started the investigation of UNK A with HR ES-MS. We were able to detect a molecule with an exact m/z of 179.0411 and a sum formula of C6H16OAs. Fragmentation experiments revealed characteristic fragments of m/z 161, 121, 105 and 59. The molecular mass of 179 and the corresponding fragments have already been reported by McSheehy et al. There, the authors subjected a solution of inorganic arsenic and acetic acid to UV irradiation, and then investigated the solutions with ES-MS. They found several products, including a molecule with m/z179. We agree with them that m/z161 represents a water loss m/z 121 is a protonated Me3As, and m/z 105 is Me2As. m/z 59 is the protonated allyl alcohol corresponding to the loss of Me3As. Thus, we identified UNK A as the (3-hydroxypropyl) trimethylarsonium ion, a homologe of AC, which wen called homoarsenocholine (“AC2”, structure shown in Scheme 1). For verification, AC2 243 2022 Research in Mycology bromide was prepared according to an updated literature procedure (see Appendix A for details). Its purity and structure were confirmed with NMR experiments. Further, a solution of the pure compound was subjected to cation-exchange HPLC-ICPMS and HR ES-MS. The results were in accordance with our findings for UNK A. Successful spiking of UNK A with AC2 (and the other, known, occurring arsenic species) on HPLC-ICPMS was our final confirmation that UNK A is indeed AC2. This species has never been reported in a natural sample before, and the already discussed paper by McSheehy et al. is the only one that mentions the finding of AC2 in a lab experiment. Homocholine, which is the nitrogenanalogue of AC2, is only occasionally investigated and hardly ever discussed as a naturally occurring compound. According to the existing proposed biotransformation pathways of arsenic, AC is thought to be a precursor of AB. Early investigations with rat liver cells and a recent study on the function of AB showed indeed that AC can be converted to AB (and to TMAO). Interestingly, the oldest of these works found AB aldehyde as intermediate. This has not been reported in any other publication since then. In analogy to AC and AB, one could assume that AC2 serves as a precursor for TMAP (Scheme 1), a compound that is also present in our investigated Ramaria samples. Still, when taking a closer look at the different hypothesized biotransformation mechanisms for arsenic, the existence of AC2 cannot be explained easily. Alternatively, DMAP, which is present in marine organisms, but not in our fungal samples, or TMAP (via a hypothetical aldehyde) could be regarded as precursors for AC2, but proof for this is not existing and would have to be found through appropriate experiments. 244 2022 Research in Mycology Conclusions This is the first report of DMAA and TMAP in the terrestrial environment and the overall first report of the natural occurrence of AC2. Our findings give fresh input to the attempts to understand the geo-biochemical pathways of arsenic compounds. Subsequent future work should deal with the identification of other small arsenic compounds in environmental samples, which could help to complete the hypothesized arsenic biotransformation pathways. Possible candidates are the aldehydes of AB and TMAP or a reduced form of DMAP (Scheme 1). Finally, it must be noted that it is very likely that AC2 was found but not identified in other macrofungi before. When comparing published data, especially chromatograms, two possible candidates of the fungal kingdom are Amanita muscaria and, Cortinarius coalescens. It will be interesting to verify this surmise and show that AC2 is not only present in fungi of the genus Ramaria. Reference Rashid, M. H.; Rahman, M. M.; Correll, R.; Naidu, R. (2018). Arsenic and other Elemental Concentrations in Mushrooms from Bangladesh: Health Risks; International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health; 15(919): 1-18. *** 245 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 CHAPTER Mushroom Diversity of Uttar Pradesh, India 17 Balwant Singh and Dr. Vinay Kumar Singh Introduction Fungi are the most diverse group of Heterotrophic organisms and second largest biotic community after insects on Earth (Bhandari and Jha, 2017; Choudhary et al., 2015; Panda et al., 2019). They are grouped into a single kingdom of Fungi. Fungi have thalloid body organization without forming tissues and organs (Bhandari and Jha, 2017). Fungi are the parasitic or saprophytic or symbiotic in nature that play key role in terrestrial ecosystems (Bhandari and Jha, 2017; Chandrawati et al. 2014). Fungi are the primary decomposers of lignocellulolytic substrates and the main keepers of great carbon storage in soil and dead organic materials. Their edibility, medicinal properties, mycorrhizal and parasitic association with the forest trees make them economically and ecologically important for investigation (Meena et al., 2020). The term macrofungi is generally applied to the fruiting bodies of fungi belonging to Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes which are either Epigeous or Hypogeous, large enough to be seen by naked eyes and can be picked by hand (Chandrawati et al. 2014). They economically used in the Pharmacology industry (Medicinal), Mass production and cultivation (Food industry), Biodegradation 246 Research in Mycology and Bioremediation (Bhandari and Jha, 2017). Macrofungi helps in recycling matter and maintaining biogeochemical cycle (Pliwal et al., 2013). Macrofungi are characterized by their distinct macroscopic fruiting bodies of underground mycelium of certain fungi belonging to the class of Basidiomycetes and Ascomycetes (Vishwakarma and Tripathi, 2019; Tripathi et al., 2017). Mushroom is one of the major groups of macrofungi that considered about 70% macrofungal diversity. More than 10000 species of macrofungi (mushroom) are reported and about 2000 species of them considered being edible. All of these, around 25 species are widely accepted as food and only about 12 species are considered as artificially cultivated (Tripathi et al., 2017). Mushroom have been found in fossilized wood that are estimated to be 300 million years old and almost certainly, prehistoric man has used mushroom collected in the wild as food (Singh et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2017). In macrofungi, Mushrooms are seasonal fungi which shows diverse role in nature across the forest ecosystem (Choudhary et al., 2015). Mushrooms have been existing on earth prior to human and have been used as food by humans before civilization of history (Pliwal et al., 2013) and dominantly found during the rainy season high humid condition as well as spring season (Choudhary et al., 2015; Meena et al., 2020). Indian Mushroom Diversity A number of researches have been done previously in India on Mushroom Diversity. In India, 27000 species of mycoflora reported by researchers in which 1069 species of mushroom are estimates as edible to the human. Many researchers are estimated that over than 2000 species of wild edible mushrooms world widely in whereas in India reported about 283 edible species (Choudhary et al., 2015). According to Panda et al. (2019), The 247 2022 Research in Mycology total documented species of mushroom in India is about 1200 in which about 300-315 species of mushroom described as edible. Meena et al. (2020) reported 60 genera belonging to Agaricales, Polyporales and Russulales orders with total number of 132 species in India. (Meena et al., 2020) Uttar Pradesh Mushroom Diversity Uttar Pradesh is the state of India which located in the shadow of Himalayas with many revers in the flow. This state has fully seasonal variation with winter, summer and rain. This region has vast and very rich biodiversity. Beside the animal and plant diversity, macrofungal (Mushroom) diversity is also reported in very much rich. Based on available researches, Uttar Pradesh reported a total number of 201 macrofungal species belonging to 44 families which express in the Table.1 and Graph-1. In all described macrofungal species, 59 Species are Edible, 109 Species Inedible, 4 Species Choicely Edible, 7 Species Poisonous and remaining 22 Species are Unknown their edibility (Grapg-2). Table.1: Description of Species and their respective family from Uttar Pradesh. Family Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Macrofungi Agaricus angustus Agaricus arvensis Edibility Edible Edible Agaricaceae Agaricus bisporus Edible Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricus compestris Agaricus silvaticus Edible Edible Agaricaceae Agaricus trisulpharatus Lepiota cristata Lepiota naucina Leucoagaricus americanus Leucoagaricus leucothites Edible Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Inedible Inedible Edible Edible 248 Reference Chandrawati et al., 2014 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2016 Ram et al., 2010; Yadav et al., 2016 Singh et al., 2016 Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019; Singh et al., 2017; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2016 Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Chandrawati et al., 2014 Singh et al., 2016; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2016 2022 Research in Mycology Agaricaceae Leucocoprinus cepestipes Edible Agaricaceae Macrolepiota procera Edible Agaricaceae Choicely Edible Edible Edible Edible Edible Inedible Edible Inedible Edible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Edible Inedible Inedible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Inedible Inedible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Inedible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Choicely Edible Edible Poisonous Yadav et al., 2016 Albaratrellaceae Amanitaceae Macrolepiota rhacodes Agaricus bernardii Agaricus bitorquis Agaricus impudicus Agaricus langei Agaricus placomyces Agaricus silvicola Chlorophyllum molybdites Chlorophyllum rhacodes Lepiota aspera Lepiota atrodisca Lepiota castaneidisca Lepiota ignivolvata Leucoagaricus rubrotinctus Leucocoprinus brebissonii Lycoperdon giganteum Albatrellus flettii Amanita cokeri Singh et al., 2017; Chandrawati et al., 2014; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2016; Vishwakarma et al., 2016; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2016; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Yadav et al., 2016 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Amanitaceae Amanitaceae Amanita fulva Amanita virosa Edible Poisonous Auriculariaceae Auricularia auricula-judae Edible Auriculariaceae Auricularia mesenterica Auricularia polytricha Bolbitius coprophilus Bolbitius vitellinus Cococybe cyanopus Inedible Singh et al., 2019 Singh et al., 2016; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2016 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2016; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Edible Yadav et al., 2016 Inedible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Poisonous - Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Yadav et al., 2016 Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Agaricaceae Auriculariaceae Bolbitiaceae Bolbitiaceae Bolbitiaceae 249 2022 Research in Mycology Bolbitiaceae Cantharellaceae Cantharellaceae Panaeolus ater Cantharellus minor Cantharellus cibarius Cantharellus subalbidus Clavulinopsis laeticolor Coprinus pellucidus Coprinus atramentarius Coprinus comatus Inedible Inedible Inedible Singh et al., 2016 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2019 Edible Inedible Singh et al., 2019; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Inedible Edible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2016 Inedible Coprinus congregates Coprinus disseminates Inedible Singh et al., 2018; Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2016; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019; Chandrawati et al., 2014 Singh et al., 2018 Coprinaceae Coprinus domesticus Inedible Coprinaceae Coprinus extinctorius Coprinus hemerobius Coprinus heterosetulosus Coprinus impatiens Coprinus lagopus Inedible Coprinus leiocephalus Coprinus micaceus Coprinus radiates Coprinus truncorum Inedible Cordyceps canadensis Coriolus hirsutus Coriolus versicolor Heterobasidion annosum Inedible Singh et al., 2018 Singh et al., 2018 Singh et al., 2018; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2019 Inedible Inedible Inedible Singh et al., 2017 Chandrawati et al., 2014 Chandrawati et al., 2014 Cantharellaceae Clavariaceae Clavariaceae Coprinaceae Coprinaceae Coprinaceae Coprinaceae Coprinaceae Coprinaceae Coprinaceae Coprinaceae Coprinaceae Coprinaceae Coprinaceae Coprinaceae Cordycipitaceae Coriolaceae Coriolaceae Coriolaceae Inedible Inedible Singh et al., 2018; Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Singh et al., 2018; Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2016 Singh et al., 2018; Singh et al., 2016 Singh et al., 2018 Inedible Singh et al., 2018 Inedible Inedible Singh et al., 2018 Singh et al., 2018; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2018 Inedible Inedible Inedible 250 2022 Research in Mycology Coriolaceae Ischnoderma benzonium Fistulina hepatica Fomitopsis cajanderi Fomitopsis pinicola Inedible Chandrawati et al., 2014 Inedible Inedible Laetiporus sulphureus Postia caesia Postia stiptica Edible Ganodermataceae Ganoderma applanatum Inedible Ganodermataceae Ganoderma lucidum Inedible Ganodermataceae Inedible Ganodermataceae Ganoderma praelongum Ganoderma tsugae Geastraceae Geastrum rufescens Inedible Helotiaceae Ascocoryne sarcoides Hygrocybe acutopunicea Hygrocybe miniata Hygrophorus cossus Hygrophorus eburneus Coltricia cinnamomea Inonotus cuticularis Inedible Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019; Singh et al., 2019 Singh et al., 2019; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019; Chandrawati et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2019 Chandrawati et al., 2014; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019; Singh et al., 2017; Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Yadav et al., 2016 Singh et al., 2019; Ram et al., 2010 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Chandrawati et al., 2014; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Poisonous Singh et al., 2019 Edible Inedible Edible Singh et al., 2019 Singh et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Inedible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Inedible Inonotus hispidus Inonotus radiatus Hyphodontia sambuci Hypomyces lactifluorum Hypomyces loctiflies Inedible Inedible Inedible Singh et al., 2019; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2019 - Yadav et al., 2016 - Ram et al., 2010 Fistulinaceae Fomitopsidaceae Fomitopsidaceae Fomitopsidaceae Fomitopsidaceae Fomitopsidaceae Hygrophoraceae Hygrophoraceae Hygrophoraceae Hygrophoraceae Hymenochaetaceae Hymenochaetaceae Hymenochaetaceae Hymenochaetaceae Hyphodermataceae Hypocreaceae Hypocreaceae Inedible Inedible Inedible 251 2022 Research in Mycology Inocybaceae Inocybaceae Lentinaceae Lentinaceae Poisonous Poisonous Edible Edible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Lentinaceae Lycopcrdaceae Inocybe dulcamara Inocybe fastigiata Lentinus conatus Lentinus squarrosulus Lentinus tigrinus Bovista plumbea Inedible Edible Lycoperdaceae Bovista pusilla Inedible Lycoperdaceae Calocybe gambosa Edible Lycoperdaceae Calocybe indica Edible Lycoperdaceae Lycoperdon perlatum Lycoperdon pyriformae Edible Inedible Inedible Inedible Yadav et al., 2016 Yadav et al., 2016 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Marasmiaceae Meripilaceae Lycoperdon spadiceum Lentinus edodes Lentinus russaticeps Marasmius curreyi Marasmius pulcherripes Marasmius sicci Abortiporus biennis Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2017; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2017 Yadav et al., 2016; Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Chandrawati et al., 2014; Yadav et al., 2016; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Chandrawati et al., 2014 Inedible Inedible Meripilaceae Grifola frondosa Edible Meruliaceae Morchellaceae Phlebia cornea Morchella angusticeps Morchella esculenta Favolaschia pustulosa Peziza ampliata Mutinus caninus Inedible - Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2017; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Chandrawati et al., 2014; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Singh et al., 2019 Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Inedible Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Inedible Inedible Singh et al., 2019 Singh et al., 2017; Chandrawati et al., 2014; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Lycoperdaceae Lycoperdaceae Marasmiaceae Marasmiaceae Marasmiaceae Marasmiaceae Morchellaceae Mycenaceae Pezizaceae Phalaceae Edible 252 2022 Research in Mycology Phallaceae Phallus duplicates Phallaceae Physalacriaceae Pleurotaceae Pleurotaceae Pleurotaceae Pleurotaceae Phallus duplicates Armillaria ponderosa Flammulina velutipes Pleurotus cystidiosus Pleurotus dryinus Pleurotus eryngii Pleurotus flabellatus Pleurotaceae Pleurotus florida Edible Pleurotaceae Pleurotaceae Pleurotus onesti Pleurotus ostreatus Edible Pleurotaceae Pleurotaceae Inedible Edible Inedible Edible Yadav et al., 2016 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Pluteaceae Pluteaceae Pleurotus porrigeus Pleurotus pulmonarius Pleurotus sajor-caju Pluteus luteovirens Pluteus petasatus Pluteus rimulosus Volvariella bombycina Volvariella esculenta Volvariella indica Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Yadav et al., 2016 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Yadav et al., 2016 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Yadav et al., 2016 Yadav et al., 2016 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Yadav et al., 2016; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Yadav et al., 2016 Yadav et al., 2016 Edible Pluteaceae Pluteaceae Volvariella taylori Volvariella volvacea Edible Edible Polyporaceae Polyporaceae Polyporaceae Fomes fomentarius Fomes hemitephrus Funalia trogii Inedible Inedible Polyporaceae Lenzite sepiaria Inedible Polyporaceae Polyporaceae Polyporaceae Lenzites betulina Lenzites betulina Microporus xanthopus Polyporus alveolaris Inedible Inedible Yadav et al., 2016 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019; Yadav et al., 2016 Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2019; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2019; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Inedible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Physalacriaceae Pleurotaceae Pluteaceae Pluteaceae Pluteaceae Pluteaceae Polyporaceae Choicely Edible Inedible Edible Inedible Edible 253 Singh et al., 2016 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Ram et al., 2010; Yadav et al., 2016 Yadav et al., 2016 2022 Research in Mycology Polyporaceae Polyporus brumalis Inedible Polyporaceae Inedible Polyporaceae Polyporaceae Polyporus umbrellatus Pycnoporus cinnabarinus Trametes elegans Trametes gibbosa Polyporaceae Trametes hirsutus Inedible Polyporaceae Polyporaceae Trametes suaveolens Trametes versicolor Inedible Edible Psathyrellaceae Edible Sparassidiaceae Coprinellus micaceus Coprinopsis atramentaria Coprinopsis cothurnata Coprinopsis ephemeroides Coprinopsis foetidella Coprinopsis friesii Panaeolus ater Panaeolus papilionaeous Psathyrella automata Cheilymenia stercorea Russula aquosa Russula emetic Russula emeticella Russula sororia Russula violacea Schizophyllum commune Sparassis crispa Stereaceae Stereum hirsutum Inedible Polyporaceae Psathyrellaceae Psathyrellaceae Psathyrellaceae Psathyrellaceae Psathyrellaceae Psathyrellaceae Psathyrellaceae Psathyrellaceae Pyronemataceae Russulaceae Russulaceae Russulaceae Russulaceae Russulaceae Schizophyllaceae Inedible Singh et al., 2019; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Chandrawati et al., 2014 Inedible Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019; Singh et al., 2019 Singh et al., 2019 Singh et al., 2017; Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Inedible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Inedible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Inedible Inedible Inedible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Inedible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Inedible Singh et al., 2019 Edible Edible Inedible Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Singh et al., 2016 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Yadav et al., 2016 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Singh et al., 2019; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 Inedible Inedible Edible Edible 254 2022 Research in Mycology Strophariaceae Tramcllaceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Pholiota adipose Traamella foliacea Clitocybe discolor Clitocybe inversa Clitocybe phyllophila Clitocybe vibecina Collybia erythropus Collybia fuscopurpurea Collybia fusipes Lepista flaccid Lepista inversa Lepista luscina Lepista nuda Marasmius oreades Marasmius rotula Mycena alcalina Mycena capillaripes Mycena cinerella Mycena inclinata Mycena pearsoniana Omphalina ericetorum Omphalina postii Inedible Inedible Inedible Inedible Edible Singh et al., 2019 Singh et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2019 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2019 Poisonous Edible Inedible Inedible Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2019 Singh et al., 2019; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Chandrawati et al., 2014 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Chandrawati et al., 2014 Chandrawati et al., 2014 Chandrawati et al., 2014 Chandrawati et al., 2014 Singh et al., 2017 Singh et al., 2017 Chandrawati et al., 2014 Chandrawati et al., 2014 Singh et al., 2019; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Termitomyces giganteum Termitomyces heimii Edible Chandrawati et al., 2014 Edible Edible Tricholomataceae Tuberaceae Termitomyces robustus Tricholoma equestre Tuber aestivum Chandrawati et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2016; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Chandrawati et al., 2014 Xylariaceae Daldinia concentrica Inedible Xylariaceae Daldinia vernicosa Inedible Xylariaceae Xylaria carpophyla Inedible Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Tricholomataceae Inedible Inedible Edible Edible Edible Edible Inedible Inedible Inedible Inedible Inedible Inedible Inedible Edible 255 Yadav et al., 2016 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2016; Vishwakarma et al., 2016; Chandrawati et al., 2014 Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019; Singh et al., 2016 Singh et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2016 Singh et al., 2019; Chandrawati et al., 2014 2022 Research in Mycology Xylariaceae Xylaria hypoxylon Inedible Xylariaceae Xylaria longipes Inedible Xylariaceae Xylaria polymorpha Inedible Vishwakarma et al., 2017; Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019; Singh et al., 2017; Chandrawati et al., 2014 Singh et al., 2017; Vishwakarma et al., 2017 Vishwakarma & Tripathi, 2019 35 29 30 24 Total Number of Species 25 16 20 14 15 10 9 8 7 6 10 5 5 44 4 54 33432 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 0 Name of Families Numberof Species Graph-1: Graphical Representation of Species and Family of Macrofungi. 109 120 100 80 59 60 40 22 20 7 4 0 Edible Inedible PoisonousChoicely EdibleUnknown Graph-2: Graphical Representation of Edibility of Macrofungal Species 256 2022 Research in Mycology Conclusion In present literature survey and study, it revel that the macrofungal diversity in Uttar Pradesh is very rich and vast. Many macrofungal species are edible to human beings and it will become a mile-stone for socity for their food and economy in upcoming future. Utter Pradesh is the lasrgest state in population of India. So, Known edible macrofungi (mushrooms) species may become an answer of food security. In this study of macrofungal diversity, much more survey and research are required because of less awareness to the macrofungal (mushroom) species, varity and their economic values in a vast areas of Uttar Pradesh. References 1. Ao, T., Seb, J., Ajungla, T. and Deb, C.R. (2016). Diversity of Wild Mushrooms in Nagaland, India; Open Journal of Forestry; 6: 404-419. 2. Bhandari, B. and Jha, S.K. (2017). Comparative study of macrofungi in different patches of Boshan Community Forest in Kathmandu, Central Nepal; Botanica Orientalis – Journal of Plant Science; 11: 43-48. 3. Chandrawati, Singh, P., Kumar, N. and Tripathi, N.N. (2014). Macrofungal Wealth of Kusumhi Forest of Gorakhpur, UP, India; American International Journal of Research in Formal, Applied & Natural Sciences; 5(1): 7175. 4. Chaudhary, R. and Tripathy, A. (2016). Diversity of wild mushroom in Himachal Pradesh (India); International Journal of Innovative Research in Science, Engineering and Technology; 5(6): 10859-10886. 5. Choudhary, M., Devi, R., Datta, A., Kumar, A. and Jat, H.S. (2015). Diversity of Wild Edible Mushrooms in 257 2022 Research in Mycology Indian Subcontinent and Its Neighbouring Countries; Recent Advances in Biology and Medicine; 1: 69-76. 6. Meena, B., Sivakumar, V. and Praneetha, S. (2020). Prospects of biodiversity and distribution of mushroom fungi in India; GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences; 13(01): 078-085. 7. Paliwal, A., Bohra, A., Pillai, U. and Purohit, D.K. (2013). First Report of Morchella –An Edible Morel from Mount Abu, Rajasthan; Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research; 18(3): 327-329. 8. Panda, M.K., Thatoi, H.N., Sahu, S.C. and Tayung, K. (2019). Wild Edible Mushrooms of Northern Odisha, India: Data on Distribution and Utilization by Ethnic Communities; Research Journal of Life Science, Bioinformatics, Pharmaceutical and Chemical Science; 5(2): 248-268. 9. Ram, R.C., Pandey, V.N. and Singh, H.B. (2010). Morphological Characterization of Edible Fleshy Fungi from Different Forest Regions; Indian Journal of Scientific Research; 1(2): 33-35. 