Volume X, Mar. 2013.
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES]
An International Journal edited by
Community Service and Environmental Development Sector,
Sohag University [SU].
Sohag University Publication
Contact details:
E-Mail Jces_Sci@yahoo.com
Jces_sci@sohag-univ.edu.eg
Web site http://www.jes.sohag.edu.eg
Journal of Environmental Studies
An International Journal edited by Community Service and Environmental Development Sector,
Sohag University [SU].
Volume X, Mar. 2013.
Volume content
Saad H. Khudair, Iman H. Qatia, Amal Ab. Halub and Nibal Kh. Mousa, 2013.
Preparing of bacterial probiotic from Lactobacillus sp. Journal of Environmental
Studies, JES, Vol., X: 1-4.
Abbas Hadi Abbas, Samahir Jasim Muhammed, Muhammed Khalf Ali, 2013.
Studying of drinking water quality that is supplied to the housing section in Tikrit
university- Iraq. Journal of Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X: 5-12.
Mohammed Jaafar Ali Al-Atabi, 2013. Recovery of phosphorus from sludge
incineration ash. Journal of Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X: 13-16.
Fathi A. Al-Mandeel, 2013. Acomparative study in stem anatomy and morphology of
Zannichellia palustris L. and Myriophyllum spicatum L. that growing in Tigris River
within Mosul City, Iraq. Journal of Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X: 17-22.
Nagam Obaid Kariem, 2013. Studying and modeling the air pollution caused by
chemical pollutants emitting from thermal power station and generators in Baghdad
city. Journal of Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X: 23-29.
Mohammed Ali I. Al-Hashimi, Manar M. Al-Safar, 2013. Removal of Cadmium from
Polluted Aqueous Solutions Using Agricultural Wastes. Journal of Environmental
Studies, JES, Vol., X: 31-38.
Jamal S. Abdulamier, Ali H. Aziz and Haider S. Al-aasam, 2013. Non-Linear
Behavior of Unbonded Post-Tensioned one-way Concrete Slab Panel. Journal of
Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X: 39-45.
AbdelRahim Khalid A. A., Hassanein A. M., Sabry Younis, M., Abd El- Azeiz Heikal
A., Mohamed Ismael, 2013. Physicochemical and microbiological studies of River
Nile water in Sohag governorate. Journal of Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X: 4761.
Zena Fakhri, Hanan Haqe, 2013. Effect of Alum Addition on the Biological Removal
Efficiency and phosphates Removal. Journal of Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X:
63-69.
Ali Salim Joodi, 2013. Effect of baffles geometry of the flocculation basin on the
turbulence behavior using Comsol multiphysics technique. Journal of Environmental
Studies, JES, Vol., X: 71-77.
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 1- 4
Original Paper
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References:
de Man, J.D., Rogosa, M.. Sharpe, M.E.
(1960). "A Medium for the
Cultivation of Lactobacilli". J Appl
Bact 23 (130–135).
Kiss, I. (1983). Testing method in food
microbiology. Elsevier Amsterdam,
Oxford.
Robinson, R.K. (1991). Therapeutic
properties of fermented milk
.Elsevler Applied Sci. London and
New York.
Lankaputhra, W.E. and Shah, N.P. (1995).
Simple method for selective
enumeration of Lact. acidophilus in
yoghurt supplemented with Lact.
acidophilus and Bifidobacter sp.
Milchwissenschaft, 51, 8.
Lankaputhra, W.E. and Shah, N.P. (1996)
Survival of Lact. acidophilus and
Bifidobacterium sp. In presence of
acid and bile salt. Cultured dairy
products J. 30, 5.
Yoo, I.K., Chang, H., Lee, E., Chang, Y. and
Moon, S. (1996). Effect of pH on the
f:
6
56 J
I
ABC
ABC8 9
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) $5 "$ @ ) -5N$ ) ,"$ I$6G
A(C
A.C
AFC
AGC
) $50 &A.CH& =
"$ I[G " g$ LM"$
= , 3% &$ "# $
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13 4 1 / 2
:; $ 1 -'4 - 15
'97
A<'= AB'3
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( )* + , - ./' 0
9 '97 1 3
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y K E S -( " - I 1: "$ /$ A „l !5 KS #T S
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2"( ) O "$ ) A "$ ) T"$ I[ 3 [$
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R$ N$ " x "( . 3C "$ I[: "$ " (G% 2
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6'78
3
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 1- 4
Walker, R. and Buckley, M. (2005).
Probiotic Microbes: The Scientific
Basis. Report of an American
Society
for
Microbiology
colloquium.
Doron, S. and Gorbach, S.L. (2006).
Probiotics: their role in the treatment
and prevention of disease. Expert
Review of Anti-Infective Therapy., 4
(2): 261-275.
Ezendam, J. and van Loveren, H. (2006).
Probiotics: immunomodulation and
evaluation of safety and efficacy.
Nutrition Reviews. 64(1):1-14.
Cabana, M.D., Shane, A.L. and Chao, C.
(2006). Probiotics in primary care
pediatrics. Clinical Pediatrics. 45
(5): 405-410.
Hammerman, C., Bin-Nun, A. and Kaplan,
M. (2006) Safety of probiotics:
comparison of two popular strains,
B.M.J., 333(7576): 1006-1008.
Huebner, E.S. and Surawicz, C.M. (2006).
Probiotics in the prevention and
treatment
of
gastrointestinal
infections. Gastroenterology Clinics
of North America.; 35 (2): 355-365.
production of lactic acid and
secondary products in batch cultures
of
Lact.
casei.
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Microbiol.Biotechnol., 6:484 .
Alvarez-Olmos, M.I. and Oberhelman, R.A.
(2001). Probiotic agents and
infectious diseases: a modern
perspective on a traditional therapy.
Clinical
Infectious
Diseases.;
32(11):1567-1576.
Neeser, S. and Corthesy, I. (2003). Nutrition,
Health and well being-probiotics. P.
21-23.
Vanderhoof. J.A. and Young, R.J. (2004).
Current and potential uses of
probiotics. Annals of Allergy,
Asthma, & Immunology. 93 (5 suppl
3): S33-S37
Reid, G. and Hammond, J.A. (2005).
Probiotics: some evidence of their
effectiveness. Canadian Family
Physician.; 51: 1487-1493.
Salminen, S.J., Gueimonde. M. and Isolauri,
E. (2005). Probiotics that modify
disease risk. Journal of Nutrition.
135(5): 1294-1298.
Preparing of bacterial probiotic from Lactobacillus sp.
Saad H. Khudair, Iman H. Qatia, Amal Ab. Halub and Nibal Kh. Mousa
Environment and Water Research Directorate. Ministry of Science and Technology.Baghdad,
Iraq.
Abstract:
Four types of probiotics were prepared from local isolates to study some factors effected
which one was more resistance to acidity and bile salts. The ability of probiotics were tested
for acidity resistance. Results indicate that the probiotic (3) was gave the highest survival rate
99.1% at pH 5 after 3 hour of incubation 37C°. Results also showed that the probiotic (3) was
more resistance to bile salts at all concentration and resulted in 88.4, 66.3 and 5.6% survival
rate at 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 bile salts respectively, finally, probiotic (3) was selected as the best
and safe probiotic, so it can use to support immune system .The goal of project is to preparate
and test local probiotics resistant for some concentration of bile salt and acidity.
4
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 5- 12
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(Abbas, 2001)
LSI=pH-pHs
………………………………………… (1)
* Corresponding author:
Dr. Abbas Hadi Abbas
envabbas@yahoo.com
5
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 5- 12
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Jie-Chung, Lou &Jia-Yun, Han (2007).
"Assessing water quality of drinking
water distribution system in the South
Taiwan" Environ Monit Assess (2007)
134:343–354
3b35
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11
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 5- 12
S. Haydar, M. Arshad and J.A. Aziz (2009).
"Evaluation of Drinking Water
Quality in Urban Areas of Pakistan"
Pak. J. Engg. & Appl. Sci. Vol. 5,
July 2009 (p. 16-23)
AWWA Standard Methods for the
Examination
of
Water
and
Wastewater (1998).
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Abbas Hadi Abbas (2011). "Studying of
Residual
Chlorine
concentrationwithin Water Supply
Distribution System in Samarra City
– Iraq"International Review of
Chemical Engineering (IRECHE)
Vol.3 No.5
Studying of drinking water quality that is supplied to the housing
section in Tikrit university- Iraq
Abbas Hadi Abbas, Samahir Jasim Muhammed, Muhammed Khalf Ali
Dept. of Env.Engg. University Of Tikrit –Iraq Samarra Drugs company.
In this research paper, the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of drinking water
which is supplied to the housing complex in Tikrit University –Iraq were studied. Five sites
were selected in the housing complex and have been testing within three months for the
period from 1/12/2011 to 26/2/2012 with five tours or runs during this period. The results
showed high concentrations of some quality characteristics in supplied drinking water such as
turbidity which was 192NTU in one of these sites as well as the presence of biological
contamination is recorded a high concentration of pathogenic bacteria which was 109
MPN/100 ml in another site. Also the results showed that the concentration of residual
chlorine was less than accepted limited which was 0.1 mg/l. Besides the results showed that
the drinking water is very hard. Statistical analysis was conducted and the results showed high
correlation R2=7 between the dependant variable (MPN) and independent variables
temperature, pH, turbidity, and TDS). The results showed that the calculated Langelier
Saturation Index, LSI was negative and thus corrosion of iron pipes and metal parts in the
water distribution system may occur.
12
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 13-16
Original Paper
Recovery of phosphorus from sludge incineration ash
Mohammed Jaafar Ali Al-Atabi
Assist Lecturer, Collage of Engineering -Environmental Engineer Dept. AL-Mustansaryah University
Rec. 21 July, 2012 Accpt. 2 Aug, 2012
Abstract
The incineration of sludge is considered as one of the most common process in many landfill
and municipal wastewater treatment sites. Incineration can reduce the sludge volume by
eliminating the organic content and the potential energy can be utilized. The remaining
materials after incineration are the nutrients and the inorganic material. Phosphorus is one of
the most important nutrient that is resulting from incineration and it may be recovered by
dissolving the leached incineration ash with one of concentrated acid. In this research paper
the wasted of incinerated sludge ash that are resulting from municipal sludge incineration are
used and then dissolved by nitric acid HNO3 with different concentration and contact time. .
The results showed that the dissolving with nitric acid concentration of 30% or more than that
with duration of 3 hours gives a percentage dissolving of phosphorus equal to 88.5% of the
phosphorus that existing in sample. The process of phosphorus recovery from sludge
incineration is very important process due to its economical benefits and to reduce the
pollutants in the environment.
Keywords: Sludge incineration ash; Phosphorus recovery; Nitric Acid.
Introduction
Sustainable handling of municipal waste
and sewage sludge has as an important goal
to recycle resources without supply of
harmful substances to humans or the
environment (Adam, C. 2009). Another
important goal is to avoid or reduce the
amount of waste and sludge that has to be
deposited on landfill. On leaching with acid
it is difficult to recover phosphorus as other
products than iron phosphate, which is
dissolved together with the phosphorus
(Balmér, P. 2003). Without removing iron
from the leachate, phosphate will
preferentially be recovered as iron
phosphate, which has a lower solubility than
for instance calcium phosphate (Balmér, P.
2004). Recovery of the phosphate as other
product than iron phosphate requires that
iron has to be removed from the leachate
before the phosphate can be recovered.
However, iron phosphate has no commercial
value as raw material for the phosphate
industry, and the low solubility makes it less
favorable to use as fertilizer (Cordell, D.,
Drangerta, JO. and White, S. 2009). The
global deposits of economically mineable
phosphate are estimated to be 109 ton
phosphorus and the total amount in the
sediments is estimated to be 1015 ton
phosphorus (HELCOM. 2009, Butcher et al.,
1994). Many different phosphate minerals
are available, but only apatite (calcium
phosphate, Ca3 (PO4)2) is used for
phosphate production (Hermann, L. 2009a,
Corbridge, 1995). Since the phosphate in the
sludge originate from phosphorus products
produced from calcium phosphate ore,
recovering the phosphate as iron phosphate
will not preserve the limited calcium
phosphate resources (Hermann, L. 2009b).
In the proposed BioCon process ash from
sludge incineration would be leached with
acid and the content in the leachate separated
with ion exchange technology (Petzet, S. and
Cornel, P. 2009; Levlin, 2001). However in
the sludge incineration plant built by the
BioCon Company in Falun and Mora, the
phosphate recovery process based on ion
exchange has been abounded (Schmidt, E.
1998). The proposed phosphate recovery
process is to leach the ash with sulphuric
acid and recover the phosphate as iron
phosphate (NyTeknik, 2002).
Experimental Work:
Ashes from sludge incineration were
collected from AL-Rustamayh municipal
waste treatment plant (Baghdad) .Leaching
* Corresponding author:
Dr. Mohammed Jaafar Ali Al-Atabi
jjafer55@yahoo.com
13
Journal of Environmental Studies
es [JES] 2013. 10: 13-16
explained as fallow , there
re are three main
resistances or steps controll
olling the leaching
process, kinetic of the proce
cess, intra particle
mass transfer and mass trans
nsfer from particle
to the surrounding media.. IIf the controlling
step is the intra-particle, then
th the effect of
temperature came from its effect
ef
on effective
diffusivity. If the chemical
al reaction step is
the controlling step then the
he temperature due
to effects the constant oof reaction rate,
(Schaum, C., Cornel, P., Jardin,
Ja
N. 2004).
The chemical step is usua
ually much more
temperature sensitive than th
the physical steps
so the kinetic in this system
tem is mostly the
controlling step (Stark, K.. 2004, Stark K.
and Hultman B. 2003).
Phosphate recovery m g /L
agent used was Nitric ac
acid supplied by
(Fluka), Ether supplied byy (BDH). Mineral
composition of the solutio
tions obtained by
digestion of the ashes was
as determined by
atomic
absorption
sp
spectrophotometer
(Shimadzu). A mass of ashes
es was grinded by
ball mill, sieved in orde
rder to obtained
(<63µm), washed by water
er to remove any
soluble agent, dried to 105
05 oC, washed by
ether (to remove undesirab
rable accumulated
organic residual that maay prevent the
leaching process), dried andd mixed to render
the solid homogeneous. Solutions
So
of nitric
acid were prepared with different
percentages (10%, 20%, 30%
0%), then 5mg of
the residuals ash samples w
was used for each
experiment, mixed with 10 cm3 with the
solution of HNO3 in 25cm3 Pyrex test tube
and shacked in desired temp
mperature (30, 40,
50 and 60) oC in AAKE thermostat
t
water
bath at different contact timees. Samples were
settled using a centrifuge. The
T solution was
then taken to analysess using atomic
absorption spectrophotomete
ter.
T=60
T=50
T=40 oC
T=30 oC
Time (hr)
Fig. (1): Effect of time and
nd temperature on
phosphorus recovery using10%
% HNO3.
1- Calibration tube
2-C
Conical flax 3Magnetic stirrer 4-Water bath
ath
5- Electrical connection 66 Thermocouple
7- Temperature indicator
Results and Discussion:
The effect of temperatur
ture and time for
different nitric acid concent
ntration is shown
in figures 1,2and 3. Examini
ining these figures
indicates that the recovery
ry of phosphorus
increased with increasin
sing time and
temperature. A severee increase in
phosphorus recovery was nnoted at the first
half hour, then a more slug
uggish curve was
obtained, this was attribute
te to a decline in
driving force due to the con
onsumption of the
of most phosphorus in solid
id particles .On the
other hand it was found that
at a small increase
in temperature leads to high
hi
shift in the
recovery of phosphorus,
s, this can be
T=50 oC
T=40 oC
T=30 oC
Time (hr)
Fig. (2): Effect of time and
nd temperature on
phosphorus recovery at 20%
0%HNO3.
T=60 oC
Phosphate Recovery mg/L
Fig. (1) Experimental rig for
or the experimental
work
Phosphate Recovery mg/L
T=60 oC
T=50 oC
T=40 oC
T=30 oC
Time
e (hr)
Fig. (3): Effect of time and
nd temperature on
phosphorus recovery usingg 30%HNO3
The effect of HNO3 percentage on
phosphorus recovery was studied
stu
by varying
14
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 13-16
Phosphate Recovery mg/L
the concentration of HNO3 at constant
temperature at 60 oC and the results is shown
in figure( 4). It is clear from this figure that
increasing the percentage is shifts the
recovery to high values for 10%HNO3, the
recovery of phosphorus is 65% while
increasing HNO3 to 30%and keeping the
other conditions constant lead to 88.5%
recovery of phosphorus.
30% HNO3
20 % HNO3
10%HNO3
Time (hr)
Fig. (4): Effect of time and HNO3 percentage on
phosphorus recovery at 50 oC and leaching time
=1hr
Figure(5) shows a comparison with the
results of(Levlin ,Schmidt,2000) in which
4M hydrochloric acid and 70- 90 oC where
used , it was found that the phosphorus
recovery
increased
with
increasing
temperature (60% of phosphorus was
recovered after 3 hour and 90 oC) while in
this work 88.5% of phosphorus was
recovered when using 60 oC and in hour.
The leaching via HNO3 is preferred due to
easy handling and less cost of material
construction due to serious problems of
corrosively o HCL .On the other hand a high
recovery percent was obtained in using
HNO3.
Extraction %
30% HNO3 and 60oC
80%HCL and 90oC
Time (hr)
Fig. (5): Comparison with the results of (Levlin,
Schmidt, 2000).
Conclusion:
The extraction of phosphorus from the
sludge ash incineration was achieved using
10%, 20% and30% nitric acid.
About 88.5% of phosphorus was recovered
at 30% nitric acid and 60 oC. The rates of
extraction increase with the increase in nitric
acid concentration and temperature and most
(60%) of phosphorus was recovered at the
first half of an hour. This study suggested
that using nitric acid is applicable to recover
the phosphorus from the ashes sludge
incineration of municipal treatment plant.
References:
Adam, C. (2009). Techniques for Precovery
from wastewater, sewage sludge and
sewage sludge ashes an overview.
Presentation
in
BALTIC 21
Phosphorus Recycling and Good
Agricultural Management Practice,
September 2830, 2009. Berlin.
Balmér, P. (2003). Ref. Cornel, P. and
Schaum. 2009. Phosphorus recovery
from
wastewater:
needs,
technologies and costs, Water
Science and Technology, 59 (6).
Balmér, P. (2004). Phosphorus recovery an
overview
of
potentials
and
possibilities, Water Science and
Technology, 49 (100).
Corbridge, D.E.C. (1995) Studies in
Inorganic
Chemistry
20,
Phosphorus, An Outline of its
Chemistry, Biochemistry and Uses,
5th ed, Elsevier Science, ISBN 0444-89307-5.
Cordell, D., Drangerta, JO. and White, S.
2009. The story of phosphorus:
Global food security and food for
thought. Global Environmental
Change, 2.
HELCOM. (2009). Eutrophication in the
Baltic Sea – An integrated thematic
assessment of the effects of nutrient
enrichment and eutrophication in the
Baltic Sea region. Balt. Sea Environ.
