Useful plants of Bas-Congo Volume 2

Paul Latham; Augustin Konda ku Mbuta

Plants and plant products are of direct importance to the rural population in most of Africa. Collected locally, they are used for building, packaging, as food and medicine, for feeding livestock and for crop protection. In addition edible insects, an important part of the diet in much of Central Africa, feed on certain plants. Bees gather nectar and pollen from selected plants to produce honey which, as well as being much appreciated, is a valuable source of income in the province. Knowledge of the uses, and even of the local names, of many of these plants is being lost. This publication provides information gathered locally, as well as from the literature, for over 270 plants growing in Bas-Congo province of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Plants are illustrated and a brief description is given, together with details of where they are found, how important species can be propagated and their uses.

Plants and plant products are of direct importance to the rural population in most of Africa. Collected locally, they are used for building, packaging, as food and medicine, for feeding livestock and crop protection. In addition edible insects, an important part of the diet in much of Central Africa, feed on certain plants. Bees gather nectar and pollen from plants in order to produce honey which, as well as being much appreciated, is a valuable source of income in the province. Knowledge of their uses, and even of the local names, of many of these plants is being lost. This publication provides information gathered locally, as well as from available literature, for over 460 plants growing in Bas-Congo province of the Democratic Republic of Congo.

An ethno-botanical survey was conducted among traditional healers in the district of “Bas-Fleuve”, Democratic Republic of Congo in order to identify plant species used in folk medicine for health care. Twenty-five traditional healers from five territories of Bas-Fleuve district were interviewed about plants species used in traditional medicine to treat common diseases in this part of the country. Quoted plants were collected and identified at Herbarium of the Faculty of Sciences, University of Kinshasa. Their ecological status was also characterized. Twenty-five plant species were identified out of which phanerophytes predominate (16 species). 36.0 % of used medicinal plants are Afro-tropical species. Leaves are the most used part and Anemia and Malaria are the most treated diseases. Fabaceae species were the most quoted medicinal plants indicating high utility value of these species for the local community. Herbal remedies used against anemia and malaria are administered as aqueous...

Useful Plants of Bas-Congo Province, Democratic Republic of Congo Volume 2 Paul Latham Augustin Konda ku Mbuta Macaranga monandra (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Nyensi, nkengi, yense (Kongo) Description A shrub or tree growing 6 to 25 m tall. The trunk has spines up to 7.5 cm long. Leaf margins are usually coarsely toothed. The pith of the branches exudes a sticky jelly when cut. Ecology Present in swampy and riverine forest from southern Nigeria and western Cameroon to Tanzania and Angola. Propagation Can be grown from cuttings. Uses The wood is light and is not attacked by insects. I n Bas-Congo it is used for roof supports. Minsendi (probably I mbrasia melanops), Miengeti, Kaba ( Lobobunaea Minsendi edible caterpillars phaedusa), Nziemo and Nkulu edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. I n Congo (Brazzaville) a decoction of bark, together with that of Pentaclethra eetveldeana is given to women to treat sterility. Tannins, steroids and terpenes are present in the leaves, bark and roots. Macaranga species are known to be bee forage plants in Gabon. Left: Miengeti caterpillars References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Lobreau-Callen 1988, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994 285 Maesa lanceolata (Myrsinaceae) Common name False assegai Description A fast growing shrub or tree 2 - 10 m tall, variable and sometimes semiclimbing. Leaves are oval to elliptic, 5 – 22 x 2 – 12 cm. The tiny creamy-white flowers are borne in fragrant branched heads up to 10 cm long. Fruit is very small, round, white and fleshy. Both photos: Hugh Glen Ecology Present in forest regrowth and riverine forest in tropical Africa, and in South Africa and Madagascar. I t will grow on poor, degraded soils. Propagation Collect fruits from the mother tree and dry in the sun. Crush the dried fruits to release the seeds and sow as soon as possible. Sow direct at site or in a seed bed and transplant after a few months. Wildlings can also be planted out. Management The tree is fast growing and can be coppiced or pollarded. Uses Wood is white and very soft. I t decays quickly. I n D.R. Congo the root is used to treat abscesses. A leaf decoction is reduced to a pulp and plastered on the body to treat smallpox. I t is also drunk to treat diarrhoea. Young leaves are eaten as a vegetable. The flowers are visited by bees and because it is often in flower it is a useful bee forage. Fruits are reported to be sweet. References Staner & Boutique 1937, Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Burkill 1997, Glen & Mkhipheni 2005, Meunier 2010 286 Maesobotrya staudtii (Phyllanthaceae) Synonym Baccaurea staudtii Common names Mansiese, mansiensi (Kongo), raisinier des bois (Fr.) Description A shrub or small tree from 2 to 6 m high and from 4 to 10 cm in diameter. The white to yellow wood is soft. Leaves are 7 – 28 cm long and 3 – 12 cm wide, hairy on both surfaces and the leaf stalk and main nerves are densely covered with stiff hairs. Leaf stalk is 1 – 10 cm long. Flowers are produced on the trunk, the male inflorescence being 3 – 11 cm long and the female 1 – 5 cm long. Fruits are round, 10 mm in diameter. Ecology An under-storey shrub of the rain-forest often found in humid sites, and particularly in Mayombe district of Bas-Congo, associated with Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, Scorodophloeus zenkeri and Cynometra alexandri. Also present in southern Nigeria and Cameroon. Male flowers Left: Maesobotrya staudtii bearing fruit in September at the Kisantu botanic garden. Uses The edible fruit is acidic and refreshing and makes good jam. The leaves are also eaten as a vegetable. References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, FAC 1995, Keay 1989, Burkill 1994 , Kibungu Kembelo 2010 287 Maesopsis eminii (Rhamnaceae) Common names Kingembu, kingembwa, munsambi nsambi (Kongo), hornbill's calabash Photo: H.J. Ndangalasi Tanzania Plant Collaboration Description A leafy, semi-deciduous tree 10 – 30 m tall with pale grey-brown bark. Leaves are alternate, up to 14 cm long and the edges have characteristic teeth. Flowers are small and green. Fruit is oval, up to 3 cm long, fleshy and yellow, turning purple, with 1 - 2 hard seeds. The tree may be recognised by its leaves as the distinctive rounded teeth stand up like little flaps above the surface of the leaf. Ecology A large tree indigenous to East, Central and West Africa. I t grows well in deep fertile sandy soils in wet tropical areas. I t is sometimes planted in tree planting schemes. Propagation The tree can be grown from seed. Collect the fruits from the ground. Either cut the flesh off or rub the fruits on wire mesh to remove the flesh. Wash and dry the seeds. They lose their viability quickly and can only be stored for a few months. When planting, soak them for 3 days, changing the water every 12 hours. For small quantities the seed should be nicked before soaking. Germination rate is 20 - 55% and takes from 4 to 78 days. Seed is best planted in pots first but trees must be planted out early to avoid damaging the tap-root. The tree can also be direct sown, but this may give patchy results if the rains are poor. Air layering and wild seedlings can also be used for propagation. Management The tree grows very rapidly 288 Minsendi = I mbrasia obscura edible caterpillars feeding on the leaves averaging over 1 m per year at first, or more on good sites and reaching maturity in 20 years. I t does not need much attention though a boring insect, Monohammus scabiosus, may be a problem. Young plants do not grow well unless weeded. I mperata grass is especially bad, but once established trees tend to shade it out. Young trees are susceptible to cankers caused by Fusarium solani and other fungi. Uses The fruits are edible and contain oil. Sapwood is nearly white and distinct from the yellow-green heartwood, which darkens to brown later. I t tends to split, warp and collapse in seasoning and is not resistant to fungi, borers or termites. The wood is firm though light, of medium texture and has a satiny lustre, and works easily. I t nails and stains well, but tends to pick up under the plane, and requires careful preparation and filling before varnishing, polishing or painting. The wood splits easily and is useful for fencing. I t is suitable for general carpentry and construction and after treatment can be used externally. I t is also used as firewood. The leaves can be fed to livestock and the tree can be used as a shade for tea and coffee. The bark is used medicinally in Bas-Congo to promote urination and as a purgative. Kaba ( Lobobunaea phaedusa) and two types of Minsendi edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Sometimes large numbers can be present. I n Gabon honeybees are reported to visit the flowers. References Gillet 1927, Leloup 1956, Busson 1965, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, NAS 1983, Egli & Kalinganire 1988, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Beentje 1994, Mbuya et al 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Msanga 1998, Meunier et al. 2010 People will travel 20 – 30 km to sell produce in local markets. I n addition to the head-load this lady carries, she has two cockerels in a pouch at her back. 289 Mammea africana (Clusiaceae) Common names Mafambu, dimbu dingi (dingi = gum, resin, incense) (Kongo), African mammee apple, oboto or djimbo (commerce) Photo: Julie Dewilde Description A large forest tree up to 45 m tall with a straight, cylindrical trunk and scaly brown bark. I nner bark yields a yellowish resin. Leaves are opposite, glossy, 9 - 35 x 3 - 13 cm. Young leaves are copper-red. The flowers are produced in leaf axils and are either bisexual or male. Bisexual flowers are solitary, white and up to 2 cm. Male flowers are borne in clusters and are smaller than bisexual flowers. Bisexual and male flowers are produced on different trees. The numerous round to pear shaped fruits have a rough outer skin and are 7 – 18 cm in diameter. They are pale yellow to orange, with many warts. The yellowish-white fibrous flesh contains 1 - 4 seeds. Mass fruiting occurs every 2 – 3 years. Ecology Occurs in evergreen to semi-deciduous forest. The tree prefers fertile forest soils with plenty of moisture. Present from Senegal to Uganda and south to D.R. Congo and Angola. Propagation Soak the seeds in water for 24 hours. Plant in a shady place. Germination is irregular taking up to 8 months but can be up to 90% . Seedlings are slow growing. Uses The wood is hard and heavy and lasts well. I t is easy to work and is used for construction, general carpentry, furniture and canoes. The fruits are eaten when completely ripe. They are left to fall to the ground. When they become soft they are sliced and eaten. The skin is not eaten. The shells were traditionally used as bells for hunting dogs. The white-yellow pulp is sweet but rather fibrous. However some trees produce acid tasting fruit. Rotting fruit attracts snails which are also eaten. Seeds are edible and contain oil which can be used for cooking. Resin is used to repair earthenware. The flowers are known to be visited by bees in Gabon. References Gillet & Paque 1910, Gillet 1927, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Vivien & Faure 1996, Danforth & Noren 1997, Lemmens 2008, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 290 Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae) Common names Manga (Kongo), manguier (Fr.), mango Description A tree from 10 to 40 m high. Good varieties have little or no fibre in the fruits and do not smell of turpentine. Mrs. Major Makolo and Major Matondo, Gracia with an improved, grafted mango (Ruby) growing at Kasangulu Ecology Originally from tropical Asia. Commonly planted in villages in Bas-Congo. When the village is abandoned numerous seedlings grow to form a nkunku. Propagation Large, fully developed, fresh seeds germinate well, particularly if the seed is removed carefully from the outer coat. Germination rate is usually over 80% . Seeds should be planted in containers or baskets to avoid damage to the taproot. I mproved varieties can be side-, or more usually, cleft-grafted onto rootstocks. Mango flowers are a useful source of nectar and pollen for bees during the dry season. Only a well matured terminal bud, and the section below it, should be used as scion wood. I mmature wood can lead to failure. Budding allows much younger rootstocks to be used. Buds should be prepared in advance by removing the leaves and apical bud of mature terminal wood. This results in axillary buds swelling after 1 - 2 weeks. Grafting results in faster growth and earlier fruiting. Air layering may also be used. Left: A good mango variety being propagated by air layering Management Transplant early in the rain season and plant with compost in a hole dug out 60 x 60 x 60 cm. Allow the main stem to grow to 1 m before topping to produce a frame of well balanced branches. Soil should be at least 1 m deep and well drained. Uses Mangoes are usually an excellent source of provitamin A but a rather variable source of vitamin C. As mangoes mature, their vitamin G content decreases. The timber is used for construction work, flooring and furniture and is valued in East Africa for making large, heavy, durable canoes. Strength and size make them useful for ferry pontoons. The wood is used for firewood and charcoal. The flowers are an important bee forage yielding abundant pollen and nectar. The seed kernels can be eaten after being roasted, dried or pickled and are used as a livestock feed for cattle or poultry. The bark is a source of a yellow dye used for silk. 291 A decoction of the bark from the trunk is used to strengthen the immune system and to treat diarrhoea. The tree provides shade and can be used as a firebreak. References Gillet 1927, Crane et al. 1984, Burkill 1985 & 2000, Martin et al. 1987, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Mbuya et al. 1994, Nakasone & Paull 1998, I CRAF 1998, Pousset 2004 Many valuable indigenous trees can be grown from cuttings. A group of farmers at Kinseki with a shaded bed of cuttings. A cutting taken from a Barteria fistulosa tree. This is a fast growing species common in secondary forest. The twigs are used as toothbrushes and the flowers are a good source of nectar for bees. Barnig c tting 292 Manihot esculenta (Euphorbiaceae) Synonym M. utilissima Common names Dioko, saka-saka (Kongo), manioc (Fr.), cassava Description A perennial shrub, up to 3 m high, with enlarged tuberous roots and a well developed root system. There are many varieties, some of which are bitter and others sweet. Sweet varieties are short season crops being harvested after 6 - 9 months. Some of these can be eaten raw. PRONAM and I I TA have been responsible for breeding high-yielding, disease-resistant varieties such as Kinuani for BasCongo, which is recommended along with the local variety Mpelolongi. Cassava leaves en route to Kasangulu market after a refreshing dip in the river. Ecology Grown throughout the humid tropics in pure or mixed stands. Rainfall should be well distributed but the plant can withstand periods of drought. Light sandy-clay soils of medium fertility give the best results, but it will grow on infertile soils if they are deeply cultivated to allow roots to penetrate. Propagation Plant using cuttings, with at least 3 buds, 10 - 30 cm long, taken from the basal to mid section wood of plants at least 10 months old. I f dry these can be stored for up to 8 weeks in cool, wellventilated conditions. Otherwise they can only be stored for 7 - 10 days. I n Bas–Congo planting is done at the start of the rains on mounds or ridges. When clearing the land weeds should be buried in the mounds as this has been found to increase yields. Cuttings should be planted at a sloping angle, burying them three-quarters of their length. This encourages the roots to penetrate deeper. Plant 1 m apart in both directions for a pure stand or 2 – 3 m for a mixed crop. Keep land weed free until the crop covers the soil. Ridge up after 8 - 12 weeks to encourage tuber formation. Management Leaves should not be harvested more frequently than at 2 month intervals otherwise tuber yield is affected. 293 A good crop obtained after a long period of fallow Uses Cassava roots provide the staple food in Bas-Congo, but they are low in protein and lack vitamins. The carbohydrate is however easily digested. The leaves are cooked as the principal vegetable (nsaki) and are rich in protein (over 6% of fresh material), minerals and vitamins. Cassava flour can be used to replace up to 20% of wheat flour in bread making. Adding 1% of a dough conditioner such as calcium stearoyl lactylate, improves the bread. Bread can also be made from a mixture of 80% cassava flour and 20% soya bean meal after adding 4% of an emulsifier, such as glycerol monostearate, or extruded maize starch (up to 15% of the cassava flour), to the dough. Some varieties of cassava flower during the rain season and provide bees with pollen and nectar. I n Bas-Congo the young leaves are sometimes used as an abortive. Nsaki, the pounded leaves of cassava, cooked with palm oil and peppers (on right) being eaten with the leaves of Nkaka, a forest creeper. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Kay 1973, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Raemaekers 2001 Travel in the rain season, even with a 4 wheel drive vehicle, has its problems! Photo: Emmanuel Miaglia 294 Manihot glaziovii (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Nkweso, nsaki kausu (Kongo), céara (Fr.), ceara rubber, tree cassava Description A reaching 6 m high crooked stem branching habit. abundant latex. small tree with a short, and bushy I t produces Manihot glaziovii growing in a village compound. Ecology Often grown as a boundary marker in Bas-Congo. Native to north-east Brazil but now widely planted throughout the tropics. Propagation by seed or cuttings. Uses There appear to be two varieties in Bas-Congo. The latex of one is used to repair bicycle tyres and various utensils and is a source of Ceara rubber. Leaves of the other are eaten as a vegetable. The flowers are a useful source of nectar to bees during the rain season, but produce a bitter honey. The wood breaks easily and is susceptible to white rot ( Leptoporus lignosus). The root is rich in starch but hard and woody. I t is used medicinally. The plant can be crossed with M. esculenta for pest and disease resistance but the resulting tubers are often woody. By back-crossing to cassava more palatable tubers are produced which are also resistant to mosaic and brown streak viruses. Stems and roots are used as famine foods. A tree in Mbanza Nzundu village provides latex for repairing the inner tubes of bicycles. References Gillet 1927, Uphof 1968, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994 295 Manniophyton fulvum (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Nkusa, nkuta, kilendila (Kongo) Description A straggling bush, which develops into a creeper 10 - 30 m long, with stems up to 10 cm thick. Leaves have 5 distinct nerves at the base and are heart shaped or divided into 3 lobes. The leaves and stem are rough and abrasive, like sandpaper. When cut the stem yields a thick red sap. Flowers are small with white petals. The male flowers are arranged in a panicle about 25 cm long. The female flowers are shorter and the flowers develop into a dry hairy capsule with 3 deep lobes. When ripe they burst open scattering the small seeds. Ecology Found in clearings in secondary forest and along water courses in Bas-Congo. Present in closed or mixed deciduous evergreen forest from Sierra Leone to Cameroon and south to Angola. Uses The bark is an important source of rope and string throughout Central Africa. I t is used to make fishing lines in Congo. The bark is easily removed and when pounded and dried becomes less abrasive and is more easily worked. I n Central Africa it was traditionally woven into nets 1.5 m wide and many meters long for catching forest animals. The leaves are browsed by goats. Seeds contain up to 50 % of yellow, tasteless oil which is edible after boiling for some time. Seeds are sometimes used to expel intestinal worms and there are a number of other medicinal uses for the plant in Africa. References De Wildeman 1903, Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1994, White & Abernethy 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Vande weghe 2004 296 Manotes expansa (Connaraceae) Synonym M. pruinosa Common name Diladila (Kongo) Description A creeper or straggling shrub growing up to 6.5 m high. Leaf stalks are from 5 – 25 cm long with 3 – 13 narrowly elliptic leaflets 3 – 10 cm long and 1.5 – 5 cm wide. The small flowers are in panicles on stalks up to 50 cm long. Fruits are 1.5 cm long. Ecology Commonly found in secondary forest on sandy soils in Bas-Congo. Also found in rain forests from Guinea to Liberia. Management The plant coppices well and is frequently found regrowing after cultivation. Uses The tree has several medicinal uses in Bas-Congo. The fresh roots are eaten for diarrhoea and dysentery. The red sap from pounded shoots is also drunk for diarrhoea, dysentery or anaemia etc., dropped into the eyes for conjunctivitis or headaches or put into the ear to treat inflammation. I t is also taken in Manianga district to increase milk flow in nursing mothers. Leaf paste is applied to burns. Cut stems yield a liquid that is sometimes drunk. Kwesu ( I mbrasia eblis) and Ndienga edible caterpillars eat the leaves. The plant flowers during the rain season and bees were seen collecting nectar and pollen in February. Left: I mbrasia eblis feeding on the leaves References De Wildeman 1934, FAC 1952, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Arkinstall 1979, Burkill 1985, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Neuwinger 2000, Latham 2003 297 Maranta arundinacea (Marantaceae) Common names Marante (Fr.), West I ndian arrowroot, arrowroot Description An erect perennial herb 100 - 180 cm tall with fleshy cylindrical rhizomes and leaves 22 x 8 cm. The flowers rise 1 m high in twin clusters but only rarely produce seeds. The plant is shallow rooted. Ecology Originally from the West I ndies but now cultivated throughout the tropics. I t is not commonly grown in Bas-Congo. I t prefers a hot moist climate with only a short dry season. The plant requires deep, well-drained, acid, fertile, loamy soils. Shade is beneficial when grown on sandy soils. Propagation The plant is usually grown from small pieces of rhizome with buds, 4 - 7 cm long, called ‘bits’. Thin rhizomes should not be used. Plant the pieces in holes 5 – 7.5 cm deep and spaced at 30 cm apart in well prepared soil. Management The crop must be clean weeded for the first 3 - 4 months and all flowers removed as soon as they appear. The rhizomes are harvested after about 11 months when they are 20 - 45 cm long and when the leaves begin to wilt and die down. Uses I n Bas-Congo the rhizome is used to make a drink or else dried and added to food, and is particularly eaten with chicken. Flour from the roots yields a very smooth paste or jelly making it suitable for foods for small children and invalids. I t is highly digestible and especially useful for the treatment of digestive problems. Preparation requires thorough cleanliness. The root is peeled to remove the bitter, sticky substance in the skin. I t is then pulped, mixed with clean water and the starch is obtained by washing through fine sieves and allowing it to settle. The rhizome can also be eaten after boiling or roasting. I t has special value in being able to absorb harmful substances from the body and can also be used to treat wounds. The residue after extracting the starch can be used instead of pepper. Leaves are sometimes used for wrapping foods. References Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1972, Kay 1973, Burkill 1997 Photo: http:/ / www.aziatische-ingredienten.nl/ pijlwortel/ 298 Margaritaria discoidea (Phyllanthaceae) Common names Kinsende (Kongo), common pheasant-berry Photo: Quentin Meunier Description A medium sized tree with long, slender drooping branches. The male flowers are conspicuous and so are the small clusters of short stalked, persistent green fruits. Leaves are 2.5 – 15 cm long. Numerous lenticels are present on the twigs. Flowers are small, yellow-green with male or female flowers on separate trees. Fruits are 3 – 4 lobed, 7 – 13 mm in diameter. There are various subspecies and varieties. Ecology A pioneer species which may become dominant and then dies out. Found in closed secondary forests and widespread in tropical Africa. Propagation Large quantities of seed are produced. Collect unopened capsules from the ground and crush them to obtain seed. Plant the seed, after soaking in cold water overnight, direct at site or using wildlings. Management The tree is fast growing and can be coppiced or pollarded. Uses The wood is used for planks and for building. The leaves are used for treating wounds. The timber, which is hard and heavy, but is not very durable outdoors, is used for cabinet work and poles. I t is not difficult to work, finishes smoothly and takes a good polish. I t is also used for firewood and charcoal. Coppice shoots make good building poles. I n Congo the wood is used for making the ribs in boat building as the wood bends easily when steamed. The wood ash yields a vegetable salt. Flowers are reported to be visited by bees in Gabon. I n Bas-Congo Minsendi edible caterpillars, a much appreciated species, feed on the leaves. Before cooking the spines are singed off. The black fruit is cooked and eaten with coconut. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 1996, Neuwinger 2000, Hawthorne and Gyakari 2006, Meunier et al. 2010, Harris et al. 2011 299 Markhamia tomentosa (Bignoniaceae) Common name Nsasa (Kongo) Description A shrub or tree up to 13 m high with the branchlets and young foliage densely covered with very short yellowish hairs. Leaves have 5 – 6 pairs of leaflets 10 – 21 cm long and 3.7 - 7 cm wide. Flowers are 3.5 – 4 cm long with purple streaks inside the corolla. Ecology Present in old, fringing, transition and savanna forests of West Africa and south to Angola. Uses Timber is pale brown, hard and good for carpentry. I t is used for making mortars and musical instruments in Bas-Congo. Flowers are visited by honeybees. I n southern Nigeria small diameter wood is used for knife handles. The tree is sometimes grown as an ornamental. I t has a number of medicinal uses. The bark can be used for tanning. Propagation Fresh seed germinates well. Remarks A second species, M. lutea, though uncommon, is reported to be present. I t has only 3 – 4 pairs of leaflets. I t is found from Ghana to East Africa, where it is used extensively for agroforestry. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995 300 Megaphrynium macrostachyum (Marantaceae) Synonym Sarcophrynium arnoldianum Common names Dingungu, makungu, bindiondi (Kongo) Description A forming extensive high each bearing long by 12 - 30 cm perennial semi-woody herb, clumps, with stems to 2.5 m a single large leaf 30 - 60 cm wide. Stems bearing fruit and flowers Ecology Found in wet places in primary or secondary forest from Sierra Leone to western Cameroon and in all countries around the Congo basin. Right: Bundles of leaves being taken to the market at Kinseki Uses The split stems are used for making baskets and mats. The leaves are used to wrap chikwangue. Before they open, the young shoots are cut up and cooked as a vegetable in Bas-Congo. The leaves are often traded in markets. They are also used for thatching houses and as packing material for various foodstuffs. The fruit flesh is edible. The leaf sap is used to treat epilepsy and a leaf extract to treat poisoning in I vory Coast. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 11927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Konda et al. 1992, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004 301 Melia azedarach (Meliaceae) Common names Lilas de Perse (Fr.), Persian lilac, syringa, China berry Description A fast growing, usually deciduous, shrub or small tree 4 – 10 m tall. Bark is smooth and reddish brown. Leaves have 1 – 2 pairs of toothed leaflets 4 x 1.5 cm and one terminal leaflet. The pale mauve, fragrant flowers are borne in loose panicles. Fruits are fleshy yellow-orange and oval, in clusters which persist on the bare tree. Flowers and fruits are produced throughout the year. Ecology Planted on roadsides, gardens and in villages in Bas-Congo and widely planted in the tropics and sub-tropics. I t is drought resistant and moderately termite resistant. Propagation The seeds germinate easily but can also be soaked in water for 24 hours before being sown in a nursery or direct on site. Transplant when they reach 30 – 45 cm. Store seed in a cool place. Management The tree grows rapidly and can be pollarded or coppiced and pruned. I t produces suckers and may become a nuisance. When grown for timber, remove side branches up to 6 m high. Uses The bitter bark is widely used as an anthelmintic and an infusion of the leaves is also used to treat intestinal worms. Both bark and leaves are used to reduce fever. Dried leaves and twigs can be used to protect clothes, books and leather items. Leaves can also be placed between mats and supporting boards to control bed bugs. The tree is not eaten by locusts or termites and an infusion of the leaves will control insect attack on vegetables. Fruits are known to be very poisonous to humans, livestock and poultry and especially to pigs but sheep and goats eat them with relish. The fruits produce a fat used in making soap, paint manufacture and to treat rheumatism. The wood resembles mahogany and makes good construction timber durable in exposed situations. I t is used for building poles, tool handles and in making musical instruments. I t is also used for firewood and charcoal. Leaves can be used as green manure. Remarks Eating 6 – 8 fruits can cause nausea, spasms and death in children. References De Wildeman 1903, Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Wild 1972, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Stoll 2000, Hirt & M’pia 2001 302 Melinis minutiflora (Poaceae) Common names Leka mbwa (= dog’s bed), fwetete (Kongo) Description A perennial tufted grass with stems up to 2 m long and reaching up to 1.5 m high. The leaves are covered with glandular hairs that secrete a sticky substance described as smelling of cummin, linseed or molasses. Ecology Found on open and often steep rocky hillsides, wooded savanna, forest edges and clearings throughout tropical Africa at altitudes between 800 and 2,500 m. The grass has also been introduced to other tropical countries. Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings. Management Cutting at a height of 12 cm encourages lateral spread, produces a good ground cover and delays flowering. Uses The dried plant is used as bedding material to repel insects from dogs. The leaves and shoots are used in Bas-Congo to treat loss of voice, swelling of the stomach accompanying jaundice, heart problems and inflamed swelling in the groin or armpits. The whole plant is reported to be insecticidal and is sometimes cultivated for this purpose. I n Tanzania the bruised leaf is rubbed on livestock or used for nesting material for poultry to repel insects. I t can be used for grazing but is not very palatable to cattle and is not as productive or persistent as other species. I t will however quickly cover cultivated land and suppress weeds. The plant is also used elsewhere to treat insanity, eczema and as a purgative. Remarks The grass is sometimes planted in the maize crop to repel stalk borer in eastern Africa. References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Bogdan 1977, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1994, Neuwinger 2000, Spore 2002 Vol 98 p 4, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 303 Melochia corchorifolia (Sterculiaceae) Common names Herbe à balai (Fr.), chocolate weed Photo: Bart Wursten Description A highly variable annual or perennial herb, erect or creeping, up to 1.3 m tall. Leaves are arranged spirally, blade is variable being narrowly to broadly ovate, up to 7.5 cm × 5.5 cm and hairy. I nflorescence is a condensed axillary or terminal cyme. Flowers are bisexual white with a yellow base inside. Stamens are united almost to the top of the filaments. Fruit is a round, 5-valved capsule about 5 mm in diameter. Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa, Asia and Australia. Mostly found in wet localities. Propagatio By seed. Germination can be improved scarification. considerably by Photo: Phuong Tran Uses The plant is used as an anthelmintic. Leaves are sometimes eaten as a vegetable in West Africa. Cattle graze the plant. The bark yields a fibre used for tying bundles or as fishing lines. Fibres are fine and strong and are used like those of Triumfetta, Urena and Hibiscus. An aqueous solution of leaves has insecticidal properties. Beans and other pulses, stored in bags treated with the solution have shown a reduction in the number of Callosobruchus eggs laid and in damage done by this storage pest. References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Wild 1972, Williamson 1975, Burkill 2000, Bosch 2004, 304 Mentha arvensis & M. suaveolens (Lamiaceae) Common names Nkwenta, ndamba, dinkondi (Kongo), menthe (Fr.), corn, field or apple mint Description These are lowgrowing perennial herbs with underground stems or stolons. Stems are 4-angled. Leaves are small and contain aromatic glands giving a characteristic smell when crushed. A container of mint growing on the verandah of a house. Ecology Cultivated in Bas-Congo. The plants prefer moisture-holding, fertile soils and are often grown in containers in the shade. Propagation Divide the rootstock. Old plants should be repotted every 2 to 3 years. Stems root easily from the lower nodes. Management Shoots can be harvested as required, normally starting 40 - 55 days after division. Uses The leaves are added to flavour foods such as fish, mbika (the seeds of various Cucurbit species), sweet peppers and also eaten with the fruit of Dacryodes edulis or with fufu (cassava porridge). The leaves can also be used to make tea. Leaves contain menthol which acts as an antiseptic and decongestant. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Tindall 1983, Bown 1995 Charcoal making is a popular way of earning money. I t has however led to a serious loss of forest cover in the province. 305 Microdesmis puberula (Pandaceae) Common names Nkubudi, mukubi (Kongo) Description A shrub or small tree, 3 – 6 m high, though it can also grow as a creeper. The twigs and petioles are covered with down. Leaves are oval to elliptic, have a pointed tip and are often asymetric at the base, 5 - 15 cm long and 2 - 6 cm wide. The plant bears numerous male flowers and a few female flowers. Flowers are small, 3 - 9 mm, orange-yellow, in clusters. Fruits are small red or black berries. Ecology Very common in forest regrowth and forest remnants from southern Nigeria to Angola and in Uganda. Uses Young leaves are eaten as a vegetable in BasCongo. The fruits are also edible. An extract from the boiled roots is used to treat rheumatism. Mbambi edible caterpillars feed on this tree. Wood is brown, hard, flexible, of fine structure and easily worked, taking a lustrous polish. I t is used for spring traps, knife handles, combs, spoons, bed frames, chairs and walking-sticks. I n Equateur province the plant is used to treat neuralgia, epilepsy and diarrhoea. References De Wildeman 1934, Renier 1948, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, Mabberley 1997, Nsimundele 2004, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 2012 306 Milicia excelsa (Moraceae) Synonyms excelsa Chlorophora excelsa, Maclura Common names Nkamba (Kongo), nkambala or iroko (commercial names), chêne d’Afrique (Fr.), African teak Description A large tree which can grow 30 50 m high with a straight bole. Buttresses are either small or absent. The bark is pale ashgrey to nearly black. Leaves in young trees have a rough upper surface. Ecology Found in secondary, lowland rainforest and moist savanna; often left standing in cultivated land. Present throughout tropical Africa, from Guinea Bissau to Mozambique Propagation Collect the fruits after they fall naturally and soak them for 6 hours in water. Squeeze the seeds out and allow them to sink to the bottom. Pour off the debris and dry the seeds. Seed germinates easily when fresh. I f dried, they can be stored for up to one year before germination falls off to 50% . Young trees transplant well but must be at least 3 cm in diameter at the base of the stem and 25 cm long, preferably even greater. This usually takes two years from sowing. Young trees should be planted as part of a mixed forest rather than in pure stands. They do not like grass competition but may be suited to planting under bananas. Traditionally the tree was often planted near villages in Bas-Congo for timber and to attract Bisu ( I mbrasia petiveri) edible caterpillars. Right: Young tree growing in an Acacia auriculiformis plantation Management Young trees coppice vigorously. A mass of root suckers may arise from the base of the stump, especially after a bush fire and these can replace the parent plant if thinned to one or two. Suckers will arise from roots accidentally severed and as the roots are very close to the surface, and run for great distances (e.g. 50 m) this is probably an important means of regeneration in cultivated land. Uses The wood makes an excellent timber, hard and durable yet easy to work, and taking a good polish. The heart-wood is ant proof and resistant to water and fungal diseases. I t is widely used in cabinet making and for canoes. I n Bas-Congo it is also used for charcoal making and boundary marking. Bisu ( I mbrasia petiveri) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. I t is possible to see whether caterpillars are present by looking for the droppings below the tree, but to get to the caterpillars means climbing the tree - not an easy job when it is often such a tall unbranched tree! 307 Mondo drum made from Milicia excelsa for calling villagers from fields The bark also makes a good charcoal. I n Bas-Congo a decoction of the leaves is taken for gallstones and the latex is used as a purgative. The latex is reported to have antiseptic and healing properties and is applied to sores, tumours and inflamed areas of the skin. The latex blended in a mortar can be used in place of cement. The smoke produced by burning the wood is used to treat ulcers. A plant extract has been found to be active against the wood termite Reticuli tremis. The tree is fairly fire resistant when mature. Young leaves are cooked and used as a vegetable. Older leaves can be used instead of sandpaper. The fibrous bark is used for roofing houses and for dyeing leather and cloth. A fungicidal chemical, chloropherine, has been obtained from the wood. Remarks Seedlings are often attacked by the gall bug Phytolyma lata (see right). Young trees finally outgrow this pest but if transplanted into an existing woodland providing some shade, e.g. Acacia auriculiformis, may not be so severely attacked. Resistant plants can be raised from stem or root cuttings. I mbrasia petiveri edible caterpillar References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Leloup 1956, I rvine 1961, Watt & Breyer Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1996 - 68, Williamson 1975, Okigbo 1978, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Mukoko Matondo 1991, I wu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, Msanga 1998, Ofori 2008, Meunier et al. 2010 308 Toy trucks made by children Nsafu transporter Building the cab 309 Millettia eetveldeana (Papilionaceae) Common names Kibuengi, mbwenge, mwengeti (Kongo) Description A tree which may grow to 20 m. Leaves are composed of 7 – 12 pairs of leaflets. Left: The tree is often found in flower throughout the year. Ecology A tree of primary and secondary forests, forest borders, gallery forests, dry forests, woody savanna and fallows in D.R. Congo, Angola, Zambia and Mozambique. Propagation Cuttings grow well, sprouting after one week. Millettia seeds germinate without prior treatment. Uses Commonly used to make live fences and in hut construction. Wood is yellow and hard. Although rotenone and other chemicals with insecticidal properties are present in Millettias, several edible caterpillars, probably all Notodontids (Miengeti, Mfundi and Malombaloka), feed on the leaves. Bees collect both pollen and nectar from the flowers. I n Bas-Congo the plant has a number of medicinal uses. Malomba loka (Antheua sp.) feeding on Millettia eetveldeana Left: Mfundi (Antheua sp.) edible caterpillars. References Butaye 1909, Cobbina & Reynolds 1988, Pauwels 1993, Neuwinger 2000, Latham 2003 310 Millettia laurentii (Papilionaceae) Common names Kiboto, ntoka (Kongo), bois noir, wenge (commerce) Description A large tree reaching a height of 30 m. The trunk is pale grey with slight, rounded buttresses at the base. The compound leaves are made up of 4 - 9 pairs of opposite leaflets with one terminal leaflet. Flowers are borne above the canopy between March and December. The fruit is a pod containing 2 - 4 seeds. An endangered species. Ecology Occurs naturally in central Africa. Grows on firm clay soils in closed and gallery forests, wooded savanna and is often planted in towns for shade. Propagation Can be grown from large cuttings and from seed. Uses The dark-brown marbled wood is of excellent quality, very hard, dense and strong. I t is used for house construction, making bowls, furniture and carving. I t is also exported for cabinet-making, panelling, parquet floors etc. The wood is resistant to fungus and insect attack. I t takes a good polish. The tree is ornamental and has been extensively planted along avenues in Kinshasa. I n BasCongo a decoction of the bark is used to treat pimples, for liver infections, diabetes and rheumatism. A decoction of the leaves is also used to treat liver problems and diabetes. Poison is extracted from the tissues for arrows, for catching fish and making insecticides, but also for expelling intestinal worms and as a medicine for reducing fever. Bees were seen collecting nectar in December. N'boto, Ntesi and Munsona (the latter a Platysphinx species) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Though caterpillars eating this plant are edible they can cause illness if not well cooked or are eaten in large quantities. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele Munsona caterpillar feeding 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, White & Abernethy 1997, Latham 2003 311 Millettia versicolor (Papilionaceae) Common names Mbota, lubota (Kongo), bois d'or (Fr.) Description A tree 20 - 30 m high but often found as a shrub 3 - 4 m high. Leaves comprise 5 pairs of leaflets with a terminal one. The underside of the leaf is covered with fine silky hairs. The flat pods split suddenly throwing seeds up to 15 m away. Ecology Often found in savanna in the process of reforestation and in secondary forests, where it is common at the forest edge. The tree grows back well after fire. Also present in Gabon, Central African Republic and Angola. Propagation Grows easily from cuttings. Uses Thin straight branches are planted as fences around compounds and the tree is also planted for shade. The fine golden-brown wood is hard and does not rot. I t is used for carving and for tool handles. The wood is also suitable for making charcoal. The wood was used for wheels and wheel hubs. The flowers are attractive to bees and are produced all the year round. Mbota, Bwenge and Munsona ( Platysphinx sp.) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. The young leaves are pounded and boiled and taken in small amounts for intestinal worms and kidney problems. The twigs and roots are also used to treat intestinal worms. Remarks The tree is a common constituent of the nkunku – a traditional forest formed either accidentally or by design around villages in Bas-Congo comprising fruit trees, Milicia excelsa, oil palms etc. References Butaye 1909, Gillet 1927, Drachoussoff 1947, FAC 1948, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, White & Abernethy 1997 312 Mimosa pigra (Mimosaceae) Common names Kikoke (= hook; the plant has hook like spines)(Kongo), catclaw Description A shrub up to 4 m tall, sometimes climbing. The stems have spines up to 7 mm long. The compound leaves are sensitive, having 25 - 40 pairs of leaflets 4 - 6 x 0.5 – 1.25 mm. Flowers are mauve or pink. The brown pods, 3.5 - 8 x 0.8 – 1.2 cm, are clustered together, covered with bristles, and break up transversely into segments 3 - 6 mm long. The margins persist as an empty frame. Ecology Found at the edge of forest and in damp places. Uses I n Bas-Congo the juice used to be put in the nostrils of hunting dogs to enable them to follow the scent better. Where the plant is common, the defoliated stems and branches are left to dry and can then be used as firewood. The root yields 10% tannin. The plant is used in tropical Africa as a tonic and for diarrhoea, gonorrhoea and blood poisoning. I n Tanzania, the powdered leaf is taken with water to relieve swelling. I n Zambia, the root ash is sprinkled over leprous patches on the skin. The seed is emetic and also acts as an expectorant. I t is used for dental troubles. The leaf contains mimosine, which is used as a purgative and a tonic. I n Thailand beekeepers report that the flowers are a pollen source for bees. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Pauwels 1993, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 11.10.12) 313 Mitracarpus hirtus (Rubiaceae) Synonym M. villosus Common names Mbanda nzazi, bana ba nzazi (Kongo), button grass Description A small, annual, much branched herb growing 10 - 50 cm tall. The stem is 4 angled, hairy, sparsely branched and woody at the base and is segmented into nodes with each node bearing a pair of leaves. The flower is composed of a round head, 1 - 1.8 cm in diameter, arising from the leaf axil, and bearing small white flowers. Ecology A common weed often associated with villages, on roadsides, waste places, in cultivated land and grassland savanna throughout tropical Africa. Uses The whole plant, and particularly the leaves, are used to treat fungal skin infections and eruptions, epilepsy and colds in children in Bas-Congo. The liquid from crushed leaves is considered to be fungicidal and is widely used to treat herpes, skin mycosis and ringworm. The plant, or a water extract, rubbed on the face, is reported to cure eczema and stubborn ulcers. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 Right: A plantation of Mitracarpus hirtus grown by ANAMED Kinshasa 314 Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae) Common names Lumbusu (Kongo), bitter gourd, balsam pear, African cucumber Description A hairy, herbaceous creeper bearing tendrils which enable it to climb. Stems may reach 4 m long. When the old stems die new shoots are produced from the base. The stem is hollow and angled. The alternate leaves are lobed, up to 5 cm long, and roughly toothed. Petioles produce an unpleasant smell when crushed. Flowers are yellow, up to 8 cm long, and arise from the leaf axils. The fruit is yellow when ripe, oblong, warty, with longitudinal ridges. I t splits to expose red seeds. Ecology A common creeper of cultivated fields and fallows throughout the tropics. I t grows well in hot humid conditions up to 500 m altitude on rich soils with good water-holding capacity. Propagation Extract seeds from pods and dry them in the sun before sowing. Uses I n Bas-Congo, tender shoots and leaves are crushed, boiled and eaten with peanut butter and tomato sauce, though they can be bitter. The bitterness can be reduced by changing the cooking water or peeling and soaking overnight. The leaves of Momordica foetida are also eaten. I n Bas-Congo a decoction made from the seeds of M. charantia is used to treat stomach pain. The plant is also used to treat skin eruptions, mastitis, tuberculosis, tooth decay, heavy periods and prolonged crying in babies. Elsewhere in the Congo the leaves are used for colic and the seed for roundworm. The main use of the plant in West Africa is as a laxative, to expel intestinal worms, and to treat stomach pain and fever. The plant is known to have insecticidal properties. I n Asia the plant is cultivated for its edible fruits and tender shoots. The fruits are sometimes used as a substitute for soap when washing clothes and the leaves can be used to clean metal. Bees visit the flowers for nectar and pollen. