SDU Journal of Science (E-Journal), 2015, 10 (1): 23-48 _____________________________________________________ General Characteristics of Flora and Vegetation Formations of Eastern Anatolia Region and Its Environs (Türkiye) Münir Öztürk1, Âdem Tatlı2, Hasan Özçelik3,*, Lütfi Behçet4 Biology Department, Faculty of Science, Ege Univ. İzmir, Türkiye Biology Department, Faculty of Science &Arts, Dumlupınar Univ., Kütahya, Türkiye 3 Biology Department, Faculty of Science & Arts, Süleyman Demirel Univ., Isparta, Türkiye 4 Biology Department, Faculty of Science &Arts, Bingöl Univ., Bingöl, Türkiye 1 2 *Corresponding author e-mail: hasanozcelik@sdu.edu.tr Received:5 April 2015, Accepted: 15 May 2015 ABSTRACT: Eastern Anatolia and its environs are included in the Irano-Turanian phytogeographical region of Türkiye. The region abounds in highest mountain ranges (average 1900 m) of the country some of which are of quarternary age and volcanic character. Many rivers of historical and international importance like Euphrates, Dicle, Murat, Karasu and Aras. Tigris, Aras and Çoruh flow through the region. It experiencens a typical continental climate. Soils are generally of alluvial, colluvial, chestnut-brown, regosal and basaltic types. The area embodies over 8 million ha of meadows and grasslands which is 41% of Türkiye’s total pasturelands as such cattle raising is very high in this area. Forest vegetation is represented mainly by Pinus sylvestris, Quercus libani, Q. longipes, Q. brantii, Q. macranthera, Juniperus excelsa and Betula pendula. Most of these are highly degraded. Plant cover is rich in Irano - Turanian elements but we find Mediterranean and Euro-Siberian elements too to some extent, richest families being Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Poaceae, Lamiaceae, Caryophyllaceae and Apiaceae richest genera being Astragalus, Verbascum, Centaurea, Ranunculus, Alyssum, Vicia, Silene, Dianthus, Veronica and Trifolium. The number of endemics is very high, being around 950. And also the region has gene centers of genera Astragalus, Gypsophila, Cousinia, Acanthophyllum etc. The some typical associations one comes across in this area are; Triseto-Pinetum sylvestris, Trifolio-Pinetum sylvestris, Ballato-Rhamnetum pallasii, CaraganoMinuartietum lineatea, Hippophaetum rhamnoidis, Typho-Juncetum inflecii, Hordeetum violaceumii, Deschampsio-Ranunculetum brachylobus, Hordeeto-Ranunculetum comosae and Polygon-Primuletum auriculatae. Dominantly vegetation of the region is steppe. The are a lot of natural plant taxa using local people. Key Words: Eastern Anatolia, Flora, Vegetation, Biodiversity, Geobotany, Endemism, Türkiye. ÖZET: Doğu Anadolu bölgesi ve çevresi Türkiye’nin İran-Turan bölgesinde yer alır. Ülkenin yüksek dağlık bölge silsilesinde (ortalama 1900 m) yer alan bölge Quaterner yaşlı ve volkanik karakterlidir. Fırat, Dicle, Karasu, Aras ve Çoruh gibi tarihi ve uluslararsı öneme haiz çoğu ırmak bölge boyunca akar. Bölge tipik kontinental iklim özelliği taşır. Toprakları genellikle allüviyal, kolluviyal, kestane-kahverengi, regosol ve bazalttır. Alan, 8 milyon ha’ın üzerinde çayır ve otlaklara sahiptir. Bu alan Türkiye toplam çayır ve otlaklarının yaklaşık % 41’ini teşkil eder. Sığır üretimi bölgede giderek yükseliyor. Orman vejetasyonu esas itibariyle Pinus sylvestris, Quercus libani, Q. longipes, Q. brantii, Q. macranthera, Juniperus excelsa ve Betula pendula’dır. Ormanlık alanların çoğu tahrip edilmiştir. Bitki örtüsü İran-Turan elementleri bakımından çok zengindir. Fakat biz Akdeniz ve Avrupa-Sibirya elementleri açısından da bir dereceye kadar zengin bulduk. Bölgedeki takson sayısı bakımından en zengin familyalar; Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae, Lamiaceae, Caryophyllaceae ve Apiaceae; en zengin cinsler ise Astragalus, Verbascum, Centaurea, Ranunculus, Alyssum, Vicia, Silene, Dianthus, Veronica ve Trifolium’dur. Endemiklerin sayısı çok yüksektir, yaklaşık 950. Aynı zamanda bölge Astragalus, Gypsophila, Cousinia and Acanthophyllum gibi cinslerin gen merkezidir. Bölgenin vejetasyonunda hakim tipik bazı birlikler; TrisetoPinetum sylvestris, Trifolio-Pinetum sylvestris, Ballato-Rhamnetum pallasii, Caragano-Minuartietum lineatea, Hippophaetum rhamnoidis, Typho-Juncetum inflecii, Hordeetum violaceumii, Deschampsio-Ranunculetum brachylobus, Hordeeto - Ranunculetum comosae and Polygon-Primuletum auriculatae vs.dir. Hakim vejetasyonu steptir. Yerli halkın kullandığı çok sayıda doğal bitki türü vardır. Key Words: Doğu Anadolu, Flora, Vejetasyon, Biyoçeşitlilik, Jeobotanik, Endemizm, Türkiye. 23 M. Öztürk et al. 1. Introduction: Researching area called as East Anatolian region and it covers Malatya, Muş, Elazığ, Bingöl, Tunceli, Erzincan, Erzurum, Kars, Iğdır, Ardahan, Ağrı, Bitlis, Van and Hakkari vilayets of Türkiye. It occupies a transitional position between three continents, being divided into three phytogeographical regions; the Mediterranean, EuroSiberian and Irano-Turanian (Table 1). The area and its environs is included in the Irano-Turanian region with an area of about 164 000 km²(21,0 % of Türkiye ). The socalled “Anatolian Diagonal; extending from the Anti-Taurus region north east wards to Suşehri (Sivas); divides the Irano-Turanian part forming the western boundry of researching area which is a high plateau and mountainous, most of it lying above an altitude of 1700 m. The important mountains rising above the plateau are Ağrı (5165 m), Sübhan (4434 m), Erek (3250 m) and Nemrut (3030 m), all of which are of quarternary volcanic origin [1]. Munzur mountains (3449 m) are dominated by ophiolites of upper cretaceouspaleocene whereas mountain Cilo (4168 m) is dolomitic. Allahuekber (3120 m), Palandöken (31256 m), Gâvur (3313 m), Kop (2409 m) and Kargapazarı (3132 m) are other notable mountains found in the area. Allahuekber embodies stratigraphic series of cretaceous, eocene and neojen, however more than 3/4 of its area is covered by acidic and basic volcanic deposits of neojen age. Palandöken is mainly composed of ophiolites and magmatic andesite tuffs of tertiary age mixed up with a little of pliocene sediments as well as serpentine formations. Gâvur mountains(in Gümüşhane-Erzurum zone) show series of sediments form mesozoic, coenazoic and quarternary periods which in general is conglomerate sand stone, represented by silty- stony deposits in between, together with volcanic deposits of trachit and andesite of eocene-oligocene age. The region is bounded on the South by the lower plateau of Mesopotamia, characterised by low-rounded hills varying in altitude from 400 to 800 m, except for the broad basaltic hump of Karacadağ (1919 m). Saline habitats are commonly observed on the alluvial deposits at the base of mount Ağrı, which are the westward extensions of similar habitats found along the Caspian Sea; reaching here via Aras Valley. Most important rivers in the region are Euphrates, Dicle, Murat, Zap and extensions of Tigris, Aras, and Çoruh; entering Basra Bay, Caspian Sea, and Black Sea respectively. Major plains are in vilayets Erzurum, Erzincan and Iğdır. 2. Climate: The area investigated during the present survey exists at a place where different types of climates intercross and mix up, but in general climate is characterised by long and harsh cold winters. From north to south and east to west temperatures increase gradually. Summer rains are excessive than winter ones particularly in the northeast around the vilayets of Erzurum and Kars. Hotest month here is August with a mean maximum temperature of 24-28 °C and in the coolest month mean minimum varies between -16 to -17 °C. Highest rainfall is observed in Tunceli (1033.8 mm) and lowest in Erzincan (359.6 mm). Extermedly cold temperatures of -45.6°C have been recorded around Ağri, whereas around Malatya and Elaziğ summer temperatures reach 42°C (There is no dry season in the vilayet of Kars, but in other vilayets from east to west and north to south, intensity increases and from mid June till ending September or October a dry hot summer prevails as shown in the Ombrothermic diagram. S values for eastern most parts such as Doğubeyazıt (Ağri) and Iğdır (Kars) vary between 1.8-1.3, it can be included in cold dry mediterranean climate. The environs of Erzurum, Kars, Ardahan, Sarıkamış, and Posof show a continental type of climate with S values varying between 6.4-8.2 according to Emberger’s summer 24 SDU Journal of Science (E-Journal), 2015, 10 (1): 23-48 _____________________________________________________ drought index. Semi-continental climate is seen at Oltu, Pasinler and Horasan in Erzurum. East of Van lake up to Ardahan (Kars) in the north and Iranian border in the southeast experiences a semi-dry mediterranean climate according to Emberger’s summer drought index. West of Lake Van; from Gümüşhane to Hakkari; in Malatya, Elaziğ, and Tunceli semi-wet mediterranean climate dominates, whereas partially wet mediterranean climate is observed in Bingöl and Erzincan. Cilo (4168 m) and Ağrı (5165 m) show snow capped tops even in summer [6-8, 16, 19]. result in higher mechanical weathering of parent material than chemical one, as such soils are pebbly in natüre. Main soil types met within the area are; Alluvial Soils: This azonal group of soils with a (A) C profile character occurs around smooth plains and embodies young and old transported sediments, with a little of calcium leaching. The texture, drenage and topographical differences are visible in relation to wide alluvial flood plains around big rivers and streams, such as in the basins of Aras, Euphrates, Lake Van, as well as plains of Elaziğ, Malatya, Erzurum. Organic matter shows a great variation depending upon the use of these soils. Alluvial coastal swampy soils are very rare and are observed in the hydromorphic alluvial areas. Colluvial Soils: These resemble the former, being young with a (A) C profile. Texture of sediments varies in relation to the intensity of precipitaion and degree of slope. Sediments do not show a parallel character, those at the base of steepy slopes and around valley straits contain little soil but more debris and coarse material, color depends on the parent material. The soils are not saline in nature because of being well drained. Chestnut Soils: These are the zonal soils formed due to calcification within A,B,C or A(B)C profiles. They are rich in calcium and base saturation in general. A horizon is quite thick (0-30 cm), granuler in structure, medium in organic matter content, with a dispersable appearance and dark brown in color. B horizon shows clay deposits followed by calcified zone, which varies in depthe depending on the intensity of precipitation. Brown Soils: Usually dominate the areas with an annual precipitaion of 250-400 mm. There is a lot of CaCO3 accumulation followed by jips in deeper layers below horizon B. The whole profile is of calcareous nature. A horizon is 10-25 cm thick with good porosity, medium organic matter. Color in general varies form light brown to dark brown. A rough blunt angled blocky structure is visible in this zonal soil group. It has A,B,C horizons, B horizon usually gets lost due to erosion. Regosols: This azonal soil group has a A(C) profile, being rough in texture originating from calcareous or noncalcareous rocks. These are observed mainly on sandy heaps, volcanic clay and slopy icy deposits. Parent material is soft sand, moving with wind or water, tumbling marn, calcareous clay and chalk. Basaltic Soils: Clayey in nature, without a distinct profile, A horizon blck to granular in structure, B being thin textured and blocky. Non-calcareous mostly, neutral to alkaline, poor in organic matter content, high water holding capacity, other physical characters are poor. Organic Soils: Organic matter content in these soils varies between 20 to 95 % in relation to clay. A horizon is 30 cm. Arid Soils: Formed in poorly drained areas with salt crusting in the upper horizon. Electrical conductivity in such soils is higher than 4 mmho/cm at 25°C, exchangeable sodium being less than 15% and pH is below 8,5. They are covered by halophytic plant species. In some of these soils exchangeable Na is higher than 15% and pH above 8,5. Physical characteristics of these soils are poor in general, because clay and humus are dispersed. A-B-C profiles are observed clearly, A4 horizon being well developed with medium organic matter, A2 is light in color and thin, B dark in color, columnar or prismatic in structure. These soils are less 25 M. Öztürk et al. productive. Saline-alkaline soils show an electrical conductivity of higher than 4 mmhos at 25°C and exchangeable Na is above 15%, pH rarely goes beyond 8,5, Na ions are higher [18, 23, 24, 105]. 4. Land and Uses: The region is rough topographically, plateaus being very high in particular around Erzurum, Ağri, Bitlis, Van and Hakkâri, where high altitude mountains are gathered together [23, 24, 54]. Grasslands cover large areas around these vilayets due to the topography. They have an area of 8.900.000 ha, which is 41% of the total grasslands of Türkiye, highest being, Van followed by in Hakkâri, Kars, Ağri, Erzincan, Erzurum and Bitlis. Agricultural land is found mostly around the vilayet of Erzurum, being 500.000 ha. The least area of agriculturally fit land is found in Tunceli, being 114.000 ha. Cattle raising is thus very important in this region. Most of the grasslands are moved for winter fodder. Others are used for grazing in summer. Agricultural products shown are mainly cereals, namely; wheat, barley, rye, lenttils and chickpea. Eastern parts mainly sow fodder crops, in particular alfalfa. Beet cultivation is also common in the area together with potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, cucumbers and cabbages etc. Out of fruit trees we commonly get apples, pear, plum, walnut and prune etc. Plum is a major exported product from Malatya. Tobacco cultivation is dominant in Bitlis, Malatya and Elazığ, parts of Van and sunflower in Muş. Forest cover is poor in the region lying around 11.8 % (2.337.004 ha), most of it has got destroyed due to cutting, grazing, fires and lately heavy urbanisation. The destroyed oak forests are visible throught the area, however presently a highest distribution of these forests is observed in Bingöl with an area of 310.000 ha. Oak forests distributed Bitlis towards Siirt and around Lake Van. Quercus libani, Pinus sylvestris and Juniperus excelsa are very important for foresty in the region [63, 66, 91, 94]. (Fig. 1, 2). 