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Carlo Goldoni as Musical Reformer

Carlo Goldoni as Musical Reformer

Profile image of Pervinca RISTAPervinca RISTA

Venetian playwright Carlo Goldoni (170711793), who is best remembered in literary history for his realist ‘reform’ of comic theatre, was also a prolific librettist. In particular, his texts for music written from 1748 onwards remain understudied but warrant significant reappraisal, for Goldoni was one of the first to give shape to the dramma giocoso, an innovative and realistic new genre of opera that went on to have a lasting legacy all the way to W. A. Mozart and Lorenzo da Ponte. Through an interdisciplinary, historical approach and intertextual analysis, the present study reevaluates Goldoni’s drammi giocosi, largely overlooked by scholarship, to uncover the lasting innovations in form and content introduced by the Venetian playwright. Analysis of these texts also reveals clear affinity between Goldoni's contributions to the dramma giocoso and his reform of prose theatre. Most importantly, unlike other types of comic opera, the dramma giocoso has the particularity of combining buffo with serio, a dynamic that, through Goldoni's mature output, continually evolves to bring new realism and social relevance to opera theatre. Goldoni’s influence on this type of musical representation has not been fully considered, but the realism in music that he achieves through the dramma giocoso must be acknowledged as a lasting contribution to modern literature, and to operatic history. This document represents my PhD dissertation.

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! ! ! ! ! CARLO&GOLDONI&AS&MUSICAL&REFORMER& ! IN!SEARCH!OF!REALISM!IN!THE!DRAMMA%GIOCOSO% & ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! La% vraisemblance% doit% toujours% être% la% principale% règle,% et% sans% laquelle% toutes% les% autres%deviennent%déréglées.! 1l’Abbé!d’Aubignac,!La%Pratique%du%Théâtre! ! ! ! ! ! by! ! Pervinca!Rista! ! Dissertation!submitted!to!the!Johns!Hopkins!University!in!conformity!with!the! requirements!for!the!degree!of!Doctor!of!Philosophy.!! ! Baltimore,!Maryland! March!18,!2015! ! ! ©!Pervinca!Rista! All!Rights!Reserved! Abstract & & Venetian!playwright!Carlo!Goldoni!(170711793),!who!is!best!remembered!in! literary!history!for!his!realist!‘reform’!of!comic!theatre,!was!also!a!prolific!librettist.! In! particular,! his! texts! for! music! written! from! 1748! onwards! remain! understudied!but!warrant!significant!reappraisal,!for!Goldoni!was!one!of!the!first!to! give! shape! to! the! dramma%giocoso,! an! innovative! and! realistic! new! genre! of! opera! that!went! on! to! have! a! lasting! legacy! all! the! way! to! W.! A.! Mozart! and! Lorenzo! da! Ponte.! Through! an! interdisciplinary,! historical! approach! and! intertextual! analysis,! the! present! study! reevaluates! Goldoni’s! drammi% giocosi,% largely! overlooked! by! scholarship,! to! uncover! the! lasting! innovations! in! form! and! content! introduced! by! the! Venetian! playwright.! Analysis! of! these! texts! also! reveals! clear!affinity!between! Goldoni's!contributions!to!the!dramma%giocoso!and!his!reform!of!prose!theatre.!Most! importantly,! unlike! other! types! of! comic! opera,! the!dramma% giocoso! has! the! particularity! of! combining! buffo! with!serio,! a! dynamic! that,! through! Goldoni's! mature! output,!continually! evolves! to! bring! new!realism! and! social! relevance!to! opera! theatre.!! Goldoni’s! influence! on! this! type! of! musical! representation! has! not! been!fully!considered,!but!the!realism!in!music!that!he!achieves!through!the!dramma% giocoso%must!be!acknowledged!as!a!lasting!contribution!to!modern!literature,!and!to! operatic!history.!! ! ! & ! & ii! Acknowledgments& ! ! ! My!sincere!thanks!go!to!all!those!who!have!supported!this!project,!and!especially!to! my!advisors,!prof.s!Eugenio!Refini!and!Anna!Celenza.!! ! I!also!wish!to!thank!Università!Ca’!Foscari!and!Casa!Goldoni!for!their!hospitality!and! invaluable!resources.!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! % % ! iii! To% prof.% Pier% Massimo% Forni,% with% gratitude% for% his% lessons% in% literature,% and% in% humanity.%% ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! iv! ! Table&of&Contents& CHAPTER&I.&SETTING&THE&STAGE&FOR&GOLDONI&LIBRETTIST& Introduction&........................................................................................................................................&1& Contributions&of&scholarly&research&...........................................................................................&6& Thesis:&the&dramma!giocoso!as&stylistic&and&ideological&reform&in&music&...................&13& Critical&approach&and&method&....................................................................................................&14&& CHAPTER&II.&TOWARDS&THE&FIRST&DRAMMI&GIOCOSI& Tracing&the&genre:&Neapolitan&origins&and&arrival&in&Venice&...........................................&19& i.!The!limits!of!opera%seria!.........................................................................................................................!19! ii.!Older!antecedents!of!comic!opera!....................................................................................................!25! iii.!Naples!and!the!commedia!pe’!mmusica!.........................................................................................!27! iv.!The!commedia%per%musica%towards!a!universal!stage!.............................................................!37! v.!!The!commedia%per%musica%in!Venice!...............................................................................................!41! Goldoni’s&apprenticeship&in&the&intermezzi&...........................................................................&46& i.!The!intermezzo%and!its!inverse!itinerary:!from!Venice!to!Naples!........................................!46! ii.!Goldoni!and!his!first!musical!texts!...................................................................................................!48! iii.!A!time!of!transitions:!from!intermezzo%to!comic!opera!.........................................................!61! iv.!The!1740s.!Theatrical!reform.!From!dramma%comico%to!dramma%giocoso!....................!65! La!Scuola!Moderna:&materia&buffa&colla!seria&........................................................................&76& CHAPTER&III.&NEW&PERSPECTIVES&ON&THE&REFORM&IN&MUSIC& Defining&dramma!giocoso&.............................................................................................................&84& Drammi!giocosi&1748W1760:&stages&of&production&and&elements&of&reform&................&88& i.!Realism!or!fantasy?!..................................................................................................................................!89! ii.!The!rule!and!the!exception!..................................................................................................................!94! iii.!Buffo%and!serio%in!‘reformed’!prose!theatre!..............................................................................!100! iv.!The!dramma%giocoso%takes!shape!..................................................................................................!106! v.!La!Buona!Figliuola!(prelude)!............................................................................................................!124! vi.!Goldoni!after!La%Buona%Figliuola!...................................................................................................!124! From&speech&to&song&...................................................................................................................&142& i.!Common!themes!......................................................................................................................................!143! ii.!Common!dramatic!techniques:!the!ensemble!...........................................................................!145! iii.!Common!dramatic!techniques:!buffo!and!serio!.......................................................................!153! Direct&translation&.........................................................................................................................&160& Thematic&ritornelli&and&ideological&reform&........................................................................&183& Buffo,!serio,!and&melodramatic&reform&.................................................................................&186& CHAPTER&IV.&TOWARDS&THE&EUROPEAN&STAGE& International&drammi!giocosi!and&the&diffusion&of&a&new&genre&..................................&190& Goldoni&on&opera&theatre:&realism&and&critique&................................................................&193& Expectations&and&reality&in&Paris&............................................................................................&196& CHAPTER&V.&GOLDONI’S&MUSICAL&LEGACY& From&Goldoni&to&Da&Ponte:&the&dramma!giocoso!fully&formed&......................................&207& i.!Mozart!and!Goldoni!................................................................................................................................!211! ii.!The!darkest!dramma%giocoso!............................................................................................................!213! ! ! v! Conclusions&....................................................................................................................................&214& Bibliography&.........................................................................................................................&216& About&the&Author&.................................................................................................................&223& ! vi! CHAPTER&I.&& & Setting&the&Stage&for&Goldoni&Librettist& & Introduction& % Carlo! Goldoni! is! highly! regarded! for! his! innovative! contributions! to! the! evolution!of!comic!theatre,!in!particular!for!the!Enlightenment!ideology!and!realism! that! have! made! his! works! emblematic! of! a! turning! point! in! history.! ! In! light! of! his! enduring! legacy! as! theatrical! reformer! (from! the! canovacci! of! the! Commedia% dell’Arte! Goldoni! was! the! first! to! steer! actors! and! audiences! towards! developed,! realistic,! and! socially! relevant! comedy),! it! is! less! often! remembered! that! Goldoni,! alongside! his! works! for! the! spoken! theatre,! composed! opera! libretti! during! the! entire!course!of!his!life.!! This!production!is!as!varied!as!it!is!vast,!and!includes!short!comic!intermezzi,! melodrammi%seri!in!the!style!of!Zeno!and!Metastasio,!drammi%eroicomici,%divertimenti% per%musica,%drammi%comici%per%musica,!and!nearly!50!drammi%giocosi.%His!first!texts! for! music! (Il%buon%padre%(The! Good! Father)! and! La%Cantatrice%(The! Singer),%1730)! were!written!at!the!age!of!23,!his!last!(Vittorina,%1779)!at!72.!!During!his!lifetime!and! beyond,! Goldoni’s! texts! were! set! to! music! by! numerous! celebrated! composers,! including! Antonio! Vivaldi,! Baldassarre! Galuppi,! Niccolò! Piccinni,! Gaetano! Latilla,! Giuseppe! Scarlatti,! Giovanni! Paisiello,! and! outside! of! Italy! Franz! Joseph! Haydn! among! others.! ! Operas! created! from! his! libretti! were! performed! throughout! Italy! and!Europe,!from!Modena!to!Moscow,!London!and!Prague.!! ! 1!! ! ! Thematically,! the! libretti! present! a! wide! range! of! social! situations! and! character!types!largely!drawn!from!contemporary!society.!While!humorous!realism! most! often! predominates,! some! texts! re1elaborate! older! popular! works! (Bertoldo,% Bertoldino,!e%Cacasenno),!whereas!others!explore!fantastical!settings!(Arcifanfano%Re% dei% Matti% (Arcifanfano! King! of! Madmen),% Il% Paese% della% Cuccagna% (The! Land! of! Plenty)).%Among! Goldoni’s! texts! for! music! we! can! also! find! meta1theatrical! libretti! (La%Bella%Verità%(The! Pretty! Truth)),! in! which! the! world! of! theatre! is! cast! onto! the! stage! to! become! the! object! of! playful! criticism.! Below! is! a! partial! summary! of! his! musical! production,! excluding! the! nearly! obsolete! Cantate,% Serenate,! and! Rappresentazioni%Allegoriche!of!his!youth:! & Melodrammi&Seri& ! Title& Date&& 1! La!Generosità!Politica! 1736! 2! L’Olimpiade!! 1738! 3! Farnace!(dramma!per!musica)! 1739! 4! Ottone!(dramma!per!musica)! 1740! 5! 6! Gustavo! Primo! Re! di! Svezia! (dramma! 1740! per!musica)! Candace!(dramma!per!musica)! 1740! 7! Oronte!Re!de’!!Sciti!! 1740! 8! Statira!! 1741! 9! Tigrane!! 1741! Venue&of&first& documented&performance& Venice,!Teatro!S.!Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.!Giovanni! Grisostomo! Venice,!Teatro!S.!Giovanni! Grisostomo! Venice,!Teatro!S.!Giovanni! Grisostomo! Venice,!Teatro!S.!Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.!Giovanni! Grisostomo! Venice,!Teatro!S.!Giovanni! Grisostomo! Venice,!Teatro!S.!Giovanni! Grisostomo! Venice,!Teatro!S.!Giovanni! Grisostomo! ! ! & ! 2!! ! & & Intermezzi&& & 1! La!Cantatrice!(La!Pelarina)!! 1730! 2! Il!buon!padre!(lost)! 1730! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele!(1734)! Venice! 3! Il!Gondoliere!Veneziano!! 1732! Milan,!Corte!Ducale! 4! La!Pupilla!! 1735! 5! La!Birba! 1735! 6! L’Ipocondriaco! 1735! 7! Il!Filosofo! 1735! 8! Monsieur!Petiton! 1736! 9! La!Bottega!da!Caffè! 1736! 10!! L’Amante!Cabala! 1736! 11! Amor!Fa!L’Uomo!Cieco! 1741! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Genoa! 12! La!Favola!dei!Tre!Gobbi! 1749! Venice! 13! La!Vendemmia! 1760! 14! Il!Quartiere!Fortunato! Venice,!Teatro! Capranica! Unknown! Unknown.!printed! 1794! ! Other&Musical&Works& 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! ! Griselda! (from! original! text! by! 1735! Apostolo!Zeno)! Aristide!(dramma!eroi1comico)! 1735! Cesare! in! Egitto! (dramma! per! musica)! La! Fondazion! di! Venezia! (divertimento!per!musica)! Lugrezia!Romana!in!Costantinopoli! (dramma!comico)! La!Contessina!(commedia!per! musica)! 3!! 1735! 1736! 1737! 1743! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! ! 7! 1749! 8! L’Arcadia!in!Brenta!(dramma! comico)! Bertoldo!Bertoldino!e!Cacasenno! 9! Il!Negligente!(dramma!comico)! 1749! 10! Il!Finto!Principe!(dramma!comico)! 1749! 11! Arcifanfano!Re!dei!Matti!(dramma! comico)! Il!Paese!della!Cuccagna!(commedia! per!musica)! Il!Mondo!alla!Roversa!o!sia!le!Donne! che!Comandano!(dramma!bernesco)! La!Mascherata!(dramma!comico)! 1750! 1751! 17! *!Il!Conte!Caramella!(dramma! comico)! Il!matrimonio!discorde!(farsetta!per! musica)! La!cantarina!(farsetta!per!musica)! 18! Statira!(dramma!per!musica)! 1756! 19! Germondo!(“serious!opera”)! 1776! 20! Il!Viaggiatore!Ridicolo!! 1777! 21! I!Volponi!(Dramma!in!tre!atti!per! 1777! musica)! Il!Talismano!(commedia!per!musica)! 1779! 12! 13!! 14! 15! 16! 22! 1749! 1750! 1750! 1751! 1756! 1756! Venice,!Teatro!S.!! Angelo! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Moisé! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Moisé! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Cassiano! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Moisé! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Moisé! Venice,!Teatro!Tron! di!S.!Cassiano! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Cassiano! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro! Capranica! Venice,!Teatro! Capranica! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! London,!King’s! Theatre,!Haymarket! Parma! Paris! Milan,!Nuovo!Teatro! Canobiana! ! Drammi&giocosi& 1! 2! La! Scuola! moderna! (La! Maestra! di! 1748! Buon!Gusto)! Il!Mondo!della!Luna! 1750! 3! Le!donne!vendicate! 1751! 4!! Le!Pescatrici! 1751! 5! Le!Virtuose!Ridicole!! 1752! 6! I!Portentosi!Effetti!di!Madre!Natura! 1752! ! 4!! Venice! Venice! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Cassiano! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! ! 7! La!Calamita!dei!Cuori! 1753! 8! I!Bagni!d’Abano! 1753! 9! Il!Pazzo!Glorioso! 1753! 10! De!Gustibus!Non!Est!Disputandum! 1754! 11! *!Il!Filosofo!di!Campagna! 1754! 12! *!Li!Matti!per!Amore! 1754! 13! *!Lo!speziale! 1754! 14! *!Il!Povero!Superbo! 1755! 15! 16! Le! Nozze! (Tra! Due! Litiganti! il! Terzo! 1755! Gode)! La!Diavolessa! 1755! 17! La!Cascina! 1756! 18! La!ritornata!di!Londra! 1756! 19! La!Buona!Figliuola!(La!Cecchina)! 1757! 20! Il!Festino! 1757! 21! L’Isola!Disabitata! 1757! 22! Il!Mercante!di!Malmantile! 1758! 23! La!Conversazione! 1758! 24! *!Il!Signor!Dottore! 1758! 25! *!Buovo!d’Antona! 1759! 26! *!Gli!Uccellatori! 1759! 27! Il!Conte!Chicchera! 1759! 28! 29! Arcifanfano! Il! Re! Dei! Matti! (ultima! 1759! impressione!ricorretta!e!migliorata)! *!Filosofia!ed!Amore!! 1760! 30! La!Fiera!di!Sinigaglia! ! 1760! 5!! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Cassiano! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Cassiano! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Bologna,!Teatro! Formagliari! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Parma,!Teatro!Regio! Ducale! Parma,!Teatro!Regio! Ducale! Venice,!!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Moisé! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Moisé! Milano,!Teatro!Regio! Ducale! Venice,!Teatro! Carignano! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Moisé! Rome,!Teatro!delle! Dame! ! 31! Amor!Contadino! 1760! 32! L’Amore!Artigiano! 1761! 33! *!Amore!in!Caricatura! 1761! 34! *!La!Donna!di!Governo! 1761! 35! *!La!Buona!Figliuola!Maritata! 1761! 36! *!La!Bella!Verità! 1761! 37! *!Il!Re!alla!Caccia! 1763! 38! La!Finta!Semplice! 1764! 39! La!Notte!Critica! 1766! 40! *!La!Cameriera!Spiritosa! 1766! 41! L’Astuzia!Felice! 1767! 42! Le!Nozze!in!Campagna! 1768! 43! *!Vittorina!(“new!comic!opera)! 1777! N.! B.! Works! marked! with*! formally! divide! buffo% personaggi”! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Angelo! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Angelo! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Angelo! Rome,!Teatro!di! Torre!Argentina! Bologna,!Teatro! Formagliari! Bologna,!Teatro! Marsigli!Rossi! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Samuele! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Moisé! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Cassiano! Milano,!Teatro!Regio! Ducale! Venice,!Teatro!S.!! Moisé! Venice,!Teatro!S.! Moisé! London,!King’s! Theatre! and! serio% roles! in! the! “elenco! dei! ! Considered! alongside! his! comedies,! Goldoni’s! texts! for! music! afford! a! more! comprehensive!understanding!of!the!author’s!life!and!work.!Perhaps!because!of!the! vast!scope!of!his!output,!and!because!the!comedies!and!Memoires%are!considered!his! central!achievements,!not!all!of!Goldoni’s!works!for!music!have!been!given!critical! attention.!! ! Contributions&of&Scholarly&Research&& & Studies!of!Goldoni’s!libretti!were!produced!with!some!frequency!in!the!early! and!middle!1900s,!and!in!recent!decades!the!subject!has!returned!into!focus.!Many! ! 6!! ! of!these!studies!(both!dated!and!more!recent),!however,!appear!to!be!mostly!general! in!scope,!while!in!terms!of!specific!genres!the!early!intermezzi%have!been!considered! most!frequently.!This!is!a!comprehensible!choice!given!the!overwhelming!output!of! Goldoni’s! mature! years,! and! furthermore! the! author’s! own! tendency,! in! the! autobiography! and! other! publications,! to! present! his! first! libretti! as! an! apprenticeship! for! his! comedies1!and! minimize! his! later! production! in! favor! of! greater! focus! on! the! spoken! comedies! of! the! reform.! Most! notably,! with! the! exception! of! Ted! Emery’s! Goldoni% as% Librettist:% Theatrical% Reform% and% the% Drammi% Giocosi%per%Musica%(1991),!no!study!has!yet!been!produced!on!the!dramma%giocoso! as! a! distinct! operatic! genre,! though! the! majority! of! Goldoni’s! libretti,! especially! those!written!during!the!reform!years,!are!of!this!kind.!! !The! dramma% giocoso% occupies! a! very! particular! and! innovative! position! among!theatrical!genres,!and!appears!significant!to!Goldoni!studies!for!two!reasons.! First,! there! is! evidence! that! Goldoni! contributed! in! a! definitive! manner! to! the! evolution!of!this!genre,!which,!rarely!employed!before!his!time,!was!brought!to!full! form!through!his!numerous!elaborations!(we!can!find!its!highest!realization!in!the! Mozart1!Da!Ponte%collaboration!one!generation!after!Goldoni).!Most!importantly,!the! dramma% giocoso,! largely! thanks! to! Goldoni,! proves! an! operatic! type! with! much! greater! potential! for! realism.! In! the! preface! to! his! very! first! dramma% giocoso,! La% Scuola% moderna,! Goldoni! explains! that! the! work! contains! “materia! buffa! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!In! the! Preface! to! the! Pasquali! edition! of! his! musical! works! (Memorie% Italiane,% tomo! XII),! Goldoni! explains!that!his!libretti!were!“commedie!abbozzate(…)suscettibili!di!tutti!i!caratteri!più!comici!e!più! originali(…)ciò!potea!servirmi!di!prova!e!di!esercizio!per!trattarli!un!giorno!più!distesamente!e!più!a! fondo!nelle!grandi!Commedie.”!! Sketched!comedies,!(…)!susceptible!to!all!the!most!comic!and!most!original!characters!(…)!this!could! serve!me!as!practice!and!exercise!to!develop!them!more!extensively!and!deeply!one!day!in!the!great! Comedies.![all!translations!by!author]! ! 7!! ! (…)intrecciata! colla! seria.”2!Neither! fully! comic! nor! tragic,! these! types! of! works! respond!to!a!desire!for!an!honest!yet!sophisticated!theatre!more!effectively!relatable! to!daily!life.!! To! better! situate! the! present! discussion! with! respect! to! earlier! research,! it! may!be!helpful!to!briefly!recapitulate!the!most!significant!interpretations!published! thus! far.! These! are! not! always! easy! to! reconcile,! as! the! libretti! in! particular! have! provoked!the!most!disparate!critical!opinions.!!! A!founding!figure!of!Goldoni!philological!studies!in!Italy!is!Giuseppe!Ortolani,! who! considered! the! author’s! operatic! production! marginal! compared! to! the! major! works! for! spoken! theatre.! Ortolani! affirmed! that! among! the! drammi% giocosi,! “Il! commediografo! veneziano! non! riuscì! a! creare! nessun! capolavoro,! nulla! di! letterariamente!vitale,”!concluding!that!“invero!queste!vecchie!farse!per!musica!non! reggono!all’analisi!critica,!non!appartengono!alla!storia!letteraria.”3!! Other! early! scholars! expressed! notably! different! views.! Patrick! Smith,! for! example,!believed!that!“Goldoni’s!librettistic!work!is!everywhere!a!reflection!of!his! work! for! the! theatre,”4!an! opinion! shared! in! varying! degrees! by! Luigi! Falchi,! who! considered!the!libretti!“sostrato!del!pensiero!dello!scrittore,”5!by!Manilo!Dazzi,!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2!Carlo!Goldoni,!La%Scuola%Moderna,!“All’amico!lettore.”!!comic!material!(...)!interwoven!with!tragic! 3!Opere%di%Carlo%Goldoni,!edited!by!Giuseppe!Ortolani!(Verona:!Mondandori,!1973)!Vol.!10;!1257.!The! Venetian! comic! playwright! did! not! succeed! in! creating! any! masterpiece,! anything! literarily! vital.! Indeed! these! old! farces! for! music! cannot! support! critical! analysis,! and! do! not! pertain! to! literary! history.!! 4!La%Missione%teatrale%di%Carlo%Goldoni!(Bari:!Laterza,!1936).!! 5!Intendimenti% sociali% di% Carlo% Goldoni! (Roma:! Società! ed.! Dante! Alighieri,! 1907).! ! Substratus! of! the! author’s!thought.!! ! 8!! ! by!Edmondo!Rho,!who!argued!that!between!libretti!and!plays!“le!linee!di!sviluppo! psicologico!ed!artistico!sono!le!medesime.”6!!! More! recently! Nicola! Mangini,! in! net! opposition! to! the! views! above! cited,! sought!once!more!to!distinguish!Goldoni’s!libretti!from!his!plays.!For!Mangini,!these! works!were!separate!from!the!plays!in!the!mind!of!the!author,!and!therefore!should! only!be!understood!in!relation!to!the!operatic!tradition!that!preceded!their!creation.! He! writes:! “Si! tratta…di! adottare! una! metodologia! di! approccio! che! non! insista! (come!si!è!sempre!fatto)!nel!confronto!e!nella!relazione!col!suo![di!Goldoni]!teatro! comico,! ma! che! invece! prenda! in! esame! questi! drammi! per! sé! stessi! nell’ambito! specifico! del! loro! genere,! avendo! come! eventuale! termine! di! riferimento! la! librettistica!precedente!o!coeva.”7!! A!first!attempt!to!reconcile!these!disparate!approaches!may!be!Ted!Emery’s! Goldoni% as% Librettist,% previously! mentioned.! In! his! survey! of! Goldoni’s! texts! for! music,! Emery! identifies! both! structural! (due! to! the! rules! of! theatrical! convention)! and!ideological!differences!with!respect!to!the!spoken!plays,!adopting!Franco!Fido’s! notion!of!reform!and!‘counter1reform.’!!In!synthesis,!Fido!and!Emery!see!an!initial! affinity! between! spoken! theatre! and! libretti,! followed! by! the! progressive! abandonment! of! the! ideological! agenda! of! the! plays! in! the! works! for! music,! more! readily!employed!for!less!realistic,!more!superficial,!and!at!times!fantastical!content.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6!See! La% Missione% teatrale% di% Carlo% Goldoni! (Bari:! Laterza,! 1936),! and! Intendimenti% sociali% di% Carlo% Goldoni! (Roma:! Società! ed.! Dante! Alighieri,! 1907).! The! paths! of! psychological! and! artistic! development!are!one!and!the!same.!! 7!Nicola!Mangini,!