Proc. No. 115B.
Hermann, L. (2009). a. Recovery of
phosphorus
from
wastewater
treatment.
Areview.
(Rückgewinnung von Phosphor aus
der
Abwassereinigung.
Bestandesaufnahme).
UmweltWissen
Nr.
0929.
Bundesamt
für
Umwelt
(BAFU).Bern. (In German)
Hermann, L. (2009). b. recovery from
sewage sludge ashes by Thermo
chemical treatment. Presentation in
BALTIC 21 Phosphorus Recycling
15
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 13-16
and Good Agricultural Management
Practice, September, 2009.
Hultman, B. and Levlin, E. (1997). Paper 5
Sustainable sludge handling, In:
Advanced Wastewater Treatment
Report No. 2, Proceedings of a
Polish-Swedish seminar, KTH,
Stockholm, May 30, 1997, Joint
Polish -Swedish Reports, Div. of
Water Resources Engineering, Royal
Inst.
of
Tech.,
TRITA-AMI
REPORT.
Levlin, E., Löwén, M., Schmidt, E.,
Hultman, B. and Mossakowska, A.
(2000). Phosphorus recovery from
sewage sludge incineration ash. 1 st
World Water Congress of IWA, July
3 – 6, 2000.
NyTeknik, (2002). Tvist om bästa
slamrening (Dispyt about the best
sludge cleaning) Ny Teknik, 8/5
2002.
Petzet, S. and Cornel, P. (2009). Precovery
from sewage sludge and sewage
sludge ashes. Presentation in
BALTIC 21 Phosphorus. Recycling
and Good Agricultural Management
Practice, September , 2009.
Schaum, C., Cornel, P., Jardin, N. (2004).
Phosphorus Recovery from sewage
sludge ash, Hahn, H. H., Hoffmann
Schmidt, E. (1998). Possibilities to recover
phosphorus from sewage sludge
before and after incineration,
Diploma work, Div. of Water
Resources Engineering, Royal Inst.
of Tech., AVAT-EX- 1998-04.
Stark, K. (2004). Phosphorus recovery from
sewage sludge Experiences from
European countries. Proceedings of
Polish Swedish seminars, Stockholm
June 68, 2004
Stark, K. and Hultman, B. (2003).
Phosphorus recovery by one- or
two-step technology with use of
acids and bases. Proceedings of
IWA specialist conference Bio
solids 2003 Wastewater sludge as a
resource,
June
23-25,
2003,
Trondheim, Norway, pp. 281-288.
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16
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 17-22
Original Paper
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* Corresponding author:
Dr. Fathi A. Al-Mandeel
fathimandeel@yahoo.com
17
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 17-22
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18
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 17-22
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19
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 17-22
C <H ˆ #
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Aiken, S.G. Newroth, P.R. and Wile, I.
(1979). The biology of Canadian
weeds. 34. Myriophyllum spicatum
L. Canadian Journal of Plant
Science 59: 201-215.
Arber, A. (1920). Water Plants, a Study of
Aquatic Angiosperms, Cambridge
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436 p.
Armstrong, W. (1978). Root Aeration in the
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Beck, C.B. (2010). An Introduction to Plant
Structure and Development: Plant
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Century Second Edition Cambridge
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Atlas of Seeds and Fruits of Central
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v%
J KH
B :9 G B ' $H
I!
G A
B :
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%!H
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{,./.y
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a% T pectinatus
(Yeo D$ D ! %# JR '%
D6
% 6
et al., 1984)
? ;N Q$9 E#
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4%]H D >% 5%6% 5 ! S7H C 7 >%
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0 Rg ^H m (Beck, 2010)
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m $ % 4 >% 5%6%
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20
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Acomparative study in stem anatomy and morphology of
Zannichellia palustris L. and Myriophyllum spicatum L. that growing
in Tigris River within Mosul City, Iraq*
Fathi A. Al-Mandeel
Environmental and Pollution Control Research Center, University of Mosul, Iraq.
Summary
The current study examined two groups of submerged aquatic plants growing in Tigris River
within Mosul city; monocots which represented by Zannichellia palustris and dicots that
represented by Myriophyllum spicatum. The results showed variation in some morphological
and anatomical characteristic between species, in M. spicatum two types of leaves observed,
submersed were solid and strong and divided into more than 14 leaflet pairs, but the emergent
leaves (bracts) were inconspicuous and smooth edged, located on the flower spike. While the
blade in Z. palustris described as a simple type and linear that thread-like shaped. The results
also showed anatomical variation in the internal structure of the stems particular in the area of
the cortex. In M. spicatum three layers of parenchyma cells observed after the epidermis,
while the epidermis was surrounding the earenchyma directly in Z. palustris. however, the
size of earenchyma lacunae were much greater than lacunae of Z. palustris, which also
characterize by central cylinder with a central channel surrounded by small parenchyma cells
and reduce in xylem tissue, in M. spicatum the central canal was absent but the xylem was
presence as solitary vesseles surrounded by parenchymas cells.
Key word: Aquatic plants, Zannichellia palustris, Myriophyllum spicatum, Plants anatomy,
Freshwater, Tigris River.
22
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:23 - 29
Original Paper
Studying and modeling the air pollution caused by chemical
pollutants emitting from thermal power station and generators in
Baghdad city
Nagam Obaid Kariem
Iraq–Baghdad, Bab-AL-Muthem, Al-Mustansiryiah University, College of Engineering-Environmental
Engineering
Rec. 6 Jun, 2012 Accpt. 2 Aug, 2012
Abstract
This work refers to study and calculate the concentrations of pollutants that emitted to air of
the Baghdad city through the production of electrical power by electrical generator and small
generators. The electrical power plant in Baghdad (area of study) consumed a large amount
fuel for producing the electricity because of large number of people that living in this city.
Fixed box model was used to explain the distribution of concentrations of pollutants and the
rates of emissions of pollutants from the city. The pollutants that included in this study were
carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX), hydrocarbons, and
particulates. The results showed a high accuracy (low error) between the measured
concentrations by portable measuring device and the calculated concentrations by the Fixed
box model for all pollutants. The average error up to 8%, 9%, 6%, and 5% for carbon
monoxide, sulpher dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates, respectively. The results showed
that when the average velocities increased the pollutants concentrations decreased. The major
source of HC was the electrical power plant for Ministry of Electricity by about 80% from the
total pollutants that used different types of fuel, followed by Generator of state of
Government and Emergency generator, then Mini-emergency generator.
Key words: Air pollution, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, HC, particulates, and
fixed box model.
Introduction
Air pollution affects our atmosphere and
can endanger human health and welfare of
plants and animals. Ozone depletion caused
by air pollution has been a big concern,
especially for health reasons. The primary
air pollutants are carbon dioxide (CO2),
sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen monoxide
(NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Carbon
monoxide and sulfur dioxide are emitted
through combustion. A number of concerns
related to air pollutants include acid rain,
global warming, particulates, haze, smoke,
and Asbestos (Miller 1996; Smith 1991).
The main sources of these primary air
pollutants are human activity (anthropogenic
sources) and natural sources. Natural sources
that cause air pollution are minor, it includes
the fire (which causes the release of carbon
monoxide and smoke), dust, volcanic
activity, pine trees, and methane emitted
from animals’ digestion (Opris et al., 1993;
Anderson et al., 1998).
Air pollution includes emissions from
automobiles, burning of fossil fuels, power
plants, burning of wood and fireplaces,
chemicals, fume from paint and aerosol,
military uses and waste deposits(5). Thermal
power plants are major sources of
particulates, SO2 and NOx. Depending upon
the type of fuel used emission of one or
more of these pollutants may be of
environmental significance. A large amount
of particulates as fly ash is emitted from coal
fired plants, particularly if the ash content of
coal is high and a fly ash removal unit, such
as, an electrostatic precipitation (ESP) is not
used (Ariana et al., 2007; EPA,1976).
The World Health Organization estimates
that 4.6 million people die each year from
causes directly attributable to air pollution”
Air pollution links to asthma, bronchitis,
emphysema, lung and heart diseases, and
respiratory allergies due to mainly indoor air
pollution (Barrie 2001; EPA, 1976). .
Air pollution models are classified
according to type, downwind distance, and
mathematical approach. The mathematical
approach divided into many types which are
statistical models, direct numerical solution.
* Corresponding author:
23
Dr. Nagam Obaid Kariem
nagam75@yahoo.com
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:23 - 29
The objective of the present work is to
simulate the air pollution caused by (CO,
NOx, SO2, HC, and particulates) using the
box model which assume that pollutant
concentrations are uniform throughout a
prescribed region (its suitable if the source
of pollutants was area source like in
Baghdad were the power plant generators
and emergency generators distributed over
the whole area of city) (Barrie, 2001).
Giannouli et al., (2006), E.E.A (2005) and
C.S.T (2004) defined Sulfur dioxide (SO2),
as a colorless compound, but has a
suffocating, pungent odor. The primary
source of SO2 is the combustion of sulfurcontaining fuels (e.g., oil and coal).
Exposure to SO2 can cause the irritation of
lung tissues and can damage health and
materials.
Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2), the NO2
is a reddish-brown gas with a sharp odor.
The primary source of this gas is vehicle
traffic, and it plays a role in the formation of
tropospheric ozone. Large concentrations
can reduce visibility and increase the risk of
acute and chronic respiratory disease (Hertel
et al., 1996; Giannouli et al., 2006).
Paul G. (1995) cited that carbon monoxide
(CO). This odorless, colorless gas is formed
from the incomplete combustion of fuels.
Thus, the largest source of CO today is
motor vehicles and power stations.
Inhalation of CO reduces the amount of
oxygen in the bloodstream, and high
concentrations can lead to headaches,
dizziness, unconsciousness, and death
Modeling and area of study:
The box model in this research consider
the area that pollutants emitted form them
take the shape of rectangular city as shown
in figure (1). To compute the air pollutant
concentration a material balance was made
according to equation (1) in this city on each
pollutant.
The assumption for model in this research
was
1. The city was rectangle with
dimensions
and and one of the
side parallel to the wind direction.
2. Atmospheric turbulence produced
complete mixing of pollutants up to
height
and no mixing above this
height.
3. The pollutants concentration was
uniform in the whole volume of air
over the city.
4. The velocity was independent of
time.
5. The concentration of each pollutant
in the air entering the city (at
)
was constant and equal to
(microgram/m3).
6. The air pollutant emission rate of the
.This was
Baghdad city is
normally given as an emission rate
per unit area (g/s.m2). one could
convert to other by using equation
(2).
7. There are no pollutant leaves or
enters through the top of the box, or
through the sides that are parallel to
the wind direction.
8. The accumulation rate equal zero
(no change with time), and the
destruction rate equal zero.
Let CB equal the concentration of pollutant
in the Baghdad city
The rate of pollutant in = uHWb ……….(3)
The rate of pollutant out = uHWCB
……….(4)
By substituted eq. (2), eq. (3), and eq. (4) in
eq. (1) and using the assumptions above we
get
Figure (1): Rectangular city, showing meaning
of symbols used in Box model.
24
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:23 - 29
By re-arranging eq. (5), we get eq. (6)
Equation(6) was used for each chemical
pollutants as showing in equations listing
from eq.(7) to eq.(11).
C SO2 = b SO2 + ((q SO2 L)/ (uH))
C particulates = b
(u*H))
particulates
+ (q
……(7)
*L)/
……(8)
particulates
C NOX = b NOX + ((q NOX L)/ (uH))
…….(9)
……(10)
C CO = b CO + ((q CO L)/ (uH)
In figure (2) all symbols in Box model
were fixed on a map of Baghdad city .The
map of baghdad in figure (2) got from the
program called google earth.
No.
Fuel
Figure (2): symbols of box model fixed on the
baghdad city
Experimental work and calculation
Table (1) represent the amount of
consumed fuel for generating electrical
power for baghadad city by m3/day, this
information taken from ministry of
electricity and ministry of oil in iraq, the
anthor inforamtion about fuel was the
density as shown below.
Type of power plant
Fuel(m3/day)
Fuel (ton/year)
Electrical power Plant for
3025
963901.124
ministry of electricity
Electrical power Plant for
Heavy oil2
15155
542094.5
2
ministry of electricity
Electrical power Plant for
Light oil1
748
141970.4
3
ministry of electricity
Electrical power Plant for
Light oil2
1400
434350
4
ministry of electricity
Generator of state of government
Light oil3
1400
353685
5
and emergency generator
Mini-emergency generator
950
266996.5
6
Light oil4
Table (1): Data of the amount of concumed fuel for electrical power polant in Baghdad city.
1
Heavy oil1
From table (1), the annual amount
consumption in the last column in the table
for each type of fuel by mathematics could
be estimated, for example, fuel type one (in
row one) calculating by multiplying density
(873 kg/m3 of the fuel by the daily
consumption, then deviding the results on
365 day, the results devided on 1000 to
convert from kg to ton .
From the map of baghdad according to
google earth program indicated that the
length and width of the stusy area was
determined (length(L)=41234 m and width
(W)=27495 m), so according to this
dimensions the area of stydy equal to
1134000000 m2.
The measurment of concentrations in table
(2), was measured by air pollutant device
called Lacom (portable flue gas monitoring),
The Lancom 4 is the most accurate, robust
and flexible portable flue gas analyzer
currently available. The measurements
specification of this device can be seen in
table (3). The shape of the portable flue gas
monitoring was included in figure (3). The
portable gas analyzer had a sample probes
(with length 3m, hose 10 m, 600Co
maximum flue gas temperature) were
indicated in figure (4).
Figure (3): The shape of the portable flue gas
monitoring.
Figure (4): The Standard Probe for portable gas
monitoring.
Results and discussion:
The average pollutants concentartions at
the upwind stream of baghadad (before
25
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:23 - 29
entring Baghadad city) were measured. The
device measuring the concentration of
carbon monoxide CO, nitrogen oxides SOx,
sulfur dioxide SO2, and particulate matter.
Table (2) show the concentration
pollutants at different time of year.
of
Poluutants concentrations(µg/m3)
Average
Velocity
Date of Tests
CO2
SO2
NOx
Particulates
(m/s)
2.5
January
0.38
0.15
0.033
5.0
0.33
0.14
0.038
5.3
2.8
February
0.51
0.16
0.033
5.2
3.2
March
3.2
0.419
0.17
0.035
5.4
April
0.62
0.15
0.038
5.5
3.3
May
0.50
0.16
0.031
5.0
3.9
June
0.52
0.17
0.033
5.2
4.1
July
0.51
0.17
0.034
5.3
3.6
August
0.49
0.15
0.039
5.1
2.8
September
0.48
0.16
0.032
5.2
2.5
October
0.58
0.16
0.034
6.1
2.5
November
0.44
0.14
0.037
6.2
2.4
December
Table (2): The average measured concentrations of gases (before entring Baghadad city).
No.
1
2
3
sensor
Range(ppm)
0 to 6000
CO
0 to 5000
NOx
0 to 4000
SO2
Table (3): Portable gas specification
source of emitting pollutant was the
electrical power plant for Ministry of
Electricity that used the heavy fuel oil,
followed by Mini-emergency generator that
used light oil (Gasoline), then followed by
Diesel that used for producing electric power
(that used in electrical plant for ministry and
in generator of state of government and
emergency generator).
The small amounts of emitting particulates
was from Light oil (Dry gas), therefore, dry
gas can be called the clean fuel, and this
amount just to about 55.37 Ton/year.
Amount of particulates(ton/year)
Figure (5), shows that the high percentage
of particulate matter emitting from Baghdad
city was from the heavy oil (fuel oil) and this
percentage reach to about 87% from the total
amount of particulate emitting from this city.
This is because Fuel oil was made of long
hydrocarbon chains, particularly alkanes,
cycloalkanes and aromatics. From these
results and the other data related with
Baghdad city in the fixed box model, we
could estimate the total amounts of
pollutants emitted from Baghdad city.
The results show also that the major
Accuracy % of range
±1%
±2%
±2%
Heavy oil (Crude
oil
Heavy oil (Fuel oil
Light oil(Dry gas
Light oil(Diesel
Light oil(Diesel
Light oil(Gasoline
Types of burned fuel
Fig(5):The effect of the types of fuel on the amount of particulate emitting from Baghadad city
Figure(6) and (7) show that the major
source of sulpher dioxide and HC was the
electrical power plant for Ministry of
Electricity, where it uses different types of
26
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:23 - 29
Amount of Sulpher dioxide(ton/year)
fuel, followed by Generator of state of
government and emergency generator, then
followed Mini-emergency generator.
The results showed that the fuel type - dry
gas (light oil) gives the small amounts of
Sulpher dioxide by about less than 1 percent
of the total amounts of pollutant (SO2) that
emitting to the air and less than 2 percent for
the total amounts of pollutant HC. That
emitting to the air.
Figure (8), showed that the high
percentage of carbon monoxide emitting
from Baghdad city was from the heavy oil
(fuel oil) and this percentage reach to about
55% from the total amount of carbon
monoxide emitting from this city, this is
because Fuel oil contain a large amounts of
carbon.
Heavy oil (Crude
oil
Heavy oil (Fuel oil
In table(4) indicated that the average
concentrations of gases measuring and
calculating by the Box model, it gave
considerable results in comparison with
those measured by portable measuring
device. The average error up to 8%, 9%, 6%,
and 5% for carbon monoxide, sulpher
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates
respectively. The results in this table shows
that when the average velocities increased
the pollutant concentrations decreased, this
was occurred because the dispersion of
pollutants increased with increase of
velocity.
The results in table (3) showed that
amount of pollutants emission from Baghdad
city were not changes with the times of year.
Light oil(Dry gas
Light oil(Gas oil
Light oil(Gas oil
Light oil(Benzene
Amount of HC. (ton/year)
Types of burned fuel
Fig(6):The effect of the types of fuel on the amount of Sulpher dioxide emitting from Baghadad city
Heavy oil (Crude oil
Heavy oil (Fuel oil
Light oil(Dry gas
Light oil(Gas oil
Light oil(Gas oil
Light oil(Benzene
Amount of Carbon monoxide (ton/year)
Types of burned fuel
Fig(7):The effect of the types of fuel on the amount of HC. emitting from Baghadad city
Heavy oil
(Crude oil
Heavy oil
(Fuel oil
Light oil(Dry
gas
Light oil(Gas
oil
Light oil(Gas
oil
Light
oil(Benzene
Types of burned fuel
Fig(8):The effect of the types of fuel on the amount of Carbon monoxide emitting from Baghadad city
27
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:23 - 29
Pollutans concenration(µg/m3)
Average
velociy
(m/s)
2.2
2.1
17
18.2
40
44.1
8
8.1
2.5
January
1.9
1.8
17
16.1
36
39.5
7.6
8.1
2.8
Febraury
1.8
1.9
11
14.1
35
34.6
7.1
7.6
3.2
March
1.7
1.8
13
14
31
34.6
8.3
7.8
3.2
April
2
1.9
18
18.9
28
33.6
7.7
7.8
3.3
May
1.1
1.6
12
11.5
29
28.4
6.8
7.1
3.9
June
1.6
1.6
10
11
23
26.9
6
7
4.1
July
1.5
1.7
13
12.5
28
30.8
7.6
7.5
3.6
August
1.8
2
14
16.1
30
39.5
7.6
7.9
2.8
September
2
2.2
18
17.9
43
44.2
8.3
8.3
2.5
October
2.1
2.3
16
17.9
40
44.2
8.1
9.3
2.5
November
2.3
2.2
18
18.7
47
46.2
8.2
9.4
2.4
December
Table(4): The average concentrations of gases measuring and calculated by Box Model (Baghadad
city).
