A Guide to Cotntnon Echinodertns of Andaman and Nicobar Islands A Guide to Common Echinoderms of Andaman and Nicobar Islands C. RAGHUNATHAN, KOUSHIK SADHUKHAN, TAMAL MONDAL, C. SIVAPERUMAN AND K. VENKATARAMAN* Zoological Survey of India, Andaman and Nicobar Regional Centre, Raddo, Port Blair - 744102, Andaman and Nicobar Islands *Zoological Survey of India, Prani Vigyan Bhawan, M-Block, New Alipore, Kolkata - 700053 ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA KOLKATA Citation Raghunathan, C., Sadhukhan, K., Mondal, T., Sivaperuman, C., Venkataraman, K., 2013. A Guide to Common Echinoderms of Andaman and Nicobar Islands: 1-210, (Published by the Director, Zool. Surv. India, Kolkata) Published: July, 2013 ISBN 978-81-8171-338-4 © Govt. of India, 2013 All Rights Reserved • No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. • This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, be lent, re-sold hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher's consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published. • The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page. Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect and should be unacceptable. Price India Rs. 1550.00 Foreign $ 85.00; £ 60.00 Published at the Publication Division by the Director, Zoological Survey of India, M-Block, New Alipore, Kolkata-700 053 and printed at Calcutta Repro Graphics, Kolkata-700 006. CONTENTS I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 11 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF EXTANT CLASSES 24 4. STUDY AREAS 32 5. MATERIAL AND METHODS 38 6. KEY CHARACTERS 39 7. DESCRIPTIONS 59 Class CRINOIDEA I. Comanthus parvicirrus 60 2. Comanthina nobilis 61 3. Comaster schlegeli 62 4. Comaster multibrachiata 63 5. Oxycomanthus bennetti 64 6. Himerometra robustipinna 65 7. Heterometra philiberti 66 8. Heterometra crenulata 67 9. Amphimetra molleri 68 10. Lamprometra palmata 69 II. Cenometra bella 70 12. Cenometra emendatrix 71 13. Oligometra serripinna 72 14. Ponti metra andersoni 73 Class ASTEROIDEA 15. Asterina sarasini 75 16. Stellaster equestris 76 17. Culcita novaguineae 77 18. Culcita schmideliana 78 19. Choriaster granulatus 79 20. Anthenea tuberculosa 80 21. Protoreaster lincki 81 22. Protoreaster nodosus 82 23. Pentaceraster regulus 83 24. Asteropsis carinifera 84 25. Acanthaster planci 85 26. Fromia monilis 86 27. Fromia indica 87 28. Linckia guildingi 88 29. Linckia laevigata 89 30. Linckia multifora 90 31. Echinaster luzonicus 91 32. Astropecten indicus 92 33. Astropecten monacanthus 93 34. Luidia maculata 94 Class OPHIUROIDEA (iv) 35. Ophiocoma erinaceus 96 36. Ophiocoma dentata 97 37. Ophiocoma scolopendrina 98 38. Ophiarthrum pictum 99 39. Ophiomastix annulosa 100 40. Macrophiothrix propinqua 101 41. Macrophiothrix longipeda 102 42. Ophiarachna incrassata 103 Class ECHINOIDEA 43. Prionocidaris verticillata 105 44. Arbacia puntulata 106 45. Diadema setosum 107 46. Diadema savignyi 108 47. Echinothrix calamaris 109 48. Echinothrix diadema 110 49. Echinometra oblonga 111 50. Echinometra mathaei 112 51. Heterocentrotus trigonarius 113 52. Echinodiscus auritus 114 53. Temnopleurus alexendri 115 54. Mespilia globulus 116 55. Microcyphus ceylanicus 117 56. Salmacis belli 118 57. Tripneustes gratilla 119 58. Stomopneustus variolar is 120 59. Clypeaster humilis 121 Class HOLOTHUROIDEA 60. Actinopyga mauritiana 123 61. Actinopyga miliaris 124 62. Actinopyga lacanora 125 63. Actinopyga echinities 126 64. Holothuria cinerascens 127 65. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla 129 66. Holothuria (Thymioscycia) impatiens 131 67. Holothuria atra 133 68. Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) pyxis 134 69. Holothuria leucospilota 136 70. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) fuscocinerea 138 (v) (vi) 71. Holothuria (Metriatyla) scabra 139 72. Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis 141 73. Holothuria (Microthele) nobilis 143 74. Holothuria coluber 144 75. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) pervicax 145 76. Holothuria arenicola 147 77. Holothuria marmorata 148 78. Bohadschia argus 149 79. Bohadschia graeffei 150 80. Labidodemas semperianum 152 81. Stolus buccalis 153 82. Thelenota annas 154 83. Stichopus horrens 155 84. Stichopus chloronotus 156 85. Stichopus hermanni 157 86. Stichopus vastus 158 87. Synapta maculata 159 88. Euapta godreffroyi 160 89. Acaudina malpadioides 161 CHECKLIST OF ECHINODERMS OF INDIA 162 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 192 REFERENCES 192 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION Preamble The Ehinodermata IS one of the best characterized and most distinct phyla of animal kingdom (Bather, 1900). The echinoderms being common and conspicuous marine animals have been known since ancient times. They are found at every ocean depth, from the intertidal zone to the abyssal zone. The first definitive members of the phylum appeared near the start of the Cambrian period. The echinoderms are important both biologically and geologically: biologically because few other groupings are so abundant in the biotic desert of the deep sea, as well as the shallower oceans, and geologically as their ossified skeletons are major contributors to many limestone formations, and can provide valuable clues as to the geological environment. Further, it is held by some that the radiation of echinoderms was responsible for the Mesozoic revolution of marine life. The word "echinoderm" is derived from the Greek word ｩｘｾｶＰＸｴｰｊｬ｡ｷ＠ (Echinodermata), plural of ｩｘｾｶＶＦｐｊｬ｡＠ (Echinoderma), "spiny skin" from ｩｘｾｶＶ＠ (echinos), "hedgehog," and 8tpJla (derma), "skin". The name Echinodermata appears to have originated with Jacob Klein (1734), who however applied it only to echinoids. Linnaeus in the 10th edition (1758) of his Systema naturae relegated all invertebrates except insects to one class, Vermes. The Echinodermata, (from the Greek meaning spiny skin), is a phylum containing some 13,000 extinct and 7,000 extant species. Living representatives are only found in marine environment, making the echinodermata the largest phylum lacking in terrestrial and freshwater forms. Echinoderms evolved from bilaterally symmetric animals exhibiting five fold radial symmetry in portions of their body at some stage oflife. Echinoderms can reversibly 1 vary the rigidity of their dermis and general connective tissue. They are pentamerous symmetrical animals where the body can be divided into five similar parts arranged around the central axis. The radial symmetry, however, evolves within the echinoderms and does not indicate a close evolutionary relationship with others. Definition The Echinodermata or echinoderms are enterocoelous coelomates, having a pentaradiate construction derived from an original bilaterality, without definite head or brain, with a calcareous endoskeleton of separate plates or pieces, often bearing external spines or protuberances, and with a water-vascular system of coelomic nature that sends numerous small projections (podia) to the exterior and communicates with the external medium by a pore or cluster of pores, at least in juvenile stages (Hymen,1955). Body wall The body wall of echinoderms consists of three layers. The outer layer, called the epidermis, is only a single layer of cells which covers the entire animal including its various spines. The third layer is also a single layer of cells the main difference being that these cells are ciliated. This layer encloses the animal's coelom separating the animal's guts from its skin. It is called the 'coelomic lining'. The middle layer is much thicker and is called the dermis. It is composed of connective tissue and contains the endoskeleton. This endoskeleton takes three different forms: a set of closely joint plates with little individual movement that exist as a test or shell (Sea urchins), a set of separately articulating (more freely moving) small plates called ossicles (Seastar, Brittle Stars and the arms of Crinoids), and a collection of widely 2 separated microscopic ossicles lying in the lethery dermis (Sea cucumbers). Whatever form they take these plates or ossicles are always made from calcite, the ingredients for which are found in sea water. The endoskeleton of echinoderms grows continuously throughout the animals life, thus older animals are always larger than younger ones. The endoskeleton supports the spines, warts and tubercles that are often found on the echinoderm surface. These various protuberances are also generally made from calcite. Endoskeleton Echinoderms have a mesodermal skeleton composed of calcareous plates or ossicles. Despite the robustness of the individual skeletal modules, complete echinoderm skeletons are rare in the fossil record. This is because they quickly disarticulate once the encompassing skin rots away, and in the absence of tissue there is nothing to hold the plates together. The modular construction is a result of the growth system employed by echinoderms, which adds new segments at the centre of the radial limbs, pushing the existing plates outwards in the fashion of a conveyor belt. The spines of sea urchins are most readily lost, as each spine can be moved individually and is only loosely attached in life. A walk above a rocky shore will often reveal a large number of spineless but otherwise complete sea urchin skeletons. Echinoderm skeletons are made up of interlocking calcium carbonate plates and spines. This skeleton is enclosed by the epidermis and is thus an endoskeleton. In some, such as sea urchins, the plates fit together tightly. In others, such as starfish, the plates are more loosely bound, and in sea cucumbers the plates are usually microscopic. But whatever their shape, the plates of echinoderms have a very typical microstructure: electron 3 microscopy reveals them to be, not solid blocks, but fine networks of calcium carbonate forming a structure known as stereom. Each skeletal element of an echinoderm is actually a single crystal of calcium carbonate, very finely branched and structured. Between the skeletal plates, a number of special structures protrude, with which the echinoderm breathes, moves, and defends itself. Typically, these are tube feet, pedicellaria, and gills. Water-vascular System Echinoderms possess a unique water vascular or "ambulacral" system. The water vascular system of the echinoderms is unique in the living world and easily distinguishes them from all other phyla. This is a network of fluid-filled canals that function in gas exchange, feeding, and secondarily in locomotion. This system is derived from both the hydrocoel and axocoel. This system may have allowed echinoderms to function without the gills found in other deuterostomes. The system comprises a central ring, the hydrocoel, and radial ambulacra stretching along the body or arms. There are extensions (tube feet, papulae etc.) of the water vascular system which project out through holes in the skeleton and can be extended or contracted by the redistribution of fluid between the foot and internal sac. The system takes slightly different forms in the different classes. In the Crinoidea, which are believed to be the most ancient of the echinoderms, the tube feet are branched and secrete mucous. In the Ophiuroidea the tube feet are simple and slender. In Asteroidea, Echinoidea and Holothuroidea they are thicker and end in suckers. The water vascular system starts with an opening to the external environment called a madreporite. From this a short straight canal called the 'stone canal' leads to the 4 'ring canal'. The ring canal is a ring as might be expected and it has five longitudinal canals branching off from it into each of the arms, or their morphological equivalents in Echinoidea and Holothuroidea. In species with more than 5 arms these canals branch out into each arm. On each side of each canal there arises a series of short lateral canals that lead, via a valve, into the descending tube feet and the ampulla that operate them. The tube feet pass through small holes in the animal's endoskeleton and muscles around the ampulla (which remains inside the endoskeleton) squeeze water into them causing them to extend or relax. Reproduction Sexual reproduction: Echinoderms become sexually mature after approximately two to three years, depending on the species and the environmental conditions. The eggs and sperm cells are released into open water, where fertilization takes place. The release of sperm and eggs is coordinated temporally at same location and spatially at different regions. Internal fertilization has currently been observed in three species of sea star, three brittle stars and a deep water sea cucumber. In some species of feather star, the embryos develop in special breeding bags, where the eggs are held until sperm released by a male happen to find them and fertilize the contents. This can also be found among sea urchins and sea cucumbers, where exhibit care for their young can occur, for instance in a few species of sand dollars who carry their young between the pricks of their oral side, and heart urchins possess breeding chambers. With brittle stars, special chambers can be developed near the stomach bags, in which the development of the young takes place. Species of sea cucumbers with specialized care for their offspring may 5 also nurse the young in body cavities or on their surfaces. In rare cases, direct development without passing through a bilateral larval stage can occur in some sea stars and brittle stars. Another strategy that has evolved in some sea stars and brittle stars is the ability to reproduce asexually by dividing in two halves while they are small juveniles, while turning to sexual reproduction when they have reached sexual maturity. Asexual reproduction: Many echinoderms have remarkable powers of regeneration. Some sea stars are capable of regenerating lost arms. In some cases, lost arms have been observed to regenerate a second complete sea star. Sea cucumbers often discharge parts of their internal organs if they perceive danger. The discharged organs and tissues are quickly regenerated. Seaurchins are constantly losing their spines through damage all parts are replaceable. Some seastar populations can reproduce entirely asexually purely by the shedding of arms for long periods of time. Larval development: The development of an echinoderm begins with a bilaterally symmetrical embryo, with a coeloblastula developing first. Gastrulation marks the opening of the "second mouth" that places them within the deuterostomes, and the mesoderm, which will host the skeleton, migrates inwards. The secondary body cavity, the coelom, forms by the partitioning of three body cavities. Upon metamorphosis, each taxon produces a distinct larva, the left hand side of which develops into the adult organism, the right hand side eventually being absorbed; the left hand side typically becomes the oral plate. The different larval types such as Bipinnaria & Brachiolaria, Auricularia, Ophiopluteus, Echinopluteus and Vitellaria for Asteriods, Holothuroids, Ophiuroids, Echinoids and Crinoids respectivley are classified. 6 Feeding Echinoderms are filter feeders, su.bstrate eaters or carnivores. The gut is V-shaped in the Crinoidea with the mouth and anus being on the same surface. In the other groups such as Echinoidea and Holothuroidea, it is straight-through gut with the mouth and anus on approximately opposite sides of the body. Echinoderms also have a spacious coelom (an open, fluid-filled body cavity lined with tissue), large gonads, and (usually) a complete gut. Many seastar have the peculiar ability to feed by turning the stomach inside out through the mouth; sea urchins scrape algae from rocks with five large teeth arranged in a structure known as "Aristotle's lantern." The modes of feeding vary greatly between the constituent taxa. Crinoids and some brittle stars tend to be passive filter-feeders, absorbing suspended particles from passing water; sea urchins are grazers, sea cucumbers deposit feeders, and most seastars are carnivores. Crinoids employ a large net-like structure to sieve water as it is swept by currents, and to absorb any particles of matter sinking from the ocean overhead. Once a particle touches the arms of the creature, the tube feet act to swish it to the central mouth of the crinoid, where it is ingested, nutrients removed, and the remains egested through its anus to the water column. Many sea urchins graze on the surfaces of rocks, scraping off the thin layer of algae covering the surfaces. Sand dollars may perform suspension or sediment feeding. Sea cucumbers may be suspension feeders, sucking vast quantities of sea water through their guts and absorbing any useful matter. Others use their feeding apparatus to actively capture food from the sea floor. Yet others deploy their feeding apparatus as a net, in which smaller organisms become ensnared. While some sea stars are detrivores, extracting the organic material from mud, and others mimic the crinoids' filter 7 feeding, attacking other sea stars or shellfish. The latter are seized and held by the tube feet; sea stars then stiffen their legs, expanding the shell. The sea stars can use connective tissue to lock their arms in place and maintain a force on the prey whilst exerting minimal effort; the unfortunate victim must expend energy resisting the force with its adductor muscle. When the adductor tires, the sea star can insert its stomach through the opening and release gastric juices, digesting the prey alive. Despite their low nutrition value and the abundance of indigestible calcite, many organisms, such as crabs, sharks, sea birds and larger starfish, make a living by feeding on echinoderms. Defensive strategies employed include the presence of spines, toxins, which can be inherent or delivered through the tube feet, and the discharge of sticky entangling threads by sea cucumbers. Being stabbed by a sea urchin may result in painful injury. Distribution and habitat Echinoderms are globally distributed in almost all depths, latitudes and environments in the ocean. They reach highest diversity in reef environments but are also widespread on shallow shores, around the poles refugia where crinoids are at their most abundant, and throughout the deep ocean, where bottom-dwelling and burrowing sea cucumbers are common, sometimes accounting for up to 90% of organisms. Whilst almost all echinoderms are benthic, that is, they live on the sea floor and some sealilies can swim at great velocity for brief periods of time, and a few deep-sea sea cucumbers are fully floating. Some crinoids are pseudo-planktonic, attaching themselves to floating logs and debris, although this behaviour was exercised most extensively in the Paleozoic, before competition from such organisms as barnacles restricted the extent of the behaviour. Some sea cucumbers employ 8 a similar strategy, hitching lifts by attaching to the sides of fish. The larvre of many echinoderms, especially starfish and sea urchins, are pelagic, and with the aid of ocean currents can swim great distances, reinforcing the global distribution of the phylum. Ecology Echinoderms provide a key ecological role in ecosystems. The grazing of sea urchins reduces the rate of colonization of bare rock; the burrowing of sand dollars and sea cucumbers depleted the sea floor of nutrients and encouraged deeper penetration of the sea floor, increasing the depth to which oxygenation occurs and allowing a more complex ecological tiering to develop. Seastar and brittle stars prevent the growth of algal mats on coral reefs, which would obstruct the filter-feeding constituent organisms. Some sea urchins can bore into solid rock; this bioerosion can destabilise rock faces and release nutrients into the ocean. The echinoderms are also the staple diet of many organisms, most notably the otter; conversely, many sea cucumbers provide a habitat for associates, including crabs, worms and snails. The extinction of large quantities of echinoderms appears to have caused a subsequent overrunning of ecosystems by seaweed, or the destruction of an entire reef. Evolution The first universally accepted echinoderms appear the Lower Cambrian period (Paul and Smith 1984). Echinoderms left behind an extensive fossil record. Despite this, there are numerous conflicting hypotheses on their phylogeny. Based on their bilateral larvae, many zoologists argue that echinoderm ancestors were bilateral and that their coelom had three pairs of spaces (trimeric). III 9 Some have proposed that radial symmetry arose in a freemoving echinoderm ancestor and that sessile groups were derived several times independently from free-moving ancestors. Unfortunately, this view does not address the significance of radial symmetry as an adaptation for a sessile existence. The more traditional view is that the first echinoderms were sessile, became radial as an adaptation to that existence, and then gave rise to free-moving groups. This view perceives the evolution of endoskeletal plates with stereom structure and of external ciliary grooves for feeding as early echinoderm developments. The extinct members of Class Homalozoa, commonly referred to as carpoids, had stereom ossicles but were not radially symmetrical, and the status of their watervascular system is not known. Further, extinct members of the Class Helicoplacoidea possessed three, true ambulacral grooves, and their mouth was on the side of their body. Attachment to a substratum would have selected for radial symmetry and may have marked the origin of the Class Crinoidea. Members of Crinoidea, along with the extinct members of Class Cystoidea, were primitively attached to a substratum by an aboral stalk. An ancestor that became free-moving might have given rise to Asteroidea, Ophiuroidia, Holothuroidea, and Echinoidea. Economic importance Echinoderms are also elements of many CUIsmes. Around 50,000 tons of sea urchins are captured each year, the gonads of which are consumed particularly in Japan, Peru and in France. The taste is described as soft and melting, like a mix of seafood and fruit. The quality 10 depends on the colour, which can range from light yellow to bright orange. Economically, sea cucumbers are important in two main ways. First, some species produce toxins that are of interest to pharmaceutical firms seeking to learn their medical value. Some compounds isolated to date exhibit antimicrobial activity or act as anti-inflammatory agents and anticoagulants. Second, as a gourmet food item in the orient, they form the basis of a multimillion-dollar industry that processes the body wall for sale as beche-de-mer or trepang. However, the high value of some species, the ease with which such shallow-water forms can be collected and their top-heavy age structures all contribute to overexploitation and collapse of the fisheries in some regions. Sea cucumbers are also considered a delicacy in some countries of southeast Asia; particularly popular are the pineapple roller Thelenota ananas and the red Halodeima edulis. They are well known as heche de mer or Trepang in China and Indonesia. The sea cucumbers are dried, and the potentially poisonous entrails removed. The strong poisons of the sea cucumbers are often psychoactive, but their effects are not well studied. It does appear that some sea cucumber toxins restrain the growth rate of tumour cells, which has sparked interest from cancer researchers. The calcareous tests or shells of echinoderms are used as a source of lime by farmers in areas where limestone is unavailable; indeed 4,000 tons of the animals are used annually for this purpose. This trade is often carried out in conjunction with shellfish farmers, for whom the starfish pose a major irritation by eating their stocks 2. LITERATURE REVIEW The Phylum Echinodermata, comprIsmg approximately 7,000 living species, and 13,000 fossil 11 species, is epitomized by the familiar sea star, a universal symbol of the marine realm. The history of the phylum is fraught with misconceptions. Linnaeus (1758) did not recognize the echinoderms as a separate group, and placed the echinoderms that were known to him in his "Mollusca", a subdivision of "Vermes". Bruguiere (1791) revived Klein's (1734) name Echinodermata-a short-lived independence for the group, for Lamarck (1801) referred the echinoderms to his "Radiata", where they stayed for several decades until finally Leuckart (1854) successfully established the Echinodermata as a distinct phylum. Over the past 160 years, progress on the higher classification of the extant and fossil echinoderms has been fairly steady, with such authors as Ludwig (1889-1907), Bather (1900), Cuenot (1948), and Hyman (1955) providing authoritative summaries of classification history. The numerous authors contributed to the Echinodermata volumes of the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology (Moore, 1966-1978) to revise the groups for which they were responsible, so that the 1960's became an era of great change in our knowledge of the phylum. Publication of the Treatise volumes stimulated much research work, particularly on fossil groups. New and exciting approaches to taxonomy have resulted in a reassessment of most major groups of fossil and living echinoderms. Cladistic analyses of extant and fossil groups helped to reshape some major classifications, and Mooi and David's (2000 et. al.) extraxial-axial theory (EAT) provided a new framework for study of interrelationships. Within the past couple of decades, molecular analyses are offering powerful tools, especially in combination with morphology, with which to address long-standing problems. Thus, the past 40 years have witnessed upheavals in classification at the family, order, and even class level. In the past decade numerous important volumes have been published on the echinoderms, living and fossil. Some of the most 12 comprehensive include: Candia Carnevali & Bonasoro (1999), Mooi & Telford (1998), Barker (2001), Jangoux & Lawrence (2001), Feral & David (2001), Kasyanov (2001), Heinzeller & Nebelsick (2004), Matranga (2005). Despite the increasing attention received by to this phylum, there remain many major uncertainties and unresolved problems. The extant Deuterostomia ("second mouth") are usually defined as animals in which the mouth develops from a second opening in the embryo, opposite to the initial opening, the blastopore, of the rudimentary gut. In addition the coelom develops by enterocoely, or pouching from the primitive gut. Smith (2004b) noted that there was fossil evidence to show that the major deuterostome groups were established by about 520 million years ago. Composition of the extant Deuterostomia has changed in recent years. At present, it is usually regarded as comprising the phyla Chordata, Hemichordata, and Echinodermata (Cameron et aZ., 2000), as well as the recently-defined phylum Xenoturbella (Bourlat et aZ., 2006). In echinoderms with planktotrophic larval stages, the deuterostome affinities of the group are evident. Fell (1948) and others have pointed out that in a significant percentage of echinoderms the coelom develops from a splitting in mesoderm and not from pouching, and the larval mouth becomes the adult mouth. Pawson and Kerr (2001) reported presence of chitin in one species of sea cucumber. Chitin is usually unknown in deuterostomes, but it has been reported from a blenniid fish (Wagner et aZ., 1993). These various exceptions to the deuterostome "norm" are believed to be relatively minor, and the echinoderms are regarded as fully qualified members of the Deuterostomia. Five extant classes of echinoderms are universally recognized: Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea, 13 Holothuroidea, and Crinoidea. A sixth class, Concentricycloidea, was described 21 years ago (Baker et aZ., 1986). Smith (1988a), in a phylogenetic analysis offossil evidence, suggested times of divergence of the five (then) modern classes at 450-590 million years ago. Smith noted that the long subsequent history for each class allowed for introduction of a great deal of "noise" via mutations. The surge in molecular taxonomy occurred at around this time. Wada & Satoh (1994) analyzed one species from each class, and concluded that phylogenetic relationships among extant classes matched those deduced from the fossil record. Littlewood (1995) discussed molecular and morphological data sets, noting that poor phylogenetic resolution arose from inconsistent morphological data sets, and inadequate molecular data, based upon a small representation of taxa. Soon thereafter, Littlewood et aZ. (1997) combined more comprehensive morphological, molecular, and stratigraphic data, and arrived at three competing phylogenetic solutions, of which two appeared to be the most plausible. Their study demonstrated that frustrating pitfalls can appear even when data sets are fairly detailed . Smith (1997) reaffirmed w ha t many previous authors had noted, that larval morphology of echinoderms has evolved independently of adult morphology, and that larval morphology, when taken alone, cannot inform the phylogeny of adult echinoderms. Janies (2001), providing additional sequence data, especially for the refractory ophiuroids and asteroids, concluded that echinoids and holothuroids "are related", and crinoids are the sister taxon to the remaining extant echinoderm classes. The relationship between asteroids and ophiuroids was more difficult to address, but Janies found strong support for monophyly of each of these two classes. McEdward & Miner (2001) comprehensively summarize what is known about larval development in echinoderms, and construct phylogenies for the extant classes based upon patterns of 14 development. As more molecular data become available, and more comprehensive and refined morphological databases are produced. The various supra-class names that have been applied to groupings of echinoderms Echinozoa, Asterozoa, Crinozoa, Pelmatozoa, Eleutherozoa - are occasionally used in the formal sense, but for the most part they are used as informal and convenient adjectives in describing life habits, body form, feeding propensities, and the like. Since the first concentricycloid was described (Baker et aZ., 1986) numerous authors have investigated and discussed the status of these small (usually <1 cm diameter), discoidal echinoderms with the mouth frame in the form of a ring, and a ring of tube feet. The only known habitat is deep-sea wood, either naturally occurring waterlogged wood, or wood that has been placed at depth by submersibles for extended periods of time. Baker et aZ. (1986) referred these extraordinary animals to a new class Concentricycloidea. Three species are now known: XyZopZax medusiformis Baker, Rowe and Clark, 1986; X. turnerae Rowe, Baker and Clark, 1988; X. janetae Mah, 2006. In the 21 years since description of the first species, numerous authors have voiced their opinions about the status of these strange echinoderms. Smith (1988a), Belyaev (1990), Janies & Mooi (1999), Janies (2001), argued for placement of the concentricycloids within the Class Asteroidea, perhaps near the caymanostellids. Rowe et aZ. (1988), Pearse & Pearse (1994), Mooi et aZ. (1998), Baker (2003) and others have been a little more cautious in their assignment of the group. In a detailed recent summary, Mah (2006), having examined the morphological, cladistic, and molecular evidence, placed the concentricycloids within the Asteroidea (Figure 2), where they comprise the mono typic Infraclass Concentricycloidea of the Subclass Ambuloasteroidea (sensu Blake & Hagdorn, 2003). 