“Itinerari!e!approdi!di!Goldoni!librettista”!in!Rassegna%di%cultura%e%di%vita%scolastica,! 83! (1985);! 4.! We! must! adopt! an! approach! that! does! not! insist! (as! has! always! been! done)! on! the! comparison! to! his! comic! theatre,! but! which! instead! examines! these! works! in! their! own! right,! and! with! respect! to! their! own! field,! possibly! with! reference! to! the! preceding! or! coeval! production! of! libretti.!! ! 9!! ! In! Fido’s! own! words,! “nei! suoi! [di! Goldoni]! libretti! quello! che! la! parola! infeudata!alla!musica!perdeva!sul!versante!del!referente1!cioè!in!termini!di!capacità! di!evocare!con!efficacia!mimetica!e!critica!il!mondo!reale:!mercanti,!donne!di!casa,! servitori,! ecc.1! essa! guadagnava! dalla! parte! del! significante1! scherzi! e! giochi! di! parole,! paradossi! e! calembours,! onomatopee! e! iperboli,! equivoci! e! cacofonie! plurilingui.”8!Emery!appears!to!agree!as!he!states,!“On!the!whole,!the!operas!are,!as! Fido! suggests,! the! artistic! and! ideological! opposite! of! the! commedie:! less! realistic! than! the! plays,! they! often! have! fantastic! or! fanciful! plots! and! a! playful,! punning! style;! lacking! the! reform’s! didactic! intentions,! they! seek! to! entertain! more! than! to! instruct;! rejecting! middle1class! morality,! they! give! freer! rein! to! disorder! and! incorporate!a!more!negative!vision!of!the!world.”9!! While! Emery’s! work! offers! valuable! information! on! the! varied! nature! of! Goldoni’s! production,! despite! the! title! the! author! does! not! assess! the! dramma% giocoso! as! an! operatic! type! distinct! from! Goldoni’s! intermezzi! and! other! musical! works.!There!is!no!textual!analysis!that!investigates!differences!between!buffo%and! serio% characters,! and! which! identifies! the! mezzi% caratteri! that! will! become! emblematic!of!the!more!mature!and!sophisticated!dramma%giocoso.%! Furthermore,! Emery’s! interpretation! is! conditioned! by! his! definition! of! Goldoni’s! reform! as! almost! exclusively! the! exaltation! of! the! industrious! merchant! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 8!Franco! Fido,! “Riforma! e! controriforma! del! teatro.! I! libretti! per! musica! di! Goldoni! fra! il! 1748! e! il! 1753,”!in!Studi%Goldoniani,!vol.!7!(1985);!63.! In!his!libretti!what!the!text!enslaved!to!music!lost!on!the! side!of!the!referent1!that!is!in!terms!of!the!capacity!to!evoke!the!real!world!with!imitative!and!critical! efficacy:!merchants,!housewives,!servants,!etc.1!it!gained!on!the!side!of!the!signifier1!jokes!and!word! games,! paradoxes! and! puns,! onomatopea! and! hyperbole,! misunderstandings! and! multi1lingual! cacophonies.!! 9!Ted!Emery,!Goldoni%As%Librettist:%Theatrical%Reform%and%the%Drammi%Giocosi%per%Musica%(New!York:! Peter!Lang!Press,!1991);!77.!! ! ! 10! ! class.! ! Consequently,! he! suggests! that! the! author! abandons! his! reformist! ideals! in! those! works! that! appear! more! fantastical! in! nature! (Il% Mondo% della% Luna),% or! that! criticize! exponents! of! the! borghesia! alongside! other! social! groups! (even! in! the! spoken!theatre,!with!masterpieces!such!as!Sior%Todero%Brontolon).!Emery!concludes,! “when!the!commedie!and!comic!operas!are!considered!together!as!inseparable!parts! of!an!organic!whole,!the!tension!between!reform!and!‘counter1reform’!underscores! a! surprising! sense! of! ideological! fragility! in! an! author! who! has! traditionally! been! regarded!as!a!bard!of!the!bourgeoisie.”10! If,! in! Goldoni’s! more! mature! works,! the! “middle1class! morality”! of! the! principal! characters! is! no! longer! idealized! but! criticized,! this! does! not! however! imply!“ideological!fragility.”!If!anything,!the!representation!and!criticism!of!all!social! classes! demonstrates! ideological! fiber! of! notable! resiliency.! The! limit! of! Emery’s! interpretation! is! that! his! narrow! concept! of! reform! excludes! from! consideration! a! number!of!works!that!instead!have!much!to!reveal!with!regards!to!Goldoni’s!reform! and!his!strategies!for!realistic!opera!theatre.!! Goldoni’s! theatrical! reform,! echoes! of! which! can! be! found! in! his! musical! production,! must! instead! be! understood! as! a! much! broader! undertaking.! The! idealization! of! the! hard1working! middle! class,! symptomatic! of! Goldoni’s! historical! circumstances,!should!be!interpreted!not!as!an!exclusive!goal,!but!as!the!product!of! his! criticism! of! the! aristocracy,! the! target! of! the! largest! number! of! his! works,! and! more!than!anything,!of!his!desire!for!original!characters.!Merit,!industriousness,!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 10!ibid.;!75.! ! ! ! 11! ! ingenuity! are! the! virtues! of! Goldoni’s! present,! in! contrast! to! bloodline! and! inheritance.!These!inevitably!come!to!the!forefront!once!the!prestige!of!the!nobility! begins!to!fade!in!contemporary!society.!!!!! Moreover,! it! must! be! remembered! (for! the! libretti%as! well! as! the! comedies)! that! Goldoni’s! reform! targets! not! one! social! class! or! another,! but! seeks! realism! above!all,!the!principal!source!of!his!theatrical!innovation!as!of!his!social!criticism.! In! fact,! Goldoni’s! revision! of! comic! theatre! did! not! initiate! from! revolutionary! choices! in! subject! matter,! but! rather! from! technical! changes! that,! in! an! effort! to! more! realistically! reflect! contemporary! life,! gradually! abandoned! the! Commedia% dell’Arte%masks!in!favor!of!non1improvised,!more!elaborate!parts.!The!moral!hue!of! Goldoni’s!works!depends!upon!the!realism!of!the!parts!that!convey!it.!By!faithfully! representing! the! contemporary! world! on! the! stage,! Goldoni! is! able! to,! in! his! own! words! “(…)far! vedere! sul! Teatro! i! difetti! de’! particolari,! per! guarire! i! difetti! del! pubblico,! e! di! correggere! le! persone! col! timore! di! essere! posto! in! ridicolo.”11!The! present! discussion! is! most! often! applied! to! Goldoni’s! spoken! comedies,! but! is! a! necessary!foundation!for!understanding!the!author’s!musical!texts!as!well.!! Finally,!it!should!be!noted!that!the!contributions!of!Mangini,!Fido,!and!Emery! have! been! followed! by! numerous! more! recent! publications,! including! articles! by! Barbara!Gizzi!and!Ilaria!Crotti,12!recent!conference!proceedings,13!and!a!summary!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11!Carlo! Goldoni,! ! La% dama% prudente,! Forward.! (…)to! show! on! the! stage! the! flaws! of! particular! characters,! so! as! to! cure! the! flaws! of! the! general! public,! and! redress! people! through! the! fear! of! exposure!to!ridicule.!! 12!Ilaria!Crotti,!“Il!Carattere!e!il!Baule”!in!Libro,%Mondo,%e%Teatro:%Saggi%Goldoniani!(Venezia:!Marsilio,! 2000).! 13!Parola,%Musica,%Teatro,%Scena.%Percorsi%nel%teatro%di%Carlo%Goldoni%e%Carlo%Gozzi,! a! cura! di! Giulietta! Bazoli!e!Maria!Ghelfi!(Venezia:!Marsilio,!2009).!! ! ! 12! ! current! research! by! Siro! Ferrone.14!! These! recent! studies! shed! new! light! on! the! economic! and! managerial! mechanisms! of! theatre,! on! specific! historical! circumstances! that! may! have! impacted! Goldoni’s! production,! and! other! previously! overlooked! areas! of! interest.! ! Again,! however,! little! is! said! of! the! dramma%giocoso.! The!latest!critical!edition!of!Goldoni’s!libretti!may!well!offer!insights!on!the!subject,! though!volumes!containing!his!mature!libretti!have!yet!to!be!published.15!!! ! Thesis:&the&dramma&giocoso&as&stylistic&and&ideological&reform&in&music&& Emery! and! others! have! considered! principally! Goldoni’s! early! musical! production,!and!even!in!more!recent!publications!it!is!common!to!find!critical!works! that!discuss!as!many!intermezzi%as!drammi%giocosi.!There!is!much!more!work!to!be! done,! however,! on! the! libretti! of! the! years! of! Goldoni’s! mature! reform.! Moreover,! Goldoni’s!libretti!are!largely!considered!with!respect!to!their!thematic!content!in!a! broad!sense,!while!no!study!has!yet!been!offered!that!considers!the!dramma%giocoso% as!a!genre!distinct!from!the!rest!of!Goldoni’s!musical!production.!!! Goldoni’s! musical! innovations! in! this! field! are! of! both! structural! and! ideological! nature,! and! significantly! shaped! the! European! musical! tradition! of! the! Classical!period.!Indeed,!several!characteristics!of!Goldoni’s!mature!drammi%giocosi% can! be! easily! recognized! in! the! highest! achievements! of! later! 18th! century! opera,! most!notably!in!the!works!of!the!first!Viennese!school.!! Most!importantly,!the!dramma%giocoso%developed!by!Goldoni!occupies!a!very! particular!and!innovative!position!among!theatrical!genres.!In!the!words!of!Goldoni,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 14!Siro!Ferrone,!La%vita%e%il%teatro%di%Carlo%Goldoni%(Venezia:!Marsilio,!2011).! 15!Edizione%Nazionale%delle%opere%di%Carlo%Goldoni!(Venezia:!Marsilio,!20091!present).! ! ! 13! ! it!is!characterized!by!“materia!buffa…!intrecciata!colla!seria.”!Mixing!comic!elements! with!more!serious!tones,!the!dramma%giocoso!creates!new!opportunities!for!realism! not!afforded!by!traditional!theatrical!genres,!perhaps!the!reason!for!Goldoni’s!clear! preference! for! this! new! form.! ! The! chapters! that! follow! will! analyze! the! particular! affinity! of! the! dramma% giocoso! to! Goldoni’s! theatrical! reform,! considering! its! combination! of! serio% and! buffo% as! a! crucial! element! of! realism! which! allows! the! author!to!achieve!a!broader!spectrum!of!dramatic!registers,!and!to!create!an!honest! and!sophisticated!representation!of!all!social!types!and!situations!in!a!relevant!and! memorable!musical!theatre.! ! Critical&approach&and&method! Given! the! abundance! and! variety! of! Goldoni’s! drammi% giocosi,! the! present! study!does!not!aim!to!supply!a!comprehensive!critique!of!the!entire!corpus.!Instead,! it! will! offer! a! historically! contextualized! analysis! drawing! examples! from! those! libretti!that!appear!most!indicative!of!the!developments!of!the!nascent!genre.!Some! among! these,! consequently,! are! the! texts! that! enjoyed! greatest! public! acclaim,! as! they! circulated! widely,! reaching! the! theatrical! and! musical! traditions! of! other! European!nations.!! ! This! study! will! also! necessarily! consider! the! composers! who! set! Goldoni’s! text! to! music.! Some! interacted! closely! with! the! librettist! for! years,! while! others! never!met!him.!Niccolò!Piccinni!(172811800),!Baldassarre!Galuppi!(170611785)!and! other!close!collaborators!of!Goldoni!are!key!figures!in!understanding!the!transition! from!earlier!operatic!forms!to!the!new!dramma%giocoso.%Those!who!had!little!contact! ! ! 14! ! with!Goldoni!will!be!no!less!relevant,!however,!as!their!names!brought!the!Venetian! libretti! to! international! fame.! Among! these! we! find! Franz! Joseph! Haydn,! and! even! the! young! W.! A.! Mozart,! whose! very! first! opera! drew! from! Goldoni’s! La% finta% semplice! (1764),! revised! by! Marco! Coltellini! (172411777),! successor! to! Pietro! Metastasio!as!Imperial!poet!at!the!Viennese!court.!! ! This!said,!the!reader!will!not!find!here!within!a!study!of!musical!scores,!but! rather!of!the!structure!of!opera!as!dictated!by!text.!This!decision!is!motivated!by!the! very!nature!of!Goldoni’s!work.!!! The! history! of! opera! shows! that! the! relationship! between! text! and! score! in! the! creation! of! these! complex! theatrical! works! has! been! in! constant! flux.! The! revolutionary! stile%rappresentativo! promoted! by! Claudio! Monteverdi! ! (156711643)! in!the!madrigals!of!the!seconda%prattica!put!music!at!the!service!of!text!as!it!had!not! been!for!decades.!Conversely,!it!is!well!known!how!closely!Mozart!worked!with!his! librettists!to!have!their!texts!adjusted!to!his!musical!needs.!By!then!and!throughout! the! 19th! century,! nascent! Romantic! ideals! fostered! an! ever1closer! connection! between! text! and! music,! culminating! in! the! Wagnerian! Gesamtkunstwerk.% Looking! back! on! this! tradition,! as! on! operas! by! composers! such! as! Giuseppe! Verdi! (18131 1901)! and! Giacomo! Puccini! (185811924),! we! are! well! accustomed! to! supposing! a! text! created! only! for! (and! according! to)! specific! requirements! of! a! single! musical! rendition.!Returning!to!the!early!1700s!and!to!Goldoni,!however,!we!must!adopt!a! different!point!of!view.!Goldoni’s!texts!belong!to!a!period!in!history,!and!a!concept!of! opera!theatre,!that!neither!sought!nor!required!shared!work!on!a!text!or!a!score,!but! ! ! 15! ! rather! valued! versatility! and! quickness! of! preparation! to! meet! overwhelming! demand.!! No!composer!nor!librettist!in!any!epoch!has!left!to!posterity!the!impression! that!his!works!were!created!under!leisurely!circumstances.!Opera!had!scarcely!been! born!that!Monteverdi!wrote!of!his!second!work,!“Io!mi!riducessi!quasi!alla!morte!nel! scrivere! l’Arianna.”16!Even! so,! the! age! of! Enlightenment! consumed! theatre! like! no! other!moment!in!history,!as!what!was!once!the!privilege!of!few!and!noble!patrons! became! public! domain.! Venice! like! no! other! European! city! appreciated! and! cultivated!theater!of!all!types,!both!on!the!stage!and!in!the!press,!which!consolidated! and!exported!novelties!and!entertainment!at!many!levels.!It!is!no!coincidence!that! Europe’s!first!public!theatre!was!Venetian,!and!quite!ahead!of!the!times.!In!addition,! the!Teatro%San%Cassiano!to!which!we!refer,!which!opened!its!doors!to!ticket1bearing! spectators! from! all! walks! of! society! in! 1636,! was! born! as! an! opera! house.! To! put! things!in!perspective,!we!may!also!recall!that!18th1century!Paris,!which!cultivated!a! reputation!as!one!of!the!cultural!capitals!of!Europe,!housed!three!principal!theatres:! the!Opéra%Comique,!the!most!famous!Comédie%Française!(La%maison%de%Molière,!as!it! was! known),! and! the! Comédie%Italienne,! of! which! Goldoni! would! later! take! charge.! Venice,! during! the! same! years,! housed! no! less! than! thirteen! theatres,! all! in! competition!for!the!newest!exclusive!texts!and!largest!crowds.!With!this!in!mind,!it! becomes! evident! to! what! extent! new! works! were! desired! and! demanded,! by! impresari!and!by!general!and!refined!audiences!alike.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 16!Cited!in!Enrico!Fubini,!Musica%e%Pubblico%dal%Rinascimento%al%Barocco%(Torino:!Einaudi,!1984);!97.!I! reduced!myself!to!near!death!in!writing!Arianna.%% ! ! ! 16! ! To! all! this! we! must! add! Goldoni,! who! himself! was! not! a! man! to! refuse! any! challenge.!Still!today!scholars!wonder!at!the!famous!(or!infamous)!“anno!delle!sedici! commedie”!(the!year!of!the!sixteen!comedies),!that!is!the!1750151!comedy!season.! While! the! Teatro% Sant’Angelo! expected! to! produce! eight! new! works! from! late! summer!to!Carnevale,!in!an!effort!to!promote!the!theatre!against!raging!competition! and! on! a! wager! with! the! impresario! Girolamo! Medebach! (the! only! owner! of! a! Venetian! theatre! not! noble! by! birth,! and! who! more! willingly! made! room! for! Goldoni’s! ‘experimental’! new! reform! comedies),! Goldoni! supplied! exactly! twice! as! many,!still!managing!to!create!more!than!one!dramma%giocoso%on!the!side.!!! For! these! reasons! and! more,! libretti! were! quickly! composed,! produced,! printed,!and!exported,!and!set!to!music!by!a!large!number!of!composers!throughout! the!whole!of!Europe.!This!is!not!to!say!that!Goldoni!never!made!adjustments!based! on! rehearsals! in! the! theatre! when! time! and! circumstances! permitted.! Most! importantly,!and!in!keeping!with!his!realist!inclinations,!he!fashioned!his!characters! according!to!the!strengths!of!his!performers.!It!is!important!to!understand,!however,! that!the!mode!of!work!and!the!intention!behind!these!texts!was!altogether!different! from! what! later! tradition! has! dictated.! The! New% Grove% Dictionary% of% Music% and% Musicians%confirms,! It! has! been! questioned! whether! Goldoni! alone! was! responsible! for! this! new! dramaturgy! [the! dramma% giocoso],! or! whether! the! composers! who! set! the! librettos! had! a! hand! in! it.! All! the! evidence! suggests! that! at! this! point! in! the! 18th! century! it! was! the! librettist! who! controlled! the! dramatic! form! and! distributed! the! musical! numbers! according! to! the! requirements! of! the! opera! company! for! whom! he! worked.!Significantly,!the!Venetian!journalist!Gasparo! Gozzi,! reviewing! Goldoni’s! L’amore% artigiano% (music! ! ! 17! ! by! Latilla)! in! 1760,! praised! Goldoni,! not! the! composer,!calling!his!the!‘foremost!inventor!of!finales! that!have!varied!action!and!unfailing!novelty.17! ! It! may! be! in! part! for! the! at! times! thin,! at! times! overabundant,! connection! between! librettist! and! composer! that! Goldoni’s! musical! contributions! remain! understudied,! and! continually! overshadowed! by! his! more! famous! comedies.! His! name!is!only!mentioned!in!most!music!history!books,!and!the!history!of!the!dramma% giocoso! is! still! awaiting! exhaustive! research.! Yet,! it! is! the! text! alone! that! supplies! form,! subdivision,! meter,! content,! and! all! of! those! elements! that! music! can! subsequently!animate!through!harmonic!discourse!and!color.!In!Goldoni’s!time,!the! text!precedes!the!score,!and!it!is!by!building!on!the!textual!foundation!that!musical! discourse! can! take! shape.! Perhaps! Goldoni’s! contributions! to! musical! theatre! have! been! overlooked! precisely! because! one! would! not! immediately! suppose! that! innovations!in!music!could!come!from!an!almost!purely!literary!source.!! The!chapters!that!follow!endeavor!to!fully!uncover!Goldoni’s!innovations!in! musical!theatre!in!relation!to!the!operatic!tradition!that!preceded!and!followed,!as! well!as!to!his!efforts!as!a!comic!playwright.!Instead!of!separating!texts!for!music!and! for!prose!comedy!as!has!most!often!been!done,!it!is!most!fruitful,!and!philologically! reasonable,!to!consider!Goldoni’s!production!in!close!comparison.!Plays!and!libretti,! after!all,!came!from!the!same!mind,!were!written!contemporaneously,!and!not!rarely! for!the!same!public.!Only!through!a!comprehensive!approach!can!we!fully!grasp!the! lasting! contributions! of! Carlo! Goldoni! to! modern! literature,! and! to! the! history! of! opera! in! particular.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 17!James!L.!Jackman,!“Goldoni”!in!New%Grove%Dictionary%of%Music%and%Musicians%14th!ed.,!vol.!17!(New! York:!Macmillan,!1995);!502.!! ! ! 18! ! CHAPTER&II.&& Towards&the&first&Drammi!Giocosi! Goldoni!began!his!activity!as!librettist!at!an!early!age!in!1730,!first!adapting! existing! texts! for! new! musical! settings,! as! for! example! Griselda,% from! a! text! by! Apostolo! Zeno,% for! Antonio! Vivaldi! (167811741).! Goldoni! then! authored! texts! for! short! comic! intermezzi,% while! the! first! dramma% giocoso% (La% scuola% moderna)! was! written! in! 1748,! ten! years! after! Momolo% cortesan,! the! comedy! that! marks! the! beginnings!of!his!theatrical!reform.!It!is!significant!to!note!that!before!Goldoni,!both! the!presence!and!popularity!of!the!dramma%giocoso!in!Venice!are!difficult!to!trace.! Following!his!production,!however,!we!can!find!examples!throughout!the!whole!of! Europe,!all!the!way!to!the!Viennese!school.! To! better! appreciate! the! scope! of! Goldoni’s! contributions! to! the! dramma% giocoso!and!its!separation!from!opera%buffa%in!mature!form,!it!will!be!useful!to!first! revisit! the! origins! of! comic! opera,! where! we! find! antecedents! and! uncover! several! direct!links!to!our!author.!! % Tracing&the&genre:&Neapolitan&origins&and&arrival&in&Venice& i.%The%limits%of%opera%seria% In! the! dedication! of! his! comedy! Terenzio% (1754),! the! Arcadian! Polisseno! Fegejo! bows! to! the! greatest! man! of! modern! theatre,! Pietro! Antonio! Domenico! Trapassi,!better!known!as!Metastasio!(169811782):! In! tutti! i! teatri! d’Europa! non! si! rappresentano! che! i! Drammi! vostri.! Si! replicano! nel! teatro! medesimo! le! ! ! 19! ! dodici,!le!venti!volte.!Non!vi!è!compositore!di!Musica,! che!non!le!abbia!sperimentate.!Non!vi!è!casa,!non!vi!è! persona,! che! non! ne! sia! provveduta.! Sono! numerosissime! le! edizioni,! e! fortunati! coloro! che! le! hanno! stampate.! I! Comici! ancora! se! le! sono! appropriate!per!molto!tempo,!e!con!profitto!notabile! le! hanno! senza! musica! rappresentate.! Da! moltissime! genti!si!sanno!per!la!maggior!parte!a!memoria,!e!pure! si! gustano! sempre,! piacciono! ogni! ora! di! più,! e! qualunque!Dramma!espongasi!sulle!scene,!ha!sempre! un!massimo!disavvantaggio,!se!non!è!della!felicissima! penna!del!Metastasio.18& ! Fegejo,!who!is!none!other!than!our!Carlo!Goldoni,!joined!the!Accademia%degli% Arcadi! (founded! in! Rome! in! 1690,! and! present! in! “colonies”! throughout! Italy)! as! Metastasio! was! fast! becoming! one! of! the! greatest! exponents! of! its! second! generation.!To!judge!from!his!works,!however,!Goldoni!seems!to!have!appended!his! Arcadian! name! to! comedies! and! libretti! more! as! a! stamp! of! prestige! and! an! act! of! homage!than!as!a!seal!of!fidelity!to!Arcadian!poetic!principle.!As!we!will!see!in!the! following! chapter,! the! social! critique! and! quotidian! reality! rendered! so! vividly! in! Goldoni’s! comedies! and! in! many! libretti! could! not! be! more! distant! from! the! philo1 Classical!and!bucolic!hues!of!Arcadian,!and!Metastasian,!theatre.!! Goldoni’s!Arcadian!affiliation!appears!even!more!rhetorical!as!we!recall!that! comedy!and!comic!opera,!while!first!relegated!to!the!accompaniment!of!tragic!plays! and!opera%seria,!began!to!take!form!as!independent!genres!once!they!were!rejected! and! eradicated! by! the! famous! Arcadian! reform! of! Apostolo! Zeno! (166811750),! consolidated! by! Metastasio.! These! poets! endeavored! to! return! opera% seria! to! its! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 18!Carlo!Goldoni,!Terenzio,%Forward.%In!all!the!theatres!of!Europe!we!find!none!but!your!plays.!They! are!given!in!the!same!theatre!twelve,!even!twenty!times.!There!is!no!composer!of!Music!that!has!not! tried!them.!There!is!no!home,!no!person!that!does!not!possess!them.!Numerous!are!the!editions,!and! lucky!are!those!who!have!printed!them.!The!actors!too!have!made!them!their!own,!and!with!notable! success!have!staged!them!without!music.!Many!people!know!most!of!them!by!heart,!and!yet!they!are! always!enjoyed,!they!become!ever!more!pleasing,!and!whatever!Dramma!be!presented!on!the!stage,! it!always!suffers!major!disadvantage,!if!it!does!not!spring!from!the!felicitous!pen!of!Metastasio.!! ! ! 20! ! original! prestige! and! simplicity! largely! by! purging! it! of! all! comic! elements,! thus! restoring!Classical!equilibrium!to!structure!and!meter!of!these!tragedies!in!music.!! Didone% abbandonata% (1724),! Alessandro% nell’Indie% (1729),! L’Olimpiade% (1733),! and! La% Clemenza% di% Tito% (1734),! but! few! in! a! long! list! of! renowned! titles,! render!immediately!apparent!how!Arcadian!opera,!or!better!Metastasian!opera!(for! Trapassi’s!texts!alone!are!the!uncontested!models!of!the!melodramma%serio),!drew! plots!exclusively!from!ancient!history!and!Classical!mythology,!the!same!philosophy! soon! replicated! in! the! French! tragédie% lyrique! (though! for! motivation! of! political! rather!than!cultural!nature,!the!pagan!gods!serving!as!allegorical!representation!of! the!reining!monarch!and!his!court).! Seeking! majesty! rather! than! intrigue,! Metastasian! opera! invested! more! in! arie!than!in!elaborate!action!and!plot!and!was!made!up!entirely!of!these!solo!pieces! in!alternation!with!versi%sciolti,!or!free!recitative!not!bound!to!obligations!of!rhyme! or!meter!that!could!corrupt!their!‘natural’!quality.!The!da%capo%aria,!which!resumed! previously! heard! text! and! music! at! its! end! to! create! a! symmetrical! tripartite! structure,!is!a!central!characteristic!of!this!type!of!theatre.!It!responded!perfectly!to! neoclassical! ideals! of! equilibrium! and! proportion,! it! was! soon! adopted! as! a! fixed! form.!! Yet,!the!very!characteristics!that!made!this!musical!form!so!desirable!through! an! Arcadian! perspective,! would! later! render! it! useless! for! Goldoni! and! his! successors.! Quite! simply,! a! return! of! opening! material! at! the! end! of! any! piece! logically!negates!any!progression!of!action,!thought,!or!emotional!state!that!could!be! explored! within.! Goldoni,! as! a! realist! author,! preferred! to! cultivate! a! more! ! ! 21! ! psychologically!attuned!theatre!both!in!prose!and!in!song,!and!the!circular!nature!of! the!da%capo!form!clearly!rendered!it!wholly!ill!suited!to!carrying!plot!development.! Public! acclaim! for! Metastasian! theatre! further! enforced! its! limitations! as! we! shall! see,!as!audiences!eagerly!awaited!the!bravura%of!its!opera!stars,!which!soon!became! the! sole! principal! incentive! for! going! to! theatre.! Vocalists! needed! perhaps! little! encouragement! to! stretch! the! arie! into! moments! of! complete! dramatic! stasis.! This! was!often!the!case,!for!example,!with!the!aria%d’uscita!