Data of
test
CO2
Mea.
CO2
Cal.
SO2
Mea.
SO2
Cal.
NOx
Mea.
Symbols:
(m2).
AB
b Concentration of each pollutant in the
air entering the city (microgram/m3).
CB Concentration of pollutant in the
Baghdad city (microgram/m3).
H High of the space over the city where
the concentration of pollutants are
uniform (m/s).
L Length of Baghdad city (m).
Q Emission rate.
q Emission rate per unit area (g/s.m2).
u Average velocity of air(m/s).
W Width of Baghdad city (m).
References:
Miller, C.A. (1996). Hazardous Air
Pollutants from the Combustion of
an Emulsified Heavy Oil in a Fire
tube Boiler. EPA-600/R-96-019.
U.S.
Environmental Protection
Agency.
Smith, (1991). Development of Particulate
Emission Factors For Wet Cooling
Towers EPA No.68-D0-0137
Opris, C.N., Gratz, L.D., Bagley, S.T.,
Baumgard, K.J., Leddy, D.G. and
Johnson, J.H. (1993). The Effects of
Fuel Sulfur Concentration on
Regulated and Unregulated HeavyDuty
Diesel
Emissions.SAE
Technical Paper 930730.
Anderson, M.H. and Skelley, A.P. (1998). A
low temperature oxidation system
for the control of NOx emissions
NOx
Cal.
Particulates
Mea.
Particulates
Cal.
using ozone injection. Institute of
Clean Air Companies, Forum ‘98,
Durham, NC.
EPA (1976). Air Pollution Emission Test,
ESB Canada Limited, Mississouga,
Ontario, EMB-76-BAT-3,U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC, August
1976.
Ariana, I.M., Nishida, O., Fujita, H., Harano,
W. and Fujio, M. (2007).
Development
of
Electrostatic
Precipitator to Reduce Marine
Diesel Particulate Matter. Journal of
the JIME, 42 (2): 122-128.
Barrie, B. (2001). Analytical methods used
in the production and fuel quality
assessment of biodiesel. Trans.
ASAE 44 (2), 193–200.
Barrie, B., (2001). “Fiscal Instruments for
Air Pollution Abatement in Road
Transport,” Journal of Transport
Economics and Policy, Volume
XXIX, No.1, January, pp.33-51.
Barrie, B. (2001). “Legionella”. Chapter 48
in Indoor air Quality Handbook by
Spengler et al., McGraw-Hill ISBN
0-07-445549-4, 2001.
Centre for Sustainable Transportation
(C.S.T), (2004). “Air Quality in
Inter City Buses: Preliminary
Report, December 17, 2004 (Draft)”.
Draft
forwarded
in
private
correspondence to Jay Kassirer of
the study team. (www.cstctd.org).
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European Environment Agency (E.E.A)
(2005). State of the Environment:
Air quality 1990–2030, ETC/ACC
Technical paper 2005/1.
Giannouli, M., Samaras, Z., Keller, M., de
Haan, P., Kalivoda, M., Sorenson, S.
and
Georgakaki,
A.
(2006).
Development of a Database System
for the Calculation of Indicators of
Environmental Pressure Caused by
Transport, Science of the Total
Environment, Vol. 357/1–3, pp.
247–270.
Hertel, O., Christensen, J.H., Runge, E.H.,
Asman, W.A.H., Berkowicz, R. and
Hovmand,
Development
and
Testing, (1995). of a new Variable
Scale Air Pollution Model ACDEP,
Atmospheric Environment, 29, 20,
1267–1290,.
Paul, G. Höglund. Estimation of Air Qality
Improvement at Road and Street
Intersections, (1995). Proceedings of
the 10th World Clean Air Congress,
Espo, Finland, -05- 28--06-02.
Finnish Air Pollution Prevention
Society. Volume 3, Impacts and
Management, Session D2, paper
509.
( )* +
&
' %SO2, CO,and NOX$ !" #
# 4 0 ') 7() 6& .2
"/ 3
4
5) " / 3 # 4 0 '-1 , '- ./
3 ; < / * / 3 0 '-1 # 5) &
8 '
9 : ) ./ (
"/ 3
D ;)
FG
H' Fixed Box Model D ;' E 6 (
=>+ ?@ 5 (A B C 3
?- CO$ C / 3
I J ?+ '
E ?'
6(
5) &
'
; -1
B
' 5 / %O4P D ;) Q#
M # N" '( K( /. HC., NOX 5 L ' (
$SO2 K 3
O4T
-C6
F , Fixed box model D S T' / /
' D
R B G ,/
5 L '(
C / 3
?- C / 3
I J 5) Q3 VY $VX$VW$VU ?+ N" '( /
N" '( K( / 8 > 6
[# (
IZ M
D ;) & G C N" '( K( / 6? ' M !" #
^ VU] D ; / * / 3 & G
" / 3 # 4 0 '4 ) + HC D / \ ' ? "
2 CJ
6& .2 _ 4
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4 )
29
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 31-38
Original Paper
Removal of Cadmium from Polluted Aqueous Solutions Using
Agricultural Wastes
Mohammed Ali I. Al-Hashimi, Manar M. Al-Safar,
University of Technology/Building & Construction Engineering Department/ Environmental &
Sanitary Engineering Branch
Rec. 28 Aug, 2012 Accpt. 30 Sept, 2012
Abstract
Heavy metals are among the most toxic contaminants of surface water. The main sources of
heavy metals are industrial wastes from processes such as electroplating, metal finishing,
chemical manufacturing, and nuclear fuel processing. Since most of heavy metals are non
degradable, these concentration must be reduced to acceptable levels before discharging them
into environment. The goal of this research is to examine the ability of different media to
reduce the concentration of cadmium ions in aqueous solution. The application of low-cost
adsorbents obtained from plant wastes as a replacement for costly conventional methods of
removing cadmium ions from wastewater has been reviewed. Langmuir and Freundlich
adsorption isotherms found to be applicable to the absorption process and their constants are
found. The single component adsorption of heavy metal ions named Cadmium (II) onto
powdered activated carbon (PAC), palms karab, rice husks and corncobs from water aqueous
solution has been investigated using batch system. In batch tests, the effects of pH, dosage of
adsorbent, contact time, initial concentration, mixing (stirring) speed and particle size
diameter are studied. The optimum values of pH is 5.5, dosage adsorbent is 1g sorbent/100ml
of Cd (II), contact time is 30min, initial concentration is 125 mg/L and for mixing (stirring)
speed is 100 rpm.
Keywords: Cadmium, Adsorption, Rice husks.
Introduction
Cadmium is highly toxic non-essential
metal which accumulates in the kidneys of
mammals and can cause kidney dysfunction
(Alloway and Ayres, 1997). Cadmium may
interfere with the metallothionein's ability to
regulate zinc and copper concentrations in
the body. Epidemiological studies have
revealed that Cd2+ may contribute to some
forms of cancer in humans and low
exposures may result in kidney damage
(Terry and Ston, 2002). Cadmium is
distributed in the environment of Iraq as a
result of the use of galvanizing, pigments,
stabilizers, thermoplastics, batteries and
alloys industries. Moreover, the absence of
the direct control from environmental
protection agencies on above industries has
increased the size of this problem.
Cadmium is responsible for serious damage
to the health of humans:
• The most severe from Cd (II) toxicity in
humans is "itai- itai", a disease
characterized by excruciating pain in the
bone (Sulaymon and abdul- Hameed,
2010).
• The harmful effects of cadmium include
a number of acute and chronic disorders,
such as renal damage, emphysema,
hypertension, and testicular etrophy
(Tilaki, et al., 2004).
• Cadmium toxicity contributes to a large
number of health conditions, including
the major killer diseases such as heart
disease, cancer and diabetes. Cadmium
concentrates in the kidney, liver and
various other organs and is considered
more toxic than either lead or mercury.
It is toxic at levels one tenth that of lead,
mercury, aluminum, or nickel (Sayed, et
al., 2010).
There are various methods to treat the
metal contaminated effluent such as
precipitation, reverse osmosis, ion exchange,
coagulation, and adsorption. The selection of
the treatment methods differ with respect to
costs, complexity and efficiency. Among
these technologies adsorption is a userfriendly technique for the removal of heavy
metal. This process-seems to be most
versatile and effective method for removal of
*
Corresponding author:
Dr. Mohammed Ali I. Al-Hashimi
mohashimi2003@yahoo.com
31
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 31-38
heavy metal if combined with appropriate
regeneration steps (Said, 2010).
The term biosorption commonly refers to
the passive binding of metal ions or
radioactive elements by dead adsorbents. It
has to be distinguished from bioaccumulation which is usually understood to
be an active, metabolically mediated metalaccumulation process occurring specifically
in living organisms (Volesky and Naja,
2005). In the experimental works, the
dissolved Cd (II) in aqueous solutions has
been selected as the sorbate. The single
component adsorption of heavy metal ions
named Cadmium (II) onto powdered
activated carbon (PAC), palms karab, rice
husks and corncobs from aqueous solution
has been investigated in batch tests. A good
modeling of a dynamic ion-exchange system
needs to be based on the proper choice of an
equilibrium isotherm to characterize
competitive ion exchange (Volesky and
Naja, 2005).
Thus, sorption isotherm is a plot between
the sorbate uptake (qe) and the final
concentration of the residual sorbate
remaining in the solution (Cf) at equilibrium
(Volesky and Naja, 2005).
The Langmuir model can be represented as:
Where x/m = mass of adsorbate adsorbed
per unit mass of adsorbent after equilibrium,
mg adsorbate/g activated carbon Kf =
Freundlich capacity factor, (mg adsorbate/g
adsorbent) * (L water/mg adsorbate) 1/n
1/n = Freundlich intensity parameter. Other
terms as defined previously.
The constants in the Freundlich isotherm can
be determined by plotting log (x/m) versus
log Ce and making use of the linearized form
of equation (2) rewritten as:
log Kf +1/n log Ce --------- (4)
Sayed, et al., (2010). found the effect of pH
change in the range 1 to 8 on the adsorption
of Ni (II) and Cd (II) on rice straw. The
removal of Ni (II) was about 28% at a pH 1
while its reached to maximum value 47% at
about pH 5. Further increase of pH leads to
slight decrease in Ni (II) removal efficiency.
The removal percentage of Cd (II) showed a
rapid increase from 25% to 76% when the
pH increased from 1 to 6. Mapolelo and
Torto (2004). proved that the biosorption
capacity of Cd2+, Cr3+, Cr6+, Cu2+, Pb2+ and
Zn2+ is dependent on pH. For all metal ions
they studied, the optimal pH values are all
greater than 5. The optimal pH for Cd and
Pb biosorption is 5.8, while for Cr (III) and
Pb is 5.2. As the pH further increases, the
biosorption capacity subsequently decreases.
qe =
------------- (1)
The objective of this research was to
investigate the optimum conditions of
This classical model incorporates two
cadmium adsorption.
easily interpretable constants: qmax, which
corresponds to the maximum achievable
Materials and Methods:
uptake by a system; and b, which is related
• Powdered activated carbon (supplied by
to the affinity between the sorbate and
BDH chemicals Ltd Poole England,
sorbent. The Langmuir constant “qmax” is
charcoal animal) is used as an adsorbent
often used to compare the performance of
in the present work.
biosorbents; while the other constant “b”
• Rice husks the chemical composition
characterizes the initial slope of the
predominantly contains cellulose (32isotherm. Thus, for a good biosorbent, a high
47%),
hemicellulose (19-27%) and
qmax and a steep initial isotherm slope (i.e.,
lignin (5-24%) [Sayed et al., 2010].
high b) are generally desirable [Aksu, et al.,
• Palm Karab was collected from
2002].
Baghdad, Khastawi type.
The Freundlich (Freundlich, 1926) model
• Corncobs.
has been widely used for many years.
Preparation of the adsorbent:
The Freundlich equation has the general
The adsorbent was collected from
form:Baghdad. Then sun dried and washed with
1/n
qe= KfCe ------------------ (2)
tap water then rinsed with distilled deionized
Where Kf and n are constants and n>1.
water several times and
thereafter dried
(Metcalf and Eddy, 2003), define Freundlich
o
temperature of 105 C in an oven for 24
isotherm as follows:hours. Following cut the adsorbent into
qe= KfCe1/n ----------- (3)
small pieces by using a housing food
processor and through a sieve No.40 (ASTM
32
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 31-38
E 11). This was done to remove any large
particles and to obtain particles of size less
than (0.425 mm). This fine adsorbent was
used in the batch experiments described
below. For preservation, it was kept in
plastic bags to minimize its contact with
humidity.
Preparation the synthetic polluted water
sample:
1000 mg/L standard stock solution of Cd (II)
was prepared from Cd(NO3)2.4H2O. The
required amount of metal salt was dissolved
into 1L of distilled water and stirred.
Determination of metal ion concentration:
All experiments were after filtration, the
synthetic polluted aqueous solution and the
resulted samples from each treatment were
analyzed for the concentration of Cd (II) by
atomic absorption sepectro- photometer
(AAS) for concentrations more than 0.1 ppm
and the Inductively Coupled Plasma -Mass
Spectrometry (ICP-MS) instrument for
concentrations less than 0.1 ppm. Samples
were read three times and the mean values
were computed.
Equipment:
The equipment used in this study are:
1. Housing grinder for grinding the
agricultural wastes.
2. Oven for drying the agricultural
wastes (model 05,cap 64L,made in
England).
3. Glass wares (pipette, conical flasks,
volumetric flasks, graduated cylinders
and beakers).
4. Disposable Polyethylene bottles for
samples.
5. Sieves No. 40, 14, 10, 8 (ASTM E11
Body 316L MESH S-STEEL/ RF,
made in Germany).
6. Calibrated pH meter of type (HANNA
instrument, pH 211 Microprocessor
pH meter made in Portugal).
7. Digital Balance 4 decimal degrees
(Precisa xp 220A), made in
Switzerland.
8. Qualitative filter paper, made in
China.
9. Sedimentation Jar Test (Aztec
Environmental Control LTD, made in
Germany.
10. Atomic
absorption
sepctrophotometer (GBC 933 plus, made in
Australia.
The optimum masses of activated carbon,
rice husk, palms karab and corncobs which
were 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5 g, respectively, and the
optimum pH of solutions which was 5.5,
were used for Cd(II) in these experiments.
These experiments were used to obtain the
equilibrium isotherm curves for single metal
ions by plotting the mass of solute adsorbed
per mass of adsorbent, qe, against the
equilibrium concentration of the solution, Ce,
and then to obtain the equilibrium isotherm
parameters.
A volume of 100 ml of metal ion solution
in different initial concentration of 25-125
mg/L was placed in five beakers containing
the fixed mass of the sorbent. The beakers
were then shaken at a constant speed of 100
rpm in a Jar Test at temperature 25°C ± 1
for 30 min. After shaking, the sorbent was
separated by filtration through a filter paper
0.425 mm. The filtrate was analyzed for the
remaining metal ion concentration by atomic
absorption spectrophotometer AAS.
Results and discussion:
In batch experiments, the influence of the
dosage adsorbent, pH of solution, stirring
speed and initial metal ion concentration on
the removal of Cd(II), from solution by
adsorption onto powder activated carbon,
rice husks, karab and corncobs as an
adsorbent was studied.
Effect of pH solution:
The removal of metal ions from aqueous
solution by adsorption is related to the pH of
solution. The first set of tests, therefore,
examines the effect of pH on the effluent
concentration.
The low biosorption capacity at pH values
below 4.0 was attributed to hydrogen ions
that compete with metal ions on the sorption
sites. In other words, at lower pH, due to
protonation of the binding sites resulting
from a high concentration of protons, the
negative charge intensity on the sites is
reduced, resulting in the reduction or even
inhibition of the binding of metal ions.
Similar findings were reported by other
researchers (Desi et al., 1998; Emani et al.,
2003).
At high pH values, the removal takes place
by adsorption as well as precipitation, due to
33
Journal of Environmental Studies
es [JES] 2013. 10: 31-38
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Kar
ab
3
4
5
5.5
pH
6
6.5
qe (mgCd(II)/g adsorbents)
PAC
2
7
Figure (1): Effect of pH onn Cd(II) uptake for
different materials.
The effect of dosage adsorb
rbent:
The effect of dosage adsorbe
bent on adsorption
of Cd(II) at a cons
nstant adsorbate
concentration was studied fo
for the purpose of
determining the optimum ad
adsorbents dosage
that will bring a best
st removal. The
experiments (batch) startedd with
w a dose of 1
to 2.5 g of sorbent/100 ml ca
cadmium solution
of 50 ppm and a contact time
me of 30 min. The
results were plotted, and sshown in Figure
(2). The metal percent rem
removal increases
with a further increase inn the quantity of
adsorbent the corresponding
ng increase in the
observed uptake of Cd(II
(II).. Also, from
Figure (2), the optimum sorbent amount
required for efficient treatm
tment can be well
noticed.
A crucial parameter for ann ooptimal removal
of metal ions in the wastewat
ater.
qe (mgCd(II)/g adsorbents)
during the first hour w
was remarkably
changed with time. The equilibrium
e
time
was taken as 30 min for furth
rther experimental
measurements, the results
ts are shown in
Figure (3).
In sorption process, equili
ilibrium time is a
function of many factors,, such
s
as type of
adsorbent (number and kind
ki
of sorption
sites), size and form of adsorbent,
physiological state of adso
sorbent (active or
inactive, free or immobilized
ed), as well as the
metal involved in the sorption
s
system
(Cossich et al., 2002).
Kar
ab
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
5.00
4.50
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
PAC
Kara
b
Rice
husk
s
10
20
30
40
50
Contact Time (min)
60
70
Figure (3): Effect of contac
act time on Cd(II)
uptake for different materials.
The effect of initial concent
ntration:
The effect of initial metall ion
io concentration
on the breakthrough curves
es for each metal
ion was investigated for alll th
the systems.
Experiments were done at different initial
concentrations of cadmium
m ion (25, 50, 75,
100 and 125 mg/L), and the
he other conditions
were kept the same (pH=5.5,
(p
sorbent
dosage=1g/100 ml, contact
ct time= 30 min,
stirring speed= 100 rpm, Vo
Vol. = 100 ml and
particle size diameter= 0.42
.425 mm) by rice
husks, karab, corncobs and P
PAC.
Figure (4) shows a linear in
increasing relation
between the adsorbents up
uptake and initial
Cd(II) concentrations.