15 Crinoidea The 650 species of extant crinoids (Class Crinoidea, Extant crinoids), represented by 100 stalked crinoids and 550 feather stars, have received considerable attention from specialists, partly because of their intrinsic interest, and partly because these extant animals can throw some light on the living habits of the fossil crinoids. The living crinoids are all referred to the Subclass Articulata Zittel, 1879. Most authors regard the feather stars as comprising a single order, Comatulida A.H. Clark, 1908. Messing (1997) notes that Simms (1988) reduced the comatulids to an infraorder, Comatulidia. Rasmussen & SievertsDoreck (1978) recognized seven superfamilies in the order Comatulida. Further details are provided by Messing (1997). The extant stalked crinoids are assigned to four orders: Millericrinida Sieverts-Doreck, 1952; Cyrtocrinida Sieverts-Doreck, 1952; Bourgueticrinida Sieverts- Doreck, 1952; Isocrinida Sieverts-Doreck, 1952. In a recent review of the comatulids, Messing (1997) covers classification, ecology, and taphonomy, among other topics. For the stalked crinoids Roux (2002) provide keys and checklists to the genera. Comprehensive and detailed revisions, such as David (2006) of the stalked crinoid genus Endoxocrinus are regrettably rare, as are regional studies such as Messing (2007). The emphasis on morphology is gradually being complemented by molecular approaches, some producing astonishing results. Cohen et aZ. (2004) found that a clade containing the genera CaZedonecrinus, Gymnocrinus, Ho Zop us, and Proisocrinus, and also possibly Cyathidium raises many intriguing questions about the taxonomic placement of these entities. More than 6,000 species of fossil crinoids are known as extict, and revisionary work, usually below the order level, is proceeding apace. The current classification of the class 16 Crinoidea, in the opinion of Ausich (1998) recognizes six subclasses: Aethocrinea Ausich 1998; Cladida Moore & Laudon, 1943; Camerata Wachsmuth & Springer, 1885; Flexibilia Zittel, 1895; Articulata Zittel, 1879; Disparida Moore & Laudon, 1943. Hess (2003) describe assemblages of crinoids from the Ordovician to the Tertiary, and they study form and function, evolutionary history, classification, among other topics. Ausich (1999) discussed the origin of crinoids in light of the re-interpretation of the Cambrian Echmatocrinus as an octocoral. Ausich suggests an early Ordovician origin for the crinoids from primitive rhombiferans via paedomorphosis. Ausich & Kammer (2001), emphasizing mostly fossils, comment on the status of research on crinoids, and identify areas for future research. A useful and comprehensive classification of fossil echinoderm groups is provided by Simms (1993). Mooi (2001) discussed and critically assessed publications on fossil echinoderms for the period 1980-2000. Loven's law and ray homologies are described in echinoids, ophiuroids, edrioasteroids, and an ophiocistioid by Hotchkiss (1995). In a related study with broad implications, Sumrall & Wray (2007) discuss pentamerous symmetry and its origin in the 30 Cambrian-Ordovician clades of echinoderms. Shu et aZ. (2004) describe, and Smith (2004b) comments on, what are believed to be ancestral echinoderms ("velulocystids") from the Lower Cambrian of China. The vetulocystids have a globosetheca and a tail. Smith (2004a) studied phylogeny of deuterostomes, and anatomy of carpoids, and concluded that early deuterostomes with a stereom skeleton and gill slits may have existed, but it is not likely that sterom and a notochord co-occurred. These conclusions support in part (gill slits), and disagree in part (notochord) with the ideas of Jefferies (1996). David (1999), applying the extraxiall axial theory, regard the four non-pentamerous classes 17 comprising the homalozoans as early echinoderms, but not indicative of the plesiomorphic morphology of the phylum. Further, the Homalozoa is not a monophyletic assemblage. Lefebvre (2007) studied in detail the palaeobiogeography and palaeoecology of cornutes and mitrates. Parsley (1999), using a cladistic approach, determined that the Cincta (Homostelea) are blastozoans. Ophiocistioids have been reviewed by Haude (2004), and Reich & Haude (2004). Dominguez-Alonso (1999) presented new data on the structure of ctenocystoids and proposed a new approach to the early evolution of echinoderms. Molecular analyses are transforming our view of the echinoderms at all taxonomic levels. Wilson (2007) found that the Antarctic comatulid previously known as the single widely distributed species Promachocrinus kerguelensis may in fact embrace at least five species-level clades. Plancus and Gaultire (1743) first reported the presence of echinoderms from Goa, coastal area of India (James, 1987). Bell (1887) compiled the list of echinoderms from Bay of Bengal. Nagabhushanam and Rao reported the echinoderms of Orissa and Lakshadweep in 1969 and 1972. Soota (1983) gave distribution of some holothurians in Andaman and Nicobar Islands without mentioning the species wise distribution. Venkataraman (2002) also compiled a report on echinoderms. Sastry (2005, 2007) reported an annotated checklist on echinodermata of Andaman and Nicobar Islands with 424 species and in India with 649 species. The present study dealt with pictorial description of 89 species of most commonly found echinoderms belonging to 53 genera, 31 families and 15 orders recorded from Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Asterioidea Today's oceans are graced by 2100 species of sea stars. In their magisterial monograph of Atlantic sea stars 18 (Class Asteroidea, Extant asteroids), Clark and Downey (1992) noted that the status of the entire group-whether it should be referred to a Class or a Subclass-was 'controversial" and they declined to discuss the topic. At the ordinal level, they elected to follow the classification proposed by Blake (1987, 1989), and recognized seven orders: Paxillosida Perrier, 1884; Notomyotida Ludwig, 1910; Valvatida Perrier, 1884; Velatida Perrier, 1893; Spinulosida Perrier, 1893; Forcipulatida Perrier, 1893; Brisingida Fisher, 1928. Clark and Downey chose to ignore, or did not accept, the three Superorders proposed by Blake (1987). Gale (1987) proposed a new Subclass, Neoasteroidea for the post-Paleozoic crow group asteroids, and he differed from Blake in naming just four orders: Paxillosida, Notomyotida, Valva tid a (including the velatids and spinulosids), and Forcipulatida (including the brisingids). Subsequent to the Blake and Gale papers, Lafay et aZ. (1995) made a combined morphological and molecular study of nine sea star species, in an attempt to provide a broader framework for discussion of the differing classifications. Papers published following a symposium on evolution of starfishes (Blake, 2000; Blake et aZ., 2000; Mooi & David, 2000; Hotchkiss, 2000; Vickery & McClintock, 2000; Hrincevich et aZ., 2000; Mah, 2000; Knott & Wray, 2000) offered possibilities for resolution of some differences in morphology-based phylogenies by the addition of more comprehensive molecular data. The consensus of opinion seemed to be that molecular/morphological studies are very necessary and desirable, especially for resolving problems at the family-level and below (Hrincevich et aZ., 2000; Knott & Wray, 2000; O'Loughlin & Waters, 2004; Mah, 2007). Matsubara et aZ. (2005) found that comparisons of genome structure were "uninformative for the purposes of asteroid phylogeny, but that phylogenetic 19 analyses based upon nucleotide and amino acid sequences indicated that paxillosidan characters are secondarily derived, and perhaps the paxillosids are specialized rather than primitive asteroids". In a comprehensive paper describing the Ordovician to recent history of the Asteroidea, Blake & Hagdorn (2003) diagnosed a new Subclass Ambuloasteroidea, to reflect their findings and those of Mooi & David (2000) on their extraxial/axial theory; in regard to the axial skeleton of Paleozoic and post- Paleozoic asteroids. Blake & Elliott (2003) found that axial skeletal characters could be compared across stem and crown-groups of asteroids. The Ambuloasteroidea embrace two infraclasses, one "Unknown" which includes the late Paleozoic Families Calliasterellidae Schondorf 1910, and Compsasteridae Schuchert 1914, the other Gale's (1987) Infraclass (formerly Subclass) Neoasteroidea. The Neoasteroidea embraces the remammg postPaleozoic asteroids. Shackleton (2005) comprehensively reviewed Ordovician stem-group asterozoans (asteroids plus ophiuroids) and proposed a revised classification. A new Plesion (Order) Eopentaroida was proposed to accommodate three distinctive Silurian genera. It was noted that the asteroid and ophiuroid body plans, already established in the Ordovician, indicated that these groups had a considerable, but unknown, pre-Ordovician history. In this context, Herringshaw et aZ. (2007) established that the Silurian Lepidaster grayi was the earliest-known multiradiate sea star, so that the multiradiate body plan was also established early. Blake & Hotchkiss (2004) characterized the post-Paleozoic asteroid crown group, identifying apomorphies of crown-group diversification. Ophiuroidea The 2,000 species of ophiuroids (Class Ophiuroidea, Extant ophiuroids) are traditionally assigned to two 20 orders such as Order Euryalida Lamarck, 1816 and Order Ophiurida Muller & Troschel, 1840. Smith, Paterson & Lafay (1995) summarized the state of knowledge of ophiuroid classification after a cladistic analysis based upon morphological characters. Their molecular data were equivocal, and did not help to resolve some problems arising from the morphological analyses. Smith & Paterson assigned the mysterious Ophiocanops fugiens to Subclass Oegophiuridea Matsumoto, 1915, and referred all other ophiuroids to Subclass Ophiuridea Gray, 1840. However, Pearse et aZ. (1998), with access to new material of Ophiocanops, demonstrated that this genus belonged in the Family Ophiomyxidae. These findings, coupled with those of Hotchkiss (1977) have resulted in the disappearance of the Oegophiuridea as a subclass of ophiuroids. Cisternas et aZ. (2004) studied development patterns in 23 species, suggested some evolutionary pathways, and noted that good molecular phylogenies would help to refine their hypotheses. The puzzling Ordovician stelleroid Stenaster was studied in detail by Dean (1999), who concluded, after a cladistic analysis of early asteroids, soma steroids, and ophiuroids, that this asteroid-like animal was in fact an ophiuroid, converging secondarily with asteroids. Kroh (2004) reported on the first fossil record of a euryalid ophiuroid from the Miocene of the Mediterranean. Jagt (1999) found a rich fauna of ophiuroids in the Cretaceous of the Maastrichtian Stage. Hotchkiss (1993) has described several Ordovician and Devonian ophiuroids from North America, and commented extensively on origins and relationships of skeletal features. Echinoidea The 800 species of echinoids (Class Echinoidea, Extant and fossiZ echinoids) alive today, coupled with the wonderful 21 fossil record, make the echinoids excellent candidates for a great variety of studies, from reproductive biology to evolution. Echinoids are also of commercial importance; Yokota et aZ. (2002) cover biology and aquaculture of sea urchins, and Lawrence (2001, 2006) deals with biology, ecology, and aquaculture of edible sea urchins worldwide. Extant echinoids are informally divided into "regular" forms with obvious radial symmetry, spherical bodies and uniformly long spines, and "irregular" forms - bilaterally symmetrical urchins, including sand dollars and heart urchins. Echinoids are typically classified into two subclasses and 12 orders, as listed by Smith (1984), and modified slightly by Littlewood & Smith (1995). Subclass Cidaroidea Claus, 1880 comprises the Order Cidaroida Claus, 1880. Subclass Euechinoidea Bronn, 1860 includes all other echinoids: Order Echinothurioida Claus, 1880; Order Diadematoida Duncan, 1889; Order Pedinoida Mortensen, 1939; Order Calycina Gregory, 1900; Order Arbacioida Gregory, 1900; Order Phymosomatoida Mortensen, 1904; Order Temnopleuroida Mortensen, 1941; Order Echinoida Claus, 1876; Order Cassiduloida Claus, 1880; Order Clypeasteroida Agassiz, 1872; Order Spatangoida Claus, 1876. All of the above orders except the last three are regular echinoids; the last three comprise the irregular echinoids. Phylogenetic relationships of the echinoid higher taxa have been studied by several authors, using morphological data (test and spine morphology, structure of teeth, pedicellariae, and structure of larvae) and molecular sequences. Some of the more comprehensive studies include Smith (1988b), Smith et aZ. (1992), Littlewood & Smith (1995), Lee (2003), Stockley et aZ. (2005), Smith et aZ. (2006) and Smith (2007). Most of the regular echinoids seem to have diverged relatively recently, between 65 and 35 million years ago. Solovjev 22 & Markov (2004) studied earliest divergence of irregular echinoids, and selected 15 binary characters for cladistic analysis. They agreed in general with the conclusions of Smith (1984) and Rose & Olver (1988) but differed in some details. Holoth uroidea The approximately 1400 species of holothurians (Class Holothuroidea, Extant holothuroids), in particular the tropical shallow-water forms, are receiving increasing attention from specialists, and substantial changes in classification below the family level are expected to occur over the next decade. Above the family level, the classification has been fairly stable for many years. The orders Aspidochirotida Grube, 1840; Elasipodida Theel, 1882; Molpadiida Haeckel, 1896; and Apodida Brandt, 1835 remain well-characterized. The distinction between the Dendrochirotida Grube, 1840 and Dactylochirotida Pawson & Fell, 1965 is less well-defined. At some points the alleged morphological differences between these two groups are less well defined, but at the molecular level, the distinctions are more robust (Kerr & Kim, 2001). The three subclasses introduced by Pawson & Fell (1965)Apodacea, Aspidochirotacea, and Dendrochirotaceaas a convenient grouping of the orders have essentially been abandoned over the years, and Kerr & Kim (2001) convincingly demonstrate their impracticality. The interrelationships between extant holothurians at the family level and above were rather neglected until the 1990's, when a few authors used morphological and molecular approaches to investigate relationships. The publications by Kerr & Kim (1999, 2001) and Kerr (2001) were pioneering efforts, and they surely stimulated the surge in popularity of holothurians as research subjects 23 at all levels of classification. Lacey (2005) found cause to disagree in some areas with Kerr & Kim's conclusions, but all of these authors agreed with several earlier authors in suggesting a basal position for the Apodida. Smirnov (1998) revised the classification of the Order Apodida, using morphological characters. Phylogenetic studies of family-level and lower groups are burgeoning (Kerr, 2005). The fossil record of extinct holothurians has long been regarded as poor, an opinion disputed by Kerr & Kim (1999). Since the attempts by Pawson (1966, 1980) to integrate the higher-level classifications of fossil and recent holothuroids, the study of fossil groups has burgeoned, largely under the leadership of Gilliland (1992, 1993) and Reich (2002, 2004). Gilliland (1993) provides a comprehensive summary of the state of knowledge of fossil holothurians, and identifies areas where more research is required. In several publications, Reich reviews European and other fossil holothurians. Gilliland and Reich, and Smirnov (1999), suggest divergence times for the major holothurian taxa, and their conclusions are discussed by Kerr & Kim (1999, 2001), and others. 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF EXTANT CLASSES Crinoidea Crinoids are the least understood ofliving echinoderms, their skeletal remains are among the most abundant and important of fossils. They appeared during the Lower Ordovician and underwent several major radiations during the Paleozoic Era. Crinoids were major carbonate producing organisms during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic. In many Paleozoic and Mesozoic settings entire carbonate shelves were composed predominantly of crinoidal remains 24 (Ausich 1997). A persistent, traditional view treats living crinoids as chiefly deep-sea organisms, relicts of their opulent Paleozoic past, holding off final extinction in remote abyssal habitats. This view is generally applied to stalked crinoids, or sea lilies, as typical of the entire group, because they most closely resemble their fossil forebears. It is true that the approximately 80 extant species of stalked crinoids are chiefly restricted to depths greater than 200m (the shallowest occurs in 100m). However, 85% of extant crinoids (approximately 540 named species) are unstalked feather stars, or comatulids, the products of a continuing post-Paleozoic radiation (Meyer & Macurda 1977). About 65% of living comatulids occur at shelf depths «200 m). All crinoids are passive suspension feeders. They produce no feeding/respiratory current but, rather, rely on extrinsic, ambient water movement. In extant crinoids, the foodgathering apparatus functions as follows: each featherlike arm that radiates from the central body bears an open ambulacral groove bordered by triads of fingerlike podia, or tube feet, which are terminal extensions of the water vascular system. The longest tube foot in each triad, 0.430.85 mm in length, is held out at a right angle and flicks passing food particles into the groove. After a food particle is captured by a crinoid, the shortest tube foot wraps it in mucous secretions; ciliary tracts on the groove floor then transport it toward the mouth. In living crinoids, food particle size ranges from about 50 to 400 /lm. Diets include a variety of protists (e.g., diatoms and other unicellular algae, foraminiferans, actinopods), invertebrate larvae, small crustaceans, and detrital particles. Crinoids are pentamerous, stalked echinoderms with a cuplike body bearing five usually branched and commonly featherlike arms. Most of a crinoid's body 25 consists of an endoskeleton composed of numerous calcareous pieces, called plates or ossicles. The visceral mass of the crinoid animal is encased in the aboral cup that is typically composed of 2-3 circlets of plates. The mouth and anus are on the upper or oral surface of the animal. Additional circlets of fixed arm plates and fixed interradial plates may occur above the aboral cup, making a larger calyx. Five radial plates (the uppermost circlet of aboral cup plates) are aligned with the radial water vascular canals and give rise to five arms on the oral side of the body. Each arm is an articulated series of ossicles extending outward from the body. Arms contain extensions of coelomic, nervous, water vascular, and reproductive systems and bear an ambulacral groove bordered by fingerlike tube feet, or podia. Arms may be non-branching or branch in many different ways. All living crinoids are pinnulate, that is, they bear a small side branch (pinnule) on alternating sides of successive ossicles along the arm. In living crinoids, the pinnules bear the food-gathering tube feet. The crinoid stalk typically consists of numerous discoidal skeletal pieces called columnals, held together by ligaments and penetrated by a central canal containing coelomic and neural tissue. In most species, the stalk serves to anchor the animal permanently to the substrate via one of a variety of terminal structures, e.g., a discoidal or encrusting holdfast, rootlike radix, or grapnel. In others, such as the living isocrinids, whorls of hooklike cirri along the stalk allow the crinoid to release its hold and crawl with its arms. Several crinoid groups, notably the comatulids, which include the only living shallowwater crinoids, have lost the stalk. Comatulids anchor via numerous cirri that arise from the retained topmost columnal (the centrodorsal). 26 Asteroidea The Asteroidea IS one of the largest and most familiar classes within the Phylum Echinodermata. These animals, commonly known as sea stars or starfishes, form a diverse and speciose group. There are approximately 1600 extant species (Hyman 1955; Clark 1977; Clark and Downey 1992) which are found throughout the world's oceans. Like other echinoderms, asteroids are important members of many marine benthic communities. They can be voracious predators, having significant impacts on community structure. Paine (1966) used Pisaster ochraceus to illustrate his concept of the role keystone species play in community ecology. The crown-of-thorns starfish, Acanthaster pZanci, is particularly well-known because it can cause extreme detrimental effects to coral reefs, particularly during population outbreaks (Moran 1988). The controversial Concentricycloidea (a proposed sixth class of the Echinodermata; Baker et aZ. 1986, Rowe et aZ. 1988, Pearse and Pearse 1994) have been diagnosed as unusual asteroids (Smith 1988, Belyaev 1990, Janies and Mooi 1999). Their relationship to other asteroid taxa is not well resolved, but alliances with species from the Vela tid a and the Forcipulatida have been proposed. The unique morphology of the concentricycloids makes it difficult to assign this group to the recognized asteroid orders and is cited as sufficient distinction for class recognition. Like other asterozoans, asteroids have a characteristic star-shaped body plan consisting of a central disc and multiple (typically 5) radiating arms. Asteroids are most easily distinguished from other asterozoans (the Ophiuroidea) by the structure of the arms. In asteroids, skeletal support for the arms is provided by the ossicles 27 of the body wall, which merge with those of the central disc, giving the arm a very broad based attachment to the disc. This skeletal arrangement allows for the extension of a comparatively large coelomic cavity from the central disc into the arms, which serves to hold some of the animal's organ systems, namely the gonads and pyloric caeca. Additionally, this skeletal arrangement also limits lateral flexion of the arms. Locomotion by asteroids is accomplished almost exclusively by means of the podia of the water vascular system. Taxonomy of asteroids usually is based on externally observable characteristics of the skeleton, particularly the primary ossicular series which define the body wall (ambulacrals, adambulacrals, marginals, terminals, actinals, abactinals), as well as secondary ossicles such as spines, spinelets and pedicellariae. Perhaps the most important ossicular series defining the Asteroidea is the ambulacral column, found along the oral surface of the disk and radiating arms and associated with two or four rows of podia. The asteroid ambulacrum is distinguished by erect ambulacral ossicles arranged in series along the length of the ambulacral column. According to the EAT, the ambulacral and terminal ossicles of asteroids are axial elements. These ossicles are formed according to the Ocular Plate Rule (OPR) and are associated with the developing water vascular system during ontogeny as are the axial ossicles of other echinoderms. The remaining asteroid ossicle series are extraxial elements, which can be added during ontogeny without any particular ordering system (although secondarily ordered serial homologous elements are common in the asteroids, e.g. adambulacrals and marginals). In comparison to axial elements, extraxial ossicles are prone to much more evolutionary lability (Mooi and David 1997). 