10. Semwal, K.C. and Bhatt, V.K. (2019). A report on diversity and distribution of macrofungi in the Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India; Biodiv. Res. Conserv.; 53: 7-32. 11. Semwal, K.C., Bhatt, V.K. and Stephenson, S.L. (2018). A survey of macrofungal diversity in the Bharsar region, Uttarakhand Himalaya, India; Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity; 11: 560-565. 12. Singh, A., Kumar, S., Singh, R. and Dubey, N.K. (2014). A new species of Corynespora from Sonbhadra forest of Uttar Pradesh, India; Current Research in Environmental & Applied Mycology; 4(2): 149–151. 258 2022 Research in Mycology 13. Singh, R.P., Kashyap, A.S., Pal, A., Singh, P. and Tripathi, N.N. (2019). Macrofungal Diversity of North-Eastern Part of Uttar Pradesh (India); Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci; 8(2): 823-838. 14. Singh, R.P., Pal, A., Singh, P. and Tripathi, N.N. (2018). Diversity of Coprinus species in North-Eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, India; Annals of Plant Sciences; 7(5): 22822288. 15. Singh, R.P., Vishwakarma, P., Pal, A. and Tripathi, N.N. (2016). Morphological Characterization of Some Wild Macrofungi of Gorakhpur District, U.P., India; International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences; 5(12): 207-218. 16. Singh, R.P., Vishwakarma, P., Singh, P. and Tripathi, N.N. (2017). Survey and collection of some uncommon macrofungi of Gorakhpur district (U.P.); Asian Journal of Bio Science; 12(2): 126-133. 17. Singha, K., Banerjee, A., Pati, B.R. and Mohapatra, P.K.D. (2017). Eco-diversity, productivity and distribution frequency of mushrooms in Gurguripal Eco- Forest, Paschim Medinipur, West Bengal, India; Current Research in Environmental & Applied Mycology (Journal of Fungal Biology); 7(1): 8-18. 18. Tripathi, N.N., Singh, P. and Vishwakarma, P. (2017). Biodiversity of Macrofungi with Special Reference to Edible Forms: A Review; Journal of Indian Botanical Society; 96(3): 144-187. 19. Vishwakarma, M.P., Bhatt, R.P. and Gairola, S. (2011). Some medicinal mushrooms of Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India; Int. J. Med. Arom. Plants; 1(1): 33-40. 259 2022 Research in Mycology 20. Vishwakarma, P. and Tripathi, N.N. (2019a). Diversity of macrofungi from Gorakhpur district (UP) India; NeBIO; 10(1): 5-11. 21. Vishwakarma, P. and Tripathi, N.N. (2019b). Ethnomacrofungal Study of some wild Macrofungi used by local peoples of Gorakhpur District, Uttar Pradesh; Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources; 10(1): 81-89. 22. Vishwakarma, P., Singh, P. and Tripathi, N.N. (2015). Nutritional and Antioxidant Properties of Wild Edible Macrofungi from North – Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India; Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge; 15(1): 143-148. 23. Vishwakarma, P., Singh, P. and Tripathi, N.N. (2017). Diversity of some wood inhabiting macrofungi from Gorakhpur district; NeBIO; 8(1): 57-62. 24. Vishwakarma, P., Singh, P. and Tripathi, N.N. (2017). Diversity of macrofungi and its distribution pattern of Gorakhpur District, Uttar Pradesh, India; Studies in Fungi; 2(1): 92–105. 25. Vishwakarma, P., Tripathi, N.N. and Singh, P. (2017). A checklist of macrofungi of Gorakhpur District, U.P. India; Current Research in Environmental & Applied Mycology (Journal of Fungal Biology); 7(2): 109–120. 26. Yadav, M.K., Chandra, R. and Dhakad, P.K. (2016). Biodiversity of edible mushrooms in Vindhya Forest of northern India; Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 86 (8): 1070-1075. *** 260 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 Republished Bioremediation for Sustainable Development of Environment with the help of Fungi CHAPTER 18 Dr. Jyoti Pandey, Prof. Sulekha Tripathi, Dr. Praveen Garg and Prof. Shree Ram Agrawal Introduction The global environment is suffering under great stress due to urbanization and industrialization as well as increases population and the natural resources are limited. The problems are created by severe changes that have been caused by people lifestyle and their habits. Accelerated human activities in the form of industrialization and urbanization have led to pollution of the natural ecosystems. The main sources of degradation of environments are effluents of industries, sewage water, fertilizers and pesticides that are determined in the soils due to the longer periods of half-life (Kumar, et. al. 2020a; Singh, et. al. 2013a; Malyan, et. al. 2019). When these materials are released into a soil system and cause contaminate it with the heavy metals, organic and inorganic compounds, that have a great threat to soil organisms like microorganisms (Bacteria, fungi) and plants included (Kumar, et. al. 2020b; Bhatia, et. al, 2015). Contaminated soils in natural environment led to the degradation or permanent damage of soil 261 Research in Mycology and their fertility (Singh, et. al. 2013b; Borowik, et. al., 2017). It originates from cleaning of equipment, all residues left in containers which used during process and also used of outdated materials, use of excessive amount of pesticides in agriculture which contains organic compounds mixture [e.g., Xylene, Benzene, toluene, and ethylbenzene, pesticides, medicals], and inorganic compounds are (e.g., heavy metals, macro components) (Gallego, et. al., 2001). Contaminated soil not only effects Agriculture soils even animal health, functions of ecosystem and security of food, contamination of soil may cause direct hazards to health of human (Subrahmanyam, et. al., 2020; Gupta, et. al., 2019). Contamination of soils may also regularly lead to contamination of the groundwater (Mishra, et. al., 2018). Several works and developments have been done towards remediation of these contaminants. These contaminations can be removed by certain measures like as chemicals remediation, physical remediation, and biological remediation. Biological remediation or bioremediation is a new measurement method in this area, as physical remediation is a costly matter and chemical remediation has long-term side effects to the environment (Kumar, et. al., 2017a). Bioremediation is an eco-friendly and cost-effective method for the treatment of contaminated soil (Rastegari, et. al., 2020a; Rastegari, et. al., 2020b; Singh, et. al., 2020). In this chapter emphasis will be given on bioremediation of contaminated soil by fungi. Fungi have been proved to be very effective in implementing bioremediation because of their healthy nature and their capacity to with stand great environmental conditions, it can be successfully used in remediation of a broad range of contaminants such as organic pollutants and different pesticides (Deshmukh, et. al., 2016; Yadav, et. al., 2020e). Fungus is a microorganism which play main role for degradation of the 262 2022 Research in Mycology leaf litter; strictly, mycelium. A fungus is only one specific microorganism on the Earth that can decompose of all woods. Fungus responsible for breaks down of wood and leaves rich materials called humus that formed during process. In the naturally occurring ecosystem, a land of microorganisms from the different kingdoms makes their attack on those many substrates, and the degradation rate becomes maximal when there is a good source of nutrients are supply in the soil, example- N, P, K, and other essential inorganic elements (Rhodes, 2013). Aspergillus and other moulds are highly capable to decomposed starches, hemicelluloses, celluloses, and some aspergilla can degrade fats such obstinate substrates as fats, oils, chitin, and keratin. Substrates which originated human, like as papers and textiles (e.g. cotton, jute) are degraded by these moulds, when the process is often referred as biodeterioration. The contaminated environments, recovered by using preservation of environment and urban development’s, strategies because the remediation of contaminated sites are very essential. Bioremediation methods available for soil remediation by using different microorganisms that can be grouped into three major categories, namely chemical, physical, and biological methods, furthermore studies carried out polluted place either inside it known as in-situ or outside it known as Ex-situ. However, the identification and characterization of contaminated site is the main step towards successfully completion of bioremediation in specially contaminated soil. Among other applications of surfactants and biosurfactants these compounds are more capable to reduce the surface tensions and increase the rate of biodegradation process in the contaminated soils. 263 2022 Research in Mycology Major Soil Contaminants Soil contamination is referred to as the increase in the soil of persistent harmful substances, such as chemical compounds, radioactive wastes, salts, or pathogens that have a negative impact on biological systems. As such, the increased levels of toxic compounds in the soil, mainly due to heavy metals, pesticides, and petroleum derivatives, affect the balance of ecosystems and also human health. When pollutants are reaches the soil, it can be adsorbed, by the wind and runoff, or leached by the infiltration of water, passing to the lower layers and reaching in groundwater. Major sources of contamination of soil, include agricultural residue, by-products, pollutants which present in air, due to irrigation, flood, accidental oil spills, inadequate management of waste of municipal and sewage, heavy metals and hydrocarbon depositions. A. Man Made Pollutants Various types of anthropogenic soil pollution occur, some intentionally (industrial) and some accidentally. Contamination levels in soil can be increased by human-caused soil pollution in association with natural processes. • Industrial waste • Agricultural waste • Urban activities 1. Industrial waste Chemical contaminants are spread in the soil with improper disposal of industrial waste products. As a result, plants and animals suffer, as well as the water supply and public health. Toxic fumes from regulated landfills contain toxic chemicals that can cause acid rain and damage the soil profile. As a result of industrial activities like dumping oil and fuel, heavy metals, toxic chemicals, and industrial waste, the soil is acidified and contaminated. 264 2022 Research in Mycology 2. Agricultural waste Soil pollution can be occurred by agricultural processes. Fertilizers are used to enhance crop yield, but they also cause soil pollution. Pesticides also cause harm to plants and animals by polluting the soil. These chemicals seep deep into the soil and pollute the groundwater and runoff pollutes local water systems and causes eutrophication. Phosphorus is one of the main contributors to eutrophication, as its high amount enhances Cyanobacteria and Algae growth, thereby reducing dissolved oxygen in the water. 3. Arban Activities Soil pollution can be due to direct or indirect ways, by human activities. Proper drainage and increased run-off can contaminate nearby land areas and streams. Several chemicals and pollutants are deposited into the soil when the trash is thrown away in an unorganized fashion. Those materials may seep into groundwater or runoff in local water systems, and excess waste storage can lead to the accumulation of bacteria in the soil, resulting in methane gas production from decomposition by bacteria, resulting in global warming and bad air quality. In addition, it produces foul odours and negatively impacts the quality of life. B. Natural Pollutants Unless there is an accumulation of chemicals in the soil that causes soil to become polluted, natural processes can also affect the number of toxic chemicals released by humans into the soil, reducing or increasing its toxicity or contamination level. As a result of the complex soil environment, various chemicals may interact with pollutants and the presence of natural conditions. Natural processes leading to cause soil pollution. • Acid rain • Accumulation of salt compound • Natural production of minerals 265 2022 Research in Mycology 1. Acid Rain Sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, and ozone are the main contributors to acid rain. Acid rain occurs when pollutants in the air mix up with rain and come back to the ground. Acidity in rainwater is caused by sulfuric and nitric acid solutions. Acid rain lowers the pH of the soil, thereby increasing its acidity, which reduces the availability of important nutrients in the soil. Acid precipitation is most likely to occur in soils with low caption exchange capacity and low base saturation. 2. Accumulation of Salt Compound Agriculture under irrigation faces an enormous problem of soil salinity. The soils in hot, dry regions of the world are frequently saline and have low agricultural potential. To make matters worse, most crops in these areas are maintained by irrigation, and inadequate irrigation management results in 20% of irrigated land being affected by secondary salinization (Glick, et. al., 2007). In arid and semi-arid regions, land and water resources are often salinized as a result of irrigation, a major activity. Soil contains soil ions (electrically charged atoms or compounds). They are formed when soil minerals weather. Occasionally, they may migrate upward from shallow groundwater, or be used as fertilizers or irrigation water. By exploiting their unique attributes, microorganisms could play an important role. The properties of these plants include tolerance to salinity, genetic diversity, and the ability to synthesize compatible solutes, hormone production, biocontrol efficiency, and their interaction with crops (Shrivastava, et. al., 2015). 3. Natural Production of Minerals Over the past decades, increasing industrialization, the use of chemicals, mining and smelting residues, and traffic in many urban areas have resulted in environmental hazards for terrestrial and 266 2022 Research in Mycology aquatic ecosystems, as well as food quality and socio-economic problems. Plants rely on soils for trace elements that, in small amounts, are considered essential for human, plant, and animal growth. Soil/groundwater contamination can result from natural processes (industrial, and agricultural activities, weathering/alteration of rocks and raw materials) and human activities (mining, smelting,), often result in elevated contents of harmful elements (Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, Zn, Sb, Co, Ni, Cd, and As). C. Soil Contamination by Oil Contamination Petroleum is a fossil, oily and flammable substance, with a high energy value, generally it less dense than water, with characteristic color ranging from colourless to black, which is extracted from the ground or below the seabed. Petroleum is mainly made up of mixture of different compound such as hydrocarbons, sulphur, nitrogen, and organic compounds. Another compounds like Sulfur gas, heavy metals, and Organ metallic compounds, are also found in this mixture. Generally, oil is a heavier fraction which have a higher content of contaminants. Crude oil is known as “black gold” due to its importance way of economy in the world and is still a source to develop wealth for different countries. Its production, consumption, and demand globally strong, in the form of petroleum products and their many derivatives that are used in many areas of the economy. The Classification of crude oil constituents is shown in Fig.1. 267 2022 Research in Mycology Fig.1: Classification of oil constituents responsible for soil contamination. D. Impacts of Soil Pollution Pollution of soil especially agricultural soil affects not only soil and its biota but by environment and every life form, from earthworms to humans. Among these effects are• Human Health: Human beings are reliant on the soil for our food, so soil pollution affects us as well. Various diseases can be caused by the bioaccumulation of toxins in the body. Today, reproductive health, birth defects, neurologic problems, malnutrition, and cancer-causing mutations in the body are all on the rise. The direct effect of soil on humans is attributable to the inhalation of polluted soil vapours and contamination. • Growth of Plants: Soil contamination directly affects the ecological balance. The plants cannot adapt to abrupt changes in the soil's chemistry, which in turn affects the microorganisms. This results in soil disintegration. Massive 268 2022 Research in Mycology • • • • • tracts of land can become infertile and unfit for living things. The plants that do grow on these soils will retain the toxins and adapt to the natural environment. As fruitfulness declines, the land becomes unsuitable for horticulture as well as vegetation. Contaminated soil makes large plots of land hazardous to health. Diminished Soil Fertility: The presence of poisonous synthetics in the dirt can lower soil fertility, resulting in a decline in soil productivity. Defiled soils are then used to produce leafy foods, which need quality supplements and contain toxic substances to cause chronic health conditions in individuals consuming them. Odour Contamination: An area that is littered with garbage and debris destroys the serenity. Landfills emit harmful and foul gases that pollute the atmosphere and adversely affect the health of certain individuals. They are plagued by a terrible smell. Changes in Soil Structure: Numerous soil-living creatures (such as creepy crawlies, crawlers, and microorganisms) can cause soil structure to be altered. Consequently, their hunters may also have to move to different locations in search of food. Impact on Ecosystem and Biodiversity: The lack of biodiversity in an environment can be caused by soil contamination. Birds, creepy crawlies, well-developed creatures, and reptiles that live in dirt can be impacted by contamination. Dirt is a noteworthy environment. Tainting of Water Sources: Surface run-off causes water contamination when it rains because it transports degraded soil to water sources. Toxins can also penetrate deep into the ground and contaminate groundwater. Both animals and 269 2022 Research in Mycology humans are unable to utilize the contaminated water. Amphibians will likewise be impacted since they will find their living spaces uninhabitable in these water bodies. E. Treatment of Contaminated Soil Soil contamination now a days reduce and also removed by applying Bioremediation especially mycological bioremediation. Mycology is a branch of science. It is used for the study of fungi. In Bioremediation fungi play an important role to prepare contamination free Soil for develop sustainable environment of agriculture. F. Bioremediation Bioremediation can be defined as any process which uses microorganisms or their enzymes to clean the environment from the contaminants to recover its original condition. Bioremediation to attack specific contaminants, such as chlorinated pesticides which are degraded by bacteria, or a more general approach may be taken, such as oil spills are broken down using different techniques including the addition of biosurfactant to decomposition of crude oil by bacteria (Juwarkar, et. al., 2008). Bioremediation may be aerobic (Wiegel and Wu, 2000; Bedard and May, 1996) or anaerobic (Komancova, et. al., 2003). Classification of Bioremediation Basically bioremediation is classified into two types in-situ or exsitu process (Figure 2). The ex-situ bioremediation processes are costlier because of excavation and transport expenses; they can be also applied to remove a greater number of soil contaminants and environmental contaminants under controlled conditions. The remediation cost is not the element which determines the method to be applied to a given specific contaminated site. Instead, the main factor for the determining method of bioremediation to use in this type of contaminant. 270 2022 Research in Mycology Fig.2: Different Bioremediation Strategies In-Situ Bioremediation Techniques In this bioremediation, the term “in situ” means that bioremediation takes place at the site of contamination, without the transfer of polluted materials. In-situ techniques can be classified as intrinsic or projected bioremediation, the latter being composed of a series of many techniques. I. Intrinsic Bioremediation Intrinsic bioremediation also called as passive bioremediation or natural attenuation, intrinsic bioremediation is a process of natural degradation that only depends on the metabolism of microorganisms to destroy many dangerous contaminants, using no artificial stage to increase biodegradation activity. The absence of external factors which makes this process the cheapest insitu bioremediation technique. However, continuous 271 2022 Research in Mycology II. III. monitoring is required for the bioremediation to be sustainable. Projected Bioremediation Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRBs) are an insitu technology applied to remediate groundwater contaminated by many types of pollutants such as chlorinated hydrocarbons and heavy metals. A permanent or semipermanent reactive barrier composed mainly of iron is immersed in the contaminated groundwater stream. When contaminated water naturally flows through the barrier, the contaminants are trapped and react, releasing purified water. Ideally, PRBs are sufficiently reactive to capture pollutants, permeable to allow water to flow, passive with little energy consumption and cost-effective. In the past few years, PRBs have been coupled with other techniques to treat different classes of contaminants. Phytoremediation Phytoremediation refers to the use of plants in polluted sites to promote biological, biochemical, physical, microbiological, and chemical interactions to attenuate the toxicity of contaminants. Depending on the type of pollutant, it occurs through different mechanisms, namely biodegradation, vaporization, filtration, among others. Elemental contaminants like heavy metals or radioactive elements are mainly extracted, transformed, and sequestered, while organic contaminants are eliminated mainly through rhizodegradation, biodegradation, vaporization or stabilization. Phytoremediation techniques, which are used mainly in the bioremediation of soils contaminated by pesticides and 272 2022 Research in Mycology IV. heavy metals, are considered cheap and non-invasive alternatives to conventional remediation approaches. Contaminants extracted from contaminated soil accumulate in the roots and shoots and are subsequently collected for biomass processing (extraction, composting and incineration). The interaction mechanisms and the type of pollutants treated by each phytoremediation technique are summarized. Bioaugmentation and Biostimulation In bioaugmentation, the autochthonous microflora of the polluted site is enriched by the addition of previously selected indigenous or genetically modified microbial species to support oil degradation. This method is very effective when the native microorganism is unable to degrade the pollutants. Bioaugmentation still requires research for its application to be successful. In biostimulation, native microorganisms are stimulated to grow with the addition of growth factors such as nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen. Sometimes, effective remediation by native microorganisms is not possible under normal circumstances; therefore, they must be stimulated by adding nutrients, O2, or other oxidizing agents. Stimulating agents are usually applied underground by means of injection wells. In most highly hydrocarboncontaminated coastal systems, nutrient availability is the limiting factor for biodegradation. This method has the main advantage of involving autochthonous microorganisms that are well adapted and distributed in the environment. For the same reason, even the site geology, when complex, can become a limiting factor. 273 2022 Research in Mycology Ex-Situ Bioremediation Techniques In this case, the polluted material is removed and degraded in special facilities outside the incident site. After excavation, the polluted soil is transported elsewhere for treatment. The selection of an ex-situ bioremediation technique is usually made based on the following aspects: operating costs, extent and depth of contamination, type of contaminant, location and geological features of the contaminated site. Ex-situ techniques allow better control of environmental conditions, leading to an increase in the biodegradation rate compared to in-situ treatment techniques. Furthermore, thanks to the possibility of homogenizing the polluted ground, the operation is generally more uniform and takes shorter time. However, these techniques are costlier because of excavation, site remediation and treatment. Moreover, soil excavation leads to an increase in the mobility of pollutants and exposure to them; therefore, the site must often be pre-adapted by installing coating systems in the area to be treated in order to prevent the leakage of pollutants. Bioreactors The term ‘bioreactor’ refers to any equipment or manufactured facility that supports a bioactive system. Sludge bioreactors are used to treat hydrocarbon pollutants safely and easily. Contaminants are kept in a containment container where, using various types of devices to mix the sludge, a mixture is obtained consisting in a three-phase solid, liquid, and gaseous system. The biofilm formed stimulates the biodegradation of pollutants and increases the biomass level. In this case, remediation may be aerobic or anaerobic. Bioreactors are often made of tough glass or stainless steel and generally have a cylindrical shape and a volume ranging from a few liters to cubic 274 2022 Research in Mycology meters. The contaminated material can be supplied to the reactor as a dry substance or suspension; in both cases, treating contaminated soil in a bioreactor has many advantages over other ex-situ methods, including the possibility of satisfactorily controlling process variables (mixing intensity, temperature, substrate concentration, pH, aeration rate and inoculum level) and effectively treating heavy metals, pesticides and volatile organic compounds, including BTEX. The use of bioreactors is considered among the best ways to treat polluted soil, as the operating conditions can be controlled, thus allowing an increase in microbial biodegradation activity. Biopiles Bioremediation through biopiles consists in the piling of contaminated soil and subsequent aeration to promote biodegradation mainly by improving microbial activity. The elements of this technology are watering, aeration, and leaching. Its use is increasingly taken into consideration thanks to its construction characteristics and the favorable cost-benefit ratio that allow efficient bioremediation, provided that adequate control of nutrients, temperature and aeration is ensured. Biopiles are suitably built on a waterproof concrete slab to minimize the transfer of leach ate to the surface and are covered with a waterproof membrane to avoid the emission of pollutants and polluted ground outside as well as the action of wind and rain. Landfarming Landfarming is a soil bioremediation technique that involves mixing the contaminated soil with hydrocarbons to improve soil biological and physical factors as well as chemical processes for biodegradation. It is among the most basic bioremediation technologies because of its low cost and low footprint. 