THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS ii THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS Technical report to accompany the map of ‘The Vegetation of the Australian Tropical Savannas’ by I.D. Fox, V.J. Neldner, G.W. Wilson and P. J. Bannink iii Published by the Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Government. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data ISBN 0 7345 2700 4 Cite this document as: Fox, I. D., Neldner, V. J., Wilson. G.W. and Bannink, P.J. (2001) The Vegetation of the Australian Tropical Savannas. Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane. This document is a Technical Report to accompany: Fox, I.D., Neldner, V.J., Wilson, G.W., Bannink, P.J., Wilson, B.A., Brocklehurst, P.S., Clark, M.J., Dickinson, K.J.M., Beard, J.S., Hopkins, A.J.M., Beeston, G.R., Harvey, J.M., Thompson, E.J., Ryan, T.S., Thompson, S.L., Butler, D.W., Cartan, H., Addicott, E.P., Bailey, L.P., Cumming, R.J., Johnson, D.C., Schmeider, M., Stephens, K.M. and Bean, A.R. (2001). The Vegetation of the Australian Tropical Savannas. (1:2 000 000 scale map in 3 sheets). Queensland Herbarium, Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane and the Cooperative Research Centre for the Sustainable Development of Tropical Savannas, Darwin. © The State of Queensland, Environmental Protection Agency 2001. This work is copyright. It may be reproduced for study, research or training purposes subject to the inclusion of an acknowledgement of the source and no commercial usage of sale. Reproduction for purposes other than those listed above requires the prior written permission of the Environmental Protection Agency. Requests and enquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the Manager, Biodiversity Assessment and Services, Environmental Protection Agency, Mt Coot-Tha Botanic Gardens, Mt Coot-Tha Road, Toowong, QLD 4066, Australia. DISCLAIMER: Information in this document does not necessarily represent Government policy. While this publication has been prepared with care, the Queensland Government accepts no liability for any decisions or actions taken on the basis of this document. Addresses for authors Ian Fox Queensland Herbarium Environmental Protection Agency P O Box 1054 Mareeba Qld 4880 John Neldner Queensland Herbarium Environmental Protection Agency Brisbane Botanic Gardens Mt Coot-tha Road TOOWONG Qld 4066 Gary Wilson Queensland Herbarium Environmental Protection Agency P O Box 1054 Mareeba Qld 4880 Peter Bannink Queensland Herbarium Environmental Protection Agency P O Box 1054 Mareeba Qld 4880 iv CONTENTS List of figures List of tables Summary Acknowledgements vi vii ix xi Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1 3 1.1 1.2 Map extent and savanna definition History of vegetation survey and mapping Chapter 2 STUDY AREA: AN OVERVIEW 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Geology Soils Climate Fire Phytogeography Biogeographic regionalisation Land zones: vegetation and the environment Chapter 3 METHODS 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 Collation and analysis of existing maps Vegetation classification Land zones and map unit aggregation Cartographic procedures Processing existing maps Queensland map Kimberley (Western Australia) map Northern Territory map Production of vegetation map of northwest Queensland Joining component data sets Landcover change Map review Nomenclature Digital covers Chapter 4 LANDCOVER AND VEGETATION CHANGE 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Landcover change Comparison of data sets Vegetation change Vegetation management and biodiversity conservation Chapter 5 DESCRIPTION OF THE VEGETATION 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Structural formations Broad Vegetation groups Vegetation of the bioregions Key to the map units The map unit descriptions References Photographs 9 9 11 12 16 18 21 22 25 25 26 27 28 29 30 32 33 33 35 35 36 36 37 39 39 43 44 44 47 48 48 55 56 64 249 247 v Appendices Appendix 1.1 Land zones recognised in the mapping of the Australian Tropical Savannas Appendix 2.1 Geological Time Scale used in this study Appendix 2.2 Approximate correlation of Australian Soil Classification and the Great Soil Groups Appendix 3.1 Queensland Herbarium, Environmental Protection Agency vegetation data for central and eastern Queensland Appendix 3.1a Queensland Herbarium, Environmental Protection Agency vegetation data for the Mitchell Grass Downs Appendix 3.2 LANDSAT scenes used for mapping northwest Queensland Appendix 3.3 Northern territory map units from Wilson et al. (1990). Appendix 3.4 Queensland map units (Qcodes) Appendix 3.5 Western Australian (Kimberley) vegetation units adapted by Hopkins et al. (1999) from Beard and Webb (1974) and Beard (1979). Appendix 3.6 Index to common names Appendix 3.7 Lookup table for vegetation unit to1:1 million, 1:2 million and BVGs. 275 277 279 281 283 285 287 291 293 299 307 317 List of figures Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 5.1 The extent of the map of the Australian tropical savannas An early vegetation map of the whole Australian continent Australia’s physiographic structure Position of the Gondwana and Australian landmasses during the Phanerozoic Generalised rainfall isohyets for northern Australia Lowest minimum monthly temperatures for northern Australia Biotic regions of Australia The biogeographic regions used to define the area of the map of the Australian tropical savannas Landscape classification showing derivation and scale of land zones Vegetation map data available in digital format at the start of the project Example of re-interpreted Qcode map Previously unmapped areas of northwest Queensland Northwest Queensland plot-based sites Northwest Queensland observational sites Extent and location of land clearing in the Australian tropical savannas The area and percentage of total land cleared of vegetation in the six most affected bioregions in the map area The total area and percentage of vegetation cleared in each land zone Australian tropical savanna map units with clearing greater than 100 000 hectares Australian tropical savanna map units with greater than 10% of original vegetation cleared Land zone of map units with greater than 100 000 ha of clearing Land zone of map units with greater than 10% of original vegetation cleared Relationship between BVG, Australian tropical savannas unit and original map unit vi List of tables Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 2.3 Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 5.1 Summary of dominant soil types in the area of the map of the Australian tropical savannas Phytogeographic composition of the Australian vegetation IBRA bioregions in the map of the vegetation of the Australian tropical savanns Vegetation map data available in digital format at the start of the project The structural formations used in the descriptions Example of Qcode sorting Map review process The number and percentage of total number, rank and percentage by class of vegetation remaining in map units with clearing in the Australian tropical savannas A ranked data comparison of land cover in the most affected bioregions reported by this study, SLATS and BRS for the Queensland portion of the Australian tropical savannas The vegetation map units occurring within each bioregion vii viii Summary This report was written to accompany the 1:2 000 000 scale map of the Vegetation of the Australian Tropical Savannas (Fox et al. 2001), a map that represents the undisturbed vegetation of the north of the Australian continent. Disturbance from land clearing is not represented on the map. The map extent was derived from 22 bioregions (Environment Australia 2000) that incorporate the Australian tropical savannas and also a number of other vegetation types, including some Triodia spp. hummock grasslands of the central Australian semi-arid zone and some rainforest communities of the humid north and of the northeast. 125 map units are delineated on the map and described in this report, as well as two of the three non-savanna biogeographic regions adjoining the map area on the east coast. A digital 1:1 000 000 scale vegetation coverage delineating 249 map units has also been produced. For small scale and national analyses these vegetation units have been grouped into 26 broad vegetation groups. Tropical savannas occupy close to a quarter of the Australian continent where they are perhaps better known as the northern grassy landscapes or northern grassy woodlands. In the past there has been little work to integrate the ecological studies that have taken place within the jurisdictional boundaries of Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia. This project, funded by the Environmental Protection Agency (Queensland Herbarium) and the Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Savannas Management (formerly the Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Development of Tropical Savannas), has taken existing vegetation mapping data from across the region and produced a seamless vegetation map. The project is an example of what can be achieved through collaboration of State, Territory and Federal agencies and researchers. In addition to collating existing map data, the project produced a new vegetation map for a large area in northwest Queensland. The report provides a brief history of vegetation mapping in northern Australia that has evolved from earlier floristic studies to the study of interactions between ecological units. There is also an introduction to the important concept of land zones, which were used as an integral part of the project. An overview of the development over time of the Australian physical environment provides a background to the evolution of the north Australian flora. Plant nomenclature is current to 2001 and was based on the plant collection database HERBRECS (Queensland Herbarium 2001). Where plants were not listed in that database, reference was made to the Plant Name Index (Australian National Botanic Gardens 2001). Computer mapping techniques made the project possible and the methods used to manipulate the mapping datasets are explained here. However, despite the importance of these technologies, the science of vegetation interpretation and classification underpins the project and its map outputs. The methods used to classify the vegetation and then to aggregate the vegetation units on the basis of land zone, are also explained. In discussing the vegetation we recognize that there has been some impact from recent development in the region and especially in Queensland, although in parts of the Kimberley and the Northern Territory there have also been some localised but significant impacts. A section on land cover change data is presented. Finally, a substantial section has been devoted to describing the 128 vegetation map units that appear on the map of the vegetation of the Australian tropical savannas. The result is a comprehensive report that, in combination with the map, can be used by people with an interest in Australian vegetation or for conservation planning and research at the national scale. ix x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A project of this scope could not have been completed without the assistance of a great number of people. The mapping project received its initial funding in late-1998 from the Cooperative Research Centre for the Sustainable Development of Tropical Savannas (TS-CRC) under its North Australia Landscape research theme. The theme focuses on defining the biophysical, social, cultural and economic attributes of the tropical savannas (TS-CRC 1999). By funding the project the TS-CRC has contributed to the study of the vegetation of Australian tropical savannas through the development of this seamless map coverage, a product not available at this scale until now. A team from the Queensland Herbarium coordinated the project, which involved close collaboration with the agencies that contributed data directly to the map, specifically the Queensland Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Northern Territory Department of Lands Planning and Environment (NTDLPE); Agriculture Western Australia (AGWA); and the Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management (CALM). These agencies and their officers are thanked. Peter Brocklehurst (NTDLPE) willingly assisted with interpretation of the data for the Northern Territory, provided detailed comments on the draft maps and assisted the collation of photographs for this report. Angas Hopkins, Judith Harvey and Graeme Behn (CALM) and Greg Beeston and Damian Shepherd (AGWA) provided assistance with the Kimberley map data. John Beard is thanked for his advice on the methods used to map the vegetation of the Kimberley and Great Sandy Desert regions, for his comments on the draft Kimberley map and for providing information about the botanical history of the Kimberley. Tanya Vernes (CALM) assisted greatly with Kimberley site data and photographs of the map units. We wish to thank all authors of the component maps that were used to compile the final map of the Australian tropical savannas. In particular we thank botanists from the Queensland Herbarium (EPA) who contributed a great deal of time to generalising detailed Queensland vegetation maps. The development of a 1:1 million scale map of north Queensland would not have been possible without the assistance of those mapping professionals who not only provided their maps but also aggregated their map units to a suitable scale for the project. In particular Tim Ryan, Simon Thompson and Helen Cartan helped to develop unique Queensland vegetation codes, while John Thompson, Don Butler and Eda Addicott not only developed new codes but also reinterpreted large-scale maps in preparation for digitising. Bruce Wilson provided advice on broad vegetation groups and comments on draft legends. The authors thank all of these people. Staff of the Queensland Herbarium provided valuable technical assistance to the project and in particular Arnon Accad and Jack Kelley are thanked for their help and advice on map production, for processing the Landsat TM satellite imagery used to map areas of northwest Queensland and for technical advice on handling large map datasets. Jeff Middleton (Queensland Herbarium) assisted greatly in the northwest Queensland mapping, carrying out data processing and providing technical assistance in the field and Heather Walker (postgraduate, James Cook University) also provided valuable field assistance. A number people, including staff of the Identification Room at the Queensland Herbarium, the Western Australian Herbarium, the Australian National Herbarium and the Darwin Herbarium, provided taxonomic advice for the project. The many individuals who gave freely of their botanical expertise are thanked, especially Tony Bean, John Clarkson, Lyn Craven, Jenny Milson and Kevin Kenneally. Tim Willing helped greatly in our understanding of the floristics and in the interpretation the vegetation patterns of northwest Australia. xi A number of agencies provided reference data for the project. All these agencies hold copyright over their data. Queensland Department of Natural Resources (State Landcover and Trees Study) supplied Landsat TM imagery for northwest Queensland. The Australian Surveying and Land Information Group (AUSLIG) supplied topographic data and the 1:1,000,000 vegetation compilation sheets and data files from the Queensland section of the 1:5,000,000 map of John Carnahan’s Present Vegetation of Australia (AUSLIG 1990) and Susie Salisbury is thanked for assisting the data extraction and interpretation. Environment Australia (EA 2000) supplied Version 5.0 of the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation of Australia (IBRA) used to delineate the southern boundary of the map extent and Ann Hardy is thanked for help with the most recent release of the data. The Bureau of Rural Sciences (BRS 2000) provided the landcover change data used to complete the analyses of remnant vegetation and Lucy Randell is thanked for providing advice on interpreting the data. In addition, the final maps use topographic data that is Copyright © Commonwealth of Australia, AUSLIG, Australia’s national mapping agency. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of the General Manager, Australian Surveying and Land Information Group, Department of Industry, Science and Resources, Canberra, ACT. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from AUSLIG. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to Manager, Information Management and Access, AUSLIG, PO Box 2, Belconnen, ACT, 2616 or by email to copyright@auslig.gov.au. The administration staff at the Centre for Tropical Agriculture in Mareeba are thanked for undertaking photograph scanning and word processing, often at very short notice. We would also like to thank Ben Collyer (Queensland Herbarium) who assisted in locating photographs of a number of Queensland vegetation types. Wil Smith is thanked for the drawings of Gondwana and the Australian landmass used in section 2.3.1. Paul Sattler and Rebecca Williams are thanked for permitting the reproduction of land zone definitions and icons. Draft maps were circulated in 2000 and valuable comments were received from Judith Harvey, Tim Willing, Peter Brocklehurst, John Beard, Angas Hopkins and the mapping teams at the Queensland Herbarium. Eda Addicott is thanked for her valuable comments on a preliminary draft of this report. Tony Bean is thanked for his thorough review of the vegetation descriptions and commenting on species nomenclature. Rosemary Niehus and Arnon Accad are thanked for handling the task of taking the draft manuscript to pre-production stage. In March 2001 a draft technical report was released for review. John Carnahan, Kath Dickinson, Kevin Kenneally and Garry Werren are thanked for their valuable comments on that draft. Photographs The authors supplied most of the photographs used, with additional photographs provided from the Queensland Herbarium photographic collection and by Lynne Bailey, Graeme Behn, Peter Brocklehurst, Allan Burbidge, Helen Cartan, Brian Carter, John Clarkson, Kevin de Witte, Kevin Kenneally, Jeff Middleton, Jenny Milson, Mark Newton, Rod Silburn, Peter Stanton, Bruce Swain, John Thompson and Tanya Vernes. xii 1. Introduction “.....the term ‘savanna’ designates a tropical grassland with scattered trees. Defined this way, savannas are the most common tropical landscape unit. They are found on all four tropical continents and in more than 20 countries”. (Solbrig, O.T. and Young, M.D (1993), in the Introduction to O.T. Solbrig and M.D. Young (eds), The World’s Savannas. Man and the Biosphere Series Vol. 12, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, Paris) Savanna vegetation occurs widely across the tropics of the world and is the result of a marked seasonal pattern of tropical monsoon rains in the summer followed by a distinctly dry period in the winter. It occupies a distinct part of the tropical landscape between rainforests and arid areas. In areas where the summer rains occur over a longer period of the year the vegetation tends to be dominated by rainforest and where the seasonal dry period is longer, arid vegetation dominates. Fire is an important ecological feature of savannas during the dry season and, as with most Australian vegetation, the savannas are adapted to periodic burning (Beadle 1981, Huntley and Walker 1982, Walker and Gillison 1982, Solbrig 1993) and perhaps reliant upon it. People have occupied savannas in Africa for more than a million years while in the American savannas human occupation is less than 30,000 years (Solbrig and Young, 1993). In the Australian savannas, which occur across the northern third of the continent, Aboriginal people have been present for perhaps 60,000 years and charcoal evidence suggests that they utilised fire to exploit savanna flora and fauna. The first European settlers were graziers who arrived in Australian savannas about 100 years ago. Since then, agricultural development of the biome has met with mixed and generally limited success. There is now recognition of the ecological and economic constraints confronting land-use options in the savannas (Holmes and Mott, 1993). In order to maintain the ecological integrity of Australian savannas, land managers require a greater understanding of savanna ecological processes. Biological inventory is a necessary first step in this process, with an understanding of vegetation distribution a key component. This understanding, however, has been substantially restricted by a lack of compatible savanna-wide vegetation data, and specifically map data, at a scale of better than 1:5 000 000 for the most recent national vegetation map (AUSLIG 1990). A number of smaller maps produced over many years and for different purposes existed across the region, but the diversity of interpretation techniques, variations in scale, and the lack of adequate edge-matching between the maps, has meant that a whole-ofregion approach has been problematic. The Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Development of Tropical Savannas (TS-CRC), Darwin, Australia, identified the need for the compilation of a seamless map of the vegetation of northern Australia and provided initial funding for production of the map. Completion of the map relied on substantial contribution of resources and staff time from the Queensland Herbarium. 1.1 Map extent and savanna definition The map described by this report represents the grassland and wooded grassland vegetation of the Australian tropics as it may have existed prior to disturbance since European settlement (see 5. Descripton of the Vegetation). The map extent for the project was defined by the boundaries used by the TS-CRC and was based on 22 bioregions from the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation of Australia (IBRA) Version 5.1 (Environment Australia 2000). The bioregions used are listed in 2.3, Biogeographic THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 1 regionalisation. Figure 1.1 shows the mapped area in relation to the Australian continent. The ways in which the vegetation of the area defined by the map extent fits into definitions of savannas is difficult to state with any certainty, given the various ways in which defining savannas, and specifically the Australian savannas is dealt with. Solbrig (1993) recognised that as a consequence of the heterogeneity of their ecosystems, savannas are difficult to define. Despite those inherent difficulties he presented a definition following Sarmiento (1984) and Frost et al. (1985) in which a savanna is defined as: ‘an ecosystem of the warm (lowland) tropics dominated by a herbaceous cover consisting mostly of bunch grasses1 and sedges that are more than 30cm in height at the time of maximum activity, and show a clear seasonality in their development, with a period of low activity related to water stress. The savanna may include woody species (shrubs, trees, palm trees), but they never form a continuous cover that parallels the grassy one’ (Solbrig 1993: 22). 1. The term bunch grasses is synonymous with the term tussock grasses used throughout this report. To describe the Australian situation, a broad structural approach has been taken which describes savannas in terms of tree savannas and shrub savannas (Beadle and Costin 1952, Beadle 1981, Walker and Gillison 1982), with both structural forms having a projective foliage cover within the range between closed (70-100%) and very open (<30%) (Beadle 1981, Specht 1970). Gillison (1994) suggested that because of their structural similarity, especially in the upper strata, the terms ‘savanna’ and ‘woodland’ are often interchangeable. For example, Specht et al. (1974) use the structural formation of low open-woodland to encompass the tree and low-tree savannas described by Williams (1955). Walker and Gillison (1982) differentiated Australian savanna types within the framework of bioclimatic provinces developed by Fitzpatrick and Nix (1970) in which tropical savannas occur within the ‘megatherm’ region. In this region, which includes the majority of the mapped area, plant growth is most rapid during summer rains after which growth declines rapidly with the onset of the winter dry season. During this dry season, many plants undergo substantial leaf-drop, or cease growth altogether (Walker and Gillison 1982). # DARWIN # Major Cities Central Queensland Coas t Bioregion Wet Tropic s Bioregion # CAIRNS BR OOME # # Map Area TOWNSVILLE Tropic of Capricorn # ROCKHAMPTON # PER TH ADELAIDE # # SYDNEY MELBOURNE # # HOBART Figure 1.1 The extent of the map of the Australian tropical savannas 2 INTRODUCTION 1.2 History of vegetation survey and mapping The primary purpose of a vegetation map is to illustrate the geographical distribution of the various vegetation types that occur within a given area. Vegetation surveys aim at delineating and describing these vegetation types, which can intergrade along environmental gradients in a continuum (McIntosh 1967, Whittaker 1967). For descriptive and mapping purposes with practical applications, it is useful to classify and delineate plant communities, even where boundaries between communities may represent a wide ecotone of anything up to a few kilometres, while others are sharp and clearly defined. ‘Vegetation survey and mapping is therefore the meeting ground of the author’s systematic classification of the vegetation and the mosaic arrangement of plants in the field’ (Neldner 1993). In writing about the history of vegetation survey in northern Australia a number of published references were studied and are suggested for further reading on the subject. The following summary includes information presented in Beard (1979), Carr and Carr (1981), Wilson et al. (1990) and Neldner (1993). 1.2.1 Floristic vegetation description A floristic method of vegetation description was adopted for most studies in Australia up until about the early 1930's. It relied on describing vegetation on the basis of species composition without reference to habit, structure or life form. The earliest record of published description of Australian vegetation followed Dampier's cruise in 1699 (Dampier 1703) in which he made the first known collection of botanical specimens from Australia (Osborn and Gardner 1939, George 1971 cited in Beard 1979). Whilst there was little botanical work in the eighteenth century, work throughout the nineteenth century resulted in vast collections of plants being gathered as the basis for the development of an understanding of the taxonomy of the Australian flora (Neldner 1993). The botanical work by people such as Brown (1810), Mueller (1858-82) and Bentham (1863-78) formed the basis for national botanical study that continues to the present day. A number of regional expeditions into northern Australia were conducted over the period, adding to the collective botanical knowledge. These people were explorers themselves, or botanists accompanying explorers (Wilson et al 1990). These included the work in the Northern Territory by Stuart in 1860, Gosse in 1873, Leichhardt in 1845 and Cunningham in 1924 (Willis 1981). In the Kimberley region the 1801 and 1803 French coastal expeditions led by Baudin had on board the botanist Leschenault de la Tour (Beard 1979). Later expeditions included those by King in 1818, 1820 and 1821 (Beard 1979), Grey in 1837 (Grey 1841 cited in Beard 1979) and Gregory from 1855-56 (Beard 1979). Through the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a number of Australian states published systematic floras, which were the result of earlier and ongoing botanical work. Amongst those works were floras for New South Wales (Moore and Betche 1893), Queensland (Bailey 1899-1902), Tasmania (Rodway 1903), Northern Territory (Ewart and Davies 1917), South Australia (Black 1922-29), Victoria (Ewart 1930) and Western Australia (Gardner 1931). With one or two notable exceptions such as the maps of Australian vegetation by Diels (1906), the map of the Victorian forest trees by Everett 1869, (Powell 1967) and the map of the Western Australian vegetation by Jutson (1914), this emphasis upon individual species rather than broader groupings of vegetation effectively meant that vegetation mapping was virtually non-existent in Australia in the early twentieth century. Field investigations basically resulted in floristic lists, from which information on the vegetation types was interpreted (Neldner 1993). THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 3 1.2.2 Ecological vegetation description Recognition of distinct plant groupings was the result of the growth in ecological studies in the early twentieth century, notably through the work of Schimper (1903), Cowles (1899, 1901), Clements (1904, 1905, 1907) and Warming (1909). There was a growing awareness that distinct plant groupings or communities could be recognised, not only by floristic composition, but also by their distinct life forms, their habitat and their structure. It was realised that the plant habitat influences its life form, in other words, climatic, edaphic, physiographic and biotic factors in the environment all affected the vegetation. It was recognised that every plant species had specific environmental requirements and tolerance ranges for its existence. The climax plant community concept developed by Clements (1916), in which climate was considered the primary determinant for a monoclimax vegetation in a given area, dominated ecological thought at that time (Neldner 1993). Perhaps the earliest vegetation map of the whole Australian continent (Figure 1.2) was by Diels (1906) in which the map formed part of the end papers of his book ‘Die Pflanzenwelt von West-Australien südlich des Wendekreises’ (Beard 1979, Beard 2001). Unfortunately the map exists without a full description of the map units, or of their derivation, however the eight units used by Diels to describe the Australian vegetation at a scale of 1:27 000 000 include three units that occur across northern Australia, Savannen-wald; Savanne; and Brigalow-Scrub, Mallee-Scrub od Sand-Heide. Jutson’s (1914) 1:5 000 000 scale sketch map of the vegetation of Western Australia in which the Kimberley was described as ‘savannah forests and woodlands’; ‘savannah’ and ‘low rainfall tropical woodlands’ (Beard 1979) and was useful at a regional scale but lacked a national context. Figure 1.2 An early vegetation map of the whole Australian continent. Taken from an original by F.L.E. Diels (1906), courtesy of J.S. Beard. As knowledge of the Australian flora grew, vegetation description moved towards an ecological approach. The 1:10 000 000 map of the vegetation of Australia (Prescott 1931), although generalised, provided evidence of the usefulness of a vegetation map. Over the 4 INTRODUCTION decade after the publication of Prescott’s map, a number of plant communities were described in ecological terms (eg. Patton 1933, 1934, 1936, Wood 1936, 1937, Blake 1938), however many of these studies showed that the monoclimax plant community concept developed by Clements (1916) did not to apply in Australia (Wood 1939). That the Australian vegetation did not fit the expected patterns for climax vegetation was explained by a number of characteristics typical to the Australian context including physical factors, relief, drainage and soil differences, and particularly mineral deficiencies. These environmental characteristics, along with climate and the variable physiological tolerances of individual plant species were used to explain departures from the expected climax vegetation (Crocker 1959, Crocker and Wood 1947, Specht 1957, 1963, Cochrane 1967). Through the 1940s maps of plant communities were often accompanied with soil and geological maps (Neldner 1993), however the mapping suffered from a lack of uniformity in the classifications used and in the use of terms. This largely held back any comparative study of the Australian vegetation (Cochrane 1963) among maps. There were many different interpretations of the concept of the ‘association’, which was the fundamental vegetation unit. Similarly, there was lack of agreement on the basic concept of what constitutes the dominant species. Some recognised the tallest stratum as dominant, for example a grassland wooded with sparse low trees would still be classed with the trees as the dominant. Others recognised that the dominant species could occur in the tallest stratum, such as in a eucalypt grassy woodland in which eucalypt dominates or in the lower layers, such as in a sparsely wooded tussock grassland in which the grassland is the dominant (Crocker and Wood 1947, Beadle and Costin 1952). As with botanical exploration, vegetation classification in northern Australia did not always focus on the region as a whole and there were numerous projects taking place throughout, most of which did not conform to an agreed national approach to mapping. In the Kimberley the work of Gardner (1942) which showed relationships between vegetation, climate and soil, built upon the ‘Botanical Provinces’ recognised and mapped by Diels (1906) by adding the Northern Botanical Province into which most of the Kimberley fell, and later dividing the province into ‘Districts’ (Beard 1979). The work of Blake (1938) resulted in the production of a vegetation map and account of the vegetation of western Queensland (Neldner 1993). A 1948 regional survey describing the plants, climate, geology, soils, plant ecology and ethnobotany of Arnhem Land was published by Specht in 1958. The first uniform classification scheme for Australian vegetation was proposed by Beadle and Costin (1952) and it described the vegetation purely in terms of its floristics and structure and did not refer to the complex environmental factors affecting the community. This classification scheme was modified from international systems, and allowed the vegetation to be described without having to take account of factors such as successional status. It allowed a flexibility in emphasis from essentially floristic to essentially structural, although the combined floristic-structural classification was considered most valuable for Australian studies. Beadle and Costin (1952) considered that the mapping of vegetation units was an integral part of ecological description’ (Neldner 1993). Following the work of Beadle and Costin, vegetation classification was greatly influenced by the numerical method objective classification developed by Goodall (1953a, 1953b, 1954, 1961) and since that time, numerical methodologies have been at the forefront of techniques used worldwide. These methods provide the ability to interpret the relationships among sites, the validity of the classification for a site and the validity of species groupings (Neldner 1993). Numerical classification techniques have been widely used in the analysis and description of regional vegetation patterns, although most vegetation mappers in Australia have proceeded in a largely intuitive fashion (Kirkpatrick and Dickinson 1986). Numerical techniques are, however, increasingly being used in Australian vegetation mapping to assist in defining map units, for example in the Northern Territory by Wilson et al. (1990) and in the Ipswich region of Queensland by Elsol (1991). THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 5 1.2.3 Physiognomic vegetation survey and mapping The prominence given to plant-environmental relationships rather than to an objective vegetation description created a degree of dissatisfaction amongst some mappers resulting in physiognomy gaining prominence from the 1950s as the basis for vegetation study. The importance of describing vegetation by its own characteristics and not by its habitat was emphasised by, amongst others, Du Rietz (1930, 1931) and Küchler (1947, 1949, 1956, 1967). The 1931 vegetation map of Australia by Prescott was fundamentally based upon structural vegetation units (Neldner 1993). Williams (1955) and Wood and Williams (1960) developed physiognomic vegetation maps of Australia based on the classification of Dansereau (1951) while Cochrane (1963) used Küchler's physiognomic classification (Neldner 1993) to develop another national vegetation map. In 1970, Specht proposed a two-way structural classification scheme for vegetation, based on the life form, height, and projective foliage cover of the tallest stratum. He defined projective foliage cover (PFC) as the proportion of land covered by one or more layers of photosynthetic tissue directly above it (Specht 1970). Terms such as ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ were not used in this scheme, whereas previously they had been in use in describing Australian vegetation. It was further noted by Neldner (1993) that Specht (1981) maintained that the PFC of the tallest stratum provides a ready assessment of the photosynthetic potential of the plant community, and that the above-ground biomass is an important measure of how environmental factors may affect growth, although Specht’s hypotheses have yet to be subjected to adequate testing or experimental evaluation. Webb (1959) produced a physiognomic classification of Australian rainforests, which first broke the rainforests into the divisions of tropical, subtropical and temperate, and then further on the basis of leaf size, tree layers and canopy closure, species dominance, emergents and special growth forms. He recognised 12 subformations that were later expanded to 20 by Webb (1968) and then to 23 structural types (Tracey and Webb 1975, Webb 1978, Webb and Tracey 1981). The classification of rainforest in Walker and Hopkins (1984, 1990) uses some of the structural/physiognomic features of Webb's classifications, plus the species composition of the tallest stratum and the structural formation. Using height and foliage cover boundaries but with different class boundaries from those of Specht (1970), Gillison and Walker (1981) produced a classification of Australian woodlands. Gillison (1981, 1984, 1988) proposed that the modal attributes of leaf size, leaf angle, leaf type, and structural units of life form as the basis for a modal approach for surveys designed to develop predictive functions. This system allowed vegetation to be described using only physiognomic attributes, but did not classify the vegetation using a finite number of classes. Physiognomic attributes of growth form and foliage type, plus floristic and spatial attributes (height and density) were used by Johnston and Lacey (1984) for another classification for tree dominated vegetation in Australia. As part of the project to map the vegetation of Western Australia, Beard and Webb (1974) developed a physiognomic classification system based primarily on Beard (1944, 1955), but using some features of Küchler (1949) and Dansereau (1951) and having PFC classes as defined by Specht (1970) (Beard and Webb 1974, Beard 1979, Neldner 1993). The vegetation map of the Kimberley region, with its Beard and Webb classification, formed the basis for the Western Australian section of this map. The Queensland regional vegetation maps of Boyland (1984), Neldner (1984, 1991) and Neldner and Clarkson (1995) used a modified Specht (1970) structural classification which classified vegetation on the structure of the characteristic stratum, specifically the stratum which contributes most to the biomass of the site (Neldner 1993). Wilson et al. (1990) used a similar structural classification for the 1:1 000 000 vegetation map of the Northern Territory, while Carnahan (1976) and AUSLIG (1990) used a structural 6 INTRODUCTION classification that combines features of Specht (1970) and Beard and Webb (1974). A structural classification scheme devised by Walker (1976), which is similar to that of Specht (1970), uses more height categories and has different limits for each category. Walker and Hopkins (1984, 1990) used the classification in the Australian Soil and Land Survey Handbook (McDonald et al. 1984) that is currently in use in Queensland land resource and ecosystem mapping programs. Sun et al. (1996, 1997) reviewed the classification systems being used in the major research organisations across Australia and identified the need for compatible data and classification systems to allow for comparison of vegetation data across jurisdictions. The National Vegetation Information System (NVIS) was developed under the National Land and Water Resources Audit. This system uses a hierarchical approach to allow the capture of vegetation information at six levels. It is based on structural attributes and the dominant species of each layer (National Land and Water Resources Audit 2000). The most detailed level recorded is the sub-association level, as described by Beadle and Costin (1952). Much of the original vegetation mapping used in this project has already been compiled in NVIS. 1.2.4 Land resources and land systems mapping During the period following the Second World War, the Division of Land Research and Regional Survey of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) commenced scientific research surveys and mapping as part of a land research series in Australia and New Guinea (e.g. Christian and Stewart 1953, Perry 1964, Perry et al. 1964, Galloway et al. 1970). The maps produced from the surveys showed landscape units, known as ‘land systems’, based on recurring patterns of topography, soils and vegetation. For each land system, land units based on particular soil types and vegetation types were described in detail, but not mapped (Beard 1979). The CSIRO approach was replicated in other areas including the Western Arid Region Land Use Study (WARLUS), which covered large areas of central and western Queensland, and in Papua New Guinea (Boyland 1974, 1980, Beeston 1978, McDonald 1981, Purdie 1990, Purdie and McDonald 1990, Turner et al. 1993) and in part is still in use today. In the Northern Territory, the former Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory undertook land system mapping in the 1980s. This work continues under the Northern Territory Department of Lands, Planning and Environment. In many instances these land research studies are particularly relevant to the regions of northern Australia included this mapping project, as they preceded much of the north Australia vegetation mapping. Vegetation mappers often used the vegetation information in those reports as a reference (e.g. Beard and Webb 1974, Beard 1979, Boyland 1984, Wilson et al. 1990, Neldner 1991, Fox and Middleton unpubl.). THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 7 2. Study Area Introduction In this chapter we present an overview of the study area. Because of the distinctive nature of the current Australian vegetation, the long period of its evolution, and the extensive area of the continent covered by tropical savannas we initially present a continental overview, then focus on the mapped area. We first review the geological processes that have shaped the continent, then the changes in palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironments, before providing details of the current climate and modifying processes. We then discuss the way that these data combine to provide a phytogeographical view of Australia before presenting a brief review of the methods used to distinguish and define the discrete regions, ecological systems, and vegetation units used in the mapping of the Australian tropical savannas. 