28 Ophiuroidea Ophiuroids are a large group (over 1600 species) of echinoderms that includes the brittle stars (Ophiurida) and basket stars (Euryalida). The more familiar Ophiurida, or brittle stars, usually have five arms and superficially resemble true starfish (Asteroidea). However, brittle stars have long, flexible arms (hence the other common name for ophiuroids, "snake stars" and a central, armored, diskshaped body that is clearly demarcated from the arms. Instead of crawling on hundreds of tube feet like starfish, brittle stars move fairly rapidly by wriggling their arms. These fragile arms are supported by an internal skeleton of calcium carbonate plates that superficially look like vertebrae, and that are in fact called vertebral ossicles. These are moved by a system of muscles and linked together by ball-and-socket joints. The body and arms are also protected by calcium carbonate plates, and the arms generally bear delicate spines. Basket stars (Euryalida) have a similar structure to brittle stars, although they are usually larger. However, their arms are very highly forked and branched, and even more flexible than those of brittle stars. Ophiuroids can be found in most parts of the world, from the Arctic and Antarctic to the tropics. Ophiuroids are common in many shallow-water marine habitats, and include a few species which can adapt to brackish water, which is quite unusual for echinoderms. Ophiuroids are dominant in many parts of the deep sea, where in certain regions the bottom may swarm with brittle starts. Basket stars also tend to live in deeper water. Most ophiuroids are scavengers and detritus feeders, although they also prey on small live animals such as small crustaceans and worms. Some, in particular the basket stars, filter-feed on plankton with their arms. 29 Echinoidea Echinoids are one of the more diverse and successful echinoderm groups today, including familiar echinoderms such as the sea urchins and sand dollars. The roe (egg mass) of some species, notably certain sea urchins, is eaten in some cultures, notably in Japanese sushi; as a result, certain echinoid species are commercially fished. The larval development of echinoids has also been studied extensively, and many discoveries in developmental biology have been made using echinoids. In echinoids, the skeleton is almost always made up of tightly interlocking plates that form a rigid structure or test in contrast with the more flexible skeletal arrangements of starfish, brittle stars, and sea cucumbers. Test shapes range from nearly globular, as in some sea urchins, to highly flattened, as in sand dollars. Living echinoids are covered with spines, which are movable and anchored in sockets in the test. These spines may be long and prominent, as in typical sea urchins. In sand dollars and heart urchins, however, the spines are very short and form an almost belt-like covering. The mouth of most echinoids is provided with five hard teeth arranged in a circlet, forming an apparatus known as Aristotle's lantern. Echinoids are classified by the symmetry of the test, the number and arrangement of plate rows making up the test, and the number and arrangement of respiratory pore rows called petals Traditionally, echinoids have been divided into two subgroups: regular echinoids, with nearly perfect pentameral (five-part) symmetry; and irregular echinoids with altered symmetry. Regular echinoids include the Cidaroida (pencil urchins) and Echinoida (sea urchins, including the long-spined sea urchin). The Clypeasteroida (sand dollars and sea biscuits, 30 above center), the Spatangoida (heart urchins), and the Cassiduloida, a somewhat sand-dollar-like group whose members are rare today, make up the irregular echinoids. Holoth uroidea The Holothuroidea, or sea cucumbers, are an abundant and diverse group of worm-like and usually soft-bodied echinoderms. They are found in nearly every marine environment, but are most diverse on tropical shallowwater coral reefs. They range from the intertidal, where they may be exposed briefly at low tide, to the floor of the deepest oceanic trenches. Considerable diversification has occurred since then with about 1400 living species in a variety of forms. Some of these are about 20 cm in length, though adults of some diminutive species may not exceed a centimeter, while one large species can reach lengths of 5 m (Synapta maculata). Several species can swim and there are even forms that live their entire lives as plankton, floating with the ocean currents. The most important feature distinguishing the sea cucumbers is a calcareous ring that encircles the pharynx or throat. This ring serves as an attachment point for muscles operating the oral tentacles and for the anterior ends of other muscles that contract the body longitudinally. Sea cucumbers are also distinct as echinoderms in having a circlet of oral tentacles. These may be simple, digitate (with finger-like projections), pinnate (feather-like), or peltate (flattened and shield-like). A third key feature, found in 90% of living species, is the reduction of the skeleton to microscopic ossicles. In some species, the ossicles may be enlarged and plate-like. As in other echinoderms, the holothurian water vascular system consists of an anterior ring canal from which arise long canals running posterior. 31 Despite their similarity to the radial canals of other echinoderms, these latter structures arise embryologically in a quite different Mannar. For this reason these canals in holothurians have been recently renamed longitudinal canals (Mooi and David 1997). In holothurians, the larval structures that would form the radial canals in other echinoderms instead become the five primary tentacles. Also, holothurians with the exception of members in Elasipodida have a madrepore that opens into the coelom (body cavity). In contrast, elasipodans and nearly all other echinoderms have a madrepore that opens externally. Some sea cucumbers possess organs not found in other invertebrates. In some Aspidochirotida, the respiratory trees display Cuvierian tubules. In most species, these are apparently defensive structures. They can be expelled through the anus, whereupon they dramatically expand in length and become sticky, entangling or deterring would-be predators, such as crabs and gastropods. Many forms, with the exception of members of Elasipodida and Apodida, possess respiratory trees used in gas exchange. These are paired, heavily branched tubes attached to the intestine near the anus. This type of breathing ("cloacal breathing") is also present in an unrelated group, the echiuran worms. 4. STUDY AREAS The Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands is located the southeast of Bay of Bengal, between 6° -14 ° N Latitude and 91°-94° E Longitude. They are the part of the mountain chain and lie on a ridge that extends southward from Irrawaddy delta of Burma, containing the trend of the Arakan Yoma range (Venkataraman et aZ., 2003). There are 572 islands in the chain, some of which are volcanic. III 32 The islands occupy an area of 8293 km 2 with a coastline of 1962 km and account for 30% of the Indian Exclusive Zone. There are 106 protected areas in these islands, 96 designated as wildlife sanctuaries, 9 national parks and one biosphere reserve. Among 9 national parks, 2 are marIne national parks which have not yet inventoried thoroughly. The coral reefs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands are the biodiversity hot spot of India (Jeyabaskaran, 1999). . ....... ｾ＠ Ten llegIee _.. ..... The names of the study areas are cited below with Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates. S1. Area surveyed No. GPS Coordinates Latitude I Longitude South Andaman 1. Off Burmanella 11 ° 33.468'N 92° 43.873'E 2. Off Rangachang 11° 34.350'N 92° 44.133'E 3. Chidyatapu 11 ° 29.460'N 92° 42.530'E 4. Pongibalu 11° 31.030'N 92° 39.159'E 33 GP8 Coordinates 81. Area surveyed No. Latitude I Longitude 5. North Bay 11 ° 42.068'N 92° 45.116'E 6. Off Collinpur 11 ° 41.598'N 92° 37.035'E 7. Off Kurmadera 11° 39.933'N 92° 35.903'E Rutland Island 8. Chain Nalah 12° 08.522'N 93° 06.551'E 9. Padauk Dikri 12° 29.288'N 92° 40.141'E 10. Surumai Dikri 11 ° 25.504'N 92° 40.301'E 11. Komeo 11° 24.314'N 92° 39.780'E 12. Mitta Nalah 11° 28.541'N 92° 40.371'E 13. Arom Point 11° 30.541'N 92° 38.769'E 14. Aam Dera 11 ° 24.664'N 92° 37.456'E Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park 15. North Wando or 11° 37.270'N 92° 37.035'E 16. Grub Island 11 ° 35.391'N 92° 35.637'E 17. J oIly Buoy Island 11° 30.251'N 92° 32.591'E 18. Tarmugli Island 11° 33.261'N 92° 36.809'E Ritchie's Archipelago 34 19. Ha velock Island 12° 00.005'N 92° 56.808'E 20. Inglis Island 12° 08.639'N 93° 06.786'E 21. Henry Lawrence 12° 05.000'N Island 93° 06.312'E 81. Area surveyed No. GP8 Coordinates Latitude I Longitude 22. John Lawrence 12° 04.075'N Island 93° 00.398'E 23. Outram Island 12° 00.574'N 92° 56.808'E 24. Sir William Peel 12° 03.315'N Island 92° 59.929'E 25. Nicolson Island 12 ° 06.739'N 92 ° 57.235'E 26. South Island Button 12° 13.467'N 92° 01.334'E 27. North Island Button 12° 18.974'N 92° 03.826'E 28. Middle Island Button 12° 16.4 73'N 93° 01.334'E 29. Wilson Island 12° 13.061'N 93° 15.207'E Neill Island 30. Lakshmanpur 11 ° 50.826'N 93° 00.554'E 31. Hawrah Bridge 11 ° 49.727'N 93° 00.818'E 32. Middle Point 11° 50.857'N 93° 00.554'E 33. Ramangar 11 ° 48.400'N 93° 01.440'E 34. Sunset point 11° 51.941'N 93° 00.667'E 35. Little Neil Island 11° 47.063'N 93° 04.616'E 36. Pearl Park Beach 11° 50.766'N 93° 00.795'E Little Andaman Island 37. Butler Bay 10° 40.232'N 92° 56.808'E 35 81. Area surveyed No. GP8 Coordinates Latitude I Longitude 38. Kala Pathar 10° 39.558'N 92° 34.109'E 39. Haminder Bay 10° 32.975'N 92° 32.651'E 40. Off Ramkrishnapur 10° 42.630'N 92° 33.066'E 41. Sister Island 10° 55.830'N 92° 07.023'E 42. Hut Bay 10° 35.419'N 92° 33.066'E 43. Dugong Creek 10° 48.385'N 92° 64.000'E 44. Off Light House 10° 30.734'N 92° 30.264'E Middle Andaman 45. North Reef Island 12° 56.084'N 92° 57.345'E 46. Interview Island 12° 59.125'N 92° 42.981'E 47. Avis Island 12° 56.210'N 92° 33.066'E 48. Sound Island 12° 56.084'N 92° 57.345'E 49. Rail Island 12° 56.860'N 92° 54.620'E 50. Karlo Island 12° 56.084'N 92° 53.378'E 51. Karmatang 12° 51.322'N 92° 56.050'E North Andaman 36 52. Ross Island 13° 18. 167'N 93° 04.261'E 53. Smith Island 13° 18. 406'N 93° 04.207'E 54. Ariel Bay 13° 16. 093'N 93° 02.433'E GP8 Coordinates 81. Area surveyed No. Latitude Lamia Bay 13° 24. 879'N 93° 05.516'E 55. I Longitude Nicobar Islands Car Nicobar Island 56. Malacca 09° 10.490'N 92° 49.714'E 57. Kakaana 09° 07.750'N 92° 48.678'E 58. Tamoloo 09° 1l.350'N 92° 49.498'E 59. Kimos 09° 07.587'N 92° 46.316'E 60. Perka 09° 1l.203'N 92° 49.877'E 61. Lapati 09° 13.978'N 92° 48.002'E 62. Kamorta Island 12° 51.322'N Bada Enaka 92° 56.050'E 63. Champin Island 08° 01.670'N 93° 33.123'E 64. Trinket Island 08° 02.806'N 93° 34.556'E 65. Kamorta Island Kardip 08° 02.151'N 93° 33.182'E 66. Kamorta Island Kakkana 08° 07.170'N 93° 31.606'E 67. M unak Island 07° 59.813'N 93° 30.534'E 68. Katchal Island 07° 58.952'N 93° 24.351'E 69. Teressa Island 08° 13.686'N 93° 10.913'E 70. Kundol Island 07° 10.023'N 93° 42.949'E N ancowry Islands 37 81. Area surveyed No. GP8 Coordinates Latitude I Longitude Great Nicobar Island 71. Campbell Bay 06° 59.749'N 93° 56.718'E 72. Off Laxman Beach 07° 01.482'N 92° 37.456'E Off Gandhi Nagar 06° 50.496'N 73. 74. Joginder Nagar 06° 57.226'N 93° 55.495'E 75. Singam Basti 06° 58.307'N 93° 55.7 48'E 76. Navy Dera 07° 07.571'N 93° 53.133'E 77. Indira Point 06° 45.428'N 93° 49.541'E 78. Kopen Heat 06° 50.923'N 93° 47.983'E 93° 53.680'E 5. MATERIAL AND METHODS Several surveys were conducted during the period of April, 2009 to July, 2010 at different sites of Andaman and Nicobar Islands to assess the diversity of echinoderms in coral reef enviornments by employing Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus (SCUBA) diving and snorkeling. Line intercept transect (Bradbury and Reichelt et.al., 1986), Quadrate methods (Endean and Stablum, 1973), Photoquadrate and underwater video transect method were applied to investigate the diversity and distribution of the Echinoderms. Underwater video sampling provides highly precise quantitative estimate of echinoderms and abundance of common benthic taxa. During SCUBA diving, species recording was made by 38 underwater digital photography (Sony - Cyber shot, Model-T900, marine pack, 12.1 megapixels) for detailed identification. 6. KEY CHARACTERS Class: CRINOIDEA Proximal pinnules very flexible and with some of the terminal segments modified to form a comb; mouth near the edge of the disc and anal tube approximately central ........................................................ Family: Comasteridae The two ossicles of the IBr series and the first two after most, if not all the axillaries united by syzygy, Division series often alternating with arms ...................... . ..... ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ...... ..... Genus: Comaster No dorsal process on the basal segments ofthe proximal pinnules; if cirri are present at all then their distal segments are smooth dorsally ............ Comaster schlgeli Arms well over 100 in number (when fully grown) .... ............................................... Comaster multibrachiatus The most external IIIbr series of each ray usually two, the internal ones four; arms up to 200 ...................... .. ............................................................ Genus: Comanthina Whole body black in color, central disc and proximal portions of arms with black spots; some distal parts of arms also with black spots but fewer; tips of pinnules yellow ................................................ Comanthina nobilis III Br series, when present, either all four or else four and two irregularly; up to 120 arms but in most species less than 60 ......................................... Genus: Comanthus 39 Cirri very reduced in size, often discontinuously arranged around the edge of the centrodorsal, their distal segments only slightly shorter than the proximal ones .... ..................................................... Comanthus parvicirrus More than 60 arms; no dorsal processes on the distal cirrus segments ......................... Oxycomanthus bennetti Middle and distal cirrus segments with a pair of dorsal spines or tubercles, one each side of the mid-line, rarely a transverse rigid .......... Family: Colobometridae Arms fewer <40, rarely >45 cirrus segments, 53-120 arms; division series all two; cirri with 41-80 segments; all the pinnule present .............. Pontiometra andersoni Outer pinnules (2) very stout, stiff and erect or even recurved over the disc, its segments with conscipicously flared and spinose distal ends, Arms: more than 10 ......... ..... ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ........ Genus: Cenometra Basal segments of none of the proximal pinnules carina tes, A simple keel on the bases of the proximal pinnules or else the edge rounded ........................ Cenometra bella Basal segments of the proximal pinnules with knoblike rounded process forming a crest along the edge facing the tip of the arm ........................ Cenometra emendatrix Outer pinnules (2) markedly prismatic, often with the angles conscipicously produced at the distal ends of the segments ..................................... Oligometra serrapinna All the pinnules prismatic; the distal pinnules, if not all of them, flexible and not conscipicously stiffened ......... ................................................... Family: Himerometridae The first three external brachial pinn ules (P l' P 2' P 3)' progressively diminishing in size, if any pinnules are present on the division series they are largest of all ......... ........................................................... Genus: Himerometra 40 Proximal pinnule up to 25, usually 20, segments, tapering fairly abruptly near the tip, not flagellate, Enlarged proximal pinnules with smooth segments although their distal ends may be flared; proximal brachials with smooth but hardly at all flared distal edges .................................... Himerometra robustipinna Rarely more than 10 arms but should this number be exceeded than the IlBr series are two; the proximal pinnules little different from the following ones .............. .. ............................................................ Genus: Amphimetra Cirri with 30-35 segments and outer pinnules with 18-21 ................................................ Amphimetra molleri Usually more than 10 arms with the IlBr series mostly four but ifonly 10 arms are present then the proximal pinnules are distinctly modified with a strong crest or the segments have flared or spinose distal ends ....... Genus: Heterometra Distal cirrus segments with distinct dorsal spines or tubercles, Proximal pinnules appearing serrated in profile, due to projections from the distal ends of the segments ... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ...... .... Heterometra crenulata Arms often exceeding 20 in number than the IllBr series usually with four ossicles .. ......... Heterometra philiberti Always more than 10 arms ......................................... .. ...................................................... Family: Mariametridae Second interradial arm is the largest proximal pinnule .......................................... Genus: Lamprometra Second inter radial arm either very stout or distinctly carina te basally .......................... .Lamprometra palmata Class: ASTEROIDEA Skeleton of dorsal surface paxilliform or otherwise tube feet with suckers ............................ Order: Valvatida 41 The quadrangular or crescentic abactinal plates more or less obviously imbricating in the proximal direction usually armed with fine spineletsor granules, rarely naked except around the anus and madreporite, arms flattened or rounded above, occasionally somewhat carinate but then with no mid-radial series of conspicuous spines ....... ............................................................ Family: Asterinidae Body usually stellate but if nearly pentagonal then the margin is thin and pliable, often curling upwards in preserved specimens. Radius from centre to arm exceeding 20mm, Abactinal armament usually distinctly spiniform and sometimes fine .................................. Genus: Asterina Abactinal armament very delicate, consisting of fine minute hyaline spinelets, easily rubbed off, the petaloid radial popular areas linked only to the area in the centre of the disc, body markedly flattened .............. Asterina sarasini Marginal plates large, forming a conscipicous side-wall to the body, the upper surface almostflat, rarely somewhat convex; no papillae on the lower side; interradial arcs rounded .......................................... Family: Goniasteridae Radial areas, if not the whole upper side, distinctly convex; supero-marginals narrower; arms slender; granules around the papulae usually similar to the rest.. ................................................................. Genus: Stellaster Not more than one infero-marginal spine, sometimes none .................................................... Stell aster equestris Three series of spines on the ambulacral plates; arms usually triangular or tapering to a blunt tip; carina I rows of tubercles not conscipicously enlarged ...... Genus: Anthenea Armament of the distal plates not dissimilar to that of the other abactinalm plates, though the tubercles may be somewhat enlarged and more numerous than proximally; primary aboral tubercle stout, flat-topped and widely spaced with more than one tubercle ....... Anthenea tuberculosa 42 Form massive, adults with major radius often well in excess of lOOmm, interradial areas extensive, the arms tapering and stellate or short, body almost flat below but usually markedly convex above, often highest at the five primary radial plates which may each be crowned by a high conical prominence, marginal plates well developed but not very conscipicous in aboral view ........ Family: Oreasteridae Marginal plates concealed by thickened skin, some enlarge tubercles present on the upper side, pore areas usually rather irregular and sometimes indistinct or more or less continuous ....................................... Genus: Culcita A distinct pore free area at least towards the lower side at the margins as well as more or less extensive reticular areas on the upper side, though some of the pore areas may be somewhat confluent, some larger, usually spaced tubercles often also present, No spines or spinelets on the pore areas ........................ Culcita schemideliana Actinal granulation including more or less numerous coarse, often polygonal granules, often in groups but generally with some fine granules among the coarse ones, pores area somewhat irregular and often only narrowly or incompletely separated ................... Culcita noveguineae At least the distal marginal plates and the convex part of the larger abactinal plates covered with asmooth plastering of unequal polygonal flattened granules, dorso lateral areas of the arms rarely with any convexities ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... Genus: Protoreaster A few of the distal supero-marginal plates bearing laterally projecting, usually conscipicous, tapering spines or at least knobs ................................ Protoreaster lincki Disc markedly elevated, some of the carina I plates with very conscipicous, more or less high, rounded or conical elevations, particularly huge on the five primary radial plates, the consecutive carinal tubercles usually 43 spaced from each other and not broadened; pore areas confluent ....................................... .. Protoreaster nodosus Only the primary plates of the upper side with elevations and these tending to form regular longitudinal series; pore-areas usually well defined ......... Genus: Pentaceraster No spines on the first two or four supero-marginal pIa tes in each interradial angle; some of the interradial superomarginals with spines; dorso-Iateral elevations or spines developed along the arms ............ Pentaceraster regulus The distalmost supero marginals not conscipicously different from the other marginal plates, arms usually well developed but some genera stellate or even pentagonal or circular in outline ................................ Genus: Choriaster Entire surface covered by opaque smooth skin, interrupted only by the rela tively small adam bulacral spines and the popular areas, arms well-developed but short and broadly rounded at the tip ............ Chorister granulatus Edge of the body defined by the two series of marginal plates, the supero-marginals sometimes smaller than the infero-marginals but always conscipicously different from the paxillae ................................ Family: Astropectinidae Periphery fringed with conscipicous large spines ......................................................... Genus: Astropecten Arms more or less blunt at the tip, the paxillar areas ending abruptly; ventral sides of the infero-marginal plates usually with few spines among the small rounded scales, sometimes only on the interradial plates .............. . ........................................................... Astropecten indicus Supero-marginal plates relatively narrow, the paxillar area at the base of the arm distinctly more than half the total arm breadth, usually abut two-thirds; ventral side od the infero-marginal superficially appearing very smooth, 44 being covered with short, rounded more or less apressed squamules .............................. Astropecten monacanthus Body with cylindrical arms or sometimes cushion like rounded ventro- laterally; aboral skeleton usually reticular with relatively large space between the plates often small. ...................................... Family: Asteropsidae Body covered with smooth skin obscuring the nonimbricating oval or circular abactinal plates which are nearly all quite naked, though bearing crystal-bodies embedded in their surface; the edge of the body formed by supero marginal plates with prominent conical single . Ast OO 01'. spInes.............................................. ･ｲｯｰｳｾ＠ ｣｡ｲｾｮＱ＠ era Armament predominantly granuliform, usually continuous, though sometimes increasing in size or modified into tubercles, basal as well as distal marginals bearing granules, intermarginal plates present and then only basally ....................... Family: Ophidiasteridae Plates rounded and completely granule-covered, not markedly swollen, pores in groups, rarely occurring on the lower side .................................................... Genus: Linckia Subambulacral spines are in two series, those of each plate contiguous with each other and with the furrow spines but aligned slightly obliquely so as to give a herring bone pattern to the underside of each arm ...................... .. ..... ...... ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ........ Linckia guildingi Subambulacral spines or tubercles very low and surrounded by the granulation, usually only a single series present, granules extending down between the furrow spines, especially numerous in large specimens, arms normally five in number and madreporite single. Arms fairly stout and blunt at the tips, body colour blue . ............................................................... Linckia laevigata Arms often irregular in length and number, normally two madreporites; Arms more slender and attenuated 45 towards the tips; colour in life often variegated, purpulish, reddish, brownish or khaki coloured with yellowish, sometimes more nearly uniform ........... Lincki multifora Papular pores present on the oral side, no pores in the infero-marginals, pores single, form more or less flattened, the marginals usually defining the edge of the body ........ . ...................................................................... Genus: Fromia Carinal plates not conspicuously enlarged and widely separated from the supero-marginals. Denuded plates with bumpy surface due to embedded crystal bodies, actinal pores few or absent on the disc, abactinal granulation is very fine .................................................... Fromia monilis Abactinal plates markedly unequal in size, usually two longitudinal series of distinctly enlarged plates on each arm ..................................................... Fromia indica Tube feet tapering to a rounded or conical knob, no terminal disc; tube feet cylindrical and with a terminal disc; edge of the body defined by the large infero- marginal plates alone, the supero-marginals indistinguishable from the paxillae ............................................. Family: Ludiidae No large bivalve pedicillarie at the apics of the jaws close to the mouth; most of the arm breath taken up by the larger, quadrangular lateral paxillae, upto five longitudinal rows of which each side also tend to form transverse rows, often many of these bearing single enlarged spines ............................................ Genus: Luidia No conscipicous single paxillar spines, though the smaller proximal paxillae may have alarge blunt central spinelet about twice as high as the peripheral spinelets; some or many ofthe lateral paxillae armed with large sharp single spines; seven to nine arms ........ Luidia maculata Ten to twenty arms and numerous madreporites, aboral armament consisting of large conical isolated 46 spines mounted singly on stalklike pedicle ...................... .. ................................................... Family: Acanthasteridae Usually five to six arms and only one madreporite, sometimes two. Armament variable but if conical spines are present then these are mounted only von low eminences ......................................... Genus: Acanthaster Aboral spines are long and conscipicous, commonly 15-30mm, long when major radius exceeds 100mm, Pedicellariae slender ........................ Acanthaster planci Conscipicous marginal plates forming a broad vertical edge to the arm usually wanting, Aboral skeleton reticulate or imbricate, tubefeet in two rows with suckers, Pedicellariae rarely present.. ............. Order: Spinulosida No enveloping aboral granulation, Spines sometimes conscipicous but more often diminutive, adambulacral spines few, usually about 3 in number .............................. . ...................................................... Family: Echinasteridae Skeletal reticulum irregular aborally, no well defined longitudinal and transverse series of plates ...................... . ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ...... ........ Genus: Echinaster Five or six rays, occasionally seven, autonomous with single separated arms regenerating to produce comet forms but apparently not fissparous, arms slender and cylindrical, often relatively long ....................... Echinaster luzonicus Class: OPHIUROIDEA No dorsal process of the arm bases, both tooth papillae and oral papillae present, the former usually numerous but occasionally few ..................... Family: Ophiocomidae Disc covered, at least dorsally, with a dense coat of rounded granules, the marginal ones either similarly spherical or else very slightly elongated ............................ . ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ...... ...... ....... Genus: Ophiocoma 47 Colour uniformly dark, above and below, Two tentacles scales, Colour paler on the underside, variegated or sometime uniformly dark above ..... Ophiocoma erinaceus Colour of the disc either uniformly dark or variegated, reticulated or spotted with dark markings ........................ . ...................................................... ...... Ophiocoma dentata Disc granulation coarse, 3-6 granules/mm. length; uppermost arm spines usually thickened and cigar sha ped or cylindrical, rarelytapering ..... Ophiocoma scolopendrina Disc completely naked, uppermost spines similar to each other, none abruptly and markedly clavate though some spines may be slightly so ...... Genus: Ophiarthrum Disc beautifully patterned with grey, yellow and white, at least in life, Arms with a dusky longitudinal stripe dorsally ................................ Ophiarthrum pictum No oral papillae, each jaw crowded with a more or less compact cluster of apical tooth papillae .................... .. ..................................................... .Family: Ophiotrichidae Radial shields with some or many thorny granules or short stumps similar to, but shorter than, the stumps on the rest of the rather puffy disc, which completely obscure the countless underlying scales, Arm spines usually transparent .................................. Genus: Macrophiothrix Longer arm spines with the sides parallel or only slightly divers gent distally and finely thorny for most of their length, not at al clavate, Radial shields granules covered; colouration spotted .............. Macrophiothrix longipeda Ventral arm plates hexagonal, narrower at the proximal end, the distal edge slightly concave .................. . .............................................. Macrophiothrix propinqua Disc densely granulated, also the oral plates, sometimes even the oral and adoral shields .................... .. ................................................... Family: Ophidermatidae 48 Arms spines long and flaring, all of them easily exceeding the segment in length; apical oral papillae sometimes rather irregular, stimulating the tooth papillae of ophiocomids, though much numerous .................. Genus: Ophiarachna Arms spines four, rarely five basally; size very large, colour in life including extensive areas of uniform green, becoming yellow or buff in preservation and running along the arms above and below, contrasting with interradial areas of black -ringed light sports forming a reticula tion and with the annulated arm spines ............. Ophiarachna incrassata Class: ECHINOIDEA Primary spines large, widely separated, contrasting markedly with numerous, small secondary spines .......... .. ................................................................. Order: Cidaroida Interambulacral plates high, each with a single massive primary spine, usually ringed by much smaller, often spatulate secondary spine, ambulacral plates simple so that the pore-pairs form single vertical series, sometimes sinuous ................................ Family: Cidaridae In the apical system the ocular plates usually nearly all insert, large globiferous Pedicellariae usually with a limb or frill of rods on the stalk close to the head ............ . .......................................................... Genus: Prionocidaris Primary spines distinctly verticillate, with three or four spaced complete thorny whorls along their lengths .. ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ..... Prionocidaris verticillata Test very flexible, in life more or less hemispherical in shape but usually collapsing into a flat pancake on preservation ......................................... Family: Arbaciidae The ambulacral and interambulacral tubercles developed throughout the adapical and adoral sides ......... .................................................................... Genus: Arbacia 49 Plates of abactinal system and upper interambulacral plates coarsely granular, not marked with deep red in contrast with the ground colour .................... Arbacia punctulata Epiphysis of the Aristotle's lantern not fused across the top of each pyramid, Spines lack a cortex and are solid or provided with a narrow lumen ...... Order: Diadematoida Primary tubercles perforate and often also crenulate, Spines usually hollow, long, cylindrical and very slender and breakable ................................ Family: Diadematidae Ambulacral spines of the aboral side very fine and needle like with backwardly-directed barbs near the tip, contrasting with the other spines ..... Genus: Echinothrix Ambulacra distinctly bulging aborally, with naked interambulacral areas between them apically, Naked test usually greenish in colour ...... .... Echinothrix calamaris Ambulacra not distinctly bulging and no naked interambulacral areas aborally, Cavity of primary spines very small, their surface with fine longitudinal ridges only , No green colour on the naked test ............................ . ........................................................ Echinothrix diadema No spines on the buccal plates, no globiferous pedicellariae ............................................ Genus: Diadema Large tridentate pedicellariae mostly with narrow blades only meeting at the tip, A red ring around the anus ...................................................... Diadema setosum Tridentate pedicellariae leaf or spoon shaped, tapering slightly to the rounded distal end ...... Diadema savignyi Spines are solid with or without cortex teeth unkeeled .................................... Order: Phymosomatoida Stirodonts with: apical disc hemicyclic; pore-pairs in strongly offset arcs at ambitus and adapically; Primary tubercles imperforate and non-crenulate .......................... .. ...................................................... Family: Stomechinidae 50 No complete bridges across the V-shaped space at the upper end of each of the five pyramids forming frame of the Aristotle's lantern, Ambulacral plates doubly compound so that at the ambitus one very large tubercle correspondence to three to six arcs each of three pore pairs ....................................... Stomopneustus variolaris Epiphysis of the Aristotle's lantern not fused across the top of each pyramid ............ Order: Temnopleuroida Tubercles usually crenulate; test usually with distinct pits, troughs or pores at the angles of the sutures, or the pIa tes more extensively sculpture ..... Family: Temnopleuridae Crenulations conscipicous, Pore pairs more or less distinctly in arcs of three .............. Genus: Temnopleurus Spines not banded but often greenish basally becoming purple distantly, or else uniform in colour- green, purple or white ..................................... Temnopleurus alexendri Tubercles distinctly crenulate, pores distinct; no extensive bare areas on the test.. .......... Genus: Salmacis Base of spines green ...................... ...... Salmacis belli Ten conspicuous abruptly spineless vertical areas on the test covered with extremely numerous globiferous pedicellariae, forming a dense carpet, their valves with the blades bearing two or three lateral teeth each side .... ...... ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ...... ...... ...Mespila globulus Globiferous pedicellariae less conscipicously developed the blade fairly narrow and bearing not more than one lateral tooth each side, tubercles indistinctly crenulate; sutural pores very small and inconscipicous; naked areas conspicuous aborally ........................ Genus: Macrocyphus Test patterned with olive-green; spines banded with reddish brown and white ......... Microcyphus ceylanicus Gill slits sharps and deep, test circular or pentagonal, as viewed from above ............... Family: Toxopneustidae 51 Globiferous pedicillarie not enlarged but inconscipicous; only one in three or four ambulacral plates with a primary tubercle; test high almost globular; porepairsin horizontal arcs and spaced to form three distinct vertical series in larger specimens; preserved material often with a conscipicous dark vertical stripe down each inter ambulacrum contrasting with the light ambulacral areas and white spines .................... Tripneustes gratilla Lantern and teeth present throughout life; test usually more or less flattened with a low sometimes acute margine, rarely the test ovate ...................... Order: Clypeasteroda PIa tes of the petals all alike and running across half the width of the petal; aboral miliary spines ending in a crown or a glandular bag; five genital pores; periproct below the margin ........................ Family: Clypeasteridae No interradial projections around the peristome ........ ................................................................ Genus: Clypeaster Generally smaller; test flat orally; frontal petals closed .................................................. Clypeaster humilis Test always very flat and perforated by two or more lunules; a pair of interambulacral plates heading the double series apically, miliary spines ending in a glandular bag ................................................. Family: Astriclypeidae Only two lunules, situates in the posterior paired ambulacra ......................................... Genus: Echinodiscus Lunules open distally ............. Echinodiscus auritus Primary and secondary spines not markedly contrasting in size .................................. Order: Echinoida Shape either circular or more or less ovate, Periproct with multiple plates; globiferous pedicellariae with an unpaired lateral tooth .............. Family: Echinometridae Test usually ovaL ..................... Genus: Echinometra 52 Long aXIS of the test through ambulacrum I and interambulacrum 3, Spines slender and acute, Usually only pore-pairs per arc aborally ........... Echinometra mathaei Long axis; primary spine often massive and either very long or truncated and very short, but even if they are slender then the lower ones are more or less flattened and some are angular, Eight or more pore-pairs per arc aborally .......................................... Echinometra oblonga Primary spines massive, all either rounded and are very thick but somewhat flattened towards the tip, or triangular in cross section and slightly tapering .............. . ...................................................... Genus: Heterocentrotus Usually 15-16 pore-pairs in each arc at the ambital region, primary ambulacral tubercles gradually decreasing in size aborally and their spines correspondingly only gradually shorter and not truncated .................................. . ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ........ Heterocentrotus trigonarius Class: HOLOTHUROIDEA Podia (Pedicels and papillae) present, body usually stout, body wall more or less thick and muscular, usually 1-15mm thick, dominant spicules in the form of tables, perforated plates, buttons, cups, rods or rosettes present in the body wall .......................... Order: Aspidochirotida Gonads in a single tuft to the left of the dorsal mesentery, Spicules diverse in form and combination, 'S' or 'C' shaped rods not present ..... Family: Holothuriidae Spicules: tables nearly always present buttons, rods, perforated plates and rosettes present or absent, minute dichotomously branched or lobed rods rarely present and if so then only in combination with tables,Anus guarded by five calcified papillae, 20-30 tentacles ...... Genus: Actinopyga Colour completely black ........... Actinopyga miliaris 53 Colours brown or brown and white, Colour brown on upper side and white on lower side; often found near low water mark ................................ Actinopyga mauritiana Colour completely brown with often sand deposits on upper side of the body, mostly found din deeper waters ... ......................................................... .Actinopyga echinites Body colour: light grey or brown; Spicules composed of small rods ....................................... Actinopyga lacanora No calcified anal teeth present though five groups of papillae may be evident, presence of 20 tentacles ............ . ..... ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ...... Genus: Bohadschia Colour black or brown with distinct eye like spots all over the body ....................................... Bohadschia argus Colour variable, usually light brown with black spots ................................................. ... Bohadschia marmorata Body colour: pale cream with brown speckling and low papillae, spicules resemble a somewhat tack-like bundle of spinose rods described as racquet-like .......................... .. .......................................................... .Bohadschia graeffei Spicules: variously developed and III varIOUS combinations,Calcareous ring never ribbon-like, radial plates either as long as broad or longer, intertidal plates usually half as long as broad but never curved, Body wall variously developed often rather thick. Body form showing a wide range but pedicles usually irregularly arranged on a more or less flattened ventral 'sole' and papillae irregularly arranged on the arched dorsal surface .......... .. ............................................................... Genus: Holothuria Body tubular, body wall not very thick. No lateral projections in the living condition, Body completely black in colour, red colour comes off when live specimens are handled .................................................... Holothuria atra 54 Yellow transverse band on the upper side of the body, lower side white with a number of black dots .................. . ..... ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ...... .Holothuria scabra Body like a loaf with very thick body wall. In the living condition about six pairs of lateral teat-like projections are seen, Body with black or white patches .................... .. ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ...... ...... ...... .Holothuria nobilis Buttons of the spicules have large holes, In the spicules tables stout with a cluster of short spines at the top fugitive form skin sandy to touch ........ ...... Holothuria impatiens Spicules: tables not stout and with a few spines at the top skin smooth and soft, fugitive form ....... Holothuria hilla Spicules: buttons with small holes burrowing form with often red spots ...................... Holothuria arenicola Body large and snake like, Spicules: tables with complete or incomplete discs often reduced to four holes, buttons may sometimes be asymmetrical, tentacles- 20 ... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ...... ... Holothuria leucospilota Tentacles large, sub-globose when fully expanded. Pedicles arranged in three rows. Papillae irregular, Spicules: tables and rods present, Rods simple and granulated ............................... ... Holothuria cinerascens Body colour pink with varying degrees of black pigment, numerous pedicles on the ventral side, Spicules: Tables and buttons present, discs of tables is narrower than the top of the spire ..................... Holothuria edulis Body colour brownish pink with some of the tubercles blackish brown, Spicules consist of only tables in the body wall ..................................................... .... Holothuria pyxis Papillae scattered on the dorsal side, Cuvierian tubules are thick, Body colour brown with 5-7 honey coloured transverse bands of different widths. Spicules: 55 incomplete and oblong rods with lateral projections resembling narrow rosettes, tables sub circular ................ . ..... ...... ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ... Holothuria pervicax Body colour brownish black with grey ventral side, Cuvierian tubules large. Button has two narrow slit-like holes and one or two pairs of minute holes at each end .. ..... ...... ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ... Holothuria fuscocinerea Body colour black with white papillae, Spicules include spinose 'cup and saucer' tables and rosettes ............................................. Holothuria coluber Spicules: rods only, usually dichotomously branched or lobed, tables and buttons never present, Calcareous ring very stout, both radial and interradial plates with their anterior margin scalloped and sometimes with their suture indistinct, radial plates usually about twice as large as the interradials and possessing median anterior ampullary notch, Tentacles: 20-30, Body wall very thick and muscular, usually about 5mm. thick, pedicels and papillae small and numerous, indistinguishable from each other, scattered ventrally and dorsally .......... Family: Labidodematidae Spicules: tables scattered, variously developed, either with disc reduced and spire low and ending in a row of spines or else disc well developed and spinose, with spire of moderate height and usually very spinose, Buttons when present very smooth and irregular, often incomplete or deformed and suggesting clumsy 'C' shaped body, Body cylindrical or vermiform with pedicels and papillae confined to the five ambulacral areas, size moderate, Cancerous ring ribbon like, radial plates usually shorter than broad, intertidal plates also shorter than broad tending to be curved ...................... Genus: Labidodemas White, almost translucent sea cucumber, with yellow tube feet and a dark posterior end, Spicules are spinose tables and sometimes buttons and rods .............. .. ............................................. Labidodemas semperianum 56 Gonads in two tufts, one each side of the dorsal mesentery, Spicules: primarily tables, branched rods and 'S' or 'C' shaped rods, the latter very rarely absent, or slender dichotomously branched rods, buttons rarely, if ever, present ............................... Family: Stichopodidae Spicules reduced: grains and dichotomously- branched rods, pedicles crowded ventrally, papillae resembling large leaf shaped structures dorsally ............. Genus: Thelenota Very massive form with numerous large pointed teats in groups of two or three all over the upper surface ........ .............................................................. Thelenota ananas Spicules: tables, branched rods and Sand C shaped rods (the latter absent only in some growth stages of Stichopus horrens, H.L.Clark, 1922) buttons rare ............ . ..... ....... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ....... ...... .... Genus: Stichopus Body quadrangular with four rows of large finger like processes, Body colour dark green, appearing almost black in some shades of light.. ............. Stichopus chloronatus Body massive and loaf-like with irregular brown patches on yellow grey background ............ Stichopus variegatus Body colour grey to green-black with dark patches, smooth tegument but large and irregular papillae, Spicules are tables and large "C" bodies .......... Stichopus horrens The body wider in the middle, tapering at both ends, covered with a bright smooth skin, upper surface uniformly brown, zigzag bands at all over the body, spicules consists of tables, branched rods and'S' and 'C' shaped rods ......... ................................................................. Stichopus vastus Tentacles bush ortree shaped, dendritic. Anterior end in the form of a thin walled introvert capable of retraction by special muscles ...................... Order: Dendrochirotida 57 Body cylindrical or fusiform, without a well defined ventral 'sole', no conscipicous dorsal plates, Mouth and anus terminal in position, Tentacles 10 ............................ . ....................................................... .Family: Cucumariidae Spicules: small nodular buttons with few holes, usually four, sometimes larger perforated plates present . ........................................................................ Genus: Stolus Body colour dark, purple-black and brown or grey colour, Spicules: small nodular buttons .............. Stolus buccalis Podia absent, though warty prominences may be present, Body either vermiform, body wall thin, thick or less often translucent, with smooth, rough or warty surface, or body stout and sausage-shaped with a caudal appendage ................................................ Order: Apodida Spicules: anchors and anchor-plates, rods and granules, never wheels or sigmoid particles, rarely spicules wanting, Tentacles pinnate or digitate ............ Family: Synaptidae Anchor-plates not abruptly contracted at the posterior end but with a large hole on each side, Calcareous ring without conscipicous anterior projections, Stone canals always few in number (one to three) ..................... Genus: Euapta Body colour: mottled cream-white with grey, spicules are anchors with tiny knobs on the vertex and pIa tes with large posterior holes .................. .Euapta godeffroyi Spicules: characteristically large, Anchor plates sub rectangular or irregular broad posterior with numerous smooth holes .............................................. Genus: Synapta Tentacles- 15; Body colour: (brown-yellow) with broad longitu dinal stripes and large dark patches .................... . ...................................................... ........ Synapta maculata 58 7. DESCRIPTIONS Class CRINOIDEA Miller, 1821 59 Order : COMATULIDA A. H. Clark, 1908 Family: COMASTERIDAE Clark, 1908 Genus : Comanthus 1. Comanthus parvicirrus (Muller, 1841) Description: Cirri are very short in size. It is discontinuously arranged around the edge of the centrodorsal and their distal segments only slightly shorter than the proximal ones. Arms are 10-63 in number. Cirri are formed with 11-16 segments. Distal segments bear a sharp aboral transverse bar or tubercle. Centrodorsal are small in size discoidal in shape. Radials are easily visible. Colour: Brownish black. Habitat: Benthic, inshore in habitat and this species is suspension feeder. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Eastern Mrica, Madagascar, Fiji, Great Barrier Reef, Indonesia, Marion Reef, Mascarene Basin, Mozambique, New Caledonia, Palau, Philippines, Seychelles, South China Sea, South Japan, Thailand Exclusive Economic Zone, Tongan Exclusive Economic Zone and West Indian Ocean. Comanthus parvicirrus (Muller, 1841) 60 I Genus : Comanthina I 2. Comanthina nobilis (P.R. Carpanter, 1884) Description: Central disc and proximal portion of arms have black spots. Tips of pinnules are yellow in colour. Cirri are 0-5 in number. Proximal aboral surface is heavily plated and smooth. Arms are 50-140 in number. Combs of pinnules arising from brachials often with one tooth per segment. Colour: Body is uniformly black in colour. Habitat: It is found over 8m depth ranging up to 92m. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: Coral Sea, Great Barrier Reef, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Caledonia, Philippines and Sri Lanka. Comanthina nobilis (P.H.Carpanter, 1884) 61 I Genus : Com aster 3. Comaster schlegeli (P.R. Carpanter, 1881) Description: This species bears 9-33 cirri which consist of 11-17 segments. Proximal aboral area is relatively smooth. Radial plates are narrowly visible. Arms are 1090 in number. Brachial pinnules (except possibly PI) with a pair of more or less equally sized teeth. Colour: Body colour- Grey. Habitat: Found over 5 m depth. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar; Elsewhere: Fiji, Indonesia, Japan and Kerama Group. Comaster schlegeli (P.H.Carpanter, 1881) 62 4. Comaster multibrachiata (P.R. Carpanter, 1888) Description: Cirri are 21-50 in number. Each cirrus is of 12-15 segments. Arms are more than 100 in number with a maxiumum of 170. Colour: Body colour is blue with orange colour tips of the pinnules. Habitat: It is found on reefs at variable depth. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: East Indies, China, South Japan and Philippines. Comaster multibrachiata (P.R. Carpanter, 1888) 63 I Genus Oxycomanthus I 5. Oxycomanthus bennetti (Muller, 1841) Description: Arms are 31-120 in number. Anterior arms not markedly longer than posterior arms. Cirri consist of 23-35 segments (usually 25-29) and these segments usually as broad as long and without aboral processes. Centrodorsal is large and thick, covering radials. Colour: Uniformly yellow in colour. Habitat: This species is commonly found below 5m depth. It mainly occurs on live coral specimen. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: East Indies, North Australia, Philippine, China, south Japan and South Pacific Islands. Oxycomanthus bennetti (Muller, 1841) 64 Family: HIMEROMETRIDAE Genus : Himerometra 6. Himerometra robustipinna (P.R. Carpanter, 1912) Description: This species have stout, enlarged proximal pinnules that taper rapidly or gradually to the tip. Almost all segments are broader than long with 20-42 in numbers. The distal end of the segments is unmodified or swollen, but never spinous. Distal edges of proximal brachial smooth or slightly produced. Arms 33-52 up to 200 mm long. Colour: Grey to white in colour. Habitat: Found with the reefs. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: Ashmore Reef, China, China Sea, East Indies, Great Barrier Reef, Indonesia, Japan, Lady Musgrave Island,North Australia, Northern Territory, Okinawa, Philippines, South China Sea, South Japan, South Pacific and Sri Lanka. Himerometra robustipinna (P.H. Carpanter, 1912) 65 Family: MARIAMETRIDAE Genus : Heterometra 7. Heterometra philiberti (Muller, 1849) Description: Arms are more than 20 in number. The proximal pinnules are distinctly modified with a strong crest or the segments have flared or spinose distal ends. Colour: It is usually brown in colour. Sometimes it can be seen in the form of brown-black specimen. Habitat: Found in the rocky areas of reef slopes. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: East Indies. Heterometra philiberti (Muller, 1849), 66 8. Heterometra crenulata (P.R. Carpenter, 1882) Description: Proximal pinnules are large and strongly triangular in cross section, strongly serrate in profile. Outer portion of prismatic ridge on each segment raised into conspicuous broad rounded triangular processes. Distal cirrus segments occur with distinct dorsal spines or tubercles. Colour: Body colour Red with white ridges in arms. Habitat: Found in the reef slopes. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: Cambodia, China, Double Island Point, East Indies, Indonesia, Maldives, Monte Bello Islands, North Australia, Philippines, Queensland, Singapore, South Japan, Vietnam and West Australia. Remark: New record to Andaman and Nicobar Islands reported from Pongibalu, South Andaman. Heterometra crenulata (P.R. Carpanter, 1882) 67 I Genus: Amphimetra I 9. Amphimetra molleri (AH. Clark, 1908) Description: Usually 10 arms are present and rarely more than 10 arms are found. Cirri are stout, curved and formed of 24-50 short sub equal segments. First aboral spine appears proximal to 8th cirrus. Arms are 150mm in size. Outer pinnules are 18-21 in number. Colour: Black in colour. Habitat: Mainly found on shoreline to 50m depth range. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Gulf of Mannar; Elsewhere: China, East Indies, Greater Sunda Islands, Gulf of Thailand, Maldives, Philippines, South Japan and Sri Lanka. Remark: New record to Andaman and Nicobar Islands Amphimetra molleri (AH.Clark, 1908) 68 I Genus: Lamprometral 10. Lamprometra palmata (Muller, 1841) Description: Second interradial arm is stout or distinctly carinate basally and has the largest proximal pinnule. Arms more than 140 in number. This species is commonly distributed in tropical Indo-Pacific Ocean. Colour: Arms greenish black in colour with white patches Habitat: Benthic, inshore, continental suspension feeder. Depth range: 0-51m shelf, Distribution: India: Gulf of Mannar, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Karwar Coast; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Eastern Africa, Madagascar, Red Sea and Tanzania. Lamprometra palmata (Muller, 1841) 69 Family: COLOBOMETRIDAE Genus : Cenometra 11. Cenometra bella (Hartlaub, 1890) Description: Outer pinnules (2) are very stout, stiff and erect or even recurved over the disc. Arms are more than 10 in number. Basal segments of none of the proximal pinnules carinates. A simple keel on the bases of the proximal pinnules forms rounded edge. Colour: Central ridge of the arm is white and pinnules are dark red in colour. Habitat: Commonly found below 5m depths and it lives with the association of encrusting and massive coral speCIes. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: East Indies, Philippines, China, South Japan and South Pacific Islands. Remark: New report from India. Cenometra bella (Hartlaub, 1890) 70 12. Cenometra emendatrix (Bell, 1892) Description: The Basal segments of the proximal pinnules have knob-like rounded process that forms a crest along the edge. Arms are 10 in number. Colour: Dark red in colour Habitat: It occurs in Littoral to 55m depths. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Seychelles and West Indian Ocean. Remark: New record to India reported from Rutland Island, South Andaman. Cenometra emendatrix (Bell, 1892) 71 I Genus Oligometra I 13. Oligometra serripinna (P.R. Carpanter, 1881) Description: Pinnules are variable in form with most segments as long as, or longer than, broad, either simply prismatic with only the dorsal keel well developed or the segments more or less flared at the distal ends on the angels of the longitudinal ridges, with spinose process, so that the profile of the pinnule is more or less serrated. Colour: Uniformly white in colour with reddish patches throughout the body. Habitat: Depth range 0-91m. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep and Andhra Pradesh coast; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Eastern Africa, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Red Sea, Seychelles, West Indian Ocean. Oligometra serripinna (P.R. Carpanter, 1881) 72 Family: PONTIOMETRIDAE Genus : Pontiometra 14. Pontiometra andersoni (P.R. Carpanter, 1889) Description: Middle and distal cirrus segments are attached with a pair of dorsal spines or tubercles that situated one each side of the mid-line. Arms are 53-120 in number. Cirri are composed of 41-80 segments. Colour: Uniformly red in colour. Habitat: Depth range 0-91m. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: East Indies, Philippines, China, South Japan, South Pacific Island. Pontiometra andersoni (P.R. Carpanter, 1889) 73 Class: ASTEROIDEA de Bklainville, 1830 74 Order : VALVATIDA Perrier, 1884 Family : ASTERINIDAE Genus : Asterina 15. Asterina sarasini (de Loriol, 1897) Description: Body is usually stellate and pentagonal. The margin of the periphery is thin and pliable. Abactinal armament is composed of fine minute hyaline spinelets. Body is markedly flattened and the petaloid radial popular areas are linked only to the area in the centre of the disc. Colour: Mter preservation the speCImen becomes white in colour. Live specimens are uniformly grey or variegated colour. Habitat: This species is commonly found in intertidal rocky areas and shallow reef areas. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Gulf of Mannar; Elsewhere: Ceylon. Asterina sarasini (de Loriol, 1897) from left to right ventral and dorsal 75 Family: GONIASTERIDAE Forbes, 1841 Genus : Stellaster 16. Stellaster equestris (Retzius, 1805) Description: Arms are slender and long. Granules around the papulae are usually similar to the rest. Radial areas on the upper side are distinctly convex. Only single infer-marginal spine is present. Body Colour: Live specimens are white or grey colour. III Habitat: Rocky shore areas, benthic, sometimes found in shallow reef environments. Distribution: India: Gulf of Mannar, Andaman Islands and West Bengal: Digha; Elsewhere: East Mrica, Madagascar, Red Sea, S.E Arabia, Persian Gulf, Ceylon, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, China and South Japan. Stellaster equestris (Retzius, 1805) 76 Family : OREASTERIDAE Genus : Culcita 17. Culcita noveguineae (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Common name: Pin Cushion Sea Star Description: Actinal plates have polygonal granules and granulation forms more or less numerous coarse. Pores area is somewhat irregular and often only narrowly or in completely separated. It is common in reef flats at low tide and also inhabits in deeper waters to 30m. Colour: Body colour is light greenish black. Habitat: It feed on a variety of organism including algae, bottom detritus and the polyps and some flesh of corals. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Persian Gulf, East Indies, Philippines, Northern Australia, China, South Japan and South Pacific Island. Culcita noveguineae (Muller and Troschel, 1842) from left to right dorsal and ventral 77 18. Culcita schmideliana (Retzius, 1805) Description: Presence of a distinct pore free area at least towards the lower side at the margins as well as more or less extensive reticular areas on the upper side. Some of the pore areas may be somewhat confluent. Some pores are larger in size. Spaced tubercles often also present. There are no spines or spinelets on the pore areas. Colour: Body colour is dark grey with small irregular pink patches mostly adjacent to black tubercles. Madreporite is some shade of orange being the same colour as the intertubercular areas at the arm tips. Habitat: It is commonly found in the Indo-Pacific region. No spines or spinelets are present on the pore areas. It mainly occurs in benthic, inshore and continental shelf area. Depth range: 0-92m. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Madagascar, Maldives and Ceylon. Culcita schmideliana (Retzius, 1805) from left to right dorsal and ventral 78 I Genus : Choriaster 19. Choriaster granulatus (Lutken, 1869) Description: Body surface is entirely covered by opaque smooth skin. The skin is often formed with relatively small ambulacral spines. The pore areas and arms are well-developed but short and broadly rounded at the tip. Colour: Body is uniformly red in colour. Habitat: It is usually found at the reef slopes. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: East Africa, New Caledonia ,Palau Islands, Red Sea, Seychelles, Sulawesi and West Indian Ocean. Choriaster granulatus (Lutken, 1869) from left to right dorsal and ventral 79 I Genus : Anthenea 20. Anthenea tuberculosa (Gray, 1847) Description: Ambulacral plates consist of three series of spines. Armament of the distal plates is more or less similar to the abactinal plates. Primary aboral tubercle is stout, fiat-topped and widely spaced with more than one tubercle. Colour: Body colour is white. Habitat: It is found in the sandy area. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands and Orissa coast; Elsewhere: South Japan Anthenea tuberculosa (Gray, 1847) 80 I Genus : Protoreaster 21. Protoreaster lincki (Blainville, 1830) Description: Furrow spines are white with pink tube feet. The distal marginal plates and the convex part of the larger abactinal plates are covered with a smooth plastering of unequal polygonal flattened granules. Dorso lateral areas of the arms are rarely with any convexities. A few of the distal supero-marginal plates laterally projected. Those are usually conscipicous. The tapering spines look like knobs. Colour: Body Colour background. IS red on pink or grey Habitat: It is found almost all over the sandy-muddy areas of reef slopes. The deapth ranges from 1-10 m. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Gulf of Mannar; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Cargados Carajos, Eastern Mrica, Kenya, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Mozambique, Red Sea, Seychelles, Somalia, Tanzania and West Indian Ocean. Protoreaster lincki (Blainville, 1830) 81 I Genus : Protoreaster I 22. Protoreaster nodosus (Linneaus, 1758) Description: Disc is markedly elevated. Carinal plates are very conscipicous, more or less high, rounded or conical elevations. Ambulacral spines are white, tube feet pink with purple centre, particularly huge on the five primary radial plates, the consecutive carinal tubercles usually spaced from each other and not broadened; pore areas confluent. Colour: Tubercles are yellow with orange tips and papular areas blue-grey with paulae green. Remainder of aboral surface is deep green; marginals are pale yellow in colour. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: Cargados Carajos, Eastern Africa, Madagascar, Kenya, New Caledonia, Palau Islands, Seychelles, Tanzania and West Indian Ocean. Protoreaster nodosus (Linneaus, 1758) 82 I Genus : Pentaceraster I 23. Pentaceraster regulus (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Description: Primary plates of the upper side are elevated that tend to form regular longitudinal series. Pore-areas are usually well defined. Spines are absent on the first two or four supero-marginal plates in each interradial angle. Dorso-Iateral elevations or spines are developed along with the arms. Colour: Body colour is yellow with reddish spine on the upper side. Habitat: Usually found in sandy slopes of the marine water. Depth ranges 2-115. Distribution: India: Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep and Andman and Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: New Caledonia, Red Sea and West Indian Ocean. Pentaceraster regulus (Muller & Troschel, 1842) 83 Family: ASTEROPSIDAE Muller and Troschel, 1840 Genus : Asteropsis 24. Asteropsis carinifera (Lamarck, 1816) Description: Body covered with smooth skin obscuring the non-imbricating oval or circular abactinal plates which oval or circular in shapes which are nearly all quite naked. Crystal-bodies embedded in their surface, the edge of the body formed by supero marginal plates with prominent conical single spines. The carinal plates formed a mid radial ridge emphasized by a series of spines. Colour: Body colour pale grey with irregular greenish marking or sometimes uniformly grey in colour. Habitat: It is commonly found in sandy and rocky areas. Some times it can be seen under the coral reefs. Depth range: 0-15m. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Chagos, Eastern Mrica and Madagascar, Kenya, Mascarene Basin, Mozambique, New Caledonia, Red Sea, Seychelles and West Indian Ocean. Asteropsis carinifera -ventral 84 Asteropsis carinifera -dorsal Family : ACANTHASTERIDAE Genus : Acanthaster 25. Acanthaster planci (Linneaus, 1758) Description: This species usually bears 15 to 18 arms and usually more madreporite. Armament is variable but if conical spines are present then these are mounted only on low eminences. Aboral spines are long and conscipicous, commonly 15-30mm in size. Pedicellariae are slender. Colour: Body colour is blue with black large spines on the upper side. Habitat: It lives mainly with the association of coral beds and sometimes taking shelter under stones close to the live colonies. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Island, Lakshadweep; Elesewhere: Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Mrica, Madagascar, Red Sea, South East Arabia, Maldive area, Bay of Bengal, East Indies, Philippines, Northern Australia, China, South Japan, South Pacific Island and Hawaii. from left to right ventral and dorsal 85 Family: OPHIDIASTERIDAE Verrill, 1870 Genus : Fromia 26. Fromia monilis (Perrier, 1869) Description: Carinal plates are not large in size. It is widely separated from supero marginal. Actinal pores are few or absent. Abactinal granulation is very fine. This star is quite hard to the touch and its rigid skeleton does not allow it to be bent without breaking. Colour: The specimen is uniformly red in colour although some specimens may have solid red patches on the disc. Habitat: It occurs in shallow water lagoon areas among living coral reefs, and on channel slopes between reefs and on drop offs in moderately deep water. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: East Indies, Philippines, China, South Japan and South Pacific Islands. Fromia monilis (Perrier, 1869) -ventral 86 Fromia monilis (Perrier, 1869) -dorsal 27. Fromia indica (Perrier, 1869) Description: Abactinal plates are unequal III size. Each arm bears two longitudinal series of two distinctly enlarged plates. Papular pores are present on the oral side. Single pore forms more or less flattened marginals that usually define the edge of the body. Colour: It is reddish-brown in colour. Habitat: It is usually found on the rocky shores of reef areas. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Island, Lakshadweep and Gulf of Mannar; Elsewhere: Maldives, East Indies, Philippines, China, South Japan, South Pacific Island and Ceylon. Fromia indica (Perrier, 1869) 87 I Genus : Linckia 28. Linckia guildingi (Gray, 1840) Description: Plates are covered with granules and round in shape. Pores are present in groups. Subambulacral spines are in two series. Those of each ambulacral plate contiguous with each other and with the furrow spines but aligned slightly obliquely so as to give a herring-bone pattern to the underside of each arm. Colour: Body colour is uniformly brown. Habitat: This speCIes is commonly found III shallow water depths and inhabits in rocky reefs and rocky shore areas. Distribution: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands; EIswhere: Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Red Sea, Madagascar, Maldives, South East Arabia, Ceylon, Persian Gulf, East Indies, Philippines, Northern Australia, China, South Japan, South Pacific Island and Hawaii. India: Linckia guildingi (Gray, 1840) 88 29. Linckia laevigata (Linneaus, 1758) Description: Subambulacral spines are distinctly placed from furrow spines. Usually only a single series present, granules are extending down between the furrow spines, especially numerous in large specimens. Arms are normally five in number. Single madreporite is present. Arms fairly stout and blunt at the tips. Colour: Body colour is blue. Habitat: This species is commonly found in shallow water depths and inhabits in rocky reefs and rocky shore areas. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep and Gulf of Mannar. Elsewhere: Northern Australian reefs, Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Basin, East Africa and Madagascar, Maldives area, Ceylon, East Indies, Philippines, China, South Japan, South Pacific Island and Hawaii. Linckia laevigata (Linneaus, 1758) from left to right ventral and dorsal 89 30. Linckia multifora (Lamarck, 1816) Description: Arms are variable in length and number. Normally two madreporites are present. Arms are more slender and attenuated towards the tips. Colour: Body colour purplish, reddish, brownish coloured with yellow. Habitat: This sea star is much smaller and rarely occurs in the open on intertidal reef fiat. It is a very common species and is abundant at depths of 5-30m and is generally observed on bommies and underhangs. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep and Gulf of Mannar; Elsewhere: Maldives, Aldabra, Comores, Eastern Africa, Kenya, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Mozambique, Red Sea Seychelles, Somalia, South Mrica, Tanzaniaan and West Indian Ocean. Linckia multifora (Lamarck, 1816) 90 Order : SPINULOSIDA Perrier, 1884 Family : ECHINASTERIDAE Genus : Echinaster 31. Echinaster luzonicus (Gray, 1840) Description: Arms are five or six in number, sometimes 7 in number. Arms are slender, cylindrical and stellatae. Skeletal reticulum is placed aborally, longitudinal and transverse series of plates are not well defined. This species is commonly distributed in Indian Ocean region. Colour: Body colour is reddish brown, sometimes may be uniformly brown in colour. Habitat: It is found in shallow reef environments, usually below 3m depth. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Kachchh; Elsewhere: East Indies, Philippines, China, South Japan, South Pacific Island and Northern Australia. Echinaster luzonicus (Gray, 1840) from left to right dorsal and ventral 91 Order : PAXILLOSIDA Perrier, 1884 Family: ASTROPECTINIDAE Gray, 1840 Genus : Astropecten 32. Astropecten indicus (Doderlein, 1888) Description: It has pointed legs and with that many legs, the paxillar areas are ended abruptly. Ventral sides of the infero-marginal plates are usually with few spines among the small rounded scales. Sometimes spmes are also present on the interradial plates. Colour: Live specimens are white or grey in colour, sometimes with black patches on the upper side. Habitat: It lives in the sandy shore areas, or on dead corals. This species is a very good burrower and it is in this domain that it hunts for its preys. Distribution: India: Gujarat, Orissa, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Andaman and Nicobar islands; Elsewhere: South East Arabia, Persian gulf, Pakistan, Maldives, Ceylon and East Indies. Remark: 92 New record to Andaman and Nicobar Islands 33. Astropecten monacanthus(Sladen, 1883) Description: Peripheral margins of the body are fringed with conscipicous large spines. Supero-marginal plates are relatively narrow. The paxillar area at the base of the arm is more than half the total arm breadth. Actinal surface of the infero-marginal plates is very smooth and covered with short, rounded more or less apressed squamules. Colour: Body is purple or reddish yellow or light grey in colour. Habitat: This species are lying on the sand and feeds on sea shells. Distribution: India: Tamil Nadu, Orissa coast and Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: East Mrica, Eastern Mrica, Madagascar, Mozambique and Red Sea. Astropecten monacanthus (Sladen, 1883) 93 Family: LUIDIIDAE Verrill, 1899 Genus : Luidia 34. Luidia maculata (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Description: Large bivalve Pedicellariae are absent at the apics of the jaws close to the mouth. Single paxillar spines are absent though the smaller proximal paxillae may have a large blunt central spinelet about twice as high as the peripheral spinelets. Arms are seven to nine in number. Some or many of the lateral paxillae armed with large sharp single spines. Colour: Usually brown in colour, some times yellowish with black patches. Habitat: It is found in the depth of 1-10 m. Distribution: India: Gulf of Mannar, Gulf of Kachchh and Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: Western Indian Ocean, East Mrica, Madagascar, Persian Gulf, Maldives, Ceylon, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, China and South Japan. Luidia maculata (Muller & Troschel, 1842) 94 Class OPHIUROIDEA Gray, 1840 95 Order : OPHIURIDA Muller and Troschel, 1840 Family: OPHIOCOMIDAE Lyman, 1865 Genus : Ophiocoma 35. Ophiocoma erinaceus (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Description: Arm length up to 12 cm, disc diameter upto 20 mm. Spines on the arms is long, thick and shorter towards the tips. Disc scales are covered by rounded granules, extending into a V-shaped interradial area on the ventral side of the disc. Dorsal arm plates broader than long, narrower on one side. Arm spines alternating three and four for greater part of the arm length. Colour: Uniformly black in colour. Habitat: Sand and rubble in shallow areas and shallow sublittoral among coral; coral reef, beacon reef. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep and Gulf of Mannar; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Chagos, Comores, Eastern Africa, Madagascar, Kenya, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Mozambique, Red Sea, Seychelles, ｾｉ ｴＡ ｾ ｾ＠ Somalia, South Mrica, Tanzania ｾ Ａｓ ｾ＠ and West Indian Ocean. Ophiocoma erinaceus (Muller & Troschel, 1842) 96 36. Ophiocoma dentata (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Description: Dorsal arm plates with a light border along the edges and sometimes form a light central region. Disc scales are with rounded granules, covering the radial shields. Dorsal arm plates broader than long, lateral angles rounded. Five arm spines, fiat, second from above longer than the breadth of the segment. Colour: Colour of the disc uniformly dark or variegated, reticulated or spotted with dark markings. Habitat: inshore. Benthic, Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands; Elsewhere: Eastern Africa, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mozambique, Red Sea and West Indian Ocean. Ophiocoma dentata (Muller & Troschel, 1842) -dorsal Ophiocoma dentata (Muller & Troschel, 1842) -ventral 97 37. Ophiocoma scolopendrina (Lamarck, 1816) Description: Arm length up to 10 em, disc diameter up to 20 mm. Disc scales are covered by granules, becoming spiky towards the edges, higher than thick. Arms with spines as long as the arm width. Disc mottled green, arms distinctly banded. Only one tentacle scale at least beyond the fifth segment. Colour: Arms commonly black or green brown and banded by darker areas but banding may be deep brown or cream. Disc uniformly dull green to dark brown. Habitat: It inhabits in shallow substrates; rocks, coral reef, under weed. Distribution: India: Lakshadweep; Andaman Islands; Ophiocoma scolopendrina (Lamarck, 1816) Elsewhere: Aldabra, Chagos, Eastern Africa, Kenya, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mozambique, Red Sea, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania and West Indian Ocean. Remark: New record to Andaman and Niocbar Islands 98 IGenus : Ophiarthrum 38. Ophiarthrum pictum (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Description: Disc diameter 25 mm. Arms 6 times the disc diameter in length. Disc is covered with thick skin. Arm spines are blunt, twice as long as the segment with dark rings or bands. Colour: Disc patterned with grey, yellow and white. Arms with dark longitudinal lines. Habitat: Benthic, inshore. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: Red Sea, West Indian Ocean, East Indies, North Australia and Philippines. Ophiarthrum pictum (Muller & Troschel, 1842) 99 IGenus : Ophiomastix 39. Ophiomastix annulosa (Lamarck, 1816) Description: Disc scales with scattered blunt spines. Ventral shields have concentric dark and light colouration. Arm spines are claviform. Dorsal arm plates with light coloured edges. Ophiocoma scolopendrina (Lamarck, 1816) Colour: Disc light red in colour. Arms are red colour with white spines. III Habitat: Benthic, Inshore. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep. Elsewhere: Maldives, Ceylon, East Indies, North Australia, Philippine, China, South Japan and South Pacific Island. 100 Family: OPHIOTRICHIDAE Genus : Macrophiothrix 40. Macrophiothrix propinqua (Lyman, 1861) Description: Arm length up to 14 cm, disc diameter upto 1 cm. Disc surface with or without scattered stumps. Dorsal arm plates broader than long, distal side convex or straight, laterodistal angles bent backwards, broadest at about the middle of the plate. Distal edge of oral arm plates straight. Arm spines as long as or slightly longer than breadth of the segment. Colour variable, from evenly dark bluish to banded orange and cream. Arms variegated or uniformly blue with darker bands of 3-4 segments. Colour: Disc black in colour. Arms are black with white patches. Habitat: It is found in rock crevices and among coral. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: West Indian Ocean, Mascarene Island, East Africa, Madagascar, Red Sea, South East Arabia, Maldives, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, China, south Japan and South Pacific Islands. 101 41. Macrophiothrix longipeda (Lamarck, 1816) Description: Arm length 80 cm (about 20 times disc diameter), disc diameter 1-4 cm. Disc scales are covered by thorny stumps. Radial shields with rugose granule-like stumps. Dorsal arm plates more than twice as broad as long, distal edge with a straight median region, marked laterodistal angles, broadest distally. Ventral arm plates octogonal, distal edge straight. Up to ten thorny arm spines, lowest one comb-like. Colour: Disc colour blackish blue with dark blue spots. Macrophiothrix longipeda -ventral Macrophiothrix longipeda -dorsal Habitat: Lower eulittoral, sublittoral, under coral boulders or in burrow or a crevice. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands, Gulf of Mannar and West Bengal coast; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Chagos, Eastern Mrica, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Mozambique, Red Sea, Seychelles, South Africa, Tanzania and West Indian Ocean. 102 Family: OPHIODERMATIDAE Ljungman, 1867 Genus :Ophiarachna 42. Ophiarachna incrassata (Lamarck, 1816) Description: Arms spines are 4-4 basally and are long and flaring. Body colour is uniformly green, but it appears yellow or buff in preservation and running along the arms above and below. Interradial areas have black ringed light spots forming a reticulation and with the annulated arm spines. Ophiarachna incrassata (Lamarck, 1816) Colour: Green in colour. Habitat: Large ophiuroid inhabits in coral reefs. During the day time they hide below the coral slabs or in creVIces. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: Eastern Mrica, Madagascar, Red Sea, Seychelles, Tanzania and West Indian Ocean. 103 Class ECHINOIDEA Leske, 1778 104 Order : CIDAROIDA Family: CIDAROIDAE Genus : Prionocidaris 43. Prionocidaris verticillata (Lamarck, 1816) Description: In the apical system the ocular plates usually nearly all insert. Large globiferous Pedicellariae usually with limb or frill of rods on the stalk close to the head. Verticillate primary spines bear 3 or 4 thorny whorls. Colour: Uniformly greenish brown in colour. Habitat: Benthic, inshore, continental shelf. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: West Indian Ocean, Mascarene Island, East Africa, Madagascar, Bay of Bengal, East Indies, North Australia, Philippine, China, South Japan and South Pacific Island and Australia. Prionocidaris verticillata (Lamarck, 1816) 105 Family : ARBACIIDAE Genus : Prionocidaris 44. Arbacia punctulata (Lamarck, 1816) Description: Test diameter of 2 inches, with total diameter reaching 4 inches. Long and sharp spmes generally white in colour. Tube feet are InconSClplCOUS and are generally an olive colour. Colour: Body colour ranges Arbacia punctulata (Lamarck, 1816) from black to reddish brown and spines are white in colour, sometimes it may brown. Habitat: The speCIes inhabits in nearshore areas including coral reefs, sea grasses beds, hard bottoms, sand and shell areas. They are typically found from the intertidal zone to depths of 250m but almost common at 53m. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: Capecod, Masachusetts, South to Cuba including Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, Panamas, Barbados and French Guiana. Remark: New record to Indian waters reported from Rutland Island, South Andaman. 106 Order : DIADEMATOIDA Family: DIADEMATIDAE Genus : Diadema 45. Diadema setosum (Leske, 1778) Description: Globiferous pedicellariae and spines on the buccal plates are absent. A red ring is present around anus and white spot over each genital pore. This species is commonly distributed in tropical Indo-Pacific region and Indo-West Pacific Ocean. Tridentate pedicellariae are Large in size and mostly form narrow blades meeting at the tip. Colour: Uniformly black in colour. Habitat: Benthic, inshore, continental shelf. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Eastern Mrica, Madagascar, Kenya, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Mozambique, Red Sea, Seychelles, Tanzania and West Indian Ocean. Diadema setosum (Leske, 1778) 107 46. Diadema savignyi (Michelin, 1845) Description: This sea urchin has a black anal cone and no white on the body. Buccal plates do not bear any spines. Pedicellariae which are leaf or spoon shaped and is tapering to the rounded distal end. It is found in small pockets in reefs or around rocks. It has a wide range throughout Indo-west Pacific region. Colour: Black in colour. Habitat: It is found in the rocky shores. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Eastern Mrica, Madagascar, Kenya, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Mozambique, Red Sea, Seychelles, South Africa and West Indian Ocean. Diadema savignyi (Michelin, 1845) 108 IGenus : Echinothrix 47. Echinothrix calamaris (Pallas, 1774) Description: Naked test is green in colour. Ambulacra distinctly bulged aborally. Inter ambulacral spines occur with fine to broad transverse white bands. The banded sea urchin should be avoided and certainly not touched as its secondary spines are extremely fine and sharp and capable of penetrating over the gloves. These spines are highly venomous and cause painful wounds. Colour: Body colour is purplish brown with white strips like band. Habitat: It is usually found in the slopes of coral reef with rocky substances. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands and Gulf of Mannar; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Chagos, Eastern Africa, Kenya, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mozambique, Red Sea, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania and West Indian Ocean. Echinothrix calamaris (Pallas, 1774) 109 48. Echinothrix diadema (Linneaus, 1758) Description: Spines are large and about 9 inch long. Naked test is black in colour. Cavity of the primary spines is very small. This species is commonly found in Indian Ocean rather than Pacific reefs. The surface of the primary spines has longitudinal ridges. Colour: The body colour of the live speCImens IS velvet-black or crimson red. Habitat: The animal hides under ledges, and in caves along the reef edges. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep Islands; Elsewhere: Maldives, Aldabra, Chagos, Eastern Mrica, Madagascar, Kenya, Mascarene Basin, Red Sea, Seychelles, Somalia and West Indian Ocean. Echinothrix diadema (Linneaus, 1758) - dorsal 110 Order : ECHINOIDA Family : ECHINOMETRIDAE Genus : Echinometra 49. Echinometra oblonga (de Blainville, 1969) Description: Test is oval in shape. Primary spine is often massive and either very long or truncated and very short. If they are slender than the lower ones are more or less flattened and some are angular. Eight or more porepairs per arc are present aborally. Colour: Uniformly black in colour. Habitat: Found on rocks, or on dead corals. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: Seychelles and Tanzania. Echinometra oblonga (de Blainville, 1969) 111 50. Echinometra mathaei (de Blainville, 1825) Description: Mathae's sea urchin is a cosmopolitan rock boaring species that thrives in the rugged condition of exposed intertidal situations. Spines of the sea urchin are slender and acute. Long axis presents on the oval test through ambulacra I and interambulacrum 3. This urchin is herbivore, scraping algae from boulders and rubbles close to its hollow at night and catching drifting algae. Colour: Body colour may be brown, pink, green or purple but the spines have usually white circle around the base. Habitat: It is common at the rocky shores Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep Islands and Gulf of Mannar; Elsewhere: Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Mrica and Madagascar, Red Sea, South-East Arabia, Maldives, Ceylon, East Indies, Philippines, China, South Japan, South Pacific Island, Hawaiian, Persian Gulf and North Australia. Echinometra mathaei (de Blainville, 1825) 112 IGenus : Heterocentrotus 51. Heterocentrotus trigonarius (Lamarck, 1816) Description: Primary spines are massive which either rounded or are very thick but somewhat flattened towards the tip. Ambital region contains 15-16 pore-pairs in each arc. Primary ambulacral tubercles are gradually decreasing in size aborally and their spines are short and not truncated Colour: Uniformly mid brown. Habitat: shore areas. Rocky Distribution: India: Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Eastern Mrica, Kenya, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Red Sea, Seychelles, Somalia and Tanzania. Heterocentrotus trigonarius (Lamarck, 1816) 113 Family: ASTRICL YPEIDAE Genus : Echinodiscus 52. Echinodiscus auritus (Leske, 1778) Description: Test is highly developed and oval III shape. Lunules are two in number. Lunules open at the distal end. This species has a bite marks at the posterior margins of the test. Colour: Uniformly brown in colour Habitat: Sandy sea shore. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Mouth of Hugly River; Elsewhere: Mascarene Island, East Africa, Maagascar, Red Sea, South East Arabia, Persian Gulf, Ceylon, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, China and South Japan. Echinodiscus auritus (Leske, 1778) 114 Order : TEMNOPLEUROIDA Family: TEMNOPLEUROIDAE Genus : Temnopleurus 53. Temnopleurus alexendri (Bell, 1884) Description: Crenulations are conscipicous and Pore pairs more or less distinctly in arcs of three. Spines not banded but often greenish basally becoming purple distantly. Globiferous pedicillaria does not bear lateral teeth. The pores reach to the edge of the ambulacral areas. Tubercles are absent at the outside of the pores. Colour: Uniform in colour- green, purple or white Habitat: This species inhabits in rocky substances and found in shallow water depths. Distribution: India: Tamil Nadu coast, Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: East Indies and North Australia. Temnopleurus alexendri (Bell, 1884) 115 IGenus : Mespilia 54. Mespilia globulus (Linneaus, 1758) Description: Ten conspicuous abruptly spineless vertical areas on the test are covered with extremely numerous globiferous pedicellariae. These pedicellariae forms a dense carpet, their valves with the blades bearing two or three lateral teeth each side. Colour: Uniformly blue colour with reddish-brown spmes. Habitat: In warmer currents of shallow waters, on hard bottom. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: Red Sea, West Indian Ocean, Red Sea, West Indian Ocean, North Australia, Philippine, China, south Japan, South Pacific Island and Australia. Mespilia globulus (Linneaus, 1758) 116 IGenus : Microcyphus 55. Microcyphus ceylanicus (Mortensen, 1925) Description: Globiferous pedicellariae are less conscipicously developed. The blade fairly narrow and bearing not more than one lateral tooth each side. Tubercles are indistinctly crenulate. Sutural pores are very small and inconscipicous. Naked areas are conspicuous aborally. Test patterned with olive-green. Colour: Test is black in colour. Spines banded with reddish brown and white. Habitat: Inhabits in rocky substances and found in shallow water depths. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: Ceylon. Microcyphus ceylanicus (Mortensen, 1925) 117 IGenus : Salmacis 56. Salmacis belli (Doderlein, 1902) Description: Test is moderate in size that inflated in profile with rounded ambitus. Apical disc is small, dicyclic, with marginally positioned gonopores. Genital plates with tubercles are developed around their inner edge forming a perianal ring. Periproct is subcircular and central in position. Spines are small, simple, without cortex. Colour: Test black in colour, spines are whitish brown in colour. Habitat: Found in algal beds. It is a grazer and algae eater. Distribution: India: Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: East Indies and North Australia. Remark: New record to Indian waters found in Great Nicobar Islands. Salmacis belli (Doderlein, 1902) 118 Family : TOXOPNEUSTIDAE Genus : Tripneustus 57. Tripneustes gratilla (Linneaus, 1758) Description: The pattern of the body spaces between the spines is a reliable visual feature. The tube feet of the large, tube-shaped, five body spaces and the five smaller ones. Pore pairs are present horizontally on the arcs and spaced to form three distinct vertical series in larger speCImens. Colour: It may be purple, black, brown or red and even green. Habitat: It is a grazer and algae eater and found in the sandy reef slopes with muddy coverage. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep and Gulf of Mannar; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Chagos, Eastern Mrica, Madagascar, Kenya, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Mozambique, Red Sea, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania and West Indian Ocean. Tripneustes gratilla (Linneaus, 1758) 119 Order : PHYMOSOMATOIDA Family: STOMECHINIDAE (Clark and Rowe) Genus : Stomopneustus 58. Stomopneustus variolaris (Lamarck, 1816) Description: Complete bridges are absent across the V-shaped space at the upper end of each of the five pyramids forming frame of the Aristotle's lantern. Ambulacral plates are doubly compound so that large tubercle correspondence to three to six arcs each of three pore paIrs are placed at the ambitus. Colo u r: Stomopneustus variolaris (Lamarck, 1816) Uniformly black in colour. Habitat: It is commonly found in rocky shore or sometimes below the rubbles and dead coral patches. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Island, Lakshadweep, Gulf of Mannar and Andhra Pradesh Coast; Elsewhere: Mascarene Island, East Africa, Madagascar, South East Arabia, East Indies, Maldives, Ceylon, North Australia, China, South Japan, South Pacific Island and Australia. 120 Order : CLYPEASTEROIDA Family : CLYPEASTERIDAE Genus : Clypeaster 59. Clypeaster humilis (Leske, 1778) Description: Interradial projections are not formed around the peristome. Petals are generally smaller and test fiat orally. Frontal petals are closed. Colour: Uniformly white in colour sometimes may be light yellowish in colour. Habitat: Benthic, inshore, continental shelf. Distribution: India: Gulf of Mannar, Kochi coast, Lakshadweep and Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: Eastern Mrica, Madagascar, Red Sea, South East Arabia, Persian Gulf, Ceylon area, East Indies, North Australia and Philippines. Remark: Newly recorded in Andaman Islands. Clypeaster humilis (Leske, 1778) 121 Class HOLOTHUROIDEA de Blainville, 1834 122 Order : ASPIDOCHIROTIDA Grube, 1840 Family: HOLOTHUROIDAE Ludwig, 1894 Genus : Actinopyga 60. Actinopyga mauritiana (Quoy and Gaimard, 1833) Description: The shape is cylindrical with a fiat underside; length up to 300 mm and live weight varies from 0.5 to 1.0 kg. The tube feet are firmly attached to rocks to prevent the animal from being washed away by the waves. Colour: Colour in living condition is brick red above and white below. Habitat: Usually found where the surf breaks on the outside of the reef. Distribution: India: Gulf of Mannar, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Chagos, Comores, Eastern Africa, Kenya, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Mozambique, Red Sea, Seychelles, Somalia, Tanzania and West Indian Ocean. Actninopyga mauritiana (Quay and Gaimard, 1833) 123 61. Actinopyga miliaris (Quoy and Gaimard, 1833) Description: Length of the specimens ranged from 120 to 300 mm and the weight varied from 0.5 to 2 kg. Massive cylindrical forms with rough surface. Anal teeth very distinct. Colour: Green and Black. Habitat: Found mainly in waters less than 10 m depth on pure sand. They also live on the reef fiats among live corals and on algal beds. Distribution: India: Gulf of Mannar, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Aldabra, Comores, Eastern Africa, Kenya, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Mozambique Red Sea, Seychelles, Tanzania and West Indian Ocean. Actinopyga miliaris (Quay and Gaimard, 1833) 124 62. Actinopyga lecanora (Jaeger, 1833) Description: The size of the specimens can be > 300 mm in length. The spicules are composed of small rods. Colour: It is a light grey or brown sea cucumber, with light speckled patches particularly around the somewhat attenuated posterior end. Habitat: It is often concealed amongst coral or rubble of reefs. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: Djibouti (from synonym), East Mrica, Eastern Mrica, Kenya, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Mozambique, Somalia and Tanzania. Actinopyga lecanora (Jaeger, 1833) 125 63. Actinopyga echinities (Jaeger, 1833) Description: The body is wider in the middle and tapers at both ends. The upper surface is wrinkled, often with fine sand setteled over it. It attaches itself to rocks with its tube feet. Colour: Uniformly brown. Habitat: It occurs at a depth of between 3-7m and inhabits both hard (rocky area) and soft substratum (sand). Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Lakshadweep. Elsewhere: Northern Australian reefs, Western Indian Ocean, East Mrica and Madagascar, South-East Arabia, Ceylon, East Indies, Philippines, China, South Japan and South Pacific Island. Actinopyga echinities (Jaeger, 1833) 126 Order : ASPIDOCHIROTIDA Grube, 1840 Family: HOLOTHUROIDAE Ludwig, 1894 Genus : Holothuria 64. Holothuria cinerascens (Brandt 1835) Description: Ranges in length from 30 to 200 mm. robust, sub-cylindrical with dorsal and ventral sides sharply differentiated. Dorsal surface covered with uniformly distributed numerous papillae. Ventrally beset with crowded robust pedicels. Tentacles 20 in number, large and sub-globose when fully expanded. Mouth ventral, posterior end of the body blunt. Anus surrounded by papillae. Body wall thick and fairly smooth to touch. Pedicels more or less arranged in three rows. Papillae of dissimilar sizes. In the living condition the tentacles, though peltate, appear to be slightly arborescent. The collar surrounding the tentacles is inconspicuous. The calcareous ring is of the usual type. There were four polian vesicles of dissimilar size. On the right side of the mesentery there is a single stone canal. Cuvierian tubules are well developed. Longitudinal muscle bands are thin. Spicules are of two types, namely tables and rods. Holothuria cinerascens (Brandt 1835) 127 Simple and finely granulated rdos are the characteristics of the species. They are either straight of curved with the extremetes often branched or coarser tubercles. Occasionally, triradiate and tetraradiate rods occur with three or four ends considerably branched. The length of the rods varies from 0.10 mm to 0.30 mm. Table simple with the annual disc varying in size from 0.042 mm to 0.060mm. Four large holes at the centre and four large holes at the margin in each disc of the table. The crown of the tables are subquadrate, being 0.045 mm in diameter. Colour: Colour in living condition is reddish-brown with some of the papillae and pedicels yellowish in colour. Habitat: This species IS found in rocky shores. Individuals were often found attached firmly at the rock edges by the three rows of pedicels on the ventral side. Distribution: India: Gulf of Mannar, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Mrica and Madagascar, Red Sea, South-East Arabia, Maldive area, Ceylon area, East Indies, Philippines, China, South Japan, South Pacific Island and Hawaii. 128 65. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla (Lesson, 1830) Description: Length from 50 mm to 200 mm. body long and cylindrical with blunt ends, body wall soft. Dorsal and ventral sides demarcated in the living condition. Papillae sparsely arranged and have expanded bases. Ventral side has numerous pedicels arranged in three rows. A small space at the anterior end near the collar Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla (Lesson, 1830) is free from pedicels. Each band of pedicels with five or six tube feet arranged side by side. Mouth surrounded by 20 inconspicuous papillae. Tentacles are small. There are ten anal papillae. The calcareous ring is of the usual type with the radials longer than the interradials. The right respiratory tree is long, extending up to the anterior end, while the left end one is shorter and joins the viscera. Two polian vesicles and a stone canal are present. Spicules consist of a table and buttons. Tables possess smooth rounded discs. Four large holes corresponding to the four spires in addition to about fifteen peripheral holes. Spire of the tables consists of four pillars and one cross beam which terminates in twelve or more teeth. Buttons oval, smooth and symmetrical with three or four pairs of holes. Holes at either end generally elongate. Length of the button varies from 0.017 to 0.028 mm. diameter of the table varies from 0.031 mm to 0.038 mm. 129 Holothuria (Thymiosycia) hilla (Lesson, 1830) Colour: In living condition, the colour of the specimen is chocolate brown and the large specimen is golden brown with a circular pale area around the appendages. Habitat: It is a fungitive species always found under coral stones. Distribution: India: Palk Bay, Gulf of Mannar, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Mrica, Red Sea, South-East Arabia, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, Persian Gulf, East Indies, Philippines, Northern Australia, China, South Japan, South Pacific Island and Hawaii. 130 66. Holothuria (Thymiosycia) impatiens (Forskal, 1775) Description: Length from 60 to 240 mm. Body bottle shaped with a long neck. Superficially the body can not be differentiated dorsally and ventrally. Mouth and anus is terminal. Tentacles about 20 crowded around the small mouth. Body surface covered by well developed papillae placed on low, round warts which are conspicuous by their lighter column than the rest of the body. Papillae sca ttered fairly evenly over the surface and not in series. Skin usually sandy to touch. Radial piece of the calcareous ring much longer than interradials and projects forward. The rounded margins have a deep cancavity. Interradial pieces with short teeth. A single stone canal and one or two olian vesicles. Cuvierian tubules occur in relatively large branches. Respiratory trees slender with few branches. Longitudinal muscle bands very thick. Spicules consist of tables, buttons and supporting plates. Tables arranged in a crowded Mannar with the edges of the disc touching Holothuria (Thymiosycia) impatiens (Forskal, 1775) 131 or overlapping each other on the outer layer. Each table consists of four upright rods and two cross beams. Spire robust and top of the spire with a number ofteeth which are level with the upper cross beam. Disc subquadrate usually provided with nine holes forming three rows, central hole is larger than the other two holes. Diameter of the table disc is 0.10 mm. Spire 0.09 mm high and 0.05 mm in diameter. Buttons oval in shape with mostly three pairs of holes, smooth and with slightly undulating margins and obtuse ends. Very rarely, with more than three holes on each side. Length of the button varies from 0.084mm to 0.10 mm and breadth from 0.040 mm to 0.049 mm. supporting rods slightly curved. Central portion dilated like a ring and has invariably two holes. Tips slightly expanded with one to four holes which are generally smaller than those found at the middle. Sometimes the tip of the rods in the papillae is not perforated. Colour: In living condition the general body colour is light brown with 4 to 5 dark brown transverse bands on the dorsal side at the anterior end. A few dark brown blotches are also found on the dorsal side on the rest of the body. The ventral side is uniformly light brown with three dark bands of the dorsal side extending to the ventral side near the anterior end. Habitat: It is often found under the dead coral stones. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Red Sea, Arabia, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Persian Gulf, East Indies, Philippines, Northern Australia, China, South Japan, South Pacific Island and Hawaii. 132 67. Holothuria atra (Jaeger, 1833) Description: Length from 90-500 mm but known to grow up to 600 mm. body elongate, sub-cylindrical and capable of considerable extension. Posterior end is blunt. Mouth is in the form of a transverse slit and surrounded by a conspicuous papillose collar. There are 20 tentacles Holothuria atra (Jaeger, 1833) in double row. Pedicels numerous and crowded on the ventral side. Papillae rather thicker than the pedicels and sparsely arranged. Peristome rather thick, tough and lethery in consistency. Anus terminal. The calcareous ring is not large. The radial pieces extend rather forward than interradials. Radials square shaped, the anterior edge of each radial has a round incision while each interradial piece has an anterior tooth. Posterior margin of the interradial arched. There are four polian vesicle and 18 stone canals. The right respiratory tree extends forward to the calcareous ring and is firmly attached to the body wall and the left one which is shorter and connected with Holothuria atra (Jaeger, 1833) 133 Holothuria atra (Jaeger, 1833) the extensive rete mirabilis of the intestine. Curvierian tubules absent. The spicules consist of tables and rosettes. Tables numerous but not crowded. Each table posses a smaller annular disc and a robust spire composed of four rods and one cross beam. Disc diameter 0.055 mm and commonly consist s of a simple ring with perforation at the base of each rod. Cross beam nearer to the disc than to the crown. Spire surround by the eight robust horizontal and four equally strong, sharp large vertical teeth. Central hole of the spire varies from 0.06 mm to 0.08 mm and the breadth of the crown is about 0.06 mm. rosettes small and vary in size from 0.019 to 0.045 mm. pedicels have well developed terminal plates. A few bilaterally symmetrical fenestrated plates are present close to the terminal plates of the pedicels. The papillae contain slightly curved smooth or spinose rods, mostly with enlarged fenestrated ends. Colour: In living condition the colour is black or vey dark brown or reddish-brown. The tentacles and the peristomes are dark brown. Habitat: It is always found fully exposed in shallow water on sandy bottom. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Palk Bay, Gulf of Mannar and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Mrica, Red Sea, Arabia, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Persian Gulf, East Indies, Philippines, Northern Australia, South Japan, South Pacific Island and Hawaii. 134 68. Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) pyxis (Selenka, 1867) Description: The length of the specimens varied from 270-450 mm. The body is tubular. The posterior region is bulged and blunt with the anterior end narrow. A number of projections are found on the dorsal side. Some of them are 20 mm in length. They are not arranged in order. On the ventral side, there are four bands of pedicels. In each band there are five or six pedicels arranged side by side. Radials large with a deep notch at the anterior end, the posterior end straight. Interradials half the height of the radials and have a concavity at the posterior margin. A single stone canal and a single polian vesicles is present. The spicules consist of only tables in the body wall. Margins of the tables spiny with four large holes at the centre and a number of small holes around the margin. Table short and end in about 10 short spines. Height of the tables is 0.04 mm and the diameter of the disc of the tables is 0.05mm. Colour: Dorsal side is brownish-pink with some papillae blackish brown. The ventral side is light brown, with spaces between the bands of the pedicels yellow. Habitat: The species is always found under the large stones which are well fixed to the ground. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: East Indies Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) pyxis (Selenka, 1867) 135 69. Holothuria leucospilota (Brandt, 1835) Description: Large and snake -like like forms with leathery skin. The pedicels are large with well developed sucking discs. The tentacles are 20 in number and are ventrally placed. There is a well developed tentacles collar with a fimbriated margin. In the calcareous ring each radial is large and has a deep groove white the interradial is a short, stump like projection. There is a single polian vesicle and a single stone canal. The respiratory trees are well developed. Cuvierian tubules are also well developed. The spicules consist of an external layer of tables with a complete or incomplete discs often reduced to four holes, one at the base of each pillar. Spire is low and often partly reduced, but when complete. It ends in a flattened crown of eight or twelve teeth. Inner layer consist of regular six holed buttons. The button may some times to asymmetrical. Pedicels are with large end plates and a few broad perforated plates with more or less slit like holes. The length of buttons varies from 0.050mm to 0.063 Holothuria leucospilota (Brandt, 1835) 136 mm, and the breadth varies from 0.025 mm to 0.033 mm. the height of the table is 0.042 mm and the diameter of the disc varied from 0.037 mm to 0.054 mm. Colour: The colour is reddish-brown in live condition about looks black on contraction. Habitat: The species has the peculiar habit of tucking its posterior end under a stone. Some times can be seen under coral stones. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Red Sea, Arabia, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Persian Gulf, East Indies, Philippines, Northern Australia, China, South Japan, South Pacific Island and Hawaii. 137 70. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) fuscocinerea (Jaeger, 1833) Description: The length of the specimen is 120 mm, the body is long and tubular with 20 large ventral tentacles. Tentacle on ventral side are arranged in three, though not distinct bands. The papillae on the dorsal side are scattered. There is a single polian vesicle and large stone canal. Cuvierian tubules are large. Usually button has two narrow slit like holes and one or two pairs of minute holes at each end. The length of the button varies from 0.01 mm to 0.04 mm. Colour: Colour in living condition is brownish, more or less mottled, ventral side is pale gray. Habitat: It is usually found sandy as well as rocky areas. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: Sri Lanka, Philippines, Japan, Fiji, Samoa, Australia and Celebes. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) {uscocinerea (Jaeger, 1833) 138 71. Holothuria (Metriatyla) scabra (Jaeger, 1833) Description: The length of the species is 300-400 mm the body is robust with both the ends blunt. The dorsal side is convex and the ventral side is fiat. The skin is very thick and slimy to touch. On the dorsal side, there are many small papillae which are mainly scattered and often inconspicuous. On the ventral sides the pedicels are densly distributed without any arrangement. Each dark spot on the ventral side represents one pedicel. There are two polian vesicles and a single stone canal. The calcareous ring is of the usual type. The left respiratory tree is much larger than the right. The paired radial muscles are not in firm contact with the body wall. The spicules consist of tables and buttons. All the buttons are knobbed and with holes and with irregular perforated plates.the tables are short and the margins are not quite rounded. Each table has a few to many holes. The tables are short with a horizontal cross bar and a crown of spine at the top, Holothuria (Metriatyla) scabra (Jaeger, 1833) 139 which are visible in lateral VIew. In the apical VIew, 8 outwardly pointed spines are seen. The spire consists of four vertical bars which terminate in a few spines. There is a tier of cross bars in the spire. Buttons are small and generally have three pairs of holes. The pedicels have small terminal plates. Colour: Colour in the living condition is grey to black on the dorsal side, and white ventrally. Habitat: It is found in muddy-sandy regIOns and prefer less saline waters. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay; Elsewhere: Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Red Sea, Arabia, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Persian Gulf, East Indies, Philippines, Northern Australia, China, South Japan, South Pacific Island and Hawaii. 140 72. Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis (Lesson, 1830) Description: Length from 90 mm to 300 mm, body elongate, narrow at the anterior end and blunt at the posterior end. Minute papillae found on the dorsal side of the body. Numerous pedicels present on the ventral side. There are 20 medium-sized tentacles surrounded by a rim of black papillae. Skin is smooth and thin. The inner wall of the cloaca is black in colour. The calcareous ring is of moderate size. There are 37 stone canals and one polian vesicle. Both the right and left branches of the respiratory trees are large and of equal size. Spicules consisit of tables and buttons. Disc of the tables reduced to a ring which is narrower than the top of the spire. There is a horizontal beam in the middle of the spire. The top of the spire is expanded and bears four blunt spines on each side which can be seen only in the lateral view. Height of the tables varies from 0.052 mm to 0.066 mm and diameter of the spire varies from 0.037 mm to 0.043 mm. small button present in the inner layer. The number of the holes varies from 3 to 10 and most of them are incomplete. Length of the button varies from 0.026 mm to 0.058 mm and the Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis (Lesson, 1830) 141 Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis (Lesson, 1830) breadth from 0.017 to 0.031 mm. long supporting rods which have expanded ends and three to four holes are present in the pedicels. Colour: Body colour is bright rose pink which may be obscured by varying degrees of black pigments. The black colour is well marked on the dorsal side where it varies from grey to intense black and at the side it is replaced by pink. On the ventral side there is no black colour. Habitat: It is usually found in shallow deapth. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands and Gulf of Mannar; Elsewhere: East Mrica, Red Sea and SouthEast Arabia. 142 73. Holothuria (Microthele) nobilis (Selenka, 1867) Description: The length varied from 250mm to 400 mm. the body is tubular and massive in shape. Live weight varies from 2 to 3 kg in fresh condition. Body wall is 10-15 mm in thickness. Pedicels and papillae are indistinguishable. Dorsal papillae are more thinly scattered than the ventral pedicles. Anus is surrounded by five calcified papillae. Calcareous ring is massive with distinctly scalloped anterior margin. The radial and interradials are squarish. Radial are twice the length of the interradials. Tentacular ampullae are very large. Spicules consist of tables and buttons. The tables are robust with smooth discs and the spires terminate in 15-20 small spines. The diameter of the table varies from 0.06 to 0.08 mm. the disc of the tables is either irregularly rounded or square shaped. The inner layer has closely packed hollow fenestrated ellipsoids which are 0.07 mm in length. They have four rows of holes. A few simple knobbed buttons are also present. Colour: This species can be seen in two colour forms, white and black. Habitat: The species lies freely in the lagoon in the adult stage and often covered with a coat of sand. Young white forms live among the algae. The white form is found in more than 3 m dea pth. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep, Elsewhere: Aldabra, Chagos, Comores, East Mrica, Eastern Mrica, Kenya, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mauritius, Red Sea, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Tanzania and West Indian Ocean. Holothuria (Microthele) nobilis (Selenka, 1867) 143 74. Holothuria coluber (Semper, 1868) Description: It is a black sea cucumber with white papillae and 20 yellow tentacles. It is a long (500600 mm) species with a firm, thick body wall, and a tough tegument. Spicules include spinose cup and saucer' tables and rosettes. Colour: Uniformly black in colour. Habitat: This species is found on reefs, usually with its posterior wedged below rocks on reef fiats. Distribution: India: First time reported from Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: East Indies, North Australia, Philippines and South Pacific Islands. Remark: New record to Indian waters reported from Andaman Islands Holothuria coluber (Semper, 1868) 144 75. Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) pervicax (Selenka, 1867) Description: The length of the specimens ranges from 70 mm to 120 mm. they are sub-cylindrical in shape. The dorsal and the ventral sides are well differentiated. 0 n the ventral side there are a number of pedicels arranged closely without any evidence of band formation. Tye papillae are scattered on the dorsal side. The tentacles are definitely ventral in position. Cuvierian tubules are thick. Calcareous ring is ofthe usual type. There are a large single polian vesicles and a single stone canal. Spicules consist of incomplete and oblong rods with lateral projections resembling narrow rosette. The disc of the table is usually sub-circular. Each disc has a fairly big hole at the base of each slender sire. Frequently supplientray holes are also present. The edge of the disc is smooth. The diameter of the discs varies from 0.03 mm to 0.05 mm. the spire has a cross beam and is frequently incomplete and ends in four simple teeth. In some cases, the spire is rudimentary and Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) pervicax (Selenka, 1867) 145 the crowns have no transverse pieces. The rosette vary in size from 0.023 mm to 0.069 mm in length. They are irregular and smooth. The pedicels have well developed plates, but in the papillae they are rudimentary. The pedicels and papillae, in addition to long curved rods with short irregular processes, have bilateral fenestrated plates. These plates vary in length from 0.30 mm to 0.36 mm. Those plates which are neighborhood of the terminal plates of the pedicels are formed by the branching and joining of the lateral processes of the supporting rods. Colour: In living condition the dorsal side IS brown with 5 to 7 honey coloured transverse bands of differentiated width. The ventral side is lighter, mottled with white and light violet on a brown background. The cloacal opening is surrounded by a dark violet ring with some some portion of the inner cloacal wall of the same colour. Habitat: It is usually found in sandy areas. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Red Sea, South East Arabia, Maldive area, Sri Lanka, Persian Gulf, East Indies, Philippines, Northern Australia, South Pacific Islands and Hawaii. 146 76. Holothuria arenicola (Semper, 1868) Description: Body is slender and vermiform. Mouth is small and surrounded by tentacles ventrally. Pedicles small and not conscipicous and arranged in three bands ventrally. Anus is terminal in position and surrounded by five groups of four to six short papillae. The spicules consist of tables, buttons and supporting plates. Button smooth and regular with six holes with edges regularly indented between each pair of holes. Colour: Body colour is white and on the dorsal side, three pairs of reddish-brown spots are present. Habitat: It inhabits in the sand, under the stones and it is very difficult to take out the specimen completely. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: West Indies, Zanzibar, Fiji, Tahiti, Galapagos and East Coast of Australia. Holothuria arenicola (Semper, 1868) 147 I Genus : Bohadschia 77. Bohadschia marmorata (Jaeger, 1833) Description: Body short and thick with the lower surface slightly flattened. It grows to a large size of 400mm. Colour: Colour highly variable. Colour is golden brown with small brown dots. Sometimes the colour is yellowish brown with black spots. Habitat: Occurs on coarse coarl sand at depths 2-6 m. it is also seen in the intertidal region covered by a coating of fine mud. Distribution: India: Gulf of Mannar, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Aldabra, East Africa, Eastern Africa and Madagascar, Kenya, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mozambique, Red Sea and Seychelles. Bohadschia marmorata (Jaeger, 1833) 148 78. Bohadschia argus (Jaeger, 1833) Description: Body is cylindrical with very smooth surface. At the slightest disturbance the sticky threads are thrown out. It grows to a large size of 600 mm in length. Live weight is 1-2 kg. Distinct eye like spots are found all over the body which are encircled with light yellow, white grey colours. The eye spots are situated at a particular angle. Colour: Colour in living condition is brown or black. Habitat: Occurs on coarse sand in 2-6 m depth. A few pieces of shell and coarse sand usually stick to body. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Western Indian Ocean, Ceylon, East Indies, Philippines, Northern Australia, South Pacific Islands, China and South Japan. Bohadschia argus (Jaeger, 1833) 149 79. Bohadschia graeffei (Semper, 1868) Description: The length of the species is variable from 15 cm to 18 cm. Underside is grainy. Upper side of the species is rough in structural conformation. Body thickness is 4mm. Papillae are low. Spicules resemble a somewhat tack-like bundle of spinose rods described as racquet-like. Bohadschia graeffei (Semper, 1868) Bohadschia graeffei (Semper, 1868) 150 Bohadschia graeffei (Semper, 1868) Colour: speckling. Body colour: pale cream with brown Habitat: Reef slopes, close to the coast. Abundant on bottom of mixed corals and calcareous red algae. Depth range- 0-25 m but it is mostly found in 0-10 m. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep. Elsewhere: Red Sea. 151 Order : ASPIDOCHIROTIDA Grube, 1840 Family: LABIDODEMATIDAE Genus : Labidodemas 80. Labidodemas semperianum (Selenka, 1867) Description: The length of the species ranges between 85-250 mm. Spicules are spinose tables and sometimes buttons and rods. Colour: It is a white, almost translucent sea cucumber, with yellow tube feet and a dark posterior end. Habitat: This species can be found buried in sand below rocks of the outer coral reef fiat. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: East Indies, Philippines, Northern Australia and South Pacific Island. Labidodemas semperianum (Selenka, 1867) 152 Order : DENDROCHIROTIDA Grube, 1840 Family: CUCUMARIIDAE Ludwig, 1894 Genus : Stolus 81. Stolus buccalis (Stimpson, 1856) Description: It is small in size ranges from 70-110 mm, firm and cylindrical species, with a smooth tegument. Spicules are small nodular buttons. It is found in coastal habitats south to temperate regions, below stones on intertidal fiats. It is mostly distributed in tropical, Indowest Pacific Ocean. Colour: Specimen is dark purple- black in colour with red colour tentacles. Habitat: Usually found concealed under rock or narrow creVIces III Distribution: India: Gulf of Mannar, Andhra Pradesh, Palk Bay, Gulf of Kachchh and Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: East Africa and Madagascar, South East Arabia, Persian Gulf, West Indies, Ceylon, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, China and South Japan. Remark: New record to Andaman Islands reported from Burmanella, South Andaman. Stolus buccalis (Stimpson, 1856) 153 Family: STICHOPODIDAE Haeckel, 1896 Genus : Thelenota 82. Thelenota ananas (Jaeger, 1833) Description: This species grows to a massive size 700 mm in length. The weight of a live specimen varies from 3 to 6 kg. It is seen in massive form with numerous large pointed teats in groups of two or three all over the upper surface. Thelenota ananas (Jaeger, 1833) Colour: Colour of the sample in live condition is reddish-orange on the upper side. Tube feet are bright orange colour on the lower surface. Habitat: It is found on clean sandy bottom at a depth of 2-30 m. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Maldives, East Indies, North Australia, China, South Japan and South Pacific islands. Thelenota ananas (Jaeger, 1833) 154 ｾ＠ .. ｾ Ｍ ｾＭ ｾＭ ｾ＠ I Genus : Stichopus 83. Stichopus horrens (Selenka, 1867) Description: It is a medium-sized species (to 300 mm) with a smooth tegument but large and irregular papillae. The big tubercles and irregular body form give an "irregular, soft and almost repulsive" appearance. Spicules are tables and large "C" bodies. Colour: This species is a variable, grey to greenlblack sea cucumber. It is often variegated with dark patches. Habitat: S. horrens may be found on reefs, below rocks on fiats. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands; Elsewhere: East Indies, North Australia, China, South Japan, South pacific Islands, Philippines and Hawaii. Stichopus horrens (Selenka, 1867) 155 84. Stichopus chloronotus (Brandt, 1835) Description: The maximum length of the body is 300 mm. Body quadrangular in shape with four rows of large finger like processes. Colour: Green in colour. The tip of the finger like processes is orange in colour. The tentacles and the tube feet are ash-coloured and the stalks of tentacles are white. Habitat: Usually found only beyond low water mark. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep and Gulf of Mannar; Elsewhere: Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Mrica, Madagascar, Red Sea, Maldives, Ceylon, Bay of Bengal, Persian Gulf, East Indies, Philippines, Northern Australia, China, South Japan, South Pacific Islands and Hawaii. Stichopus chloronotus (Brandt, 1835) 156 85. Stichopus hermanni (Semper, 1868) Description: The maximum length of the species is 900 mm. Body massive and loaf like in appearance. The tubercles are prominent. Stichopus hermanni (Semper, 1868) Colour: In living condition it is dark yellow with irregular brown patches and pink tube feet. Habitat: Occurs on algal beds and clean sand bottoms between depths 3-30 m. Distribution: India: Gulf of Mannar, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep and Palk Bay; Elsewhere: Aldabra, East Mrica, Eastern Mrica, Kenya, Madagascar, Mascarene Basin, Mozambique, Red Sea, Seychelles, South Africa, Tanzania and West Indian Ocean. Stichopus hermanni (Semper, 1868) 157 86. Stichopus vastus (Sluiter, 1887) Description: This sea cucumber can grow up to a length of 500 mm and reach maximum weight of 2.5 kg. The body is wider in the middle, tapering at both ends and covered with a bright smooth skin. The upper surface is uniformly brown with zigzag bands at all over the body. Body spicules consists of tables, branched rods and '8' and 'C' shaped rods. Colour: Uniformly brown patches. III colour with black Habitat: It is commonly found in the depth of I-3m. It occurs in sand and rocky substrata. Distribution: India: Andaman Islands; Elsewhere: North Australia and Maldives. Stichopus vastus (Sluiter, 1887) 158 Order : APODIDA Brandt, 1835 Family : SYNAPTIDAE Ostergren, 1898 Genus : Synapta 87. Synapta maculata (Chamisso and Eysenhardt, 1821) Description: The structure of the body is like a snake. It can reach more than 2 m in length. Presence of 15 tentacles. Colour: It is tan to brown in colour with black margins. The whole body surface has small white rings which are closely arranged. Habitat: It is usually found on the reef fiat. Distribution: India: Gulf of Mannar, Andaman and Nicrobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Red Sea, Madagascar, Maldives, South East Arabia, Persian Gulf, East Indies, Philippines, Northern Australia, China, South Japan and South Pacific Island. 159 I Genus : Euapta 88. Euapta godeffroyi (Semper, 1868) Description: It is a medium to large species (to 400 mm in length), with 15 tentacles, each with numerous pairs of digits. Its spicules are anchors with tiny knobs on the vertex and plates with large posterior holes. Colour: Body colour is creamy white with grey, with green or brown longitudinal stripes. Habitat: It is found in intertidal pool, in sand, beneath stones. This species is found on reefs, concealed among rubble of reef fiat or slope. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep; Elsewhere: Mascarene Island, Red Sea, Maldives, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines and South Pacific Island. Euapta godeffroyi (Semper, 1868) 160 Order : MOLPADIIDA Miiller, 1850 Family: CAUDINIDAE Heding, 1931 Genus : Acaudina 89. Acaudina molpadioides (Semper, 1868) Descripition: This sea cucumber is loaf shaped and its maximum length is about 300mm. Body surface is thick and covered with a fine coat of sand and is brown coloured with black patches. Colour: Uniformly brown in colour. Habitat: This species is commonly found in shallow reef environments. Depth range 2-15m. Distribution: India: Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Kachchh, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Gulf of Mannar. Elsewhere: Northern Australia. Acaudina molpadioides (Semper, 1868) 161 8. CHECKLIST OF ECHINODERMS OF INDIA Class: CRINOIDEA Order: COMATULIDA Family : Comasteridae 1. Capillaster mariae (AH. Clark, 1907) 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Capillaster multiradiatus (Linneaus, 1758) Comanthina nobilis (P.H. Carpanter, 1884) Comanthina schlegeli (P.H. Carpanter, 1881) Comanthus parviciirus (Muller, 1841) Comanthus samoan us (AH. Clark, 1909) Comanthus wahlbergi (Muller, 1843) Comaster gracilis (Hartlub, 1890) Comaster multibrachiata (P.H. Carpanter, 1888) Comaster multifidus (J. Muller, 1841) Comaster parvus (AH. Clark, 1909) Comatella maculata (P.H. Carpanter, 1888) Comatella nigra (P.H. Carpanter, 1876) Comatella stelligera (P.H. Carpanter, 1880) Comatula brevicirra (Bell, 1834) Comatula micraster (AH. Clark, 1909) Comatula pectinia (Linneaus, 1758) Oxycomanthus bennetti (Muller, 1841) Family: Himerometridae 19. Amphimetra molleri (AH. Clark, 1908) 20. Craspedometra acuticirra (P.H. Carpanter, 1882) 21. Craspedometra anceps (P.H. Carpanter, 1888) 22. Heterometra bengalensis (Hartlaub, 1890) 162 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Heterometra compta (A.H. Clark, 1909) Heterometra philiberti (Muller, 1841) Heterometra reynaudi (Muller, 1846) Heterometra crenulata (P.H. Carpenter, 1882) Himerometra magnipinna (A.H. Clark, 1908) Himerometra robustipinna (P.H. Carpanter, 1912) Family : Mariametridae 29. 30. 31. 32. Dichrometra ciliata (A.H. Clark, 1912) Dichrometra protectus (P.H. Carpanter, 1879) Lamprometra palmata (Muller, 1841) Selenemetra aranea (A.H. Clark,1909) Family : Stephanometridae 33. Stephanometra coronata (A.H. Clark, 1909) 34. Stephanometra indica (Smith, 1876) 35. Stephanometra monacantha (Hartlaub, 1890) Family: Colobometridae 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. Cenometra herdmani (A.H. Clark, 1909) Cenometra bella (Hartlaub, 1890) Cenometra emendatrix (Bell, 1892) Colobometra brevicirra (A.H. Clark, 1912) Colobometra discolor (A.H. Clark, 1909) Cotylometra gracilicirra (A.H. Clark, 1908) Decametra brevicirra (A.H. Clark, 1912) Decametra moebiusi (A.H. Clark, 1911) Iconometra inter media (A.H. Clark, 1912) Oligometra imbricata (A.H. Clark, 1909) Oligometra serripinna (P.H. Carpanter, 1881) 163 Family : Pontiopmetridae 47. Pontiometra andersoni (P.H. Carpanter, 1889) Family : Antedonidae 48. Andrometra indica (AH. Clark, 1909) 49. Euantedon sp. 50. Dorometra nana (Hartlaub, 1890) 51. Mastigometra micropoda (AH. Clark, 1909) 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. Psathyrometra inusitata (AH. Clark, 1912) Psathyrometra mira (AH. Clark, 1909) Sarametra nicrobarica (AH. Clark, 1929) Trichometra plana (AH. Clark, 1912) Trichometra obscura (AH. Clark, 1909) Family : Tropiometridae 57. Tropiometra carinata (Lamarck, 1816) Family : Calometridae 58. Neometra spinosissima (AH. Clark, 1909) Family : Thalassometridae 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. Crotalometra rustica (AH. Clark, 1909) Crotalometra sentifera (AH. Clark, 1909) Stiremetra carinifera (AH. Clark, 1912) Thalassometra peripolos (AH. Clark, 1929) Thalassometra sp. Family : Eudiometridae 64. Eudiocrinus minor (AH. Clark, 1919) 65. Eudiocirnus ornatus (AH. Clark, 1919) 164 Family : Zygometridae 66. Zygometra andromeda (AH.Clark, 1912) Family: Chartiometridae 67. 68. 69. 70. Glyptometra crassa (AH.Clark, 1912) Glyptometra invenusta (AH. Clark, 1909) Glyptometra macilenta (AH. Clark, 1909) Perissometra occidentalis (AH. Clark, 1929) Family : Pentametrocrinidae 71. Pentametrocrinus varians (P.H. Carpanter, 1882) 72. Decametrocrinus sp. 73. Thaumatocrinus investigatoris (AH. Clark, 1912) Order: BOURGUETICRINIDA Family : Bourgueticrinidae 74. Bathycirrus woodmasoni (AH. Clark, 1909) Family: Hintacrinitidae 75. Comastrocinus ornatus (AH. Clark, 1909) 76. Comastrocrinus springeri (AH. Clark, 1909) Class: ASTEROIDEA Order: P AXILLOSIDA Family: Luidiidae 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. Luidia denudata (Koehler, 1910) Luidia hardwicki (Gray, 1840) Luidia integra (Koehler, 1910) Luidia limbata (Sladen, 1889) Luidia maculata (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Luidia savignyi (Audouin, 1826) 165 Family : Astropectinidae 83. Astropecten bengalensis (Doderlein, 1917) 84. Astropecten euryacanthus (Lutken, 1805) 85. Astropecten greigi (Koehler, 1909) 86. Astropecten hemipechi (Muller and Troschel, 1841) 87. Astropecten indicus (Doderlein, 1888) 88. Astropecten inutilis (Koehler, 1910) 89. Astropecten monacanthus (Sladen, 1883) 90. Astropecten polycanthus (Muller and troschel, 1841) 91. Astropecten tamilicus (Doderlein, 1888) 92. Astropecten vappa (Muller and Troschel, 1841) 93. Astropecten sp. 94. Craspidaster hesperus (Muller and Troschel, 1840) 95. Dipsacaster pentagonalis (Alcock, 1894) 96. Dipsacaster sladeni (Alcock, 1893) 97. Dytaster insignis (Perrier, 1884) 98. Persephonaster coelochiles (Alcock, 1893) 99. Persephonaster croceus (Wood-Mason and Alcock, 1891) 100. Persephonaster gracilis (Sladen, 1889) 101. Persephonaster rhodopeplus (Wood-Mason Alcock, 1891) 102. Persephonaster roulei (Koehler, 1909) 103. Psilaster agassizi (Koehler, 1909) Family: Porcellanasteridae 104. Abyssaster tara (Wood-Mason and Alcock, 1891) 105. Porcellanaster caulifer (Sladen, 1883) 106. Porcellanaster ceruleus (Wyville Thomson, 1877) 107. Sidonaster vaneyi (Koehler, 1909) 166 and 108. Stryracaster armatus (Sladen, 1883) 109. Styracaster caroli (Ludwig, 1907) 110. Styracaster clavipes (Wood-Mason and Alcock, 1891) Family : Goniopectinidae 111. Goniopecten sp. Order: NOTOMYOTIDA Family : Benthopectinidae 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. Benthopecten huddlestoni (Alcock, 1893) Benthopecten indicus (Koehler, 1909) Benthopecten semisquamatus (Sladen, 1889) Benthopecten violaceus (Alcock, 1893) Cheriaster pilosus (Alcock, 1893) Cheriaster synderi (Fisher, 1906) Cheriaster cribellum (Alcock, 1893) Pectinaster mimicus (Sladen, 1889) Order: VALVATIDA Family: Chaetasteridae 120. Chaetaster vestitus (Koehler, 1910) 121. Chaetaster sp. Family: Asterinidae 122. Anserpoda ludovici (Alcock, 1893) 123. Anserpoda pellucida (Alcock, 1893) 124. Asterina burtoni (Gray, 1840) 125. Asterina cepheus (Muller and troschel, 1842) 126. Asterina coronata (Von Martens, 1866) 127. Asterina lorioli (Koehler, 1897) 128. Asterina sarasini (de Loriol, 1897) 167 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. Disasterina leptalacantha (H.L.Clark, 1916) Disasterina spinosa (Koehler, 1910) Disasterina spinulifera (H.L. Clark, 1938) Paranepanthia brachiata (Koehler, 1910) Patiriella pseudoexigua (Dartnall, 1910) Tegulaster ceylanica (Doderlein, 1888) Tegulaster emburyi (Livingstone, 1933) Family : Archasteridae 136. Archaster angualtus (Muller and Troschel, 1842) 137. Archaster typicus (Muller and Troschel, 1840) Family : Goniasteridae 138. Anthenoides sarissa (Alcock, 1893) 139. Astroceramus fisheri (Koehler, 1909) 140. Calliaster childreni (Gray, 1840) 141. Calliaster mamillifera (Alcock, 1894) 142. Ceramaster cueneti (Koehler, 1909) 143. Ceramaster mortenseni (Koehler, 1909) 144. Circeaster magdalenae (koehler, 1909) 145. Circeaster marcelii (Koehler, 1909) 146. Johannaster superbus (Koehler, 1909) 147. Lithosoma pentaphylla (Alcock, 1893) 148. Mediaster arcuatus (Salden, 1889) 149. Milteliphaster woodmasoni (Alcock, 1893) 150. Nymphaster moebii (Studer, 1884) 151. Nympahster nora (Alcock, 1893) 152. Ogmaster capella (Muller and Troschel, 1842) 153. Paragonaster tenuiradiis (Alcock, 1893) 154. Pentagonaster intermedius (Alcock, 1893) 168 155. 