275 2022 Research in Mycology Landfarming can be classified as ex-situ or in-situ technology depending on where the treatment takes place. There are some limitations and disadvantages related to this technique such as the need for a large workspace, limitation of microbial activity because of an unfavourable environment, additional excavation cost and low efficiency in removing inorganic pollutants. One of the main disadvantages of landfarming is the release of volatile organic compounds into the environment. This method is particularly effective in areas with low rainfall (275 mm), climates with high evaporation rates (annual evaporation of 2700 mm) and large areas of available land. Composting Composting is an ex-situ aerobic process by which organic waste is decomposed by thermophilic biological agents to obtain a humid amendment known as compost, which is used as soil fertilizer. A temperature between 40 and 70 °C, high availability of nutrients including oxygen and neutral pH are essential to obtain high biodegradation rates. Although composting is generally used to recycle organic waste, it is also employed to bioremediate contaminated soil or sludge. In such a process, microbial activity is capable of biodegrading harmful organic compounds, while reducing the bioavailability of metals. Soil microorganisms are introduced when waste or final compost is mixed with the ground. Compost is often arranged in long, narrow and low piles that are frequently mixed through a moving device to enhance mixture aeration and porosity, thus allowing more surface to be exposed and redistributing the matter; although generally regarded as the cheapest composting procedure, it is the least effective in terms of aeration and temperature control. 276 2022 Research in Mycology Biofilter Organic contaminants can co-metabolize with high levels of the substrate in composts. Metals, plastics, glass, and stones, which are non-degradable or unwanted, can be ground, mixed, and sieved out to allow compostable material to be biologically treated. A composting mechanism is affected by several factors including the organic contaminant, the conditions and procedures of composting, the microbial cell numbers, and time. (Barker and Bryson, 2002). Fungal Communities Participating in Bioremediation of Contaminated Soils: Mycoremediation There are several fungal communities which are effective in bioremediation of contaminated soils. These communities are targeting specific, i.e., all communities cannot be used for all kinds of pollutants. Some of the most commonly used fungal communities are Penicillium sp., Ganoderma sp., Aspergillus sp., Mucor sp., Rhizopus sp., Candida sp., Agaricus sp., Pleurotus sp., Fusarium sp. and Volvariella sp. etc. Mechanisms of Bioremediation by Different Fungal Communities Fungi have tremendous capacity to degrade a wide range of substances by secreting several extracellular enzymes which help in decomposing two essential components lignin and cellulose. Fungi are one of the most responsible terrestrial organisms that can decompose wood. The main component of the fungi is the mycelium (the vegetative part of the fungus which is often observed as fine, white threads), in most cases, that is responsible for decomposing lignin and Cellulose (Rhodes, 2014). Mycoremediation by White-Rot Fungi Bioremediation using fungi is known as mycoremediation. These techniques use fungi releasing enzymes that can degrade several 277 2022 Research in Mycology pollutants and have been proven to be promising in removing contaminants from a site. Bioremediation applications are predominantly based on bacteria and few attempts on using fungi. Fungi contribute to the cycle of elements by decomposing and transforming organic and inorganic materials. These characteristics could be used in bioremediation to degrade organic compounds and lessen metal contamination risks. Fungi can sometimes outperform bacteria, not only in metabolic versatility but also in environmental resilience. They can oxidize a wide range of chemicals and survive under harsh environmental conditions like low moisture and high levels of pollutants. As the first fungus which is linked to organic pollution degradation, that is P. chrysosporium. Studies indicated that it can bioremediate pesticides, carbon tetrachloride, dioxins, and many other contaminants. The fungus P. chrysosporium has emerged as a model for bioremediation among fungi. Trametes versicolor and Pleurotus ostreatus are other species of white-rot fungi. Mechanism of White-rot fungi Bioremediation White-rot fungi have attracted most of the attention in this field and contribute to 30% of the total reported fungi used in mycoremediation (Singh, 2006) due to their capacity to degrade a wide range of toxic compounds which are very much persistent in the soil system. The mechanism of white-rot fungi in degrading the lignin and cellulose is nonspecific. But the interesting thing is it does not use lignin as source of carbon. The possible mechanism is they secrete oxidase enzyme, which is extracellular. The enzyme utilizes the components of lignin, methylglyoxal, glucose and glyoxal and breaks it down to H2O2 or CO2. Phanerochaete chrysosporium has been reported to be an important decomposer (Rhodes, 2014). Trametes versicolor, Bjerkandera adusta and 278 2022 Research in Mycology Pleurotus sp. are some other white fungi which are capable of producing various ligninolytic enzymes, i.e. peroxidases and laccases. Other enzymes are lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase, which also take part in degradation of the compounds. The mechanism of degradation of lignin and cellulose by white-rot fungi is given in Fig. 3. Fig.3: Mechanism of Bioremediation by Using Fungi Mechanisms of Bioremediation by Mycorrhizal Fungi The mycorrhizal fungi are commonly found in symbiosis within and on the rhizosphere of the host plant in a mutualistic relationship. The host plant provides soluble carbon to fungi, and the fungi provide the host plant with water and nutrients by its enhanced absorption through its hyphal network. There are two types of mycorrhizal fungi ectomycorrhizal and endomycorrhizal. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are endomycorrhizal fungi. They were originally called as the endotrophic mycorrhizae and are the most common of the mycorrhizae types. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) may be beneficial for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) rhizo-degradation by the way of enhancing root exudation and root associated microbial populations because 279 2022 Research in Mycology of their tremendous capacity of extending their fungal hyphae to reach out to the soil environment beyond the capacity of roots alone. AMF can help remediate metal toxicity to plants by reducing metal translocation from root to shoot. Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Bioremediation by Fungi Although fungi are less sensitive to extreme conditions, the substrates they act upon are affected by various factors, and hence, the effectiveness of a bioremediation process is ultimately affected. They may be environmental factors or abiotic /environmental factors, chemical factors, and biotic factors. 1. Abiotic or Environmental Factors Environmental factors such as the pH of soil or soil reaction, soil moisture condition, temperature and aeration affect the efficacy of bioremediation. Studies have established that pH is a major deciding factor in bioremediation efficiency of PAHs and heavy metals (Kumar, et. al., 2020c; Liu, et. al., 2017). Apart from this, microorganisms are also affected by pH as each species operate optimally at a particular pH. Therefore, the enzyme activities which are secreted by fungi are affected by PAHs and heavy metals as they can alter the pH of the soil environment as well as the oxygen condition and other environmental elements (Liu, et. al., 2017). Chemical Factors Microorganisms need various nutrients (carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus) to survive and continue their microbial activities. Adequacy of nutrients increases the metabolic activity of microorganisms and ultimately the biodegradation rate. On the other hand, the higher concentration of some metal ions may retard the metabolism of the microbes. Soils have an abundance of low 280 2022 Research in Mycology molecular weight organic acids and humid acids, and the amount varies according to soil type. These are released from the decomposition and degradation of organic matters. These compounds interact with the complex organic molecules and heavy metals by various mechanisms and govern the bioremediation fate of these contaminants. The migration, transformation and bioavailability of heavy metals are affected or hindered by ion exchange, surface adsorption and coordinate complexation (Qin, et. al., 2004; Wu, et. al., 2003). Major functional groups such as amino and sulfhydryl of humic acids, carboxylic, phenolic and quinine serve as ligands for heavy metals and form compounds (Wang, et. al., 2009). The strength of bond depends upon the electrostatic interactions and other proton competition (Benedetti, et. al., 1995; Wang and Chen, 2009). 2. Biotic Factors The biotic factors include the species of microbes, screening conditions and genes of organisms the microbes. The microbial communities vary in their capacity to reproduce and may compete for substrates in some environments. Sometimes excessive amount of contaminants lead to the formation of new microbial communities in order to adapt to the hazardous environment (Singh, et. al., 2020; Yadav, 2020). The strains isolated from such environments are reported to show the high capacity to remediate the contaminants. These also must compete with the indigenous strains of that environment which again affects the efficacy (Momose, et. al., 2008). The strains with genes that have high capacity to degenerate the contaminants are being studied, and the resistant strains are being developed by genetic modification of existing strains. 281 2022 Research in Mycology Process of Implementing Fungal Bioremediation The preparation of the fungal agent to be used as bioremediation is a four-phase process. It includes bench-scale treatability, on-site pilot testing, and production of inoculums and finally full-scale application (Fig.4). 1. First Phase The first process starts with treating a large amount of substrate which is mostly nutrient-rich, such as wood chips, peat, sawdust, corn cobs, bark, rice and wheat straw, alfalfa, spent mushroom compost, sugarcane bagasse, coffee, and sugar beet pulp and cyclodextrins. The substrate may also be biofortified with nutrients. Biosurfactants produced from fungi may also be used as inoculum, both in situ and ex situ. Obtaining perfect ratio of C: N is most important for proper multiplication of the fungi. After treating the substrate, fungal inoculum is obtained. Encapsulation of fungal inoculums with alginate, gelatine, agarose, carrageenan, chitosan, etc. in the form of pellets offers a better efficacy than with inoculum produced using bulk substrates. The success of inoculums depends upon the accuracy of the first phase. 2. Second Phase It is confirmed in small experimental sites. If the result is successful, the inoculum is bulk produced in stage three to be released for final large-scale application. Success in stages three and four are affected by the factors mentioned above in this chapter. Especially the native communities give a great competition to these inoculated communities. 282 2022 Research in Mycology Fig.4: Implementing of Fungal Bioremediation Applications Restoration of Fungi in Contaminated Soil Oil and gas industry Environmental remediation Phytoremediation Enzymatic bioremediation Clean up of soil contamination by spills of solvents, including diesel fuels 6. Habitat restoration 7. Land Remediation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Limitations of Using Fungi for Bioremediation 1. Many fungal strains have been identified and tested for biodegradation and bioremediation of different types of chemical contaminants may it be complex organic and inorganic compounds or heavy metals. But there are many limitations that get in the way the wide applications of fungi in 283 2022 Research in Mycology 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. this field. It has been reported that the bioremediation by fungi is a slow process and sometimes it leaves the process incomplete. A fungus requires more time to adapt in a newer environment, therefore the process of initiation of bioremediation. Soil is a heterogeneous system, and sometimes this fact showed limitation in result for proliferation of the inoculums in field conditions. Similarly, ease of access and bioavailability of the pollutants also serve as a limitation in bioremediation including fungal mediated bioremediation of pesticides (Kumar, et. al., 2017b). Partial degradation of some organic or inorganic compound may leave secondary metabolites, which may be toxic in nature. It has been reported that, sometimes, secondary metabolites have been found to be even more harmful as compared to their parent compounds (Boopathy, 2000; Kumar, et. al., 2017b). There are very less information’s are available about the fate of the metabolites resulted from fungal degradation. Bioremediation is not useful for the all kinds of treatment of organic compound; in fact, it is limited to a very few groups of aromatic compounds. The need of a clean site makes the performance evaluations difficult because there is not any one defined level and therefore performance criteria, regulations are hesitant. The metabolites residual after treatment may be mobilized to groundwater if not controlled. In ex-situ process of application, controlling of organic compounds which show volatile properties may be hard. 284 2022 Research in Mycology Conclusion and Future Perspectives Bioremediation is an adaptable, eco-friendly treatment approach and a fast-growing field of environmental restoration so that it disintegrates or detoxifies environmental pollutants into less toxic forms. It is based on the idea that different organisms will work together to remove the waste substances or pollutants from the environment. Fungi have greater potential by virtue of their growth, biomass production, and extensive hyphal reach in soil. The unique biochemical properties of fungi elucidate its importance to transfer hazardous substances to non-hazardous and are highly in demand to translate powerful ecosystem services. Overall, this chapter discusses about species of the fungi and pollutants, briefs the factors affecting the bioremediation efficiency and depicts the remediation mechanisms of the potent contaminants in soil environment by fungi. In order to promote bioremediation efficiency fungi, future studies should concentrate on enhancing competitiveness of dominant strains improving bioavailability of pollutants, and exploring novel technologies to increase detoxification of microbes. The future researches should focus on alleviating the existing limitations. The fact that all the sites are different from each other and have wide variations possesses limitation on application of fungi. Hence, the remediation must be curtailed to a site-specific approach by understanding the mechanisms involved in regulating the behaviour of fungi under a certain environmental condition. References 1. Barker, A.V., Bryson, G.M., (2002). Bioremediation of heavy metals and organic toxicants by composting. Sci. World J. 2,407–420. 285 2022 Research in Mycology 2. Bhatia, A., Singh, S., Kumar, A., (2015). Heavy metal contamination of soil, irrigation water and vegetables in periurban agricultural areas and markets of Delhi. Water Environ Res 87:2027–2034. 3. Boopathy, R., (2000). Factors limiting bioremediation technologies. Bioresour Technol 74(1):63–67. 4. Borowik, A., Wyszkowska, J., Oszust, K. (2017). Functional diversity of fungal communities in soil contaminated with diesel oil. Front Microbiol 8:1862. 5. Deshmukh, R., Khardenavis, A.A., Purohit, H.J., (2016). Diverse metabolic capacities of fungi for bioremediation. Indian J Microbiol 56:247–264. 6. Glick, B.R., Cheng, Z., Czarny, J., Duan, J., (2017). Promotion of plant growth by ACC deaminase-producing soil bacteria. Eur. J. Plant Pathol.; 119:329–33. 7. Gupta, N., Yadav, K.K., Kumar, V., Kumar, S., Chadd, R.P., Kumar, A., (2019). Trace elements in soil-vegetables interface: translocation, bioaccumulation, toxicity, and amelioration-a review. Sci Total Environ 651:2927–2942. 8. Juwarkar, A.A., Dubey, K.V., Nair A, Singh, S.K. (2008) Bioremediation of multi-metal contaminated soil using biosurfactant – a novel approach. Indian J Microbiol 48:142– 146. 9. Kumar, A., Cabral-Pinto, M., Kumar, A., Kumar, M., Dinis, P.A. (2020c). Estimation of Risk to the Eco-Environment and Human Health of Using Heavy Metals in the Uttarakhand Himalaya, India. Applied Sciences. 10(20):7078. 10. Kumar, A., Kumar, A., Cabral-Pinto, MMS., Chaturvedi, A.K., Shabnam, A.A., Subrahmanyam, G., Mondal, R., Gupta, D.K., Malyan, S.K., Kumar, S.S., Khan, S.A., Yadav, K.K., (2020b). Lead Toxicity: Health Hazards, Influence on Food Chain, and Sustainable Remediation Approaches. 286 2022 Research in Mycology International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17(7):2179. 11. Kumar, A., Mishra, S., Kumar, A., Singhal, S., (2017a). Environmental quantification of soil elements in the catchment of hydroelectric reservoirs in India. Hum Ecol Risk Assess Int J 23:1202–1218. 12. Kumar, A., Subrahmanyam, G., Mondal, R., Cabral-Pinto, MMS., Shabnam, A.A., Jigyasu, D.K., Malyan, S.K., Fagodiya, R.K., Khan, S.A., Kumar, A., Yu, Z-G. (2020a). Bio-remediation approaches for alleviation of cadmium contamination in natural resources, Chemosphere, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. chemosphere.2020.128855. 13. Lamar, R.T. and White, R.B. (2001). Mycoremediation: commercial status and recent developments. In V.S. Magar et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation, San Diego, CA. Vol. 6, pp. 263-278. 14. Liu, S.H., Zeng, G.M., Niu, Q.Y., Liu, Y., Zhou, L., Jiang, L.H., Tan, X.f. X.P., Zhang, C., Cheng, M., (2017). Bioremediation mechanisms of combined pollution of PAHs and heavy metals by bacteria and fungi: a mini review. Bioresour Technol 224:25–33. 15. Malyan, S.K., Singh, R., Rawat, M., Kumar, M., Pugazhendhi, A., Kumar, A., et. al., (2019). An overview of carcinogenic pollutants in groundwater of India. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol 21:101288. 16. Mishra, S., Kumar, A., Yadav, S., Singhal, M. (2018). Assessment of heavy metal contamination in water of Kali River using principle component and cluster analysis, India. Sustain Water Res Manag 4:573–581. 17. Rastegari, A.A., Yadav, A.N., Yadav, N. (2020b). New and future developments in microbial biotechnology and 287 2022 Research in Mycology bioengineering: trends of microbial biotechnology for sustainable agriculture and biomedicine systems: perspectives for human health. Elsevier, AmsterdamSingh J, Yadav AN (2020) Natural bioactive products in sustainable agriculture. Springer, Singapore. 18. Rastegari, A.A., Yadav, A.N., Yadav, N., (2020a). New and future developments in microbial biotechnology and bioengineering: trends of microbial biotechnology for sustainable agriculture and biomedicine systems: diversity and functional perspectives. Elsevier, Amsterdam. 19. Rhodes, C.J. (2013). Applications of bioremediation and phytoremediation. Sci. Prog., 96(4), 417-427. 20. Rhodes, C.J., (2014). Mycoremediation (bioremediation with fungi)–growing mushrooms to clean the earth. Chem Speciat Bioavailab 26:196–198. 21. Shrivastava, P., Kumar, R., (2015). Soil salinity: A serious environmental issue and plant growth-promoting bacteria as one of the tools for its alleviation Saudi J Biol Sci.; 22(2): 123–131. DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2014.12.001 22. Singh, H., (2006). Mycoremediation: fungal bioremediation. Hoboken NJ: Wiley. 23. Singh, J., Rawat, K.S., Kumar, A., (2013a). Mobility of Cadmium in sewage sludge applied soil and its uptake by Radish (Raphanus sativus L.) and Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.). Int J Agric Food Sci Technol 4(4):291–296. 24. Singh, J., Rawat, K.S., Kumar, A., Singh, A., (2013b). Effect of sewage sludge and biofertilizers on physicochemical properties of alluvial soil. Biochem. Cell. Arch. 13(2):319– 322. 25. Subrahmanyam, G., Kumar, A., Sandilya, S.P., Chutia, M., Yadav, A.N., (2020). Diversity, Plant Growth Promoting Attributes, and Agricultural Applications of Rhizospheric 288 2022 Research in Mycology Microbes. In: Yadav, A., Singh' J., Rastegari' A., Yadav, N. (eds) Plant Microbiomes for Sustainable Agriculture. Sustainable Development and Biodiversity, vol 25. Springer, Cham. 26. Yadav, A.N., Rastegari, A.A., Yadav, N., (2020e). Microbiomes of extreme environments, Vol-1: biodiversity and biotechnological applications. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton Yadav A.N., (2021). Beneficial plantmicrobe interactions for agricultural sustainability. J Appl Biol Biotechnol 9:1–4. *** 289 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 CHAPTER Pharmacological Activity of Mushroom 19 Syed Farheen Anwar, Masufa Tarannum and Hafsa Imam Introduction Worldwide, there are about 14,000 different species of macrofungi, sometimes known as mushrooms. The word macrofungi comes from the Greek word "makros," which means large. Worldwide, people eat about 350 different varieties of mushrooms. There are at least 270 macrofungi species that have been studied as possible sources of significant secondary metabolites and food supplements with potential medical uses. The development of several extracellular enzymes with important agricultural and biotechnological applications has been facilitated by mushrooms, which are fleshy fungus. Their great nutritional value and therapeutic significance, which includes their antioxidant and antibacterial capabilities, have earned them widespread recognition as supplemental foods. Immunological booster, as well as being efficient in treating diabetes and a few forms of cancers. They are beneficial to the body not only in terms of nutrition but also for improved health. Macrofungi are well known for their ability to protect from or cure various health problems such as immunodeficiency, cancer, inflammation, 290 Research in Mycology hypertension, hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolemia, and obesity. Many studies have demonstrated their medicinal properties, supported by both in vivo & in vitro experimental studies, as well as clinical trials. Macrofungi, both wild and cultivated, can be seen as healthy functional food. The moisture level of macro fungi’s fresh fruiting bodies ranges from 70 to 95 percent. Essential fatty acids (1–5%), proteins (19–35%, and carbohydrates (50–65%)), as well as vitamins and minerals, make up the majority of the dry matter [8]. Edible mushrooms may include a variety of nutraceuticals including glucans, lectins, unsaturated fatty acids, phenolic, tocotrienols, ascorbic acid, and carotenoids. Since these substances have a range of anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-obesity, immunomodulatory, hypercholesterolemic, hepatoprotective, and anti-aging actions their incorporation in mushroom extract has great therapeutic advantages for human health. A. bisporus (button macrofungi), Auricularia auricula (wood ear macrofungi), F. velutipes (winter macrofungi), L. edodes (shiitake), Pleurotus spp. (oyster macrofungi), and Volvariella volvacea are the most extensively farmed edible macrofungi. Additionally, macrofungi 1like L. edodes, Inonotus obliquus, and Ganoderma lingzhi, G. sichuanese (Lingzhi or Reishi) (Shiitake). Antimicrobial activity (Antifungal and Antibacterial) Many species of Basidiomycota, the kingdom Fungi's secondlargest division, with over 30,000 documented species, develop conspicuous fruiting structures (Basidiomes, Basidiocarps, mushrooms) for reproduction. As a result, these fungi are known as"(basidiomycete) mushrooms." Antimicrobial resistance has now become a global issue because, in today's world of travel and trade, resistant organisms easily cross artificial borders via humans or the food chain. The cause of antibiotic resistance, according to the literature, is excessive antibiotic use and a dearth of new 291 2022 Research in Mycology antimicrobial medicines with novel modes of action. Only two such antimicrobial medicines have been granted FDA approval in the last thirty years: linezolid and daptomycin. Cryptococcus species are among the leading causes of invasive fungal infections worldwide. Cryptococcus neoformans as well as C. gattii most commonly cause sickness in patients with weakened immune systems. An estimated 220,000 instances of cryptococcosis occur each year, with fatality rates ranging from 10% to 70% in patients with cryptococcal meningitis. Cryptococcal illness is responsible for one-third of all HIV/AIDS-related fatalities, exceeding TB. Current treatments are confined to a few antifungal medications (amphotericin B, flucytosine, and fluconazole), with no novel therapy launched in recent decades. Because of their toxicity, failure to effectively eliminate the fungal infection, and the establishment of drug resistance, these treatments remain unsatisfactory. In addition to the well-known genetic causes of AMR, bacteria can exhibit various alternative antimicrobial resistance methods. One of these is the capacity to create biofilms. Biofilms are involved in around 80% of infections. It is the cause of many chronic diseases, including periodontitis, endocarditis, urinary tract infections, and prostate infections. A variety of bacteria, including Gram-positive pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae and Gram-negative pathogens like E. coli and P. aeruginosa, are frequently responsible for biofilm-associated infections, which are extremely difficult to treat. The variety of wild mushrooms was studied in two Indian protected forest regions and morphologically, 231 mushroom specimens were recognized. 