2.1 Geology The Australian continent is generally geologically stable and made up of three major structural components (Mabbutt and Sullivan 1970, cited in Beadle 1981), the Precambrian Shield; the central basin of relatively young sedimentary rocks; and the eastern uplands (Figure 2.1). The development of the Australian landmass Figure 2.1 Australia’s Physiographic Structure occurred in different parts of the world, with the present continent being made up of several pieces of continental crust, which later joined together over a long period (DMEWA 2000). For example, about 1830 million years ago the Kimberley region existed as part of a separate continent that collided with the rest of northern Australia. Tectonic movement caused upheavals of the earth’s crust leading to the deformation and metamorphism characteristic of the North Australia Craton (NTGS 2000). The cratons and craton covers that form the Australian continent date from two structural regimes. The Precambrian Shield dates from orogenies in the Archaean and Protozoic Eras and the Eastern Uplands and Central Lowlands from orogenies in the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cainozoic. A brief review of the geological history of the Australian continent during the Phanerozoic Eon, characterised by the proliferation of life, is presented below. PALAEOZOIC 545 – 250 Ma Cambrian: Widespread volcanism in northwest Australia and limited volcanism in the Tasman Fold Belt System in the east. This was followed by a marine transgression of the North Australia Craton with areas of deposition, e.g. in the Bonaparte basin, the formation of evaporates in northern and central lowlands, and extensive volcanic activity commencing in the east. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 9 Ordovician: Uplift in the southeast, marine conditions persist in the Bonaparte Basin and return to the central lowlands. The Larapinta Sea establishes across the North Australia Craton with the deposition of organic-rich shales and siltstones. Volcanism continues in the east. The end of the Period sees warm and dry conditions, withdrawal of the sea, and a re-establishing of depositional and evaporitic processes, and extensive igneous activity and broad regional uplift in north Queensland. Silurian: Uplift and erosion of the craton continues with extensive deformation along the east margin, central and western Australia have an arid climate and thick salt beds and wind blown sands are deposited, and in eastern Australia marine volcanic activity continues. Late in the Period the first known land plants in Australia appear. Devonian: Fluctuations in sea levels, deposition of evaporates and sands during dry periods and the growth of reefs and deposit of sands and carbonates during wet periods. It is generally warm and dry in the northwest, and shallow seas persist and coral reefs grow, particularly in the Bonaparte Basin and Arafura Sea. In the central lowlands block, uplifting results in the formation of extensive alluvial fans, and on the east coast a coastal plain separates deep ocean trenches and inland basins containing east-flowing river systems. Carboniferous: Shallow seas persist in north and west Australia. In northeast Queensland, extensive vulcanism continues and gives rise to the Newcastle Range and Featherbed Volcanics. An extensive system of lakes and rivers is established in the Galilee Basin. A dramatic cooling marks the close of the Period and there is glaciation in southern Australia with intrusions of ice from the Antarctic. Further north uplift and erosion around the Bonaparte Basin result in fast flowing rivers and the deposition of deltaic alluviums. Volcanism continues in northeast Queensland. Permian: Ice covers the south of the continent but conditions are temperate elsewhere, a volcanic belt stretches from Sydney to Cairns. Conditions warm, the ice retreats and drops sediments that are washed into basins and onto continental shelves. A return of a cooler climate sees glaciers in southern areas but then gradual warming and an increase in sea levels causes the inundation of coastal areas, particularly in the Bowen, Carnarvon and Bonaparte Basins. Late in the Period large areas of eastern Australia are uplifted and folded and a prolonged retreat of the sea begins with the formation of extensive deltas, particularly in the Fitzroy Trough and Bonaparte Gulf, from material eroded from the central highlands. Volcanic activity continues in northeast Queensland. MESOZOIC 250 – 65 Ma Triassic: shallow marine conditions persist in the west and northwest but by the end of the Period these areas are uplifted, elsewhere the continent is generally above sea level. In central and eastern Australia sands and silts accumulate in deltas and lowlands, uplift occurs in the east and vulcanism continues along the coast. Wetter conditions and the deposition of coal forming material recommence late in the Period. Jurassic: river systems expand and deposit alluviums into coastal basins that also accumulate coal forming deposits and then a sandstone capping. Mid Period Gondwana starts to rift and sedimentation occurs in the resulting intervening lowlands. Shallow marine incursions and sedimentation of coastal basins occurs in the late Jurassic. Cretaceous: Sedimentation in rivers and lakes continues with coal formation in swampy areas. Mid-period worldwide sea level rises cause most of the continent to be covered by shallow seas but in the east uplift and volcanism form mountain ranges. Later the seas retreat and in the east a major fracture gives rise to the Lord Howe Rise and the formation of the Tasman Sea. 10 Study Area CAINOZOIC 65 – 0 Ma Tertiary: By the start of the period most continents had assumed their present global positions but Australia and Antarctica remain linked until the Mid-Tertiary. Australia begins a period of isolation that extends to the end of the Period when it collides with the Eurasian terranes. In the south limestone is deposited in a shallow sea over the current Nullarbor Plain; in the southeast warm wet and humid conditions that extend through the Mid-Miocene result in extensive deposition of coal forming materials. Mid-Tertiary major tectonic activity uplifts eastern Australia with vulcanism along the coast. The climate dries in the latter part of the period. Quaternary: Broad scale tectonic activity abates but in central regions downwarping and faulting results in the formation of a series of lakes, now restricted to the playas in the Lake Eyre Basin, while in south-eastern and northern Queensland volcanic activity continued until c. 5000 years ago. Pleistocene glaciation events caused sea level and climate fluctuations with land bridges to New Guinea and Tasmania existing until the last few thousand years, and the Great Barrier Reef formed on the eastern coastal shelf. 2.2 Soils A determinant of the vegetation at a site is the soil. Harris (in prep.) observes that this parameter ‘may have a major affect on [the] biota because of differences … in structure and composition resulting from varied lithologies modified by climatic factors’. Soil type, chemical characteristics and nutrient levels affect the vegetation that grows on it (Fox, M.D. 1999) and in other broad scale vegetation mapping, e.g. in the GAP Analysis Program (Scott et al. 1993), these parameters have been found to discriminate among different vegetation types in the same ecoregion. Australian soils have “a number of unusual morphological features, either not evident or rarely seen in the soils of other continents” (Stephens 1977) and in the study area, deep cracking Grey and Brown Soils, clays, Black, Grey and Brown soils with gilgai formation, and laterised and leached soils are common and widespread. Australian soils are generally old, and often shallow and nutrient poor, particularly in respect to nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and in a range of trace elements (Williams and Raupach 1983) – a fact made obvious by the brief but dramatic effects of the nutrient ‘pulse’ that follows fires on the savannas. In the study area the lateritic podzols, red earths, and desert sandplains are particularly impoverished in respect to potassium, copper, zinc and manganese (Stephens 1977). The reasons for this are that Australia is an old and stable landmass with little recent tectonic, volcanic or glacial activity to replenish and/or produce young and fertile soils, that the ineffectual and often seasonal continental drainage is poor and tends to flow into central areas which experience high summer temperatures and evaporation rates, and that the presence of extensive areas of limestone and basic igneous rock substrate limits the types of weathering that can occur during the formation of soil. In the Australian tropical savannas, the alternating warm wet and dry periods and the associated conditions of oxidation and reduction interact with metal-rich soils, e.g. bauxite on Cape York Peninsula in Queensland and in Arnhemland in the Northern Territory, and haematite in northern Western Australia, to produce duricrusts and texture-contrast soils that present difficult habitats for plants and which have a tendency to erode when disturbed. In some areas leaching of nutrients during periods of seasonally high rainfall further reduces the productivity of soils. This has resulted in the extensive diversification of tolerant and resilient taxa, e.g. Aristida and Triodia in the Poaceae, Banksia and Grevillea in the Proteaceae, Eucalyptus and Corymbia in the Myrtaceae and Acacia in the Mimosaceae. Many of the grasses contain lower levels of nutrients than exotic species while many of the trees and shrubs have scleromorphic and often-unpalatable foliage and an intolerance of artificially elevated levels of some soil nutrients. These facts present the conundrum that in order to pursue many farming THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 11 and grazing activities the prevailing soil nutrient regimes and plant species compositions often need to be modified. This is part of the reason for many of the changes in the vegetation observed both in the mapped area, and more particularly in adjoining areas, e.g. the Brigalow Belt South in Queensland. The landforms and associated soils of the area map are broadly defined in the land zone description (Appendix 1.1). Specific data on both are included on detailed site survey forms and in databases for the Queensland portion of the map. Soil descriptions generally follow Stephens (1962) Great Soil Groups although land zone descriptions use Isbell’s (1996) Soil Orders format (see Appendix 2.2 for a comparison). Soil data for the Northern Territory and northern Western Australia portions are derived from Northcote et al. 1960-68, Beard and Webb (1974), Beard (1979), Wilson et al. (1990) and BRS (1991b). The dominant soil types (from Stephens 1977) in the map area are summarised in Table 2.1 that relates soil types to bioregions. For information on bioregions see 2.6 Biogeographic regionalisation and 5.3 Vegetation of the bioregions. Table 2.1 Summary of dominant soil types in the area of the map of the vegetation of the Australian tropical savannas. Soil Type Distribution by bioregion Skeletal Deeply leached siliceous sands Podzols and Solodic Soils Lateritic Podzols Lateritic Red Earths Yellow Earths, Grey Earths and Solonetzic Soils Heavy texture Grey, Brown and Red Soils Desert Sandplains and Desert Sandridge Soils Einasleigh Uplands, Gulf Fall and Uplands, Pine-Creek Arnhem, Victoria Bonaparte and North, Central Kimberley and Mt Isa Inlier. Eastern Cape York Peninsula Low-lying areas in eastern Cape York Peninsula, the Gulf Plains and Darwin Coastal Arnhem Coast, Central Arnhem and Arnhem Plateau Northeast Cape York Peninsula, Darwin Coastal, Pine-Creek Arnhem, Sturt Plateau and Ord-Victoria Plains Central Cape York Peninsula and Central Kimberley Gulf Plains, Mitchell Grass Downs, Gulf Fall and Uplands and North Kimberley Dampierland and Ord-Victoria Plains 2.3 Climate 2.3.1 Changes in the Australian palaeoclimate and environments. The current Australian environments and their flora are the result of evolutionary processes based on landforms, changes in global climate and the palaeolatitude of the Australian landmass (Frakes 1999). These processes have modified the flora of this continent over a period of >540 million years and a summary of them is presented here. a. Cambrian 540 Ma b. Silurian 440 Ma c. Carboniferous 360 Ma d. Jurassic 210 Ma e. Cretaceous 120 Ma Figure 2.2 Position of the Gondwana and Australian landmasses during the Phanerozoic. 12 Study Area f. mid Tertiary 10 Ma Precambrian This is the period of the origin of life, of photosynthesis, eukaryotic cell organisation and multicellular life on the planet. By the end of the period the protective ozone layer had formed (Beeunas and Knauth 1985, cited in Hill et al. 1999), atmospheric oxygen levels were sufficiently high to allow oxygenic photosynthesis to occur, algal life forms were well established and the transition from aquatic to terrestrial existence had taken place (Hill et al. 1999). At the end of the Proterozoic the Australian landmass was located in low to middle northern latitudes and was part of a supercontinent centred on the equator and extending to the South Pole. The climatic data for the Precambrian are sparse but extensive glaciation of the Australia segment is thought to have occurred a few tens of millions of years before the start of the Phanerozoic Eon. Palaeozoic This is the first era of the Phanerozoic and saw the diversification of the terrestrial flora. The initial periods, the Cambrian (Figure 2.2a) and Ordovician, were warm. The Australian segment of Gondwana lay between 5° and 30°N in the Cambrian and 20°N and 20°S in the Ordovician, and precipitation was higher than now. The earliest vascular plants, the herbaceous Baragwanathia Flora, appeared by the Late Silurian (Edwards and Fanning 1985) (Figure 2.2b). In this and the Devonian periods the Australian segment started a slow but accelerating movement south, being between 5° and 35°S for most of the period; the climate remained warm but northern areas showed signs of drying. Plant life on the Australian segment increased dramatically in the Late Devonian with increased pedogenesis and stabilisation of landforms, increased marine fertility and burial of organic matter, and a draw down of atmospheric CO2 levels and a consequent global cooling (Algeo et al. 1995 cited in Frakes 1999). The Late Palaeozoic is characterised by the rapid movements of crustal sections in the Carboniferous; Pangaea accreted from Gondwana and Laurasia (Figure 2.2c) and the Australian segment moved to higher latitudes (50-80°S). A cooler and drier phase commenced and extensive glaciation occurred. Late in the Permian the climate warmed again, precipitation increased and extensive coal forming materials were deposited. Some models (Kutzbuch and Ziegler 1994; Fawcett et al. 1994) indicate that monsoonal conditions extended over much of Australia during this period. Mesozoic This was an Era of change, although the Australian landmass remained at high latitudes the climate warmed through the Triassic to the mid Jurassic (Figure 2.2d) before a drop in temperatures in the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous sufficient for the formation of coastal ice off the east coast of Australia. Pangaea, Gondwana and Laurasia started to fragment in the mid Mesozoic. Temperatures rebounded in the Late Cretaceous (Figure 2.2e) through to the mid/late Miocene of the Tertiary. The deposition of coal forming material continued through much of this Era and is indicative of mild temperatures and lush vegetation growth. While the earlier Periods of this Era witnessed the zenith of the gymnospermous flora, by the Late Cretaceous the angiosperms were well established (Douglas 1994) and spreading across the landscape (Drinnan and Crane 1990, Dettmann 1992). The Mesozoic was brought to an abrupt halt by the impact of a large asteroid with the Earth in the K-T Boundary Event, this augmented environmental changes already underway due to extensive vulcanism and sea level fluctuations (Hill et al. 1999). Cainozoic (Tertiary) The palaeoclimate data from this Period is extensive and supported by a fossil record that is largely derived from extant taxa, and other data sets, e.g. atmospheric gas isotope analyses, and ocean-bed cores. The continent began a rapid move northward and as a consequence experienced warming and higher levels of humidity that contrasted with overall global cooling and drying. These opposing trends saw an overall warming from the Palaeocene through to the mid Miocene (65 –10 Ma) when cooling became the norm. Australia separated from Antarctica during this period (Figure 2.2f). The late Tertiary, from the mid Miocene onwards, is characterised by drier conditions and increasing aridity. This change was substantially complete by 6.6 Ma and by 2.5 Ma the climatic and vegetation conditions approached those currently prevailing. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 13 Cainozoic (Quaternary) The period from 1.8 Ma to the present and the climatic data for it are similar to those described below for the contemporary climate. The continent had arrived at its present location with a third of the land mass north of the Tropic of Capricorn and a continuing northward movement of c. 3 cm per year (AGSO 1999). The Period was subject to fluctuating temperatures; periods of glaciation, and sea level rise and fall. The arrival of aboriginal people in Australia in the late Holocene changes fire regimes and possibly results in the demise of the ‘megafauna’, although the cause of these extinctions is by no means certain (Nicholson 1981). The arrival of Europeans in the last 250 years initiates a period of rapid change in natural ecosystem functions (Boulter et al. 2000). 2.3.2 Contemporary Climate The interaction between vegetation and climate, particularly rainfall and temperature, are important factors in determining plant community distribution (Beadle 1981 and Fox, M.D. 1999). Northern Australia experiences a range of climatic influences that are largely tropical, although inland parts, especially areas of higher altitude, can experience cold minimum temperatures (<3 0 C) commonly associated with the temperate regions further south. In general the region has warm to hot (25-300 C) and rainfall is influenced by summer monsoon low pressure systems along the north coast and by the south easterly trade winds along the east coast, although these do not penetrate much more than about 500 kilometres inland (Ellyard 1994, Beadle 1981). The monsoons, which are highly reliable, are active from about November to March and are followed by a distinct seasonal drought for the remainder of the year (Fox, M.D. 1999). It is this distinct seasonal ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ pattern that typifies savannas around the world. In addition to monsoon activity, tropical cyclones form over the oceans surrounding northern Australia and while generally tracking southwards their paths are often erratic (Holland and McBride 1997). After crossing the coast they can form rain-bearing depressions that travel great distances inland and produce extreme rainfall events. Rainfall A map of generalised annual rainfall isohyets for northern Australia is presented in Figure 2.3. It shows a decrease in annual precipitation from coastal areas to the interior of the continent. These isohyets subdivide the project area into several rainfall zones. A semi-arid zone receiving 250 to 500 mm rainfall per annum occurs in southern parts of the project area (Figure 2.3), particularly central and western Queensland and the Kimberley coast south of Broome. The rainfall is highly variable depending on the extent to which moist air associated with monsoonal and cyclonic activity penetrates inland. A sub-humid zone, which receives between 500 and 1000 mm of rain per annum, forms an extensive band from about Broome, Western Australia, across northern Australia to about Rockhampton in Queensland (Figure 2.3). This sub-humid zone includes the variably wooded grassy landscapes that typify tropical savannas. A humid zone, which receives between 1000 and 1500 mm rainfall per annum, stretches from the northwest coast of the Kimberley across the ‘Top End’ of the Northern Territory and through much of Cape York Peninsula (Figure 2.3). Seasonal rainfall variation in this zone is less pronounced than further inland. A wet tropical zone receiving in excess of 1500 mm occurs on the northeast coast and although most of this zone is within the Wet Tropics bioregion and not part of the project area, some wet tropics outliers do occur. These are primarily found in the Einasleigh Uplands and Brigalow Belt Bioregions as well as important and significant areas on northern and northeastern Cape York Peninsula (Figure 2.3). This zone is influenced by both the southeast trade winds and the summer monsoon, while the orographic effect associated with coastal mountains also contributes to high rainfall in some areas. 14 Study Area DARWIN # # CAIRNS # BROOME TOWNSVILLE # Tropic of Capricorn # # Regional Centre ROCKHAMPTON Average Annual Rainfall (mm) >1500 1000 - 1500 250 - 500 0 125 - 250 1000 Kilometres 500 - 1000 Adapted from Beadle (1981) and Bureau of Meteorology http://www.bom.gov.au (28 November 2000) Figure 2.3 Generalised rainfall isohyets for northern Australia. DARWIN # # BROOME CAIRNS # TOWNSVILLE # # Regional Centre Tropic of Capricorn # Lowest Mean Monthly Temperature (°C) -3 to -6 6 to 9 0 to -3 9 to 12 0 to 3 12 to 15 3 to 6 15 to 21 ROCKHAMPTON 0 1000 Kilometres Adapted from Bureau of Meteorology http://www.bom.gov.au (28 November 2000) Figure 2.4 Lowest minimum mean monthly temperatures for northern Australia THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 15 Temperature Temperatures over the whole of the Australian continent are relatively high (Beadle 1981) with tropical areas much warmer than equivalent tropical regions elsewhere in the world (Fox, M.D. 1999). Summer maximum temperatures in northern Australia are consistently high, but daily and seasonal variations increase with distance from the coast. This becomes significant when considering minimum temperatures. The importance of minimum temperature with regard to plant distributions (Beadle 1981) has particular relevance in the project area. In northern Australia, the wet tropics and coastal zones are predominantly frost-free, but further inland, especially at higher altitudes, frosts are a regular occurrence. These low night temperatures and frosts may restrict the growth of tropical-adapted species during the winter period (Neldner 1991). Areas with the potential for frost are evident in the <3 °C lowest mean monthly isotherms shown in Figure 2.4. They are largely found in the eastern half of the project area, extending from central Queensland along the west of the Mt Isa highlands to the Gulf of Carpentaria, with another intrusion extending northward along the high ranges on the western side of the Great Dividing Range. 2.4 Fire Apart from Antarctica, Australia is the driest continent and as a consequence fire is an integral part of the environment. Adaptation to fire by the Australian flora has occurred over a long geological period, with much of the flora and most of the major vegetation types being scleromorphic and regarded as fire-tolerant and some even as firepromoting (Kemp 1981, Singh et al. 1981, Beadle 1981, Lacey et al. 1982, Hodgkinson et al. 1990, Fox, M.D. 1999). Fires caused by lightning strike are likely to have always played an important role in the ecology of tropical savannas, especially at the beginning of the wet season when lightning activity is at its peak - the implication is that fire adaptation was an integral part of the evolution of pre-human Australian flora (Wilson et al. 1990, Beadle 1981). In historical terms the present and past characters of the Australian savannas is the result of interactions between fire, grazing and climate (Lacey et al. 1982, Wilson et al. 1990). The Australian indigenous people, the Aboriginals, are likely to have been using ‘fire-stick farming’ as a land management tool for tens of thousands of years and the probable increase in fire frequency as a result of burning by them is likely to have shaped the essential character of the present day vegetation (Jones 1969, Nicholson 1981, Stocker and Mott 1981, Wilson et al. 1990). Hill et al. (1999) propose that the current superdominance of Eucalyptus and Corymbia in Australia may be the result of the fire adaptive abilities of the genus in coincidence with the increase in burning associated with the arrival of Aboriginal people, although fire is not the only determinant for tropical Eucalypt distribution. While fire is thought to be the major factor controlling the spatial distribution of fire-sensitive species such as Callitris intratropica (Bowman and Panton 1993a), its influence on the distribution of tropical Eucalypts is not as pronounced. In tropical areas, fire is widely believed to be the major factor controlling the monsoon rainforest/savanna boundary (Hopkins 1983). However in northern Australia, only low numbers of rainforest seedlings establish in fireprotected Eucalypt woodlands (Bowman et al. 1988, Fensham 1992, Bowman and Panton 1995). Soil fertility, soil moisture and mycorrhiza may also control rainforest seedling establishment (Bowman and Panton 1993b). Eucalypt regrowth is extremely resilient to burning; Wilson and Bowman (1987) reported 83% recovery of woody sprouts less than two metres tall despite them experiencing 50-100% crown scorch (Neldner 1996). 16 Study Area Fire intensity increases with time after the last summer rains. Bowman (1988) and Bowman et al. (1988) report little floristic or structural change in woodland vegetation with different experimental burning regimes after 12 years. These authors propose that dry season moisture supply and overstorey competition (Bowman 1988) or edaphic factors (Bowman et al. 1988) primarily determine the structure and floristics of eucalypt woodland understoreys. However Lonsdale and Braithwaite (1991) state that more caution is required in interpreting these fire experiments and that it is premature to conclude that the timing of annual fires has little effect on vegetation structure or floristics. They report that a single unusually intense fire caused changes in the relative abundance of species; no species were lost but a substantial loss of biomass and vegetation structure occurred. Braithwaite and Estbergs (1985) proposed that regular fires caused the absence of well-developed sapling layers in E. tetrodonta woodlands. Results for most woody species in the Bowman and Panton (1995) study supported this conclusion. However these authors suggest that other factors such as intraspecific competition may also be involved (Neldner 1996). Further changes to the floristic composition of Australian tropical savannas due to the introduction of new pasture species and the subsequent grazing pressure on the savannas have coincided with a change in fire regimes throughout the Australian continent since European settlement. Changed fire regimes are reported to have a number of effects but the significance of these and certainly their management, are not necessarily well understood. They do serve, however, as indicators of changes that are occurring. For example: • In parts of the tropical savannas fire exclusion and intense grazing patterns may result in an increase in the presence of woody shrubs (Stocker and Mott 1981, Wilson et al. 1990, Russell-Smith 1996, Russell-Smith et al. in press). • In Kakadu National Park comparisons between plots that were burnt and plots from which fire was excluded over a twenty year period indicated that rainforest tree species do not readily colonise unburnt savanna wooded with Eucalyptus spp. (Bowman and Panton 1995). • In a review of data on the effects of fire in relation to rangeland management in the high-rainfall Kimberley rangelands, Craig (1997) concluded that “an increase in broad-scale early dry season burning is likely to reduce the extent of later more destructive fires while providing other benefits for cattle enterprises”. • Intense, late-season wildfires are having a catastrophic effect on native firesensitive species, communities and habitats (Russell-Smith et al. in press). The dynamics of Australia savannas are influenced by the combined effects of fire frequency, fire intensity, season of burning, grazing and rainfall (Lacey et al. 1982). In discussing the temporal variability of vegetation, Wilson et al. (1990) point out that the long-term effects of fire are unclear, as few fire-exclusion studies have been reported. In an effort to identify and define key fire management issues across northern Australia, a major research project led by J. Russell-Smith is underway into broad scale patterning of fire using satellite imagery. Part of this research involves examining fire history over a number of years. Data from monitoring plots on lands of various tenures are used to explore relationships between fire regimes and vegetation responses (TS-CRC 1998). This type of study, particularly the component that documents fire history, is needed to develop an understanding of changes in vegetation pattern and distribution as a result of fire. In order to assist building an understanding of human burning regimes over a far longer period, Craig (1997) highlights the urgent need to document the traditional knowledge of Aboriginal people in relation to landscape and fire. One issue to be resolved before traditional burning can resume in many areas is the perception within some nonAboriginal communities that regard Aboriginal landscape burning as uncontrolled (Cooke 1998, Cooke in press). THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 17 2.5 Phytogeography of Australia In previous sections of this chapter we presented details of the geophysical history and processes and climate that gave rise to the Australian environment and the floristic components of them. In this section we present a synthesis of the data to explain the characteristics and distribution of the contemporary Australian vegetation. J. D. Hooker (1860) was the first to present a phytogeographical analysis of the Australian flora, recognising elements that he named for their affinities, i.e. Indian, Australian, New Zealand and Polynesian, Antarctic, South African and European. Hooker’s analysis was remarkably prescient considering the state of knowledge of plate tectonics, continental drift and palaeoecology and palaeoclimatology at the time. He recognised that the pattern of trans-oceanic affinity amongst floras was an ancient one and that they were the relics of a previous widespread and possibly global flora. It was not until Wegener’s (1915) presentation of the theory of continental drift that the reason for biological distribution patterns became apparent to biologists, although it took substantially longer for the concept to gain universal support. In 1896 Spencer used faunal grouping to divide Australia into three subregions, Torresian, Bassian and Eyrean. Subsequent authors recognised the validity of these regions in studies of the distribution of both the flora and the fauna, although Burbidge (1960) preferentially used the names Tropical, Temperate and Eremaean for them. Schodde (1989) produced a modified version (Figure 2.5) that is most widely used today; it retains the three previously described subregions, but reflecting recent advances in our understanding of the derivation of the current Australian vegetation and the effects of plate tectonics, included the Tumbuna and Irian rainforest elements. Tropic of Capricorn BASSIAN EYREAN IRIAN TORRESIAN TUMBUNAN Figure 2.5 Biotic regions of Australia 18 Study Area 0 1000 Kilometres The Torresian element comprises tropical eucalypt woodlands and semi-deciduous forest growing in northern areas with a monsoon climate. Areas of this element also occur in lowland New Guinea and in Malesia. The Bassian element comprises the temperate woodlands and forest with a sclerophyll understorey dominated by Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae), Acacia (Mimosaceae), Proteaceae and Epacridaceae. The Eyrean element consists of arid-adapted vegetation including Chenopods, hummock-grasses (Triodia) and shrublands and woodlands of Eucalyptus and Acacia spp. These three units equate to Barlow’s (1981) Autochthonous element. The Tumbuna element is cool temperate to subtropical rainforest dominated by Nothofagus, and Podocarpaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Proteaceae, Cunoniaceae, Eleocarpaceae and Winteraceae that is found in fragments of Gondwana with suitable climates, e.g. upland southern New Guinea, New Zealand, upland Africa and southern South America. In north Australia the Tumbuna element is present only in the Wet Tropics and accordingly does not appear on the map of the Australian Tropical Savannas. The Irian element represents rainforest with Malesian affinities and while of restricted extent in Australia small areas of it occur in the mapped area, they include the closed forest communities on Cape York Peninsula, in Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory and in the Kimberley of Western Australia. The biotic subregions suggested by Spencer and amended by Schodde relate well to the broad vegetation elements (Barlow 1981; Nelson 1981) but each contains disjunct representations of other groups, for example outliers of cold climate flora in northern montane refugia and of Irian components in the Torresian. Beadle (1981) recognised three ancestral components of the Australian flora; they were the Nothofagus assemblage, the broad-leaved ‘Cinnamomum’ assemblage, and the herbaceous cold-climate assemblage. Barlow (1981) subdivided these assemblages into five floristic elements • • • • • Pangaean Gondwanan Autochthonous Post-Miocene, and Recent Invasive. These elements were utilised by Specht (1981) in his description of the major Australian plant formations that were used by us in the mapping of the Australian Tropical Savannas. More recently Barlow (1994) summarised the phytogeographic composition of the Australian vegetation as indicated in Table 2.2. Table 2.2 Phytogeographic composition of the Australian vegetation. Element 1. Gondwanan Subelement 1a. Relict 1b. Autochthonous 2. Intrusive 2a. Tropical 2b. Cosmopolitan 2c. Neoaustral Description Derived directly from the original Gondwanan flora present in Australia. Present day survivors of the humid Gondwanan flora. Highly