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Morton 1967, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Robinson & Decker-Walters 1997, Martin et al. 1998, Amponsah et al. 2002, Schippers 2002, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 315 Mondia w hitei (Apocynaceae) Synonym Chlorocodon whitei Common names Kimbiolongo, ntubungu, mundiondia (Kongo) Description A trailing or climbing plant with thin hairy stems from 3 to 6 m long. Leaves are large, opposite, softly hairy and heart shaped. The roots are yellow and strongly aromatic. Stems, roots and leaves produce white latex. The roots grow just beneath the ground surface covering large areas. Ecology A forest creeper which grows in high rainfall areas throughout tropical Africa. I t is occasionally planted and grown on a trellis or pergola in Bas-Congo. Propagation The plant can be grown from seed or from cuttings taken from roots or shoots. Uses The leaves (nlondo in Kongo) are eaten as a vegetable. They are chopped in large pieces, dried and then cooked with peanut butter. The fleshy bark of the root is eaten raw, or occasionally after drying, to freshen the mouth, as an aphrodisiac and an appetizer. The roots are also eaten to ease coughing, stomach-ache and haemorrhoids. Root infusions are used in Zimbabwe for constipation, anorexia, bilharzia and as an aphrodisiac. The roots have a vanilla-like odour and a sweet after-taste and have possible use as a spice. The plant yields a fibre up to 1.5 m long. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Renier 1948, Watt & BreyerBrandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Konda et al. 1992, Beentje 1994, Maundu 1999, van Wyk & Gericke 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004 Fruits on a plant growing on a trellis 316 Monodora angolensis (Annonaceae) Common names Mpeya (Kongo), faux muscadier Description A small to medium sized tree up to 20 m high with a diameter of up to 40 cm which branches low down. The leaves, which are smaller than those of M. myristica, are 4.5 – 20 cm long and 2.8 – 5 cm wide, and have short petioles, 2 – 8 mm long. Flowers are fragrant with petals 3 – 6 cm long and 1.5 – 3 cm wide. Fruits are round to conical 5.5 – 8 cm long and 5 – 7 cm wide at the base. Ecology Grows in humid forests in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Uganda, Tanzania, Gabon and Congo (Brazzaville). Propagation M. myristica is grown from seed, which is planted after soaking for 12 hours in cold water. Wild seedlings may also be transplanted. Seed cannot be stored. Uses The aromatic seeds of both this tree and of M. myristica are used as a substitute for nutmeg to flavour meat, soup and vegetables. The seeds are also used to protect clothes from insect damage. The wood is used for tool handles and for building. I n Bas-Congo the seeds, together with the following dried plants:- Pentadiplandra brazzeana, Piper nigrum , Securidaca longipedunculata, Xylopia aethiopica, Aframomum melegueta and Croton mubango are finely ground, sieved and taken with a little water to treat hernias. Leaves are used to treat colic and constipation. Crushed seeds are used as a substitute for soap. The pulverized bark, together with seeds of Aframomum melegueta and Garcinia kola, are rubbed in to treat pain in the joints and lower back. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, FAC 1951, Bouquet 1969, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Moore 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Harris et al. 2011 317 Monodora myristica (Annonaceae) Common names Bendo bendo, mpeya, mukasa (Kongo), faux noix muscade, muscadier de calabash (Fr.), African nutmeg, calabash nutmeg Description A tree up to 35 m tall, but usually growing to 10 – 15 m. The trunk may reach a girth of 2 m. Branches are horizontal. Bark is thin and smooth. Leaves are alternate, often wider towards the tip, thick, up to 45 cm long and 20 cm wide. Flowers are borne singly, on stalks up to 20 cm long, appearing at the base of young shoots when the new leaves appear. Fruit is a berry, 13 - 20 cm in diameter, which becomes brown and woody. Numerous shiny seeds, 2.5 cm across, are embedded in the white sweet smelling pulp. Ecology Originally from West and Central Africa. I t is sometimes cultivated. Propagation The fruit must be ripe and dry before the seeds can be extracted. The tree can be grown from seed or wild seedlings. Soak the seed for 12 hours before planting in pots. Seeds soon lose viability. Management The tree can be pollarded, or lopped. I t requires pruning from time to time. Photo: Van Swearingen Uses I n Bas-Congo the aromatic seeds are ground and added to food, giving a flavour similar to nutmeg. They are also used to treat colic and constipation, as a stimulant, as an insect repellent and to cure headaches and sores. The seeds are frequently sold in West Africa. The tree is sometimes grown for its attractive flowers. The wood is hard but easy to work and is suitable for carpentry and turnery. I t is also used for firewood and charcoal. The bark is used to treat haemorrhoids, stomach-ache, fever pains and eye diseases. References Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Katende et al. 1995, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999, Harris & Wortley 2008 318 Morinda lucida (Rubiaceae) Common names Nsiki (Kongo), brimstone tree Description A tree 15 - 20 m high, usually having a crooked trunk and bearing a dense crown of slender, but also crooked branches. The bark is grey and flakes off. Leaves are opposite, 7 – 15 cm long. The characteristic green fruits remain on the plant for a long time before eventually turning black. Young tree near Kintenda village Ecology Found especially in forest regrowth and sometimes in areas liable to flooding, where it may be abundant. I t is present from Senegal to Uganda and south to Angola. Propagation The tree can be grown from seed or cuttings Uses I n Bas-Congo, a decoction of the leaves is taken to relieve colic, diabetes, rheumatism and intestinal worms. For smallpox the leaves are crushed and boiled and then a bath is taken in the water. A decoction of the root bark is also used as a wash to treat smallpox. Washing in water, in which pounded bark has been soaked, is used to treat haemorrhoids. I t is also an important medicinal tree in West Africa. Elsewhere in Congo and West Africa the tree is a source of green, yellow and red dyes and is sometimes planted for this reason. The yellow, hard wood is used for house-building, posts and planking, but must be well seasoned. I t is also used as firewood. Roots are used as chewsticks. Remarks “ Nkunku n’siki vwaangi” (Kongo proverb) = At first the bush is protected, then the Nsiki tree appears until at last the forest is created. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Keay 1989, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2004, Pousset 2004, Zimudzi & Cardon 2005 319 Morinda morindoides (Rubiaceae) Common names Kongo bololo, kimeeso nkama (Kongo) (Meeso nkama = 100 eyes) Description A climbing, hairless shrub to 10 m high with attractive, scented, white flowers. Ecology Found in high forest, dry deciduous forest and coastal scrub from Senegal to west Cameroon and Bioko and across the Congo basin to Sudan. Propagation The shrub can be grown from seed or cuttings. Uses I n Bas-Congo, the leaves are boiled up in water and the liquid drunk as a cure for malaria, diarrhoea, diabetes, stomach-ache and to treat intestinal worms. This liquid is also applied rectally to get rid of intestinal worms. The bark and roots are used to treat painful joints, diabetes, skin eruptions, wounds and haemorrhoids. The leaves and roots are reported to contain several quinine-like compounds. References Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Burkill 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 320 Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae) Common names Ben ailé (Fr.), drumstick tree, horseradish tree Description A small, fast growing tree, often forked near the base, and up to 8 m high, with sparse foliage (see centre photo on the front cover of Volume 2). The white, sweet smelling flowers are borne throughout the year. Ecology Native to northern I ndia but now grown widely throughout the tropics, though uncommon in Bas-Congo. I t grows well in poor, free-draining, sandy soils, and withstands long periods of drought. Propagation Seed germinates easily and grows rapidly. Cuttings also grow easily even when grown in poor soil. Cuttings are normally used when establishing a hedge. Management Coppices well and the tree is best pollarded to increase the production of leaves. Uses The leaves are edible fresh or cooked and are used in soups and sauces. 100 g of young leaves contain 9.4 g protein and are also rich in calcium, iron and phosphorus and vitamins A and C. The leaves are therefore useful in combating malnutrition. Leaves can also be dried. This is best done under shade and for 3 days, after which they are powdered and stored. Green pods can be cut into short pieces and cooked as a vegetable. Seeds can be fried and eaten as nuts. Flowers and roasted seeds are also highly nutritious and are consumed in many countries. The oil from the seeds can be used for cooking, for lubricating sewing machines etc., soap making and in lamps. After oil extraction the pulp can be used as fertilizer or as feed supplement e.g. in poultry food. Whole or pounded seeds can be used to purify water. The residue of seed cake, after extracting the oil, can also be used for this purpose. The plant has been found to contain a number of antibiotic substances and powdered seed has been incorporated into an ointment to treat common bacterial infections of the skin. Leaves are reported to cure diarrhoea, anaemia and ulcers. Leaf tea is given for diabetes. Seed oil is used for gout, stomach disorders and rheumatism. Roots are used for constipation, inflammation, chest wounds, bronchitis, piles, and loss of appetite. They can be used as a substitute for horseradish. Bees are reported to collect nectar from the flowers. References Crane et al. 1984, Keay 1989, Beentje 1994, Folkard & Sutherland 1994, Burkill 1997, Hirt & M'pia 2001, Pousset 2004 321 Mucuna pruriens (Papilionaceae) Common names Dinkundi (Kongo), pois pouilleux, poil à gratter (Fr.), velvet bean Description An annual hairy vine, with compound leaves. The vines can grow to 10 m and the canopy may be as high as 1 m above the soil surface. The leaflets are 5 - 13 cm long. Flowers are purple, in drooping racemes containing many flowers; each flower is 3.5 - 4 cm long. Fruit pods are densely hairy and 5 - 10 cm long. The brownish hairs detach easily and are highly irritating to the skin. Seeds are brownish with black mottling. Velvet beans shed significant quantities of leaves before reaching maturity, and these decay gradually in a litter layer below the actively growing plants. Pod production is variable, but can easily reach more than 2 t/ ha, especially if the vines have the opportunity to climb trees etc. Velvet beans fix atmospheric nitrogen which is converted by the rhizobia on the roots to an available form that is stored in the leaves, vines, and seeds. I n Congo the plant showed good nodulation with a high percentage of effective nodules. Ecology Sometimes found in secondary forest. Plants are tolerant to drought, low soil fertility, and high soil acidity. They thrive best under warm, moist conditions in areas with plentiful rainfall. Propagation Use seed. The plant also roots from cuttings. Management Velvet bean dies naturally after producing seed, about 45 - 60 days after flowering. Uses The seeds are eaten in Bas-Congo. The water used for boiling the seeds must however be discarded. Both the green pods and the mature beans can be boiled and eaten. The beans can also be roasted and ground to make a coffee substitute. Velvet beans are widely grown elsewhere as a fallow 322 crop to improve soil fertility and to smother weeds They are also grown as a forage crop. The plant is well known for its ability to control nematodes when used in rotation with a number of commercial crops. The oil obtained from the seeds, or wet sand, is reported to be effective in reducing the irritating effect of the hairs. The seeds are also ground up and used to treat Parkinson's disease. The species has been used to prevent the growth of I mperata cylindrica and to provide a green manure for maize, cassava, and sorghum. Farmers use animal-drawn tools to knock over and cut up the green manure/ cover crop, leaving it on the surface. With another farmer-designed, animal-drawn instrument, they then clear a narrow furrow in the resulting mulch into which the next crop is planted. As a result there is no need to plough. There has been rapid spread of mucuna in Benin in recent years for suppression of I mperata cylindrica. Soils on the plateaux of southern Benin and Togo are nearing exhaustion. Researchers introduced mucuna cover cropping to alleviate the problem of low nutrient supply to maize, the staple crop. Some 14,000 farmers now grow the crop in Benin. Farmers who adopted mucuna cover cropping benefited from higher yields of maize with less labour input for weeding: maize following mucuna yields 3 - 4 t/ ha without application of nitrogen fertilizer (similar to yields normally obtained with recommended levels of fertilization at 130 kg N/ ha); whilst yields on plots previously planted with maize and cowpea was 1.3 t/ ha. Mucuna as an intercrop or as a sole crop provides more than 100 kg N/ ha to the following crop of maize. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Skerman 1977, Duke 1981, Drachoussoff 1993, Burkill 1995, Pousset 2004 323 Musa spp. (Musaceae) Common names Dinkondo di ngala (Kongo)(dessert bananas) , ngyoka (plantains) Description A large perennial herb, 2 – 9 m tall, growing from an underground rhizome. There are many local varieties grown. Ecology Dessert bananas are commonly grown in home compounds in Bas-Congo. Deep friable loams and soils which are not compacted are preferred. High organic matter and fertility assure good yields. Bananas require an adequate water supply. Propagation By suckers. Remove old roots and diseased parts, place suckers in a sack and dip in boiling water for 30 seconds to control nematodes and stem borers. For planting the best method is to dig out a hole 60 x 60 x 60 cm add about 5 buckets of compost and mix with top soil in the base of the hole. Plant the sucker in the pit at the beginning of the rains and add household waste material and manure from time to time. Left: Dessert bananas Right: Banana flowers are visited by bees throughout the day for nectar and pollen Management Remove all dead leaves. There should be 6 to 8 healthy leaves remaining on the plant for adequate fruit development. Remove excess suckers. Cut out old stems below ground level after harvest and cover the base with soil to reduce borer/ weevil infestation. Chop up the stem to encourage it to dry out or rot down quickly. Adding mulch and compost every 6 months improves yields significantly. Several hybrid varieties, resistant to black sigatoka disease, have been developed. Uses The main use is for the edible fruit. Bananas contain Plantains Photo: Luc Pauwels vitamin B6 and riboflavin and are easy to digest, especially when completely ripe. Dessert bananas can also be made into flour. Small, green fruit are peeled, plunged in hot water for 4 – 5 minutes and sun-dried before being pounded to flour. I n BasCongo a fine fibre is sometimes extracted from the stem and used for string. The suckers are used to treat oedema and sprains. The root is used to expel parasitic worms. Bees forage for nectar and pollen, though not all nectar is available to bees. Nectar secretion is increased by rain and damp soil. The flavour of honey is astringent, like tamarind. Plantain bananas can be fed to poultry. References De Wildeman 1903, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Castagné 1983, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Crane et al. 1984, Drachoussoff 1993, Nakasone & Paull 1998, Raemaekers 2001 324 Musanga cecropioides (Moraceae) Common names Nsenga, kimbongo (Kongo), parasolier (Fr.), umbrella tree Description A tree 20 m tall with a straight bole often having prop roots. Leaves are compound, up to 60 cm across, with 12 - 15 shiny leaflets, each up to 45 cm long, on a hairy leaf stalk. Leaf-sheaths at the base of the stalk are red-brown and hairy, up to 30 cm long. Male trees have flowers with more than 50 round, pink stamen heads. Female trees have pairs of yellow-green succulent flower heads, 2 - 3 cm long, on a 12 cm stalk. The fruit head is about 12 cm long, green and fleshy. The tree grows very rapidly. Ecology Found in secondary forests, often a pioneer species on heavy, damp, fertile soils after clearing. I t will not grow in shade. The tree’s range is from Guinea to Angola. Propagation Usually direct sown on site. Seed can be broadcast. The soft yellow fruit falls to the ground when ripe. Mash the fruit in water. Seeds sink and can then be dried. Seed can only be stored for 2 months and must be kept in a cool place. Uses I n Bas-Congo the root sap is used as a disinfectant and to encourage scar formation on wounds. Fruit is edible. The wood ash is used as salt and a lye for soap making. The tree canopy produces a dense leaf-litter and makes a good shade tree for coffee. Wood is very light, soft and coarse grained. Used for fence palings, rough partitions, and for roof insulation. I t can also be used for making household implements such as stools, musical instruments, walking sticks, trays and baskets etc. Used as a cork substitute and for paper making. The aerial roots yield large amounts Male flower of liquid (up to 2.5 litres each) which can be drunk instead of water. Reported as bee forage in Bas-Congo and known as bee forage in Gabon. Nsenga edible caterpillar feed on the leaves. References De Wildeman 1903, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Lobreau-Callen 1988, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Peters et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 1995 325 Mussaenda arcuata (Rubiaceae) Common names Esobi (Lingala), liane de Kisanji (Fr.), savanna gooseberry Description A shrub to 2 Photo: Quentin Luke m tall or a creeper growing up to 8 – 10 m long where not subject to annual burning. Stems yield a white sticky substance. Leaves are opposite, simple and entire 5 - 10 cm long and 2 – 5 cm wide. Clusters of bright yellow star-shaped flowers are produced at the ends of branches. The corolla is pleated, yellow with a brown, inner, central star, without the large coloured sepal characteristic of this genus. Fruits become yellow when ripe, 1 – 2.5 cm long and 0.5 – 1 cm wide, and contain many small seeds in a slightly sweet pulp. Ecology Present throughout tropical Africa in savanna woodland. I t grows in forest near streams, on rocky outcrops and in evergreen forest. Propagation Cuttings grow well. Seeds also germinate easily but are small and difficult to separate from the pulp. Management The plant comes into flower after 1 – 2 years and will grow to a large bush. Uses Fruits are picked when yellow. Squeeze out the inner pulp and discard outer skin. Though some people report that the taste is insipid others report it tastes like a mixture of kiwi fruit and figs. The fruit can be made into jam. Leaves are sometimes eaten as spinach in Ubangi. References Renier 1948, Vivien & Faure 1996, Burkill 1997, Danforth & Noren 1997 Photo: Roy Danforth 326 Myrianthus arboreus (Moraceae) Common names Muntusu, dintusu, dintusi, mbuba (Kongo), arbre à pain indigène (Fr.), giant yellow mulberry Description A tree up to 20 m high with a short trunk. Stilt roots are often present. The compound leaves are arranged spirally and have 5 leaflets with a common stalk. Leaflets have toothed margins and are from 16 – 30 cm long. Male flowers are yellow, female green. The fruits are from 6 – 10 cm in diameter. The wood is yellowish-white, soft and fibrous. I n Central Africa trees can be found flowering throughout the year. Ecology Found in primary and secondary forests, often in damp places, on heavy soils, from Sierra Leone to Angola, and in Uganda and Tanzania. I t requires a high rainfall and will grow from sea level to an altitude of 1,200 m. Propagation Remove seed from the fruit and dry. I t is best to soak the seeds before planting. Seed germinates readily after 4 weeks. Bud grafting and stem cuttings can also be used for propagation. Uses The fruit pulp is edible and slightly acid. Ripe fruits are picked and eaten or green mature fruits can be picked and stored. I f fruits are left until they fall they are generally rotten. Young leaves are sometimes eaten in Bas-Congo. They are also used as a wound dressing. The wood is used for making household utensils but is difficult to work. I t is suitable for firewood. I n the Congo the seeds are eaten after cooking. Male flowers The kernel is rich in oil and amino acids. The seeds are very much appreciated for making soup in Nigeria. Lye can be extracted from the wood-ash for making soap. The tree has numerous medicinal uses. The sap from the leaves is used to heal wounds and a decoction of root bark and leaves is taken to relieve coughing. The fallen leaves form a thick layer of humus, building up fertility. Nitrogen levels are improved by the mycorrhiza associated with the roots. Flowers are reported to be visited by bees in Gabon. References Butaye 1909, Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, White & Abernethy 1997, Nsimundele 2004, Okafor 2004, Pousset 2004, Meunier et al. 2010 327 Nauclea diderrichii (Rubiaceae) Common names Kienga ki masa, ngulu masa (Kongo), bois d’or (Fr.), brimstone tree, West African boxwood, bilinga (commerce) Description A large tree, up to 40 m tall. I t has deep roots. Leaves are shiny, oval to 15 cm long, larger when young, often rounded at the base to a stalk 1 cm long with a pair of distinct leafy stipules at the base. Flowers small green-white-yellow in solitary terminal heads 3 cm across. Fruits grey-brown and round, diameter 2.5 cm, containing many tiny seeds in a white pulp. The outer skin is spiky. This species is now vulnerable. Ecology The tree grows in swamps and marshes and is found in damp sites in high rain-forest. Present from Sierra Leone to Cameroon and in the Congo basin to Uganda and Mozambique. I t grows best in unshaded sites. Propagation Can be grown from seed planted in a nursery. The fruit becomes soft as it ripens. I t is crushed and dried and the seeds removed. Sow within two months. Germination occurs within 14 - 21 days with a germination rate of 50 – 75% . Germination is faster when the seeds have been soaked in water. Prick out the seedlings after 1.5 – 2 months, when they are 10 – 15 cm long and have 4 – 6 leaves. Plant them into seedbeds at a spacing of 25 cm, but care should be taken to avoid damaging or wilting of the soft stems. The seedlings can then be planted out after 12 months, being reduced to stumps first. Planting out is done at a spacing of 3 m × 3 m. The tree is also easy to propagate by cuttings. It regenerates well in large forest gaps and along roads in the vicinity of mother trees. 328 Management The tree is fast growing. The young saplings are often multi-stemmed, and the secondary stems must be eliminated in the early years by pruning. The plant coppices well. Uses Wood is yellow and makes good cabinet wood. Also used for making canoes. I t is not attacked by insects. Heart wood is yellow to golden brown, darkening on exposure. I t is coarse textured, hard, strong and not attacked by decay or termites. The wood is commercially valuable and can be used for heavy construction, furniture, mortars and canoes. Timber lasts well below ground. I t is also used as fuel wood and for charcoal production. The fruit pulp is edible, but not much eaten and is mainly used as a famine food. The root, bark and wood are used for making a yellow dye. The tree is widely used in local traditional medicine. The roots are reported to have diuretic properties and used for the treatment of anaemia. I n D.R. Congo bark decoctions are drunk for the treatment of hepatitis, and drunk or used as a wash for intestinal worms. References De Wildeman 1903, Butaye 1909, Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Katende et al. 1995, Vivien & Faure 1996, Burkill 1997, Opuni-Frimpong & Opuni-Frimpong 2012, Agroforestree database (Accessed 24.10.12) Preparing cassava flour for the days meal 329 Nephelium lappaceum (Sapindaceae) Common names Poilus, ramboutan (Fr.), rambutan Rambutan growing in the botanic garden at Kisantu Description An evergreen, bushy tree to 20 m high. I n good cultivars the flesh is plump, sweet and juicy. Rambutan trees grown from seed may be either male (40 - 60% ), or hermaphrodite that function as female or truly hermaphrodite trees. The last type are the most desirable and may be found more frequently in certain cultivars. Bees are important for pollination. Ecology A moist, hot climate with well distributed rainfall is required. A dry period of at least one month is needed to start flowering but thereafter, during fruit set and growth, adequate moisture is required. The tree tolerates many soil types, including poorly drained ones, but a deep, well drained loam is preferred. Propagation Seedling trees fruit in 5 - 6 years, but wherever possible trees should be propagated vegetatively by marcot or budding as a high proportion of seedlings are likely to be male and the fruiting of the remaining females can vary widely. Rootstocks are grown from seed. Rambutan seedlings being grown for budding near Kisantu Seed must be washed and dried and then sown in beds immediately. Germination is reduced if more than two days elapse from the time the seed is removed from the flesh. Rambutan 330 seedlings should be transplanted when they are about 15 cm tall with minimum disturbance to the roots. They should be transplanted into well manured, shaded beds and spaced at 30 cm. They are ready for budding when the seedlings are 12 - 18 mm in diameter and producing new growth. Choose good fruit-bearing trees for the bud-wood. However these should not have borne fruit in the present season. Shoots should have plenty of dormant buds and be taken 3 - 4 months after harvesting the fruit. Best buds come from one-year-old wood of finger thickness. I t may be necessary to cut off the leaflet blades on the shoots beforehand to encourage buds to form. Put the bud-wood in shade with the lower end in water. Keep the bud-wood moist while transporting and bud on a dull, cloudy day. Shade the budded seedlings. Management The rambutan can be grown mixed with other trees, bushes and herbaceous plants. Early pruning and training to form an open centre is recommended. Prune back twigs that have borne fruits and remove suckers. Mulching is important. Ring-barking or girdling branches or the trunk of trees in late summer increases the flowering and fruiting of trees that flowered poorly in previous seasons. Uses One of the best fruits of the East. The flesh is white and juicy with good flavour. The seed is edible when cooked and can also be used to make soap or candles. The wood tends to split during seasoning but is hard, strong, easy to work and finishes well. I t lasts well if used for internal carpentry work but may be attacked by fungi. Young shoots are used to produce a green colour on silk. References Gillet 1927, Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Nakasone & Paull 1998 Good friends! 331 New bouldia laevis (Bignoniaceae) Common names Mumpese mpese (Kongo), boundary tree Description A shrub or small tree from 3 - 8 m high with branches that grow vertically and having attractive flowers. Ecology The tree grows naturally in wooded savanna from Senegal to D.R. Congo. Newbouldia laevis growing around a home compound. Propagation Easily grown from seed or cuttings. Uses Frequently grown as a hedge or boundary marker around compounds. The wood is palebrown, even-textured and moderately durable and used for posts and tool handles. I t makes good firewood. A decoction of the roots is used to control intestinal worms in Bas-Congo. There are numerous medicinal uses for this plant and indications are that a mouthwash, prepared from mature leaves, may be effective in stopping the growth of the bacteria causing dental caries. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993, Neuwinger 2000, Okeke 2003 332 Nicotiana tabacum (Solanaceae) Common names Fumu (Kongo) (from the Portugease fumo), tabac (Fr.), tobacco Description An annual or short lived perennial herb growing 1 – 3 m high. Ecology Tobacco does not grow well on water-logged soils or soils with a high salt content. I t thrives in a warm climate and needs sufficient rainfall while the plants are young. Tobacco being grown on a site where charcoal had been made Propagation Seed is long lived and should be sown thinly in a fine seedbed. One teaspoon is sufficient for 30 sq. m. Sowing is best carried out using a watering can. Place the seed in the can, add water, stir and then use a fine spray. Uses Though usually grown for smoking the plant can be used as an insecticidal spray. The highest concentration of nicotine is in the stalks and leaf ribs. Sprays are most effective when the temperature is above 30°C. Food crops should not be eaten until 4 days later. The plant also acts as an insect repellent and a fungicide. Nicotine spray is effective against aphids, cabbage worms, caterpillars, flea beetles, grain weevils, leaf miners, mites, stem borers, thrips and rust disease in beans. Soak 1 kg crushed tobacco stalks and leaves in 15 litres water for one day. Add some grated soap (this will help the liquid stick to the sprayed plants). Filter out the solid material. Spray immediately using a fine nozzle. Clean out all utensils carefully after use. Nicotine is a very toxic organic poison. I t is important not to allow the spray to come in contact w ith the skin during application. Tobacco is also a useful bee plant providing both pollen and nectar. Though the honey from tobacco is unpalatable by itself it is normally brought in with nectar from other plants which mask the unpleasant taste. References Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Crane et al. 1984, Stoll 2000 333 Nymphaea lotus (Nymphaeaceae) Common names Longa-longa (Kongo). This name is also used for N. maculata and N. nouchali), nénuphar (Fr.), water-lily Description A perennial aquatic herb with a long tuberous rhizome and roots anchored in wet mud. The floating leaves are round, up to 30 cm in diameter, shiny green above and pale, often tinged dark purple, below. They are sharply toothed at the margins. Flowers are solitary, white and up to 20 cm in diameter. Stamens are yellow. Ecology Widespread throughout tropical Africa. I t is invasive in undisturbed water. Propagation Can be grown from seed or rhizome. Uses I n Bas-Congo the leaves are used to treat scabies and itch, migraine, alcoholism and addiction to tobacco, browning of the hair, oedema, rheumatism, epilepsy, skin eruptions and mental disorders. The plant ash has been used to make salt. I n some areas people eat the rhizomes, flower receptacle and seeds. The rhizomes are eaten raw or cooked in stews and sauces. They can also be ground and made into flour. Roots are slimy, promote urination, and are narcotic and sedative. Bees collect pollen and nectar from the flowers. They are also known to collect abundant pollen and some nectar from N. nouchali (right). Plants can be found flowering throughout the year. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Burkill 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 334 Ochna afzelii (Ochnaceae) Common names Kidimbi, ngo nti, kidimbi ki nseke, kiluba (Kongo) Photo: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez Description A tree growing to 12 m. Bark is smooth with a reddish slash. Leaves 5 – 7.5 cm long by 2 – 4.5 cm wide. The yellow flowers are borne in clusters. The red sepals enlarge up to 18 mm around the fruits. Ecology Found in savanna woodland and forest margins. Widespread in tropical Africa from Guinea to Cameroon and from Sudan to Uganda. Propagation Ochna species can be grown from seed or cuttings taken from young branches. Uses The wood is light-brown, hard and heavy, and used for tool handles and furniture. I n Bas-Congo, the bark is used for dyeing and the inner bark is used to treat anaemia. I t is first dried then put in boiling water and a small amount is given to the patient. Elsewhere in Africa the root and stem bark is used medicinally to treat coughs, dysentery, parasitic skin diseases and inflammation of the gums. Fruits and leaves are reported to be edible. Kwesu ( I mbrasia eblis) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, I rvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Peters et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997 335 Ocimum americanum (Lamiaceae) Synonym O. canum Common names Dingwansi (Kongo), hoary basil, American basil, camphor basil. Description A bushy, semiwoody aromatic herb to 40 cm high. Stem and branches are square in section, yellowishgreen, densely covered with white hairs when young, less so when older. Leaves are simple, on a petiole up to 2.5 cm long; leaf-blade is lanceolate to elliptic, 2.5 - 5 cm long and 1 2.5 cm wide, with glands on both surfaces. I nflorescence is up to 15 cm long, composed of 3-flowered cymes. Fruit is composed of 4 distinct black nutlets. Ecology Often present in villages and cultivated areas, not wild but occasionally subspontaneous throughout tropical Africa. Propagation Grown from seed. Uses Used as a condiment, especially to remove the muddy taste and to mask the unpleasant smell of some fish. An infusion of the leaves is also drunk. The leaves have a milder flavour than O. basilicum or O. gratissimum . They are also used as a remedy for intestinal worms. Ocimum species are important honeybee forage in the dry savannas. Honey is very light and has a fine flavour. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique Daeleman & Pauwels Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek Burkill 1995, Hepburn & Radloff Kibungu Kembelo 2008 1937, 1983, 1993, 1998, Photo: Christian Bauer 336 Ocimum basilicum (Lamiaceae) Common names Dizulu (Kongo), basilic commun (Fr.), sweet basil Description An annual bushy, branching, aromatic herb, woody at the base, growing up to 1 m high. Leaves are light to purplishgreen with toothed margins, and 3 - 8 cm long. Flowers small, pale blue, mauve or purple, borne in loose flowering heads, up to 30 cm long. Ecology Widely distributed in the tropics and commonly cultivated in gardens and around compounds in BasCongo. Grows best in loam or sandy loam soils with adequate drainage and high light intensity, up to 1,000 m altitude. Propagation Sow seeds in containers or seed-beds and transplant when 5 - 8 cm high. Space 30 - 45 cm apart. I t can also be grown from cuttings. Management When plants reach 50 - 70 cm, pinch out the growing point to encourage branching. Harvest just before flowering. Cut the plant back to 10 - 15 cm from the ground. Uses Leaves are strongly aromatic and are used, both fresh and dried, as a condiment for flavouring soups and sauces. They are also mixed with hot peppers. The plant flowers throughout the year providing bees with pollen and nectar. I n Bas-Congo the plant is used medicinally to treat gastritis and haemorrhoids. An infusion of the leaves can be taken to assist digestion. The leaves can be used to kill leaf miners in avocados and other fruit trees. Soak 100 g leaves in 1 litre water overnight. The leaves are then ground up and strained and 1 ml soap solution is added before spraying. References Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Fichtl & Adi 1994, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999, Stoll 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 337 Ocimum gratissimum (Lamiaceae) Synonym O. suave Common names Mansusu, dinsusu-nsusu, dinkondi (Kongo), baumier (Fr.), tree basil, fever plant Description A branched, erect, woody shrub up to 2 m tall. The leaves are larger than those of O. americanum and O. basilicum . Ecology Frequently planted in vegetable beds and around village compounds. The plant is found throughout tropical Africa. Mama Thérèse beside O. gratissimum growing behind her house at Kasangulu. Propagation By seed or cuttings. Uses The strongly scented leaves are used to flavour meat, especially chicken, and soups in Bas-Congo. The leaves and shoots, together with other plants, are used to treat diabetes, sciatica, haemorrhoids, migraine, rheumatism, dental caries, coughing, asthma, eye problems and colds. The leaves are also rubbed between the palms and snuffed as a treatment for blocked nostrils. The oil, obtained from distilling the plant, can be used in an ointment to treat acne. The plant is burnt as a mosquito repellent in southern Africa. The flowers are important for bees as they are produced over long periods. This and other species of Ocimum are frequently rubbed onto hives, especially around the entrance, to attract bees. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Watt & Breyer - Brandwijk 1962, Arkinstall 1979, Howes 1979, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Bown 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004 338 Olax gambecola (Olacaceae) Synonyms O. viridis, Ptychopetalum alliaceum Common names Kiwaya, wosu, mukubi (Kongo) Both photos: Quentin Luke Description A small shrub, 1 – 2 m high, with a characteristic smell. Leaves are 7 – 17 cm long and 3 – 7 cm wide. Flowers are produced in short racemes. Fruits are 7 to 10 mm. in diameter, sweet and edible when ripe. Ecology Present in old and isolated forests and in gallery forests from Sierra Leone to Angola and across the Congo basin to Uganda. Uses The plant is valued as a condiment in BasCongo. The leaves and fruit have a strong taste of garlic. The seeds are grated and also added to dishes as a substitute for garlic. The bark when soaked in water with fish removes the taste of mud. The fruits are eaten. Elsewhere in D.R Congo the plant is used to treat pneumonia and leprosy. The powdered bark is used to treat stomach ache, and the leaves are used to ease childbirth. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, White & Abernethy 1997, Nsimundele 2004, Hawthorne & Jonkind 2006, Biloso 2010, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 339 Oncinotis tenuiloba (Apocynaceae) Common names Nyonsi nyonsi, yonsi yonsi (Kongo), magic rope Photos: Bart Wursten National Botanic Garden of Belgium Description A large, strong, forest shrub or creeper growing to 30 m with glabrous stems which yield a milky latex. Leaves are opposite, shiny, tough and thinly leathery, the base sharply wedge shaped and the tip markedly pointed, 6 – 14 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. Numerous open panicles of flowers up to 10 cm are produced in the leaf axils. The calyx is 2 cm long and the corolla tube is 4 cm with recurved yellow-green lobes up to 7.5 cm long. Seed is 1 cm long and has white bristles 4 cm long. Ecology Found in forest throughout tropical Africa. Uses I n Bas-Congo the latex, diluted in water, is drunk to increase milk flow by nursing mothers. Remarks O. glabrata and O. hirta are also present in BasCongo. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, FTA (Accessed 27.4.13) 340 Ongokea gore (Olacaceae) Common names Ntuti, ntieti, samu (Kongo), boleko or isano oil Both photos: Bart Wursten Description A tree up to 40 m tall with a straight, cylindrical, unbuttressed bole. Leaves alternate, 4 – 11 cm long and 2 – 5 cm wide. Flowers are produced in panicles 5 – 15 cm long. Fruits are 2 – 4 cm in diameter and contain one seed. The fruits are enclosed in a persistent, leathery green calyx which splits into 2 – 4 segments. I n D.R. Congo fruiting is abundant in September. Ecology Found in primary forests and in forests liable to flooding. Present from Sierra Leone to eastern D.R. Congo and south to Angola. Propagation Germination is slow and may take several months, sometimes more than one year. Uses The wood is hard and elastic and used for furniture and general carpentry, but only after it has been well dried out. The seeds, after being burnt to charcoal, were ground to powder and traditionally used as make-up. The oil, known as boleko or isano oil, extracted from the seeds is used as a purgative and to expel intestinal worms. I t is quick drying and used in making soft soap, lubricants and as a substitute for linseed oil. I t is also used for making paints and varnish. Fruit is edible when ripe and is also used as bait for cane rats. I n D.R. Congo the leaves are pulverized and rubbed near children with respiratory trouble so that the fumes are inhaled. Flowers are attractive to bees but the honey is not palatable. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Louppe 2007 341 Oplismenus hirtellus (Poaceae) Common name Tudama dama (Kongo), basket grass Description A rampant grass found in forests and damp places. Photo: Luc Pauwels Ecology Present in forest undergrowth. I t tolerates dense shade. Propagation The seeds are sticky and adhere to animal fur and to clothing. The plant can also be propagated from runners. Uses Livestock eat the grass and it makes a good ground cover for shady places. References Gillet & Paque 1910, Johnson 2005 Photo of inflorescence: Forest & Kim Starr 342 Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae) Common names Figuier de Barbarie (Fr.), prickly pear, I ndian fig Description An upright shrub, forming a dense, impenetrable mass, 4 – 6 m tall. The flat cladodes (modified stems) are elliptical to egg shaped, 25 – 40 cm long and 15 - 20 cm wide. The cladodes may have sharp spines, but these are often absent, or if present, no longer than 1.5 cm long. Yellow flowers, 5 – 8 cm in diameter, are borne on the upper edges of the cladodes, throughout the year. Fruits are 5 – 9 cm long and 3 – 6 cm wide. When ripe the spiny skin can be slipped off leaving the sweet edible pulp below. Ecology Sometimes cultivated in gardens. Originally from tropical America. I t has become a troublesome weed in some countries, but biological control methods are effective to some extent. I t can grow in very hot dry areas on poor soils. Propagation Cladodes can be planted at any time in the growing season. Remove them from the plant and then leave them in a dry sunny place for a couple of days to ensure that the base is thoroughly dry and has begun to callous. Both photos: Van Swearingen Uses Fruit is sweet and edible. The plant is widely used for erosion control and as a boundary. Honeybees visit the flowers for nectar and pollen. The honey is aromatic and white. I t granulates slowly to a fine creamy constituency. References Pauwels 1993, van Wyk & Gericke 2000, Ruffo et al 2002 343 Oryza sativa (Poaceae) Common names Loso (Kongo), riz (Fr.), rice Description Upland rice is grown, a manystemmed grass to about 1 m high, bearing a loose head of grain. Ecology Originally from Asia. Yield is affected by sunlight, as the number of shoots produced by each plant is determined by having sufficient days of unclouded sun. On acid soils a phosphorus deficiency is frequently seen. Left: Rice growing in Nkondi village, Manianga Propagation Use seed that has been stored for 3 - 6 months. Sow in lines across the contour to facilitate weeding. Plant to ensure that flowering takes place during the rain season and harvest in the dry season. Management Upland rice cultivation is the usual method used in Bas-Congo, especially in Manianga district. This is normally done on burnt forest land on hillsides where it is planted in a shifting cultivation system. The system can be improved by planting 3 m wide strips of leguminous cover crop (e.g. Canavalia ensiformis or Desmodium gangeticum ) across the slope to control erosion and rotating with maize and groundnuts in the first year followed by cassava in the second. Above and left: Tata Masola, Pamba harvesting his rice crop near Nkondi Uses I n Bas-Congo rice is especially given to those who are ill or to newly weaned children and is thought to have reduced child mortality. An important food crop, often used for special occasions. I n Bas-Congo a decoction of the roots, leaves and seed husk is taken for madness and beri beri. A decoction of the seed, with some salt, is taken for rehydration when suffering from diarrhoea. Remarks R-66, an improved variety developed by I NEAC, can raise yields and increase incomes by 50 to 80% . References Gillet 1927, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Drachoussoff 1993, Raemaekers 2001, Pousset 2004 344 Oxalis corniculata (Oxalidaceae) Common names Nsa lwasa (Kongo), yellow sorrel, creeping wood sorrel Both photos: John Tann Description A variable herb up to 30 cm tall. The roots are swollen and have a loose sheath covering them, similar to an onion. The plant has narrow creeping stems that root at the nodes. The trifoliate leaves are subdivided into rounded leaflets. Some varieties have purple leaves. Fruit is a narrow cylindrical capsule, 1 – 2 cm long, opening explosively. Ecology A common weed found in gardens with acid soil. Also on open waste ground in damp places. Widespread in warm climates. Uses Leaves are eaten as a vegetable in Bas-Congo and have a similar taste to sorrel. Leaves are also reported to taste like lemon and can be used to make a drink. I nfuse for about 10 minutes, sweeten and then chill. The plant is rich in vitamin C and is used to treat scurvy and also to aid digestion. The leaves are refreshing, antiscorbutic and anti-dysenteric. I f eaten in large amounts over a length of time they can inhibit calcium absorption. The young fruit pods as well as the leaves are eaten in Tanzania and Zanzibar. The plant has shown positive action against Staphlyococcus aureus. Remarks The plant contains oxalates which can cause problems, especially if eaten in large amounts. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Williamson 1975, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Wikipedia (Accessed 22.10.12) 345 Oxyanthus speciosus (Rubiaceae) Common names Kinsungwa, kinsungu (Kongo)(from nsunga = pleasant smell or aroma), café de la brousse (Fr.) Description A coffee like shrub or tree 2 – 15 m tall. The bark is smooth and the branches arch and hang down. Leaves are ellliptic with a rounded base and pointed apex, 8 – 26 cm long and 2 – 12 cm wide with triangular stipules 8 – 16 mm long. Flowers are white, up to 6 cm long, narrowly tubular, fragrant, and produced in dense axillary cymes. Corolla tube is 2 – 6 cm long. Fruits are 5 cm long. The plant has a pleasant smell even when dried. Two subspecies are present in Bas-Congo. Ecology An understorey shrub of old forest, secondary and gallery forest. Present from Senegal to Mozambique and widespread over the Congo basin to Kenya and Zimbabwe. Uses An ornamental shrub worth cultivating. I n Bas-Congo the leaves were traditionally soaked in palm wine to give it an attractive smell and make it more intoxicating. Nsungu or Nsuangu edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. The flowers are visited by honeybees in Bas-Congo. A paste of the bark and leaves is taken for coughs in Ubangi. I n Lulonga a maceration of the bark is used as an enema to aid childbirth. I n Tanzania and Malawi the poles are used for building and firewood. I n Ghana twigs make favourite chew sticks. Dried bark is used as a scent in Sierra Leone. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, I rvine 1961, Uphof 1968, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, Burkill 1997 346 Pachira glabra (Malvaceae) Synonym Bombacopsis glabra Common names Nguba nguela, nguba ya mputu (Kongo), noyer d’Amérique (Fr.) Description A small tree from 6 to 8 m high with glossy leaves and large, fragrant, white flowers. The fruit contains 10 - 20 seeds with an average weight of 1.8 g each. Pachira glabra with fruit Ecology Often planted as a hedge around home compounds in Bas-Congo. I t is a hardy tree growing well on sandy soils. I ntroduced from Central America. I t is also grown in West Africa, Sudan and Zambia. Propagation Grown from cuttings but seed germinates readily transplanted easily. and seedlings can be Right: Freshly collected seeds Management I n Bas-Congo it is common as a hedge around homes. I n Zambia trees commence to bear fruit in their third year and reach maximum production after seven years. Yields of 4.5 kg per tree can be obtained. Uses I n Bas-Congo, the seeds are eaten raw or roasted. They have a high oil content (45% ) and can be used for making soap. The young leaves are eaten in Gabon. Honeybees were seen collecting nectar from the flowers in November. References Gillet Anton-Smith 1964, 1985, Pauwels Nsimundele 2004 Fruit shell, seeds and young plants 347 1927, Burkill 1993, Pancovia laurentii (Sapindaceae) Common names Nkila nkumbi (Kongo) Description A tree up to 20 m tall. Leaves are grouped in a rosette at the ends of branches. Petiole 10 – 18 cm long and the rachis is 20 – 40 cm long, Leaflets are sub-opposite, 12 -24 x 2.5 – 5 cm. I nflorescence borne on the stem, up to 30 cm long. Fruit is a 3 sided winged berry, 2.5 x 3.5 cm, in heavy drooping bunches growing from the trunk. Fruit pulp is orange with 3 brown seeds in each fruit. Ecology Primary and gallery forests and also present in Cameroon, Gabon, Congo (Brazzaville). Uses The fruits are eaten in BasCongo, though reported to be sour. Timber is white. The root and bark are used in Equateur province to treat impotence and sterility. References Renier 1948, Hauman 1960 in Flore d’Afrique Centrale, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Vivien & Faure 1996, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2008, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 2012 I nflorescence on stem Photo: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez 348 Panda oleosa (Pandaceae) Description A tree 15 - 20 m tall with a mature trunk diameter up to 60 cm or more, fluted or shortly buttressed at the base. The crown is tall and elongated. Leaves are alternate, 10 – 30 cm long and 4 – 13 cm wide. Young leaves are vivid red-pink. I nflorescence is a raceme 15 – 35 cm long. Fruit is round, hard and green to pale yellow, 5 – 7 cm in diameter. Flesh is deep reddish-orange. The stone inside is hard with 3 openings each containing a seed bent at right angles. Most trees produce fruits every year and fruits may persist on the tree for several months. Ecology Found in riverine and periodically flooded forest. Panda oleosa occurs from Liberia east to the Central African Republic and D.R. Congo. Propagation Germination can take from 8 months to 3 years and germination may be only 5% . Management Seeds germinate slowly, starting after 10 months and may continue up to 4 years. I n Gabon the fruit stones are collected on the forest floor and the seeds are extracted after cutting open the hard wall with a chopping-knife, which is a dangerous task. Photos: Roy Danforth Uses The timber is valued for carpentry in D.R. Congo. The seeds are pounded and added to sauces as for I rvingia gabonensis. An oil is extracted from the seeds for use in cooking. The seeds may also be eaten after cooking. Various parts are used in traditional medicine. The nectar from the flowers is collected by honey bees. References Staner & Boutique 1937, Busson 1966, Pauwels 1993, Vivien & Faure 1996, Burkill 1997, White & Abernethy 1997, Lemmens 2007, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Harris et al. 2011 349 Pandanus candelabrum (Pandanaceae) Common name Kenge (Kongo) Description A plant growing to 10 m high. The branched stems have aerial stilt roots. Leaves are about 1 m long and 4 cm wide. Flowers are white and heavily scented. Fruits (below left) are 16 – 20 cm long. The genus Pandanus has not been sufficiently studied to date and a revision of the species name may be required. Ecology Grows on river banks, in river beds and in damp places. Sometimes planted in villages. Pandanus spp. are found throughout tropical Africa. Propagation Seed or cuttings grow easily in moist soil. A lady on her way home with a basket made from the leaves. Uses The leaves (makenge) are tough and strong. Once the spines and midrib have been removed, they may be dried entire or cut into strips. I n Bas-Congo, they are used for making mats (mfubu see page 403) and baskets for carrying food. The wood is yellowish and porous, breaking up into fibrous strands and used as a poor quality firewood. The plant has various medicinal uses. Photo: Quentin Luke References De Wildeman 1903, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Purseglove 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997 350 Panicum maximum (Poaceae) Common names Nkanda diadia (Kongo), herbe de Guinée (Fr.), buffalo grass, Guinea grass Photo: Reinaldo Aguilar Description A tufted perennial grass 0.5 – 4.5 m tall. Leaves are 15 – 100 cm long and up to 35 mm wide. The much branched panicles are loose, 15 – 60 cm long and up to 25 cm wide, the lowermost branches being in a distinct whorl. I t is a very variable species. Ecology The grass is native to tropical Africa extending to the subtropics of South Africa. I t occurs at forest edges, in bush, as pioneer grass covering the land cleared from forest and in grassland with scattered trees, where it tends to grow in light shade under trees. I t is drought resistant. Propagation Can be grown from seed or by splitting the tufts. Seed is often difficult to obtain. Space splits 2 x .5 – 1 m in wet weather. Stems root easily from the nodes. Management Rotational grazing produces good yields without detriment to the plant. I t is not suited to sustained close and frequent grazing. Uses I n Bas-Congo the shoots are used for making brooms and baskets. The flower spike was traditionally made into necklaces by women. Guinea grass is a palatable, good quality tropical grass, both in pure stands and in mixtures, which is either grazed or stall fed to cattle, sheep or goats. I t retains its value even when mature. I t can also be dried, ground and used in mixtures with legumes for poultry and pig foods. I t is suitable for drying for hay or for making silage. The stems are used for thatching. The seed is used for bird feed. References De Wildeman 1903, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Bogdan 1977, Chen & Hutton 1992, Burkill 1994 351 Paramacrolobium coeruleum (Caesalpiniaceae) Synonym Macrolobium coeruleum Common name Lubese (Kongo)(Mbese = the seeds are used in the game of ossicles). Description A large, buttressed, evergreen forest tree 15 – 35 m tall. Bark surface is nearly smooth. Leaves alternate, compound with 2 – 5 pairs of leaflets; leaflets opposite, 2 – 15 cm × 1 – 6 cm. I nflorescence is a terminal, flattopped panicle. Flowers bluish. Fruit an oblong, flattened pod 8.5 – 20 cm × 2.5 – 6 cm, containing 3 – 8 seeds. Seeds are rectangular, flattened, 1.5 – 2.5 cm long and glossy dark brown. All photos: F.J. Breteler Ecology Present in forests on firm soil and beside rivers. Present from Guinea to Kenya and south to northern Angola. Occurs in lowland rainforest and in gallery forest in wooded and open savanna areas. Propagation Soak seeds in cold water for 1 – 2 days or in boiling water for a few minutes. This accelerates germination. Seedlings should be planted out in the full sun and in fertile soils to obtain good growth. They are planted at a spacing of 3 m × 3 m in either pure stands or together with other moderately fast growing timber species. Uses The wood is hard and of good quality. The seeds are especially kept for the game of mbese. I n D.R. Congo the wood is used for joinery, doors, door frames, furniture, railway sleepers and gongs. I t is suitable for heavy flooring, toys, novelties, turnery, carving, veneer and plywood. I n Bas-Uele the gum from the bark is mixed with sugar cane juice and taken as a laxative. The tree has been used as shade tree in cocoa plantations in Sierra Leone. I n Kenya the bark is used as rough fibre. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Lemmens 2010 352 Parinari capensis (Chrysobalanaceae) Common names Nsudi nfuni, nsudi nsudi, nfuni nfuni (Kongo), dwarf mobola plum Description A low growing bush, 20 – 60 cm tall with very long branched, rhizomes which are thick and woody. The erect branched stems are covered with yellow or silvery hairs on the upper surface. Leaves have short petioles, and are 4 – 11.5 cm long and 1.5 – 5.8 cm wide, with a thick white carpet on the lower surface. I nflorescence is terminal, or axillary. Flowers are 4 – 6.5 mm long. The calyx is cup-shaped. Fruit is a drupe, yellow when mature, but black and spotted with light brown corky patches when dried. Ecology Found in poor savanna soils. Present in South Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Angola and Botswana. Propagation Bury ripe fruits and allow flesh to rot. I mmerse seed in boiling water for 15 minutes and allow it to cool and soak for 12 hours. Seed is viable for up to 2 years. Sow in pots or use root suckers. Uses Fruit pulp has a pleasant taste is soft and edible raw or cooked. I t is also used to make beer. References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Katende et al. 1995, Malaisse 1997, van Wyk & Gericke 2000 Photo: Aluka 353 Parinari excelsa (Chrysobalanaceae) Synonym P. holstii Common names Banga (Kongo), forest mobola plum Photo: H.J. Ndangalasi TanzaniaPlantCollaboration Description A much branched evergreen tree. The bole may reach 20 m with a diameter of 1 m. Bark is grey, finely grooved, becoming rough, cracked and scaly. The dark branchlets are dotted with pale lenticels. Young shoots and lower stalks all have pale woolly hairs. Leaves are alternate, up to about 11 cm long usually with a long pointed tip, narrowing to a short stalk, dark green, shiny above, pale brown, softly hairy below. The terminal white flowers are easily recognised. Each flower is very small, 6 mm across, with 5 cream white petals, on branched stalks beside the leaves. Fruit is a fleshy drupe, sometimes round, 2 – 5 cm long, green brown with paler specks and contains 1 – 2 seeds. Bark slash has a smell like sour milk and exudes a watery sap. The tree is fast growing. Ecology The tree has a wide distribution in Africa being found from sea level to 2,100 m. Also present in Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi and Zambia. Uses The ripe fruits are edible. I n Bas-Congo the bark is used medicinally to assist wound healing particularly after circumcision. The rough woody outer coat is removed to expose the soft fleshy pulp. The taste is similar to avocado. Fruits contain 38% sugar. The seed is also edible and may be roasted with other foods. Wood produces a good quality timber for heavy construction being strong and tough. I t is also used for tool handles and mortars as well as for charcoal and firewood. I t is an important bee forage. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Burkill 1985, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Ruffo et al. 2002, Nsimundele 2004, Malaisse 2010 354 Paropsia brazzaeana (Passifloraceae) Common name Kisudi ki nkandi (Kongo) Description A small shrub with many stems growing to 1.5 – 3 m from a rhizome. Leaves are 6 – 10 x 2 – 4 cm, oval, alternate with short petioles, brownish, hairy and with prominent veins below. Leaf margins have sharp teeth, each tipped with a small, dark gland. Flowers white, scented, 1 – 3 together. Fruit is a capsule, approximately 1.5 cm in diameter, with 6 to 7 brown seeds surrounded by and orange jelly. Photo: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez Ecology Grows in savanna and secondary forest in Bas-Congo. Also present in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo (Brazzaville), Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana where it is found in woodland, forests and thickets on Kalahari sands or clay soils. Uses I n the Congo a root bark decoction is reported to be very effective in treating amoebic dysentery. I n South Africa an infusion of the root is used to treat gonorrhoea and as a gargle for toothache. Paropsia grewioides is reported to be visited by honeybees in Gabon. References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Wild 1972, FZ 1978, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Neuwinger 2000 355 Paspalum notatum (Poaceae) Common names Pasipolomo (Kongo), Bahia grass Description An aggressive creeping perennial turf forming grass with stolons and rhizomes forming a dense cover. The stolons are firmly pressed to the ground; culms 15 – 70 cm high. The leaves gradually taper to a fine point. Ecology An introduced grass in Bas-Congo but now widely cultivated. I t grows well in the open or in shade. I t is tolerant to both drought and flooding. I t covers the ground quickly and roots deeply. Both photos: Harry Rose Propagation Plant using seed or rhizomes. The rhizomes root freely from the nodes. Rhizomes should be planted densely 15 - 25cm apart. Management The grass is hard wearing and persistent. I t needs little maintenance. Uses An excellent turf grass for lawns. I t is also grown as a livestock fodder, especially by poultry and rabbits. Makaka edible caterpillars feed on the grass. I t is valued for erosion control and because of its low growing habit, prevents fire damage when planted around homes. References Gillet 1927, Uphof 1968, Bogdan 1977, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1994, Kibungu Kembelo 1995 356 Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa (Passifloraceae) Common names Goki dimputu (Kongo), maracuja, grenadille (Fr.), yellow passion fruit Tata Mansita with a grenadille plant growing over an arbour Description This species has yellow, as opposed to purple, fruits when ripe, and is more vigorous, with larger leaves than P. edulis. The most important pollinators for passion fruits are bees. Ecology Grows at lower elevations than other forms of P. edulis, from sea level to 600 m. Passion fruits require a well drained soil and a well distributed rainfall. Rainfall however should be minimal during flowering as it causes the pollen to burst open and hinders the activity of pollinating insects. Propagation The plant is grown from seed. Wash the seeds from the pulp, dry and sow them within 3 months. Germination rate can be up to 85% . Transplant the seedlings into tubes when they have from 2 to 4 leaves and place them in the shade for 1 - 2 months. Gradually provide more sunlight and transplant into the field when they have reached 25 50 cm high and have been hardened off in full sunlight for 1 - 2 months. Right: Passion-fruit concentrate bottled in the Congo Management Provide a trellis support or a frame for the vine to grow over. Uses The fruit juice has a unique taste and is an excellent source of provitamin A. I t is also perhaps the best source of niacin. Vitamin C content is fair. The juice from some vines may be of poor flavour so these vines should be removed. Reference Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Martin et al. 1987, Nakasonne & Paull 1998 357 Passiflora quadrangularis (Passifloraceae) Common names Barbadine, maracuja Description A strong perennial creeper with fleshy tuberous roots. Stems are quadrangular and winged. Flowering occurs on vigorous shoots approximately 9 months from planting and fruit is produced 60 to 80 days later. Fruits are yellowish-green, 10 – 30 x 10 - 18 cm. A third species, P. foetida, is edible, grows in the savanna and is a good bee-forage. Ecology Native to tropical South America. Often grown over a trellis in Bas-Congo where it provides a shady spot near the house. The plant prefers a moist soil, rich in humus. Propagation Seed or cuttings can be used. Seed germinates after 2 - 4 weeks. Transfer seedlings to sachets at the twoleaf stage when the plant is 4 - 5 cm tall. Plant out after 4 months spacing at 4 - 5 m and train over a trellis support which permits the fruit to hang underneath. Management Outside the area of origin poor fruit set is often reported. Hand pollination is recommended to ensure a reasonable crop. I t may be necessary to cover the fruit to protect it from birds, bats or rats. Cut the shoots back after the fruit has been harvested, retaining only the stem and main branches. The plant has a useful life of 5 - 6 years. Uses The flesh as well the juice from the fruit are edible. The flesh is usually eaten with other fruits as it rather bland. The juice can also be mixed with sweet orange, paw-paw or guava. The green unripe fruits may be boiled and eaten as a vegetable. The taste of the juice is insipid compared with the purple or yellow passion fruit. Photo left: Ton Rulkens References Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Crane & Walker 1984, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Macmillan 1991 358 Paullinia pinnata (Sapindaceae) Common name Ngudi nkayi (Kongo) Description A semi-woody creeper with ridged stems. Leaves are borne on a winged stalk and are composed of 5 leaflets 8 – 10 cm long by 2.5 cm wide, the terminal leaflet being the largest. The flowers are produced on a stalk up to 10 cm long throughout most of the year. Fruits are three lobed and 3 cm long and contain bright red seeds in a white substance. Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa and Madagascar. I n Bas-Congo it grows in damp places in forest regrowth. Propagation Grown from seed. Uses I n Bas-Congo the ash from burning the leaves is used as a wound dressing. A decoction of the leaves is used to treat gonorrhoea. The main use of the plant in Africa is to stop bleeding. Twigs are commonly used as chewsticks. Leaves are widely used to treat colic, diarrhoea and dysentery. In Equateur province the pulverized leaves, together with hot ashes are Photo: Stefaan Dondeyne rubbed on the chest to treat lung problems. A decoction of the root with maize gruel is drunk to treat bloody diarrhoea and as an enema or drunk to treat paralysis. A poultice of the leaves is used for fractures. Seeds are eaten in Katanga. They are known to have high starch content. Stems can be made into ropes. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, I rvine 1961, Busson 1965, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Uphof 1968, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Malaisse 1997, Burkill 2000, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 2012 Photo: H.J. Ndangalasi Tanzanian Plant Collaboration 359 Pentaclethra eetveldeana (Mimosaceae) Common names Nseka, kiseka, nsombo nseka, nseka mfusila, nsambu, mvanza fioti (Kongo) Description A tree growing from 15 to 30 m tall. Ecology Grows in secondary forests in Gabon, Cabinda and Mayombe and is common in Bas-Congo. Propagation Seed germinates unevenly but with a high percentage. I t is best shallow planted direct into the field to avoid damaging the tap-root. Management The tree coppices well in the forest fallow. Uses The seeds, which contain oil of similar quality to that of P. macrophylla, are sometimes eaten in D.R. Congo. I n Bas-Congo they were traditionally carbonized and used during mourning. The tree is an important source of fuel-wood and charcoal. The white wood is hard, strong, durable and attractive, but is not resistant to insect attack and is liable to warping. I t is used as a construction timber and for pestles and mortars. I n BasCongo the liquid obtained from soaking the bark in water is used to relieve itching. A decoction of the leaves is taken for colds and stomach-ache. Minsangula edible caterpillars feed on the leaves and bees forage for nectar in March. I n Gabon there are reports that it produces a toxic honey causing nausea and colic, however this has not been reported in Bas-Congo. Right: Minsangula caterpillars being sold in a village market. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Dennis 1932, De Wildeman 1934, Drachoussoff 1947, Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Allen & Allen 1981, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Ambougou 1991, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Latham 2003 360 Pentaclethra macrophylla (Mimosaceae) Common names Ngansi, nula-panza (Kongo), oil bean tree Description A fast growing tree to 25 m high. The tree nodulates, has good natural regeneration after fire and is termite resistant. Ecology Secondary forests from Senegal to Angola. Growth can be good where rainfall is adequate, even on relatively acid soils. I t tolerates waterlogging, though the tree prefers a medium/ loamy, well drained soil. Left: A young tree growing in secondary forest Propagation Seed should be planted as soon as possible after harvest. Soaking in water for 24 hours improves germination. Seed is normally planted direct into the field, as seedlings are difficult to transplant because of the long tap-root. Uses The timber is hard, strong but difficult to work. I t is used for mortars and other utensils. I t makes good charcoal and firewood, though the latter gives off an unpleasant smell. The seeds produce oil of panza which prevents iron rusting and is also used to protect the feet from jiggers ntenda ( Tunga penetrans). The charcoal was traditionally used to mark the faces of women in mourning. Seed pods can be used for fuel and, when burnt to ash, yield a lye used for making soap. The flowers are an important source of nectar for honey bees which collect throughout the day. The leaves are shed during the dry season and in Bas-Congo it is believed that the mulch improves soil fertility. Minsendi ( I mbrasia obscura) and Minsangula edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. A decoction of the leaves is drunk to treat diarrhoea. I mbrasia obscura feeding on Pentaclethra macrophylla References Gillet & Pâque 1910, I rvine 1961, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Ladipo & Boland 1995, Pousset 2004, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 8.3.2013) 361 Pentadiplandra brazzeana (Pentadiplandraceae) Synonym Cercopetalum dasyanthum Common names Nkenge-kyasa, nke-kyasa, kiasa (Kongo) Description A climbing shrub with vine-like branches. Leaves are approximately 12 cm long and 5 cm wide. Flower heads grow from leaf axils and individual flowers are white with red and blue spots near the top. Fruits are mottled grey, 4 cm in diameter having a short stipule. The large roots smell and taste like horseradish. Ecology Common in forests around villages in Bas-Congo. Uses The root bark is used to relieve pain being rubbed on the affected area. The bark is also used to treat various illnesses including asthma, psoriasis, rheumatism, epilepsy, colic and haemorrhoids. The sap is used to reduce inflammation. The leaves are sometimes used as a vegetable in Bas-Congo. The fruit is edible, sweet and peppery. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004 362 Pereskia aculeata (Cactaceae) Common names Grosseillier des Barbades (Fr.), Barbados cherry, lemon vine Photo: Vania Viana-Brazil Description A climbing, spiny shrub growing to 10 m tall. The fleshy leaves are alternate, yellowish, succulent, 8.5 – 10 cm long and 3.5 – 4.5 cm wide. Spines arise from the leaf axils in young growth or areoles in older growth. The numerous white or rose coloured waxy flowers, are fragrant and borne in panicles. The juicy fruits are about 2 cm diameter and often have leaf like scales on the surface. Ecology An introduced plant from Central America and the Antilles. This plant is a declared weed in South Africa where it does extensive damage to forest areas by smothering indigenous trees. Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings. Management Handle plants with rolled up newspaper or tongs. Can be invasive and difficult to eradicate. Uses The fruits are edible, containing numerous small seeds, and have an excellent citrus-like flavour. The leaves can be used as a vegetable or in a salad. The plant can be grown to strengthen a hedge. References Gillet 1927, Pauwels 1993, Llamas 2003, Fayaz 2011, Wikipedia (Accessed 26.12.12) Photo: Jim West 363 Persea americana (Lauraceae) Common names Divoka, savoka (Kongo), avocatier (Fr.), avocado pear Description An evergreen tree growing from 6 - 15 m tall. Ecology Avocados can be grown on sandy-loam soils, but are sensitive to poor drainage and waterlogging. A rainfall of between 1,250 – 1,750 mm should be evenly distributed. Dry conditions are preferred during flowering. Mexican races are more tolerant to water stress and low humidity and also to a humid, warm climate with optimum temperatures around 25 - 28 °C. Propagation The tree can be grown from seed but is best grafted. Seed remains viable for 2 3 weeks but can be stored for longer if kept dry. Quicker and better germination can be obtained if the seed coat is removed. Transplants are made with a ball of earth round the roots. Guatemalan and West I ndian races produce the best rootstocks, however they are not compatible with West I ndian scions. Seeds are planted in nurseries, 35 cm apart and should not be covered with more than 1 cm of soil. Stocks should be side grafted with terminal tips 6 cm long or older stocks may be shield budded. Budded and grafted plants can be transplanted after about 18 months. Uses Mainly grown for its edible fruits which are a very good source of highly digestible oil containing unsaturated fatty acids. Some varieties are good sources of phosphorus and riboflavin and excellent sources of vitamin A. Some contain useful amounts of protein. I t is the most nutritious of all fruits. Bees are known to increase yields of fruit and nectar secretion is abundant when humidity is high. The honey produced is dark with a strong flavour. References Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Crane et al. 1984, Martin et al. 1987, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Nakasone & Paull 1998, Jones 1999 364 Petersianthus macrocarpus (Lecythidaceae) Common names Kivinsu (Kongo), abalé (Fr.), stinkwood tree Description A tree growing from 20 to 30 m high. Fruits are 4.5 – 6 long by 4 – 7.5 cm wide and have four characteristic wings. Ecology The tree grows in dense, usually secondary forest in Bas-Congo. Found from Guinea to Congo and south to Angola. Propagation Grows from seed which is reported to germinate after about a month. Management The tree coppices well. Uses The timber is resistant to termites and used for heavy-duty carpentry, mortars, house-building and for canoes and paddles but it has a foul smell when freshly cut. I t makes a good fuel wood. Mvinsu ( I mbrasia epimethea), Munsongo ( I mbrasia alopia), Nsila and Mbambi edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Right: fruiting branch Mvinsu caterpillars are very much sought after and when a young colony are found the tree is often marked to signify it has been claimed and must not be removed. The root, stem and particularly the bark are used medicinally as a laxative, purgative and abortive. Elsewhere in D.R. Congo the plant is used as a counter irritant. Reported as a bee forage in Gabon. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, I wu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 1995 Left: Mvinsu edible caterpillars on a branch at Ndembo mission. Two generations are reported to appear each year. 365 Phaseolus lunatus (Papilionaceae) Common names Madeso (Kongo), haricot de lima (Fr.), lima, butter, Madagascar or sugar bean Description An annual or perennial herb. The vines, pods and seeds are very variable in form. Pole types twine and usually grow from 1.8 to 4 m tall and have an enlarged taproot. Bush types are generally annual and only 30 - 90 cm tall. Leaves are trifoliate and often hairy on the lower surface. The flowers are white, pink or mauve. The pods contain 2 - 6 seeds. Plants growing on a trellis at Kimbambu Ecology Occasionally grown in Bas-Congo. The plant thrives in humid as well as drought prone areas. I t requires well drained soils. At high temperatures serious shedding of blossom and pod drop may occur. Climbing types should be grown over a support or bush. Propagation Seed after 5 to 6 days. Management germinates Plants can be grown on a trellis and are replanted after 3 years. Rotate crops with cereals to reduce eelworm infection as they can affect yields very badly. The plants produce mature seeds 90 to 110 days after planting. Uses The seeds are eaten while still immature, being taken from the pods as the green colour fades. Mature beans are usually eaten boiled, fried in oil or baked. The pods and leaves can also be eaten when young and tender. The shed leaves help to restore fertility. Due to the presence of poisonous cyanogenetic glycosides in some varieties (often the dark-seeded types - white seeded varieties are usually safer) care should be taken in preparation. The beans should be soaked in several changes of water first and then cooked thoroughly. The crop may be fed to livestock. I n Bas-Congo an infusion of the seeds is drunk by women having painful periods. I n the central highlands of Angola the flowers are an important bee forage. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, PortugalAraújo 1974, Kay 1979, NAS 1979, Smartt 1979, Burkill 1995, Raemaekers 2001 366 Phaseolus vulgaris (Papilionaceae) Common names Deso, madeso, madeso manene (Kongo), haricot vert (Fr.), French bean, pole bean Description Two main varieties are recognized: a) Dwarf or bush types which are early maturing, 20 - 60 cm in height, with lateral and terminal inflorescences and determinate growth. b) Climbing or pole types, with indeterminate growth, up to 3 m in height. Left: Pole beans Ecology Pole beans are frequently grown as a dry season crop in the valley gardens in Bas-Congo. The plant has a wide range of tolerance. Most varieties are adapted to growing up to 1,000 m in soils with a pH range between 5.5 and 6.5. Acid soils should be avoided as they reduce the activity of the Rhizobium nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Moderately heavy loam soils are suitable. Pole beans give better results than dwarf varieties in the rain season. Propagation Pole beans are planted direct, 1 - 3 cm deep. Recommended planting is 4 - 6 seeds at each site, spaced 40 - 50 cm apart in rows spaced 100 – 120 cm apart. Bush beans are generally sown singly at 15 – 25 cm spacing. Management Weeding is important until the plant flowers. The crop is grown on wigwams or trellises up to 2.5 m high. Sticks or bamboo poles should be in place soon after the seed germinates. Beans can be harvested from 70 - 90 days after planting and should be picked before the pods split open. Uses Grown mainly for dried seeds though elsewhere the young leaves are eaten as a vegetable. The leaves may also be dried and stored for later use. Remarks The name deso is used for all Papilionaceae species with edible seeds. References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Raemaekers 2001 Dwarf beans growing in Manianga district 367 Phoenix reclinata (Arecaceae) Common names Dinsongo (Kongo), dattier sauvage (Fr.) dwarf date palm, wild date palm Description A palm tree usually up to 10 m tall. The mature trunk often bends over. Leaves are up to 3 m long growing from a fibrous leaf sheath, producing a crown of about 25 leaves which arch over. Leaflets are narrow, shiny and folded, up to 68 cm long, stiff and pointed. Male and female flowers are on different plants. Fruit is yellowish-brown and about 1.5 cm long. Ecology Found throughout tropical Africa. I n Bas-Congo it is common in some swamps. I t is sometimes grown as an ornamental. Propagation Can be grown from seed or suckers. Remove the fruit pulp and dry the seed before storage. Germination is good with fresh seed. Uses Fruits are edible and very nutritious even though they only have a thin layer of flesh. They are dipped quickly in boiling water before eating. The timber is used for making doors, beds, roofing and windows. I t is strong and resistant to decay and termite attack. I t is also used for firewood. The tree is sometimes planted to protect river banks. Leaves are Photo: Anny Mandungu used for thatching and making mats and baskets. A dye is obtained from the roots. The terminal ‘cabbage’ is cooked and eaten, though some people find it bitter. The sap is very sweet and used for making palm wine. This can be extracted from the base of the stem. The fruits and roots are used to treat haemorrhoids. Traditionally the spines were placed in the soil around gardens to deter thieves. The flowers provide large amounts of pollen and nectar for honeybees. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Burkill 1997 368 Phyllanthus amarus (Phyllanthaceae) Common names Nteta nteta (Kongo), herbe au chagrin (Fr.), black catnip, carry me seed Description An erect annual herb up to 60 cm tall. Branchlets are flattened and often slightly winged. Leaves are alternate and crowded along lateral branchlets. 1 – 2 flowers are produced in the axils of the leaves. They are pale green, often flushed red. Fruit is a 3 lobed hanging capsule 2 – 2.5 mm in diameter. Ecology Common on roadsides, cultivated land, waste places in forest and savanna. Widely distributed in Asia and the West I ndies. Probably native to Western I ndia and Pakistan. Uses I n Bas-Congo the plant is used to treat amabiase, a parasitic disease caused by Entamoeba hystolitica. The roots have been shown to have strong activity against snails. Plant extracts are also poisonous to fish and frogs, though livestock graze the plant. A black substance is obtained from the stem and leaves which is used to dye cotton and as a substitute for ink. The plant is used to ease acute pain in the bowels. Leaves are rich in potassium and are used to promote urination. Remarks Phyllanthus species are widely used to treat of jaundice. They are also used as purgatives. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1994, van Holthoon 1999, Nsimundele 2004, Oudhia 2008 Photo: Phuong Tran 369 Physalis angulata (Solanacae) Common names Bobo, kindokiela (Kongo) Description An annual, much branched herb, up to 100 cm tall with stems which are sharply angled and hollow. Leaves are arranged spirally on stalks 2 – 11 cm long. The leaf blade is 4 – 15 cm long and 2.5–10 cm wide. The solitary flowers are produced in the axils. The calyx has 5 lobes and is 3 – 5 mm long. Fruit is a yellow berry 10 – 16 mm in diameter, containing many seeds, enclosed in a membranous envelope. Ecology The plant is common throughout tropical Africa. I t grows best in moist, fertile soils, is tolerant of partial shade and occurs widely as a weed of crops and pastures, and in waste areas. I t is native to tropical America. Propagation The plant is easily propagated by seed which should be shallow planted. Uses The crushed leaves together with the fruit are used in Bas-Congo to treat itch, scabies and smallpox. Fruits are sometimes eaten mixed with vegetables in Congo. The leaves can be eaten as a salad, although the taste is bitter. I n larger quantities the plant is poisonous to cattle and sheep, and it gives the meat a musk-like smell. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1993, Mairura 2008, Burkill 2000 370 Physalis peruviana (Solanaceae) Common names Cape gooseberry, Peruvian cherry Description An annual or perennial trailing to erect herb up to 80 cm tall. Flowers are small, yellow and borne in the leaf axils. Fruits are round orange berries, 1 – 2 cm, enclosed in a papery calyx. Ecology Originally from Peru but now widely grown, particularly in South Africa. I t grows in waste areas, at forest edges. Plants can be intercropped with maize. They thrive in full sun and are fairly drought resistant but do not like waterlogged conditions. They should not be grown in ground previously used for tomatoes or potatoes. Propagation The berry is crushed, dried out in the sun and the seeds extracted. Sow seeds 0.5 cm deep in a seedbed choosing seed from strong plants with large fruits. Sowing is normally done at the beginning of the dry season. Transplant seedlings to 10 cm apart in the nursery when they have developed 2 - 3 leaves. Cuttings also take very easily. Transplant into the field after 2 - 3 months, with a ball of soil around the roots. Management Plant out 80 - 100 cm apart and if possible provide support stakes 1 m tall. I f the plants have not produced flowers by the time they are 30 cm tall pinch out the growing point to encourage branching. The fruits are ready to pick when they turn golden yellow and the calyx has a papery texture. Ripe fruits can be left on the plants for 2 - 3 weeks. This improves the flavour. The plants should be well weeded. Cut them down at the beginning of the rain season as rain causes the fruit to rot. Plants can be grown for 2 - 3 seasons. I t is useful to provide mulch to avoid rain splash damage to the lower fruits. Uses The fruit has a sweet, slightly acid distinctive taste and has a high vitamin C content. I t can be eaten raw, cooked or preserved. Each plant will produce 500 gm - 1 kg fruit. The fruit makes very good jam. Bees collect pollen and small amounts of nectar during the long flowering period. Leaves are used fresh as a vegetable and are not normally dried for storage. The plant also has medicinal uses. References Watt & Breyer Brandwijk 1962, Martin et al. 1998, Moriarty 1975, FAO 1982, Baker 1986, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Katende et al. 1995 371 Phytolacca dodecandra (Phytolaccaceae) Common names Tidi (Kongo), épinard sauvage (Fr.) Description A fast growing shrubby or woody climber to 7 m high and 15 m long. Nodes are up to 10 cm apart and stems can be 9 mm in diameter. Leaves are usually hairless, 4 – 15 cm long and 2 – 10 cm wide, oval to elliptic and have slender petioles, 1 – 5 cm long. The central flower stalk may grow 40 cm long with the scented flowers being red, white, yellow or green. Ecology Found in closed forest, wooded savanna and on cultivated land up to an altitude of 2,000 m. Widespread from Guinea to west Cameroon and in Madagascar and South Africa. Propagation Use seedlings or cuttings. Uses Cultivated as a vegetable in Bas-Congo, though elsewhere the plant is regarded as being highly poisonous. The leaves are also reported to be poisonous to livestock. I n Bas-Congo the young leaves are coarsely cut and cooked before eating. The fresh leaves have a protein content of up to 6% . I n BasCongo they are also used to treat scabies. Dried leaves are applied to cuts and swellings. The fruits are a good soap substitute and are especially used for this purpose in northern Kenya and Ethiopia. Fruits can be collected when still unripe and dried for later use. They contain saponin and produce a good lather which acts as a poison to snails, and it has been noticed that water snails carrying bilharzia are reduced downstream from where people wash their clothes with these berries. The juice can also be used for killing mosquito larvae in ponds. The fruits contain a red substance which changes in sunlight and is used as a substitute for ink. Leaves are the source of a yellow dye. The roots are used in small quantities as a remedy for round- and tape-worms. Where common, both pollen and nectar are collected by bees, and the plant is also reported as a bee forage in Ethiopia and Gabon. Remarks The older leaves and berries are very poisonous. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, FAC 1951, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Wild 1972, Kokwaro 1976, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Ambougou 1991, Konda et al. 1992, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Bekele-Tesemma et al 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Burkill 1997, Nsimundele 2004 372 Picralima nitida (Apocynaceae) Common names Obéro, demouain à gros fruits, ebam (Fr). Foliage of a tree in the Kisantu botanic garden Description A shrub or tree up to 35 m tall, but usually smaller. Seeds are flattened, 2.5 – 4.5 cm long, smooth, brown to orange, embedded in soft white to orange pulp. The tree can be found flowering and fruiting throughout the year. Ecology An understorey tree in rainforest, also in mature secondary forest and semi-deciduous forest along river banks. I t occurs from I vory Coast east to Uganda and south to Cabinda (Angola). Uses The wood is pale yellow, hard, elastic and takes a good polish. I t is used for tool handles, walking sticks, pestles and mortars, carving and canoe paddles. Spoons or dippers are also made of the hard shell of the fruit. The seeds, bark and roots are widely used to reduce fever and as a remedy for malaria. The bark is taken as a laxative. The seeds are also extensively used for pain relief and to treat chest and stomach problems, pneumonia and intestinal worms. Usually, the seeds or bark are crushed or chewed and eaten for this purpose, or a decoction from the roots, seeds or bark is drunk. I n D.R. Congo the bark is used to cure coughing or typhoid fever. References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Burkill 1985, Nyunaï & Njifutié 2006 373 Piliostigma thonningii (Caesalpiniaceae) Common names Pied de boeuf (Fr.), camel's foot Description A bush or tree from 3 - 6 m high with a short twisted trunk and branches. Leaves are characteristically twin lobed and hairy underneath. Flowers are white and sweet-scented. Ecology Found in wooded savanna throughout tropical Africa. Often associated with Annona senegalensis. Propagation Seed is sown direct after being soaked in cold water for 24 hours. Germination rate is normally good. The seed can be stored for several years if kept cool, dry and insect free. Management The tree grows fairly fast and can be coppiced or pollarded. Right: The fruits remain on the tree for a long time. Uses The wood is hard but easy to work though liable to termite and insect borers. I t is used for house posts, pestles, handles of implements, furniture and general carpentry, though its small size limits its usefulness. Twigs and roots are used as chewsticks. The wood burns well, is long lasting and picks up well from sleeping embers burning with a hot flame and little smoke. The bark is stripped off for roofing ties, fencing and bridge building. Fibre can be extracted for use as rope. The gum from the trunk is used for repairing boats. The plant has a number of medicinal uses in West Africa. For example the fresh leaves are applied to wounds to assist with healing and they are similarly used to treat rheumatism. Pulp surrounding the seeds is edible, biscuitlike and chewed by children or eaten during famine. The leaves, crushed green pods and seeds can also be eaten. Young leaves are chewed to relieve thirst. Pods and seeds produce a blue dye and roasted seeds a black dye. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees and are known to be an important bee forage in the highlands of Angola. References Portugal-Araújo 1974, Peters et al 1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 1995, Pousset 2004 374 Piper guineense (Piperaceae) Common names Kapili, nkefu (Kongo), West African black pepper, bush pepper Description An evergreen creeper or vine 4 to 20 m long which climbs using adventitious roots growing from the stem. Older stems have corky ridges. Leaves are round to oval, 5 - 20 cm long with a long pointed tip, the base being round or narrowed, often unequally. Fruits red, orange-yellow or brown 3 - 6 mm on short stalks. Ecology Found from Guinea to Uganda and Angola in damp sites and valley bottoms. Sometimes cultivated or left growing on trees. Propagation The plant can be grown cuttings. from seed or Uses The fruit bunches are aromatic and widely used as a spice and condiment in the same way as black pepper, though they are not as strong. The fresh fruits are eaten raw for their spicy taste in Kinshasa. The dried fruits are pounded and sieved and added to sauces and hot peppers. The powder is is also added to coffee or tea. Leaves are used as a condiment. The plant is also used medicinally to aid digestion and relieve wind. The peppercorns are used as an ointment for the skin, particularly to ease rheumatism. The plant has anti-microbial and insecticidal properties. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Uphof 1968, Burkill 1997, Ruffo et al. 2002, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004, Biloso & Lejoly 2006, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 375 Piper nigrum (Piperaceae) Common names Kapidi (Kongo), poivre (Fr.), pepper Description A perennial climbing vine which may grow to 10 m but is normally pruned to about 4 m. Leaves are 8 - 20 cm long, alternate, oval and pointed. Flowers are mostly bisexual. Fruits are 3 - 6 mm, red when ripe, turning black when dried. Piper guineense has shorter leaves and fruit spikes and a more branched habit than P. nigrum . There are numerous improved varieties. Ecology Grown widely in the tropics. I t requires a hot, wet climate but cannot stand water-logging. Shade and a fertile soil, rich in compost or other organic material, is required. Plants are very susceptible to drought. Propagation Normally grown from cuttings taken from young stems or stem shoots about 50 cm long. These are grown in moist soil under shade and produce roots after about 2 months. The plant can also be grown from fresh seed. Management The plants are grown on mounds and planted so that they climb up trees. The latter may need to be pruned to reduce excessive shading. Two or three stems are allowed to develop and each stem needs to be pruned back to 10 nodes until the fruit has been produced. To stagger production the stems can be pruned in rotation allowing 3 - 4 week intervals. Weeding and mulching are beneficial. Plants remain productive for up to 30 years. Uses Fresh or dried fruits, either whole or crushed, are hot spices used in cooking. As with the previous species pepper is known to stimulate digestion by increasing the flow of saliva and the digestive juices. I n the past peppers were also used to relieve wind and as a worm remedy. To prepare black pepper, fruits are left in heaps overnight and then dried on mats in the sun the following day. They should be raked regularly and are ready after 4 – 5 days. Pepper oil is distilled from the fruits and used in perfumes. References Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999 376 Piper umbellatum (Piperaceae) Common names Kilemba ki mfinda (Kongo), cow foot leaf Description A perennial herb or scrambling shrub up to 4 m tall, branching from low down. The stems grow from a woody rootstock. Leaves are alternate, almost circular, up to 36 cm across. I nflorescence is a spike up to 15 cm long, with 2 – 8 together. Fruit is a 3 angled fleshy drupe 0.5 – 1 mm, brownish containing one seed. Ecology Moist shady places and widespread through the tropics. I t is often planted near dwellings. Propagation Can be grown from stem cuttings producing roots from the nodes. Uses I n Bas-Congo the leaves, which have a peppery taste, are eaten as a vegetable. They are also used to treat gonorrhoea. When fresh leaves are crushed they produce a smell like celery. Plant ash produces a vegetable salt. I n tropical Africa the leaves are widely used medicinally to soften the skin, to treat wounds and as an antiseptic. They are employed in poultices on swellings, boils and burns. A decoction of the leaves or roots is taken to relieve jaundice, malaria, urinary and kidney problems, syphilis, menstrual problems and stomach-ache, and is also applied on wounds and inflamed tumours. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mbemba et al. 1992, Burkill 1997, Domis & Oyen 2008 377 Piptadeniastrum africanum (Mimosaceae) Common names Singa singa (Kongo), African greenheart, dabema (commerce) Description The tree grows to 45 m high and has large thin buttresses reaching from 3 to 5 m up the trunk. Young branches are covered with dense brown hairs. Leaves are composed of 10 - 12 pairs of pinnae borne on red leaf stalks. Flowers are yellow-white on branched spikes each one 4 - 11 cm with a hairy brown stalk. Fruits are flat, dark-brown 12.5 cm long. Ecology Grows in lowland forests from Sierra Leone to Angola and Uganda. Propagation Can be grown from seed or wild seedlings. The winged seeds are collected from the forest floor. Seeds germinate after 1 - 2 weeks but lose their viability very quickly. Seedlings grow slowly and are normally transplanted after 6 – 12 months. Uses The bark is used as a soap substitute and ash from both pods and bark is used for making soap. The root contains a large amount of saponin. The wood is used as a general purpose timber. I t is of good quality, durable in fresh water, to some extent termite resistant, but has a bad smell. I t is especially good for heavy construction and flooring. The bark is sometimes used to cause abortion but this is known to be dangerous. The gum is used as an ordeal poison in Bas-Congo. Minsendi and Nsinga edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Bees visit the flowers, which are produced during the dry season. Remarks The tree has other medicinal uses in Africa but great care should be taken w hen using any part. References Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Allen & Allen 1981, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Neuwinger 2000, Meunier et al. 2010 378 Plukenetia conophora (Euphorbiaceae) Synonym Tetracarpidium conophorum Common names Makasu nsinga (Kongo), conophor nut Description A vigorous climbing vine, 3 – 6 m long, branching freely, which may cover its support tree. I t resembles a pepper vine with pointed, shiny green leaves, 18 x 10 cm. Very small white flowers are produced in clusters. Fruit (below right) is a 4 – 5 lobed, partially winged, pod containing 4 – 5 large nuts (below left). Photos: Roy Danforth Ecology Present in secondary forest from Sierra Leone to D.R. Congo and cultivated in Sierra Leone, Cameroon and Nigeria. I t grows well on forest soils in deep shade. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Management Train vines up trees for support. Vines start producing after 5 years. Uses The nuts are eaten in BasCongo after being boiled or roasted, to reduce the bitterness. They also yield 48 – 60% of a quick drying oil used for cooking and medicinal purposes. The pressed cake can be used as a fodder cake. Remarks The fruits travel well and remain in good condition after harvest so have potential for distant markets. References Danforth & Noren 1997, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Termote 2012 379 Polygala acicularis (Polygalaceae) Common name Lunsambi nsambi (Kongo) Description A shrubby, erect annual herb to 1 m high, often woody at the base. Leaves 4 6 cm long. The numerous blue flowers are born terminally in January. Ecology The plant is found in valleys by water. I t is recorded from tropical Africa in bushland, savanna, swamp on granite soil and in cultivated land. Altitude range 350 – 1,600 m. Also present in northern Nigeria, Sudan, Uganda and Angola. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Uses I n Bas-Congo the leaves, stem and roots are used to treat diabetes, mental disorder, haemorrhoids, migraine, gastritis, dysentery, epilepsy, intestinal worms and coughs. Roots are boiled and the liquid taken for stomach ache. The powdered root is said to be effective in treating sore throats. I n Gabon the roots are also used to perfume ointment. The powdered or fresh bark is applied to septic Polygala species are important sores. honeybee forage in north Africa. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1997, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 Papa Maketa with young Rambutan plants in the botanic garden at Kisantu 380 Portulaca oleracea (Portulacaceae) Common names N’dya ngulu, n’labanlaba (Kongo), pourpier (Fr.), purslane, pigweed Description A fleshy, much branched, annual herb, growing up to 50 cm long. Leaves are either alternate, more or less opposite or in whorls, 0.5 – 4 cm long by 0.1 – 2 cm wide. Flowers are 3 – 5 mm long. Fruit is an ovoid capsules 4 mm long. Pollination The bisexual flowers open very briefly and honeybees collect pollen and are likely to contribute to pollination. Ecology Originally from Asia but now common in waste places in the tropics and sub-tropics. I t has been cultivated in southern Europe as a salad plant for a long time. I t can become a serious weed remaining alive after weeding. Uses The succulent leaves are eaten raw or cooked, with other foods or on their own. Livestock also eat the plant. I t is rich in ascorbic acid, iron and calcium and is widely used medicinally in Africa. I n Bas-Congo the leaves and shoots are boiled and given to women during pregnancy to relieve abdominal pain. They are also used as a diuretic, to treat rheumatism, fever, disorders of the urinary tract, as a sedative and for intestinal worm infestation. Photo: Ton Rulkens References Gillet 1927, Busson 1965, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Crane & Walker 1984, Burkill 1997, El Jack 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Malaisse 2010 381 Pseudospondias microcarpa (Anacardiaceae) Common names Nyibu, kigamo, muiba (Kongo) Description Tree 6 – 20 m high with a usually short trunk, 3 - 18 m tall, twisted and strongly buttressed. Bark falls off in large flakes. Leaves are compound having 5 - 21 leaflets, each 5 - 17 cm long and 2.5 - 6 cm wide. Male and female flowers are produced separately. Fruits ellipsoid 3 - 3.5 cm long, blue-black when ripe. Parasitic Loranthaceae are often found growing on this tree. Tree in flower and with fruit at Kisantu botanical garden in August Ecology Grows in dense fringing and secondary forests, in damp sites and often on stream banks occurring throughout West Africa and south to Angola and in Uganda and Malawi. Propagation The tree can be grown from seed which should be soaked for 12 hours in water before planting. Seed can be stored for up to 5 months, but is best kept in the dried whole fruit. Wild seedlings or cuttings can also be used. The young trees can be planted out in damp areas. Management The tree is fast growing and can be coppiced or pollarded. Uses The fruits are sweet and edible. Wood is soft to moderately hard and grey or greenish, liable to warp, perishable and liable to borer attack. I t is sometimes used for poles and planks. I n Bas-Congo the bark is used to treat dysentery and pain in the abdomen. Tannin is produced in both bark and leaves. Bees visit the flowers in January and August. Pseudospondias species are known to provide bee forage in Gabon. The tree provides a dense shade. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, FAC 1960, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1985, FTEA 1986, Lobreau-Callen 1988, Ambougou 1991, Peters et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Latham 2003, Nsimundele 2004, Harris et al. 2011 382 Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae) Common names Fulenta, fulunta (Kongo), goyavier (Fr.), guava Description A shrub growing from 6 to 10 m high. I n Bas-Congo fruits are yellow with pink flesh. Ecology Grows throughout the tropics, sometimes becoming a serious weed. Found from sea level to 1,500 m. The plant is adapted to a wide range of climate and soil conditions. I t can tolerate temporary water-logging and high temperatures. Propagation Select a good variety and propagate by air layering. The tree may also be grown from suckers, which can be induced by cutting the root 60 - 90 cm from the trunk. Management Trees come into bearing two years after transplanting and are in full bearing after 8 years. Uses The edible fruits are variable in size and flavour, ranging from sweet to tart. Ripe juicy types are eaten fresh, or the flesh can be stewed. Guavas contain 2 - 5 times the vitamin content of fresh orange juice and are an important source of vitamin C. Guavas are also a good source of vitamin A, iron, calcium and phosphorus. Eating ripe fruit guards against scurvy. The wood is hard and used for making tool handles. I n BasCongo an infusion of the leaves is used to control intestinal worms and to treat colic and fever. Eating unripe guava fruits or drinking an infusion of the leaves can be Psidium guineense = Nkisu, another introduced species, effective in treating ordinary is now frequently found growing wild diarrhoea. The flowers are frequently visited by honey bees and provide heavy yields of pollen and moderate amounts of nectar. The honey produced is light yellow, has thin viscosity and a pleasant flavour. I n some countries the leaves are used for dyeing and tanning. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Renier 1948, Purseglove 1968, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Ambougou 1991, Bekele-Tesemma et al. 1993, I wu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Lakshmi & Mohana Rao 1998, Hirt & M’pia 2001, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004 383 Psophocarpus scandens (Papilionaceae) Common names Kikalakasa (Kongo), African winged bean Description A perennial woody climber up to 6 m long. Leaves composed of 3 leaflets, 2.5 – 12 cm long and 1.8 – 10 cm wide, on a petiole 5 – 18 cm long. Flowers are blue, reddish or violet-blue, 1.6 – 2.4 cm long. Fruits are 3.5 – 8 cm long, 1 – 2 cm wide, rectangular in cross section, winged and contain 5 – 8 seeds. Ecology Occurs in the savanna and in riverine and gallery forests, on waste ground and around swamps throughout Central Africa from Cameroon, to Angola and in Tanzania, Mozambique and Mauritius. Propagation The surface of the seed needs to be scratched or scarified before planting to aid germination. Seed germination remains good for a long period. Plant at a spacing of 50 x 50 cm. Management Can be grown over a trellis in which case one or two seeds are planted near the base of a support stick. The crop grows well in association with sweet potatoes. Early weeding is important. Leaves are usually picked before fruit is produced and can be dried and powdered for later use. Uses A valuable vegetable. Leaves, pods, sprouts, beans and tubers are all edible. Fresh leaves contain 7% protein or 39% when dried. They can be dried, made into a flour and mixed with other flours. The seeds can be roasted and make a good flour very rich in protein (33% ). Leaves are known to assist milk production in nursing mothers. I n Ubangi fresh leaves are made into a pulp and applied as a poultice for lumbago. Plant sap is used for healing sores and, together with Lannea welwitschii, as a mouth-wash for infections. Remarks The growing of this Photo: Rudy Schippers vegetable has been encouraged in D.R. Congo, especially in and around Kinshasa, for its value in promoting lactation in breast feeding mothers. References FAC 1954, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Burkill 1995, Paulus 1997, Nsimundele 2004, Schippers 2004 384 Psorospermum febrifugum (Hypericaceae) Common names Kisokosoko, nsoko nsoko (Kongo) Description A shrub or small tree to 6 m high. Bark is grey to brown, rough and rather corky, flaking or peeling in strips. Flowers are creamy-white, about 8 mm in diameter and sweet-scented. The stalks are covered with rusty coloured hairs. Fruits are about 6 mm in diameter. Ecology A common and widespread shrub of the savanna found from Guinea to Ethiopia and in Mozambique. Uses The bark, and particularly the root bark, is crushed, mixed with water or palm oil and rubbed on to treat skin problems e.g. scabies. I t is also used to treat sores in domestic rabbits. I n East Africa a decoction of the roots and leaves is drunk to cure leprosy. Bees collect nectar from this plant, which can often be found flowering in Bas-Congo. The bark can be used as an insecticide. The fruits are eaten in Tanzania. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Kokwaro 1976, Coates Palgrave 1983, Dupriez & De Leener 1993, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Latham 2003 385 Psychotria calva (Rubiaceae) Common names Kibofula, kimbafuela (Kongo), faux I péca (Fr.) Description A smooth-stemmed, straggling shrub with dense foliage growing to 3 m high or more. Ecology Grows beside streams, on the edge of closed forest or in savanna woodland. Found from Senegal to western Cameroon. Psychotria calva growing at the edge of woodland near Sombala Propagation The plant can be grown from seed, collected after it falls. Uses Leaves are eaten as a vegetable in Bas-Congo. The bark is used as an emetic. A maceration of the leaf is rubbed in or drunk to relieve headaches and depression. A root decoction, made up together with roots of Phyllanthus muellerianus and Harrisonia abyssinica, is taken for coughs or whooping cough elsewhere in Africa. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000 Hot peppers being dried (see page 103). 386 Pteridium centrali-africanum (Dennstaedtiaceae) Synonym P. aquilinum subsp. centrali-africanum Common names Nteko, matekwa tekwa, biteku, nkungambwa (Kongo), bracken Description An erect fern, from 1 to 3 m high, growing from long subterranean rhizomes. The plant reproduces from rhizomes as well as from spores. The stem is thick, rounded and hairy. The compound leaf is up to 45 cm long, triangular in outline and lobed. Each leaf is about 12 cm long, with approximately 21 pairs of leaflets. Ecology A common weed of field crops in the forest zone often found in dense concentrations along the edges of slopes on clay soils. Uses I n Bas-Congo the young shoots are cooked as a vegetable with onions etc. They are also used medicinally to ease chest pain, painful joints, and haemorrhoids. Bracken rhizomes are consumed by some people and constitute an important food among the Maoris in New Zealand. They have also been used to treat tapeworms. Rubber has been obtained from the plant in USA. Young growth can be grazed by livestock, if no other food is available, but it is toxic if eaten for more than 3 weeks. Remarks Munsuka ( I mbrasia anthina) and N'teku edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Pteridium centrali-africanum is also the food plant of Nyodes prasinodes edible caterpillar in Katanga. Warning The plant is probably carcinogenic and may also cause beriberi. References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Uphof 1968, Wild 1972, Arkinstall 1979, Malaisse & Parent 1980, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Konda et al. 1992, Kibungu Kembelo 1995 387 Pterocarpus angolensis (Papilionaceae) Common names Nkoso, lukungu nseke (Kongo & Yaka), African teak, bloodwood Description A shrub or small tree 4 – 5 m tall. Leaves are compound having 12 – 20 leaflets, each 4.5 – 7 by 2.5 – 3.8 cm. Red sap exudes from cuts which dries in a red mass. Orange-yellow, sweet scented flowers are produced before the leaves in large branched sprays. The circular fruits, 5 – 10 cm in diameter, are distinctive, and densely covered with stiff brown hairs. The pod contains one seed and has a wavy papery wing. Ecology I n Bas-Congo the tree is found in the savanna. I t prefers well drained soils. It is widespread in wooded grassland throughout Central and southern Africa. Propagation Use seed or large cuttings (2 m long). Collect pods and remove seed. Soak in water for 1 – 2 days then plant out direct as the tree has a long taproot. Germination takes 20 – 30 days. Growth is slow to start with but later becomes faster. Seed germination 30 - 70% . Management Light is important for good growth. The tree can be coppiced and is fire resistant. Uses The heartwood is a long lasting and an attractive golden red-brown colour. I t is easily worked and takes a good polish. The timber is used for construction and furniture. I t is also used for firewood, charcoal, tool handles, carving, beehives and poles. The tree fixes nitrogen and is planted for soil conservation. The inner bark is fibrous and used for making baskets. I n Namibia and Zimbabwe the heartwood from the roots is ground to powder and used as a red dye for palm leaf fibres to make woven baskets. Flowering trees are an important honey source. Pterocarpus species are important honeybee forage in equatorial and savanna zones of Africa. I n Lindi, Tanzania the trees are preserved in the forest for bee forage. References Renier 1948, Smith 1957, Williamson 1975, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Venter & Venter 1996, Malaisse 1997, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Aubrey 2003, Lalika & Machangu 2008, Takawira – Nyenya 2008 388 Punica granatum (Lythraceae) Common names Mukomamanga (Swahili), pomegranate Description A deciduous shrub or small crooked tree, up to 6 m tall, often much branched near the base; branches often ending in a spine, but also with axillary spines. Flowers are produced at the end of the twigs, and are waxy, red or paleyellow. Fruits are 6 - 12 cm in diameter varying in colour from yellowgreen to black-violet, and have leathery skins. Ecology An easily grown plant, it prefers a well-drained fertile soil in a sheltered sunny position. I t does not fruit well in humid conditions. The best fruits are produced where a cool period is followed by a hot dry season. Propagation Best to use hardwood or root cuttings, or air layering. For air layering separate the rooted branches from the mother tree after 3 - 4 months when they are properly rooted. These come into bearing quickly. For cuttings use hardwood cuttings of pencil thickness, more than 6 months and less than 2 years of age, taken from suckers at the base of a main stem if it can be assured that the mother tree was not grafted and is still of a preferred type. Remove leaves from the cuttings. Push almost the entire length into the soil, leaving the top bud exposed. Plant out after 9 months in the nursery. Uses The fruit is eaten fresh or the juice is extracted to prepare a refreshing, thirst-quenching drink called grenadine. I n Asia the juice is also thickened to syrup and used as a sauce. References Crane & Walker 1984, Sudiarto & Rifai 1991, Wikipedia (accessed 8.11.11), SEPASAL (accessed 8.11.11). 389 Pycnanthus angolensis (Myristicaceae) Common names Kilomba, nlomba, kunda mavondu (Kongo), faux muscadier (Fr.), false nutmeg, African nutmeg Description A tree growing to 30 m. Branches are bunched together at the top. The leaves are usually eaten by insects, so are rarely found entire. Ecology Found in secondary forest on clay soils or in valleys. Trees require an open site. Present from Guinea to Angola and across Africa to Uganda and Tanzania. Propagation Seed is collected from below the parent tree and is sown in pots after soaking in cold water for 24 hours. Uses Timber is uniform, greyish white to dull pink, soft and light. I t is easy to saw, plane and cut into planks. I t polishes and glues well. Widely used in house construction, for walls, doors and window frames. I t can be split into shingles but they only last for about 4 years. The timber is liable to be attacked by fungi, borers and termites. The wood makes good firewood. I n Bas-Congo, the latex from the bark is used to heal wounds and to stimulate lactation. The twigs, roots, seeds and leaves are also used medicinally. The seeds are an important source of fat and are extensively used for illumination and soap making. N'lombela edible caterpillars, which feed on the leaves, are a special food reserved for elders. Remarks The tree is invasive and fast growing. References Butaye 1909, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Burkill 1997 Fruit showing nutmeg-like aril: Photo: David Harris/ Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 390 Quassia africana (Simaroubaceae) Common names Minkadi nkadi, munkadi nkadi, yombo (Kongo) Description A shrub up to 3.5 m high. Bark is greyish green. Branches and branchlets are glabrous. Leaves are alternate, and compound with 1 - 7 opposite leaflets, 5 – 20 cm long and 2 – 8 cm wide. Petioles are 3 - 15 cm long. The terminal leaflet is slightly larger than the lateral leaflets. I nflorescence is terminal, 12 – 20 cm long. Petals are whitish to yellowish with a pinkish tinge. The plant flowers throughout the year. Ecology Present in lowland rainforest in the transition zone from evergreen to semi- deciduous forest. Found from western Cameroon to D.R. Congo and Angola. Roots being sold in a local market. Uses All parts are very bitter. I n Bas-Congo a decoction is used to kill intestinal worms. I t is also used to make up lotions to treat oedema. The wood is used as a tonic and to reduce fever. I n Manianga the leaves and roots are used to treat hernias. Roots are used in Equateur to expel intestinal worms and to treat severe menstrual pain. An infusion of the root is used to treat bronchial illness and to reduce fever. The whole plant is used to treat syphilitic chancres. An ointment is made of the root bark with palm oil for dealing with lice. Extracts of Quassia species are used as insecticides in horticulture. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner and Boutique, 1937, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, FAO 1986, Burkill 2000, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 2012 Left & above: Quassia amara, a species introduced from Brazil, which is used to treat stomach disorders and as an insecticide. 391 Raphia gentiliana (Arecaceae) Synonym R. gilletii Common names Koko, ba di magusu (Kongo), raffia Uses The leaf stems are used for making hammocks, beds and various items of furniture. Traditionally raffia fibres from the young leaves were used to weave mbari, a loin cloth worn for dances. The palm is tapped for palm wine. Honeybees collect nectar from some species and may be responsible for pollination. Remarks After flowering the palm dies. There are many vernacular names for species of Raphia but these are not always used for the same species. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Crane & Walker 1984, Pauwels 1993, Nsimundele 2004 Koko flowering at Matolo’s farm near Kasangulu and (below) growing in secondary forest near Kintudi village 392 Left: The “Bimango” hive designed by a commercial beekeeper from Brazzaville and made up from Raphia gentiliana leaf stems. Right: A young mechanic with his I zuzu truck made from Koko palm stems. Roof made of Raphia palm leaves 393 Raphia matombe (Arecaceae) Common names Tombe, ba di matombe (Kongo), raffia Ecology A small palm found in damp and swampy sites. Uses The leaf stems are used to produce village furniture and the palm is tapped for palm wine. Fibre is extracted from the young leaves, which is used to make mats, fabrics and string. The kernel is eaten while still gelatinous as a vegetable. The heart of the trunk can also be eaten in times of scarcity (Personal communication – Gracia Matondo). Honeybees collect nectar from some species and may be responsible for pollination. Remarks R. laurentii is also present in BasCongo. Reference Gillet & Paque 1910, Purseglove 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Crane & Walker 1984, Pauwels 1993, Nsimundele 2004 A bed and cupboard being made up near Mbanza Nzundu by Papa Antoine 394 Raphia sese (Arecaceae) Common names Nsaku (Kongo = knife with a long blade), ba di magangu (Kongo). Description A palm which grows in dense clumps up to 10 m tall. Female flowers are produced at the base and male flowers higher up the spike. Ecology Found in certain marshy sites. I t is also present in the central forest zone of D.R. Congo. 395 Uses The pulp around the seeds is edible and contains a yellow-orange oil composed of over 70% unsaturated fatty acids (compared with 55% for palm oil). The fruits are piled up and covered with branches and foliage until mature. The scales surrounding the flesh are then removed by soaking or by boiling the fruits in water. The flesh is eaten as a condiment and to regulate sugar intake for diabetes. The leaf stalks were traditionally used to make nsaku (a knife with a long blade). Wine is also obtained from the stems. Honeybees collect nectar from some species and may be responsible for pollination. Left: The peeled fruits and nuts. References Gillet & Paque 1910, Crane & Walker 1984, Pauwels 1993, Kanika et al. 2004, Biloso & Lejoly 2006, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 Konda ku Mbuta (left) with fruits after removal of the outer scales. The flesh is eaten with cassava. The nuts are discarded. 396 Rauvolfia mannii (Apocynaceae) Synonym R. obscura Common names Ndungu zi matebo, ndungu zi misitu (Kongo), zumbu (Yaka dial.), musitu (Manianga). Description A shrub or small tree 1 -2 m high. Leaves from 4.5 – 9 cm long and 1.5 – 3 cm wide. The flowers are fragrant. The red fruits are 6 – 10 mm long. Ecology Commonly found in secondary forest. Occurs from Liberia to Kenya and south to Angola and Malawi. Uses The roots are boiled in water and used to treat abdominal pain in Manianga. Elsewhere in D.R. Congo dried or fresh roots in palm wine or water are taken to treat gastro intestinal disorders, poisoning, jaundice, gonorrhoea or female sterility. Root powder is applied to wounds to improve healing. Root powder, fruit pulp or pulped seeds are rubbed on the head to kill lice and to other parts of the body to kill skin parasites. A root decoction is taken to treat fever and diabetes. Rauvolfia species are important bee forage plants in wet savanna and equatorial zones in Africa. References Arkinstall 1979, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Schmelzer 2007 397 Rauvolfia vomitoria (Apocynaceae) Common names Kilungu (Kongo), zumbu (Yaka) Description A shrub or small tree growing from 4 to 6 m high with whorled branches and branchlets. Ecology Grows in secondary forest and tropical savanna. Found from Guinea to Sudan and south to Angola and Mozambique. Propagation Fruits are collected when ripe and dried. The seed is then sown direct into the field fairly soon afterwards as it only retains its viability for about a month. The tree can also be grown from cuttings. Management Seedlings transplant easily and grow quickly. Plants can be grown as a hedge. The tree can be coppiced or pollarded. Uses An important medicinal tree, the pulverized root bark was traditionally exported from the Congo to treat arterial hypertension. The root yields reserpine which produces a long sedative reaction. The root bark is now used in Bas-Congo to treat insanity and the latex from young leaves for stomach pain. A decoction of the bark can be used as an insecticide. The tree has many other medicinal uses in Africa, e.g. the root bark is also used to treat dental caries, abscesses and external parasites and the boiled roots and leaves are used to treat intestinal worms or as a purgative. The leaves, heated in oil obtained from the seeds of Baillonella toxisperma, are used in Gabon as an ointment to treat rheumatism. The tree is widely planted as an ornamental. The wood is white and fine grained but has little economic importance, though it is suitable for firewood. A yellow dye can be produced from the bark. Bees are reported to visit the flowers. Dindeengula edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. References Gillet 1927, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Katende et al. 1995, White & Abernethy 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Raemaekers 2001 398 Rhabdophyllum arnoldianum (Ochnaceae) Synonym R. arnoldianum var. arnoldianum Common names Mpakasa, kikomba, mvuma, mukubi (Kongo) Both photos: David Harris/ Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh Description A tree 3 – 10 m tall. The trunk is often fluted and irregular in diameter. Bark is reddish and fibrous. Leaves are 7.5 – 13 cm long and 2.5 – 4 cm wide. I nflorescence is a raceme 8 – 18 cm long composed of 20 or more flowers. Fruits are 6 – 9 mm long. When in fruit the calyx turns pink and from a distance the tree appears to be covered with pink flowers, as with some Ochna species. Ecology Present in secondary and swamp forest in Cameroon, Sudan, Gabon and both Congos. Uses The branches are used as brushes. The leaves are edible and were traditionally sold in markets in Bas-Congo. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Pauwels 1993, Harris & Wortley 2008, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Harris et al. 2011 399 Ricinodendron heudelotii (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Kingela (Kongo), cork wood tree Description A fast growing tree with a straight trunk up to 50 m tall. Branchlets have a dense covering of brown hair when young. Leaves are compound having 3 to 6 leaflets. Fruit is produced after 7 - 10 years. The tree is deep rooting and can live for 200 years. Ecology Common in fringing, deciduous and secondary forests in tropical Africa. Found from Guinea to Angola and from East Africa to Sudan. I t grows in acid, well drained soils. Thrives in hot humid climates but can also withstand drought. As long as it is not subjected to heavy competition for light, it thrives in a range of soil, moisture and drainage conditions. Propagation Easily grown from 1 m long cuttings but also from seed which is sown direct into the field. Wild seedlings can be transplanted and grow well. Nuts are removed from decayed fruits and sown in shaded nurseries. As the shells surrounding the nuts are very hard, emergence takes place after many months but after that growth is rapid. Transplant seedlings when they reach 0.5 m high. The young plants are often attacked by insects. Management The tree can be pollarded or coppiced and can be grown with other orchard plants (bananas, palms and seasonal crops) as it has a deep root system which does not compete with crops. Uses Wood is white and soft, light, buoyant and perishable. I t is used for coffins, rough planks, drums, funeral horns (nsukulu) and mortars. The wood ash is used as a cooking salt, for making soap and in the indigo industry. The kernels are sometimes eaten after boiling in water or in a sauce in a similar way to groundnuts. The nut contains 15 - 45% oil and the tree could become a major source of cooking oil. The sap from the bark is used to treat diarrhoea and an infusion of the bark is used as an enema. Leaves and shoots produce a high quality sheep and goat fodder with an average of 16% Flowering branch protein. I t has no known toxicity. The tree was traditionally planted to attract Mvinsu ( I mbrasia epimethea) caterpillars in Bas-Congo. Minsendi, Mimpemba, Kaba ( Lobobunaea phaedusa) and Bisu ( I mbrasia petiveri) edible caterpillars also feed on the leaves. I f I mbrasia epimethea 400 caterpillars are found on a tree planted in a village, they belong to the owner of the tree. I t used to be a custom to plant these trees on or near graves in Bas-Congo. Leaves are used as wrapping material and for mulching. Being deep rooting it is useful for erosion control and soil improvement. Edible mushrooms are commonly produced at the base of the trees. Bees work the flowers in the early morning, probably for nectar. Tree with unripe fruit Remarks To store the nuts they should be removed from the decayed fruits picked up under the trees. They are then put into boiling water for an hour and a quarter in order to soften the shells. Kernels are removed from the split nuts and smoked, after which they will keep for several years. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, I rvine 1961, Busson 1965, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Anigbogu 1996, Mapongmetsem 1996, Shiembo et al. 1997, Sunderland et al. 1999, Neuwinger 2000, Latham 2003, Meunier et al. 2010 I mbrasia petiveri 401 Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Mpuluka (Kongo), ricin (Fr.), castor oil plant Description A shrub to 3 m high, often branching at the base. Leaves are alternate, dark green or red on long leaf stalks. Male and female flowers are borne separately. The fruit is a spiny capsule containing 3 seeds. Ecology Originally from North and East Africa. I t is present throughout the tropics and often cultivated. Propagation Seeds Photo: Dinesh Valke remain viable for 2 to 3 years. Even germination is obtained by pouring boiling water over them and leaving them to soak for 24 hours. Uses Castor oil, extracted from the seeds, is sometimes used as a drastic purgative, but its use for this purpose is not recommended. I t is used to treat body vermin and parasitic skin diseases. Women apply the boiled leaves to their breasts to stop the flow of milk. The burnt seeds were traditionally made into powder and applied to the skin when mourning for the dead. The oil burns with a clear light. I t can be used in insecticides, for wood preservation and in anti-malarial sprays. Castor oil is used commercially in paints, varnishes, lubricants, greases, hydraulic fluids, soap, printing ink and various chemicals. After extracting the oil the cake can be used as a fertilizer. Bees occasionally collect nectar from glands on the young leaves. Warning Keep the seeds aw ay from children. They contain ricin a lethal toxin. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Crane & Walker 1984, I wu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, van Wyk et al. 1997 402 Rinorea oblongifolia (Violaceae) Common name Nkuta kani (Kongo) Photo: David Harris/ Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh Description A shrub or small tree up to 13 m tall. Leaves are large, 14 - 28 cm long and 4 – 10 cm wide on a petiole 1.5 – 5 cm long. Flowers are greenish-yellow and waxy, 5 – 7 mm, in terminal flower heads 5 – 10 cm long. Sepals are mauve or brown. Fruits are oval, 2.3 cm x 1.6 cm. Ecology Grows in the undergrowth of lowland rainforest. Trees are often found together in groups near water. They are also found in seasonally flooded forest. Present from Sierra Leone to Gabon and D.R. Congo and from Sudan to Uganda. Uses The wood is coarse and yellow. Stems are used as walking sticks and for spoons and combs. A root extract is drunk as a purgative in the Central African Republic. References I rvine 1961, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Harris et al. 2011 Making up a mat (mfubu) from Pandanus candelabrum leaves. 403 Rourea coccinea subsp. coccinea (Connaraceae) Synonym Byrsocarpus coccineus Description A scrambling or climbing shrub with prominent and numerous corky spots or breathing pores on the bark. Leaves are compound with 6 – 9 pairs of leaflets, becoming larger near the apex, reddish-orange and delicate when young, turning light green later. Leaflets are 2.5 cm long with a rounded apex. Flowers are scented, small and white or pinkish. Fruits are over 1.5 cm long, yellow or red, splitting down one side, releasing a black seed almost surrounded by a bright yellow fleshy aril. Ecology Grows in savanna thickets and secondary forest from Guinea to west Cameroon and widespread in tropical Africa. Uses I n Bas-Congo the crushed leaves are used as an emetic. The leaves and roots are used in Ghana, Nigeria and Sierra Leone to treat piles, flatulence, venereal diseases, urinary problems, swellings and tumours, jaundice, intestinal worms, cuts and bruises, earache, sore throat, muscular and rheumatic pains and sores in the mouth. References I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1985, Neuwinger 2000 Professor Luc Pauwels with Kibungu Kembelo, past director of Kisantu Botanic Garden, collecting herbarium specimens of Amoora rohituka. 404 Rumex usambarensis (Polygonaceae) Common name Oseille chinoise Description A weak shrub, sometimes almost a climber, with oblong leaves having pointed tips and outward pointing lobes at the base. The flowers are carried as a complex red panicle about 7.5 cm across. Left: Rumex usambarensis growing in a compound at Teki village near Kisantu Ecology I t is sometimes cultivated and grows best in soils rich in humus. Found in Central, East and southern Africa and introduced into D.R. Congo. Common in grassland and woodlands between 900 and 2,400 m in East Africa. Uses The leaves are eaten raw or as a vegetable in Bas-Congo. Raw stems are chewed for their sour and salty taste. The stems are roasted and eaten with sugar or salt in Kenya. They should be peeled or cleaned before eating. I n Kenya, the roots are used to treat scabies and in Uganda are a source of dye. The fresh leaves, sap and roots are used medicinally in Africa to treat diabetes, conjunctivitis, pain, colds, coughs, diarrhoea, bilharzia and asthma and to aid digestion. References Goode 1974, Katende et al. 1999, Maundu et al. 1999, Neuwinger 2000 405 Rungia congoensis (Acanthaceae) Common name Kinzonzi (Kongo) Description A small creeping, herbaceous plant growing to 20 cm tall and 30 cm long. Leaves have petioles 1-3 cm long, and are opposite, hairless and wedge shaped at the base. Ecology Grows in cool shady sites. Also present in southern Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon Uses The leaves are eaten as a vegetable in Bas-Congo. The dried leaves are also ground and mixed with simsim paste and eaten with meat, beans and squash as for Ocimum gratissimum . References FG 1966, Terra 1966, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983 406 Saba comorensis (Apocynaceae) Synonym S. florida Common name Dimputu (Kongo)(Mputu = Europe = something which is better). Description An extensive forest creeper growing from 20 – 50 m long, scrambling over trees and bushes at the forest edge. All parts exude white milky latex when cut. Bark is smooth and brown. I t has brown tendrils up to 12 cm long. Leaves are large oval to oblong leathery and glossy with a rounded to heart shaped base 7 – 16 x 4 – 8.5 cm long and a rounded tip. Flowers are in dense terminal bunches, white with a yellow throat, sweet scented and 3.5 cm long. Fruits are round berries 2.5 – 7 cm with a thick green skin which turns yellow or orange with age containing sweet-sour pulp. The skin dries to a hard brown shell. The numerous seeds are contained in the brown pulp. Ecology Common at forest edges and in thickets of riverine forest and rain forest. Widespread in West, Central and East Africa to Ethiopia and southern Somalia and also present in Mozambique. I t is found on alluvial sandy clay or on rocky ground. 407 Propagation Seeds germinate easily after passing through an animal’s gut. Left: Latex oozing from a cut in the stem. Uses The latex is hard and resinous and sometimes used to adulterate that of Landolphia owariensis. Children use it to make balls. The edible fruit is very popular in Bas-Congo. They are cut open, the seeds are sucked and the pulp eaten. The pulp has a sweet-sour taste similar to tamarind. An infusion made from the leaves is used to relieve back-ache and hypertension. A boiled root decoction is drunk to treat rheumatism and infertility in women. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees. Rubber used to be extracted from the plant during the 1939 - 45 war. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Beentje 1994, Katende et al. 1999, Maundu 1999, Neuwinger 2000, Ruffo et al. 2002 Photo: Robert Copeland Leaves of a Marantaceae species grown for wrapping chikwangue 408 Saccharum officinarum (Poaceae) Common names Munse, mukuku (Kongo), canne à sucre (Fr.), sugar cane Ecology Frequently grown in small plots, especially around homes. I t requires high temperatures, fertile, and if possible heavy soils, with a high rainfall. Adequate manuring is required. Propagation Stem cuttings from immature canes, 8 - 12 months old, are used for planting. The canes should be topped a week before cuttings are taken and only the top third of the cane taken for best production. They should have 3 buds. Space at 1.5 - 1.8 m x 60 cm planting at an angle of 45° or flat in the base of a furrow. Planting should be done early in the rain season. Management Sugar cane is a perennial crop. The first crop takes 15 - 16 months to mature. After harvest the stumps are left to produce two to four further crops, each taking about a year to mature. Uses Mainly grown for chewing which promotes salivation with a cleansing action as with a chew-stick. The juice is extracted to prepare malafu or lungwila (a milky, heady beer). Sucrose is extracted for sugar and molasses for local use or commercial sale. I ndustrial alcohol is made from molasses and can be used as a motor fuel. Molasses is also used to make yeast and as a stock food. Under certain conditions the treatment of molasses with urea converts sugars into a protein substitute which can be eaten by ruminants. The fibrous residue, bagasse, is used as a stock feed, often with molasses, but can also be used to make paper, cardboard and fibre board. Bees forage for sap exuding from cut stems and burnt canes. Remarks A variety, called Minsengo, preferred for making minsanga beer. is References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Purseglove 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Crane et al. 1984, Burkill 1994 Right: Extracting juice from small pieces of cane with a hand-operated press. 409 Salacia pynaertii (Celastraceae) Synonym Salacia elegans var. pynaertii Common name Mbondi (Kongo) Salacia pynaertii in cleared forest near Kintudi village Description A strong-growing creeper from 2 to 40 m long. Leaves are 3.5 – 18 long and 1.5 – 8 cm wide, opposite, with short petioles 2 – 12 mm long. Flowers are yellow to brown 3 – 4 mm in diameter. Fruits are globular, 1.5 – 3 cm in diameter. Ecology Found in secondary and swamp forest. With the reduction in the length of the forest fallow and possible over-collection this plant has become rare in some areas of Bas-Congo. Propagation The plant can be grown from cuttings. Uses Eaten as a vegetable in Bas-Congo. There was an the road to Kimvula. The fresh leaves contain over 3% with peanuts (together with caterpillars or mushrooms (together with mushrooms, caterpillars or flying ants). species are eaten. important market for this plant at Kinzala, on protein and are usually pounded and cooked and local tomatoes) or with pumpkin seeds The fruits of this and several other related References Adriaens 1951, FAC 1960, Mbemba and Remacle 1992, Peters et al. 1992, Nsimundele 2004 410 Sansevieria trifasciata (Dracaenaceae) Common names Lunioka nioka, dinioka nioka, kula nioka (= snake; the markings resemble those of some snakes)(Kongo), sansévière (Fr.), bowstring hemp, mother-in-law’s tongue, leopard lily, snake plant Description Plants grow 50 – 80 cm tall and taper at both ends and have a thick fibrous texture. Leaves have a semi-transparent and pinkish-tinged margin. The plants grow in a rosette from a thick underground rhizome. Flowers are cream and arranged in small clusters and borne on a spike. The flowers are fragrant and soon drop. Fruits are slightly 3 lobed, round, red or orange. Ecology Grows in clumps in shady places, by streams, on rocky outcrops and on termite mounds in grassland and forest from Senegal to Central African Republic and south to D.R. Congo. Propagation by division or by leaf tip cuttings. Uses Leaves contain about 2% fibre which is sometimes extracted to make rope or bowstrings. I n I ndia up to 1,500 kg of a fine white fibre per hectare are obtained. I n South Africa Sansevieria species are also used to treat to haemorrhoids. Plants are sometimes grown as ornamentals. Remarks A number of species has been described from West Africa but they are all similar in appearance. S. liberica is perhaps the commonest and most widespread species. References Morton 1961, Purseglove 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Macmillan 1991, Burkill 1995, van Wyk et al. 1997 411 Santiria trimera (Burseraceae) Common names Mpangi nsafu, nkaka nsafu (Kongo) Description A medium sized forest tree up to 26 m tall with winged buttresses or stilt roots. The compound leaves have 7 – 9 leaflets, 15 – 19 cm long and 5 – 7 cm wide. Bark is normally quite smooth and grey with a strong turpentine smell. Flowers are yellow. The round fruits are purplish black to black, about 2 cm in diameter and also have a smell of turpentine. Ecology Present in the lower storey of closed forests from Sierra Leone to Cabinda and D.R. Congo (Mayombe, Bas-Congo and the Central Forest zone). Both photos: Carel Jongkind/ Fauna & Flora I nternational Uses I n Bas-Congo a decoction of the leaves is used to treat asthma, liver problems and coughs. The resin is used to treat rheumatism. The greyish to yellowish brown timber is fine grained and even textured. Wood is sometimes used for carving and domestic articles. I n Gabon the aerial roots are used to decorate axe handles and hunting bows. The bark is aromatic smelling like balsam and yields an oleo-resin. I n Congo (Brazzaville) powdered bark with salt and palm oil is given to children for whooping cough, and is also used to expel intestinal worms. Bark decoctions are used in massages, vapour baths for fever pains and for eczema. The fruits are eaten in some countries but taste and smell of turpentine. References Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993 412 Sarcocephalus latifolius (Rubiaceae) Common names Kienga, kilolo ki kienga (Kongo) Description A climbing shrub or small tree 5 - 6 m high. I t has deep roots. Ecology Grows best in medium loamy, acid, well drained soil. There are two forms one growing in the savanna and the other in the forest. The tree is common throughout West Africa and across the Congo basin to Uganda. Right: A rooted cutting at the Kavwaya nursery. Propagation The tree can be grown from seed or cuttings but the seeds are even smaller than those of Eucalyptus. When the fruit is ripe it falls to the ground. Gather them together and allow the outer coat to decompose or the fruits can be mashed and floated in a pail of water. The seeds will then separate and sink to the bottom after which they can be collected and dried. Store in a sealed container in a dry place and plant within 2 months. Before planting immerse seed in hot water, allow it to cool and soak for 24 hours. Wild seedlings can also be transplanted. Left: Bunaea alcinoe feeding on the leaves in January. Uses The wood is yellow and suitable for carving, furniture-making and veneers. I t is also used for making charcoal, for firewood and for live stakes for fencing. The bark is an effective worm remedy. I n Bas-Congo the roots are used for the treatment of abdominal pains and diarrhoea. They have been found to contain a substance similar to the pain-killer tramadol. Elsewhere they are used to treat fevers. The fruits are edible but not particularly liked. I n Bas-Congo bees visit the flowers from October to December. Makedi kedi ( Bunaea alcinoe) and Munsona ( Platysphinx sp.) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Arkinstall 1979, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Burkill 1997, Latham 2003, Boumendjel et al. 2013 413 Sauvagesia erecta (Ochnaceae) Common name Nkaka kizionzi (Kongo) Photo: D. Solano, I NBio 'Darwin I nitiative Project 162/ 12/ 020' Description A scrambling annual or perennial herb, 5 – 60 cm tall, often with elongated branches from near the base. Stems are red or tinged with purple, wiry and angular. Leaves are toothed, 0.8 – 3 cm long. Flowers are axillary, usually solitary having white to pinkish petals. Fruit is a capsule approximately 5 mm long. Ecology Found in damp sites throughout wetter areas of tropical Africa, often as a weed in rice. Uses The leaves and young shoots are used in soup. The whole plant is mucilaginous and used medicinally in Gabon and Nigeria for its diuretic effect. I t is also used in Nigeria to treat opthalmia. References Gillet & Paque 1910, Flora Zambesiaca 1963, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000 414 Scadoxus multiflorus (Amaryllidaceae) Synonym Haemanthus multiflorus Common names Boule de feu (Fr.), African blood lily, fireball lily Photo: Marissa Rose Description A fleshy herbaceous plant with a large bulb, 6.5 cm in diameter, bearing strap like leaves, 25 cm long by 8 cm wide, in a whorl from the base. These appear during the rain season. The inflorescence is an umbel of red flowers 15 cm in diameter, borne on a spotted stalk 20 – 40 cm tall. This appears in the dry season while the bulb is still leafless. Fruits are orange 5 – 8 mm diameter. Ecology Found in savanna woodland, along forest margins and in secondary forests throughout tropical Africa. Also present in the Arabian peninsula. I t will grow well even in heavy shade. The soil must be well-drained, rich and light, with plenty of leaf-mould or well-rotted compost. Propagation is by seed and offsets. The seed should be sown as soon as it is ripe. Clean the pulp off, with care as the seed underneath is soft and fleshy. Press the seed gently into the soil, do not cover it but leave the tops just visible or level with the soil surface. Offsets should be removed after flowering and replanted immediately. Rootstocks are planted just below the ground and are best left undisturbed in the same position for many years. Management This is a good plant for shady gardens or it can be grown in large containers in the shade. I t does not seem to mind competition from tree roots. Keep damp but not waterlogged. Uses The crushed bulbs are used to treat scabies in Bas-Congo. Honeybees collect abundant pollen from the flowers. Elsewhere in Africa the bulb is used to treat dropsy and wounds. The plant is often grown as an ornamental. Remarks The plant is poisonous. The genus Scadoxus contains alkaloid-rich, strongly toxic species. References Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Burkill 1985, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Roodt 1998, Llamas 2003, Baumann 2005, Fayaz 2011 415 Schw enckia americana (Solanaceae) Common names nzila, tumpu (Kongo) di Lunzila nkombo Description A slender, erect, annual herb, woody at the base, much branched and growing from 30 to 60 cm tall. Leaves are alternate, the lower leaves being larger with distinct stalks up to 1 cm long. Leaf blades ovate, 4 cm long and 2.5 cm wide with a blunt tip. Upper leaves are small and without stalks. The white flowers are borne at the top of the stems. Ecology Common in waste places and a weed in cultivated land from Senegal to Cameroon and elsewhere in Africa. I t is also found in tropical America. Propagation The plant can be grown from seed. Uses I n Bas-Congo, the root and leaves are used to treat diabetes, protein malnutrition in young children, sciatica, chest pain, gastritis, hernias, rheumatism and asthma. A decoction of the leaves is used to ease pain in pregnant women and as a purgative for children. Elsewhere in Africa the plant is used as a purgative and to treat anxiety, colic, constipation, conjunctivitis, convulsions with fever, measles, chicken-pox, oedema and respiratory diseases in children. Warning I t is reported that all parts of the plant can cause the destruction of red blood cells. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Arkinstall 1979, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 416 Sclerocroton cornutus (Euphorbiaceae) Synonym Sapium cornutum Common names Ntiti, kititi, ntiti mbwela (Kongo) Ripening fruit on a tree at Mbanza Nzundu Description A shrub or small tree from 1.5 to 12 m high. Leaves 10 – 13 cm long and 4.5 - 6 cm wide. Male flowers are catkin like, 3 – 16 cm long, several in each bract. Female flowers are 1 mm. The ribbed and horned fruits turn yellow then red on ripening. Ecology I n Bas-Congo it is commonly found in secondary forest and wooded savanna, especially on sandy soils. Present in closed forest from Sierra Leone to Liberia and from Cameroon to Angola. Plants prefer well drained soils. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Management The tree coppices well. Right: Male flowers Uses In Bas-Congo a decoction of the leaves is used for coughs and river blindness. Crushed leaves are applied to insect or snake bites. Host plant for Ntiti, Nsatiti, Nsila and Kaba ( Lobobunaea phaedusa) edible caterpillars. Bees collect nectar from the male flowers throughout the day. References I rvine 1961, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Latham 2003 417 Sclerosperma mannii (Arecaceae) Common names Mabondo (leaves like feathers), ba di magangu, gangu (Kongo) Description A virtually stemless palm producing suckers and arched leaves up to 5 m long. Ecology The plant grows beside rivers and in damp places. Found from Ghana to Cameroon and in Gabon and Angola. Propagation Can be grown from suckers split from the parent plant. Uses Leaves are used for roofing houses, matting and for hut walls. The unripe fruits are soft and jelly-like and can be eaten but become hard with age. Leaf ash is applied to the eyelid to treat eyeworm. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tereshima et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, Nsimundele 2004 House near Madimba roofed with Sclerosperma mannii 418 Scoparia dulcis (Plantaginaceae) Common names Kiese kiese (Kiese = happiness) (Kongo), balai doux (Fr.), sweet broom weed Description A tough, erect, leafy, much branched, shrubby herb to 90 cm high. The stem is more or less woody, ribbed and hairless. The leaves are opposite, or 3 to a node, oval or spear-like, about 2.5 - 5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide, the upper half widely toothed and wedge shaped at the base. The leaf blade has a smooth surface, though the lower surface has some glandular dots. The inflorescence is a slender raceme with 1 or 2 flowers in the upper leaf axils. The flowers are white or tinged with blue. The fruit is a round capsule. Left: Scoparia dulcis growing at the side of a house in Nsumba village Ecology Native to Central America, now commonly found in waste and damp places throughout the tropics. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Uses A medicinal plant used to treat tooth-ache and dental caries. When the plant is chewed the leaf is at first bitter but then becomes sweet. I t is also used as a sweetener when taking unpleasant tasting medicines. There are numerous other medicinal uses for this plant in Africa (e.g. a decoction of the leaves is taken to treat stomach ulcers, or dropped into the ears to treat inflammation). The plant is sometimes used as a broom. Remarks Kyese kyese means joy in Kikongo – probably a reference to the sweet taste of the leaves. References Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Pousset 2004 Photo: Phuong Tran 419 Scorodophloeus zenkeri (Caesalpiniaceae) Common names Kiwaya, ngakala (Kongo), arbre à ail (Fr.). Kiwaya is also used for Olax gambecola and Hua gabonii. Description A tree growing from 25 – 40 m high and up to 80 cm diameter. The whole tree, but especially the bark, has the smell of garlic, particularly after rain. Bark in young trees is smooth, pale yellow-grey becoming flaky later. Trees may have a slightly fluted base. The leaves are composed of 5 – 10 pairs of alternate, asymetrical leaflets. I ndividual leaflets, 3.5 – 4.5 long and 1.3 – 2 cm wide, are sessile and rounded at the top, unequal at the base. Flowers are borne in tight bunches 5 – 8 cm long. The fruits are small pale-green pods 7.5 – 13.5 x 3.5 cm. Ecology The tree is present in Cameroon, Gabon and in D.R. Congo in Mayombe, Kasai, Forestier Centrale as well as Bas-Congo province. Trees are found in forests on firm soils, and are often gregarious. Uses The bark (see below left) has a garlic flavour and is used as a condiment in Bas-Congo. The leaves are also edible. I n Bas-Congo the bark is used, together with Aframomum melegueta, in the treatment of haemorrhoids. The bark is also used to treat weight loss and diabetes in combination with other plants. The seeds are used to treat hookworm infection and heavy and prolonged periods. The Mongo people also use the bark, stems, twigs and trunk medicinally. I n Gabon an infusion of the bark is used to treat constipation and powdered bark is used to treat headaches. References De Wildeman 1934, Hulstaert 1966, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, White & Abernethy 1997, Kouokam et al. 2002, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004 420 Sechium edule (Cucurbitaceae) Common names Christophine or chouchou (Fr.), chayote, vegetable pear Description A vigorous, climbing, perennial herb with a large tuberous root. The plant may grow 10 15 m long in one season. Fruit is a one-seeded, fleshy berry, commonly pear-shaped, furrowed, yellowgreen and 7 - 20 cm long. Male and female flowers are separate but on the same plant. Fruits exposed to sun are light yellow but in the shade are dark green. Ecology Originally from Southern Mexico and Central America but now grown throughout the tropics, though not very popular in Africa. I t does best in rich well-drained soils and is not tolerant of waterlogging. I t is susceptible to drought and high wind. Tolerant to high temperatures, though relatively cool nights appear to encourage fruit development. I t produces well in light shade. Propagation A mature fruit is planted to a depth of two thirds of its length in prepared planting holes, with the widest end downwards or on its side. Plant rows at 100 - 120 cm with plants at 60 - 75 cm. I t can also be grown from stem cuttings 15 - 20 cm long. These must be shaded and kept moist. Plants require supports of poles or a trellis. Tubers do not develop until the second year. Management Fruits are ready for harvest at 100 - 120 days from planting and the harvesting period continues over a long period. Replace plants after 3 years because of disease problems. I f tubers are dug up individually the plant will continue to grow and produce more tubers. Uses Young leaves are used as a vegetable. They are rich in vitamins A and C, the B vitamins, calcium and iron. The immature fruits, young leaves and shoots, and tuberous roots are eaten elsewhere. Fruits vary in flavour from bland to sweet or starchy. The tuberous roots can be cooked as a staple food. They are a good source of easily digestible starch. The flowers are reported to be very attractive to honey bees and are produced throughout the year. References Gillet 1927, Portugal-Araújo 1974, Tindall 1983, Crane et al. 1984, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek 1993, Robinson & Decker-Walters 1997 421 Securidaca longipedunculata (Polygalaceae) Common names Nsunda, nkama nsunda (Kongo), violet tree Description An attractive tree from 4 to 5 m tall. The root bark is strongly scented. Fruits are more or less a round nut, usually veined, occasionally smooth, bearing a single, oblong, rather curved, wing up to 4 cm long. The wing is purplish-green when young becoming pale, straw-coloured when mature. Ecology Usually a savanna shrub, but sometimes found in forest. Found most commonly in tropical Africa, and present from Sudan to South Africa and westwards to Senegal. Found on sandy or rocky soils. Propagation Seed should be soaked in cold water for 24 hours. Sow direct into final planting site. The seed can be stored for long periods at room temperature if kept dry. Seedlings do not transplant easily. The tree can be propagated from cuttings of the root shoots. Management The tree is slow growing. Right: Tree in flower in October Uses The Kongo name indicates that this plant has a hundred uses. The root is boiled and the vapour inhaled to treat fever. The root is rubbed in to treat rheumatism. The roots are also made into a drink to treat chest pain. Decoctions are taken for chest complaints while the roots are chewed for toothache. A hot water poultice of the roots is reported to give relief from the symptoms of rheumatism. The volatile oil of the roots contains large amounts of methyl salicylate, better known as Wintergreen oil. Seeds are rich in oil which is used as a snake repellent, being applied to bracelets and anklets. A fibre, obtained from the 422 branches, is of excellent quality, especially from the young annual shoots, and is used for making string. Poles are resistant to rot and termites. The wood is suitable for firewood and charcoal. The flowers are known as an important source of nectar and pollen in Ethiopia. The young leaves are eaten in Malawi. Remarks There are two varieties in the province, var. longepedunculata and var. parvifolia. Warning Great care should be taken with all medicinal uses of this plant as it can be highly poisonous. Left: Root and branch of Securidaca longipedunculata References I rvine 1961, Watt & BreyerBranwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Williamson 1975, Coates Palgrave 1983, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Mbuya et al. 1994, Malaisse 1997, van Wyk et al. 1997, Dery & Otsyina 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004, Fichtl 2013 Cane rats, (nsisi in Kikongo or nsimbiliki in Lingala), are often hunted or trapped for food. Here two young trappers prepare to catch rats at Boko Buansa, near Kavwaya. 423 Securidaca w elw itschii (Polygalaceae) Common name Bilengu (Kongo) Plant photographed in the Kisantu botanic garden Description A climbing shrub or creeper, 10 – 15 m long. Leaf blade is up to 10 cm long and 5 cm wide, glabrous (or nearly so) and having a pointed tip. Leaf stalk is up to 8 mm long. The flowers are similar to S. longipedunculata but smaller with wing sepals up to 8 mm long. Fruit is also similar but the wing is narrower and less oblique. Ecology Present in evergreen forest from Guinea across Central Africa to Uganda and Angola. Uses The leaves are eaten as a vegetable in Bas-Congo being reported to be more tender than Gnetum species. The sap can be drunk in place of water. The plant is used medicinally in Gabon and the Central African Republic. Securidaca species are important bee forage in northern wet and dry savanna zones in Africa. References FZ 1960, Williamson 1975, Burkill 1997, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 Dried chopped fruits of Solanum macrocarpon for sale. (See page 439). 424 Senna alata (Caesalpiniaceae) Synonym Cassia alata Common names Bwalu, bawu bawu (Kongo), dartrier (Fr.), ring-worm bush Senna alata at Mbanza Ntadi village in Manianga Description A shrub, 2 to 5 m high, with large compound leaves, having 7 - 14 pairs of leaflets each 7 - 14 cm long and 3 - 13.5 cm wide. The yellow flowers are borne in dense erect spikes up to 60 cm long and 3 cm across. Ecology Native to tropical America where it grows on rocky hillsides, but is also found throughout tropical Africa and South East Asia. Present in villages and forest clearings in the forest zone, nearly always as an escape from cultivation. Propagation Sow seeds direct into the final planting site. Uses The plant is sometimes grown as an ornamental in Bas-Congo. The juice from the leaves, which contains chrysophanic acid, is traditionally used to treat skin diseases. Leaves are pounded and applied to fungal skin infections and also to relieve constipation and as a wound disinfectant. The root is boiled with sugar cane juice and used to treat stomach pain. The plant is also used to treat fever. I n Tanzania the plant is grown around hut sites to repel ants. References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1995, Phillips & Rix 1997, Hirt & M'Pia 2001, Pousset 2004 425 Senna didymobotrya (Caesalpiniaceae) Synonym Cassia didymobotrya Common names Peanut cassia, popcorn senna Description A fast growing shrub or small tree, branching from the base, and up to 3 m tall. Leaves alternate, up to 30 cm long with 8 - 16 pairs of leaflets each 3 x 1 cm. Compact flower heads appear from the upper leaf axils. Flowers are golden yellow, cupped and 2 cm across. Unopened flowers are covered by dark-brown to bronze bracts. Fruit pods flat, 6 x 2 cm. Ecology I ntroduced into BasCongo. I t is common throughout East Africa up to 2,100 m, especially beside ditches at the side of the road. Also found in Ethiopia, Sudan, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, South Africa and Mozambique. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Uses The leaves are used to cause abortion in eastern D.R. Congo. A decoction of the leaves, stems and roots is widely used in East Africa as a purgative. A decoction of the roots is used to treat mental illness in Tanzania. The roots provide an antidote to poisoning caused by the stem and leaves. The leaves have a strong smell, like that of peanut butter, which repels bees. This is used in Tanzania to smoke out bees when collecting honey. Cassia and Senna species fix nitrogen and can also be used for green manure. Remarks All parts of the plant are know n to be highly poisonous. References Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Wild et al. 1972, Kokwaro 1976, Blundell 1987, Pauwels 1993, Coates Palgrave 1996, Neuwinger 2000, Llamas 2003 426 Senna occidentalis (Caesalpiniaceae) Synonym Cassia occidentalis Common names Mansambi nsambi, linuaka nuaka (Kongo), fula (in Manianga). African coffee, coffee senna, stink weed, stinking pea Description A glabrous bush or undershrub, either annual or a short-lived perennial, up to 1 m tall. All parts emit a strong smell but especially the leaves when crushed. Leaves are 12 - 20 cm long with 3 - 5 opposite leaflets. A solitary stalked gland is present near the base of the petiole. Ecology Common around villages, a weed of waste places and rough grazing land and found throughout tropical Africa. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Uses I n Bas-Congo the heated plant is applied to the place affected by rheumatism or to the head for headaches. The roots, soaked in water, are used as a purgative for children and to treat gonorrhoea and its complications. The plant is used to treat abdominal pains and intestinal worms in Manianga. The leaves are reportedly eaten as a vegetable in Bas-Congo. Elsewhere the plant is widely used to treat haematoria (blood in the urine). I t is reported to suppress Striga weed attacks and to improve the fertility of exhausted groundnut fields. The roasted seed is sometimes used as a coffee substitute. Both photos: Tony Rodd References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Arkinstall 1979, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 1992, Burkill 1995, Neuwinger 2000, Tolu Odugbemi 2006, Konda et al 2012 427 Senna siamea (Caesalpiniaceae) Synonym Cassia siamea Common name Casse du Siam (Fr.), Siamese tree senna, Siamese cassia Description A tree up to 10 m high. I t commences to flower after 2 - 3 years and flowers throughout the year. Ecology From South East Asia, but now widely grown in the tropics. Prefers a deep well drained soil, but will grow on degraded laterite soils so long as drainage is good. Propagation Normally by seed which will remain viable for 2 - 3 years. Remove seed from ripe pods on the tree. Fresh seed can be sown without pretreatment but must be sown in a site with full sun, as the slightest shade considerably reduces germination. Germination is up to 75% after 4 - 29 days. Older seed should be put in boiling water and allowed to cool. Seedlings grow slowly but are ready for planting out after 5 months. Often seedlings are grown until well established and then cut back to stumps before planting. Young plants are fire sensitive. Management Plant out at 1 - 3 m spacing for firewood production and at 25 - 50 cm spacing for windbreaks. Once established the trees grow fast, even on infertile soils. The tree coppices easily and in good conditions can yield timber in a 4 -7 year rotation. Uses I n Bas-Congo the tree is sometimes planted around cattle paddocks, as a fire break and as an under-storey tree in re-afforestation schemes to encourages timber trees to develop straight trunks. Produces a good charcoal but makes rather smoky firewood. Grown as a shade tree along roads, and in coffee and cocoa plantations. I t is also grown as a windbreak. The tree is valuable for reforestation of eroded, infertile soils and is reported to fix nitrogen. The wood is hard, resistant to termites, strong, durable and takes a good polish but is difficult to work. Heartwood makes an attractive timber and is used for cabinet-making. Young trees are used for building-poles etc. An important nectar source for bees in Venezuela and also known to be visited by bees in Gabon. Remarks Not suited to being grown with other crops because of root competition. The seeds, pods and leaves are highly poisonous to pigs. References Gillet 1927, NAS 1980, Little 1983, Crane et al 1984, Lobreau-Callen 1988, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al 1994, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 17.5.2013). 428 Senna spectabilis (Caesalpiniaceae) Synonym Cassia spectabilis Common name Mbwenge mputu (Kongo), yellow cassia Description A deciduous tree growing from 3 to 9 m high. I t is reported to be easier to raise, less susceptible to pests and diseases and more drought resistant than S. siamea. Ecology Native to tropical America. The tree is often associated with villages or old village sites in BasCongo, covering an extensive area and excluding almost everything else. I t grows well on deep, moist, acid, sandy loam but will even grow on black cotton soil if not too dry. I t will grow up to an altitude of 2,000 m. Cassia spectabilis in flower at Mbanza Nzundu in January Propagation Use seedlings or sow direct into the field. Pour boiling water over seed and soak for 24 hours before planting. Seed can be stored for up to 2 years. Can also be grown easily from cuttings. Management The tree is fast-growing on good sites and can be coppiced. Uses I n Bas-Congo the tree is reported to improve soil fertility. Leaves are known to produce a mulch rich in nitrogen. Often used as a hedge and fire break. I t can provide shade in coffee plantations and is useful as a windbreak. Poles provide firewood and charcoal. The wood is hard, heavy, durable and termite resistant. I t can be used for tool handles. Bees are reported to visit the flowers, though in Argentina, they are said to be poisonous to bees. References I I TA 1978, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 17.5.2012) 429 Sesamum indicum (Pedaliaceae) Synonym S. orientale Common names Wangila (Kongo), sésame (Fr.), sesame, simsim Description An annual herb to 1.5 m high. Some varieties have pods which do not shatter on ripening. Ecology Native to Africa and I ndia and often grown as a cash crop in areas with a short dry season. I t is moderately drought resistant once established. Weeding is important when the plants are young. Can be grown up to an altitude of 1,500 m. Fertile loam soils are preferred and plants will not tolerate water-logging. Propagation Grown from seed which is broadcast on well cultivated land. Sowing in rows 50 cm apart makes weeding easier. Plants should be thinned out to 10 cm apart in the row. Plant seed 2 – 5 cm deep. Management The crop normally takes 3 - 4 months to ripen and is cut when the lowest capsules on the stem begin to open and before the plants are fully ripe. I f harvesting is delayed, much of the seed may be lost. Pests may be a serious problem. Uses The seed is either eaten as a food after being ground and cooked or oil is extracted from it for cooking. The seed is high in calcium and phosphorus and therefore is a valuable food for children. The leaves of this species, S. alatum and S. radiatum = Wangila matebo, are eaten as a vegetable when young and used to thicken soup. They are also used as a remedy for coughs and sore eyes. The ash obtained from burning the stems is used medicinally and as a vegetable salt. The plant contains sesamin, a substance known to have insecticidal properties. Flowers provide bees with nectar and pollen. The nectar secretion is higher the day after rain has fallen. The plant is an important honey source and worth cultivating for this purpose. Right: Sesamum radiatum References Godin & Spensley 1971, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Crane et al. 1984, I wu 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Burkill 1997, Martin et al. 1998, Raemaekers 2001 430 Sesbania sesban (Papilionaceae) Common names Nongu nongu (Kongo), river bean, Sesbania, Description A much branched, short lived, soft-wooded shrub or small tree 1 - 9 m tall. Each leaf has 20 – 50 leaflets and may be up to 12 cm long. There are up to 20 yellow flowers with purple spots in a raceme up to 15 cm long. Fruit is produced in bunches of thin brown pods to 20 cm long. Ecology Common along stream and swamp banks. Tolerates waterlogging, acid and saline soils. Widely distributed and cultivated in tropical Africa. Propagation Wildlings or direct sowing. This species is a prolific seeder with a germination rate of 65% in 16 days. No treatment is necessary, but immersing the seeds in hot water then soaking for 24 hours can increase the germination rate. Seed can be stored for long periods if kept in a cool dry place. Best direct sown at site. Space rows 2 – 10 m apart with an in row spacing of 25 – 50 cm. May be necessary to inoculate with correct rhizobium strain if normal nodulation does not take place. Both photos: Phuong Tran Management Very fast growing and can be pruned or coppiced when young. Should not be planted with nematode sensitive crops like bananas and I rish potatoes. Uses Wood is soft and lightweight and not durable. I n Bas-Congo the debarked stems are used as laths for light roofs. The thicker stems are used for construction or as firewood. I t is an excellent forage and fodder plant and can also be grown as a thick hedge. Leaves contain a saponin and the plant can be used as an insecticide. The plant fixes nitrogen and can also be used as a green manure. I t is grown to provide shade and as a support for pepper or as a windbreak. Leaves and flowers are edible. Remarks Some types tolerate acid soils. The tree may harbour root-knot nematodes. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Skerman 1977, Allen & Allen 1981, Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, Mbuya et al. 1994, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 1995, Maundu & Tengnäs 2005 431 Setaria megaphylla (Poaceae) Synonym S. macrophylla Common names Kangeni, kangiya (Kongo), horse grass, buffel grass Description A coarse, erect, robust perennial grass, growing in clumps up to 3 m high, reproducing by seed. The stems are stout and cane like and have very coarse roots. Leaves are large and strongly pleated, usually about 1 m long and 10 cm broad. The flower head is dense, stiff, with horizontal branches with densely crowded spikelets bearing bristles. Ecology Grows in moist shady places on forest margins. Found alongside rivers, in low lying areas of forest and dense bush where there is plenty of moisture. A weed of field crops in the forest zone of West Africa. Found in high rainfall areas of tropical and sub-tropical Africa and also in America and I ndia. Propagation Sometimes planted as an ornamental. Clumps can be divided or seed collected once the flowers have dried. Remove the dried heads and shake in a paper bag to extract the seeds. Uses I n Bas-Congo the leaves are used for wrapping chikwangue. They are also used to feed rabbits and pigs. I t is a good forage appreciated by all stock but if cut for stall-feeding avoid allowing it to wilt as there is the risk of producing poisonous hydrocyanic acid. Grass for forage should be cut or grazed when young. The stalks are sometimes used in hut building. The whole plant can be burnt to produce a vegetable salt. The plant is used medicinally to ease the pain from snake bite and from bruising, to treat epilepsy, gonorrhoea and a decoction of the root is given to pregnant women to ease delivery. The plant is also used to treat diarrhoea, migraine, coughing and drowsiness. The grass can be used for erosion control and colonising soil deposited by erosion. References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Burkill 1994, Neuwinger 2000, Hankey & Mashinini 2002 432 Shirakiopsis elliptica (Euphorbiaceae) Synonym Sapium ellipticum Common names Kiaka, loniangu, kingelumi, nkuzi, muaza (Kongo) Description A shrub or tree up to 25 m tall producing white latex. Leaves 3 – 19 cm long and 2 – 6.5 cm wide with slightly toothed margins. Flowers are borne on a spike 4 – 17 cm long. Photos: Bart Wursten Ecology Secondary forest, and periodically flooded forests. From Guinea to Ethiopia and south to the Cape in South Africa. Also present in Gabon. Propagation The tree can be grown from seed extracted from the capsules and also using wild seedlings. The seeds are often attacked by insects so should be collected as soon as they are ripe. Management The tree can be coppiced and pollarded. Uses A forest tree which produces good quality white wood which can be cut into planks. The wood is moderately tough and strong but coarse and fibrous and does not last in the ground. I t is liable to borer attack. Used for making tools and furniture. The latex can be used as glue. An infusion of the bark is used to treat scabies and itching. Bees collect pollen and nectar and the flowers are very attractive to bees. The root is eaten with leaves and water to expel intestinal worms. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Wild et al 1972, Kokwaro 1976, Coates Palgrave 1983, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Neuwinger 2000, Schmelzer 2007 433 Sida rhombifolia (Malvaceae) Common names Kembela, lumvumvu (Kongo), wireweed, Queensland hemp Description A variable, erect, short-lived, perennial shrub up to 1.5 m high. Leaves are much larger than in S. acuta, up to 6 cm long and 2.5 cm wide, with petioles 4 - 5 mm long. Flowers are white to pale yellow arising in the axils of the leaves. Fruit is a capsule with 8 - 12 carpels. The beak of each capsule is rather shortly bent, not straight and pointed. Ecology A common plant in the tropics, especially in disturbed land around villages and on roadsides. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Uses The viscous sap from the crushed leaves was traditionally used to repair clay pots in Bas-Congo. The sap is also used to treat burns. The whole plant and especially the leaves and roots are used with other plants to treat diarrhoea, bed-wetting, chest pain, contraction of fingers or arms and gonorrhoea. The leaves are widely used as a healing dressing on sores, ulcers, cuts and lumps. The whole plant is used for making brooms. The wood tar obtained when the plant is burnt, as for charcoal, can be used as a black dye. The fibre extracted from the stem is of good quality, soft, lustrous and of even texture. I t can be either spun with silk or used as a substitute for jute. Bees were seen collecting nectar and pollen in March in Bas-Congo. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Burkill 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Latham 2011 A group of charcoal makers at Kavwaya. The charcoal makers have become tree planters, growing mainly fast-growing indigenous trees in their food crop farms to re-establish the forest fallow once the crops have been harvested. 434 Smilax anceps (Smilacaceae) Synonym S. kraussiana Common names Kikalala, baka nlele (Kongo, baka = tear; nlele = loin cloth), West African sarsaparilla Description A prickly perennial climber growing from an underground rhizome, up to 5 cm in diameter. The plant is similar to a yam plant, but has long twining tendrils. The stem is tough, fibrous and covered with short, curved spines. Leaves are alternate, about 12 cm long and 7 cm wide and sharply pointed. Leaves are smooth on both surfaces with 3 conspicuous veins that radiate from the base. The flower head is umbrella shaped on a short stalk with many small and greenish-white individual flowers. Fruit is a small round berry ripening to purple or black. Ecology A tough aggressive weed which often grows in cassava farms in the savanna. I t often tears ones clothing when working in land infested with this plant. Widespread in tropical Africa and in South Africa. Uses I n Bas-Congo the leaf is used to heal mouth ulcers especially after a long illness. The young leaf is laid on the tongue and kept in the mouth for as long as possible (about an hour) and then replaced with a fresh leaf. Traditionally it was said that giving children who have not yet learned to speak something to drink on a leaf of Kikalala would enable them to do so shortly after. Elsewhere in Africa the leaves and rhizome have many medicinal uses, including wound and abscess dressings. I n Nigeria the leaves are eaten. The rhizomes are also edible. The pant has similar properties to sarsaparilla ( Smilax officinalis). The stem fibres are widely used for tying in Central Africa. The plant is resistant to termite attack. References Gillet & Paque 1910, Morton 1961, Daleman & Pauwels 1983, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Vande weghe 2004 435 Solanecio angulatus (Asteraceae) Synonym Crassocephalum bojeri Common names Lulaka lu ngombi (= cow’s tongue), ngondi longo (= That which destroys marriage), Kimandi nsusu (Kongo) Description A creeper which grows up to 3 m long. Ecology A weed of cultivation. Edible species of Solanecio and Crassocephalum normally grow wild or are occasionally cultivated. They grow well in shade in contrast to almost all other leafy vegetables. C. crepidoides is found particularly in wetter regions. Uses Leaves of S. angulatus are coarsely cut and cooked as a vegetable in D.R. Congo. Whole young plants and the semi-succulent leaves of C. crepidoides are slimy and are eaten as a vegetable and in soups and sauces, as is C. rubens elsewhere. Bees collect pollen and nectar from this and other species of Crassocephalum, where plentiful, and because of the long flowering period it is probably useful for building up the strength of colonies and producing honey. Bunguni - an edible species of Crassocephalum References Goode 1974, Grubben 1977, Burkill 1985, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Stevels 1990, Konda et al. 1992, Peters et al. 1992, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Schippers 2002 436 Solanum aethiopicum (Solanaceae) Common names Binsukula, biwansi (Gilo group) and kinsumba or musoso, (bilolo in Lingala)(Shum or Nakati group), tomate amère (Fr.), garden egg or scarlet eggplant Description A perennial or annual herb, up to 2 m tall, often much-branched. Binsukula normally bears 1 to 3 fruits, ranging from 2 to 8 cm, white to green when immature, turning orange to red when ripe. There are three varieties present in Bas-Congo with long, short, plum-shaped or round fruits. Kinsumba has small round fruits, borne either singly or in clusters. There is a large fruited variety (30 mm diameter) - both leaves and fruit of which are eaten and a small fruited variety (20 mm diameter) of which only the leaves are eaten. Plants are pollinated by bees. Left: Kinsumba growing in a valley garden at Kavwaya Ecology Widely cultivated in Bas-Congo usually in valleys in the dry season. Soils should be fertile, deep and well drained. Compost should be used if available. Binsukula thrives in full sun. Kinsumba grows best in warm humid conditions losing its leaves during dry periods. Propagation Seeds from fully ripened fruits should be washed and dried on cloth or paper, not dried in direct sunlight. Sow in a nursery and transplant after about 5 weeks. Binsukula is planted out 50 - 100 cm between plants in rows 75 - 100 cm apart and Kinsumba 20 – 30 cm between plants in rows 60 – 75 cm apart. Management The crop should be mulched if grown during the dry season. Bees are important for pollination. Uses Both the leaves and fruits of some varieties of Kinsumba are eaten. With others only the leaves are eaten. Protein content of fresh leaves is just over 4% . They are a good source of vitamins. The boiled leaves can be dried and powdered for later use in sauces and groundnut stews. Only the fruits of Binsukula are eaten. They are dried in the sun and ground to powder to be used in soups or used as a medicine for high blood pressure. Binsukula growing at Ladi References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Schippers 2002 437 Solanum lycopersicum (Solanaceae) Synonym Lycopersicon esculentum Common names Lumantu (Kongo), tomate (Fr.), tomato Description A variable sub-spontaneous herb growing up to 2 m, most plants being a degenerate form of improved varieties. The tap-root is vigorous with extensive fibrous roots. The most common variety cultivated in Bas-Congo has small fruits. Ecology Requires a fertile, well drained soil able to hold water well. Adequate manure should be added to get a good crop. Tomatoes will grow in slightly acid soils. I t is commonly grown in dry season vegetable gardens in the valleys as it is susceptible to blight and other leaf diseases during the rain season. As far as possible avoid soils where tomatoes have been grown before. Propagation Tomatoes may be up to 25% self-pollinated. Select seed from plants with good growth habit, which produce early fruit of good shape and colour. Put the seeds in a plastic container and leave for 3 days to allow the jelly-like coat around the seed to ferment. Sieve and wash the seeds before drying. Sow seeds in a nursery at the end of the rain season and transplant out when seedlings are 8 10 cm tall. Do not water plants during the week before transplanting, other than 12 hours prior to lifting. Plant in rows 70 - 90 cm apart with 30 - 38 cm between plants. The seedbed should be in soil where tomatoes have not been grown before to avoid nematode damage. Management Water should be applied to the base of the plant, not over the leaves to avoid blight and other leaf diseases. Avoid digging deeply when weeding as the plant has shallow feeder roots which are easily damaged. Plants should be staked to allow air to circulate. Uses An important vegetable in Bas-Congo. Ripe fruits are commonly quite acidic and are used either fresh or cooked in soups, with fish and meat or other vegetables. Tomatoes are a good source of vitamin A and C, particularly when fruits are allowed to ripen on the plant. The plant is sometimes crushed and applied to wounds. References Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek 1993 438 Solanum macrocarpon (Solanaceae) Common names Nkeka (Kongo), fausse tomate (Fr.), Gboma egg plant Description A perennial branched herb to 150 cm. Ecology Cultivated especially in West Africa but also grown in many tropical areas. The plant is fairly drought resistant and requires full sun and well manured soil. Propagation Collect seed from fully ripe fruit and ferment this in water for 24 - 36 hours. Wash and dry the seed. Plant in nursery beds and then transplant when 6 - 8 cm high and space 50 - 50 cm both ways. Good soil fertility is important. Management Harvesting of the leaves starts 1 week after the flowers appear. The whole shoot including the terminal bud is picked. Frequent harvesting keeps the plants low growing. Choose varieties which shoot again quickly for best yields. Uses Both the young leaves and fruit are eaten in Bas-Congo, the fruit being used as a meat substitute. I t is an important market vegetable in West Africa. The fruits are sold in the I vory Coast and Ghana, but the young leaves, particularly from dark varieties, are much appreciated and more widely used in other areas. They can be harvested over a long period. Fruits can be eaten raw but are more frequently cooked or fried. The leaves are added to soups and sauces; the flowers are also edible. The leaves are rich in calcium. However leaves should not be eaten too often, especially the bitter varieties, and should be cooked well. The water in which the leaves are cooked should be discarded. Host plant of Munsona sona ( Acherontia atropus) Death’s Head hawkmoth, which, though the caterpillar is edible, is a pest to beekeepers. Right: Mature fruit is cut in pieces and dried for about a week (See page 424). I t can then be soaked in water and cooked as a vegetable. References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Grubben 1977, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Schippers 2002, Latham 2003 439 Solanum melongena (Solanaceae) Common names Mbolongu (Kongo), aubergine (Fr.), eggplant Description A short lived perennial herb with a branching habit, 0.5 - 1.5 m high. I t has a deepgrowing, vigorous tap-root. The plant is normally grown as an annual. A variety with fruits which remain green is common. Aubergine growing in a valley garden Ecology Probably originated in I ndia but now cultivated throughout the tropics. Requires well drained, preferably sandy soils, but with good moisture retaining properties. Soils should be deeply cultivated beforehand. Mulching is beneficial. Excess rainfall checks growth and flower production. The plant can be grown up to an altitude of 1,200 m. Propagation Seeds are often soaked in water for 24 hours before planting. Sow in a shaded, sheltered seed-bed and transplant when 8 - 10 cm high. Plant out at 50 - 60 x 50 - 60 cm. Management Terminal shoots can be removed when the plants are established to encourage lateral branching. Support may be needed for some plants. Uses Mature and immature fruits are eaten after slicing, soaking in salty water which is then discarded and then frying in butter or beaten egg or by roasting. Reference Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983 440 Solanum scabrum (Solanaceae) Common names Kinsumba (Kongo), morelle noire (Fr.), African or black nightshade Description A woody herb with strong green or purple stems and more-or-less toothed wings. Plants are usually about 60 cm high but can grow to 120 cm or more. There are both small and large leaved cultivars with different leaf shapes and the leaf colour can be either green or dark-purple. Leaves vary from 4.5 to 22 cm long and 3 to 16 cm wide. I t is also the only species whose berries remain on the plant at maturity. The dark purple fruits, 10 – 16 mm in diameter, have a distinct bloom when young and become glossy when they get older. Ecology Occasionally grown in Bas-Congo. I t is by far the most common species in West Africa and many different varieties can be seen, often of local importance only. I t is cultivated in several locations in the humid highlands and somewhat less in the lowlands of Africa. I t is mainly found in the high rainfall areas, especially at medium and higher altitudes. Propagation Grown from seed or cuttings. Seed can be sown either direct or in a nursery and transplanted. Manure or ashes should be added to the soil for good germination. Uses Leaves and fresh shoots are cooked and eaten as a vegetable. They are bitter, but this can be reduced by changing the cooking water once. Dried leaves can be stored and added to soup. I f dried in the shade nutrient loss will be minimal. The fruits are not eaten. References Martin et al. 1998, Burkill 2000, Fontem & Schippers 2004 441 Sorghum bicolor (Poaceae) Common names Ntidi, masasi mantidi (Kongo), sorgho (Fr.), sorghum Description An annual plant growing from 1 to 4 m high. The panicles are fairly compact, cylindrical and erect. The grains are large, white and chalky; tending to shatter when ripe and not storing well. A number of varieties are present. Pollination Spikelets in the panicle contain 1 sterile flower and 1 bisexual flower. Self or cross-pollination is normally by wind. Photo: Luc Pauwels Ecology A few plants are occasionally grown in gardens in BasCongo. Widely cultivated in East and West Africa and in the Sudan. Suited to warm to hot climates and will grow in a wide range of soils, even in temporarily waterlogged areas and deep cracking soils. Propagation Seed germinates after about 7 days. Uses Though sorghum is not widely cultivated for food in Bas-Congo it is a staple food in other countries. The seed is used to make a thick, bitter beer which is heady and appreciated by people in Bas-Congo. With some strains the grain can be mixed with wheat flour to produce a palatable well risen loaf. I n Bas-Congo the seed is also used for poultry food and the leaves and stems are used for forage. A few people eat the seed when short of food. I t is then boiled and eaten as for maize grain. An infusion of the root is used to induce abortion. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Purseglove 1968, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Crane & Walker 1984, Burkill 1994 442 Spathodea campanulata (Bignoniaceae) Common names Munsasa, nsasa mpwatu, masamasa (Kongo), tulipier du Gabon (Fr.), tulip tree, flame tree Description A shrub or tree from 10 to 35 m high with a fluted bole, short branches and a compact crown. Flowering commences after 3 - 4 years and lasts 5 - 6 months each year. Under favourable conditions, the tree may flower throughout the year. The tree is shallow rooting and liable to wind damage. The seeds are wind-dispersed. Ecology Found throughout tropical Africa in deciduous and secondary forest, and wooded savanna. I t is able to grow on heavily eroded soils. The tulip tree is widely grown in tropical and subtropical regions outside Africa. Propagation Use seeds, cuttings or root suckers. Remove mature fruit pods before the seeds are released and dry them. Seeds should be sown as soon as possible under a thin layer of sand and protected from heavy rain. Larger diameter cuttings (up to 10 cm) give the best results. Management The tree coppices well and growth is reported to be excellent. Uses The tulip tree is planted as an ornamental and shade tree. I t is used for soil improvement, reafforestation, erosion control and land rehabilitation, and as a live fence. The wood is used for carving and making drums but is of poor quality, liable to rot and makes poor firewood. I n BasCongo the leaves are soaked in water and used to treat urethritis. The bark has laxative and antiseptic properties. The seeds are eaten in many parts of Africa. The tree has many medicinal uses both where it is native and introduced. Medical research has concentrated on its effect on diabetes, malaria and schistosomiasis. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Portugal-Araujo 1974, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Bekele-Tesemma 1993, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Msanga 1998, Bosch 2002, Meunier et al. 2010, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 20.2.2012). 443 Spondias mombin (Anacardiaceae) Common names Mungiengie (Kongo), hog plum Description The tree can grow to 25 m in Bas-Congo. Flowering occurs during the dry season. Fruiting starts after about 5 years though cuttings may produce earlier. The tree has a bushy habit on drier sites. Ecology Originally from West Africa or tropical America but now present from Senegal to Angola. The tree is often found on the sites of old villages in western D. R. Congo. I t does well in a variety of soils, including shallow sands, gravel and heavy clay, but grows best on rich, moist, relatively heavy soils. Propagation Ripe fruits are collected from the ground, but this must be done as soon as they fall before they rot or are eaten by animals. Seed normally germinates well after 35 - 75 days. Cuttings, 50 - 70 cm long, grow more easily and produce fruit earlier. They should be taken from wood of the previous season or earlier. Plant to a depth of 30 cm in their final position. Best varieties are multiplied by budding. When grown as a hedge, 1.5 – 2 m long stakes can be used for planting. Management For fruit production plant at 7.5 – 9 m each way. Growth can be fast in fertile soils reaching 7 m in less than 5 years. Large trees can produce 100 kg fruit per year. I nsect larvae may attack fruits. Uses The fruits can be eaten fresh, dried or boiled and are also used commercially in syrups, ice creams and jellies. They have an acid, turpentine taste, though the flavour varies considerably. A drink can be made from the fresh juice which becomes less acid if kept overnight. The fruit is high in vitamins A and C. The seeds are also edible. The leaves can be used as a fodder for cattle and the fallen fruits are eaten by pigs. The tree makes a good shade tree. I t can be grown as a fence and the stakes are used for yam poles. The flowers are reported to be a honey source in Gabon and Central America. Wood is white to grey and mainly 444 used for firewood. I t is stringy, difficult to saw and attacked by termites. Poles are used for house posts and branches for tool handles. Wood ash is used in the indigo industry. Plant extracts have antibacterial properties. I n Bas-Congo a decoction of the leaves is used to treat rheumatism. Crushed and soaked in water the leaves are also used to treat asthma. The plant is widely used medicinally elsewhere in Africa. Remarks There is a large variation in fruit type, therefore select those that are sweet and that have a large proportion of flesh. A related species S. cytherea (Manga ya nsende) is cultivated around Kisantu. The fruits have a soft fibrous flesh and are best eaten while still fresh and firm. Left: Spondias mombin stakes planted as a hedge around a house. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pãque 1910, I rvine 1961, Martin & Ruberté 1975, FAO 1982, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Crane et al. 1984, Burkill 1985, Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988, Lobreau-Callen 1988, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Keay 1989, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Agroforestee Database (Accessed 29.4.2013) Spondias cytherea bearing fruit in January. Fruits can be as large as mangoes. 