5. Flora: The area of Eastern Anatolia region and its environs have attracted the attention of a lot of plant investigators notable among them being; [2, 4-15, 17, 21, 22, 25-42, 45, 46, 48, 49, 51-59, 61, 62, 65, 67-77, 80, 81, 83-90, 92, 95-97, 99, 102-104, 110-112, 119-124, 126 ]. Variations in altitude between l200-l500 m greatly effect the floral structure of the region together with climatic and geographical position. Irano-Turanian elements dominate the area, but we do get Euro-Siberian elements particularly in the northern part in wet meadows at high mountainous altitudes. The ratio of phytogeographical elements varies from north to south and east to west in the region (Fig. 3). In the northeast on Allahuekber mountains and near Kars-Iğdır vilayets Armenian border Irano-Turanian elements are 2l.3-24.7 %, whereas Euro-Siberian elements vary between l5.5-45.5 %. Percentage of Irano-Turanian elements at Nemrut and Erek mountains is over 40 %, but Euro-Siberian elements are 4-l0 %. Mediterranean elements are observed more near Turanian Malatya and Elazig (5-8 % ). It is very difficult to draw a northern line of Iranoelements dominating in Eastern Anatolia and its environs, however, Giresun(3.400 m), Soğanli (2967 m), Kaçkar(3932 m), and Yalnizçam mountainous(Şavşat/Artvin and Ardahan) ranges of east black sea could be accepted as a borderline. On the south at higher altitudes Euro-Siberian elements may dominate but in Çoruh (Artvin), Tortum and Oltu valley areas, Kargapazarı, Dumlu Mountains (Erzurum), Keşiş and Tercan Mountains (Erzincan), Tendürek Mountains, Soğuksu(in Çaldıran/Van) as well as places above timberline on east and south slopes of mountains still Irano-Turanian elements dominate 26 SDU Journal of Science (E-Journal), 2015, 10 (1): 23-48 _____________________________________________________ physionomically and floristically. At Allahuekber mountains (Kars) in the degraded pine forests of Pinus sylvestris upto 2600 m altitude, percentage of Irano-Turanian elements are 56 and Euro-Siberian ones 24 on east and southeast slopes, whereas on the north and northwest slopes of these forests percentage of Euro-Siberian elements are 58, IranoTuranian ones are only 20 percent. The southern border of Irano-Turanian elements towards the Mesopotamian part is under influence of a Saharo-Arabian subregion. Typical representatives of Irano-Turanian elements distributed only in the Eastern Anatolia and its environs are; Barbarae vulgaris, Gypsophila bitlisensis, G. bicolor, G. graminifolia, G. paniculata var. araratica, Pyrus salicifolia var. salicifolia, Sorbus tamamschjanae, Sempervivum davisii, Echinophora orientalis, Carum leucocoleon, Prangos ulopetra, Rindera albida, R. lanata, Pastinaca pimpinellifolia, Ferula orientalis, F. haussknechtii, Catabrosella fibrosa, Ferulago setifolia, F. stellata, Cymbocarpum anethoides, C. erythraeum, Valerianella tuberculata, V. amblyotis, Poa araratica, Cephalaria hirsuta, Senecio erucifolius, Tripleurospermum transcaucasicum, Centaurea albonitens, C. aucheri, Sonchus palustris, Scorzonera veratrifolia, Rhagadiolus papposus, Cicerbita adenophora, Paracaryum laxiflorum, Solenanthus circinnatus, Teucrium chamaedrys subsp. sinuatum, Phlomis pungens var. seticalycina, Scutellaria albida, S. orientalis subsp. bornmuelleri, Stachys inflata, Marrubium cordatum, Satureja boissieri, Lamium tomentosum var. tomentosum, Lallemantia canescens, Origanum vulgare subsp. gracile, Nepeta meyeri, Scilla rosenii, Salvia pachystachys, S. hydrangea, S. kronenburgii, Diarthon magakjanii, Mentha longifolia, Euphobia armena, E. marschalliana, Tulipa julia, Asphodeline dendroides, Allium oreophilum, A. longisepalum, A. hirtifolium, A. longicuspis- progenitor of A. sativum (Pırasa in Turkish) distributed in cental Asia and reported only from Başkale (Van) in Türkiye, Bellavalia paradoxa, B. fominii, B. pycnantha, B. longistyla, Nectaroscordum tripedale, Fritillaria minuta, F. zagrica, Gagea confusa, Sorbus migarica, Iris iberica subsp. elegantissima, I. musulmanica, Sameraria armena, Dactylorhiza sanasunitensis, Pimpinella peucedanifolia, Typha angustifolia, Elymus hispidus subsp. pulcherrimus, Aegilops tauschii subsp. tauschii, Psathyrostachys fragilis, Bromus trinianus, Alopecurus textilis subsp. tiflisiensis, Puccinellia distans subsp. sevangensis, Stipa araxensis, S. caragana, Piptatherum laterale subsp. laterale, Veronica poljensis, Carex orbicularis subsp. kotschyana var. caucasica, Thlaspi tatianae, Polygala hohenackeriana, Hypericum davisii, Bunium verruculosum, Diarthon vesiculosum, Cuscuta kotschyana subsp. caudata -occuring just on the diagonal towards Eastern Anatolia and Triticum carthlicuma notably resistant taxon of persian black wheat cultivated only in the highlands of the area. The taxa present only in the vilayets of Kars, Iğdır, Ardahan and Ağrı are; Rorippa islandica, Reseda microcarpa, Allochrusa versicolor, A. bungei, Anthriscus sylvestris, A. nemorosa, Heracleum crenatifolium, Cotoneaster multiflorus, C. transcaucasicus, C. meyeri, Bunium cylindricum, Pimpinella aromatica, Cuscuta campestre, Seseli grandivittatum, C. araratica, Echinops tournefortii, Onopordum armenum, Centaurea erivanensis, C. pseudoscabiosa subsp. araratica, Hieracium macrophyllopodum, H. erythrocarpum, Campanula massalskyi-known as type specimen only, Symphyandra armena-represented only by two species from Türkiye other being endemic to the nearby vilayet Rize, Lappula sinaica, Arnebia linearifolia, Onosma gracile, Allium albidum, Eremostachys glabra, Stachys fruticulosa, S. araxina, Lamium tomentosum var. alpestre, 27 M. Öztürk et al. Acantholimon quinquelobum, Sparganium minimum, Koeleria eriostachya, Consolida persica, Isatis ornithorhynchus, Ranunculus polyphyllus, Atriplex micrantha-present in Kirghizia Kalidium capsicum-occuring around the Caspian Sea, Viola rupestris, Cardamine microphylla, Halostachys belangeriana, Saxifraga tridactylites, Polemonium caeruleum, Galium czerepanovii, Crepis pannonica, Erysimum armeniacum, Aellania glauca subsp. glauca, Gypsophila patrinii-occuring in Kazakhistan upto Urals, Puccinellia dolicholepis-found around Akmola in Kazakhistan, Ribes uva-crispa-a native taxon of Kars, Salsola nodulosa, Suaeda linifolia, Petrosimonia squarrosa, Bienertia cycloptera, Marrubium persicum and Matricaria matricarioides-a weed occuring in Canada and Kamchatka, together with the pteridophyte taxon Equisetum litoralis. The taxa occuring in the vilayet of Van only are; Limonium vanense, Gypsophila bicolor, G. polyclada, Salvia kronenburgii, Astragalus sphaeranthus, A. gevashensis, A. robustus, Delphinium dolichostachyum, D. album, D. staphigera, Linum vanense, Carex iraquensis, Prangos acaulis, Senecio paucilobus, Tanacetum uniflorum, T. tabrisianum, Cousinia vanense, C. urumiensis, C. bicolor, C. grandis, C. vanensis, Cousinia x kurubasgecidiensis, Centaurea vanensis, C. albonitens, Tulipa biflora, T. humilis, Carduus onopordioides subsp. onopordioides, Taraxacum fedtschenkoi-occuring in Pamir Alai, Androsace caduca-occuring in Uzbekistan, Lamium tomentosum var. filicaule, Onosma subsericeum, O. chlorrrotrichum-known from type only, Verbascum nudicaule, V. vanense, V. songaricum- occuring in Karatau, Scrophularia variegata, S. crenophila, Galium subvelutinum, Gagea tenera-found in Samarqand, G. helenae, Dactylorhiza vanensis, Bromus gracillimus-found in Karakum Kirghizistan, Eremopoa multiradiata, Isatis brachycarpa, Vania campylophylla, Hypericum helianthemoides, Carex songoricaoccuring in Kazakhistan Pamir Alai, Chondrilla juncea var. latifolia, Ferulago bernardii, Tragopogon vaginatum and Inula peacockiana-found around Tien Shan. The taxa found only in the vilayet of Erzurum are; Astragalus hymenocystis, Chaerophyllum roseum, Peucedanum zedelmeierianum, Scorzonera sosnowskyi, S. latifolia var. angustifolia, Cuscuta subuniflora, Scrophularia zuvandica, Thlaspi kochianum and Elymus transhyrcanus-occuring on Kopet Dagh in Central Asia. Other interesting taxa like Cephalaria stellipilis, Scutellaria orientalis subsp. cretacea, Hammada ramosissima grow in vilayet Malatya only, Ribes nigrum in vilayet Muş, Limoniopsis owerinii-represented by only two species in Türkiye one being endemic, Poa bulbosa subsp. bulbosa, Thlaspi huber-morathii and T. huber-morathii subsp. divergens in vilayet Erzincan, Onobrychis shahpurensis, Cousinia arbelensis and Amaranthus retroflexus-a species of American origin, in vilayet Bitlis only. The Euro-Siberian elements with a wider occurence in the region are Filipendula vulgaris, F. ulmaria, Polygonum alpinum, P. bistorta subsp. bistorta, Genista tinctoria, Hypericum androsaemum, Linum hypericifolium, Acer hyrcanum subsp. hyrcanum, Rhamnus catharticus, Astragalus galegiformis, Vicia cracca subsp. cracca, V. truncata, V. sepium, Lathyrus pratensis, L. tuberosus, Ononis arvensis, Trifolium aureum, T. spadiceum, T. alpestre, Melilotus alba, Anthyllis vulneraria subsp. polyphylla, Spiraea hypericifolia, Prunus spinosa, Rubus canescens var. glabratus, Potentilla rupestris, P. thuringiaca, P. pimpinelloides, Fragaria viridis, Geum urbanum, G. coccineum, Alchemilla erythropoda, Rosa pimpinellifolia, R. jundzillii, Lythrum salicaria, Epilobium tetragonum subsp. lamyi, Bryonia alba, B. 28 SDU Journal of Science (E-Journal), 2015, 10 (1): 23-48 _____________________________________________________ aspera, Sedum annuum, S. telephium, Saxifraga paniculata subsp. paniculata, S. moschata, S. hirculus, Chaerophyllum bulbosum, Seseli libanotis, S. peucedanoides, Geranium palustre, Parnassia palustris, Ranunculus repens, Cornus sanguinea subsp. australis, Sambucus ebulus, S. nigra, Viburnum lantana, Inula britannica, Pulicaria vulgaris, P. dysenterica, Heracleum persicum, Gnaphalium uliginosum, G. sylvaticum, Galatella punctata, Crinilaria villosa, Senecio aquaticus subsp. eraticus, S. nemorensis subsp. nemorensis, S. othonnae, Anthemis setacea, A. millefolium subsp. millefolium, A. nobilis subsp. neilreichii, Leucanthemum vulgare, Artemisia armeniaca, A. chamaemellifolia, Carduus hamulosus subsp. hamulosus, Sausurea salsa, Echinops sphaerocephalus subsp. sphaerocephalus, Tragopogon reticulatus, Leontodon hispidus var. hispidus, Picris hieracioides, Hieracium rigens, H. erythrocarpum, H. pollichiae, H. prenanthoides, H. olympicum, H. lanceolatum, Pilosella cymosa, P. echioides subsp. echioides, Mulgedium quercinum, Lactuca serriola, Campanula latifolia, C. rapunculoides subsp. rapunculoides, C. glomerata subsp. hispida, Pyrola rotundifolia, Utricularia vulgaris, Primula elatior subsp. pallasii, P. veris, Myosotis stricta, M. sparsiflora, Androsace villosa, Gentiana cruciata, Cynoglossum officinale, C. montanum, Lithospermum officinale, Echium vulgare, Onosma ictatinctorium, O. rigidum, Cerinthe glabra, C. minor subsp. minor, Sanguisorba minor, Solanum dulcamara, Verbascum flavidum, Scrophularia umbrosa, Linaria genistifolia subsp. genistifolia, Pseudolysimachion longifolium, Veronica verna, V. dillenii, Melampyrum arvense var. arvense, Euphrasia pectinata, Odontites verna subsp. serotina, Teucrium scordium subsp. scordioides, Lamium amplexicaule, L. album, Leonurus quinquelobatus, Ballota nigra subsp. nigra, Nepeta cataria, Stachys sylvatica, Dracocephalum austriacum, D. ruyschiana, Prunella vulgaris, P. laciniata, Origanum vulgare subsp. vulgare, Acinos arvensis, Lycopus europaeus, Limonium gmelinii, Salvia verticillata subsp. verticillata, Daphne mezereum, Thesium arvense, Urtica dioica, Ulmus glabra, Aristolochia clematitis, Euphorbia seguieriana subsp. seguieriana, Coryllus avellana var. avellana, Alnus glutinosa subsp. glutinosa, Salix alba, S. fragilis, S. caprea, S. triandra subsp. triandra, Galium rivale, G. uliginosum, G. verum subsp. verum, G. spurium subsp. spurium, Cruciata laevipes, Alisma plantago-aquatica, Populus alba, P. nigra, P. tremula, Ceratophyllum demersum, C. submersum, Allium scorodoprasum subsp. waldsteinii, Gagea bulbifera, Iris sibirica, I. caucasica subsp. caucasica, Cephalanthera longifolia, C. damasonium, Epipactis palustris, Orchis purpurea, O. pallens, Platanthera chlorantha, Sparganium erectum subsp. microcarpum, S. erectum subsp. neglectum, Typha laxmannii, T. minima var. angustifolia, Juncus atratus, J. articulatus, Luzula campestris, L. pallescens, Cyperus fuscus, Carex microglochin, C. paniculata subsp. paniculata, C. diandra, C. otrubae, C. spicata, C. muricata, C. divulsa subsp. leersii, C. praecox, C. divisa, C. pseudofoetida subsp. acrifolia, C. ovalis, C. hirta, C. acutiformis, C. riparia, C. capillaris, C. panicea, C. brevicollis, C. distans, C. pallescens var. pallescens, C. umbrosa subsp. huetiana, C. caryophyllea, C. supina, C. tomentosa, C. atrata subsp. atrata, C. hartmanii, C. acuta, C. caespitosa, Elymus caninus, Hordeum geniculatum, Brachypodium sylvaticum, B. pinnatum, Helictotrichon armeniacum, H. pubescens subsp. pubescens, H. pratense, Arrhenatherum elatius subsp. elatius, Trisetum flavescens, T. sibiricum, Trisetaria loeflingiana, Koeleria pyramidata, Deschampsia flexuosa, Calamagrostis canescens, C. epigejos, C. pseudophragmites, C. 29 M. Öztürk et al. arundinacea, Apera interrupta, Agrostis canina, A. capillaris var. capillaris, A. gigantea, A. lazica, A. balansae, A. stolonifera, Polypogon viridis, Lolium perenne, Alopecurus aequalis, A. glacialis, A. arundinaceus, A. myosuroides var. myosuroides, Phleum alpinum, P. pratense, P. phleoides, Festuca gigantea, F. drymeja, F. airoides, Poa supina, Sclerochloa dura, Cynosurus cristatus, Melica picta, Stipa