12
PA
C
10
Kar
ab
8
qe (mg/g)
qe (mg Cd(II)/g adsorbent)
formation of metals hydroxi
xide. This can be
explained by the fact that,, as
a the pH of the
solution increased, the OH- ions in the
solution increase and form ssome complexes
with metal ions and precip
cipitate as metals
hydroxide (Al-Najar, 2009).
In general, it is noticedd ffrom Figure (1)
that the Cd(II) uptake of th
the three types of
agro-adsorbents is very low
w at a pH of 2.0.
Then, increasing the pH off the
th solution from
2 to 4 leads to a rapid increa
rease in the Cd(II)
uptake.
6
Rice
hus
ks
4
2
PA
C
0
25
50
75
Ci (mg/L)
100
125
Figure (4): Effect of initial
al concentration on
Cd(II) uptake for different mate
aterials.
1
1.5
2
2.5
Dosage Adsorbent (mg)
Figure (2): Effect of dosage adsorbent
ad
on Cd(II)
uptake for different materials.
The effect of contact time:
The kinetics of metal re
removal by rice
straw was relatively fast within
wi
5 min and
The effect of stirring (mixin
xing) speed:
The effect of stirring (mixi
ixing) the sorbent
system on Cd(II) remova
val efficiency by
different adsorbents was stu
studied by varying
the speed of mixing from 0 (with no-mixing
as a control for compariso
ison) to 200 rpm,
34
Journal of Environmental Studies
es [JES] 2013. 10: 31-38
while keeping the dosagee of sorbent, the
contact time and optimum pH as constants.
The Cd(II) uptake is incre
reasing when the
stirring speed is increasingg from (0 to 100)
rpm then remain constant for
fo all adsorbents,
as shown in Figure (5).
These results agreed with
ith the results of
Nomanbhay and Palanisamy
my, (2005). They
found during their experimeents, the removal
efficiency for Cr(III) from aq
aqueous solutions
using chitosan coated oil pal
alm shell charcoal
increased by mixing, but the metal sorption
capacity for the sorbent rem
remained constant
for agitation rates greater tha
han 100 rpm.
5
kar
ab
3
Cf/qe
PA
C
4
qe (mg/g)
Equilibrium isotherm stud
tudies (Langmuir
and Freundlich models):
Langmuir model:
), (8), (9) and (10)
In batch tests, Figures (7),
reveal the plot of Cf/qe vs.. Cf for rice husks,
karab, corncobs and PAC
AC, respectively.
These Figures show a stra
traight line which
means that the equilibrium data
d is correlated
well with Langmuir equation
ions. The constants
of Langmuir equation for each
e
media were
calculated from the slope and
nd the intercept of
the straight line and listed in Table (1).
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
y = 0.0413x + 0.9267
R² = 0.5079
1
0
5
15
10
20
0
Cf (mg/L)
100
200
Stirring speed (rpm)
Figure (5): Effect of stirring
ng speed on Cd(II)
uptake for different materials.
6- Effect of adsorbent parti
rticle size:
One can notice from Figu
gure (6) the effect
of adsorbents particle size on
o Cd(II) uptake
is negligible and cannott be recognized
easily. From Figure (6), thes
ese differences are
meaningless compared with
th other influential
factors (pH, dosage adsorbe
bent, contact time,
initial concentration and sstirring (mixing)
speed).
Roger,
(2004)
state
ted
that
the
lignocellulosic materials hav
ave high ability to
absorb water that allowss accessibility of
aqueous solutions to the
t
cell wall
components, therefore, the sorption
so
of heavy
metal ions by lignocellulosic
sic materials does
not depend on particle size.. Furthermore,
F
the
influence of sorbent particl
icle size on metal
uptake seems to be a funct
ction of both the
type of adsorbent and the meetal ion.
Figure (7): Plot of Cf/qe vs. Cf for determination
of Langmuir constants for ricee husks
h
3.5
y = -0.072x + 3.448
R² = 0.626
3
2.5
2
Cf/qe
50
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
5
10
15
20
Cf (mg/L)
Figure (8): Plot of Cf/qe vs. Cf for determination
of Langmuir constants for karab
rab.
Cf/qe
0
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
y = -0.080x + 4.417
R² = 0.374
0
5
10
20
15
25
30
Cf (mg/L)
Figure (9): Plot of Cf/qe vs. Cf for determination
of Langmuir constants for cornc
rncobs.
5
PAC
3
2
Cf/qe
qe (mg/g)
4
1
0
< 0.425
0.425-1.4
Particle Size (mm)
2
2-2.36
le size diameter on
Figure (6): Effect of particle
Cd(II) uptake for different mate
terials.
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
y = 0.2878xx - 0.9941
R² = 0.8502
8502
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Cf (mg/L)
Figure (10): Plot of Cf/qe vs. Cf for
determination of Langmuir con
onstants for PAC.
35
Journal of Environmental Studies
es [JES] 2013. 10: 31-38
Media
qmax
R2
b
Equation
0.994
0.85
qe=3.4843*0.994Cf/(1+
1+0.994Cf)
3.4843
PAC
3.448
0.626
qe=37.037*3.448Cf/(1+
1+3.448Cf)
37.037
Karab
0.0413
0.508
qe=24.39*0.0413Cf/(1+
1+0.0413Cf)
24.39
Rice husks
4.417
0.374
qe=12.5*0.4.417Cf/(1+
1+4.417Cf)
12.5
Corncobs
Table (1): Constantt vvalues of Langmuir equation and the equation for each
ch media.
1.2
y = 0.748x
x + 0.115
R² = 0.920
920
1
1.2
y = 1.307x - 0.842
R² = 0.900
1
0.8
log qe
Freundlich model:
Figures (11), (12), (13
(13) and (14)
illustrate the plotting of Log
og qe vs. Log Cf
for rice husks, karab, cornc
ncobs and PAC,
respectively. These Figur
gures show a
straight line (Freundlich
ich adsorption
isotherm) which means
ns that the
equilibrium data is correlat
lated well with
Freundlich equation. Thee constants for
Freundlich equation were calculated
ca
from
the slope and intercept of the
he straight line.
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
1
0.5
1.5
log Cf
Figure (13): Plot of Log qe vs. Log Cf for
determination of Freundli
dlich constant for
corncobs.
log qe
0.8
0.6
1.2
0.4
1
y = 1.087x - 0.746
R² = 0.927
0.2
0.8
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
log qe
0
1.4
0.6
0.4
log Cf
Figure (11): Plot of Log qe vs. Log Cf for
determination of Freundlich constant
co
for rice
husks.
0.2
0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
log Cf
1.2
y = 1.285x - 0.695
R² = 0.946
1
Figure (14): Plot of Log qe vs. Log Cf for
determination of Freundlichh cconstant for PAC.
0.8
log qe
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
log Cf
Figure (12): Plot of Log qe vs. Log Cf for
determination of Freundlich con
onstant for karab.
Media
PAC
Karab
Rice husks
Kf
0.1
0.18
0.2
0.202
1.3
1/n
1.087
1.285
0.748
R2
0.927
0.946
0.92
Equation
qe=0.18Cf1.0.087
1
qe=0.202Cf1.285
0.748
48
qe=1.3Cf
1
0.1
0.144
1.307
0.9
qe=0.144Cf1.307
Corncobs
Table (2): Constantt vvalues of Freundlich equation and the equation for each
ach media.
Conclusions:
Several sorption were
re studied and
considered by this researchh and here below,
the main conclusions that
at were obtained
from batch tests:
1- Rice husks, palms karab aand corncobs are
more effective to removee cadmium from
synthetic wastewater thann activated
a
carbon
that used in batch system.
Rice husks>palm karab>corn
orncobs> PAC.
2- Optimum conditions for
fo Cd(II) uptake
capacity were pH of solution
so
5.5, for
adsorbent dosage 1g adsor
sorbent/100 ml of
Cd(II), contact time 30min, initial
36
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 31-38
concentration 125 mg/L and mixing
(stirring) speed 100 rpm.
3- The Cd (II) uptake rate was not
affected by particle size of adsorbents.
4- The equilibrium isotherm for the above
systems is well represented by Freundlich
model with high correlation coefficient
(0.927, 0.946, 0.92 and 0.9) for PAC, rice
husks, karab and corncobs.
5- Rice husks can be used instead of
activated carbon in wastewater treatment
plant for the removal of Cd (II).
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resin immobilized activated sludge
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T.M.K.
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37
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 31-38
%
9 5 #$ " 3 5
@ <
# 8J NO K
/ 86)
& ' #$ "
!
(heavy metals)
71 8 + . /
4 5 )6 4(% ) *+ ,- . /
0
/ ' . 1 2 (3
*A B = C D
.8
< $ 3: ; = 908 > =
? ) ! 3: ; <
#
(% L
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+ :; =
1 2 I F J E 62 F F & 3 >3 G
H63 #$
/ &N . 1 2
@B 1 ; . S (adsorbant) PN
Q 62 F H ' R
E
+
T + . S 86
PN
38
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:39-45
Original Paper
Non-Linear Behavior of Unbonded Post-Tensioned one-way Concrete Slab
Panel
Jamal S. Abdulamier2, Ali H. Aziz2 and Haider S. Al-aasam1
1
Postgraduate Student.
Supervisors, Civil Eng. Department/Al-Mustansriya University/Iraq.
2
Rec. 6 Jan, 2012, Accpt. 27 Feb, 2012
Abstract
In this research, a nonlinear finite element model developed to investigate the behavior and ultimate load
capacity of unbonded post-tensioned one-way concrete slab panel. The numerical treatment adopted by
finite element ANSYS software has been carried out on two different one-way concrete slabs chosen from
previous available experimental study in order to evaluate their results. Mode of failure and the loaddeflection relationship are presented for two cases. A parametric study was conducted to study the effects
on the global structural behavior due to the effect of concrete compressive strength, effect of effective
prestressing stress, effect of prestressing (post-tensioning) technique, types of loading, effect of tendon
profile, effect of tendon bonding, effect of span to depth ratio of concrete slabs.
Keywords:Post-Tension, Concrete, Slab, Finite Element, ANSYS
Introduction
Post-tensioning of concrete slabs can be
constructed using unbonded or bonded tendons.
For unbonded slabs the transfer of force from the
tendons to the concrete is via the end anchors, with
strains in the tendons distributed throughout their
entire length, and also via the profile of the
tendons. Friction forces between the tendon and
concrete are very small since the tendon is
typically greased and housed within a plastic tube
(duct). In bonded slabs the transfer of the force is
via the end anchors, together with the bond
between the tendons and concrete (after grouting),
and via the curvature of the tendons. Compared to
bonded systems, unbonded post-tensioned
concrete slabs are more economic, easier to
construct and have the possibility to replace or
repair any defective tendons. However, they are
not considered to be as robust as bonded systems.
The behavior of post-tensioned concrete
structural members has previously been
investigated experimentally by (Brotchie, 1980;
Williams and Waldron, 1989;Schupack, 1991; Tan
and Ng, 1997; Chen and Wissawapaisal, 2001;
Chakrabarti, 2005). and a number of other
researchers. A detailed review of various studies
can be found in (Khan and Williams, 1995 and
Ellobody and Bailey).
Numerical and theoretical models have been
previously developed by other researchers to study
the behavior of unbondedprestressed concrete
members. (Alkairi and Naaman).developed an
analytical model to study the behavior of
unbonded
tendons
in
simply-supported
symmetrical beams. The model was simplified
since the interaction between the tendon and
concrete, unsymmetrical loading, post-cracking
tensile capacity and time effects were all ignored
in the analysis. In (Moon and Burns,
1997).analytical method for unbondedprestressed
members, the geometrical changes in the tendon
profile during the deformation of the member were
ignored. (Wu et al.,2001).presented a numerical
procedure for the analysis of prestressed concrete
structures. However, there was no experimental
investigation included within this research and the
calculation of prestress losses relied on equations
presented in current codes of practice. Based on
the review of previous research, summarized
above, it was found that an efficient 3-D finite
element model with nonlinear material models for
the tendon and concrete is needed to accurately
study the behavior of unbonded post-tensioned
concrete slabs. The proposed model must also
include the correct transfer of force between the
tendon and concrete at the anchor points and
* Corresponding author:
Mr. Haider S. Al-aasam
haider.sa@gmail.com
39
Journal of Environmental Studies [JE
JES] 2013. 10:39-45
ensure that the tendon retains its correct geometry
during the deformation of the sla
lab.
This research presents a finit
nite element model,
using
ANSYS
software
(Ver.
12.0).
(withoutcivilFEM) To validate
te the model two
unbonded post-tensioned concret
rete slabs have been
chosen from the previous avail
ailable experimental
study tested by (Ellobody and Bailey). A
parametric study is also presented
ted investigating the
effect of concrete compressivee strength effective
prestressing stress, prestressing
ng (post-tensioning)
technique, types of loading, tend
ndon profile, tendon
bonding and span to depth on the behavior of
unbonded post-tensioned concret
rete slabs.
Experimental Tests:
Two unbonded post-tensione
ned concrete slabs
have been chosen from the avail
ailable experimental
study for the numerical anal
alyses. The slabs,
designated
as
(
(T1)
with
(
)
and
(T2)
with
(
), where a simply
s
supported
subjected to four concen
entrated point loads and
tested by (Ellobody andd Bailey). The unbonded
post-tensioned slabs were
re designed according to
BS8110-1 (2002). Thee general layout of the
unbonded post-tensionedd one-way
o
concrete slab is
shown in Figure (1).
ns of the slabs are with an
The overall dimensions
overall length of 4300 mm
m, a span of (4000mm), a
width of (1600mm), and
nd a depth of (160mm).
Apart from the bursting reinforcement,
r
there was
no other conventional (passive)
(
reinforcement
included in the slabs.
The slabs was position
oned in the loading frame
as shown in Figure (2).
). The jacking load was
applied at regular interva
rvals of (5 kN). Initially,
both slabs (T1) and (T2) behaved
b
linearly and the
observed deflections were
re small up to (42.4 kN).
Moreover, The slabs wass supported
s
on two (356
171 67mm) I-Section steel
st beams and loaded at
four locations using spread
ader plates (1600 350
40mm).
Figure (1)
(1). General Layout of the Post-tensioned Slabs T1 & T2
T2.
oading Frame.
Figure 2).Test Setup Showing Load
Modeling of Material Propertie
ties:
Concrete exhibits a com
omplex structural
response with various importa
rtant nonlinearities
namely, the nonlinearr stress-strain behavior,
tensile cracking, compress
ssion crushing, in addition
to time- dependent effects
ts such as creep, shrinkage
and temperature change,
e, which all contribute to
the nonlinear response.. All
A these nonlinearities
depends strongly on the triaxial
tri
state of stress.
Concrete was modele
eled using the plasticity
based model implemente
ted in the ANSYS. The
model provides a general
al capability for modeling
plain and reinforced concrete
co
in all types of
structures. The plasticit
city theory provides a
mathematical relationship
ip that characterizes the
elasto- plastic respons
nse of materials, in
combination
with
isotropic
iso
tensile
and
40
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:39-45
compressive plasticity, to represent the inelastic
behavior of concrete. The model assumes that the
uniaxial tensile and compressive response of
concrete is characterized by plasticity based
model. Under uniaxial compression the response is
linear until the value of proportional limit stress,
(fco) is reached which is assumed to equal 0.30
times the compressive strength (fc). Under uniaxial
tension the stress-strain curve s assumed to be
linearly elastic up to the ultimate tensile strength.
After this point, the concrete cracks and the
strength decreases to zero. Figure (3) shows the
Simplified Uniaxial Stress-Strain relationship that
is used in this study.
Figure (3). Simplified Uniaxial Stress-Strain Curve For
Concrete
ANSYS Finite Element Model:
By taking the advantage of the symmetry of
both slab’s geometry and loading, a quarter of the
entire model slab is used for the finite element
analysis. The aim of this was to reduce the
computational time.
Finite Element Model of Concrete:
In the present study, 3-D brick element with 8nodes was used to model the concrete (SOLID65
in ANSYS). The element has eight corner nodes,
and each node has three degrees of freedom (u, v
and winx, y and z direction respectively). The
element is capable of plastic deformation, cracking
in three orthogonal directions, and crushing. The
geometry and node locations for this element type
are shown in Figure (4).
Finite Element Model of Steel Plates:
In the finite element method, each load is
distributed over a small area as n the experimental
slab specimens. Steel plates were added at the
support locations and under the point load (applied
load) in order to avoid stress concentration
problems. This provided a more even stress
distribution over the load and support area. Solid
element (SOLID45 in ANSYS) was used for the
steel plates. The element is defined with eight
nodes having three degrees of freedom at each
node; translations in x, y and directions, Figure
(4).
Figure (4).Three Dimensional 8-node Brick Element.
Finite Element Model of Prestressing and NonPrestressing Reinforcement:
In the present study, the prestressing and nonprestressing reinforcements (tensile, compressive,
tendon and bursting reinforcement) were
represented
by
using
2-node
discrete
representation (LINK8 in ANSYS) and included
within the properties of 8-node brick elements.
The link element is assumed to be capable of
transmitting axial forces only, and perfect bond is
assumed to exist between the concrete and the
reinforcing bars.Toprovide the perfectbond, the
link element for the steel reinforcing bar was
connected between nodes of each adjacent
concrete solid element, so the two materials share
the same nodes.
For tendon cable, since it is located inside the
concrete section (throw the hole) and the
prestressing force is transferred to concrete
through end anchorages and profile of tendon, the
cable is connected to slab only at the anchorages
(ends).
Finite Element Model of Interface:
The contact between the concrete and the
tendon was modeled by contact elements (using
the CONTACT PAIR MANEGER) available
within the ANSYS program element library. The
method requires defining two surfaces that are the
target and contact surface. The target surface
within this model (TARGE170 in ANSYS)
represents rigid surface is defined as the concrete
surface surrounding the tendon and the contact
surface (CONTA175 in ANSYS) represents
contact, slid and deformable surface is defined as
the tendon surface. The contact elements has four
corner nodes, and each node has three translation
degrees of freedom (u, v and w) in x, y and z
41
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:39-45
directions respectively. This element is located on
the surface of 3-D solid (such as 8-node brick
element) and has the same geometric
characteristics as the solid element face with
which it is connected. The contact elements are
formed using these two surfaces and monitors the
displacement of the contact surface in relation to
the target surface. The contact details is shown in
Fig. (5).
Figure (5). Contact Elements (Interface)
The finite element analysis has been carried
out in general using 8-point (2×2×2)integration
rule for the reinforced concrete brick elements and
4-point (2×2) integration rule for the steel plates
elements and for the interface elements, with a
convergence tolerance of 0.1%. The full NewtonRaphson method has been adopted in the analysis;
all mesh details are shown in Fig.(6) and Fig.(7).
Verification of Finite Element Model:
The results from the ANSYS (12.0) finite
element analyses were compared with the
experimental data. The following comparisons are
made: load-deflection curves at midspan; first
cracking load; load at failure. Also, discuss the
development of crack patterns for slab (T1)and
slab(T2). The experimental and numerical loaddeflection curves obtained for slab (T1) and slab
(T2) are shown in Figures (8) and (9) respectively.