(exit!aria),!obligatory!before! any! leading! character! could! leave! the! stage,! and! a! further! hindrance! to! verisimilitude!and!fluidity!of!action!in!the!eyes!of!our!author.!! Consequently,! while! Arcadian! principles! brought! Metastasio! to! compose! libretti! of! the! highest! quality! and! greatest! fame,! the! larger! outcome! of! his! reform,! especially!in!retrospect,!appears!perhaps!the!opposite!of!the!effect!intended.!Finally! free!from!the!restrictions!of!the!‘nobler’!genre,!comic!opera!grew!quickly!in!its!own! right! to! establish! a! novel! tradition! that! began! to! rapidly! fill! theatres! and! create! demand!for!new!ones!to!open.!The!investment!of!many!new!authors!in!comic!rather! than!melodramatic!works!in!the!early!18th!century!was!not!only!fueled!by!popular! interest,! but! also! and! especially,! in! the! case! of! Goldoni! and! others,! by! critical! instinct.!Opera%seria,!despite!the!noblest!Arcadian!intentions,!once!largely!diffused!in! theatres,!began!a!new!stage!of!decadence!determined!by!its!very!nature.!! The!decline!of!opera%seria!was!gradual!and!by!no!means!uniform,!but!already! detected!early!in!the!century.!Il%Teatro%alla%Moda%(Fashionable!Theatre),!an!exquisite! satirical! pamphlet! authored! by! the! Venetian! Benedetto! Marcello! (1686–1739),! specifically! targets! opera%seria! and! was! already! in! print! by! 1720,! while! Metastasio! ! ! 22! ! continued!to!produce!libretti%until!1740.!As!already!noted,!the!arie%of!opera%seria,!in! form!and!in!content,!were!moments!of!abstract!contemplation!that!risked!bringing! the! action! to! a! complete! halt.! As! such,! they! became! to! an! extreme! extent! opportunities!for!musical!elaboration,!particularly!for!leading!singers!who!could!fill! any!reprise!with!ornamentation.!Audiences!enjoyed!food,!drink,!and!conversation!as! operas! were! performed,! and! tuned! in! most! unanimously! during! the! da% capo% arie,! when! they! could! marvel! at! a! singer’s! vocal! ability! and! judge! his! or! her! daring! virtuosic!maneuvers.!Vocal!display!appears!by!historical!accounts!almost!as!a!sport! for!theatre1goers,!and!became!so!divorced!from!scruples!of!dramatic!coherence!as! to!give!rise!to!the!famous!aria%di%baule,%lending!Benedetto!Marcello!more!fuel!for!his! pen.!These!“trunk!arias,”!tailored!to!vocalists’!individual!abilities,!toured!with!them! as!the!name!suggests,!bluntly!inserted!within!this!or!the!other!opera!in!substitution! of!an!original!aria,!often!with!scarce!relation!to!the!surrounding!action.!!! It!is!to!this!practice,!incredible!by!today’s!standards,!that!Benedetto!Marcello! alludes! when,! with! scathing! sarcasm,! he! instructs! the! modern! opera! star! to! carry! himself!in!the!latest!fashion:!! Si! lamenterà! sempre! della! Parte,! dicendo! che% quello% non% è% il% suo% fare,! riguardo! all’Azione,! che! l’Arie! non! sono! per! la! sua! abilità,! etc.,! cantando! in! tal! caso! qualche!Arietta!d’altro!compositore,!protestando,!che% questa%alla%tal%corte,%appresso%il%tale%Gran%Personaggio% (non!tocca!a!lui!dirlo)!portava%tutto%l’applauso,%e%gli%è% stata%fatta%replicare%sino%a%diciassette%volte%per%sera.19%! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 19!Benedetto! Marcello,! Il%Teatro%alla%Moda,! “Al! Musico.”! He! will! always! complain! of! his! Part,! saying! that!it%is%not%his%doing!with!regards!to!the!Action,!and!that!the!Arie!are!not!for!his!abilities,!etc.,!in!that! case! singing! instead! an! Arietta! by! a! different! composer,! protesting! that%this%piece,%at%such%and%such% court,% under% such% and% such% Great% Eminency% (who! it! is! not! his! place! to! mention),% brought% all% the% applause,%and%up%to%seventeen%encores%in%a%single%evening%were%requested.%! ! ! 23! ! The! practice! also! logically! demanded! arie! of! rather! generic! language,! so! as! to! be! more! easily! inserted! into! a! plurality! of! contexts.! ! Marcello! underlines! at! once! the! density! of! virtuosic! display! and! the! thinness! of! dramatic! content! in! a! fashionable! melodramatic!aria:!! Dovranno! formarsi! tutte! le! Canzonette! delle! medesime! cose,! cioè! di! Passaggi! lunghissimi,! di! Sincope,! di! Semituoni,! d’alterazioni! di! Sillabe,! di! repliche! di! parole! nulla! significanti,! v.g.! Amore! Amore,! Impero! Impero,! Europa! Europa,! Furori! Furori,!Orgoglio!Orgoglio,!etc.20!! ! In! sum,! the! stasis! of! traditional! melodramatic! forms,! together! with! the! theatrical!absurdities!of!decadent!opera%seria,!while!all!the!rage!when!Goldoni!was! but! a! young! man,! prepared! fertile! ground! for! a! more! rational,! socially! relevant! comic!alternative.!While!Metastasio!continued!to!acquire!the!fame!and!diffusion!that! we! read! of! in! Goldoni’s! Terenzio,! from! a! critical! point! of! view,! what! he! sought! in! simplicity!and!purity!carried!the!risk!of!becoming!sterile.!In!its!development,!comic! opera! thus! turned! away! from! the! predominating! theatre! and! drew! from! vastly! different!sources,!mainly!the!Neapolitan!tradition,!as!we!will!examine!in!detail!in!the! following!section.!! Goldoni’s! own! output! reflects! with! perfect! clarity! the! shift! from! a! desire! to! emulate!tragic!opera!theatre!to!an!entirely!opposite!aesthetic!and!a!search!for!new! horizons.! Goldoni,! as! any! respectable! student! of! law! and! of! the! ancient! authors,! commenced! his! theatrical! career! with! high! hopes! of! establishing! himself! as! a! tragedian! of! the! purest! Classical! brand.! His! first! texts! were! tragic! operas,! and! his! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 20!ibid.,!“Al!Poeta.”!All!the!little!songs!must!be!made!up!of!the!same!things,!that!is!very!long!Passages,! Syncopations,! Semitones,! alterations! of! Syllables,! repetition! of! meaningless! words,! e.g.! Love! Love,! Empire!Empire,!Europe!Europe,!Rage!Rage,!Pride!Pride,!etc.!! ! ! 24! ! theatrical! debut,! the! ill1fated! Amalasunta,! was! written! ‘according! to! all! the! laws! of! Aristotle!and!Horace,’!!“per!la!quale,”!Goldoni!writes,!“avea!spogliato!bastantemente! la! Didone! e! l’Issipile! di! Metastasio.”21!Despite! our! author’s! prestigious! sources,! his! advisors,!the!Milanese!Conte!Prata!and!his!circle,!found!that!Goldoni!had!forgotten! too! many! good! principles! of! tragic! theatre.! The! author,! many! years! later,! would! describe! the! scene! in! vivid! tones:! “Non! potea! più! contenermi,! mi! levai! con! un! movimento! involontario,! violento,! gli! chiesi! scusa,! lo! ringraziai! de’! suoi! amichevoli! avvertimenti,! e! conclusi! dicendo! che,! scandalizzato! dalla! regole! del! Dramma,! facea! proponimento!di!non!comporne!mai!più.”22!L’Amalasunta!passed!from!the!hands!of! his! Milanese! critics! to! the! fireplace! of! Goldoni’s! lodging! in! town,! a! precocious! sign! that!his!calling!lay!elsewhere.!! ii.%Older%antecedents%of%comic%opera% Having!looked!at!the!theatrical!world!in!which!comic!opera!was!introduced,! we! may! now! trace! its! evolution! outside! of! the! walls! of! opera%seria,! so! as! to! better! understand,!in!turn,!the!new!direction!taken!by!Goldoni.!! First,!however,!we!must!carefully!weigh!the!notion!that!comic!opera!was!but! nascent!after!the!Arcadian!reform,!for!in!the!history!of!every!human!enterprise,!and! most! particularly! the! arts,! evolution! has! never! unfolded! in! the! linear! fashion! that! textbooks!illustrate.!!Purely!comic!musical!works!were!written!and!composed,!albeit! in!more!sporadic!and!less!consistent!manner,!even!centuries!before!Enlightenment! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 21!Goldoni,! Memorie% Italiane% (Prefazioni% ai% Diciassette% Tomi% delle% Commedie% edite% a% Venezia% da% G.B.% Pasquali! [176111778]),! tomo% X.! (…)! for! which! I! had! sufficiently! robbed! Dido% and! Issipile% by! Metastasio.!! 22!ibid.,! tomo% XI.% I! could! no! longer! restrain! myself,! I! stood! with! an! involutary,! violent! motion,! apologized,!thanked!him!for!his!friendly!warnings,!and!concluded!by!saying!that,!scandalized!by!the! rules!of!Opera,!I!resolved!never!to!write!any!again.!! ! ! 25! ! opera%buffa.!Some!scholars!date!the!birth!of!comic!opera!to!the!Cinquecento,%with!Il% Cicalamento% delle% Donne% al% Bucato! (the! Chatter! of! Women! at! the! Wash)! by! Alessandro!Striggio!the!elder!(153611592),!principal!court!musician!under!Cosimo! de’! Medici,! whose! homonymous! son! would! later! compose! the! libretto% of! Monteverdi’s!famous!Orfeo.!Il%Cicalamento!has!been!called!a!‘madrigal!comedy,’!and! does!not!present!a!unified!action!in!the!manner!of!later!opera,!but!rather!a!series!of! ordered! madrigals! (polyphonic! vocal! compositions)! that! narrate! a! sequence! of! events.!! Moving! forward! in! time,! we! find! several! Venetian! works! of! note! in! the! last! thirty!years!of!the!17th!century.!In!particular,!it!is!worth!recalling!Il%Candaule%(1679),! dramma%per%musica!by!the!librettist!Adriano!Morselli!(dates!unknown)!that!revisits! the! ancient! Anatolian! kingdom! of! Lydia;! L’Alcibiade%(1680),! titled! after! the! ancient! Athenian! commander! and! fictional! protagonist! of! a! presumed! early! platonic! dialogue,! dramma% per% musica! by! librettist! Aurelio! Aureli! (~1650?11710?)! of! the! Accademia%degli%Imperfetti,!with!music!by!Marc’Antonio!Ziani!(~1650?11715),!who! was! maestro% di% cappella! under! Ferdinando! Gonzaga! in! Mantua! and! later! under! Leopold! I! in! Vienna;! and! Messalina%(1680),%from! a! text! by! Francesco! Maria! Piccoli! (dates!unknown)!and!music!by!Carlo!Pallavicino!(163011688)!of!the!Ospedale%degli% Incurabili.! The! latter! two! works! are! centered! on! courtly! characters,! while! La% Semiramide!(1671),!later!to!reappear!in!Venice!as!La%Schiava%Fortunata!(The!Lucky! Slave,!1674),!employs!traditional!comic!devices!such!as!disguise!and!role!reversal.! This! originally! Florentine! work,! commissioned! by! prince! Leopoldo! de’! Medici! and! created! by! court! doctor! and! poeta%teatrale%Giovanni! Andrea! Moniglia! (162511700)! ! ! 26! ! with! music! by! Antonio! Cesti! (162311669),! draws! comic! techniques! from! Calderón! de! la! Barca! (160011681),! creating! intrigue! from! the! physical! resemblance! of! Semiramide!to!her!son!Nino,!which!permits!character!swapping!and!dramatic!irony.!! In!keeping!with!the!Seicento%tradition!launched!by!L’Orfeo,!all!of!these!works! are!set!in!remote!times,!and!feature!ancient!protagonists.!One!could!hardly!suppose! that!enlightened!comic!opera!should!draw!its!roots!from!them.!Indeed,!in!the!same! decades!but!far!south!in!Naples,!nobles!and!workers!alike!were!already!enjoying!an! entirely! different! type! of! musical! theatre! that! privileged! realism! above! exoticism.! Neapolitan!comic!theater!of!the!late!17th!century!was!not!of!sporadic!nature!as!that! of! northern! cities.! Rather,! it! grew! from! direct! contact! with! popular! and! dialectal! culture,! enriched! by! the! local! traditional! song! in! llengua% napolitana.! The! canzone% napoletana,!still!appreciated!today!and!still!intimately!tied!to!its!dialectal!roots,!from! its!purely!lyrical!origin!gradually!acquired!a!dramatic!dimension.! iii.%Naples%and%the%‘commedia%pe’%mmusica’%% ! In! the! first! decade! of! the! 1700s,! (particularly! 170011707),! the! vogue! in! Naples!was!all!for!scherzi%drammatici%e%scenici,!that!were!represented!both!in!noble! palazzi% and! in! the! popular! piazze.! Halfway! between! melodramma! and! popular! tradition,! they! employed! buffo% and! serio! characters! together,! and! mixed! adapted! operatic! forms! (recitativo! and! arie)! with! the! use! of! dialect.! An! exemplary! work! of! this! fashion,! now! lost,! was! Il% Mondo% Abbattuto! (The! World! Demolished),! scherzo% scenico% by! Nicola! Sabini! (~1675?11705)! and! Michele! de! Falco! (~16881~1732?),! given! in! Naples! in! 1701.! As! in! Sabini’s! case! (other! closed! pieces! of! his! have! ! ! 27! ! survived),! the! musicians! who! wrote! canzoni%in! the! popular! fashion! were! the! same! who!created!these!scherzi.!!! On! 26! December! 1707,! La% Cilla% (text! by! Francesco! Antonio! Tullio! (16601 1737)! set! to! music! by! Michelangelo! Faggiuoli! (166611733)),! the! first! known! Neapolitan! commedia% per% musica,! was! given! at! the! palazzo% of! the! princes! of! Chiusano.!In!the!audience!were!the!viceroy!and!the!highest!nobility,!together!with! an! assembly! of! laymen! which! included! intellectuals,! lawyers,! entrepreneurs,! and! court!functionaries.!! ! It!should!be!noted!that!the!first!authors!of!scherzi%and!commedie%per%musica! in! Naples! were! not! all! professional! musicians! or! playwrights.! The! aforementioned! authors,!for!example,!were!jurists.!According!to!Roberto!Zanetti,23!this!implies!that! they!were!not!bound!to!the!rigid!musical!customs!upheld!by!the!aristocracy,!as!court! composers! would! have! been,! and! therefore! more! at! liberty! to! experiment! and! produce!an!alternative!to!the!tradition.!Together!with!librettists!Francesco!Antonio! Tullio! (166011737),! Giovanni! Veneziano! (better! known! as! Agasippo! Mercotellis,! 168311742),! Carlo! de! Petris! (dates! unknown),! Nicola! Gianni! (dates! unknown),! Bernardo!Saddumene!(dates!unknown),!and!others,!the!composers!who!contributed! to! the! new! comic! genres! are! numerous,! among! them! Faggiuoli,! Michele! de! Falco,! Benedetto!Riccio!(dates!unkown),!Francesco!Antonio!Scarlatti!(16661~1741?),!and! Antonio! Orefice! (~1708?1~1734?).! Orefice! would! become! a! key! figure! in! the! development!of!musical!comedy!up!until!the!end!of!the!1720s,!composing!music!not! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 23!Explained! in! Paolo! Gallarati,! Musica% e% Maschera,! Il% libretto% italiano% nel% Settecento% (EDT! Musica,! 1984);!107.!! ! ! ! 28! ! only!for!works!in!dialect!but!also!for!comic!operas!in!Italian!(e.g.,!Chi%la%dura%la%vince! (He!Who!Withstands!Previals),!1721),!for!opere%serie,%opere%tragicomiche,%and!even! the!earliest!drammi%giocosi%(La%Camilla,%1709).!! Common!to!all!is!a!renewed!emphasis!on!the!populace!and!on!everyday!life,! for! the! commedia% per% musica,! unlike! the! few! aforementioned! comic! operas! of! the! Seicento%produced!in!northern!Italy,!was!a!predominantly!realistic!musical!theatre.! Its! scenes! are! set! in! different! neighborhoods! of! Naples,! not! in! foreign! lands! and! distant!times.!Similarly,!the!action!is!not!extravagant,!but!rather!sketches!daily!life.! Paolo! Gallarati! has! suggested! that! the! simplicity! of! the! Neapolitan! commedia% per% musica% was! motivated! by! the! same! anti1Baroque! sentiments! that! gave! rise! to! the! Arcadian! reform.! “L’iperbole! straniante! del! barocco! viene! quindi! accantonata! in! quest’arte!a!misura!d’uomo![la!commedia%per%musica],!nata!dalla!stessa!esigenza!di! semplificazione! che! ispirava! il! movimento! arcadico(…);! un! moto! di! rinnovamento! che!determinerà,!pochi!anni!dopo,!l’affermazione!del!teatro!metastasiano.“24!As!we! have! seen,! however,! this! common! philosophical! ground,! perhaps! shared! in! origin,! does! not! produce! any! affinity! of! content! between! the! two! types! of! theatre! (one! representing! an! idealized! past,! the! other! anchored! in! the! present),! though! some! scholars!have!supposed!Metastasio!to!have!been!familiar!with!Neapolitan!comedy,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 24!ibid.;! 109.! The! alientaing! hyperbole! of! the! Baroque! is! thus! put! aside! in! this! art! of! more! human! proportion,!born!from!the!same!desire!for!simplification!that!inspired!the!Arcadian!movement!(...);! an!impulse!of!renewal!!that!will!determine,!a!few!years!later,!the!rise!of!Metastasian!theatre.!! ! ! 29! ! and! to! have! derived! the! simplicity! of! his! language! and! the! harmony! of! his! verses! from!this!model.25! Furthermore,! while! elsewhere! opera% seria,! from! its! Baroque! heritage,! was! still! intended! principally! for% listeners! of! a! certain! rank,! the! commedia% per% musica% was!appreciated!by!the!nobility!as!well!as!by!the!working!class,!as!the!première!of! La% Cilla% testifies.! In! those! particular! circumstances,! changes! at! the! governmental! level! may! have! played! a! key! role,! in! particular! as,! in! 1707,! the! Venetian! diplomat! and! later! cardinal! Vincenzo! Grimani! (165211710)! was! made! viceroy! of! Naples.! An! ally!of!the!Hapsburgs,!Grimani!at!the!head!of!local!government!represented!a!break! from! the! Spanish! domination! that! had! hitherto! been! held.! Coincidentally! Grimani,! himself! a! librettist,! was! also! the! owner! of! the! Teatro% San% Giovanni% Grisostomo! in! Venice,! where! his! operas! were! performed! and! where,! most! importantly,! Goldoni! would!later!serve!as!director!(1737141)!and!present!the!comedy!often!cited!as!the! beginning!of!his!reform,!Momolo%cortesan%(Momolo!courtier).!! Grimani’s! cultured! appreciation! for! musical! theatre! may! well! have! encouraged!the!proliferation!of!the!commedia%per%musica!in!the!court!environment! and!to!a!broader!audience.!La%Cilla,!for!example,!after!its!first!great!success!before!a! mixed! audience,! was! repeated! upon! request! one! month! later.! Scholarship! shows! that!the!great!and!rapid!development!of!the!commedia%per%musica%in!its!first!phase,! even! before! impresari% began! opening! their! theatres! to! the! general! public,! was! largely!stimulated!by!the!patronage!of!the!Neapolitan!nobility.!Many!early!commedie% !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25!See! Alberto! Basso! et! al.,! Musica%e%scena.%Storia%dello%spettacolo%musicale! vol.! I1! III! (Torino:! UTET,! 1998),! and! Roberto! Zanetti,! La% Musica% Italiana% nel% Settecento,! vol.! 1! (Busto! Arsizio:! Bramante! Editrice,!1978.).!! ! ! ! 30! ! per%musica,! while! performed! not! only! at! court! as! we! have! seen,! bear! the! names! of! local!noblemen!in!the!dedication.!! Yet!how!can!we!understand!the!eagerness!of!the!higher!class!to!sponsor!the! development!of!a!theatre!that!was!written!outside!the!courts,!and!that!was!popular! in! content! and! style?! The! key! may! lie! again! in! political! context,! as! Paolo! Gallarati! explains:!“L’uso!del!vernacolo(…)non!ne!prova!un’origine!popolare,!ma!va!piuttosto! interpretato! come! il! rifiorire! di! una! tradizione! culturale! indigena! opposta! a! quella! straniera! dei! dominatori,! prima! spagnoli! e! poi! austriaci,! a! partire! dal! 1707;! tanto! che! gli! autori! appartenevano! in! maggioranza! al! ceto! forense! del! cosidetto! popolo! civile,! portatore! delle! nuove! istanze! della! cultura! preilluministica.” 26 !Gallarati’s! connection!of!commedia!librettists!to!nascent!Enlightenment!ideals,!thanks!to!their! professional!exposure!as!jurists,!is!a!keen!insight!that!constitutes!another!link!(but! by!no!means!the!last,!as!we!shall!see)!between!Neapolitan!comedy!and!Goldoni.!! To!this!we!add!that!just!as!the!composers!of!commedie%per%musica!were!also! creators!of!traditional!Neapolitan!song,!and!infused!one!music!with!the!style!of!the! other,! the! librettists! of! these! musical! works! were! often! authors! of! dialectal! prose! comedies! (commedie%d’intreccio%e%di%carattere),! fully! imbued! in! the! native! tradition! that! boasted! novelle,%poemi,%and! drammi%pastorali.! Gallarati! speaks! of! “strettissime! interconnessioni! tra! i! due! generi1! opera! e! commedia,”27!as! the! same! author! wrote! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 26!P.! Gallarati,! Musica% e% Maschera;% 108.! The! use! of! the! vernacular! (...)! does! not! prove! its! popular! origin,! but! should! be! interpreted! as! the! renaissance! of! the! local! culture,! in! opposition! to! that! of! foreign!domination,!first!Spanish!then!Austrian,!beginning!in!1707;!so!much!so!that!the!authors!were! in! large! part! members! of! the! judiciary! class! of! civil! society,! harbinger! of! the! new! demands! of! pre1 Enlightenment!thought.!! 27!ibid.;108.!Very!tight!interconnections!between!the!two!genres1!opera!and!comedy.!! ! ! 31! ! texts!of!one!and!the!other!type.!A!similar!interconnection!characterizes!the!entirety! of!Goldoni’s!output,!and!is!the!foundation!of!the!present!study.!! The!close!relationship!of!opera!texts!to!prose!comedy!is!exemplified!by!Patrò% Calienno% de% la% Costa% (by! Mercotellis! and! Antonio! Orefice),! a! commedia% per% musica! drawn!closely!from!La%Perna,!prose!comedy!in!dialect!written!by!the!attorney!Nicola! Corvo.! Patrò% Calienno! marks! a! turning! point! in! the! history! of! comic! opera,! for! it! launched!the!first!season!of!the!Teatro%dei%Fiorentini,!which!opened!its!doors!to!the! public! in! 1709.! This! commedia% per% musica% is! entirely! in! Neapolitan! dialect! and! features!many!comic!scenes!that!draw!humor!from!the!same!type!of!light!caricature!! we!find!in!many!intermezzi.!Gallarati,!however,!brings!to!light!an!entirely!different! quality!and!describes!the!piece!as!“lavoro!se!non!proprio!dominato!dalla!malinconia,! certo!fortemente!improntato!all’ombreggiatura!del!mezzo1carattere,!e!ad!un!tipo!di! ritrattistica! psicologica! efficacemente! abbozzata.”28!Mercotellis! thus! prefers! a! type! of! comedy! that! depicts! quotidian! scenes! in! realistic! tones,! able! therefore! to! grasp! the! inner,! intimate! musings! that! accompany! daily! struggles.! Patrò% Calienno% is! the! earliest!known!psychological!comedy!that!puts!the!world!of!its!spectators!onto!the! stage.!! ! From! a! technical! point! of! view,! too,! Patrò% Calienno% foreshadows! future! Goldonian!traits.!In!particular,!unlike!opera%seria!which,!as!we!have!seen,!separated! aria! from! recitative! to! the! point! of! allowing! the! arie% di% baule,! the! commedia% per% musica!refused!the!tendency!to!separate!action!from!aria.!The!arie!in%Patrò%Calienno% are! not! static! descriptions! of! abstract! emotions,! but! are! vividly! connected! to! the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 28!ibid.,!111.!!A!work!if!not!exactly!dominated!by!melancholy,!certainly!patterned!after!the!hues!of!the! mezzo1carattere,!and!a!type!of!psychological!portrayal!that!is!sketched!with!efficacy.!! ! ! 32! ! events,! thanks! to! their! inclusion! of! names! and! the! use! of! direct! discourse.! Furthermore,!they!are!placed!centrally!within!scenes!(unlike!the!exit!aria),!preceded! and!followed!by!recitative,!therefore!better!embedded!within!the!action.!! ! Alongside!the!arie,%ensemble!pieces!in!the!commedia%per%musica%also!undergo! significant! development! with! respect! to! opera%seria.%The! progressive! expansion! of! ensembles,! especially! in! music,! but! also! at! times! in! prose! comedy! (as! we! will! see! with! Goldoni’s! works),! derives! from! the! imitative! desire! of! a! realistic! theatre! to! depict! social! interaction! with! vivid! color! and! veracity.! In! the! early! commedia% per% musica,! polyphonic! ensembles! were! most! often! used,! for! example,! to! evoke! the! bustling! and! chatter! of! crowded! public! spaces,! such! as! a! town! piazza.! In! other! words,!these!pieces!did!not!affect!the!main!action,!but!served!a!representative!role.! Yet,!it!is!from!this!foundation!that!Goldoni!will!later!develop!ensembles!that!carry! intrigue,! employing! up! to! four! or! more! characters! simultaneously! who! no! longer! serve!as!sonorous!background!but!take!center!stage!and!drive!the!action.!! The!many!and!novel!possibilities!of!the!ensemble!aria!will!also,!as!we!shall! see,!bring!Goldoni!to!reduce!the!solo!aria,%once!the!center!of!attention,!so!as!to!leave! more!room!for!group!discourse.!Mature!ensemble!pieces!will!juxtapose!emotions!of! different! kinds! (rage,! hope,! sadness,! surprise,! tenderness)! with! the! aid! of! melodic! and!harmonic!differentiation,!which!in!music!can!render!multiple!voices!intelligible! in! the! same! moment.! Interestingly,! the! so1called! ensemble% finale,! a! signature! of! Goldoni’s! mature! drammi% giocosi% and! of! later! Classical! opera,! appears! in! his! best! prose! comedies! as! well.! This! is! an! aspect! of! Goldoni’! theatre! that! has! never! been! studied,!but!that!constitutes!further!proof!that!his!comic!theatre!and!his!operas!have! ! ! 33! ! more!in!common!than!scholars!have!claimed!so!far.!Naturally,!spoken!word!without! the!aid!of!music!requires!different!strategies!to!maintain!the!intelligibility!of!group! discourse.!We!will!explore!this!element!further!in!the!following!chapter.!& & ! To! return! to! the! commedia% per% musica% at! the! Teatro% dei% Fiorentini,! it! is! important!to!know!that!this!venue,!also!frequented!by!the!nobility,!initially!offered!a! mix! of! musical! comedies! and! more! traditional! melodrammi! (by! minor! authors,! however,!rather!than!by!Metastasio).!!The!same!impresario!(a!certain!Nicola!Serino)! would,!at!a!later!stage,!decide!to!specialize!the!theatre!exclusively!in!commedie%per% musica.!!The!theatre!therefore!became!the!first!center!of!what!would!later!be!opera% buffa,! and! opened! to! an! even! broader! audience! after! 1714! (following! a! damaging! fire!and!rebuilding),!with!old!and!new!works:!by!Nicola!Corvo!(Patrò%Calienno%de%la% Costa,% Lo% ‘mbruoglio% de% li% nomme,% 1711,% Patrò% Tonno% d’Isca,% 1714),% Nicola! Gianni! (L’alloggiamentare,% premiered! 