76 isolates were tested for antibacterial activity against seven bacterial and fungal infections. 45 isolates with substantial antibacterial activity were discovered using ITS rRNA gene amplification and phylogenetic analysis using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and inter- 292 2022 Research in Mycology simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers. Extracts of a novel species, Sphaerostilbella toxica, a fungus we discovered parasitizing wood-decay basidiomycetes, such as Gloeophyllum striatum (fig.1) and Phellinus gilvus in North Carolina, USA, were cultivated, fermented, and evaluated. Organic solvent extracts of cultures of this mycoparasite showed significant antimicrobial properties, including C. neoformans growth inhibition. Fig. White superficial mycelium and conidia of Sphaerostilbella toxica parasitizing the lamellae of Gloeophyllum striatum. Anti-Cancer Activities Cancer constitutes a major threat to public health in both high- and low-income countries. Globally, cancer is considered the second leading cause of death after cardiovascular diseases with an estimated 9.6 million deaths according to GLOBOCAN in 2018. Breast cancer is highly prevalent in women. In 2008, the IARC/OMS estimated that breast cancer was the second biggest incidence of cancer in the world (1.29 million cases). In Brazil, it would be responsible for 49,000 new cases in women from 2010 to 2011 and the mortality rate for this type of cancer remains high, on one side, because this disease continues to be diagnosed at advanced stages. Treatment for breast cancer is complex and varies according to the histological diagnosis of the patient, the patient’s 293 2022 Research in Mycology age, the disease stage, and the therapeutic approaches taken. Previous studies have sought to identify ways to improve the quality of life and nutritional status of cancer patients using adjuvant therapy with mushrooms. The most recent studies have shown that dietary supplementation with Agaricales mushrooms and other Medicinal fungi in breast cancer patients can provide benefits, such as antiproliferative and immunomodulatory effects on tumor cells. Anti-Allergic Properties of Fungi The related Basidiomycota mushrooms Agaricus blazei, Hericium erinaceus, and Grifola frondosa from Brazilian and Eastern traditional medicine have shown therapeutic properties in investigations since the 1980s. Researchers have looked at the mushrooms' anti-inflammatory and antiallergenic qualities in addition to their anticancer benefits. AbM and GF Extracts Have Anti-Allergic Effects It was noted in 2006 that an AbM extract prevented anaphylaxis (and also passive vaccination), or swelling of the ears, in a mouse model. This was accomplished by having a positive therapeutic impact on the mast cell response. The oral AbM extract decreased levels of specific immunoglobulin IgE, IgG1, and bronchial eosinophils in a different animal model to produce allergic asthma because it improved the skewed Th1/Th2 balance. The following year, we used Andosan TM to corroborate the discovery in a mouse model of allergy sensitization caused by ovalbumin (OVA), in which specific IgE and IgG1 levels were likewise decreased and the Th1 response was elevated in comparison to the Th2 response. It was discovered that the mechanism behind the decreased specific IgE and better Th1/Th2 balance was M cell activation by epithelial cells and AbM encouragement of naive T cell development to Th1 cells when this established OVA sensitization paradigm for allergies in the mouse 294 2022 Research in Mycology was used again. In a recent placebo-controlled randomized clinical study, it was found that blood donors who received Andosan TM orally for two months prior to the pollen season and had selfreported and specific IgE-confirmed birch allergy and asthma experienced fewer general allergy and asthma symptoms and required less medication. According to indirect evidence provided by the basophil activation test this was caused by decreased specific IgE levels and decreased mast cell sensitization. Conclusion Mushrooms are extensively researched for their medical properties and used as a food supplement alongside common medications and treatments. Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies using animal and human models have demonstrated that the polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, dietary fibres, peptides, amino acids, fatty acids, micronutrients, and phenolic bioactives present in mushrooms have a wide range of medical and pharmacological properties. Due to their fibre and polysaccharide content, these higher classes of fungus exhibit a variety of therapeutic qualities, including antioxidant potential, anti-inflammatory action, and anti-aging. Other dietary fibres and saccharides have anti-hypertensive, antihyperlipidemic, anti-diabetic, and immunosuppressive effects. The protective effects of the mushroom on the heart, liver, neurons, kidneys, and liver are due to its terpenoids and phenolic chemicals. The bioactive components of mushrooms are proving to be a promising natural medicine due to their cytotoxic effect against cancer and tumour cells. Future research on mushrooms may focus on the creation of innovative growth techniques and post-harvest processing techniques to address the problems and difficulties posed by mushroom farms. In order to understand the mechanism and metabolic pathways of mushroom bioactive interactions for their pharmacological effects and provide pertinent data, further 295 2022 Research in Mycology research investigations, including full human clinical trials, must be conducted. To fully utilise mushrooms for the benefit of human health and life, more thorough investigations on the unknown wild edible varieties and their production conditions are needed. The consumption of a medicinal mushroom extract can aid in the treatment of patients or offer protection from a wide range of illnesses. Both the fruiting bodies and the mycelia extract of therapeutic mushrooms contain bioactive substances that have good effects on human health. Production of mushrooms and the extraction of their bioactive metabolites are essential components for the creation of effective biotechnological processes. Chemically defined compounds that have been extracted from therapeutic mushrooms have the potential to become new, inventive meals and medicines. Numerous nations now have enterprises that produce tonics to cure ailments using mushroom mycelia as a medicinal ingredient. By using biotechnological techniques, mushroom extracts from the higher class of fungus Basidiomycetes are created as a source of innovative medicinal compounds for treating a range of diseases. Bioactive chemicals can be utilised to treat infections and other disorders in future research, including clinical trials. With the help of this review, we expect to see more study on mushrooms in the medical field, with the long-term goal of creating potent treatments for various diseases. References 1. Acharya K, Samui K, Rai M, Dutta BB, Acharya R. Antioxidant and nitric oxide synthase activation properties of Auriculariaauricula. Indian J Exp Biol. 2004; 42: 538-540. 296 2022 Research in Mycology 2. Borchers AT, Krishnamurthy A, Keen CL, Meyers FJ, Gershwin ME. The immunobiology of mushrooms. ExpBiol Med (Maywood). 2008; 233: 259-276. 3. Bray F, Ferlay J, Soerjomataram I, Siegel RL, Torre LA, Jemal A. Global cancer statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN estimates of incidence and mortality worldwide for 36 cancers in 185 countries. CA Cancer J Clin 2018;68(6):394– 424. 4. Brazil. Ministry of Health Ministry of National Health Care National Cancer Institute [INCA]. Estimates October 20: incidence of cancer in Brazil. Rio de Janeiro, INCA, Brazil in 2009. 5. Brito C, Portela MC, Vasconcellos MTL. SUS oncological care to women with breast cancer in Rio de Janeiro. Rev Public Health. 2005; 39:874-881. 6. Cai M, Lin Y, Luo Y, Liang H, Sun P. Extraction, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities of crude polysaccharides from the wood ear medicinal mushroom Auricularia auricula-judae (Higher Basidiomycetes). Int J Med Mushrooms. 2015; 17(6): 591-600. 7. Chang ST, Buswell JA. Medicinal Mushrooms ÐA Prominent Source of Nutraceuticals for the 21st century. Curr Top Nutraceutical Res. 2003; 1: 257-280 8. Chong PS, Khairuddin S, Tse ACK, Hiew LF, Lau CL, Tipoe GL, Fung M-L, Wong KH, Lim LW. Hericium erinaceus potentially rescues behavioural motor deficits through ERKCREB-PSD95 neuroprotective mechanisms in rat model of 3acetylpyridine-induced cerebellar ataxia. Sci Rep. 2020; 10:14945. 9. Chowdhury MMH, Kubra K, Ahmed SR. Screening of antimicrobial, antioxidant properties and bioactive 297 2022 Research in Mycology compounds of some edible mushrooms cultivated in Bangladesh. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob. 2015; 14:8. 10. Compounds and Market Value. Lu, H.; Lou, H.; Hu, J.; Liu, Z.; Chen, Q. Macrofungi: A review of cultivation strategies, bioactivity, and application of mushrooms. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2020, 19, 2333–2356. 11. Davies, D. Understanding biofilm resistance to antibacterial agents. Nat. Rev. Drugs. Discover. 2003, 2, 114–122. 12. Du J, Wang Y, Hunter R, Wei Y, Blumenthal R, Falke C, Khairova R, Zhou R, Yuan P, Machado-Vieira R, McEwen BS, Manji HK. Dynamic regulation of mitochondrial function by glucocorticoids. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009; 106(9):3543–8. 13. Du X, Pang TY. Is dysregulation of the HPA-axis a core pathophysiology mediating co-morbid depression in neurodegenerative diseases? Front Psychiatry. 2015; 6:32. 14. Ghosh, K. A review on edible straw mushrooms: A source of high nutritional supplement, biologically active diverse structural polysaccharides. J. Sci. Res. 2020, 64, 295–304. 15. Guerra MR, Gallo CVM, Mendonca GAS. Risk of cancer in Brazil: trends and recent epidemiological studies. Rev Cancer. Brazil. 2005; 51:227-34. 16. He, M. Zhao, R. Hyde, K.D. Begerow, D. Kemler, M. Yurkov, A. McKenzie, E.H.C. Raspé, O. Kakishima, M. Sánchez-Ramírez, S. et al. Notes, outline and divergence times of Basidiomycota. Fungal Divers. 2019, 99, 105–367. 17. Hyde, K.D.; Xu, J.; Rapior, S.; Jeewon, R.; Lumyong, S.; Niego, A.G.T.; Abeywickrama, P.D.; Aluthmuhandiram, J.V.S.; Brahamanage, R.S.; Brooks, S.; et al. The amazing potential of fungi: 50 ways we can exploit fungi industrially. Fungal Divers. 2019, 97, 1–136. 298 2022 Research in Mycology 18. Jamal, M.; Ahmad, W.; Andleeb, S.; Jalil, F.; Imran, M.; Nawaz, M.A.; Hussain, T.; Ali, M.; Rafiq, M.; Kamil, M.A. Bacterial biofilm and associated infections. J. Chin. Med. Assoc. 2018, 81, 7–11. 19. Kanaya N, Kubo M, Liu Z, Chu P, Wang C, et al. Protective effects of white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) against hepatic steatosis in ovariectomized mice as a model of postmenopausal women. PLoS ONE. 2011; 6(10): e26654. 20. Kasahara E, Inoue M. Cross-talk between HPA-axisincreased glucocorticoids and mitochondrial stress determines immune responses and clinical manifestations of patients with sepsis. Redox Rep. 2015; 20(1):1–10. 21. Kristensen HL, Rosenqvist E, Jakobsen J. Increase of vitamin D2 by UV-B exposure during the growth phase of white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus). Food Nutr Res. 2012; 56. 22. Lew S-Y, Yow Y-Y, Lim L-W, Wong K-H. Antioxidantmediated protective role of Hericium erinaceus (Bull.: Fr.) Pers. against oxidative damage in fibroblasts from Friedreich’s ataxia patient. Food Sci Technol. 2020; 40(Suppl.1):264–72. 23. Morsy, M.A.; Ali, E.M.; Venugopala, K.M.; Nair, A.B.; Greish, K.; El-Daly, M. Screening and Molecular Docking of Novel Benzothiazole Derivatives as Potential Antimicrobial Agents.Antibiotics 2020, 9, 221. 24. Nowacka N, Nowak R, Drozd M, Olech M, Los R, Malm A. Antibacterial, antiradical potential and phenolic compounds of thirty-one Polish mushrooms. PLoS ONE. 2015. 10(10): e0140355. 25. Rathore, H.; Prasad, S.; Sharma, S. Mushroom nutraceuticals for improved nutrition and better human health: A review. PharmaNutrition 2017, 5, 35–46. 299 2022 Research in Mycology 26. Reis, F.S.; Barros, L.; Martins, A.; Ferreira, I.C.F.R. Chemical composition and nutritional value of the most widely appreciated cultivated mushrooms: An inter-species comparative study. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2012, 50, 191–197. 27. Shamtsyan, M. Bioactive compounds in mushrooms. In Encyclopaedia of Biotechnology in Agriculture and Food; Heldman, D., Wheeler, M., Hoover, D., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2010; pp. 76–81. 28. Sliva D, Loganathan J, Jiang J, Jedinak A, Lamb JG, Terry C, et al. Mushroom Ganoderma lucidumprevents colitisassociated carcinogenesis in mice. PLoS ONE 2012; 7(10): e47873. 29. Willis, K.J. State of the World’s Fungi 2018. Available online: https://stateoftheworldsfungi.org/ (accessed on 18 Sep 2022). 30. Wong KH, Sabaratnam V, Abdullah N, Kuppusamy UR, Naidu M. Effects of cultivation techniques and processing on antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Hericium erinaceus (Bull.: Fr.) Pers. extracts. Food Technol Biotechnol. 2009;47(1):47–55. 31. Yuan ZM, He PM, Cui JH, Takeuchi H. Hypoglycemic effect of water-soluble polysaccharides from Woody Ear (Auricularia Auricula-judaeQuel.) in genetically diabetic KK-Ay mice. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol. 1998; 44(6): 829-840. *** 300 2022 Research in Mycology CHAPTER Candidiasis: A Fungal Infection of Human 20 Shivangi Tripathi, Dr. Gopa Banerjee, Dr. Aisha Kamal, Dr. Anil Kumar Tripathi Introduction Candida, the opportunistic mycotic pathogen is a better physician, as it detects abnormalities in person’s immune system sooner, than we with our diagnostic modalities (Deorukhka and Roshini, 2017). "Candidiasis" or "moniliasis is a common terminology of the Candida infections of humans affecting superficial as well as internal organs (McCullough et al., 1996). Candida species are present as natural microbiota in humans but increased prevalence as commonest pathogen is observed during last few decades (Pfaller et al., 2000). Candidiasis is with very old history as the disease was described in ancient times. Early around 400 B.C oral candidiasis was described by Hippocrates called as “mouths affected” with aphthous ulcerations” (Chander, 2017). This perception was accepted by Mycologists as Thrush was previously quoted by Castellani as “morbid secretions of the oral mucosa”. The French language word for the condition is ‘le Muguet’, which means ‘lily-of-the-valley’ (Calderone and Gow, 2002). In 1890, Zopf named thrush fungus as Monilia albicans, later in 1923 Berkhout introduced the generic name “Candida albicans” 301 2022 Research in Mycology which is derived from the Latin name (Chander, 2017; Drouhet, 2010). Polymorphic nature and ability of producing budding yeast cells along with mycelia pseudo mycelia and blastopores is strategic feature of the Candida species (Georgiev, 2003). Out of 200 species of genus Candida, few species are medically significant and associated with human Candida infections (Pfaller et al., 2007). Most significant pathogenic species is Candida albicans while others are Candida krusei, Candida tropicalis, Candida parapsilosis, Candida glabrata, Candida lusitaniae and C. dubliniensis. In year of 2009, a new strain Candida auris was first described from Japan (Satoh et al., 2009) and in 2009-11 from patients at two hospitals in Delhi, India (Chowdhary et al., 2013). In healthy individuals, Candida albicans is commensals and commonly isolated from the oral cavity (40-60%), gastrointestinal tract (8-60%), vagina (4-27%), and skin (0-44%). Although in general population, candidal infection is relatively uncommon whereas it is common in immunocompromised individuals such as AIDS patients, endocrine disturbances, folate deficiencies, and other immune disorders. Taxonomic Position Kingdom Fungi Phylum Ascomycota Subphylum Ascomycotina Class Ascomycetes Order Saccharomycetales Family Saccharomycetaceae Genus Candida Candida species produce a wide spectrum of diseases, ranging from superficial mucocutaneous disease to invasive illnesses, such as the fourth most prevalent bloodstream pathogen isolated. 302 2022 Research in Mycology Management of serious and life-threatening invasive candidiasis remains severely hampered by delay in diagnosis and the lack of reliable diagnostic hepatosplenic candidiasis, Candida peritonitis, and systemic Candidiasis (Ernst and Schmidt 2000; Prasad et al, 2002). Lately, Candida species have been reported to be the sixth most commonly isolated pathogen and the fourth most prevalent bloodstream pathogen isolated. Management of serious and lifethreatening invasive candidiasis remains severely hampered by delay in diagnosis and the lack of reliable diagnostic methods that allow detection of both fungemia and tissue invasion by Candida species (Anaissie et al, 2003; Khan & Gyanchandani 1998) On daily basis, virtually all physicians are confronted with a positive Candida isolate obtained from one or more of various anatomical sites. Candida albicans accounts for approximately 50-60% or more causes of candidiasis in humans. C. glabrata recently has become important because of its increasing incidence worldwide, and it is intrinsically less susceptible to azoles and amphotericin B. Some Candida species, C. tropicalis and C. dubliniensis, are increasingly isolated from clinical samples. Another important Candida is C. krusei, it is of clinical significance because of its intrinsic resistance to azoles and its less susceptibility to all other antifungals, including ampthotericin B. Candida Species: Features, Risk Factors, Prevalence and Disease Candida species are part of the normal microbial flora of gut, vagina, and oral cavity (Eggimann et al., 2003). The genus Candida consists of a heterogenous group of yeast species belonging to the class ascomycetes which are present in both yeast (unicellular) and hyphae (multicellular) forms with the exception of C. glabrata, which is nondimorphic (Bialkova & Subik, 2006). 303 2022 Research in Mycology Infections caused by Candida species range from superficial mucosal viz., vulvovaginal, and oropharyngeal candidiasis to life threatening systemic infections (Yapar, 2014). Of 200 Candida species described so far, only 15 have been isolated form patients suffering from candidiasis (Yapar, 2014). These are C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis, C. krusei, C. guilliermondii, C. lusitaniae, C. dubliniensis, C. pelliculosa, C. kefyr, C. lipolytica, C. famata, C. inconspicua, C. rugosa and C. norvegensis (Yapar, 2014). In another study, approximately 96% of infections were caused by only five species viz., C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. parapsilosis, C. tropicalis and C. krusei in both ICU (Intensive Care Unit) and non-ICU settings (Pfaller et al., 2011). Over the last two decades, increased use of immunosuppressive therapies, broad spectrum antibiotics, cytotoxic chemotherapies, organ transplantation and use of internal prosthetic devices has increased the risk of opportunistic fungal infections (Nucci & Marr, 2005, Pfaller & Diekema, 2007). Although C. albicans is the most common cause of candidiasis, the occurrence of infections due to non-albicans Candida spp. has increased over the past two decades (Pfaller & Diekema, 2007, Richardson & Lass-Florl, 2008). The rise in candidemia due to non-albicans Candida spp. has partly been associated with the wide use of fluconazole in prophylaxis and treatment of invasive fungal infections in immunocompromised patients (Marr et al., 2000, Martino & Subira, 2002). However, role of fluconazole in the changing epidemiological pattern of Candida infections remains controversial as several reports claim no correlation between fluconazole usage and incidence of non-albicans Candida spp.associated infections (Lin et al., 2005). Among non-albicans Candida spp., C. parapsilosis accounts for 30% of candidemia among new born. On the other hand, C. glabrata is more common in older age and neoplastic patients 304 2022 Research in Mycology (Yapar, 2014). Infections due to C. tropicalis are more prevalent in leukemic and neutropenic patients whereas C. krusei is more common in hematopoietic stem cell recipients and neutropenic leukemia patients receiving fluconazole prophylaxis (Pappas, 2006, Pfaller & Diekema, 2007). Candida infections can be divided in to nongenital and genitourinary candidiasis (Achkar & Fries, 2010). Among no genitourinary candidiasis, oropharyngeal candidiasis (also known as oral thrush) is the most common and usually diagnosed in immunocompromised patients. The genitourinary candidiasis includes vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) in women, balanitis and balanoposthitis in men, and candiduria prevalent in both sexes (Achkar & Fries, 2010). These diseases are common and occur in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised individuals. Majority of women encounter at least one episode of VVC during their child bearing years (Sobel et al., 1998). C. albicans is the most prevalent agent causing VVC cases worldwide (Achkar & Fries, 2010). Of note, C. glabrata is responsible for about 37% of cases of VVC in India (Achkar & Fries, 2010). The occurrence of Candida infections (Candidiasis) has increased over the past two decades and this rise has directly been proportional to the increasing number of susceptible patients, which include patients with AIDS, patients under immunosuppressive therapy, patients undergoing blood and bone marrow transplant, premature babies and individuals with advanced age (Pfaller et al., 2006). Increased use of cytotoxic chemotherapy and broad-spectrum antibiotics is another predisposing factor for opportunistic Candida infections (Pfaller and Diekema, 2007). Candida spp. are the most common cause of opportunistic mycoses and fourth most frequent cause of BSI in ICU patients (Bassetti et al., 2010). Candedemia (invasive candidiasis) accounts for up to 305 2022 Research in Mycology 15% of nosocomial (hospital-acquired) infections and has a high crude mortality rate of 25-60% and an attributable mortality rate upto 49% (Gudlaugsson et al., 2003, Bassetti et al., 2010). As mentioned earlier, five species of Candida, C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. parapsilosis, C. tropicalis and C. krusei, account for more than 90% of Candida infections wherein C. albicans remains the most frequently isolated (37-70%) Candida spp. worldwide based on multicenter surveys (Pfaller and Diekema, 2007). Global studies on species distribution of Candida spp. have identified C. albicans to be most commonly isolated in Candida BSIs in the Asian Pacific, Latin American, European and North American regions (Pfaller et al., 2010, Pfaller et al., 2011b). The epidemiology of Candida infections has been changing, and although C. albicans remains the major cause of Candida infections, the incidences of non-albicans Candida spp. have increased in the last two decades (Table 1.1) (Yapar, 2014). In North America and European countries, C. glabrata has replaced C. albicans infections. Similarly, C. parapsilosis and C. tropicalis infections have increased in Asia-Pacific regions (Yapar, 2014). In the North American region, incidence of C. albicans infections in USA and Canada were 48.9% and 64%, respectively, in the 1990s, which has decreased to 38% during the 2008–2011 period (Macphail et al., 2002, Pfaller et al., 2010). In Latin American countries, C. albicans is the most common species in Candida BSIs followed by C. parapsilosis, C. glabrata ranks fourth (Pfaller et al., 2011b). Candida species distribution differs from country to country in Europe and C. albicans is most predominant species followed by C. glabrata or C. parapsilosis (Yapar, 2014). In the Asia-Pacific region, incidence of C. albicans infections during 2001-2004 and 2008-2009 remained highest while C. glabrata isolates increased from 10% (fourth) to 13.7% (second) (Pfaller and Diekema, 2007, Pfaller et al., 2011b). The change in Candida 306 2022 Research in Mycology epidemiology is due to multiple reasons, but use of fluconazole and venous catheters are the most important factors (Pfaller and Diekema, 2007, Yapar, 2014). The epidemiological pattern of Candida in India differs from the global trend and in recent years, C. tropicalis has been the most commonly isolated Candida spp. in BSIs (Adhikary and Joshi, 2011, Oberoi et al., 2012). A ten-year study carried out in a tertiary 307 2022 Research in Mycology care hospital at New Delhi, India through 1999 to 2008 has observed a five-fold increase in Candida BSI incidences and significant change in Candida epidemiology (Oberoi et al., 2012). C. albicans was isolated in 76% of BSI episodes in 1999 which has dropped significantly to 15.2% in 2008, however, the actual number of C. albicans incidences did not vary significantly during these years (Oberoi et al., 2012). Recently, during 2006 to 2008, C. tropicalis was the most commonly isolates species (29.2%), followed by C. albicans (16.8%), C. haemulonii (15.5%), C. parapsilosis (12.5%) and C. glabrata (8.5%) (Oberoi et al., 2012). Among non-albicans Candida species, C. tropicalis has been reported to be more prevalent in major Indian hospitals, compared to C. glabrata or C. parapsilosis (Chakrabarti et al., 2008). Symptoms 1. Itching and irritation in the vagina and vulva. 