SPUDASMATA 149 SPUDASMATA Studien zur Klassischen Philologie und ihren Grenzgebieten Begründet von Hildebrecht Hommel und Ernst Zinn Herausgegeben von Gottfried Kiefner und Ulrich Köpf Band 149 EDIPO CLASSICO E CONTEMPORANEO 2012 GEORG OLMS VERLAG HILDESHEIM · ZÜRICH · NEW YORK EDIPO CLASSICO E CONTEMPORANEO a cura di Francesco Citti, Alessandro Iannucci 2012 GEORG OLMS VERLAG HILDESHEIM · ZÜRICH · NEW YORK Gedruckt mit Unterstützung des Dipartimento di Beni Culturali, Alma Mater Studiorum, Università di Bologna (Ravenna). Das Werk ist urheberrechtlich geschützt. Jede Verwertung außerhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ist ohne Zustimmung des Verlages unzulässig. Das gilt insbesondere für Vervielfältigungen, Übersetzungen, Mikroverfilmungen und die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in elektronischen Systemen. Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar. ISO 9706 Gedruckt auf säurefreiem und alterungsbeständigem Papier Herstellung: Strauss Druck GmbH, 69509 Mörlenbach Umschlagentwurf: Inga Günther, Hildesheim Alle Rechte vorbehalten Printed in Germany © Georg Olms Verlag AG, Hildesheim 2012 www.olms.de ISBN 978-3-487-14872-4 ISSN 0548-9705 INDICE Francesco Citti – Alessandro Iannucci, Edipo classico e contemporaneo: i piedi, la Singe e i dubbi del re ....................... vii Frederick Ahl, Coping with the canonical Oedipus .............................. 1 Guido Avezzù, Commiato da Edipo e da Sofocle .................................. 31 Federico Condello, Edipo senza incesto o come le riscritture inluenzano la critica .................................................................. 47 Lowell Edmunds, he edict of Oedipus (Soph. OT 216-275) ............... 63 Rita Degl’innocenti Pierini, Scenari romani per un mito greco: l’Oedipus di Seneca .................................................................. 89 Paolo Mantovanelli, L’Edipo di Seneca, una tragedia ‘moderna’ ............................................................................................ 115 Gianni Guastella, «Come cangia fortuna ordine et stile»: Edipo re nel teatro italiano del Cinquecento ................................. 137 Antonio Ziosi, he Senecan curse and the «discontents» of the English Oedipus ........................................................................... 165 Maria Paola Funaioli, Edipo nel teatro francese del Setecento ...................................................................................................... 179 Giorgio Ieranò, Tra erotismo e misticismo: Œdipe et le Sphinx di Joséphin Péladan .............................................................. 195 Martina Treu, Tragicomic Oedipus ...................................................... 219 Gian Luca Tusini, Metamorfosi di Edipo nell’arte igurativa tra Oto e Novecento .......................................................................... 235 Sebastiana Nobili, Pirandello e Gide: variazioni su Edipo .............. 263 vi Indice Andrés Pociña, Visiones de Edipo en el teatro español de Posguerra ............................................................................................. Marco Antonio Bazzocchi, Pasolini, Edipo e la parte nascosta del mito ..................................................................................... Roberto Mario Danese, Edipo al Funerale delle rose: l’Edipo re di Sofocle nel cinema di Toshio Matsumoto .............................. Giacomo Manzoli, Celluloide e vegetali: appunti sulla rappresentazione cinematograica di Edipo e il suo complesso ......... Andrea Rodighiero, La promessa del sangue: motivi edipici in Incendies di Wajdi Mouawad ....................................................... Edoardo Sanguineti, Due interventi su: «Riscrivere, rappresentare Edipo» ............................................................................... Abbreviazioni bibliograihe .................................................................... Indice analitico ............................................................................................ 