tirsa, S. joannis, Selaginella helvetica, Aconitum anthora, Fumaria schleicheri, Chenopodium glaucum, Serratula radiata subsp. radiata and Sonchus arvensis subsp. arvensis. The EuroSiberian elements: Solidago virgaurea subsp. virgaurea, S. virgaurea subsp. alpestris, Antennaria dioica, Tussilago farfara, Eupatorium cannabinum, Datisca cannabina, Asperugo procumbens, Glechome hederacea, Plumbago europaea, Butomus umbellatus, Sagittaria sagittifolia, Groenlandia densa, Leucojum aestivum, Dactylis glomerata subsp. glomerata, Gymnadenia conopsea, Corallorrhiza trifida, Beckmannia eruciformis, Nardus stricta, Phragmites australis, coumarine smelling Hierochloe odorata and the pasture grass Scolochloa festucacea occuring in Kars only though represented by single species in Türkiye are distributed in the region and its environs as well, together with such interesting taxa as Primula veris subsp. macrocalyx existing only here and extending upto Altai’s, a Virginian taxon Pyrola rotundifolia found in the north and Kars only vis-a-vis Epilobium tetragonum subsp. lamyi. The Euxine elements like; Heracleum persicum, H. crenatifolium, Cirsium cephalotes, C. cheiranthifolia var. cheiranthifolia, C. nawaschinii, Tanacetum punctatum, Hieracium taberdense, Pyrus oxyprion, Pedicularis nordmanniana, Carex disticha and C. orbicularis subsp. kotschyana var. caucasica are distributed only in this region whereas Swertia iberica, Myosotis olympica, M. propinqua, Nonea versicolor, Scrophularia chrysantha, S. olympica, Veronica peduncularis, Euphrasia petiolaris, E. lebardensis, E. sevanensis, Pedicularis condensata, P. crassirostris, Lamium armenum subsp. armenum, L. crinitum, Stachys macrantha, S. macrostachya, Mentha longifolia subsp. longifolia, Euphorbia oblongifolia, Quercus hartwissiana, Betula litwinowii, Juncus alpigens, Poa longifolia, Salix pentandroides, S. pseudomedemii, S. pseudodepressa, S. armenorossica, Asperula laxiflora, A. gracilis, Polygonatum orientalis, Allium szovitsii, A. decipiens, A. scorodoprasum subsp. jajlae, Fritillaria latifolia, Vicia balansae, Dactylorhiza romana subsp. geogrica, D. urvilleana, D. luxina var. luxina, Luzula pseudosudetica, Lathyrus aureus, Eryngium giganteum, Buplerum falcatum subsp. polyphyllum, Viburnum orientale, Valeriana alpestris, Inula orientalis, Aster amellus subsp. ibericus, Erigeron caucasicus subsp. caucasicus, Echinops galaticus, Cicerbita racemosa, Campanula tridentata, C. aucheri, C. lactiflora, C. sibirica subsp. hohenackeri, Pinguicula balcanica, Gentiana gelida and Gentianella caucasia show a wider distribution. The Euxinic elements like Pedicularis wilhelmsiana, P. pontica, Betula recurvata, Allium rupestre, Arabis brachycarpa, Gypsophila silenoides, Rhamnus microcarpa, R. depressus, Potentilla adscharica, P. elatior, Alchemilla minusculiflora, A. dura, Epilobium algidum, Ribes biebersteinii, Cephalaria gigantea, Inula mariae, Doronicum dolichotrichum, Carduus adpressus, Centaurea cheiranthifolia var. purpurascens, C. macrocephala, Campanula collina, Rhododendron caucasicum, Nonea intermedia, Veronica telephiifolia, Philadelphus caucasicus, Festuca artvinensis, F. karsiana, Carex nigra subsp. dacica, C. michelii, C. pallescens var. chalcodeta, Dactylorhiza luxina var. markowitschii, Polygonum bistorta subsp. carneum, Astragalus frickii, A. falcatus, Vicia dadianorum, Heracleum apiifolium, Anthemis 30 SDU Journal of Science (E-Journal), 2015, 10 (1): 23-48 _____________________________________________________ cretica subsp. iberica, Tanacetum sorbifolium, T. coccineum, Daphne glomerata, Centaurea simplicicaulis, Scrophularia macrobotrys, Rhynchocorys stricta, R. orientalis, Euphorbia wittmannii, E. macroceros, Lilium monadelphum var. armenum, Iris vallicola, Dorycnium graecum, Aconitum nasutum, Origanum rotundifolium and Senecio integrifolius subsp. aurantiacus var. leiocarpus are particularly restricted to the vilayets of Kars and Erzurum. Some of the Euxinic taxa reported as a single species from Turkey like Aconitum nasutum, A. orientale, Astrantia maxima subsp. maxima, Convallaria majalis var. transcaucasica, Lapsana communis subsp. grandiflora, L. communis subsp. alpina are also found in the vilayets Kars and Erzurum together with an interesting tertiary relict Epigaea gaultheroides. Hyrcano-Euxine elements like; Brunnera orientalis, Lathyrus roseus, Swertia longifolia, Trifolium rytidosemium var. rytidosemium, T. canescens, Alchemilla sericata, Sedum spurium, S. gracile, S. pilosum, Eleutherospermum cicutarium, Veronica gentianoides, Pedicularis caucasica, Lonicera iberica, Valeriana leucophaea, Campanula stevenii subsp. stevenii, Androsace albana, Lysimachia verticillaris, Gentiana septemfida, G. verna subsp. pontica, Myosotis sylvatica, Arnebia pulchra, Symphytum asperum var. armeniacum, Verbascum pyramidatum, V. filiformis, Euphrasia juzepczukii, Salvia glutinosa, Zelkova carpinifolia, Carex tristis, Salix elbursensis, Fritillaria caucasica, Colchicum speciosum, Orchis stevenii, Papaver orientale, P. pseudo-orientale and Poa masenderana are commonly seen in the area. Alchemilla surculosa, Saxifraga paniculata subsp. cartilaginea, Traunsteinera sphaerica, Lathyrus cyaneus var. cyaneus, Cirsium frickii, Scrophularia divaricata, Fraxinus excelsior subsp. coriariifolia occur only in Kars. Mespilus germanica, Chamaesciadium acaule, Hyssopus officinalis and Pterocarya fraxinifolia found as a single species in Türkiye are observed to show a distribution in this region too. Frequently growing species like Sideritis montana subsp. montana, Galium tricornutum, G. verticillatum, Trifolium hirtum and Heliotropium suaveolens are East Mediterranean elements. These probably have reached here by crossing Anatolian Diagonal and East Taurus proceeding along Euphrates and Murat basins. Other Mediterranean elements found in the area are; Ptilostemon diacantha subsp. turcicus, Sternbergia lutea, Cistus salviifolius, Colutea spp., Juniperus oxycedrus, Vitex agnus-castus, Petrorhagia velutina, Heliotropium greuteri, Echium plantagineum, Allium flavum subsp. tauricum var. tauricum, Dactylorhiza saccifera, Aegilops markgrafii and Cleome ornithopodioides found in vilayet Erzurum (in especially Tortum, Uzundere); Poa diversifolia, Beta macrocarpa, Parietaria lusitanica in Kars; Papaver minus, Orobanche pubescens, Taraxacum scolopendrinum in Van; Sedum laconicum, Ferula communis subsp. communis in Erzincan; Trifolium dasyrum, Linaria simplex, Verbascum sinuatum var. adenosepalum, Orobanche grisebachii, Gagea villosa var. villosa in Elaziğ; Arum dioscoridis var. syriacum, Legousia hybrida, Echium glomeratum, Salix pedicillata subsp. pedicillata in Malatya; Myosotis incrassata, Galium paschale, Aegilops neglecta, Phleum montanum subsp. serrulatum, Dactylorhiza romana subsp. romana, Carex flacca subsp. serrulata in Bitlis; Crucianella angustifolia, Orchis punctulata in Bingöl; Allium roseum, Colchicum triphyllum in Tunceli; whereas Velezia rigida, Glycyrrhiza echinata, G. glabra, Lathyrus gorgoni var. gorgoni, Tanacetum cilicium, Anagallis foemina, 31 M. Öztürk et al. Verbascum mucronatum, Kickxia elatina subsp. crinita, Orobanche schultzii, Thymus leucotrichus var. leucotrichus, Asperula arvensis, Allium paniculatum subsp. paniculatum, A. pallens subsp. pallens, A. scorodoprasum subsp. rotundum, A. guttatum subsp. sardoum, Ornithogalum narbonense, Gagea granatellii, Ophrys holoserica subsp. holoserica, Orchis tridentata, O. mascula, Dactylorhiza iberica, Elymus panormitans, Avena barbata subsp. barbata and Cleome iberica are widely seen in different vilayets of the region. The taxa Lagurus ovatus, Micropyrum tenellum, Picnomon acarna, Jasminum fruticans, Trachomitum venetum, Periploca graeca, Cionura erecta, Melissa officinalis subsp. inodora and Ostrya carpinifolia represented only by single species in Türkiye are also distributed in different vilayets of East Anatolia region. The widely distributed interesting genera represented by only single species in Türkiye are found in the area of Eastern Anatolia and its environs as well together with such monotypic genera like Vavilovia formosa, Caragana grandiflora-occuring in Erzurum and Halimodendron halodendron- present in Kars. The examples of these taxa are; Didymophysa aucheri, Texiera glastifolia, Armoracia rusticana, Peltariopsis planisiliqua, Drabapsis verna, Anchonium elichrysifolium subsp. persicum, Alliaria petiolata, Sobolewskia clavata, Murbeckiella huetis, Torularia contortuplicata, Oxyria digyna, Cucubalus baccifer, Lepyrodiclis holosteoides, Moehringia trinervia, Pteropyrum olivieri, Rheum ribes(in Ağrı, Bitlis, Van, Hakkari, Malatya, Elazığ, Bingöl), Ceratocarpus arenarius, Camphorosma monspeliaca subsp. lessingii, C. monspeliaca subsp. monspeliaca, Panderia pilosa, Seidlitzia florida, Myricaria germanica, Aellenia glauca subsp. cinerascens, Impatiens noli-tangere, Staphylea pinnata, Padus avium, Hippuris vulgaris, Datisca cannabina, Myrrhoides nodosa, Fuernrohria setifolia, Sium sisarum, Berula erecta, Physospermum cicutarium, Conium maculatum, Trachydium depressum, Lecokia cretica, Cicuta virosa, Szovitsia callicarpa, Selinum silaifolium, Ligusticum alatum, Xanthogalum purpurascens, Angelica sylvestris, Diplotaenia cachrylifolia, Zosima absinthifolia, Ormosciadium aucheri, Laser trilobum, Astrodaucus orientalis, Caucalis platycarpa, Turgenia latifolia, Cymbolaena griffithii, Gundelia tournefortii, Acroptilon repens, Oligochaeta divaricata, Zoegea leptaurea, Cnicus benedictus var. kotschyi, Chardinia orientalis, Acantholepis orientalis, Koelpinia linearis, Steptorhamphus tuberosus, Glaux maritima, Cynanchum acutum subsp. sibiricum, Lomatogonium carinthiacum, Heterocaryum szovitsianum, Trichodesma incanum, Physalis alkekengi, Lycium ruthenicum, Paliurus spina-christi, Anarrhinum orientale, Dodartia orientalis, Limosella aquatica, Lagotis stolonifera, Rhinanthus angustifolia subsp. grandiflorus, Bungea trifida, Cistanche salsa, Echinaria capitata, Hymenocrater bituminosus, Hippophae rhamnoides subsp. caucasica, Elaeagnus angustifolia, Arceuthobium oxycedddri, Pilostyles haussknechtii, Zannichellia palustris, Spirodella polyrhiza, Puschkinia scilloides, Hemerocallis fulva, Ixiolirion tataricum subsp. montanum, Limodorum abortivum, Coeloglossum viride, Scirpoides holoschoenus, Anacamptis pyramidalis, Scirpus sylvaticus, Blysmus compressus, Bulboschoenus maritimus var. maritimus, Schoenus nigricans, Cladium mariscus, Kobresia simpliciuscula, Heteranthelium piliferum, Agropyron cristatum subsp. incanum, A. cristatum subsp. pectinatum var. pectinatum, A. cristatum subsp. pectinatum var. imbricatum, Psilurus incurvus, Colpodium versicolor, Stipagrostis plumosa, Brachiaria 32 SDU Journal of Science (E-Journal), 2015, 10 (1): 23-48 _____________________________________________________ eruciformis, Pennisetum orientale, Chrysopogon gryllus subsp. gryllus and Trifolium pratense var. americanum. We also come across a few circumboreal-circumpolar elements like Aster alpinus, Erigeron uniflorus, Galium trifidum subsp. trifidum, Calamogrostis stricta, Eurosiberian- boreoamerican elements like Carex canescens, C. atherodes, C. limosa, Sudanoindian element Cuscuta hyalina, Sarmatian elements like Serratula erucifolia, Stachys atherocalyx. The typical disjuncts met within this area are; Pimpinella kotschyana, Galium boreale, Allium rubellum, Dactylorhiza cruenta, Echium russicum-an Euro-Siberian disjunct, Carex prostrata, C. pseudocyperusEurosiberian/Boreoamerican disjuncts, Gentianella ciliata subsp. blepharophoraHyrcano Euxin disjunct, Kickxia lanigera- Mediterranean disjunct and Cephalanthera kurdica an Eastern vicariad of East Mediterranean Cephalanthera epipactoides. Most widespread species of the grasslands are; Agrostis stolonifera, Deschampsia caespitosa, Festuca pratense, Triglochin palustris, Dactylorhiza umbrosa, D. osmanica, Hordeum violaceum, Trifolium repens, T. pratense, Orchis palustris and Pedicularis comosa var. acmodonta. There are a lot of plant taxa in rocky places. Most of them are endemics to Türkiye. The common taxa of the places are Arabis caucasica subsp. caucasica, Aubrieta parviflora, Campanula coriacea, Centaurea karduchorum, C. urvillei subsp. urvillei, C. urvillei subsp. nimrodis, C. virgata, Androsace maxima, Cotoneaster nummularia, Dianthus orientalis, Ephedra major, Lycium ruthenicum, Minuartia juniperina, M. umbellulifera, Paronychia kurdica subsp. kurdica var. kurdica, P. kurdica subsp. haussknechtii, Potentilla lignosa, Rosularia sempervivum subsp. kurdica, R. sempervivum subsp. persica, Sedum album, Scorzonera rigida, S. tomentosa, Silene odontopetala, S. araratica, Stachys lavandulifolia var. glabrescens, S. ballotiformis, Salvia multicaulis, Tanacetum kotschyi, Thymus kotschyanus var. kotschyanus, T. kotschyanus var. glabrescens, T. kotschyanus var. eriophorus, Valeriana sisymbriifolia, V. leucophaea etc. The plant life wakes up in late May at higher altitudes above 2500 m and snow melted areas get covered with Colchicum armenum, Merendera trigyna, Fritillaria alburyana, Ornithogalum montana and Gagea glacialis. The richest 10 families in the region on the basis of taxon number are; Asteraceae (Compositae), Fabaceae (Leguminosae), Poaceae (Gramineae), Brassicaceae (Cruciferae), Lamiaceae (Labiatae), Caryophyllaceae, Rosaceae, Ranunculaceae, Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) and Scrophulariaceae. First three families with highest number of taxa from different parts of the studied area are outlined below (Table 2). Table 1. A comparison of the distribution of phytogeographical elements and endemism rate (%) in the research areas of Eastern Anatolia. Areas Akçadağ [67] Çatak Valley I [27] Çatak Valley II [97] Deveboynu[34] Bahçesaray [34] Çatak Valley I[97] IranoTuranian(%) 35.4 42,89 45,78 47,07 44,0 42.89 EuroSiberian(%) 9.9 4,85 6,09 4,78 8,0 4.85 Mediterranean (%) 2.9 3,88 2,58 4,25 2,0 3.88 Cosmopolitan and others (%) 51.6 48,35 45,55 43,88 46,0 48.35 Endemism ratio (%) 7.5 6,43 7,37 6,8 14,26 6.42 33 M. Öztürk et al. Çatak Valley II[97] Çavuştepe[34] Başet Mountain[34] Özalp [88] Güzeldere[34] Erek Mountain [83] Bitlis River [12] Deveboynu[97] Hizan [10] Sübhan Mountain [28] Kurubaş [81] Toprakkale [77] Çakmak Mountain[55] Tercan, Şengül,B.baba [68] Munzur Mountain [124] Çiçek Mountain [48] Allahuekber [111] Iğdır [110] Pirreşit Mountain [34] Köse Mountain[102] Nemrut Mountain [96] Van Castle [80] Akçadağ[97] 45.78 33,0 46,41 42,36 50,63 40,9 31.8 47.07 34.9 37, 0 44,0 44,4 33.9 25 45.7 12.6 37 44.4 38.2 30.2 44,0 27,2 35.4 6.09 4,3 5,71 9,38 4,19 8,8 4.8 4.78 6.2 8.7 7,0 4.4 20 10.7 8 29.6 41.3 7.7 9.5 11.2 23,0 5,9 9.9 2.58 3,5 1,7 3,28 1,14 2,9 8.7 4.25 4.7 2.0 1,0 4.8 2.6 4.4 4.4 1 1.6 3.5 2.1 3.9 4,0 11,8 2.9 45.55 59,5 51,6 44,97 40,61 32,0 54.6 43.88 54.2 52.3 47,0 46.8 37.2 59.9 41.9 56.8 20.1 44.4 50.1 43.5 ? 