endemic, derived in response to climatic cycles under geographic isolation. Reached Australia after separation from Gondwanaland. Malesian plants of post-Miocene inception, although probably ultimately of Gondwanan derivation Widely dispersed taxa of high dispersibility Temperate species of northern hemisphere derivation THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 19 The Relict subelement is the least common but most widely distributed; most of the taxa from this period are now extinct but recognisable elements extant in Australia are Callitris, Agathis, Wollemia, Cyathea and Macrozamia species. A few taxa, e.g. Cycas, reflect a pre-Gondwanan derivation and may be referred to a ‘Pangaean’ element. The Gondwanan elements are restricted to areas previously part of the supercontinent and extant taxa often extend across several continents, e.g. Nothofagus and representatives of the families Lauraceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Proteaceae and Mimosaceae, although several distinctive families, e.g. Idiospermaceae and Austrobaileyaceae, are now restricted to single species in Australia. Elements of Gondwanan closed forest vegetation persist in small areas of northeast Queensland with 40% of the 165 genera present being endemic (Barlow and Hyland 1988 cited in Barlow 1994). The Autochthonous element is derived from ancestral Gondwanan taxa that diversified in response to changing environmental conditions on the Australian plate with midMiocene drying. These taxa are typically scleromorphic, have a high level of endemism and many, e.g. Eucalyptus, Grevillea, Casuarina, Xanthorrhoea, Triodia and Astrebla, typify the contemporary Australian vegetation. The intrusive elements of the Australian vegetation consist of three discrete units; the first is the tropical Malesian plants of predominantly Gondwanan derivation, Schodde’s Irian Element, which entered from the north as the Australian continent closed on the Eurasian terrains. This element includes taxa now part of the tropical rainforests of the northeast, e.g. Rhododendron, Agapetes, Licuala and some Poa species but many of the taxa typical of the Asian rain forests, e.g. of the Family Dipterocarpaceae, do not extend to mainland Australia. Closed forest communities including those taxa that do reach Australia occur on Cape York Peninsula, for example in the Lockerbie Scrub, in small patches in the Northern Territory and the Kimberley and in the case of R. lochiae and Licuala in the Wet Tropics, as far south as Tully. The second intrusive element is the cosmopolitan taxa that are easily dispersed. Twenty- five percent of the flora of the arid zone Eyrean element is representative of families, e.g. Poaceae, Aizoaceae, Asteraceae and Brassicaceae that are widespread in similar habitats around the world. Much of the remaining vegetation e.g. Acacia spp, is derived from genera more common in adjoining more mesic areas. The species composition in this zone supports the relatively recent evolution of it, c. 35 Ma, and Schodde’s suggestion that it is a ‘sink’ with species primarily derived from the surrounding scleromorphic vegetation. The third intrusive element is of northern hemisphere temperate species. Some earlier workers considered that the Australian alpine flora primarily consisted of Neoaustral taxa but data supporting this hypothesis is not as strong as initially thought (see Barlow 1994). There is little evidence to suggest extensive migration of temperate northern hemisphere plant species into Australia and of those that have many are of Gondwanan origin. As in the Eyrean Zone the flora is dominated by species derived from longestablished Autochthonous vegetation associations (Barlow 1994). In addition to the above sources and associations there is one other aspect of the phytogeography of Australia that needs to be recognized. This is the species introduced, either inadvertently or deliberately, by people. Some species, e.g. the tamarind Tamarindus indica, probably introduced by visiting Macassan fishermen prior to the arrival of Europeans, form a minor part of the flora but others, e.g. Mimosa pigra, Acacia nilotica and Prosopis* spp. are sufficiently numerous and widespread to substantially modify the vegetation of the mapped area. 20 Study Area 2.6 Biogeographic regionalisation In his book on biogeography, Dansereau (1957) described environmental processes as being essentially of three kinds: “climate, soil (or site) and the living organisms themselves”. This concept was a continuation of the awareness amongst ecologists that had been developing through most of the first half of the twentieth century about the intrinsic relationships between vegetation and environmental factors. The concept of plant groupings has existed in Australia for many years. In 1926, for example, Clarke (cited in Beard 1979) recognised and delineated 16 ‘natural regions’ in Western Australia and over the years others such as Burbidge (1960) developed groupings such as phytogeographic zones, which generally equated to Clarke’s earlier natural regions. There was, however, no clear match between the work of Clarke (1926) and that of Beard (1979) in the Kimberley region, perhaps due to the fact that knowledge of the vegetation in that region had increased since Clarke’s time. Beard refined the delineation of these zones with the vegetation mapping series of Western Australia and the development of Botanical Districts that became the basis for ‘bioregions’ in Western Australia. In Queensland, Stanton and Morgan (1977) built on earlier work, including that of Burbidge (1960), and the substantial land system mapping information produced by the CSIRO, to develop 13 bioregions for that state. The bioregions were based on broad landscape patterns derived from major structural lithologies, climate and changes in floristic and faunistic assemblages (Sattler and Williams 1999). Establishing a framework for the assessment of conservation status and to set priorities for a national reserve system depended on cross-jurisdictional agreement about the division of Australia into biogeographic regions. The development of that framework resulted in the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation of Australia (IBRA) (Figure 2.6). This regionalisation summarised patterns and aggregated information across State and Territory boundaries (Thackway and Cresswell 1995). TIW TIW DARW IN # DAC NK NK BROOME # DL PCK CA CYP DAB VB NK CK ARC ARP STU GUC GFU # CAIRNS W et Tr opics OVP EIU GUP TOW NSVIL LE # Centr al Queensland Coast MII MG D Tropic of Capricorn DEU BBN # ROCKHAMPTON Figure 2.6 The biogeographic regions used to define the area of the map of the Australian tropical savannas. Adapted from the Interim Bioregionalisation of Australia v.5.0 (Environment Australia 2000). THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 21 Prior to the national approach of IBRA, biogeographic regions had been defined for some Australian States and not others. A national focus provided the opportunity to interpret and integrate bioregions across State and Territory boundaries. Attributes used in developing IBRA were climate, geology, lithology, landform, vegetation and flora and fauna (Thackway and Cresswell 1995). The use of bioregions to define the extent of tropical savannas is possible because of the interpretation of ecological patterns. However, Thackway and Cresswell (1995) warn that because of the different methodologies used by each State and Territory to derive the individual regionalisations, there may be attribute and boundary inconsistencies that need revision. The bioregions in the Australia tropical savannas vegetation map are listed in Table 2.3. Table 2.3 IBRA bioregions in the map of the vegetation of the Australian tropical savannas. • • • • • • • • • • • Arnhem Plateau (ARP) Brigalow Belt North (BBN) Central Arnhem (CA) Central Kimberley (CK) Cape York Peninsula (CYP) Daly Basin (DAB) Dampierland (DL) Desert Uplands (DEU) Einasleigh Uplands (EIU) Gulf Coastal (GUC) Gulf Fall and Uplands (GFU) • • • • • • • • • • • Gulf Plains (GUP) Mitchell Grass Downs (MGD) Mount Isa Inlier (MII) Northern Kimberley (NK) Ord-Victoria Plains (OVP) Pine-Creek Arnhem (PCK) Sturt Plateau (STU) Tiwi (TIW) Arnhem Coastal (ARC) Darwin Coastal (DAC) Victoria Bonaparte (VB) 2.7 Land zones - vegetation and the environment Harris (in prep.) defines ‘land zones’ as “geological and geomorphological categories that describe the major geologies and landforms” and Sattler (1999) observes that each land zone ‘represents a significant difference in geology and in the associated landforms, soils and physical processes that gave rise to distinctive landforms or continue to shape them’. Land zones occur across bioregion, map sheet and state boundaries and are used to identify areas of similar type and landform in the landscape. Land zone definitions are independent of vegetation and land use, and differ in this regard to the land systems (Christian and Stewart 1953, 1968) also used in Australia, and mid-level ecoregions (Bailey 1983, Omerick 1995) used in similar mapping elsewhere, e.g. GAP Analysis Program vegetation maps (Scott et al. 1993) in northwest USA. The twelve land zones of Queensland have been extended across the map using the same criteria as applied in Queensland. The Queensland Land Zone Working Group defined Land zones in 1997 by using underlying geology and the age of that geology as the primary determinants (Figure 2.7). They are further differentiated by differences in origin and function, or landforms and soil (Harris in prep). The land zones were identified using the numbers 1 – 12, however in this report they are assigned a prefix letter (Appendix 1.1). Land Zone 6 does not occur in the mapped area. 22 Study Area scale basis 1:1-2 000 000 1:250 000 bioregion land zone coarse geology, landform Adapted from Sattler and Williams (1999) 1:100-250 000 regional ecosystem/ map unit vegetation, soils primary surrogate for planning ‘comprehensive’ protection of biodiversity across bioregions Figure 2.7 Landscape classification showing derivation and scale of land zones. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 23 3. Methods The production of this map was essentially an exercise in re-processing existing data, albeit a complex exercise. The methods and steps used to carry out the re-processing are presented here, as is the method used to map the vegetation of northwest Queensland. Vegetation classification and plant nomenclature are also presented. 3.1 Collation and analysis of existing maps Vegetation map data to cover the study area were obtained from a number sources, principally from government agencies within Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory. The preferred source data for the project were digital maps in a format that could be analysed and re-processed for inclusion in the final map. Table 3.1 lists and Figure 3.1 illustrates the maps available in this format at the start of the project. Table 3.1 Vegetation map data available in digital format at the start of the project. VEGETATION MAP Kimberley and Great Sandy Desert (Beard and Webb 1974, Beard 1979, Hopkins et al. 1999) Northern Territory (Wilson et al. 1990) Central Western Queensland (Neldner 1991) Cape York Peninsula (Neldner and Clarkson 1995) Mitchell Grass Downs (part) (Boyland, 1984, Neldner 1984 and see Appendix 3.1a) Eastern and central Queensland (see Appendix 3.1) SCALE 1:1 000 000 Fig. 3.1a 1:1 000 000 1:1 000 000 1:250 000 1:1 000 000 Fig. 3.1b Fig. 3.1c Fig. 3.1d Fig. 3.1e 1:100 000 and 1:250 000 Fig. 3.1f Vegetation maps in digital format varied in scale. A large area of central and eastern Queensland (Fig. 3.1f) and Cape York Peninsula (Fig. 3.1d) was available as a number of component map sheets at the scale of 1:100 000. The methodology used by the Queensland Herbarium to produce that data had ensured a consistency of line work and attributing that allowed it to be re-processed in its entirety using a single method. This method is presented below in 3.6 Queensland map. Much of the remaining data was at a scale of 1:1 000 000, however, there was considerable variation in the levels of detail contained within each data set. For example, when analysed against the vegetation map of the Northern Territory (Wilson et al. 1990), the vegetation map of Central Western Queensland (Neldner 1991) presented information in far greater detail. It was therefore necessary to generalise the Central Western Queensland data. The steps for generalising individual map sheets across the project extent were determined on a case-by-case basis. In addition to the digital data, several hard copy maps were analysed for their usefulness. Pedley and Isbell (1971) produced a map of Cape York Peninsula vegetation that was a useful reference. The 1:1 000 000 compilation sheets and data files used by Carnahan and others to produce the 1:5 000 000 Australian vegetation map (AUSLIG 1990) were supplied by AUSLIG on clear acetate sheets. The maps were digitised and, although not used as source data for the final map, were used as reference material. The following sections detail how the units were classified and aggregated and also explain the individual processing steps used to simplify the various data used. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 25 b. Northern Territory data a. Kimberley data 0 1000 Kilometres c. Central western Queensland data 0 1000 Kilometres e. Mitchell Grass Downs (part) data 0 1000 Kilometres 0 1000 Kilome tres d. Cape York Peninsula data 0 1000 Kilometres f. Central and eastern Queensland data 0 1000 Kilometres Figure 3.1 Vegetation map data available in digital format at the start of the project. 3.2 Vegetation classification The vegetation classification system used for the map involved an initial interpretation of the classifications used by the authors of each of the component maps. For the most part these individual maps were classified firstly on structure and secondly on floristics and followed the classifications either of Specht (1970), Beard and Webb (1974) or Walker and Hopkins (1984, 1990). The classification used for the project was one modified from Specht (1970) and has been used extensively by mappers from the Queensland Herbarium (Neldner 1984, 1991, 1993); a notable modification being that the vegetation was classified on the characteristic stratum rather than the tallest stratum as in Specht (1970). The structural formations used to describe the vegetation in this map are presented in Table 3.2. 26 METHODS Table 3.2 The structural formations used in the descriptions. After Neldner (1993) modified from Specht (1970). Projective foliage cover of characteristic stratum Life form and height of characteristic stratum+ Dense (70-100)% Mid-dense (30-70)% Sparse (10-30)% tall woodland= Trees* 10-30 m closed-forest tall openforest open-forest woodland open-woodland Trees* < 10 m low closed-forest low woodland Shrubs# 2-8 m thicket/closed shrubland low openforest open-scrub Shrubs# 1-2 m open-heath shrubland low openwoodland tall openshrubland open-shrubland Shrubs# < 1 m dwarf openheath Trees* > 30 m tall shrubland Very sparse (<10)% Succulent shrub Hummock grasses Herbs tussock grassland herbland° Sedges sedgeland Tussock grasses + * # ° = closed-tussock grassland hummock grass-land open-tussock grassland open-herbland° open-hummock grassland sparse-tussock grassland sparseherbland° Characteristic stratum is the layer that contributes most to the biomass. Tree is a woody plant more than 5 m tall usually with a single stem. Shrub is a woody plant less than 8 m tall either multi-stemmed or branched close to ground level, infrequently with a single stem. herbland refers to associations in which species composition and abundance is dependent on seasonal conditions, and at any one time grasses or forbs may predominate. Lower height limit for tall woodland reduced to 25 m for Cape York Peninsula study. Each map unit was assigned an alphanumeric code that relates the unit to a full vegetation and land zone description. The letter prefixing each number represents the land zone (see Appendix 1.1), for example in the unit K4, ‘K’ represents land zone 12, igneous rocks, predominantly granites. As the numeric part of the unit code, ‘12’ represents the number assigned to the unit on the basis of structure so that the map units circumscribing the tallest, most dense vegetation communities are allocated the lowest numbers in contrast to the highest numbers specifying the more open vegetation communities (see 5.4 Key to map units). 3.3 Land zones and map unit aggregation The grouping of the individual units of each map on the basis of land zone (Appendix 1.1) enabled the map units with similar environmental characteristics to then be grouped on the basis of structure and floristics. This formed the basis for describing new map units at 1:1 000 000 scale. Queensland source maps contained regional ecosystem information and by definition (Sattler and Williams 1999) this provided the required land zone information. Land zone information was not available for the Northern Territory and Kimberley map data. The presentation of the map units in groupings based on land zones depended upon developing that that information for every map unit. Many references were used with geology, landform and soil information used as a guide for determining land zone. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 27 The major references were Christian et al. (1954), Perry et al. (1964), Gunn et al. (1967), Northcote et al. (1960-1968), Speck et al. 1968, Galloway et al. (1970), Beard and Webb (1974), Webb (1974), Beard (1979), Wilson et al. (1990), Neldner (1991), BRS (1991, 1991a, 1991b), Neldner and Clarkson (1995); Sattler and Williams (1999) and Harris (in prep.). Given that map units occur across many polygons in the map, by assigning land zone information to each polygon the consistency of the relationships between plant communities and the landscape (as defined by land zone) could be investigated. In some cases there was a very good correlation, that is, polygons of a given map unit were consistently found on the same land zone. In a number of map units, however, this relationship was not so clearly defined and decisions were made about the land zone that the map unit was most likely to be found on. The descriptions of each map unit (5.5 The map unit descriptions) indicate the land zones on which a given map unit may be found. The final aggregation of map units was achieved by sorting first to land zone and then on the basis of dominant structure and floristics. Units occurring on the same land zone and having a close structural and floristic relationship were assigned a unique map unit code. 3.4 Cartographic procedures The map data from each State or Territory covered by this project were available in different formats and at different scales. Classification schemes also varied. To a large extent, the project involved re-working individual map datasets into a consistent format at a consistent scale. A number of basic procedures were established at the earliest stages of the work in relation to polygon size and a standardised map base to which all data would be fitted. These procedures were also used during the production of a new map of northwest Queensland for which there was no seamless vegetation map at a scale suitable to the project. The 1:1 000 000 scale vegetation map of the Northern Territory (Wilson et al. 1990) was taken as the base against which other maps were compared before attribute data and lines were re-processed. 3.4.1 Polygon size In an attempt to retain as much detail as possible from the source mapping, the minimum polygon size was set at 1000 hectares but it quickly became apparent that, whilst this was satisfactory for the digital coverage at 1:1 000 000, it was difficult to represent on a hard copy 1:2 000 000 map. As a general guide to the botanists involved in the project, minimum size was increased to 2000 hectares with that size to be used during the processing of individual maps. Some allowance was made for ecologically complex areas in which case the minimum of 1000 hectares applied, but this was not adopted generally. 3.4.2 Standardised map base All datasets used were fitted to a standard map base. The coastline used came from the 1:2.5 000 000 topographic map of Australia (AUSLIG, 1998). The southern extent of the final map was derived from IBRA version 5.0 (Environment Australia 2000). Geographical information system (GIS) tasks for the project were carried out using software produced by Environmental Systems Research Institute Inc. (ESRI). ArcView Version 3.2 for PC was used for minor editing and production of the linework for the northwest Queensland map (ESRI 1996). Final editing, building and joining of the major data sets were undertaken in ARC/INFO Version 8.0.2 for Unix. 28 METHODS 3.4.3 Generalising small polygons, narrow polygons and setting tolerances. To reduce the density of linework within source maps, polygons smaller than 1000 hectares in extent were selected in the GIS and look-up tables to describing the attributes of those polygons were created. The polygons were then dissolved in ARC/INFO (ESRI 1994) GIS by the following process: • It was determined whether the adjacent or surrounding polygon was to acquire the attributes of the dissolved polygon, • In the edit coverage, polygons were merged with the desired adjacent or surrounding polygon, • The coverage was edited to remove narrow polygon slivers (for example, river polygons less than 250m in width), and • Complex line work was smoothed using minimum tolerance settings in editing; the smallest gap between lines was set at 0.25mm (250m at 1:1 000 000 scale). The ARC/INFO (1994) automated computer processes of weed tolerance, node tolerance, and arc snap distances were set to this level. 3.5 Processing existing maps At the outset of the project it was felt that an automated technique, utilising GIS tools to simplify the detailed source maps, would provide a straightforward method of data processing. Cape Weymouth and Coen, two of the detailed vegetation map sheets from the Cape York Peninsula data (Neldner and Clarkson 1995) were selected for testing an automated method of simplification. Despite a number of techniques being tried, including re-assigning polygon attributes and computerised merging of small polygons, the approach failed to produce a useful representation of the vegetation at the required scale. Re-assigning attributes merely resulted in polygons with new attributes but still having linework that was too detailed for representation at the map scale. Allowing the computer to automatically merge small polygons resulted in new polygons but not necessarily polygons with the attributes of the dominant vegetation, with the computer unable to intuitively re-assign the attributes correctly. Given the difficulties experienced with the automated approach, a method of re-interpreting the maps was developed and is described below in 3.6 Queensland map. Differences in scale, classification and format of the many maps that were used as the base data for this project required the development of methods for processing attribute and line data to ensure compatibility at the scales of 1:1 000 000 and 1:2 000 000. These issues were relatively simple to resolve in the Northern Territory map which already existed as a seamless coverage and at a suitable scale, however for the Kimberley and Queensland map data there were significant issues to resolve, including: • Generalising the 1:250 000 and 1:100 000 scale vegetation maps of Cape York Peninsula and central and eastern Queensland, • Simplifying heterogeneous polygons in the Queensland data, • Resolving edge inconsistencies and the need to generalise the 1:250 000 Kimberley map data, • Representing small but ecologically important map units, such as Kimberley rainforests, that were desirable for inclusion at the 1:1 000 000 or 1:2 000 000 scales, regardless of spatial extent, • Developing a consistent set of environmental and structural characteristics to assist the grouping of the detailed vegetation/map units even where the units themselves may have floristic differences, • Resolving the lack of environmental information for the map units of the Northern Territory and Kimberley maps, and • Generalising small polygons, narrow polygons and setting tolerances for processing. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 29 A number of processing steps were used to ensure that the many component maps used in this project were at a uniform scale and classified in a consistent way. In this way adjoining maps were able to be edge-matched. The individual map units from the many maps used were classified using a modified Specht (1970) classification (see chapter 3.1 Vegetation classification). The result was that a map for each State and Territory was developed at a scale of 1:1 000 000, with modified Specht (1970) classification and land zone information in each unit (see Introduction: Land zones). 3.6 Queensland map 3.6.1 Generalising the 1:100 000 vegetation maps of central and eastern Queensland. The map data for central and eastern Queensland (Fig. 3.1f) and Cape York Peninsula (Fig. 3.1d) were available at a scale of 1:250 000 although linework for much of that data was at a more detailed scale of 1:100 000. The first stage in generalising the data was the grouping of the attributes in the map legends on the basis of land zone. Once sorted to land zone, units were analysed for floristic and structural similarities and sorted into new aggregated groupings. These were then assigned a new map code, called the Qcode; Table 3.3 shows an example of the method used to group sort units by land zone and then to group on structure and floristics. The data were taken from the attribute table of the Cape York Peninsula vegetation map (Neldner and Clarkson, 1995). Table 3.3 Example of Qcode sorting MAP DESCRIPTION_CYP Qcode DESCRIPTION_Qcode UNIT 78 Eucalyptus leptophleba + E. clarksoniana Q23 Corymbia clarksoniana/polycarpa +/- Eucalyptus + Erythrophleum chlorostachys (Sandstone colluvium, Laura) W 114 Eucalyptus clarksoniana + Melaleuca Q23 80 Eucalyptus leptophleba, E. tessellaris + Q24 88 Eucalyptus polycarpa (or E. Q24 viridiflora + E. platyphylla (Plains & floodplains, yellow earths) OW E. clarksoniana (Riverine levées) W clarksoniana) + E. papuana + E. curtipes (E. papuana OW on edge) (levées, Mitchell floodplain) W 91 Eucalyptus tessellaris + E. clarksoniana + E. acroleuca + E. leptophleba (Lakefield levées) W 44 Eucalyptus tessellaris, E. clarksoniana + Q24 Q25 Lophostemon suaveolens + Acacia crassicarpa (coastal areas) OF-W Q25 84 Eucalyptus novoguinensis + E. tessellaris + E. nesophila (northern CYP) W 94 Eucalyptus tetrodonta + E. clarksoniana Q25 + E. tessellaris (Coastal lowlands) W 87 Eucalyptus platyphylla +/- E. Q26 1 Q27 2 30 clarksoniana (Flat wet plains) W-OF Eucalyptus tetrodonta + E. hylandii var. campestris + Erythrophleum chlorostachys (The Desert) TW Eucalyptus tetrodonta, E. nesophila + Erythrophleum chlorostachys (Bauxite plateau) TW METHODS Q27 leptophleba +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys +/Eucalyptus spp. +/- Melaleuca spp. (Plains, floodplains) W-OW Corymbia clarksoniana/polycarpa +/- Eucalyptus leptophleba +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys +/Eucalyptus spp. +/- Melaleuca spp. (Plains, floodplains) W-OW Eucalyptus leptophleba +/- Corymbia polycarpa/clarksoniana +/- Corymbia tessellaris +/Eucalyptus acroleuca +/- Corymbia dallachiana (levées, floodplains and coastal areas) OF-W Eucalyptus leptophleba +/- Corymbia polycarpa/clarksoniana +/- Corymbia tessellaris +/Eucalyptus acroleuca +/- Corymbia dallachiana (Levées, floodplains and coastal areas) OF-W Eucalyptus leptophleba +/- Corymbia polycarpa/clarksoniana +/- Corymbia tessellaris +/Eucalyptus acroleuca +/- Corymbia dallachiana (Levées, floodplains and coastal areas) OF-W Corymbia tessellaris and/or Corymbia clarksoniana and/or Eucalyptus tetrodonta +/- Corymbia novoguinensis (Coastal areas, lowlands) OF-W Corymbia tessellaris and/or Corymbia clarksoniana and/or Eucalyptus tetrodonta +/- Corymbia novoguinensis (Coastal areas, lowlands) OF-W Corymbia tessellaris and/or Corymbia clarksoniana and/or Eucalyptus tetrodonta +/- Corymbia novoguinensis (Coastal areas, lowlands) OF-W Eucalyptus platyphylla +/- Corymbia clarksoniana (Flat wet plains) OF-W Eucalyptus tetrodonta + Erythrophleum chlorostachys +/- Corymbia hylandii var. campestris +/- Corymbia nesophila (Bauxite plateau and The Desert) TW Eucalyptus tetrodonta + Erythrophleum chlorostachys +/- Corymbia hylandii var. campestris +/- Corymbia nesophila (Bauxite plateau and The Desert) TW Land zone 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 5 New 1:250 000 maps coloured to Qcode were plotted. Botanists then re-interpreted the maps and circumscribed new polygons based on the Qcode colouring. Figure 3.2 shows a section of the 1:250 000 vegetation map of Cape Weymouth (Neldner and Clarkson 1995) on Cape York Peninsula after Qcoding and prior to digitising. The botanists then assigned new Qcode attributes to the polygon, with up to 3 attributes assigned to each heterogeneous polygon. This technique enabled the botanists to consider retaining important landscape and vegetation characteristics on the small-scale map, even where polygon size was marginal. Templates with polygons of 2000 hectares were used to guide the work. The new Qcode linework was then manually digitised using ARC/INFO (ESRI 1994) and once the linework was cleaned and checked in the GIS, the Qcode attributes were added to each polygon before topology was built. To enable checking of the new lines and attributes, check plots at 1:500 000 were compared to the original 1:250 000 maps. 3.6.2 Simplifying heterogeneous polygons in the Queensland 1:100 000 data. Many of the polygons in the detailed Queensland maps contained heterogeneous attributes, with up to five vegetation map units described in each polygon. These attributes were represented in decreasing order of dominance within the polygon, for example, where the attributes were v1/v2/v3/v4/v5 then the v1 attribute represented the plant community with the highest proportion. During the Qcode process, new maps were printed with the v1 attribute coloured by Qcode and each polygon was labelled with its heterogeneous label (Figure 3.2). Attributing was limited to a maximum of three codes per polygon. The attributes were maintained as heterogeneous for the Queensland data. Figure 3.2 Example of a re-interpreted Qcode map. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 31 3.7 Kimberley (Western Australia) map 3.7.1 Resolving edge inconsistencies and the need to generalise the 1:250 000 Kimberley map data. The newly digitised (Hopkins et al. 1999) version of the 1:1 000 000 vegetation maps of the Kimberley (Beard 1979) and the Great Sandy Desert (Beard and Webb 1974) were used as the basis for developing the vegetation map of the Kimberley used in this project (see Fig. 3.1a). This digital data comprised numerous 1:250 000 maps (known as tiles) joined into one map coverage. Inconsistencies within the digital data, such as mismatching boundaries of individual map tiles, were resolved by reference to the original 1:1 000 000 paper maps by Beard (1979) and Beard and Webb (1974). Linework for the map retained its original detail with many polygons of a very small area or with highly complex boundaries. In some cases, clusters of small polygons with the same attributes were re-drawn into a larger polygon to ensure that those plant communities retained some degree of representation in the landscape. Once this task was completed, the 2000 hectares standard limit was applied to the data and smaller polygons were merged with larger polygons. Complex polygon boundaries were smoothed manually on screen in the GIS. 3.7.2 Representing small but ecologically important map units regardless of spatial extent. The issue of representing small (<2000 hectares) but ecologically important map units was considered for the Kimberley map since it was still in the process of development and the data could be added during re-processing. Rainforest often occurs in small patches, but the patches do occupy a predictable niche in the landscape (Kenneally et al. 1991). Some rainforest patches were represented in the existing Northern Territory and Queensland maps so for consistency the decision was made to include some of the Kimberley rainforest areas on the map. The raster version of the Kimberley rainforest map (CALM 1987) was used in the GIS as a back coverage and the most dense clusters of rainforest patches were used as the basis for a number of generalised polygons of exaggerated size representing rainforest areas. 3.7.3 Resolving the lack of environmental information for many of the map units of the Kimberley map. The 1:1 000 000 Kimberley (Beard 1979) and the Great Sandy Desert (Beard and Webb 1974) maps did not contain enough information to determine the land zone for every map unit and the new digital versions of these maps did not contain any of this information. The Kimberley and Great Sandy Desert printed maps did contain some broad geology, soil and landform descriptions, but again the data were not presented comprehensively across them. The reports accompanying the original maps did contain such information and these were used as a key reference. To overcome this lack of comprehensive landscape information in the digital map additional digital data were used as a reference. The 1:2 000 000 scale map of Australian Soils (Northcote et al. 1960-68), and the 1:2.5 000 000 maps of Australian Bedrock Geology (BRS 1991) and Australian Surficial Geology (BRS 1991a) were used as a back drop in ArcView GIS. For each polygon in the digital vegetation maps, the backdrop data sets were interrogated for geology, landform and soil information; this information was then used to derive a land zone for each polygon. The Kimberley map units generally had good correlation between vegetation and land zone, with most vegetation types occurring on the same land zone consistently across the region. However, some vegetation units occurred across a number of land zones and decisions were made about which one the unit was most likely to occur on. 32 METHODS 3.8 Northern Territory map 3.8.1 Resolving the lack of environmental information for many of the map units of the Kimberley map. The 1:1 000 000 maps of the Northern Territory (Wilson et al. 1990) did not contain enough information to determine the land zone for each map unit. The Northern Territory map unit descriptions referred to geology, soil and landform but not in a comprehensive way and not for all map units. The digital versions maps did not contain this information. To add land zone information to the Northern Territory map the 1:2 000 000 scale map of Australian Soils (Northcote et al. 1960-68), and the 1:2 500 000 maps of Australian Bedrock Geology (BRS 1991) and Australian Surficial Geology (BRS 1991a) were used as a back drop in ArcView GIS. For each polygon in the digital vegetation maps the backdrop datasets were interrogated for geology, landform and soil information. This information was then used to derive a land zone for each polygon. Given that map units occur across many polygons in the map, by assigning land zone information to each polygon the consistency of the relationships between plant communities and the landscape (as defined by land zone) could be investigated. In some cases there was a very good correlation, that is, polygons of a given map unit were consistently found on the same land zone. In a number of map units this relationship was not so clearly defined and decisions were made about the land zone on which the map unit was most likely to be found. The descriptions of each map unit in Section 5.5 indicate the variation in land zones on which a map unit may be found. 3.9 Production of a vegetation map of northwest Queensland In addition to the task of re-interpreting existing maps, this project was required to fill gaps in vegetation data, specifically a substantial area of northwest Queensland (Figure 3.3) not previously mapped as a seamless vegetation coverage at a scale suitable for joining to other northern Australian map data. This area of approximately 300,000 km 2 was a major focus for the Queensland Herbarium mapping team during 1999. The mapping was based on data gathered during a major field-sampling program. Lines were then digitised on screen using PC ArcView GIS, with a Landsat TM (thematic mapper) satellite image backdrop and with reference to other maps and to the site data. Accurate and adequate site data were essential to the validity of the classification of any new map units developed. Pre-selected field sites were chosen on the basis of anticipated vegetation, geographic distribution, and 0 10 00 Kilo me tre s ease of access. Information about anticipated vegetation was derived from CSIRO landsystem maps and reports. The landsystem maps used as references covered the Barkly Figure 3.3 Previously unmapped areas of northwest Queensland Regions (Christian et al. 1954), the Leichhardt-Gilbert Region (Perry et al. 1964) and the Mitchell-Normanby Region (Galloway et al. 1970). A major drawback with this and other older map information is that it was produced prior to the advent of digital mapping technology; consequently much of the data, whilst having ecological integrity, did not necessarily have spatial accuracy. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 33 Additional reference material used included the 1:5 000 000 (AUSLIG 1990) map of the vegetation of Australia, digital geology data for the region (DME 1999) and recently captured Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite image data. See Appendix 3.2 for the Landsat TM scenes used. Having reached a selected field site, data collection followed the Queensland Herbarium’s standard field methodology (McDonald and Dillewaard 1994, Neldner et al. 1999a). Typical information collected from the 50 metre by 10 metre plot for each site included the species present in each structural layer, the foliage projective cover and basal area, and soil, geology, slope and aspect data. An averaging GPS was used to record the position of each site. The data were recorded manually in the field and then entered into the Herbarium’s CORVEG database for analysis. Data from 295 of these plot-based sites were collected between May and October 1999 (Figure 3.4). In addition to these plot-based sites, observational data were collected during vehicular traverses. One of the botanists in the vehicle used the vehicle GPS and an audio recording tape to record the position and broad-scale vegetation data whilst the vehicle was in transit. This information was later Coral Sea Gulf of Carpentaria transcribed from the tape into a database. With recordings at one kilometre intervals, these observational sites provided a second layer of field data for use in the GIS. These data formed a critical component of the final analysis of the vegetation patterns by providing a point-by-point description of the country traversed in the field (Fox 1999). Data from 6419 sites Figure 3.4 Northwest Queensland plot-based sites were collected between May and October 1999 (Figure 3.5). $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$ $$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$ $$ $$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$$ $ $$ $ $ $ $$ $ $$ $$ $ $ $ $ $$ $ $ $ $ $$$ $$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$ $ $$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$ $$ $ $ $ $ $ $$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$ $ $$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$ $ $ $ $$ $ $ $ $ $$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$ $ $ $ $ $$ $ $$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $$ $ $ $ $ 0 1000 Kilo meters Gulf of Carpentaria Coral Sea ##### ## # # # #### #### #### # ## ## # # ## ## ### ## # ## ##### # # ## # #### # # # # # # # ## # # # # # #### # # ### ## # ## # # # # # ## # # ## ## ## ### # ## # ## ## ## ## ######## ########### ## # # #### # ####### # ## # # ######## #################### ###### # # # # # ### # # # # # # ## #### # # # # # # #### # ### ## 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## # ###################### # ######## ## # # # # ## # ## ####### ###### # # ##### ##### ### # ## ## ## ## # ################## # ### # ## ##### #### ### ####### ## #### ## # ## # ### ## # # ## ## # ###### # # # ## # ####### ## ### # # # # ## ### #### ### # ######### # ## # ## # # # # # # # # # # # ## # ######## # # # # ## # # ## # # ### ################# # # # ## ### ## # # # # # # 0 1000 Kilo meters Figure 3.5 Northwest Queensland observational sites 34 METHODS A draft map of the vegetation of northwest Queensland (Fox and Middleton unpubl.) was distributed for comment in July 2000. Once comments had been received Qcodes were added. An integral part of developing this map was to edge match to surrounding vegetation maps for central western Queensland, Northern Territory, Cape York Peninsula and maps of central and eastern Queensland. 3.10 Joining component data sets Once all of the smaller component maps had been generalised and edited they were joined to make three individual maps, one for the Kimberley, one for the Northern Territory and one for Queensland. These maps and their associated data became the base data for the final map. The map units within each of these maps were assigned a code prefixed by a letter ‘N’ for Northern Territory, ‘Q’ for Queensland and ‘W’ for Western Australia. Tables of these unit descriptions are given in Appendices 3.3, 3.4 and 3.5. Differences in map attributes along common boundaries between state maps were resolved in the individual datasets. Each map was clipped to the IBRA boundaries used to define the extent of the final map. When each map was fitted to the coastline base from the 1:2 500 000 Australian topographic map (AUSLIG, 1998) a number of problems became apparent. The Kimberley map had originally been fitted to a Western Australian Mines Department topographic base (Beard, 1979) but that was not consistent with the current (AUSLIG 1998) national coastline adopted for the project. A new coastline was fitted to the Kimberley map but this created many unclosed polygons. The inconsistencies in these coastal polygons and some of the rectification inconsistencies were corrected in collaboration with the Department of Conservation and Land Management Land Information Branch (Remote Sensing) who hold Landsat TM data for the Kimberley region. The Northern Territory vegetation map was originally produced by interpretation of patterns on Landsat TM imagery (Wilson et al. 1990) and only minor adjustments were required to fit the national coastline (AUSLIG 1998). Queensland map data were already fitted to the AUSLIG topographic coastline. 3.11 Landcover change The vegetation of Australia has undergone significant change since European settlement, with approximately half the forest vegetation and a third of the woodland vegetation cleared by the 1980s (AUSLIG 1990, Barson et al. 2000). Within the Australian tropical savannas the most substantial areas of clearing occur in eastern and central Queensland. Less extensive, but nevertheless significant areas of clearing are present in the Ord River region in the Kimberley and around Darwin and Katherine in the Northern Territory. A map showing a single class for clearing was produced for the project (see 4, Landcover and vegetation change). Clearing was taken to be land that has had its landcover converted from native vegetation to other land uses such as pasture, cropping, urban, water, plantation and orchard, and mining. The Queensland section of the map showing clearing was produced using data from the Queensland Herbarium’s remnant regional ecosystem mapping program for 1997. The available data was a GIS coverage and it was edited in ARC/INFO (ESRI 1994). The Kimberley and Northern Territory clearing map was derived from land cover information published in raster format by the Bureau of Rural Sciences and its ‘Remote Sensing of Agricultural Land Cover Change Project 1990-1995’ (Kitchin and Barson 1998, Barson et al. 2000). Lines were digitised in ARC/INFO (ESRI 1994) around those classes that represent clearing on the raster data. Once completed the maps of clearing for each State and Territory were joined into a single north Australian landcover map coverage. This was then intersected in the GIS with the vegetation map (Fox et al. 2001) to generate statistics on remnant vegetation. The data were refined to produce statistics for each map unit, for each land zone and for each bioregion (see chapter 4 Landcover and vegetation change). THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 35 3.12 Map review The vegetation map was produced in collaboration with a number of agencies and individuals who have produced or continue to produce vegetation data for northern Australia. In this project, an integral part of the map production was the process of consultation during the processing work and then of submitting draft map outputs and reports to reviewers for comment. Table 3.4 shows the sequence of review. Table 3.4 Map review process DATE OUTPUT FOR REVIEW REVIEWER April 2000 Edit suggestions for joining Kimberley and Northern Territory vegetation data Draft map of the vegetation of the Kimberley Draft map of the vegetation of northwest Queensland vegetation Conservation and Land Management (Perth, Kimberley), Agriculture Western Australia, and Northern Territory Department of Lands, Planning and Environment Conservation and Land Management (Perth, Kimberley), Agriculture Western Australia and J.S. Beard. Queensland Department of Primary Industries (Longreach, Mareeba, Mt Isa), Northern Gulf Resource Management Group Inc., Southern Gulf Catchments Inc. and Environmental Protection Agency (Biodiversity Assessment and Services) Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Savannas, Conservation and Land Management (Perth, Kimberley), Agriculture Western Australia, Northern Territory Department of Lands, Planning and Environment, Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory, Environmental Protection Agency (Biodiversity Assessment and Services), Queensland Department of Natural Resources (Forest Ecosystem Research and Assessment), Queensland Department of Primary Industries (Tropical Beef Centre), J.S. Beard and G. Morgan (EPA) J.A. Carnahan (Australian National University, retired), K.J.M. Dickinson (University of Otago), K.F. Kenneally (Department of Conservation and Land Management), and G.L. Werren (Australian Centre for Tropical Freshwater Research) May 2000 July 2000 October 2000 Draft map of the vegetation of northern Australia March 2001 Draft technical report and map on the vegetation of the Australian tropical savannas 3.13 Nomenclature The base data used for the project date from 1954 to 2000. During that period, largely as a result of increased field sampling and advances in Australian plant systematics, many of the plant names used by earlier authors have changed. One of the best-known changes, and perhaps the most contentious, was the revision of the Myrtaceous bloodwoods, formerly genus Eucalyptus, to genus Corymbia by Hill and Johnson (1995). In order to present all plant species data within the report in a consistent format, the authors have followed the Queensland Herbarium’s current census of plant names (Queensland Herbarium, 2001). In the case of Corymbia, at the time of writing the Queensland Herbarium accepted the Hill and Johnson (1995) revision and it is used throughout this report. Where the Queensland Herbarium census did not list a species or where it did not list the full geographical extent of a species or group of species, a number of other references were used. For tracking changes to species names and distributions additional references were needed. The key references used were Wheeler et al. (1992), Brooker and Kleinig (1994), Hill and Johnson (1995), Henderson (1997), Western Australian Herbarium (1998), Queensland Herbarium (2001), and Australian National Botanic Gardens (2001). Introduced species are indicated with by the symbol *. 36 METHODS Whilst the use of common names is generally avoided in ecological studies, the likelihood of widespread use of the map and this report prompted the inclusion of common names in the vegetation descriptions (see Appendix 3.6). Common names were derived from a number of sources including Wheeler et al. (1992), Brock (1993), Brooker and Kleinig (1994), Milson (2000, 2000a), Clarkson (in draft) and Neldner and Clarkson (in prep.). 3.14 Digital covers This report describes vegetation map units at the scale of 1:2 000 000 and the methods used to develop those units. The three maps for the individual States and Territory that were developed during data processing were joined and new attributes assigned to each unit. These formed the basis for a digital coverage at the scale of 1:1 000 000 which were then aggregated to form the final vegetation map units for the 1:2 000 000 map. The 1:1 000 000 scale data has been maintained as a separate digital dataset which will provide a practical tool for research and planning at the regional scale. A lookup table relating the vegetation units in that digital coverage to the vegetation units described in this report is presented in Appendix 3.7. The scale of the base maps and the methodology used to develop the Queensland data has resulted in heterogeneous (multiple) vegetation attributes within each Queensland polygon. That heterogeneity was maintained in the digital coverage, however for consistency across the entire map the Queensland data was also prepared with homogeneous (single) vegetation attributes. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 37 4. Landcover and vegetation change In this chapter we discuss in broad terms landcover change in the Australian tropical savannas. Satellite image technology has enabled the gross changes brought about by broad acre clearing to be identified and quantified and this information forms the basis of the following discussion. We also recognize there has been a long term change in the structure of vegetation communities due to the increasing density of woody shrubs in the sub-canopy layer of many woodlands and as a new shrub overstorey in grassland communities. A full study of this issue is beyond the scope of this project, but it is nevertheless recognised in the context of land management and is discussed briefly. 4.1 Landcover change The area of vegetation mapped in this study is 190 million hectares and is allocated to 125 map units across 11 land zones and 22 bioregions. The vegetation map of the Australian tropical savannas (Fox et al. 2001) was used as a pre-clearing base-map. In addition a remnant map was produced from 1997 land clearing data. A land clearing map, Figure 4.1, was derived as a composite of data from different sources. The methodology used to produce the map is explained in 3.11 Landcover change. An intercept of pre-clearing and the 1997 remnant maps results in a statistic showing that 8.76 million hectares (4.61%) of the project area had been cleared of native vegetation in 1997; this is an area greater than that of the state of Tasmania in Australia, Maine in the USA, and of the country of Scotland in the UK. DARWIN #S # S BROOME CAIRNS S # # S TOWNSVILLE Tropic of Capricorn # S ROCKHAMPTON Figure 4.1 Extent and location of land clearing in the Australian Tropical savannas. Ninety-six (76.8%) of the 125 map units have been cleared to some extent (range 0.01 – 73.31%). Most clearing has been for grazing and cropping with more limited areas cleared for mining, plantations, and dams construction. More extensive clearing of some vegetation types closely related to those within the map area has occurred beyond the map extent, e.g. in the Brigalow Belt South. When considered in a wider context, the clearing outside the map extent substantially changes the status of the map units within THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 39 the project area and this fact should be considered in land use and biodiversity conservation planning. 4.1.1 Most affected bioregions Eight (36.4%) of the 22 bioregions (see 2.6 Biogeographic regionalisation) included in the mapped area had no areas of clearing of greater than 3000 hectares that could be graphically displayed on the maps. The clearing of vegetation in the remaining 14 bioregions ranged from 0.03 to 47.14%. Six bioregions had areas of greater than 1.0% cleared (range 1.06 – 47.14) and the same bioregions contributed the greatest area of vegetation cleared (Figure 4.2). 10 area cleared (million Ha) 9 8 7 47.1 6 5 4 3 3.42 2 11.7 2.03 1 1.29 1.06 VB DAC 0 BBN MGD DEU EIU Figure 4.2 The area and percentage of total area cleared of vegetation in the six most affected bioregions in the map area. The most affected bioregions are four in Queensland (BBN, DEU, MGD and EIU) with one each in the Northern Territory (DAC) and Western Australia/Northern Territory (VB). 4.1.2 Most affected Land zones area cleared (million hectares) Clearing has been most intensive on Land zones 3 and 4 (Unit C in Figure 4.3); these constitute the areas of Quaternary and Tertiary alluvia and colluvia on low-lying flat and gentle slopes in the landscape and, in particular, the floodplains of rivers. 5.0 52.97 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 17.92 1.5 9.25 1.0 7.08 6.96 2.17 0.5 1.83 1.48 H E 0.11 0.11 0.0 C D J G F K A B Figure 4.3 Total area and percentage of vegetation cleared in each land zone (N =10 as LZ3 and 4 treated as a composite in Unit C). 40 LANDCOVER AND VEGETATION CHANGE 4.1.3 Most affected Map Units The data presented above give an indication of the location and extent of vegetation loss in the mapped area but do not show which vegetation types or vegetation units are most affected by clearing or change. This information is required for effective resource management and biodiversity conservation, particularly in respect to the research, management and conservation of distinct vegetation ecosystems (Sattler 1999). The great proportion of clearing in the map area is restricted to a small number of units; 18 units with a clearing area of greater than 100 000 hectares each contribute 90.99% of the total clearing (Figure 4.4) and 19 units with vegetation clearing of greater than 10% contribute 79.0% of the total clearing (Figure 4.5). area cleared (million Ha) 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 C4 C5 D8 D7 J7 F8 C7 J8 C9 G1 G10 F6 C18 C2 K6 E1 C8 H4 Figure 4.4 Australian tropical savanna map units with clearing of greater than 100 000 hectares. 80 % of unit cleared 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 J7 C2 C4 G3 C9 D8 C8 F3 C5 J1 F1 H4 D7 F8 F6 D1 G1 H2 C6 Figure 4.5 Australian tropical savanna map units with greater than 10% of original vegetation cleared. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 41 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 no of units represented no of units represented It is important to note that the units identified in the two graphs above are not synonymous and that the Land zones in which they occur also vary considerably (Figure 4.6 and 4.7). C D J F G K E 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 C H F D J G Figure 4.7 Land zone of map units with greater 10% zone of original vegetation Figurethan 4.7 Land of cleared. Figure 4.6 Land zone of map units with greater than 100 000 ha of clearing. While the data above account for the greater percentage of the clearing of vegetation in the map area they do not provide a complete view of the state of the vegetation units on the map, these data are presented in Table 4.1. Table 4.1 The number and percentage of total number, rank, and percentage by class of vegetation remaining in map units with clearing (N = 96) in the Australian tropical savannas. Number of units with clearing and (%) of total number of units Rank 77 (61.6) 4 (3.2) 7 (5.6) 3 (2.4) 0 (0.0) 2 (1.6) 1 (0.8) 2 (1.6) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 class (%) of vegetation remaining 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 – 99.9 – 89.9 – 79.9 – 69.9 – 59.9 – 49.9 – 39.9 – 29.9 Two vegetation units have been cleared to ≤30% remaining, the threshold for “Of Concern” ecosystems in Sattler and Williams (1999), and the level at which the available area of habitat becomes too small to maintain viable populations of the endemic biota. They are, J7 – Eucalyptus thozetiana (Napunyah) and/or Acacia harpophylla (brigalow) ± softwood species woodland with Eremophila mitchellii (false sandalwood) shrubs and a sparse ground layer, and C2 –Eucalyptus tereticornis (blue gum) and/or Eucalyptus molucanna (gum-topped box) and/or Corymbia intermedia (pink bloodwood) and/or Corymbia tessellaris (Moreton Bay ash) open forest. A further three vegetation units require close monitoring, they are C4 - Acacia harpophylla (brigalow) and/or A. cambagei (gidgee) ± A. argyrodendron (blackwood) ± Eucalyptus cambageana (Dawson gum) grassy woodland with 31.4 % remaining, G3 - Eucalyptus orgadophila (mountain coolibah) ± E. melanophloia (silver-leaved ironbark) grassy open woodland with 43.8% remaining, and C9 - Eucalyptus populnea (poplar box) or E. brownii (Reid River box) or 42 LANDCOVER AND VEGETATION CHANGE H E. melanophloia (silver-leaved ironbark) grassy woodland with 47.6% remaining. All of the units are restricted to Queensland and three of them to Unit C (Land zone 3). 4.2 Comparison of datasets Data on landcover and vegetation change for parts of the map area are also produced by other state and national agencies, however none provides a cover of the whole area and due to differences in reporting procedures comparisons among them is difficult. The Bureau of Rural Sciences nation-wide ‘remote sensing of agricultural land cover change project 1990 – 1995’ (Barson et al. 2000) data covers the greatest portion of the map area but not all areas, while the Queensland Department of Natural Resources State Landcover and Tree Study (SLATS) report for 1997 – 99 covers all of the map area in Queensland but none of it in the Northern Territory or Western Australia. The land cover data for common areas in the BRS, SLATS and our studies are broadly comparable in that they are primarily obtained by interrogation of Landsat TM imagery. However some differences in the methods and the parameters in the data collection and truthing, and in the reporting of them, does exist. For example, BRS and SLATS surveys use the definition of ‘woody’ vegetation from McDonald et al. (1990) as having a 20% crown cover that equates to a 12% foliage projective cover (fpc) in Specht et al. (1974) while this study used a modified Specht classification with a open-woodland minimum value of 10% fpc. The effect of this difference is likely to be small and SLATS indicate that they were able to extend their analysis to 5% fpc in lower rainfall areas. An additional problem in comparing the three datasets is that the BRS data are for the period 1990 – 95 and the clearing values reported in it, particularly for some Queensland bioregions, will be substantially less than those from SLATS and this study. A ranked data comparison of most affected bioregions as determined by this study, the SLATS 1997-99 and the BRS 1990-95 land cover data for bioregions with predominantly woody vegetation in the mapped area in Queensland shows similar results (Table 4.2). Table 4.2 A ranked data comparison of land cover in the most affected bioregions reported by this study, SLATS and BRS for the Queensland portion of the Australian tropical savannas. most affected bioregions in descending order of amount of vegetation cleared1 BRS THIS STUDY SLATS Brigalow Belt North Mitchell Grass Downs 2 Desert Uplands Einasleigh Uplands Brigalow Belt 3 Desert Uplands Mitchell Grass Downs Einasleigh Uplands Brigalow Belt North Desert Uplands Mitchell Grass Downs Einasleigh Uplands 1 the order may change with additional data as SLATS report against a 1991 baseline while we report on a pre-clearing cover. 2 our ranking is higher due to our more detailed ‘on-ground’ recording of changes in grass cover in this bioregion. 3 SLATS report for the whole Brigalow bioregion while BRS and this study report for the BBN only. A comparison of the BRS and our data for the whole of the map area shows that both agree that the next most affected bioregions are the Victoria Bonaparte (VB), Darwin Coastal Plain (DAC) and Daly Basin (DAB). While the area cleared is not as extensive in the four most affected bioregions, the comparison does show an increase in area cleared of 25, 10 and two times respectively on the BRS 1990 – 1995 figures. Unfortunately it is not possible at all to compare datasets on the basis of land zones or vegetation unit. This is because SLATS and BRS do not use land zones or compatible vegetation units for reporting in the areas of the map covered by them, and for the rest of the map area, because we do not have any prior contiguous datasets to which the THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 43 land zone concept or the units reported on here could be fitted. As a baseline has been established by this project these problems should not arise in future revisions of maps of the Australian tropical savannas. 4.3 Vegetation change We report on changes in vegetation due to clearing from pre-existing vegetation or regrowth of it but may not distinguish changes due to some other causes, e.g. • Change of grassland composition from endemic to exotic species, e.g. in ‘improved pastures’ • Natural tree death due to drought (SLATS 1999; Fensham 1999) • The invasion of native grasslands by woody species, e.g. Acacia nilotica* and Ziziphus mauritiana*, or • The domination of wetlands by exotic species, e.g. Mimosa pigra* and Hymanachne amplexicaulis* and • The invasion of Melaleuca viridiflora into natural grasslands (Neldner et al. 1997, Crowley and Garnett 2000). * Introduced species Some of these changes, particularly the first, may be extensive but difficult to quantify in Landsat TM images. Similarly, change at a fine scale, e.g. in vegetation about springs, and tree death due to drought, is important and locally obvious but not reported at the scale of mapping presented here. Changes due to some of these causes are likely to be viewed differently by different authorities, for example SLATS will report the invasion of grasslands by exotic shrub and/or tree species as an increase in ‘woody’ vegetation cover and biomass whereas we report it as a loss of the original grassland. On the other hand some industry extension officers and landowners would view the occupation of wetlands by hymanachne H. amplexicaulus* as desirable due to its use as cattle fodder, whilst others, e.g. some shires, have it as a declared ‘noxious weed’. The matter of regrowth of previously cleared vegetation in the map area requires specific comment. This is because land cover maps produced by the Queensland Herbarium and analyses by both SLATS and BRS all report it, because it is a topic of considerable debate in the rural sector, and because regrowth of previous vegetation has ramifications for reporting on Australia’s commitment to the Kyoto Convention on the emission of greenhouse gases. The 1995-97 SLATS report indicates that 33% of clearing in Queensland in that period was of regrowth; much of this clearing was of Acacia harpophylla in the Brigalow bioregion because this species has the propensity to re-shoot from root stock and regular clearing is needed to maintain grassland cover. In addition to the regrowth of vegetation, woodland thickening is a noted phenomenon in northern Australia. The effect on the vegetation from changed fire regimes and increased grazing pressure has been a structural change due to a thickening of the woody understorey in many communities. This trend has been noted since European settlement (e.g. Gill et al. 1981, Burrows and Scanlan 1983, Hodgkinson et al. 1990, Burrows 1991, 1995, Russell-Smith 1996, Craig 1997, Fensham and Fairfax 1997, Harrington et al. 1997, Noble 1997, Fensham 1998a, Crowley and Garnett 2000) but requires specialised input that has not been incorporated at this scale of mapping. The level of research required and the logistical difficulties involved in resolving the issue of temporality were beyond the scope of the project and for this reason the vegetation as presented here is regarded as similar to vegetation in an undisturbed state apart from the land cover change reported previously. 4.4 Vegetation management and biodiversity conservation The difficulties in reporting the results of two surveys in Queensland, and our and the BRS datasets for the whole of map area is partially due to the different criteria used for 44 LANDCOVER AND VEGETATION CHANGE them. Our inability to provide comparisons of data for the remainder of the map area is indicative of a lack of data in suitable format or of an absence of previous survey data. Both of these circumstances have ramifications for effective vegetation management at bioregional and land zone levels, particularly across state and municipal boundaries, and for the conservation of biodiversity. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 45 5. Description of the vegetation This report and the accompanying maps describe the undisturbed vegetation of the Australian tropical savannas, although it is recognised by us that there are shortcomings in describing vegetation as undisturbed. The dynamic nature of vegetation and the temporal variability within plant communities was recognised by the authors of the maps used in this project. The term ‘pre-European’ describes the temporal status of Queensland vegetation data (Neldner 1984, Sattler and Williams, 1999), while the term ‘natural’ (Carnahan 1976) is used to describe the Western Australian data (Beard 1979). This implies that those maps represent the vegetation existing prior to European settlement. On the other hand, Wilson et al. (1990) use the term ‘present’ vegetation to describe the present day vegetation of the Northern Territory, presumably at the time of mapping in 1990, recognising the often-subtle recent and longer-term changes that have occurred since the arrival of people on the continent. Given the difficulties in resolving the question of the extent of change over time and given that this work is the result of a compilation of various interpretations, the vegetation as presented here is regarded as vegetation in an ‘undisturbed’ state. Apart from the data presented in Chapter 4, there has been no attempt to produce a map showing landcover change over time. The vegetation is presented here in a hierarchical classification (Figure 5.1) relating the Broad Vegetation Groups (BVGs) (representing groups of alliances and in some cases a single alliance), to the Australian tropical savannas map units (representing sub-alliances and alliances) and also to the original units from the component maps used within the project (representing associations). A lookup table relating all of the units is presented as Appendix 3.7. Within the BVGs a number of floristic terms are used; these generally follow Beadle (1981). Association is applied here to the basic floristic units as presented in each of the 1:1 000 000 scale component maps. These associations have been grouped into alliances, or sub-alliances for some associations, at the scale of 1:2 000 000. The BVGs represent groupings of alliances, or in some cases as a single, widespread alliance, at the scale of about 1: 5 000 000. BVG Groups of alliances at 1:5 000 000 26 BVGs AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS MAP UNIT Alliances/sub-alliances at 1:2 000 000 125 map units ORIGINAL COMPONENT VEGETATION UNIT Associations at 1:1 000 000 439 vegetation units (total of all State and Territory map units) and 249 vegetation units (generalised across States and Territory) Figure 5.1 Relationship between BVG, Australian tropical savannas unit and original map unit. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 47 5.1 Structural formations The structural formations that dominate the Australian vegetation require a uniquely Australian classification system (Barlow 1994). The Australian tropical savannas have been mapped in part by a number of authors using different classification schemes. The vegetation classification used in this project followed those used by the mappers of each of the individual component maps. For the most part these individual maps were classified firstly on structure and secondly on floristics according to Specht (1970), Beard and Webb (1974) or Walker and Hopkins (1984, 1990). Table 3.2 was modified from Specht (1970) and lists the structural formations described for the map of the vegetation of the Australian tropical savannas (Fox et al., 2001). 5.2 Broad vegetation groups The vegetation map units have been combined into a higher-level classification of broad vegetation groups (BVGs), to allow for national and regional analyses, and as an aid to map presentation and interpretation. Some BVGs encompass groupings of vegetation types that are generally dominated by only one or two species, e.g. low woodlands dominated by Melaleuca viridiflora or M. nervosa on depositional plains or alluvium. A suite of species within a range of structural types, e.g. Acacia spp. dominated associations on dissected residuals may also dominate a BVG. Other BVGs are dominated by a distinct structural formation, such as tussock grasslands, or by a combination of a structural formation and habitat, e.g. Acacia spp. dominated shrublands on sandplains. In addition, two broad regional climatic groupings termed ‘monsoon’ and ‘eastern subhumid’ have been incorporated in the BVG categories. The groupings are generally dominated by Eucalyptus spp. and Corymbia spp. and are used to separate the plant communities that occur across the most northern, monsoon-influenced parts of the map area from those communities in the eastern sub-humid zone that lies largely west of the Great Dividing Range. Because of the desire to reduce the number of BVGs, some units, notably some ironbark and northern box woodlands in the Einasleigh Uplands and Cape York Peninsula bioregions have been placed within the eastern sub-humid grouping rather than the monsoon grouping. A separate, minor monsoon grouping includes a number of mixed species woodlands that, although limited in extent, are scattered throughout northern Australia. The BVG descriptions refer to structural categories (Specht 1974) that have been used to define subdivisions within a structural formation. ‘Alliance’ refers to a series of climax plant communities that have the same structural characteristics, related species as dominants in the uppermost stratum and possibly the same or related species in the understorey. ‘Sub-alliance’ refers to the distinct but related species groups that occur as dominants in the upper stratum of an alliance. ‘Association’ refers to a series of climax plant communities that have the same structural characteristics, the same dominant species in the upper stratum and possibly different floristic composition in the lower strata. Within the vegetation descriptions several common names are used. These are based on the bark characteristics of the dominant trees that are used to describe groups of species within the genus Eucalyptus or the genus Corymbia. ‘Ironbark’ refers to any one of a number of eucalypt species with a readily identifiable hard, grey to black, furrowed rough bark. Ironbarks occur most extensively in 48 DESCRIPTION OF THE VEGETATION Queensland and form woodlands throughout much of the eastern half of that state. A number of species within the group, including the widespread Eucalyptus crebra, are currently under revision. Other species in the group include E. fibrosa, E. granitica, E. exilipes, E. cullenii, E. melanophloia, E. xanthoclada, E. whitei and E. quadricostata. ‘Yellowjacket’ is used here to describe a group of Corymbia spp. known as the yellow bloodwoods and a single eucalypt species, E. similis. The bark of these trees is characteristically yellow and in the Corymbia spp. is loose and flakes off exposing yellow beneath while in E. similis the bark does not flake off but occurs as a tight, rough and fibrous yellow bark. ‘Poplar box’ is used to describe woodlands of eastern Australia that are dominated by the species E. populnea and, in more northern parts, by E. brownii. Poplar box woodlands frequently occur in association with ironbark woodlands (Beadle 1981). ‘Northern box’ refers to the species E. leptophleba, E. chlorophylla and E. microneura and to a lesser extent E. tardecidens and E. persistens that are all restricted to north Queensland. ‘Paperbark’ refers to a number of Melaleuca spp. associated with permanently wet areas. In some cases ‘paperbark’ is synonymous with other names applied to Melaleuca spp. including ‘teatree’. ‘Pindan’ is used to describe grassy low open-woodlands that have a characteristic, dense, mid-layer of unarmed, phyllodal Acacia spp. or of shrublands dominated by Acacia spp. (Beard 1979) that occur on sandplains in the western Kimberley region. ‘Bylong woodland’ was used by Perry et al. (1964) to describe a distinctive group of mixed-species communities that occur on broad sandplains to the southeast of the Gulf of Carpentaria. BVG 1. Closed-forest communities. This group consists of all of the rainforest-dominated communities within the map area and as a consequence is highly diverse. In the high rainfall northeast Queensland tropics and to a lesser extent in the Arnhem Land region, mesophyll and notophyll vine forests occur on a range of substrates including coastal sands, alluvial systems, metamorphic and sandstone hills and granite hills and ranges. Emergent trees are common and include Araucaria cunninghamii (Queensland) and a number of Eucalyptus spp., Corymbia spp., Acacia spp. and rainforest species. Small patches of closed-forest communities occur on scree slopes on a wide range of geologies throughout the map area. On residual plains, semi-deciduous vine forests occur as small patches. The Quaternary basalt flows of northeast Queensland carry deciduous vine thickets with broken and frequently sparse canopies. BVG 2. Open-forests dominated by Eucalyptus spp. and Corymbia spp.. Open-forests occur in the high rainfall eastern coastal and sub-coastal areas of the map. Tall open-forests are confined to areas close to the Wet Tropics and Brigalow Belt North bioregions and are dominated by Eucalyptus tereticornis and Corymbia intermedia alliances. Shrubby open-forests dominated by C. citriodora and Eucalyptus spp. (ironbark) alliance are common and extensive on Tertiary remnant plateaux in the east of the Einasleigh Uplands bioregion. On eastern Cape York Peninsula Corymbia spp. open-forests occur as patches on erosional plains. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 49 BVG 3. Open-forests and woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus spp. and Corymbia spp. on drainage lines and alluvial plains. This widespread group comprises a number of alliances associated with river channels, levees and floodplains. Sandy channels and levees are frequently dominated by a Eucalyptus camaldulensis alliance, whereas heavier clay channels and levees are dominated by an E. microtheca or E. coolabah or E. gymnoteles alliance. Melaleuca spp. alliances occur along many river channels. Floodplains carry a number of alliances including a C. clarksoniana, E. leptophleba alliance on southern Cape York Peninsula and an E. platyphylla alliance in eastern sub-coastal regions. Floodplains on heavy clay adjoining the larger river systems such as in the Gulf of Carpentaria, Victoria River, and the Ord River regions, carry an extensive of alliance of E. microtheca or E. coolabah or E. gymnoteles with low Excoecaria parvifolia. BVG 4. Monsoon woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus tectifica and Corymbia spp.. This is a widespread and diverse group comprising alliances of Eucalyptus tectifica. Across the northwest Northern Territory and northeast Kimberley an alliance of E. tectifica and Corymbia foelscheana is common on sandplains over limestone. An alliance of E. tectifica and C. terminalis occurs on clay loam and podzolic plains in the southern Gulf of Carpentaria and central Northern Territory. In the southeast Gulf of Carpentaria an alliance of C. polycarpa with E. tetrodonta and E. miniata occurs on sandy plains and old levees. BVG 5. Monsoon woodlands and open-woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus tetrodonta and E. miniata. The group is made up of several alliances dominated by Eucalyptus tetrodonta and E. miniata. On Cape York Peninsula, an alliance of E. tetrodonta and Corymbia spp. (without E. miniata) occurs on Tertiary and Quaternary sandplains. In the southern Gulf of Carpentaria an alliance of E. tetrodonta with Melaleuca viridiflora occurs on sandplains. A broad band of an alliance of E. tetrodonta, E. miniata and Corymbia spp., such as C. dichromophloia and C. bleeseri, occurs on sandstone hills and sandy red earth plains from the Gulf of Carpentaria across Arnhem Land and the Mitchell Plateau to Yampi Sound in the Kimberley. The group includes small areas of an E. tetrodonta, C. nesophila sub-alliance and an E. leptophleba, C. clarksoniana sub-alliance that occur on Cape York Peninsula. BVG 6. Monsoon woodlands to low open-woodlands dominated by Corymbia dampieri and Eucalyptus tectifica (pindan woodland). This Corymbia dampieri, C. zygophylla and C. flavescens alliance dominates the sandplains of the Dampierland region of the western Kimberley. Acacia eriopoda, A. ancistrocarpa and A. tumida open-scrub is a frequent and characteristic mid-layer. On the sandplains of the Dampier Peninsula, a Eucalyptus tectifica, C. flavescens or a C. dampieri low open-woodland alliance with a characteristic Acacia spp. mid-layer also occurs. The alliances of this group are closely associated with a shrubland alliance grouped into BVG 18. BVG 7. Monsoon low open-woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus brevifolia or E. leucophloia. Whilst much of this widespread alliance occurs in the semi-arid zone it is still regularly influenced by cyclonic and monsoonal weather patterns and has therefore been included in the monsoon woodlands. Eucalyptus brevifolia dominates in western Northern Territory and Western Australia and E. leucophloia in northwest Queensland and eastern Northern Territory. The canopy is frequently sparse and generally mono- 50 DESCRIPTION OF THE VEGETATION specific, although in some areas Corymbia spp. may be present. The ground layer is dominated by Triodia spp. hummock grass. BVG 8. Monsoon low open-woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus leucophylla or Corymbia terminalis. The group consists of an alliance of Eucalyptus leucophylla or Corymbia terminalis, generally as co-dominants, on sandplains over clay and on low hills on fine-grained sediments. E. leucophylla is restricted to the Mt Isa area of northwest Queensland and E. chlorophylla replaces it in associations in the Northern Territory and the Kimberley. In central Queensland, C. terminalis dominates without E. leucophylla. The ground layer dominated by tussock grasses. A small area of C. opaca in eastern Northern Territory is included in this group. BVG 9. Monsoon woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus pruinosa and Lysiphyllum cunninghamii. This group comprises a widespread, variable Eucalyptus pruinosa, Lysiphyllum cunninghamii alliance, found on flat to undulating plains on residual Tertiary surfaces and outwash plains. Many other species can be present and the ground layer consists of tussock grasses or Triodia spp. and forbs. BVG 10. Monsoon low woodlands to low open-woodlands dominated by Corymbia dichromophloia or C. capricornia. This group contains a number of alliances. The most extensive is a Corymbia dichromophloia alliance that occurs on sandstone and conglomerate hills and extends across much of the northern plateau landscape of Northern Territory and the Kimberley. C. dichromophloia is used here to refer to three species, C. dichromophloia (northern Northern Territory), C. capricornia (central Northern Territory and northwest Queensland) and C. drysdalensis (Kimberley). Other canopy species are generally present and the ground layer is dominated by Triodia bitextura. In central Northern Territory on gently undulating lateritic plateaux a C. capricornia alliance occurs. The group also includes a C. dampieri alliance on low sandstone rises in the southern Kimberley region. Triodia spp. dominate the ground layer. BVG 11. Monsoon low woodlands and woodlands dominated by Corymbia spp. or Eucalyptus phoenicea. The group comprises an alliance of Corymbia ferruginea and Eucalyptus phoenica with a Triodia bitextura ground layer on sandstone hills and crests. It occurs extensively in the eastern Kimberley, with scattered occurrences across the Northern Territory to the Gulf of Carpentaria. The group also includes a C. grandifolia, Corymbia spp. alliance on gently sloping sandstone in the eastern Kimberley. BVG 12. Eastern sub-humid woodlands and open-woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus spp. (poplar box and ironbark). The poplar box alliance has Eucalyptus populnea (grading to E. brownii in the north) as the characteristic species of extensive grassy woodlands in sub-coastal eastern central Queensland. An extensive ironbark alliance dominated by any of a number of species frequently occurs in a mosaic with the poplar box. Woodlands dominated by ironbark species E. crebra and E. drepanophylla also occur in coastal regions, while in drier areas further west, E. whitei dominates. Both the poplar box and ironbark alliances have a tussock grass ground layer in eastern and central areas with the presence of Triodia spp. in the ground layer increasing to the west. A shrub layer is minimal or frequently absent. The alliances occur on plains and undulating low rises on Quaternary alluvium THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 51 and Cainozoic sand deposits and are frequently associated with the Acacia spp. woodlands of BVG 16. BVG 13. Eastern sub-humid woodlands and open-woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus spp. (yellowjacket and ironbark). The yellowjacket alliance in this group includes the distinctive Eucalyptus similis, Corymbia setosa open-woodland that follows an extensive sand plain running north to south in central Queensland. The sparse ground layer is dominated by Triodia pungens. In close association with the E. similis alliance is a C. leichhardtii alliance on hills of sandstone and pebble conglomerate and a Eucalyptus spp. (ironbark) alliance on sandstone scarps and plateaux. The ironbark alliance includes associations of E. crebra, E. melanophloia and E. shirleyi in central and north Queensland and E. cullenii with C. hylandii extending through central Cape York Peninsula. The alliances within this group frequently occur together in a mosaic and can also form extensive associations of mixed species, for example broad woodlands of Corymbia spp. and Eucalyptus spp. on undulating metamorphic hills in the Desert Uplands bioregion. BVG 14. Eastern sub-humid woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus spp. (northern box and ironbark) on undulating low hills on metasediments and acid volcanics. The alliances within this group occur on acid volcanic and metamorphic hills, with some minor occurrences on undulating mudstone and siltstone hills. The northern box alliances are a Eucalyptus leptophleba alliance on undulating fine-grained sediments; a regionally dominant E. microneura alliance on metamorphic hills in the Einasleigh Uplands and eastern Gulf Plains bioregions and a scattered alliance dominated by E. persistens and E. tardecidens. The ironbark alliances occur on and immediately west of the Great Dividing Range and extend north from about Bowen to southern Cape York Peninsula. Associations within the alliance include E. crebra (s. lat), E. melanophloia, E. drepanophylla, E. staigeriana and E. fibrosa subsp. (Glen Geddes M.I. Brooker 10230), the latter being dominant on the serpentine ranges of eastern central Queensland. BVG 15. Woodlands and open-woodlands on basalt. The alliances of this group occur on flat to undulating plains and low basalt rises. In Queensland the basalts are generally from the Cainozoic era, while in the Northern Territory and Western Australia the basalts are older, predominantly from the Palaeozoic era. Alliances within the group have a characteristic mid-dense to dense ground layer of tussock grasses. In eastern Queensland an ironbark alliance is dominated by E. crebra (s. lat.) and includes a number of Eucalyptus spp. and Corymbia spp. The alliance is generally closely associated with small occurrences of an E. leptophleba association, sometimes as a mosaic, and with a more extensive alliance of E. orgadophila. In the Kimberley an alliance of E. tectifica and C. grandifolia occurs on plains and lower slopes with red friable earth soils. BVG 16. Acacia spp. associations on clay plains This group includes an Acacia harpophylla alliance, commonly known as ‘the brigalow’, that occurs in a broad band on fertile clay plains, often with shallow depressions or ‘gilgais’, in central Queensland. A. harpophylla, A. cambagei and A. argyrodendron form woodlands that are frequently associated with ironbark and poplar box woodlands (BVG 12). Also on clay plains, but in drier areas west of ‘the brigalow’ is an alliance known as gidgee or gidyea that is dominated by A. cambagei, A. tephrina or A. georginae. This alliance often occurs as isolated patches in association with the Astrebla spp. tussock grasslands that dominate much of the landscape in central western Queensland and central Northern Territory. Gidgee woodlands are also associated with other Acacia spp. and Senna spp. woodlands. This group includes a Senna spp. shrub alliance on 52 DESCRIPTION OF THE VEGETATION remnant limestone and shale low rises in western Queensland, extending westwards into the Northern Territory. BVG 17. Acacia shirleyi and Acacia spp. associations on dissected residual surfaces and sandstone hills. A complex Acacia shirleyi alliance on dissected residual surfaces and sandstone hills across Queensland and in the central Northern Territory. The alliance occurs on hills where it characteristically occupies ridges, breakaways and scarp margins and also occurs on some Tertiary remnants on undulating plains. It contains many associations dominated by Acacia spp. including A. catenulata, A. aneura and A. stowardii, as well as a number of associations dominated by Eucalyptus spp.. BVG 18. Acacia spp. shrublands on sandplains. The group comprises two distinct Acacia spp. shrubland alliances that occur on sandplains. In western Queensland and eastern Northern Territory an Acacia aneura, Archidendropsis basaltica alliance known as ‘mulga’ occurs on residual sands. In the Kimberley region, Acacia ancistrocarpa and A. eriopoda dominate a shrubland alliance known as ‘pindan’ that occurs on sandplains and is associated with alliances of BVG 6. BVG 19. Open-forests and woodlands of Melaleuca spp. (paperbarks) associated with rivers, lagoons and swamps. This group comprises a Melaleuca spp. alliance known as ‘paperbark forest’ that occurs on some permanently flooded areas of northeast Queensland and some northern areas of the Northern Territory. Species including M. leucadendra. M. argentea, M. fluviatilis, M. viridiflora and M. cajuputi occur, frequently with numerous other species, including rainforest species such as Ficus spp. and Nauclea orientalis. BVG 20. Low woodlands dominated by Melaleuca spp. on depositional plains or alluvium. The alliances of the group occur on flat to undulating alluvium or sandplains across northern Australia. A Melaleuca viridiflora alliance occurs on extensive alluvial- and sandplains adjoining the eastern Gulf of Carpentaria, with scattered patches across the remainder of the mapped area. An M. minutifolia sub-alliance occurs on alluvial plains to the southeast of the Joseph Bonaparte Gulf. An alliance of M. citrolens is often associated with the M. viridiflora alliance and occurs extensively in the Gulf of Carpentaria region. Both alliances generally have a continuous low canopy and may have a similarly continuous shrub layer. In areas immediately behind the littoral margin an alliance of M. acacioides or M. alsophila occurs in small depressions that are often seasonally inundated with freshwater. BVG 21. Monsoon mixed species woodlands to low open-woodlands. This group comprises a number of generally unrelated alliances. A Lysiphyllum spp. alliance comprises a sparse overstorey of numerous deciduous species with a tussock grass understorey and occurs on fine sediment plains. An alliance of Adansonia gregorii, Lysiphyllum cunninghamii and Grevillea striata occurs on sandplains in the western Kimberley. On extensive outwash plains in the Gulf of Carpentaria region, an alliance of Lysiphyllum cunninghamii, Atalaya hemiglauca, Grevillea striata and Corymbia spp. is locally dominant. On the low rainfall sandplains south of the Dampier Peninsula a Grevillea refracta, Hakea lorea alliance occurs that is likely to be an extension of a broader alliance that occurs outside the map area in the Great Sandy Desert. In the Kimberley and northeast Queensland, a distinctive alliance of deciduous species including Cochlospermum spp., Terminalia spp and Erythrophleum chlorostachys THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 53 occupies granite outcrops. It is likely that similar outcrop vegetation occurs in the Northern Territory but this has not been mapped at this scale. BVG 22. Heathlands and closed-shrublands. An Asteromyrtus lysicephala, Neofabricia myrtifolia alliance is restricted to Cape York Peninsula. It occurs as open-heath on Tertiary and Quaternary sands and alluviums. Numerous other species may be present. Extensive heaths dominated by Leucopogon spp. also occur on Cape York Peninsula but these are generally on sand dunes in coastal areas and have been included in BVG 26. BVG 23. Tussock grasslands. Tussock grasslands of Astrebla spp. (Mitchell grass downs) form the most extensive alliance of this group. Another major alliance is the Dichanthium spp. (Blue grass) downs. Both alliances occur on broad and extensive clay plains across the whole map area, with the most extensive areas being in west and northwest Queensland, running into central Northern Territory. On drier and stony parts of the same clay plains an alliance of short grasses such as Ennapogon spp. and Aristida spp., often wooded with stunted low trees, can occur. On marine plains a variable alliance of mixed species such as Sorghum spp., Xerochloa spp., Themeda spp., Oryza spp. and Chrysopogon elongatus often occurs in association with sedgelands. BVG 24. Hummock grasslands. The group comprises a number of Triodia spp. alliances that are generally associated with more arid areas than those occupied by the tropical savannas, however they occur within the map area and are an important component of the landscape. A T. pungens alliance, often as a sub-alliance with other Triodia species, occurs on Quaternary sandplains over lateritic substrates across large areas of the central Northern Territory. The alliance also occurs on low sandstone hills and ridges in the southern Kimberley. A T. wiseana alliance occurs on limestone hills in the southern Kimberley and extends east into the Northern Territory and also forms a sub-alliance with T. intermedia on folded hills in the Hall’s Creek region. In northwest Queensland a T. molesta alliance occurs on folded hills, acid volcanics and on some sandstone. This community frequently includes low trees. BVG 25. Sedgelands, lakes and lagoons and ephemeral herblands and grasslands. The group comprises several alliances that are dependent on either seasonal or permanent freshwater. In central Queensland and the Northern Territory an alliance is dominated in the wet season by ephemeral chenopod species herblands and in the dry season by tussock grassland. Scattered low trees are also a common feature of this alliance. Associated with major river systems is an alliance of fringing woodlands, shrublands and sedgelands on permanent, semi-permanent and ephemeral lakes, lagoons and swamps that may occur some distance from the watercourse, but are nevertheless dependent on seasonal flooding for the maintenance of water levels. BVG 26. Communities of the littoral zone. The littoral zone incorporates a number of alliances but the three alliances occurring on Quaternary marine deposits are distinctive. At the saltwater margin an alliance of mangrove communities ranges from open-forests in parts experiencing frequent tidal inundation to shrublands where inundation is less frequent and hypersalinity impedes floristic and structural diversity. The tidal flats are predominantly hypersaline and generally bare, although a number of samphire species or Sporobolus virginicus can 54 DESCRIPTION OF THE VEGETATION occur on slightly elevated parts. A Sporobolus virginicus grassland alliance occurs at the landward margins of the marine deposits at the saltwater-freshwater interface. On coastal sand masses a number of alliances occur. These have been grouped here into a complex of coastal dune communities that include a “Casuarina spp. and Spinifex spp. alliance” on foredunes, a swamp and sedgeland alliance in swales between major dunes, and on dunes and in swales a number of sub-alliances of more widespread alliances including Melaleuca, rainforest and Eucalyptus. Shrublands and heathlands on the eastern Cape York Peninsula coast are also included. 5.3 Vegetation of the bioregions Bioregions, or biogeographic regions, describe areas in which ecosystem interactions with major structural geologies, lithologies, landform and climate occur with some consistency across the region (Stanton and Morgan 1977, Thackway and Cresswell 1995, Sattler and Williams 1999). Table 5.1 presents the Australian tropical savanna vegetation map units that occur in each bioregion. The landscape and vegetation for each unit within the bioregion shown in the table can be readily determined from the vegetation map code used in which the prefix letter in each code refers to a land zone (see 2.7 Land zones and Appendix 1.1). For example, in Table 5.1 the Arnhem Plateau bioregion units H9 and H6 are the dominant vegetation units within the bioregion. The prefix ‘H’ refers to land zone 10 and describes a landscape dominated by hills and plateaus of sandstone and conglomerate. Similarly, the Mt Isa Inlier has a dominant vegetation of J12 where ‘J’ represents land zone 11, being hills and ranges of moderately to strongly deformed and metamorphosed sediments. Table 5.1 The vegetation map units occurring within each bioregion BIOREGION (IBRA version 5) Arnhem Coastal Arnhem Plateau Brigalow Belt North Central Arnhem Central Kimberley Cape York Peninsula Daly Basin Darwin Coastal Desert Uplands Dampierland Einasleigh Uplands Gulf Fall Uplands Gulf Coastal Gulf Plains Mitchell Grass Downs Mount Isa Inlier North Kimberley Vegetation Map Units Dominant vegetation units in each bioregion 1 >20% 5-20% D4 H9, H6 H6, D4 H8 D15 D10, D14, D4 D4, C19 G1 D23 H9 D13 H6, H9, D10 D10, D4 C4, D7, D8, J8 D10, D13 K8, H15, K7, F4 C13, E2 H9 H6 D17, D16, D8, C4, C5 D12, D21 K6, J8, F2, J10, J5, K9 D11, D27, D29 D11, H9, A3 C18, D19, C7, D20, G10, C13, D15, D18, D6 G5, C7 J11, G7, D22, D28 H6 H15, F7, D26, F8, F9, C17, C18 H9, D14, D4 D36, D29 A1 D10, H8, K8, H6, D14, A3 G10, C17 J12 H9, F4 Ord-Victoria Plains - Pine Creek-Arnhem Sturt Plateau Tiwi Victoria Bonaparte D10 D5, E1 D4 H9 No. of units each <5%2 7 6 43 7 25 34 9 11 24 29 42 23 12 43 30 18 19 30 9 13 6 26 1. Vegetation units are ranked in descending order of dominance, as measured by percentage of the area contributed by each vegetation unit to the total area of the vegetation within the bioregion. 2. Shows the number of vegetation map units whose areas contribute <5% each to the total area of vegetation within the bioregion THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 55 Of note is the fact that the Brigalow Belt North, Einasleigh Uplands, Gulf Plains and OrdVictoria Plains bioregions have no vegetation units that each contribute more than 20% of the vegetation within the bioregion. Further, each of these bioregions, along with the Cape York Peninsula, Central Kimberley, Dampierland, Mitchell Grass Downs and Victoria Bonaparte bioregions, has 25 units or more that each contribute less than 5% to the total vegetation of the bioregion. Refer to Appendix 1 in Thackway and Cresswell (1995) or online at http://www.ea.gov.au/parks/nrs/ibraimcr/ibra_95/ibra_v4/app1.html for more detailed information on each bioregion. 5.4 Key to the map units The following is a list of the map units occurring on the map of the vegetation of the Australian tropical savannas. The legend used on the digital version of the map contains an abbreviated legend description without the bracketed common name. Units are grouped according to land zone (Sattler and Williams 1999, Harris in prep.). Within each land zone, units are listed from the tallest, most dense community through to the shortest, least dense community. In the map unit descriptions some key abbreviations are used. Where “and/or” is used between two species either one species or the other species is present, or they may both be present. Where “+/-“ is used between two species the first species is always present and the second species is present at some sites but not at others. Where “,” and “and” are used between two species both species are always present. Where “or” is used between two species, either one of the species is present or the other, but not both. Introduced species are indicated with * in the vegetation descriptions that follow. Some units in the Kimberley are a mosaic of two communities and were derived from the original mosaic map units in Beard (1979). These distinct communities are separated in the description by “or”. The descriptions also include some units that naturally occur across a structural continuum between woodland and grassland. Where units contain significant proportions of more than one structural element the expression “or sometimes …” is used to indicate the minor community. A. Units on Quaternary marine deposits, predominantly saline muds. Map Unit A1 Mangroves Map Unit A2 Sporobolus virginicus (marine couch) grassland Map Unit A3 Saline tidal mudflats +/- samphire B. Units on Quaternary coastal dunes, predominantly sands Map Unit B1 Vine forest +/- emergent Araucaria cunninghamii (hoop pine) Map Unit B2 Coastal dune communities 56 DESCRIPTION OF THE VEGETATION C. Units on Cainozoic alluvial plains or clay deposits, predominantly on cracking clays and loams. Map Unit C1 Rainforest communities on alluvial systems Map Unit C2 Eucalyptus tereticornis (blue gum) and/or Eucalyptus moluccana (gumtopped box) and/or Corymbia intermedia (pink bloodwood) and/or Corymbia tessellaris (Moreton Bay ash) open-forest. Map Unit C3 Melaleuca spp. (paperbark) open-forest. Map Unit C4 Acacia harpophylla (brigalow) and/or Acacia cambagei (gidgee) +/Acacia argyrodendron (blackwood) +/- Eucalyptus cambageana (Dawson gum) grassy woodland. Map Unit C5 Acacia cambagei (gidgee) and/or Acacia tephrina (boree) low woodland. Map Unit C6 Corymbia clarksoniana (Clarkson’s bloodwood) or Corymbia polycarpa (long-fruited bloodwood) +/- Eucalyptus leptophleba (Molloy red box) +/- Eucalyptus spp. grassy woodland. Map Unit C7 Eucalyptus camaldulensis (river red gum) and/or Eucalyptus microtheca (coolibah) or Eucalyptus coolabah (coolibah) or Eucalyptus gymnoteles (coolibah) woodland on channels and levées. Map Unit C8 Eucalyptus platyphylla (poplar gum) and/or Eucalyptus spp. grassy woodland. Map Unit C9 Eucalyptus populnea (poplar box) or Eucalyptus brownii (Reid River box) or Eucalyptus melanophloia (silver-leaved ironbark) grassy woodland. Map Unit C10 Eucalyptus microtheca (coolibah) or Eucalyptus gymnoteles (coolibah) and/or Eucalyptus spp. +/- Excoecaria parvifolia (gutta percha) grassy low woodland. Map Unit C11 Melaleuca minutifolia (paperbark) low woodland with Sorghum spp. tussock grasses. Map Unit C12 Melaleuca citrolens (narrow- leaved paperbark) or Melaleuca acacioides (coastal paperbark) or Melaleuca alsophila (coastal paperbark) +/- Melaleuca spp. low open-woodland. Map Unit C13 Melaleuca viridiflora (broad- leaved teatree) grassy low open- woodland +/- a shrub layer +/- emergent trees. Map Unit C14 Livistona humilis (fan pa lm) grassy tall open-shrubland. Map Unit C15 Asteromyrtus lysicephala (Kennedy’s heath) open- heath. Map Unit C16 Ephemeral herblands and/or grasslands with scattered low trees. Map Unit C17 Astrebla pectinata (barley Mitchell grass) closed-tussock grass land +/low trees. Map Unit C18 Dichanthium fecundum (curly bluegrass) and Chrysopogon fallax (golden beard grass) tussock grassland sparsely wooded with low trees. Map Unit C19 Mixed species tussock grasslands or sedgelands +/- emergent Pandanus spp. (screw palm) and/or Corypha utan (gebang). Map Unit C20 Swamps, lakes and lagoons, frequently ephemeral, +/- fringing woodlands, shrublands, herblands and sedgelands. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 57 D. Units on Cainozoic sand deposits, predominantly on plains of sands and earths and often overlying lateritic profiles Map Unit D1 Semi-deciduous vine forest. Map Unit D2 Corymbia citriodora (lemon-scented gum) and/or Eucalyptus crebra (narrow-leaved ironbark) and/or Corymbia clarksoniana (Clarkson’s bloodwood) grassy open-forest +/- a shrub layer. Map Unit D3 Corymbia tessellaris (Moreton Bay ash) and/or Corymbia clarksoniana (Clarkson’s bloodwood) and/or Eucalyptus tetrodonta (Darwin stringybark) grassy open-forest. Map Unit D4 Eucalyptus miniata (Darwin woollybutt) and Eucalyptus tetrodonta (Darwin stringybark) +/- Corymbia nesophila (Melville Island bloodwood) open-forest with Sorghum spp. (sorghum) tussock grasses. Map Unit D5 Corymbia capricornia (variable -barked bloodwood) grassy woodland. Map Unit D6 Corymbia polycarpa (long-fruited bloodwood), Corymbia spp. and Eucalyptus spp. shrubby woodland with sparse tussock grasses. Map Unit D7 Eucalyptus crebra (narrow-leaved ironbark) or Corymbia setosa (rough-leaved bloodwood) +/- Callitris intratropica (northern cypress pine) grassy woodland. Map Unit D8 Eucalyptus populnea (poplar box) or Eucalyptus melanophloia (silverleaved ironbark) +/- Acacia harpophylla (brigalow) woodland with tussock grasses and/or Triodia pungens (soft spinifex). Map Unit D9 Eucalyptus microneura (Georgeto wn box) and/or Eucalyptus persistens (knotted box) woodland +/- a shrub layer of Eremophila mitchellii (false sandalwood) and sparse tussock grasses. Map Unit D10 Eucalyptus tectifica (Darwin box) and/or Corymbia spp. woodland with Sorghum spp.(sorghum) and Sehima nervosum (white grass) tussock grasses. Map Unit D11 Eucalyptus tectifica (Darwin box) +/- Corymbia terminalis (desert bloodwood) woodland with a sparse shrub layer and Heteropogon contortus (black spear grass), Chrysopogon spp. (ribbon grass) and Sehima nervosum (white grass) tussock grasses. Map Unit D12 Eucalyptus tectifica (Darwin box), Corymbia flavescens (wrinkle -leaved ghost gum) woodland with Acacia tumida (pindan wattle) open-scrub and Chrysopogon spp. (ribbon grass) and Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) grasses. Map Unit D13 Eucalyptus tetrodonta (Darwin stringybark) and/or Melaleuca viridiflora (broad-leaved teatree) +/- Callitris intratropica (northern cypress pine) woodland with Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) hummock grass. Ma p Unit D14 Eucalyptus tetrodonta (Darwin stringybark), Eucalyptus miniata (Darwin woollybutt) +/- Corymbia spp. +/- Livistona spp. (fan palms) woodland with a ground layer of tussock grasses and Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex). Map Unit D15 Eucalyptus tetrodonta (Darwin stringybark) and/or Corymbia spp. +/Eucalyptus phoenicea (scarlet gum) woodland with sparse Schizachyrium spp. (fire grass) tussock grass. Map Unit D16 Eucalyptus similis (Queensland yellowjacket) and/or Corymbia setosa 58 DESCRIPTION OF THE VEGETATION (rough-leaved bloodwood) +/- Lysicarpus angustifolius (budgeroo) open-woodland +/- shrub layer and very sparse Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) hummock grass. Map Unit D17 Eucalyptus whitei (White’s ironbark) open-woodland with sparse Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) hummock grass. Map Unit D18 Lysiphyllum cunninghamii (bauhinia), Grevillea striata (beefwood), Atalaya hemiglauca (whitewood) and Corymbia spp. low-woodland +/emergent Corymbia polycarpa (long-fruited bloodwood). Map Unit D19 Melaleuca citrolens (lemon-scented teatree) and Melaleuca spp. (teatree) low woodland with sparse Chrysopogon fallax (golden beard grass) tussock grass. Map Unit D20 Melaleuca viridiflora (broad-leaved teatree) and/or Melaleuca spp. (teatree) low woodland +/- emergent Corymbia polycarpa (long-fruited bloodwood) or Corymbia clarksoniana (Clarkson’s bloodwood) with Petalostigma spp. (quinine bush) shrubs and tussock grasses. Map Unit D21 Adansonia gregorii (boab), Lysiphyllum cunninghamii (bauhinia) and Grevillea striata (beefwood) grassy low open-woodland. Map Unit D22 Atalaya hemiglauca (whitewood) +/- Grevillea striata (beefwood) +/Acacia spp. +/- Eucalyptus spp. +/- Corymbia spp. low open-woodland with Aristida spp. (three-awn grass) and Enneapogon spp. (nine-awn grass) tussock grasses or sometimes a wooded open-tussock grassland. Map Unit D23 Corymbia dampieri (pindan bloodwood) low open- woodland with Acacia spp. shrubs and Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) and Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) hummock grasses. Map Unit D24 Corymbia dampieri (pindan bloodwood) and Corymbia zygophylla (rough-leaved Bloodwood) low open-woodland with Acacia eriopoda (pindan wattle) shrubs and Triodia spp. (spinifex) hummock grasses or Adansonia gregorii (boab), Grevillea striata (beefwood) and Lysiphyllum cunninghamii (bauhinia) low open-woodland. Map Unit D25 Corymbia terminalis (desert bloodwood) low open- woodland with Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) hummock grass +/- tussock grasses or sometimes grassland without trees. Map Unit D26 Eucalyptus brevifolia (snappy gum) low open- woodland with Triodia spp. (spinifex) hummock grass or sometimes a hummock grassland without trees. Map Unit D27 Eucalyptus leucophloia (snappy gum) low open- woodland and/or a shrubland with Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) and Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) hummock grasses. Map Unit D28 Eucalyptus leucophylla (Cloncurry box) +/- Corymbia terminalis (desert bloodwood) low open-woodland with a sparse understorey of tussock grasses or Triodia spp. (spinifex). Map Unit D2 9 Eucalyptus pruinosa (silver box) +/- Lysiphyllum cunninghamii (bauhinia) low open-woodland +/- a shrub layer and tussock grasses or Triodia spp. (spinifex). Map Unit D30 Melaleuca tamariscina (paperbark teatree) and/or Melaleuca uncinata (teatree) and/or Acacia leptostachya (slender wattle) and/or Thryptomene parviflora (thryptomene) low open woodland with sparse Triodia spp. (spinifex) hummock grasses. Map Unit D31 Acacia aneura (mulga) and/or Archidendropsis basaltica (dead finish) tall open-shrubland. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 59 Map Unit D32 Acacia ancistrocarpa (Fitzroy wattle) and/or Acacia eriopoda (pindan wattle) and/or Acacia monticola (red wattle) tall shrubland with Triodia intermedia (winged spinifex) and Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) hummock grasses. Map Unit D33 Asteromyrtus lysicephala (Kennedy’s myrtifolia (yellow teatree) open-heath. Map Unit D34 Grevillea refracta (silverleaf grevillea) +/- Hakea lorea (corkwood) open-shrubland with Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) hummock grass. Map Unit D35 Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) and/or T. intermedia (winged spinifex) and/or Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) hummock grassland wooded with Corymbia spp., Eucalyptus spp. or Lysiphyllum cunninghamii (bauhinia) low trees. Map Unit D36 Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) and/or T. schinzii (feathertop spinifex) hummock grassland wooded with low trees and Acacia spp. shrubs. heath) and/or Neofabricia E. Units on Cainozoic duricrusts with exposed ferrugineous, siliceous or mottled horizons Map Unit E1 Acacia shirleyi (lancewood) and/or other Acacia spp. and/or Eucalyptus spp. low woodland with short tussock grasses and/or Triodia spp. (spinifex) hummock grasses. Map Unit E2 Corymbia hylandii (Hyland’s bloodwood) and/or Eucalyptus cullenii (Cullen’s ironbark) +/- Melaleuca stenostachya (teatree) woodland. Map Unit E3 Eucalyptus brevifolia (snappy gum) low open- woodland with Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) hummock grasses or sometimes a Triodia intermedia (winged spinifex) hummock grassland. Map Unit E4 Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) hummock grassland. F. Units on Cainozoic to Palaeozoic igneous rocks, predominantly basalts Map Unit F1 Deciduous vine thickets +/- emergent trees. Map Unit F2 Eucalyptus crebra (narrow- leaved ironbark) +/ - Corymbia spp. woodland +/- a shrub layer and Heteropogon contortus (black spear grass) tussock grasses. Map Unit F3 Eucalyptus leptophleba (Molloy red box) and/or Corymbia spp. grassy woodland. Map Unit F4 Eucalyptus tectifica (Darwin box) +/- Corymbia grandifolia (largeleaved cabbage gum) +/- Corymbia byrnesii (fan-leaved bloodwood) woodland with Sorghum spp. (sorghum) and Sehima nervosum (white grass) tall grasses. Map Unit F5 Eucalyptus microneura (Georgetown box) grassy open- woodland +/- a shrub layer. Map Unit F6 Eucalyptus orgadophila (mountain coolibah) grassy open- woodland. Map Unit F7 Corymbia terminalis (desert bloodwood) and Eucalyptus chlorophylla (shiny-leaved box) low open-woodland with Sehima nervosum (white grass) and Chrysopogon fallax (golden beard grass) tussock grasses 60 DESCRIPTION OF THE VEGETATION +/- Triodia spp. (spinifex). Map Unit F8 Astrebla spp. (Mitchell grass) and/or Dichanthium spp. (bluegrass) tussock grassland sparsely wooded with low trees. Map Unit F9 Corymbia opaca (plains bloodwood) and Eucalyptus chlorophylla (shiny-leaved box) sparse low open-woodland with tussock grasses or a Triodia pungens (soft spinifex), Triodia intermedia (winged spinifex) hummock grassland wooded with Eucalyptus brevifolia (snappy gum) low trees. G. Units on Cainozoic to Proterozoic consolidated, fine-grained sediments with little deformation, predominantly shale, siltstone, mudstone and calcareous sediments Map Unit G1 Eucalyptus melanophloia (silver- leaved ironbark) +/- Corymbia erythrophloia (red bloodwood) +/- Eucalyptus spp. woodland +/- a shrub layer and Aristida spp. (three awn grass) and Heteropogon contortus (black spear grass) tussock grasses. Map Unit G2 Eucalyptus leptophleba (Molloy red box), Corymbia papuana (ghost gum) and Corymbia clarksoniana (Clarkson’s bloodwood) grassy openwoodland. Map Unit G3 Eucalyptus orgadophila (mountain coolibah) +/- Eucalyptus melanophloia (silver-leaved ironbark) grassy open-woodland. Map Unit G4 Melaleuca spp. (paperbarks) and Eucalyptus spp. low woodland with Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) hummock grass. Map Unit G5 Acacia georginae (Georgina gidgee) low open- woodland and/or Senna spp. (cassia) open-shrubland. Map Unit G6 Corymbia opaca (bloodwood) low open-woodland with Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) hummock grass. Map Unit G7 Eucalyptus leucophylla (Cloncurry box) low open- woodland +/- shrub layer of Acacia hilliana (Hill’s tabletop wattle) and Senna artemisioides subsp. oligophylla (limestone cassia) and ground layer of Triodia spp. (spinifex) hummock grasses. Map Unit G8 Lysiphyllum cunninghamii (bauhinia) and/or deciduous species grassy low open-woodland. Map Unit G9 Triodia wiseana (limestone spinifex) open- hummock grassland wooded with low trees of Terminalia spp. or Adansonia gregorii (boab). Map Unit G10 Astrebla lappacea (curly Mitchell grass) and/or Astrebla pectinata (barley Mitchell grass) tussock grassland sparsely wooded with Acacia spp. low trees. Map Unit G11 Enneapogon purpurascens (nine awn grass) tussock grassland. H. Units on Cainozoic to Proterozoic consolidated medium- to coarse grained sediments with little deformation, predominantly sandstones Map Unit H1 Semi-deciduous vine thickets on sandstone Map Unit H2 Acacia shirleyi (lancewood) and/or Acacia catenulata (bendee) openforest +/- emergent Eucalyptus spp. and Corymbia spp. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 61 Map Unit H3 Asteromyrtus brassii and Neofabricia myrtifolia (yellow teatree) +/Allocasuarina littoralis (black sheoak) low open-forest +/- emergent Callitris intratropica (northern cypress pine). Map Unit H4 Eucalyptus crebra (narrow- leaved ironbark) or Eucalyptus melanophloia (silver-leaved ironbark) or Eucalyptus cullenii (Cullen’s ironbark) woodland +/- a shrub layer and tussock grasses or Triodia spp. Map Unit H5 Eucalyptus tetrodonta (Darwin stringybark) +/- Corymbia nesophila (Melville Island bloodwood) +/- Corymbia hylandii subsp. peninsularis (Hyland’s bloodwood) +/- Eucalyptus cullenii (Cullen’s ironbark) woodland +/- Asteromyrtus brassii sub-canopy and heath species. Map Unit H6 Eucalyptus tetrodonta (Darwin stringybark) and Eucalyptus miniata (Darwin woollybutt) +/- Corymbia bleeseri (rusty-barked bloodwood) with Sorghum spp. tall-grasses. Map Unit H7 Eucalyptus similis (Queensland yellowjacket) and/or Eucalyptus tetrodonta (Darwin stringybark) and/or Corymbia stockeri (blotchy bloodwood) woodland with tussock grasses or Triodia spp. (spinifex). Map Unit H8 Eucalyptus phoenicea (scarlet gum) and Corymbia ferruginea subsp. stypophylla (rusty bloodwood) low woodland with Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) hummock grassland understorey. Map Unit H9 Corymbia dichromophloia (variable -barked bloodwood), Eucalyptus miniata (Darwin woollybutt) +/- Eucalyptus tetrodonta (Darwin stringybark) open-woodland with Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) and Sorghum spp. grasses. Map Unit H10 Corymbia leichhardtii (yellowjacket) or Corymbia trachyphloia (brown bloodwood) and/or Corymbia spp. open-woodland with sparse tussock grasses and/or Triodia spp. (spinifex). Map Unit H11 Eucalyptus decorticans (gum-topped ironbark) open- woodland wi th sparse Triodia mitchellii (buck spinifex) or tussock grasses. Map Unit H12 Eucalyptus persistens (knotted box) and/or Eucalyptus shirleyi (silverleaved ironbark) open-woodland with sparse tussock grasses. Map Unit H13 Corymbia dampieri (pindan bloodwood) low open- woodland with Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) and/or Triodia intermedia (winged spinifex) hummock grasses. Map Unit H14 Corymbia grandifolia (large- leaved cabbage gum) +/- Corymbia greeniana (broad-leaved bloodwood) +/- Corymbia polycarpa (longfruited bloodwood) low open-woodland with Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) hummock grass or Chrysopogon spp. (ribbon grass) and Dichanthium spp. (blue grass) tussock grasses. Map Unit H15 Eucalyptus brevifolia (snappy gum) low open- woodland with Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) and/or Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) hummock grass and/or tussock grasses. Map Unit H16 Eucalyptus leucophloia (snappy gum) low open- woodland with Triodia molesta (pincushion spinifex) and/or Triodia spp. (spinifex) hummock grasses or sometimes a hummock grassland without trees. Map Unit H17 Acacia ancistrocarpa (Fitzroy wattle) and/or Acacia eriopoda (pindan wattle) open-shrubland with Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) and/or Triodia intermedia (winged spinifex) hummock grasses. Map Unit H18 Triodia pungens (soft spinifex) and/or Triodia intermedia (winged spinifex) hummock grassland sparsely wooded with low trees. 