2. A burning sensation, especially during intercourse or while urinating. 3. Redness and swelling of the vulva. 4. Vaginal pain and soreness. 5. Vaginal rash. 6. Thick, white, odor-free vaginal discharge with a cottage cheese appearance. 7. Watery vaginal discharge. 8. Belly pain. 9. Chills or fever. 10. Low blood pressure. 11. Muscle aches. 12. Skin rash. 13. Weakness or fatigue. 308 2022 Research in Mycology Treatment Antifungals are used for treatment with the specific type and dose depending on the patient's age, immune status, and specifics of the infection. For most adults, the initial treatment is an echinocandin class antifungal (caspofungin, micafungin, or anidulafungin) given intravenously. Fluconazole, amphotericin B, and other antifungals may also be used. Treatment normally continues for two weeks after resolution of signs and symptoms and Candida yeasts can no longer can be cultured from blood samples. Some forms of invasive candidiasis, such as infections in the bones, joints, heart, or central nervous system, usually need to be treated for a longer period. Retrospective observational studies suggest that prompt presumptive antifungal therapy (based on symptoms or biomarkers) is effective and can reduce mortality. Reference 1. Achkar JM, Fries BC. Candida infections of the genitourinary tract. Clinical microbiology reviews. 2010 Apr; 23(2):253-73. 2. Adhikary R, Joshi S. Species distribution and anti-fungal susceptibility of Candidaemia at a multi super-specialty center in Southern India. Indian J Med Microbiol. 2011 JulSep; 29(3):309-11. 3. Adhikary R, Joshi S. Species distribution and anti-fungal susceptibility of Candidaemia at a multi super-specialty center in Southern India. Indian journal of medical microbiology. 2011 Jul 1; 29(3):309-11. 4. Anaissie, E. J., S. L. Stratton M. C. Dignani, C. K. Lee, R. C. Summerbell, J. H. Rex, T. P. Monson, T. J. Walsh, 2003. Pathogenic molds (including Aspergillus species) in hospital water distribution systems: a 3-year prospective 309 2022 Research in Mycology study and clinical implications for patients with hematologic malignancies, Blood 101:2542-2546. 5. Bassetti M, Taramasso L, Nicco E, Molinari MP, Mussap M, Viscoli C. Epidemiology, species distribution, antifungal susceptibility and outcome of nosocomial candidemia in a tertiary care hospital in Italy. PLoS one. 2011 Sep 15; 6(9):e24198. 6. Bialková A, Subík J. Biology of the pathogenic yeast Candida glabrata. Folia Microbiol (Praha). 2006; 51(1):320. doi: 10.1007/BF02931443. PMID: 16821705. 7. Calderone, R. and N.A. Gow, Host recognition by Candida species. Candida and candidiasis. ASM Press, Washington, DC, 2002: p. 67-86. 8. Chander, J., Textbook of medical mycology. 2017: JP Medical Ltd. 9. Chowdhary, A., et al., New Clonal Strain of Candida auris, Delhi, India: New Clonal Strain of Candida auris, Delhi, India. Emerging infectious diseases, 2013. 19(10): p. 1670. 10. Deorukhkar, S. and S. Roushani, Fluconazole resistance in Candida Species: Ten Years’ Experience at a Rural Tertiary Care Teaching Hospital in India. J Infect Dis Pathog, 2017. 1: p. 102. 11. Drouhet, E., Historical Introduction: Evolution of Knowledge of the Fungi and Mycoses from Hippocrates to the Twenty‐First Century. Topley & Wilson's Microbiology and Microbial Infections, 2010. 12. Eggimann P, Garbino J, Pittet D. Management of Candida species infections in critically ill patients. Lancet Infect Dis. 2003 Dec; 3(12):772-85. 13. Ernst, J. F., and A. Schmidt, (eds.) 2000. Dimorphism in human pathogenic and apathogenic yeasts, Basel, Karger, Switzerland. 310 2022 Research in Mycology 14. Georgiev, V.S., Opportunistic infections: treatment and prophylaxis. 2003: Springer Science & Business Media. p. 239. 15. Gudlaugsson O, Gillespie S, Lee K, Berg JV, Hu J, Messer S, Herwaldt L, Pfaller M, Diekema D. Attributable mortality of nosocomial candidemia, revisited. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2003 Nov 1; 37(9):1172-7. 16. Khan, Z. K., and A. Gyanchandani, 1998. Candidiasis- a review, CDR! Commun. B64: 1-34. 17. Kullberg, Bart Jan; Arendrup, Maiken C. (2015-10-08). "Invasive Candidiasis". The New England Journal of Medicine. 373 (15): 1445–1456. 18. Lin MY, Carmeli Y, Zumsteg J, Flores EL, Tolentino J, Sreeramoju P, Weber SG. Prior antimicrobial therapy and risk for hospital-acquired Candida glabrata and Candida krusei fungemia: a case-case-control study. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy. 2005 Nov; 49(11):4555-60. 19. Macphail GL, Taylor GD, Buchanan‐Chell M, Ross C, Wilson S, Kureishi A. Epidemiology, treatment, and outcome of candidemia: a five‐year review at three Canadian hospitals: Epidemiologie, Behandlung und ausgang von Candidämien: Eine Fünfjahresübersicht an drei kanadischen Hospitälern. Mycoses. 2002 Jun; 45(5‐ 6):141-5. 20. Marr KA, Seidel K, Slavin MA, Bowden RA, Schoch HG, Flowers ME, Corey L, Boeckh M. Prolonged fluconazole prophylaxis is associated with persistent protection against candidiasis-related death in allogeneic marrow transplant recipients: long-term follow-up of a randomized, placebocontrolled trial. Blood, The Journal of the American Society of Hematology. 2000 Sep 15; 96(6):2055-61. 311 2022 Research in Mycology 21. Martino R, Subira M. Invasive fungal infections in hematology: new trends. Annals of hematology. 2002 May; 81(5):233-43. 22. McCullough, M., B. Ross, and P. Reade, Candida albicans: a review of its history, taxonomy, epidemiology, virulence attributes, and methods of strain differentiation. International journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery, 1996. 25(2): p. 136-144. 23. Nucci M, Marr KA. Emerging fungal diseases. Clin Infect Dis. 2005 Aug 15; 41(4):521-6. 24. Oberoi JK, Wattal C, Goel N, Raveendran R, Datta S, Prasad K. Non-albicans Candida species in blood stream infections in a tertiary care hospital at New Delhi, India. Indian J Med Res. 2012 Dec; 136(6):997-1003. 25. Oberoi JK, Wattal C, Goel N, Raveendran R, Datta S, Prasad K. Non-albicans Candida species in blood stream infections in a tertiary care hospital at New Delhi, India. The Indian journal of medical research. 2012 Dec; 136(6):997. 26. Pappas PG. Invasive candidiasis. Infectious Disease Clinics. 2006 Sep 1; 20(3):485-506. 27. Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ, Gibbs DL, Newell VA, Meis JF, Gould IM, Fu W, Colombo AL, Rodriguez-Noriega E. Results from the ARTEMIS DISK Global Antifungal Surveillance study, 1997 to 2005: an 8.5-year analysis of susceptibilities of Candida species and other yeast species to fluconazole and voriconazole determined by CLSI standardized disk diffusion testing. Journal of clinical microbiology. 2007 Jun; 45(6):1735-45. 28. Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ. Epidemiology of invasive candidiasis: a persistent public health problem. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2007 Jan; 20(1):133-63. 312 2022 Research in Mycology 29. Pfaller MA, Diekema DJ. Epidemiology of invasive mycoses in North America. Critical reviews in microbiology. 2010 Feb 1; 36(1):1-53. 30. Pfaller MA, Messer SA, Moet GJ, Jones RN, Castanheira M. Candida bloodstream infections: comparison of species distribution and resistance to echinocandin and azole antifungal agents in Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and nonICU settings in the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (2008-2009). Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2011 Jul; 38(1):65-9. 31. Pfaller, M., et al., Bloodstream infections due to Candida species: SENTRY antimicrobial surveillance program in North America and Latin America, 1997-1998. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 2000. 44(3): p. 747-751. 32. Pfaller, M., et al., Results from the ARTEMIS DISK global antifungal surveillance study, 1997 to 2007: a 10.5-year analysis of susceptibilities of Candida species to fluconazole and voriconazole determined by CLSI standardized disk diffusion. Journal of clinical microbiology, 2010. 48(4): p. 1366-1377. 33. Prasad, R., S. L. Panwar and M. Smriti, 2002. Drug resistance in yeasts an emerging scenario, In Advances in Microbial Physiology 46: 155-201. 34. Richardson M, Lass-Flörl C. Changing epidemiology of systemic fungal infections. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2008 May;14 Suppl 4:5-24. 35. Samaranayake, L.P., Oral mycoses in HIV infection. Oral Surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology, 1992. 73(2): p. 171-180. 36. Satoh, K., et al., Candida auris sp. nov., a novel ascomycetous yeast isolated from the external ear canal of 313 2022 Research in Mycology an inpatient in a Japanese hospital. Microbiology and immunology, 2009. 53(1): p. 41-44. 37. Singhi S, Rao DS, Chakrabarti A. Candida colonization and candidemia in a pediatric intensive care unit. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine. 2008 Jan 1; 9(1):91-5. 38. Sobel JD, Faro S, Force RW, Foxman B, Ledger WJ, Nyirjesy PR, Reed BD, Summers PR. Vulvovaginal candidiasis: epidemiologic, diagnostic, and therapeutic considerations. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology. 1998 Feb 1; 178(2):203-11. 39. Trofa D, Gácser A, Nosanchuk JD. Candida parapsilosis, an emerging fungal pathogen. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2008 Oct; 21(4):606-25. 40. Yapar N. Epidemiology and risk factors for invasive candidiasis. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2014 Feb 13; 10:95105. *** 314 2022 Research in Mycology Aspergillosis: A Fungal Infection of Human CHAPTER 21 Nidhi Singh and Neha Tiwari Introduction Aspergillosis is a fungal infection caused by Aspergillus, a species of mold that is found all over the world. Aspergillus spp. are ubiquitous opportunistic moulds that cause each allergic and invasive syndrome. The genus comprises approximately 180 species, of which 33 have been associated with human disease. Most infections are caused by Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus terreus, and Aspergillus niger [1]. Less commonly, Aspergillus nidulans can be implicated as the causative pathogen, especially in the setting of chronic granulomatous disease [2]. Aspergillus species are saprophytic, thermotolerant fungi that survive and grow on organic debris and that aerosolize conidia, which humans inhale at the rate of hundreds per day without experiencing complications [3]. However, 19 Aspergillus species can produce a spectrum of diseases, including allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA), allergic aspergillus sinusitis, chronic pulmonary aspergillosis, cutaneous aspergillosis, and life-threatening invasive aspergillosis (IA) [4-6]. 315 2022 Research in Mycology Fig.1. Aspergillus thallus with Vegetative Conidia Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis Occurs when Aspergillus causes inflammation in the lungs and allergy symptoms such as coughing and wheezing, but does not cause an infection [7]. The symptoms of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) are like asthma symptoms, including: Wheezing, Shortness of breath, Cough, Fever (in rare cases). Most patients with ABPA are troubled by poorly controlled asthma, production of thick sputum plugs and 316 2022 Research in Mycology recurrent pulmonary bronchiectasis) [8-9]. infection (often associated with Allergic Aspergillus Sinusitis Occurs when Aspergillus causes inflammation in the sinuses and symptoms of a sinus infection (drainage, stuffiness, headache) but does not cause an infection. Symptoms of allergic Aspergillus sinusitis include: Stuffiness, Runny nose, Headache, & Reduced ability to smell [10-11]. Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis Occurs when Aspergillus infection causes cavities in the lungs, and can be a long-term (3 months or more) condition. One or more fungal balls (aspergilloma) may also be present in the lungs [12]. The spectrum of CPA encompasses aspergilloma, Aspergillus nodules, chronic cavitary pulmonary aspergillosis (CCPA), subacute invasive aspergillosis (SAIA), and chronic fibrosing pulmonary aspergillosis (CFPA) [13-14]. Symptoms include weight loss, cough, coughing up blood, fatigue & shortness of breath [12]. Cutaneous Aspergillosis Occurs when Aspergillus enters the body through a break in the skin (for example, after surgery or a burn wound) and causes infection, usually in people who have weakened immune systems. Cutaneous aspergillosis can also occur if invasive aspergillosis spread to the skin from somewhere else in the body, such as the lungs [15]. Invasive Aspergillosis Occurs when Aspergillus causes a serious infection, and usually affects people who have weakened immune systems, such as people who have had an organ transplant or a stem cell transplant. Invasive aspergillosis most commonly affects the lungs, but it can also spread to other parts of the body. The symptoms include fever, 317 2022 Research in Mycology chest pain, cough, coughing up blood, shortness of breath & other symptoms can develop if the infection spread from the lungs to other parts of the body [16]. Lab Diagnosis 1. Specimens: Sputum, Bronchoalveolar lavage, Biopsy. 2. Direct Microscopy: Microscopic methods, such as wet mounts, Gram stains, and conventional histopathology, provide clues that suggest the presence of Aspergillus spp. in tissue. KOH preparation of the specimen reveals non pigmented septate hyphae (3-5 µm in diameter) with characteristic dichotomous branching (at an angle of approximately 45 °) [17]. Blankophor or Calcofluor mixed with 10%-20% potassium hydroxide (KOH) stains fungal cell walls and improves detection of fungi. While Calcofluor crystallizes in an alkaline pH, Blankophor does not and it can be stored in a working solution for up to a year [18]. Phenotypic markers detected by histopathologic stains, as well as by Gram stain or wet mounts, provide valuable information for clinically important fungi, especially in the absence of culture (Table 1). However, confirmation of microscopic findings by culture is always desirable and, in most cases involving opportunistic moulds, essential for definitive identification of the pathogen. Despite the presence of visual clues, identification of aspergilli by microscopy alone may be misleading. Biopsy sections can be stained with H&E and PAS staining and examined for the characteristic hyphae [17]. 3. Culture: The clinical specimen is inoculated on SDA without cycloheximide and incubated at 25℃. Colonies appear within 1-2 days and show a velvety to powdery surface. Colonies are coloured (Fig. 2). 318 2022 Research in Mycology Fig.2. Aspergillus Colonies A. fumigatus – green coloured colonies (Fig 3). A. niger – black colonies (Fig 4) A. flavus – golden – yellow-coloured colonies. Fig.3. Aspergillus fumigatus 319 2022 Research in Mycology • • Fig.4. Aspergillus niger Identification of aspergillus is based on growth characteristics and morphology. Lactophenol cotton blue preparation from colonies shows branching and hyaline septate hyphae. Asexual conidia are arranged in chains, carried on sterigmata, borne on the expanded ends (vesicles) of conidiophores. (Fig 5) sterigmata is also called phialids. Fig.5. Showing conidiophores of Aspergillus. 320 2022 Research in Mycology Aspergillus species are common laboratory contaminants, their isolation must be interpreted with care. Repeated isolation may be of help to find out its pathogenic role. 4. Antigen Detection: ELISA can be used to detect galactomannan antigen in patient’s sera or urine for early diagnosis. This antigen is an Aspergillus specific antigen. β-d Glucan assay: β-d Glucan antigen is raised in most invasive fungal infections. Thus, this test will be useful in invasive aspergillosis. 5. Antibody Detection: Detection of antibody in serum is useful for chronic invasive aspergillosis and aspergilloma when culture is usually negative. Serum IgE levels are elevated in allergic conditions such as aspergillus asthma. 6. Skin Test: Skin test with various antigen extracts of Aspergillus is done. Hypersensitivity response is seen in allergic types of aspergillosis, which indicates positive skin test. Treatment Invasive aspergillosis: Voriconazole is the drug of choice. Allergic Broncho-Pulmonary Aspergillosis (ABPA): Itraconazole is the drug of choice. Risk The different types of aspergillosis affect different groups of people [19]. • Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (ABPA) most often occurs in people who have cystic fibrosis or asthma. • Aspergillomas usually affect people who have other lung diseases like tuberculosis. Also called a “fungus ball.” • Chronic Pulmonary Aspergillosis typically occurs in people who have other lung diseases, including tuberculosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or sarcoidosis [20]. 321 2022 Research in Mycology • • Invasive Aspergillosis affects people who have weakened immune systems, such as people who have had a stem cell transplant or organ transplant, are getting chemotherapy for cancer, or are taking high doses of corticosteroids [21]. Invasive aspergillosis has been described among hospitalized patients with severe influenza [22]. Prevention ➢ It is difficult to avoid breathing in Aspergillus spores because the fungus is common in the environment. For people who have weakened immune systems, there may be some ways to lower the chances of developing a severe Aspergillus infection. ➢ Protect yourself from the environment [23-25]. ➢ It is important to note that although these actions are recommended, they have not been proven to prevent aspergillosis. ➢ Try to avoid areas with a lot of dust like construction or excavation sites. If you cannot avoid these areas, wear an N95 respirator (a type of face mask) while you are there. ➢ Avoid activities that involve close contact to soil or dust, such as yard work or gardening. If this is not possible▪ Wear shoes, long pants, and a long-sleeved shirt when doing outdoor activities such as gardening, yard work, or visiting wooded areas. ▪ Wear gloves when handling materials such as soil, moss, or manure. ➢ To reduce the chances of developing a skin infection, clean skin injuries well with soap and water, especially if they have been exposed to soil or dust. 322 2022 Research in Mycology Antifungal medication If you are at high risk for developing invasive aspergillosis (for example, if you have had an organ transplant or a stem transplant), your healthcare provider may prescribe medication to prevent aspergillosis [26-28]. Scientists are still learning about which transplant patients are at highest risk and how to best prevent fungal infections. Testing for early infection: Some high-risk patients may benefit from blood tests to detect invasive aspergillosis [29-30]. Talk to your doctor to determine if this type of test is right for you. References 1. Perfect JR, Cox GM, Lee JY, et al. The impact of culture isolation of Aspergillus species: a hospital-based survey of aspergillosis. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 1824–33. 2. Segal BH, DeCarlo ES, Kwon-Chung KJ, Malech HL, Gallin JI, Holland SM. Aspergillus nidulans infection in chronic granulomatous disease. Medicine (Baltimore) 1998; 77: 345–54. 3. Hospenthal DR, Kwon-Chung KJ, Bennett JE. Concentrations of airborne Aspergillus compared to the incidence of invasive aspergillosis: lack of correlation. Med Mycol 1998; 36:165–8. 4. Beck-Sague CM, Jarvis WR. Secular trends in the epidemiology of nosocomial fungal infections in the United States, 1980–1990. National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System. J Infect Dis 1993; 167: 1247–51. 5. Denning DW, Radford SA, Oakley KL, Hall L, Johnson EM, Warnock DW. Correlation between in-vitro susceptibility testing to itraconazole and in vivo outcome of Aspergillus fumigatus infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997; 40:401–14. 323 2022 Research in Mycology 6. Latge JP. Aspergillus fumigatus and aspergillosis. Clin Microbiol Rev 1999; 12:310–50. 7. Agarwal R, Chakrabarti A, Shah A, Gupta D, Meis JF, Guleria R, et al. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis: review of literature and proposal of new diagnostic and classification criteria. Clin Exp Allergy. 203 Aug;43(8):850-73. 8. Agarwal R, Aggarwal AN, Gupta D, Jindal SK. Aspergillus hypersensitivity and allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis in patients with bronchial asthma: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2009; 13: 936 – 944. 9. Patterson K, Strek ME. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2010; 7: 237 – 244. 10. Glass D, Amedee RG. Allergic Fungal rhinosinusitis: a review. Ochsner J. 2011 Fall; 11(3):271-5. 11. Singh N, Bhalodiya NH. Allergic fungal sinusitis (AFS)earlier diagnosis and management. J Laryngol Otol. 2005 Nov;119(11):875-81. 12. Denning DW, Riniotis K, Dobrashian R, Sambatakou H. Chronic cavitary and fibrosing pulmonary and pleural aspergillosis: case series, proposed nomenclature change, and review. Clin Infect Dis 2003 Oct 1 ;37 Sppl 3: S265-80. 13. Denning DW, Cadranel J, Beigelman-Aubry C, Ader F, Chakrabarti A, Blot S, et al. Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis: Rationale and clinical guidelines for diagnosis and management. Eur Respir J. 2016; 47: 45–68. 14. Schweer KE, Bangard C, Hekmat K, Cornely OA. Chronic pulmonary aspergillosis. Mycoses. 2014 May;57(5): 25770. 15. Van Burik JA, Colven R, Spach DH. Cutaneous aspergillosis. Clin Microbiol. 1998 Nov;36(11):3115-21. 324 2022 Research in Mycology 16. Barnes PD, Marr KA. Aspergillosis: spectrum of disease, diagnosis, and treatment. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2006 Sep;20(3):545-61, vi. 17. C P Baveja, seventh edition, Pg no. 881-882. 18. Ruchel R, Schaffrinski M. Versatile fluorescent staining of fungi in clinical specimens by using the optical brightener Blankophor. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 2694/2696. 19. Barnes PD, Marr KA. Aspergillosis: spectrum of disease, diagnosis, and treatmentexternal icon. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2006 Sep;20(3):545-61, vi. 20. Schweer KE, Bangard C, Hekmat K, Cornely OA. Chronic pulmonary aspergillosisexternal icon. Mycoses. 2014 May;57(5):257-70. 21. Baddley JW. Clinical risk factors for invasive aspergillosisexternal icon. Med Mycology. 2011 Apr;49 Suppl 1: S7-S12. 22. Crum-Cianflone NF. Invasive aspergillosis associated with severe influenza infectionsexternal icon. Open Forum Infec Dis. 2016 Aug;3(3) 23. Avery RK, Michaels MG. Strategies for safe living after solid organ transplantationexternal icon. Am J Transplant. 2013 Mar;13 Suppl 4:304-10. 24. CDC. Guidelines for preventing opportunistic infections among hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipientsexternal icon. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2000 Oct;49(RR-10):1-125, CE1-7. 25. Ullmann AJ, Aguado JM, Arikan-Akdagli S, Denning DW, Groll AH, Lagrou K, et al. Diagnosis and management of Aspergillus diseases: executive summary of the 2017 ESCMID-ECMM-ERS guidelineexternal icon. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2018 May; 24 Suppl1: e1-e38.) 325 2022 Research in Mycology 26. Brizendine KD, Vishin S, Baddley JW. Antifungal prophylaxis in solid organ transplant recipientsexternal icon. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2011 May;9(5):571-81. 27. Rogers TR, Slavin MA, Donnelly JP. Antifungal prophylaxis during treatment for haematological malignancies: are we there yet?external icon Br J Haemato. 2011 Jun;153(6):681-97. 28. Patterson TF, Thompson GR, Denning DW, Fishman JA, Hadley S, Herbrecht R, et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of aspergillosis: 2016 update by the IDSAexternal icon. Clin Infec Dis. 2016 Aug 15; 63(4): e1–e60. 29. Maertens J, Van Eldere J, Verhaegen J, Verbeken E, Verschakelen J, Boogaerts M. Use of circulating galactomannan screening for early diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis in allogeneic stem cell transplant recipientsexternal icon. J Infect Dis. 2002 Nov 1;186(9):1297-306. 