29,0 51.8 6,3 12,2 11,73 12,06 6,8 6.8 6.8 7.9 8.5 7,0 4,0 6.5 6.5 19.9 3 4.6 1.4 8.8 8.6 8,4 2,9 7.5 Table 2. The richest three families with highest taxa in different studying areas of Eastern Anatolia Areas First Familia Second Familia Third Familia Nemrut Mountain[96] Pirreşit Mountain[34] Çatak Valley II( [97] Malatya-Pötürge [13] Hazar Mountains[126] Hasan Mountain [13] Dumlu Mountain[33] MunzurMountain[124] Erek Mountain[83] Kars-Iğdır-Armenia Border[34] Köse Mountain[34] Van Castle[80] Aladağ [59] Bingöl Mountains[80] Sübhan Mountain[28] Çakmak Mountain[55] Akyaka-Arpaçay[75] Çatak Valley I[97] Çatak Valley II[97] Fabaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Rosaceae Poaceae Brassicaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Brassicaceae Poaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Poaceae Caryophyllaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Asteraceae Lamiaceae Brassicaceae Brassicaceae Fabaceae Asteraceae Brassicaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Lamiaceae Asteraceae Fabaceae Caryophyllaceae Fabaceae Poaceae Poaceae Fabaceae Brassicaceae Caryophyllaceae Fabaceae Brassicaceae Lamiaceae Poaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Brassicaceae Fabaceae 10 genera with highest number of taxa are Astragalus, Centaurea, Verbascum, Trifolium, Silene, Vicia, Veronica, Ranunculus, Alyssum and Salvia. First three genera with maximum number of taxa in the area investigated are given below. Table 3. The richest 10 genera with highest taxa number in different studying areas of East Anatolia region Areas Pirreşit Mountain[34] Çatak Valley I [27] Çatak Valley II[97] Nemrut Mountain[96] Malatya-Pötürge [13] Bingöl Mountains[80] First Big Three Genera in the Researching Areas Astragalus Astragalus Astragalus Silene Astragalus Astragalus Silene Centaurea Silene Astragalus Trifolium Silene Centaurea Salvia Centaurea Trifolium Silene Centaurea 34 SDU Journal of Science (E-Journal), 2015, 10 (1): 23-48 _____________________________________________________ Hasan Mountain [13 Dumlu Mountain[33] Munzur Moutains[124] Erek Mountain[83] Astragalus Astragalus Astragalus Astragalus Trifolium Trifolium Silene Centaurea Köse Mountain[102] Van Castle[80] Aladağ[59]] Sübhan Mountain[28] Çakmak Mountain[55] Akyaka-Arpaçay…[75] Silene Centaurea Astragalus Astragalus Astragalus Silene Stachys Alyssum Silene Centaurea Silene Carex Vicia Veronica Alyssum VeronicaRanunculus Centaurea Astragalus Centaurea Silene Rumex Veronica In the area of Çatak Valley II according to Ekim et al. (2000) [20] and IUCN (2001) [50] they are distributed in the threat categories as follows; 1 Critical (CR), 1 Endangered (EN), 4 Vulnerable (VU), 18 Near Threatened (nt), 39 Least Concern (lc). The threat categories of rare taxa are as follows; 27 VU, 1 nt [97]. There are a lot of useful plant taxa like medicinal, aromatical, dye, food growing naturally in the region. And also local foods like Herbal cheese and Kelledoş prepared from plants of the region [93, 94, 79]. Table 4. Life forms of plant taxa growing in the region according to Raunkiaer (1934). Areas Pirreşit Mountain[34] Van Castle[80] Allahuekber Mountains[111] AkyakaArpaçay[75] Gâvur Mountains[108] Çakmak Mountain[55] Therophyte Ratio % 19,6 Chamaphyte Ratio % 9,0 Hemichriptophyte Ratio % 54,9 Chriptophyte Ratio % 14,1 Phanerophyte Ratio % 1,6 36,5 12,6 31,0 13,5 10,9 61,5 19,4 3,2 1,8 8,8 18,8 2,7 65,5 9,2 - 5,0 9,0 73,0 3,0 9,0 21,9 16,2 44,8 10,3 6,8 6. Endemism in the region: Irano-Turanian phytogeographical region with an area of 2.400.000 km² embodies nearly 3500 vascular plant taxa. The total number of endemic taxa found in the region and its environs is almost 1300 [3, 45, 58]. Thus giving a ratio of 30-37 %. But this situation is valid for the regional flora, not each a mountain, valley, basin, town etc. The number of endemic genera to this part is almost 80 [47, 102]. The highest endemism is observed in Erzincan (Üzümlü, Çayırlı, Tercan), Erzurum (Aşkale, Oltu, Narman, Tortum, Uzundere), Tunceli(Ovacık, Pülümür, Çemişgezek), Malatya (Arapgir, Darende) and on mountains south of Lake Van (Özalp, Bahçesaray, Gürpınar, Gevaş, Çatak, Başkale etc.), Hakkari (Cilo and Sarp Mountains), Ağrı(Eleşkirt, Patnos), Kars(Arpaçay, Diyadin, Taşlıçay) and Bingöl(Yayladere). The ratio increases when we move from North to South and West to East. In addition to this, endemism in crossroads of phytogeographical region is very high for examples Kop Dağı, Zigana in Aşkale (Erzurum)-Bayburt/Gümüşhane (Fig. 4). 35 M. Öztürk et al. Typical representatives of some Irano-Turanian endemics are: Astragalus hakkiaricus, A. crassinervius, A. karabaghensis, A. shelkovnikovii, A. siliquous, Cerastium araraticum, Bufonia calyculata, Chrysocamela noena, Tchihatchewia isatidea, Bornmuellera cappadocica, Alyssum harputicum, Corydalis oppositifolia subsp. kurdica, Isatis bitlisica, Silene eminentis, Gypsophila venusta subsp. staminea, Ranunculus crateris, R. poluninii, R. sintenisii, Dianthus muschianus, Gypsophila graminifolia, G. paniculata var. araratica, G. aucheri, G. bitlisensis, Silene sclerophylla,,S. azirensis, S. araratica, Paronychia arabica subsp. euphratica, P. turcica, Hypericum scabroides, Linum triflorum, Geranium eginense, Haplophyllum cappadocicum, Rhamnus kayacikii, Chesneya elegans, Astragalus bashkalensis, A. rechingeri, A. baytopianus, A. oltensis, A. gevashensis, A. mukusiensis, A. xerophilus, A. taochius, A. davisii, Oxytropis fominii, Vicia glareosa, Trifolium longidentatum, Hedysarum vanense, Onobrychis huetiana, Ebenus macrophylla, Amygdalus trichamygdalus var. elongata, Potentilla anatolica, Alchemilla erzincanensis, Rosa pisiformis, Crataegus davisii, Sedum polystriatum, Astrantia maxima subsp. haradjianii, Rhabdosciadium microcalycinum, Prangos platychlaena, Froriepia gracillima, Malabaila lasiocarpa, Trigonosciadium intermedium, Laserpitium carduchorum, Cephalaria anatolica, Pulicaria armena, Anthemis schischkinii, Tanacetum oltense, Cousinia aucheri, C. vanensis, Cirsium aduncum subsp. bashkalense, Serratula bornmuelleri, Centaurea demirizii, C. taochia, C. poluninii, C. aucherana, Echinops melitenesis, Uechtritzia armena, Scorzonera davisii, S. aucherana, Tragopogon albinervis, Taraxacum davisii, Chondrilla spinosa, Campanula hakkiarica, C. munzurensis, Dionysia teucrioides, Vincetoxicum fuscatum subsp. boissieri, Marrubium parviflorum subsp. oligodon, Convolvulus carduchorum, Myosotis platyphylla, Paracaryum montbretii, Verbascum birandianum, V. vanense, Scrophularia bitlisica, S. libonotica subsp. libonotica var. urartuensis, S. erzincanica, Chaenorhinum cryptarum, C. huber-morathii, Veronica polium, Rhynchocorys odontophylla, Teucrium leucophyllum, Phlomis integrifolia, P. sintenisii, Lamium galactophyllum, Wiedemannia orientalis, Ballota rotundifolia, Marrubium vanense, M. vulcanicum, Sideritis vulcanica, S. brantii, S. munzurdagensis, Nepeta baytopii, Dracocephalum multicaule var. setigerum, Origanum acutidens, Micromeria elliptica, Thymus convolutus, T. canoviridis, Salvia ballsiana, S. kronenburgii, S. odontochlamys, Limoniopsis davisii, Acantholimon spirizianum var. spirizianum, A. strigillossum, Plantago anatolica, P. euphratica, Thesium oreogetum, Euphorbia petrophila var. armena, Urtica haussknechtii, Quercus macranthera subsp. syspirensis, Galium cappadocicum, G. tortumense, Allium oltense, A. baytopiorum, Bellevalia crassa, B. rixii, Fritillaria minima, Tulipa sintenesii, Iris taochia, Crocus karduchorum, Dactylorhiza chuhensis, Luzula turcica, Elymus clivorum, Bromus armenus, Ventenata eigiana, Trisetum thospiticum, Sesleria araratica, Delphinium munzianum, D. carduchorum, D. dolichostachyum, Ranunculus vanensis, R. munzurensis, R. bingoeldaghensis, Papaver persicum subsp. fulvum, Physocardamum davisii, Aethionema munzurense, Thlaspi aghricum, Gypsophila peshmenii, Hypericum malatyanum, Astragalus altanii, A. tatlii, Pyrus yaltirikii, Sedum sorgerae, Chaerophyllum karsianum, Cirsium eliasianum, Campanula aghrica, C. yildirimlii, Veronica allahuekberensis, Stachys tundjeliensis, Origanum munzurense, Limonium vanense, Agropyron deweyi, Nonea karsensis, Vicia rafigae, Astragalus bahcesarayensis etc. [50, 82]. 36 SDU Journal of Science (E-Journal), 2015, 10 (1): 23-48 _____________________________________________________ Typical representatives of some Euxine endemics are; Draba hispida, Delphinium formosum, Gypsophila glandulosa, Silene lazica, Festuca lazistanica subsp. lazistanica, Campanula choruhensis, Onosma nigricaule, Allium sosnowskyanum, Geranium cinereum var. ponticum, Astragalus czorochensis, Sempervivum armenum var. armenum, Doronicum balansae, Senecio integrifolius subsp. karsianus, Cirsium trachylepis, Centaurea appendicigera, Hieracium ovalifrons, H. variegatisquamum, H. hypopityforme, H. onosmaceum, H. sarykamyschense, H. lazicum, H. tamderense, H. microtum, Cicerbita baissieri, Symphytum armeniacum, Verbascum transcaucasicum, Necranthus orobanchoides, Asperula pestalozzae etc. Typical representatives of some Mediterranean endemics are; Onosma nanum, O. aucheranum, Stachys cretica subsp. mersinaea, S. citrina subsp. chamaesideritis, Galium davisii, Carex divulsa subsp. coriogyne, Pterocephalus pinardii etc. Typical representatives of some Euro-Siberian endemics are; Alopecurus laguroides, Silene olympica, Iris kerneriana, Lathyrus karsianus. Cyathobasis fruticulosa from Monotypic genus [3, 20, 47]. 7. Vegetation: There are a lot of literatures on vegetation of the region but very few studies have been undertaken on the vegetation of Hakkari, Bingöl, Ardahan, Gümüşhane of the region and its environs[2, 8, 9, 14, 15, 17, 22, 34, 43, 54, 60, 63, 66, 78, 101, 106-109, 112, 116-118, 122, 125, 127] have studied on vegetation of it. In general semidry areas are dominated by a steppe vegetation, higher altitudes by oaks and in humid areas Pinus sylvestris forests dominate as in northeast. Vegetation in general thus comprises of forest, shrub and steppe. Both forest and steppe vegetation have been destroyed and natural plant cover has got reduced. For long distances one can observe the degraded areas covered by cushion forming steppy taxa like Astragalus microcephalus, A. aureus, A. lagurus, A. aduncus, A. nigripilis, Artemisia austriaca, A. spicigera, Veronica orientalis, Thymus fallax, T. transcaucasica, Acantholimon calvertii, A. ulicinum, Gundelia tournefortii, Stachys iberica, S. lavandulafolia, Salvia multicaulis, Festuca brunnescens, Alopecurus textitis, Phleum montanum, and Poa bulbosa, mixed up with shruby forms like Cotoneaster nummularia, Rosa pimpinellifolia, R. canina, R. gallica, Rhamnus pallasii, R. catharticus, Viburnum opulus, Sorbus torminalis, Prunus divaricata, Ephedra major and Crataegus monogyna, C. orientalis etc. These are of secondary nature because generally no chance has been given to the destroyed forests to regrow (Fig. 1). 37 M. Öztürk et al. Figure 1. A geographical map of Eastern Anatolia and probable synchorology of the order Festuca oreophilae- Veronicetalia orientalis and its type and other alliances; T: the Tanaceto aucherani- Thymion pubescentis alliance, A: the Astragalo aurei- Festucion caucasiacae alliance, ??: unknown areas, - -: National borders, Mt-Mts: mountain-mountains, :studied areas, : some important mountains. [60]. 7.1. Forest vegetation: In the north largely Pinus sylevestris forests are distributed but in other parts we come across Quercus longipus, Q. brantii, Q. macranthera and Betula pendula. Pinus sylvestris (Yellow pine) forests occur in areas experiencing humid or semihumid severe winters, with a greater period of sunshine in the vegetative period. An association of a pure stand is observed between 1600-2800 m in the northeast of the region, which is infiltrated by steppe taxa at destroyed sites. The two associations of P. sylvestris found at Gâvur and Allahuekber mountains in the region are; Trifolio-Pinetum sylvestris [109]: This association is seen on Gâvur mountains on andesit-basaltic tuff which is slightly acidic in character. Characteristic species are Pinus sylvestris, Trifolium ambiguum and Pastinaca pimpinellifolia. Character speices of Querco - Fagetea class and Populetalia albae order of this association are Poa nemoralis V, Vicia cracca subsp. tenuirolia V, Populus tremula IV, those of Molinio Arrhenatheretea and Arrhenatheretalia being Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium I, Lathyrus pratensis I, Lotus corniculatus var. cornuculatus I. Character speies of Daphno-Festucatea are Centaurea triumfettii IV, Helianthemum nummularium V, Alyssum pateri subsp. pateri III, Festuca brunnescens II. This assciation abounds in steppe species and has been classified 38 SDU Journal of Science (E-Journal), 2015, 10 (1): 23-48 _____________________________________________________ as upper class: Querco-Fagea, class: Quercetea pubescentis, order: Quercetalia pubescentis, alliance: Quercion anatolicae, association: Trifolio-Pinetum sylvestris. Triseto-Pinetum sylvestris [110]: It is found on north slopes of Allahuekber mountains on andesite-obsidyen parent material, with a pH of 4.8-6.7. The altitude varies between 19002500 m. Association is characterised by Pinus sylvestris, Trisetum flavecens and Trifolium ambiguum. It embodies 70 % Euro - Siberian elements, however, at degraded sites particularly on south slopes Irano-Turanian elements are higher in percentage, as such south slope is a transition zone for Euro-Siberian and Irano-Turanian elements. Character species of Qureco - Fagetea class are; Vicia cracca subsp. tenuifolia IV, Poa nemoralis III, Lapsana communis subsp. grandiflora III, Rubus ideaus I. Character species of Molinio - Arrhenatheretea are; Lotus corniculatus var. corniculatus II, Trifolium pratense var. sativum I. Character species of Quercetea pubescentis class are; Coronilla varia subsp. varia I, Euonymus latifolius I, Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. oxycedrus I. Character species of Daphno - Festucetea are; Myosotis lithospermifoia I, Festuca brunnescens I, Koeleria cristata I. Character species of Geranio - Pinion alliance are, Lonicera caucasica subsp. caucasice II. Syntaxonomic classification of this association is as follows: upper class: Querco - Fagea, class: Quercetea pubescentis, order: Querco Carpinetalia, alliance: Carpino - Acerion, association: Triseto - Pinetum sylvestris. Quercus(Oaks) Forests start from south of Europe reaching Anatolia over Balkans extending up to Erzincan, Tunceli, Bingöl, Malatya, Muş and Bitlis, crossing over to Aşkale through Aras, with big forests on the coast and West areas(Bitlis: Tatvan, Mutki, Güroymak; Muş: Hasköy, Korkut etc.) of Lake Van. At places these forests are mixed up with shrubs like Juniperus communis, J. excelsa, Quercus libani and Acer platanoides. Quercus macranthera subsp. syspirensis is widely distributed around Erzincan and Gümüşhane, whereas Q. brantii and Q. libani are found widely in Malatya and Bingöl. 