281 301 309 343 359 385 393 427 Antonio Ziosi THE SENECAN CURSE AND THE «DISCONTENTS» OF THE ENGLISH OEDIPUS Who stains my Bed with Incest? Oedipus: For whom then are you curst, but Oedipus!1 he history of the English reception of Oedipus is perhaps more the story of an oten mysteriously empty stage. Unlike the many Frenh Oedipuses2, or their Italian counterparts – rarer but fundamental for the history of modern Tragedy3 – the English Oedipus, both in translations and in new plays, fails to take part in the great Renaissance of European drama as a leading haracter and, at least for long periods of time, remains hidden behind the curtains. Of course English Literature, and the British stage, have had a conspicuous share of the post­Freudian «Oedipemic»4 spree; three outstanding names will suice5: William Butler Yeats (Sophocles’ King Oedipus)6, Ted Hughes (he Oedipus of Seneca)7 and Steven Dryden — Lee, Oedipus III, sc. 1, ll. 369­370, quoted here and henceforth from Novak 1984. Edmunds 2006, 96 counts seventeen Frenh tragedies of Oedipus in the 18th Century; cf. also Hall — Macintosh 2005, 215­242, Boyle 2011, xcvi and Funaioli, infra, 180 f. 3 E.g. Orsato Giustiniani’s translation of Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannus whih opened Palladio’s newly built Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza in 1585, with music by Andrea Gabrie­ li; see Guastella, supra, 159 and n. 73, Dawe 1996, 1­31. 4 Edmunds 2006, 116­117, who alludes in his turn to Gide’s «une veritable Œdipémie», cited by Cocteau: see also Boyle 2011, cx. 5 For a rather complete list of 20th century works on Oedipus (plays, translations, operas, ilms and art) see Boyle 2011, cix-cxvi and Edmunds 1991; for a valuable analysis of selected Oedipuses (from Sophocles to the 20th century), see Paduano 1994. 6 Planned for about half a century and inally produced in 1928; cf. Paduano 1994, 12 n. 22. 7 Whih stands out as one of the most interesting English adaptations of Seneca’s texts in the 20th century. Writen for Peter Brook’s 1968 production, it was irst staged at the London National heatre and featured Sir John Gielgud as Oedipus, Irene Worth as Jocasta, Colin Blakeley as Creon; the hoice of Seneca’s version was thus explained by Hughes in his preface to the ‘adaptation’: «Our guiding idea from the start was to make 1 2 166 A. Ziosi Berkof (Greek and Oedipus)8, with the addition of Francis Bacon, if one considers the history of art9. But what happens between the 16th and the 20th century is nevertheless rather singular; the more so if one considers how English tragedy has contributed to the redeinition of the dramatic genre, at the beginning of suh a spell, and how the Classical Tradition has inluenced this process. Of the two more plausible reasons one is certainly more simplistic: from, at least, the end of the 18th century, Oedipus yielded to a bowdlerised judgement of taste, if not to a proper cultural censorship. In 1808 Walter Scot, praising Dryden and Lee’s plot (over Sophocles’ Oedipus at Colonus) but de facto ratifying its damnation, lamented that «distress, whih turns upon the involutions of unnatural or incestuous passion, carries with it something too disgusting for the sympathy of a reined age»10. he cultural prejudice even became law as Oedipus was exiled from the British stage from the end of the century up to 1910: thus the Lord Chamberlain (and his Examiner of Plays) banned a production of Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannus as «it was impossible to put on the stage in England a play dealing with incest»11. he other reason is perhaps more complicated and, literarily, far more interesting; prior in time, it is rooted in the founding statutes of a text that would release whatever force this situation still has, with the minimum of interference from surface detail in word, plot or movement. Sophocles’ version would not have served the special purposes of this production nearly so well as Seneca’s, whih is less a play than a series of epic descriptions connected by artiicial and at times rudimentary dialogue. It is easier to see the form of the Seneca as that of the ritualised account of a sacred event», Hughes 1968, 325. Hughes’ statement that «the text comes closely out of the original, with muh deletion, litle addition» (ibid.) is, of course, a provocation, as the play, inluenced by Artaud’s theatre, is highly original and the versiication intentionally alienating. See also Citi — Neri 2001, 84; 129­131 with further bibliography; Boyle 2011, cxiv and Talbot 2009. 8 Greek, whih premiered at the Half Moon heatre in London on 11 February 1980, in a production directed by the author, is a clever re­writing (somewhere between Dikens and Cocteau) of Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannus set in London’s East End in the postmodern Wasteland of Margaret hather’s Britain; see Paduano 1994, 239­242. he expressionistic Oedipus (still from Sophocles, but with some Senecan features) was published in 2000 and irst performed in 2008; see Boyle 2001, cxii-cxiii. 9 With his Oedipus, 1979 and Oedipus and the Sphinx ater Ingres, 1983; see Treu, infra, 230 f., Tusini, infra, 249­250 and Fig. 10 p. 260. 10 Scot 1808, 121, see also Hall — Macintosh 2005, 242. 