30. Lackner M1, Lass-Flörl C. Up-date on diagnostic strategies of invasive aspergillosisexternal icon. Curr Pharm Design 2013;19(20):3595-614. *** 326 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 CHAPTER Important Fungal Diseases of Cereals 22 Ishwar Deen Chaudhary, Dr. Vinay Kumar Singh, Sakshi Tripathi and Danish Ahmad Introduction Fungal diseases are an important yield-limiting factor in cereals with estimated yield losses of 15–20%; when they occur to a large extent, losses may reach as high as 50% [1–3]. Economically important cereal diseases include Blumeria graminis, Puccina recondita, Puccinia graminis, Puccina striiformis, Septoria tritici and Septoria nodorum, as well as Fusarium. Cereals are often cultivated in succession, which increases the risk of pathogens from plants accumulating and living in the soil [4]. To some extent, this occurrence can be reduced by using proper crop rotation and by using cultivars with high resistance to pathogens [5–7]. Crop rotation is the most rational crop management factor to limit the occurrence of such diseases [8]. One factor that largely determines the occurrence of fungal diseases is the weather conditions, which are beyond human control. Fungal diseases contribute both to a decrease in yields and to a deterioration of crop quality [9]. In recent years, cereal fungal diseases have occurred in many parts of the world and are considered to be one of the main factors affecting yield and yield quality. Cereal plants are attacked by many pathogens throughout the growing season. Limited crop rotation is considered to be the primary cause of fungal diseases [10–12]. The 327 Research in Mycology occurrence of fungal diseases is also influenced by simplified tillage [13], high nitrogen fertilisation and cultivation of a monoculture [14]. Many authors [15,16] indicate that no-till systems lead to an increase in cereal stem base and root diseases. Crop residues left in the field favour the moisture and higher temperatures left in the 10–15 cm soil layer, where pathogens are most active [17]. One of the most important factors that influence the occurrence of fungal diseases is the course of weather conditions during the growing season [18]. The aim of this chapter is to present the causes and consequences of fungal diseases in cereals based on a review. Evolution of Fungal Diseases Among the numerous fungal species that inhabit the soil, about 8000 species of fungi and oomycetes are associated with crop diseases [19], reducing crop yields, and threatening food security worldwide [20]. There is a constant process of coevolution between pathogens and the organisms that they attack. This involves the mutual adaptation of pathogens to changes in plant populations that result in higher levels of resistance. Targeted selection for pathogen resistance is used in cereal breeding. Therefore, fungal pathogens also need to adapt to plant changes in order to survive. This process therefore relies on the mutual adaptation of different pathogen species to the plant host population. An additional factor favoring the spread of cereal pathogens is the international trade of grains and seeds, as well as climate change, which contributes to an increase in the geographical range of individual pathogenic species [21]. Certain diseases, despite their currently limited range, could be a major problem in cereal crops worldwide in the future. One of these is wheat blast, which is currently a problem for wheat crops in South America and Bangladesh [22]. Projections associated with a 328 2022 Research in Mycology warming climate could significantly increase the spread of fungal diseases [23]. Climate change and associated extreme weather conditions favour the transmission of new variants of pathogens by air [24]. In recent years, scientific advances have significantly contributed to the knowledge of pathogen biology, genomics and evolution, host–pathogen interactions, epidemiology, and disease management [25]. The most commonly used method in the fight against cereal pathogens is fungicide protection. However, it has been noted that individual species are developing resistance to the active substances contained in plant protection products [26]. The use of chemical plant protection is also associated with environmental contamination by leaving residues of active substances in soil and grains [27]. Therefore, alternative biological methods are being sought to control fungal pathogens. As indicated by scientific research, certain bacterial strains may be as effective in reducing fungal diseases as active substances contained in fungicides. Research by Wachowska et al. [28] showed that bacteria of the genus Sphingomonas inhibited the growth of fungi of the genus Fusarium as effectively as a triazole fungicide. Characteristics of Common Fungal Diseases Blumeria graminis is a common fungal disease that affects all cereal species, including grasses. The pathogen overwinters in the form of chasmothecia which, when they burst in the spring, release spores that cause infection. Rapid disease development occurs in late spring and summer. A white or greyish-white coating appears on the leaves, leaf sheaths, and sometimes also on the ears. Over time, the ear darkens and numerous black spots—the chasmothecia of the fungus—appear on the surface. The disease affects the new leaves, as the lower old leaves had already developed resistance 329 2022 Research in Mycology against it and the infected leaves dry out prematurely; with strong pathogen pressure, whole plants may die [12]. The spread of the disease favours high humidity. As a result of infection by the disease, the quality of grains and the 1000-grain weight decrease [29]. Grain yield reduction, which results from plant infection by pathogens, can reach 15–20%, and in the case of severe infection, can reach 50% or more [1,2]. Czembor and Czembor [29,30], found that the infection of Blumeria graminis in barley crops led to a 10% reduction in grain yields. Diverse isolates of different forms of B. graminis, exhibit varying pathogenicity towards multiple cereal species. In a study by Czembor et al. [31], isolates from wheat and rye, showed low virulence against triticale. Research by Czajkowski and Czembor [32] showed that there is variability in susceptibility to powdery mildew isolates from wheat relative to triticale of different cereal species. The above authors found that triticale and wheat showed different susceptibility to this pathogen depending on both species and cultivar. These studies indicate the possibility of targeted selection and breeding of cultivars resistant to this pathogen. Of great importance for powdery mildew resistance in wheat is the Pm2 gene [33]. Different variants of this gene influence whether a given cultivar is resistant to infestation. Markers useful for resistance in wheat breeding for this gene are Xgwm205 and Xcfd81 [34]. Moreover, the need to search for new, highly specific markers coupled to powdery mildew resistance genes seems justified [35]. A good solution to reduce powdery mildew infestation is to sow varietal mixtures. Applied sowing of a mixture of winter wheat varieties reduces up to 73% of plant infestation with a simultaneous increase in yield [36] Another method to minimise the exposure of cereal plants to Blumeria graminis is biological protection. Spraying plants with Aureobasidium pullulans cell suspension has contributed to 330 2022 Research in Mycology reducing the intensity of powdery mildew symptoms on subflag and flag leaves of cereals and grasses, but the effectiveness of applying biocontrol agents was significantly lower than that of fungicides. Repeated treatment of plants with a high concentration of Aureobasidium pullulans cell suspension generally resulted in better plant development and a significant increase in the abundance of endophytic bacteria of the genus Azotobacter and epiphytic bacteria of the Pseudomonas group [37] Fusarium head blight is the most widespread disease in wheat cultivation; it is caused by fungi belonging to the genus Fusarium, namely F. culmorum and F. graminearum [38]. It occurs on all cereals in the Polish climatic zone (wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, maize). Fusarium head blight is the most important disease affecting wheat cultivation. Fungi of the genus Fusarium, besides Fusarium head blight can also cause a number of other diseases: seedling wilt, root rot, or take-all disease. Ear infestation by Fusarium spp. leads to a reduction in yield and a deterioration of grain quality due to contamination by harmful mycotoxins [39,40]. Fungi reduce the commercial and consumption value of the crop and have the ability to produce mycotoxins, resulting in the accumulation of toxins in the grain even before harvest. The species that produce the most mycotoxin is F. graminearum and F. culmorum. Mycotoxins are not only harmful to humans and animals, but also have phytotoxic effects. The negative effects on plants can result in cell death, stunted growth, chlorosis, disrupted mitosis and changes to their protein metabolism. The cereal plants’ defence against the phytotoxic effects of mycotoxins is the transformation of the parent forms of mycotoxins into modified forms. These are free mycotoxins bound to proteins or sugars. These forms are more difficult to detect than the free mycotoxins, making it significantly more difficult to detect and determine the final mycotoxin level in grains [41] 331 2022 Research in Mycology Trichothecenes and zearalenone have been identified as the most important fusarium mycotoxins. Zearalenone (ZEA) is formed mainly by F. culmorum and F. graminearum. Trichothecenes have been divided, in terms of structure, into four groups: A, B, C and D. The most common trichothecenes belong to groups A (T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin) and B (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, 3-acetylDON, 15-acetyl DON, fuzarenone, trichothecin). One of the most important methods of prevention is fungicide protection, whose effectiveness depends not only on the type of active substance of the preparation, but also on the correct execution of the spraying procedure. As reported by Vucajnk et al. [42], nozzle pressure has a major impact on the effectiveness of the treatment performed. In their results, the authors found that the 1000-grain weight was higher at a spraying pressure of 6 bar than at 2 or 4 bar. The occurrence of fusarium head blight in cereal crops is most often identified by characteristic symptoms. At the earing stage, an early blanching of the husks and a light pink colouring of the ears can be observed. These are the first symptoms of infection by Fusarium. Visual assessment and determination of the ear infestation index have so far been the only methods for evaluating the infestation and degree of resistance of individual cereal cultivars to Fusarium. Currently, attempts are being made to implement modern, more reliable, and objective assessments. One of these is remote sensing. The method is based on comparing photographs of healthy plants with patterns of infested plants and of infested plants with patterns of healthy plants. The resulting images of plant patches are then used as a basis for the analysis of wavelength histograms, as well as for the calculation of indicators enabling the assessment of crop health [43]. Remote sensing can be used to create health maps of cereals infested by Fusarium, as well as by other diseases, such as: Puccinia recondita, Puccinia 332 2022 Research in Mycology striiformis, Blumeria graminis, Septoria tritici, Septoria nodorum, or Oculimacula acuformis [44]. According to Doohan et al. [45], the degree of ear infestation by Fusarium highly depends on weather conditions (temperature and humidity). The fungi multiply and this results in a significant loss of yields, as well as deterioration in their quality [46–48]. The development of this pathogen is also affected by crop management techniques used, including field preparation, crop rotation, fertilization, and plant protection products [47,49–53]. The study results obtained by Czaban et al. [54] confirm that the spread of fusarium head blight and the infestation of winter wheat grains by fungi of the genus Fusarium depend mainly on weather factors. Fusarium head blight risk assessment and models to predict the occurrence of this disease are based on weather conditions affecting the crop from flowering to early milk maturity. Wheat cultivation technology has also had an impact on the colonisation of ears by Fusarium. In a study by Czaban et al. [54], ears and grains of wheat from treatments where intensive cultivation technology was applied were most severely infected. The infection of spelt wheat grains [55] and spring barley grains [56] by fungi of the genus Fusarium were lower in the organic system compared to the integrated and conventional systems. The search for genes responsible for resistance to Fusarium is ongoing. Góral et al. [57] distinguished Fusarium-resistant and -susceptible triticale lines. MorenoAmores et al. [58] also point to the possibility of targeted selection of wheat cultivars for resistance to Fusarium. Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides is one of the most important pathogens of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) caused by two pathogenic fungi, Oculimacula yallundae and Oculimacula acuformis. In the early stages of the disease, small, elongated, brown spots can be observed on leaf scapes. At the earing stage, and especially a few weeks before the harvest, easily identifiable 333 2022 Research in Mycology symptoms appear on the lower internode of the blade in the form of spots. Very often several spots merge and take on an irregular shape. The spots can also have darker edges. If the infestation is severe, white and lighter greyish mycelium develop inside the stem [59,60]. The basic protective treatment is the use of fungicides, which show varying rates of effectiveness [61]. The use of fungicide treatments also increases the cost of cultivation, so sources of genetic resistance to this pathogen are being sought. It is considered that the two genes, Pch1 and Pch2, determine high resistance of common wheat to Oculimacula yallundae and Oculimacula acuformis. Targeted breeding selection can be effective in reducing the harmfulness of these pathogens in wheat. The importance of the Pch1 and Pch2 genes in common wheat resistance to eyespot has been confirmed by Majka et al. [62]. There were no symptoms of stem base infestation in winter wheat lines/cultivars where both Pch1 and Pch2 genes were present in the genotype. In addition to resistance breeding, an important element in the prevention of stem base eyespot is also the use of correct crop rotation and the introduction of intercrops. The results of the study by Majchrzak et al. [8] confirm the influence of fore crops on the occurrence of fungal stem base diseases. The most frequent disease found among cereals was Fusarium crown rot of the stem base and roots. This occurred at the highest intensity in wheat grown after white mustard (30.3%), and at the lowest intensity after oilseed rape (25.9%) and Abyssinian catan (26.4). The occurrence of this disease is mainly determined by weather. Majchrzak et al. [8], found a higher severity of stem base diseases in 2001, which saw a wet growing season. This is also confirmed by the results of the study by Kozdój et al. [63], where a significant decrease in grain yield in spring barley of the Pallas cultivar resulted from a decrease in the number of grains per plant and ear by 30–34%. The degree of reduction in the 334 2022 Research in Mycology number of grains per ear as a result of powdery mildew infection depends, among other things, on the severity of the disease, the susceptibility of cultivars to infection, and the course of weather conditions during the growing season [64]. Lema´nczyk et al. [65] showed that the cultivation of stubble intercrops improves the phytosanitary status of a site with a high proportion of cereals in the crop rotation and reduces the severity of fungal diseases, including stem base eyespot. Simplified tillage also contributes to a reduction in stem base diseases compared to conventional tillage [66]. Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici is one of the most important pathogens of wheat and occurs quite frequently. In the field, the disease occurs in patches and plants in these areas are often smaller and paler. Disease symptoms can be seen particularly in spring or before earing. Infected plants have bleached ears with very small grains or no grains at all. In case of high humidity, black balls, which are the fruiting bodies of the pathogen, are observed on the bases of the infected stalks. Lateral roots, as a result of infection with the disease, gradually die. One possible solution is the use of biological plant protection solutions. Zhang et al. [67] used 272 Bacillus isolates, which they tested for antifungal activity against Gaeumannomyces graminis. Out of the 128 strains tested that showed antagonistic activity, 24 of them exhibited at least three of the four plant growth-promoting parameters (i.e., indoleacetic acid and siderophore production, inorganic phosphorus solubilisation and organic phosphorus solubilisation) towards wheat. The results of this study showed that the most effective strain was Bacillus subtilis Pnf-12. The effect of using these bacteria was to reduce the incidence of stem base rot by 69%. The Pnf-12 strain also caused a significant improvement (p < 0.05) in root and shoot weight of wheat plants, although their root length and height were similar to the control group. The mechanism of this disease control may be 335 2022 Research in Mycology related to the production of antifungal lipopeptides such as surfactin, iturin and phengycin. As effective as the inoculant itself was, the extract obtained from the filtrate of the culture of Bacillus subtilis was also productive and when applied to wheat seedlings, reduced the severity of the disease infestation on the roots by 91.3% [68]. The soil and its microbiological activity also have an important role in suppression (reduction of pathogenicity). It is also important to use correct agronomic practices, which, in combination with appropriate sulphur fertilisation, have a positive effect on the reduction of pathogenicity of Gaeumannomyces graminis in wheat [69]. Fertilisation with iron sulphate in wheat crops where stem base rot is a problem reduces the wheat infestation significantly [70]. Durán et al. [71] showed that soil micro-organisms play an important role in controlling and limiting the occurrence of Gaeumannomyces graminis. The traditional way to combat Gaeumannomyces graminis is by using fungicides. The studies of Wang et al. [72] indicate the high efficacy of the active ingredient thiosemicarbazide 4-chlorocinnamate for the control of stem base rot. In field trials, thiosemicarbazide 4-chlorocinnamate showed good control efficacy with a mechanism based on a laccase inhibitor. Furthermore, synthetic plant protection products, natural plant extracts with fungitoxic activity can also be used. Paz et al. [73] demonstrated the effective action of sesquiterpenoid drimans extracted from Drimys winteri, a natural antifungal agent against Gaeumannomyces graminis. Their action is based on the cell walls of the hyphae and consequently on their destruction. Proper crop rotation is also a desirable method to reduce the occurrence of stem base rot in wheat crops. As shown by Van Toor et al. [74], a break in wheat cultivation of a minimum of one growing season is required to ensure that the inoculum in crop residues in the soil has been eliminated to such an extent as to maximally reduce the incidence of infestation by Gaeumannomyces graminis. 336 2022 Research in Mycology Puccinia recondite causes rusty brown spore clusters that occur mainly on the upper side of leaves (less frequently on the lower side). The leaf rust primarily affects winter and spring wheat, but also winter and spring triticale. The source of infection is often crop residues left in the field. Under favourable conditions, the infection develops very quickly and the rust covers the leaves completely. The higher the temperature and moisture, the faster the infection develops, as stated by Wojtowicz [75]. Each increase in air temperature shortens the incubation period of the fungus and accelerates the development of infection. The shortest incubation period of five days is observed at an average temperature of 24.3 _C, while its decrease by 3 _C slows down infection by 1–2 days [76]. Climate change, and in particular, warming of the climate, could further increase the pressure from this disease on wheat, and thus cause significant yield losses [77]. The fast development of the disease accelerates the appearance of disease symptoms such as yellowing of the leaves and their death. This results in significant yield reductions, which can be as high as 50%. By applying beneficial endophytes, the damage of this disease on the final wheat yield can be reduced. This is supported by the study of Anwaar et al. [78], who observed reduced disease severity in wheat plants that were inoculated with endophytes, such as T. viride, A. lolii and C. lindemuthianum. Breeding wheat varieties that are resistant to rust disease is also a promising method to prevent yield losses due to brown rust, as well as being the most economical and environmentally friendly way to control it. As shown by Anwar et al. [78], there is a large variation in resistance to brown rust in common wheat, so that resistant lines can be isolated and used for further resistance breeding. In particular, the Lr19 gene, which has a significant effect on resistance in wheat, should be considered, with GB and Xwmc221 as good markers [79]. Fungicide protection in rust prevention can 337 2022 Research in Mycology include synthetic fungicide applications as well as plant extracts. As shown by Shabana et al. [80], spraying with a plant extract composed of Azadirachta indica, cloves, and Cinchona L. four days after leaf rust inoculation, completely prevented the development of the disease in wheat (100% disease control) and its effectiveness was comparable to that of the synthetic fungicides. Puccinia striiformis is highly dependent on weather conditions. Stripe rust, caused by Puccinia striiformis, has high moisture requirements and is sensitive to temperature fluctuations (especially during the long incubation period). Until now, yellow rust appeared in Poland sporadically and was not a major problem. However, in recent years there has been a greater incidence of yellow rust on wheat and some forms of triticale, which is influenced by climate [81]. Septoria tritici is a pathogen, which manifests itself by yellow, red and brown spots on the leaves, which can occur at any stage of growth. It affects mostly cereals, but is most frequently observed on wheat, triticale and rye (rarely). The pathogen persists for quite a long time in a latent form, which the farmer is unable to notice. Later, spots appear on the seedlings and the leaves die off prematurely, not giving the plant a chance for proper growth and development. A study by Horoszkiewicz-Janki et al. [14] showed the influence of the fore crop and tillage method on the incidence of chaff septoriasis in wheat monoculture. Simplified tillage contributed to a higher intensity of chaff septoriasis. An important direction in the prevention of septoriasis in crops is resistance breeding. As shown by Arraiano and Brown [82], the gene responsible for increased resistance to this disease in wheat is located on chromosome 6 of 6AL and is associated with a reduction in leaf area. A genotypic selection strategy should be associated with a simultaneously confirmed phenotypic plant 338 2022 Research in Mycology resistance to septoriasis at all stages of plant development to confirm the true degree of resistance [83]. Pyrenophora tritici-repentis initially appears on leaves in the form of black spots, which gradually enlarge. The development of the disease causes a merging of spots and the formation of extensive necroses, which leads to the death of the entire leaf blade. Necrosis also appears on infected stems. The disease appears on the ears, leading to blanching and dying, and the infected kernels are yellow or brown. Fore crop has an influence on the incidence of cereal diseases [10, 84]. This is also confirmed in the study by Marks et al. [85], in which the intensity of diseases was significantly modified by the stand on which winter wheat was grown. The diseases, which manifest themselves in the leaves (apart from stripe leaf septoria), occurred most strongly in the control treatment where wheat was grown after spring rapeseed. The infection index ranged from 5.5% (brown rust) to 11.8% (brown leaf spot). The severity of cereal diseases depends largely on weather conditions [17], forecrop [86], nitrogen fertilization (Table 1), or weed control [87]. Tables 2–4 show differing severities of particular pathogens through different years. Kurowski et al. [88] indicate that the infection of winter triticale by Pyrenophora tritici-repentis and Puccinia recondita depended on the method of weed control and nitrogen fertilisation. The authors found lower plant infestation on treatments where a herbicide was applied compared to unprotected sowings. Additionally, the method of application of the nitrogen fertiliser influenced the occurrence of these diseases. The lower plant infection of Pyrenophora tritici-repentis and Puccinia recondita occurred on treatments without nitrogen fertilisation. The strongest symptoms of the diseases were observed after an application of nitrogen fertilisation at three dates. 339 2022 Research in Mycology 340 2022 Research in Mycology Conclusions Research conducted so far has shown that both the tillage method, cultivation technology, fertilisation rate and the choice of cultivar have an effect on the incidence of fungal diseases of cereals. However, to a large extent the occurrence of these pathogens depends on weather conditions during plant growth and development. Fungal diseases cause high yield losses as they reduce the assimilative area of leaves and ears, resulting in poor grain formation and a decrease in the number of grains per ear. They also contribute to grain quality deterioration by contaminating it with health-hazardous mycotoxins. The main disease control strategy is targeted resistance breeding of new cereal cultivars, which has its advantages and disadvantages. The advantage is a significant reduction in plant protection products, which has a positive economic effect for farmers, but also an environmental one. On the other hand, the disadvantage of resistance breeding is the possibility of interaction between 341 2022 Research in Mycology different genes responsible for resistance to different diseases. An additional problem is the one-sided selection associated with increasing grain yield of cereals, which significantly reduces the genetic pool of plants, eliminating potential resistance genes. As cereals are one of the most important cultivated crops, international scientific cooperation is also needed to improve cereal resistance to fungal diseases and the grain yield losses they cause. References 1. Jaczewska-Kalicka, A. Occurrence and harmfulness of themost important diseases ofwinterwheat in Central Poland. J. Plant Prot. Res. 2002, 42, 93–101. 