Figure (8). Load- Deflection Curve for Slab (T1).
Figure (9). Load- Deflection Curve for Slab (T2).
Figure (6). Finite Element Mesh for Quarter of The
Slab.
Figure (7). Details -A- Bursting Reinforcement
Location (at ends)
Good agreement is in load–deflection
relation prior to cracking load after the
appearance of flexural cracks. At ultimate
state, the numerical load is slightly larger than
experimental load, and a relatively stiffener
response has been obtained in the post
cracking stage of behavior for slabs.
For slab (T1), the failure load from experimental
was (156.6 kN), at a central deflection of
(81.9mm), compared to (160.7 kN) and (65.67
mm) obtained from the model. The failure load
predicted using the model was (2.6%) higher than
that observed from the test. The mode of failure is
Concrete Crushing (CC) in the model
corresponded to the mode of failure in
experimental. The first flexural cracking initiates
at 62.5% from the ultimate load. The first crack
observed in tension zone of the slab as shown in
Figure (10) and extend towards top face of slab in
compression zone. Figure (11) also show crack
42
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:39-45
pattern at ultimate state.
Figure (10).The First Crack at 62.5% of Ultimate Load
Figure (11). Crack Pattern Near Mid-span at Load =
160.7 kN
For slab (T2), the failure load from experimental
was (178.2 kN), at a central deflection of (93.5
mm), compared to (180.4 kN) and (86 mm)
obtained from the model. The failure load
predicted using the model was (1.23%) higher than
that observed from the test. The stress contours
within the concrete elements are shown in Figure
(12). The maximum compressive strains at failure
occurred in the top concrete layer under the middle
spreader plate (off-set from the mid-span) as
observed in the test, with concrete crushing (CC)
predicted. The strain of the tendons recorded from
the finite element model was exceeding the
measured yield strain, therefore the mode of
failure is Tendon Yielding (TY).
Figure (12). Stresses Distribution for Concrete at
Failure Load for Slab (T2).
Parametric Study:
The verified finite element model was used to
investigate the effect of several selected
parameters on the overall behavior of posttensioned one-way concrete slab. These
parameters include the effect of concrete
compressive strength, effect of effective
prestressing stress, effect of prestressing (posttensioning) technique, types of loading, effect of
tendon profile, effect of tendon bonding, effect of
span to depth ratio of concrete slabs. It has been
found that, as the compressive strength of concrete
increases from (40 MPa) to(70 MPa) the ultimate
load increases by about (43.77%) and for higher
value of ratio (fpe/ fpu) (effective prestress to
ultimate stress) the ultimate load increases. The
ultimate load for post-tensioned concrete slab
increase approximately (66.8 %) more than the
same slab without prestressing (ordinary
reinforcement slab). The increase in the ultimate
load of the slab subjected to four point load is
(20.7 %) larger than that of the slab with a single
load at mid-span. It is noted that the ultimate
capacity increases when curved tendon profile is
used. Also it is noted that the slab with full bonded
more stiff than the same slab with full or partial
unbonded.
Important effect has been noted by increasing
the ratio of the span to thickness of concrete slab
(l/t) from (20) to (45) lead to an decrease in the
ultimate load by about (10.8 %).
Conclusions:
Based on the finite element method by using
ANSYS computer program (version 12.0), the
analysis with a numerical results is described in
previous section, it can be concluded that the
computational finite element models adopted in
the current study are useful and adequate for
analyzing an unbonded post-tensioned one-way
concrete slab. The finite element model used in the
present work is able to simulate the behavior of
unbondedpost-tensioned one-way concrete slabs.
The analytical tests carried out for the two cases
studied indicated that the load -deflection
response, ultimate loads behavior in concrete slab
are in good agreement with the experimental
results. This study investigates the effect of several
factors on load-deflection response throughout the
entire range of behavior using the nonlinear
analysis by ANSYS computer program. Based on
the previous factors, the following conclusions are
obtained:-
43
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:39-45
1. From the numerical analysis carried out to
study the effect of compressive strength of
concrete on the strength behavior , it was found
that as the compressive strength of concrete is
increased from (40 N/mm2) to (70 N/mm2) the
ultimate load capacity is increased by about
(43.8 %).
2. For different values of effective prestressing
stress that are taken as (fpe / fpu) ratio, the
ultimate load is increased substantially by
about (8.1 %) when the ratio is increased from
(0.25) to (0.75). This can be attributed to
increase in prestressing force that improves the
stiffness of slab.
3. It was observed that the increase in the ultimate
load capacity for unbonded post-tensioned slab
by (66.8 %) is larger than the same slab without
post-tensioned tendon.
4. The increased in ultimate load on the slab
subjected to uniformly distributed load is
(35.1 %) greater than that in beam with a single
load at mid span.
5. It was found that the tendon profile has no
significantly effect on the ultimate load
capacity, where the results showed that
ultimate load decreased (5 %) with straight
tendon profile compared to curved tendon
profile.
6. The finite element results obtained for the same
slab assuming full and partial bond between
tendon and concrete are shown that compared
to a concrete slab with unbonded a stiffer
behavior has been noticed. It was observed that
the ultimate load capacity for slab with full
bonded increase by (4.9 %) than the same slab
with unbonded.
7. The strength of post-tensioned slabs are
decreased by increasing the ratio of the depth to
span of concrete slab (l/t), with keeping the
width and depth of slabs constant and it was
found that as the (l/t) ratio is increased from
(0.20) to (0.45) the ultimate load decreases by
about (10.8 %).
References:
Brotchie, J.F. (1980). "Experimental studies of
prestressed
thin
plate
structures",Adjournal, Vol. 77, No. 2, pp.
87-95.
Williams, M.S. and Waldron, P. (1989).
"Movement of unbonded post-tensioning
tendons during demolition", Proceedings
of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Part
2, Vol. 87, pp. 225-253.
Schupack, M. (1991)."Evaluating buildings with
unbonded
tendons",
Concrete
International, Vol. 13, No. 10, pp. 52-57.
Tan, K. and Ng, C. (1997)."Effect of deviator and
tendon configuration on behavior of
externally prestressed beams", ACI
Structural Journal, Vol. 94, No. 1, pp. 1322.
Chen, H.L. and Wissawapaisal, K. (2001).
"Measurement of tensile forces in a sevenwire prestressing strand using stress
waves",
Journal
of
Engineering
Mechanics, ASCE, Vol. 127, No. 6, pp.
599-606.
Chakrabarti, P.R. (2005). "Behavior of unbonded
post-tensioned beams repaired and
retrofitted with composite materials",
Structures, ASCE Structures Congress,
Metropolis and Beyond, N.Y., pp.1-11.
Khan, S. and Williams, M. (1995). "Posttensioned concrete floors". ButterworthHeinemann, Elsevier Science Ltd.
EhabEllobody and Colin G. Bailey, (2008).
"Behavior of Unbonded Post-Tensioned
One-way Concrete Slabs", Advances in
Structural Engineering Vol.11 No.1, pp.
107-120.
Alkhairi, F.M. and Naaman, A.E. (1993).
"Analysis of beams prestressed with
unbonded internal and external tendons",
Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE,
Vol. 119, No. 9, pp. 2680-2699.
Moon, J.H. and Burns, N.H. (1997). "Flexural
behavior of member with unbonded
tendons",
Journal
of
Structural
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 123, No. 8, pp.
1087-1094.
Wu, X.H., Otani, S. and Shiohara, H. (2001).
"Tendon model for nonlinear analysis of
prestressed concrete structures", Journal
of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol.
127, No. 4, pp. 398-405.
Zebun, M.A. (2006), "Behavior and Strength of
Steel-Cincrete-Steel Sandwich Beams with
Partial Shear Connection". Ph.D Thesis,
University of Al-Mustansiriya.
44
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:39-45
ANSYS, (2009). "ANSYS Help",Release 12.0,
Copyright.
ACI Committee 318, (2008). "Building Code
Requirements for Structural Concrete
(ACI 318M-08) and Commentary (ACI
318RM-08)", American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills.
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45
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:
Original Paper
-
Physicochemical and microbiological studies of River Nile water in
Sohag governorate
Hassanein A. M.1, AbdelRahim Khalid A. A.2, Sabry Younis, M.3, Mohamed Ismael4, Abd
El- Azeiz Heikal A.5,
1
Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Sohag University, Sohag-82524, Egypt.
Botany and Microbiology department, College of Science, King Saud University, P. O. Box 2455,
Riyadh 11451KSA.
3
Microbilogoy Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Sohag University, Sohag-82524, Egypt.
4
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Sohag University, Sohag-82524, Egypt.
5
Ministry of Health and Population, National Lab for water, Sohag-82524, Egypt.
2
Rec. 7 Apr, 2012 Accpt. 23 May, 2012
Abstract
Water quality assessment of River Nile has been studied in the Upper Egypt region between
April 2011 and March 2012 to identify the relationship between the physicochemical
parameters and microbiological characteristics. Thirty six water samples were collected
during hot and cold seasons along the area extending from Tima to Dar-Elsalam cities, Sohag
governorate, Egypt. Results indicated that the physicochemical parameters in all samples
increased significantly in the hot season than cold season. In addition, the bacteriological
assessment for water samples indicated that most of locations were polluted with faecal
coliform and pathogenic bacteria which were identified as Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp.,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Shigella spp.
Key words: Physicochemical parameters, microbial diversity, correlations coefficient, River
Nile water.
Introduction
Water is blessing of Allah and it is very
precious resource of this planet where it is an
established source of life. Water is
considered as one of the nutrients, although
it yields no calories. It has unique chemical
properties due to its polarity and hydrogen
bonds, consequently it is able to dissolve,
absorb or suspend many different
compounds. Water enters into the structural
composition of cell, it is an essential
component of diet and it is considered one of
the essential components that support all
forms of plant and animal life (Vanloon and
Duffy, 2005). A correct balance in the
sensory,
chemical,
physical
and
bacteriological qualities of water makes it
drinkable thus; water in nature is not pure as
it acquires
contaminants from its
surrounding, and those arising from humans
and animals as well as other biological
activities (Mendie, 2005).
Surface water quality management is the
first step in ensuring an adequate supply of
safe drinking water. Water quality
deterioration may occur due to the sources of
faecal pollution including grazing cattle,
natural animals’ populations, septic tanks,
failed sewage systems and summer storm
activity (Lehloesa and Muyima, 2000).
Main water resources in Sohag
Governorate (Upper Egypt) are the surface
water. Surface water includes the water in
River Nile, the irrigation canals and the
agriculture drains. Environmental pollution
problems are the most serious national
problems which requires great efforts at all
levels; individual, group, national and
international. Human and animal activities
lead to pollution of River Nile because they
serve as the concern to all agencies dealing
with water resources management and
planning so data collection, analysis, and
interpretation are required to overcome
heavy pollution. One major goal of surface
water quality are data collection and
estimation the changes in the concentration
of various constituents (Yehia, and Sabae,
2011).
The water quality of Lake Nasser and the
main stream of the River Nile from Aswan
to Cairo are good but some traces of
pollutants are present. Water quality in the
irrigation and drainage canals deteriorates
47
* Corresponding author:
Dr. AbdelRahim Khalid A. A
kabderaheem@ksu.edu.sa
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:
downstream and reaches alarming levels in
the Delta (Abd El-Daiem, 2011). As the
River Nile flows downstream from High
Aswan Dam so the total salt load increase
while the volume of water decreases because
of additional drainage water and the
continuous abstraction of water used for
different purposes , this refer to River Nile is
polluted northward in some locations, where
it is used as disposal pathway for different
types of wastes. The Nile in Egypt can be
characterized to high, moderately and low
polluted. Also, the canals have water quality
similar to that at point of diversion from the
Nile that receives a large amount of
untreated effluents rich with organic and
inorganic matter that cause Nile pollution.
River Nile has an intensive self-purification
capacity. The self-purification capacity of
the River Nile is supposed to be high
because of its ecosystem clearly reflect the
impact of river flow control and precipitate
all effluents of pollutants at the bottom. The
water quality in the Nile downstream from
Aswan to Cairo has changed dramatically as
the Nile water became silt-free, less turbid,
and with less velocity (El-Motassem et al.,
1996 and El-Kady, 1997).
The River Nile water after High Dam
construction led to the increasing in the
concentration of phosphate and nitrate
dissolved in the water body, and thereby
stimulated algal and phytoplankton growth.
Physical factors that influence the type and
number of phytoplankton in River are flow
rate, water level, light, temperature and solar
radiation that plays an important role in the
control of planktonic life (Shehata et al.,
2008).
The dangers of pathogenic microbes in
surface drinking water supplies were
recognized. Microorganisms threat the safety
of drinking water that is growing in
industrialized nations that have long
regarded themselves as immune to wide
spread water-borne illness and carries so
common in developing countries (Young,
1996). Microbial pathogens including (E.
coli, Shigella spp., Salmonella spp., Vibrio
cholera, Campylobacteria (toxins) and
protozoa (Giardia and Cryptosporidium etc.)
are major risks associated with water and
waste water (Szewzyk et al., 2000).
In the developing countries, drinking
water is important route of transmission of
-
diarrheal disease that is the leading cause of
morbidity and mortality in children, risk
increases in rainy season (Dangendorf et al.,
2002). The associated risk with drinking
water is the contamination resulting from
human or animal faeces. Ice used for human
consumption can also be contaminated with
pathogenic microorganisms and become a
vehicle for human infection through E. coli,
and Salmonella enteritidis and many others
(Faleao et al., 2002).
Presence of pathogens is usually
accompanied by the presence of classic
indicators of contamination such as
Escherichia coli, Enterococci and other
aerobic bacteria. Coliform bacteria have long
been used to indicate faecal contamination of
water and thus a health hazard. The Faecal
streptococci are considered to be alternative
indicators of faecal health hazards.
Furthermore, classic indicators can be
considered as efficient detectors of
pathogens in most cases (Schaffter and
Parriaux, 2002). Indicator organisms have
several disadvantages making them less than
ideal for indicating the possible presence of
microbial pathogens. Traditionally, bacterial
indicators of faecal contamination such as
faecal coliforms and enterococci have been
used to assess the microbial quality of water
sources (Toze, 1999). The quality of
drinking water is a complex issue, but it is a
vital element of public health while poor
water quality is responsible for the deaths of
an estimated five million children annually
(Holgate,
2000).
The
pathogenicity
Enterobacteriaceae associated with certain
components of cell walls which known as
lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or endotoxin layer.
Moreover, enteric pathogens are responsible
for waterborne sickness (Karaboze et al.,
2003).
The aim of this study was to assess the
relationship between the physicochemical
and microbiological characteristics of River
Nile water in Sohag Governorate (central of
Upper Egypt). Moreover, the study
correlates the pathogenic microbes with the
physicochemical parameters.
Materials and Methods:
Sampling:
Two sampling campaigns were conducted
from May 2011 till March 2012 covering
summer and winter two seasons in the area
48
Journal of Environmental Studies
es [JES] 2013. 10:
of study. Thirty-six water
ter samples were
collected from the Riverr Nile from the
middle, eastern and wes
estern bank by
submerging to a depth of 400 cm along Sohag
Governorate.
Physicochemical Analysis:
Different physical pr
properties were
measured by using stan
tandard technical
methodologies. List of meas
asured parameters
includes, temperature, turb
rbidity, pH, total
dissolved salts (TDS), dissolved
dis
oxygen
(DO) were recorded in tab
ables. In addition,
chemical analysis includes ddeterminations of
Na+, K+, NO3-, Cl-, Ca2+, Mgg2+, CO32-, HCO3-,
NH3, NO2-, Cl2.
Bacteriological Methods
Number of total and path
athogenic bacteria
found in water was determ
ermined by serial
dilution with sterile sa
saline. For the
determination of total bacter
terial count, serial
diluted samples were grow
own on standard
method agar while Pseudom
domonas isolation
agar medium was used ffor isolation of
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Kiska and
agar LES (Difco)
Gilligan, 1999). M- Endo ag
(McCarthy et al., 1961)) was used for
enumeration of total colifor
forms in water by
membrane filter technique.. Laurayl
L
tryptose
broth (Difco) (APHA, 1980
80) was used for
verification of total colifor
orms. m-FC agar
Base was used with ro
rosolic acid in
-
cultivating and enumeratingg faecal coliforms
by the membrane filter techn
chnique (Geldreich
et al.,1965). Azide dextrose
ose broth medium
was used for enumera
ration of fecal
streptococci (Clesceri et al., 1998).
Kanamycin Aesculin azidee aagar (Ruoff et al.,
1995) was used for verifi
ification of Fecal
Streptococci. E. coli was co
counted by using
MacConkey agar medium
um (MacConkey,
1905) after incubation att 444oC for 48 hrs
X.L.D agar selective medium
ium (Taylor, 1965)
was for isolation of Salmo
monella spp. and
Shigella spp.
Results:
Water were collected twice
tw
yearly for
physicochemical
and
microbiological
pollutants analysis, aimingg to elucidate the
temperature effect duringg hot and cold
seasons. Tables (1-6) ssummarize the
obtained
physical,
cchemical
and
microbiological parameters
rs in hot and cold
sessions,
respectively.
y.
Moreover,
comparative analysis of thee physicochemical
and microbiological assessment
as
was
performed for the River Nil
ile water through
the area of Sohag governo
norate during the
physical year, April 2011 to March 2012 to
provide accurate statisticall informative
i
data
for expected changes in thee area under study
as shown in table 7 and
nd figures 1& 2.
Figure 1: Schematic diag
iagram of the relation between selected physicochemical
cal parameters
(temperature, pH,, DO)
D and total bacterial count (TBC) in hot and cold seasons.
sea
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
Dar-Els alam
Girga
Akhmim
Soha g
Sako lta
Tahta
Tima
Figure 2: Correlations between
en the coliforms and pathogenic bacteria during hot and
nd cold season in the
River Nile at Sohag governorate
49
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:
Physical properties:
the highest value of water temperature was
28°C, recorded at Akhmim, while the lowest
record for temperature was 5°C at at Girga
pH value was alkaline at different sites
during the hot season and it was ranged
between 7.8 at Dar-Elsalam and 8.5 at
Sakolta, however pH value was ranged
between 8.37 at Tima and 8.53 at DarElsalam, respectively during the cold season
Electrical
conductivity
values
were
fluctuated within wide range between 286
and 371µs/cm at Tahta and Dar-Elsalam,
respectively during hot season, while it was
ranged between 277 µs/cm at Sohag and 298
µs/cm at Tima, respectively during the cold
season. Total dissolved salts (TDS) content
of water were fluctuated between 188.7 ppm
at Tahta to 244.8 ppm at Dar-Elsalam during
-
hot season, while TDS values were ranged
between 138 ppm at Sohag and 149 ppm at
Tima during cold season. Turbidity of Nile
River water was ranged between 4.9 NTU at
Girga and 6.5 at Tima during the hot season,
while it was ranged between 4.9 NTU at
Sohag and 6.5 at Girga during the cold
season. Dissolved oxygen (DO) was
fluctuated between 8.1 ppm at Sakolta to 8.5
ppm at Dar-Elsalam while, it was ranged
from 11.5 ppm at Tahta to 12.8 ppm at
Gerga region during cold season.