11 Leter from Douglas Dawson to Sir Edward Carson, 11 November 1910, quoted in Hall — Macintosh 2005, 6 and see also ibid. 528­534. he Senecan curse and the «discontents» of the English Oedipus 167 modern English drama. It is well known that Aristotle’s Poetics and, above all, the theoretical debate on the tragic forms that sprung from its reading crossed the Channel at least a century ater its Italian (and Frenh) reception12. hat obviously implies a considerable delay in the reception of Sophocles’ Oedipus too as a model for tragic structures. But it is also well known how important Seneca’s tragedies were in the ‘renaissance’ of 16th century English tragedy13; and yet – and this might seem a paradox at irst – in spite of the presence of an Oedipus tragedy in the muh revered Senecan corpus, there are very few traces of ‘English Oedipuses’ in the Renaissance. As if he were victim of one of the many Senecan ghosts haunting the Elizabethan playhouses, Oedipus seems to sufer from a curious curse: Seneca’s Oedipus is not what ‘it should be’ at irst glance; it is not a Senecan play. At least for what ‘Senecan’ meant from Sakville and Norton, and Kyd, up to Marston. here is a ghost, but there is no unrestrained overreahing avenging villain: Oedipus is a tragedy of doubt and fear, not a revenge tragedy of fury. Or, as a paradox, Oedipus is not Atreus or Medea14; and his tragic guilt is imperfect by Renaissance standards15. And this curse, in some respects, ehoes up to Ted Hughes’ Oedipus. Subsequently, in spite of the «profundity and complexity of the Senecan reception»16 and of the proven (or unproven) ‘inluences’ of Seneca’s Oedipus on contemporary playwrights17, the 16th century only registers a couple of university productions of plays of Oedipus (one at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1559­1561, the other, a Latin playlet writen by William Gager, at Christ Churh, Oxford, in 1578)18, a play by George Gascoigne (Jocasta, 1566­1567 ca., actually a See e.g. Tigerstedt 1968; and for the disproportion between the critical reception of Sophocles (via Aristotle) and his theatrical Nahleben see Guastella supra, 154­155, and Lurje 2004. 13 he relevant bibliography is, of course, huge and the debate on Seneca’s ‘real’ inluence has been heated at least since Cunlife 1893. See Jacquot 1964; an excellent account on the mater is given in Guastella 2001, 155­208. 14 Cf. infra and also Guastella, supra, 146 and 161. On Medea and Atreus as sheer examples of Renaissance ‘Senecan Fury and Revenge’, cf. Guastella 2001, 29 and Braden, 1985, 57. 15 On that see Lurje 2004, 92­127 and also 150­160. 16 Boyle 2011, xcv. 17 Notably, Kyd (he Spanish Tragedy, 1587), Hughes (he Misfortunes of Arthur, 1588) Shakespeare (3 Henry VI, 1591; A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 1596; Hamlet, 1601?; Macbeth, 1601), Marston (Antonio and Mellida, 1599­1600), Jonson (Sejanus, 1603); Chapman (Conspiracy and Tragedy of Charles Duke of Byron, 1608); see Boyle 2011, cxvi. 18 Boas 1914, 389 and Hall — Macintosh 2005, 8. 12 168 A. Ziosi translation from Lodovico Dolce’s Giocasta) and Alexander Neville’s 1560 translation of Seneca’s Oedipus, then collected by homas Newton in the famous Seneca, his Tenne Tragedies Translated into Englysh (1581)19. It is also very revealing that Neville’s Oedipus is further deprived of his ‘Senecan’ traits and, with a new horus at the end of Act 3, he is brought nearer to the other main tradition that fertilises English Renaissance tragedy: the exempla of Fall from Grace of medieval (and Boethian) descent, epitomised in the complaints of the very inluential Mirrour for Magistrates20. An outstanding isolated exception in this long empty story is Oedipus by John Dryden – the great 17th century poet, literary critic and dramatist, almost a byword for Restoration England, Poet Laureate from 1667, and, once ‘fallen from grace’, the great translator of Virgil (1697), Ovid and other Latin classics – and Nathaniel Lee – a playwright, known for his 1677 blank verse tragedy he Rival ueens, or the Death of Alexander the Great, who ended his days in Bedlam hospital21. his acclaimed and highly successful play, irst performed at the Dorset Garden heatre in London by the Duke’s company22 in 1678, illed the theatres for over a hundred years23 before it sank into oblivion: «as the [19th] century moved into the age of Garrik and sensibility, Oedipus, like most of Dryden’s plays slipped out of repertory»24, a ‘sensibility’ that, as clearly seen in Walter Scot’s words above, proved lethal for a play handling a theme like incest. he rest is (almost) silence. On the contemporary role of this collection and T.S. Eliot’s modern appraisal see Guastella 2001, 176­183. 