62 DESCRIPTION OF THE VEGETATION J. Units on Mesozoic to Proterozoic deformed and metamorphosed sediments and interbedded volcanics Map Unit J1 Notophyll vine forest or mesophyll vine forest +/- emergent trees on metamorphic hills. Map Unit J2 Corymbia spp. and/or Eucalyptus spp. open-forest on metamorphic slopes. Map Unit J3 Corymbia spp. and/or Eucalyptus spp. woodland +/- mixed shrubs and a sparse ground layer of Triodia spp. (spinifex) or tussock grasses. Map Unit J4 Eucalyptus leptophleba (Molloy red box) and/or Eucalyptus platyphylla (poplar gum) +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys (ironwood) woodland with Heteropogon spp. (spear grass) and Themeda triandra (kangaroo grass) tussock grasses. Map Unit J5 Eucalyptus microneura (Georgetown box) +/ - Eucalyptus crebra (narrow-leaved ironbark) woodland +/- shrub layer and Aristida spp. (three awn grass), Themeda triandra (kangaroo grass) and Heteropogon contortus (black spear grass) tussock grasses or sometimes tussock grassland wooded with low trees. Map Unit J6 Eucalyptus tectifica (Darwin box), Corymbia flavescens (wrinkle -leaved ghost gum) woodland with Chrysopogon spp. (ribbon grass) tussock grass. Map Unit J7 Eucalyptus thozetiana (napunyah) and/or Acacia harpophylla (brigalow) +/- softwood species woodland with Eremophila mitchellii (false sandalwood) shrubs and a sparse ground layer. Map Unit J8 Eucalyptus spp. (ironbarks) +/- Corymbia spp. woodland +/- a shrub layer and vine thicket species. Map Unit J9 Eucalyptus brevifolia (snappy gum), Corymbia cadophora subsp. cadophora (twin-leaved bloodwood) low open-woodland with a Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) hummock grass ground layer. Map Unit J10 Eucalyptus persistens (knotted box) or Eucalyptus tardecidens or Eucalyptus thozetiana (napunyah) low open-woodland +/- a shrub layer and Triodia spp. (spinifex) sparse-hummock grasses. Map Unit J11 Triodia longiceps (porcupine spinifex) +/- other Triodia spp. hummock grassland sparsely wooded with Eucalyptus spp. and Acacia spp. low trees. Map Unit J12 Triodia molesta (pincushion spinifex) +/- Triodia spp. hummock grassland sparsely wooded with Eucalyptus leucophloia (snappy gum) low trees. Map Unit J13 Triodia wiseana (limestone spinifex) and T. intermedia (winged spinifex) hummock grassland sparsely wooded with Eucalyptus brevifolia (snappy gum) low trees. K. Units on Mesozoic to Proterozoic igneous rocks, predominantly granites, granodiorites, andesites and rhyolites Map Unit K1 Notophyll vine forest and semi-evergreen vine thicket +/- emergent Araucaria cunninghamii (hoop pine). THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 63 Map Unit K2 Eucalyptus spp. (ironbarks) and/or Lophostemon suaveolens (swamp mahogany) and/or Corymbia clarksoniana (Clarkson’s bloodwood) +/Corymbia spp. +/- Eucalyptus spp. grassy open-forest. Map Unit K3 Corymbia nesophila (Melville Island bloodwood) and/or Eucalyptus tetrodonta (Darwin stringybark) and/or Corymbia hylandii subsp. peninsularis (Hyland’s bloodwood) woodland with Themeda triandra (kangaroo grass) or Imperata cylindrica (blady grass) tussock grass understorey. Map Unit K4 Eucalyptus miniata (Darwin woollybutt) grassy woodland. Map Unit K5 Eucalyptus tectifica (Darwin box) +/- Corymbia spp. woodland with Chrysopogon spp. (ribbon grass), Sorghum spp. (sorghum) and Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) grassy understorey. Map Unit K6 Eucalyptus spp. (ironbarks) +/- Corymbia spp. open- woodland +/- a sub-canopy layer of Acacia spp. and softwood species and a sparse ground layer of tussock grasses and/or Triodia spp. (spinifex). Map Unit K7 Cochlospermum spp. (kapok), Erythrophleum chlorostachys (ironwood) and Terminalia aridicola (arid peach) +/- Acacia spp. +/- Corymbia spp. deciduous low open-woodland with sparse-tussock grasses. Map Unit K8 Eucalyptus brevifolia (snappy gum) low open- woodland with Triodia bitextura (curly spinifex) hummock grass +/- Enneapogon spp. (nineawn grass) short-tussock grass or sometimes a grassland without trees. Map Unit K9 Eucalyptus shirleyi (silver -leaved ironbark) and/or Eucalyptus melanophloia (silver-leaved ironbark) +/- Corymbia peltata (rustyjacket) low open-woodland with a patchy shrub layer and sparse tussock grasses. Miscellaneous units Map Unit CQC Central Queensland Coast bioregion Map Unit WT Wet Tropics bioregion 5.5 The map unit descriptions The map unit descriptions are presented in a standardised format and explained below. The map units presented in this report are grouped into land zones, so that all of the units that occur on the same land zone are grouped together. Within those groupings species are arranged structurally from the tallest and most dense communities to the least. Whilst the Wet Tropics and Central Queensland Coast bioregions are not part of the tropical savannas, descriptions are provided to ensure a contiguous coverage from east to west. Map Unit Map unit is the abbreviated description for the unit, as used in the map legend, in which the dominant species and structural formations are described. Dominant species are those that contribute most to the biomass at a site or in a layer, as well having a high frequency of occurrence. Structural formation descriptions are presented in Figure 3.2. Description The description refers to the typical appearance of the unit at a site. The range of structural formations was determined from the descriptions of the vegetation unit 64 DESCRIPTION OF THE VEGETATION descriptions from the original maps that made up each unit. The structural formations and the projective foliage cover (pfc) categories used are those presented in Figure 3.2 as a modification of Specht (1970). Terms normally used to describe projective foliage cover are dense (> 70%); mid-dense (30-70%); sparse (10-30%) and very sparse (< 10%). For map units with a wide range in their structural attributes, the most frequently occurring attribute is described. The species listed for each stratum were determined from an analysis of the extent of individual associations described by other authors. Where many species within a genus are present, the term ‘spp.” is often used in order to restrict the description to a practical length. Some units contain variants that are limited in extent or atypical in terms of structure or floristics and these are described separately. Some of those variants differ markedly from the main map unit description and hence are described in full, while generally only the major differences in variants are described. The individual references used to assist the descriptions are also provided. Introduced plant species are marked with *. Structural formation range Describes the most commonly occurring structural class for each unit, as well as those classes occurring less frequently. The structural classes used are presented in Figure 3.2 and follow Neldner (1984) modified from Specht (1970). Land zone Provides information about the broad landform, geology/lithology and soil on which a unit occurs and consequently the land zone on which a unit is most likely to be found. In many instances a unit may also have minor occurrences on other land zones and this information is also provided. Ecological notes and distribution This section provides broad geographical locations for the unit’s distribution. Soils on which the unit is most likely to occur are also described. The soil type descriptions follow the classification of the great soil groups by Northcote et al. (1960-1968). A table relating those great soil groups to the Australian soil classification Orders described by Isbell (1996) is provided as Appendix 2.2. Within some map units, rare, threatened or vulnerable species or ecosystems are known to occur and where possible these have been described and a reference for each has been included. In some cases, additional notes about the ecology of the vegetation associations contained within the map unit are also included. Area The total area in square kilometres occupied by each unit before land clearing, as derived from the GIS, is specified. Broad vegetation group Each unit has been assigned to one of 26 broad vegetation groups (BVG) (see above and Appendix 3.7) and this information is provided for each unit. Units derived from This provides the vegetation map units from the individual State and Territory maps that were aggregated to develop the final vegetation map units (see Appendices 3.3, 3.4, 3.5). The species in those derivative units shown in the appendices are listed according to the original nomenclature for each map, whereas the species presented in this report have been updated to 2001 (see 3.13 Nomenclature). Distribution maps With each description is a map showing the distribution of the unit in the map area. Units that have a very limited extent are circled. Despite being within the boundary of the map area the Wet Tropics bioregion (WT) and the Central Queensland Coast bioregion (CQC) do not form part of the vegetation of the Australian tropical savannas, they are shown on the maps to indicate the areas excluded from the mapping project. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 65 6. References Addicott, E.P. (pers. comm.). This information was the result of discussions in March 2001 between the senior author and E.P. Addicott about how to describe sandplain communities whose structure is affected by fire. Aldrick, J. and Wilson, P.L. (1990). 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Australian Journal of Botany 45:929-948. Thackway R. and Cresswell I.D. (eds) (1995). An Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia: a framework for setting priorities in the National Reserves System Cooperative Program. Reserve System Unit, Australian Nature Conservation Agency, Canberra. Thompson, E.J. and Turpin, G.P. (in draft). Vegetation descriptions for the Desert Uplands bioregion. Queensland Herbarium, Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane. Tracey, J.G. and Webb, L.J. (1975). Vegetation of the Humid Tropical Region of North Queensland. (1:100 000 scale maps). CSIRO Division of Plant Industry, Indooroopilly. TS-CRC - Cooperative Research Centre for the Sustainable Development of Tropical Savannas. (1998). Tropical Savannas CRC Project Guide 1998-99, TS-CRC, Darwin. TS-CRC - Cooperative Research Centre for the Sustainable Development of Tropical Savannas. (1999). Tropical Savannas CRC Annual Report 1998-99, TS-CRC, Darwin. Turner, E.J., McDonald, W.J.F., Ahern, C.R. and Thomas, M.B. (1993). Western Arid Region Land Use Study. Part V. Queensland Department of Primary Industries Technical Bulletin No. 30, Brisbane. Walker, J. and Gillison, A.N. (1982). ‘Australian Savannas’. In: B.J. Huntley and B.H. Walker (eds), Ecology of Tropical Savannas. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Walker, J. and Hopkins, M.S. (1984). ‘Vegetation’. In: R.C. McDonald, R.F. Isbell, J.G. Speight, J. Walker and M.S. Hopkins (eds), Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook, pp. 44- THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 241 67. Inkata Press, Melbourne. Walker, J. and Hopkins, M.S. (1990). ‘Vegetation’. In: R.C. McDonald, R.F. Isbell, J.G. Speight, J. Walker and M.S. Hopkins (eds), Australian Soil and Land Survey Field Handbook 2nd Edition. pp. 58-86. Inkata Press, Melbourne. Warming, E. (1909). Oecology of Plants. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Webb, A.A., Beeston, G.R. and Hall, T.J. (1974). The Soils and Vegetation of Part of the Mayvale Land System in the Gulf of Carpentaria Region: Agricultural Chemistry Branch Technical Report No 5. Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Brisbane. Webb, L.J. (1959). ‘A physiognomic classification of Australian rainforests. Journal of Ecology 47:551-570. Webb, L.J. (1968). Environmental relationships and the structural types of Australian rainforest vegetation. Ecology 49: 296-311. Webb, L.J. (1978). A general classification of the Australian rainforests. Australian Plants 9:349363. Webb, L.J. and Tracey, J.G. (1981). ‘Australian rainforests: patterns and change’. In: A. Keast (ed), Ecological Biogeography of Australia. Junk, The Hague, pp. 605-694. Wegener, A. (1915). Die Enstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane. Sammlung Vieweg, Brunswick. Werren, G.L., Goosem, S., Tracey, J.G. and Stanton, J.P. (1995). ‘The Australian Wet Tropics Centre of Plant Diversity’. In: World Centres of Plant Diversity, Volume 2. pp. 500-506. (eds) S.D. Davies, V.H. Heywood and A.C. Hamilton, WWF/IUCN, Oxford Information Press. Western Australian Herbarium (1998). FloraBase - Information on the Western Australian flora. Department of Conservation and Land Management. http://www.calm.wa.gov.au/science/florabase.html Wheeler, J.R. Rye, B.L., Koch, B.L. and Wilson, A.J.G. (eds), (1992). The Flora of the Kimberley Region. Department of Conservation and Land Management, Perth. Whittaker, R.H. (1967). ‘Gradient analysis of vegetation’. Biological Review 42:207 Williams, C.H. and Raupach, M. (1983). ‘Plant nutrients in Australian soils’. In: Soils – an Australian Viewpoint, pp. 777-794. CSIRO and Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. Williams, R.J. (1955). ‘Vegetation regions’. In: Atlas of Australian Resources. Department of National Development, Canberra. Willis, J.H. (1981). ‘The History of Botanical Investigation in Central Australia’. In: J. Jessop (ed), Flora of Central Australia. pp. 13-20. A.H. and A.W. Reed, Sydney. 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(1960). ‘Vegetation of Australia’. In: G.W. Leeper (ed), The Australian Environment (revised edition), pp. 67-84. CSIRO and Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. Young, P.A.R. (1999).‘Chapter 8 Central Queensland Coast’. In: P.S. Sattler and R.D. Williams (eds), The Conservation Status of Queensland’s Bioregional Ecosystems. Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane. Young, P.A.R., Wilson, B.A. McCosker, J.C., Fensham, R.J. Morgan, G. and Taylor, P.M. (1999). ‘Chapter 11 Brigalow Belt’. In: P.S. Sattler and R.D. Williams (eds), The Conservation Status of Queensland’s Bioregional Ecosystems. Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane. 242 References 7. Appendices THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 275 276 Appendices Appendix 1.1 Land Zones recognised in the mapping of the vegetation of the Australian Tropical Savannas. Map Unit Prefix Land zone (Queensland A 1 B 2 C 3/4 D 5 n/a 6 E 7 F 8 G 9 H 10 J 11 K 12 Description equivalent) Quaternary marine deposits, subject to periodic inundation by saline or brackish marine waters. Includes mangroves, saltpans and offshore tidal flats. Soils are predominantly saline muds or solonchaks Quaternary coastal dunes and beaches. Includes associated degraded dunes, sandplains, swales, dune lakes and swamps, as well as coral and sand cays. Soils are predominantly calcareous sands, podzols or peats. Cainozoic alluvial plains and piedmont fans. Includes terraces, levées, swamps, and channels of Quaternary alluvium and palaeo-estuarine deposits, and older floodplain complexes and piedmont fans with palaeo-stream channels. Also includes inland freshwater lakes and associated dune systems. Does not include talus slopes. Soils include deep cracking clays, loams, earths, and poorly developed alluvial soils (LZ 3). Cainozoic clay deposits, usually forming gently undulating plains with poorly developed drainage systems. Deep cracking clays of moderate to high fertility, often with gilgai microrelief, and texture contrast soils. Excludes clays plains and downs formed on older bedrock (LZ 4). Cainozoic sand deposits, usually forming extensive uniform, near-level or gently undulating plains. Includes slightly dissected surfaces and small remnants of these surfaces. Soils are usually sands, earths or texture contrast and often overlie laterite profiles. Includes extensive sand plains of uncertain origin overlying weathered or unweathered bedrock. Excludes alluvial deposits (C), exposed duricrust (F), and shallow soils derived from underlying bedrock. Cainozoic inland dune fields, interdune areas and degraded dunefields. Excludes alluvial systems that may traverse this zone. Soils are predominantly sands and earths, with clay soils in some interdune areas. Cainozoic duricrusts formed on a variety of rock types. Includes exposed ferruginous, siliceous and mottled horizons and associated talus and colluvium. Usually low mesa and scarps, or low stony rises on downs. Soils are usually skeletal, with shallow texture contrast soils on the adjacent colluvial fans, and shallow red earths on plateaux margins and on larger mesas. Cainozoic igneous rocks, including extrusive and intrusive types. Predominantly basalt flows forming extensive plains and occasional low scarps, but including hills, cones and plugs on trachytes and rhyolites, and minor interbedded sediments. These igneous rocks have diverse origins such as flows, pyroclastics, plugs and dikes. Associated soils included black earths, krasnozems, shallow clays and lithosols of generally moderate to high fertility. Excludes alluvial soils derived from these rocks, as well as springs (C) but includes associated talus. Cainozoic to Proterozoic consolidated, fine-grained sediments with little or no deformation. Siltstones, mudstones, shales, calcareous sediments and lithic sandstones are typical rock types although minor interbedded volcanics may occur. Usually undulating landscapes with fine textured soils of moderate to high fertility. Excludes areas of duricrust (E). Cainozoic to Proterozoic consolidated, medium- to coarse-grained sediments with little or no deformation. Includes siliceous sandstones and conglomerates forming ranges, plateaux and scarps with shallow soils of low fertility. Minor interbedded volcanics may occur. Excludes overlying Cainozoic sand deposits (D), but includes in situ earths and texture contrast soils. Also includes springs associated with these sediments. Mesozoic to Proterozoic moderately to strongly deformed and metamorphosed sediments and interbedded volcanics. Ranges, hills and lowlands with lithosols and shallow texture contrast soils of low to moderate fertility. Includes low- to high-grade metamorphics such as shales, slates, gneisses of indeterminate origin, and minor areas of serpentinite. Mesozoic to Proterozoic igneous rocks. Predominantly granitoids and intermediate to acid volcanics, forming ranges, hills, and lowlands with lithosols and texture contrast soils of low fertility. Includes granites, granodiorites, andesites and rhyolites, and minor areas of interbedded sediments and basic rocks such as gabbros. Excludes serpentinites (J). adapted from Sattler and Williams (1999). THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 277 278 Appendices Appendix 2.1 Geological Time Scale used in this study. Age in millions of years (Ma)., adapted from Stewart and Rothwell 1993. EON ERA Cainozoic PERIOD Quaternary EPOCH Holocene Pleistocene Tertiary Pliocene Miocene Oligocene Eocene Palaeocene K-T Boundary Extinction Event Mesozoic Upper Cretaceous Phanerozoic Lower Jurassic Triassic Palaeozoic Permian Upper Middle Lower Upper Middle Lower Upper Lower Pennsylvanian Carboniferous Mississipian Silurian Upper Middle Lower Upper Lower Ordovician Upper Lower Devonian Precambrian Cambrian Proterozoic Archaen Upper Middle Lower major events Age (Ma) Tasmania and New Guinea isolated from Australian mainland, Europeans arrive in Australia. serial glaciation, redistrinbution of floras, megafauna dominant, appearance of Homo. 0.01 uplift of Andes and general uplift of continents and changing climates, spread ofgrasslands, restriction or extinction of some fauna. worldwide continetal uplifts, rise of European Alps, cooling phase restricts broad-leaf flora, rise of grazing animals and apes. Australia and Antarctica finally separate, widespread distribution of relict taxa, e.g. Metasequoia, Ginkgo. subtropical climate supports dense forests, coal deposits, modern angiosperms and mamma present. continents near present positions, trend to seasonal subtropical climates, angiosperms diversify, first lemurs, modern birds. Africa and South America separate from Australia, formation of Lord Howe Rise and Tasman Sea, first angiopseerms, modern insect insects, first pouched and placental mammals, extinction of great reptiles. Gondwana starts to rift, extensive river systemswith sediemntation in lowlands, rich fern and gymnsoperm-dominated flora, rise of higher insects and birds, dinosaurs abundant. rise of Ginkgo and Cycadophytes, diversification of ferns and conifers, decline of Glossopteris Flora, first mammals, rise of dinosaurs. uplift and vulcanism in eastern Australia, diversification of reptiles and Glossopteris Flora, extinction of arborescent lycopods. accretion of Pangaea, epicontinental seas, vulcanism in east Australia, primitive ferns, seed ferns, lycopods and cordaites, spread of amphibians, sharks, bony fishes and flying insects. fluctuating sea levels, continental uplifting, coral reefs, dicversification of fish and vascular plants, origin of amphibians. 5.3 low-lying continents, uplift and vulcanism in east Australia, first vascular plants, first airbreathing animals. uplift in the southeast, extensive warm seas, first vertebrates and a great variety of marine invertebrates. accretion of Gondwana, marine transgression and extensive erosion in NW Australia, warm epicontinental seas support alage and invertebrate species, first trlobites. accretion of super-continent, extensive glaciation at end of the period, origins of photosynthesis, eukaryote cell organisation and multicellular life. extensive vulcanism, high radiation levels, low 02 levels, no ozone layer, prokaryotic life forms, H2 S metabolic substrate. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 1.8 23.5 36.7 58.0 66.4 144 213 248 286 354 408 434 505 590 1500 4700 279 280 Appendices Appendix 2.2 Approximate correlation of Australian Soil Classification and the Great Soil Groups (after Isbell 1996). Order Calcarosols Chromosols Dermosols Ferrosols Hydrosols Kandosols Kurosols Organosols Podosols Rudosols Sodosols Tenosols Vertosols Great Soil Group Solonized brown soils, grey-brown and red calcareous soils Non-calcic brown soils, some red-brown earths and a range of podzolic soils Prairie soils, chocolate soils, some red and yellow podzolic soils Krasnozems, euchrozems, chocolate soils Humic gleys, gleyed podzolic soils, solonchaks and some alluvial soils Red, yellow and grey earths, calcareous red earths many podzolic soils and soloths neutral to alkaline, and acid peats Podzols, humus podzols, peaty podzols Lithosols, alluvial soils, calcareous and siliceous sands, some solonchaks Solodized solonetz and solodic soils, some soloths and redbrown earths, desert loams Lithosols, siliceous and earthy sands, alpine humus soils and some alluvial soils Black earths, grey, brown and red clays. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 281 282 Appendices Appendix 3.1 Queensland Herbarium, Environmental Protection Agency vegetation data for central and eastern Queensland. MAP SHEET NAME (1:250 000 SHEET) Atherton Ayr Baralaba Bowen Buchanan Charters Towers Clermont (north) Clermont (south) Duaringa Einasleigh Emerald (north) Emerald (south) Galilee Hughenden Jericho Longreach (part) Mackay (part) Mount Coolon Muttaburra (part) Port Clinton Rockhampton Springsure (Mantuan Downs 1:100 000) Springsure (Nandowrie 1:100 000) Springsure (Springsure 1:100 000) St Lawrence (part) Tambo (part) Tangorin (part) Townsville VERSION YEAR 2000 2000 1999 2000 2001 2001 1999 1999 1999 2000 1999 1999 2001 2001 2001 2001 1999 1999 2001 2000 1999 1999 AUTHOR S.L. Thompson and M.R. Newton G.W. Wilson M. Schmeider G.W. Wilson E.J. Thompson and G.P. Turpin E.J. Thompson and G.P. Turpin D.C. Johnson L.P. Bailey T.S. Ryan E.P. Addicott H. Cartan T.S. Ryan E.J. Thompson and G.P. Turpin E.J. Thompson and G.P. Turpin E.J. Thompson and G.P. Turpin E.J. Thompson and G.P. Turpin S.L. Thompson and I.D. Fox S.L. Thompson and I.D. Fox E.J. Thompson and G.P. Turpin L.P. Bailey T.S. Ryan D.W. Butler 1999 1999 1999 2001 2001 2000 K.M. Stephens A.R. Bean and K.M. Stephens S.L. Thompson and I.D. Fox E.J. Thompson and G.P. Turpin E.J. Thompson and G.P. Turpin R.J. Cumming THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 283 284 Appendices Appendix 3.1a Queensland Herbarium, Environmental Protection Agency vegetation data for Mitchell Grass Downs. MAP SHEET NAME (1:250 000 SHEET) Blackall Longreach (part) Muttaburra (part) Tambo (part) Tangorin (part) VERSION YEAR 1999 2000 2000 2000 2000 AUTHOR H. Cartan H. Cartan H. Cartan B.A. Wilson H. Cartan THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 285 286 Appendices Appendix 3.2 LANDSAT scenes used for mapping northwest Queensland ---------------------------------------------------------------------PROJECT: NORTHERN AUSTRALIA VEGETATION MAPPING PROJECT SUB-PROJECT: NORTH-WEST QUEENSLAND ORGANIZATION: QUEENSLAND HERBARIUM (Queensland Environmental Protection Agency) ---------------------------------------------------------------------TITLE: Description of SLATS Landsat TM imagery deployed by Queensland Herbarium (May 1999) ---------------------------------------------------------------------AUTHOR: Jack Kelley -- Senior Computer Support Officer (GIS) Queensland Herbarium (Queensland Environmental Protection Agency) Brisbane Botanic Gardens Mt Coot-tha, Mt Coot-tha Road, TOOWONG Queensland, Australia 4066 ---------------------------------------------------------------------TABLE 1. 1:250,000 SHEETS FOR NORTH-WEST QUEENSLAND CODE TOPO-250K NAME ABBR HECTARES(AMG) ------------------------------------------------SE54-01 e5401 MORNINGTON MORN 1773436 SE54-02 e5402 CAPE VAN DIEMEN DIEM 1771188 SE54-03 e5403 GALBRAITH GALB 1771188 SE54-04 e5404 WALSH WALS 1773436 SE54-05 e5405 WESTMORELAND WEST 1764201 SE54-06 e5406 BURKETOWN BURK 1761988 SE54-07 e5407 NORMANTON NORM 1761988 SE54-08 e5408 RED RIVER RED! 1764201 SE54-09 e5409 LAWN HILL LAWN 1754436 SE54-10 e5410 DONORS HILL DONO 1752261 SE54-11 e5411 CROYDON CROY 1752261 SE54-12 e5412 GEORGETOWN GEOR 1754436 SE54-13 e5413 CAMOOWEAL CAMO 1744144 SE54-14 e5414 DOBBYN DOBB 1742008 SE54-15 e5415 MILLUNGERA MILL 1742008 SE54-16 e5416 GILBERTON GILB 1744144 SF54-01 f5401 MOUNT ISA ISA! 1733329 SF54-02 f5402 CLONCURRY CLON 1731232 SF54-03 f5403 JULIA CREEK JULI 1731232 SF54-04 f5404 RICHMOND RICH 1733329 ------------------------------------------------Note: SE54-02 (CAPE VAN DIEMEN) is basically just sea, except for part of Mornington Island. TABLE 2. IMAGERY MOSAICED FOR EACH 1:250,000 MAP SHEET The figures are only approximate, and come from an 'intersection' of two coverages, namely (1) 1:250,000 sheets (exact) (2) SLATS scenes (approximate only). CODE NAME IMAGE YYMM HECTARES(AMG) ----------------------------------------------------SE54-01 MORNINGTON morn97jy_e0p4 97jy 1228251 SE54-02 CAPE VAN DIEMEN 1591523 SE54-02 CAPE VAN DIEMEN morn97jy_e0p4 97jy 77394 THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 287 (Appendix 3.2 cont’d) SE54-03 GALBRAITH 2258 SE54-03 GALBRAITH 230657 SE54-03 GALBRAITH delt97se_e0p4 97se 1538273 SE54-04 WALSH 268 SE54-04 WALSH buli97oc_e0p4 97oc 1496995 SE54-04 WALSH delt97se_e0p4 97se 276173 SE54-05 WESTMORELAND 920 SE54-05 WESTMORELAND burk97au_e0p4 97au 92980 SE54-05 WESTMORELAND doom97jy_e0p4 97jy 353137 SE54-05 WESTMORELAND morn97jy_e0p4 97jy 1317163 SE54-06 BURKETOWN 635642 SE54-06 BURKETOWN burk97au_e0p4 97au 1071403 SE54-06 BURKETOWN morn97jy_e0p4 97jy 3716 SE54-06 BURKETOWN norm97se_e0p4 97se 51228 SE54-07 NORMANTON 18994 SE54-07 NORMANTON delt97se_e0p4 97se 614088 SE54-07 NORMANTON geor95au_l3s4 95au 30353 SE54-07 NORMANTON norm97se_e0p4 97se 1098553 SE54-08 RED RIVER buli97oc_e0p4 97oc 592960 SE54-08 RED RIVER delt97se_e0p4 97se 36801 SE54-08 RED RIVER geor95au_l3s4 95au 1123146 SE54-08 RED RIVER mtga94ju_l3s5 94ju 10848 SE54-08 RED RIVER norm97se_e0p4 97se 445 SE54-09 LAWN HILL burk97au_e0p4 97au 235949 SE54-09 LAWN HILL doom97jy_e0p4 97jy 1394254 SE54-09 LAWN HILL gunp97au_e0p4 97au 124234 SE54-10 DONORS HILL ariz95au_l3s4 95au 105736 SE54-10 DONORS HILL burk97au_e0p4 97au 1247185 SE54-10 DONORS HILL gunp97au_e0p4 97au 207559 SE54-10 DONORS HILL norm97se_e0p4 97se 191780 SE54-11 CROYDON ariz95au_l3s4 95au 214250 SE54-11 CROYDON bell95au_l3s4 95au 98934 SE54-11 CROYDON geor95au_l3s4 95au 163816 SE54-11 CROYDON norm97se_e0p4 97se 1275261 SE54-12 GEORGETOWN bell95au_l3s4 95au 222981 SE54-12 GEORGETOWN geor95au_l3s4 95au 1322216 SE54-12 GEORGETOWN mtga94ju_l3s5 94ju 155664 SE54-12 GEORGETOWN oakv95ju_l3s5 95ju 53575 SE54-13 CAMOOWEAL camo97jy_e0p4 97jy 806513 SE54-13 CAMOOWEAL doom97jy_e0p4 97jy 307337 SE54-13 CAMOOWEAL gunp97au_e0p4 97au 630294 SE54-14 DOBBYN ariz95au_l3s4 95au 562858 SE54-14 DOBBYN gunp97au_e0p4 97au 1179150 SE54-15 MILLUNGERA ariz95au_l3s4 95au 1209569 SE54-15 MILLUNGERA bell95au_l3s4 95au 532439 SE54-16 GILBERTON bell95au_l3s4 95au 1268380 SE54-16 GILBERTON oakv95ju_l3s5 95ju 475764 SF54-01 MOUNT ISA camo97jy_e0p4 97jy 641589 SF54-01 MOUNT ISA gunp97au_e0p4 97au 163578 SF54-01 MOUNT ISA mtis97au_e0p4 97au 736886 SF54-01 MOUNT ISA uran97jy_e0p4 97jy 191276 SF54-02 CLONCURRY ariz95au_l3s4 95au 154754 SF54-02 CLONCURRY clon97se_e0p4 97se 673456 288 Appendices Appendix 3.2 (cont’d) SF54-02 CLONCURRY gunp97au_e0p4 97au 323422 SF54-02 CLONCURRY mtis97au_e0p4 97au 579601 SF54-03 JULIA CREEK ariz95au_l3s4 95au 333566 SF54-03 JULIA CREEK bell95au_l3s4 95au 146420 SF54-03 JULIA CREEK clon97se_e0p4 97se 595592 SF54-03 JULIA CREEK kynu97oc_e0p4 97oc 655654 SF54-04 RICHMOND bell95au_l3s4 95au 357324 SF54-04 RICHMOND hugh95ju_l3s4 95ju 534404 SF54-04 RICHMOND kynu97oc_e0p4 97oc 633840 SF54-04 RICHMOND oakv95ju_l3s5 95ju 207760 ----------------------------------------------------Notes... (1) No image was prepared for SE54-02 (CAPE VAN DIEMEN). The SE54-02 part of Mornington Island was included in the image for SE54-01 (MORNINGTON). (2) SLATS file naming conventions... Two examples: gunp97au_e0p4, bell95au_l3s4 gunp 97au _ e0 bell 95au _ l3 Unique_Scene_ID Scene_Date Underscore Scene_Processing_Stage p4 s4 Scene_Coordinate_Information Remarks: "97au" is preferable to "95au"; "l3s4" is preferable to "e0p4". For complete definitions, consult the SLATS team, Queensland Department of Natural Resources. TABLE 3. SLATS SCENES USED Like Table 2, the figures are only approximate. ID NAME YYMM HECTARES(AMG) ----------------------------------------ariz Arizona 95au 2580733 bell Bellfield 95au 2626479 buli Bulimba 97oc 2089955 burk Burketown 97au 2647517 camo Camooweal 97jy 1448102 clon Cloncurry 97se 1269049 delt Delta_Downs 97se 2465334 doom Doomadgee 97jy 2054727 geor Georgetown 95au 2639530 gunp Gunpowder 97au 2628237 hugh Hughenden 95ju 534404 kynu Kynuna 97oc 1289494 morn Mornington_Island 97jy 2626524 mtga Mt_Garnet 94ju 166513 mtis Mount_Isa 97au 1316486 norm Normanton 97se 2617267 oakv Oak_Valley 95ju 737099 uran Urandangi 97jy 191276 THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 289 290 Appendices Appendix 3.3 Northern Territory map units from Wilson et al. (1990). (Note: The units presented here were taken directly from the database lookup tables accompanying the map of the Northern Territory (Wilson et al. 1990). Nomenclature has not been updated and scientific names have not been italicised) VEG UNIT1 N1 N10 DESCRIPTION Mixed species closed-forest (Monsoon vine-thicket). E. tetrodonta (Stringybark) woodland with Plectrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex) open-grassland understorey. N101 Seasonal grassland with Muehlenbeckia cunninghamii (Lignum) low sparse-shrubland overstorey. N102 Coastal dune complex. N103 Vetiveria elongata grassland. N104 Xerochloa (Rice Grass) grassland. N105 Mangal low closed-forest (Mangroves). N106 Saline tidal flats with scattered chenopod low shrubland (Samphire). N107 Chenopodium auricomum (Bluebush) low open-shrubland with ephemeral grassland understorey. N11 E. miniata (Darwin Woolly Butt) woodland with grassland understorey. N111 Halosarcia (Samphire) low open-shrubland fringing bare salt pans. N113 Senna artemisioides subsp. helmsii +/- Senna artemesioides subsp. Oligophylla +/- Acacia georginae +/- Acacia spp. N12 E. miniata (Darwin Woolly Butt), E. tetrodonta (Stringybark) woodland with Plectrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex) grassland understorey. N13 E. tetrodonta (Stringybark), E. miniata (Darwin Woolly Butt), E. dichromophloia (Variable-barked bloodwood) woodland with Plechtrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex), Chrysogogon fallax (Golden Beard Grass) grassland understorey. N14 E. tetrodonta (Stringybark), E. tectifica, (Northern Box) woodland with Sorghum grassland understorey. N15 E. tectifica (Northern Box), E. latifolia (Round-leaved Bloodwood) woodland with Sorghum grassland understorey. N16 E. tectifica (Northern Box), E. terminalis (Bloodwood) woodland with Sehima nervosum (White Grass), Chrysopogon fallax (Golden Beard Grass) grassla N17 E. dichromophloia (Variable-barked Bloodwood), E. tetrodonta (Stringybark) woodland with grassland understorey. N18 E. papuana, (Ghost Gum), E. polycarpa (Long-fruited Bloodwood) woodland with grassland understorey. N19 E. terminalis (Bloodwood), E. patellaris (Weeping Box) woodland with grassland understorey. N2 Allosyncarpia ternata (Anbinik) closed-forest. N20 E. dichromophloia (Variable-barked Bloodwood) low woodland with Chrysopogon fallax (Golden Beard Grass), Plectrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex) grass N21 E. tintinnans (Salmon Gum) low woodland with Sorghum grassland understorey. N22 E. terminalis (Bloodwood), E. chlorophylla (Box) low woodland with Sehima nervosum (White Grass), Chrysopogon fallax (Golden Beard Grass) grassland N23 E. pruinosa (Silver Box) low woodland with Eulalia aurea (Silky Browntop), Sehima nervosum (White Grass) grassland understorey. N24 E. microtheca (Coolibah), Excoecaria parvifolia (Gutta-percha) low woodland with Chrysopogon fallax (Golden Beard Grass), Dichanthium (Bluegrass) grassland understorey. N25 E. microtheca (Coolibah) low open-woodland with Eulalia aurea (Silky Browntop), Dichanthium (Bluegrass) grassland understorey. N26 E. microtheca (Coolibah) low-open woodland with Eulalia aurea (Silky Browntop), Astrebla (Mitchell Grass) grassland understorey. N27 E. microtheca (Coolibah) low open-woodland with open-grassland understorey. N28 E. microtheca (Coolibah) low open-woodland with Chenopodium auricomum (Bluebush) sparse-shrubland understorey. N29 E. phoenicea (Scarlet Gum) low woodland with Plectrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex) hummock grassland understorey. N33 E. miniata (Darwin Woolly Butt), E. tetrodonta (Stringybark), E. nesophila (Melville Island Bloodwood) open-forest with Sorghum grassland understorey E. dichromophloia (Variable-barked Bloodwood), E. tetrodonta (Stringybark) low open-woodland with Plectrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex) openhummock grassland understorey. E. dichromophloia (Variable-barked Bloodwood), E. miniata (Darwin Woolly Butt) low open-woodland with Plectrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex) openhummock grassland understorey. E. dichromophloia (Variable-barked Bloodwood) low open-woodland with Plectrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex) open-hummock grassland understorey. N34 E. dichromophloia (Variable-barked Bloodwood) low open-woodland with Triodia pungens (Soft Spinifex) hummock grassland understorey. N35 E. leucophloia (Snappy Gum) low open-woodland with Plectrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex) hummock grassland understorey. N36 E. leucophloia (Snappy Gum) low open-woodland with Triodia pungens (Soft Spinifex), Plectrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex) open-hummock grassland und N37 E. brevifolia (Snappy Gum) low open-woodland with Plectrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex) hummock grassland understorey. N38 E. brevifolia (Snappy Gum) low open-woodland with Triodia pungens (Soft Spinifex) hummock grassland understorey. N39 E. pruinosa (Silver Box), Lysiphyllum cunninghamii (Bauhinia) low open-woodland with hummock/tussock grassland understorey. N3 N31 N32 N4 N40 E. miniata (Darwin Woolly Butt), E. tetrodonta (Stringybark) open-forest with Sorghum grassland understorey. E. ferruginea (Rusty Bloodwood) low open-woodland or Jacksonia odontocarpa open-shrubland with Plectrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex) openhummock grassland. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 291 VEG UNIT1 N41 E. opaca (Bloodwood) low open-woodland with Plectrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex) hummock grassland understorey. N42 E. opaca (Bloodwood) low open-woodland with Triodia pungens (Soft Spinifex) hummock grassland understorey. N44 Terminalia arostrata (Nutwood) low open-woodland with Chrysopogon fallax (Golden Beard Grass), Dichanthium (Bluegrass) grassland understorey. N45 N46 Lysiphyllum cunninghamii (Bauhinia), E. pruinosa (Silver Box) low open-woodland with Eulalia aurea (Silky Browntop), Sehima nervosum (White Grass) Lysiphyllum cunninghamii (Bauhinia), mixed species low open-woodland with Sehima nervosum (White Grass), Chrysopogon fallax (Golden Beard Grass) op N47 Acacia open-shrubland with Sorghum grassland understorey. N48 Livistona humilis (Fan Palm) tall open-shrubland with Sorghum grassland understorey. N49 Melaleuca citrolens (Paperbark) low woodland with Chrysopogon fallax (Golden Beard Grass) open-grassland understorey N5 E. miniata (Darwin Woolly Butt), E. nesophila (Melville Island Bloodwood), Callitris intratropica (Cypress Pine) open-forest with open-shrubland understorey. N50 Melaleuca minutifolia (Paperbark) low woodland with Sorghum grassland understorey. N51 Melaleuca viridiflora (Broad Leaved Paperbark), Eucalyptus low open-woodland with Chrysopogon fallax (Goldern Beard Grass) grassland understorey. N53 Melaleuca forest (Paperbark Swamp) N54 Mixed closed-grassland/sedgeland (Seasonal Floodplain). N55 A. shirleyi (Lancewood) open-forest with open-grassland understorey. N56 Complex of A. shirleyi (Lancewood) low-woodland mixed with Eucalyptus low open-woodland. N57 Macropteranthes kekwickii (Bullwaddy) tall shrubland with open-grassland understorey. N6 E. tetrodonta (Stringybark), Callitris intratropica (Cypress Pine) woodland with Plectrachne pungens (Curly Spinifex) open-grassland understorey. N62 A. georginae (Giddier) low open-woodland with Astrebla pectinata (Bull Mitchell Grass) open-grassland understorey. N63 A. georginae (Gidyea) low open-woodland with open-grassland understorey. N7 E. tetrodonta (Stringybark), Callitris intratropica (Cypress Pine) woodland with grassland understorey. N70 A. aneura (Mulga) tall sparse-shrubland with Cassia, Eremophila (Fuchsia) low sparse-shrubland understorey. N71 A. aneura (Mulga) tall sparse-shrubland with grassland understorey. N76 N76A N77 N8 N88 N9 292 DESCRIPTION Triodia pungens (Soft Spinifex), Plectrachne schinzii (Curly Spinifex) hummock grassland with Acacia tall sparse-shrubland overstorey. Triodia pungens (Soft spinifex) open-hummock grassland with Acacia tall sparse-shrubland overstorey. Triodia pungens (Soft Spinifex), Plectrachne schinzii (Curly Spinifex), hummock grassland with Acacia tall sparse-shrubland overstorey between dune E. tetrodonta (Stringybark), E. miniata (Darwin Woolly Butt), E. ferruginea (Rusty Bloodwood) woodland with Sorghum grassland understorey. Triodia (Spinifex) hummock grassland. E. tetrodonta (Stringybark), E. miniata (Darwin Woolly Butt), E. bleeseri (Smooth-stemmed Bloodwood) woodland with Sorghum grassland understorey. N91 Triodia wiseana (Limestone Spinifex) hummock grassland with Terminalia arostrata (Nutwood) low open-woodland overstorey. N96 Astrebla pectinata (Barley Mitchell grass) grassland. N97 Astrebla (Mitchell Grass), mixed species grassland with scattered trees and shrubs N98 Chrysopogon fallax (Golden Beard Grass), Dichanthium fecundum (Bluegrass) grassland. N99 Enneapogon purpurascens (Nine Awn Grass) grassland. Appendices Appendix 3.4 Queensland map units (Qcodes). (Note: The units presented here were taken directly from the database lookup table used by the authors to develop a 1:1 000 000 scale map of the vegetation of north Queensland. Scientific names have not been italicised) VEGUNIT DESCRIPTION Q1 Mangrove species closed forest to low closed forest Q10 Melaleuca spp. + Lophostemon suaveolens + Dillenia alata open forest Q100 Eucalyptus camaldulensis and/or E. microtheca +/- Melaleuca argentea +/- M. leucadendra +/- Corymbia spp. +/Acacia spp. +/- Eucalyptus spp.