1710),% and! by! Francesco! Antonio! Tullio% (Li% vecchie% coffejate,%1710,%La%Cianna,%1711,%and!Lo%finto%Armenejo%1717),%among!others.!! The! success! of! the! commedia% per% musica! at! the! Teatro% dei% Fiorentini% encouraged!other!theatres!in!Naples!to!present!these!works,!and!within!a!few!years! these!musical!comedies!arrived!at!the!Teatro%Nuovo%and!the!Teatro%della%Pace,!ever! more!appreciated!by!audiences.!An!opera!worthy!of!note!that!belongs!to!this!second! phase! of! the! commedia% per% musica% is! Li% zite% ‘n% galera% (The! Spouses! in! Prison),! by! Bernardo! Saddumene,! given! at! the! Teatro% dei% Fiorentini% in! 1722! with! music! by! Leonardo! Vinci! (169011730),! then! modified! and! represented! at! the! Teatro% della% Pace%in!1724,!newly!opened!thanks!to!growing!public!interest!in!comic!opera.!!This! work!is!particularly!relevant!to!a!study!of!Goldoni’s!musical!texts!because!it!bears! ! ! 34! ! clear!signs!of!evolution!with!respect!to!earlier!musical!commedie.%In!particular,!in!Li% zite%‘n%galera%we!find%ensemble!arias!both!within!scenes!as!well!as!at!the!end!of!acts,! a!dramatic!technique!that!will!soon!become!the!signature!of!Goldoni’s!libretti!and!of! fully!formed!opera%buffa.!To!cite!only!one!example,!the!second!act!contains!a!famous! trio! that! presents! pert! dialogue,! not! in! declamatory! style,! but! in! an! almost! conversational! (and! given! the! romantic! rivalries,! sparring)! tone,! yet! not! without! pathetic!accents:!! BELLUCCIA.!Fortuna!cana,!o!Dio,! dimme!che!te!facc’io!! CARLO.%!Amore!tradetore,! !che!buò!da!chisto!core?! CIOMMA.%Destino!mio!teranno,!! levame!da!st’affanno.! A%TRE.%Quanno!la!vuò!scompì!! CARLO.%Bellezza!de!sto!core.!! BELLUCCIA.!Facce!de!tradetore.! CIOMMA.!Tu!sì!la!morte!mia.!! CARLO.!Che!t’aggio!fatto.! CIOMMA.%Abbìa.!! BELLUCCIA.!Carlo!non!te!partì.!! CIOMMA.!E!lassannillo!ì.!! CARLO.!Tu!mme!vuò!fa’!impazzì.29! ! With!Li%zite%‘n%galera,%we!begin!to!perceive!a!measure!of!distinction!between! character! types! which! will! later! evolve! into! parti% buffe,! parti% serie,% and! mezzi% caratteri.% The! differences! in! style! and! content! brought! by! this! division! of! roles,! expanded! and! fully! established! by! Goldoni,! will! become! his! single! greatest! contribution!to!comic!opera.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 29!Bernardo! Saddumene,! Li%zite%‘n%galera,%Act! II.! (Belluccia:! Oh! Fortune,! o! God,! tell! me,! what! have! I! done!to!you?!Carlo:!Traitorous!love,!what!do!you!want!from!this!heart?!Ciomma:!Tyrannous!destiny,! release!me!from!this!torment.!Tutti:!How!I!wish!I!could!prevail!!Carlo:!Beauty!of!this!heart.!B:!Traitor1 face.!Ciomma:!You!are!the!death!of!me.!Carlo:!What!have!I!done!to!you?!Ciomma:!Go!away.!B:!Carlo,! don’t!go.!Ciomma:!Let!him!go.!Carlo:!you!want!to!drive!me!out!of!my!mind.!! ! ! 35! ! Notably,! Gallarati! draws! a! parallel! between! the! opposing! registers! of! comic! opera! and! those! of! the!Commedia%dell’Arte:! “L’opposizione! dei! due! registri! [serio! e! buffo]! era! già! presente! nella! commedia! dell’arte! dove! accanto! alle! maschere! dei! giovani! innamorati! di! buona! famiglia! convenivano! i! lazzi! ben! noti! dei! personaggi! grotteschi.”30!He!goes!on!to!suggest,!however,!that!this!same!dualism!would!render! new! comic! operas! less! realistic,! principally! because! characters! would! become! exaggeratedly! comic! or! tragic,! and! as! such! incapable! of! reflecting! any! credible! psychological!realism.!!!! Goldoni,! as! is! well! known,! first! made! his! fame! as! an! author! of! canovacci! (schematic! outlines! from! which! the! actors! of! the! Commedia% dell’Arte! would! improvise,! from! the! French! canevas,! a! fabric! on! which! one! embroiders),! and! was! quite! familiar! with! this! tradition.! In! this! respect,! the! connection! of! his! opera! characters!to!the!mask!types!of!this!more!rustic!comedy!may!certainly!afford!initial! comparison.! However,! we! cannot! mistake! the! fact! that,! while! the! tendency! of! the! Commedia% dell’Arte! is! to! exaggerate! differences! between! character! types! for! grotesque! comic! effect,! the! dramma% giocoso! will! instead! progressively! attenuate! them,! in! the! effort! to! create! a! comic! theatre! farther! from! stereotype! and! closer! to! reality,! thus! more! able! to! move! the! affections.! How! else,! otherwise,! could! we! account!for!the!new!fashion!of!the!comédie%larmoyante%in!the!later!18th!century,!or! for!the!mezzo%carattere%in!the!works!of!Goldoni!and!other!authors!after!him?%%This! new! role! in! particular,! whose! stamp! is! neither! fully! comic! nor! tragic,! but! shows! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 30!Paolo!Gallarati,!Musica%e%Maschera;%120.!The!opposition!of!the!two!registers![serio!and!buffo]!was! already!present!in!the!Commedia!dell’Arte!where!assembled!alongside!the!masks![archetypal!figures]! of!young!lovers!of!good!family!were!the!familiar!gags!and!motions!of!the!grotesque!characters.!! ! ! 36! ! aspects!of!both!buffo%and!serio%in!relation!to!changing!events,!is!the!mark!of!comic! opera! in! its! most! sophisticated! form,! and! the! perfect! antithesis! to! the! hackneyed! masks!and!manner!of!acting!of!the!Commedia%dell’Arte!tradition.!! iv.%The%commedia%per%musica%towards%a%universal%stage! As! the! commedia% per% musica% established! itself! with! success! in! the! major! theatres! in! Naples,! it! began! to! engage! visiting! actors! from! other! regions! of! Italy! (initially,! professional! actors! also! performed! in! musical! roles,! but! professional! vocalists!reserved!their!talents!for!opera%seria),!and!as!musical!exchanges!continued,! its! fame! began! to! spread! north.! With! the! arrival! of! Italian! actors! from! outside! of! Naples,! librettists! such! as! Bernardo! Saddumene,! Niccolò! Corvo,! and! Francesco! Antonio!Tullio!were!among!the!first!to!begin!to!soften!the!strong!dialectal!stamp!of! their! works,! alternating! local! speech! with! parts! in! Italian,! or! better,! toscano,! performed!by!the!visiting!actors.!! A!universal!or!‘standard’!Italian,!quite!measured!in!comparison!to!the!quick! cadences!of!dialect,!and!untainted!by!local!color,!lent!itself!more!credibly!to!roles!of! a! certain! gravity,! and,! drawing! inspiration! from! Metastasian! theatre,! gradually! became! the! expected! mode! of! expression! for! characters! of! higher! social! status.! As! this! tendency! consolidated! into! common! practice,! the! use! of! dialect! was! in! turn! limited! to! characters! of! popular! extraction,! the! most! spontaneous! source! of! comic! play! (and! the! most! concrete! link! to! the! Commedia% dell’% Arte).! Without! doubt,! this! linguistic!division!contributed!significantly!to!the!explicit!distinction!between!serio% and! buffo! roles,! increasingly! apparent! in! the! libretti% of! Gennaro! Antonio! Federico! ! ! 37! ! (birth!unknown11744),!Pietro!Trinchera!(170711755),!and!Antonio!Palomba!(17051 1769).!! The!‘contamination’!of!Neapolitan!dialect!with!Tuscan!properly!began!in!the! 1718! season,! with! the! staging! of! Il% gemino% amore! (The! Coupled! Love)! and! of! Il% trionfo% dell’onore! (The! Triumph! of! Honor;! texts! by! Tullio,! music! by! Orefice! and! Alessandro! Scarlatti! (166011725;! Il% trionfo% is! in! fact! his! only! comic! opera)).! Their! Italianate!titles!alone!indicate!a!significant!change!from!works!such!as!Lo%’mbruoglio% de%li%nomme%(The!Mix1up!of!Names),%or!Li%zite%’n%galera,%and!are%indicative!of!a!new! outlook,! and! a! new! envisioned! role! for! the! commedia% per% musica.% In! the! words! of! Roberto! Zanetti,! the! use! of! Tuscan! “(…)è! sintomo,! prematuro,! di! una! volontà! evolutiva! che! sembra! anche! perseguire! una! diversa! collocazione! della! commedia,! per! sopravvanzare! quella! strapaesana! implicita! nella! sua! natura! dialettale” 31! (though! as! we! have! noted,! the! “collocazione! strapaesana,”! notwithstanding! the! universal!presence!of!local!dialect,!did!not!imply!a!lower1class!audience,!but!firstly! one! of! nobles! and! intellectuals).! Essentially,! the! Italianized! commedia% per% musica% opened!to!a!broader!bourgeois!audience,!anticipating!its!circulation!in!cities!beyond! Naples.!! Its!diffusion!did!not,!however,!come!at!the!price!of!generalizing!its!content!as! well.!Zanetti!confirms,!“della!tradizione!però!rimane!il!rifiuto!delle!‘azioni!eroiche!e! regali’,!l’avvertita!necessità!di!differenziarsi!dal!dramma!aulico!mediante!la!scelta!di! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 31!Roberto!Zanetti,!“La!commedia!musicale”!in!La%Musica%Italiana%nel%Settecento,!vol.!1!(Busto!Arsizio:! Bramante!Editrice,!1978.);!270.!(…)!is!a!premature!symptom!of!the!desire!for!evolution!that!seems!to! pursue! a! different! collocation! for! comedy,! in! order! to! transcend! the! uttely! rustic! one! implicit! in! its! dialectal!nature.!! ! ! 38! ! ‘successi! domestici! e! familiari.’”32!! The! same! preference! for! “successi! domestici”! instead!of!heroic!or,!in!the!case!of!Carlo!Gozzi!(172011806),!fantastical!theatre!will! become! the! hallmark! of! Goldoni’s! reform,! earning! him! a! lasting! place! in! literary! history,!but!much!criticism!in!his!own!time.!! Having!traced!the!history!of!the!commedia%per%musica%from!its!origins!to!its! fullest!form!in!Naples,!we!can!briefly!recapitulate!its!general!characteristics!before! following! its! path! north! to! Venice! and! to! Goldoni.! Elements! in! common! with! Goldoni’s! theatre! will! become! immediately! apparent,! as! will! divergences! from! the! older!intermezzo%tradition!that!continued!into!the!early!1700s,!later!to!be!replaced! by!Classical!opera%buffa.!! The! consolidated! commedia%per%musica! is! typically! articulated! in! three! acts,! casting! six! to! seven! characters! in! total.! The! action,! preserving! this! genre’s! original! intent,!is!fast!paced!and!carried!by!tight!dialogue!in!recitative.!Dialogue!as!the!main! vehicle! for! action! takes! the! place! of! less! realistic! monologue,! more! typical! of! the! intermezzi.!Extended!arie%are!avoided;!style!and!character!do!not!draw!from!opera% seria,% but! directly! from! the! local! tradition! of! Neapolitan! song.! In! line! with! this! preference,! Goldoni,! without! drawing! from! Neapolitan! song,! will! further! reduce! dramatic! stasis! by! creating! more! concise! and! fluid! ariette,% definitively! divorcing! comic! opera! from! the! Metastasian! model.! The! subject! matter! is! amorous,! but! not! expressed!in!the!well1worn!and!inflexible!terms!of!opera%seria%(if!not!for!purposes!of! parody).! The! commedia% per% musica! is! inventive! and! quick,! its! dialogical! structure! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 32!ibid.;!270.!(…)!of!the!tradition!however!remains!the!rejection!of!‘heroic!and!regal!actions,’!and!the! acutely!felt!need!to!differentiate!this!new!theatre!from!pompous!tragic!drama!through!the!choice!of! ‘domestic!and!familial!triumphs.’! ! ! 39! ! permitting! rapid! changes! in! action,! elements! of! surprise,! and! comic! intrigues! all! colored!in!local,!realistic,!and!genuine!tones.!Ideas!and!situations!drawn!from!daily! life!generate!an!inexhaustible!variety!of!plots,!and!offer!a!window!onto!Neapolitan! life!at!the!turn!of!the!18th!century.!! A! further! divergence! from! opera%seria! was! the! exclusion! of! castrati! and! the! use! of! performers! of! both! sexes! for! greater! realism.! Common! characters! include! townspeople,!fishermen,!farmers,!servants,!shop!boys,!and!soldiers,!but!also!middle! class! figures! such! as! doctors,! artisans,! and! deplorable! old! misers.! The! purely! popular!scenes!of!the!first!commedie%gradually!moved!towards!the!representation!of! a!bourgeois!world,!especially!from!1718!with!the!introduction!of!Italian!into!these! works.!Towards!this!end,!it!is!also!relevant!to!note!the!transformation!of!character! names!especially!after!1730,!as!remarked!by!Gallarati.!!Not!only!are!these!no!longer! Neapolitan,!but!they!are!typified!in!such!a!way!as!to!imply!the!role!a!character!will! take,! a! practice! already! present! in! theater! of! the! Cinquecento.! Comic! names! (eg.! Rosicca,!Zeza,!Prizeta,!Gnasullo,!Scatozza)!read!like!an!open!book,!but!popular!serio% names! too,! such! as! Leandro,! Flavia,! Violante,! Aurelia,! Camillo,! Elisa,! and! Lauretta,! betray!social!standing!as!well!as!age!and!(to!an!extent)!temperament.!!! Most! importantly,! beginning! in! the! second! decade! of! its! existence,! the! commedia%per%musica!evolves!towards!the!inclusion!of!sentimental!strains,!the!same! refinement! that,! in! greater! extent,! will! characterize! the! dramma% giocoso.! Earlier! precedents! may! be! found! in! the! commedia% sentimentale% of! the! Seicento,! cultivated! within! the! literary! academies! as! an! alternative! to! the! tragicommedia.% In! addition,! Zanetti!has!perceptively!suggested!that!in!the!case!of!Neapolitan!opera!(but!not!in! ! ! 40! ! later! comic! opera),! sentimentalism! is! also! derived! from! the! nostalgic! vein! of! the! traditional!folk!song!that!formed!other!aspects!of!the!genre:!“Il!nucleo!originario!di! questa! disposizione,! dovuta! a! una! naturale! vena! elegiaca! e! di! soffusa! malinconia,! deriva! alla! commedia! direttamente! dal! mondo! della! canzone! popolare.”33 !! This! nostalgic! hue! is! able! to! develop! more! freely! when! differences! between! buffo% and! serio%roles!become!more!affirmed.!Often,!in!mature!comic!opera,!the!entire!intrigue! will! develop! from! the! social! disparities! between! characters! alone.! In! testimony! of! the!dramatic!potential!afforded!by!the!contrast!of!roles,!we!must!recall!that!it!was! not! uncommon! for! comic! and! serio% roles! of! the! same! work! to! be! set! to! music! by! different!composers!(this!is!the!case,!for!example,!with!Liondora,%given!at!the!Teatro% dei%Fiorentini%in!1742,!with!music!written!by!both!Nicola!Logroscino!(16981~1763?)! e!Francesco!Ciampi!(16901!?)).!! v.%The%commedia%per%musica%in%Venice% In! sum,! the! commedia%per%musica,! before! the! mid! 18th1century,! consolidates! into!an!enticing!alternative!to!opera%seria!well!beyond!its!hometown.!Its!first!arrival! in!Venice!can!be!precisely!dated!to!1711,!when!a!visiting!Neapolitan!poet,!Domenico! Lalli!(known!by!the!pen!name!Sebastiano!Biancardi),!brings!to!the!lagoon!drafts!of! comic! material! that! he! will! put! into! production.! His! musical! comedy! L’Elisa,! based! on!an!earlier!text!of!1699!and!set!to!music!by!the!Veronese!Giovan!Maria!Ruggieri! (~1665?1~1725?),!is!his!first!work!to!be!given!at!the!same!Teatro%S.%Angelo!where! Goldoni!will!later!stage!his!own!comedies.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 33!ibid.;! 283.! The! original! nucleus! of! this! disposition,! owed! to! a! natural! elegiac! vein! and! delicate!melancholy,!is!derived!to!comedy!directly!from!the!world!of!popular!folk!song.! ! ! 41! ! Authors! of! texts! are! not! the! only! importers! of! Neapolitan! musical! comedy,! however,! for! native! musicians! and! visiting! students! of! composition! trained! by! the! Neapolitan!school!also!become!conduits!of!this!new!alternative!theatre.!!Throughout! his! career! and! especially! during! the! years! of! his! mature! drammi% giocosi,! Goldoni! collaborated! with! a! long! list! of! Neapolitan! composers.! Gioacchino! Cocchi! (17201 1804),! with! whom! Goldoni! wrote! La%mascherata%(The! Masked! Lady)! and%Le%donne% vendicate! (The! Avenged! Women)! in! 1751,! for! example,! returned! to! Naples! immediately! following! this! collaboration! in! Venice! and! composed! for! the! Teatro% Nuovo,!his!operas!soon!an!international!success.!Vincenzo!Legrenzio!Ciampi!(17191 1762),! who! set! to! music! Goldoni’s! first! dramma% giocoso,! La% scuola% moderna% (The! Modern! School,! 1748),! along! with! Bertoldo,% Bertoldino,% e% Cacasenno! (1748),! Il% negligente% (The! Negligent,! 1749),! and! Amore% in% caricatura! (Love! in! Caricature,! 1761),!was!not!Neapolitan!by!birth!but!pursued!his!studies!there!from!a!young!age,! and!therefore!was!also!fully!formed!in!that!tradition.!Niccolò!Piccinni!(172811800),! who! would! become! one! of! Goldoni’s! principal! composers! after! the! retirement! of! Baldassare! Galuppi! (from! 1766! onwards),! was! also! from! Naples.! The! list! of! Neapolitan!contemporaries!continues!with!Giuseppe!Scarlatti!(~1718?11777),!born! and! trained! in! Naples,! who! wrote! music! for! I%portentosi%effetti%della%Madre%Natura% (The!Prodigous!Powers!of!Mother!Nature)!given!at!the!Teatro%San%Samuele%in!1752,! and! later! De% gustibus% non% est% disputandum! (No! Dispute! About! Taste! (from! a! Latin! proverb)!premiered!at!the!Teatro%San%Cassiano,!1753),!Il%mercato%di%Malmantile!(The! Market! of! Malmantile,! premiered! at! the! Vienna! Burgtheatre,! 1757),! and! L’isola% disabitata! (The! Deserted! Island,! Teatro% San% Samuele,! 1757);! with! Domenico! ! ! 42! ! Fischietti!(172511810),!also!Neapolitan!and!an!imitator!of!Galuppi’s!style,!and!first! composer! (now! overshadowed! by! Franz! Joseph! Haydn)! for! Lo% speziale% (The! Apothecary,! 1768),% La% ritornata% di% Londra% (The! Returned! from! London,! 1756),% Il% mercato%di%Malmantile%(collaborator,!1757),%Il%signor%dottore%(The!Doctor,!1758),%La% fiera% di% Sinigaglia% (The! Fair! of! Sinigaglia,! 1760),% and% La% donna% di% governo% (The! governess,!1763);!and!finally!with!Giuseppe!Scolari!(~1720?1~1774?),!collaborator! from!17561!58!for!La%cascina%(The!farmstead,!1756),%a!second!rendition!of!Il%Conte% Caramella% (Count! Caramella,! 1756),% Le% nozze% (The! Wedding,! 1757),% Le% donne% vendicate% (1757),% Il% viaggiatore% ridicolo% (The! Risible! Traveler,! 1762),% Il% ciarlatano% (The!charlatan,!1759),%and!a!second!production!of!La%buona%figliuola%maritata%(The! Good!Girl!Married,!1762),%originally!written!by!Piccinni,!and!revised!for!the!theatre! in! Murano.! Composers! of! Neapolitan! origin! are! important! figures! in! the! transmission! of! the! commedia% per% musica% not! only! because! of! their! musical! experience,! but! most! importantly! because,! during! their! time! in! Naples,! they! partnered! with! Neapolitan! comic! librettists! and! worked! on! productions! for! the! same!theatres!in!which!comic!opera!first!claimed!attention.!The!level!of!interaction! between! Goldoni! and! these! composers! is! not! documented,! but! being! all! contemporaries! of! the! author,! one! can! assume! at! the! very! least! that! each! was! familiar!with!the!other’s!work.!! ! In!1743,!Venetian!theaters!presented!two!famous!Neapolitan!operas:!La%finta% cameriera! (libretto! by! Giovanni! Barlocci)! given! at! the! Teatro% S.% Angelo! during! the! Fiera% dell’Ascensione,! and! shortly! thereafter! Madama% Ciana! (libretto! by! the! same! Barlocci).! Both! were! set! to! music! by! the! Neapolitan! Gaetano! Latilla! (171111788,! ! ! 43! ! uncle! of! Piccinni),! who,! interestingly,! also! set! many! Metastasian! tragedies.! Worthy! of!note!is!the!fact!that!the!latter!comic!work,!Madama%Ciana,!was!modified!from!its! original! setting! by! Baldassare! Galuppi,! Goldoni’s! first! collaborator.! Galuppi,! affectionately! known! as! “Il! Buranello”! because! he! was! born! and! raised! on! the! Venetian!island!of!Burano,!is!one!of!few!composers!Goldoni!interacted!with!to!have! studied! in! Venice! and! not! in! Naples.! Notwithstanding,! it! is! clear! that! Galuppi,! too,! was!quite!familiar!with!the!styles!and!structures!of!Neapolitan!opera.!We!may!thus! begin!to!understand!how!dense!and!numerous!are!the!interconnections!between!the! theatrical!worlds!of!Naples!and!Venice.!! As! a! final! note,! in! the! same! year! of! 1743,! Goldoni! presents!La%Contessina! at! the! Teatro%S.%Samuele! with! music! by! Roman! composer! Giacomo! Maccari! (~1700?1 ~1744),! a! work! he! subtitles! commedia% per% musica.% In! this! opera,! which! we! will! revisit,! we! find! nobles! Pancrazio,! Lindoro,! and! la! Contessina,! an! intrusive! Conte! Bacchellone! Parabolano,! and! on! the! other! end! of! the! social! ladder! the! barcariolo% (gondolier)! Gazzetta,! who! speaks! in! Venetian! dialect! and! represents! the! popular,! working1class!sphere.!It!is!clear!that!the!Neapolitan!commedia%per%musica!has!at!this! point! been! completely! assimilated! by! our! author,! and! is! undergoing! new! transformation.!!! The! commedia% per% musica% did! not,! however,! constitute! the! Venetian! spectator’s! only! choice.! In! the! years! following! the! arrival! of! Neapolitan! works! in! Venice,! theatres! also! produced! a! myriad! of! drammi% comici,! divertimenti% giocosi,! opere%bernesche,%and! other! ephemeral! forms.%Only! with! Goldoni! are! these! variants! compounded! and! canonized! into! a! universal! operatic! genre,! in! the! words! of! ! ! 44! ! Gallarati,!“un!modello!unificante!su!scala!nazionale,”34!that!will!endure!through!the! next!generations!far!outside!of!Italy.!! !! Furthermore,! the! manifold! documented! connections! between! Goldoni! and! Neapolitan! composers,! and! the! popularity! of! the! commedia%per%musica%in! Venetian! theatres,! do! not! imply! that! Goldoni’s! drammi%giocosi! developed! from! this! tradition! alone.! As! we! will! see! in! the! following! section,! part! of! Goldoni’s! achievements! in! musical! context! must! also! be! understood! as! the! product! of! his! expansion! of! the! intermezzo,! a! genre! in! origin! quite! opposite! to! the! Neapolitan! commedia,%and! with! which!Goldoni!began!his!musical!career.!! Goldoni!was!a!practical!connoisseur!of!both!the!Venetian!intermezzo%and!the! Neapolitan!commedia!traditions.!His!contributions!to!comic!opera,!therefore,!cannot! be!credited!to!any!single!influence,!but!to!a!combination!of!complementary!trends,! of! which! the! commedia% per% musica! is! perhaps! the! least! well1known! (and! for! this! reason!we!have!traced!its!history!in!some!detail).!These!are!the!premises!that!will! push!Goldoni!to!experiment!and!expand!his!texts!for!music!up!to!the!achievement!of! the!dramma%giocoso.%% With! respect! to! the! similar! currents! that! shaped! the! development! of! art! forms!in!both!northern!and!southern!Italy,!it!is!worth!recalling!that,!by!the!1730s,! the! two! most! important! Italian! pioneers! of! comic! musical! theatre! were! Giovanni! Battista! Pergolesi! (171011736)! from! Iesi! (then! part! of! the! papal! states),! author! of! the! famous! La% Serva% Padrona% (The! Servant! Master,! an! intermezzo! no! less)! that! traveled! to! the! corners! of! the! world,! and! our! Venetian! Goldoni,! who! in! the! same! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34!Paolo!Gallarati,!Musica%e%Maschera;%127.%A!unifying!model!on!a!national!scale.!! ! ! 45! ! years!created!the!intermezzi%we!will!now!weigh.!At!different!ends!of!the!peninsula,! both! authors! were! drawn! to! complementary! ideals! of! realism! and! of! bourgeois! society,!and!each!gave!form!to!these!as!he!knew!best.!!!! ! Goldoni’s&apprenticeship&in&the&intermezzi! i.%The%intermezzo%and%its%inverse%itinerary:%from%Venice%to%Naples! According! to! Gian! Giacomo! Stiffoni,35!intermezzi! existed! in! Venice! a! good! twenty! years! before! Goldoni! began! to! write! them.! These! rather! peculiar! vocal! divertissements!began!to!take!shape!in!their!own!right!following!the!famous!reform! of! Zeno! and! Metastasio.! In! the! effort! to! restore! il% buon% gusto! to! opera! theatre! by! purging!it!of!comic!interpolation,!comic!material!was!exiled!from!tragic!opera,!and! the! intermezzo,% presenting! a! separate! action! between! acts! of! a! tragedy,! offered! a! breath!of!fresh%comic!relief!during!the!intermissions.! The! first! official! recognition! of! the! intermezzo% as! an! emancipated! type! of! musical! theatre! comes! in! 1706,! when,! for! the! first! time,! a! pamphlet! entitled! Nuovi% intermedi%per%musica%circulates! a! collection! of! texts! without! the! opera%seria%libretti% they!would!have!usually!accompanied.!Pietro!Pariati!(166511733)!is!the!best!known! author!of!intermezzi%in!their!first!Venetian!season!of!170611709,!and!his!libretti,!set! to! music! by! notable! composers! such! as! Francesco! Gasparini! (166811727),! Antonio! Lotti!(166711740),!and!Tommaso!Albinoni!(167111751),!were!among!the!first!to!be! printed.!For!Reinhard!Strohmm,!the!1706!edition!is!a!clear!sign!of!“l’emancipazione! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 35!Gian!Giacomo!Stiffoni,!“Introduzione”!in!Carlo!Goldoni,! Intermezzi%e%farsette%per%musica,!a!cura!di! Anna!Vencato!(Venezia:!Marsilio,!2008).! ! ! 46! ! sociale! del! genere! comico! nell’opera.” 36 !Among! Pariati’s! first! known! titles! are! Erighetta%e%don%Chilone%(1707)! and! Pimpinone! (1708).! Unfortunately,! large! part! of! this! early! production,! given! at! the! Teatro%S.%Angelo%and! the! Teatro%S.%Cassiano,%has! since!been!lost.!! General! characteristics! of! the! intermezzi% are! their! structural! simplicity! and! the!economy!of!means!they!require!to!be!performed.!Each!is!typically!formed!by!two! acts!