445 Staudtia kamerunensis var. gabonensis (Myristicaceae) Common name Nsusu menga (Kongo) Photos: David Harris/ Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh Description A tree up to 35 m tall. Easily recognised by the fluted trunk which is pale brown. The bark produces a red juice, like blood, when cut. Leaves are alternate, simple, 8 - 16 cm long and 2 – 5 cm wide. Male and female flowers are separate. Fruits are similar to those of Pycnanthus, 2 – 3.5 cm long, in clusters of up to 20, somewhat fleshy when ripe, yellowish, and contain one seed. Ecology Present in primary forests on firm ground and in gallery forests. I t is also found in Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Congo. Propagation I n tests in Congo, seeds started to germinate 60 – 80 days after sowing, with a germination rate of 48 – 64% . I t is slow growing and does best if planted in secondary forest. Uses The tree produces a good general-purpose timber. I n spite of its hardness the wood is relatively easy to work. I ts main draw-back is the slow growth of the tree, requiring long cutting cycles for sustainable harvesting. I n Bas-Congo the bark is used to stop bleeding. The wood is used in house construction and furniture and also used as firewood. Elsewhere in D.R. Congo bark decoctions are given to children to drink, or as an enema, against coughs, and applied as a rub to treat skin problems, oedema and wounds. They are used as a gargle against mouth infections. Bark sap is applied to snakebites. Sap from the bark, diluted with water, is taken for diarrhoea. I t is also used in wound healing, to stop bleeding and to treat painful eyes. The root is chewed and the sap is swallowed by children to treat coughing. The seeds yield a yellow, aromatic fat used as an ointment for scabies. Seeds are also used as bait for porcupines and palm rats. The seed aril is edible. References Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, White & Abernethy 1997, Harris et al. 2011, Oyen & Louppe 2012 446 Steganotaenia araliacea (Apiaceae) Common names Mumvumbi mvumbi, kula mvumbi, kula ndosi (Kongo)(Mvumbi = corpse, embalming material), pop-gun tree, carrot tree Description A shrub or small tree from 5 to 8 m high. The trunk is crooked and the branches are stout. Bark is thick and corky. Leaves are borne on a common stalk, 15 - 40 cm long, which is swollen at the base and clasps the stem. The leaves are crowded at the end of the branches, each having 5 - 9 leaflets. The white flowers are produced in compound heads before the leaves appear. Ecology Found in woody savanna throughout tropical Africa, especially at low altitudes and on rocky outcrops. Propagation Wild seedlings or cuttings are used for propagation. Seeds are difficult to collect. Management The tree is fastgrowing and can be coppiced and pollarded. Uses I n Bas-Congo the leaves, shoots and roots are used for post-natal pain, for kidney problems and for sores and hernias. The leaves are put on the bed of someone with lumbago. Traditionally the wood was burnt below a corpse that was to be preserved. Wood is soft and brittle and mainly used for firewood, carving and farm tools. The whole plant is aromatic, resembling fennel or carrot, and is used to perfume garments. The plant is known to be strongly emetic. The roots are used to relieve sore throats, asthma and infertility in southern Africa. Bees are reported to collect pollen and nectar in Ethiopia. Children use the hollowed-out stems as pea-shooters. References Gillet & Paque 1910, Wild 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Coates Palgrave 1983, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Bentje 1994, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, van Wyk & Gericke 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 447 Sterculia tragacantha (Sterculiaceae) Common names Nkondo mfinda (Kongo), African tragacanth, parasol tree Description A shrub 5 - 6 m high or a tree to 25 m high. The trunk is sometimes buttressed and has a long cylindrical bole, unbranched until near the top. Shoot from a stake planted in a hedge in Manianga district . Young shoots have dense star-shaped hairs. Bark is corky and deeply fissured into patterns. Leaves are simple, alternate and variable, 15 - 20 cm long, smooth and having yellow-red hairs below. Flowers are produced in loose red-purple to pink heads cm long. Fruits are borne in groups of woody, yellow-brown, hairy pods exposing up to diamond-shaped shiny above but on stalks 15 - 20 8 seeds. Ecology Found in dense, moist forests, gallery forests and bush fallows. Widespread in tropical Africa, from Guinea to Angola and in Zambia and Tanzania. Propagation The seeds can be collected and stored for several weeks. The tree can also be grown from large cuttings. Management The tree easily after being cut down. regenerates Photo: © W.D. Hawthorne Uses The timber is used for housebuilding, poles, stools and fences. Seeds are roasted and eaten whole like peanuts or roasted, pounded and cooked with vegetables such as peas or pumpkins. The bark yields gum tragacanth which is used by blacksmiths in smelting iron and for repairing utensils. The young leaves are eaten in Ghana and in Katanga province. Fibre from the bark of the trunk and branches can be used for rope. The bark and leaves are used to treat coughs and colds, gonorrhoea, fever, tapeworms, ulcers, whitlows and snake-bite. The leaves are used to ease childbirth and a decoction of the bark is used as an emetic and expectorant. Bees are reported to visit the flowers in Manianga, Bas-Congo and in Gabon. References Gillet 1927, Dalziel 1937, I rvine 1961, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Malaisse 1997, Burklill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Ruffo et al. 2002 448 Stipularia africana (Rubiaceae) Synonym Sabicea africana Common name Tungwa (Kongo) Description A shrub up to 2.5 m high. The leaves are large, 30 cm long and 10 cm wide, densely hairy below. The fruit is fleshy, up to 1.5 – 1.7 cm long and 1.3 – 1.4 in diameter. Ecology Found in swamps and wet places from Sierra Leone to Congo. Uses The flesh of the fruit is edible. The plant is grown as an ornamental in Gabon. A decoction of the whole plant is drunk for severe bleeding in Congo (Brazzaville). The plant is a source of vegetable salt in Ubangi. References I rvine 1961, Burkill 2000 A good load! 449 1997, Neuwinger Streptogyna crinita (Poaceae) Common names Nkansu ngo (= claw of the leopard), kansi ngo, nzefo za ngo (Kongo) Description A perennial grass with culms 30 – 150 cm high, growing from scaly rhizomes. Leaf blades are spear shaped, 10 – 40 cm long and 1 – 3.6 cm wide. Flower spike is up to 20 cm long with dark green to brown spikelets, 20 – 30 mm long, bearing strongly barbed awns up to 25 mm long. The spikelets overlap each other. Ecology Present in the ground layer of forest. Found from Senegal to Bioko and across tropical Africa and also in I ndia and Sri Lanka. Also present in crop land where there is shade. A noxious weed, particularly when fruiting, as the awns catch in clothing and hairy legs, and on animal fur where they are difficult and painful to remove. Uses Commonly used to catch mice and rats. The flower stalks are rolled up together and stuffed down their holes. Remarks The seeds form balls which cling strongly to clothing. Birds caught in these balls are unable to extricate themselves and often die. References Gillet & Paque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1994 450 Strophanthus sarmentosus (Apocynaceae) Common names Kuku kinia, bikuku bi kiula (Kongo), spider tresses, poison arrow vine Fruit of a Strophanthus species Description A large deciduous forest creeper, up to 40 m long, producing a clear or white latex. Leaves elliptic or ovate, 2 – 15 x 1.5 – 7 cm, opposite and pointed at the tip. The large purple-violet flowers are fragrant. Fruits consist of 2 pods, 10 – 28 cm × 1.5 – 4.5 cm, tapering to a point, with a thick, hard wall and contain many seeds. These are known to be poisonous. Ecology Occurs from Senegal east to the Central African Republic and southern Uganda, and south to Angola (Cabinda). I t occurs in rain forest, gallery forest and thickets, from sealevel up to 1,400 m altitude. Propagation The plant does not grow easily from rooted stems, and produces less fruit in cultivation than in the wild. Uses I n Bas-Congo the stems are used to make hoops for harvesting palm oil and wine. Elsewhere the seeds were used in the preparation of arrow poison. The plant sap is used to coagulate Funtumia rubber. The stems are used to make screens in houses. I n Bas-Congo the seeds of S. hispidus and S. welwitschii are used medicinally as a heart tonic. The plant is used in local medicine throughout West Africa. I n Congo the stems and leaves are used to make steam baths and infusions against rheumatism. I n the 1950s a seed extract was used to combat rheumatoid arthritis in the United States and Europe. I n Nigeria the stems are used to make bows and the bark to make ropes, hats and mats. Photo: Karl Gercens www.KarlGercens.com References Gillet & Pâque 1910, I rvine 1930, Renier 1948, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Bongers et al. 2005, Beentje 2006, Fayaz 2011 451 Strychnos cocculoides (Strychnaceae) Common names Kalakonki, dikalakonki (Kongo), bush orange, monkey orange Description A shrub or small tree to 6 m, branching low down. Twigs and branches have curved spines. Bark is pale grey-brown, thick, corky with deep vertical fissures. Flowers are small and greenishwhite. The round fruits, 5 – 12 cm in diameter, are edible (resembling an orange in shape and size), brown or orange, with a tough skin and sweet-tasting pulp. Ecology Present from Gabon to East Africa and to South Africa in savanna and open forests, and especially in the drier areas on rocky hills from 0 – 2,000 m altitude. Propagation The tree can be grown from seed or root suckers. Seeds are squeezed out of the pulp and then put in water. The empty seeds and pulp float and can be skimmed off. The seeds should be dried and remain viable for 6 months. Soak in cold water for 24 hours to hasten germination. Germination of seed is good but slow, reaching 75% after 8 weeks. Root suckers are produced when the root is damaged. Management Slow growing. The tree coppices well. Trees are often left in cultivated land for their fruit. Uses The fruit pulp is edible and is also used to prepare a non-alcoholic sweet-sour drink. Young stems were traditionally used for making pipes for smoking. I n Bas-Congo bees were seen collecting nectar from the flowers of this and other species of Strychnos. Timber is used for firewood and building poles. The wood is white, pliable and tough and is suitable for tool handles. The fruit is used to make a dye, which also provides protection from insects. The tree is sometimes planted to form a boundary around home compounds and as a barrier or support. The bark, leaves, roots and fruit are used medicinally. Remarks Strychnos pungens (Bumi, Mbumi), S. spinosa (Mbumi or Kalakonki) and S. variabilis are also present in Bas-Congo. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Wild 1972, Kokwaro 1976, FAO 1983, Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, Mbuya et al. 1994, Malaisse 1997, Msanga 1998, Nsimundele 2004, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 15.1.2013) 452 Stylosanthes guianensis (Papilionaceae) Common names Stylo, Brazilian lucerne Description A perennial, erect or sub-erect branching herb from 30 - 120 cm high which becomes woody with age. Leaves are composed of 3 hairless or slightly hairy oval leaflets, 0.5 to 4 cm long and 0.2 - 1.5 cm wide. Flowers are reddish to orange-yellow in compact groups of up to 40 flowers each. The one-seeded pods are flat, light brown, ending in a tiny spiral beak. The seeds are yellowish brown. The tap-root is vigorous extending to 1 m. Ecology Originally from South and Central America and introduced into Central Africa around 1947. The plant withstands drought and temporary water-logging and should be grown in full sunlight. I t prefers coarse-textured soils and will grow in highly acid conditions. Propagation Seed should be put in boiling water for 10 seconds and then broadcast at 3 - 5 kg/ ha and lightly raked in. I t can be grown with grass or maize in alternate rows but should be sown beforehand as it germinates slowly. Stylo has been proved to be the best legume to establish in I mperata infested land. First burn the I mperata and then scatter seed and superphosphate, if available, over the area. Alternatively the seed is fed to cattle which are then allowed to graze young I mperata regrowth while it is palatable, for example after burning. Uses I t is a good forage crop with 12 18% crude protein but sometimes may have poor palatability. Bees collect pollen and nectar at the end of the rain season. Remarks Use cultivars which are resistant to anthracnose disease ( Colletotrichum gloeosporioides). References Bogdan 1977, Skerman 1977, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Raemaekers 2001 453 Symphonia globulifera (Clusiaceae) Common names Kisongi, nsongi, nsempe (Kongo), hog gum tree, doctor's gum, Karamanni wax Description The tree is very conspicuous in flower. The short horizontal branches, at the top of the tree, are crowded along their whole length with numerous flowers looking like red berries clustered at the ends of upright shoots. Ecology Grows beside rivers and in swampy locations in the rain forest from Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone to Tanzania and Angola. Also widely dispersed in south and central tropical America. Propagation Collect the seed from the ground, immerse in hot water and allow to cool and soak overnight before planting. Sow the seed direct on site, transplant wild seedlings or sow seed in pots. The seed loses viability quickly. Seedlings develop a long tap-root and are therefore not particularly easy to transplant. Management The tree can be grown as a pure stand, without other species, to protect water sources, swamps and river banks. I t can be lopped or pollarded. Uses The wood is a substitute for mahogany and used to make furniture, boats, house-hold utensils and paddles. I t lasts well in water and is resistant to insect and fungal attack. The bark contains a yellow resin which is strongly adhesive and water resistant called karamanni wax. This is used for joining wood, caulking boats, attaching knives to handles and patching calabashes etc. I t is also used to protect the feet against jiggers. I n Bas-Congo the fruit pulp is used to control intestinal worms. The bark is used to treat coughs in children. The tree is often debarked for medicine, and is therefore becoming scarce. Nsongi edible caterpillars ( Rhypopteryx poecilanthes) feed on the leaves and the flowers are reported to be visited by bees. They are also attracted to the resin. Remarks A Kikongo proverb states Kisoongi go kifudidi bituuntu, kisiwu kikyeele = When the kisongi flowers it indicates the start of the dry season. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Renier 1948, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Uphof 1968, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Burkill 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Latham 2003 454 Synedrella nodiflora (Asteraceae) Common names Madia ma nlumba (Kongo)(= rabbit’s food), nodeweed, starwort, synedrella Description A straggling semi-woody annual herb normally growing to 50 cm high, but may reach 1 m, from a fibrous rootstock. Not aromatic when crushed. Ecology A common weed, found in farmland, waste places and roadsides. I t grows throughout the tropics. Management I t is difficult to remove, once established, and even blunts slashing knives. Uses Livestock, especially rabbits, eat the leaves and in I ndonesia the young leaves are also eaten as a vegetable. A decoction of the leaves is taken as a laxative, to treat heart problems. Various parts are used to treat conjunctivitis, diarrhoea, wounds, oedema, leprosy, hypermenorrhea, ulcers, wounds, coughing, ear troubles, mouth sores and stomach complaints. Eating the leaves prior to delivery is reported to ease childbirth, especially for a first-born child. References Abbiw 1980, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Neuwinger 2000 Photo: Dinesh Valke 455 Synsepalum dulcificum (Sapotaceae) Common name Punga (Kongo) Description A shrub or small tree, 2 – 3 m high. Ecology Requires an acidic soil and adequate moisture. Present in fringing forests and damp localities. Native to tropical West Africa. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Management Slow growing. Uses Fruits are edible. A relatively tasteless berry which makes sour foods e.g. lemons, taste sweet. The effect lasts for about an hour. The fruits can also be used to improve the taste of stale food. The wood is used for firewood. Twigs are used as chewsticks in Ghana. References Burkill 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 Photo: Roy Danforth Photo: Tony Rodd 456 Synsepalum stipulatum (Sapotaceae) Common name Blacksmith’s charcoal wood Description A tree up to 15 m tall. The bark is greenish-brown or reddish-brown, rough and finely fissured and peels off in scales. When the bark is cut the wood appears pink or dull brown and produces a small amount of white latex. The leaves may be up to 25 cm long and 6 cm wide, though they are usually much smaller. The white flowers are produced in clusters in the axils of the leaves and on the older twigs. Fruits are more or less round, 12 mm in diameter. The wood has a pleasant smell when cut. Ecology Found in lowland rain forest and in the Congo basin. Uses The wood is very hard and grey. I t can be cut into planks. Small stems are used for tool handles. The wood makes good charcoal. The fruit is edible and has a persistent sweetness. A decoction of the bark is used to stimulate milk supply in nursing mothers. The bark is also used to treat earache. Remarks Bees are known to visit S. longecuneatum , in Gabon. References De Wildeman 1934, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004 457 Syzygium guineense subsp. guineense (Myrtaceae) Common names Kikulu, nkulu (Kongo), water-berry Description A tree or shrub growing to 20 m high. The bark is smooth when young but becomes black and rough with age. A red watery sap is produced when cut. Young leaves are reddish-purple but mature leaves are green. The white flowers have a honey-sweet smell attracting many insects. Fruits are 8 - 12 mm in diameter. Tree in flower in February near Luzumu Ecology The tree is widespread in tropical Africa, preferring water courses and swampy areas, but it also grows in well drained soils. Propagation The tree can be grown from seed. Ripe fruits are picked or collected from the ground and then soaked in water for 6 hours. Seeds are squeezed out and must be sown immediately. Germination is good and very fast. Sowing into pots is recommended. The tree also produces suckers which may be transplanted. Management The tree can be coppiced and pollarded. Uses The wood is used for firewood, charcoal and timber (both for furniture and general construction), poles, posts, tool handles and carving. The timber is red, hard and strong and though easily worked and very durable, is liable to split. Very ripe fruits are edible and are picked from the tree or collected from the ground. The bark is used for tanning and for making a black dye. The bark, roots and leaves are used medicinally, particularly to treat diarrhoea. I t is the food plant for Nkulu (Mfinda) and Bubuta edible caterpillars in Bas-Congo. Bees collect nectar from the flowers of both subspecies of Syzygium guineense. References I rvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, PortugalNkulu cocoon Araújo 1974, FAO 1983, Lobreau-Callen 1988, Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, Mbuya et al. 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Penge et al. 1988, Meunier et al. 2010, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 1.5.2013) 458 Syzygium guineense subsp. macrocarpum (Myrtaceae) Common name Nkisu (Kongo) Description Normally found as a small tree or shrub. The main difference between this species and subsp. guineense is the large fruits, 12 - 30 mm in diameter, which turn purple when ripe. The leaves are borne on stalks which may be up to 3.8 cm long. Ripe fruit is produced in November. Photo taken near Kasangulu Ecology A tree or shrub of the savanna regions subject to annual fires. Widespread in tropical Africa. Propagation As for S. guineense subsp. guineense. Uses The fruit is edible and has a good taste. I n Bas-Congo the fruits are sometimes fed to fruit bats when transporting them to market (see p. 266). The flowers are reported to be visited by bees and the tree is known as a bee forage in Gabon and the central highlands of Angola. Host plant of Bubuta and Nkulu (Nseke) edible caterpillars in Bas-Congo and of and Lobobunaea saturnus Gonimbrasia richelmanni edible caterpillars in Katanga. References Portugal-Araújo Syzygium guineense flowering in August 1974, Malaisse & Parent 1980, fl Lobreau-Callen 1988, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Nsimundele 2004 459 Syzygium jambos (Myrtaceae) Common name Pommier-rose (Fr.) Description A shrub or small tree from 7.5 to 10 m tall. The white juicy, aromatic flesh of the fruits is low in acid, sweet and crisp when ripe. Ecology Native to the I ndo-Malaysian region. I t grows well on most soils so long as they are not waterlogged. Young plants need shade and a moist environment. Established trees are hardy but not very drought resistant. Propagation The tree grows easily from seed, providing these are fresh. I t can also be grown from layers or cuttings. Roots appear after 6 months on layered trees and these come into bearing after 3 - 5 years compared with 3 - 7 years for trees grown from seed. Management The fruit does not store well and bruises easily when transported. Uses The tree makes a good hedge plant. The rose-scented fruits can be eaten raw but are best cooked. They have a high pectin content and can be mixed with other more strongly flavoured fruit to make jam. The flowers provide good bee forage capable of giving high yields of amber coloured honey with a mild taste. The leaves can be eaten by livestock. The wood is hard but not durable in the ground and is readily attacked by termites. However it produces good charcoal and firewood. References I rvine 1961, FAO 1982, Crane et al 1984, Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Veheij & Coronel 1991, Nakasone & Paull 1998 460 Syzygium malaccense (Myrtaceae) Common names Mazenya (Kongo), pommier de Malaisie (Fr.), Malay apple Description Trees grow from 6 to 8 m tall. Stamens are numerous and on falling form a red carpet below the tree. Fruits are white at first, turning red when mature, 5 - 7 cm long and 3 - 5 cm wide. The skin is thin and covers a white, sweet, juicy flesh, with a scent of rose and apple. Flowers and fruits are often produced throughout the year. Left: Syzygium malaccense in a compound at Kasangulu Ecology Originally from Malaysia. Frequently grown in villages in BasCongo. I t does not tolerate long periods of drought or large temperature fluctuations. Propagation Easily grown from seed. Best results are obtained by budding on to seedling stock. Space at 8 - 10 m. Uses The tree is mainly grown for its fruit, but it also makes a good shade and ornamental tree. The fruit can be eaten raw, cooked or made into preserves. Heartwood is hard, heavy and difficult to work but is used for furniture. I t makes a good charcoal. Bees are very much attracted to the flowers. Remarks Trees are often attacked by termites. References FAO 1982, Pauwels 1993 461 Tabernaemontana crassa (Apocynaceae) Common names Munkodi nkodi, mpoki (Kongo). Photo: Museum of Life and Science in Durham, NC Description A tree or shrub up to 10 m tall. Leaves are opposite, simple and entire, 13 – 40 cm long and 6 – 20 cm wide. The sweet-scented flowers are produced in the forks of the branches. Fruits consist of 2 separate pods 5 – 12 cm in diameter, each splitting into two halves containing several to many seeds. Ecology Found in gallery forests, forest regrowth and swamp forest. Present from Sierra Leone to the Central African Republic, Congo (Brazzaville) and D.R. Congo. Propagation can be propagated by seed and probably also by semi-ripe cuttings. Uses. Like many latex producing plants, it is thought to encourage lactation in Congo (Brazzaville) and D.R. Congo. I n D.R. Congo a decoction or maceration of the fruit is used as an enema to treat testicular swellings. A decoction of the stem bark is taken to treat diarrhoea. The wood is suitable for general carpentry, plywood and boxboards. I t is occasionally used in Liberia to make mortars for rice. The latex from the bark produces an inferior rubber that remains sticky and which is used occasionally. The plant is considered ornamental, because its flowers are showy and sweet-scented. The leaves are eaten by the cultivated edible tiger snail Achatina achatina. References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993, Neuwinger 2000, Mairura & Schmelzer 2006 462 Tabernanthe iboga (Apocynaceae) Common names I boga, bois sacré, bois amer (Fr.), bitter grass, sacred wood Description A shrub from 2 to 5 m tall. Stems are up to 10 cm in diameter. White latex is present in all parts. Leaves opposite, 10 – 18 cm long x 4 – 8 cm wide. I nflorescence is produced in small flowered cymes. Fruit is a berry, 5 - 6 x 1 cm, with the seeds in a spongy, white pulp. Ecology Present in gallery forests and forest regrowth in Central Africa. I t is also cultivated in several countries in West Africa. Propagation Use fresh seed or cuttings. Scarification prior to sowing increases the germination rate considerably. Uses I n Bas-Congo the root and shoots, which contain ibogaine, a hallucinogen, are taken as an aphrodisiac. I nternationally the plant is used to treat drug addiction, though ibogaine is known to affect muscle coordination, making standing and walking difficult. The root is very important in the initiation ceremonies in Gabon, which has expanded to southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and both Congos. The root bark is eaten whole, or crushed and ground, rolled into small balls, sometimes mixed with other ingredients. A root decoction is also taken as a tonic to combat tiredness, hunger and thirst when it is necessary to overcome physical stress. I n Congo (Brazzaville) a root macerate in palm wine is taken to soothe coughs, and the root decoction is drunk to treat urinary infections. I n traditional medicine, the latex is taken as an anthelmintic and warmed leaves are rubbed on the gums to calm toothache, as they have an anaesthetic activity. References Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Pauwels 1993, Bourobou Bourobou 2006 463 Tacca leontopetaloides (Taccaceae) Common names Ngoma kiula (= Frog’s drum) (Kongo), East I ndian arrowroot, African arrowroot lily Description An erect perennial herb up to 1 m high with a tuberous rhizome. The tuber is round, up to 12 cm in diameter, and can weigh 200 – 700 g. The plant has a solitary, very large much divided leaf, on a green and slightly mottled stalk 60 – 90 cm high. The green flowers are interspersed with long thread-like filaments on an erect stalk. The oval ridged fruit, 2.5 cm in diameter, contains numerous pale brown seeds. Ecology Grows in light, friable soil in shade-free thickets and grass savanna in tropical Africa, Asia and the Pacific basin. I t is sometimes cultivated in the southern Pacific. Uses Though tubers are very bitter and poisonous they are edible after careful preparation. They can be stored for long periods. They contain 21 – 30% starch which can be extracted in a near pure state. Tubers are dug up when the leaf has died down, washed, grated, mixed with water and the liquid filtered through cloth several times. Alternatively the grated pulp may be soaked in water for a week to remove the bitterness and toxic matter. The starch is then dried in the sun and made into porridge in times of famine. The dried starch can be stored for several months. To prepare the starch, water is heated in a pan until it forms a porridge (boko boko) or as a tapioca. The starch is also used in preparing good halwa (local Turkish delight). The cooked starch is easily digestible and is suitable for patients with digestive problems. Sometimes the leaves are used as a vegetable. I n traditional medicine the tubers and their starch are used against dysentery, diarrhoea and oedemas. Remarks Great care should be taken w hen eating this plant as it can be highly toxic. References Gillet 1927, Williams 1949, Morton 1961, Busson 1965, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Purseglove 1972, Williamson 1975, Peters et al. 1992, Burkill 2000, Ruffo et al. 2002, Kokwaro 2009, Wikipedia (Accessed 13.9.2012). 464 Talinum fruticosum (Portulacaceae) Synonym T. triangulare var. purpureum Common names Sansa banzenza, guele guele (Kongo), lipopi (Lingala), grassé (Fr.), waterleaf Description A perennial herb, 30 - 60 cm. tall, erect or semi-prostrate. Ecology A common weed throughout the tropics. Moist, humid conditions encourage optimum growth and development. The plant grows well in shade or in cloudy weather. I t prefers a well drained fertile soil, but will grow on infertile soils too. Grows wild in open ground and in forest clearings, but is also occasionally cultivated. Propagation Easily grown from 10 cm long cuttings which are normally planted in the dry season and should be shaded until established. The lowest pair of leaves should be removed. Seed can also be used. I t is mixed with sand and sown in a well prepared nursery bed. The seedlings are transplanted when 5 - 8 cm high and spaced at 15 x 15 cm. Watering is required daily in the first week. Management Photo: I I TA I mage Library The plant takes 21 - 45 days from sowing to harvest. Harvesting can continue at 1 - 2 week intervals for 2 months. Cut the stem just above ground level. Flowers need not be pinched out. The plant has little problem from pests or diseases, though it is a host plant for eelworms. Uses A leaf vegetable frequently sold in markets. I t is cooked as a vegetable, used in soups and sauces and sometimes eaten raw. I t is slippery and rich in protein and mineral salts. The plant is often dried out before cooking. Blanching or cooking in plenty of water removes nearly half the soluble oxalic acid content, which can otherwise cause stones in the urinary tract. Discard the water before use. The fresh leaves have a protein content of 1.9% . The plant also contains hydrocyanic acid and should only be eaten in small quantities. I t is used in the Congo as a laxative. References Gillet 1927, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Tindall 1983, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Burkill 1997, Martin et al. 1998, Schippers 2002, Nsimundele 2004 465 Tamarindus indica (Caesalpiniaceae) Common names Mkwaju (Swahili), tamarind Description A tree from 20 to 25 m high with rough grey bark and a rounded crown. Flowers are yellow or striped with dark red or brown. Fruits are 10 cm long, fleshy and covered with a brown or grey skin. Fruits contain a sticky brown pulp and may be either sour or sweet. The tree is slow growing but long lived and remains productive for 150 years. I t commences production after 10 years. I mproved varieties have been developed. Ecology A very adaptable species native to Africa. Widely cultivated in open sites at low altitudes in the tropics. Tolerates poor to slightly acid soils which should be well drained. The tree is drought resistant, preferring a long dry period. I t produces more fruit in such conditions. Photo: Mike Bush Propagation Use seed or wildlings. Seed germination is normally up to 90% in 40 50 days. Collect pods from the trees as soon as they mature and then rub on wire mesh to remove pulp. Separate heavy, seed by floating in water. Seed from dry fruits do not germinate well. Dry in the sun. Seed can be stored for up to 2 years. Soak the seed in cold water for 12 hours or rub with sandpaper before planting. Seed is best direct sown in the field or in containers, as a long taproot is developed if the plants stay in a nursery bed for more than 4 months. Avoid transplanting bare rooted stock. Trees can also be grown from branch cuttings or by budding. These give better production. 466 Management Slow growing. Can be pollarded or coppiced. Allow fruits to mature on the tree as unripe fruits have a highly acidic and fibrous pulp. Uses The sweet/ acid fruits are eaten fresh, especially by children and the pulp is said to prevent scurvy. I ndividual trees produce from 10 to 50 kg fruit pods per year. The pulp is also a very good source of calcium and phosphorus and an unusually good source of riboflavin. The pulp can be mixed with thin maize porridge to make a refreshing drink. A pleasant drink (which is laxative) can also be made by combining the pulp with sugar and soaking it in cold water. I t is stirred well and left to mature for few days in a cool place. The purgative effect of the fruit is said to be removed with cooking. The fruit darkens with time and, mixed with sugar, tastes like dried dates. I n Tanzania the overripe fruit is used for cleaning brass. Oil is extracted from the seeds. Crushed seed can be used for fodder. The flowers, young leaves and crushed seeds are also edible, and are used in a variety of relishes and side dishes. The wood is elastic, suitable for tool handles and easy to treat with preservatives. The sapwood is pale yellow. The heartwood is dark brown, tough, hard, cross grained and difficult to work and liable to crack in seasoning. The wood makes good charcoal producing plenty of heat. I t is also used for fuelwood. Twigs are used as chewsticks. Honeybees collect pollen and nectar and the tree is an important honey source. The honey is golden to dark brown with thin viscosity and a slightly acid flavour. Useful as a shade and avenue tree. Valuable as a firebreak as no ground cover will grow in its shade. I t is believed that a piece of bark, soaked together with some maize grains, and fed to poultry encourages them not to wander far! References Gillet 1927, Williamson 1975, Skerman 1977, FAO 1982, Espina & Ordetx 1983, Crane & Walker 1984, Beentje 1994, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Mbuya et al. 1994, Burkill 1995, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Msanga 1998, Ruffo et al. 2002, van Wyk 2005 Cane rat trap 467 Tephrosia vogelii (Papilionaceae) Common names Bwalu, mbaka (Kongo), fish poison bean Description A much branched shrub to 4 m tall. Ecology Found throughout tropical Africa. I t occurs in forest fallow and secondary forest but is often planted in villages around fields, among bananas and in swampy areas. I t is well adapted to sandy soils. Propagation Can be grown from fresh seed planted direct into the field. The germination rate can be up to 80% after one week. Stored seed should be soaked in hot water before planting. Management The plant coppices easily. Uses The plant fixes nitrogen and does not need prior inoculation. I t also produces abundant leaf litter having high nitrogen content. I n Zambia the plant is grown for three years as a fallow crop and results in greatly improved crop yields. I n Malawi even after a one year fallow maize yields were increased by 20% . After a two year fallow this rises to 40% (Personal communication - Stephen Carr). I n Kenya a 6 month fallow of Tephrosia vogelii accumulated high amounts of nitrogen, potash and calcium. Another study in western Kenya found that soil erosion was also much reduced under a Tephrosia fallow. The leaves as well as the seeds are effective as an insecticide against aphids, thrips and stalk borer in maize. They contain rotenone, though the concentration of the poison varies with individual plants. 100 g leaves are beaten to a pulp and then soaked in 1 litre of water together with 100 g soap. The mixture is left to stand for one day. The liquid is then strained off and a small amount shaken down the funnel of the maize plant from a stick or sponge when the plant reaches knee height. The application is repeated every 7 - 10 days. The powdered plant material has been found to be 87.5% effective in repelling maize weevil ( Sitophilus zeamais) in stored maize. The liquid can also be used to control fleas and mites in the hair and ticks on dogs. Dried leaf powder is also used against ticks. The stems can be used for staking beans and yams, and for firewood. The whole plant can be used as a broom. The leaves are used medicinally. References Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Allen & Allen 1981, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Egli & Kalinganire 1988, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Msanga 1998, Pauwels 1993, Stoll 2002, Pousset 2004, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 21.1.2013) 468 Terminalia catappa (Combretaceae) Common names Madamé (Lingala), badamier (Fr.), I ndian almond Description A fast growing deciduous tree, up to 30 m high, having horizontal branches produced in definite layers. Leaves are large and fall at the end of the rain season. The extensive root system binds and stabilizes poor, loose soils. Ecology Grows throughout West Africa in the higher rainfall areas. I t also tolerates some drought. I n Bas-Congo it is often planted as a shade tree in villages. Propagation is by seed. Germination is good but can take 2 months. Soak seeds for 24 hours before planting. Seed retains viability for only a few months. Management The tree is medium to fast growing and can be pollarded but not coppiced. Older trees do not sprout easily if cut down too low. Uses The seed kernel yields between 50 - 60% of an edible oil similar to groundnut oil. Though good to eat, the kernel is however difficult to separate from the hard seed coat. The flesh of the fruit is also edible but is often fibrous and not very tasty. The timber is a valuable source of firewood in the humid tropics. Both leaf and bark yield a black dye. The bark is rich in tannin. Wood is moderately heavy and strong and used for boat- and house-building and making boxes and plywood. I t is very susceptible to attack by termites. References Gillet 1927, Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 24.1.2013) 469 Terminalia superba (Combretaceae) Common names Ndimba (Kongo), limba (commercial name) Description A tree which grows from 30 to 40 m high with a long straight trunk and a spreading open crown. The winged fruits are distinctive. Ecology Grows in secondary forest, savanna woodland and farm land where the soil is not waterlogged and can sometimes be found growing in pure stands. I t is planted as an avenue tree and grows best in full sunlight. Propagation The tree is usually grown from seed which germinates in 2 - 3 weeks. No pretreatment is required. The seedlings are cut back to stumps after 15 months and transplanted into the field. They are also planted extensively in lines through scrub or under very light shade. Seedling regeneration is good on cleared land. The tree produces large amounts of seed and seedlings spring up freely on abandoned farm land. Management Trees can grow to 5 m in the second year on good soil and compare well with fast-growing conifers. The tree coppices well. Uses Timber is light yellowish-brown, strong, medium hard, and splits and works easily. I t is used for shingles, paddles, door frames, coffins, canoes, boxes and bowls but is not resistant to decay, termites or borers. I f a filler is used it is easy to stain and polish. The wood glues easily but splits when nailed. I t makes a good fuel wood. A yellow dye can be obtained from the bark. Bisu ( I mbrasia petiveri) and Minsendi edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Right: Seedling in a farmer’s tree nursery at Sona Bata Remarks Both sapwood and heart wood are attacked by beetles. References Leloup 1956, I rvine 1961, Uphof 1968, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995 470 Tetracera alnifolia (Dilleniaceae) Common names Kiziazi, nziazi, nziazia (Kongo), liane à eau (Fr.), water tree Description A woody creeper up to 20 m long and up to 10 cm. in diameter. Leaves are up to 15 cm long and 8 cm wide, often recurved, on a stalk up to 2.5 cm long. Flowers are white in large, terminal panicles about 20 cm long and 10 cm wide. The oval fruits are 1 x 0.75 cm, dull red and woody. Seeds are few, shiny black, with an orange aril, enclosing the seed. There are four other species of Tetracera present in Bas-Congo. Ecology I n Bas-Congo the plant is found both in swamp forest and on firm ground. Sometimes found trailing in grassland, thickets or forest margins. Also present from Senegal to west Cameroon and into Angola. Uses Stems yield abundant sap which can be drunk. Traditionally people in Gabon planted the vine in the savanna for use in times of water shortage. The vine is used for tattooing in Bas-Congo. Nzyazi caterpillars feed on the leaves. I n Manianga the sap is used to “ purify” breast milk and to treat abdominal pain. I t is given to a child immediately after birth and regularly to twins to strengthen them. The young leaves are sometimes eaten as a vegetable. Tetracera species are important bee forage in the equatorial zone in Africa. References Flora Zambesiaca 1960, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Burkill 2000 471 Tetradenia riparia (Lamiaceae) Synonym I boza riparia Common names Mutizo (Kongo), ginger bush. Description A shrub or small tree normally growing to 3 m high. Bark is light grey to brown, smooth and sometimes peels when old. The soft leaves have a strong smell, are opposite, 7 cm long and 6 cm wide, and covered with fine dense hairs on both surfaces. The leaf margin is toothed. Leaves have stalks up to 2 cm long. Flowers are very small, mauve, pink to white, in large dense, much branched heads up to 20 cm long. Male and female flowers are borne on different plants. The shrub grows rapidly. Ecology Photo: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez Propagation Planted by cuttings 20 - 50 cm long. Uses The leaves are used as an antiseptic to treat wounds and insect bites in D.R. Congo. They are widely used elsewhere as an insecticide and also for mulching. I n Rwanda the plant is sometimes grown as a wind break and on contour banks to check erosion. I n Malawi the plant is said to be a powerful remedy for intestinal worms. I n Kenya the crushed leaf is used against cataracts by the Pokot. The plant has many other medicinal uses in Africa. Bees were seen collecting nectar from this plant in the highlands of southern Tanzania, though it is said that the quality of the honey is poor. References Watt & Breyer Brandwijk 1962, Williamson 1975, Coates Palgrave 1983, Egli & Kalinganire 1988, Beentje 1994 472 Sometimes planted as a hedge around compounds. I n East Africa it is found on rocky outcrops and at the margins of evergreen forest, often near water. The plant prefers deep well-drained soils. I t is also planted around fields and along roadsides and river courses as a hedge in Rwanda. Tetrapleura tetraptera (Mimosaceae) Common name Aidan tree All photos: Quentin Meunier Description A deciduous tree up to 24 m tall and up to 85 cm diameter, with a slender crown. Bark is thin, grey-brown, with shallow vertical fissures. Leaves are bipinnate on a stalk 6 – 23 cm long with 5 – 7 pairs of pinnae. Each stalk has 6 – 12 alternate leaflets on both sides. Small, yellowpink-brown flowers are borne on spikes. Fruit is a woody pod with 4 wings smelling of caramel, especially when rotting below the tree. The wings contain a soft sugary pulp. Seeds are set free when the pod rots. They are hard, dark-brown, less than 2 cm. Ecology Present in secondary and fringing forest from Senegal to west Cameroon, and also in Sudan and Tanzania. Propagation Use seedlings or wildlings. Separate the seeds from the fruit by hand. Store seed with ash to reduce insect damage. Soak in cold water for a few hours before planting. Germination is usually good taking place in 1 – 4 weeks. Trees should remain in the nursery for 6 months to a year as they remain weak until well established. Management The tree can be coppiced or pollarded. 473 Uses Sap wood is white and shows ripple marks. The medium hard heart wood is pale red, darkening to red-brown, durable, easy to work but liable to split. The wood has an unpleasant smell when fresh. I t is used locally for house posts, doors and window frames, general carpentry and sometimes for canoes and paddles. Also used for firewood and charcoal. The fruits are dark red brown to black, 15 – 22 cm long with 4 wings, of which two are hard and woody, and two are hollow and filled with a sugary pulp. The fruits are commonly traded for food, cosmetic and medicinal use. Tests have shown good results in controlling the snail hosts of schistosomiasis. The flowers are known to be a good honey source. References Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 1995, Vivien & Faure 1996, Meunier et al. 2010, Harris et al. 2011 Bundles of Eremospatha haullevilleana on their way to market (see page 199) 474 Tetrorchidium didymostemon (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Nsusa (Kongo), arbre à savon du Gabon A tree with male flowers in October Description Tree or shrub from 4 to 25 m high with zig-zag branchlets. The slender yellow male flowers are distinctive. Abundant white latex is produced when the bark is cut. Ecology Common in secondary forests from Senegal to Tanzania, and south to Angola. Uses The wood is hard and resistant and used in building. However it does not last in soil or damp places. I ts bark is reported to keep insects away. The leaves were traditionally eaten as a vegetable in Bas-Congo. They are also used to treat swellings, particularly in the legs. The juice from the leaves is taken for stomach pain. Latex is used to treat thread-worms and leprosy. Grated bark is used as an ointment to treat rheumatism and lice. Twigs are used as chew-sticks and also sucked for the sweet sap in the bark. The latex acts as a strong purgative. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Keay 1989, Peters et al. 1992, Burkill 1994, Pauwels 1993, Neuwinger 2000 475 Theobroma cacao (Sterculiaceae) Common names Cacaoyer (Fr.), cocoa Description A tree growing from 5 - 10 m high. Ecology I ntroduced into Mayombe forest area in Bas-Congo in 1887. Frequently planted in villages in BasCongo. I t requires a well-drained, wellaerated, deep soil with good supplies of organic matter and nutrients. Propagation Planting Forastero type cuttings in fermented sawdust in baskets or polythene bags covered with polythene sheet is recommended. The leaf area should be reduced and shade provided. Young plants grow best under shade and need this until well established. Shade can be gradually reduced to zero in the third year. Management Plant out trees at a spacing of 3 x 2.5 m. The young trees should be well weeded. Pruning should produce an inverted cone with 3 or 4 main branches. If grown for commercial use the pods must be harvested when exactly ripe. This is usually at the end of the rain season and lasts for about 3 months. They are heaped together or put in baskets, covered with banana leaves and allowed to ferment for 4 7 days. The pods are then transferred to a box for 2 - 3 days and to a third box for a further 2 to 3 days. Uses The fruit pulp is eaten fresh before the fruit becomes completely ripe. Some people like it quite hard but others prefer it soft. Commercially the fruit is processed to make drinks and confectionery. References Purseglove 1968, Drachousssoff 1993, Pauwels 1993, Raemaekers 2000 The whole family help with the peanut harvest at Boko Buansa 476 Thonningia sanguinea (Balanophoraceae) Common names Sasabu (A corruption of Sasuba = to cure or comfort)(Kongo), ground pineapple Photo: Sylvain Gatti Description A small parasitic plant of trees and perennial woody plants, producing a long stout rhizome, which is tuberous at the point of attachment to the host’s roots. Only the scaly flower-heads appear above ground and are up to 7 cm high. Ecology Recorded in West Africa from Sierra Leone to west Cameroon, and occurring widely throughout the rest of tropical Africa. Uses I n Bas-Congo the scaly buds were used to touch either side of the abdomen to cure incontinence at night. I n D.R. Congo the plant is used to treat dysentery and gonorrhoea. The plant is used medicinally in Congo (Brazzaville) in a plaster to mature abscesses, and crushed and diluted in water is taken as a mouth-wash for dental caries, gingivitis and mouth-infections. When an infant is feverish the sap is applied to the stomach after it has been pricked with the scales from the flower-head. The rhizome is used in Congo to make an infusion taken for rheumatism. The plant is also used in Congo for paralysis. Sap expressed from the flower-heads is used as an eye-instillation for children with rickets and premature babies in Congo. Remarks The plant is a parasite of plantation crops, e.g. rubber, oil-palm and cacao. The host plant is not normally killed, but causes some loss of vigour. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Burkill 1985 477 Tithonia diversifolia (Asteraceae) Common names Kituntu ki nkadi, nkadi nkadi (Kongo), Mexican sunflower, tree marigold Description A bushy, much branched perennial growing to a height of 3 m. Ecology Originally from Central America, the plant is sometimes abundant along roadsides in BasCongo. I t is also used as a hedge to surround village plots. I t spreads from gardens to cropland, waste places and roadsides. Propagation Seeds should be planted shallowly under grass mulch. Cuttings 20 – 30 cm can also be used or clumps can be divided. Management When used as a hedge, the plant is cut to 1 - 1.5 m high. Otherwise it should be cut back to ground level at the end of the season. Uses Grown as a hedge plant. I f the leaves and stems are dug into the soil it is reported to improve fertility, particularly in combination with an application of rock phosphate, and has been shown to increase yields of maize and Brassica crops. I n Kenya a 6 month fallow of Tithonia diversifolia accumulated high amounts of nitrogen, potash and calcium. I t has also been used for livestock fodder in Kenya. I t is reported that if the leaves are boiled in water the liquid can be either painted on to trees or poured down holes to control termites. Bees collect nectar from the flowers but nectar secretion varies with altitude and soil type. A light amber honey is produced which granulates quickly. Photo: Jean-Luc & Paulne Alliez References Crane et al 1984, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Ambougou 1991, Roothaert et al 1997, Latham 2011, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 8 .12.2012) 478 Trachyphrynium braunianum (Marantaceae) Common names Kulu ntete (Ntete = An elongated basket used by porters), ngididi (Kongo). Description A perennial, woody herb with creeping rhizomes and bamboo-like sub-woody stems to 4.5 m high, forming thickets. Leaves are very variable in size, 5.5 – 20 cm × 2 – 10 cm. The inflorescence is terminal, spike-like, up to 20 cm long, simple or sometimes branched at the base. Flowers are 2 – 2.5 cm long, white, sometimes tinged pink or purple. Fruit is an orange-yellow capsule about 1.5 cm × 1.5 cm, containing 1 to 3 glossy black or brownish seeds, with a brownish white aril. Ecology Present in gallery forests or in bush, near water. Common from Guinea to Bioko and across Central Africa to Sudan and Uganda. I t occurs from sea level up to 1,200 m altitude. Propagation Reproduces naturally by seeds or suckers. Uses I n Bas-Congo the leaves are used to wrap chikwangue and sea salt and the split stems are used to make baskets and as ties in house building. The stems are also used as rafters before the thatch is placed. Stems are widely used for plaiting mats, strainers, beehives and traps for fish and rats. The fruit is eaten in D.R. Congo. The flowers are visited by honeybees. I n Congo a decoction of the twigs is drunk for hernias and stomach-ache, and the heated and pulped leaves are used as a poultice for dried and cracked soles on the feet. Sap from the root, often mixed with that of other Marantaceae, is given for the treatment of insanity, and a mixture of the roasted and pulverized root with salt and seeds of Aframomum melegueta is rubbed into scarifications for the treatment of rheumatism. I n D.R. Congo a poultice of the leaves is applied as an anti-inflammatory. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1997, White & Abernethy 1997, Kémeuzé 2010 479 Treculia africana subsp. africana (Moraceae) Common names Nsungi, nzaza (Kongo), arbre à pain d'Afrique (Fr.), African breadfruit Description A fast-growing tree to 35 m tall. Fruits may be 35 cm in diameter and weigh between 10 and 15 kg. Ecology Primary forests beside water and in gallery forests. Altitude range 0 – 1,200 m. Found in high forest and often planted. Present from Senegal to Angola and into Uganda and Mozambique. Also present in Sudan. Propagation Remove the seeds from the rotting fruit. They should be planted as soon as possible in pots or direct into the field. Uses The seeds are edible and are much appreciated. The fruit is allowed to rot, or is soaked in water, so that the seeds can be extracted. They taste like groundnuts and can be eaten raw, roasted, boiled or fried. They can also be ground and added to stews or made into soup. Seeds contain 73% carbohydrate, 16% protein and 6% oil. The timber, known as African boxwood, is white to yellow-white, fine-grained and used for furniture, carving, turnery and inlay work. I t can also be used for papermaking. I t is suitable for firewood and for charcoal-making. The tree protects the soil by attracting dew, causing the soil to remain moist throughout the dry season. The leaves are used medicinally to treat tooth decay. Left: Seeds extracted from a fallen fruit Remarks The nutritive value of the seed is particularly good. The composition of fats is well balanced, the protein content is of good value both for infant and adult nutrition and the carbohydrate part is also of good composition. References Gillet 1927, Bijttebier 1981, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 2000, Burkill 1997, Nsimundele 2004, Meunier et al. 2010 480 Trema orientalis (Ulmaceae) Common names Mudia nuni, kidia nuni (= that which birds eat), kiwandu ki mfinda (Kongo), charcoal tree Description A short-lived shrub with slender branches, 4 - 5 m high. The asymetric leaves, up to 14 cm long, alternate evenly along the branches, the edges being finely toothed all round. Small clusters of white flowers are borne throughout the year in each axil. Fruit is small, fleshy and black when ripe, containing a single black seed. Ecology Found in secondary forest, preferring high rainfall areas and common in forest and riverine margins where it quickly invades clearings and disturbed soils. Here it often produces almost pure stands but may also be associated with Harungana madagascariensis. Present throughout Asia and tropical Africa and in Madagascar. Propagation Can be grown from seedlings or cuttings. Germination rate of fresh seed is about 30% . Seed should be planted as soon as possible, as it quickly loses viability. Management The tree is fast-growing, competing well with weeds. I t can be coppiced. Uses I n Bas-Congo an infusion of the leaves and bark is used to treat toothache. The leaves, bark and stem are used to treat dermatitis, mental disorders, dehydration, asthma and epilepsy. The leaves and fruits are reported to be eaten in D.R. Congo. Bisu ( I mbrasia petiveri) and Mvinsu ( I . epimethea) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. The poles are used for building and, though the timber is resistant to termites, it has poor durability. The branches are used for firewood and charcoal. The leaves, pods and seeds are suitable for livestock fodder. Bees visit the flowers. The plant fixes nitrogen and can be used for soil conservation. The shrub has been used as a shelter crop for young Milicia excelsa, coffee, and cacao trees and is said to indicate good cacao-growing soil. A black dye is obtained from the bark and a brown dye from the leaves. The bark also yields a strong fibre. The bark and leaves contain saponin, and have been used for de-worming and as a cough medicine. References Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Wild et al 1972, Williamson 1975, NAS 1980, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Meunier et al. 2010 481 Trichoscypha oddonii (Anacardiaceae) Common name Biyoyo, panga ya singama (Kongo) Description A small unbranched tree, (or with few branches), 5 – 15 m tall. The tree has a crown of composite leaves, each up to 2 m long, at the top of the main stem. Flowers are born in panicles, 15 – 25 cm long, on the trunk. The fruits are 4 – 5 cm long and turn red when ripe. Ecology Found in dense humid forests. Present in Cameroon, Gabon and in D.R. Congo (Mayombe and Bas-Congo). Uses The fruits, which are produced in February and March, are edible but rather sour. The pink coloured timber has very fine grain and works well. References FAC 1960, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983 Tree with immature fruit Kisantu botanic garden. Right: at 482 Trilepisium madagascariense (Moraceae) Synonym Bosqueia angolensis Common name Nsekeni (Kongo) Description Tree to 35 m high. Bole is short and twisted with smooth grey bark. Cuts in the trunk produce abundant white latex which later turns red to violet in contact with the air. Leaves have a short stalk and are simple, alternate, tough and leathery, dark shiny-green above, 6 - 14 x 3 - 6 cm, with a narrow tip, 1 - 1.5 cm long. Male and female flowers develop in a bell-shaped receptacle about 1.5 cm long from which the stamens hang out. Fruit is about 2 cm long turning purple-black when ripe. Ecology Primary and secondary forests often beside water. Occurs from Guinea to Ethiopia and south to Angola and South Africa. Also present in Madagascar and the Seychelles. Propagation The tree can be grown from seed, wild seedlings or cuttings. Photo: J. Quicho Tanzania Plant Collaboration Management The tree can be pruned, coppiced or lopped. Uses Leaves are coarsely cut and cooked in water, oil and peanut butter and eaten as a vegetable in Bas-Congo. The fruit is also edible. During times of famine the roasted seeds (kimpundi) are eaten. The wood is whitish with pink blotches, and though perishable in the ground, is used for construction, cabinet-making, knife handles and to make torches for lighting in the house. The abundant pale brown, watery latex is used for dyeing material, baskets and other items and for making indelible ink. The tree has a number of medicinal uses. Bees are reported to visit the flowers. References De Wildeman 1903, Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, FAC 1948, Renier 1948, Keay 1989, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 1992, Peters et al. 1992, Bekele-Tesemma 1993, Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004 483 Tripsacum andersonii (Poaceae) Common name Guatemala grass Description A tufted or spreading perennial grass, with leaves growing up to 120 cm. Flower stems are rarely produced. Ecology Origin probably Central America but now grown in D.R. Congo, Ghana, I vory Coast, Kenya, Rwanda and Madagascar. I t grows vigorously even at high altitudes, in partial shade and on a wide range of soils, as long as there is sufficient soil moisture. Propagation By division of the plant or using rhizomes. I t is rather slow to establish. Plant out along the contour for soil conservation and fodder production. Management For fodder cut at a height of 10 – 15 cm when leaves reach 100 cm or at six week intervals. Uses Grown to control soil erosion and as a fodder plant. I t is possible to harvest up to 195 tons fresh fodder (40 tons dry fodder) per ha in 13 months. When regrowth was cut at 4, 6, 10 and 12 weeks after the previous harvest, plants gave 9.8, 9.1, 5.0, and 2.2 % digestible protein when fed to cattle. Remarks Few farmers grow this grass in Bas-Congo at present but it has good potential as a livestock fodder and for erosion control when planted close together along the contour. References Bogdan 1977, Chen 1992 484 Tristemma leiocalyx (Melastomataceae) Common name Nsa masa (Kongo) Description A soft woody plant forming a dense mass of prostrate stems, rooting at the nodes with vertical shoots up to 1 .5 m high. Stems are 4-angled. Leaves are up to 10.5 cm long and 5.5 cm wide with a shortly pointed tip, on a petiole up to 3 cm long. The white or pink petals are 6 - 8 mm long. Ecology Common in damp places in Bas-Congo. Found in marshy clearings in lowland rain-forest, beside water and in swamp forest in Uganda, Cameroon, D.R. Congo and Sudan usually from 1,140 to 1,320 m altitude. Uses The fruit is eaten. A tea, made from the leaves, is taken to treat heart palpitations and gonorrhoea. References FTEA 1975, Neuwinger 2000 485 Triumfetta cordifolia (Tiliaceae) Common names Mpunga, mpungala (Kongo) Description An erect, semi-woody plant up to 3 m high, with hairy or sometimes smooth stems. Ecology A common weed in cultivated crops and forest or bush regrowth in wet areas. Triumfetta cordifolia in flower in August Propagation By cuttings from leafy stems. Plant in moist soil. Management Earthing up, mulching and shade are beneficial. The stems are cut at harvest leaving one or two buds at the base. Plants can be harvested for many years. The bark may be stored after peeling from the stems. Uses Stem fibres (lupungala, lupunga) were at one time an important item of commerce in Bas-Congo, being used for rope, sacking or packaging. The leaves are edible. The bark of the leafy stems contain substances that give stews a typically sticky consistency. These substances are extracted in some countries by softening the bark in hot water, and then kneading it in a little clean water. During the kneading process the sticky agents are released into the water which is then added to the stew. Reported to be a good bee forage providing nectar and pollen in BasCongo. I n Gabon bees forage during December, July, August and October. Extracting fibre from the stem References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Ambougou 1991, Peters et al. 1992, Raemaekers 2001 486 Uapaca guineensis (Phyllanthaceae) Common names Kidianga, samfi (Kongo), sugar plum, false mahogany, rikio (commercial) Description A much branched evergreen tree to 18 m tall supported on prominent stilt roots. I t has a dense rounded crown of large leaves 10 - 25 long and 5 - 17 cm wide, which are produced in bunches at the end of the branches. Numerous, yellow-green male flowers (see left), are surrounded by golden-yellow bracts. The female flowers are similar but are borne on different trees and have a single flower. Fruits are about 2 cm diameter and contain 2 – 4 seeds. Ecology Present in both swamp forests and on firm ground from Sierra Leone to the Central African Republic and south to Zimbabwe. Propagation Sow only fresh seed in pots or use cuttings or wildlings. Shade is probably needed while plants are young. Seed set and germination is often poor. Management The tree can be coppiced or pollarded. Growth is rapid if the plant is in the open and on dry land, reaching 5 m after 6 years. Both photos: G. Baumann West African Plant Database Uses Fruits are eaten raw in Bas-Congo and have a taste similar to avocado. The tree produces good timber which is used for firewood, charcoal, furniture, shade, and for soil and water conservation. Wood is pale red, long lasting, easy to work and suitable for carpentry, especially furniture. The tree is sometimes planted in coffee and cocoa plantations. Roots are widely used as an aphrodisiac and to treat male impotence and female sterility. Fruits are sweet and in Nigeria, are made into a refreshing drink. Uapaca species are important honeybee plants in the northern dry savanna and the equatorial zones of Africa. References Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Vivien & Faure 1996, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Ruffo et al. 2002, Nsimundele 2004, Kitambala 2008, Harris et al. 2011 487 Uncaria africana (Rubiaceae) Common names Kikoke masa (Kongo), liane à hameçons Description A climbing shrub up to 18 m high, with 3 cm long recurved, hook-like spines on the stem which enable it to scramble over other plants. Leaves are 8 – 15 cm long and 4 – 7 cm wide, glabrous, elliptic, with pointed tips. Flowers are produced in terminal heads. After fertilization, the flower stalk lengthens to 3 cm and a round fruit is formed, filled with very small seeds. Photos: Marco Schmidt Ecology Found in fringing and secondary forest, often near water. Present from Guinea-Bissau to Nigeria, and across Africa to Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania and Angola. Uses The plant is reported by some to contain tannins and to be suitable both for tanning and dyeing. References Gillet & Paque 1910, Renier 1948, Pauwels 1982, Burkill 1997, Harris 2002 488 Urena lobata (Malvaceae) Common names Mpungala fioti, dinkambwala (Kongo), Congo jute Description A fibrous woody shrub up to 3 m high. Ecology A weed of cultivated crops, usually near settlements. I t grows in full sunlight usually on fertile, well drained soils and is found throughout the tropics and sub-tropics. Urena lobata growing near water at Kavwaya Propagation Grown from seed. Management The plant can be cut twice per year for fibre production, in which case it is normally grown as an annual. I t requires a fertile soil and, as it exhausts the soil, should be rotated with other crops. Uses Occasionally cultivated for its fibre. The fibre is strong, fine, soft and lustrous. I t has good spinning properties and can be used for cordage, textiles, carpets, packing materials, upholstery and, mixed with other fibres, for sacking. The plant is resistant to termites and water. I t makes a strong paper. Various parts of the plant are used medicinally. Young leaves are eaten in Gabon and the plant can be used as a livestock fodder. An important bee forage providing nectar over a long period. References Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Morton 1964, Busson 1965, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Ambougou 1991, Burkill 1997 489 Vernonia amygdalina (Asteraceae) Common names Nlulu nlulu, mundudindudi, mukarikari (Kongo), bitterleaf Description A shrub 3 - 5 m tall. Edible varieties are variable and have long oval, greyish leaves. Some of the cultivated varieties are almost free of bitterness. Ecology Often planted in villages in BasCongo. I t grows in poor soils and is resistant to termites. Present in the savanna or forest margins, often forming thickets and is widely distributed in tropical Africa. Propagation Usually planted from cuttings but can also be grown from seed. Collect the fruiting heads and shake the seed out into a plastic bag. Sow in a seedbed and transplant after a few months. Management The habit of the shrub depends on how it is used. I t develops a shrubby habit if the branches are first lopped for pole production and the stem is then pruned to form a head. A dense bushy habit is obtained if the stems are pruned severely on a regular basis to stimulate leaf production. Uses I n Bas-Congo, the leaves are pounded, soaked in water and taken to treat liver infections and intestinal worms. Crushed leaves are also applied to skin infections (e.g. scabies). The pith of the stems is known to be an effective medicine against worms. The leaves, which are often very bitter, are eaten as a vegetable in some countries, though not in Bas-Congo. The bitterness can be lessened by pounding and boiling or, with young leaves, by soaking in several changes of water. They are added in small amounts to soup or eaten as spinach. The shoots can be used to clean the teeth. Bees were seen collecting nectar in August in Bas-Congo. I t is an important honey source in Ethiopia producing a dark aromatic honey. The wood can be used as fuel. I t is not attacked by termites. References Watt & BreyerBrandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Martin & Ruberté 1975, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Maundu et al. 1999, Neuwinger 2000, Schippers 2002, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004, Latham 2011, Meunier et al. 2010, SEPASAL (Accessed 7.12.2013). 490 Vigna subterranea (Papilionaceae) Synonym Voandzeia subterranea Common names nsamba (Kongo), groundnut Nguba Bambara Description A dense-growing annual herb to 40 cm. Ecology Bambara groundnut is cultivated in most of Africa. I t will produce a crop in relatively poor, sandy soils. The plant requires bright sun, frequent rain and high temperatures but is however also drought tolerant. Excessive rainfall during fruiting depresses yields. Propagation Seed should be shelled and planted spacing of 32 x 20 cm. at a Management The crop should be earthed up to promote fruit production. From planting to harvest normally takes 4 months. Production can be from 500 – 1,000 kg per ha. Uses The seeds are cooked with maize (sometimes after soaking overnight) or alone, mashed, fried and used in a stew. Dried seeds can be roasted and ground into flour. Unripe seeds can be eaten fresh, fried or grilled. Nuts have high nutritional value with no toxicity. Ripe seeds can contain from 16 - 21% protein, 4.5 - 6.5 % fat and 50 - 60% carbohydrate forming a balanced diet. Eating large amounts however tends to give stomach discomfort. Careful preparation is needed as the seeds can be bitter. The plant nodulates and fixes nitrogen. References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Maundu et al. 1999, SEPASAL 1999, Brink et al 2002, Nsimundele 2004 491 Vigna unguiculata (Papilionaceae) Common names Nkasa, nkasa zi kongo, nkasa zi mbwenge, mbwenge (Kongo), niébé (Fr.), cowpea Description A sub-erect bushy or trailing annual. Ecology The crop is commonly grown together with cereals. I t requires a well drained soil, but is often badly affected by nematodes in sandy soils. Propagation Seed retains its viability providing it is protected from insect damage. Where cowpeas or their relatives have not been grown before, inoculation with rhizobia gives better yields. 17 28 kg seed are required per ha. Management Pests are often a problem. The green pods should be harvested before they ripen and shatter. Uses Dried seeds are an important food legume in Africa. Normally they are cooked together with vegetables, spices and often palm oil to produce a thick bean soup which is then eaten with the staple food. Protein content is 22 - 25% . The seed can also be used as a coffee substitute. Leaves and fruits are used as green vegetables and may also be dried and stored for later use. The plant may be cut back to produce a succession of new shoots. Fresh immature seeds and the immature seed pods are also sometimes eaten as a vegetable. Leaves can be used for livestock feed. Fibres from the stems are used for tying, making fishing lines, nets, woven material and clothing. I n Bas-Congo the roots are reported to be edible and can be used as a vegetable. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Kay 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill SEPASAL 1999, Nsimundele 2004 1995, 492 Vigna vexillata (Papilionaceae) Common name Nkasa zi madeso (Kongo) Both photos: David Watson Description An annual or perennial twining herb growing from a woody rootstock. I t scrambles over other plants. The stems are up to 6 m long and are usually hairy. Leaves are trifoliate, spear-shaped, pointed at the tip and hairy on both surfaces (similar to French bean leaves). The terminal leaflet, 6 x 12 cm, is larger than the other two. Flowers are 2.5 cm long and have a lilac-mauve keel which is twisted to one side. Fruit pods are straight 7.5 – 9 cm long and covered with fine bronze hairs. Ecology Common throughout tropical Africa, from Nigeria to East Africa and south to Malawi and Zambia. Also present in South Africa and South America. Commonly found in grassland and bushland. Found from sea level to 2,200 m in East Africa in grassland and bushland and at forest edges. Especially widespread in central and western areas of East Africa. Propagation Seed is produced after approximately 90 days growth. Management The plant grows and spreads well during rains and is effective in weed suppression but is not fire resistant. The plant grows back slowly after cutting. Uses Seeds are eaten in Bas-Congo. The plant provides a palatable feed for livestock in the rain season, even though hairy, but in tests only produced 309 kg/ ha DM of feed on unfertilized plots. I t does not last well into the dry season. Leaves are eaten in Kenya as a spinach. The swollen tuber is eaten in Tanzania, D.R. Congo and Zimbabwe. A leaf decoction is used in D.R. Congo to treat itching. References Renier 1948, Skerman 1977, Blundell 1987, Burkill 1995, Nsimundele 2004, Baumann 2005 493 Vitex doniana (Lamiaceae) Common names Fiolongo, mfiolongo (Kongo), prune noire (Fr.), black plum, West African plum Description A medium-sized tree, 15 -20 m high, with a heavy rounded crown. Leaves are 14 - 34 cm long, usually with 5 leaflets on stalks 6 - 14 cm long. Flowers are small, blue or violet, only a few being open at a time. Fruits are oblong, about 3 cm long, green when young, turning purplish-black on ripening and containing starchy black pulp. The seeds are contained in a stone. Ecology The tree requires a high water table. I t grows on a variety of soils, often alluvial and is able to survive bush fires. I n Bas-Congo it occurs beside rivers and in secondary forests. I ts range extends from Senegal to Cameroon and into South Africa. Propagation The tree regenerates naturally from seed and root suckers. I t is thought forest fires induce germination because they help break the hard coat of the stone. Remove the skin and pulp from around the stones when ripe with a knife. Wash and dry. Soak the stone for 24 hours in water, changing the water after 12 hours. Germination is good but sporadic. The tree can also be grown from cuttings. Management Growth rate is medium. I t can be grown in fields and along boundaries and can be coppiced. Uses The black fruit is sweet and is usually eaten raw. It is occasionally sold in markets. I t is a good source of vitamins A and B. Leaves may be eaten when young or used as a herb in cooking. The light, strong, termite resistant, whitish to light brown timber is used for furniture, mortars for pounding cassava, boats, house poles and crates. I t can also be used for firewood and charcoal. The leaves, pods and seeds can be used for fodder. The bark, leaves and roots are used medicinally and the bark for making a dye. The leaves are used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. The fruit is used to improve fertility and to treat anaemia, jaundice, leprosy and dysentery. The young tender leaves are pounded and the juice squeezed into the eyes to treat eye troubles. Kelekele edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Bees visit both flowers and ripe fruit and the tree is a favourite place for hanging beehives in Ethiopia. References Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, FAO 1983, Bekele-Tesemma et al. 1993, Pauwels 1993, Msanga 1998, SEPASAL 1999, Meunier et al. 2010, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 30.1.2013) 494 Vitex madiensis (Lamiaceae) Common names Kifilu, mfilu, nfilu, kifilungu (Kongo) Description A small tree or shrub 1.5 – 3 m high. The leaves, comprised of 3 stiff leaflets up to 25 cm long, are fragrant when crushed. The leaf edge has shallow rounded teeth. Flowers are pinkish white with violet blue lobes. The fruit is 2.5 cm long, shiny green at first becoming black when ripe. Ecology A common tree of the savanna from Guinea to Uganda and south to Mozambique. Propagation Collect the fruit when soft and ripe, dry in the sun and remove the dry pulp. Sow seeds direct into the field or transplant wild or nursery grown seedlings. Management The tree stump sprouts readily after being cut down. Right: Flowering twig Uses The sweet fruits are eaten and are good for quenching thirst. They have a higher iron content than oranges, are rich in sugars but low in vitamin C. An infusion of the leaves is given to someone feeling weak. A decoction made from the young leaves is taken for coughs, colds, diarrhoea, dysentery and haemorrhoids. I n Bas-Congo the boiled roots are used to treat diabetes and anaemia. I n Manianga the bark is used for diarrhoea and the leaves to treat coughs. Bisu ( I mbrasia petiveri) and Kaba phaedusa) edible ( Lobobunaea caterpillars feed on the leaves. Bees are reported to collect nectar from the flowers in November. References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Latham 2003, Nsimundele 2004 495 Voacanga africana (Apocynaceae) Common names Munkodi nkodi (Kongo), Voacanga d’Afrique (Fr). Description A shrub or small tree 2 – 6 m in height, branching low down and with a low spreading crown. Leaves are opposite, dark green and glossy above, 7 - 40 x 3 - 20 cm. Flowers cream or brown. Fruits are borne in pairs, slightly wider than long, approximately 5 cm in diameter. Ecology Grows in the understorey of secondary forests, in swampy forests and beside streams in the savanna. Found from Senegal to Cameroon and in Uganda and Egypt. Propagation Pick ripening fruits from the tree. The paired lobes are opened by hand to release the pulp and about 20 seeds. Squash the pulp in water gently to release the seeds and dry them in the sun. They can be stored in a cool place for up to 12 months. Soaking the seed overnight may hasten germination, which is generally good but slow, reaching 50% after 4 weeks and 90% after 7 weeks. Management The related species Voacanga thouarsii can be coppiced or pollarded. Photo of flowers (right): Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez Uses The plant has important medicinal uses and the seeds are exported principally to Germany, where they are used to extract a drug to treat heart diseases and lower blood pressure. The plant is also a source of a drug to treat cancer. I n Bas-Congo the sticky sap is used as glue. I t can be mixed with that of Ficus species for the same purpose. Bunsambi edible mushroom grow on the dead trunk (see page 510). The bark contains fibre which is used in Nigeria for making yarn. A decoction of the root or bark is taken for heart problems and gonorrhoea and the plant is also used for treating sores, furuncles, abscesses, fungal infections, river blindness and eczema in the Congo (Brazzaville). The bark of both V. africana and V. thouarsii is used to treat stomach ulcers. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Photo: David Harris/ Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 68, Bouquet 1969, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, I wu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Msanga 1998, Pousset 2004 496 Whitfieldia elongata (Acanthaceae) Synonym W. longifolia Common name White candles Description A straggling shrub 1.5 – 3 m tall, rarely a creeper. Shoots are slightly angular and constricted below the node. The stems contain pith. Leaves are 13 – 22 cm long and 4.5 – 9 cm wide. Conspicuous white flowers, 6 – 8 cm long, with petal-like calyx, are produced in terminal panicles. Photos: Bart Wursten Ecology Present in shady, damp and gallery forests from southern Nigeria to Angola, and in Sudan and Tanzania. Uses The stems are used to make spindles for spinning in southern Nigeria. The pulped leaves, after being passed through fire, are rubbed on the chest for bronchitis in Congo (Brazzaville) and eaten to aid conception. A leaf decoction in palm wine is drunk in Congo for stomach complaints and food poisoning. I n Tanzania the leaves are used to relieve headaches. The leaves are used as a black dye in D.R. Congo. The root is chewed for snake bite. Remarks W. brazzae and W. thollonii are also present in Bas-Congo. References Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993, Neuwinger 2000, Kokwaro 2009 497 Xanthosoma sagittifolium (Araceae) Common names Langa (Kongo), tannia, new cocoyam Description A perennial herb growing from 1.3 - 2.5 m high from a large corm. The plant generally appears larger and coarser than taro. The stem is short and leaves are borne on large stalks. Leaves are arrow shaped, from 45 - 90 cm long, have sharp pointed tips and a prominent marginal vein. A corm is produced at the base of the plant and this produces 10 or more lateral cormels (detachable vegetative buds) 10 - 25 cm long. Tannia being grown for leaves Ecology The plant grows best in tropical conditions with high rainfall and deep, well drained soils which do not become waterlogged. However it can also be grown up to 2,000 m altitude and is more tolerant to shade and poor soils than Colocasia. Originally from tropical America but now grown in Africa, Asia and Polynesia. Propagation Small cormels or the top of the original corm, with one or more buds are used for planting. They should weigh about 150 g. Plant at the beginning of the rains, preferably on ridges, with the bud pointing downwards, 7.5 - 10 cm deep. I f pieces of the rootstock are used, leave the tip above ground. Space at 100 x 100 cm. Management Harvesting is done when the leaves turn yellow, 9 - 12 months after planting. The corms can be left in the ground until required. They can be harvested and the parent plant left to continue producing for up to 6 years. Yields from a pure stand may vary from 20 – 35 t/ ha. Uses I n Bas-Congo the main use is for the leaves, particularly the young leaves, which are cooked and eaten as a vegetable after removal of the main rib. They have a protein content of 2.5% of fresh weight. The cormels are edible after boiling or baking. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Kay 1973, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Burkill 1985, Raemaekers 2001 498 Xylopia aethiopica (Annonaceae) Common names Nsombo, mukala, mukwa (Kongo), poivrier de Guinée (Fr.), kimba or West African pepper Description A shrub or tree to 40 m tall producing clusters of pod like fruits about 5 cm long. These are aromatic and pungent. Ecology Grows in swamp and fringing forest in the savanna region from Senegal to Tanzania, and in Congo, Angola and Zambia. I t is a shade loving species. Propagation Collect ripe fruits, spread them out on plastic sheeting and separate the seeds when dry. Soak the seeds for 24 hours before planting in pots or direct into the field. Management can be pollarded. The tree coppiced or Uses I n Bas-Congo the poles are especially used for house construction as the wood is resistant to termite attack. The dried fruits are peppery and used as a spice in stews. They are also used in making ginger beer and to ease pain, to treat rheumatism, stomach-ache, and malaria. I n some areas they are sold in the markets. Formerly they were exported to Europe. Elsewhere in Africa a decoction of the seeds or bark is used to relieve coughing and to treat bronchitis. Photo of fruits (right): David Harris/ Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh The wood is light yellow in colour and fairly heavy. I t is used for general carpentry and also for making charcoal. The ground up fruits, called nkuba nkuba or nkuya nkuya, are mixed with cayenne peppers and used, together with kola nuts, to repel weevils. The fruit is sometimes put into water to purify it. The flowers are produced in the dry season and are attractive to bees. Nsyangi edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Macmillan 1991, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004 Dried fruits as sold in the market 499 Zanthoxylum gilletii (Rutaceae) Common names Nkonko nkumanga, nsende nsende, nungu tsende (Kongo), African satinwood Description A deciduous tree growing to 35 m high with a straight trunk which bears large corky thorns. The young stems have large spines. Leaves are borne in terminal clusters and comprise 6 – 13 pairs of leaflets and a terminal one 14 – 30 cm long. Flowers are creamy-white in terminal clusters 20 – 30 cm long. Fruits are round and red, 4 – 6 mm in size, and do not split when ripe. Each fruit contains one black, shiny seed. Male and female flowers are borne on different trees. Ecology Grows in evergreen forests in West Africa, Sudan, East Africa, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Congo and Angola. The tree is planted in pure stands, individually, or sometimes as a hedge. Propagation Can be grown from seed though germination is often poor. Pick the red-brown fruit from the tree before the capsules open and dry in the sun for 1 – 2 days. Shake out the seed but do not leave in the sun. Seeds can be stored for up to 2 months but add wood ash, as they are susceptible to insect attack. Seedlings need full sunlight and grow well in old farmland. Stem cuttings and air layering have given good results. Management The tree coppices well. Uses A valuable timber tree though the yellow scented wood is sometimes difficult to work. I t takes a good polish and finishes well. I t is durable except when in contact with the ground. I t is used to make pestles and mortars, in house construction, interior carpentry and doors etc. I t bends well when steamed. The oil from the seeds is reported to be edible. I n Bas-Congo the root bark contains a poisonous resin, and is used to kill parasites and to treat tiredness, anxiety and headaches. The bark is chewed as a pain-killer and to relieve toothache. Elsewhere it is swallowed for the relief of stomach-ache. The leaves, finely crushed and steeped in lemon juice, are believed to cure snake bites. The young terminal shoots, without the leaves, are sweet smelling and are used to flavour sauces. Bees collect pollen and nectar from the flowers in January. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Kokwaro 1976, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Coates Palgrave 1996, Burkill 1997, Meunier et al. 2010 500 Zea mays (Poaceae) Common names Sangu (Kongo), mais (Fr.), maize Description A stout annual reaching 3 m. Distinct races are adapted to different areas. The Yangambi centre released ZE-169 which has potential to produce 3 t/ ha of grain. Ecology I n the dry season the crop is grown along water courses. I n the rain season it is planted with the new crop of cassava. I t will grow in a wide range of conditions. Essentially a crop of warm countries with adequate moisture. Grows best on well drained, well aerated, deep, fertile loams. I t is often the first crop planted after the forest fallow in Bas-Congo. The crop is grown extensively where the bush fallow system is maintained. Propagation Seed is normally planted with groundnuts or sweet potatoes and without fertilizer in Bas-Congo. The cobs are often eaten while they are still soft. Left: Male flower head – a good source of pollen for bees Management Stalk borers are a major pest. They can be controlled by tobacco or Tephrosia vogelii leaf solution (see pages 333 and 468) which is poured down the centre funnel into the plant. Uses The production of green maize and dried grain are important crops in Bas-Congo, providing food in January and February when there is little else available. The flour is used in making various drinks and also in combination with cassava flour. I t is also used to make a coarse bread. The sheaths around the cob are sometimes used to stuff mattresses. Bees frequently collect pollen from the male flowers during the rains and sometimes honeydew from the leaves. The latter may be gathered in sufficient quantities to give a honey flow. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Howes 1979, Crane et al. 1984, Drachoussoff 1993, Stoll 2000, Badu-Apraku. & Fakorede 2006 501 Zingiber officinale (Zingiberaceae) Common names Tangawusa, tangawisi, tangawisa (Kongo), gingembre (Fr.), ginger Description An erect herbaceous perennial from 30 cm to 1 m high. The aerial part is produced from an aromatic branched rhizome that grows horizontally just below the soil surface. Ginger is usually cultivated as an annual plant being harvested 9 - 10 months after planting. Ecology Originally from South East Asia, ginger is cultivated in the tropics from sea level to 1,500 m with an annual rainfall between 1,500 – 2,500 mm. A short hot dry season benefits the plant. I t tolerates partial shade, though it can be grown in the open, and can be grown with pigeon peas or interplanted with tree crops. Soils should be deep, well-drained, easy to work and rich in humus. Ginger is a heavy feeder and is usually among the first crops grown after clearing the forest. I t does not stand waterlogging. Propagation Ginger is planted from fresh, firm pieces of rhizome (setts), 2.5 - 5 cm long, having at least one good bud. The rhizomes are best stored until they sprout. The crop is normally grown in raised beds. Space 20 - 30 cm between plants and plant at a depth of 7 cm. Provide mulch after planting, even sawdust can be used. At planting time the soil must be moist and must not dry out once the setts are planted. Do not plant ginger in the same land again for at least 3 - 4 years to avoid soil borne pests and diseases. Management New shoots appear after 10 - 20 days and weeding should be carried out 2 or 3 times, earthing the plants up at the same time. The crop matures when the leaves turn yellow. Content of the essential oil, pungency and fibre increase with age. Harvest carefully to avoid damaging the rhizomes. For preserved ginger the crop is harvested before the fibre content and pungency develop too strongly. The rhizomes are cleaned, soaked in water and scraped to remove the outer skin and then sun dried for 4 - 5 days. Uses The fresh roots are chewed and sucked to relieve thirst and a popular drink is made from ginger extract. I n Bas-Congo the rhizomes are used, with other plants, to treat coughing, haemorrhoids, abdominal pain and intestinal worms. The root is also taken as an aphrodisiac. The main use elsewhere is as a spice or food additive. African ginger is darker than Jamaica ginger and more pungent. References Purseglove 1972, Nair 1980, Burkill 2000, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 502 Some unidentified plants used as vegetables in Bas-Congo Kimfw ila Possibly a species of Tylophora (Apocynaceae). A wild vegetable from the forest. Prepared as for Gnetum africanum . Kinkiadi A forest creeper also prepared as for Gnetum africanum . Luamba A shrub fairly common near Madimba. The young shoots are eaten. I t was found growing on hard clay soil on a steeply sloping site in secondary forest. Nkaka A forest creeper which is eaten fresh with nsaki (pounded cassava leaves cooked with palm oil and peppers). I t is a popular vegetable. 503 Some edible w ild mushrooms * Bubw aka bw aka is found on oil palm trunks and other trees in dense shade. These mushrooms can be pink or white. Bufw a ngudi growing on the end of a dead oil palm trunk in shade. Bulongo ( Lentinus squarrosulus) appears between April and December. These were growing on the stumps of Hallea stipulosa and Hymenocardia acida Bundolo ( Termitomyces sp.) Found growing in shade among fallen leaves. 504 A large Termitomyces mushroom from Kimbao 505 Termitomyces microcarpus 506 Some mushroom collectors Children with Termitomyces letestui (Both photos) 507 Termitomyces aurantiacus Termitomyces letestui 508 And some sellers Termitomyces aurantiacus (with orange cap) on left and T. mammiformis (grey cap) lower centre Termitomyces mammiformis Mushroom market in Kinshasa 509 Bunsambi ( Polyporus tenuiculus) grows on dead tree trunks (particularly Voacanga africana) and can be found throughout the year. I t is cooked with simsim or seeds of pumpkin or squash. Lumvumvu ( Lentinus squarrosulus) Grows on dead wood in the forest. Photo: Jacques Miaglia Lutumbula or Lutumbulu is found in large quantities in the savanna at the start of the rains. The mushroom is very popular being used as a substitute for meat and vegetables. Eating large amounts however is believed to cause illness. Nkaka bu bw aka bw aka The “grandfather” of Bwaka bwaka, on a dead Dacryodes edulis tree. * The prefixes Bu and Lu are interchangeable See also Dracaena mannii (p. 190) for Bukutu kutu ( A. cornea Syn. Auricularia polytricha) and Elaeis guineensis (p. 194) for Lumiengi ( Psathyrella cf. tuberculata). References Struyf in Gillet & Pâque 1910 p 9, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Eyi Ndong et al. 2011 510 Traditional processing of cassava in Bas- Congo Cassava growing in the village of Kilueka Peeling harvested cassava 511 Retting of the tubers Cleaning the tubers after retting 512 The cleaned tubers ready to be dried in the sun Dried tubers being carried to the market at Lemfu 513 Sieving and draining the cassava flour softened by retting. After pounding, the flour is packed for the first (partial) cooking 514 First partial cooking Packets after the first cooking in preparing chikwangue 515 Chikwangue after the first cooking Shaping chikwangue after preliminary cooking 516 Packing chikwangue in the leaves of Haumania liebrechtsiana (Nzomfi) which are then tied with fibres from oil palm leaf stems. Packing chiwangues with the leaves of Lasimorpha senegalensis (Kilodi) 517 Chikwangues cooked and ready to eat Extraction of fibre from the leaf stalks of oil palm for tying chikwangue 518 Cassava flour after being cleaned, crushed, pressed and drained ready for sale in Kinshasa market Cassava flour for the preparation of chikwangue being sold in town 519 Haumania liebrechtsiana (Nzomfi) is being grown around homes more and more for packing chikwangue. Augustin Konda ku Mbuta on left. The leaves of Lasimorpha senegalensis (Kilodi) are also used. The plant grows in damp places 520 References ABBI W, D. 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University of Malawi, Zomba. 336 pp. WI LSON, J.R.U., AJUONU,O., CENTER, T.D., HI LL, M.P., JULI EN, M.H., KATAGI RA, F., NEUENSCHWANDER, P., NJOKA, S.W., OGWANG, J., REEDER, R.H. & VAN, T. (2007) The decline of water hyacinth on Lake Victoria was due to biological control by Neochetina spp. Aquatic Botany, 87(1) 90 – 93. ZI MUDZI , C. & CARDON, D. (2005) Morinda lucida Benth. [ I nternet] Record from PROTA4U. Jansen, P.C.M. & Cardon, D. (Eds.). PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa / Ressources végétales de l’Afrique tropicale), Wageningen, Netherlands. “http:/ / www.prota4u.org/ search.asp”. 