20 Again, see Guastella 2001, 165­192, in particular 177­182; on the relationship between‘Seneca in Elizabethan translation’ and the Mirrour for Magistrates see Hunter 1974, 187­190. 21 On the joint authorship see Novak 1984, 448: «Dryden appears to have been the dominant partner in the collaboration» and Sestito 2008, 17. 22 homas Beterton, «the greatest actor between Burbage and Garrik» (Novak 1984, 444), played Oedipus, his wife Mary Beterton was Jocasta and the subplot had the same cast as the 1673 production of Macbeth: William Smith as Adrastus (Banquo), Mary Lee as Eurydice and the actor specialised in Shakespearean ‘villains’ Samuel Sandford as Creon (formerly Hecate). As known, Charles II’s Restoration had brought a revolution in the English re­opened theatres: women were allowed to take the stage as actresses and the new plays tended to exploit the new feature. 23 For the date of the production and the history of the performances, see Novak 1984, 441­448; Summers 1968, 346­350; Hall — Macintosh 2005, 1 and 17. 24 Novak 1984, 447; see also Hall — Macintosh 2005, 6. 19 he Senecan curse and the «discontents» of the English Oedipus 169 But besides atoning for a delay of more than a century in bringing Oedipus as a tragic hero bak to the fore, this play, whih has not received muh critical atention, is notable for its surprising modernity and intertextual rihness. Aware of the contemporary continental debate on drama and, at the same time, inextricably rooted in the English tradition (Elizabethan and Jacobean), it also forebodes – perhaps more than any other pre­Freudian tragedy of Oedipus – many of the ‘discontents’ of its 20th (and 21st) century counterparts. And this can only happen because of a luky circumstance: this play has to face and remove the spell that had banished Oedipus from the English stage in the Renaissance. In a nutshell, it needs Sophocles; but it also needs Seneca ‘more’. And certainly a more Elizabethan Seneca. But this was not a simple operation, nor was it expected in the mid­17th century. As if to say, paradoxically, that the Restoration (and the return of the Court from France) inally allowed Sophocles (and ‘classical’ tragedy) to take the stage in England, with the subsequent lourishing of «Heroic Drama», imbued by Frenh neoclassical theorisation. he contemporary debate on Aristotle’s Poetics (as interpreted in Italy and France) and on Frenh contemporary drama versus the previous English tradition is best exempliied by Dryden’s own Essay of Dramatik Poesie (1668). But again, rather paradoxically, in order to write a ‘classical’ tragedy explicitly based on ‘Aristotle’s’ Sophocles, Dryden (and Lee) must resort to what, in the Essay, is condemned by Lisideius (the advocate of ‘modern’ Frenh dramatic poetry): i.e. Shakespeare and the 16th and early 17th century English dramatic tradition. A pivotal point in Dryden’s dramatic evolution that leads to Oedipus (and just a year before it) is represented, in fact, by his ‘return to Shakespeare’ with All for Love; or he World Well Lost (1677): an overt ‘imitation’ of Antony and Cleopatra that somehow conirms the disavowal of heroic drama. he reconcilement is also stylistic (and paralleled, nay preceded by Lee’s he Rival ueens in the same year)25 as All for Love abandons the rhymed heroic verse in favour of the Elizabethan blank verse. In conclusion, to follow the previous Senecan metaphor, it is only through Shakespeare that ‘Medea’ and ‘Atreus’ can enter Sophocles’ play, thus enabling the birth of an English Oedipus. his is perhaps the tragic genius of this play; and, accordingly, it could not be confessed. he all­important authors’ Preface to the play (added to 25 See Sestito 2008, 19. 170 A. Ziosi the published text in 1679) aknowledges, in the irst place, the debts to the Frenh contemporary tradition, and in particular to Corneille’s œdipe for the need of a romantic subplot – though Corneille’s «under­plot» of heseus and Dirce is criticised for overshadowing the main plot: Dryden and Lee’s great literary innovation in that respect is the fact that the «Adrastus, Eurydice, and Creon» story mirrors the main tragic plot26. In the second place, a profession of adherence to Sophocles’ text is made: «Sophocles indeed is admirable everywhere and we therefore have followed him as close as possibly we cou’d» – and the contemporary audience seemed to be fully convinced of the almost total identiication with Sophocles’ Oedipus, of whih this was perceived as the true ‘English’ version27. And thirdly, we ind a reticent confession regarding Seneca, condemned