7.2. Schruby Vegetation: This vegetation occupies the areas of degraded forests and depressions. The species of Populus tremula, Cotoneaster nummularia, Rubus ideaus, Juniperus oxycedrus subsp. oxycedrus, J. nana, J. excelsa, Quercus pubescens, Lonicera caucasica subsp. caucasica, Rhamnus pallasii, R. catharticus, Daphne oleoides, Sorbus torminalis, Rosa pulverulanta, R. canina, R. gallica, R, villosa, Cotinus coggyria, Colutea spp. and Crataegus monogyna, C. orientalis, Elaeagnus angustifolia, Hippophae rhamnoides, Cotoneaster nummularia grow on degraded forests. Paliurus spina-christi, Spirea crenata, Cotinus coggyria, Berberis vulgaris, B. crategina, Rhamnus pallasii, Prunus prostrata and Colutea armena occupy the depressions in Erzurum valley, like Tortum, Uzundere and Oltu. Main associations are; Balloto-Rhamnetum pallasii [110]: This association is found on Allahuekber mountains (Kars) in the Akshar-Yeshildemet between 1400-1800 m on andesite parent material. Character species are; Ballota nigra subsp. nigra V, Rhamnus pallasii V, Polygonum convolvulus V, Spiraea crenata IV, Acinos arvensis III, Sobolewskia clavata II. Character species of the associations of class Quercetea pubescentis and order Quercetalia pubescentis are; Continus coggyria V, Teucrium chamaedrys V, those of Astragalo39 M. Öztürk et al. Brometea and Astragalo-Brometalia being Scutelleria orientalis subsp. orientalis III, and Teucrium polium III. Caragano-Minuartietum lineatae [9, 14, 108-110]: This association occurs in Tortum valley between 1300-1500 m. The character species of this association are; Caragana grandiflora V, Minuartia lineata II, Nigella arvensis II, Silene bupleuroides II, Clypeola elegans II. Rhamnus pallasii and Ephedra major var. procera occur in this assciation as small shrubs. The species found in the Astragalo-Brometea and Astrogalo-Brometea association are; Stipa barbata IV, Teucrium polium II, Marrubium parviflorum II, Paronychia kurdica II, Phlomis armeniaca I, Centaurea virgata I. The character species of class Dapho-Festucetea are; Prunus prostrata III, Cruciata coranata II, Melica ciliata var. micrantha II, Helichrysum plicatum subsp. plicatum I, whereas Quercetea pubescentis class has Cotinus coggyria IV, Acer campestre I as the character species. The character species of the order Querco-Cedretalia is Berberis crataegina I. 7.3. Hydrophytic Vegetation: Equisetum ramosissimum, Elymus compressus, Prunella vulgaris, Juncus inflexus, Plantago lanceolata, Epilobium hirsutum, Alchemilla capactilis, Geum rivale together with Phragmites australis, Typha latifolia, Sparganium erectum, Lythrum salicaria, Veronica anagallis-aquatica, Nasturtium officinale, Heracleum crenatifolium, Mentha spicata, M. longifolia, M. aquatica, Parnassia palustris, Ranunculus trichophyllus, R. repens, Bellis perennis and Bidens cernua, Trifolium and Coronilla spp. are frequently observed along the stream banks, wet places and swampy areas. Vegetation is represented by such communities as Hippophae-Salix and Typha-Juncus [12, 27, 31, 45-47, 51, 56, 75, 80]. Hippophaetum rhamnoidis [108]: This association flourishes on slightly basic sandyloam soils and along water courses. The character species are; Hippophae rhamnoides V, Poa angustifolia V, Apera intermedia V, Geranium sylvaticum III, Lysimachia vulgaris II. Two sub-associations found in this assoication are represented by Salix species. These are Salicetosum albae and Salicetosum armeno-rossicae. In the associations of AlnoPopuletea, Populetalia and Alno-Quercion character species are; Calamagrostis pseudophragmites III, Galium aperine II, Myricaria germanica II, Rubus ceasicus II. Character species of Molinio-Arrhenathereta and Arrhenatheralia found in this association are; Lotus corniculatus var. corniculatuis V, Festuca pratensis IV, Rhinanthus minor IV, Trifolium pratense IV, Trifolium repens IV, Plantago lanceolata IV, Phleum prantense III, Dactylis glomerata III, Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium III, Medicago lupulina II, Prunella vulgaris II, Ranunculus repens I, Lathyrus pratensis I, Carum carvi I. Syntaxonomically the association is classified as follows; class: Alno-Populetea, order: Populetalia albae, alliance: Alno-Quercion roboris, sub-alliance: Salicion albae, association: Hippophaetum rhamnoidis. Typho-Juncetum inflecii [109]: This community occurs on young alluvial deposits and inside the water around Serçeme stream in Erzurum. Character species of the association are; Typha latifolia, Juncus inflexus and J. articulatus. Mentha tomentosa, Epilobium hirsutum and Lacustris tabernamontani are the differentiating species. Character species 40 SDU Journal of Science (E-Journal), 2015, 10 (1): 23-48 _____________________________________________________ Carex gracilis of alliance Phragmition communis is also found in this association. Association is classified as; class: Phragmitetea, order: Pyragmitetalia, alliance: Phragmition, association: Typho-Juncetum inflecii[60]. 7.4. Grasslands: These are widely distributed around Erzurum, Kars and Ardahan at different altitudes on irrigated areas and mowed once a year. The associations in this group are: Hordeetum violaceumii [108]: This association has been described from Serçeme valley in Erzurum and is found on lower cretaceous aged calcareous rocks, rich in CaCO3. Character and differentiating species of this association are; Hordeum violaceum V, Agrostis stolonifera IV, Rhinanthus electrolopus III, Deschampsia ceaspitosa III, Thalictrum flavum III. Character species of the associations in Molinio-Arrhenatheretea and Arrhenatheretalia are; Festuca pratensis V, Trifoium pratense V, Carum carvi IV, Phleum pratense IV, Lotus corniculatus var. corniculatus III, Plantago lenceolata III, Achillea millefolium subsp. millefolium III, Trifolium repens I, Prunella vulgaris I. Character species of Triseto-Polygonion bistortae alliance is Polygonum bistorta subsp. carneum. Character species of Astragalo-Brometea class are; Bromus tomentellus III and Melica ciliata subsp. micrantha III. The association is classified syntaxonomically as follows; class: Molinio-Arrhenatheretea elatioris, order: Arrhenatheretalia elatioris, alliance Triseto-Polygonion bistortae, association: Hordeetum violaceumii. Deschampsio-Ranunculetum brachylobus [110]: The association inhabits the south and west facing slopes of Allahuekber mountains around Kars, with a slope of 3-15, parent rock being andesite and bazalt, occupying irigated areas. Character and differentiating species of this association are; Deschampsia ceaspitosa IV, Ranunculus brachylobus IV, Fuernrohria setifolia III, Tripleurospermum sevanense II, Carex diluta II. Character species of Molinio-Arrhenatheretea class of Molinio-Arrhenatheretalia order are Trifolium repens V, Festuca pratensis IV, Trifolium pratense II, Carum carvi II, Lotus corniculatus var. corniculatus II. Charcter species of Triseto-Polygonion bistortae alliance is Polygonum bistortea subsp. corneum. This association is present together with Hordeetum violaceumii association in the same alliance Triseto-Polygonion bistortae. Hordeeto-Ranunculetum comosae comb. nov. (Syn: Hordeum nodosum-Pedicularis comosa Andic, 1982). Common on grasslands in Erzurum with a pH of 6.0-7.8, organic matter content of 2.65-13.9 %. Characteristic species are Hordeum nodosum, Pedicularis comosa and Orchis laxiflora. Character species of the Molinio-Arrhenatheretea and Arrhenatheratalia are; Poa pratensis V, Lotus corniculatus IV, Trifolium pratense III, Trifolium repens II, Phleum prantense II, Medicago lupulina II, Dactylis glomerata I, Festuca pratensis I. Polygono-Primuletum auriculatae comb. nov. (Syn: Polygonum bistorta-Primula auriculata Andic, 1982). The association is found on Palandöken mountain in Erzurum between 2500-2600 m. It occupies valley meadows with a high organic matter content lying around 20.37 %. The soils are poor in phosphorus, 41 M. Öztürk et al. ground water level being very high. Character species of this association are; Polygonum bistorta V, Primula auriculata V, Orchis caucasica V. Character species of the order Arrhenatheratalia are; Trifolium repens V, Poa pratensis III, Cardamina raphanifolia III, Phleum pratense II, Lotus corniculatus I. All the 33 species in this association are perennial. The companion species on the basis of cover / percentage are; Agrostis alba, Alopecurus arundinaceus and Carex cretica. There are new researches on vegetation of the region. The most important ones of them were being explained in this paper. Van Lake basin is important plant area covering 1.8 million ha situated in the East Anatolian region. Most of lakes of the basin are rich in soda and saline(average %0.21) . The area has served as a genetical centre for many species like spinach(Spinacia oleracea). Halophytic taxa are mainly distributed around the lakes of Van and Erçek. Kochia prostrata, Panderia pilosa, Suaeda confusa, Iris spuria, Juncus spp., Hordeum marinum, H. murinum, Comphorosma monspeliaca, Triglochin maritima, Artemisia spicigera, A. alba, A. absinthium, Crypsis aculeata, Puccinella distans, Limonium gmelinii, L. vanense, Plantago crassifolia, Glaux maritima, Cyperus glaber, Salsola ruthenica, Chenopodium album, C. foliosum, Alopecurus arundinaceus, Scorzonara parviflora, Peganum harmala, Zygophyllum fabago. Allochrusa versicolor that known from one locality in Iğdır is growing in near the Armenia and Nakhitchevan. 8. References [1] Altınlı, E., 1966. Geograpy of East and Southeast Anatolia, MTA Jour. 61: 36-68, Ankara. [2] Adızel, Ö., Durmuş, A., Kaycı, L., Koyuncu, M., Özçelik, H., Özgökçe, F., Özkol, H., Ünal, M., 2006b. Türkiye'nin Önemli Doğa Alanları (Erek Dağı ve Turna Gölü), Ibid, 378-381. [3] Adıgüzel, N., Bani, B., Pınar, S.M. 2006. 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Münir Öztürk e-posta: munirozturk@ hotmail.com Âdem Tatlı e-posta: atatli(at)mehmetakif.edu.tr Lütfi Behçet e-posta:lbehçet2000@yahoo.com 46 SDU Journal of Science (E-Journal), 2015, 10 (1): 23-48 _____________________________________________________ Area (ha) (Soil Classes I-IV) 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 Vilayets Agri Bingo Bitlis Elazig Erzinc Erzur Hakka Kars Malat Mus Tunce Van Figure 2. Land used for hausing in Eastern Anatolia 47 M. Öztürk et al. 50 45 PERCENTAGE 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 K a r s - A r A lla h u e kb D u mlu d a g N e mr u t Erek M u n zu r H a za r H a sa n P o tu r g e B in g o l A R E A S (M O U N T A I N S ) Ir a n o - T u r a n ia n E u r o - S ib e r ia n M e d ite r r a n e a n Figure 3. Distribution of phytogeographical elements in Eastern Anatolia R A T IO O F E N D E M IS M IN E A S T A N A T O L IA 18 16 PER C ENTAG E 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 K a rs -A rm A lla h u e k b D u m lu Hazar Hasan B in g o l M unzur M a la t y a - A R E A (M O U N T A I N S ) Figure 4. Ratio of endemism in Eastern Anatolia 48 