Chemical characteristics of Nile water:
The chemical characteristics values
including Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, total
hardness, Chloride ions, Sulphate ions,
Nitrate ions, nitrite, ammonia, and
Bicarbonate, were listed in table 1-6.
Physical properties
Site
No.
Site
1
2
3
4
5
6
Tima
Tahta
Sakolta
Sohag
Akhmim
Girga
Dar7
Elsalam
Average
Range
8.1
8.2
8.5
7.9
8.1
8.2
EC
(µhoms\cm)
287
286
287
323
325
370
TDS
(ppm)
189
188.7
189.4
213.2
213.9
244.2
TU
NTU
6.5
5.9
6.3
5.4
5.5
4.9
DO
(ppm)
8.1
8.2
8.1
8.2
8.4
8.4
27±2
7.8
371.0
244.8
5.2
8.5
25.7±2
8.1
321.3
211.9
5.67
8.23
23-28±2
7.8-8.5
286-371
188.7-244.8
4.9-6.5
8.1-8.5
T(°C)
pH
28±2
26±2
27±2
24±2
23±2
25±2
Table 1: Measured physical parameters for River Nile water at hot seasons.
No.
Site
1
2
3
4
5
6
Physical properties
Site
T °C
pH
EC
TDS
ppm
149
144
143
138
142
140.5
Tu
NTU
7.1
7.15
7.0
6.2
6.4
7.8
DO
ppm
12.2
11.5
12.5
11.9
12.2
12.8
Tima
7±2
8.37
298
Tahta
9±2
8.49
289
Sakolta
10±2
8.44
287
Sohag
8±2
8.39
277
Akmim
7±2
8.49
283
Girga
5±2
8.49
281
Dar9±2
8.53
279
139
7.75
11.6
7
Elsalam
Average
7.86±2
8.46
284.9
142.2
7.1
12.1
Range
5-10±2
8.37-8.53
277-298
138-149
6.2-7.8
11.5-12.8
Table 2: Measured physical parameters for River Nile water at cold seasons.
50
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:
-
Chemical properties
No.
Site
Site
1
2
3
4
5
6
Tima
Tahta
Sakolta
Sohag
Akmim
Girga
Dar7
Elsalam
Average
Cations
K+ Ca2+
3
72
2
74
3.4
75
3
74.8
4
74
6
84
Na+
17
15
21
15
18
22
Mg2+
57
54
53
48
49
46
T. H
129
128
128
122.8
123
130
Resid. Cl2
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
Cl19.5
18.5
22
19
19.2
24
SO4218
19
17.5
26.5
26.1
25
NO30.03
0.03
0.03
0.025
0.025
UDL
Anions
NO20.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
UDL
NH3
0.13
0.13
0.13
UDL
0.15
0.19
CO32UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
HCO3143.5
142
144
136.5
137
148
20
8
85
45
131
UDL
23
25.2
UDL
UDL
0.16
UDL
148
18.3
4.2
76.9
50.3
127.4
UDL
20.6
22.5
0.02
0.014
0.13
UDL
142.7
Table 3: Measured cations, anions concentrations (ppm) for River Nile water at hot seasons.
UDL : Undetectable limit
T.H : Total hardness
Chemical properties
Cations
No.
Site
Site
1
2
3
4
5
6
Tima
Tahta
Sakolta
Sohag
Akmim
Girga
DarElsalam
7
Average
Anions
Na
ppm
K
ppm
Ca
ppm
Mg
ppm
T. H
15
19
13
21
14
23
2.5
4.5
3
3.7
2.8
7
72
73
71
70
71
84
58
56
57
48
50
46
130
131
128
118
121
130
Resid.
Cl2
ppm
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
16
5.9
86
46
132
17.3
4.2
75.3
51.9
127.1
+
+
2+
2+
-
2-
-
Cl
ppm
SO4
ppm
NO3
ppm
NO2ppm
NH3
ppm
CO32ppm
HCO3ppm
23
23
22
18.5
19
20
23
22.5
22
19
19.5
25
UDL
UDL
UDL
0.02
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
0.13
0.13
0.12
0.03
UDL
0.04
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
146
146
145
135
133
142
UDL
20
26
UDL
UDL
0.04
UDL
156
UDL
20.8
22.4
UDL
UDL
UDL
UDL
143.3
Table 4: Measured cations, anions concentrations for River Nile water at cold seasons.
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Site
Tima
Tahta
Sakolta
Sohag
Akhmim
Girgra
Dar-Elsalam
Average
Range
TBC
T. coliform
3
30×10
70×103
180×103
30×103
110×103
60×103
70×103
785×103
30×103 ~
180×103
2
15×10
80×102
6×102
1×102
7×102
8×102
9×102
18×102
1×102 ~
80×102
F. coliform
2
5×10
35×102
4×102
1×102
3×102
12×102
26×102
12.3×102
1×102 ~
35×102
<1
30×103
11×103
2×103
4×103
6×103
4×103
8.14×103
Salmonella
spp.
<1
<1
<1
60
10
<1
<1
10
Shigella
spp.
<1
200
400
10
190
260
<1
151.5
<1 ~ 30×103
<1 ~ 60
<1 ~ 400
F. streptococci
E. coli
P. aeruginosa
<1
<1
20
10
20
40
30
17.14
<1
30
40
10
10
30
50
24.3
<1 ~ 40
<1 ~ 50
Table 5: Microbiological characterization of (CFU) River Nile water at hot season for 100 ml sample.
CFU: Colony forming unit
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
6
Site
Tima
Tahta
Sakolta
Sohag
Akmim
Girgra
Dar7
Elsalam
Average
Range
30 ×10
60 ×102
19 ×102
60 ×102
50 ×102
65 ×102
43 ×102
4×10
3×102
2×102
3×102
2×102
3×102
2×102
<1
1×102
<1
2×102
1×102
2×102
1×102
F.
Streptococci
6×102
4×102
<1.1
4×103
3×103
6×103
4×103
46.7 ×102
19 ×102 ~
65 ×102
2.7×102
2×102 ~
4×102
1×102
<1 ~ 2×102
2.57×103
<1.1 ~ 6×103
TBC
T. coliform
2
2
F. coliform
Salmonella
spp.
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
Shigella spp.
E. coli
Pseudo
30
10
<1
2.6×102
<1
<1
<1
<1
20
<1
1.8×102
<1
<1
<1
<1
25
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
37.7
<1 ~ 2.6×102
28.6
<1 ~ 1.8×102
3.57
<1 ~ 25
Table 6: Microbiological characters for River Nile water at cold season for 100 ml sample.
51
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:
Bacteriological examination of River Nile
water:
The results of bacteriological examination
of collected samples from different sites
along different regions of River Nile are
shown in tables 5-6. The bacteriological
examination including the total bacterial
counts (TBC), total coliform (T. coliform),
Faecal coliform (F. coliform), Faecal
streptococci (F. streptococci), Pseudomonas
aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa), Salmonella spp.,
Shigella spp. and E. coli
TBC (cfu/ml) was fluctuated between
3×102 (cfu/ml) at Tima and 18×102 (cfu/ml)
at Sakolta during hot season, while it was
ranged between 19 (cfu/ml) at Sakolta to 65
(cfu/ml) at Girga during cold season. T.
coliforms in hot season was ranged between
1×102 (cfu/100 ml) at Sohag site and 80×102
(cfu/100 ml) at Tahta, while it was ranged
between 2×102 (cfu/100ml) at Dar-Elsalam
to 4×102 (cfu/100 ml) at Tima during cold
season.
coliforms in hot season was ranged from
1×102 (cfu/100 ml) in Sohag area to 35×102
(cfu/ml) at Tahta but it was undetectable at
Tima and Sakolta whereas it was 2×102
(cfu/100 ml) at Girga and Sohag during cold
season. F. streptococci was undetectable at
Tima while it was ranged from 2×103
(MPN/100 ml) in Sohag to 30×103
(MPN/100 ml) at Tahta during hot season.
Also, it was undetectable at Sakolta, while it
was fluctuated from 4×103 (MPN/100 ml) to
6×103 (MPN/100 ml) at Tima.
Salmonella spp. count was 10 (cfu/ml) at
Akhmim and 60 (cfu/ml) at Sohag but it was
undetectable at other sites during hot season,
while it was undetectable in all sites during
cold season. Shigella spp. counts (cfu/ml)
were undetectable at Tima, Dar-Elsalam but
it was ranged from 10 (cfu/ml) in Sohag to
4×102 (cfu/ml) at Sakolta during hot season,
meanwhile it was detectable as (10, 30 and
2.6×102) at Tima, Thata and Sohag,
respectively. But it was undetectable at other
sites during cold season. E. coli was ranged
from 10 (cfu/ml) at Sohag to 40 (cfu/ml)
Girga, but it was undetectable at Tima, Tahta
during hot season, while it was detected only
in Tahta and Sohag (20, 1.8×102),
respectively during cold season. P.
aeruginose was undetectable at Tima but it
was fluctuated between 10 (cfu/ml) in Sohag
-
and Akhmim to 50 (cfu/ml) at Dar-Elsalam
during hot season, while it was detectable
only in Tahta (25 cfu/ml) during cold season.
Discussion:
The quality of drinking water has been
decreased during this century due to
discharging of wastewater into water
resources as well as environmental
pollutants. The major global health problems,
cross adaption of microbial population to
structurally related chemicals, may play an
important role in the practical development
and application of bioremediation techniques
(Liu and Jones, 1995). The present study
was planned to monitor the quality of water
consumed by the urban and rural population
of Sohag governorate for drinking water
purposes and the impact of the water
qualityon their health. The population
constitutes mostly of the low- income class
which cannot afford bottled water from
markets. Also, treated water is not present in
all hospitals where patients have already
suppressed or compromised immune systems.
All the schools and universities do not have
treated water. The authorities are very much
concerned both about the quality and the
quantity of water as they are supplying with
reference laboratories belonging to the
ministry of health and population. Due to
shortage of treated water government has
installed a large number of tube wells.
However it is a fact that there is no guidance
from government side for these installation
(i.e.. depth of digging, strata penetration,
lining and other material) so during our
studies we could detect Shigella spp, Faecal
coliform, total coliform, E. coli and Faecal
streptococci that are indicators for water
contamination. Abo-Amer et al. (2008)
reported that some groundwater stations
were polluted with coliform group and
pathogenic strains.
Significant correlations between the
physicochemical parameters and microbial
characteristics of River Nile water are
summarized in table (7) as well as in figures
1 and 2. Decrease or increase the Nile water
Temperature depends mainly on the climatic
conditions, sampling times, and the number
of sunshine hours as well as it is also
affected by characteristics of water
environment such as turbidity, wind force,
plant cover and humidity (Mahmoud, 2002).
52
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:
Air and water temperature showed positive
correlation during hot and cold season.
Recorded temperature at different spots at
Sohag governorate showed a positive
correlation with the measured microbial
pathogenic species (total bacterial count,
total coliform, Faecal coliform, Faecal
streptococci, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp.
and
pseudomonas
aeruginosa).
The
Control
variables
T 0C
PH
TDS
DO
SO4-2
NO3NH3
HCO3TBC
T. coliform
F. coliform
F. streptococci
Salmonellaspp.
Shigella spp.
E. coli
pseudo
T 0C
pH
1.000
-0.718
0.874
-0.983
-0.081
0.633
0.516
0.036
0.722
0.716
0.364
0.567
0.252
0.400
-0.122
0.643
1.000
-0.825
0.711
-0.326
-0.322
-0.268
0.118
-0.236
-0.487
-0.034
-0.494
-0.502
0.092
0.011
-0.394
TDS DO
1.000
-0.870
0.288
0.293
0.540
0.056
0.594
0.565
0.179
0.535
0.304
0.294
-0.066
0.674
1.000
0.031
-0.671
-0.459
0.010
-0.727
-0.663
-0.373
-0.526
-0.326
-0.431
0.094
-0.621
-
correlation coefficients (r) between these
microbial species and the temperature (see
table 7), were found to be 0.72, 0.71, 0.36,
0.56, 0.25, 0.4 and 0.64, respectively. This
indicates strong effect of water temperature
on bacterial growth. These results are in
accordance with previous reported findings
(Sabae et al., 2006).
SO42- NO3- NH3 HCO3- TBC T. coliform
1.000
-0.441
-0.013
0.292
-0.179
-0.299
-0.310
-0.103
.408
-0.371
-0.209
-0.012
1.000
0.025
-0.413
0.566
0.422
0.433
0.205
0.327
0.514
0.151
0.117
1.000
0.436
0.470
0.642
0.154
0.430
-0.412
0.314
-0.144
0.581
1.000
-0.023
0.150
-0.031
0.147
-0.352
-0.154
-0.319
0.258
1.000
0.400
0.420
0.328
-0.001
0.734
-0.047
0.672
1.000
0.198
0.493
-0.291
0.184
-0.088
0.349
F. coliform F. streptococci
1.000
0.760
-0.134
0.479
-0.065
0.425
1.000
-0.168
0.201
-0.051
0.671
Salmonella Shigella E. coli Pseudo
spp.
spp.
1.000
-0.152 1.000
-0.081 0.459 1.000
-0.075 0.422 -0.015
Table 7: The correlation coefficients between pathogenic bacteria and other water quality ingredients in studied
River Nile water.
On the other hand, correlation analysis
showed that water temperature recorded a
high negative correlation with DO and pH
(r= -0.98 and -0.72), respectively while
positive correlation was calculated with
NO3- , NH3, HCO3- and TDS (r=0.63, 0.52,
0.04 and 0.87), respectively. It is observable
that DO concentration is inversely
proportionated with water temperature.
Similar results were obtained by Sharma et
al. (2008) who found that temperature has
negative correlation with DO (~ r= -0.9) and
positive correlation with nitrate in Narmado
River, India.
pH value has an effect on the biological,
chemical reactions, as well as it controls the
metal ion solubility and thus it affects the
natural aquatic life. More specifically, it was
reported that desirable pH for fresh- water is
in the ranges of 6.5-9 and is 6.5-8.5 for
aquatic life. Moreover pH could control the
pathogenic
microorganism
growth
(Zamaxaka et al., 2004). The pH range for
Nile water at Sohag governorate showed that
pH ranged towards the alkaline side during
cold season. The obtained results indicated
that pH values of Nile water were slightly
fluctuated at most stations during hot and
cold season. Our results were in accordant
with Toufeek and Korium (2009).
Conductivity measurements indicate the
presence of dissolved salts and electrolytic
contaminants, but it gives no information
about specific ion compositions. Previous
studies concluded that water taste is
objectionable at highest conductivity, while
taste is satisfactory at low conductivity
(Adekunle et al., 2007).
EC for Nile water was variable and it was
somewhat high from Dar-Elsalam to Sohag
due to the solutions of most inorganic
compounds and more abundant ions resulted
from agricultural drainage which has high
conductivity (APHA, 1995). EC should be
less than 700 µs/cm as adopted from Ayers
and Westcott (1985). Our results are in
accordance with Sabae et al. (2006).
TDS may be organic or inorganic in
nature and many are undesirable in water
and produce displeasing color, tastes and
odors and may also exert osmotic pressure
that affect aquatic life or become
carcinogenic
especially
halogenated
compounds. TDS concentrations for Nile
water samples were almost within the
permissible limits during hot and cold
season. High concentrations of TDS
decrease the palatability of water and may
also cause gastro-intestinal irritation in
humans and laxative effects particularly
53
1.000
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:
upon transits (WHO, 1997) TDS should be
less than 450 mg/l. There was a strong
positive correlation between TDS and EC in
addition to turbidity values which revealed
positively strong correlation to each other
(r= +0.99), so our results were in accordance
with Toufeek and Korium (2009).
Water turbidity is caused by suspended
matter such as clay, silt, and divided organic
and inorganic matters, planktons and water
microscopic organism. The purity of the
natural body of water is a major determinant
of the condition and productivity of the
sustain (APHA, 1998). The turbidity degree
of the stream water is an approximate
measure of the intensity of the pollution
(Siliem, 1995). High turbidity indicates the
presence of organic suspended material,
which
promotes
the
growth
of
microorganism (Momba et al., 2006). River
Nile water turbidity values were slightly
high during cold season. Abdo et al. (1998)
had reported that the transparency lower
values were recorded during hot season may
be due to the flourishing of phytoplankton
while the values were recorded during cold
season were somewhat high due to the
decrease in water level during drought
period.
The Water DO is an indicator of water
quality. DO concentration of unpolluted
water is normally about 8-10 ppm at 25±2°C.
DO is very important factor for the aquatic
organisms, because they affect their
biological process. For the oxidation of the
organic matters and the sediments, the
complex organic substances are converted to
simple dissolved inorganic salts which could
be utilized by the micro and macrophyte
(Okbah and Tayel, 1999). DO concentration
was found to be higher in the cold season
comparing with the hot season (Anon, 2007).
WHO suggested that the standard of DO is
not less than 5 mgO2/l. DO values during
hot and cold season showed negative
correlation with NO3-, NH3, total bacterial
count, total coliform, Faecal coliform,
Faecal streptococci, Salmonella spp.,
Shigella spp. and pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Quantitatively
the
DO
correlations
coefficients with other physicochemical and
microbiological parameters were (r= -0.67, 0.45, -0.72, -0.66, -0.37, -0.32-0.43 and 0.62, respectively). DO had strong effect on
the bacterial growth especially during the
-
cold season, also DO has shown strong
negative correlation with water temperature
of Nile water (r= -0.97), (Abdel-Satar, 2005).
The average values of major cations that
include Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ during hot
and cold seasons showed that Na+ and K+
ion concentrations were at permissible limit
guidelines according to (WHO, 2006). The
lower concentration of K+ compared with
Na+ in Nile water might be due to the high
mobility of Na+ ions and dominates in the
natural solutions (Ramanathan et al., 1994).
Temporary hardness is resulted from
bicarbonates and carbonates of Ca2+ and
Mg2+, while permanent hardness (or noncarbonate hardness) is resulted from nitrates,
sulphates and chlorides of Ca2+ and Mg2+.
The former can be removed by simple
boiling, however boiling cannot remove the
latter Water with total dissolved salts (TDS)
values exceeding 120 mg/L are considered
hard, more than 180 mg/l are very hard
(McGowan, 2000) and waters with TDS
values less than 60 mg/L are considered soft
hardness. Calculated Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions
concentrations during hot and cold season
showed low variation and were at
permissible limit guidelines as 75 ppm, and
50 mg/l respectively, according to (WHO,
2006). These results agree with previous
finding obtained by Ramkumar et al. (2010).
The average concentration of Cl ions in the
Nile River water was 20.0±3.0 ppm. This
value is in accordance with WHO (2006).