for his rhetoric and, admitedly, exploited only for a very ‘Senecan’ reason28: Seneca on the other side, as if there were suh thing as Nature to be minded in a Play, is always running ater pompous expression, pointed sentences, and Philosophical notions, more proper for the Study than the Stage: he Frenh-man follow’d a wrong scent; and the Roman was absolutely at cold Hunting. All we cou’d gather out of Corneille, was, that an Episode must be, but not his way: and Seneca supply’d us with no new hint, but only a Revelation whih he makes of his Tiresias raising the Ghost of Lajus: whih is here perform’d in view of the Audience; the Rites and Ceremonies so far his, as he agreed with Antiquity, and the Religion of the Greeks. But the Preface is guiltily silent on Shakespeare. What I seek to demonstrate, with the following cursory examples, is, as hinted above, precisely this process: what fertilises this allegedly Sophoclean Oedipus is a muh more penetrating presence of Seneca than actually declared, both via many more direct (but silenced) allusions to Seneca’s Oedipus29, and, on the other hand, through the ‘Senecan devices’ that the Elizabethan tradition could furnish30. And, furthermore, that this fundamental re­ See Paduano 1994, 273. Hall — Macintosh 2005, 5. 28 For the ‘mannerist’ use of these features in Renaissance drama see the classic Dahinten 1958. 29 For a rather detailed list of many ‘hidden’ Senecan aspects see Boyle 2011, ci-cii. 30 On the ‘second­hand’ Seneca, see the T.S. Eliot’s famous verdict: «by the time that he Spanish Tragedy and the old Hamlet had made their success, the English playwright was under the inluence of Seneca by being under the inluence of his own predecessors», Eliot 1934, 77­78. 26 27 he Senecan curse and the «discontents» of the English Oedipus 171 reading of Sophocles’Oedipus sheds light on the modernity (and on the identity) of the «English Oedipus». First, Atreus, or the villain in the subplot. Scene I, 1.104­187 depicts a deformed and hunh­baked Creon (who concocts a plan to oust Oedipus from hebes) seducing Eurydice, who resists him: Cre. Why, doubt you I’m a man? Eur. ’Tis well you tell me so; I should mistake you For any other part o’th’ whole Creation, Rather than think you man. Hence from my sight, hou poyson to my eyes! Cre. ’Twas you irst poison’d mine; and yet, methinks, My face and person shou’d not make you sport. Eur. You force me, by your importunities, To shew you what you are. Cre. A prince, who loves you; And, since your pride provokes me, worth your love. Ev’n at its highest value. Eur. Love from thee! Why love renounc’d thee ere thou saw’st the light; Nature herself start bak when thou wert born, And cryed, he work’s not mine― he Midwife stood aghast; and when she saw hy Mountain bak and thy distorted legs, hy face it self; Half­minted with the Royal stamp of man, And half o’re­come with beast, stood doubting long, Whose right in thee were more; And knew not, if to burn thee in the lames Were not the holier work. Cre. Am I to blame, if Nature threw my body In so perverse a mould? yet when she cast Her envious hand upon my supple joints, Unable to resist, and rumpled ’em On heaps in their dark lodging, to revenge Her bungled work, she stampt my mind more fair; And as from Chaos, huddled and deform’d, he god struk ire, and lighted up the Lamps hat beautify the sky, so he inform’d his ill­shap’d body with a daring soul: And, making less than man, he made me more. Eur. No; thou art all one errour, soul and body; he irst young tryal of some unskill’d Pow’r; Rude in the making Art, and Ape of Jove. hy crooked mind within hunh’d out thy bak, And wander’d in thy limbs. To thy own kind 172 A. Ziosi Make love, if thou canst ind it in the world: And seek not from our Sex to raise an of­spring, Whih, mingled with the rest, would tempt the Gods, To cut of human Kind (I, sc. 1.126­164). As can be grasped from this excerpt, the whole of the scene is pa­ tently modelled on Shakespeare’s memorable seduction scene in Rihard III I, sc. 2, where Gloucester woos (here successfully) Lady Anne31. And the criminal «discontent» of the sheming villain – possibly the cruellest, goriest and most metaliterary ‘Senecan’ hero in the whole of the Elizabethan theatre32 – provides a powerful Senecan insertion (that ills in a ‘Senecan lacuna’) in Oedipus’ plot. But the allusion to Rihard III also reactivates a rather Oedipal situation (that Steven Berkof’s Greek does not fail to stress)33: Gloucester marries Anne just ater killing her husband. Furthermore, since the subplot ominously mirrors the main one, Oedipus’ objection to Creon’s desire for his niece Eurydice is its «incestuous» nature. Other similar mirroring efects involve, for example, Tiresias, who is always led by his daughter Manto (another Senecan trait): yet the two of them form another parent­hild couple that ‘symmetrically’ recalls the two protagonists34. he description of the Plague in I, sc. 1 and in the initial stage direction («he Curtain rises to a plaintive Tune, representing the present condition of hebes; Dead Bodies appear at a distance in the Streets; Some faintly go over the Stage, others drop») is another powerful connection with Seneca: it owes muh to Oedipus’ prologue (1­52 and also the horus at 111­205) both for the textual parallels and the astronomical (Titan dubius l. 1 and I, sc. 1.7 «the Sun’s sik too») and cosmological periphrases, and also for the general gory tone35. As in Seneca, the plague also has a Ringkomposition efect on the play: there its Lucretian polymorphic personiications (Violenta Fata et horridus Morbi tremor, / Maciesque et atra Pestis et rabidus Dolor, / mecum ite, mecum. Ducibus Novak 1984, 445: «the haracter of Creon is plainly derived from that of Rihard III, and just as plainly was drawn with Sandford in mind»; see also ibid. commentary notes to I, sc. 1.103­177; 145­155; 213­216; III, sc. 1.107­108. 32 See, e.g. Miola 1992, 68­92; on Senecan metaliterary heroes: Shiesaro 2003. 33 See Paduano 1994, 240. 34 Sestito 2008, 22. For the political implication of this incest, see infra. 35 Cf. also Boyle 2011, ci-cii. 31 he Senecan curse and the «discontents» of the English Oedipus 173 his uti libet, 1059­1061) lead Oedipus into exile; in Dryden and Lee’s play, Oedipus’ corpse on the ground at the end re­enacts the opening scene: «hunder. He lings himself from the Window: he hebans gather about his body». he protagonists’ end, moreover, is also very Senecan: Oedipus blinds himself as in Seneca (and Corneille) with his own «impious hands» V, sc. 1.69 and not as in Sophocles with Jocasta’s broohes (while Jocasta claims innocence for both of them blaming a very Senecan Fate36: V, sc. 1.217­20). Oedipus then dies hurling himself from a tower (reminiscent of Astyanax in Troades) ater a dying speeh, Elizabethan and Jacobean in tone: «By all my woes, / She has out­done me, in Revenge and Murder» V, sc. 1.444­445. He addresses his forefathers as «Tyrants» (449) and closes in cosmological and astronomical terms, «wing’d by horrid Fate» (459). And with Jocasta’s death – in one of the most striking innovations in the play – Medea too enters the plot. In V, sc. 1.412 the queen comes bak to the stage «furious mad» ater having buthered all her hildren: «Scene draws, and discovers Jocasta held by her women, and stabbed in many places of her Bosom, her Hair dishevelled, her Children slain upon the Bed» (S.D. to V, sc. 1.412), and in Haemon’s rhesis to Oedipus: «the ueen her self, and all your wrethed Of­spring, / Are by her Fury slain» V, sc. 1.441­442. To seal her Senecan status, Jocasta kills herself as in Seneca with Oedipus’ sword (and not by hanging, like in Sophocles), thus re­enacting a phallic incest37. he Plague, however, has further political implications and rather immediate connections with English contemporary history. In Seneca, Oedipus’ initial monologue hinges on the relationship between disease and power, a new power that should have dispelled the fear of incest: 35-36 sperare poteras sceleribus tantis dari / regnum salubre? Fecimus caelum nocens38. As Dryden’s Creon presents his political sheme in I, sc. 1.40­102 the two dominant and intertwined elements of the play, the plague and incest, acquire a new political meaning. Behind the allusion to the real London plague of 1665 there lurk the dynastic plots and the debate on legitimacy (that would eventually lead to the 1679 anti­Catholic Exclusion Bill against James, Duke of York, heir to the throne, and to the 1688 Glorious Revolution) that followed Charles I’s execution (1649) 36 37 38 On Seneca’s tragedy and fate, see Ahl 2008, 22­30. Cf. Segal 1983, 176­177 and Hall — Macintosh 2005, 18. On this passage, cf. Degl’Innocenti Pierini, supra, 89 f. 174 A. Ziosi – metaphorically mirrored by Lajus’ death – and Oliver Cromwell’s Commonwealth. Again, this has a Senecan parallel: «the play’s presentation of monarhic and dynastic issues and the threat of civil insurrection relects as sharply on post­Restoration England as Seneca’s Oedipus does on late Julio­Claudian Rome»39. And, yet again, this debate on power and royalty is represented by Dryden and Lee in Shakespearean terms: Creon’s address to the crowd I, sc. 1.213­337, opening with «I thank ye, Countrymen», openly alludes to Julius Caesar. Another Senecan