(sometimes!three),!and!the!entire!action!is!spun!from!the!conflict!between!two! characters,! usually! a! soprano! and! bass,! serva% and! padrone.! From! the! few! musical! scores!of!early!intermezzi%that!have!survived,!the!instrumental!staff!was!also!quite! restricted,!a!small!group!of!string!players!being!sufficient!through!the!whole!work.!! With! respect! to! content,! verisimilitude! was! never! a! primary! concern! of! the! intermezzo.! These! musical! spoofs! are! in! fact! most! readily! associated! with! a! caricatured! type! of! funniness,! with! disguises,! verbal! absurdities! and! neologisms,! bizarre! foreign! characters,! and! racy! gesturing.! Musically,! these! works! were! very! simple!in!both!construction!and!style.!In!each!act,!each!character!would!give!a!solo! aria% following! simple! recitative,! and! then! conclude! the! action! in! a! final! duetto.% Language!and!terms!could!be!quite!quotidian,!while!the!structure!of!the!arie%hailed! back!to!the!closed!forms!of!opera%seria,!using!the!tripartite!da%capo%structure!(ABA’)! or!an!expanded!variant!(pentapartite!AA’BAA’).!! ! For! their! simplicity,! and! likely! for! their! economy,! intermezzi% were! soon! exported,!as!testified!by!the!Raccolta%copiosa%d’intermedi,%parte%da%rappresentarsi%col% canto,% alcuni% senza% musica% con% altri% in% fine% lingua% Milanese! (Copius! Collection! of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 36!ibid.;!11.!!The!social!emancipation!of!the!comic!genre!in!opera.!! ! ! 47! ! Intermezzi,!in!part!to!be!performed!with!song,!some!without!music,!and!some!in!fine! Milanese)! printed! in! Milan! in! 1723,! which! lists! fifty1four! different! titles.! ! Research! has! dated! their! arrival! in! Naples! to! around! 1715,! and! this! southern! capital,! notwithstanding! its! own! comic! tradition,! soon! became! a! center! of! diffusion! and! exportation! in! turn.! As! previously! mentioned,! the! most! famous! intermezzo% of! all! time,! La% serva% padrona% (1733),! originally! created! to! accompany! a! tragic! opera,! Il% prigioner% superbo% (The! Proud! Prisoner),! but! soon! a! stand1alone! piece,! was! composed!by!Pergolesi,!a!representative!of!the!Neapolitan!style.!! ii.%Goldoni%and%his%first%musical%texts,%the%intermezzi%% Looking! forward! in! time! to! when! Goldoni! was! a! young! man! and! fledgling! author,!intermezzi%appeared!in!virtually!all!of!Venice’s!fourteen!opera!theatres,!with! the! exception! of! the! Teatro% San% Giovanni% Grisostomo% (today! still! working! as! the! Teatro%Malibran),!the!most!prestigious!of!all,!which,!to!offer!more!lavish!spectacle,! housed!ballets!and!opera%seria.!As!a!side!note,!in!the!second!half!of!the!century!with! opera%buffa%taking!the!place!once!held!by!intermezzi,%these!works,!by!then!obsolete,! would!be!more!and!more!often!substituted!by!balli%(as!famously!at!the! Teatro%San% Carlo%of!Naples).!! Goldoni! writes! his! first! intermezzi% in! Feltre! in! 1729! for! a! local! dilettante! theatre!company.!These!were!naturally!intended!for!placement!between!acts!of!an! opera%seria.!The!first,!Il%buon%vecchio%(The!Good!Sage),!is!now!lost,!while!the!second,! La%cantatrice%(The!Signer),!is!still!attributed!to!Goldoni!but!was!famously!plagiarized! by!others.!Goldoni!writes,!!! Perduto! ho! poscia! intieramente! il! primo! intermezzo,! per! la! poca! cura! ch’io! avea! delle! cose! mie;! ed! avrei! ! ! 48! ! perduto! anche! il! secondo! ma! è! stato! esso! da! qualchedun! conservato! e! l’ho! veduto! qualch’anno! dopo! rappresentare! a! Venezia! col! titolo! della! Pelarina…l’intermezzo!riuscì!in!Venezia!felicemente!e! altri! se! ne! avea! fatto! merito! e! ne! avea! ricavato! non! poco!utile…!37! ! The! ! ‘other’! discreetly! mentioned! by! Goldoni! is! Antonio! Gori,! comic! author! and! lawyer!who!openly!asserted!his!own!authorship!of!the!intermezzo!when!it!was!given! at!the!Teatro%Grimani%di%S.%Samuele%in!1734!(the!year!of!La%serva%padrona)!under!the! direction!of!Giuseppe!Imer!(170011758),!with!music!(now!lost)!by!Giacomo!Maccari.! In!the!same!year,!Goldoni!began!his!important!collaboration!with!Imer,!and!recalls! Gori! burning! all! bridges! with! the! theatre! company! soon! thereafter.! To! make! the! matter! more! complicated,! the! ubiquitous! Venetian! editor! Antonio! Groppo,! in! his! Catalogo% purgatissio% di% tutti% li% drammi% per% musica% recitatisi% ne’% teatri% di% Venezia% (Purged! Catalog! of! all! of! the! drammi% per% musica% performed! in! Venetian! Theatres)! published! in! 1741,! credits! the! work! in! question! to! a! third! author,! the! Florentine! Giovanni! Battista! Fagiuoli! (166011742).! In! any! case,! scholarship! has! widely! accepted! La% pelarina% (The! Peeler! [of! Money])! to! be! Goldoni’s! first! surviving! intermezzo,% and! it! appears! in! various! contemporary! editions! of! his! works,! among! them!the!Tevernin!and!Zatta.!! La% pelarina% (we! revert! to! this! title! as! the! original! La% cantatrice,% following! Goldoni’s! account,! no! longer! exists)! is! an! exemplary! intermezzo.! The! three! characters,!Pelarina,!her!mother!Volpiciona!(‘BigFox’),!and!the!avaricious!Tascadoro! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 37!Goldoni,! Memorie% Italiane% (Prefazioni% ai% Diciassette% Tomi% delle% Commedie% edite% a% Venezia% da% G.B.% Pasquali%[176111778]),%tomo!IX.!I!had!then!completely!lost!my!first!intermezzo,!for!the!scant!care!I! had!of!my!things;!and!I!would!have!lost!the!second,!too,!had!it!not!been!preserved!by!somebody,!and!I! saw! it! given! in! Venice! a! few! years! later! under! the! title! La% Pelarina(…)the! intermezzo% had! a! good! success!in!Venice,!and!someone!else!had!taken!credit!and!had!drawn!from!it!no!small!profit!(…).!! ! ! ! 49! ! (‘GoldPocket’)! each! sing! two! or! three! closed! arie%over! the! course! of! the! work,! and! come!together!at!the!end!of!scenes!to!form!a!trio.!Volpiciona’s!aria,%“Sento!che!tutto! in!lagrime,”!strongly!suggests!a!parody!of!opera%seria,%and!the!work!employs!a!mix!of! Italian!and!some!Venetian!dialect.!! In!Venetian,!Goldoni!also!wrote!I%sdegni%amorosi%tra%Bettina%putta%de%campielo% e%Buleghin%barcariol%venezian!(The!Amorous!Disputes!between!Bettina!Venetian!girl! and! Buleghin! Venetian! boatsman,! 1732),! later! revised! as! Il% gondoliere% veneziano! (The! Venetian! Gondolier),! for! the! Teatro%Ducale! of! Milan! during! a! brief! stay! in! the! city.!Of!this!intermezzo,!Goldoni!writes,!!! (…)questo! è! il! primo! mio! componimento! ch’io! ho! lavorato! pe’! comici! ed! il! primo! che! ho! esposto! al! pubblico,!pria!sulle!scene!e!poi!sulle!stampe.!Picciola! cosa,! è! vero,! ma! come! da! un! picciolo! ruscelletto! scaturisce! talvolta…Scusatemi,! leggitori! carissimi,! ho! la!testa!calda.”38!!!! ! Buleghin!is!a!gondolier!with!a!weakness!for!gambling.!This!intermezzo%has!only!two! characters! as! the! title! suggests,! who! feed! the! entire! action! with! their! disputes.! Of! interest! in! this! work! is! the! manner! in! which,! through! the! use! of! irregular! versification! (versi% ottonari! interrupted! by! quadrisyllables),! Goldoni! creates! rhythmic!pauses!and!animated!discourse,!a!technique!he!will!continue!to!pursue!in! the!intermezzi!that!follow!in!1735136.!! It! appears! that! gambling,! a! vice! explored! in! more! than! one! of! Goldoni’s! comedies,! most! famously! in! La% Bottega% del% Caffè% (The! Coffee! Shop,! 1750),! was! looked!upon!by!our!author!with!a!particularly!sensitive!eye.!In!his!autobiographical! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 38!ibid.!tomo!XI.!This!is!the!first!composition!I!crafted!for!the!comic!actors!and!the!first!I!presented!to! the!public,!first!in!the!theatre!and!then!in!print.!True,!it!is!but!a!trifle,!but!just!as!from!a!small!stream! at!times!flows!forth…!forgive!me,!dear!readers,!I!am!hot1headed.!! ! ! 50! ! writings,!Goldoni!narrates!how!he!was!robbed!at!gunpoint!(pistol1point,!that!is)!by!a! stranger!from!Padua!who!had!cheated!him!at!cards.!This!memory!would!stay!with! him,!such!that!“nelle!mie!Commedie!non!mi!sono!scordato!del!mio!Padovano,!e!di!là! ebbe! origine! quella! collera! con! cui! mi! sono! scagliato! contro! del! gioco! nella! mia! Commedia!Il%giocatore%(The!Gambler),!nella!Bottega%del%Caffè!ed!in!altre,!nelle!quali! ho! avuto! occasion! di! parlarne.”39!Aside! from! affording! an! amusing! biographical! anecdote,!Goldoni’s!personal!experience!evoked!through!his!theatre!reveals,!firstly,! a!young!author’s!innate!interest!in!representing!events!and!issues!of!contemporary! relevance!notwithstanding!the!dictates!of!the!predominating!musical!fashion!which! largely!preferred!other!subjects,!and!most!importantly,!the!implicit!belief!that!comic! theatre,!however!entertaining!and!light1hearted,!is!not!without!the!ability!to!target! and!stigmatize!social!problems!(“mi!sono!scagliato!contro!del!gioco,”!etc.).!!! As! previously! mentioned,! following! Il% gondoliere% veneziano% Goldoni! begins! his! career! as! an! author! at! the! Venetian! Teatro% Grimani! in! 1734.! The! theatre! was! home!to!a!company!of!actors!led!by!their!capocomico,!Giuseppe!Imer.!It!was!these! same! actors! of! prose! tragedies! or! comic! canovacci%who! also! sang! (at! what! level! of! skill,! we! do! not! know)! the! comic! intermezzi% that! were! offered.! Goldoni! became! acquainted! with! Imer! through! a! mutual! friend,! Casali,! whom! he! chanced! to! rediscover!in!Verona,!acting!in!the!famous!Arena.!Goldoni!auditioned!(as!an!author)! reading! portions! of! his! early! tragedy,! Il%Belisario%(1734),! and! this! became! his! first! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 39!ibid.;! tomo! IX.! In! my! comedies! I! never! forgot! my! Paduan! fellow,! and! there! was! the! origin! of! the! fierceness!with!which!I!hurled!myself!against!gambling!in!my!Comedy!Il%giocatore,%in!La%Bottega%del% Caffè,!and!others,!in!which!I!have!had!the!chance!of!treating!the!subject.!! ! ! 51! ! work! that! Imer,! the! “direttore! e! quasi! dispotico! della! Compagnia,”! 40 !put! into! production.!! The!tragedy!enjoyed!great!success,!and!was!much!appreciated!for!the!realism! with!which!it!was!written,!as!Goldoni!recalls,!! La! Tragedia! è! andata! alle! stelle.! Piacque! in! essa! l’interesse,! la! verità! e! la! condotta.! Io! faceva! parlare! l’Imperatore!ed!il!Capitano!come!parlano!gli!uomini,!e! non!con!linguaggio!degli!eroi!favolosi,!al!quale!siamo! avvezzati! dalle! penne! sublimi! de’! valorosi! Poeti.! Volendo! io! esprimere! un! sentimento,! non! ho! mai! cercato!il!termine!più!scelto,!più!elegante,!o!sublime;! ma! il! più! vero! ed! il! più! esprimente.! Veduto! ho! per! esperienza! che! la! semplicità! non! può! mancar! di! piacere.! Non! intendo,! quando! dico! semplicità,! di! far! parlare! un! Imperatore! come! parlerebbe! un! pastore;! ma!intendo!di!non!far!parlare!i!Sovrani,!uomini!come! noi,!con!un!linguaggio!incognito!alla!Natura.41! ! ! Goldoni’s!perception!of!his!tragedy’s!success!as!connected!to!its!realism!is!a! conclusion!drawn!in!later!years,!which!however!shows!that,!from!early!on,!Goldoni! abandoned!the!established!customs!of!contemporary!theatre!and!modeled!his!work! according! to! his! own! instinct.! The! same! instinct! that! refused! the! stiff! declamatory! style! of! tragic! theatre! also! took! issue! with! coeval! comedy,! and! Goldoni,! impatient! and!eager!to!prove!himself!in!new!contexts,!began!trying!his!hand!at!texts!for!music:!! Correvano! altresì! su! quelle! scene! d’allora! alcune! Commedie,!dette!di!carattere,!come!il!Conte%Pasticcio,! il!Don%Chisciotte,%la%Maestra%di%Scuola,!lo!Smemorato,!il! Paroncino,! il! Prepotente,! il% Servo% Sciocco% ed! altre! in! buon! numero;! ma! i! caratteri! erano! falsi,! fuori! di! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 40!ibid.;!tomo!XI.!director!and!almost!despot!of!the!company! 41!ibid.!The!tragedy!went!to!the!stars.!It!was!liked!for!its!suspense,!its!truth,!and!its!pace.!I!made!the! Emperor!and!the!Captain!speak!as!men!speak,!and!not!in!the!language!of!fantastical!heroes,!to!which! we!are!accustomed!from!the!sublime!pens!of!the!most!valorous!Poets.!When!I!wanted!to!express!an! emotion,!I!never!sought!the!most!recondite,!the!most!elegant,!or!sublime!term;!but!rather!the!most! real,! and! the! most! expressive.! I! have! seen! from! experience! that! simplicity! never! fails! to! please.! By! simplicity,!I!don’t!mean!that!I!would!make!an!Emperor!speak!in!the!manner!of!a!shepherd;!I!mean!to! not!have!Sovereigns,!who!are!men!like!us,!speak!in!a!language!unknown!to!Nature.!! ! ! 52! ! natura,! e! sagrificati! al! ridicolo! grossolano,! senza! condotta,! senza! verità! e! senza! ragione.! ! Io! moriva! di! voglia! di! metter! mano! ai! caratteri! veri,! e! di! tentar! la! riforma! ch’io! divisava;! ma! non! era! ancora! venuto! il! tempo,! e! ho! dovuto! contentarmi! di! lavorare! passabilmente!negl’Intermezzi(…).”42! ! These! words! imply! that,! even! while! he! was! writing! his! first! libretti,! Goldoni’s! dramatist! vein! was! leading! him! towards! new! ideals! and! a! new! philosophy! of! theatre.!! What!is!more,!Goldoni’s!account!testifies!a!conscious!connection!between!his! ideas!for!comedy!and!his!texts!for!music;!he!works!on!one!thing!as!he!thinks!of!the! other.! It! may! be! objected! that! Goldoni! casts! his! intermezzi% as! a! less! appealing! alternative! to! his! works! of! greatest! import,! from! which! one! could! suppose! that! he! dedicated! them! less! attention.! Yet,! we! must! remember! that! his! reflections! are! written!retrospectively,!as!an!established!playwright!who!has!led!a!prolific!career.! In!this!light,!it!is!certainly!understandable!that!Goldoni!(as!he!does!elsewhere!in!his! autobiographical!writings)!would!wish!to!minimize!his!early!musical!production!in! favor!of!his!more!famous!‘reformed’!comedies.!! We! may! further! imagine! that,! if! from! the! position! of! prestige! and! maturity! from!which!he!is!writing!his!recollections!the!first!intermezzi%appear!in!retrospect!to! be!of!little!consequence,!when!Goldoni!was!first!given!the!opportunity!to!compose! these! texts,! they! were! to! him! anything! but! marginal.! As! a! young! rebellious! law! student! with! great! desire! but! no! guarantee! of! a! future! career! in! theatre,! the! same! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 42!ibid.;!tomo!XIII.!In!theatres!in!those!days!there!were!certain!Comedies,!so1called!di%carattere,!such! as! Count% Pasticcio,% Don% Chisciotte,% The% Schoolteacher,% The% Forgetful,% The% Little% Lord,% The% Tyrant,% The% Silly%Servant,%and! others! in! good! number;! but! the! characters! were! fake,! divorced! from! nature,! and! sacrificed!to!coarse!humor,!without!action,!without!truth,!and!without!reason.!I!was!dying!to!try!my! hand!at!real!characters,!and!to!attempt!the!reform!I!was!envisaging,!but!the!time!had!not!yet!come,! and!I!had!to!content!myself!by!working!passably!at!my!Intermezzi.!! ! ! 53! ! intermezzi! constituted! his! debut! in! a! new! field,! and! their! quality! and! reception! therefore!were!hardly!inconsequential.!!! Ultimately,!Goldoni!himself!eliminates!any!doubt:!! Egli! è! vero! che! avrei! poi! volentieri! composte! delle! commedie!di!carattere!ma!pensai!che,!quantunque!gli! intermezzi!non!sieno!che!commedie!abbozzate,!sono! però! suscettibili! di! tutti! i! caratteri! più! comici! e! più! originali,! e! che! ciò! potea! servirmi! di! prova! e! di! esercizio,! per! trattarli! un! giorno! più! distesamente! e! più!a!fondo!nelle!grandi!commedie.43! ! The! likening! of! intermezzi% to! ‘sketched’! comedies,! capable! of! supporting! original! characters,!makes!clear!that!Goldoni!did!not!divorce!his!work!in!the!musical!sphere! from! his! instincts! for! comic! prose! theatre.! It! follows! logically! that! what! is! only! a! nascent!intuition!in!the!intermezzi%will!take!fuller!form!in!Goldoni’s!drammi%giocosi,! written!alongside!his!most!mature!theatrical!comedies.!! Goldoni’s!remarks!are!a!consequence!of!the!fact!that,!even!with!the!success!of! Il%Belisario,!Imer!preferred!not!to!commission!other!tragedies!from!him,!and!instead! requested! texts! for! music.! In! fact,! the! company! seemed! to! specialize! in! comic! intermezzi,!following!the!particular!inclinations!of!their!‘despotic’!director:!! La! passione! dunque! che! aveva! l’Imer! per! gl’Intermezzi,!ne’!quali!unicamente!brillava,!la!fece![la! Compagnia]! perorare! in! favore! di! cotal! genere! di! componimenti,!e!le!prove!che!di!me!aveva!vedute!ne’! due! Intermezzi! accennati! [La% Cantatrice! and! Il% Gondoliere% Veneziano],! l’indussero! a! pregarmi! a! volerne! per! lui! comporre! degli! altri,! esibendomi! con! buona!grazia,!ed!assicurandomi!che!mi!avrebbe!fatto! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 43!ibid.,!tomo!XII.!!It!is!true!that!I!would!have!later!gladly!written!‘character!comedies,’!but!I!thought! that,!even!though!the!intermezzi!are!but!sketched!comedies,!they!were!nonetheless!susceptible!to!all! the!most!comic!and!most!original!characters,!and!this!could!serve!me!as!practice!and!as!excercise!to! develop!them!more!extensively!and!deeply!someday!in!the!great!comedies.!! ! ! 54! ! ringraziare!e!ricompensare!dal!Cavalier!suo!Padrone,! l’Eccellentissimo!Signor!Michele!Grimani.44! ! The! first! intermezzi% written! expressly! for! Imer! were! La% pupilla% (The! Pupil)! and!La%birba%(The!Trickster)!of!1735,!set!to!music!in!“stile!facile!e!chiaro”!(‘simple! and! clear! style,’! i.e.! a! low! level! of! vocal! difficulty! for! non1professional! singers)! by! Giacomo!Maccari,!whose!scores!have!been!lost.!La%pupilla%was!an!immediate!success! and! secured! Goldoni’s! standing! as! a! theatrical! author:! “…fu! ben! ricevuta! e! applaudita;!e!scorgendovi!il!Pubblico!uno!stile!nuovo,!cercarono!di!sapere!chi!ne!era! l’Autore,!e!sapendo!che!la!medesima!mano!aveva!composto!La%pupilla%ed!il%Belisario,! fu!allora!che!cominciai!a!vedermi!onorato!di!partigiani,!di!protettori!ed!amici.”45!The! protagonists! of! this! first! success! were! Giovanna! Farussi! Casanova,! mother! of! the! famous!Giacomo,!and!Imer!himself,!who!played!the!role!of!her!wooer!on!the!stage! and!off.!Through!his!Italian!memoirs,!Goldoni!has!informed!generations!of!readers! that! Zanetta! did! not! sing! well.! ! She! was! able! to! compensate! for! her! musical! shortcomings!by!means!of!her!beauty!and!manners,!which!did!not!escape!Goldoni’s! pungent!creative!eye:!!“(…)!aveva!io!composto!La%pupilla!per!lei!e!aveva!colto!assai! bene! nella! sua! abilità! principale,! ch’era! di! una! scaltra! malizia! coperta! da! una! studiata! modestia.” 46 !The! practice! of! modeling! his! characters! after! real! acquaintances!is!the!secret!to!the!veracity!of!Goldoni’s!original!characters.!This!is!a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 44!ibid.,! tomo! XIII.! The! passion! that! Imer! had! for! the! Intermezzi,! in! which! he! shined! like! no! other,! made!the!Company!an!advocate!in!favor!of!this!type!of!composition,!and!the!proofs!he!had!seen!from! me! in! the! two! Intermezzi! I! mentioned,! induced! him! to! request! that! I! compose! some! others,! showcasing!me!in!good!graces,!and!assuring!me!that!he!would!have!me!thanked!and!rewarded!by!the! Cavalier!his!lord,!his!Excellency!Signor!Michele!Grimani.! 45!ibid.!It!was!well!received!and!applauded;!and!the!Public,!seeing!in!it!a!new!style,!sought!to!discover! its!Author,!and!discovering!that!the!same!hand!had!written!La%pupilla%and!Il%Belisario,!it!was!then!that! I!began!to!see!myself!honored!by!supporters,!protectors,!and!friends.!! 46!ibid.!I!had!written!La%Pupilla%for!her,!and!I!had!hit!the!target!very!well!in!her!greatest!ability,!an! astute!malice!covered!by!studied!modesty.!!! ! ! 55! ! practice! he! would! cultivate! throughout! his! career,! not! without! disgruntlement! among! certain! acquaintances! who! recognized! themselves! all! too! well! in! his! comedies.!! If!La%pupilla%found!realism!in!the!characters!of!its!two!protagonists,!La%birba% was!no!less!effective.!“Birbi,”!as!Goldoni!explains,!were!those!people!who!dealt!with! money! in! less! than! limpid! ways,! who! sang! and! danced! and! begged! for! coins! in! Piazza! San! Marco,! and! who! sing! in! his! intermezzo% in! simple! verse! in! evocation! of! street! music! of! popular! level.! Again,! Goldoni! drew! the! efficacy! of! his! text! from! the! observation!of!daily!scenes:!! Trattenendomi!di!quando!in!quando!nella!Piazza!San! Marco,! in! quella! parte! che! dicesi! la! Piazzetta,% e! veggendo! ed! attentamente! osservando! quella! prodigiosa! quantità! di! vagabondi,! che! cantando,! suonando! o! elemosinando,! vivono! del! soave! mestier! della! birba,! mi! venne! in! mente! di! trar! da! coloro! il! soggetto! di! un! Intermezzo! giocoso;! e! mi! riuscì! a! maraviglia.47!! ! The!result!was!that!La%birba%surpassed!La%pupilla%in!its!success,!confirming!Goldoni’s! career!as!librettist.!! ! At! this! point,! Goldoni’s! stature! as! a! new! librettist! began! to! grow! in! public! notoriety,!as!did!his!own!consciousness!of!his!vocation,!and!at!times,!as!the!author! himself! admits,! his! ‘hot! head.’! In! the! same! year! as! the! two! intermezzi% with! Imer,! Goldoni!was!also!asked!to!arrange!a!libretto%for!Antonio!Vivaldi.!Even!if!not!directly! related! to! his! comic! production,! this! episode! is! worth! recalling! not! only! for! the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 47!ibid.!Lingering!from!time!to!time!in!Piazza!San!Marco,!in!that!part!called!the!Piazzetta,!and!seeing! and!attentively!observing!that!prodigious!quantity!of!vagabonds,!who!singing,!playing,!and!begging,! live! by! the! sublime! trade! of! the! ‘birba,’! I! had! the! idea! of! drawing! from! them! the! subject! of! an! Intermezzo,!and!I!succeeded!marvelously.!!! !! ! ! 56! ! memorable! image! of! our! author! vexed! and! provoked! by! the! ‘red! priest,’! but! also! because! it! serves! perfectly! to! give! a! sense! of! who! Goldoni! was! as! a! man,! his! own! comic!personality!just!as!original!as!that!of!his!staged!characters.!! ! Here! then! is! a! page! from! the! Prefazioni% ai% Diciassette% Tomi% delle% Commedie% edite% a% Venezia% da% G.B.% Pasquali% of! 1761! (Prefaces! to! the! Seventeen! Volumes! of! Comedies!published!in!Venice!by!G.B.!Pasquali),%later!published!as!Memorie%Italiane:%% Era! il! compositor! della! musica! di! quell’anno! per! l’Opera!dell’Ascensione!il!Signor!Abbate!Vivaldi,!detto! il! Prete% Rosso,! per! il! colore! de’! suoi! capegli,! e! malamente!da!alcuni!chiamato!il!Rossi,!credendolo!il! nome!della!sua!famiglia.!! Questo! famosissimo! suonator! di! violino,! quest’uomo! celebre! per! le! sue! Suonate,! specialmente! per! quelle! intitolate!le!Quattro%Stagioni,!componeva!altresì!delle! Opere! in! musica;! e! quantunque! dicessero! i! buoni! conoscitori! ch’egli! mancava! nel! contrappunto,! e! che! non! metteva! i! bassi! a! dovere,! faceva! cantar! bene! le! parti,! e! il! più! delle! volte! le! Opere! sue! hanno! avuto! fortuna….! Premeva! estremamente! al! Vivaldi! un! Poeta! per! accomodare! o! impasticciare! il! Dramma! a! suo! gusto…ed!io,!che!ero!destinato!a!tale!incombenza,!mi! presentai! al! compositore…Mi! ricevette! assai! freddamente.! Mi! prese! per! un! novizio,! e! non! s’ingannò,! e! non! trovandomi! bene! al! fatto! nella! scienza!degli!stroppiatori!de’!Drammi,!si!vedea!ch’egli! avea!gran!voglia!di!rimandarmi.! ! Goldoni’s!first!task!is!to!adjust!an!aria,!and,!vexed!and!stricken!in!his!honor!for!being! treated! as! a! ‘novice’! by! a! composer! of! scarce! counterpoint,! he! demands! pen! and! paper!and!a!chair!and!begins!to!write!there!in!the!room!with!Vivaldi.!In!little!time,! the!deed!is!done:!! Gliela! porto,! gliela! faccio! vedere,! tiene! colla! dritta! il! breviario,! colla! sinistra! il! mio! foglio,! legge! piano;! e! finito!di!leggere,!getta!il!breviario!in!un!canto,!si!leva! mi! abbraccia,! corre! alla! porta,! chiama! la! Signorina! Annina![la!protagonista!cantante].!Viene!la!Signorina! Annina,! e! la! Signora! Paolina! sorella:! legge! loro! ! ! 57! ! l’arietta,! gridando! forte! “l’ha! fatta! qui,! qui! l’ha! fatta,! l’ha!fatta!qui”;!e!nuovamente!mi!abbraccia,!e!mi!dice! bravo,!e!sono!diventato!il!suo!caro,!il!suo!poeta,!il!suo! confidente,! e! non! mi! ha! più! abbandonato.! Ho! poi! assassinato! il! Dramma! del! Zeno! quanto! e! come! ha! voluto.”48! ! Remarkable,! stylistically! speaking,! is! the! way! Goldoni! uses! the! present! tense! to! narrate! events! in! detailed! sequence.! His! description! of! every! gesture! allows! the! reader! to! visualize! the! scene! as! if! it! were! performed! on! a! stage.! Indeed,! the! most! memorable!episodes!of!Goldoni’s!autobiography!are!always!narrated!in!a!theatrical! style!of!prose.!!! ! In!the!year!following!his!first!works!for!Imer!and!Griselda,!Goldoni!continued! to! develop! the! intermezzo%with! L’ipocondriaco! (The! Hypochondriac)! and! Il%filosofo% (The! Philosopher)% in! 1735,! followed! by! Monsieur% Petiton,% La% bottega% da% caffè,% and% L’amante%cabala%(The!Lying!Lover)%the!next!year.