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY – Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Turkey) – Munir OZTURK, Ernaz ALTUNDAG and Sahil GUCEL MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS (TURKEY) Münir ÖZTÜRK Botany Department, Science Faculty, Ege University, 35100-Bornova,İzmir-Turkey. Ernaz ALTUNDAĞ Dept. of Biology, Faculty of Arts & Sciences, Duzce University, Duzce, TURKEY. Salih GÜCEL Near East University, Institute of Environmental Sciences, Nicosia, Cyprus. Keywords: Turkey, herbals, history, ethnobotany, treatments, recipes. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Contents 1. Introduction 2. Historical perspective of the traditional medicine 3. Gene pools, germplasm enhancement and biopiracy 4. Turkish medicinal and aromatic plants 5. Recipes 6. Conclusion Acknowledgement Glossary Bibliography Biographical Sketches Summary Turkey is one of the countries with richest plant diversity in the Mediterranean. A number of human races and tribes have settled here during different periods bringing in different cultures and customs. As a result of this we come across a great accumulation of knowledge of traditional medicine in the country. Within these lands that many ancient civilizations flourished, domestication of many food and medicinal plants started. Dioscorides (1st century A.D.) from Anazarba or Asia minor; the Mediterranean part of Turkey; used the healing properties of different plants from Anatolia thus establishing it as a science. In 78 A.D. he wrote the monumental volumes of “Materia Medica” which included 950 drugs out of which 600 were of plant origin. A recent survey of traditional and folk medicine in Turkey has revealed that most of these plants are still in use by the local inhabitants.Therefore, Materia Medica may be assumed to be the oldest comprehensive document on Anatolian folk medicine. This knowledge is surviving until now and an array of herb shops are found in the markets of the modern cities. The number of flowering plant taxa distributed in the country is estimated to lie around 10,000. These taxa are distributed in different phytogeographical regions and include nearly 3.300 endemics. Global sales worldwide on plant-based medicines, spices, beverages, and cosmetic products have been estimated to lie around 65 billion US dollars/year and it is expected to grow. The share of Turkey is extremely low inspite of the rich plant diversity in the country. ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY – Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Turkey) – Munir OZTURK, Ernaz ALTUNDAG and Sahil GUCEL U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Nearly 2000 taxa of plants are evaluated for medicinal and aromatic purposes, and approximately 500-1000 plant taxa are used in the traditional medicine. Nearly 350 taxa of higher plants and pteridophytes are sold at the shops of Attar’s, the traditional herbal drug dealers. The plants presented in table 1(a-e) include 290 taxa belonging to 170 genera and 70 families. These are the most widely used plants in Turkey. The families with the highest number of taxa are Lamiaceae (18), Asteraceae (18), Apiaceae (11), Liliaceae (9), Rosaceae (8), Ranunculaceae (7) and Fabaceae (6). The genera with maximum number of species used are Sideritis (10), Helichrysum (8), Rumex (6), Astragalus (5), Euphorbia (5), Gypsophila (5), Juniperus (5), Anthemis (5), Artemissia (5), Orchis (4), and Colchicum (4). Out of these 73 are used externally and 168 internally for the treatment purposes. Tea, liquorice and several other plants found in Turkey are routinely used as beverage. Tea is now most commonly consumed plant and cultivated as a crop in the black sea region of Turkey. Herbal based teas like mint, sage, apple, orange, Tilia are derived from many parts of plants with medicinal values and are now very popular in the country. We find large sales of thyme, olive, onion, garlic, pepper, rosemary, coriander, cumin, bay laurel, oil seed crops like rapeseed and mustard, anise, dill, fennel, saffron, artichoke, caraway, chrysanthemum, citrus peel, hibiscus, lemon, St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum), basil, on the shops of herb dealers as well as local markets. Many are used as spice, for flavor and taste but contain many medicinal compounds. We find many plant based recipes used for such treatments as; anthelmintic, anti-anemic, anti-diabetic, anti-depressant, anti-diarrheal, antiemetic, anti-tussive, anypnia, cardiotonic, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, halitosis, hordeolum, headache, indigestion, orexigenic, purgative, sedative, toothache and tonic. In this chapter an attempt is made to present the scattered information on the medicinal and aromatic plants from our studies together with other published records of Turkey for its availability to the researchers in different fields related to herbal drugs. 1. Introduction “Nature has cared for the plant life on our earth, saved them from thousands of abiotic interferences, however nobody can save them from fools.” Human beings from all cultures of the world; priests, shamans, herbalists, spiritual leaders and medicine men/women; have selected the medicinal and aromatic plants through trial and error since times immemorial. The earliest documented record dates from Paleolithic age (50,000 B.C.) which was found in the grave of a Neanderthal man in the southern part of Hakkari (far southeast edge of Turkey) (Baytop, 1984, 1999). A number of plant remedies have been described on the clay tablets that have survived from the Mesopotamian civilizations like Sumerians, Assyrians and Akkadians, and Hettites. In fact the study of medicinal botany has begun when plants were classified according to their uses; such as pain and illness healing plants and poisonous ones (Ozturk and Ozcelik, 1991; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis, 2003; Ozturk et al. 2008 a,b; Mert et al. 2008). Progressive evolution by selection from the wild plants created domestication of many plants all of which have medicinal properties. Merinelli (2005) has estimated 422,000 plant species worldwide. This includes 50,000 to 80,000 flowering plants being used medicinally (Duke, 2009). These plants are potentially rich sources of medicinal compounds curing everything from the common cold to cancer ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY – Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Turkey) – Munir OZTURK, Ernaz ALTUNDAG and Sahil GUCEL and even HIV/AIDS, and are known as nature’s pharmacy (Kaefer and Milner, 2008; Cunningham, 2009; Liang et al 2009). Samuelsson, G., and L. Bohlin. 2010. Drugs of natural origin: A treatise of pharmacognosy. Sixth ed. Stockholm: Swedish Pharm. Press. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Botany, pharmacy, chemistry, archeology, and other disciplines have contributed a lot towards the searching of new drug plants (Drews, 2000). The field of chemical basis of medicinal and aromatic plants developed during 19th century, when the science of phytochemistry was established. Presently nearly 80 percent of the population in Asia and Africa depend on traditional medicine, and in some developed countries 70-80 percent of the population is using some form of herbal drug. Presently more than 20,000 plant taxa are used as herbal drugs on global scale. Out of these more than 120 compounds from 90 plants are available as prescription drugs (Calixto, 2005; Ariyawardana et al. 2009; Samuelsson and Bohlin, 2010). Turkey is one of the countries with richest plant diversity in the Mediterranean (Davis 1965-1986; Davis et al. 1988; Guner et al. 2001). A number of human races and tribes have settled here during different periods bringing in different cultures and customs. As a result of this we come across a great accumulation of knowledge of traditional medicine in the country. Within these lands that many ancient civilizations flourished, domestication of many food and medicinal plants started (Baytop, 1984; Zohary and Hopf, 1994). Dioscorides (1st century A.D.) from Anazarba or Asia minor; the Mediterranean part of Turkey; used the healing properties of different plants from Anatolia thus establishing it as a science. In 78 A.D. he wrote the monumental volumes of “Materia Medica” which included 950 drugs out of which 600 were of plant origin (Beck, 2005). A recent survey of traditional and folk medicine in Turkey has revealed that most of these plants are still in use by the local inhabitants (Yesilada and Sezik, 2003). Therefore, Materia Medica may be assumed to be the oldest comprehensive document on Anatolian folk medicine. This knowledge is surviving until now and an array of herb shops are found in the markets of the modern cities. Other works in this connection are Baytop (1984), Yesilada et al. (1993, 1995); Tabata et al. (1994), Sayar et al. (1995), Surmeli et al. (2000) and Everest and Ozturk (2005). The number of flowering plant taxa distributed in the country is estimated to lie around 10,000 (Davis et al.1965-1985;1988; Guner et al., 2001; Guvensen et al., 2006). These taxa are distributed in different phytogeographical regions and include nearly 3.300 endemics (Ozgokce and Ozcelik, 2004; Simsek et al. 2004). In this chapter an attempt is made to bring together the scattered information on the medicinal and aromatic plants from our studies together with other published records of Turkey for its availability to the researchers in different fields related to herbal drugs. 2. Historical Perspective of the Traditional Medicine The knowledge about traditional medicine developed separately in countries like India, China, Middle East, Africa, Europe, Australia and Americas, and information in this connection can be taken from the ancient texts like Vedas, Chinese texts, the Bible, and the Quran (Chin and Keng,1992; Bisset and Wichtl, 2001; Bhattacharjee, 2001; Halioua and Ziskind, 2005; Chapman and Chomchalow, 2005; Busia, 2005; Li, 2006; Duke et ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY – Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Turkey) – Munir OZTURK, Ernaz ALTUNDAG and Sahil GUCEL al. 2008; Ahmed et al. 2009). The practice of traditional medicine has been adopted in different countries or continents since ancient times without the knowledge of others (Singh, 2010). Traditional medicine is defined as combination of knowledge, skills and practices based on the theories, beliefs and experiences indigenous to different cultures that are used to maintain health, as well as to prevent, diagnose, improve or treat physical and mental illnesses (Ozturk et al. 2008 a). U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Ayurveda native to India originated around 2,000 BC and is still being used in combination with the modern medicine for health care (Kapoor, 1990). Other treatment systems related to it are Unani, and Homeopathy. Chinese system of medicine originated in about 3,000 BC. More than 50 medicinal plant species are described in the China’s ancient poem collections. Presently records on plant-based medicines can be seen in more than 400 books (Singh, 2010). This system together with Indian one was followed by South East Asian countries. On the Australian continent aboriginal communities have the longest continuous heritage of any human culture on the planet (Craker and Gardner, 2007). The use of medicinal plants by the Sumerians in southern Mesopotamia (Iraq) goes back to 3,000 BC. Traditional Unani medicine practiced in many Middle Eastern (Ghazanfar and Al-Sabahi,1994) and Asian countries has originated in ancient Greece around 400 BC. Hippocrates; the founder of allopathic medicine; is considered to be the first Unani physician. European traditional medicine has its roots in the writings of Hippocrates and Dioscorides, as well as later in the works of the Romans, such as Galen (Baytop,1999). African traditional medicine started in 1,500 BC. It is based on plants and holistic belief systems, and society for combating various ailments. Native American tribes have used medicinal plants for nearly 10,000 years, which are linked to philosophy, religion, and spirituality, and treatments aim to balance the physical, emotional, mental and spiritual components of a person (De Montellano,1990;De Smet,1999; Moerman, 2009). 3. Gene Pools, Germplasm Enhancement and Biopiracy Medicinal plants grow widely in nature in different regions of the world. These are herbs, shrubs, or trees; annuals, biennials or perennials, cultivated or wild. Centers of their origin have been established by Vavilov (Singh, 2010). It is not possible to establish the gene pool concept for the medicinal plants, due to limitations related to the study of hybridization. An improvement of varieties through selection, hybridization, induced mutation, polyploidy, and biotechnology is a routine in tea, coffee, mint, poppy, ginger, and turmeric, but it still lags far behind that of cereal crops although molecular linkage maps of some of these have been established (Chung and Singh, 2008). Genetic transformation in these is in progress. At present fluorescence and genomic in situ hybridization are also used in some of these species. In spite of all the advancements biopiracy is a big problem faced by the people in countries of centers of diversity as well as in the areas where indigenous people continue to live even today. The big companies from developed world take genetic resources and traditional knowledge from these places to create products for commercialization. Some countries have however started now signing bilateral agreements on Intellectual Property Rights to save traditional knowledge (Singh, 2010). ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY – Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Turkey) – Munir OZTURK, Ernaz ALTUNDAG and Sahil GUCEL - TO ACCESS ALL THE 52 PAGES OF THIS CHAPTER, Visit: http://www.eolss.net/Eolss-sampleAllChapter.aspx Bibliography U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Aguilar-Støen M., Moe S. R. (2007). Medicinal plant conservation and management:distribution of wild and cultivated species in eight countries. Biodiversity Conservation 16,6, 1973–1981. [This paper reviewes studies on the medicinal plants from eight countries in four regions. Most plants are found wild (40.5%) or naturalized (33.9%), while only 3.3% are cultivated]. Ahmad M., Khan M A., Marwat S. K., Zafar,M., Khan,M.S., Hassan, T.U., Sultana,S. (2009). Useful medicinal flora enlisted in Holy Quran and Ahadith. Amer.-Eurasian J. 