2. Jaczewska-Kalicka, A. 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Healthiness of winter triticale depending on the method of weed infestation regulation, nitrogen fertilization and protection against pathogens. Ann. Univ. Mariae CurieSkłodowska Lublin 2010, LXV, 10–22. *** 353 2022 Research in Mycology The Role of Fungi in Mitigation of Heavy Metals for Environment Sustainability CHAPTER 23 Priya Dubey, Dr. Alvina Farooqui and Dr. Anju Patel Introduction Industrial wastewater is a major source of heavy metal contamination in our environment. Heavy metals are of economic significance in industrial use and the most important pollutants in the environment. Environmental pollution by heavy metals has become a serious threat to living organisms in an ecosystem. Metal toxicity is of great environmental concern because of their bioaccumulation and no biodegradability in nature. Several inorganic metals like magnesium (Mg), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr3+), copper (Cu), calcium (Ca), manganese (Mn), and sodium (Na) as well as zinc (Zn) are vital elements needed in small quantity for metabolic and redox functions. Heavy metals such as aluminum (Al), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), gold (Au), mercury (Hg), and silver (Ag) do not have any biological role and are toxic to living organisms. Bioremediation is employed in order to transform toxic heavy metals into a less harmful state using microbes or its enzymes to clean-up polluted environment. 354 2022 Research in Mycology Fig.1: Source of heavy metals. The technique is environmentally friendly and cost effective in the revitalization of the environment. Bioremediation of heavy metals has limitations. Among these are production of toxic metabolites by microbes and non-biodegradability of HMs. The direct use of microorganisms with distinctive features of catabolic potential and/or their products such as enzymes and bio surfactant is a novel approach to enhance and boost their remediation efficacy. Different alternatives have also been anticipated to widen the applications of microbiological techniques towards the remediation of heavy metals. For instance, the use of microbial fuel cell (MFC) to degrade recalcitrant heavy metals has been explored. Biofilmmediated bioremediation can be applied for cleaning up of heavy metal contaminated environment. Due to the foregoing, the use of environmentally friendly approach is highly important for the decontamination of heavy metal–polluted soil particularly in leachate-induced pollution. There is no doubt that the use of biotechnological approach is the most preferred option due to its 355 2022 Research in Mycology sustainability potential, though many biological approaches are not only new but are naturally hard to standardize most at times due to the involvement of living organisms, especially microorganisms. Microorganisms somewhat thrive in landfill environment and such may signal the existence of favorable condition for metabolism. However, optimization of the impact of microbial species on the bioremediation of HMs contaminated soil is still necessary. Detoxification mechanisms for microorganisms that occur in HMs contaminated matrices. Fungi have been identified as promising cost-effective adsorbents for HMs removal from the polluted area. Most of the fungal strains like, Trichoderma sp., Penicillium sp., P. verrucosum, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota, Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigatus, Aspergillus sp., A. versicolor, Rhizopus sp., Metarrhizium anisoplia have been broadly studied as potential microbial-agents for the elimination of HMs from the polluted area. Therefore, bio-accumulation and metal chelation by fungus can be used to treat metal-containing wastewater water at low cost. Toxicity of Heavy Metals Different types of inorganic and organic pollutants are heavily loaded in industrial wastewater which is normally discharged in water bodies. Unscientific discharges of these huge quantities of wastewater loaded with heavy metals cause not only environmental and human health problem due to their toxicity, but the cost of wastewater treatment was also increased. Heavy metals are not biodegradable with higher persistence in wastewater treatment, and their toxicity, particularly in high concentrations, has become a serious global issue. The pollutants are lead, chromium, cadmium, mercury, uranium, selenium, zinc, arsenic, gold, silver, copper, and nickel. These toxic substances are normally produced from mining operations, refining ores, sludge disposal, paints, alloys, batteries, fly ash from incinerators, 356 2022 Research in Mycology processing of radioactive materials, metal plating, or the manufacture of electrical equipment, pesticides, or preservatives. Heavy metals such as zinc, lead, and chromium have many uses in basic engineering works, organo-chemicals, petrochemicals, paper and pulp industries, leather tanning, fertilizers, etc. Automobiles and battery manufacturers cause major lead pollution. Fertilizer and leather tanning industries are the source of zinc and chromium, respectively. Industry is not only the sole contributor of these toxic metals; heavy metals can sometimes come into the environment through natural processes also. For example, in many parts of the globe, arsenic in naturally occurring geologic deposits can dissolve into groundwater resulting in unsafe levels in drinking water supplies in the area. After release to the environment, these toxic metals can remain as such for decades or centuries, leading to increase the possibility of human exposure. In addition to drinking water, air pollutants, contaminated soils or industrial waste, and consumption of food produced from polluted soils are also sources of heavy metal exposure. Mineral rock weathering and anthropogenic activities are the two main sources of metal inputs to soils. Interestingly, in our environment and diet, small amounts of these elements are mostly present and actually necessary for good health, but acute or chronic toxicity may happen with higher amounts of any of them. Heavy metals are harmful because they have a tendency to bioaccumulate and cause several health problems in living beings. Neurotoxic, nephrotoxic, phytotoxic, and teratogenic effects are generally observed in heavy metal (HM) toxicity. The toxin itself and the individual’s degree of exposure to the toxin decide the level to which a system, organ, tissue, or cell is affected by a heavy metal toxin. Toxic levels can be just above the normal concentrations naturally found in nature for some heavy metals. Therefore, it is vital for us to update ourselves about the harmful effect of heavy metals and 357 2022 Research in Mycology precautionary measures against excessive exposure. The health problems due to exposure of heavy metals in human beings are listed below (Fig.2): As the body systems in the foetus and infants develop very fast, young children are more sensitive to the toxic effects of heavy metals. Learning difficulties, memory impairment, damage to the nervous system, and behavioural problems such as aggressiveness and hyperactivity can happen due to childhood exposure to some metals. Irreversible brain damage can occur at higher doses of heavy metals. Fig.2: The source and adverse effects of heavy metals on humans. Heavy Metal Detoxification Mechanism through Microorganism Fungi adopt different mechanisms to interact and survive in the presence of inorganic metals. Various mechanisms used by microbes to survive metal toxicity are biotransformation, extrusion, use of enzymes, production of exopolysaccharide (EPS), and synthesis of metallothioneins. In response to metals in 358 2022 Research in Mycology the environment, fungi have developed ingenious mechanisms of metal resistance and detoxification. Fig. 3: Microbes-Metal interactions in bioremediation. The mechanism involves several procedures, together with electrostatic interaction, ion exchange, precipitation, redox process, and surface complexation. The major mechanical means to resist heavy metals by fungi are metal oxidation, methylation, enzymatic decrease, metal organic complexion, metal decrease, metal ligand degradation, metal efflux pumps, demethylation, intracellular and extracellular metal sequestration, exclusion by permeability barrier, and production of metal chelators like metallothioneins and bio surfactants. Fungi can decontaminate metals by valence conversion, volatilization, or extracellular chemical precipitation [48]. fungi have negative charge on their cell surface because of the presence of anionic structures that 359 2022 Research in Mycology empower the microbes to bind to metal cations. The negatively charged sites of fungi involved in adsorption of metal are the hydroxyl, alcohol, phosphoryl, amine, carboxyl, ester, sulfhydryl, sulfonate, thioether, and thiol groups. Bioremediation of Heavy Metals Through Fungi The fungal cell surface is different from the other organisms. So, to understand the interaction of the cell surface of the fungi with HMs and its possible role in adsorption and accumulation of metal, the structure of the cell wall of the fungi and its composition should be known. The fungal cell wall is mostly made up of protein, polysaccharides, polyphosphates, polypeptide, lipid, chitin, inorganic ions, etc. which contain a number of functional groups such as – COOH, –OH, –NH2, =NH, –SH, –O–CH3, etc. Many fungal species have been reported such as Aspergillus niger, Trichoderma aureoviride, T. harzianum, T. virens, and Penicillium sp. that are used in the process of cleaning polluted areas; some are listed in Table 1. The metal resistant fungi are primarily expressed by following mechanisms: 1. Extracellular Sequestration 2. Intracellular Sequestration Extracellular Sequestration It is characterized by chelation and cell-wall binding. Extracellular chelation of metal ions occurs due to the secretion of various extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) by fungi. The effect of EPS on Pb2+ removal by a polymorphic fungus Aureobasidium pullulans was studied, and it was found that due to the existence of EPS, Pb2+ only accumulated on the surface of the intact cells of A. pullulans, whereas in EPS-extracted cells of A. pullulans, Pb2+ penetrated the inner cellular parts. The uptake capacity of Pb2+ by intact cells depends on the storage of cells. 360 2022 Research in Mycology Table No.1: Bioremediation of heavy metals by Fungi. S. No Fungal species 1. Cunnighamella echinulata Cunnighamella echinulata Mucor hiemalis Mucor hiemalis Mucor rouxii Mucor sp. Rhizopus arrhizus 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Initial concentration of Heavy metal Cu 50mg/l Metal uptake by biomass and other conditions Ni 50mg/l 20% Biosorption Cd 10-50 mg/l 85.47 mg/g Biosorption Cr 50 mg/l 4.3 mg/g Biosorption Pb 10 mg/l Cu 3 mM Pb 1 µg/mg 53.75 mg/g Biosorption 94.6 mg/g Biosorption 154.41± 11.64 µg/g Bioaccumulation 20% Biosorbtion Extracellular cell-wall binding commonly known as biosorption is one of the major mechanisms contributing to fungal resistance against heavy metals. Fungal cell wall contains large amounts of polymer of N-acetyl, chitin, and chitosan and deactivated glucoseamine on their cell wall which represents a large number of potential binding sites by free hydroxyl, amine, and carboxyl groups. The amine group which contains nitrogen atom has the ability to bind a proton and the hydroxyl group containing oxygen atom may bind to metal ion. Intracellular Sequestration It is the binding of metal to proteins or other ligands to prevent damage to the metal-sensitive cellular targets. In intracellular mechanism, various efflux proteins or metal transport proteins are involved which work by either extruding toxic metal ions from the cytosol out of the cell or by sequestration of metals into vacuolar compartments. 361 2022 Research in Mycology Bio-Sorption Mechanism The uptake of heavy metals by microbial cells through biosorption mechanisms can be classified into metabolism-independent biosorption, which mostly occurs on the cells exterior and metabolism-dependent bioaccumulation, which comprises sequestration, redox reaction, and species-transformation methods. Fungal cell wall and its role in metal sorption Heavy metal are frequently found in the polluted environment. The negatively charged cell wall surface plays a crucial role in the adsorption of positively charged metal ion via electrostatic attraction. Bioadsorption is basically a surface phenomenon that occurred on the surface of biomass. In the case of fungi, it can also be pronounced as mycoadsorption. Reduction Microbial cells can convert metal ion from one oxidation state to another, hence reducing their harmfulness. Bacteria use metals and metalloids as electron donors or acceptors for energy generation. Metals in the oxidized form could serve as terminal acceptors of electrons during anaerobic respiration of bacteria. Reduction of metal ions through enzymatic activity could result in formation of less toxic form of mercury and chromium. Mycoprecipitation Bioprecipitation It is one of the main mechanisms which is involved in the removal of HMs by microbes from wastewater. In the case of fungi, it can be pronounced as mycoprecipitation which is the part of bioprecipitation. The main anionic species involved in bioprecipitation are PO4 2─, CO3 2─, S2─, OH─, C2O4 2─, O2─, Cl─, etc. Bioprecipitation can be categorized into two types: (1) extracellular bio precipitation and (2) intracellular bioprecipitation. 362 2022 Research in Mycology A. In intracellular precipitation: In intracellular precipitation metal ion comes inside the cell through the fungal cell wall and precipitate (sable/insoluble compound) as their minerals by reacting with respective anionic species. In intracellular precipitation, precipitate products mostly adhere to the intracellular surface of the cell. B. In extracellular precipitation: In extracellular precipitation metal ion, extracellularly synthesized into their precipitate where anionic species may be donated by the fungus or may be provided from their surrounding medium, while the fungal cell surface provides a base for the reaction to take place. In this process the precipitate product may occur on the fungal cell surface or diffuse in the surrounding medium after precipitation. Liang et al. (2015) reported phosphate, sulfate, oxide anion involvement for removal of lead and found lead phosphate (Pb3(PO4)2), anglesite (PbSO4), and pyromorphite (Pb5(PO4)3Cl), the lead oxides massicot and litharge (PbO) as a lead precipitate. The phosphate ion is also reported for the precipitation of uranium (U) that forms uranium complex compounds such as meta-ankoleite, chernikovite, bassetite, and uramphite. Aspergillus niger produces uranyl acetate hydrate (organo-uranyl complex) mineral from the low-grade ore of uranium. Sutjaritvorakul et al. (2016) reported zinc oxide (ZnO) formation in a fungus isolated from the zinc mining site. Li et al. (2015) studied Ca and Sr precipitation by fungus and found CaCl2 and/or SrCl2, calcite (CaCO3), strontianite (SrCO3), vaterite in different forms (CaCO3, CO3), and olekminskite (Sr(Sr,Ca)(CO3)2) as bioprecipitate. Sulfide and phosphate of Cd were found by Borovaya et al. (2015) and Kumar et al. (2019) in fungal-mediated Cd precipitation. Paecilomyces javanicus precipitated the lead as plumbonacrite (Pb10(CO3)6O(OH)6), cerussite (PbCO3) and lead oxalate (PbC2O4) (Rhee et al. 2014). Dhami et al. (2017) also reported Pb co-precipitation into lead 363 2022 Research in Mycology carbonate, Plumbonacrite, Shannonite (Pb2O(CO3)), vaterite and aragonite and Sr into Strontianite, Strontium calcium carbonate (SrO5CaO5(CO3)), carbocernaite along with calcite by two calcifying fungal isolates Aspergillus sp. and Fusarium oxysporum. Bio-volatilization Biovolatilization basically deals with the biological volatilization of metal/loid from the water and soil into the environment. Biovolatilization is broadly reported for the volatilization of As and Hg by microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and algae) and plants. In the case of As, methylation is the basic mechanism that converts the non-volatile As-species to volatile As-species. The methylation of As was firstly observed in the fungus Scopulariopsis brevicaulis involving As(V) reduction into As(III) followed by the oxidative addition of a methyl group (–CH3). Challenger (1945) proposed the pathway of As methylation where As(V) (AsO(OH)3; arsenic acid) is first reduced to As(III) (As(OH)3; arsenious acid) and then bio-methylated to monomethylarsonic acid (AsO(OH)2(CH3)) → dimethylarsinic acid (AsO(OH)(CH3)2) → trimethylarsineoxide (AsO(CH3)3) → arsenobetaine ((CH3)3As+ (CH2)COO− ), and other multifarious Ascompounds such as arsenoribosides (AsRib). Recently, these compounds also have been reported in many other fungi such as Penicillium sp., Aspergillus sp., and Rhizophagus irregularis that interlinked with the methylation pathway as proposed by Challenger (1945). In addition, some microorganisms also degrade or/and synthesize As-compounds into volatile As (such as arsine (AsH3), monomethylarsine (AsH2(CH3)), dimethylarsine (AsH(CH3)2), and trimethylarsine (As(CH3)3). This mechanism has been also reported by Guimarães et al. (2019) in Penicillium sp. and Aspergillus sp. at the time of Asvolatilization from potato dextrose broth medium. However, 364 2022 Research in Mycology methylation and biovolatilization commonly occurred in the ecosystem (contaminated with As) and majorly contributed to As global flux. Hg which is one of the toxic metals and is volatile can also be biovolatilized by microorganisms. Bacterial as well as fungal volatilization of Hg is frequently reported in many studies that play an important role in the decontamination of the Hg polluted site. Generally, bacteria and archaea utilize the mer operon which is capable of enzymatic reduction of Hg(II) or methyl mercury (MeHg) to less toxic Hg(0), volatile species of Hg. In fungi, the mechanism of biovolatilization of Hg is not well characterized. However, in a recent report, it is found that mer genes (merA) are upregulated in the exposure of Hg(II) in Penicillium spp. DC-F11, a potential isolate for the volatilization of Hg. They have also analyzed the activity of mercuric reductase that is responsible for the reduction of Hg (II) to Hg (0). Thus, the mer operon is basically involved in enzymatic reduction of Hg (II) to Hg (0) as well as its volatilization. Some other fungal species such as Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, Aspergillus niger, and Cladosporium sp. also have been reported for volatilization of Hg, but no other clear Hg volatilization pathway has yet been observed in fungi. Some other metal/loid such as Se (Selenium), Sb (Antimony), Tl (Thallium), and Bi (Bismuth) are also reported for volatilization by fungi. Despite this, sometimes, fungi change the less toxic form of metal/loid into its high toxic form. Yannai et al. (1991) tested the tolerance ability of Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae towards Hg (HgCl2) and reported that Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae are unable to grow above 0.75 μg/ mL. Further, they investigated the end-product of Hg at the tested concentration (below 0.75 μg/mL) and found that an amount of Hg (proportional to Hg tested concentration) is transformed in organomercury (methyl mercury) compound. Methyl mercury, a highly 365 2022 Research in Mycology toxic species of Hg, can inhibit the growth of fungi as well as other organisms. Methylation The synthesis and transfer of the methyl group is a vital metabolic process and widely distributed. Basically, the C, O, N, and S atom of organic compounds serve as methyl group acceptors in the metabolic process. Metal and metalloids are also reported in many studies as methyl group acceptor and resultant into methylated end products. However, the term “biomethylation” considers the formation of both either a volatile or non-volatile methylated compound of metals and metalloids. The methylation of As is widespread, occurring in bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants. As methylation was first proposed in fungus S. brevicaulis by Challenger (1945). In As methylation, As(V) first reduced in As(III) followed by oxidative addition of a methyl (–CH3) (earlier discussed in “Biovolatilization”). A similar pathway has been proposed for antimony (Sb) methylation; first, it proposed Sb methylation in the fungus S. brevicaulis and P. notatum for the methylation of phenylstibonic acid (C6H5SbO(OH)2) to phenyldimethylstibine (C6H5SbO(CH3)2) via reduction of Sb(V) to Sb(III) followed by methylation (Challenger 1945). Later, some other fungal species were reported for methylation of Sb such as Cryptococcus humicolus and Phaeolus schweinitzii. Andrewes et al. (2001) reported that P. schweinitzii efficiently transforms the antimony (III) compounds potassium antimony tartrate and antimony trioxide (Sb2O3) to non-volatile dimethylantimony and trimethylantimony species. Mercury is another metal reported for its methylation by bacteria and fungi. In bacteria, clear Hgmethylation pathway, genes responsible for Hg-methylation and Hg-transporting agents have been reported. Fungi such as Coprinus comatus, C. radians, Candida albicans, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been reported for Hg-methylation potential. 366 2022 Research in Mycology Important Features of Mycoremediation • It is a bio-treatment process for contaminated sites such as water and soil. Microbes can degrade the contaminant and increase their numbers in the presence of contaminant. The biodegradative population declines with the degradation of contaminant. The end products of bioremediation are usually harmless. • Bioremediation can be done in situ with very less efforts and often without causing a major disruption of normal activities. In situ treatment of contaminants eliminates the need of transport of huge quantities of waste; thus, the potential threats to the human health and the environment that can arise during transportation can be avoided. • It also helps in destruction of the complex pollutants, and many of the hazardous compounds can be transformed to harmless simple products; thus, bioremediation can eliminate future liability of treatment and disposal of contaminated material. • It does not use any hazardous or toxic chemicals. In general, organic materials along with certain nutrients are used in the formulations. • Less energy and manual supervision are required as compared to other technologies. Conclusion No doubt, heavy metals are the major pollutants of the environment that have serious issues to human health and the environment. The conventional treatment technologies have many disadvantages, so bioremediation is one of the alternatives to these technologies that can give an efficient and sustainable approach for the treatment of HMs contaminated wastewater. From the metal treatment perspective, several fungal species have been explored that have the potential to treat the HM-contaminated wastewater. 367 2022 Research in Mycology Much of the studies have focused on single or binary metalcontaminated wastewater, but the studies that target more than two metals are very little in the public domain. The fungal consortium also gives appreciable results. However, multiple metalcontaminated sites are the best source for the isolation of metaltolerant fungus. These contaminated sites also contain many types of pollutant other than HMs, including nitrate, phosphate, sulfates, fluoride, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, etc. and studies have reported the capability of many fungal species to remove these pollutants (one or more of them). So, fungal application in the simultaneous treatment of HMs with other pollutants is a novel approach and potential application in wastewater treatment. Many of the metal tolerant fungal species show a mutual relationship with plants that can also be used in the crops to reduce the accumulation of HMs in the grains. From the technological perspective for large-scale wastewater remediation, HM-tolerant fungal-plant mutual relation can also be applied in the constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment, very less studied at the present. The technologies such as biofilter and bioreactor containing fungi (either utilizing in viable form or dead form) have great potential in largescale application for the treatment of HM-contaminated wastewater. These bioremediation techniques are highly efficient in batch as well as in continuous mode. However, the continuous mode will be more effective with a viable form of fungal application because of the self-replenishing ability of fungi. 368 2022 Research in Mycology Reference 1. A. Akcil, C. Erust, S. Ozdemiroglu,V. Fonti, and F. Beolchini, “A review of approaches and techniques used in aquatic contaminated sediments: metal removal and stabilization by chemical and biotechnological processes,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 86, pp. 24–26, 2015. 2. AI-Jawhari, I. F. H. (2022). Recent Advancements in Mycoremediation. In Bioremediation of Environmental Pollutants (pp. 145-161). Springer, Cham. 3. Choudhary, M., Kumar, R., Datta, A., Nehra, V., & Garg, N. (2017). Bioremediation of heavy metals by microbes. In Bioremediation of salt affected soils: an Indian perspective (pp. 233-255). Springer, Cham. 4. D. Lakherwal, “Adsorption of heavy metals: a review,” International Journal of Environmental Research Development, vol. 4, pp. 41–48, 2014. 