%The!original!music!for!these!works! has! not! survived,! but! from! the! texts! we! can! spot! arie%in! vivacious! polymeter,! and! recitativo%in!a!mix!of!Venetian!dialect!and!Italian,!along!with!a!few!foreign!languages! in! parody.! Most! importantly,! Goldoni! continues! to! form! his! characters! in! the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48!ibid.! The! composer! of! music! in! that! year! for! the! Opera! of! the! Ascension! was! the! Signor! Abbot! Antonio!Vivaldi,!called!the!Red%Priest!for!the!color!of!his!hair,!and!erroneously!by!some!called!Rossi,! believing!that!to!be!his!family!name.!! This!very!famous!violinist,!this!man!so!famous!for!his!Sonate,!especially!those!titled!The%Four%Seasons,! also! composed! musical! Operas;! and! though! the! connoisseurs! were! saying! that! he! was! lacking! in! counterpoint,! and! that! he! didn’t! place! his! bass! lines! as! he! should,! he! made! his! parts! sing! well,! and! more!often!than!not!his!Operas!met!with!good!success(…)! It! was! very! pressing! for! Vivaldi! to! find! a! Poet! to! accommodate! or! mess! up! the! Dramma! to! his! liking…and!I,!the!intended!for!this!chore,!introduced!myself!to!the!composer…!He!received!me!quite! coldly.!He!took!me!for!a!novice,!and!he!was!not!wrong,!and!finding!that!I!was!not!experienced!in!the! art!of!mangling!Drammi,!it!was!evident!he!had!great!desire!to!send!me!away.!! (…)! I!bring!it!to!him,!I!let!him!see!it,!he!holds!a!prayer!book!in!his!right!hand,!in!his!left!my!sheet!of!paper,! he!reads!slowly;!and,!finished!reading,!tosses!his!prayer!book!away,!springs!up!and!hugs!me,!runs!to! the!door,!calls!Mlle.!Annina.!Here!comes!Mlle.!Annina,!and!Mme.!Paolina!her!sister:!he!reads!them!the! arietta,! yelling! loudly! “he! wrote! it! here,! here! he! wrote! it,! he! wrote! it! here;”! and! once! again! he! embraces!me,!he!says!bravo,!and!I!have!become!his!dearest,!his!poet,!his!confidant,!and!he!never!left! me!after!that.!I!then!assassinated!Zeno’s!dramma!as!much!and!however!he!wished.! ! ! 58! ! likeness!of!real1life!acquaintances.!Stiffoni!has!attributed!the!success!of!these!works! precisely! to! their! distinct! characterizations,! that! is! to! a! type! of! “gioco! scenico,! appoggiato! non! solo! alla! battuta! comica! ma! anche! sulla! definizione! dei! singoli! personaggi,!nella!maggior!parte!dei!casi!disegnati!in!maniera!assai!efficace.”49! ! This!we!see,!for!example,!in!L’ipocondriaco%and!Il%filosofo,!which!delve!more! deeply!into!the!psychological!musings!of!their!protagonists,!as!Goldoni!will!continue! to! do! in! the! 1740s! with! his! first! complete! comedies.! The! counterpart! female! roles! remain!less!developed,!and!the!action!is!still!quite!simple!in!its!structure.!In!terms!of! content,! both! works! are! satirical,! and! as! such! offer! light1hearted! but! scathing! commentary!on!their!respective!subjects,!L’ipocondriaco%a!parody!of!false!medicine,! and! Il% filosofo% a! parody! of! scholasticism! and! false! literature.! It! is! likely! that! both! were!loosely!drawn!from!very!early!pre1existing!intermezzi,!Erighetta%e%don%Chilone! (1707),!and!Pollastrella%e%Parpagnacco!(1708),!respectively.!! ! The!three!intermezzi%of!1736!are!especially!significant!on!the!path!to!comic! opera,! because! they! begin! to! display! not! only! original! content! but! also! structural! elements! that! will! characterize! the! later! dramma%giocoso.! Monsieur%Petiton,! whose! protagonist! is! a! narcissistic! ‘dandy,’! is! novel! in! its! employment! of! four! principal! actors,!brought!together!at!the!end!of!each!act!in!what!would!later!be!canonized!as! the! ensemble! finale.! In! La% bottega% da% caffè% and! L’amante% cabala,! Stiffoni! sees! the! “stato! embrionale! del! dramma! giocoso.” 50 !These! works! are! expanded! from! the! original!two!acts!and!are!articulated!in!three.!La%bottega%da%caffè%is!decidedly!more! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 49!Gian!Giacomo!Stiffoni,!“Introduzione”!in!Carlo!Goldoni,!Intermezzi%e%farsette%per%musica,!a!cura!di! Anna!Vencato!(Venezia:!Marsilio,!2008);!20.!Stage!play,!supported!not!only!by!the!witty!line!but!also! by!the!definition!of!each!single!character,!in!most!cases!portrayed!with!great!effectiveness.!! 50!ibid.;!26.!!The!embryonic!state!of!the!dramma%giocoso.%% ! ! 59! ! intricate! in! its! action! than! previous! intermezzi.% Narciso,! owner! of! the! coffee! shop,! intends! to! marry! Dorilla,! his! beloved.! To! better! bring! this! about,! both! employ! art! and!subterfuge!to!strip!wealth!from!the!holdings!of!the!older,!gullible!Zanetto.!This! tale!is!as!old!as!time,!and!will!reappear!in!Goldoni’s!first!dramma%giocoso,!La%scuola% moderna% (1748),! in! which! the! protagonist,! coincidentally,! is! named! Drusilla.! According! to! their! strategy,! Dorilla! flirts! with! Zanetto! compelling! him! to! give! her! gifts,!and!Narciso!interrupts!each!scene!at!just!the!right!moment!so!that!she!does!not! have!the!chance!to!refuse!or!return!them,!as!honesty!would!dictate.!This!type!of!plot,! in!which!the!element!of!surprise!is!key,!affords!rapid!exchanges!in!dialogue,!another! element! Goldoni! will! preserve! in! the! drammi% giocosi.% The! real! novelty! of! this! intermezzo% however! is! the! opening! of! the! third! act,! which! does! not! begin! with! recitativo! but! immediately! with! an! ensemble,! Dorilla! and! Narciso! sharing! the! aria,! “Cara!man!che!me!consola.”! ! L’amante% cabala% begins! similarly! with! a! duet! between! principal! characters! Lilla! and! Filiberto.! Filiberto! is! the! “cabalon,”! or! spinner! of! lies,! who! tries! to! court! both!Lilla!and!Catina!at!the!same!time,!telling!each!that!the!other!has!lost!her!wits.! Filiberto! has! much! in! common! with! the! Don! Giovanni! figure,! whom! Goldoni! certainly!had!fresh!in!his!mind,!for!in!the!same!year!(1736)!he!also!authored!his!own! Don%Giovanni%Tenorio,%a!comedy!in!verse!that!contains!interesting!departures!from! the! original! by! Tirso! de! Molina.! At! the! end! of! the! intermezzo% the! transgressor! is! defeated,!and!the!moral!of!the!story!is!announced!directly!to!the!public,!“Imparino! ! ! 60! ! tutti,/! da! sì! bell’esempio/! che! l’arte! d’un! empio/! trionfar! non! può.”51!Goldoni! will! often!close!his!drammi%giocosi%in!this!sententious!manner,!a!practice!Mozart!and!Da! Ponte!will!continue!in!their!masterworks.!Also!worthy!of!note!is!the!character!Lilla,! who!speaks!in!a!more!elevated!register!than!the!others,!almost!in!reminiscence!of! opera%seria%(Stiffoni!identifies!Metastasian!influence!in!her!part).!Her!role!within!the! work!marks!the!beginning!of!a!differentiation!of!tone!and!role!between!characters,! and!the!first!shades!of!pathos!in!a!comic!plot.!! iii.%%A%time%of%transitions:%from%intermezzo%to%full%comic%opera! While!Goldoni!establishes!himself!as!a!promising!librettist!under!Imer,!he!is! also! invited,! from! 1735,! to! create! musical! comedies! for! another! Venetian! theatre,! the! San% Samuele,! also! owned! by! the! Grimani! family.! These! works! are! of! sundry! nature,! but! nonetheless! merit! mention! as! they! constitute! a! link! between! Goldoni’s! intermezzi,% suspended! after! 1736,! and! a! different! and! more! complete! kind! of! musical! theatre,! the! dramma% comico,% which! in! retrospect! appears! the! final! step! before! the! dramma%giocoso.! The! texts! written! for! the! Teatro%S.%Samuele%testify! the! absence! of! a! unifying! comic! opera! tradition:! Aristide! (1735)! is! a! dramma% eroia comico,!La%Fondazion%de%Venezia!(The!Founding!of!Venice,!1736)!a!divertimento%per% musica,! Lugrezia% romana% in% Costantinopoli! (Lucretia! of! Roma! in! Constantinople,! 1737)!a!dramma%per%musica,!and!finally,!La%Contessina!(The!Little!Countess,!1743),! commedia%per%musica.!The!musical!scores!that!first!accompanied!these!works!have! been!lost,!but!were!likely!composed!by!the!roman!Giacomo!Maccari.!Anna!Vencato! has! suggested! that! the! scarce! homogeneity! of! these! works! is! also! a! product! of! the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 51!Goldoni,!L’Amante%Cabala,!scena!ultima.!May!all!draw!a!lesson!from!such!an!example,!the!art!of!a! villain!can!never!succeed.! ! ! 61! ! author’s!efforts!to!provide!the!best!comic!fit!for!the!varied!company!of!actors!of!the! S.%Samuele.52% While! Lugrezia%Romana%is! an! exemplary! parody! of! opera%seria,! other! works! among! those! listed! above! reveal! new! elements! that! will! remain! in! the! dramma% giocoso.! The! Prologo% to! La% Fondazion% di% Venezia,% for! example,! is! an! allegorical! dialogue!between!Musica%and!Commedia%that!reveals!Goldoni’s!philosophy!of!comic! theatre,! and! heralds! the! presence! of! serio% elements! in! comic! opera.! Personified! Music,! who! hearkens! from! the! timeless! depths! of! archaic! opera,! represents! the! noble! sphere! of! tragic! theatre,! while! Comedy! draws! her! merits! not! only! from! her! ancient!past!but!especially!from!her!present!glory!in!the!city!of!the!lagoon!(“Quanto! l'itala!scena/!Di!me!si!pregi,/e!quanto!in!questi!lidi”53).! The!higher!power!of!Comedy!appears!to!draw!from!the!Horatian!metaphor!of! utile% and! dilettevole! united! in! art;! as! a! remedy! against! vice,! she! provides! sweet! laughter!to!soften!the!bitter!medicine!of!self1realization:!!! !La!Commedia!son!io:!! !Quella!che!su!le!scene! !Dà!lode!alla!virtù,!biasmo!agli!errori,!! !Mostrando!in!varie!guise! “Le!donne,!i!cavalier,!l'arme!e!gli!amori;”! !Quella!per!cui!sovente!! !Di!sé!mirando!il!vergognoso!esempio,! !Detesta!il!vizio,!e!divien!giusto!un!empio.! ! A!chi!crede!un!vago!volto!! Posseder!senza!difetto,!! Quel!cristallo!parla!schietto,!! E!gli!dice:!«Mira,!o!stolto,! Quanti!errori!ha!tua!beltà».! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 52!“Introduzione”! in! Carlo! Goldoni,! Dramma% musicali% per% i% comici% del% San% Samuele,! a! cura! di! A.! Vencato!(Venezia:!Marsilio,!2009);!3.!! 53!Goldoni,!La%Fondazion%di%Venezia,%Prologo.%How!much!the!Italian!stage/!is!honored!by!me/!and! how!these!very!shores.!! ! ! 62! ! Così!appunto!a!chi!non!crede!! Reo!di!colpe!il!suo!costume,!! Io!presento!un!chiaro!lume!! Onde!poi!se!stesso!vede,! E!l'error!scoprendo!va.54! ! The! chosen! metaphor! of! Comedy! as! a! mirror! implies! a! reflection! of! the! individual!made!possible!only!through!realism!and!honest!social!characterization.!In! these!few!verses,!we!find!the!essence!of!two!of!Goldoni’s!core!convictions:!first,!that! comedy!must!reflect!the!realities!of!society!and!its!members,!and!second,!that!it!has! the!ability!to!fulfill!a!higher!calling!of!social!commentary!and!moral!instruction.!! ! Where! Comedy! is! direct,! Music’s! verses! are! allusive.! Her! greatest! power! is! described!in!these!terms:!“Io!sol!posso!tener!gli!animi!intenti/!Al!dolce!suon!de'!miei! canori! accenti,”55!a! clear! echo! of! the! Platonic! belief! in! Music’s! power! to! move! the! affections,!and!a!logical!connection!of!this!art!to!the!ennobled,!contemplative!virtues! of! tragic! opera.! She! underlines! her! connection! to! tragedy! by! evoking! Metastasian! theatre,!“Ora!per!la!virtù!risorto!è!il!zelo,/!Ed!io!sono!virtù!che!vien!dal!cielo,”!the! new!‘zeal!for!virtue’!a!clear!reference!to!the!Arcadian!reform.!! ! In! sum,! Music! and! Comedy! personified! represent! not! only! two! different! artistic!spheres,!but!more!subtly!the!interplay!of!comedy!and!tragedy!(represented! by!Music’s!ancient!origins)!within!a!single!work.!The!challenge!is!striking!the!most! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! !ibid.! I! am! Comedy/she! who! on! the! stage/gives! praise! to! virtue,! and! reprimands! the! 54 errors/showing! in! different! guises/”Le! donne,! i! cavalier,! l’arme! e! gli! amori”! [Note! also! the! citation! from!Ariosto]/she!by!whom!often/seeing!of!oneself!the!shameful!example/the!villain!detests!his!vice,! and!becomes!righteous.!! To!who!believes!to!have!a!countenance/!beautiful!and!without!flaw/!that!mirror!does!speak!plainly/! saying:! ‘Look,! fool/! See! how! many! flaws! your! beauty! holds’/! In! the! same! way,! to! who! does! not! believe/!their!conduct!to!be!at!fault/!I!bring!a!bright!light/so!then!he!sees!himself/!and!discovers!his! mistake.!% 55!ibid.!I!alone!have!the!power!to!keep!souls!attentive/!With!the!sweet!sound!of!my!song!(...)!Now!the! zeal!for!virtue!has!risen!again/!And!I!am!that!virtue!that!comes!from!the!heavens.!! ! ! 63! ! natural!equilibrium!between!these!two!elements.!As!both!arts!assert!their!primacy! and!their!dispute!degenerates!into!more!and!more!violent!tones,!order!is!restored! by!the!mystical!Genio%dell’Adria%(who!we!may!understand!to!be!a!local!demi1god!or! genie,!guardian!of!the!Adriatic!sea),!who!delivers!the!final!sentence:!! Olà!donne!fermate! Qual!ira!vi!trasporta?!! Qual!inganno!vi!spinge!a!gara!ostile?! Non!vi!recate!a!vile! Vivere!in!buona!union,!se!pur!può!darsi,! ‘Ve!la!Commedia!giace,! Che!Concordia!si!trovi,!e!regni!pace.! Oggi!l’una!di!voi!non!è!bastante! Senza!l’altra!piacer!su!queste!scene.!! Se!non!ha!la!Commedia!! L’ornamento!del!canto,! Spera!invan!riportar!applauso!e!vanto;!! E!la!Musica!stessa,! Se!non!ha!ne’!suoi!drammi!oltre!ragione! Qualche!comica!azione,!! Se!conserva!il!rigor!della!Tragedia,! Anzi!che!dar!piacer,!suo!canto!attedia.!! Eugualmente!ad!entrambe! La!stessa!sorte!arride:!! Cosi!il!Genio!dell’Adria!oggi!decide.!56! ! In!sum,!on!the!modern!stage!one!art!can!no!longer!succeed!without!the!other;!song! cannot! live! without! words,! as! comedy! or! tragedy! cannot! succeed! without! some! aspects!of!both.!! As! Anna! Vencato! has! noted,! Goldoni’s! mediated! resolution! is! strongly! reminiscent!of!an!earlier!Venetian!text!published!for!the!actors!of!the!same!theatre:! Introduzione% alle% recite% della% truppa% dei% comici% nel% teatro% Grimani% a% S.% Samuele,% per% !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 56!ibid,! Hold,! women,! cease./What! fury! moves! you?/! What! treachery! spurs! you! to! such! hostile! contest?/Do!not!disdain/!to!live!in!happy!union,!if!that!is!possible/!that!where!Comedy!lies/!we!find! concord,!and!that!peace!reign./!Today,!each!one!of!you!is!not!enough/!pleasure!without!the!other!on! the!stage./If!Comedy!does!not!have/!the!ornament!of!song,/!she!may!hope!in!vain!to!win!applause! and! fame/And! Music! herself/! if! in! her! drammi,% along! with! reason/she! does! not! hold! some! comic! action/if!she!preserves!the!rigor!of!Tragedy,/!instead!of!giving!pleasure,!her!song!will!bore./!Equally! on!both/!the!same!fate!smiles/!this!I!rule!today.!! ! ! 64! ! l’Autunno% di% quest’anno% 1726,% posta% in% musica% dal% Sig.% Gio.% Battista% Pescetti% (Introduction!to!the!Performances!of!the!Actors’!Troupe!of!the!Grimani!Theatre!in!S.! Samuele,!for!the!Fall!of!this!year!1726,!set!to!music!by!G.!B.!Pescetti)!is!its!full!title!on! the! frontispiece.! Here! too! a! lofty! prologue! precedes! the! actors’! entrance,! an! exchange! between! the! familiar! Adria,! in! this! case! a! goddess,! and! Neptune.! The! curtain!rises!to!give!a!view!of!the!sea,!populated!with!playful!water!creatures,!in!the! midst! of! whom! we! find! “Adria! sopra! d’una! Conchiglia! tirata! da! due! Mostri! Marini,! poi!Nettuno!sopra!d’un!altra.”57!Adria!pronounces!these!words,!a!clear!presage!of!a! new!preference:!! Ma!già!che!l’ora!è!presso,! In!cui!debbon!gl’Attori! Far!di!se!stessi!una!pomposa!mostra,! E!del!loro!valor!darne!l’assaggio;!! Vanne,!tutti!gl’invia! In!questa!spiaggia,!e!dille,! Ch’io!vo!veder!in!questa!prima!impresa! Misto!al!serio!il!giocoso,! Il!ridicolo!al!grave,!e!ogn’un!s’adopri! Che!dall’alto!mio!Soglio,! Il!merito!d’ogn’un!pesar!io!voglio.58!! ! The!auspice!of!a!coexistence!of!serio%and!giocoso,!ridicolo!and!grave,! recaptured! in! Goldoni’s! divertimento,% foreshadows! a! change! in! the! aesthetic! of! theatre,! fertile! ground!for!Goldoni’s!first!experimentation!and!for!the!dramma%giocoso.!! iv.%The%1740s.%Theatrical%reform.%From%dramma%comico%to%dramma%giocoso.%% !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 57!Introduzione% alle% recite% della% truppa% dei% comici% nel% teatro% Grimani% a’% S.% Samuele,% per% l’Autunno% di% quest’anno%1726,%posta%in%musica%dal%Sig.%Gio.%Battista%Pescetti%(Venezia:!Valvasense!editore,!1726);!3.!! Adria!atop!a!seashell!drawn!by!two!sea!monsters,!then!Neptune!atop!another.!! 58!ibid;! 5.! But! since! the! hour! is! near,! in! which! the! actors! must/! make! of! themselves! a! magnificent! show/!and!give!us!proof!of!their!worth;/!Go,!and!send!them!all/!to!this!shore,!and!tell!them/that!I! wish! to! see! in! this! first! work/the! comic! mixed! with! tragic/! the! ridiculous! mixed! with! the! weighty,! and!that!everyone!make!an!effort/!for,!from!my!high!throne/!I!wish!to!weigh!the!merit!of!each.! ! ! 65! ! While! opening! his! texts! to! new! dramatic! possibilities! in! the! field! of! music,! Goldoni! was! also! making! strides! as! a! comic! playwright.! Just! as! he! ameliorated! the! intermezzi%into! self1sufficient! works,! cultivating! in! them! greater! intrigue! and! more! realistic! characterizations,! Goldoni! soon! felt! constrained! by! the! fixed! traditions! of! the! Commedia% dell’Arte,% and! compelled! to! expand! and! enrich! his! canovacci.! The! criteria! that! animated! his! innovations,! the! essence! of! his! later! “reform,”! was! the! same!desire!for!realism,!originality,!and!novelty!that!he!could!more!freely!pursue!in! his!texts!for!music.!% ! Before! we! approach! Goldoni’s! first! innovations! in! prose! comedy! and! their! rapport!with!his!musical!output,!it!is!essential!to!first!understand!the!true!nature!of! the! Commedia% dell’Arte% from! which! these! stem,! as! this! tradition! is! often! misrepresented!!and!misunderstood.!The!origins!of!the!Commedia%dell’Arte%are!quite! ancient.!Some!scholars!identify!its!direct!ancestor!or!first!manifestation!in!the!works! of!the!Paduan!Angelo!Beolco,!known!as!Ruzzante!(~1502?1~1542?),!though!it!was! also!amply!cultivated!in!the!south!of!Italy.!Ruzzante’s!comedies,!along!with!works!by! Bibiena,! were! among! those! performed! at! the! first! Venetian! public! theatres! in! the! Seicento.% Some! of! these,! written! in! Paduan! and! Venetian! dialect,! use! recurring! figures! and! farcical! action! that! appear! to! foreshadow! the! Commedia! masks! and! character! types.% His! comedy! L’Anconitana! (The! Girl! from! Ancona,! 1530),! for! example,!in!which!Ruzzante!himself!performed!the!role!of!a!humble!farmer,!features! a! duet! between! servant! (Ruzzante)! and! master! (Sior! Tomà)! in! which! we! may! see! prototypes! of! the! boisterous! Arlecchino% and! his! master! Pantalone,! old,! wise,! and! attentive!to!his!purse.!! ! ! 66! ! Ruzzante! as! creator! and! performer! exemplifies! the! diffused! custom! among! early!modern!authors!to!double!as!actors!in!their!works.!The!practice!is!largely!lost! today,! but! it! was! habitual! for! authors! including! Shakespeare! and! Molière! among! others.!In!this!respect,!Goldoni!appears!one!of!the!first!letterati%amidst!other!icons!of! theatre!who!had!direct!experience!in!recitation.!! The! common! source! of! authorship! and! acting! is! particularly! critical! to! the! Commedia%dell’Arte,%which! draws! its! name! from! arte! as! “artisanal,”! a! trade! of! skill.! The! true! nature! of! this! art! form,! at! times! misinterpreted,! is! essential! to! understanding! Goldoni.! While! often! dismissed! as! theatre! of! little! wit! and! ‘stock! comedy,’!the!Commedia%in!origin!was!fruit!of!the!ingenuity!of!men!of!great!culture! and! skill.! Its! allowance! for! improvisation,! later! to! become! a! hindrance! to! the! development! of! plot,! in! origin! blossomed! entirely! from! the! wit! and! captivating! personality!of!its!first!actors,!who!just!as!Ruzzante!were!men!of!letters!and!authors! in! their! own! right.! The! original! Commedia% dell’Arte,! therefore,! was! clearly! the! opposite!of!the!repetitive,!unoriginal,!and!economic!trade!it!is!often!interpreted!as! from!a!post!18th!century!perspective.59!! Commedia% dell’Arte! continued! to! enjoy! immense! popularity! into! the! 18th1! century,! and! Goldoni! was! asked! to! write! canovacci% not! only! for! Venetian! theatres! early! on,! but! even! much! later! in! life! for! the! Parisian! Comédie%Italienne,%for! in! pre1 revolutionary! France! these! comic! exercises! were! still! much! in! fashion.! The! first! generations! of! Commedia! actors! were! respectable! and! prominent! figures,! such! as! Antonio!Sacchi!(170811788),!born!one!year!after!Goldoni!in!Vienna!to!a!Neapolitan! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 59!More! information! on! this! topic! has! been! provided! by! the! work! of! Siro! Ferrone! and! Ferdinando! Taviani,!among!others.!! ! ! 67! ! family!of!comic!actors.!A!true!uomo%di%mondo,%Sacchi!ventured!far!and!wide!through! Europe!and!Russia,!and!died!in!Marseilles.!!He!was!one!of!Goldoni’s!principal!actors! but!also!performed!for!Carlo!Gozzi!and!Pietro!Chiari,!Goldoni’s!fiercest!competitors.! Accounts!testify!that!Sacchi!was!also!an!excellent!dancer,!and!he!specialized!in!the! mask! of! Arlecchino! (sometimes! called! Truffaldino)% enriching! the! role! with! gesture! and! recitation! through! posture,! no! doubt! excelling! in! the! lazzi% (episodes! of! non1 verbal!comic!action)!so!typical!of!that!mask.!That!Sacchi!was!a!man!of!high!culture!is! testified! by! his! correspondence! with! diplomats! and! ambassadors,! and! Giacomo! Casanova!refers!to!him!as!a!model!of!political!eloquence.!Goldoni’s!famous!Servitore% di% due% Padroni% (The! Servant! of! Two! Masters),! which! Mozart! requested! be! sent! to! him! shortly! prior! to! composing! Die% Zauberflote% (The! Magic! Flute),% was! written! expressly! for! Sacchi,! and! re1elaborated! from! a! preexisting! text! (probably! from! 1718)!at!the!actor’s!request,!precisely!because!he!was!seeking!new!liberties!beyond! the! character! of! his! mask.! From! the! newly! uncovered! papers! of! Carlo! Gozzi,! it! has! emerged!that!Sacchi,!an!admirer!of!Caldéron!de!la!Barca,!also!liked!to!recite!without! a!mask!and!in!verse.!! Goldoni,!like!Sacchi,!gradually!removed!the!masks!of!the!Commedia%dell’Arte,% beginning! with! his! comedy! Momolo%cortesan%(1738).! For! scholarship,! this! comedy! marks!the!beginning!of!his!“reform,”!a!veritable!hybrid!between!Commedia%and!new,! non1improvised!comedy.!Momolo,!the!protagonist,!for!the!first!time!in!the!history!of! comic!theatre,!recites!from!a!part!entirely!written!out!from!beginning!to!end,!while! the!actors!around!him!continue!to!improvise!in!the!traditional!manner.!The!success! of! this! work! was! such! that! it! prompted! two! sequels! (likewise! composed! with! ! ! 68! ! coexisting! written! and! improvised! parts),! Il% Momolo% sul% Brenta% (Momolo! on! the! River! Brenta,! 1739),! and! Momolo% mercante% fallito% (Momolo! Bankrupt! Merchant,! 1740).! The! three! works! would! later! be! purged! of! their! masked! characters! and! published!under!the!new!titles!L’uomo%di%mondo%(The!Man!of!the!World),%Il%prodigo% (The! Prodigal),% and! La% bancarotta% (Bankruptcy).! From! their! new! titles! alone! it! is! easy!to!infer!that!not!unlike!Goldoni’s!other!musical!or!spoken!theatre,!these!works! contain! a! healthy! dose! of! social! critique,! targeting! in! this! case! the! figure! of! the! profligate,!who!exceeds!his!income!to!simulate!higher!status.!!! At! the! turn! of! the! 1740s,! Goldoni! is! thus! an! author! who! has! tested! and! proven! his! intuitions,! and! is! ever! more! determined! to! pursue! new,! realistic,! and! socially! relevant! theatre.! In! this! perspective,! we! may! understand! Goldoni’s! last! musical! texts! of! sundry! nature! before! he! turns,! as! a! mature! playwright,! to! the! dramma%giocoso.! ! These! include! the! intermezzo%Il%finto%pazzo%(The! False! Madman),% or! L’amor% fa% l’uomo% cieco% (Love! Makes! Man! Blind,! 1742),! from! the! Neapolitan! La% contadina% astuta% (The! Clever! Countrygirl)% by! Tommaso! Mariani,! and! Il% quartiere% fortunato% (The! Lucky! Neighborhood,! likely! 1744).! Stiffoni! speaks! of! “contaminazione! degli! intermezzi! con! strutture! appartenenti! all’opera! di! maggiori! dimensioni!(…)soprattutto!per!i!brani!d’assieme,”60!and!it!is!clear!from!subsequent! production!that!in!the!first!half!of!the!new!decade!(particularly!mid11730s!to!‘40s)! the!intermezzo%is!in!full!decline!and!Goldoni!is!moving!towards!opera.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 60!Gian!Giacomo!Stiffoni,!“Introduzione”!in!Carlo!Goldoni,!Intermezzi%e%farsette%per%musica,!a!cura!di! Anna! Vencato! (Venezia:! Marsilio,! 2008);! 36.! Contamination! of! the! intermezzi! with! structures! pertaining!to!opera!of!greater!stance(…)especially!as!concerns!ensemble!pieces.! ! ! 69! ! During!this!period!of!transition!Goldoni!writes!his!first!commedia%per%musica,! La% contessina% (1743)! previously! mentioned,! given! at! the! Teatro% S.% Samuele% during! carnival,! about! which! Anna! Vencato! has! written,! “…gli! attori! forniscono! a! Goldoni! l’occasione! di! misurarsi! con! la! satira! e! d’inventare! un! nuovo! modello! di! pièce:! il! dramma! giocoso,! per! l’appunto,! di! cui! La% contessina! sembra! il! primo! esempio! compiuto.” 