156. 157. 158. 159. 160. 161. Pentagonaster pulvinus (Alcock, 1893) Pentagonaster ctenipes (Sladen, 1891) Pentagonaster sp. Plinthaster doderleini (Koehler, 1909) Plinthaster investigators (Alcock, 1893) Pseudarchaster jordani (Fisher, 1906» Pseudarchaster mozaicus(Wood Mason and Alcock, 1891) 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. Pseudarchaster roseus (Alcock, 1891) Rosaster confinis (Koehler, 1910) Rosaster florifer (Alcock, 1893) Stiraster tubercualtus (H.L.Clark, 1915) Stellaster childreni (Gray, 1805) Family : Asterodiscididae 167. Asterodiscides elegans (Gray, 1847) Family : Oreasteridae 168. Anthenea pentagonalua (Lamarck, 1816) 169. Anthenea tuberculosa (Gray, 1847) 170. Choriaster granulatus (Lutken, 1869) 171. Culcita novaguineae (Muller and Troschel, 1841) 172. Culcita schmideliana (Retzius, 1805) 173. Goniodiscaster forficulatus (Perrier, 1875) 174. Goniodiscaster scaber (Mobius, 1859) 175. Goniodiscaster vallei (Koehler, 1910) 176. Halityle regularis (Fisher, 1913) 177. Pentaceraster affinis (Muller and troschel, 1841) 178. Pentaceraster gracilis (Lutken, 1871) 179. Pentaceraster multispinus (Von Martens, 1866) 169 180. Pentaceraster regulus (Muller and Troschel, 1842) 181. Pentaceraster westermanni (Lutken, 1871) 182. Poraster superbus (Mobius, 1859) 183. Protoreaster lincki (de Blainvillae, 1830) 184. Protoreaster nodosus (Linneaus, 1758) Family : Asteropsidae 185. Asteropsis carinifera (Lamarck, 1816) 186. Valvaster striatus (Lamarck, 1816) Family : Acanthasteridae 187. Acanthaster planci (Linneaus, 1758) Family : Ophidiasteridae 188. Andora faouzii (Macan, 1938) 189. Certonardoasemiregularis (Muller and Troschel, 1842) 190. Cistina columbiae (Gray, 1840) 191. Dactylaster cylindricus (Lamarck, 1816) 192. 193. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198. 199. 200. 201. 202. 203. 170 Fromia armata (Koehler, 1910) Fromia indica (Perrier, 1869) Fromia milleporella (Lamarck, 1816) Fromia monilis (Perrier, 1869) Gomophia egyptiaca (Gray, 1840) Heteronardoa carinata (Koehler, 1910) Leiaster glaber (Peters, 1852) Leiaster leachi (Gray, 1840) Linckia guildingi (Gray, 1840) Linckia laevigata (Linneaus, 1758) Linckia multifora (Lamarck, 1816) Nardoa frianti (Koehler, 1910) 204. Nardoa glatheae (Lutkan, 1865) 205. Nardoa lemonnieri (Koehler, 1910) 206. Nardoa novacaledoniae (Perrier, 1875) 207. Nardoa sp. 208. Neoferdina offreti (Koehler, 1910) 209. Ophidiaster armatus (Koehler, 1910) 210. Ophidiaster hemprichi (Muller and Troschel, 1842) 211. Paraferdina laccadivensis (James, 1976) 212. Paraferina sohariae (Marsh and Price, 1991) 213. Tamaria fusca (Gray, 1840) 214. Tamaria dubiosa (Koehler, 1910) 215. Tamaria hirsuta (Koehler, 1910) 216. Tamaria megaloplax (Bell, 1884) Order: VELATIDA Family : Pterasteridae 217. Eureaster cibrosus (von Martens, 1867) 218. Hymenaster alcocki (Koehler, 1909) 219. Hymenaster nobilis (Wyville Thompson, 1876) 220. Marsipaster hirsutus (Wood Mason and Alcock, 1891) Order: SPINULOSIDA Family : Echinasteridae 221. Dictyaster xenophilus (Wood Mason and Alcock, 1891) 222. Dictyaster woodmasoni (Alcock, 1893) 223. Echinaster callosus (von Marenzeller, 1895) 224. Echinaster luzonicus (Gray, 1840) 225. Echinaster purpureus (Gray, 1840) 226. Henricia mutans (Koehler, 1893) 171 Family : Metrodiridae 227. Metrodira subulata (Gray, 1840) Order: FORCIPULATIDA Family : Zoroasteridae 228. Cnemidaster squameus (Alcock, 1893) 229. Zoroaster adami (Koehler, 1909) 230. Zoroaster alfredi (Alcock, 1893) 231. Zoroaster angulatus (Alcock, 1893) 232. Zoroaster barathri (Alcock, 1893) 233. Zoroaster carinatus (Alcock, 1893) 234. Zoroaster gilesii(Alcock, 1893) 235. Zoroaster planus (Alcock, 1893) 236. Zoroaster zea (Alcock, 1893) 237. Zoroaster sp. Family: Pedicellaster 238. Pedicellaster atratus (Alcock, 1893) Family: Asteriidae 239. Scleraasterias mazophora (Wood-Mason and Alcock, 1891) 240. Sclerasterias nitida (Koehler, 1910) Order: BRISINGIDA Family: Brisingidae 241. Brisinga andamanica (Wood-Mason and Alcock, 1891) 242. Brisinga bengalensis(Wood-Masona and Alcock, 1891) 243. Brisinga gunni (Alcock, 1893) 244. Brisinga insularum (Wood-Masona and Alcock, 1891) 172 245. Brisinga panopla (Fisher, 1906) 246. Brisinga parallela (Koehler, 1909) 247. Stegnobrisinga gracilis (Koehler, 1909) Family : Freyellidae 248. Freyastera benthphila (Sladen, 1889) 249. Freyastera tuberculata (Sladen, 1889) Class: OPHIUROIDEA Order: PHRYNOPHIURIDA Family : Ophiomyxidae 250. Ophiomyxa australis (Lutken, 1869) 251. Ophiophrixus confinis (Koehler, 1922) Family : Asteronychidae 252. Asteronyx loveni (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Family : Euryalidae 253. Asteromorpha fosculus (Alcock, 1893) 254. Trichaster acanthifer (Doderlein, 1911) Family : Gorgonocephalidae 255. Astroboa clavata (lyman, 1861) 256. Astroba nuda (Lyman, 1874) 257. Astrocladus exiguus (Lamarck, 1816) 258. Astrothrombus vacors (Koehler, 1904) Family : Asteroschematidae 259. Asterschema subfastosum (Doderlein, 1930) 260. Ophiocreas sibogae (Koehler, 1904) 261. Ophiocreas sp. 173 Order: OPHIURIDA Family : Ophi uridae 262. Ophioelegans cincta (Muller and Troschel, 1842) 263. Ophiolepis superba (H.L. Clark, 1842) 264. Ophiolypus granulatus (Koehler, 1897) 265. Ophimusium elegans (Koehler, 1897) 266. Ophimusium familiare (Koehler, 1897) 267. Ophimusium fimbriatum (Koehler, 1927) 268. Ophimusium lymani (Wyville Thompson, 1873) 269. Ophimusium relictum (Koehler, 1927) 270. Ophimusium scalare (Lyman, 1878) 271. Ophimusium simplex (Lyman, 1878) 272. Ophimusium validum (Ljungman, 1871) 273. Ophioplocus imbricatus (Muller and Troschel, 1841) 274. Ophiosphalma elegans (Koehler, 1897) 275. Ophiosphalma planum (Lyman, 1878) 276. Ophioteichus nodosa (Duncan, 1887) 277. Ophiotrochus panniculus (Lyman, 1878) 278. Ophiozonella bispinosa (Koehler, 1897) 279. Ophiozonella molesta (Koehler, 1904) 280. Ophiernus adspersus adspersus (Lyman, 1878) 281. Ophioleuce seminudum (Koehler, 1904) 282. Ophiopallas paradoxa (Koehler, 1904) 283. Ophiostratus bispinosus (Koehler, 1897) 284. Amphiophiura ornata (Lyman, 1878) 285. Amphiophiura paupera(Koehler, 1897) 286. Amphiophiura radiata (Lyman, 1878) 287. Amphiophiura sculptilis (Lyman, 1878) 288. Amphiophiura sordida (Koehler, 1897) 289. Amphiophiura stellata (Studer, 1882) 174 290. Homalophiura inflata (Koehler, 1897) 291. Ophiomastus tumidus (Koehler, 1897) 292. 293. 294. 295. Ophiopyrgus alcocki (Koehler, 1897) Ophiotypa simplex (Koehler, 1897) Ophiura aequalis (Lyman, 1878) Ophiura flagellata (Lyman, 1878) 296. 297. 298. 299. Ophiura Ophiura Ophiura Ophiura forbesi (Duncan, 1879) irrorata (Lyman, 1878) kinbergi (Ljungman, 1867) undulata (Lyman, 1878) Family: Ophiocomidae 300. Ophiarthrum elegans (Peters, 1851) 301. Ophiarthrum pictum (Muller and Troschel, 1842) 302. Ophiocoma anglyptica (Ely, 1944) 303. 304. 305. 306. Ophiocoma Ophiocoam Ophiocoma Ophiocoma brvipes (Peters, 1851) dentata (Muller and Troschel, 1842) doderleini (de Loriol, 1890) erinaceus (Muller and Troschel, 1842) 307. 308. 309. 310. Ophiocoma lubrica (Koehler, 1898) Ophiocoma pica (Muller and troschel, 1842) Ophiocoma pusilla (Brock, 1888) Ophiocoma scolopendrina (Lamarck, 1816) 311. 312. 313. 314. Ophiocoma valenciae (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Ophiocomella sexradia (Duncan, 1887) Ophiomastix annulosa (Lamarck, 1816) Ophiopsila pantherina (Koehler, 1898) Family: Ophionereidae 315. Ophiochiton ambulator (Koehler, 1897) 175 316. 317. 318. 319. Ophiochiton modestus (Koehler, 1897) Ophionereis andmanensis (James, 1987) Ophionereia dubia (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Ophionereis porrecta (Lyman, 1860) Family: Ophiodermatidae 320. 321. 322. 323. 324. Bathypectinura heros (Lyman, 1879) Gymnopelta indica (Koehler, 1897) Ophiarachna incrassata (Lamarck, 1816) Ophiarachnella gorgonia (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Ophiarachnella infernalis (Muller and Troschel, 1842) 325. 326. 327. 328. 329. 330. 331. Ophiarachnella intermedia (Bell, 1888) Ophiarachnella megaloplax (Bell, 1884) Ophiarachnella sphenesci (Bell, 1894) Ophiocormus compsus (A.M.Clark, 1968) Ophiopeza custos (Koehler, 1897) Ophiopeza fallax arbacia (A.M.Clark, 1968) Ophiosammus yoldii (Lutken, 1856) Family : Ophiacanthidae 332. 333. 334. 335. 336. 337. 338. 339. 340. 176 Ophiacantha abnormis (Lyman, 1879) Ophiacantha compos ita (Koehler, 1897) Ophiacantha indica (Ljungman, 1899) Ophiacantha pentagona (Koehler, 1897) Ophiacantha sociabilis (Koehler, 1897) Ophiacantha vagans (Koehler, 1899) Ophiacantha vestita (Koehler, 1897) Ophiacantha vorax (Koehler, 1897) Ophiocamax fasciculata (Lyman, 1883) 341. Ophiocamax rugosa (Koehler, 1904) 342. Ophiomitra integra (Koehler, 1897) 343. Ophioplinthaca rudis (Koehler, 1897) 344. Ophiotreta matura (Koehler, 1904) Family : Hemieuryalidae 345. Ophiomoeris tenera (Koehler, 1897) Family : Ophaictidae 346. Ophiactis acosmeta (H.L. Clark, 1971) 347. Ophiactis brachyura (Doderlein, 1971) 348. Ophiactis delagoa (Balinsky, 1957) 349. Ophiactis flexuosa (Koehler, 1897) 350. Ophiactis maculosa (von Martens, 1870) 351. Ophiactis modesta (Brock, 1888) 352. Ophiactis picteti (de Loriol, 1893) 353. Ophiactis savignyi (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Family: Amphiuridae 354. Amphiodia caullery (Koehler, 1897) 355. Amphioplus intermedius (Koehler, 1983) 356. Amphioplus cyrtacanthus (H.L. Clark, 1915) 357. Amphioplus personatus (Koehler, 1971) 358. Amphioplus andreae (Lutken, 1971) 359. Amphioplus depressus (Ljungman, 1867) 360. Amphioplus gravelyi (James, 1927) 361. Amphioplus hastatus (Ljungman, 1867) 362. Amphioplus laevis (Lyman, 1874) 363. Amphioplus misera (Koehler, 1899) 364. Amphioplus squamata (Delle Chiaje, 1828) 177 365. Amphiura ambigua (Koehler, 1905) 366. Amphiura septemspinosa (H.L. Clark, 1915) 367. Amphiura tenius (H.L. Clark, 1938) 368. Amphiura dispar (Koehler, 1897) 369. Amphiura famula (Koehler, 1910) 370. Amphiura lorioli (Koehler, 1897) 371. Dougaloplus echinatus (Ljungman, 1867) 372. Histampica duplicata (Lyman, 1874) 373. Ophiocentrus dilatatus (Koehler, 1905) 374. Ophiocentrus verticillatus (Doderlein, 1971) 375. Ophiostigma formosa (Lutken, 1899) Family : Ophiotrichidae 376. Gymnolophus obscura (Ljungman, 1969) 377. Macropohiothrix aspidota (Muller and Troschel, 1842) 378. Macropohiothrix demessa (Lyman, 1869) 379. Macropohiothrix galatheae (Lutken, 1872) 380. Macropohiothrix koehleri (A.M. Clark, 1905) 381. Macropohiothrix longipeda (Lamarck, 1816) 382. Macropohiothrix Propinqua (Lyman, 1861) 383. Macropohiothrix speciosa (Koehler, 1898) 384. Macropohiothrix variabilis (Duncan, 1887) 385. Macropohiothrix hirsuta (Muller and Troschel, 1842) 386. Ophiocnemis marmorata (Lamarck, 1816) 387. Ophiogymna elegans (Ljungman, 1971) 388. Ophiogymna lineata (H.L.Clark, 1969) 389. Ophiogymna pellicula (Duncan, 1887) 390.0phiolophus novarae (Marktanner-Turneretsher, 1887) 391. Ophiomaza cacaotica (Lyman, 1871) 178 392. Ophiopteron elegans (Ludwig, 1888) 393. Ophiothela danae (Verill, 1869) 394. Ophiothrix diligens (Koehler, 1898) 395. Ophiothrix proteus (Koehler, 1905) 396. Ophiothrix purpurae (von Martens, 1867) 397. Ophiothrix vigelandi (A.M. Clark, 1922) 398. Ophiothrix nereidina (Lamarck, 1816) 399. Ophiothrix aristulata (Lyman, 1879) 400. Ophiothrix ciliaris (Lamarck, 1816) 401. Ophiothrix exigua (Lyman, 1874) 402.0phiothrix foveolata (Marktanner-Turneretscher, 1887) 403. 404. 405. 406. 407. 408. 409. 410. Ophiothrix savignyi (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Ophiothrix trilineata (Lutken, 1869) Ophiothrix variegata (Duncan, 1887) Ophiothrix vitrea (Doderlein, 1896) Ophiothrix fumaria (Muller and Troschel, 1842) Ophiothrix striolata (Grube, 1868) Ophiothrix accedens (Koehler, 1966) Ophiothrix sp. Class: ECHINOIDEA Order: CIDAROIDA Family: Cidariidae 411. 412. 413. 414. 415. 416. Eucidaris metularia (Lamarck, 1816) Histocidaris denticulata (Koehler, 1907) Phyllacanthus forcipulatus (Mortensen, 1936) Phyllacanthus imperialis (lamarck, 1816) Prinocidaris purpurata (Wyville- Thompson, 1869) Prinocidaris baculosa (Lamarck, 1816) 179 417. 418. 419. 420. 421. Prinocidaris bispinosa (Lamarck, 1816) Prinocidaris verticillata (Lamarck, 1816) Stereocidaris alcocki (Anderson, 1894) Stereocidaris indica (Doderlein, 1901) Stylocidris albidens (H.L. Clark, 1925) 422. Stylocidaris brevicollis (de Meijere, 1904) 423. Stylocidaris lorioli (Koehler, 1927) 424. Stylocidaris tiara (Anderson, 1894) 425. Acanthocidaris maculicollis (Meijere, 1903) Order: ECHINOTHURIOIDA Family: Echinothuridae 426. 427. 428. 429. 430. Hygrosoma luculentum (Agassiz, 1879) Phormosoma bursarium (Agassiz, 1881) Phormosoma verticillatum (Mortensen, 1904) Phormosoma sp. Sperosoma biseriatum (Doderlein, 1901) Order: DIADEMATOIDA Family : Diadematidae 431. Astropyga radiata (Leske, 1778) 432. Centrostephanus nitidus (Koehler, 1927) 433. Chaetodiadema granulatum (Mortensen, 1903) 434. Diadema savignyi (Michelin, 1845) 435. Diadema setosum (Leske, 1758) 436. Echinothrix calamaris (Pallas, 1774) 437. Echinothrix diadema (Linneaus, 1758) Family: Aspidodiadematidae 438. Aspidodiadema nicobaricum (Doderlein, 1901) 180 Order: PEDINOIDA Family : Pedinidae 439. Coenopedina depressa (Koehler, 1927) Order: SELENIOIDA Family : Saleniidae 440. Salenocidaris miliaris (Mortensen, 1939) 441. Salenia sculpta (Koehler, 1927) Order: PHYMOSOMATIDAE Family : Stomechinidae 442. Stomopneustes variolaris (Lamarck, 1816) Order: ARBACIOIDA Family: Arbaciidae 443. Arbacia punctulata (Lamarck, 1861) 444. Coelopleurus vittiatus (Koehler, 1927) 445. Pygmaeocidaris prionigera (Agassiz, 1879) Order: TEMNOPLEUROIDA Family : Temnopleuridae 446. Mespilia globulus (Linneaus, 1758) 447. 448. 449. 450. 451. 452. 453. 454. 455. Microcyphus ceylanicus (Mortensen, 1925) Paratrema doderleini (Mortensen, 1904) Printechinus impressus (Koehler, 1927) Prionechinus agassizi (Wood-Mason and Alcock,1891) Salmaciella dussumieri (L. Agassiz and Desor, 1846) Salmacis belli (Doderlein, 1902) Salmacis bicolor (Agassiz, 1841) Salmacis virgulata (Agassiz, 1846) Salmacis belli (Doderlein, 1902) 181 456. 457. 458. 459. 460. 461. Temnopleurus apodus (Agassiz and H.L. Clark, 1943) Temnopleurus proctalis (Koehler, 1927) Temnopleurus toreumaticus (Leske, 1778) Temnopleurus alexandri (Bell, 1884) Temnometra scillae (Mazetti, 1894) Trigonocidaris versicolor (Koehler, 1927) Family : Toxopneustidae 462. 463. 464. 465. Gymnechinus robillaridi (de Loriol, 1883) Pseudoboletia maculata (Troschel, 1869) Toxopneustes pileolus (Lamarck, 1816) Tripneustes gratilla (Linneaus, 1758) 466. 467. 468. 469. 470. 471. Order : Echinoida Family : Echinometridae Colobocentrotus atratus (Linneaus, 1758) Echinometra mathai (de Blainvillae, 1825) Echinometra oblonga (de Blainvillae, 1969) Echinostrephus molaris (de Blainvillae, 1825) Heterocentrotus mammilatus (Linneaus, 1758) Heterocentrotus trigonarius (Lamarck, 1816) Order: HOLECTYPOIDA Family : Echinoneidae 472. Echinoneus cyclostomus (Leske, 1778) Order: CLYPEASTEROIDA Family: Clypeasteridae 473. Clypeaster annandalei (Koehler, 1922) 474. Clypeaster fervens (Koehler, 1922) 475. Clypeaster humilis (Leske, 1778) 182 476. Clypeaster rarispinus (de Meijere, 1903) 477. Clypeaster reticulatus (Linneaus, 1758) Family : Arachnoididae 478. Arachnoides placenta (Linneaus, 1758) Family: Fibularidae 479. 480. 481. 482. 483. Echinocyamus crisp us (Mazetti, 1893) Echinocyamus sollers (Koehler, 1922) Fibularia cribellum (de Meijere, 1904) Fibularia oblonga (Gray, 1847) Fabularia volva (Agassiz, 1847) Family : Laganidae 484. 485. 486. 487. Laganum Laganum Laganum Laganum decagonale (de Blainvillae, 1827) depressum (Lesson, 1841) laganum (Leske, 1778) retinens (Koehler, 1922) 488. 489. 490. 491. 492. 493. 494. 495. Laganum retinense mortenseni (Mortensen, 1948) Laganum versatile (Koehler, 1922) Peronella lessueri (Valenciennes, 1841) Peronella macroproctes (Koehler, 1922) Pronella oblonga (Mortensen, 1948) Pronella orbicularis (leske, 1778) Pronella rubra (Doderlein, 1885) Pronella rutlandi (Koehler, 1922) Family: Astriclypeidae 496. Echinodiscus auritus (Leske, 1778) 497. Echinodiscus bisperforatus (Leske, 1778) 183 Order: CASSIDULOIDA Family: Echinolampadidae 498. Echinolampas alexandri (de Loriol, 1876) 499. Echinolampas castanea (Alcock, 1894) 500. Echinolampas ouata (Leske, 1778) Order: SPATANGOIDA Family : Hemiasteridae 501. Hemiaster uanus (Koehler, 1914) Family : Palaeostomatidae 502. Palaeostoma mirabile (Gray, 1851) Family : Pericosmidae 503. Pericosmus micronesius (Koehler, 1914) Family : Schizasteridae 504. 505. 506. 507. 508. 509. 510. 511. Brisaster indicus (Koehler, 1914) Faorina chinensis (Gray, 1851) Moira stygia (Lutken, 1872) Schizaster kempi (Koehler, 1914) Schizaster angulatus (Koehler, 1914) Schizaster gibberulus (Agassiz, 1847) Schizaster inuestigatoris (Koehler, 1914) Schizaster compactus (Koehler, 1914) Family : Brissidae 512. 513. 514. 515. 184 Brissopsis luzonica (Gray, 1851) Brissopsis oldhami (Alcock, 1893) Brissopsis parallela (Koehler, 1914) Brissus latecarinatus (Leske, 1778) 516. 517. 518. 519. 520. Gymnopatagus magnus (Agassiz and Alcock, 1907) Gymnopatagus valdiviae (Doderlain, 1901) Metalia latissima (H.L. Clark, 1925) Metalia spatagus (Linneaus, 1758) Rhynobrissus pyramidalis (Agassiz, 1872) Family : Spatangidae 521. Maretia planulata (Lamarck, 1914) 522. Nacospatangus alta (Agassiz, 1863) Family : Loveniidae 523. 524. 525. 526. Breynia verdenburgi (Anderson, 1907) Lovenia elongata (Gray, 1845) Lovenia gregalis (Alcock, 1834) Lovenia subcarinata (Gray, 1845) Family : Asterostomatidae 527. Araeolampas glauca (Wood-Masona and Alcock, 1891) 528. Argopatagus vitreus (Agassiz, 1881) 529. Elipneustes denudatus (Koehler, 1914) 530. Elipneustes rubens (Koehler, 1914) 531. Heterobrissus hemingi (Anderson, 1899) 532. Linopneustes spectabilis (de Meijere, 1904) 533. Paleotrema ovatum (Koehler, 1914) Class: HOLOTHUROIDEA Order: ASPIDOCHIROTIDA Family: Holothuriidae 534. Actinopyga mauritiana (Quoy and Gaimard, 1833) 535. Actinopyga lecanora (Jaeger, 1833) 536. Actinopyga echinities (Jaeger, 1833) 185 637. 638. 639. 640. 641. 642. 643. 644. 646. 646. 647. 648. 649. 660. 661. 662. 663. 664. 666. 666. 667. 668. 669. 660. 661. 662. 663. 664. 666. 666. 186 Aetinopyga miliaris (Quoy and Gaimard, 1833) Bohadssehia argus (Jaeger, 1833) Bohadsehia marmorata (Jaeger, 1833) Bohadsehia graeffei (Semper, 1868) Bohadsehia tenuissiama (Semper, 1868) Holothuria pyxis (Selenka, 1867) Holothuria inhabilis (Selenka,1867) Holothuria rigida (Selenka, 1867) Holothuria atra (Jaeger, 1833) Holothuria edulis (Lesson, 1830) Holothuria paradalis (Selenka, 1867) Holothuria exilis (Koehler and Vaney, 1908) Holothuria fuseoeinerea (Jaeger, 1833) Holothuria leueospilota (Brandt, 1836) Holothuria pervieax (Selenka, 1867) Holothuria albiventer (Semper, 1893) Holothuria oeellata (Jaeger, 1833) Holothuria seabra (Jager, 1833) Holothuria fuseogilva (Cherbonnier, 1908) Holothuria nobilis (Selenka, 1867) Holothuria diffieilis (Semper, 1868) Holothuria erinaeeus (Semper, 1868) Holothuria moebii (Ludwig, 1883) Holothuria eineraseens (Brandt, 1836) Holothuria prompta (Koehler and Vaney, 1908) Holothuria kurti (Ludwig, 1908) Holothuria spinifera (Theel, 1886) Holothuria arenieola (Semper, 1868) Holothuria graeillis (Semper, 1868) Holothuria hilla (Lesson, 1830) 567. 568. 569. 570. Holothuria Holothuria Holothuria Holothuria impatiens (Forskal, 1775) remollescens (Lampert, 1908) integra (Koehler and Vaney, 1908) coluber (Semper, 1869) Family : Labidodematidae 571. Labidodemas rugosum (Ludwig, 1875) 572. Labidodemas semperianum (Selenka, 1867) Family : Stichopodidae 573. Aspostichopus japonicus (Selenka, 1969) 574. Stichopus chloronatus (Brandt, 1835) 575. Stichopus hermanni (Semper, 1868) 576. Stichopus horrens (Selenka, 1867) 577. Stichopus vastus (Sluiter, 1888) 578. Thelenota ananas (Jaeger, 1833) Family: Synallactidae 579. Allopatides dendroides (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 580. Bathyplotes assimilis (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 581. Bathyplotes cinctus (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 582. Bathyplotes crenulatus (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 583. Bathyplotes pappillosus (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 584. Bathyplotes profundus (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 585. Bathyplotes variabilis (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 586. Benthothuria cristatus (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 587. Benthothuria distortus (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 588. Mesothuria abbreviata (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 589. Mesothuria incerta (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 590. Mesothuria multipes (Ludwig, 1894) 187 591. Mesothuria squamosa (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 592. Pleopatides gelatinosus (Walsh, 1891) 593. Pleopatides insignis (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 594. Pleopatides modestus (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 595. Pleopatides mollis (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 596. Pleopatides ovalis (Walsh, 1891) 597. Pleopatides verrucosa (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 598. Pseudistichopus occulatus (Marenzeller, 1893) 599. Synallactes horridus (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 600. Synallactes pellucidus (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 601. Synallactes rigidus (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 602. Synallactes woodmasoni (Walsh, 1891) Order: DENDROCHIROTIDA Family : Psolidae 603. Psolidium rugosum (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 604. Psolus mannarensis (James, 1927) 605. Psolus membranaceus (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 606. Psolus sp. Family: Phyllophoridae 607. Actinocucumis typicus (Ludwig, 1875) 608. Afrocucumis africana (Semper, 1868) 609. Oshimella ehrenbergi (Selenka, 1868) 610. Phyllophorus celer (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 611. Phyllophorus intermedius (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 612. Phyllophorus parvipedes (H.L.Clark, 1938) 613. Phyllophorus sp. 614. Phyllophorus cubuensis (Semper, 1868) 188 615. Phyllophorus brocki (Ledwig, 1888) 616. Phyrella fragilis (Ohshima, 1912) 617. Pseudocucumis acicula (Semper, 1868) Family : Cucumariidae 618. 619. 620. 621. 622. 623. 624. 625. 626. 627. 628. Aslia forbesi (Bell, 1884) Althyone sp. Cladolabes acicula (Semper, 1983) Cucumaria ardens (Koehler and Vaney, Cucumaria ariana (Koehler and Vaney, Cucumaria frauenfeldi (Ludwig, 1971) Cucumaria inflexa (Koehler and Vaney, Cucumaria turbinata (Hutton, 1988) Havelockia versicolor (Semper, 1868) Hemithyone semperi (Bell, 1884) Leptopentacta bacilliformis (Koehler 1905) 1905) 1905) and Vaney, 1905) 629. 630. 631. 632. 633. 634. 635. 636. 637. 638. 639. 640. 641. Leptopentacta imbricata (Semper, 1868) Leptopentacta japonicus (Sluiter, 1880) Pentacta quadrangularis (Troschel, 1846) Pseudocnus echinatus (von Marenzeller, 1882) Pseudocolochirus tricolor (Sluiter, 1971) Pseudocolochirus violaceus (Theel, 1882) Stolus buccalis (Stimpson, 1855) Stolus conjungens (Semper, 1868) Stolus rapax (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Thorsonia investigatoris (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Thyone dura (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Thyone papuensis (Theel, 1886) Trachythyone alcocki (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 189 Order: DACTYLOCHIROTIDA Family: Yapsilothuridae 642. Yapsilothuria bitentaculata (Ludwig, 1894) 643. 644. 645. 646. 647. 648. Order: ELASIPODODA Family : Deimatidae Amphideima investigatoris (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Deima blakei (Theel, 1886) Deima validum (Theel, 1882) Oneiriphanta conservata (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Orphnurgus glaber (Walsh, 1891) Orphnurgus invalidus (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Family : Laetmogonidae 649. Apodogaster alcocki (Walsh, 1901) 650. Laetmogone spongiosa (Theel, 1882) 651. Laetmogone violacea (Theel, 1882) Family : Psychropotidae 652. Benthodytes glutinosa (Perrier, 1902) 653. Benthodytes typica (Theel, 1882) 654. Filithuria elegans (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Family: Pelagothuriidae 655. Euriplaster obscura (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Order: APODIDA Family : Synaptidae 656. Anapta gracilis (Semper, 1868) 657. Chondrocolea baselii (Jaeger, 1833) 190 658. 659. 660. 661. 662. 663. 664. 665. 666. 667. 668. 669. 670. 671. 672. 673. 674. 675. 676. 677. Euapta godeffroyi (Semper, 1868) Labidoplax sp. Leptosynapta sp. Opheodesoma grisea (Semper, 1868) Patinapta oollax (von Marenzeller, 1882) Protankyra conferta (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Protankyra denticulata (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Protankyra errata (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Protankyra innominata (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Protankyra pseudodigitata (Semper, 1868) Protankyra similes (Semper, 1868) Protankyra timida (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Protankyra tristis (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Protankyra tuticorensis (Jaeger, 1833) Protankyra sp. Psamothuria ganapati (Rao, G.C.1968) Synapta maculata (Chamisso and Eysenhardt, 1821) Synapta sp. Synaptulam recta (Semper, 1868) Synaptula striata (Sluiter, 1888) Family: Chiridotidae 678. Polycheira rufescens (Brandt, 1835) 679. Trochodota havelockensis (Rao, G.C.1975) Family : Myriotrochidae 680. Ankyloderma brevicaudatum (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 681. Ankyloderma contortum (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 682. Ankyloderma intermedim (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 683. Ankyloderma danielseni (Theel, 1886) 191 684. Ankyloderma musculus (Risso, 1826) 685. Ankyloderma polymorphium (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 686. Trochostoma albicans (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 687. Trochostoma andamanensis (Walsh, 1891) 688. Trochostoma ecalcareum (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 689. Trochostoma elegatum (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) 690. Trochostoma pauperum (Koehler and Vaney, 1905) Order: MALPADIIDAE Family: Caudiniidae 691. Acaudina leucoprocta (Clark, H.L.1938) 692. Acaudina malpadiodes (Semper, 1868) 693. Paracaudina australis (Semper, 1868) Source: Sastry (2007) 9. ACKNOWDEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the The Director, Zoological Survey of India for facilities and Ministry of Environment and Forests for providing financial assistance through the projects of National Coral Reef Research Institute, Zoologicial Survey of India. 10. REFERENCES Ausich, W.I. 1997. Calyx plate homologies and early evolutionary history of the Crinoidea. Paleont. Soc. Papers, 3: 289-304. Ausich, W. 1998. 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