The recorded SO42- concentrations are
slightly fluctuated at most station during hot
and cold season. Statistical analysis showed
that the SO42- concentration correlates with
DO, TDS, HCO3- and Salmonella spp. by r=
0.03, 0.28, 0.29 and 0.41, respectively while
it has negative correlation with TBC, total
coliform, sS, pseudomonas aeruginosa and
E. coli. by r = -0.18, -0.30, -0.37, -0.21 and 0.012, respectively. The increasing in its
concentration at all stations in Nile water is
due to death and decomposition of aquatic
microorganisms then oxidation of liberated
sulpher into sulphate in presence of high DO
concentration especially during drought
period at cold season. All results were at the
permissible limit guidelines according to
WHO (2006) and in accordance with Abdo
(1998) and El-Haded (2005).
Nitrate ions represent the highest oxidized
form of nitrogen. The presence of nitrate
54
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:
ions indicates that water was polluted with
old faecal pollution but does not represent
an immediate threat (Papa, 2001). High
nitrate concentration in water is dangerous
to pregnant women and possesses a serious
threat to infants younger than three to six
months old, because of its ability to cause
methaemoglobinaemia
or
blue-baby
syndrome, in which blood loses its ability to
carry sufficient oxygen (Burkart and Kolpin,
1993). All results were at the permissible
limit guidelines (less than 45 mg/l)
according to WHO (2006). Nitrate ions in
Nile water were increased at all stations
during hot season and it had positive
correlation with water temperature, TDS,
NH3, TBC and total coliform, Faecal
coliform, Faecal streptococci, Salmonella
spp, Shigella spp, E. coli and pseudomonas
aeruginosa where r = 0.63, 0.30, 0.03, 0.57,
0.42, 0.43, 0.21, 0.33, 0.52, 0.15 and 0.12,
respectively. But it had negative correlation
with pH, DO, SO4-2, HCO3- where r = 0.32, -0.67, -0.44 and -0.41, respectively.
High nitrate levels are often accompanied by
bacterial contamination. Our results were in
accordance with Abdo (1998) and Sabae et
al. (2006).
The increase in NO2- during hot season
due to the decomposition of organic matter
and presence of nitrozomonas bacteria that
oxidize ammonia to nitrite (NO2-). Our
results were in accordance with Rabeh
(2001).
The presence of ammonia in drinking
water is considered as an indicator of recent
faecal pollution from sewage. Ammonia
may result from fertilizers that are present in
soil and it is relatively easily oxidized to
nitrite and finally to nitrate (Karavoltsos et
al., 2008) and it possesses a serious threat to
public health. The average values of
ammonia concentrations during hot and cold
season revealed that the average value was
0.15 ppm. The high temperature accelerates
the reduction rate of nitrate into ammonia
also, ammonia in Nile water had positive
correlation with temperature, NO3-, TBC,
total coliform, Faecal coliform, Faecal
streptococci, Shigella spp and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa by r= 0.52, 0.03, 0.47, 0.64, 0.16,
0.43, 0.31 and 0.58, respectively and it had a
negative correlation with other parameters.
According to WHO (2006) NH4+ results
-
were at permissible limit guidelines (Not
exceed 0.5 mg/l).
carbonate (CO32-) ions concentration were
undetectable in Nile water due to the
composition of water as (Na-HCO3) or may
be due to the flourishing of phytoplankton
during hot season that consuming carbonate
ions (Abdo, 1998). The increase in the
bicarbonate concentration in hot season may
be due to the increase in water temperature
that accelerates the decomposition of
organic matter by bacteria. HCO3- is the
final product of this base (Abdo, 2002). The
HCO3- values showed positive correlation
with total coliform, Faecal streptococci and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa r= 0.15, 0.15 and
0.20, respectively. The amount of HCO3- in
water plays an important role in
bacteriological assessment for water quality.
Heterotrophic plate count bacteria (HPC)
are commonly used to assess the general
microbiological quality of water. Drinking
water quality specifications world-wide
recommend HPC limits from 100 to 500
(cfu/ml), (WHO, 2001). The distribution and
seasonal variations of the total bacterial
counts during hot season total bacterial
count was ranged from 3× 104 to 18× 104
(cfu/100 ml), while at cold season total
bacterial count was ranged from 19×102
(cfu/100 ml) to 65×102 (cfu/100 ml).The
maximum bacterial counts were detected
during the hot season, reflecting the effect of
high content of organic matter due to
flourishing
of
phytoplankton
which
increased active multiplication of the
bacteria. Our results were in accordant with
Sabae et al. (2008). It is obvious from table
(7) TBC in Nile water had strong positive
correlation with temperature, TDS, NO3-,
NH3, Shigella spp and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa by r= 0.72, 0.60, 0.57, 0.47, 0.73
and 0.67, respectively. Our results were in
agreement with the results of Sabae and
Rabeh (2006).
The coliform bacteria in water are
considered as indicators of bacterial
pollution of human or animal feces.
Drinking water is not a natural environment
for coliform bacteria, their presence in water
indicates microbial pollution (Rompré et al.,
2002). Total coliforms were ranged from
1×102 to 80× 102 (cfu/ 100ml) during hot
season and cold season the total coliforms
were ranged from 2×102 to 4×102 (cfu/100
55
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:
ml). The high counts of total coliform might
be due to pollution by industrial activities
discharging their wastes to the Nile water
between Aswan and Cairo (Saleh, 2009). All
results of Nile water were higher than the
permissible limit guidelines (TC should not
exceed 5000 cfu/100 ml) according to
Tebbutt (1998). Our results agree with
Sabae and Rabeh (2006).
Fecal coliform is a portion of the coliform
bacteria group originating in the intestinal
tract of warm-blooded animals that pass into
the environment as feces. Fecal coliform
often is used as an indicator of the
bacteriological safety of a domestic water
supply. Faecal coliform count for Nile water
was ranged from 1×102 to 35× 102 (cfu/100
ml) during hot and cold seasons, the
discharge of human and animal wastes in
Nile water. Total and Faecal coliforms had
strong positive correlation with temperature
of r= 0.72 and 0.36, respectively. Our results
were in accordance with Abo-Amer et al.
(2008) who reported that untreated water
samples were slightly contaminated by
faecal coliforms. Shash et al. (2010) found
that total and fecal coliforms were detected
in Nile water.
Faecal streptococci are associated with
fecal material from human and other warmblooded animals and their presence in water
indicates the potential incidence of enteric
pathogens that could cause illness in
exposed individuals (Dufour, 1984). Any
bacterial cell of fecal indicator were found
in drinking water, considered to be
contaminated
with
feces,
therefore
unsuitable for drinking purposes according
to WHO guide line for drinking water
(WHO, 2003).
Faecal streptococci count ranged from
<1.1 to 30× 103 (cfu/100 ml) during hot
season, while at cold season they were
ranged from <1.1 (cfu/ml) to 6×103 (cfu/
100 ml). high amount of Faecal streptococci
was found at Tahta area during hot season
due to the high temperature also the
discharge of human and animal wastes in the
river Nile. The presence of fecal
streptococci and absence of fecal coliform in
same water samples, mainly attributed to
bacterial tolerant to environmental condition
(WHO, 2006) described streptococci
organism as rarely multiply in water, but
they live longer in water than the coliform,
-
and more resistant to heat, Alkali and salts
(Shekha, 2008). Our results are agreed with
Sabae and Rabeh (2007). TBC, TC, FC and
FS respectively, showed that the high counts
of bacterial indicators were detected in the
hot season which might be attributed to high
temperature and the discharge of waste
water in the River Nile water during this
season.
Salmonella is considered as one of the
primary bacterial foodborne pathogens to
humans and it is commonly presented in raw
water (Little et al., 2007). Low level of
contamination of water rarely leads to
disease developing because between 105 and
107 organisms have to be ingested before
development. Salmonella pratyphi was
recorded in surface waters all over the
British Isles (Gray, 1994, 2008). Salmonella
spp were detected only during hot season at
Sohag station and they was ranged from 10
to 60 (cfu/100 ml) indicating that Nile water
may be contaminated with feces or wastes
belonging to human and animal activities.
Salmonella was found only in those samples
which were positive for coliforms.
Salmonella spp had positive correlation with
temperature, SO42- and NO3- (r= 0.25, 0.30
and 0.41), respectively. Similar findings
were reported by Bhatta et al. (2007).
Shigella spp. is usually acquired by
drinking water contaminated with feces or
by eating food washed with contaminated
water. Elimination of the contamination
caused by fecal matter is the most important
parameter of water quality. Human faecal
matter is generally considered a greater risk
to human health as it contains human enteric
pathogens that are causal agents of diarrhea
(Scott et al., 2008). Although Shigella
causes food-borne diseases, shigellosis
outbreaks resulted from consumption of
contaminated water especially in developing
countries with inadequate sanitation
facilities. Total count for shigella spp was
ranged from <1 to 4×102 (cfu/100 ml)
during hot season while at cold season the
total count for shigella spp was ranged from
<1 to 2.6×102 (cfu/100 ml). The high
amount of shigella was detected at Sohag
station due to discharging of wastes and
animal feces in this area. The presence of
Shigella spp. (60%) of all the samples
during hot season and 30% in cold season
might be due to unsanitary environmental
56
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:
condition
and
secondary
faecal
contamination from an intermediary sources
and this is in accordance with Ihejirika et al.
(2011). Shigella spp had positive correlation
with temperature, NO3-, NH3, TBC, TC, E.
coli and Pseudomonas aerugoinosa (r= 0.40,
0.51, 0.73, 0.18, 0.46 and 0.42). Our results
were in agreement with the report of Emch
et al. (2011). Also, it was supported by the
previous reported works of Ihejirika et al.
(2011).
Thermotolerant
coliforms
were
represented by E. coli as indicator of fecal
contamination of drinking water (WHO,
2001). The presence of E. coli in water is a
common indicator of faecal contaminations
of water bodies. Some E. coli strains live as
harmless commensals in animal intestines. E.
coli is a widely used indicator of fecal
contamination in External contact and
subsequent ingestion of bacteria from fecal
contamination can cause detrimental health
effects (Money et al., 2009). Total count for
E. coli was ranged from <1 to 40 (cfu/100
ml) during hot season while at cold season
the total count for E. coli was ranged from
<1 to 1.8×102 (cfu/100 ml). Presence of E.
coli (66.6%) of all the samples during hot
season and 22.6% in cold season might be
due to unsanitary condition of the
environment and discharging of animal
feces in Nile water during hot season. Our
results were in accordant with Ihejirika et al.
(2011).
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common
bacterium has very simple nutritional
requirements which can cause disease in
animals and humans (Todar, 2004). P.
aeruginosa can be found in feces, soil, water,
sewage and it can multiply in water
environments also, it can be waterbornedisease,
(Bartram
et
al.,
2003).
Pseudomonas aeruginosa can cause a range
of infections but rarely lead to serious illness
in healthy individuals without some
predisposing factor. It can damage sites such
as burn and surgical wounds, thus it is an
opportunistic pathogen in humans and a
major cause of nosocomial infection
(Römling et al., 1994). Total count for P.
aeruginosa was ranged from <1 to 50
(cfu/100 ml) during hot season while at cold
season the total count for P. aeruginosa was
detected in Tahta station as 25 (cfu/100 ml).
The presence of P. aeruginosa (66.6%) of
-
all the samples during hot season and
7.69 % in cold season might be due to
unsanitary
condition
and
fecal
contamination resulted from human and
animal activities. Our results were in
agreement with Purohit et al. (2003).
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Toze. S. (1999) PCR and the detection of
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3545-3556.
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In:
Environmental
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Fewtrell, J. Bartram), WHO Water
Series, IWA Publishing, London, UK
WHO, (2003). Ammonia in drinking-water.
Background document for preparation
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Organization
(WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/1).
WHO, (2006). Guidelines for safe
recreational water environments,
Volume 2: Swimming pools, spas and
similar recreational environments.
Geneva.
WHO, (1997). Guideline for Drinking Water
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criteria and other supporting.
Yehia, H. and Sabae, S. (2011). Microbial
Pollution of Water in El-Salam Canal,
Egypt. American-Eurasian Journal of
Agricultural
&
Environmental
Science, 11 (2): 305-309.
Young. P. (1996). Safe drinking water- A
call for global action. ASM Naws.
62.394-352.
Zamxaka, M., Pironcheva, G. and Muyima
NYO. (2004). Microbiological and
physico-chemical assessment of the
quality of domestic water sources in
selected rural communities of the
Eastern Cape Province, South Africa.
60
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* Corresponding author:
Dr. Hanan Haqe
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67
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:
Barth, E.F. & Etting, M.B. “Mineral
controlled phosphorus removal in the
Activated sludge processes “Journals
water pollution control federation
“39,8,1362(1976).
Gersbery, R.M., lyon, S.R., Brenner,
(1988). "performance of Clay-Alum
Flocculation (CCBA) process for
Virus Removal From Municipal
wastewater ". Journal of Water
Research, Vol. 22, No. 11, P. 1449
Georgantas, D., Grigoropoulou, H.P.,
(2006). Phosphorus and organic
matter removal from synthetic waster
using alum and aluminum hydroxide.
Global NEST J., 8 (2), 121-130.
AWWA; WPCF (1998). "Standard
methods for the examination of water
and wastewater", 20th ed., Am. Public
Healthy Assoc. Washington, D.C.,
USA
Plaza, E., Levlin, E., Hultman, B., (1997).
Phosphorus removal from wastewatera literature review. Division of Water
Resources Engineering, Department
of
Civil
and
Environmental
Engineering, Royal Institute of
Technology, Stockholm
De Hass, D.W., Wentzel, M.C., Ekama,
G.A.
(2000).
The
use
of
simultaneous chemical precipitation in
modified activated sludge systems
exhibiting biological excess phosphate
removal Part 1: Literature review.
Water S.A., 26(4), 439-452.
Lujubinko, L., Julianna, G., Mirjana, D.,
Tatjana, K. (2004). Optimization of
pH value and aluminium sulphate
quantityin the chemical treatment of
molasses. Eur. Food Res. Tech, 220,
70-73.
Juker, P. &Hatch, M. "Impact of chemical
addition
in
water/wastewater
treatment on TDS concentration and
sludge generation, JWW, (27), No (8),
(2007).
Daigger, G.T. and Roper, R.E., Jr. (1985).
The Relationship between SVI and
Activated
Sludge
Settling
Characteristics, J. Water Pollut.
Control Fed., 57, 859.
-
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Metcalf & Eddy, Ins, "Wastewater
engineering
treatment
disposal
McGraw-Hill, Inc, New York. and
reuse", Fourth Edition. (2003). pp477521.
David, R. & EPA region “Advanced
wastewater treatment to Achieve low
concentration
of
phosphorus
“Environmental protection agency,
United state, Alaska, April (2007).
Wang, Y., Han, T., Xu Bao, G., Tan, Z.
(2005). Optimization of phosphorus
removal from secondary effluent
using simplex method in Tianjin,
China. J. Hazard. Mater, 21, 183-186.
Mahmut, O., Ayhan, S., Effect of tannins
on phosphate removal using alum.
Turkish J. Eng. Environ. Sci., 27, 227236. (2003).
68
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10:
-
Effect of Alum Addition on the Biological Removal Efficiency and
phosphates Removal
Zena Fakhri, Hanan Haqe
Env.research center
Env Eng.Dept
Abstract
The study aims to focus on the problem of excess nutrients in the discharges of treatment
depends on the use of alum, or so called aluminum sulfate water. (Al218 (SO4) 3.), one of the
materials used in the coagulation in the removal of phosphates and from the wastewater and
by adding alum directly to the aeration tank through biological treatment process-based on
continuous flow Activated sludge with different dose (150, 200, 250 mg / L). A comparisons
Has been drawn between two basin to find the efficiency of removal the first without adding
alum and the second was adding Alum at different Dose. The results showed the efficiency of
alum in improving the removal of phosphate significantly since arrived removal efficiency to
98% at doses of 250 mg / L and improving the properties of sedimentation .and its not
affected widely on the efficiency removal of the BOD. As the pH values decreased gradually
but did not affect the efficiency of removal in the basin of the treatment. Changing has been
happened on the properties of the sludge in the basin as sludge change color to White and
Milk after adding alum. The study proved the possibility of using alum in the treatment to
improve the properties of discharges.
Key words: aluminum, nutrients, Activated sludge, phosphates biological treatment
69
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 71-77
Original Paper
Effect of baffles geometry of the flocculation basin on the turbulence
behavior using Comsol multiphysics technique
Ali Salim Joodi
Al_ Mustansiriya University, Collage of Engineering, Environmental Eng.
Rec. 6 Aug, 2012 Accpt. 1 Oct, 2012
Abstract
The purpose of flocculation basin is to accelerate the pace at which the particles collide,
causing the agglomeration of electrolytically destabilized particles into settable and filterable
sizes. One of the most important factors that influence the particles collision in a baffled
hydraulic flocculator is the geometry of baffles. In this work, two dimensional mathematical
model was established by COMSOL Multiphysics technique to investigate the influence of
baffles geometry on the behavior of turbulence in hydraulic flocculator and consequently on
the rate of collision of particles. K- turbulent model will be used to determine the variation
of the velocity filed and turbulent kinetic energy (k) along the baffled flocculation basin. The
increasing in the baffle length causes an increase in the turbulence structure along the basin.
Decrease of the turbulence kinetic energy was observed with increase in the baffle thickness.
The model was very sensitive to the baffle tip shape, when the tip shape is semi circle more
turbulence is produced along the basin as that when the tip shape is rectangular. The model is
sensitive to the baffle number, but it is not sensitive to the location of water inlet. Any
variation on the value of inlet water velocity has a great influence on the turbulence structure
of the water transporting the particles.
Key words: Hydraulic flocculator, turbulence kinetic energy, baffles geometry, COMSOL
multiphysics.
Introduction
In a water treatment plant, the purpose of
flocculation basin is to accelerate the pace at
which the particles collide, causing the
agglomeration of electrolytically destabilized
particles into settable and filterable sizes.
The hydraulic flocculator has many
advantages such as low operating cost,
simple operation and maintenance, common
use
and
well-established
design
methodology. Typical arrangements for
hydraulic flocculators are paddle wheels on
horizontal shafts, while at least three
consecutive compartments are required to
minimize short circuiting. Though the
compartments are separated by perforated
baffle, the flow of the flocculation basin is a
non-uniform flow (Cho, Y. et al., 2010). The
efficiency of the basin is affected by the inlet
energy, turbidity, water temperature and
weather conditions. The inlet kinetic energy
is the most important factor among the
influence items because it is an indicator to
the turbulent in the basin and consequently
an indicator to the collision rate between
particles
(McConnachie,
G.L.
1993;
Haarhoff, J. 1998; Haarhoff, J and van der
Walt, J. 2001). However, the inlet kinetic
energy is affected by the shape and
composition of baffle wall in the hydraulic
flocculation basin (McConnachie, G.L.
1991). The study on the geometry of the
hydraulic flocculation basin and flow
conditions in the basin is very important to
facilitate an inducement of uniformity in the
flocculation basin and to achieve an
improvement in the efficiency of the basin.
Hydraulic flocculation geometry includes the
number and spacing of baffles, the length
of the gap at the baffle ends, and the
degree to which adjoining baffles overlap.
In an earlier, paper (Arboleda-Valencia, J.