5. H. S. Abbas, M. I. Ismail, M. T. Mostafa, and H. A. Sulaymon, “Biosorption of heavy metals: A review,” Journal of Chemical Science and Technology, vol. 3, pp. 74–102, 2014. 6. Hassan, A., Pariatamby, A., Ahmed, A., Auta, H. S., & Hamid, F. S. (2019). Enhanced bioremediation of heavy metal contaminated landfill soil using filamentous fungi consortia: a demonstration of bioaugmentation potential. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 230(9), 1-20. 7. Hassan, A., Periathamby, A., Ahmed, A., Innocent, O., & Hamid, F. S. (2020). Effective bioremediation of heavy metal–contaminated landfill soil through bioaugmentation using consortia of fungi. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 20(1), 66-80. 369 2022 Research in Mycology 8. Igiri, B. E., Okoduwa, S. I., Idoko, G. O., Akabuogu, E. P., Adeyi, A. O., & Ejiogu, I. K. (2018). Toxicity and bioremediation of heavy metals contaminated ecosystem from tannery wastewater: a review. Journal of toxicology, 2018. 9. Joshi, P. K., Swarup, A., Maheshwari, S., Kumar, R., & Singh, N. (2011). Bioremediation of heavy metals in liquid media through fungi isolated from contaminated sources. Indian journal of microbiology, 51(4), 482-487. 10. K. Hrynkiewicz and C. Baum, “Application of microorganisms in bioremediation of environment fromheavymetals,” Environmental Deterioration and Human Health: Natural and Anthropogenic Determinants, pp. 215– 227, 2014. 11. Kumar, V., & Dwivedi, S. K. (2021). Mycoremediation of heavy metals: processes, mechanisms, and affecting factors. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(9), 10375-10412. 12. N. C. Deepa and S. Suresha, “Biosorption of lead (II) from aqueous solution and industrial effluent by using leaves of araucaria cookii: application of response surface methodology,” IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology, vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 67–79, 2014. 13. P.M. Schenk, L. C. Carvalhais, and K. Kazan, “Unravelingplantmicrobe interactions: Canmulti-species transcriptomics help; Trends in Biotechnology, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 177–184, 2012. 14. R. J. Ndeddy Aka and O. O. Babalola, “Effect of bacterial inoculation of strains of pseudomonas aeruginosa, alcaligenes feacalis and bacillus subtilis on germination, growth and heavy metal (Cd, Cr, and Ni) uptake of brassica 370 2022 Research in Mycology juncea,” International Journal of Phytoremediation, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 200–209, 2016. 15. R. K. Gautam, S. Soni, andM. C. Chattopadhyaya, “Functionalized magnetic nanoparticles for environmental remediation,” Handbook of Research on Diverse Applications of Nanotechnology in Biomedicine, Chemistry, and Engineering, pp. 518–551, 2014. 16. R. Turpeinen,T. Kairesalo, andM. Haggblom, “Microbial activity community structure in arsenic, chromium and copper contaminated soils,” Journal of Environmental Microbiology, vol. 35, no. 6, pp. 998–1002, 2002. 17. Ray, S., & Ray, M. K. (2009). Bioremediation of heavy metal toxicity-with special reference to chromium. Al Ameen J Med Sci, 2(2), 57-63. 18. S. I. R. Okoduwa, B. Igiri, C. B. Udeh, C. Edenta, and B. Gauje, “Tannery effluent treatment by yeast species isolates from watermelon,” Toxics, vol. 5, no. 1, p. 6, 2017. 19. S. Siddiquee, K. Rovina, and S. A. Azad, “Heavymetal contaminants removal from wastewater using the potential filamentous fungi biomass: a review,” Journal of Microbial and Biochemical Technology, vol. 07, no. 06, pp. 384–393, 2015. 20. Shazia, I., Uzma, S. G., & Talat, A. (2013). Bioremediation of heavy metals using isolates of filamentous fungus Aspergillus fumigatus collected from polluted soil of Kasur, Pakistan. Int Res J Biol Sci, 2(12), 66-73. 21. T. T. Le, M.-H. Son, I.-H. Nam, H. Yoon, Y.-G. Kang, and Y.-S. Chang, “Transformation of hexabromocyclododecane in contaminated soil in association with microbial diversity,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, vol. 325, pp. 82–89, 2017. 22. V. N. Okolo, E. A. Olowolafe, I. Akawu, and S. I. R. Okoduwa, “Effects of industrial effluents 581 on soil 371 2022 Research in Mycology resource in challawa industrial area,” Journal of Global Ecology and Environment, vol. 5, no. 1, p. 10, 2016. 23. W. L. Wai, N. A. K. Kyaw, and N. H. N. Nway, “Biosorption of Lead (Pb2+) by using Chlorella vulgaris,” in Proceedings of the International Conference on Chemical engineering and its applications (ICCEA), Bangkok (Thailand), 2012. 24. Y.Ma,M. Rajkumar,C.Zhang, andH. Freitas, “Beneficial role of bacterial endophytes in heavymetal phytoremediation,” Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 174, pp. 14–25, 2016. *** 372 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 Special CHAPTER Futuristic trends of Scope and Objectives in Plant Pathology 24 Shubhangi Singh, Dr. Sharmita Gupta and Manaswi Rani Introduction Green plants are the primary producers in the ecosystem. All other organisms depend on them for their energy requirements. The growth and productivity of plants thus determine the food supply to organisms including human beings. Plant diseases or pathogens infecting the plants hinder plant growth and therefore result in loss of food be it quality, quantity, or availability to organisms. Various agricultural practices are being carried out to take control over the productions and save the crops from harmful agents be it some kind of abiotic factors such as (floods, droughts. adverse climate etc) or biotic factors which includes (pests, weeds, or diseases). However, plants still get infected by pathogens because pathogens nowadays have become antibiotic resistant. Consequences of plant disease are severe where it not only affects food supply but can also drastically affect the economy of any country. Plant pathology (path=suffering, ology=the science of) also known as Phytopathology is the study of plant diseases, its abnormalities and the conditions that led to plant disorders. The study which covers the cause of a disease or which determines the cause is often 373 Research in Mycology referred to as Etiology. Organisms which are cause behind the disease is known as pathogen. A pathogen can be living or nonliving, but generally pathogen is considered as live agent. The term “Pathogenic” is defined as having the characteristics of a pathogen and “pathogenicity” refers to the ability of any pathogen to enter into cell mass and disturb the normal functioning of the cell; hence leading to diseased state (Lucas, J. A. 2009). Historical Review on Plant Pathology The history of plant pathology in India dates back to 1905 with the establishment of the Indian (then Imperial) Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa, Bihar (now situated in New Delhi) and E. J. Butler (later Sir Edwin) was appointed as the first Imperial Mycologist. The foundation stone of plant pathology is accredited to him, and he may suitably be referred to as "Father of Indian Plant Pathology." The book named “Fungi and Diseases in Plants” which was published in 1918 before his departure from India still remains a classic on the subject. In 1857 Calcutta, Madras and Bombay were the cities where the foundation stone was laid as they became the first Indian universities, which emphasized on the study of taxonomy of fungi. Lucknow, Allahabad, and Madras Universities (founded in 1921, 1887, and 1857 respectively) were among the first universities where Plant pathology as a University Science became established in the 1930s. At present there are 16 Agricultural Universities, with separate Plant Pathology Department. In addition to the state departments of Agriculture, several other Institutions are now involved in plant pathology research. The Great Bengal Famine of 1942 which occurred due to Helminthosporium Blight of Rice, The Wheat Rust during 1946 and 1947 which was the cause behind severe wheat shortage in Madhya Pradesh and the loss occurred in 1938-1942 in sugarcane 374 2022 Research in Mycology crop particularly in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar due to red rot epidemic were the main cause behind the rise of plant pathology in India which not only led to death of large populations but also great economic losses (S. P. Raychaudhuri, et al., 1972). Concept of Plant Disease: Whenever any healthy plant is affected by pathogens or by some environmental factors, it triggers and disturbs all the normal physiological functions of the plant in some way or the other. It's not like that the plant does not react to these disease-causing agents. In the initial phase of the disease, plants react particularly at the site of infection. However, in the later phase it has been observed that the reactions are found to be distributed over a larger area and histological changes occur. All such alterations are indicators of the symptoms of the diseases which could be observed through naked eyes. The result of this kind of infection leads to reduction in plant growth which eventually leads to deformed shape and size of the plant and ultimately plant death. Any plant with these set of symptoms is referred to as diseased. The term disease is defined as a condition that occurs because of abnormal changes in the form, physiology, integrity or behaviour of the plant. After numerous research and studies to combat the problem of pathogenicity in plants, scientists finally came up with the idea to define the objectives for the study of plant pathology which include the following: ● The detailed and descriptive knowledge of living entities that are the cause behind the diseases in plants. ● Complete information about the non-living entities and other factors such as environmental conditions that cause some kind of disorders in plants. ● To understand the mechanisms of disease-causing agents that produce disease. 375 2022 Research in Mycology ● The interactions among disease causing agents and host plants in relation to the climatic conditions. ● The procedure of preventing or managing the diseases and reducing the losses/damages caused by diseases. (Singh, D. V. 2008). Scope of Plant Pathology Scope and responsibilities of plant pathology is unlimited. Its ultimate goal is to prevent and control plant diseases of economic importance. Scope of the science of plant pathology may be summarized as under- Futuristic trends of Plant Pathology Whenever a plant is infected by a pathogen, or gets diseased this leads to not only direct loss in yield but also affects the monetary returns to the farmers and also has a negative impact on society. (Tembhurne, R. R. 2022) Plant diseases lead to several diseases 376 2022 Research in Mycology which sometimes may even prove fatal. In absence of plant diseases, the money spent on managing plant diseases would be saved. Additionally, the expenditures incurred when raising the crop before the pathogens attack are also wasteful. Lack of goods for transport may cause the transport industry to suffer when production is low. Plant diseases reduce crop production, which makes it difficult for industries consuming agricultural raw materials (cotton, jute, oilseeds, vegetables and fruits for processing) to fully use their installed capacity. Consequently, governments must import foodstuffs and other agricultural products like oilseeds in order to compensate for loss of foodgrains, thereby losing foreign exchange. It is necessary to use toxic chemicals to manage plant diseases. Using these chemicals excessively may result in environmental pollution that adversely affects human health. 377 2022 Research in Mycology It is possible to group plant diseases into two categories, infectious and non- infectious, according to their primary causal agent. There could be more than one disease-causing agent which could infect the plant at a time. There are various causes of plant diseases. To name a few that are caused by (Fungi) Red rot of sugarcane, Late blight of potato, Damping off, Black wart disease, Tikka disease of groundnut, Wilt of cotton, Early blight of potato, Rust of linseed, Black stem rust of wheat, Brown/ orange leaf rust of wheat, Whip smut of sugarcane, Covered smut of barley, Loose smut of wheat, Powdery mildew of barley, White rust of crucifers, Downy mildew of pea, Green ear disease of bajra ; (Bacteria) Citrus canker, Bacterial blight of rice (paddy), Black chaff disease of wheat, Bacterial leaf blight, Basal glume rot disease, Bacterial mosaic of wheat, Gumming disease of wheat spikes, The bacterial brown sheath, The pink seed of wheat ; (Virus) Pedilanthus leaf curl virus (PeLCV), Potato apical leaf curl disease (PALCD), Leaf curl of papaya, Yellow vein mosaic of bhindi, (Mycoplasma) Little leaf of brinjal, (Nematode) Root knot of vegetable any many more on various hosts respectively. Techniques Used for Plant Disease Detection Rapidly growing population and increased food demand make agriculture a necessity in India. Crop yields must therefore be increased so as to fulfil the requirement. Bacteria, viruses, and fungi are some of the major causes which result in lower crop yields. Various Detection techniques for plant diseases can help in its prevention. For disease management, it is essential to determine the pathogen type of a plant infection as soon as possible. Plant pathogens can be diagnosed using a variety of methods. The traditional methods of detection of plant disease include Visual observation, 378 2022 Research in Mycology Microscopy, Mycological analysis, and biological diagnostics or the Use of Indicator Plant. Serological assays, Nucleic acid-based methods (F. Martinelli et al., 2015) are few more traditional methods which have been in this field serving the same purpose. However, the traditional methods just like any other thing have some disadvantages too. Time Consuming, tedious process, as well as lack of total reliability are some among them. Thus, there is a need of Rapid and reliable detection method of any plant disease and proper identification of its pathogen is the foremost important stage in disease control as it not only assists in proper protection methods but also ensures prevention of crop losses. It is possible to identify plant diseases using a variety of traditional methods, but in recent years new technologies and methods have been developed to identify pathogens in order to ensure promptness and reliability, and to eliminate the shortcomings inherent in traditional diagnosis. In today's world, advanced diagnostic techniques are used widely to diagnose diseases and identify their pathogens, including1. Immunodiagnostics 2. Thermography (Fang, Y., & Ramasamy, R. P. (2015). 3. Mass spectrometry (A. Khakimov et al., 2022). 4. Lateral flow microarrays. 5. Methods based on the analysis of volatile compounds as biomarkers. 6. Remote sensing of plant disease. 7. Non-imaging spectroscopy approaches. 8. Imaging spectroscopy approaches. 9. Potential technologies for biosensor development: phage display, electrochemistry, and biophotonics (F. Martinelli et al., 2015). 379 2022 Research in Mycology 10. An improved plant disease-recognition model based on the original YOLOv5 network model (Z. Chen et al., 2022). 11. One method for detecting and quantifying diseases is using digital images made with visible wavelengths; it offers advantages over visual assessment. (C. H. Bock & F. J. Nutter, 2011). 12. PlantDoc: An image-based dataset for identifying plant diseases (D. Singh et al., 2020). Plant Disease Management In order to control disease from spreading and causing epidemics and ultimately economic losses it is a must to have proper management techniques. Some common disease management techniques are as follows (He, D. C. et. al., 2016)1. In case of plant disease, whenever a symptom is observed, the plant part must be removed and burnt. 2. Selection of healthy plants set for growing. 3. Ensuring time to time spray of insecticides, fungicides, bactericides, weedicides etc. 4. Field sanitation and proper sun exposure to the field. 5. Ensuring proper plant spaces and avoiding overcrowding. 6. Modification in cultural practices. 7. Genetic engineering and tissue culture. 8. Spraying pesticides using drones. 9. Diagnostic system based on NASNet-Mobile, a lightweight Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) architecture uses the images of the plant leaves for plant disease diagnosis. A mobile application developed for both android and iOS smartphones to capture the plant leaf images serves the same purpose. The system runs on a web service that diagnoses from the CNN model. The plant leaf images are captured using the developed mobile application which are 380 2022 Research in Mycology then sent through the web service and the recognition of the plant disease is obtained using the NASNet-Mobile CNN model (A. O. Adedoja et al., 2022). Conclusion The entire ecosystem including animals and mankind is dependent on plants. Any kind of plant disease brought tremendous suffering to the human race. a lot of evidences are present in the history which describes the suffering of humankind and its effect were also seen on animals whenever a plant was hit by some kind of infection. This branch of botany seems to be older than the origin of human civilization since the diseases seem to have originated with the origin of plants. This chapter here briefs about some common plant diseases; futuristic technologies used in plant disease detection and recent disease management practices we come across in our day-to-day life. A huge sum of money is spent every year for crop protection, which could otherwise be saved. Hence, it is very crucial for us to analyse these diseases and follow proper preventive measures to eradicate this problem and help our economy from any such losses. References 1. Adedoja, A. O., Owolawi, P. A., Mapayi, T., & Tu, C. (2022). Intelligent Mobile Plant Disease Diagnostic System Using NASNet-Mobile Deep Learning. IAENG International Journal of Computer Science, 49(1). 2. Bock, C. H., & Nutter, F. J. (2011). Detection and measurement of plant disease symptoms using visiblewavelength photography and image analysis. CABI Reviews, (2011), 1-15. 3. Chen, Z., Wu, R., Lin, Y., Li, C., Chen, S., Yuan, Z., ... & Zou, X. (2022). Plant disease recognition model based on improved YOLOv5. Agronomy, 12(2), 365. 381 2022 Research in Mycology 4. Fang, Y., & Ramasamy, R. P. (2015). Current and prospective methods for plant disease detection. Biosensors, 5(3), 537-561. 5. He, D. C., ZHAN, J. S., & XIE, L. H. (2016). Problems, challenges and future of plant disease management: from an ecological point of view. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 15(4), 705-715. 6. Khakimov, A., Salakhutdinov, I., Omolikov, A., & Utaganov, S. (2022). Traditional and current-prospective methods of agricultural plant diseases detection: A review. In IOP Conference series: earth and environmental science (Vol. 951, No. 1, p. 012002). IOP Publishing. 7. Lucas, J. A. (2009). Plant pathology and plant pathogens. John Wiley & Sons. Blackwell Publishing ISBN-978-0632–03046-0 8. Madiwalar, S. C., & Wyawahare, M. V. (2017, February). Plant disease identification: a comparative study. In 2017 International Conference on Data Management, Analytics and Innovation (ICDMAI) (pp. 13-18) 9. Martinelli, F., Scalenghe, R., Davino, S., Panno, S., Scuderi, G., Ruisi, P., ... & Dandekar, A. M. (2015). Advanced methods of plant disease detection. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 35(1), 1-25. 10. Poornapriya, T. S., & Gopinath, R. (2022). Rice plant disease identification using artificial intelligence approaches. 11. Raychaudhuri, S. P., Verma, J. P., Nariani, T. K., & Sen, B. (1972). The history of plant pathology in India. Annual Review of Phytopathology, 10(1), 21-36. 12. Singh, D. V. (2008). Introductory plant pathology. Introductory plant pathology. 382 2022 Research in Mycology 13. Singh, D., Jain, N., Jain, P., Kayal, P., Kumawat, S., & Batra, N. (2020). PlantDoc: a dataset for visual plant disease detection. In Proceedings of the 7th ACM IKDD CoDS and 25th COMAD (pp. 249-253). 14. Tembhurne, R. R. (2022) Plant Pathology: An Overview. Advances in Plant Science, 91. Bhumi Publishing ISBN: 978-93-91768-50-8. *** 383 2022 Research in Mycology 384 2022 Research in Mycology Appendix A Aadya Jha Ahmad Gazali Aisha Kamal Alok Kumar Singh Alvina Farooqui Anil Kumar Tripathi Anju Patel Apurva Sharma Arul Kumar Murugesan Arvind Kumar Ashish Singh Bisht Ashma Ajeej Chapter-3 Chapter-11, 12, 13 Chapter-20 Chapter-2 Chapter-23 Chapter-20 Chapter-23 Chapter-1 Chapter-5 Chapter-13 Chapter-10 Chapter-6 B Balwant Singh Chapter-15, 17 D D. K. Shrivastava Danish Ahmad Dinendra Kumar Mishra Chapter-8 Chapter-22 Chapter-16 F Farzana Tasneem Chapter-7 G Gopa Banerjee Chapter-20 xxviii 2022 Research in Mycology H Hafsa Imam Heena Kausar Chapter-11, 19 Chapter-8 I Ishwar Deen Chaudhary Chapter-22 J Jyoti Pandey Chapter-18 K Kohila Durai Chapter-5 L Leena Dave Chapter-4 M Manaswi Rani Manju L. Joshi Maria Imam Masufa Tarannum Md Rashid Reza Chapter-24 Chapter-10 Chapter-11, 12 Chapter-12, 19 Chapter-13 N Nancy Sharma Naushad Ahmad Neha Tiwari Nidhi Singh Chapter-9 Chapter-13 Chapter-6, 21 Chapter-6, 21 xxix 2022 Research in Mycology P Parameswari Murugesan Pooja Goswami Praveen Garg Priya Dubey Chapter-5 Chapter-14 Chapter-18 Chapter-23 R Rahul Purohit Raju Ratan Yadav Rashmi Tewari Chapter-10 Chapter-9 Chapter-10 S Sachidananda Das Sakshi Tripathi Sandeep Mishra Santvana Tyagi Shabir Khan Sharmita Gupta Shivangi Tripathi Shivani Sharma Shree Ram Agarwal Shubhangi Singh Sneha Dwivedi Sri Sneha Jeyakumar Sudeep Sulekha Tripathi Sundip Kumar Syed Farheen Anwar Chapter-9 Chapter-14, 15, 22 Chapter-14 Chapter-9, 14, 15 Chapter-8 Chapter-24 Chapter-15, 20 Chapter-1 Chapter-18 Chapter-24 Chapter-2 Chapter-5 Chapter-7 Chapter-18 Chapter-9 Chapter-13, 19 xxx 2022 Research in Mycology V Vinay Kumar Singh Vinodh T Chapter-15, 17, 22 Chapter-7 xxxi 2022 Research in Mycology Thankfulness… We are highly appreciating the contribution of all contributors as everyone explored the different viewpoint themes. Special thanks to contributors/authors for provide an alluring shape of the book to the manuscript and innovative thoughts. Thank You Editor’s ISBN: 978-93-5668-523-9 xxxii 2022 Remark ISBN: 978-93-5668-523-9 xxxiii Research in Mycology 2022 Editor in Chief Dr. Vinay Kumar Singh, M.Sc., Ph.D. Associate Professor Department of Botany K. S. Saket P.G. College Ayodhya Uttar Pradesh, India vksingh77saket@gmail.com The Editor is well known for his great work in the field of Botany especially in Mycology and Plant Pathology as Academician and Researcher. He has more than 13 years teaching and 17 years of research experiences in their field. He has completed their M.Sc. in 1998 and awarded their Ph.D. in the Year 2001. He is currently working as Associate Professor in Department of Botany at K. S. Saket P.G. College Ayodhya affiliate to Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya Avadh University Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh. He has published more than 20 National and International Research Articles in reputed Journals. He has also published 5 Books and more than 10 Book Chapters. Editor also has participated more than 60 National and International Seminar, Conference and Workshops. Beside this, the editor has Guide of several Ph.D. Students as Supervisor and also has member of Board of Studies. xxxiv Research in Mycology Guest: Editor of Honour Dr. Shailendra Kumar, M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D. Professor and Head Department of Microbiology Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India shailendra.microbio@gmail.com shailendrakumar@rmlau.ac.in Editor of Honour is well known Professor and Researcher in the field of Microbiology with the 21 years of teaching and 25 years of research experiences. He has published more than 30 research articles in National and International reputed journals. He has authored 11 book chapters. He has delivered several guest lectures, invited talks, and participated in more than 25 National and International seminars, conferences and workshops. He has organized several conferences, workshops and training programmes and received research grants xxxv 2022 Research in Mycology from UGC, SERB and Government of Uttar Pradesh. He is member of professional bodies, viz., Microbiologists Society of India, Society of Biochemists of India, Society for Agriculture Innovation & Development and Society for Environmental Sustainability. He is also member of editorial board and reviewer of many Journals. Beside this, the Editor of Honour has guided of several M.Sc. and Ph.D. Students. Sir is Honoured by several awards like Distinguished Scientific Award, Young Scientist Award, Excellence Teaching Award, INSA-Visiting Scientist Programme Fellowship, and many more. xxxvi 2022 Research in Mycology 2022 Managing Editor Mr. Balwant Singh, M.Sc.-A, M.Sc.-B Ph.D. Research Scholar Department of Botany K. S. Saket P.G. College Ayodhya Uttar Pradesh, India balwantsingh1642@gmail.com He is a Young and Active Researcher and Academician as well as Pursuing Ph.D. (Botany) in the Department of Botany from K. S. Saket P.G. College Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh. He is also working as Guest Faculty, Department of Botany, B. P. P.G. College Narayanpur, Maskanwa, Gonda (UP) India. He has 7 Years of Teaching and 5 Years Research Experience. He has completed dual Master Degrees as M.Sc. in Applied Animal Science from Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar Central University Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh in 2015 and M.Sc. in Botany from Acharya Narendra Deo Kisan P.G. College Babhnan, Gonda, Uttar Pradesh in 2018. He has published more than 10 Research and Review Papers in National and International Journals and more than 10 Book Chapters and also few Books like. He has also participated in more than 75 National and International Seminar, Conferences and Workshops. xxxvii ISBN: 978-93-5668-523-9 ISBN: 978-93-5668-523-9