feature whih is extremely important for this play is that the «focus is on incest rather than on parricide»40: the very word «incest» torments Oedipus (in a Senecan rather than Sophoclean manner) from the beginning. And never before in the history of the Oedipal theme have desire and Eros so prominently come to the fore41: one has to wait for post­Freudian Oedipuses (by Gide or Pasolini, for instance) to come across suh an erotic description of the Oedipus­Jocasta relationship. And, in the usual fashion, this desire that shakes the foundations of life and eventually destroys all the bases of power has a structural Shakespearian model, this time in the play of Othello42. Finally, the whole ‘third act’ of Seneca’s Oedipus (ll. 509­658)43, Creon’s rhesis and the invocation of Lajus’ spirit, proves a very important reference for Dryden and Lee. Here, one of the most obvious Shakespearian ilters for the elements of necromancy is Macbeth. «He talk’d of Dreams, and Visions, and to morrow» (II, sc. 1.301) says Oedipus referring Tiresias’ words to Jocasta. he stage direction to II, sc. 1.348 («As they go of, Oedipus enters, walking asleep in his shirt, with a dagger in his righthand, and a taper in his let») reiterates this overt allusion to Boyle 2011, civ; on the whole mater cf. Hall — Macintosh 2005, 24­29. Boyle 2011, ci and lxxxix. And for the central role of ‘passions’ in the poetic creation in Seneca’s tragedy see Shiesaro 2003. 41 Cf. Paduano 1994, 295: «per la prima volta i rapporti tra Edipo e Giocasta si sotraggono al tabù autoriale he aveva governato tute le precedenti drammaturgie, e conquistano il ruolo decisivo per l’azione e centrale nella rappresentazione»; and again, ibid. 299 «l’arditezza creativa del testo di Dryden e Lee non si limita infati a introdurre in questa roccaforte del tabù il linguaggio amoroso, ma raggiunge il suo vertice nel mantenerlo vivo e pertinente dopo la rivelazione: in questa persistenza c’è, più ancora he l’afermazione del primato della pulsione su qualsiasi altra realtà, l’intuizione he nell’incesto risiede insieme la massima deviazione e la massima autenticità dell’eros». 42 For an original analysis of this, cf. Paduano 1994, 295­296. 43 On whih see Shiesaro 2003, 8­13. 39 40 he Senecan curse and the «discontents» of the English Oedipus 175 Macbeth and his dagger­speeh (whih, intertextually, follows another metaphorical ‘parricide’ whih leads to kingship) and Lady Macbeth’s furious and guilt­ridden somnambulism44. his ‘Macbethian’ night of Oedipus, ater the visions and the nightmares, is inally framed by and again anhored to its Senecan hypotext: «Night, Horrour, Death, Confusion, Hell, and Furies! / Where am I?, O, Jocasta, let me hold thee» exclaims Oedipus in the morning, alluding to the famous personiications in Creon’s rhesis (Oed. 652 Letum Luesque, Mors Labor Tabes Dolor, taken up again in 589­594 and at the very end of the play). It is the Senecan ghost of Lajus that breaks out of the earth, however, whih for certain evokes another and most signiicant dramatic model. Let us take a step bakward: Methink we stand on Ruines; Nature shakes About us; and the Universal Frame So loose, that it but wants another push To leap from its Hindges. No Sun to hear us; but a Bloody Globe hat rowls above; a bald and Beamless Fire; His face o’re­grown with Scurf: the Sun’s sik too: Shortly he’ll be an Earth (I, sc. 1.1­8). From its very opening, Dryden and Lee’s play, while depicting the Senecan plague, also seems to gesture towards a play where, just before and ater the apparition of a ghost, «something is roten in the state of Denmark» (Hamlet I, sc. 5.90)45 and «the time is out of joint» (ibid. I, sc. 5.196); where the word incest is ubiquitous and where a ghost of a dead pater inultus keeps tormenting his son, asking for revenge. here is no doubt that Dryden and Lee’s ghost of Lajus is ‘directly’ Senecan: Why hast thou drawn me from my pains below, To sufer worse above? to see the day, And hebes more hated? Hell is Heav’n to hebes. For pity send me bak (III, sc. 1.345­348). hese lines (the ghost’s opening words) are actually a conlation of Tantali Umbra, whih opens Seneca’s hyestes, and of hyestis Umbra in Agamemnon: a sphragis of sheer Elizabethan Senecanism (uis inferorum sede ab infausta extrahit / avido fugaces ore captantem cibos? [hy. 44 45 On this, see some sharp observations in Paduano 1994, 298. Here and henceforth quoted from Ann homson — Neil Taylor’s 2006 Arden Edition. 