+/- Lysiphyllum spp. +/- Excoecaria parvifolia woodland to open woodland along river channels and levees Q101 Acacia cambagei and/or A. tephrina +/- Acacia spp. +/- Cassia spp. & sparse understorey of tussock grasses (e.g. Sporobolus actinocladus) or Triodia spp. Q102 Ephemeral lakes with Eucalyptus microtheca +/- E. camaldulensis (or claypans with sparse herblands) and/or open succulent shrubland Q102A Ephemeral saline lake Q103 Acacia peuce low open woodland and/or sparse ground layer of Atriplex and Sclerolaena spp. +/- Astrebla spp. +/short grasses +/- scattered trees & shrubs. Q104 Dichanthium spp., Eulalia aurea +/- Astrebla spp. +/- Aristida latifolia tussock grassland, sometimes sparsely wooded with low trees of Eucalyptus microtheca Q105 Acacia aneura low woodland to tall open shrubland and/or Archidendropsis basaltica +/- Corymbia spp. +/- Acacia spp. +/- Eremophila latrobei Q106 Atalaya hemiglauca +/- Grevillea striata +/- Lysiphyllum spp. +/- Ventilago viminalis +/- Acacia spp. +/- Eucalyptus spp. +/- Corymbia spp. sparse low open woodland with sparse understorey of Aristida and Enneapogon spp. OR Aristida spp. open tussock grassland wooded with low trees or shrubs of Atalaya hemiglauca +/- Grevillea striata +/- Lysiphyllum spp. +/- Ventilago viminalis +/- Acacia spp. +/- Eucalyptus spp. +/- Corymbia spp. Q107 Eucalyptus leucophylla +/- Corymbia terminalis +/- C. apparerinja +/- Eucalyptus leucophloia +/- Acacia cambagei +/- Atalaya hemiglauca +/- Grevillea striata low open woodland with understorey of bare soil and sparse tussock grasses or Triodia spp. Q108 Corymbia terminalis +/- Acacia spp.+/- Atalaya hemiglauca +/- Eucalyptus spp. low open woodland with understorey of Triodia pungens +/- tussock grasses OR Triodia pungens hummock grassland +/- tussock grasses wooded with scattered low trees of Corymbia terminalis +/- Acacia spp. +/- Atalaya hemiglauca +/- Eucalyptus spp. Q108A Corymbia dallachiana and/or C. tessellaris and/or C. terminalis +/- C. plena open woodland with tussock grass understorey sometimes dominated by Aristida ingrata Q109 Acacia chisolmii +/- A. dictyophleba shrubland +/- low trees of Eucalyptus leucophloia, Corymbia terminalis, and E. pruinosa Q11 Melaleuca citrolens and/or M. saligna and/or Thryptomene oligandra +/- Melaleuca viridiflora low open woodland to tall shrubland Q110 Acacia shirleyi low woodland to low open woodland with sparse understorey of short grasses and/or Trioda spp. Q111 Eucalyptus persistens or E. thozetiana or E. normantonensis +/- Eucalyptus spp. +/- Corymbia spp. open woodland to low open woodland, sometimes with a shrubby layer and with sparse hummock grass understorey of Triodia spp., often with bare soil Q111s Acacia shirleyi and/or Acacia catenulata open-forest Q112 Acacia georginae tall open shrubland to low open woodland +/- Cassia spp. +/- Eucalyptus microtheca +/Eucalyptus spp. +/- Eremophila spp. +/- Lysiphyllum spp. with understorey of Astrebla pectinata and/or Eragrostis spp. and/or Sporobolus actinocladus Q113 Senna artemisioides subsp. helmsii +/- Senna artemisioides subsp. oligophylla +/- Acacia georginae +/- Acacia spp. +/- Eremophila spp. shrubland Q114 Astrebla lappacea +/- Astrebla spp. +/- Aristida latifolia +/- Eulalia aurea +/- Dichanthium spp. +/- Panicum decompositum +/- Iseilema spp. closed tussock grassand to tussock grassland Q115 Fluctuating climax of Astrebla pectinata, Aristida spp. +/- short grass tossock grassland to open tussock grassland and a seasonally dependent community of Atriplex spp., Sclerolaena spp., and species of Family Asteraceae Q116 Astrebla spp. closed tussock grassland to tussock grassland sparsely wooded with low trees of Acacia cambagei and/or A. tephrina and/or Atalaya hemiglauca and/or A. sutherlandii and/or A. victoriae Q117 Eucalyptus leucophloia low open woodland with hummock grass understorey of Triodia molesta and/or Triodia spp. OR Triodia molesta and/or other Triodia spp. hummock grassland sparsely wooded with low trees of Eucalyptus leucophloia +/- Corymbia capricornia +/- Acacia spp. Q117A Eucalyptus leucophloia low open woodland with hummock grass understorey of Triodia bitextura THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 293 VEGUNIT DESCRIPTION Q118 Triodia longiceps +/- Triodia spp. hummock grassland sparsely wooded with low trees of Eucalyptus leucophylla +/- E. leucophloia +/- Corymbia terminalis +/- Acacia spp. Q12 Melaleuca spp. +/- Lophostemon suaveolens +/- Asteromyrtus symphyocarpa open forest to woodland Q13 Melaleuca viridiflora + Petalostigma spp low woodland to open woodland +/- emergent Corymbia clarksoniana Q14 Lakes and lagoons +/- fringing woodlands Q15 Closed tussock grassland/closed sedgeland +/- emergent Pandanus spp Q16 Sorghum and/or Fimbristylis spp. and/or Themeda arguens +/- Sporobolus virginicus closed tussock grassland +/emergent Corypha utan Q17 Baloskion tetraphyllum subsp. meiostachyum + Dapsilanthus spathaceus + Nepenthes mirabilis + Gahnia sieberiana closed sedge grassland to open sedge grassland Q18 Imperata cylindrica + Mnesithea rottboellioides + Arundinella setosa closed tussock grassland Q19 Asteromyrtus lysicephala + Thryptomene oligandra +/- Neofabricia myrtifolia +/- Jacksonia thesioides open herbland +/- emergent Melaleuca arcana Q2 Sporobolus virginicus closed tussock grassland Q20 Deciduous or semi-deciduous vine thicket species low closed forest to closed shrubland +/- emergent Lagerstroemia archeriana +/- emergent Melaleuca spp Q200 Acacia spp. or Lawrencia buchanansis or Alectryon oleifolius or Callistemon viminalis low open woodland to shrubland with tussock grass understorey of Eragrostis speciosa and Sporobolus spp. and Leptochloa fusca OR tussock grassland of Eragrostis speciosa and Sporobolus spp. and Leptochloa fusca wooded with low trees of Acacia spp. or Lawrencia buchanansis or Alectryon oleifolius or Callistemon viminalis Q201 Acacia agyrodendron open woodland with sparse tussock grass understorey. Q201A Acacia argyrodendron open woodland to woodland with sparse tussock grass understorey Q202 Acacia harpophylla +/- Eucalyptus cambageana +/-softwood scrub spp. open forest to low woodland with sparse tussock grass understorey Q202A Acacia harpophylla and/or A. cambagei +/- Eucalyptus cambageana +/- softwood scrub low woodland to open forest with sparse grassy understorey Q203 Mosaic of Acacia harpophylla (groved) or A. cambagei (groved) +/- A. agyrodendron woodland to low open woodland with sparse tussock grass understorey. Q203A Eucalyptus thozetiana or softwood species low open woodland to woodland with sparse hummock grass or tussock grass understorey Q204 Eucalyptus melanophloia or Eucalyptus sp. (Mt.Hope Homestead Eucalyptus J. Thompson+ BUC175) +/Corymbia peltata open woodland to low open woodland with Triodia pumgens and/or sparse tussock grass understorey. Eucalyptus melanophloia open woodland with grassy understorey Q204A Q205 Corymbia leichhardtii or Eucalyptus similis or C. lamprophylla and/or C. peltata and/or E. chartaboma +/Corymbia. spp. +/- Eucalyptus spp woodland to open woodland +/- shrub layer of Acacia spp. with sparse understorey of Triodia spp. or tussock grasses. Q205s Corymbia leichhardtii or Corymbia trachyphloia open-woodland Q206 Corymbia setosa and/or Eucalyptus similis +/- E. chartaboma +/- E. ammophila +/- Lysicarpus angustifolius +/Corymbia spp. open woodland to low open woodland +/- shrub layer of Grevillea pteridifolia, Melaleuca nervosa, Acacia spp. and sparse hummock grass understorey of Triodia pungens. Q207 Eucalyptus crebra or E. xanthoclada or E. exilipes or E. quadricostata +/- Corymbia erythrophloia +/- Corymbia spp. open woodland to low open woodland +/- shrub layer of Acacia spp., softwood spp. and sparse understorey of Triodia spp. or tussock grasses. Q207A Eucalyptus crebra or E. xanthoclada +/- Brachychiton populneus open woodland with sparse tussock grass understorey Q207B Eucalyptus crebra or E. xanthoclada +/- E. exserta +/- Corymbia erythrophloia open woodland with sparse tussock grass understorey +/- Triodia mitchellii Q208 Eucalyptus tetrodonta and/or E. miniata open woodland with sparse understorey of Triodia pungens and/or tussock grasses. Q209 Eucalyptus whitei woodland to open woodland with sparse understorey of Triodia pungens. Q209B Eucalyptus whitei woodland to open woodland with understorey of tussock grasses Q21 Eucalyptus microtheca or E. acroleuca and/or Acacia ditricha woodland to low open woodland Q210 Eucalyptus brownii or E. populnea or E. melanophloia +/- Callitris glaucophylla woodland to open woodland with understorey of tussock grasses. Q210A Eucalyptus populnea or E. brownii open woodland with tussock grass understorey 294 Appendices VEGUNIT DESCRIPTION Q211 Eucalyptus populnea or E. melanophloia +/- Callitris glaucophylla +/- Casuarina cristata +/- Acacia harpophylla woodland to open woodland with understorey of tussock grasses and/or Triodia pungens. Q212 Eucalyptus cambageana woodland to open woodland +/- shrub layer of Acacia harpophylla or A. agyrodendron and a sparse understorey of tussock grasses. Eucalyptus orgadophila open woodland with understorey of tussock grasses Q213 Q214 Eucalyptus cloeziana or E. decorticans open woodland with sparse understorey of Triodia mitchellii or tussock grasses. Q215 Eucalyptus shirleyi +/- Corymbia peltata +/- Melaleuca nervosa low open woodland with sparse understorey of tussock grasses Q216 Low woodland to low open woodland of semi-evergreen vine thicket spp. or microphyll vine forest spp. Q216A Microphyll vine thicket species low open woodland to low woodland Q217 Dichanthium or Bothriochloa spp. or Themeda triandra or Ophiuros exaltatus +/- Panicum spp. +/- Astrebla spp. +/Eulalia aurea tussock grassland to open tussock grassland sometimes wooded with Acacia farnesiana* +/Eucalyptus tereticornis +/- E. coolabah +/- E. leptophleba Q218 Casuarina cristata woodland with sparse understorey tussock grasses Q219 Callitris glaucophylla and/or Angophora leiocarpa +/- Corymbia plena open woodland with very sparse understorey of tussock grasses. Q22 Eucalyptus chlorophylla +/- Corymbia clarksoniana +/- Terminalia platyptera woodland to low open woodland +/subcanopy of Melaleuca spp Q220 Archidendropsis basaltica low open woodland in groves with understorey of tussock grasses Q221 Melaleuca nervosa forma nervosa low woodland to low open woodland with sparse understorey of Triodia pungens or tussock grasses. Q222 Melaleuca tamariscina and/or M. uncinata and/or Acacia leptostachya and/or Thryptomene parviflora +/- Acacia acradenia +/- Acacia spp. low open woodland to open shrubland with sparse understorey of Triodia pungens or T. mitchellii Q222A Micromyrtus capricornia +/- Acacia spp. +/- Calytrix tetragona shrubland +/- emergent Eucalyptus spp. Q222B Shrubland of Acacia aprepta with sparse grassy understorey and frequent rock outcropping. Q222C Acacia leptostachya shrubland Q222D Montane heath Q222E vine thickets with Cochlospermum gillivraei and Lophostemon grandiflorus Q23 Corymbia clarksoniana/polycarpa +/- Eucalyptus leptophleba +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys +/- Eucalyptus spp. +/- Melaleuca spp. woodland to open woodland Q24 Eucalyptus leptophleba +/- Corymbia polycarpa/clarksoniana +/- C. tessellaris +/- E. acroleuca +/- C. dallachiana open forest to woodland Q25 Corymbia tessellaris and/or C. clarksoniana and/or Eucalyptus tetrodonta +/- C. novoguinensis open forest to woodland Q26 Eucalyptus platyphylla +/- Corymbia clarksoniana open forest to woodland Q26A Eucalyptus platyphylla, Corymbia dallachiana, C.tessellaris, E. drepanophylla/crebra woodland Q27 Eucalyptus tetrodonta + Erythropyhleum chlorostachys +/- Corymbia hylandii subsp. peninsularis +/- C. nesophila tall woodland Q28 Eucalyptus tetrodonta + Corymbia nesophila + C. clarksoniana +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys woodland +/shrub layer Q29 Eucalyptus tetrodonta and/or Corymbia nesophila +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys +/- C. clarksoniana +/- E. leptophleba +/- C. confertiflora woodland Q3 Bare saline tidal flats +/- Chenopod short herbland Q30 Semi-deciduous notophyll vine forest Q300 Eucalyptus chartaboma and/or E. crebra (sens. lat.) and/or Corymbia erythrophloia +/- E. tetrodonta +/- C. dallachiana and/or C. clarksoniana woodland to open woodland +/- shrub layer of Petalostigma banksii, Terminalia aridicola, Erythrophleum chlorostachys and understorey of sparse tussock grasses Q301 Eucalytpus microneura and/or E. persistens +/- E. leptophleba +/- E. crebra (sensu lato) +/- E. cullenii +/Corymbia confertiflora +/- C. dallachiana woodland +/- shrub layer of Eremophila mitchellii, Carissa lanceolata, Terminalia sp., Gardenia vilhelmii, Melaleuca citrolens/acacioides and a sparse tussock grass understorey. Q302 Eucalyptus tereticornis and/or Corymbia intermedia and/or C. tessellaris and/or Lophostemon suaveolens +/Allocasuarina torulosa +/- E. granitica tall open forest to woodland +/- shrub layer of Lophostemon suaveolens, Acacia flavescens and Allocasuarina torulosa, with an understorey of tussock grasses +/- Lomandra sp. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 295 VEGUNIT DESCRIPTION Q303 Waterholes, lakes, lagoons, swamps +/- Eucalyptus camaldulensis +/- E. microtheca +/- E. moluccana fringing woodland Q304 Eucalyptus microneura +/- E. persistens +/- E. crebra (sens. lat.) or E. cullenii woodland to low open woodland +/patchy shrub layer of Petalostigma pubescens +/- Carissa lanceolata +/- Atalaya hemiglauca +/- Melaleuca acacioides/citrolens +/- Gardenia vilhelmii with understorey of tussock grasses Eucalyptus crebra (sensu lato) or E. cullenii or E. setosa +/- Corymbia clarksoniana +/- Callitris intratropica +/Corymbia erythrophloia +/- C. dallachiana +/- C. confertiflora +/- C. portuensis open forest to low woodland +/shrub layer of Acacia spp. +/- Petalostigma pubescens +/- Alphitonia excelsa +/- Melaleuca spp. with understorey of Heteropogon contortus +/- mixed species tussock grasses Q305 Q305A Eucalyptus crebra and/or E. tenuipes, Corymbia clarksoniana and C. dallachiana +/- Eucalyptus spp. woodland +/shrub layer with tussock grass understorey Q306 Corymbia citriodora and/or Eucalyptus crebra (sensu lato) and/or C. clarksoniana +/- E. tereticornis +/- E. portuensis +/- E. moluccana open forest to open woodland +/- shrub layer of Acacia spp. and/or Melaleuca nervosa and/or Grevillea parallela and/or Lophostemon suaveolens with understorey of tussock grasses Q306A Eucalyptus moluccana woodland to open forest +/- shrub layer of Acacia rhodoxylon, Melaleuca viridiflora and grassy understorey of Heteropogon contortus Q307 Eucalyptus crebra (sensu lato) or E. cullenii +/- Acacia rhodoxylon +/- Corymbia erythrophloia +/- C. dallachiana +/- C. clarksoniana +/- E. tereticornis +/- open shrub layer of Grevillea mimosoides and G. glauca, and softwood species, with dense understorey of tussock grasses dominated by Heteropogon contortus Q307A Eucalyptus crebra or E. tholiformis open woodland +/- shrub layers of Acacia spp. and sparse understorey of Triodia mitchellii Q307B Eucalyptus crebra and/or E. melanophloia +/- E. populnea +/- Corymbia spp. woodland to open forest with sparse shrub layer Q308 Vine thickets with species including Strychnos lucida, Antidesma parvifolium, Canarium australianum, Diospyros humilis and patches of Eucalyptus tereticornis and Lophostemon suaveolens low closed forest to low woodland, with a distinct shrub layer and a bare to sparse understorey +/- forbs +/- tussock grasses Q309 Excoecaria parvifolia tall shrubland to low woodland with sparse understorey of tussock grasses Q31 Eucalyptus phoenicia + E. tetrodonta + Corymbia hylandii subsp. peninsularis +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys +/C. clarksoniana woodland Q310 Dichanthium and/or Iseilema spp. closed tussock grassland wooded with low trees of Corymbia dallachiana and/or C. terminalis and/or Eucalyptus orgadophila Q311 Eucalyptus microneura and/or E. leptophleba and/or E. crebra (sens. lat.) +/- Corymbia confertiflora +/- C. dallachiana woodland +/- shrub layer of Eremophila mitchellii, Carissa lanceolata and understorey of tussock grasses OR tussock grassland sparsely wooded with low trees of Eucalyptus microneura and/or E. leptophleba and/or E. crebra (sens. lat.) +/- Corymbia confertiflora +/- C. dallachiana Cochlospermum gillivraei, Erythrophleum chlorostachys, Terminalia aridicola +/- Acacia leptostachya +/- Corymbia spp. deciduous low open woodland and a sparse shrub layer of Petalostigma and Acacia spp. with an understorey of sparse tussock grasses Q312 Q313 Vine thickets Q314 Eucalyptus crebra (sens. lat.) and/or E. microneura +/- E. leptophleba +/- Corymbia spp. woodland to low open woodland +/- clumped shrub layer of Erythrophleum chlorostachys, Petalostigma pubescens and Eremophila mitchellii, and understorey of tussock grasses Q315 Eucalyptus melanophloia and/or E. shirleyi and/or E. similis +/- Corymbia peltata low open woodland with patchy shrub layer of Petalostigma banksii, Gardenia vilhelmii, Terminalia aridicola subsp. chillagoensis, Callitris intratropica and sparse understorey of tussock grasses Q316 Eucalyptus crebra (sens. lat.), Corymbia citriodora +/- C. clarksoniana +/- E. portuensis +/- E. cloeziana +/Eucalyptus spp. +/- softwood species +/- Corymbia spp. open forest to woodland with mixed shrubs of Acacia flavescens, Grevillea glauca, Petalostigma pubescens, Bursaria incana and tussock grass understorey Q317 Macroptheranthes sp. and Corymbia dallachiana low open woodland Q318 Complex notophyll vine forest including Toona ciliata, and Melia azedarach Q319 Eucalyptus cullenii +/- Corymbia erythrophloia +/- C. citriodora +/- C. confertiflora +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys +/- Terminalia platyptera woodland to open woodland with understorey of Themeda triandra Q32 Melaleuca viridiflora +/- Melaleuca stenostachya +/- Asteromyrtus spp. +/- Neofabricia myrtifolia woodland to low open woodland Q320 Eucalyptus persistens and/or E. shirleyi +/- Corymbia setosa +/- E. tetrodonta open woodland to shrubland with shrub layer of Melaleuca acacioides/citrolens, Gardenia vilhelmii, Acacia shirleyi, Petalostigma banksii and sparse understorey of tussock grasses Q321 Eucalyptus leptophleba, Corymbia clarksoniana, E. cullenii or E. granitica +/- Eucalyptus tereticornis with distinct shrub layer and understorey of tussock grasses Q322 Eucalyptus drepanophylla +/- Eucalyptus spp. +/- Corymbia spp woodland to open woodland with vine thicket species shrub layer 296 Appendices VEGUNIT DESCRIPTION Q323 Eucalyptus drepanophylla +/- Eucalyptus spp. +/- Corymbia spp woodland +/- shrub layer of Acacia, Melaleuca and Grevillea spp. Q324 Eucalyptus drepanophylla +/- vine thicket spp. woodland Q325 Woodland with Eucalyptus portuensis +/- E. drepanophylla, +/- E. platyphylla. Midstratum with Petalostigma pubescens, Acacia flavescens +/- Xylomelum scottianum Q32B Melaleuca viridiflora woodland +/- emergent Eucalyptus platyphylla, Corymbia clarksoniana, C. dallachiana with tussock grass understorey of Bothriochloa pertusa and Eremochloa spp. Q33 Acacia shirleyi open forest Q34 Eucalyptus spp. +/- Melaleuca stenostachya +/- Corymbia hylandii var. hylandii +/- Corymbia spp. +/- Acacia leptostachya woodland to low open woodland +/- shrub layer Q35 Vine forest Q35A Asteromyrtus lysicephala and/or Neofabricia myrtifolia +/- Acacia calyculata +/- Jacksonia thesioides +/Choriceras tricorne and/or Schizachyrium spp tall open shrubland to open herbland Q36 Eucalyptus leptophleba and/or Corymbia erythrophloia +/- C. dallachiana +/- C. clarksoniana +/- E. cullenii woodland to open woodland Q37 Eucalyptus leptophleba + Corymbia papuana + C. clarksoniana open woodland Q38 Heteropogn triticeus, Themeda arguens, Sorghum plumosum closed tussock grassland +/- open woodland to tall open shrubland of Terminalia aridicola subsp. chillagoensis + T. platyphylla and/or Piliostigma malabaricum Q39 Simple evergreen notophyll vine forest +/- emergent Eucalyptus pellita +/- emergent Callitris intratropica Q39A Deciduous vine thicket +/- emergent Gyrocarpus americanus +/- emergent Bombax ceiba Q3A Melaleuca acacioides or Melaleuca saligna +/- Hakea pedunculata +/- Melaleuca spp open forest to tall shrubland Q4 Syzygium spp. +/- Acacia crassicarpa +/- Terminalia spp. +/- Manilkara kauki closed vine forest +/- Araucaria cunninghamii emergents Q40 Eucalyptus tetrodonta + Corymbia nesophila +/- C. hylandii var. hylandii +/- Eucalyptus cullenii (or E. crebra) +/Asteromyrtus brassii woodland to open woodland +/- heath understorey Q400 Eucalyptus fibrosa subsp. (Glen Geddes) and Corymbia xanthope woodland Q41 Allocasuarina littoralis and/or Asteromyrtus brassii +/- Neofabricia myrtifolia +/- Lophostemon suaveolens +/Callitris intratropica low open forest to low woodland Q42 Eucalyptus tetrodonta +/- Corymbia hylandii var. hylandii and/or E. similis +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys +/Eucalyptus cullenii (Sandstone plateaux) Q43 Vine forest +/- Agathis robusta +/- emergent Acacia aulacocarpa +/- emergent Eucalyptus tereticornis Q44 Corymbia intermedia +/- Eucalyptus crebra +/- C. nesophila +/- E. cloeziana +/- E. portuensis +/- E. pellita +/- E. reducta +/- E. portuensis open forest to woodland Q45 Eucalyptus platyphylla and/or E. leptophleba +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys +/- Eucalyptus cullenii +/- Corymbia clarksoniana open forest to woodland Q46 Eucalyptus cullenii or E. crebra +/- Eucalyptus spp. +/- Corymbia spp. +/- Melaleuca stenostachya woodland to open woodland Q47 Eucalyptus persistens subsp. tardecidens + Melaleuca stenostachya low woodland Q48 Notophyll vine forest or microphyll vine fern thicket +/- emergent Araucaria cunninghamii +/- emergent Palms Q49 Deciduous vine thicket dominated by Cochlospermum gillivraei +/- Canarium australianum +/- Acacia aulacocarpa +/- Wodyetia bifurcata Q5 Coastal dune complex (Northern Territory) Q50 Lophostemon suaveolens and/or Corymbia clarksoniana and/or Welchiodendron longivalve +/- Eucalyptus spp. +/Corymbia spp. +/- Allocasuarina littoralis open forest to low open forest +/- rainforest species Q500 Corymbia polycarpa and/or C.grandifolia and/or Eucalyptus tectifica +/- Terminalia canescens, +/- E.pruinosa, +/C.ferruginea, +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys, +/- C.confertiflora, +/- E.chlorophylla low woodland to low open woodland with a shrub layer of Melaleuca citrolens, M.viridiflora, Petalostigma and Acacia spp., and a ground layer of Triodia sp. and tussock grasses Q501 Corymbia polycarpa +/- C. grandifolia +/- Eucalyptus microtheca or C. polycarpa, E. miniata +/- E. microneura +/_ E. tetrodonta; +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys +/- Terminalia spp. +/- Eucalyptus spp. +/- Corymbia spp. +/shrubs of Melaleuca and Acacia spp woodland to low woodland with sparse understorey of Chrysopogon, Aristida, Schizachyrium and Eriachne spp. Q502 Eucalyptus chlorophylla and/or E. tectifica +/- Lysiphyllum cunninghamii +/- Corymbia spp. OR E. tectifica +/E.chlorophylla, E.leucophloia with Corymbia grandifolia, C.bella (on sand ridges), woodland to low open woodland +/- shrub layer of Melaleuca, Acacia and/or Terminalia spp., and an understorey of Heteropogon contortus, Chrysopogon spp. and Sehima nervosum. THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 297 VEGUNIT DESCRIPTION Q503 Q504 Eucalyptus pruinosa +/- Eucalyptus spp. +/- Corymbia spp. low woodland to low open woodland +/- sparse shrubs of Acacia chisholmii or Melaleuca spp. or Atalaya hemiglauca and understorey of hard tussock grasses +/- Triodia spp. Melaleuca viridiflora +/- E. tetrodonta +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys +/- Corymbia spp. OR E. tetrodonta, C. ferruginea, E. chlorostachys open forest to woodland, low open woodland or tall open shrubland with sparse understorey of Triodia bitextura Q505 Lysiphyllum sp. +/- Grevillea striata +/- Atalaya hemiglauca +/- Corymbia spp. +/- Eucalptus pruinosa woodland to low woodland often with emergent C. polycarpa and sparse understorey of Aristida ingrata, Aristida spp., and Heteropogon contortus on sandy plains Q506 Melaleuca citrolens +/- M. acacioides +/- Melaleuca spp. OR Melaleuca acaciodes/citrolens, M. nervosa, M. viridiflora +/- Terminalia platyptera +/- Lysiphyllum sp., low woodland to low open woodland +/- Grevillea spp. +/Petalostigma banksii mixed shrub layer and an understorey of Aristida spp. and Chrysopogon fallax Q508 Melaleuca viridiflora and Melaleuca spp. +/- Eucalyptus persistens +/- Terminalia spp. +/- emergent Corymbia polycarpa OR Melaleuca viridiflora +/- E. persistens +/- C. clarksoniana +/- Erythrophleum chlorostachys, low woodland to low open woodland +/- shrub layer of Petalostigma banksii with a sparse understorey of tussock grasses Eucalyptus leucophylla +/- E. pruinosa +/- Corymbia terminalis low woodland to low open woodland +/- shrub layer of Acacia and Senna spp. with understorey of Triodia spp. +/- tussock grasses Q509 Q51 Rock pavements and/or granite boulders +/- scattered trees and shrubs +/- Blue green algae Q510 Terminalia and Lysiphyllum spp., +/- Dendrolobium umbellatum +/- E. chlorophylla +/- Atalaya hemiglauca patchy deciduous low open woodland, sometimes treeless, with understorey of Heteropogon triticeus and H. contortus, Themeda triandra, Dichanthium spp. and Sorghum plumosum Q511 Corymbia capricornia, Eucalyptus miniata +/- C. aspera +/- E. tetrodonta +/- Terminalia aridicola woodland to low open woodland +/- shrub layer of Calytrix brownii, Gardenia pyriformis, Acacia spp.with an understorey of Triodia spp. +/- tussock grasses Q512 Eucalyptus cullenii/granitica +/- C. erythrophloia +/- C. confertiflora +/- Terminalia spp. woodland to open woodland with scattered shrubs of Melaleuca viridiflora, Callitris intratropica and a grassy understorey Q52 Eucalyptus tetrodonta and/or Melaleuca spp. +/- Corymbia hylandii +/- C. nesophila +/- E. brassiana woodland Q6 Leucopogon spp. and/or Asteromyrtus spp. and/or Acacia humifusa +/- Neofabricia myrtifolia closed shrubland to open herbland Q7 Melaleuca spp. open forest to low open forest +/- sedgeland Q8 Corymbia clarksoniana or C. nesophila and/or Eucalyptus tetrodonta +/- C. novoguinensis +/- E. phoenicea open forest to woodland Q9 Semi-deciduous or evergreen vine forest +/- Melaleuca leucadendra +/- Lophostemon suaveolens +/Archontophoenix alexandrae 298 Appendices Appendix 3.5 Western Australian (Kimberley) vegetation units adapted by Hopkins et al. (1999) from Beard and Webb (1974) and Beard (1979). (Note: The units presented here were taken directly from the database lookup table attached to the newly digitised version of the Kimberley vegetation map (Beard and Webb 1974, Beard 1979). Nomenclature has not been updated and scientific names have not been italicised. Beard_code is the original physiognomic code used by J.S. Beard to describe the vegetation. Refer to Beard (1979) for the key to the classification.) VEGUNIT BEARD_CODE (Beard 1979, DESCRIPTION Beard and Webb 1974) W101 a5Sr t1Hi Acacia pachycarpa open shrubland with Triodia pungens hummock grass understorey W104 g;hSrt1Hi Grevillea spp.; Hakea suberea open shrubland with Triodia pungens tussock grass understorey W1121 e17Lr xHGi Eucalyptus gymnoteles low open woodland with hummock grass and tussock grass mixed species understorey W116 xLb t3Hr Triodia wiseana sparse hummock grassland sparsely wooded with Adansonia gregorii and other mixed species low trees on limestone. W117 t1Hi Triodia epactia (coastal) or Triodia pungens (inland) hummock grassland W12 e48;49Mi Eucalyptus tetrodonta; Eucalyptus miniata woodland W125 n/a waterbodies W126 n/a Lake Argyle W127 n/a mudflats W1271 salt Saltpans W133 xHGi Mixed species grassland of hummock grasses and tussock grasses W134 e23Lr pHi/anSr tpHi Eucalyptus chippendalei low open woodland with Plectrachne spp. hummock grass understorey W151 eLr xGc Eucalyptus spp. low open woodland with mixed species tussock grass understorey W1520 e24;48Mc ps2Gc/e50;62Li ps2Gc Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus tetrodonta woodland with Plectrachne sp.; Sorghum spp; grassy understorey W155 eLr t/pHi Eucalyptus spp. low open woodland with Triodia spp.; Plectrachne spp. hummock grass understorey W157 t3Hi Triodia wiseana hummock grassland W175 xGc Mixed species tussock grassland W1765 W2175 e24;53Lra28;29Sc.ct11Gi/eL1 Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus setosa low open woodland with Acacia eriopoda; Acacia tumida shrub layer and a Chrysopogon spp.; Triodia bitextura grass layer e17Li xGc Eucalyptus gymnoteles low woodland with mixed species tussock grass understorey cMi t1Hi Casuarina decaisneana woodland with Triodia pungens hummock grass understorey xGc Mixed species tussock grassland W218 h1anSr t1Hi W2736 e16;58Lr p3Gc W32 xLr a Sc t tpHi W37 mSc W1893 W217 Hakea spp.; Acacia spp. open shrubland with Triodia pungens hummock grass understorey Eucalyptus brevifolia and Eucalyptus perfoliata low open woodland with Triodia bitextura grassy understorey Mixed species low open woodland with Acacia spp. open scrub and Triodia spp. and Plectrachne spp. hummock grass understorey Melaleuca spp. shrubland W41 mSi Melaleuca spp. open shrubland W43 mangrove Mangrove species low closed forest to tall open shrubland W52 e24;48Mi ps2Gc Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus tetrodonta; Eucalyptus miniata woodland with Plectrachne spp. and Sorghum spp. tussock grass understorey W53 e48;49Mi ps2Gc Eucalyptus tetrodonta; Eucalyptus miniata woodland with Plectrachne spp.; Sorghum spp. tussock grass understorey W565 e24Lr t1Hi Eucalyptus dichromophloia low open woodland with Triodia pungens hummock grass understorey THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 299 VEGUNIT BEARD_CODE (Beard 1979, DESCRIPTION Beard and Webb 1974) W569 e24Lr t1;3Hi Eucalyptus dichromophloia low open woodland with Triodia pungens; Triodia wiseana hummock grass understorey W589 xGc/t1Hi Mixed species tussock grassland W59 be17Lb ads2Gc Astrebla spp.; Dichanthium fecundum; Sorghum spp. tussock grassland sparsely wooded withLysiphyllum cunninghamii; Eucalyptus gymnoteles low trees W60 e50;51Mi cGc Eucalyptus tectifica; Eucalyptus grandifolia woodland with Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey W61 e17Mr cGc W64 b3Lr cGc Eucalyptus gymnoteles open woodland with Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey Adansonia gregorii; Lysiphyllum cunninghamii; Grevillea striata low open woodland with Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey W65 tLb a1Gc W67 mLr cGc W676 Ci W699 e24;53Lr a28Sc t1;11Hi Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus setosa low open woodland with Acacia eriopoda open scrub and Triodia pungens; Triodia bitextura hummock grass understorey W700 e24;53Lr a28Sc t1;11Hi Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus setosa low open woodland with Acacia eriopoda open scrub and Triodia pungens; Triodia bitextura hummock grass understorey W7001 e24;53Lr a28;29Sc ct11Gi Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus setosa low open woodland with Acacia eriopoda; Acacia tumida shrub layer and a Chrysopogon spp.; Triodia bitextura open grass layer W701 a5g1Sr t1;4Hi Acacia pachycarpa; Grevillea refracta open shrubland with Triodia pungens; Triodia intermedia hummock grass understorey Astrebla pectinata; Astrebla spp. tussock grassland sparsely wooded with Terminalia spp. low trees Melaleuca spp. low open woodland with Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey Open chenopod shrubland (seasonal) W702 t4Hi Triodia intermedia hummock grassland W703 e16Lr t4Hi W704 bLr a28;30Sp a2Gc Eucalyptus brevifolia low open woodland with Triodia intermedia hummock grass understorey Lysiphyllum cunninghamii sparse low open woodland and Acacia eriopoda; Acacia impressa shrubs in patches with Aristida pruinosa tussock grassland W705 e24;53Lb t1;4Hi W706 a1Gc/cdGc Astrebla pectinata closed tussock grassland W707 be17Lb cdGc Chrysopogon spp.; Dichanthium fecundum tussock grassland sparsely wooded with Lysiphyllum cunninghamii; Eucalyptus gymnoteles low trees W709 a30Sr t4Hi W710 b3Lr t1;11cGc Acacia impressa open shrubland with Triodia intermedia hummock grass understorey Adansonia gregorii; Lysiphyllum cunninghamii; Grevillea striata low open woodland with ground layer of Triodia pungens; Triodia bitextura; Chrysopogon spp. W712 e24;53Lr a28Sc t1;11Hi/b3L Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus setosa low open woodland with Acacia eriopoda open scrub layer and Triodia pungens; Triodia bitextura hummock grass understorey W716 b3LrcGc/eLrt1;4Hi Adansonia gregorii; Lysiphyllum cunnighamii; Grevillea striata low open woodland with Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey W717 xLc Mixed species low woodland W718 e52;17Mr cGc Eucalyptus papuana; Eucalyptus gymnoteles open woodland with Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey W72 eGc Enneapogon spp. tussock grassland W720 aGc / adGc Astrebla/Aristida? tussock grassland W721 ebLb t4Hi Triodia intermedia hummock grassland sparsely wooded with Eucalyptus spp.; Lysiphyllum cunninghamii low trees W722 be24Lb a5;28Sc t11Hi Acacia pachycarpa; Acacia eriopoda open scrub and sparse low trees of Lysiphyllum cunninghamii; Eucalyptus dichromophloia with Triodia bitextura hummock grass understorey 300 Appendices Triodia pungens; Triodia intermedia hummock grassland sparsely wooded with Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus setosa low trees VEGUNIT BEARD_CODE (Beard 1979, DESCRIPTION Beard and Webb 1974) W724 a5;30Sr t4Hi Acacia pachycarpa; Acacia impressa open shrubland with Triodia intermedia hummock grass understorey W725 a5;29Sr t1Hi Acacia pachycarpa; Acacia tumida open shrubland with Triodia pungens hummock grass understorey W726 bLr aGc/cdGc Lysiphyllum cunninghamii low open woodland with Astrebla spp. tussock grass understorey W727 e24Lr a2Sr t1Hi Eucalyptus dichromophloia low open woodland and Acacia pyrifolia open shrub layer with Triodia pungens hummock grass understorey W728 bLr a24;30Sc agi Lysiphyllum cunninghamii low open woodland and Acacia sp. (24); Acacia impressa open scrub with Aristida pruinosa tussock grass understorey W729 bg2Lr t1Hi Low open woodland of Lysiphyllum cunninghamii; Grevillea striata with Triodia pungens hummock grass understorey W73 s3gc Sporobolus virginicus short tussock grassland W730 bgLr a5;28Sc t1;4Hi Acacia pachycarpa; Acacia eriopoda open scrub and sparse low trees of Lysiphyllum cunninghamii; Grevillea spp. with Triodia pungens; Triodia intermedia hummock grass understorey W731 e16Lr t1;4Hi Eucalyptus brevifolia low open woodland with Triodia pungens; Triodia intermedia hummock grass understorey W733 e60Sr t1Hi W735 aMb t3Hr W736 e16;58Lr p3Gc/aLbp4Gi Eucalyptus pruinosa open shrubland with Triodia pungens hummock grass understorey Triodia wiseana open hummock grassland sparsely wooded trees of Adansonia gregorii Eucalyptus brevifolia; Eucalyptus perfoliata low open woodland with Triodia bitextura curly spinifex understorey W737 e24;53Lr a29Sc t11Gi Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus setosa low open woodland with Acacia tumida open scrub and Triodia bitextura tussock grass understorey W738 e16;24Lr t11Gc Eucalyptus brevifolia; Eucalyptus dichromophloia low open woodland with Triodia bitextura tussock grass understorey W739 e50;51Mi s1;2Gc Eucalyptus tectifica; Eucalyptus grandifolia woodland with Sehima nervosum; Sorghum spp. tussock grass understorey W739 delete? e50;51Mi s1;2Gc Eucalyptus tectifica; Eucalyptus grandifolia woodland with Sehima nervosum; Sorghum spp. tussock grass understorey W740 e16;24Mi t11Gc Eucalyptus brevifolia; Eucalyptus dichromophloia woodland with Triodia bitextura hummock grass understorey W741 e50;51Mi cdGc Eucalyptus tectifica; Eucalyptus grandifolia woodland with Chrysopogon spp.; Dichanthium fecundum tussock grass understorey W742 e18tMi Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Terminalia spp. woodland W743 a27bLb cdGc Chrysopogon spp. and Dichanthium fecundum tussock grassland sparsely wooded with Acacia suberosa; Lysiphyllum cunninghamii low trees W744 a27bLb a1Gc/cdGc Astrebla pectinata closed tussock grassland sparsely wooded with Acacia suberosa; Lysiphyllum cunninghamii low trees W746 e24Lr t3Hi W75 e55;56Li p3Gc Eucalyptus dichromophloia low open woodland with Triodia wiseana hummock grass understorey Eucalyptus phoenicea; Eucalyptus ferruginea low woodland with Triodia bitextura curly spinifex understorey W750 e50;51Mi a29Sc ct11Gi Eucalyptus tectifica; Eucalyptus grandifolia woodland with Acacia tumida open scrub and Chrysopogon spp.; Triodia bitextura grass layer W751 e59Lr a28;29Sc t11Gi Eucalyptus confertiflora low open woodland with Acacia eriopoda; Acacia tumida open scrub and Triodia bitextura hummock grass understorey W752 a29Si t4Hi W754 e49;51Mi a29Sc ct11Gi Shrubland of Acacia tumida with Triodia pungens; Triodia intermedia hummock grass understorey Eucalyptus miniata; Eucalyptus grandifolia woodland with Acacia tumida open scrub and Chrysopogon spp.; Triodia bitextura open grass layer THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 301 VEGUNIT BEARD_CODE (Beard 1979, DESCRIPTION Beard and Webb 1974) W755 e24;53Lr a29;30Sc t11Gi Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus setosa low open woodland with Acacia tumida; Acacia impressa open scrub and Triodia bitextura open grass layer W756 e18tMi/e17;52Mi Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Terminalia spp. woodland W757 e24;58Lr a29;30Sc t11Gi Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus perfoliata low open woodland with Acacia tumida; Acacia impressa open scrub and a Triodia bitextura open grass layer W759 e17Mr cdGc Eucalyptus gymnoteles open woodland with Chrysopogon spp.; Dichanthium fecundum tussock grass understorey W760 e24;53Lr a29Sc ct11Gi Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus setosa low open woodland with Acacia tumida open scrub and Chrysopogon spp.; Triodia bitextura open grass layer W761 