1986; Haarhoff, J. 1998). these variables
were systematically reduced to a number of
critical ratios, and a comprehensive
mathematical framework was presented
whereby hydraulic flocculators can be
designed once these ratios are fixed.
(Haarhoff. J and van der Walt, J. 2001).
investigated these variables by computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) software. They found
that these variables affect on the turbulent
* Corresponding author:
Dr. Ali Salim Joodi
ali.joodi@orleans-univ.fr
19
71
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 71-77
kinetic energy and consequently on the
velocity gradient in the basin.
The first objective of the present work is to
demonstrate that COMSOL Multiphysics
technique is capable to simulate the flow
behavior in a hydraulic flocculator
realistically. In this sens, two dimensional
mathematical model will be established. Kturbulent model will be used to determine the
variation the velocity filed, turbulent kinetic
energy (k), and dissipation rate of turbulent
kinetic energy ( ) along the baffled
flocculation basin. The second aim of this
paper is to exploit the mathematical model to
predict the effect of the geometry of the
hydraulic flocculation basin and flow
conditions on the variation of turbulent
kinetic energy and consequently on the rate
of collision between particles.
Mathematical formulation:
To describe water flow behavior in a
hydraulic flocculation basin, coupling
between continuity equation and Kturbulent model is utilized (Bhargava. D.S.
and Ojha. C.S.P. 1993; McConnachie. G.L.
et al., 1999; McConnachie. G.L., Liu, J.,
2000). These equations can be written as:
(1)
(2)
Where denotes the water density (kg/m3),
U represents the average water velocity
(m/s), is the dynamic viscosity (kg/(m·s)),
P is the pressure (Pa), k refers to the
turbulence kinetic energy (m2/s2),
is the
dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy
and
are model constants.
(m2/s3), and
The turbulence kinetic energy is found by
solving:
(3)
In addition the dissipation rate of turbulent
kinetic energy by solving:
(4)
Other researchers calculated the constants of
the above equations in practically as shown
in table (1).
Constant
0.09 1.44 1.92 1.0 1.3
Value
Table (1): Model constants (Haarhoff. J and van
der Walt. J, 2001; Cho. Y. et al., 2010).
Geometry of flocculation basin and
boundary conditions:
The hydraulic flocculation basin is a
rectangular in the present work with six
baffles, as shown in fig (1). Three baffles for
each side of the wall. Six variables are
required to define in hydraulic flocculator.
L′ : Basin length
W: Basin width
L: Length of the baffle.
T: Baffle thickness.
S: Slot width (distance between the baffle tip
and the wall).
N: Baffle number.
The flocculator layout geometry is shown in
figure (1).
Water inlet
L
W
S
T
Water outlet
L′
Fig (1): The geometry of baffled flocculation
basin
In the present work, K- turbulent model
was used to determine the variation in local
the velocity filed, turbulent kinetic energy
(k) and dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic
energy ( ). K- turbulent model has been
applied for computational fluid dynamic
(CFD) simulation of water treatment flow
(Bhargava. D.S and Ojha. C.S.P. 1993;
McConnachie.
G.L
et
al.,
1999;
McConnachie. G.L., Liu, J., 2000). An
immediate benefit of the realizable Kturbulent model is that it more accurately
predicts the spreading rate of both planar
and round jets. It is also likely to provide
superior performance for flows involving
rotation, boundary layers under strong
adverse pressure gradients, separation, and
recirculation (Van der Walt, 1998; Otto, H.
1998; Cho, Y. 2010). The assumptions used
for solving the equations included: (1)
steady state operation; (2) turbulent flow
regime (Realizable K- turbulent model)
and (3) Non-slip boundary conditions at
wall surfaces and baffles (Cho, Y. 2010).
The boundary conditions of the inlet and
outlet of the basin were selected as the
value of the velocity in the inlet location
and zero pressure at the outlet location. The
model area is divided into the triangles
72
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 71-77
Results of CFD
Results COMSOL Multiphysics
a
b
Velocity distribution
c
Velocity distribution
d
Turbulent kinetic energy
Turbulent kinetic energy
Width (m)
plane mesh. The number of mesh is
increased at the tip of baffle to increase the
accuracy around baffles, as shown in fig
(2). The total number of elements and nodes
are 3506 and 1978, respectively. The
mathematical model is solved using the
commercial
COMSOL
Multiphysics
software.
Fig (3): Comparison between the velocity
distribution and turbulent kinetic energy from
CFD and COMSOL Multiphysics softwares.
Length (m)
Fig (2): Triangles plane mesh layout in hydraulic
flocculator.
Comparison between the results of CFD
modeling and COMSOL Multiphysics:
One of the objectives of this research is to
demonstrate that COMSOL Multiphysics
technique is capable to simulate the flow
behavior in a hydraulic flocculator
realistically. In this sens, a comparison
between the results obtained by Haarhoff, J.
and van der Walt, J. 2001 and the results of
COMSOL Multiphysics is taken into
account. Their model is based on
computational fluid dynamic (CFD)
software. To provide this comparison, same
parameters values were used in this work.
Figure (3) shows a comparison between
simulated results by CFD software and
COMSOL Multiphysics.
parameter
Basin length
value
10.2m
From fig (3a and 3b), it can be found that
the maximum velocities simulated by CFD
analysis and COMSOL Multiphysics are 0.5
and 0.8 m/s, respectively. From fig (3c and
3d), it can be found that the maximum
turbulent kinetic energy simulated by CFD
analysis and COMSOL Multiphysics are
0.03 and 0.08 m2/s2, respectively. Note that
although the result in fig (3) reflects different
color, the color scales are similar. These
results indicate that COMSOL Multiphysics
provides a realistic approximation of the
actual flow pattern.
Results and discussion:
In this research, COMSOL Multiphysics
was shown to have powerful potential for the
analysis of hydraulic flocculators. Data
shown in Table (2) is used to determine the
behavior of velocity distribution, turbulent
kinetic energy (k) and dissipation rate of
turbulent kinetic energy ( ).
Basin width
L
5.2m
4.45m
Table (2). Details of hydraulic flocculator.
Figure (4a) reveals that high velocities are
experienced after each baffle end. This can
be attributed to two reasons. The first is the
small distance between baffle end and the
wall of basin, and the second is the change
of direction velocities. The recirculation
zone after each baffle extends a considerable
distance beyond the end of the baffle, as
shown in figure (4b).
a
Surface: velocity field (m/s)
T
N
0.25m
6
b
Surface: velocity field (m/s)
Fig (4): Surface velocity distribution (left) and
velocity stream lines (right).
73
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 71-77
The baffles geometry is primarily
responsible for adding large-scale turbulence
to the flocculator (Haarhoff, J and van der
Walt, J. 2001). Figure (5a) shows the spatial
variation of turbulent kinetic energy that
relates to the production of turbulence. It is
clearly observed that turbulence is generated
when water is forced between the tip of the
baffle and the basin wall. Also, the
turbulence begins decreasing as the water
moves downstream along the straight
channel. Figure (5b) shows the dissipation
rate of turbulent kinetic energy that relates to
the length scale of eddies that are formed in
the turbulent flow field. It is evident that
large eddies can be expected to form at the
tip of the baffle. Large eddies will then
cascade and shed smaller eddies as the water
moves downstream along the straight
channel.
a
of baffle length and consequently decrease in
the velocities and turbulence.
At the
downstream along the channel, the amount
of turbulence disappears gradually with
decreasing in the baffle length. The collision
of particles is increased with turbulence
increase and vice versa. Then in this model,
the best results are provided when L/W =
0.86
a
b
L/W = 0.86
L/W = 0.76
c
L/W = 0.66
b
Turbulen kinetic energy (m2/s2)
Turbulen dissipation rate (m2/s3)
Fig (6): Variation of turbulent kinetic energy as a
function of baffle length.
Fig (5): Variation of turbulent kinetic energy and
dissipation rate.
Sensitivity analysis:
A sensitivity analysis was the process of
varying model parameters over a reasonable
range and observing the relative change in
model response. Typically, the observed
change in turbulent kinetic energy was
noted. Then, the objective is to provide more
turbulence to increase the potential of
collision between particles. For good
comparison between figures, we will fix the
scale of turbulent kinetic energy between
0.000001 and 0.1m2/s2.
Baffle length (L)
Figure (6) presents the behavior of
turbulent kinetic energy with different length
of the baffle. In this context, we will use the
baffle length ratio (L/W), which is define
that the ratio of the baffle length to the basin
width. Three values of ratio were selected
0.66, 0.76 and 0.86. Generally, it can be
observed that the amount of turbulence at the
end of baffle is reduced with decrease the
baffle length. This can be attributed to the
distance between the trip of baffle and the
basin wall which is increased with decrease
Thickness of baffle (T):
Effect of the baffle thickness is illustrated
in fig (7). The baffle thickness ratio ( T / L ′ )
will be applied. It is define that the ratio of
the baffle thickness to the basin length.
Three values were selected in this work
0.025, 0.05 and 0.075. Reducing the baffle
thickness causes an increase in the
turbulence around the end of baffle as a
result to the water velocities increase.
Moreover, when the baffle thickness
increases, the turbulence eddies begin
decreasing as the water moves downstream
along the straight channel and vice versa.
a
b
baffle thiskness ratio = 0.05
baffle thiskness ratio = 0.025
c
baffle thiskness ratio = 0.075
Fig (7): Variation of turbulent kinetic energy as a
function of baffle thickness.
74
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 71-77
Shape of baffle tip
In this paper, the shape of baffle tip was
investigated to show his effect on the
turbulence behavior along the hydraulic
flocculator. In this context, two tips were
investigated. The first is rectangular and the
second is semi circle, as shown in fig (8).
Tip shape parameter shows the major effect
on the variation of turbulent kinetic energy.
When the tip baffle is rectangular (fig 8a),
the water is not much forces as it is in the
case when the tip is semi circle (fig 8b), and
by consequence more turbulence around the
end of baffle in the case of semi circle tip as
that when the tip is rectangular. This is as a
result to the water velocity behavior around
the end of baffle. The velocity increases in
the case of semi circle tip as that in the case
of rectangular tip. Furthermore, the amount
of turbulence is not disappearing at the
downstream along the channel in the case of
semi circle tip. Then, from these results, it
can be said that the case of semi circle tip is
better than the other case to generate more
turbulence along the basin.
a
b
rectangular tip baffle
semi circle tip baffle
Fig (8): Variation of turbulent kinetic energy as a
function of tip baffle shape.
Baffles number:
The effect of baffles number on the turbulent
kinetic energy is presented in fig (9). The
increase in the baffles number means a
decrease in the channel width. This decrease
in the channel width prevents the large
eddies of turbulence to cascade more
downstream along the channel. The
comparison between fig (9a) and (9b) shows
that larger volumes of turbulent kinetic
energy are formed in the downstream of
channels with baffled number increase until
the limit in which the width of channel does
not allow to continue the eddies along the
channel . This can be attributed to the basin
length. Then in this model when the length is
10.2m, the best results are created when the
number of baffles is six compared with
another cases. The optimum number of
baffles is determined according to the length
of the basin. Globally, the effect of baffle
number on the behavior of turbulence in the
hydraulic flocculator is very considerable.
b
a
Baflle number=6
Baflle number=4
c
d
Baflle number=8
Baflle number=10
Fig (9): Variation of turbulent kinetic energy as a
function of baffle number.
Water flow velocity and inlet location:
Figure (10) presents the effect of the
variation of water velocity inlet on the
distribution of turbulent kinetic energy. By
the comparison between fig (10a, b and c), it
can be observed that increasing of water
velocity inlet leads to an increase in the large
scale turbulence along the basin.
Figure (11) shows the effect of inlet location
on the distribution of turbulent kinetic
energy. It can be seen that, the effect of inlet
location is not significant on the behavior of
water flow along the basin. In spite of there
are more turbulence eddies in the first
channel in the case when the inlet is
perpendicular to the baffle compared with
that when the inlet is parallel to the baffle.
a
water velocity = 0.3 m/s
c
b
water velocity = 0.2 m/s
water velocity = 0.1 m/s
Fig (10): Variation of turbulent kinetic energy as
a function of inlet water velocity.
75
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 71-77
a
b
inlet location is perpendicular to the baffle
inlet location is parallel to the baffle
Fig (11): Variation of turbulent kinetic energy as
a function of inlet location.
Conclusion:
Two-dimensional mathematical model is
established in the present paper to simulate
the water flow behavior in a baffle type of
hydraulic flocculator. K- turbulent model
was used to determine the variation in local
the velocity filed and turbulent kinetic
energy (k). K- turbulent model has been
applied for computational fluid dynamic
(CFD) simulation of water treatment flow.
By the comparison between our results and
previous results, we concluded that the
COMSOL Multiphysics finite element
analysis software was capable to simulate
the behavior of turbulence along the
hydraulic flocculator. Sensitivity analysis
was taken into account in order to
investigate the effect of geometry and
hydraulic parameters on the turbulence
behavior within the flocculator basin. The
comparison between figures was depended
on the turbulent kinetic energy because it is
considered as a measure of the turbulence
(Haarhoff. J and van der Walt. J, 2001).
The sensitivity analysis has shown that the
model is very sensitive to the variation of
baffle geometry. The increasing in the baffle
length causes an increase in the turbulence
structure along the basin. Any increase in the
length of the baffle causes increase in the
distribution of turbulence along the basin. A
decrease in the turbulence kinetic energy
was observed with increase in the baffle
thickness. The model indicates that the best
ratio between the baffle thickness and the
basin length is 0.025. The model is very
sensitive to the shape of the baffle tip,
because when the tip shape is semi circle
more turbulence is produced along the basin
as that when the tip shape is rectangular.
Then, it can be recommended to construct
the tip shape with semi circle. The model is
sensitive to the baffle number. However, the
baffle number is a function to the basin
length, in this model the best results are
provided when the baffle number is 6. Also,
the model is not sensitive to the location of
inlet water velocity because the results are
nearly the same when the inlet location is
perpendicular or parallel to the baffle. Any
variation on the inlet water velocity value
has a great influence on the turbulence
structure of the water transporting the
particles. Finally, we don't have any solid
data about the limit values for the maximum
value of turbulence in the baffled hydraulic
flocculator.
References:
Arboleda Valencia, J. (1986). A new
approach to treatment plant design
and construction. J. American Water
Wks. Assoc. 78 (7), 92-105.
Bhargava, D.S. and Ojha, C.S.P. (1993).
Models for the design
of
flocculating baffled channels. J.
Water Res. 27 (3), 465-475.
Cho, Y., Yoo, S., Yoo, P. and Kim, C.
(2010). Evaluation of the effect of
baffle shape in flocculation basin on
hydrodynamic
behavior
using
computational
fluid
dynamics.
Korean, J. Chemical. Eng, 27 (3),
874-880.
Haarhoff, J. (1998). Design of around-theend hydraulic flocculators. Aqua 47
(3), 142-152.
Haarhoff, J. and Van der Walt, J. (2001).
Towards optimal design parameters
for
around-the-end
hydraulic
flocculators. Journal of Water
Supply: Research and Technology.
50 (3), 149-159.
McConnachie, G.L. (1991). Turbulence
intensity of mixing in relation to
flocculation. J. Environmental. Eng.
117(6), 731-750.
McConnachie, G.L. (1993). Water treatment
for development countries using
baffled-channel
hydraulic
flocculation. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.
Water, Maritime & Energy 101, 5561.
McConnachie, G.L., Folkard, G.K., Mtawali,
M.A. and Sutherland, J.P. (1999).
Field trials of appropriate hydraulic
flocculation processes. Water Res.
33(6), 1425-1434.
76
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES] 2013. 10: 71-77
McConnachie, G.L. and Liu, J. (2000).
Design of baffled hydraulic channels
for turbulence-induced flocculation.
Water Res. 34 (6), 1886-1896.
Otto, H. (1998). Flow Patterns in Baffled
Channels. Project Investigation for
B.Eng degree, Rand Afrikaans
University, South Africa.
Rebhun, M. and Argaman, Y. (1965).
Evaluation of hydraulic efficiency of
sedimentation basins. San. Eng.
ASCE 91 (5), 37-45.
Van der Walt, J. (1998). The application of
computational fluid dynamics in the
calculation of local G values in
hydraulic flocculators. Proceedings
of the Biennial Conference of the
Water Institute of Southern Africa,
1998 Cape Town, South Africa.
Available at http://www.wisa.co.za
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77
Volume X, Mar. 2013.
Journal of Environmental Studies [JES]
An International Journal edited by
Community Service and Environmental Development Sector,
Sohag University [SU].
Sohag University Publication
Contact details:
E-Mail Jces_Sci@yahoo.com
Jces_sci@sohag-univ.edu.eg
Web site http://www.jes.sohag.edu.eg
Journal of Environmental Studies
An International Journal edited by Community Service and Environmental Development Sector,
Sohag University [SU].
Volume X, Mar. 2013.
Volume content
Saad H. Khudair, Iman H. Qatia, Amal Ab. Halub and Nibal Kh. Mousa, 2013.
Preparing of bacterial probiotic from Lactobacillus sp. Journal of Environmental
Studies, JES, Vol., X: 1-4.
Abbas Hadi Abbas, Samahir Jasim Muhammed, Muhammed Khalf Ali, 2013.
Studying of drinking water quality that is supplied to the housing section in Tikrit
university- Iraq. Journal of Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X: 5-12.
Mohammed Jaafar Ali Al-Atabi, 2013. Recovery of phosphorus from sludge
incineration ash. Journal of Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X: 13-16.
Fathi A. Al-Mandeel, 2013. Acomparative study in stem anatomy and morphology of
Zannichellia palustris L. and Myriophyllum spicatum L. that growing in Tigris River
within Mosul City, Iraq. Journal of Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X: 17-22.
Nagam Obaid Kariem, 2013. Studying and modeling the air pollution caused by
chemical pollutants emitting from thermal power station and generators in Baghdad
city. Journal of Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X: 23-29.
Mohammed Ali I. Al-Hashimi, Manar M. Al-Safar, 2013. Removal of Cadmium from
Polluted Aqueous Solutions Using Agricultural Wastes. Journal of Environmental
Studies, JES, Vol., X: 31-38.
Jamal S. Abdulamier, Ali H. Aziz and Haider S. Al-aasam, 2013. Non-Linear
Behavior of Unbonded Post-Tensioned one-way Concrete Slab Panel. Journal of
Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X: 39-45.
AbdelRahim Khalid A. A., Hassanein A. M., Sabry Younis, M., Abd El- Azeiz Heikal
A., Mohamed Ismael, 2013. Physicochemical and microbiological studies of River
Nile water in Sohag governorate. Journal of Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X: 4761.
Zena Fakhri, Hanan Haqe, 2013. Effect of Alum Addition on the Biological Removal
Efficiency and phosphates Removal. Journal of Environmental Studies, JES, Vol., X:
63-69.
Ali Salim Joodi, 2013. Effect of baffles geometry of the flocculation basin on the
turbulence behavior using Comsol multiphysics technique. Journal of Environmental
Studies, JES, Vol., X: 71-77.
Saad Zahraa