176 A. Ziosi 1­2] and Opaca / linquens Ditis inferni loca, / adsum profundo Tartari emissus specu, / incertus utras oderim sedes magis: / fugio hyestes inferos, superos fugo. [Ag. 1­4]). A Senecan seal conirmed by the ghost’s last words: «Do you forbid him Earth, I’ll forbid him Heav’n» III, sc. 1.377, whih directly translate the Senecan poignant sentence eripite terras, auferam caelum pater (Oed. 658). But the whole of Lajus’ speeh is also very muh reminiscent of King Hamlet’s ghost’s words46. For instance: Let not the royal bed of Denmark be A couh for luxury and damned incest. But, howsoever thou pursuest this act, Taint not thy mind, nor let thy soul contrive Against thy mother aught: leave her to heaven (Hamlet I, sc. 5.82­86). Other ‘quotations’ are Oedipus III, sc. 1.354 «I pity thee» (Tiresias to the ghost) recalling Hamlet I, sc. 5.4­5: «Alas, poor ghost / Pity me not», as well as Tiresias’ reiterated command to Oedipus: «Remember Lajus» (III, sc. 1.466­469) and above all Lajus’ apparition in the bedroom to forbid the union of Oedipus and Jocasta47 in a replica of the famous ‘closet scene’ in Hamlet (III, sc. 4.7­215). his Senecan and ‘Senecan­via­ Shakespeare’ ghost48 who seeks revenge, along with the fact that, like Hamlet, Dryden and Lee’s play ends with a carnage in a climactic inal bloodbath (as seen, the hildren die, all the haracters in the subplot – Eurydice, Creon, Adrastus – die before Jocasta and Oedipus commit suicide) help strengthen the already obvious literary (and not only literary) deeper structural links between Hamlet and ‘this’ Oedipus. If Dryden and Lee’s treatment of erotic passion seems to forebode 20th centuries versions of the theme, their Oedipal intertextual reading of Hamlet is also somehow eerily modern. As if their Oedipus also shed light on aspects of Hamlet that have puzzled readers for centuries and that, ater the famous Freudian watershed of 1900 (or 1899), have acquired an Novak 1984, 464 «this restless ghost, indeed, seems to come as muh from Hamlet as from Seneca». 47 Almost an inversion of Freud’s ‘Primal Scene’, see Paduano 1994, 300. 48 On Seneca’s ‘Freudian’ guilt, doubt, self­distrust and fear of potential desires of parricide and incest (Oed. 19­36) see Paduano 1994, 256 and 1993; for the psyhoanalytical interpretation of Seneca’s ghost («virtually a foreshadowing of the Freudian superego, a harsh, demanding, guilt­raising father igure, a projection of the son’s own conviction of his inherently evil nature» Segal 1983, 177 and also 182), cf. Paduano 1994, 262­264. 46 he Senecan curse and the «discontents» of the English Oedipus 177 unequivocal meaning. Or as if literature had anticipated Freud’s intuition in his leter to Wilhelm Fliess of 15th October 1897 about the discovery of the Oedipus Complex49, then famously expounded in Chapter ive of the Traumdeutung50, whih demonstrates that the tragedy of Hamlet was as important as Sophocles’ tragedy in Freud’s construction of his ‘Oedipus’51. Or as if, in a inal paradox, literature had long known that the most important, or the only truly ‘successful’ English Oedipus was no less than the Prince of Denmark. Cf. Freud 1985, 272: «Fleetingly, the thought passed through my head that the same thing might be at the botom of Hamlet as well. I am not thinking of Shakespeare’s conscious intention, but believe, rather, that a real event stimulated the poet to his representation, in that his unconscious understood the unconscious of his hero». 50 «Another of the great poetic tragedies, Shakespeare’s Hamlet, is rooted in the same soil as Oedipus Rex. But the whole diference in the psyhic life of the two widely separated periods of civilisation, and the progress, during the course of time, of repression in the emotional life of humanity, is manifested in the difering treatment of the same material. In Oedipus Rex the basic wish­fantasy of the hild is brought to light and realised as it is in dreams; in Hamlet it remains repressed, and we learn of its existence – as we discover the relevant facts in a neurosis – only through the inhibitory efects whih proceed from it», Freud 1997, 158. 51 On Freud and Hamlet (and Oedipus) see Jones 1910, 1949 and Starobinski 1989, 163: «hus in all of Freud’s work from 1897 to 1938 Hamlet continues to igure as the second great dramatic igure, not simply as one literary haracter among others. he Hamlet haracter belongs to the category of prototypes, of exemplary themes. If Oedipus expresses through transgression and punishment the universal law that presides over the genesis of moral being, a moment that must be experienced and transcended, Hamlet exhibits through his speciic inhibition and nontranscendence the anxious, masked remnant of infantile tendencies». 49 ABBREVIAZIONI BIBLIOGRAFICHE Ades D. (2004) Dalì. 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