532 Glossary Aflotoxins = Naturally occurring mycotoxins produced by species of Aspergillus fungus. Aflatoxins are toxic and among the most carcinogenic substances known. Agroforestry = The integrated planting of trees and shrubs with crops and/ or livestock for mutual benefit. Air-layering = A method of propagation. A stem is partially cut or scraped and then enclosed in a moist rooting medium held in place with a plastic bag to allow rooting. The new plant is separated once it is growing well. (see photo on page 291). Areole = A spine bearing cushion in the family Cactaceae Aril = The fleshy structure surrounding, or partly surrounding some seeds. Axillary = Arising from the leaf axils. Bolting = Early flowering. Budding = The insertion of the bud of an improved variety below the bark of the rootstock. Calyx = The outer part surrounding the petals of a flower. Carpel = The female part of the flower. Chewstick = The thin stem of a tree used as a toothbrush. Chikwangue or chiquangue = A savoury preparation made from flour of the root of the manioc (cassava). For chikwangue, flour from the manioc is pulverised, made into a thick paste, and then left to ferment. I t is then wrapped in banana leaf, tied up well, and steam cooked in water. I n this form, it is believed to last for almost up to 3 weeks. See pages 511 - 520 Cleft grafting = The top of the rootstock is cut off and divided and the scion wood inserted and fastened in with a strip of plastic. Coppiced = Tree is cut down just above ground level and sprouts and grows back again. Corm = A short underground storage organ. Cormels = Detachable corms formed by the original corm. Corolla = The second whorl of floral organs, being inside or above the calyx and outside the stamens. I t may consist of free petals or of a joined tube and petal lobes. Culm = Stem of a grass or sedge. Cultivar = A cultivated variety. Cyme = An inflorescence where a central flower is followed by flowers produced from axillary buds below the central flower. Cymes may be simple or compound. Determinate = A plant with finite growth normally ending in flowers. Dioecious = Having male and female flowers on separate plants. Direct planted = Planted direct in the field rather than in a nursery. Drupe = A fleshy fruit containing a stone. DM = Dry Matter. Epiphyte = A plant which grows on another plant but does not obtain nourishment from it. 533 Essential oil = An oil is “essential” in the sense that it carries a distinctive scent, or essence, of the plant. Grafting = System of asexual propagation often used for fruit trees. This involves taking a bud or scion from one plant and inserting it into the rootstock of another. Hemiepiphyte = A plant which may be an epiphyte for part of its life but is rooted in the soil for another part. I I TA = I nternational I nstitute for Tropical Agriculture, I badan, Nigeria I NEAC = I nstitut National pour l’Etude Agronomique au Congo I ndeterminate growth = A plant which carries on growing. I ndigo = A blue powder obtained from some plants which is used as a dye. I nvasive = A non-native plant which spreads rapidly. Lanceolate = Spear shaped. Marcot = see Layering Monoecious = Having bisexual flowers or male and female flowers on the same plant. Nganga nkisi = Herbalist Nitrogen–fixing = The process whereby bacteria, either free living or in nodules on plant roots, convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonium thus benefitting associated plants. Nkisi = A general name for a spirit, or for any object that spirit inhabits. I t is frequently applied to a variety of objects used throughout the Congo Basin thought to contain spiritual powers or spirits. Nkunku = Traditional system for reafforestation involving the scattering of a variety of tree and creeper species in an area and protecting them from livestock, fire and felling for 10 – 15 years decided by the chief. (see Nsimundele et al. 2010 for a detailed description). Nodulate = The roots of leguminous plants often have nodules housing nitrogen fixing bacteria. Panicle = An inflorescence in which the main axis has several side branches which are also branched. Petiole = Leaf stalk pH = a measurement of the soil acidity or alkalinity. Numbers below 5 indicate an acid soil. Numbers above 5 indicate an alkaline soil. Phyllode = Flattened leaf stalk which has the same purpose as a leaf. Pinna = The first division of a compound leaf, as with a feather. Pollarded = Cutting the tree at about head height to produce a crown of many branches which can then be cut regularly. This is commonly done with some trees to produce fodder for livestock. Pondu = Cassava leaves PRONAM = Programme National Manioc, D.R.Congo. Pubescent = Downy, covered with a dense mat of short hairs. Raceme = Flowers borne on short stalks off a central stem with the youngest flowers being produced at the top. Rhizobia = Nitrogen fixing bacteria. 534 Rhomboidal = Almost square shaped but slightly flattened so that two opposing angles, including that attached to the petiole, are more acute than the other two. Rootstock = The lower part of a plant with a strong root system onto which a good scion or bud is grafted. Generally used for fruit trees. Scarification = Seed is nicked with a knife or put in hot or boiling water for a short time to hasten germination. Scion = Piece of a plant grafted or budded onto a rootstock. I t later forms the main fruit bearing part of the plant. Sepals = A single part of the outer whorl of the flower, the calyx, usually green protecting the corolla. Sessile = without a stalk. Sett = A piece taken from a large tuber having dormant buds and used for planting. Side grafting = The scion is grafted into the side of the rootstock and the original plant allowed to grow until the graft has taken. Spadix = An unbranched inflorescence with a thick or fleshy axis. Spathe = A large sheathing bract surrounding the inflorescence. Spike = An inflorescence composed of a single stem with sessile flowers spaced alternately along it. Stock = see Rootstock Stolon = A vegetative shoot which spreads along the ground surface and roots at the nodes. Stumping = Cut back to older wood before planting out. Sub-spontaneous = Spreading naturally. Tilth = A good tilth implies porous, friable soil texture. Top bars = Strips of wood 3.2 cm wide, with strips of beeswax inserted on the lower surface, in a Top Bar bee hive. Umbel = I nflorescence with branches arising from more or less one point on the stem. Umbrella like. Vegetative = Grown from the leaves, stems or roots rather than seeds. Wildlings = Seedlings collected from the wild. 535 I ndex of general photos Kalumba, Alphonse making a basket with stems of Eremospatha haullevilleana Front cover volume 1 Village near Mbanza Nzundu 5 Map of the Cataractes & Lukaya districts, Bas-Congo province 6 Traditional forest fallow near Mayenga village 12 Preparing land for planting in Manianga district 19 Kisantu botanic garden staff 42 Some edible insects 45 Soil erosion 49 Planting cassava after clearing the forest 59 A young charcoal maker learns his father’s trade 61 A rat trap maker on his way to Buba market to sell a trap 66 Mural on the wall of Maluku hospital 75 Collecting water from a protected spring 89 Fr. Justin Gillet – sign at the entrance to the Kisantu botanic garden 129 The old ferry at Luozi 131 Yam pieces sold hot in the market at Selembao 137 En route to Kinshasa 141 Village in Manianga district 150 Papa Nsimba constructing a house in Bas-Congo 162 Dry season vegetable garden 167 Ox ploughing in Manianga 176 Planting cassava after burning the forest fallow 202 Traditional collapsible seat 204 ADERUKI farmers group near Kikola in their cassava field 208 Sleeping mats being taken to market 209 Chief Lutangu and helpers during the nsafu harvest at Koma village 260 Road repairs! 266 Fruit bats are caught and traded for food in some markets 267 Crickets (Nzenze) Brachytrupes membranaceus for sale 267 Making a bed from oil palm leaf stems 272 Uncontrolled fires are a major problem to regenerating forest fallow (Nkunku) 275 Tata Paul and Tata Masikidi with a good fire break near Mbanza Nzundu 275 Cover of volume 2 Collecting leaves from a Moringa oleifera tree Makala! Many trees have been felled for this load of charcoal. Who will replace them? 282 A lady on her way to market 289 Market scene 289 Many valuable indigenous trees can be grown from cuttings 292 Travel in the rain season, even with a 4 wheel drive vehicle, has its problems! 294 Charcoal making is a popular way of earning money 305 Toy trucks made by children 309 A village blacksmith making up a smoker from scrap metal for use when harvesting honey 314 Preparing cassava flour for the day’s meal 329 Good friends! 331 Papa Maketa with young Rambutan plants in the botanic garden at Kisantu 380 Hot peppers being dried 386 Making up a mat with leaves of Pandanus candelabrum 403 Prof. Luc Pauwels preparing a herbarium specimen at Kisantu 404 Leaves of a Marantaceae species grown for wrapping chikwangue 408 Young trappers prepare to catch rats at Boko Buansa, near Kavwaya 423 424 Dried chopped fruits of Solanum macrocarpon for sale A group of charcoal makers at Kavwaya 434 A good load! 449 A trap for cane rats 467 Bundles of rattan Eremospatha haullevilleana on their way to market 474 The family help with the peanut harvest at Boko Buansa 476 Some unidentified plants used as vegetables 503 Some edible wild mushrooms 504 - 510 Traditional processing of cassava 511 - 520 536 I ndex of edible caterpillars Scientific name Kikongo name Acherontia atropus Anaphe infracta Anaphe panda Anaphe sp. Antheua insignata Antheua sp. Antheua sp. Bunaea alcinoe Cirina forda Cymothoe caenis I mbrasia alopia I mbrasia anthina I mbrasia eblis I mbrasia epimethea I mbrasia melanops I mbrasia obscura I mbrasia petiveri Lobobunaea phaedusa Munsona Platysphinx sp. Rhypopteryx poecilanthes Page N’kankiti Nsanga Malomba loka Miengeti Makedi kedi Ngala Nsani Minsongo or Malemba Munsuka Kwesu Mvinsu or Nvinsu Minsendi Minsendi Bisu Kaba Munsona Nsongi Bata bata Bidiaka Biswangi Bubu Bubuta Bwenge Dindeengula Kelekele Makaka Masela Matambungu Mbambi Mbidi Mbota Mfundi Miengeti Mimpemba Minkelele Minsamba Minsangula Minsendi Minsundi Mukenga N’boto Ndienga Nkombo nseke Nkulu (mfinda & nseke) Nkumbi N’kwati N'lombela Nsanzungu Nsatiti Nsenga Nsila Nsinga Nsofi Nsuangu Nsungu Nsyangi 537 439 87 88 27,30,87-89, 273 247 310 285,310 45,98,172,187,413 158 96 22,151,172,365 22,56,387 12,27,117,134,297,335 12, 217, 242,365,400,481 285 11,12,288,361 55,62,307,400,470,481,495 12,51,98,160,172,217,246,285,289,400,417, 495 158,312,413,439 454 80 233 233 212,212 458,459 312 398 494 356 30 96 217, 243,306,365 99 311 310 285,310 30,54,96,400 36 36 30,196,360,361 28,30,51,200,289,299,378,400,470 282 116 311 160,161,297 22 273,285,458,459 87,88 158 390 138 417 327 365, 417 378 196 346 346 499 Scientific name Kikongo name Page Ntedi Nteku Ntesi Ntiti Nziemo Nzyazi 212 387 311 417 285 462 538 I ndex of Kikongo & other vernacular names Ba di madibu Ba di magangu Ba di magusu Ba di masa Ba di matombe Ba di ndingi Ba di ngasi Ba di nkandi Ba di nsamba Ba di nseki Ba kaziete Baka nlele Bana ba nzazi Banda nzazi Banga Bawu bawu Bendo bendo Bikuku bi kiula Bilengu Bilolo (Lingala) Bindiondi Binsansi Binsukula Bisadi Biteku Biteku teku (Lingala) Biwansi Biyoyo Bobo Boko boko Bola Bola di mputu Boso boso Bowa Bowa di nsende Bu Bubu Bubwaka bwaka Bufwa ngudi Bukutu kutu Bula nima Bulongo Bulukutu Bumi Bundolo Bunguni Bunkanga Bunsambi Bunzi Bwalu Bwalu mabundu Bwalu nkusu Bwati D eso Diadi Dianga Dibata bata Dibimbi di muaka nungu Didiya Dikalakonki Diladila Dilendila Dimbu dingi Dimbulu Dimputu Dingama Dingungu Dingwansi Dinioka nioka Dinkalanga Dinkambwala Dinkondi Dinkondo di ngala Dinkundi Dinsania Dinsona Dinsongo Dinsusu nsusu Dintata Dintusi Dintusu Dinzenge Dioko Dioko di kisimbi Dioko di ngumbi Dipapayi Disuki Divoka Dizulu Dongo Dongo dongo (Lingala) Ekoti ya Monseigneur (Lingala) Esobi (Lingala) Fibweza Fiolongo Fitidi Fua ndolo Fula (Manianga) Fulenta Fulunta Fumu Fumu di bakuyu Fumu di kiula Fumu di matebo Futi Fwetete Gangu Goki di mputu Gonyo Guele guele Gusu Gwandu ya nseke Kafi Kaka bu bwaka bwaka Kalankonki Kalawanti Kanga miese Kangeni Kangiya Kansi ngo Kansu ngo Kapidi Kapili Katalanga 81 395,418 392 166 394 81 193 135 193 37 189 261,435 314 314 354 425 318 451 424 437 301 23 437 184 387 41 437 482 370 464 36 165 150 41 42 171 212,212 504 504 190 104 504 281 452 510 154,436 190 496,504 33 425,468 120 78 74 367 114 161 80 161 128 452 297 9 539 290 270 407 126 301 336 411 133 489 305,338 324 322 269 269 368 338 174,176 327 327 269 293 47 249 106 271 364 337 7 7,148 74 326 88 494 55 261 427 383 383 333 147 147 147 104,197 45,303 418 357 57 465 230 200 136 49 452 20 206 452 452 450 450 376 375 224 Kaya Keli kete Kembela Kenge Kiaka Kiasa Kibanda banda Kibidi Kibofula Kiboto Kibuengi Kibulu Kibunsi Kibunsila Kibwa Kibwa mpimbidi Kidiadi Kidianga Kidia nuni Kidimbi Kidimbi ki nseke Kidioko dioko Kidisa Kienga Kienga ki masa Kiese kiese Kifilu Kifilungu Kifitidi Kifitidi di nseke Kifubu Kigala Kigamo Kigete Kikakasi Kikalakasa Kikalala Kikoke Kikoke masa Kikomba Kikula ntedi Kikula nzazi Kikulu Kikumbi Kikumbu Kikumbu ki nzambi Kikungu Kikuya Kikuyia Kikwa ki bankita Kikwa ki mansunga Kikwa ki santu Petelo Kilemba Kilemba ki mfinda Kilemba nzau Kilendila Kilensi (Kisuku) Kilodi Kilodia Kilolo Kilolo ki kienga Kilomba Kiluba Kilungu 213 178 434 350 433 362 225 99 386 311 310 121 33 33 234 124 190 161,487 481 335 335 244 210 413 328 419 495 495 55 56 46 158 382 246 46 383 435 313 488 399 208 210 458 273 202 202 117 211 211 47 181 60 222 376 222 296 119 276,517,520 276 51 413 389 335 398 Kimana ngansi Kimandi nsusu Kimbafuela Kimbaki Kimbiolongo Kimbodi Kimbodia Kimbongo Kimeso kama Kimfusa ki nseke Kimfwila Kimpundi Kimwindu Kimwindu ki mfinda Kimwindu ki nseke Kimzindu Kindamina Kindokiela Kindomba Kindumbu Kingela Kingelumi Kingembu Kingembwa Kingombo Kingondi Kinkama Kinkanda Kinkete Kinkiadi Kinkombo ki nseke Kinsamba Kinsansi Kinsendi Kinsumba Kinsundi Kinsungu Kinsungwa Kintamba Kinzenze Kinzonzi Kisadi Kisakamba Kisani Kisania Kiseka Kisiamuna Kisilu Kisima Kisoko soko Kisongi Kisudi ki nkandi Kitete mbika Kititi Kitundibila Kituntu ki nkadi Kityokolo Kivinsu Kiwandu ki mfinda Kiwandu ki nseke Kiwaya Kiziazi Koko Kolo di munsala 540 76 436 386 217 316 218 218 325 320 207 503 483 88 88 87 88 124 370 213 40 400 433 288 288 8, 9 165 188 134 234 503 147 37 23 299 437,441 282 346 346 188 242 330,407 184 138 96 96 360 278 244 219 385 454 357 134 417 22 478 276 365 481 200 243,339,420 471 229,392 75 Kombi kombi Kombu kombu Konga di nseke Kongo bololo Kote Kukoto Kuku kinia Kula mvumbi Kula ndosi Kula nioka Kula ntedi Kula ntese Kula panda Kulu ntete Kunda mavondu Kungu nsudi Kyangu Kwinkwina Kwiti Kyese kyese Laba Lakisi Lala Lala dingani Lala dinzenzo Lala ma nsa Lalansa Landani Langa Leka mbwa Lemba lemba Lemba nzau Linuaka nuaka Lipopi (Lingala) Litamba Longa longa Longwa Loniangu Loso Luamba Lubamba Lubanse Lubata bata Lubese Lubota Ludimi lu mbwa Lufwa Lufwa lu ndomba Luhete Lukaya kaya Lukungu nseke Lulaka lu ngombi Lulongu Lumantu Lumbusu Lumiengi Lumvumvu Lunama Lundala ndala Lungwila Lunsambi sambi Lunioka nioka Lunzila nzila Lupunga 227,241 101 207 320 78 177 451 447 447 118,411 208 208 57 479 389 45 168 91 273 419 125 145 128 127 128 127 128 274 143,498 303 90 222 108,427 465 227 334 231 433 344 503 199 235 152 352 312 237 185 185 246 223 388 436 231 438 315 194 434,510 176 112 409 380 411 175,416 486 Lupungala Lusaku saku Lusangu sangu Lutete Lutumbula Lutumbulu Luyuki M aba ma masa Mabedi Mabondo Mabotu Mabulu Madamé (Lingala) Madeso Madeso manene Madiadia Madiata nzau Madimanga Madia ma nlumba Mafambu Mafulu Magoki Makaku matatu Makasu nsinga Makenge Makiwa Makombo Makungu Malafu Malafu ma nsongi Malanga Malukutu Mamasi masi Mamba Manga Mangangu Manga ya sende (Lingala) Manga zi nsende Mankonko ma matebo Mansambi nsambi Mansanga masanta yobi Mansiensi Mansiese Mansungu Mansusu Mantidi Masangu Masasi mantidi Masuki Matabulu Matekwa tekwa Matuana Mawumuna Mazeha Mazenya Mbaka Mbala Mbamba Mbanda nzazi Mbari Mbendi mbendi Mbese Mbidi Mbika 541 486 169 168 250 510 510 263 166 223 418 44 270 469 366,367 367 114 14 127 146,455 290 121 269 – 271 132 379 350 279 241 301 409 206 94 281 180 122 291 418 57 445 45 427 139 287 287 181 338 442 271 442 271 68,103 387 45 271 227 462 468 257 1,66,199,280 314 392 142 352 99 305 Mbika kalu Mbika malenge Mbika nsudi Mbika ntetu Mbila esobe (Lingala) Mbolongu Mboma Mbondi Mbota Mboti mfinda Mbuba Mbulunkutu Mbulu mbakala Mbuma makaku (Lingala) Mbumi Mbundu ngombe Mbungu mbungu Mbwalu Mbwa nkanka Mbwembo Mbwenge Mbwenge mputu Mfilu Mfiolongo Mfubu Mfuma Mfumbu Mfumbwa Mfungu Mfungu mfungu Mgagani (Swahili) Minkadi nkadi Minkeni Minsanga Minsengo Mkwaju (Swahili) Mobe Mondo Mpakasa Mpangi nsafu Mpansa makunsi Mpata kasakula Mpenga Mpete Mpeya Mpoki Mpukumpuku Mpuluka Mpunga Mpungala Mpungala fioti Mtunda (Swahili) Muana nkasi Muaza Mubamfu Mubango mbango Mudia nuni Mugete Muiba Muindu Muka Mukala Mukarikari Mukasa 268 164 163 125 49 440 182 410 312 178 327 281 114 142 452 50 269 468 134 41,112 310,492 429 495 494 350,403 111 229 58,229 49 49 131 390 149 409 409 466 53 273,308 399 412 47 26 183 246 317,318 462 54 259,402 486 486 489 109 21 433 122 160 481 247 383 88 199 499 490 318 Mukubi Mukuku Mukulumu Mukwa Mulembo Mulu Mumbombo Mumpala Mumpese mpese Mumvumbi mvumbi Mundenge Mundudi dudi Mundumbu (Manianga) Mungulungulu Mungiengie Munkadi kadi Munkeni Munkodi nkodi Munkuiza Munsambi nsambi Munsanga Munsasa Munse Munsele bende Munsemfi Muntoma toma Muntomina Muntusu Mupemba Musaka saka Musanga vulu Musitu (Manianga) Musoso Muteri Mutizo Mvanza fioti Mvenzi Mvete Mvondongolo Mvulumuna Mvuma Mvunguta Mwandu mwandu Mwembo Mwengeti N anasi Nbangu nbangu Ndamba Ndamimina Ndemba ndemba Ndembi Ndiadi Ndiadi mbulu Ndimba Ndosho ndosho Ndulunsi Ndungu zi fioti Ndungu zi kombo Ndungu zi mafofolo Ndungu zi makutulu Ndungu zi matebo Ndungu zi matubulu Ndungu zi misitu Ndungu zi ntendi 542 306,339,399 409 122 499 148 27 258 130 332 447 53 490 195 79 444 390 151 462,496 151 288 247 443 409 157 131 155 155 327 20 284 150 397 437 215 472 360 243 246 187 162 399 257 200 41 310 46 160 305 64 72 36 114 190 470 277 162 103 102 102 102 397 103 397 103 Ndungu zi nzo N’dya ngulu Nfilu Nfumba Nfuni nfuni Ngadiadi Ngadiadia Ngadidi Ngai ngai (Lingala) Ngakala Ngansi Ngego Ngembu Ngenguba Ngete Ngewu Ngididi Ngoma kiula Ngombo Ngondi longo Ngongo Ngo n’keni Ngo nti Nguba Nguba nguela Nguba nsamba Nguba ya mputu Ngudi nkayi Nguka nzizi Ngulu masa Nguvu Ngwengu Ngyoka Niasibola Niasi tondo Nionzo Nkadi nkadi Nkaka Nkaka bowa Nkaka bu bwaka bwaka Nkaka-(ki)koonki Nkaka kikuyia Nkaka kisani Nkaka kizionzi Nkaka nsafu Nkala Nkama nsunda Nkamba Nkamu Nkanda diada Nkansu ngo Nkasa Nkasakasa Nkasa kindongo Nkasa nkumbi Nkasa zi kongo Nkasa zi madeso Nkasa zi mbwenge Nkasu Nkau Nkawu Nkefu Nkeka Nkekete 24 381 495 134 353 220 220 220 239,241 420 361 209 183 10 246 209 479 43,464 183 436 57 150 335 58 347 491 347 359 241 328 182 41 324 36 165 35 97,478 294,502 113 510 261 213 280 414 412 98 419 307 170 351 450 203,492 28 118 104 492 100,493 492 44,140 95,265 265 375 439 178 Nkenge-kyasa Nkengi N’kenketi Nkenkina Nkila mfwenge Nkila nkumbi Nkisu Nkofi Nkofi masa Nkofi nkolula Nkondo Nkondo mfinda Nkonko nkumanga Nkoso Nkuba nkuba Nkubudi Nkuku bangulu Nkula Nkula diari Nkula katende Nkulu Nkumbi Nkumunu Nkungambwa Nkungulu teke Nkungu teke Nkusa Nkusu nkusu Nkuta Nkuta kani Nkuya nkuya Nkuzi Nkwenta Nkweso N’labanlaba N’lakasi N’lakisi Nlalu Nlalunlalu Nlembo nlembo Nlolo Nlomba Nlondo Nlongu Nlulu nlulu Nongu nongu Nsa Nsa bwaki Nsafu Nsafu mfinda Nsa lukaya Nsa lwansa Nsa lwasa Nsa magonki Nsa masa Nsaki Nsaki kausu Nsaku Nsaku nsaku Nsambu Nsanda Nsani Nsanu Nsasa 543 362 285 20 91 63 348 383,459 82,83 195 84 18 448 500 388 498 306 42 155 190 277 458 273 153 387 117 117 296 78 296 403 499 433 305 295 381 146 48,146 154 154 209 51 389 313 231 490 431 239 239 172 99 240 252,253 345 239 485 172,294,503 295 395,396 169 362 214 96 284 300 Nsasa mpakasa Nsasa mpwatu Nseka Nseka mfusila Nsekeni Nsembo nsembo Nsemi nsemi Nsempe Nsende nsende Nsende n’vanga Nsendi mpanga Nsenga Nsielele nseke Nsiensie Nsiesa Nsiesi mfinda Nsiki Nsimbiliki (Lingala) Nsisi Nsoko nsoko Nsolokoto Nsombi Nsombo Nsombo nseka Nsongi Nsoni Nsonia Nsoso Nsudi nfuni Nsudi nsudi Nsukulu Nsumbala Nsunda Nsungi Nsusa Nsusu menga Ntadianti Ntata nkedinga Nteke Ntenda Ntendi Nteta nteta Ntete Ntetu N’teya Ntidi Ntieti Nti kafi Ntiti Ntiti mbwela Ntoka Ntubungu Ntundibila Ntundulu Ntunu Ntuti Nula-panza Nungu tsende Nuwanda Nvondongolo Nyonsi nyonsi Nyensi Nzadi nzadi Nziazi 63 264,440 360 360 483 278 181 454 500 179 179 325 63 196 196 196 319 108,423 108,423 385 76 194 499 360 454 254 254 134 353 353 400 144 422 480 202,475 446 178 155 77 361 387 369 194 125 248 442 341 136 417 417 311 316 22 22 233 341 361 500 177 187 340 285 227 471 Nziazia Nzala kwenda Nzanga Nzanzeka Nzau Nzau nti Nzaza Nzefo za ngo Nzeke nzeke Nzenze Nzete ki nsimbi Nziazi Nziazia Nzibo Nzila nzila Nzomfi Nzundu Paka paka Pasipolomo Payi payi Penza Pete pete Pili pili (Swahili) Punga Pungala Pungala fioti Sadi Saka saka Saku Samfi Samu Sangu Sansa banzenza Sasabu Savoka Sela Sesa Sinda Sinda di mputu Singa singa Soko Solokoto Sukuma wiki (Swahili) Taka ndumbu Taka ngola Tangawisa Tangawisi Tangawusa Teta bowa Teta ndumbu Tidi Tofa tofa Tombe Tudama dama Tumpu di nkombo Tundu ngoma Tungwa Tusevo Tutu Vinsu vinsu W alu Wandu Wangila Wangila matebo 544 471 10 39 241 182 104 480 450 202 45,267 47 471 471 35 175 514,520 279 65 356 106 178 246 103 456 486 489 184 293 160 487 341 501 465 477 364 30 117 167 167 378 183 76 84 40 71 502 502 502 113 40 371 256 394 342 416 101 449 113 69 227 120 93 430 430 Wenge Wosu Wusu Yense Yobi Yombo Yonsi yonsi Zala di nkanka Zenga bitini Zima tiya Zomfi Zumbu (Yaka) 311 339 230 285 139 390 340 55 124 195 517,520 397,398 545 I ndex of common names Abalé Acacia Acalypha Aerial yam African arrowroot lily African blood lily African breadfruit African coffee African cucumber African elemi African false currant African fan palm African gladiolus African greenheart African jolanettle African linden African mammee apple African milk bush African milk tree African nightshade African nutmeg African pear African potato African satinwood African teak African tragacanth African walnut African winged bean Aidan tree Air plant Alui Amarante Amaranth Ambay pumpwood Ambrevade American basil Anacardier Ananas Anatto tree Angel’s wings Apple mint Arachide Arachide de brousse Arbre à ail Arbre à calebasses Arbre à pain Arbre à pain d’Afrique Arbre à pain indigène Arbre à pluie Arbre à savon du Gabon Arbre corail Arbre de bonheur Armoise anuelle Aromatic pepper Arrowroot Asperge sauvage Asthma weed Attier Aubergine Avocado pear Avocatier Badamier 367 11 14 183 464 415 480 427 315 99 37 81 224 378 79 232 290 209 210 451 318,389 172 249 500 307,388 448 282 382 473 262 204 41 41 110 93 336 44 46 77 94 305 58 159 420 156 60 480 327 32 475 201 123 59 101 298 63 208 52 440 364 364 469 546 Bahia grass Balai doux Balloon vine Balsamine Balsam pear Bambara groundnut Bamboo Bambou Banana Bancoulier Baobab Barbadine Barbados cherry Baselle Basilic commun Basket grass Baumier Beef steak plant Bell bauhinia Bell pepper Ben ailé Bilinga Billy goat weed Billyweb sweetia Bird pepper Bissap Bitter gourd Bitter grass Bitterleaf Bixa Black catnip Black nightshade Black plum Blacksmith’s charcoal wood Black wattle Bloodwood Blue pussyleaf Blunt spurred ground orchid Bois amer Bois d’or Bois noir Bois rouge Bois sacré Boleko Bombardier Bottle gourd Boule de feu Boundary tree Bowstring hemp Bracken Brazilian lucerne Breadfruit Brède chevrette Brimstone tree Bristly starbur Broom cluster fig Brown mustard Buffalo grass Buffel grass Bush orange Bush pepper Bush tea 356 419 105 252 315 492 69 69 324 34 18 358 363 71 337 342 338 14 72 102 321 328 26 16 103 241 315 463 490 77 369 441 494 457 13 388 330 206 463 312,330 311 203 463 341 245 267 415 332 411 387 453 60 40 319,328 15 213 83 351 432 432 375 281 Bush tea bush Bush yam Butter bean Butterfly pea Button grass Cacaoyer Café de la brousse Caféier robusta Cajou Calabash Calabash nutmeg Calabash tree Caladium Calebasse Camel’s foot tree Camphor basil Cananga oil Candlenut tree Canne à sucre Cannellier de Ceylon Canterbury bells Cape fig Capsicum Carambola Carambolier Carrot tree Carry me seed Casca bark Cashew nut Cassava Casse du Siam Castor oil Cat claw Cat’s whiskers Céara Ceara rubber Célosie Centro Ceylon cinnamon Chapeau de Monseigneur Chapeau de Napoléon Charcoal tree Chayote Chêne argenté Chêne d’Afrique Chénopode vermifuge Cherry peppers Chilli pepper China berry Chinese albizia Chinese cabbage Chinese white cabbage Chocolate weed Chouchou Chou de Chine Chou vert Christmas bush Christophine Chufa Ciboule Citronelle Citronnier Cluster peppers Cocoa 251 184 366 116 314 476 346 136 44 268 318 156 94 268 374 336 97 34 409 123 263 213 102 65 65 447 369 203 44 293 428 402 313 130 295 295 112 116 123 73 108 481 421 231 307 118 102 102 302 29 86 85 304 421 86 83,84 33 421 170 36 167 127 102 476 547 Coconut Coco plum Cocotier Cocoyam, new Coffee, robusta Coffee senna Cola Concombre amer Concombre diable Confiture Congo jute Conophor nut Copper leaf Cork wood tree Corn mint Corossol Corossol épineux Cotonnier Courge Cow foot leaf Cowpea Crab nut Crab oil Creeping foxglove Creeping wood sorrel Cucolie écarlate D abema Dahomey rubber Dartrier Dattier sauvage Day flower Demouain à gros fruits Devil bean Devil’s trumpet Djimbo Doctor’s gum Dragonnier Drumstick tree Dwarf copperleaf Dwarf date palm Dwarf Dracaena Dwarf mobola plum Dwarf savanna ginger lily Eagle fern East I ndian arrowroot Ebam Ecuelle d’eau Egg plant Egyptian cotton Elemier d’Afrique Elephant’s ear Elephant grass Emilie Épinard Épinard I ndien Épinard sauvage Éponge végétale Eru Erun Ethiopian mustard Eucayptus Euphorbe effilée Exile tree False assegai 135 121 135 498 136 427 140 163 173 216 489 379 14 400 305 50 50 230 164 376 492 104 104 64 345 195 378 212 425 368 145 373 159 173 290 454 190 321 40 368 189 353 152 387 464 373 115 440 230 99 94 114 195 82 71 371 284 229 204 82 205 209 108 286 False mahogany False nutmeg False roselle False rubber tree Fausse oseille de Guinée Fausse tomate Faux baobab Faux I péca Faux muscadier Faux noix muscade Fever plant Field mint Fig, common Figuier de Barbarie Finger Euphorbia Finger tree Fireball lily Fish poison bean Flame tree Fleabane Forest anchomanes Forest fever berry Forest mobola plum Forest sandpaper fig Forest yam Foxglove orchid French bean Fromager Gambian tea bush Ganges primrose Garden balsam Garden egg Gardenia mâle Garlic plant Gboma egg plant Giant yellow mulberry Gingembre Ginger Ginger bush Ginger lily Gloriosa lily Gmelina Golden dewdrop Gombo Gombo musqué Goyavier Grassé Greater yam Grenadille Gros baume Grosseillier des Barbades Groundnut Ground pineapple Guatemala grass Guava Guinea grass Guinea hemp Gynandro H aricot de Lima Haricot vert Herbe à balai Herbe à chapelets Herbe à elephant Herbe au chagrin 487 389 239 217,242 239 439 264 386 317,389 318 338 305 212 343 209 209 415 468 443 147 47 161 354 211 184 207 369 111 281 64 252 437 222 243 439 327 502 502 472 149 225 228 191 7 9 383 465 181 357 251 363 58 477 484 383 116,351 240 130 366 367 304 139 114 369 548 Herbe de Guinée Herbe papillon Hoary basil Hog gum tree Hog plum Hogweed Holarrhene Hophead Horn-pod tree Hornsbill calabash Horse grass Horseradish tree Hot pepper Hydrocotyle I boga I caquier I ce-cream bean tree I gname de brousse I ncense tree I ndian almond I ndian fig I ndian heliotrope I ndian mustard I ndian pennywort I ndian plum I ndian shot I ndian walnut I ndian wormseed I nga I roko I sano oil Jacinthe d’eau Jack bean Jackfruit Jacquier Japanes bunching onion Java brucea Jew’s mallow Job’s tears Jonc vulgaire Kale Kangkong Kapok Karamanni wax Kenaf Kimba pepper Koko Kola Kolatier Lagos spinach Lance Dracaena Langue de femme Lantana Larmes de Job Larmilles Laurier d’Afrique Lemon Lemon grass Lemon vine Leopard lily Liane à eau Liane à hameçons Liane de Kisanji Lilas de Perse 351 238 336 454 444 80 242 70 187 288 432 321 103,387 115 463 121 255 184 99 469 343 238 83 115 216 101 34 118 255 307 341 192 100 62 62 36 91 148 139 169 84 256 111 454 240 499 229 140 140 112 189 31 274 139 139 222 127 167 365 411 470 488 326 302 Lima bean Limba Limbali Lime Limettier Lis grimpant Loofah Lucky bean M acassar kernels Macassar oil Mackay bean Madagascar bean Madagascar periwinkle Madamé Magic rope Magloire Mais Maize Malay apple Malnommée Manioc Mangium Mango Mangosteen Mangoustanier Manguier Maninguette Manioc Maracuja Marante Mbila esobe Melegueta pepper Menthe Mexican sunflower Milk and wine lily Missanda Monkey bread Monkey orange Monkey’s dinner bell Morelle noire Mother-in-law’s tongue Moutard de Chine Moutard indigène Mulberry, giant yellow Muscadier de calabash Musk mallow N apier grass Neem Neflier de Costa Rica Nénuphar Never-die New cocoyam Niébe Nim Node weed Noisette Noix des I ndes Northern black wattle Noyer d’Afrique Noyer d’Amerique Obéro Oboto Oil bean tree Oil palm 366 470 223 126 126 225 284 10 91 97 197 366 109 469 340 40 501 478,501 461 208 293 13 291 221 221 291 24 293 357,358 298 49 24 305 478 157 204 18 452 245 441 411 83 83 327 318 9 114 67 73 334 262 497 492 67 455 153 34 11 283 347 373 290 361 193 549 Okra Oranger doux Orange, sweet Ordeal tree Oseille chinoise Oseille de Guinée Oseille indigène Pain de singe Pakchoi Palmier à huile Palmier-rotang Palm worm Panza, oil of Papain Papayer Paprika pepper Papyrus Parasol tree Parasolier Pastèque Patate douce Pawpaw Peanut cassia Pear, African Pepper Persian lilac Pervenche de Madagascar Pheasant berry, Common Physic nut Pied de boeuf Pigeon berry Pigeon pea Pigweed Pili pili Piment Piment capsique Pineapple Pink tassle berry Plantain bananas Poil à gratter Poilus Pointe noire Pois bâtard Pois cajan Pois de coeur Poison arrow vine Poison d’épreuve Pois pouilleux Pois sabre Pois sucré Poivre Poivre de Guinée Poivrier de Guinée Pole bean Pomme cannelle Pomme cythere Pommier de Malaisie Pommier-rose Poor man’s candle Pop-corn senna Pop-gun tree Porcupine flower Potato yam Pourpier 7 128 128 158,203 405 241 240 18 86 193 265 194 361 106 106 102 171 448 325 125 257 106 426 172 375 302 109 299 259 374 191 93 381 103 102 103 46 55 324 322 330 85 116 93 105 451 203 322 100 255 376 24 498 367 52 445 461 460 107 426 447 70 183 381 Prickly pear Prune noire Prunier d’I nde Prunier des Andes Pumpkin Purghère Purslane Queensland hemp Rain tree Raisinier des bois Ramboutan Rambutan Raffia Rattan Rattan, large Rattle box Recouyer Red flowered ragleaf Red-hot poker tree Red water tree Resurrection plant Rice Ricin Rikio Ring-worm bush River bean Riz Robusta coffee Rocouyer Rônier Rose balsam Roselle Rotin Sablier Sacred wood Safoutier Safran des I ndes St. Thomas’s tree Saman Sand box tree Sansévière Sassy bark Sasswood Saucissonnier Sausage tree Savanna gooseberry Scarlet eggplant Sea island cotton Sesame Sésame Sesbania Sessile joyweed Siamese cassia Siamese tree senna Sickle bush Silk cotton tree Silk rubber Simsim Slender star lily Snake bush Snake plant Soja Sonnettes Sorgho 343 494 216 121 164 259 381 434 32 287 330,380 330 392,393 95,199 265 159 77 154 201 203 263 344 402 487 425 431 344 136 77 81 252 241 95 245 463 172 165 72 32 245 411 203 204 264 264 326 437 230 430 430 431 40 428 428 179 111 217 430 249 70 411 226 159 442 550 Sorghum Souchet à papier Souchet comestible Soursop South African tree fern Soya bean Spanish needles Spider plant Spider tresses Spider wort Spiral ginger Spreading dayflower Squash Star fruit Starwort Stinking pea Stinkweed Stinkwood tree Stylo Sugar apple Sugar bean Sugar cane Sugar plum Sukuma wiki Sunflower Sunset hibiscus Swamp arum Swamp morning glory Sweet Annie Sweet basil Sweet broom weed Sweet pepper Sweet potato Sweetsop Sweet wormwood Sword bean Synedrella Syringa Tabac Tabasco peppers Tali Tamarind Tannia Taro Thick head Tiger nut Tilleul d’Afrique Tirucalli Tobacco Tomate Tomate amère Tomato Tournesol Tree basil Tree cassava Tree marigold Trente six oiseaux Trompette de la mort Tsana Tulip tree Tulipier du Gabon Turmeric Umbrella tree Vegetable pear 442 171 170 50 166 226 76 130 451 146 149 146 164 65 455 427 427 365 453 52 366 409 487 84 236 8 276 256 59 337 419 102,306 257 52 59 100 455 302 333 103 204 467 498 143 154 170 232 209 333,335,501 438 437 438 236 338 295 478 173 173 78 443 443 165 325 421 Vegetable sponge Vegetable tallow tree Velvet bean Violet tree Voacanga d’Afrique W andering Jew Water-berry Water grass Water hyacinth Waterleaf Water lily Watermelon Water spinach Water tree Water yam Welsh onion Wenge West African black pepper West African boxwood West African pepper West African plum West African sarsaparilla West I ndian arrowroot West I ndian holly White candles White rubber vine Wild asparagus Wild canna lily Wild cardamom Wild custard apple Wild date palm Wild rubber Winged yam Wireweed Woman’s tongue tree Woodland croton Yellow bauhinia Yellow cassia Yellow commelina Yellow nut grass Yellow oleander Yellow passion fruit Yellow sorrel Yellow tasselflower Ylangylang 284 35 322 422 496 145,146 458 146 192 465 334 125 256 470 181 36 311 375 328 499 494 435 299 277 497 271 63 101 23 51 368 187 181 434 31 161 72 429 145 170 108 357 345 195 98 551 I ndex of scientific names Abelmoschus esculentus 7 8 Amaranthus blitum subsp. emarginatus 42 Abelmoschus manihot 9 Amaranthus cruentus 41 Abelmoschus moschatus Abrus canescens 10 Amaranthus dubius Abrus precatorius 10 Amaranthus hybridus subsp. cruentus 11 ,13,307 41 41 ,112 Amaranthus spinosus 42 Acacia mangium 13 Amaranthus viridis 42 Acalypha wilkesiana ‘Marginata’ 14 15 Amorphophallus angolensis subsp. angolensis 43 Acanthospermum australe Acanthosperum hispidum 15 Amorphophallus leopoldianus 43 Anacardium occidentale 44 Ananas comosus 46 Acacia auriculiformis Achatina achatina 462 Acosmium panamense 16 Acridocarpus smeathmannii 17 Anchomanes difformis Adansonia digitata 18 Ancistrophyllum secundiflorum Adenia lobata 20 Aneilema aequinoctiale 48 Aerva lanata 21 Anisophyllea quangensis 49 Aframomum alboviolaceum 22 Aframomum angustifolium Aframomum melegueta Aframomum sanguineum Agelaea paradoxa Annona muricata 47 265 50 ,52 Annona senegalensis var. oulotricha 51 24 ,317, Annona squamosa 52 420,479 Anonidium mannii 53 23 ,151 23 Anthericum welwitschii 25 Anthocleista schweinfurthii 120 54 25 Anthocleista sp. Agelaea poggeana 25 Antidesma meiocarpum 55 Agelaea punctulata 25 Antidesma membranaceum 55 Agelaea rubiginosa 25 Antidesma venosum 56 Agelaea sp. 25 Antrocaryon breiyi 57 Ageratum conyzoides 26 Antrocaryon klaineanum 57 27 Antrocaryon nannanii 57 Arachis hypogaea 58 Agelaea pentagyna Albizia adianthifolia var. adianthifolia Albizia adianthifolia var. intermedia 28 ,136 140 Albizia chinensis 29 Artemisia annua 59 Albizia falcataria 29 Artocarpus altilis 60 30 Artocarpus communis 60 62 60 Albizia ferruginea Albizia gummifera var. ealensis 28 Artocarpus heterophyllus Albizia lebbeck 31 Artocarpus incisus Albizia saman 32 Asparagus abyssinicus 63 29 Asparagus flagellaris 63 Asystasia gangetica var. micrantha 64 Albizia stipulata Alchornea cordifolia 22, 33 ,140 Aleurites moluccana 34 Auricularia cornea 190 Allanblackia floribunda 35 Auricularia polytricha 190 Allium fistulosum 36 Averrhoa carambola 65 Allophylus africanus 37 Azadirachta indica 67 Aloe buettneri 38 Baccaurea staudtii 287 Aloe congolensis 38 Baikiaea insignis 38 Baillonella toxisperma Aloe ferox Alsophila dregei 166 Bambusa vulgaris 68 398 69 Alstonia congoensis 39 Barleria alata 70 Alternanthera sessilis 40 Barleria lupulina 70 552 Barleria villosa Barteria fistulosa 70 292 Capsicum frutescens 103 Carapa procera 104 Basella alba 71 Cardiospermum grandiflorum 105 Bauhinia tomentosa 72 Cardiospermum halicacabum 105 Bellucia axinanthera 73 Carica papaya 106 Bellucia pentamera 73 Carpolobia alba 107 Berlinia bruneelii 74 Carpolobia glabrescens Berlinia gandiflora var. bruneelii 74 Casacabela thevetia Berlinia giorgii var. gilletii 74 Cassia alata 425 Bertiera racemosa 75 Cassia didymobotrya 426 Bidens pilosa 76 Cassia occidentalis 427 Bixa orellana 77 Cassia siamea 428 Blighia welwitschii 78 Cassia spectabilis Boehmeria macrophylla 79 Catharanthus roseus 109 Boehmeria platyphylla 79 Cecropia pachystachya 110 Boerhavia diffusa 80 Ceiba pentandra 111 Bombacopsis glabra 347 Borassus aethiopum 81 Bosqueia angolensis 483 Brachytrupes membranaceus Brassica carinata 45,267 82 ,83 107 108 429 Celosia argentea 112 Celosia trigyna 113 Cenchrus purpureus 114 Centella asiatica 115 Centrosema pubescens 116 Brassica integrifolia 82 Cercopetalum dasyanthum Brassica juncea 83 Chaetocarpus africanus Brassica oleracea 84 Chamaesyce hirta Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis 85 Chenopodium ambrosioides 118 Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis 86 Chlamydocola chlamydantha 119 Bridelia ferruginea 87 Chlorocodon whitei Bridelia micrantha 88 Chlorophora excelsa 307 Brillantaisia owariensis 90 Chlorophytum stolzii 120 Brillantaisia patula 90 Chromolaena odorata Brucea javanica 91 Chrysobalanus atacorensis 121 91 362 117 208 316 4,12,33 263 Chrysobalanus icaco subsp. atacorensis 121 Bryophyllum pinnatum Buchholzia tholloniana 92 Chrysophyllum lacourtianum 122 Byrsocarpus coccineus 401 Cinnamomum verum 123 93 Cissus aralioides 124 94 Cissus rubiginosa 124 Calamus deerratus 95 Citrullus lanatus 125 Calamus laurentii 95 Citrullus vulgaris Brucea sumatrana Cajanus cajan Caladium bicolor 125 126 Caloncoba welwitschii 96 Citrus aurantiifolia Camoensia maxima 97 Citrus jambhiri Camoensia scandens 97 Citrus limon 127 45, 98 Citrus sinensis 128 99 Cleome ciliata Cananga odorata Canarium schweinfurthii Canavalia ensiformis Canavalia gladiata Canna bidentata 100 ,344 100 101 130 Cleome rutidosperma 131 Clerodendrum formicarum 132 101 Capsicum annuum 102 Clitandra cymulosa Capsicum chinense 102 553 131 Cleome gynandra Clitandra arnoldiana Canna indica 127 Clitandra sp. 133 133 ,150 151 Cnestis ferruginea 134 Dactyladenia buchneri Cocos nucifera 135 Datura metel Coffea canephora 136 Desmodium canum Cogniauxia podolaena 138 Desmodium gangeticum Coix lacryma-jobi 139 Desmodium incanum Cola acuminata 140 Desmodium intortum 114 119 Desmodium lasiocarpum 176 Colletoecema dewevrei 142 Desmodium mauritianum 175 Colocasia esculenta 143 Desmodium velutinum 176 Combretum hensii 144 Desplatsia dewevrei 177 Commelina africana 145 Dialium pachyphyllum 178 Commelina diffusa 146 Dialium polyanthum Cola chlamydantha 281 173 175 174, 344 175 178 Conyza aegyptiaca 147 Conyza sumatrensis 147 Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. platycarpa Corchorus olitorius 148 Dictyophleba lucida 180 Costus afer 149 Dioscorea alata 181 133, 150 ,246 179 ,200 Dioscorea baya 181 Costus phyllocephalus 151 Dioscorea bulbifera 183 Costus spectabilis 152 Dioscorea cayenensis var. praehensilis Coula edulis 153 Dioscorea dumetorum 181 436 Dioscorea praehensilis 184 Costus lucanusianus Crassocephalum bojeri 184 Crassocephalum crepidoides 154 ,436 Dioscorea sp. 182 Crassocephalum montuosum 153 Diospyros heterotricha 185 Crassocephalum rubens 436 Diospyros mannii 186 Crassocephalum vitellinum 154 Diplorhynchus condylocarpon 187 Craterispermum schweinfurthii 155 Dissotis sp. Crescentia cujete 156 Dorstenia psilurus 188 Crinum ornatum 157 Dracaena aubryana 189 Crinum scabrum 157 Dracaena mannii 190 157 Draco thaloides 189 158 Duranta erecta 191 191 Crinum zeylanicum Crossopteryx febrifuga Crossopteryx kotschyana 158 Duranta repens Crotalaria retusa 159 Ectadiopsis oblongifolia Croton mubango 136, 160 ,317 Croton sylvaticus Cryptolepis oblongifolia 152,246 162 Eichhornia crassipes 192 161 Elaeis guineensis 193 162 Emilia coccinea 195 Entada abyssinica 196 163 Entada gigas 197 Cucurbita maxima 164 Entada mannii 198 Curcuma longa 165 Entandrophragma angolense Cyathea camerooniana 166 Eremospatha haullevilleana Cyathea dregei 166 Eriosema psoraleoides 200 Cymbopogon citratus 167 Erythrina abyssinica 201 Cymbopogon densiflorus 168 Erythrina tomentosa Cucumeropsis edulis Cucumeropsis mannii Cynometra alexandri 163 287 Erythrococca atrovirens var. flaccida 199 1,66, 199 ,474 201 202 Cyperus articulatus 169 Erythrophleum guineense 203 Cyperus esculentus 170 Erythrophleum suaveolens 203 Cyperus papyrus 171 Eucalyptus citriodora 205 276 Eucalyptus deglupta 205 Eucayptus robusta 205 Cyrtosperma senegalense D acryodes edulis 172 ,305 554 Eucayptus saligna 205 Heisteria parvifolia 235 Eucalyptus spp. 205 Helianthus annuus 236 Helichrysum mechowianum 237 Eulophia angolensis 207 Eulophia bouliawongo 206 Heliotropium indicum 238 Eulophia cucullata 207 Hibiscus acetosella 239 210 Hibiscus cannabinus 240 Euphorbia hirta 208 Hibiscus esculentus 7 Euphorbia tirucalli 209 Hibiscus manihot 8 Euphorbia trigona 210 Hibiscus sabdariffa Euphorbia hermentiana Falcataria moluccana 29 Holarrhena floribunda Ficus asperifolia 211 Hua gabonii Ficus capensis 213 Hugonia platysepala Ficus exasperata 211 Ficus hochstetteri 214 Ficus lutea Ficus mallotocarpa 212 Hura crepitans 240, 241 242 243 ,265 244 245 Hymenocardia acida 246 ,504 Hymenocardia ulmoides 246, 247 213 Hyphaene guineensis 248 214 Hypoxis angustifolia 249 Ficus sur 213 Hypselodelphys scandens 250 Ficus thonningii 214 Hyptis suaveolens 251 Ficus umbellata 215 Ficus persicifolia Ficus vogelii Flacourtia jangomas Fleroya stipulosa 212 216 232, 504 Funtumia africana 217 Funtumia latifolia 217 Funtumia sp. Gaertnera paniculata Gambeya lacourtiana Garcinia huillensis 150,451 218 I boza riparia I mpatiens balsamina I mpatiens irvingii I mperata cylindrica 471 252 253 12,13,77,229, 254 ,323, 453 I nga edulis 255 I pomoea aquatica 256 I pomoea batatas 257 122 I rvingia smithii 258 219 Jatropha curcas 259 220 ,317 Justicia canescens 330 Garcinia mangostana 221 Kalaharia schaijesii 261 Gardenia ternifolia subsp. jovistonantis 222 Kalanchoe crenata 262 Kalanchoe pinnata 263 Gilbertiodendron dewevrei 223 Kigelia africana 264 Gladiolus dalenii 224 Laccosperma secundiflorum 265 Gloriosa superba 225 Lagenaria siceraria 268 Glycine max 226 Landolphia camptoloba 269 Glyphaea brevis 227 Landolphia heudelotii 18 Gmelina arborea 228 Landolphia lanceolata 270 Landolphia owariensis 271, 408 Garcinia kola Gnetum africanum 58, 229 Gossypium barbadense 230 Landolphia sp. Grevillea robusta 231 Lannea antiscorbutica Gynandropsis gynandra 130 Lannea welwitschii Gynura crepidioides 154 Lantana camara H aemanthus multiflorus 415 Lasimorpha senegalensis Hallea stipulosa Harrisonia abyssinica 232 386 233 ,481 Lentinus squarrosulus Haumania liebrechtsiana 517,520 Leptactina leopoldi-secundi 234 555 384 274 276, 517, 518 Lea guineensis Harungana madagascariensis Heinsia crinita 150 273 Leptactina liebrechtsiana 277 504,510 278 278 Leptactina pynaertii 278 Morinda morindoides 320 Leptaspis cochleata 279 Moringa oleifera 321 Leptaspis zeylanica 279 Mucuna pruriens 322 Lindackeria dentata 280 Musa spp. 324 Lippia multiflora 281 Musanga cecropioides 325 Loeseneriella clematoides 282 Mussaenda arcuata 326 Lovoa trichilioides 283 Myrianthus arboreus 327 Luffa cylindrica 284 N auclea diderrichii 328 Lycopersicon esculentum Nephelium lappaceum 330 285 Newbouldia laevis 332 Maclura excelsa 307 Nicotiana tabacum Macrolobium coeruleum 352 Nymphaea lotus 223 Nymphaea nouchali M acaranga monandra Macrolobium dewevrei 438 333 90, 334 334 Maesa lanceolata 286 Ochna afzelii Maesobotrya staudtii 287 Ocimum americanum Maesopsis eminii 288 Ocimum basilicum Mammea africana 290 Ocimum canum Mangifera indica 291 Ocimum gratissimum Manihot esculenta 293 Ocimum suave 338 Manihot glaziovii 295 Olax gambecola 339 Manihot utilissima 293 Olax viridis 335 336 168, 337 336 338, 406 338 Manniophyton fulvum 296 Oncinotis glabrata 340 Manotes expansa 297 Oncinotis hirta 340 Manotes pruinosa Maranta arundinacea Maranthes glabra Margaritaria discoidea 297 298 281 136, 299 Oncinotis tenuiloba Oncoba dentata Oncoba welwitschii 340 280 47,96 Ongokea gore 341 301 Oplismenus hirtellus 342 Markhamia tomentosa 300 Opuntia ficus-indica 343 Megaphrynium macrostachyum 301 Oryctes sp. 194 Melia azedarach 302 Oryza sativa 344 Melinis minutiflora 303 Oxalis corniculata 345 Melochia corchorifolia 304 Oxyanthus speciosus 346 Mentha arvensis 305 Pachira glabra 347 Mentha suaveolens 305 Pancovia laurentii 348 306 Panda oleosa Markhamia lutea Microdesmis puberula Milicia excelsa 4, 307 ,481 349 Pandanus candelabrum 350 ,403 116, 351 Millettia eetveldeana 310 Panicum maximum Millettia laurentii 311 Paramacrolobium coeruleum 352 Parinari capensis 353 Mimosa pigra 313 Parinari excelsa 354 Mitracarpus hirtus 314 Parinari holstii Millettia versicolor 4, 312 354 Mitracarpus villosus 314 Paropsia brazzaeana 355 Mitragyna stipulosa 232 Paspalum notatum 356 Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa 357 Momordica charantia Momordica foetida 315 315 Passiflora foetida 358 Mondia whitei 316 Passiflora quadrangularis 358 Monodora angolensis 317 Paullinia pinnata 359 Monodora myristica 318 Pennisetum purpureum Morinda lucida 319 Pentaclethra eetveldeana 556 114 4,197,285, 360 Pentaclethra macrophylla 4,197, 361 Pentadiplandra brazzeana 317, 362 Rhabdophyllum arnoldianum Rhabdophyllum arnoldianum var. 399 399 arnoldianum Pereskia aculeata 363 Persea americana 364 Rhipsalis baccifera Petersianthus macrocarpus 365 Ricinodendron heudelotii 400 Phaseolus lunatus 366 Ricinus communis 402 Phaseolus vulgaris 367 Rinorea oblongifolia 403 Phoenix reclinata 368 Rourea coccinea subsp. coccinea 404 369 Rumex usambarensis 405 Rungia congoensis 406 Phyllanthus amarus Phyllanthus muellerianus 385 47 Physalis angulata 370 Rungia grandis Physalis peruviana 371 Saba comorensis 372 Saba florida 407 Sabicea africana 449 Phytolacca dodecandra Piaropis crassipes 192 406 407 409 Picralima nitida 373 Saccharum officinarum Piliostigma thonningii 374 Salacia elegans var. pynaertii 375 Salacia pynaertii 410 317, 376 Samanea saman 32 Piper guineense Piper nigrum Piper umbellatum Piptadeniastrum africanum Plukenetia conophora Polygala acicularis Polyporus tenuiculus Portulaca oleracea Psathyrella tuberculata 410 377 Sansevieria trifasciata 411 378 Santiria trimera 410 379 Sapium cornutum 417 380 Sapium ellipticum 433 501 381 194 Sarcocephalus latifolius Sarcophrynium arnoldianum 413 301 Sauvagesia erecta 414 415 Pseudospondias microcarpa 382 Scadoxus multiflorus Psidium guajava 383 Schwenckia americana 383 Sclerocroton cornutus 417 384 Sclerosperma mannii 418 Psorospermum febrifugum 385 Scoparia dulcis 419 Psychotria calva 386 Scorodophloeus zenkeri Psidium guineense Psophocarpus scandens Pteridium aquilinum subsp. centraliafricanum 387 Sechium edule Securidaca longipedunculata 152, 416 287, 420 421 317, 422 Pteridium centrali-africanum 387 Securidaca welwitschii 424 Pterocarpus angolensis 388 Senna alata 425 Senna didymobotrya 426 Ptychopetalum alliaceum 339 Punica granatum 389 Senna occidentalis 427 Pycnanthus angolensis 390 Senna siamea 428 Quassia africana 429 391 Senna spectabilis Quassia amara 391 Sesamum alatum 430 Quisqualis hensii 144 Sesamum indicum 430 Raphia gentiliana 430 392 Sesamum orientale Raphia gilletii 392 Sesamum radiatum Raphia laurentii 394 Sesbania sesban 430 431 Raphia matombe 394 Setaria macrophylla 432 Raphia sese 395 Setaria megaphylla 432 Rauvolfia mannii 397 Shirakiopsis elliptica 433 Rauvolfia obscura 397 Sida rhombifolia 434 Smilax anceps 435 Rauvolfia sp. Rauvolfia vomitoria 25 398 557 Smilax kraussiana 435 Solanecio angulatus 436 Tetracarpidium conophorum Solanum aethiopicum 437 Tetracera alnifolia 471 Solanum lycopersicum 438 Tetradenia riparia 472 Solanum macrocarpon 439 Tetrapleura tetraptera 473 Solanum melongena 440 Tetrorchidium didymostemon 475 Solanum scabrum 441 Theobroma cacao 476 Sorghum bicolor 442 Thevetia neriifolia 108 Spathodea campanulata 443 Thevetia peruviana 108 379 Spondias cytherea 445 Thonningia sanguinea 477 Spondias mombin 444 Tithonia diversifolia 478 Staudtia kamerunensis var. gabonensis 445 Trachyphrynium braunianum 479 Steganotaenia araliacea 447 Treculia africana subsp. africana 480 Sterculia tragacantha 448 Trema orientalis 481 Stipularia africana 449 Trichoscypha oddonii 482 Streptogyna crinita 450 Trilepisium madagascariense 483 Trachyphrynium scandens 250 Striga sp. 426 Tripsacum andersonii 484 Strophanthus hispidus 451 Tristemma leiocalyx 485 451 Triumfetta cordifolia 486 Strophanthus sarmentosus Strophanthus welwitschii Strychnos cocculoides 451 452 Tylophora sp. 502 Uapaca guineensis 487 Strychnos pungens 452 Uncaria africana 488 Strychnos spinosa 452 Urena lobata 489 Strychnos variabilis 452 Stylosanthes guianensis Symphonia globulifera Synedrella nodiflora Vernonia amygdalina 490 136, 453 Vigna subterranea 491 454 Vigna unguiculata 492 Vigna vexillata 493 494 146, 455 Synsepalum dulcificum 456 Vitex doniana Synsepalum stipulatum 457 Vitex madiensis Syzygium guineense subsp. guineense 458 Voacanga africana 496 ,504 459 Voacanga thouarsii 496 Syzygium guineense subsp. macrocarpum Voandzeia subterranea 491 Syzygium jambos 460 Syzygium malaccense 461 Tabernaemontana crassa 462 Tabernanthe iboga 463 Tacca leontopetaloides 464 Talinum fruticosum 465 Talinum triangulare var. purpureum Tamarindus indica Tapinanthus poggei Tephrosia vogelii Terminalia catappa Terminalia superba 465 466 90 Whitfieldia brazzae 497 Whitfieldia elongata 497 Whitfieldia longifolia 497 Whitfieldia thollonii 497 Xanthosoma sagittifolium 143, 498 Xylopia aethiopica 317, 499 Zanthoxylum gilletii 500 Zea mays 501 Zingiber officinale 502 468 ,501 469 470 Termitomyces aurantiacus 508,509 Termitomyces letestui 507,508 Termitomyces mammiformis 509 Termitomyces microcarpus 506 Termitomyces sp. 495 505,510 558 Numbers in bold have major entries in the text Names in italics are synonyms About the book Plants and plant products are of direct importance to the rural population in most of Africa. Collected locally, they are used for building, packaging, as food and medicine, for feeding livestock and for crop protection. I n addition edible insects, an important part of the diet in much of Central Africa, feed on certain plants. Bees gather nectar and pollen from selected plants in order to produce honey which, as well as being much appreciated, is a valuable source of income in the province. Knowledge of the uses, and even of the local names, of many of these plants is being lost. This publication provides information gathered locally, as well as from the available literature, for over 460 plants growing in Bas-Congo province of the Democratic Republic of Congo. I SBN 978 0 9554208 7 0

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