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2005
Spelling words in English can be a frus-trating and discouraging experience for schoolchildren. For some words, spellers can easily achieve success by dividing the word into small units of sound, phonemes, and representing the phonemes by the letters that most commonly spell them. For example, the word tip is composed of the phonemes/t/,/I/, and/p/, 1 which can be straightforwardly spelled by the letters t, i, and p. Words such as pat, fit, and shop are easily spelled using such a sound-based or phonemic strategy.
Skase Journal of Theoretical Linguistics
Grammaphonology: A new theory of English spelling2011 •
This study of standard and non-standard English spelling patterns makes steps towards developing a theory of spelling which can explain both within the one model. The study explores the formal differences between standard English spelling and ‘constructed homophony’, a sub-branch of non-standard spelling, and some existing theories of standard spelling are updated to cover both. In the latter section, the goal is to provide the outline of a visual model which can be used to predict all possible well-formed English spellings of all possible well-formed English words, even allowing for the interchanging of phonograms, morphograms and syllabograms.
2018 •
Studies of English spelling have primarily focussed on correspondences between spelling and sound among core, standard spellings. Segmental-level correspondences have been examined in detail (Venezky 1970, Cummings 1988, Carney 1994, Rollings 2004), while recent work shows that English spellings also encode supra-segmental information (Evertz and Primus 2013, Evertz 2014). An outstanding problem is the degree to which morphemic spelling is applied across the system (c.f. Venezky 1970: 120; Carney 1994: 18). Berg et al. (2014) observe that the spelling of affixes is more stable than the spelling of bases, hence <profane> alternates with <profanity>, not *<profanety> or *<profaneity>. Yet none of these theories address in detail why certain spellings are chosen over others. This thesis examines how English spellings are formed, particularly where compromises are made in the representation of both morphological and phonological information. The primary focus is ...
Child Development
What Types of Linguistic Information Do Children Use in Spelling? The Case of Flaps1994 •
Studies of English spelling have primarily focussed on correspondences between spelling and sound among core, standard spellings. Segmental-level correspondences have been examined in detail (Venezky 1970, Cummings 1988, Carney 1994, Rollings 2004), while recent work shows that English spellings also encode supra-segmental information (Evertz and Primus 2013, Evertz 2014). An outstanding problem is the degree to which morphemic spelling is applied across the system (c.f. Venezky 1970: 120; Carney 1994: 18). Berg et al. (2014) observe that the spelling of affixes is more stable than the spelling of bases, hence <profane> alternates with <profanity>, not *<profanety> or *<profaneity>. Yet none of these theories address in detail why certain spellings are chosen over others. This thesis examines how English spellings are formed, particularly where compromises are made in the representation of both morphological and phonological information. The primary focus is on the spelling of inflections, but also derivations, names and non-standard spellings. The study also examines how we know if a spelling is a good phonographic match for a word. Five principles of spelling formation are proposed. 1. Any-Spelling principle: All words must have some spelling. 2. Distinctiveness principle (DSTNCT): Different words should have different spellings. 3. Identity Preservation principle (IdP): Related words should have related spellings. Hence complex words take their spelling from the spellings of their subcomponents. 4. Phonographic Matching principle (PhM): A word's spelling should represent its phonological form. 5. Invariance principle (INVRNC): Established spellings cannot be changed. The principles are manifested differently according to the category of word being spelt. Compound words adhere strongly to IdP. Regular inflections follow IdP by default, <jump, jumped, jumping>, but may involve PhM amendments, hence <dope, doped, doping> not <dope, *dopeed, *dopeing>. Affixed derivatives show similar patterns, <mode, modal>, regardless of stress-shifting, <origin, original>, while etymological influences complicate the picture, <possible, probable>. DSTNCT sometimes differentiates lexical homophones. <flour>, <flower>, but it is common among certain names, <Webb>, <Blu Tac>, <OutKast>. Non-standard spellings violate INVRNC by definition, and the conditions for spelling variation arise in part due to phonological changes. Abbreviations frequently obey IdP, e.g. <a.k.a.>, but clippings may not, <telly>, <fridge>. Etymological spelling is deemed to be an example of IdP, either among unchanged base forms, <macchiato>, or adapted polymorphemic words, <philosophy>. This re-assessment helps to solve the long-standing problem of how to integrate etymological spelling into synchronic theories of spelling. A flexible unit of spelling, the complex pleremic unit, is identified and it accounts for IdP's various manifestations. Native, monomorphemic base forms are not examined in detail as the priority is how new and complex words are spelt. This method is taken from word-formation studies (Marchand 1969, Bauer 1983, Plag 2003). The initial model of spelling formation assumes that polymorphemic words obey IdP by default, but that PhM amendments can be made, where necessary, if possible. The second iteration builds on Evertz's (2014) graphematic hierarchy to show how unsatisfactory spellings can be identified by comparing spelling and phonology at all hierarchical levels, including phonemes, syllables, and feet. The third iteration shows how Optimality Theory can be used to explain how one imperfect spelling, e.g. <doped>, can be chosen over an even less perfect spelling, *<dopeed>. Two further applications arise from the model: the pronunciation of many polysyllabic words can be predicted from the spelling with greater accuracy; and a path is provided by which spelling pronunciation can be predicted from potential ambiguities in decoding.
An overview of the goals of English orthography counters the misconception that its spelling is chaotic and unprincipled. Direct representation of the speaker's phonemes is not its only goal. But even the sound-to-letter correspondences are not as inconsistent as widely believed. A survey of first-grade text vocabulary shows that spelling consistency is increased significantly if one takes into account the position of the phoneme within the syllable and the identity of the phonemes in the environment. Environmental influences within the rime are especially important. Understanding these patterns may reduce the complexity of spelling for learners and those with spelling problems.
2014 •
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