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[This 540 page book is a translation of materia medica written by Dioscorides and discusses about 900 plants used in the treatment of diseases in the area of fertile crescent and its environs]. Bhattacharjee, S. K. 2001. Handbook of medicinal plants. Third rev. ed. Jaipur: Pointer Publ. [This book presents details on the characteristics of 1170 plant species, including nomenclature, description, distribution, cultivation, processing and physical and chemical properties. The chapters contain complete information on history, isolation and characterization of active principles, transformation of medicinal system, medicinal plants widely known for their curative effects on certain diseases, export of medicinal plants and phytochemicals, suggestions for improvement of medicinal crop industry]. Bisset N. G.,Wichtl M. (eds.) (2001). Herbal drugs and phytopharmaceuticals.Second ed.Boca, Raton, FL: CRC Press. [Gives information on 181 medicinal herbs common in pharmaceutical practice with many photographs or drawings to aid the process of authentication and quality assurance. It also presents references to pharmacopoeial monographs, sources, synonyms, constituents, indications, side effects, ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY – Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Turkey) – Munir OZTURK, Ernaz ALTUNDAG and Sahil GUCEL commercially available phytomedicines, authentication using macro-microscopical, and chromatographic techniques together with quantitative studies, likely adulterations, and storage requirements]. Busia K. (2005). Medical provision in Africa-past and present. Phytotherapy Res. 19:919-923. [This paper provides an overview of traditional African medicine, highlighting its benefits and drawbacks of orthodox medicine. It also explains the reasons for the rise in interest in herbal medicine on the continent]. Calixto J. B. (2005). Twenty-five years of research on medicinal plants in Latin America a personal view. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100, 131-134. [In this article the progress of Latin American scientific papers in the field of plants over the last 25 years has been summarised and a discusstion presented related to the relevance of medicinal plants for the development of standardized phytomedicines]. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Chapman K., Chomchalow N. (2005) Production of medicinal plants in Asia. Acta Hort.679:45-59. [The paper enlightens the significant role played by the medicinal plants in ancient traditional systems of medication (Ayurvedic, Unanic-India, the Chinese traditional medicine), in most Asian countries as well as their collection in the past and the situation at present. It is characterized by 3 different criteria and advantages of commercial cultivation are presented along with the constraints envisaged, because largescale cultivation of promising species has recently been attempted in several countries]. Chin W Y., Keng H. (1992). Chinese medicinal herbs. Sebastopol, CA: CRCS Publ. [This book gives basic information for several herbs but with very little information to utilize these as a primary resource]. Chung G., Singh R. J. (2008). Broadening the genetic base of soybean: a multidisciplinary approach. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 27, 295-341. [Paper presents data on the economically important legume soybean in particular its cytogenetic knowledge as well as methodology for producing fertile lines. Data includes information on molecular linkage maps because genetic base of modern soybean cultivars is narrow]. Craker L E., Gardner Z. E. (2007). Medicinal Plants and tomorrow’s pharmacy. In Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, ed. R. J. Bogers, L. E.Craker and D. Lange, 29-41. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. [This chapter discusses the past and present situation of medicinal plants in USA, their first pharmaceutical use in America and latter developments due to restrictions. It also gives concerns about current safety and efficacy issues with medicinal plant products. The future of American pharmacies is also discussed]. Cunningham N. (2008). Hallucinogenic plants of abuse. Emergency Medicine Australasia 20, 167-174. [This article deals with the use of hallucinogenic plants, their characteristics and role in ritualistic and spiritual traditions. A review of the more common hallucinogenic plants and fungi is discussed with reference to historical, pharmacological and clinical aspects of these intoxications]. Davis P.H. (1965-1985). Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, vol.1-9 Edinburgh Univ. Press, Edinburgh. [Includes a taxonomic treatment of Turkey’s Flora. It also presents the richness and diversity of Turkish flora in 9 volumes (1966-85), & supplements. A major contribution to the floristic study of Sout West Asia and the eastern Mediterranean region]. Davis P. H., Mill R. R., Tan K. (1988). Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, vol 10 (supplement 1). Edinburgh Univ. Press, Edinburgh. [Includes a taxonomic treatment of Turkey’s Flora. The supplement also presents the richness and diversity of Turkish flora. A major contribution to the floristic study of Sout West Asia and the eastern Mediterranean region]. De Montellano B. R. O. (1990). Aztec medicine, health, and nutrition. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press. [This 308 pages ethnohistorical study presents information on Aztec health, illness, and cures. It gives a credible view of pre-Columbian Aztec medicine including a hot and cold disease classification and dismisses Aztec cannibalism of sacrificial victims as a response to protein deficiency]. De Smet P. A. G. M.(1999). Herbs, health & healers: Africa as ethnopharmacological treasury. Berg en Dal, Netherlands: Afrika Mus. [This book writes about the African natural medicines, drugs and poisons together with plenty of information on a variety of indigenous objects like masks, sculptures, magical objects and traditional items used by healers]. Drews J. 2000. Drug discovery: a historical prospective. Science 287: 1960-1964. [The review article discusses the contributions of drug research in the progress of medicine during the past century. The role ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY – Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Turkey) – Munir OZTURK, Ernaz ALTUNDAG and Sahil GUCEL of molecular biology combined with genome sciences, and bioinformatic tools in increasing the number of treatment options as well as the biotech industry has been presented]. Duke J. A., Duke P. A., duCellier J. L.(2008). Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of the Bible. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. [This handbook covers 150 herbs that scholars speculate, based on citations, were used in Biblical times. It gives their ease of use, scientific information, and evidence-based approach]. Duke J. A. (2009). Duke’s Handbook of Medicinal Plants of Latin America. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. Boca Raton, FL. [This informative book provides basic information on 500 species of medicinal plants from Latin America with bionomial scientific name, authority, family, synonyms and common names, and a code that relates to the safety of the species]. Everest A., Ozturk E. (2005). Focusing on the ethnobotanical uses of plants in Mersin and Adana provinces (Turkey). Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 1:6, 1-6. [This paper presents the result of a study on the herbal drugs belonging to 107 species and sold in the herbal markets in Mersin and Adana provinces of Turkey, their local and latin names, the parts used, and the preparations]. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Ghazanfar S. A., Al-Sabahi A. M. A. (1994). Handbook of Arabian medicinal plants. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. [Handbook is the first illustrated reference on the uses of more than 250 species of plants in the Arabian Peninsula together with biochemical information and references. It emphasizes the need for preserving social and cultural patterns and examines the close relationship between those patterns and nature]. Gladstar R.,Hirsch P.(2000).Planting our future:Saving our medicinal herbs.Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press. [This book contains information on 33 native plants covered in depth with color photos of 30, explanations of how to use and grow them, habitat protection, eco-friendly consumption suggestions for making eco-friendly purchases and using other herbs with similar actions as alternatives]. Guner A., Ozhatay N., Ekim T. (2001). Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, Volume 11. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, UK. [This supplementary volume gives information on 400 new flowering plant species, either new to science or new records from Turkey. New information about the richness of the Turkish flora and its importance as a centre of diversity has been given]. Guvensen A., Gork G., Ozturk M. (2006). An overview of the halophytes in Turkey. In: Sabkha Ecosystems Vol. II, West & Central Asia, ed. Khan et al., Springer, The Netherlands, pp: 9-30. [In this paper plant diversity of saline habitats is presented which include 300 halophytic taxa. Information on their conservation status is also given together with their uses for different purposes, in particular Salicornia europaea salad. The great potential in the halophytic plant cover for consumption has been evaluted]. Halioua B., Ziskind B. (2005). Medicine in the days of the pharaohs. Transl. M. B. DeBevoise. Cambridge: Beknap Press. [This well researched, accessible,and impressive book presents information on the Pharaonic medicine from ancient Egyptian healers, practice of medicine, including its role in society, medical training, the process of mummification, health along the pharaonic Nile with evidence from tomb painting, mummies, bones, medical literature on papyri and ostraca, residues of liquids found in jars, labels on jars, tattoos and inscriptions left in tombs of physicians and laymen. Authors have synthesized our existing knowledge and ideas on the subject of Pharaonic medicine]. Harnischfeger G. (2000). Proposed guidelines for commercial collection of medicinal plants. J. Herbs Spices Med. Pl. 7(1):43-50. [The paper describes the fact that wildcrafting, if unsupervised and unguided, can pose a threat to the sustainability of ecosystems and biodiversity. A proposed guideline, entitled good harvesting practice has been discussed which can meet various demands of regulatory and other agencies dealing with registration of herbal medicinal products]. Johnson C. B., Franz C. (eds.) (2002). Breeding research on aromatic and medicinal plants. New York: Haworth Herbal Press. [In this 435 pages long essential book, researchers have explored recent developments in the selection and breeding of aromatic and medicinal plants. It examines the breeding for resistance and abiotic factors, manipulating natural product accumulation through genetic engineering, biochemical and molecular regulation of essential oil accumulation, economic and legal considerations that breeders will encounter, the ethical aspects of breeding these plants]. ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY – Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Turkey) – Munir OZTURK, Ernaz ALTUNDAG and Sahil GUCEL Kaefer C. M., Milner J. A.(2008). The role of herbs and spices in cancer prevention. J. Nutr. Biochem. 19:347-361. [The review focuses on the antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antitumorigenic properties of herbs and spices; their ability to influence carcinogen bioactivation; and likely anticancer contributions]. Kapoor L. D. (1990). CRC handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants. Boca Raton, Fl: CRC Press.[This handbook is filled with over 50 illustrations and descriptions of approximately 250 plants which are used for herbal medicine. Derived from India, "Ayurveda" is the foundation stone of their ancient medical science]. Lewis W. H., Elvin-Lewis M. P. F. (2003). Medical botany: Plants affecting human health. Second ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. [The 832 pages book includes green plants, fungi, and microorganisms with productive mine of information. It is organized on the basis of body system and ailment to locate appropriate therapies, and includes background on the physiology of major systems and ailments]. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Liang C., McClean M. D., Marsit C., Christensen B., Peters E., Nelson H. H., Kelsey K. T. (2009) A population-based case-control study of marijuana use and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Prevention Research 2, 759-768. [The paper informs us about the cannabinoids, constituents of marijuana smoke, which have been recognized to have potential antitumor properties. It suggests that moderate marijuana use is associated with reduced risk of HNSCC]. Li T. S. C. (2006). Taiwanese native medicinal plants: Phytopharmacology and therapeutic values. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. [The 400 pages book presents information critical to assessing the medicinal potential of Taiwanese herbs. A comprehensive review on the major constituents of more than 1000 species, their toxicity, and therapeutic values, the book focuses on documentation of the chemical components present and their therapeutic properties]. Marinelli J. (ed.) (2005). Plant: the ultimate visual reference to plants and flowers of the world. New York: DK Publ. [This 512 pages ground breaking reference book islike a new-generation encyclopedia covering discussions on cultivating plants that are on the international endangered list or already extinct in the wild. It attempts to provide environmental and horticultural information to the gardeners in order to make right decisions about what to grow in their gardens]. Mathé A., Franz C. (1999). Good agricultural practices and the quality of phytomedicines. J. Herbs Spices Med. Pl. 6(3):101-113. [The 13 page manuscript presents a discussion on the demand to comply with well defined quality standards in medicinal and aromatic plants. The introduction of comprehensive, production protocols (Way-Bills) is expected to contribute to the production of quality phytomedicines through good agricultural practices]. Mert T., Akcicek E., Celik S., Uysal I., Ozturk M. (2008). Ethnoecology of Poisonous Plants from West Anatolia in Turkey. European J. Sci. Res., 19(4), 828-834. [The paper discusses information on 50 poisonous taxa, 20 of these being mushrooms which are widely distributed in West Anatolian part of Turkey. These include taxa collected from the wild and sold at the markets or consumed by the public directly after collection]. Moerman D. E. (2009). Native American medicinal plants: An ethnobotanical dictionary. Portland, OR: Timber Press. [This 800 pages reference book describes the medicinal use of more than 2700 plants by 218 Native American tribes. The most extensive and authoritative source of ethnobotanical information covers 82 categories of medicinal uses, ranging from analgesics, contraceptives, gastrointestinal aids, hypotensive medicines, sedatives, and toothache remedies]. Myers N., Mittermeier R. A., Mittermeier C.G., da Fonseca G. A. B., Kent J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403 (24), 853-858. [The paper discusses about the biodiversity hotspots (25) where exceptional concentrations of endemic species are undergoing exceptional loss of habitat]. Ozgokce F., Ozcelik H. (2004). Ethnobotanical aspects of some taxa in the East Anatolia, Turkey. Economic Botany 58(4), 697-704. [This paper presents a list of medicinal plants distributed in the East Anatolian region of Turkey and provides information about 71 useful plants grown in the region, 20 of which are reported for the first time. In addition to the scientific names, vernacular names and medicinal uses are given for each plant]. ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY – Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Turkey) – Munir OZTURK, Ernaz ALTUNDAG and Sahil GUCEL Ozturk M., Vardar Y. (1974). Distribution and economical prospects of Myrtus communis. Bitki, 1, 100107. [Paper discusses distributional pattern of Myrtus communis in Turkey together with its economical uses in particular its medicinal value and possibilities for industrial evaluation]. Ozturk M., Gork G. (1978). Studies on the chorology and economical evaluation of Mentha species in West Anatolia. Ege Univ., Sci. Fac. Jour., II(4) 339-356. [This manuscript presents distribution of wild mint taxa in Turkey together with their economical uses in particular medicinal value and possibilities for industrial evaluation]. Ozturk M., Gork G. (1979). Ecology of Mentha pulegium. Ege Univ., Sci. Fac. Jour., III, 57-72. [This 16 pages manuscript gives original results on the ecological behaviour of Mentha pulegium in Turkey. It also discusses the economic importance of this species and possibilities for its economic evaluation]. Ozturk M., Ozcelik H. (1991). Useful Plants of East Anatolia. Siskav Press, Ankara. 218 foto, 196 Sayfa. [196 pages bilingual (Turkish-English) book presents information on 215 useful plants of East Anatolia in Turkey with 145 photographs]. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Ozturk M., Guvensen A., Gucel S. (2008 a). Ecology and Economic Potential of Halophytes – A Case Study from Turkey.In:Crop and Forage Production Using Saline Waters (Eds.Kafi & Khan). NAM S & T Centre, Daya Publ. House-Delhi, India, pp:255-264. [Paper deals with the ecological and economical evaluation of plants occypying saline habitats in Turkey. A total of 120 plant taxa have been listed, with information on the medicinal uses of some taxa]. Ozturk M., Uysal I., Gucel S., Akcicek E., Mert T., Celik S.(2008 b). Ethnoecology of Poisonous Plants of Turkey and Northern Cyprus. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 40(4): 1359-1386. [Paper deals with the poisonous plants of Turkey and Northern Cyprus. The information includes 474 plant taxa from Turkey and 23 from the Northern Cyprus]. Ozturk M., Gucel S., Altundag E., Gork C., Mert T., Gork G., Akcicek E. (2011 a). An Overview of the Medicinal Plants of Turkey. In: Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering and Crop Improvement: Medicinal Crops, Chapter 7, Vol. 6, CRC Press,LLC,Taylor & Francis, Ram Singh, Editor. (In Press). [This manuscript contains detailed information on the uses of 53 herbal teas,75 plant taxa used in the treatment of different diseaes. Data on the wild mints and possibilities for their evaluation has been given under separate heading]. Ozturk M., Gucel S., Celik A., Mert T., Akcicek E., Altundag E. (2011 b). Myrtus communis in Phytotheraphy in the Mediterranean. In: Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering and Crop Improvement: Medicinal Crops, Chapter 28, Vol. 6, CRC Press, LLC,Taylor & Francis, Ram Singh, Editor. (In Press). [Paper presents data on the work done on morphology, ecology, chorolgy of typical mediterranean element Myrtus communis in Turkey. Its medicinal uses have been discussed at length and its applications in phtytherapy are presented]. Roberson E. (2008). Medicinal plants at risk. Tucson, AZ: Cent. Biol. Diversity. [The book presents information on the treasures inhabiting our wild places i.e., the medicinal species that reside in natural areas and have received scientific and commercial attention. It describes natural remedies, their names, classification and properties together with the information on what knowledge the natives had of medicines as well as increased scientific and commercial attention which is increasing pressure on the wild plant populations from which most medicinal plants are harvested]. Samuelsson G., Bohlin L. (2010). Drugs of natural origin: A treatise of pharmacognosy. Sixth ed. Stockholm: Swedish Pharm. Press. [This unique multidisciplinary 6th edition covers 776 pages discusses about the terrestrial and marine bioactive substances of plant, microbial or animal origin, as well as their sustainable use in the development of new drugs, scientifically based herbal remedies, and environmentally adapted biomolecules]. Sayar A., Guvensen A., Ozdemir F., Ozturk M. (1995). Ethnobotanical studies in the State of Mugla. OT Sys Bot Jour 2(1), 151-160. [The paper presents a list of medicinal and aromatic plants distributed in the Mugla province of Turkey. The information includes systematic ststus of plants, local names, and parts used in the herbal treatments]. Sezik E., Zor M., Yesilada E. (1992). Traditional medicine in Turkey II. Folk medicine in Kastamonu. International Journal of Pharmacognosy 30, 233–236. [This paper describes ethnopharmacological study ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY – Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Turkey) – Munir OZTURK, Ernaz ALTUNDAG and Sahil GUCEL on the traditional folk medicine in the Kastamonu province of Turkey. Information includes vernacular names of the 25 plant species, parts used, and methods of preparing the medicines]. Simsek I., Aytekin F., Yesilada E., Yildirimli S. (2004). An ethnobotanical survey of the Beypazari, Ayas and Gudul district towns of Ankara province (Turkey). Economic Botany 58(4), 705-720. [The paper discusses dietary, therapeutical, and other ethnobotanical uses of the wild plants grown in the Beypazarı, Ayaş, and Güdül district towns of Ankara. Authors have recorded 192 uses for wild plants]. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Singh R. (2011). Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering and Crop Improvement: Medicinal Crops, Vol. 6, CRC Press, LLC, Taylor & Francis (In Press). [This book includes 30 chapters covering approximately 2500 pages. The chapters are; Landmark Research in Medicinal Plants, Medicinal Plants Nature's Pharmacy, Indian Traditional and Ethno-medicines from Antiquity to Modern Drug Development, Medicinal Fruit Trees of Southeast Asia, Medicinal Plants of China, Medicinal Plants of the Middle East, An Overview of the Medicinal Plants of Turkey, An Overview of Ethnobotany of Turkmenistan and Use of Juniperus turcomanica in Phytotherapy, Medicinal Plants of Ghana, Medicinal Plants of Australia: Melaleuca alternifolia for the Production of Tea Tree Oil, Medicinal Plants of New South Wales (NSW), Australia, Medicinal Properties of Legumes Artemisia spp., Poppy – Utilization and Genetic Resources, Ginger, Turmeric, Ginseng, Tea, Coffee, Yacon (Asteraceae; Smallanthus sonchifolius), Mint, Plantago ovata: Cultivation, Genomics, Chemistry and Therapeutic Applications, Christmas Candle Senna: An Ornamental and Pharmaceutical Plant, Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum– graecum L.), Aloe vera, Stevia rebaudiana-A Natural Substitute for Sugar, IPECAC - Carapichea ipecacuanha, Myrtus communis in Phytotheraphy in the Mediterranean, LICORICE (Glycyrrhiza species), and Applications of Biotechnology and Molecular Markers in Botanical Drug standardization and Quality Assurance]. Surmeli B., Sakcali S., Ozturk M., Serin M. (2000). Kilis ve Cevresinde Halk Hekimliginde Kullanilan Bitkiler. XIII. Plant Raw Materials Meeting, Istanbul, 211-220. [This 10 pages long paper in Turkish describes 21 plant taxa from Kilis and its environs in Turkey. A table with vernacular names, distribution, parts used,and types of application has been given]. Tabata M., Sezik E., Honda G., Yesilada E., Fukui H., Goto K., Ikeshiro Y. (1994). Traditional medicine in Turkey III. Folk medicine in East Anatolia, Van and Bitlis provinces. International Journal of Pharmacognosy 32, 3–12. [Paper presents a field survey of traditional medicine in Turkey, specifically East-Anatolian region. It includes interviews with inhabitants, elder people, traditional practitioners and sheyh (semi-religious persons) and gives vernacular names of plants used as medicine]. Yesilada E., Honda G., Sezik E., Tabata M., Goto K., Ikeshiro Y. (1993). Traditional medicine in Turkey IV. Folk medicine in the Mediterranean subdivision. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 39, 31–38. [8 page manuscript describes traditional utilization of plants as medicine in the Mediterranean region of Turkey in particular the Taurus Mountains. Sixty-nine medicinal plants have been identified, which are listed with the vernacular names, the parts used, the methods of preparing the drugs and their traditional usages]. Yesilada E., Honda G., Sezik E., Tabata M., Fujita T., Tanaka T., Takeda Y., Takaishi Y. (1995). Traditional medicine in Turkey V. Folk medicine in the inner Taurus Mountains. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 46, 133–152. [The paper discusses the folk medicine in the inner region of the Taurus Mountains in south Anatolia. It presents 256 remedies prepared from 124 plant and 3 animal species,including vernacular names, the parts used, the methods of preparation of the drugs and the medicinal use]. Wrigley S. K., Hayes M. A., Thomas R. (eds.) (2000). Biodiversity: New leads for the pharmaceutical and agrochemical industries. Cambridge: Roy. Soc. Chem. [The 320 pages proceedings volume enlightens the information on aspects of modern natural products research for the agricultural and pharmaceutical industry]. Zohary D., Hopf M. (1994). Domestication of plants in the old world. Clarendon Press, Oxford,Second Edition, pp:279. [This excellent book provides a wealth of information on origin and spread of cultivated plants in southwest Asia, Europe and Africa north of the Sahara, the classical 'Old World'. The most thoroughly researched text provides a basic summary of the available plant evidence from the archaeological contexts, and their natural habitats, hence addressing crucial questions about origins of agriculture in the Near East: defining a crop's progenitor, and evidence central to domestication]. ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS) ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY – Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (Turkey) – Munir OZTURK, Ernaz ALTUNDAG and Sahil GUCEL Biographical Sketches Prof. Dr. Münir Öztürk - Born in 1943 in Kashmir. Currently retired Professor with scientific interests in Ecology & Environmental Sciences, Ethnobotany and Conservation Biology. 35 years experience in teaching & 48 years in research. Number of publications over 370 , which include 27 books- 2 by Birkhauser Verlag, 1 by Cambridge Scholars and 4 by Springer. Acted as guest editor in 4 international journals (The Malaysian Forester”-2008; Environmental Geology-Springer-Verlag-2009; Journal of Environmental Biology –2010; Journal of Environmental Biology-GEOMED-2011). Published 59 papers on Ethnobotany, out of these 9 are book chapters in internationally reputed publishers. Served as Chairman Botany (1985 -1988) Ege University, Turkey; Director Centre for Environmental Studies (1990 -1998) Ege University and Chairman Biology (1999 -2002) Fatih University, Turkey”. Fellow Islamic Academy of Science; Member Interdisciplinary Committee of the World Cultural Council-Albert Einstein Award of Science; Member of Honour Russian Ecological Academy, Moscow; Member Editorial Board, Pakistan Journal of Botany. U SA NE M SC PL O E – C EO H AP LS TE S R S Dr. Ernaz Altundağ - Graduated from Istanbul University, Department of Biology in 2002, M.Sc. degree in 2005 from Istanbul University, Institute of Natural and Applied Science, Department of Botany and Ph. D. degree in 2009 from Istanbul University, Institute of Health Sciences, Department of Pharmaceutical Botany. Ph.D. thesis covered the topic on “Medicinal Plants of IGDIR State- East Antolia”. Presently lecturer at Duzce University, Faculty of Arts & Sciences, Department of Biology, Duzce, Turkey. Dr. Salih Gücel - got my bachelor degree in Biology and had my master in plant taxonomy. My PhD thesis covered Conservation Biology and I studied conservation biology of two endemic plant species. I have a background of 12 years of active involvement in research and nature conservation in Turkey and Cyprus. Since 2005, I am the Director of the Earth, Ocean, Atmosphere and Environmental Sciences Institute. As part of my work responsibilities, I am involved in setting-up and organising bi-communal environmental and cultural projects in cooperation with NGO’s, academia, public and private bodies from both (Turkish and Greek Cypriot) communities in Cyprus. ©Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)