61 !Despite! the! appreciation! by! scholars,! this! work! is! not! yet! a! true! dramma% giocoso,! and! in! fact! proved! difficult! to! classify! (notwithstanding! the! title! chosen!by!the!author);!the!text!appeared!in!print!under!various!tags!including!opera% buffa%or!operetta%buffa,!confirming!its!transitional!nature.!Unequivocal,!however,!is! the! fact! that! it! represents! Goldoni’s! closest! approach! to! the! dramma% giocoso,! and! that! it! constitutes! the! fulcrum! of! transition! from! his! previous! work% to! this! new! genre.!! Most! notably,! La%contessina! is! anchored! in! Goldoni’s! present! and! confronts! possibly! the! greatest! societal! question! of! its! time:! the! dynamics! of! a! changeable! rapport! between! declining! nobility! and! ascending! borghesia.% The! vain! Contessina,! daughter! of! Count! Baccellone,! follows! the! latest! fashion! in! desiring! a! cicisbeo,! and! Lindoro,!son!of!the!rich!merchant!Pancrazio!and!hopelessly!in!love!with!her,!must! pretend! to! be! a! Marchese! in! order! to! win! her! attentions.! Humor! in! this! commedia% stems! from! disguise! and! dramatic! irony,! while! a! good! dose! of! social! critique! is! present!in!the!superficiality!of!the!“noble”!characters!who!remain!ignorant!of!reality,! obsessed! with! titles! but! not! with! their! true! worth.! When! Pancrazio! requests! the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 61!Anna! Vencato,! “Introduzione”! in! Carlo! Goldoni,! Dramma%musicali%per%i%comici%del%San%Samuele,! a! cura!di!A.!Vencato!(Venezia:!Marsilio,!2009);!12.!Actors!supply!to!Goldoni!the!opportunity!to!measure! himself! with! satire! and! to! invent! a! new! type! of! play:! the! dramma! giocoso,! of! which! La% Contessina% appears!to!be!the!first!accomplished!example.!! ! ! 70! ! hand!of!Baccellone’s!daughter!for!his!son,!the!exchange!that!ensues!clearly!reveals! the!clash!of!class!structure!with!egalitarian!ideals:!! CONTE.%Ah!prosontuoso,!ah!temerario!!A!forza! Trattengo!di!lordar!le!scarpe!mie! Nella!schienaccia!tua.!Quest’è!un!affronto!! che!soffrir!non!si!può.!Servi,!canaglia,! ove!siete,!venite.!Io!da!un!balcone! vorrei!farti!cacciar.!! PANCRAZIO.%!Piano!di!grazia,! non!tanta!furia,!signor!conte!mio;! si!sa!ben!chi!voi!siete!e!chi!son!io.! CONTE.%%Tu!sei!un!mercenario,!io!cavaliero.! PANCRAZIO.%%Cavaliero!di!quei!da!dieci!al!soldo,! fatto!ricco!facendo!il!manigoldo.!! CONTE.%%Vecchio,!ti!compatisco;!rimbambisci,! non!sai!ciò!che!ti!dici.!! PANCRAZIO.%Io!so!che!alfine! vi!perderei!del!mio!dando!un!figliuolo!! si!ricco!e!si!ben!fatto!! ad!una!figlia!d’un!villan!rifatto.62!! ! The! Count! as! a! “villan! rifatto”! is! a! powerful! message! of! contempt,! and,! while! the! bitter!exchanges!between!the!two!men!are!exaggerated!for!dramatic!effect,!it!is!also! often! said! that! every! joke,! however! laughable,! contains! a! basis! of! truth.! By! no! coincidence,! the! true! nobility! of! Baccellone! is! called! into! question! repeatedly! throughout!the!text,!and!he!is!shown!to!be!lacking!in!both!genealogy!(he!confesses! his! well1concealed! humble! origins),! and! acumen! (he! is! easily! charmed! by! a! disguised!Pancrazio,!who!totes!a!trunk!full!of!false!titles!to!his!name).!La%contessina,! however!light1hearted,!reflects!the!struggle!and!ultimate!refusal!of!an!enterprising,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 62!Carlo!Goldoni,!La%Contessina,!Act!I,!xiii.!Count:!Ah,!presumptuous,!ah!reckless!man!!With!difficulty/! I! desist! to! sully! my! shoes/! on! your! backside.! This! is! an! affront/! that! I! cannot! suffer.! Servants,! scoundrels/!where!are!you,!come!!I!would!have!you/!thrown!out!from!a!window.!Pancrazio:!Easy,!if! you! please,/! less! anger! my! sir! Count;/! for! we! all! know! who! you! are,! and! who! I! am.! C:! You! are! a! merchant,!I!a!Cavalier.!P:!A!Cavalier!of!ten!for!a!dime,/!made!rich!by!rogue!dealings!C:!Old!man,!I!pity! you:!you!lose!your!wits/!and!you!don’t!know!what!you!are!saying!P:!I!know!that!in!the!end/!I!would! have!only!to!lose!in!giving!a!son!of!mine/!so!rich!and!so!well!built/!!to!the!daughter!of!a!reinvented! villain.!! ! ! 71! ! enlightened,! and! rationalistic! perspective! to! accept! that! any! superiority! between! two! men! be! judged! by! titles! (of! dubious! authenticity,! at! that)! and! not! by! merit! or! wisdom,! or! in! the! case! of! an! ultra1pragmatic! Pancrazio,! even! by! industry:! “Oh! quante!belle!vane!!I!titoli,!signore,!non!danno!il!pane.”63!! !! Stylistically! speaking,! La% contessina% is! not! yet! a! dramma% giocoso% because! it! does!not!show!clear!differentiation!of!buffo%and!serio!roles,!or!much!serio%content!at! all! for! that! matter,! being! much! more! invested! in! exploring! the! societal! issues! at! hand.!However,!there!is!clear!differentiation!of!tone!and!language.!In!the!pompous! assertions! of! Baccellone,! of! his! daughter,! and! of! the! fake1noble! Pancrazio,! Goldoni! echoes!the!bombastic!circumlocutions!of!opera%seria%in!full!satirical!spirit,!while!in! episodes!of!greater!immediacy!such!as!the!dispute!of!Act!I,!he!uses!quotidian!(but! not! plebeian)! language! and! current! idiomatic! expressions.! In! a! way! that! is! reminiscent! of! the! Neapolitan! commedia% per% musica,! Goldoni! also! includes! local! dialect! in! a! realistic! portrayal! of! men! of! popular! extraction.! In! particular,! candid! remarks! from! Baccellone’s! gondolier,! Gazzetta,! pepper! the! action! and! supplement! its!critique,!as!for!example:!! Perché!ghe!ne!xe!tanti! che!fa!da!gran!signori! ma!quando!pò!le!prove! della!so!nobiltà!se!ghe!domanda! i!mua!descorso!e!i!va!da!un’altra!banda.!! Mi!ghe!n’ho!servio!tanti!! che!pareva!marchesi!e!prenciponi! e!i!ho!scoverti!alfin!birbi!e!drettoni.64! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 63!ibid.!Oh!how!many!pretty!vanities!!Titles!do!not!yield!bread.!!! 64!ibid.,!Act!III,!ii.!Because!there!are!many/who!act!like!great!lords/!but!when!proof/!of!their!nobility! is!asked/!they!change!the!subject!and!go!elsewhere/!I’ve!served!many/!who!appeared!as!Marquis!or! great!princes/!and!in!the!end,!I!discovered!them!to!be!rascals!and!shrewds.!! ! ! 72! ! In!sum,!La%contessina%represents!a!delicate!point!of!transition!from!Goldoni’s! early!musical!texts!to!the!definitive!confirmation!of!his!philosophy!of!theatre!and!his! output!as!an!established!librettist.!Regarding!early!intermezzi,%Paolo!Gallarati!rightly! observes! “L’atteggiamento! caricaturale! degli! intermezzi! impediva! al! pubblico! l’immedesimazione! nei! personaggi! ed! una! eventuale! partecipazione! affettiva! ed! emotiva! alle! loro! vicende,”65!a! notion! clearly! confronted,! resolved,! and! definitively! surpassed!by!Goldoni!with!La%contessina.!The!social!critique!embedded!in!this!work! is!more!direct!and!audacious!than!ever!before,!and!is!made!possible!by!the!realistic! portrayal! of! a! diversified! class! structure.! Linguistic! differences! accentuate! deeper! differences!in!social!philosophy,!and!unequivocally!anchor!this!work!in!its!own!time,! reason!perhaps!for!its!success.!! In! addition! to! his! theatrical! pursuits,! in! 1740! Goldoni! also! accepted! the! prestigious! charge! of! consul! of! the! Republic! of! Genoa! in! Venice,! and! at! first! had! resolved!to!abandon!the!production!of!theatrical!texts,!"non!parendomi!conveniente! che! un! ministro! di! una! repubblica! fosse! stipendiato! da'! comici." 66 !His! musical! production! during! these! years! is! in! fact! less! intense,! but! would! be! suspended! entirely! only! after! La% contessina,! as! financial! troubles! mounted! and! Goldoni! abandoned!his!charge!and!moved!away!from!Venice.!!The!next!few!years!saw!him!in! Bologna,! Modena,! Rimini,! Firenze,! Siena,! and! finally! Pisa,! where! he! remained! until! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 65 !P.! Gallarati,! Musica% e% Maschera,% (Torino,! EDT,! 1984);! 100.! The! caricatural! approach! of! the! intermezzi! prevented! the! public! from! empathizing! with! characters! and! experiencing! emotional! involvement!in!their!affairs.!! 66!Goldoni,! Memorie% Italiane% (Prefazioni% ai% Diciassette% Tomi% delle% Commedie% edite% a% Venezia% da% G.B.% Pasquali![176111778]),!tomo%XVI.!It!did!not!seem!decorous!to!me!that!a!minister!of!a!republic!should! be!paid!by!comedians.!! ! ! ! 73! ! 1748! and! obtained! inclusion! in! the! Accademia%degli%Arcadi,! taking! the! pseudonym! Polisseno! Fegejo! that! is! occasionally! appended! to! his! later! libretti.% During! these! years,! Goldoni! continued! to! practice! law! and! write! for! the! theatre,! mainly! scenari% (canovacci)%but!also!his!first!comedy,!La%donna%di%garbo!(The!Well1Mannered!Lady,! dated!1743!but!premiered!some!years!later).!! It! was! during! these! travels,! and! in! particular! thanks! to! a! famous! Pantalone,% Cesare! Arbes! (171011778),! that! Goldoni! was! introduced! to! Girolamo! Medebach,! whose!wife!Teodora!would!play!the!first!donna%di%garbo.!Medebach!was!capocomico! of! the! Teatro%S.%Angelo%in! Venice,! and! in! 1748! offered! Goldoni! a! four1year! contract! for!eight!new!comedies!and!two!new!operas!each!season.!Though!Goldoni!would!not! renew!his!contract!after!1752,!Medebach!would!still!prove!to!be!perhaps!the!single! most! important! figure! in! his! career.! In! particular,! it! was! during! Goldoni’s! span! of! collaboration! with! Medebach! that! he! was! able! to! write! and! produce! the! most! important!comedies!that!would!launch!his!“reform.”!! The!Teatro%S.%Angelo%benefitted!from!the!peculiar!position!of!being!the!only! theatre! in! Venice! not! owned! by! a! noble! family,! therefore! Medebach,! who! was! renting!it!for!his!company!after!Carlo!Gozzi!(Goldoni’s!future!rival)!had!moved!out,! was! able! to! keep! his! troupe’s! playbills! open! to! Goldoni’s! new! ideas.! In! this! small! theatre,!our!author!found!fertile!ground!for!experimentation!that!elsewhere!would! not!have!been!accepted.!Naturally,!Goldoni!continued!to!tailor!the!characters!of!his! works!to!the!personalities!of!his!actors,!and!opened!the!1748!season!with!La%vedova% scaltra%(The! Shrewd! Widow),! created! for! Teodora! Medebach! (for! whom! Goldoni’s! Memorie%Italiane%betray!a!certain!fondness).!Goldoni’s!completely!original!comedies,! ! ! 74! ! among! them! masterpieces! such! as! ll% cavaliere% e% la% dama% (The! Chevalier! and! the! Lady),!La% famiglia% dell'antiquario% (The! Antique! Dealer’s! Family),!Le% femmine% puntigliose% (The! Punctilious! Ladies),!La% bottega% del% caffè% (The! Coffee! Shop),!Il% bugiardo% (The! Liar),!I% pettegolezzi% delle% donne% (Women’s! Gossip),!La% moglie% saggia% (The! Wise! Wife),!Le% donne% gelose% (The! Jealous! Women),!Le% donne% curiose% (The! Curious! Women),!La% serva% amorosa% (The! Enamoured! Servant1girl),!and! La% locandiera%(The!Inn1Keeper),%were!given!at!the!S.%Angelo.!The!characteristics!of!these! works!and!their!relation!to!his!theatrical!reform!will!be!examined!in!greater!detail! in!the!following!chapter.!! Goldoni’s!demanding!collaboration!with!Medebach!did!not!however!prevent! him! from! supplying! texts! to! other! theatres! at! the! same! time,! most! notably! to! the! Teatro%Giustinian.%This!small!theatre,%better!known!as!the!Teatro%San%Moisé%because! of! its! vicinity! to! that! church,! was! inaugurated! in! 1640! with! Monteverdi’s! Arianna,! and!specialized!in!musical!representations.!It!would!become!one!of!the!city’s!leading! opera! houses! and! conclude! its! activity! with! Rossini’s! operas! in! the! early! 19th! century.!! For!production!at!the!Teatro%San%Moisé,%between!1748149!Goldoni!wrote!La% scuola% moderna,% Bertoldo,% Bertoldino% e% Cacasenno,% and! La% favola% dei% tre% gobbi% (The! Fable!of!the!Three!Hunchbacks),!all!set!to!music!by!Vincenzo!Ciampi!(171911762).! The! 1748149! season! marks! a! point! of! arrival! for! Goldoni,! for! La%scuola%moderna%is! his!first!dramma%giocoso.!! ! ! ! ! 75! ! La&Scuola&Moderna:&materia&buffa&colla&seria& La% scuola% moderna,% which! also! bears! the! sarcastic! alternate! title! of! La% maestra% di% buon% gusto% (The! Teacher! of! Good! Taste),% is! not! Goldoni’s! most! sophisticated!dramma%giocoso,!but!it!displays!all!of!the!characteristics!of!the!genre! in!embryonic!state.!It!is!not!a!wholly!original!work!but!a!pasticcio,!the!author!having! inserted! new! comic! material! around! text! from! a! previous! work,! as! was! quite! common!at!the!time.!Antonio!Groppo,!a!contemporary!of!Goldoni!who!kept!catalog! of!the!works!performed!in!various!Venetian!theatres,!identifies!La%semplice%spiritosa% (The! Witty! Naïve! Girl)! as! the! source,% while! recent! studies! suggests! in! addition! a! Neapolitan!opera,!La%maestra%(1747),%by!A.!Palomba.67% %What! makes! this! work! relevant! to! the! present! analysis! is! stated! by! the! author!in!his!opening!note!to!the!“amico!lettore,”!which!reads:!! Non!avendo!servito!il!tempo!per!mutar!tutta!l’opera,! come!erasi!divisato,!si!è!mutata!tutta!la!materia!buffa,! la!quale,!se!non!parerà!bene!intrecciata!colla!seria,!ciò! è!provenuto!per!la!necessaria!brevità;!e!vivi!felice.68!! ! This! brief! message! contains! explicit! mention! of! the! coexistence! of! serio% and! buffo% material,!a!distinction!well!preserved!throughout!the!work!and!clearly!identifiable! in! textual! analysis,! as! we! shall! see.! The! action! revolves! around! two! couples,! one! buffa,%one!seria,%each!importuned!by!an!unwanted!third!party.!Drusilla,!the!shrewd! maestra% of! “good! taste,”! is! coveted! by! the! ironically1named! elderly! nobleman! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 67!See! Anna! Laura! Bellina,! “La! ‘Maestra’! esaminata,”! introduction! to! G.! Cocchi,! La%maestra,! (Milano:! Ricordi,!1987);!and!Eleanor!Selfridge1!Field,!A!New!Chronology!of!Venetian!opera!and!related!genres,! Standford!University!Press,!2007;!514.! 68!Carlo!Goldoni,!La%Scuola%Moderna,%Forward.!Not!having!had!the!time!to!rewrite!the!whole!work,!as! was!originally!devised,!all!of!the!buffo%material!has!been!modified,!which,!if!it!should!not!appear!well1 connected!to!the!serio,%this!is!the!result!of!necessary!brevity;!and!may!you!live!happily![so!be!it].!!!! ! ! 76! ! Belfiore!(‘PrettyFlower’).!She!is!already!in!understanding!with!his!nephew,!but!leads! on!the!other!to!set!hand!to!his!purse.!! In!the!freshly!composed!comic!roles,!Goldoni!cannot!help!but!prick!and!prod,! albeit! lightheartedly,! at! certain! “modern”! manners! (“Ma! la! costanza! poi?/! Non! è! all’usanza!”69).! ! Drusilla’s! first! aria! calls! to! mind! the! cicisbeo% figure! so! desired! by! Baccellone’s!Contessina:!! Io!li!vedo!a!tutte!l’ore! tutti!ricci!e!incipriati,! far!la!ronda!alle!signore! far!con!esse!i!spasimati,! ma!che!cavino!un!quattrino! dall’afflitto!borsellino! lo!credete?!oh!questo!no.!! Se!vogliamo!de’!sospiri,! gran!promesse!e!gran!parole,! lor!ne!danno!a!chi!ne!vuole,! ma!regali!non!si!può.70! ! ! The!materiality!that!marks!Drusilla’s!tone!and!actions!within!the!opera!is!not! itself!without!fault,!but!will!be!redressed!by!the!end!of!the!work!as!she!renounces! Belfiore’s!fortunes!in!the!name!of!love.!Notwithstanding!the!flaws!of!her!character,! however,! Drusilla! alludes! to! themes! that! ring! true.! The! image! of! gentlemen! with! perfected! hair! and! powdered! complexions! takes! a! swipe! at! superficiality! as! a! rampant! social! illness,! as! does! the! evocation! of! lofty! words! and! empty! promises.! Reading! between! the! lines,! we! come! to! confront! the! same! irony! of! social! mores! explored! in! La% contessina:! noble! bearing! and! studied! manners! without! real! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 69!ibid.,!Act!I!viii.!But!constancy?!!It’s!not!in!fashion!! 70!ibid.,!Act!I,!iii.!I!see!them!at!all!hours/!their!hair!curled!and!their!skin!powdered/!tailing!‘round!the! ladies/!acting!so!in!love,/!but!do!they!ever!take!a!dime/!out!of!their!afflicted!purse/!would!you!think?! no,!this!certainly!not./!If!we!want!sighs/!grand!promises!and!lofty!words/!these!they!give!to!whoever! may!desire!them/!but!gifts!are!not!possible.!!! ! ! 77! ! substance,!and,!more!concretely,!a!nobility!that!is!suffering!economically!and!can!no! longer!measure!to!its!old!prestige!except!in!appearance.!! Goldoni’s!parti%buffe%confirm!deception!as!the!central!theme!of!this!dramma% giocoso.! The! maestra% di% buon% gusto,% in! fact,! instructs! her! pupils! on! how! best! to! manipulate! their! parents,! tutors,! or! guardians! to! their! advantage.! Her! academy! is,! after! all,! “the! modern! school”! (set! in! Venice,! no! less),! and! modernity! is! apparently! governed!by!the!laws!of!falsehood:!! Tutti!fingono,!tutti.!I!mercadanti,! per!mantener!i!vizi!e!le!gran!spese,!! fingon!la!roba!di!lontan!paese;! gli!orefici,!vendendo!! la!tombacca!per!oro,!! guadagnano!un!tesoro.!Gli!avvocati! fingono!che!il!cliente!abbia!ragione.! sol!per!mangiargli!il!fegato!e!il!polmone;!! e!i!medici,!fingendo! la!malattia!mortale,! traggon!il!proprio!ben!dall’altrui!male;!! fingon!gli!uomini!affetto,!ed!è!interesse;!! fingon!le!donne!anch’esse:!! vedrai!un!bel!visin,!ma!quello!è!finto,! con!la!biacca!e!il!carmin!coperto!e!tinto.71! ! This! denunciation! is! so! driven! and! direct! as! to! almost! appear! detached! from! its! context.!In!other!words,!while!it!is!Drusilla’s!‘lesson’!to!Lindoro,!it!shoots!out!to!the! audience! almost! as! if! in! direct! address.! While! the! scene! is! clearly! comic,! in! this! sweeping! panorama! of! corruption! that! calls! to! mind! Goldoni’s! model,! Molière,! humor!takes!second!place!to!truth.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 71 !ibid.,! Act! I,! vii.! Everyone! deceives,! everyone.! Merchants/! to! support! their! vices! and! large! expenses/! pretend! that! their! goods! come! from! distant! lands/! goldsmiths,! selling! copper! for! gold/! rake!up!a!fortune.!Lawyers/!pretend!their!clients!are!right/!only!to!strip!them!of!liver!and!lungs/!and! doctors,! feigning/! the! illness! to! be! lethal/! draw! their! gain! from! others’! misfortunes;/! men! feign! affection,!which!in!truth!is!only!interest/!and!women!pretend!too:/!you’ll!see!a!pretty!little!face,!but! that’s!all!fake/!covered!and!tinted!with!flour!paste!and!blush.!! ! ! 78! ! With! respect! to! structure,! the! function! of! this! portion! of! text! appears! ambiguous.!Embedded!in!recitative!in!the!middle!of!a!scene,!it!is!certainly!not!an!exit! aria!like!most!others!in!this!work,!yet!possesses!the!depth,!cohesion,!and!length!of!a! free1form! set! piece.! It! is! possible! that! this! lezione! constitutes! a! first! attempt! at! an! arietta%(hence!the!sketched!rhyme!scheme),!a!reduced!form!Goldoni!would!later!use! frequently.! As! a! solo! piece! that! can! stand! alone,! though! more! concise! and! flowing! than!a!full!aria,%the!arietta%advantageously!preserves!the!flow!of!the!action!and!can! function!within!scenes!(not!only!at!the!opening!or!conclusion),!altogether!conveying! the!action!in!a!less!static!and!therefore!more!realistic!style.!Ciampi’s!musical!setting! of!Goldoni’s%La%scuola%moderna!remains!obscure!(and!further!called!into!question!as! new! scholarship! attributes! the! score! instead! to! Giovanni! Fiorini72),! and! therefore! cannot! be! consulted! to! shed! more! light! on! this! particular! episode.! In! any! event,! Goldoni!will!quickly!adopt!the!arietta%in!substitution!of!arie%throughout!his!mature! libretti,!consolidating!this!form!into!common!practice.!! In! net! contrast! to! the! tone,! pacing,! and! broader! social! commentary! of! Goldoni’s!comic!parts,!the!serio%material!of!this!pasticcio,!which!the!author!chose!to! preserve! from! its! original! version,! is! a! return! to! the! realm! of! Metastasian! opera,! notably!without!any!shadow!of!parody!or!satirical!play.!Indeed!the!comic!couple,!or! trio,! consistently! alternates! scenes! with! a! secondary! pair! of! characters! who! set! a! very! different! tone,! as! their! very! names! imply.! Rosmira,! a! young! noblewoman,! is! prevented! from! marrying! Ergasto,! whom! she! loves,! because! he! is! desired! by! her! aunt.!Rosmira,!continually!mistreated,!and!Ergasto,!grieved!by!his!own!suffering!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 72!Eleanor! Selfridge1! Field,! A! New! Chronology! of! Venetian! opera! and! related! genres,! Standford! University!Press,!2007;!514.!! ! ! 79! ! hers,!sing!in!measured,!elevated,!and!noble!verse,!in!contrast!to!the!rapid!exchanges,! puns,!and!gesture!of!the!comic!pair.!! Their! language! carries! echoes! of! classic! (and! generic)! tragic! leitmotifs,! as! Ergasto’s!first!solo!aria,!! L’alma!gelar!mi!sento! sento!mancarmi!il!cor! oh!che!crudel!momento!!! che!sfortunato!amor!!etc.73! ! or!his!beloved’s,!accordingly:!! ! Troppo!è!crudel!tormento! questo!che!in!cor!mi!sento.!Un!giorno!intero! senza!veder!l’amante,!! è!pena!da!morir.!Ditelo!voi,! anime!innamorate,! se!fia!tormento!e!duolo! star!lontano!dal!suo!bene!un!giorno!solo.! ! Fanciulle!semplici!! che!molle!e!tenero! avete!il!cor,! quel!duolo!barbaro! che!il!sen!mi!lacera,! potrete!dir,!! se!il!fier!tormento! che!in!sen!mi!sento! può!far!morir.74! ! ! This!elevated!tone!is!designated!exclusively!to!the!characters!of!noble!birth.! Both! pieces! are! exit! arias,! which! bring! the! action! to! a! temporary! halt,! and! in! the! manner! of! opera% seria! contain! no! development! within! them! but! rather! expound! upon!a!single!emotion!or!state!of!mind.!Goldoni!will!later!modify!serio%parts!as!well,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 73!Goldoni,!La%Scuola%Moderna,!Act!I,!vi.!I!feel!my!soul!freezing/!my!heart!giving!way/!oh,!what!a!cruel! moment!/!what!ill1fated!love!!! 74!ibid.,! Act! I,! x.! Too! cruel! is! the! torture/! that! I! feel! in! my! heart.! An! entire! day/! without! seeing! my! love/! is! a! fatal! pain.! You! be! the! judge/! you! souls! who! are! in! love/! if! it! be! torment! and! grief/! to! be! away! from! one’s! beloved! for! a! whole! day.! Unaffected! girls/! whose! heart/! is! sweet! and! tender/! the! cruel!pain/!that!tears!my!breast/!you!can!testify/!if!the!fierce!torment/!I!feel!in!my!breast/!can!make! us!die.!! ! ! 80! ! but!in!this!first!attempt,!the!decision!to!preserve!contrast!of!buffo%and!serio%in!tone,! style,!and!social!extraction!is!telling!in!its!own!right.!While!still!underdeveloped!at! this! stage,! the! coexistence! of! buffo% and! serio! lends! the! opera! a! much! ampler! spectrum!of!dramatic!registers!and!greater!intricacy!of!plot.!! ! The! final! important! feature! of! La%scuola%moderna,! and! part! of! the! blueprint! for! future! drammi%giocosi,! is! Goldoni’s! manner! of! bringing! together! all! the! roles! at! the!closure!of!acts,!as!in!the!intermezzi.!This!practice!is!by!no!means!unique!to!our! author,!and!its!origins!are!quite!ancient,!stemming!naturally!from!the!logical!desire! to!have!all!parts!present!at!the!conclusion!of!a!work,!in!prose!and!musical!theatre! alike.! Goldoni’s! original! contribution! will! later! consist! in! adapting! the! so1called! ‘ensemble!finale’!to!the!ends!of!internal!scenes,!and!eventually!even!within!scenes!as! part!of!the!action.!! At!this!primary!stage,!we!see!ensemble!pieces!reserved!for!the!ends!of!acts! only.! Even! within! this! well1worn! custom,! however,! Goldoni! introduces! new! life! in! the! rapidity! of! the! exchanges,! and! infuses! the! action! with! verve! and! realism! by! juxtaposing! parallel! conversations! between! couples,! instead! of! supplying! a! more! predictable! conversazione% a% quattro.% The! conclusion! of! Act! I! is! exemplary! in! this! respect,!and!is!strongly!reminiscent!of!the!lively!tones!of!the!Neapolitan!commedia% per%musica:!! BELFIORE.!Cara,!cara.!! DRUSILLA.!! Caro,!caro.!! LINDORO% (a%Belfiore).%Senta,!senta,!mio!padrone.! BELFIORE% (a%Lindoro).!Bernardone,!bernardone.! BELFIORE% (a%Drusilla).!Mia!sarete?!! ! ! 81! ! DRUSILLA.!! ! Se!vorrete.! LINDORO% (a%Belfiore).!domandato!è!in!verità.!! BELFIORE.!Va!in!malora,!via!di!qua.!! DRUSILLA.!Zitto,!zitto,!taci!la.!! BELFIORE.%Per!te!cara,!io!vivo!in!pene.!! DRUSILLA.!Io!vi!voglio!tanto!bene.!! LINDORO% (verso%la%scena).%Si!signore,!viene,!viene.!! BELFIORE.!Con!chi!parli?!! DRUSILLA.%% % E’!domandato.! LINDORO% (a%Drusilla).!Traditora!!! DRUSILLA% (a%Lindoro).%% % Sconsigliato!! BELFIORE.%Bernardone,!mi!hai!beffato.! LINDORO.%No,!davvero,!ve!lo!giuro.!! DRUSILLA.%È!innocente,!v’assicuro.!! LINDORO.!La!mia!fede!a!voi!prometto.! DRUSILLA.%Io!vi!tengo!stretto!stretto.! BELFIORE.%Oh!che!gioia,!oh!che!diletto!!! DRUSILLA,%BELFIORE% e%LINDORO.%Che!piacere!amor!mi!da!!! ! ! Viva!viva!la!bontà!!75! ! This! comic! concertato%features! quick! shifts! in! meaning! and! in! the! humor! of! the!characters!involved.!Drusilla!is!obviously!sarcastic!in!her!addresses!to!Belfiore,! but!immediately!earnest!in!her!reproof!to!Lindoro.!The!two!young!lovers!travel!from! complicity! through! mistrust! to! final! reconciliation! in! the! span! of! a! few! rapid! exchanges,! and! Belfiore,! one! minute! denouncing! trickery,! in! the! next! is! newly! blinded! by! amorous! illusion.! Gullible! and! continually! misled,! the! role! of! Belfiore! creates! ample! dramatic! irony,! and! the! entire! discourse! is! traversed! by! double! meanings!in!constant!variation!that!testify!Goldoni’s!particular!comic!talent.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 75!ibid.,!Act!I!Finale.!Belfiore:!My!dear!/!Drusilla:!My!dear/!Lindoro:!Listen,!sir,!listen/B:!dimwit!![to! Drusilla]:!Will!you!be!mine?