a28;29Si t1;4Hi Acacia eriopoda; Acacia tumida shrubland with Triodia pungens; Triodia intermedia hummock grass understorey W762 a29Si t4Hi W764 e24;53Lr a28;29Sc ct11Gi W767 gSr t1Hi Acacia eriopoda low woodland with Triodia intermedia hummock grass understorey Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus setosa low open woodland with Acacia eriopoda; Acacia tumida shrub layer and a Chrysopogon spp.; Triodia bitextura open grass layer Grevillea spp. open shrubland with Triodia pungens hummock grass understorey W77 e16Lr et11Gc Eucalyptus brevifolia low open woodland with Enneapogon spp. tussock grass understorey and patchy Triodia bitextura. W770 acSc Acacia spp.; Casuarina decaisneana shrubland. W771 e52;57Mi a29Sc pGi Eucalyptus papuana; Eucalyptus setosa woodland with Acacia tumida open scrub and Plectrachne spp. open grass understorey W773 e24;50Lr s1;2Gc Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus tectifica low open woodland with Sehima nervosum; Sorghum spp. tussock grass understorey W774 a27Lb aGc Astrebla petinata and Aristida spp. closed tussock grassland sparsely wooded with Acacia suberosa; Lysiphyllum cunninghamii low trees W78 eLr t1Hi W80 oLr t1Hi W8001 e24;49Lr pGc W8002 e24;49Mips2Gc/t1;4Hi Eucalyptus spp. low open woodland with Triodia pungens hummock grass understorey Owenia reticulata low open woodland with Triodia pungens open hummock grass understorey Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus miniata with Plectrachne spp. curly spinifex understorey E. dichromophloia; E.miniata open woodland with Plectrachne sp.; Sorghum spp. grassy understorey W8003 bg2Lr a28;30Sc.a2cgit1Hi Acacia eriopoda; Acacia impressa shrubland and scattered low trees of Lysiphyllum cunninghamii; Grevillea striata with Aristida pruinosa; Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey and patches of Triodia pungens hummock grasses. Coastal dune complex W8005 new W8006 new Vine thicket/rainforest W8007 be17Lb cdGc W804 e51;62Lit11Gc Chrysopogon spp., Dichanthium fecundum tussock grassland sparsely wooded with Lysiphyllum cunninghamii, Acacia bidwillii, and Eucalyptus microtheca low trees Eucalyptus grandifolia; Eucalyptus foelscheana low open woodland with Triodia bitextura grassy understorey W805 e24Mi t11Gc Eucalyptus dichromophloia woodland with Triodia bitextura grassy understorey W806 e16;54Lr t1;11Hi Eucalyptus brevifolia; Eucalyptus argillacea low open woodland with Triodia pungens; Triodia bitextura open hummock grass understorey W807 aLr xGc Acacia spp. low open woodland with mixed species tussock grass understorey W808 e16Lr t11Gc Eucalyptus brevifolia low open woodland with Triodia bitextura grassy understorey W809 e57Mr a2Gc W81 e16Lr t1Hi W810 e50;62Mi s2t11Gc Eucalyptus polycarpa open woodland with Aristida pruinosa tussock grass understorey Eucalyptus brevifolia low open woodland with Triodia pungens hummock grass understorey Eucalyptus tectifica; Eucalyptus foelscheana woodland with Sorghum spp.; Triodia bitextura grassy understorey W811 e54;61Lr ks1Gc 302 Appendices Eucalyptus argillacea; Eucalyptus terminalis low open woodland with Triodia spp.; Sehima nervosum short tussock grass understorey VEGUNIT BEARD_CODE (Beard 1979, DESCRIPTION Beard and Webb 1974) W812 e24;49Mi s2;t11Gc Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus miniata woodland with Sorghum spp.; Triodia bitextura grassy understorey W813 be17Lb ds2Gc Dichanthium fecundum; Sorghum spp. tussock grassland sparsely wooded with Lysiphyllum cunninghamii; Eucalyptus gymnoteles low trees W814 me60Li t11Hi Melaleuca spp.; Eucalyptus spp. low woodland with Triodia bitextura hummock grass understorey W815 tLb a1dGc Astrebla pectinata; Dichanthium fecundum tussock grassland sparsely wooded with Terminalia spp. low trees W816 e54;61Lr eGc Eucalyptus argillacea; Eucalyptus terminalis low open woodland with Enneapogon spp. short tussock grass understorey W817 tLr ds2Gc Terminalia spp. low open woodland with Dichanthium fecundum; Sorghum spp. tussock grass understorey W818 e16Lb t5Hi W819 e51;60Lr a2cGc Triodia inutilis hummock grassland sparsely wooded with Eucalyptus brevifolia low trees Eucalyptus grandifolia; Eucalyptus pruinosa low open woodland with Aristida pruinosa; Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey W820 e16Lb s2t11Gc Sorghum spp. and Triodia bitextura grassland sparsely wooded with low Eucalyptus brevifolia low trees W825 e51;62Mi s2t11Gc Eucalyptus grandifolia; Eucalyptus foelscheana woodland with Sorghum spp.; Triodia bitextura grassy understorey W826 e16Lr t11Hi W827 W830 Eucalyptus brevifolia low open woodland with Triodia bitextura hummock grass understorey tLr t3Hi Terminalia spp. low open woodland with Triodia wiseana hummock grass understorey e54;61LreGc/e16Lrt3Hi/s2Gc Eucalyptus argillacea; Eucalyptus terminalis low open woodland with Enneapogon spp. short tussock grass understorey W831 e16Lb t4;5Hi Triodia wiseana and Triodia intermedia hummock grassland sparsely wooded with Eucalyptus brevifolia low trees W833 e16Lb eGc W834 a1dGc Enneapogon spp. short tussock grassland sparsely wooded with Eucalyptus brevifolia low trees Astrebla pectinata; Dichanthium fecundum tussock grassland W835 e48;49Mi xLSr p;s2Gc Eucalyptus tetrodonta; Eucalyptus miniata woodland with a mixed species low open tree and shrub layer and Plectrachne spp; Sorghum spp. grassy understorey W837 e16Lr eGc W838 e52;57Mi ts2Gc Eucalyptus brevifolia low open woodland with Enneapogon spp. short tussock grass understorey Eucalyptus papuana; Eucalyptus polycarpa woodland with Triodia spp.; Sorghum spp. grassy understorey W840 cdGc Chrysopogon spp. and Dichanthium fecundum tussock grassland W842 e54;61Lr.eGc/e16Lr t3;4Hi Eucalyptus argillacea; Eucalyptus terminalis low open woodland with Enneapogon spp. short tussock grass understorey W843 t11Hi Triodia bitextura hummock grassland W844 mLr s2Gc Melaleuca spp. low open woodland with Sorghum spp. tussock grass understorey W846 e16Lb t1;4Hi Triodia pungens and Triodia intermedia hummock grassland sparsely wooded with Eucalyptus brevifolia low trees W847 e16;61Lb t1Hi Triodia pungens hummock grassland sparsely wooded with Eucalyptus brevifolia; Eucalyptus terminalis low trees W848 eLr t11Hi W849 e16;24Lr t1Hi Eucalyptus spp. low open woodland with Triodia bitextura hummock grass understorey Eucalyptus brevifolia; Eucalyptus dichromophloia low open woodland with Triodia pungens open hummock grass understorey W850 aGc Astrebla spp. closed tussock grassland W851 e16;61Lb t3;4Hi Triodia wiseana and Triodia intermedia open hummock grassland sparsely wooded with Eucalyptus brevifolia; Eucalyptus terminalis low trees W852 e16;61Lr eGc Eucalyptus brevifolia; Eucalyptus terminalis low open woodland with Enneapogon spp. short tussock grass understorey THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 303 VEGUNIT BEARD_CODE (Beard 1979, DESCRIPTION Beard and Webb 1974) W854 b3Lr cdGc Adansonia gregorii; Lysiphyllum cunninghamii; Grevillea striata low open woodland with Chrysopogon spp.; Dichanthium fecundum tussock grasland understorey W855 a27Lb a1Gc/cdGc Astrebla pectinata tussock grassland sparsely wooded with Acacia suberosa low trees W856 a27Lb a1Gc/cdGc Astrebla pectinata tussock grassland sparsely wooded with Acacia suberosa low trees W858 e55;56Li t11Gc/e16Li t11Gc Eucalyptus phoenicea; Eucalyptus ferruginea low woodland with Triodia bitextura tussock grass understorey W861 e50;61Lr a2cGc Eucalyptus tectifica; Eucalyptus pruinosa low open woodland with Aristida pruinosa; Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey W864 e24Lr cGc W866 be17Lb cGc Eucalyptus dichromophloia low open woodland with Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey Chrysopogon spp. tussock grassland sparsely wooded with Lysiphyllum cunninghamii; Eucalyptus gymnoteles low trees W867 e50;51Li s1;2Gc Eucalyptus tectifica; Eucalyptus grandifolia low woodland with Sehima nervosum; Sorghum spp. tussock grass understorey W868 e16;24Lr et11Gc Eucalyptus brevifolia; Eucalyptus dichromophloia low open woodland with Enneapogon spp.; Triodia bitextura grassy understorey W869 be17Lr cGc Lysiphyllum cunninghamii; Eucalyptus gymnoteles low open woodland with Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey W870 e16Lr cGc W871 e16Lrt11Gc/t4Hi Eucalyptus brevifolia low open woodland with Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey Eucalyptus brevifolia low open woodland with Triodia bitextura grassy understorey W875 e16Lr t1Hi/t4Hi Eucalyptus brevifolia low open woodland with Triodia pungens hummock grass understorey W876 a5;29Sr t1;4Hi Acacia pachycarpa; Acacia tumida open shrubland with Triodia pungens; Triodia intermedia hummock grass understorey W877 e16;24Lr cGc Eucalyptus brevifolia; Eucalyptus dichromophloia low open woodland with Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey W878 e16;24Lb t1;4Hi Triodia pungens; Triodia intermedia open hummock grassland sparsely wooded with Eucalyptus brevifolia; Eucalyptus dichromophloia low trees W879 bLr a3gc Lysiphyllum cunninghamii sparse low open woodland with Aristida browniana tussock grass understorey W882 e16Lb t4Hi W883 e24Lr t11Gc Triodia intermedia hummock grassland wooded with Eucalyptus brevifolia low trees Eucalyptus dichromophloia low open woodland with Triodia bitextura tussock grass understorey W884 e51;57Lr cdGc Eucalyptus grandifolia; Eucalyptus polycarpa low open woodland with Chrysopogon spp.; Dichanthium fecundum tussock grass understorey W887 e50;51Mi xGc/s1;2Gc W888 e50;51Li cGc Eucalyptus tectifica; Eucalyptus grandifolia woodland with mixed species tussock grass understorey Eucalyptus tectifica; Eucalyptus grandifolia low open woodland with Chrysopogon spp. tussock grass understorey W894 e17;50Li kGc Eucalyptus gymnoteles and Eucalyptus tectifica low woodland with Themeda australis tussock grass understorey W897 eLrxGc W899 e16Lr eGc/t4Hi Mixed species tussock grassland sparsely wooded with low trees of Eucalyptus spp. Eucalyptus brevifolia low open woodland with Enneapogon spp. short tussock grass understorey W904 e48;49Mi ps2Gc Eucalyptus tetrodonta; Eucalyptus miniata woodland with Plectrachne sp.; Sorghum spp. grassy understorey W905 e51;52Mi xGc Eucalyptus grandifolia; Eucalyptus papuana woodland with mixed species tussock grass understorey W907 e52;57Mi cs2Gc Eucalyptus papuana; Eucalyptus polycarpa woodland with Chrysopogon spp.; Sorghum spp. tussock grass understorey W908 tbLr s2Gc Terminalia spp; Lysiphyllum cunninghamii low open woodland with Sorghum spp. tussock grass understorey 304 Appendices VEGUNIT BEARD_CODE (Beard 1979, DESCRIPTION Beard and Webb 1974) W909 e24;48;49Mi s2t11Gc Eucalyptus dichromophloia; Eucalyptus tetrodonta; Eucalyptus miniata woodland with Sorghum spp. and Triodia bitextura grassy understorey W91 e16Lb t1Hi W911 e24Mi s2t11Gc W914 e50;62Mi ks1Gc W916 e50;59;62Mi ks1;2Gc W922 eLrt pHi W923 t5Hi W93 a2Sr t1Hi Triodia pungens hummock grassland sparsely wooded with Eucalyptus brevifolia low trees Eucalyptus dichromophloia woodland with Sorghum spp.; Triodia bitextura grassy understorey Eucalyptus tectifica; Eucalyptus foelscheana woodland with Themeda australis; Sehima nervosum tussock grass understorey Eucalyptus tectifica; Eucalyptus confertiflora; Eucalyptus foelscheana woodland with Themeda australis; Sehima nervosum; Sorghum spp. tussock grass understorey Eucalyptus spp. low open woodland with Triodia spp.; Plectrachne spp. hummock grass understorey Triodia inutilis hummock grassland Acacia pyrifolia open shrubland with Triodia pungens; Triodia intermedia hummock grass understorey THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 305 306 Appendices Appendix 3.6 Index to common names. (* indicates introduced species). SCIENTIFIC NAME common names FAMILY Abelmoschus ficulneus Acacia acradenia Acacia ancistrocarpa Acacia aneura Acacia argyrodendron Acacia aulacocarpa Acacia calcicola Acacia cambagei Acacia catenulata Acacia chisholmii Acacia coriacea Acacia eriopoda Acacia estrophiolata Acacia farnesiana* Acacia georginae Acacia hammondii Acacia harpophylla Acacia hemignosta Acacia hilliana Acacia holosericea Acacia kempeana Acacia leptostachya Acacia ligulata Acacia lysiphloia Acacia monticola Acacia murrayana Acacia nilotica* Acacia peuce Acacia retivenea Acacia shirleyi Acacia stowardii Acacia suberosa Acacia sutherlandii Acacia tenuissima Acacia tephrina Acacia tetragonophylla Acacia tumida Acacia victoriae Acacia victoriae ssp. arida Acacia victoriae ssp. victoriae Acacia wickhamii Achyranthes aspera Adansonia gregorii Aerva javanica* Allocasuarina decaisneana Allocasuarina littoralis Allosyncarpia ternata Araucaria cunninghamii Archidendropsis basaltica Aristida calycina var. calycina native rosella MALVACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE MIMOSACEAE AMARANTHACEAE BOMBACACEAE AMARANTHACEAE CASUARINACEAE CASUARINACEAE MYRTACEAE ARAUCARIACEAE MIMOSACEAE POACEAE Fitzroy wattle mulga blackwood hickory wattle myall gidyea, gidgee bendee Chisholm’s wattle, turpentine dogwood pindan wattle ironwood mimosa Georgina gidyea Hammond’s wattle brigalow club-leaf wattle Hill’s tabletop wattle soap bush, silver-leaved wattle witchetty bush slender wattle, Townsville wattle umbrella bush turpentine wattle red wattle colony wattle prickly acacia waddy wood net-veined wattle lancewood bastard mulga corky-bark wattle, corkwood corkwood wattle narrow-leaved wattle boree dead finish pindan wattle gundabluie gundabluie gundabluie Wickham’s wattle chaff flower boab, baobab kapok bush desert oak black sheoak allosyncarpia, Anbinik hoop pine dead finish dark wiregrass THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 307 SCIENTIFIC NAME common names FAMILY Aristida contorta Aristida hygrometrica Aristida inaequiglumis Aristida ingrata Aristida latiflolia Aristida pruinosa Aristida sp. Asteromyrtus lysicephala Asteromyrtus symphyocarpa Astrebla elymoides Astrebla lappacea Astrebla pectinata Astrebla sp. Astrebla squarrosa Atalaya hemiglauca Atriplex vesicaria Avicennia marina Banksia dentata Boronia alulata Bombax ceiba Bossiaea bossiaeoides Bothriochloa ewartiana Brachyachne convergens Brachychiton collinus Brachychiton paradoxus Bruguiera parviflora Buchanania obovata Bulbostylis barbata Calandrinia balonensis Callitris intratropica Calytrix exstipulata Capparis lasiantha Carissa lanceolata Carissa ovata Cassytha filiformis Casuarina cunninghamiana Cenchrus ciliaris* Cenchrus echinatus* Cenchrus pennisetiformis* Cenchrus setiger* Ceriops tagal bunched kerosene grass, wind grass northern kerosene grass unequal threeawn feathertop three-awn feathertop gulf wiregrass three-awn grass Kennedy’s heath paperbark, paper-barked teatree hoop Mitchell, weeping Mitchell grass curly Mitchell grass barley Mitchell grass Mitchell grass bull Mitchell grass whitewood bladder saltbush white mangrove mayali boronia kapok tree, silk cotton tree bossiea forest bluegrass native couch hill kurrajong red-flowered kurrajong small-leaved orange mangrove wild mango, green mango dainty sedge broad-leaf parakeelya northern cypress pine pink fringe myrtle, turkey bush nipan, split jack, wait-a-while conkerberry, currant bush conkerberry, currant bush dodder laurel, spaghetti plant river she-oak buffel grass Mossman River grass Cloncurry buffel birdwood grass yellow mangrove, yellow-leaved spurred mangrove bluebush summer grass, hairy ribbon grass, barley grass comb windmill grass feathertop rhodes grass Cape choriceras golden beard grass, ribbon grass beard grass POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE SAPINDACEAE CHENOPODIACEAE AVICENNIACEAE PROTEACEAE RUTACEAE BOMBACACEAE FABACEAE POACEAE POACEAE STERCULIACEAE STERCULIACEAE RHIZOPHORACEAE ANACARDIACEAE CYPERACEAE PORTULACACEAE CUPRESSACEAE MYRTACEAE CAPPARACEAE APOCYNACEAE APOCYNACEAE LAURACEAE CASUARINACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE RHIZOPHORACEAE Chenopodium auricomum Chionachne hubbardiana Chloris divaricata Chloris virgata Choriceras tricorne Chrysopogon fallax Chrysopogon spp. Cleistochloa spp. Cleome viscosa Clerodendrum floribundum 308 Appendices tick weed, spider weed lolly bush CHENOPODIACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE CAPPARACEAE LAMIACEAE SCIENTIFIC NAME common names Cochlospermum fraseri Cochlospermum gillivraei Cochlospermum gregorii Corymbia aspera Corymbia bella Corymbia bleeseri kapok tree, cotton tree BIXACEAE kapok, cotton tree BIXACEAE kapok, cotton tree BIXACEAE rough-leaved ghost gum MYRTACEAE north-west ghost gum, ghost gum MYRTACEAE rusty-barked bloodwood, smoothMYRTACEAE stemmed bloodwood twin-leaved bloodwood, twinleaf MYRTACEAE bloodwood variable-barked bloodwood, smallMYRTACEAE fruited bloodwood lemon-scented gum MYRTACEAE Clarkson’s bloodwood MYRTACEAE broad-leaved carbeen, rough-leaved MYRTACEAE cabbage gum broad-leaved bloodwood MYRTACEAE pindan bloodwood MYRTACEAE ghost gum, Dallachy’s gum MYRTACEAE variable-barked bloodwood MYRTACEAE variable-barked bloodwood MYRTACEAE red bloodwood MYRTACEAE wrinkle-leaved ghost gum MYRTACEAE rusty bloodwood MYRTACEAE fan-leaved bloodwood, broad-leaved MYRTACEAE bloodwood large-leaved cabbage gum MYRTACEAE hyland’s bloodwood MYRTACEAE pink bloodwood MYRTACEAE round-leaved bloodwood MYRTACEAE shiny-leaved bloodwood MYRTACEAE yellowjacket, rustyjacket MYRTACEAE Melville Island bloodwood MYRTACEAE plains bloodwood MYRTACEAE ghost gum MYRTACEAE rustyjacket, yellowjacket MYRTACEAE red bloodwood MYRTACEAE long-fruited bloodwood MYRTACEAE grey bloodwood MYRTACEAE rough-leaved bloodwood, hairy gum MYRTACEAE bloodwood MYRTACEAE western bloodwood, inland bloodwood, MYRTACEAE desert bloodwood Moreton Bay ash, carbeen MYRTACEAE brown bloodwood, Newcastle Range MYRTACEAE bloodwood rough-leaved bloodwood MYRTACEAE gebang, fifty-year palm ARECACEAE trefoil rattlepod FABACEAE New Holland rattlepod FABACEAE rubbervine ASCLEPIADACEAE silky heads POACEAE silky oil grass, lemon-scented grass POACEAE silky heads POACEAE button grass POACEAE gulf bluegrass, curly bluegrass POACEAE Corymbia cadophora Corymbia capricornia Corymbia citriodora Corymbia clarksoniana Corymbia confertiflora Corymbia curtipes Corymbia dampieri Corymbia dallachiana Corymbia dichromophloia Corymbia drysdalensis Corymbia erythrophloia Corymbia flavescens Cormbia ferruginea Corymbia foelscheana Corymbia grandifolia Corymbia hylandii Corymbia intermedia Corymbia latifolia Corymbia lamprophylla Corymbia leichhardtii Cormbia nesophila Corymbia opaca Corymbia papuana Corymbia peltata Corymbia pocillum Corymbia polycarpa Corymbia porrecta Corymbia setosa Corymbia sp. Corymbia terminalis Corymbia tessellaris Corymbia trachyphloia Corymbia zygophylla Corypha utan Crotalaria medicaginea Crotalaria novae-hollandiae Cryptostegia grandiflora* Cymbopogon ambiguus Cymbopogon bombycinus Cymbopogon obtectus Dactyloctenium radulans Dichanthium fecundum FAMILY THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 309 SCIENTIFIC NAME common names Queensland bluegrass blue grass cotton panic ebony chinese lantern hopbush lemon wood coonta, peachwood ruby saltbush common bottlewashers jointed nineawn grass limestone bottlewashers, leafy nineawn grass nineawn grass Enneapogon purpurascens Enneapogon sp. nineawn grass woollybutt Eragrostis eriopoda neverfail Eragrostis xerophila creek wilga, gooramurra Eremophila bignoniiflora Eremophila freelingii rock fuchsia bush desert fuchsia Eremophila gilesii native fuchsia Eremophila latrobei berrigan, dogwood Eremophila longifolia false sandlewood Eremophila mitchellii northern wanderrie Eriachne obtusa mountain wanderrie Eriachne mucronata batswing coral-tree Erythrina vespertilio ironwood, Cooktown ironwood Erythrophleum chlorostachys silky browntop Eulalia aurea desert spurge Euphorbia tannensis snappy gum Eucalyptus brevifolia Reid River box Eucalyptus brownii river red gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dawson gum, Dawson River blackbutt Eucalyptus cambageana woollybutt Eucalyptus chartaboma glossy-leaved box, shiny-leaved box Eucalyptus chlorophylla Gympie messmate Eucalyptus cloeziana coolibah Eucalyptus coolabah narrow-leaved ironbark Eucalyptus crebra Cullen’s ironbark Eucalyptus cullenii gum-topped ironbark Eucalyptus decorticans Queensland peppermint Eucalyptus exserta rusty bloodwood Eucalyptus ferruginea Eucalyptus fibrosa subsp. (Glen serpentinite ironbark Geddes M.I. Brooker 10230) blue mallee Eucalyptus gamophylla marble gum Eucalyptus gongylocarpa coolibah Eucalyptus gymnoteles Molloy red box, Molloy box Eucalyptus leptophleba snappy gum Eucalyptus leucophloia Cloncurry box Eucalyptus leucophylla silver-leaved ironbark Eucalyptus melanophloia Georgetown box Eucalyptus microneura Eucalyptus microtheca coolibah Darwin woollybutt Eucalyptus miniata Dichanthium sericeum Dichanthium sp. Digitaria brownii Diospyros humilis Dodonaea physocarpa Dolichandrone heterophylla Ehretia saligna Enchylaena tomentosa Enneapogon avenaceus Enneapogon cylindricus Enneapogon polyphyllus 310 Appendices FAMILY POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE EBENACEAE SAPINDACEAE BIGNONIACEAE BORAGINACEAE CHENOPODIACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE MYOPORACEAE MYOPORACEAE MYOPORACEAE MYOPORACEAE MYOPORACEAE MYOPORACEAE POACEAE POACEAE FABACEAE CAESALPINIACEAE POACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE SCIENTIFIC NAME common names FAMILY Eucalyptus moluccana Eucalyptus normantonensis Eucalyptus oligantha Eucalyptus orgadophila Eucalyptus oxymitra Eucalyptus patellaris Eucalyptus persistens Eucalyptus phoenicea Eucalyptus platyphylla Eucalyptus populnea Eucalyptus pruinosa Eucalyptus shirleyi Eucalyptus similis Eucalyptus spp. Eucalyptus socialis Eucalyptus tectifica Eucalyptus tereticornis Eucalyptus tetrodonta Eucalyptus thozetiana Eucalyptus tintinnans Eucalyptus whitei Eulalia mackinlayi Evolvulus alsinoides Excoecaria parvifolia Ficus opposita Ficus racemosa Fimbristylis dichotoma Flueggea virosa subsp. melanthesoides Gardenia megasperma Gardenia vilhelmii Gastrolobium grandiflorum Glycine tomentella Gossypium australe Gossypium sturtianum Grevillea dryandri Grevillea glauca Grevillea juncifolia Grevillea parallela Grevillea pteridifolia Grevillea refracta Grevillea striata Grevillea wickhamii Grewia retusifolia Haemodorum coccineum Hakea arborescens Hakea chordophylla Hakea leucoptera Hakea lorea Halosarcia indica Bracteantha bracteata Rodanthe floribunda gum-topped box, grey box Normanton box broad leaf box mountain coolibah mallee weeping box knotted box scarlet gum poplar gum poplar box, bimble box silver-leaved box, silver box silver-leaved ironbark Queensland yellowjacket gum trees red mallee Darwin box, grey box blue gum, forest red gum Darwin stringybark, messmate napunyah salmon gum, belgium gum White’s ironbark silky browntop tropical speedwell gutta percha sandpaper fig cluster fig eight day grass white currant bush, cattle bush MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE POACEAE CONVOLVULACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE MORACEAE MORACEAE CYPERACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE gardenia breadfruit tree heart leaf poison bush woolly glycine, rusty glycine rose cottonbush, native cotton Sturt’s desert rose Dryander’s grevillea bushman’s clothes pegs desert grevillea silver oak, silver beefwood fern grevillea silverleaf grevillea beefwood holly grevillea emu berry, dysentery bush blood root tree hakea bull hakea needlewood corkbark, corkwood samphire golden everlasting white paper daisy RUBIACEAE RUBIACEAE FABACEAE FABACEAE MALVACEAE MALVACEAE PROTEACEAE PROTEACEAE PROTEACEAE PROTEACEAE PROTEACEAE PROTEACEAE PROTEACEAE PROTEACEAE TILIACEAE HAEMODORACEAE PROTEACEAE PROTEACEAE PROTEACEAE PROTEACEAE CHENOPODIACEAE ASTERACEAE ASTERACEAE THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 311 SCIENTIFIC NAME common names perennial sunray native heliotrope black spear grass, bunched spear grass spear grass Heteropogon triticeus Merauke hibiscus Hibiscus meraukensis hill hibiscus Hibiscus sturtii northern cottonwood Hibiscus tiliaceus hyptis Hyptis suaveolens* blady grass Imperata cylindrica hairy indigo Indigofera hirsuta round-pod indigo, narrow-leaved Indigofera linifolia indigo Birdsville indigo Indigofera linnaei beach morning glory, goatsfoot trefoil Ipomoea pes-caprae slender Flinders grass Iseilema fragile red Flinders grass Iseilema vaginiflorum angled broom bush Jacksonia odontoclada angled broom bush Jacksonia ramosissima leucaena Leucaena leucocephala* Livistona humilis fan palm Lophostemon grandiflorus subsp. northern swamp box, freshwater mangrove riparius Lophostemon suaveolens swamp mahogany Lumnitzera racemosa white-flowered black mangrove budgeroo Lysicarpus angustifolius bauhinia, bean tree Lysiphyllum carronii bauhinia, bean tree Lysiphyllum cunninghamii bullwaddy Macropteranthes kekwickii malvastrum Malvastrum americanum cottonbush Maireana aphylla southern bluebush Maireana astrotricha nardoo Marsilea drummondii yellowberry bush Maytenus cunninghamii coastal paperbark, black teatree Melaleuca acacioides coastal paperbark Melaleuca alsophila silvery weeping river teatree, Melaleuca argentea paperbark river teatree, black teatree Melaleuca bracteata narrow-leaved paperbark, scrub Melaleuca citrolens teatree, lemon-scented teatree. weeping river teatree, paperbark Melaleuca fluviatilis inland teatree Melaleuca glomerata weeping river teatree, paperbark Melaleuca leucadendra black teatree, paperbark Melaleuca minutifolia fibrebark Melaleuca nervosa Melaleuca stenostachya teatree paperbark teatree Melaleuca tamariscina teatree Melaleuca uncinata Melaleuca viridiflora var. broad-leaved paperbark, broad-leaved teatree, myrtle. viridiflora velvet hibiscus Melhania oblongifolia Chrysocephalum pterochaetum Heliotropium tenuifolium Heteropogon contortus 312 Appendices FAMILY ASTERACEAE BORAGINACEAE POACEAE POACEAE MALVACEAE MALVACEAE MALVACEAE LAMIACEAE POACEAE FABACEAE FABACEAE FABACEAE CONVOLVULACEAE POACEAE POACEAE FABACEAE FABACEAE MIMOSACEAE ARECACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE COMBRETACEAE MYRTACEAE CAESALPINIACEAE CAESALPINIACEAE COMBRETACEAE MALVACEAE CHENOPODIACEAE CHENOPODIACEAE MARSILEACEAE CELASTRACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE MYRTACEAE STERCULIACEAE SCIENTIFIC NAME common names FAMILY Melinis repens** Muehlenbeckia florulenta Myoporum deserti red Natal grass lignum Ellangowan poison bush, turkey bush, pencil bush leichhardt tree yellow teatree low sensitive plant canegrass Australian wild rice emu apple desert walnut, broad-leaved emu apple screw palm screw palm native millet, stargrass nonda parkinsonia parthenium comet grass smooth-leaved quinine quinine tree quinine bush, witchetty bush bauhinia cocky apple POACEAE POLYGONACEAE MYOPORACEAE Nauclea orientalis Neofabricia myrtifolia Neptunia gracilis Ophiuros exaltatus Oryza australiensis Owenia acidula Owenia reticulata Pandanus spiralis Pandanus spp. Panicum decompositum Parinari nonda Parkinsonia aculeata* Parthenium hysterophorus* Perotis rara Petalostigma banksii Petalostigma pubescens Petalostigma quadriloculare Piliostigma malabaricum Planchonia careya Polycarpaea breviflora Polycarpaea corymbosa Portulaca oleracea Pterocaulon sphacelatum Ptilotus obovatus Ptilotus polystachys Ptychosperma elegans Rhagodia spinescens Rhizophora stylosa Salsola kali Santalum lanceolatum Sarcostemma viminale subsp. australe Schizachyrium fragile Schoenus sparteus Sclerolaena bicornis Sclerolaena convexula Sclerolaena decurrens Sehima nervosum Senna artemisioides subsp. helmsii Senna artemisioides subsp. oligophylla Sesbania cannabina Sesbania javanica Setaria surgens Sida acuta Sida subspicata Sida trichopoda Solanum ellipticum RUBIACEAE MYRTACEAE MIMOSACEAE POACEAE POACEAE MELIACEAE MELIACEAE pigweed, munyeroo fruit salad plant, apple bush silver tail red pussytail solitaire palm spiny saltbush red mangrove prickly saltwort sandalwood pencil caustic, caustic vine PANADANACEAE PANADANACEAE POACEAE CHRYSOBALANACEAE CAESALPINIACEAE ASTERACEAE POACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE EUPHORBIACEAE CAESALPINACEAE LECYTHIDACEAE CARYOPHYLLACEAE CARYOPHYLLACEAE PORTULACACEAE ASTERACEAE AMARANTHACEAE AMARANTHACEAE ARECACEAE CHENOPODIACEAE RHIZOPHORACEAE CHENOPODIACEAE SANTALACEAE ASCLEPIADACEAE fire grass sedge goathead burr tall copper burr copper burr white grass crinkled cassia, blunt-leaf cassia POACEAE CYPERACEAE CHENOPODIACEAE CHENOPODIACEAE CHENOPODIACEAE POACEAE CAESALPINIACEAE limestone cassia CAESALPINIACEAE sesbania pea, yellow bush pea tall sesbania pea annual pigeon grass spinyhead sida spiked sida high sida potato bush, wild potato FABACEAE FABACEAE POACEAE MALVACEAE MALVACEAE MALVACEAE SOLANACEAE THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 313 SCIENTIFIC NAME common names FAMILY Solanum quadriloculatum Sorghum intrans Sorghum plumosum Spermacoce stenophylla Sporobolus actinocladus Sporobolus australasicus Sporobolus caroli Sporobolus virginicus tomato bush, wild tomato annual sorghum plume sorghum blue heads katoora, ray grass Australian dropseed fairy grass, yakka grass marine couch, sand couch, saltwater couch. Caribbean stylo – includes cv. amiga and verano shrubby stylo – includes cv. seca arid peach SOLANACEAE POACEAE POACEAE RUBIACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE Stylosanthes hamata* Stylosanthes scabra* Terminalia aridicola subsp. aridicola Terminalia aridicola subsp. arid peach chillagoensis nutwood Terminalia arostrata winged nut-tree, bendee Terminalia canescens billygoat plum Terminalia fernandiana wild plum, durin Terminalia platyphylla yellow wood, wing-seed terminalia Terminalia platyptera oat kangaroo grass, native oat grass Themeda avenacea miniature grader grass Themeda arguens grader grass Themeda quadrivalvis* kangaroo grass Themeda triandra fringe lily Thysanotus banksii Trema tomentosa var. tomentosa poison peach Trema tomentosa var. viridis poison peach poison peach Trema tomentosa caltrop Tribulus terrestris camel bush, cattle bush Trichodesma zeylanicum hard spinifex, lobed spinifex Triodia basedowii feathertop spinifex Triodia bitextura spinifex Triodia brizoides spinifex Triodia burkensis spinifex Triodia bynoei winged spinifex Triodia intermedia hard spinifex Triodia irritans porcupine spinifex, grey spinifex Triodia longiceps spinifex Triodia melvillei buck spinifex Triodia mitchellii pincushion spinifex Triodia molesta Triodia pungens soft spinifex, gummy spinifex feathertop spinifex Triodia schinzii spike flower spinifex Triodia spicata limestone spinifex Triodia wiseana five-minute grass Tripogon loliiformis vine tree, supplejack Ventilago viminalis Vitex trifolia var. trifolia vitex, monk’s pepper waltheria Waltheria indica noogoora burr Xanthium occidentale bridal tree Xanthostemon paradoxus northern rice grass Xerochloa imberbis 314 Appendices FABACEAE FABACEAE COMBRETACEAE COMBRETACEAE COMBRETACEAE COMBRETACEAE COMBRETACEAE COMBRETACEAE COMBRETACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE ANTHERICACEAE ULMACEAE ULMACEAE ULMACEAE ZYGOPHYLLACEAE BORAGINACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE POACEAE RHAMNACEAE LAMIACEAE STERCULIACEAE ASTERACEAE MYRTACEAE POACEAE SCIENTIFIC NAME common names FAMILY Ziziphus mauritiana* Zygochloa paradoxa chinee apple sandhill cane grass RHAMNACEAE POACEAE THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 315 316 Appendices Appendix 3.7 Lookup table for vegetation unit to 1:1 million, 1:2 million and BVGs. (Note: This lookup table relates the vegetation map units used within this report and on the map of the Vegetation of the Australian Tropical Savanns (Fox et al. 2001). UNIT_2M_FINAL is the code for the vegetation map units described in this report. VEG_UNIT is the map unit from each state and territory map used to compile the final map. BVG_2M_final is the broad vegetation group to which each map unit has been assigned. UNIT_1M_final is a map code for the digital 1:1 000 000 map of the Vegetation of the Australian Tropical Savannas. This was made available to researchers in northern Australia and will assist them to access further information about each map unit.) UNIT_2M VEG_UNI BVG_2M_ UNIT_1M _FINAL T final _final A1 N105 26 A1 A1 Q1 26 A1 A1 W43 26 A1 A2 Q2 26 A2 A3 N106 26 A3 A3 Q3 26 A3 A3 W127 26 A3 A3 W1271 26 A3 B1 Q4 1 B1 B2 Q8 26 B2 B2 Q7 26 B3 B2 N102 26 B4 B2 Q5 26 B4 B2 W8011 26 B4 B2 Q6 26 B5 B2 W770 26 B6 B2 W8004 26 B7 B2 W8005 26 B8 B2 N47 26 D64 C1 Q9 1 C1 C1 Q20 1 C2 C10 N24 3 C21 C10 N26 3 C21 C10 Q21 3 C21 C10 W1893 3 C21 C10 W59 3 C21 C10 W61 3 C21 C10 W759 3 C21 C10 W894 3 C21 C10 N18 3 C22 C10 W718 3 C22 THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 317 318 UNIT_2M VEG_UNI BVG_2M_ UNIT_1M _FINAL T final _final C10 W809 3 C22 C10 W907 3 H4 C11 N50 20 C41 C12 Q11 20 C31 C12 W37 20 C31 C12 W41 20 C31 C12 W48 20 C31 C13 Q32B 20 C18 C13 Q13 20 C23 C13 N51 20 C28 C13 W844 20 C28 C14 N48 23 K23 C15 Q19 22 C30 C16 N111 26 C24 C16 Q103 25 C24 C17 N96 23 C32 C17 Q115 23 C32 C17 W706 23 C32 C17 W834 23 C32 C17 W850 23 C32 C18 N44 23 C29 C18 Q104 23 C33 C18 W720 23 C33 C18 W840 23 C38 C18 N98 23 G19 C18 W707 23 G19 C18 W743 23 G19 C18 W8007 23 G19 C18 W807 23 G19 C18 W866 23 G19 C19 Q18 23 C34 C19 N54 23 C35 C19 Q15 23 C35 C19 W175 23 C35 C19 Q16 23 C36 C19 N103 23 C37 C19 N104 23 C37 Appendices UNIT_2M VEG_UNI BVG_2M_ UNIT_1M _FINAL T final _final C19 W73 23 C37 C2 Q302 2 C4 C2 Q306A 2 C5 C20 Q200 25 C25 C20 Q17 25 C39 C20 N101 25 C40 C20 N107 25 C40 C20 Q102 25 C40 C20 Q14 25 C40 C20 Q303 25 C40 C20 W125 25 C40 C20 W676 25 C40 C3 N53 19 C6 C3 Q10 19 C6 C3 Q12 19 C6 C4 Q212 16 C14 C4 Q201 16 C19 C4 Q201A 16 C19 C4 Q202 16 C3 C4 Q203 16 C7 C5 Q101 16 C20 C6 Q108A 3 C10 C6 Q23 3 C9 C7 N25 3 C13 C7 N27 3 C13 C7 N28 3 C13 C7 Q100 3 C13 C7 W756 3 C13 C7 W813 3 C13 C7 Q22 3 C15 C7 Q24 3 C17 C8 Q325 3 C11 C8 Q26 3 C16 C9 Q210 12 C12 C9 Q210A 12 J9 CQC CQC CQC CQC D1 Q30 1 D1 THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 319 320 UNIT_2M VEG_UNI BVG_2M_ UNIT_1M _FINAL T final _final D10 N15 4 D10 D10 W914 4 D10 D10 W916 4 D10 D10 W838 4 D12 D11 N16 4 D20 D11 Q502 4 D20 D12 W750 4 D21 D12 W1750 4 D28 D13 N10 5 D23 D13 Q504 5 D23 D13 N7 5 D24 D14 W754 5 D16 D14 N12 5 D17 D14 N13 5 D26 D14 W909 5 D26 D14 Q208 5 D31 D14 W771 5 D7 D15 Q31 5 D18 D15 Q29 5 D22 D15 Q28 5 D25 D15 Q27 5 D6 D16 Q206 13 D30 D17 Q209 12 D27 D18 Q505 21 D35 D19 N49 20 D54 D19 Q506 20 D54 D19 W67 20 D54 D2 Q306 2 D8 D20 Q221 20 D36 D20 Q508 20 D37 D20 Q32 20 D38 D21 W64 21 D39 D21 W710 21 D39 D21 W854 21 D39 D22 Q106 23 D41 D23 W699 6 D42 D23 W700 6 D42 Appendices UNIT_2M VEG_UNI BVG_2M_ UNIT_1M _FINAL T final _final D23 W7001 6 D42 D23 W737 6 D42 D23 W755 6 D42 D23 W760 6 D42 D23 W764 6 D42 D23 W751 6 D43 D23 W757 6 D43 D24 W712 6 D44 D25 N19 8 D46 D25 N42 8 D46 D25 Q108 8 D46 D26 W826 7 D47 D26 W848 7 D47 D26 W565 7 D48 D26 W81 7 D48 D26 W849 7 D48 D26 W899 7 D48 D26 W703 7 D49 D26 W731 7 D49 D26 W806 7 D49 D26 W818 7 G14 D27 N36 7 D50 D27 Q109 7 D50 D28 Q107 8 D51 D29 W729 9 C27 D29 N39 9 D33 D29 W733 9 D33 D29 N23 9 D34 D29 Q503 9 D34 D29 W819 9 D34 D29 W861 9 D34 D29 N40 9 D45 D29 W704 9 D53 D29 W728 9 D53 D29 W879 9 D53 D3 Q25 2 D2 D30 Q222 20 D55 THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 321 322 UNIT_2M VEG_UNI BVG_2M_ UNIT_1M _FINAL T final _final D31 N71 18 D59 D31 Q105 18 D59 D31 N70 18 J18 D32 W709 18 D57 D32 W724 18 D57 D32 W752 18 D57 D32 W761 18 D57 D32 W876 18 D57 D32 W722 18 D58 D32 W730 18 D58 D32 W8003 18 D58 D32 W701 18 D63 D33 Q35A 22 D60 D33 Q222A 22 D62 D34 W104 21 D65 D34 W767 21 D65 D35 W702 24 D66 D35 W721 24 D66 D35 W882 24 D66 D35 W843 24 D69 D36 N76 24 D68 D36 N77 24 D68 D36 W32 24 D68 D36 W895 24 D68 D4 N4 5 D3 D4 N5 5 D4 D4 N3 5 D5 D5 N20 10 D11 D5 N17 10 D9 D6 Q501 4 D13 D6 Q500 4 D32 D7 Q305 12 D14 D7 Q305A 12 D14 D8 Q211 12 D19 D9 Q301 14 D15 E1 N57 17 D56 E1 N55 17 E1 Appendices UNIT_2M VEG_UNI BVG_2M_ UNIT_1M _FINAL T final _final E1 Q110 17 E1 E1 Q33 17 E1 E1 N56 17 E3 E2 Q34 13 E2 E3 W871 7 E4 E4 W117 24 E8 F1 Q35 1 F1 F1 Q216A 1 F2 F1 Q308 1 F3 F1 Q39A 1 F3 F2 Q207A 15 F5 F2 Q307 15 F5 F3 Q36 15 F6 F4 W739 15 F4 F4 W825 15 F4 F4 W887 15 F4 F4 W905 15 F4 F5 Q304 15 F7 F6 Q213 15 F8 F7 N22 8 F9 F7 W811 8 F9 F7 W816 8 F9 F7 W842 8 F9 F8 Q310 23 F13 F8 N97 23 F15 F8 W8010 23 F15 F8 Q217 23 F16 F9 N88 24 F14 F9 W830 24 F14 G1 Q204 14 G23 G10 Q114 23 G17 G10 Q116 23 G18 G10 W65 23 G18 G10 W744 23 G18 G10 W815 23 G18 G10 W855 23 G18 G10 W856 23 G18 THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 323 324 UNIT_2M VEG_UNI BVG_2M_ UNIT_1M _FINAL T final _final G11 N99 23 G20 G11 W72 23 G20 G2 Q37 14 G2 G3 Q213s 15 G22 G4 W814 20 G4 G5 N113 16 G13 G5 Q113 16 G13 G5 N63 16 G5 G5 N62 16 G6 G5 Q112 16 G6 G6 N41 8 G8 G7 Q509 8 G3 G8 Q510 21 G10 G8 W817 21 G11 G8 W908 21 G11 G8 Q38 21 G21 G8 N45 21 G9 G8 N46 21 G9 G8 W726 21 G9 G8 W869 21 G9 G9 W116 24 G15 G9 W735 24 G15 G9 N91 24 G16 G9 W157 24 G16 G9 W746 24 G16 G9 W827 24 G16 G9 W716 24 G7 H1 N2 1 H1 H1 Q39 1 H2 H1 W8006 1 H2 H1 N1 1 H2 H10 Q205s 13 H32 H11 Q214 13 H14 H12 Q320 13 H15 H13 N34 10 H20 H13 W155 10 H20 H13 W569 10 H20 Appendices UNIT_2M VEG_UNI BVG_2M_ UNIT_1M _FINAL T final _final H13 W727 10 H20 H13 W867 10 H7 H14 W804 11 H24 H14 W884 11 H24 H15 N38 7 H25 H15 W846 7 H25 H15 W875 7 H25 H15 W91 7 H25 H15 W833 7 H26 H15 W837 7 H26 H15 W738 7 H27 H15 W740 7 H27 H15 W870 7 H27 H15 W877 7 H27 H16 N35 7 H28 H16 Q117A 7 H28 H17 W725 18 G12 H17 W762 18 G12 H17 W93 18 G12 H18 W80 24 H29 H18 W705 24 H30 H18 W847 24 H30 H18 W878 24 H30 H2 Q110s 17 H31 H3 Q41 22 H16 H4 Q307A 13 H5 H4 Q319 13 H6 H5 Q40 5 H8 H6 N14 5 H10 H6 N9 5 H12 H6 W12 5 H12 H6 W53 5 H12 H6 W835 5 H12 H6 N8 5 H13 H7 N6 5 H11 H7 Q42 5 H9 H8 N29 11 H18 THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 325 326 UNIT_2M VEG_UNI BVG_2M_ UNIT_1M _FINAL T final _final H8 W75 11 H18 H8 W858 11 H18 H9 N33 10 H17 H9 W805 10 H17 H9 W911 10 H17 H9 N21 10 H19 H9 N32 10 H21 H9 W717 10 H21 H9 W8001 10 H21 H9 W8002 10 H21 H9 W883 10 H21 H9 W773 10 H22 H9 W864 10 H22 H9 N31 10 H23 H9 Q511 10 H23 H9 W1520 10 H3 H9 W52 10 H3 H9 W812 10 H3 J1 Q43 1 J1 J1 Q313 1 J2 J10 Q47 14 J13 J10 Q111 14 J17 J11 Q118 24 J19 J12 Q117 24 J16 J13 W831 24 J20 J2 Q44 2 J3 J3 Q205 13 J4 J4 Q45 14 J8 J5 Q311 14 J11 J6 W741 4 J10 J6 W60 4 J22 J7 Q203A 14 J21 J8 Q46 14 J5 J8 Q322 14 J6 J8 Q400 14 J7 J9 W852 7 J14 J9 W8008 7 J15 Appendices UNIT_2M VEG_UNI BVG_2M_ UNIT_1M _FINAL T final _final K1 Q216 1 K2 K1 Q49 1 K2 K1 Q48 1 K3 K12a Q51 21 K27 K2 Q321 2 K10 K2 Q26A 2 K4 K2 Q316 2 K4 K2 Q50 2 K5 K3 Q52 5 K14 K4 N11 5 K12 K4 W904 5 K15 K5 W810 4 K13 K5 W888 4 K22 K6 Q207 4 K16 K6 Q314 14 K6 K6 Q512 14 K7 K6 Q323 14 K8 K6 Q324 14 K9 K7 Q312 21 K17 K7 W2736 21 K24 K7 W736 21 K24 K8 W77 7 K18 K8 W868 7 K18 K8 N37 7 K19 K8 W808 7 K19 K8 W851 7 K25 K8 W820 7 K26 K9 Q315 14 K20 K9 Q215 14 K21 SEQ SEQ SEQ SEQ WT WT WT WT W151 C26 Q218 C8 Q219 D29 Q220 D40 Q222C D61 Q317 E6 THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 327 UNIT_2M VEG_UNI BVG_2M_ UNIT_1M _FINAL T final _final Q222B E7 Q309 F10 Q222D Q222E 328 Appendices 22 F12 K1 THE VEGETATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN TROPICAL SAVANNAS 329