/!D:!If!you!so!wish/!L:!Sir,!they!are!asking!for!you/!B:!Go!to!hell,!get!out!of! here./! D:! Oh,! hush,! quiet! now/! B:! For! you,! my! sweet,! I! live! in! pain/! D:! and! I! love! you! very! much/! Lindoro!(looking!out):!Yes!sir,!he’s!on!his!way!!He’ll!be!right!there!/B:!Whom!are!you!speaking!to?/! D:! They! are! asking! for! you/! L:! Traitress!/! D:! Imprudent!/! B:! Dimwit,! you’ve! tricked! me./! L:! No,! in! truth,!I!swear./!D:!He!is!innocent,!I!assure!you./!L:!I!promise!you!my!faithfulness/!D:!And!I!will!keep! you!close!to!me./!B:!Oh!what!joy!!what!bliss!/!ALL:!What!joys!love!gives!me!!Long!live!goodness!!! ! ! 82! ! In!sum,!La%scuola%moderna%represents!the!beginning!of!Goldoni’s!work!in!the! dramma% giocoso% genre,! and,! however! hastily! compiled,! demonstrates! significant! dramatic! potential! that! will! find! fuller! development! in! later! works.! Thanks! to! the! clear! coexistence! of! buffo% and! serio! in! this! dramma% giocoso,! this! work,! while! of! simple! design,! is! able! to! provide! an! ample! spectrum! of! dramatic! registers! and! a! variety! of! scenarios,! supplemented! in! their! efficacy! by! the! realism! and! fluidity! of! action!that!are!a!universal!priority!for!our!author.!From!its!roots!in!the!intermezzi% and!the!influences!of!the!Neapolitan!commedia%per%musica,!the!dramma%giocoso%can! now!begin!to!evolve!in!new!directions,!guided!by!the!dramatic!instinct!and!reformist! convictions!of!Carlo!Goldoni!in!mid1century!Venice.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! & & & & & & ! ! 83! ! CHAPTER&III.&& & New&Perspectives&on&the&Reform&in&Music& & Defining&“dramma&giocoso”& & The!New%Grove%Dictionary%of%Music%&%Musicians!defines!dramma%giocoso%in!the! following! way:! “A! term! used! on! Italian! librettos! in! the! second! half! of! the! 18th! century! to! designate! a! comic! opera! of! a! particular! type.! It! was! used,! from! 1748! onwards,!by!Carlo!Goldoni!for!libretti!in!which!character1types!from!serious!opera! (‘parti!serie’)!appeared!alongside!the!standard!peasants!and!servants!of!comic!opera! (‘parti! buffe’),! sometimes! also! with! intermediate! characters! (‘in! mezzo! carattere’).”76!The!allusion,!of!course,!is!to!La%scuola%moderna.%Along!the!same!lines,! in! his! article! “Goldoni,! the! Dramma! Giocoso,! and! Don! Giovanni,”! Daniel! Heartz! defines! dramma% giocoso! as! “a! particular! kind! of! Opera! Buffa,”! and! also! credits! Goldoni! as! the! first! to! create! this! new! dramaturgy,! “his! greatest! contribution! to! opera.”77!The! primacy! of! Goldoni! in! the! history! of! this! new! genre! is! thus! certainly! acknowledged,!but!understudied!as!yet.!! ! For!Goldoni,!however,!being!the!first!author!to!venture!into!a!new!field!did! not!always!bring!the!consciousness!of!merit!we!invest!him!with!today.!!Navigating!a! complex! theatrical! and! printing! economy! towards! an! uncertain! future! that! ultimately!made!it!impossible!for!him!to!remain!in!Venice,!Goldoni’s!path!was!by!no! means!one!of!linear!ascension.!His!writings!testify!that!the!burden!of!innovation!at! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 76!Grove,!vol.!5,!14th!edition,!edited!by!Stanley!Sadie!(New!York:!Macmillan,!1995);!610.!! 77!Daniel!Heartz,!“Goldoni,!Don!Giovanni,!and!the!Dramma!Giocoso”!in!The%Musical%Times%vol.!120!n.! 1642,!1979.! ! ! ! 84! ! times! made! the! creation! of! his! libretti% an! even! ungrateful! task.! His! preface! to! the! dramma% giocoso% De% gustibus% non% est% disputandum% (1754),! for! example,! is! full! of! reluctance! towards! the! “esercizio! sì! disgustoso”! (such! a! disgusting! practice)! of! composing!libretti!to!which!he!had!been!“forced”!to!apply!himself.!In!fact,!this!text!is! often!cited!in!scholarship!as!the!seal!of!Goldoni’s!lack!of!regard!for!his!musical!texts,! thereby!proof!of!their!having!no!relation!to!his!prose!theatre!and!little!relevance!to! our!understanding!of!the!author’s!accomplishments.!! Careful!reading!of!even!this!outspoken!text,!however,!reveals!much!that!has! been! overlooked.! On! the! interplay! between! buffo% and! serio,% for! example,! Goldoni! comments,! ! “Il! popolo! decide,! a! seconda! dell’esito,! se! l’opera! è! a! terra,! il! libro! è! pessimo.! Se! è! un! poco! serio,! è! cattivo! perché! non! fa! ridere;! se! è! troppo! ridicolo,! è! cattivo!perché!non!vi!è!nobiltà.”78!We!sense!that!the!equilibrium!between!comic!and! tragic!elements!in!opera!hangs!by!a!delicate!thread,!but!moreover!that!public!taste! and! sensibility! is! seeking! a! theatre! that! is! neither! fully! comic! nor! tragic,! but! a! balanced!combination!of!the!two.!! The!author’s!task!of!pleasing!all!becomes!next!to!impossible,!as!no!rules!yet! exist!for!this!new!type!of!hybrid!work:!“Volea!pure!imparare!il!modo!di!contentare! l’universale,!anche!in!questo!genere!di!composizioni,!ma!in!sei!anni,!che!la!necessità! e!gl’impegni!mi!costringono!a!doverne!fare,!non!ho!veduto!alcun!libro!straniero!che! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 78!Goldoni,! De%gustibus%non%est%disputandum,%Forward.! The! people! decide,! according! to! the! success,! that! if! an! opera! falls,! its! text! is! terrible.! If! it! is! somewhat! serious,! it! is! a! bad! text! because! it! has! no! humor;!if!it’s!too!comic,!it’s!bad!because!it!lacks!nobility.!! ! ! 85! ! abbia!avuto!fortuna!e!che!potesse!insegnarmi.”79!A!bitter,!disenchanted!tone!covers! the! essential! point:! Goldoni! had! no! model! for! his! drammi% giocosi.% Goldoni’s! own! account,!which!for!him!held!a!polemical!purpose,!to!us!confirms!he!was!one!of!the! first! dramatists! to! create,! through! much! experimentation,! the! foundation! of! this! successful!genre.!! With! no! direct! antecedents! from! which! to! draw,! Goldoni! had! to! find! new! principles! on! which! to! create! his! works.! Instinctively,! he! turned! to! comedy,! as! explained!in!the!preface!to!De%gustibus:!! Lettor!carissimo,! se! uno! tu! sei! di! quegli! a’! quali! abbia! io! protestato! di! non! volere! quest’anno! e! forse! mai! più! comporre! de’! simili! drammi! buffi,! voglio! anche! communicarti! la! ragione!che!ad!astenermene!mi!obbligava!ed!i!motivi! che!mi!hanno!fatto!dal!mio!proponimento!discendere.! Il! dramma! serio! per! musica,! come! tu! saprai,! è! un! genere! di! teatrale! componimento! di! sua! natura! imperfetto,! non! potendosi! osservare! in! esso! veruna! di! quelle! regole! che! sono! alla! tragedia! prescritte.! Molto! più! imperfetto! il! dramma! buffo! esser! dee! perché,! cercandosi! dagli! scrittori! di! tai! barzellette! servire!più!alla!musica!che!a!sé!medesime!fondando!o! nel! ridicolo! o! nello! spettacolo! la! speranza! della! riuscita,! non! badano! seriamente! alla! condotta,! ai! caratteri,! all’intreccio,! alla! verità,! come! in! una! commedia!buona!dovrebbe!farsi.80! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 79!ibid.!I!wanted!to!learn!a!way!of!pleasing!the!universal!taste!in!this!type!of!composition!as!well,!but! in!the!six!years!that!necessity!and!obligations!had!forced!me!to!write!them,!I!never!saw!any!foreign! example!that!was!well!received,!that!I!could!learn!from.!! 80!ibid.!Dearest!reader,!if!you!are!one!of!those!to!whom!I!have!expressed!the!desire!to!not!compose! anymore! comic! drammi! this! year,! or! perhaps! ever! again,! I! want! you! to! know! the! reasons! which! compelled!me!to!abstain!from!them,!and!the!motives!that!led!me!to!abandon!my!resolution.!Tragic! opera,!as!you!probably!know,!is!a!theatrical!genre!imperfect!in!its!nature,!because!it!is!impossible!to! uphold!in!it!any!of!the!rules!prescribed!to!tragedy.!Comic!opera!must!then!be!even!more!imperfect! because!the!authors!of!these!jokes,!always!seeking!to!serve!the!music!instead!of!the!jokes!themselves,! and!placing!their!hopes!of!success!in!blunt!comedy!or!in!spectacle,!don’t!apply!themselves!seriously! to!the!action,!to!the!characters,!to!plot,!nor!to!truth,!as!one!should!do!in!a!good!comedy.! ! ! ! 86! ! The! author’s! caustic! tone! does! not! spare! criticism! of! the! current! state! of! comic!opera,!which!bends!plot!to!the!music!and!invests!in!show!rather!than!intrigue.! Again,!this!passage!is!most!often!read!as!the!author’s!dismissal!of!opera!in!favor!of! ‘real’!comedy,!yet!Goldoni!here!does!not!refer!to!his!own!output,!but!rather!to!the! “scrittori!di!barzellette”!who!place!the!rules!of!spectacle!above!those!of!logic,!as!he! himself!never!would.!If!anything,!Goldoni!appears!to!denounce!the!need!for!a!new! vision!of!comic!opera!and!advocates!respect!for!action,!character!development,!plot,! and!truth!(that!is,!the!realism!we!are!quite!familiar!with),!in!sum!all!those!elements! essential! to! good! comedy,! in! musical! context! as! well.! Naturally,! no! one! will! deny! that,!based!on!his!terms,!Goldoni!at!the!moment!of!De%gustibus%would!have!preferred! to! turn! his! back! on! opera! theatre.! Yet,! biographical! evidence! would! suggest! that,! more! than! the! arts! themselves,! it! was! the! dynamics! of! theatre,! copyright,! and! impresari%that!had!ruined!Goldoni’s!optimism.!! The! shadow! of! external! circumstances! is! made! explicit! in! his! Prefazione:! “circondato!mi!trovo!dalle!più!pesanti!faccende,!al!mondo!bastantemente!palesi.”81! In!particular,!Goldoni!likely!alludes!to!the!termination!of!his!contract!with!Girolamo! Medebach! due! to! issues! of! profit! and! printing! rights! with! the! Bettinelli! edition,! which! also! saw! the! disastrous! end! of! their! amicable! relationship.! While! Goldoni! signed! a! new! and! advantageous! ten1year! contract! (extended! to! carnival! of! 1763)! with!Antonio!Vendramin,!the!noble!proprietor!of!the!Teatro%San%Luca%(still!standing! as!the!Teatro%Goldoni),!Medebach!promptly!hired!Pietro!Chiari!(171211785),!one!of! Goldoni’s!greatest!rivals.!It!is!alleged!that!Chiari!stole!ideas!from!Goldoni,!and!their! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 81!ibid.!I!find!myself!in!the!most!unpleasant!circumstances,!sufficiently!known!to!all.!! ! ! 87! ! mutual!contempt!led!to!a!division!between!supporters!of!one!and!the!other!author,! chiaristi%and!goldonisti.!To!maintain!public!interest!in!his!prose!theatre,!Goldoni!was! therefore!for!a!time!forced!to!put!aside!his!ideals!for!realistic!Venetian!comedy!and! imitate! the! styles! of! his! competitors! who! were! attracting! the! largest! audiences,! producing! works! of! historical! or! exotic! flavor! such! as! Terenzio% (Terence),!La% dalmatina% (The! Dalmatian! Girl),!La% bella% selvaggia% (The! Savage! Beauty),!La% peruviana%(The!Peruvian),!La%sposa%persiana%(The!Persian!Bride),!etc.!! The! resentment! that! so! pervades! the! preface! of! De% gustibus,% an! important! document! in! his! career! as! librettist,% can! thus! be! understood! as! symptomatic! of! a! greater! dissatisfaction! not! only! with! opera! theatre,! but! with! comic! theatre! in! general.! ! Goldoni! had! clear! ideas! about! the! future! of! comedy,! but! was! plagued! by! obstacles!in!realizing!his!intentions.!To!his!comedies!after!Medebach!we!will!return! later! in! this! chapter.! At! present,! we! must! acknowledge,! on! the! basis! of! the! textual! evidence!cited!above,!that!whether!curse!or!blessing,!Goldoni!was!one!of!the!first!to! begin! writing! drammi% giocosi.! With! no! direct! models! for! his! original! operas,! he! became!a!true!pioneer!in!the!history!of!the!genre.! ! Drammi!giocosi&1748W1760:&stages&of&production&and&elements&of&reform&& & While! scholarship! has! offered! different! interpretations! of! Goldoni’s! libretti! and! their! relationship! to! his! project! of! reform! for! the! spoken! theatre,! the! drammi% giocosi% have! not! yet! been! considered! as! a! properly! distinct! genre.! Both! from! an! ideological! (in! the! social! criticism! and! Enlightenment! philosophy! that! transpires)! and! a! technical! (in! the! combination! of! serio% and! buffo% elements)! point! of! view,! ! ! 88! ! however,! these! works! suggest! significant! points! of! contact! with! Goldoni’s! major! production!for!the!spoken!theatre.!An!analysis!of!the!drammi%giocosi%of!the!years!of! the!reform!has!not!yet!been!offered,!and!this!project!aims!to!bridge!this!gap.! The! period! from! 1748! to! 1762! is! generally! regarded! as! the! most! vital! and! groundbreaking! as! regards! Goldoni’s! realist! reform! of! spoken! comedy,! thus! it! will! be! most! fruitful! to! consider! the! more! salient! libretti! that! are! contemporary! to! his! great! works.! Following! La% scuola% moderna,% Goldoni! wrote! nearly! thirty! drammi% giocosi% alongside! his! principal! theatrical! production! and! other! musical! intermezzi% before!moving!Paris!in!1762.!A!detailed!analysis!of!this!entire!corpus!would!exceed! the! scope! of! the! present! study,! which! will! aim! therefore! to! highlight! those! works! that!are!most!representative!of!Goldoni’s!innovations!in!form,!style,!and!content.!! i.%Realism%or%fantasy?%% The! first! drammi% giocosi% already! confront! modern! society! and! its! vices,! as! exemplified!by!Il%mondo%della%luna%of!1750.!This!work,!immensely!successful!and!set! to! music! by! a! myriad! of! composers! throughout! Europe! including! Franz! Joseph! Haydn!(173211809),!is!often!grouped!with!its!chronological!neighbors!Il%paese%della% cuccagna% (the! Land! of! Plenty)% and! Arcifanfano% re% dei% matti% (Arcifanfano! King! of! Madmen),!which!are!however!drammi%comici.!As!their!titles!suggest,!the!latter!two! operas!are!set!in!fantastical!alternative!worlds,!reason!for!which!Emery!has!argued! that!in!this!phase!of!production,!Goldoni!“abandons!realism!for!an!entirely!different! approach.”82!This!is!not!entirely!the!case,!however,!especially!in!view!of!the!fact!that! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 82!Ted!Emery,%Goldoni%as%Librettist:%Theatrical%Reform%and%the%Drammi%Giocosi%per%Musica!(New!York:! Peter!Lang!Press,!1991);!125.! ! ! 89! ! the!utopian!realms!created!within!are!dismantled!by!the!end!of!each!dramma,!and! total!disenchantment!occurs!among!the!characters!and!audience.!!! Briefly,!Il%paese%della%cuccagna!is!cast!as!a!worldly!Eden!or!paradiso%terrestre,% in! which! all! enjoy! food,! drink,! and! lovemaking,! while! labor! and! jealousy! are! expressly! prohibited.! After! two! acts,! these! illusions! crumble! as! foreign! invaders! instate!a!new,!familiar!law:!“voi!che!in!bagordi/!male!il!tempo!spendete,/!se!vorrete! mangiar,!lavorerete”83!The!conclusion!rings!like!an!admonition,!“…vedrà!il!mondo/! ch’è!bella!la!cuccagna!in!ogni!loco/!ma!per!proprio!destin!suol!durar!poco,”!and!the! final!chorale!“finita!è!la!cuccagna,!andiamo!a!lavorar”!carries!a!double%entendre%for! the!audience,!who,!having!come!to!the!end!of!the!piece!and!of!a!lighthearted!evening! at!the!theatre,!must!return!to!their!lives!and!occupations.!!! Emery’s!judgment!of!these!works!as!unrealistic!is!further!called!into!question! by!Il%mondo%della%luna!(The!World!of!the!Moon),!which!unlike!the!other!works!it!is! grouped!with!presents!the!“world!of!the!moon”!as!a!man1made!illusion,!all!the!while! remaining! anchored! in! Venice! and! in! its! own! time.! Contemporary! society! is! examined! and! criticized! by! analogy! if! not! directly,! and! to! great! effect! as! the! alternative!‘lunatic’!world,!seasoned!with!the!irony!of!self1recognition,!becomes!an! unforgiving! mirror! of! earthly! reality.! Buonafede! (‘GoodFaith,’! in% nomine% omen)! is! quickly! impressed! by! the! simulated! erudition! of! a! fake! astronomer,! Ecclitico.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 83!Goldoni,!Il%Paese%della%Cuccagna,!Act!III!,!xiv.!!All!of!you,!who!invest!your!time!so!poorly!in!revelry,! if!you!intend!to!eat,!will!have!to!work.!! The!world!will!see!that!free1loading!is!wonderful!in!any!place,!but!by!its!own!destiny,!it!never!lasts! long.! Our!revelries!are!finished,!let’s!all!go!to!work.! ! ! 90! ! Ecclitico! charms! Buonafede! to! gain! wealth! and! favors,! but! openly! discloses! his! philosophy!to!the!omniscient!audience:!! Oh!le!gran!belle!cose! che!a!intendere!si!danno! a!quei!che!poco!sanno!per!natura!!! Oh!che!gran!bel!mestier!ch’è!l’impostura!!! Chi!finge!di!saper!accrescer!l’oro! chi!cavar!un!Tesoro,! chi!dispensa!segreti,! chi!parla!dei!pianeti,! chi!vende!mercanzia!! di!falsa!ipocrisia! chi!finge!nome,!titolo,!e!figura,! oh!che!gran!bel!mestier!è!l’impostura!!…!etc.84!! ! ! Buonafede’s! subsequent! journey! to! the! moon! at! the! end! of! the! first! Act! is! nothing!more!than!a!false!‘ascension’!facilitated!by!sedatives,!and!a!reawakening!in! an!‘alternative!world’!that!is!only!Eclittico’s!own!garden,!where!various!contraptions! have! been! installed! to! lend! credit! to! his! lie.! Heavy! irony! comes! into! play! as! Buonafede’s!manservant!Cecco!plays!the!role!of!emperor!of!the!moon,!and!sees!his! master!reverently!bow!at!his!feet.!The!reversal!continues!as!Lisetta!the!cameriera!is! made!his!partner!and!receives!homage!from!Buonafede’s!daughters,!whom!she!used! to!serve.!! Noteworthy! is! the! rapidity! with! which! Lisetta! takes! to! her! new,! ennobled! state,! a! transformation! underscored! by! the! fact! that,! contrary! to! Cecco,! she! is! unaware! of! the! imposture! and! believes! herself! to! truly! be! on! the! moon.! The! bestowal! of! power! appears! to! unlock! something! already! within,! “Sento! nel! core! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 84!Goldoni,! Il% Mondo% della% Luna,! Act! I,! i.! Oh! what! wonderful! things/! we! can! make! fools! believe!! Imposture!is!a!marvelous!trade!!Some!pretend!to!know!how!to!multiply!gold,!some!to!find!treasure,! others! dispense! secrets,! some! talk! of! the! planets,! some! make! merchandise! of! their! own! false! hypocrisy,!others!still!feign!names,!titles,!and!position.!Oh,!what!a!wonderful!trade!is!imposture!!! ! ! 91! ! certo! vapore/! che! m’empie! tutta! di! nobiltà,”85!and! quickly! grows! into! overbearing! assertiveness:!! Olà!paggi,!staffieri! camerieri,!braccieri,!! datemi!da!sedere.!Arricordatevi! ch’io!son!la!monarchessa.! Vogl’esser!obbedita!e!rispettata! e!se!farete!ben,!vi!sarò!grata.!! Sopra!tutto!avvertite!!! di!nulla!riportarmi! di!quel!che!fa!il!mio!sposo.! E!null’a!lui!mai!riportar!di!me,!! mentre!ognuno!di!noi!pensa!per!se.!! Avete!a!dormir!poco;!! avete!a!mangiar!freddo! e!nell’ore!dell’ozio! vuò!che!l’astrologia!tutti!studiate,! acciò!saper!possiate! quello!che!far!vi!tocca,!! senza!che!a!comandarvi!apra!la!bocca….! Son!io!la!maestà;!! mi!metterò!in!contegno!e!in!gravità.!86! ! The!“composure!and!gravity”!adopted!by!Lisetta!are!all!she!needs!to!become! a!credible!noblewoman!of!the!highest!order!in!the!eyes!of!her!former!superiors.!This! rovesciamento%reconnects!to!Eclittico’s!mention!of!false!titles!at!the!opening!of!the! work,!and!creates!an!ironic!commentary!that!undermines!the!connection!of!haughty! mannerisms! to! any! true! superiority! of! intellect! or! lineage.! The! credulity! of! Buonafede! and! his! daughters,! while! exaggerated! for! comic! effect,! appears! in! this! light! symptomatic! of! a! societal! superficiality! that! judges! of! an! individual! from! his! bearing! and! on! previous! assumption,! rather! than! from! discernment! of! his! true! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 85!ibid.,!Act!II,!x.!I!feel!in!my!heart!certain!vapors/!that!fill!me!with!noble!spirit.!!! 86!ibid.,!Act!III,!i.!Ho’!there!pages,!stable!hands,!manservants,!workers,!give!me!a!seat.!Remember!that! I!am!the!lady!monarch.!I!want!to!be!obeyed!and!respected,!and!if!you!will!do!your!job!well,!you’ll!have! my!gratitude.!Above!all,!make!sure!to!not!inform!me!of!what!my!husband!does.!And!never!tell!him!of! my!doings,!for!each!of!us!will!act!for!ourselves.!You!must!sleep!little,!eat!cold!food,!and!in!your!hours! of! rest,! I! want! you! all! to! study! astrology,! so! as! to! be! able! to! divine! what! your! next! task! will! be,! without!my!having!to!open!my!mouth…!I!am!the!majesty,!let!me!assume!composure!and!gravity.!! ! ! 92! ! identity.!This!problem!is!hardly!‘fantastical,’!and,!reappearing!in!many!of!Goldoni’s! works!as!we!have!seen,!clearly!responds!to!its!own!time.!! Furthermore,!the!familiar!question!of!power!and!social!order!is!by!no!means! the! only! element! of! timely! critique! in! Il% mondo% della% luna.% Widesread! habits! of! all! social! levels! are! literally! put! under! observation! as! Buonafede! gazes! towards! the! moon!through!Eclittico’s!telescope.!What!he!sees!in!reality!are!images!projected!by!a! machine!the!astronomer!has!prepared,!for,!! Quanti!sciocchi!mortali!! con!falsi!canocchiali! credono!di!veder!la!verità! e!non!sanno!scoprir!le!falsità.!! Quanti!van!scrutinando! quello!che!gli!altri!fanno! e!se!stessi!conoscere!non!sanno.!87! ! The!scenes!Buonafede!observes!become!vignettes!ripe!with!implications:!! Ho!veduto!una!ragazza!! far!carezze!ad!un!vecchietto.! Oh!che!gusto!che!diletto! che!quel!vecchio!proverà.!! …! Ho!veduto!un!buon!marito!! bastonar!la!propria!moglie! per!correggere!il!prorito! di!una!certa!infedeltà.!! Oh!che!mondo!ben!compito! oh!che!gusto!che!mi!dà.! …! Oh!che!mondo!benedetto! Oh!che!gran!felicità!!etc.!88! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 87!ibid.,! Act! I,! iii.! How! many! simpletons! with! false! telescopes! believe! they! see! the! truth,! and! are! unable!to!uncover!falsehood.!How!many!can!scrutinize!the!actions!of!others,!but!are!unable!to!know! themselves.!! 88!ibid,!I!saw!a!young!girl!flirting!with!an!old!man.!Oh!what!pleasure!and!delight!he!must!be!feeling…!I! saw!a!good!husband!beating!his!wife,!to!correct!the!itch!of!a!certain!infidelity.!Oh!what!a!wonderful! world,!what!pleasure!it!gives!me!!What!a!blessed!place,!what!happiness!!! ! ! 93! ! Buonafede!marvels!at!these!and!other!actions!on!the!moon!as!if!never!before!seen,! yet!the!irony!of!the!situation!is!that!these!customs!are!not!at!all!foreign!to!Earth,!and! furthermore! are! hardly! to! be! admired.! Il% mondo% della% luna% is,! literally! and! figuratively,!a!jesting!comic!mirror!of!the!earthly!world!and!of!universal!weakness,! and!in!these!elements!above!all!constitutes!an!exemplary!dramma%giocoso.!! ii.%The%rule%and%the%exception%% This! opera! does! not! however! contain! serio! character! types! or! action! in! the! manner! of! La%scuola%moderna.! Explicitly! differentiated! serio%roles! instead! reappear! in!Il%Conte%Caramella!of!the!following!year.!Nonetheless,!Goldoni!labels!this!opera!a! dramma%comico,!a!type!we!would!readily!align!with!the!standard!tradition!of!opera% buffa.! If! serio%and! buffo%together! are! to! be! considered! the! hallmark! of! the! dramma% giocoso,!how!do!we!account!for!their!appearance!in!a!dramma%comico?!!! The! interchangeability! and! occasional! ambiguity! of! terms,! which! has! characterized! new! musical! forms! throughout! history,! can! be! understood! as! the! natural! product! of! an! evolutionary! process.! Historians! and! theorists! in! every! age! have! categorized! art! to! better! describe! and! understand! it,! but! this! type! of! undertaking!becomes!possible!only!after!a!substantial!corpus!has!been!produced.!As! we!know,!there!was!no!standardization!and!little!precedent!in!Venice!for!the!type!of! comic!theatre!Goldoni!desired.!Rather,!the!author!was!guided!by!a!gradual!change!in! aesthetic!preference,!but!on!the!other!hand!also!played!a!substantial!role!in!shaping! that! preference,! as! testified! by! the! challenges! he! faced! in! convincing! audiences! to! accept!novelty.!The!conclusions!we!draw!from!Goldoni’s!corpus%are!thus!founded!on! ! ! 94! ! the! characteristics! of! the! overwhelming! majority! of! drammi% giocosi,! but! these! elements!are!not!always!exclusive!to!one!genre!alone.!! Seen!in!the!context!of!the!works!that!precede!and!follow,!Il%Conte%Caramella! is! in! fact! the! exception! that! confirms! the! rule,! for! all! future! works! that! contain! explicit!division!of!parti%serie!and!parti%buffe!are!consistently!labeled!by!Goldoni!as! drammi%giocosi.!Il%Conte%Caramella!is!thus!the!sole!dramma%comico%to!combine!parti% buffe,%parti%serie,%and!the!first1seen!mezzi%caratteri.!As!such,!it!serves!as!an!important! indicator!of!the!author’s!creative!process.!! Unlike!Il%mondo%della%luna,!in!which!class!differentiation!is!only!one!part!of!a! more!general!portrait!of!human!folly,!title!and!entitlement!are!the!central!motifs%of!Il% Conte%Caramella.%The!main!action!shadows!the!Homeric!Odyssey%in!comic!and!almost! cosmopolitan! garb:! the! Count! Caramella,! rumored! to! have! been! killed! in! battle,! returns! to! his! estate! disguised! as! a! beggar! and! discovers! a! Marquis! relentlessly! courting! his! wife.! The! Contessa,! like! a! modern! Penelope,! hopes! in! her! husband’s! return!and!remains!faithful,!but!is!surrounded!by!lies!and!put!under!pressure!by!her! suitor.!In!the!manner!of!a!dramma%giocoso,!the!opera!also!includes!several!sub1plots! carried!out!by!comic!characters,!which!all!proceed!in!parallel!throughout!the!work! and!converge!at!its!conclusion.!! The! linguistic! differentiation! of! serio%and! buffo%roles! is! not! unexpected,! but! Goldoni! does! create! novelty! in! developing! a! personal,! psychological! dimension! entirely! absent! in! Il% mondo% della% luna.! The! depth! of! his! characterization! is! most! evident!in!the!role!of!the!Contessa,!whose!character!and!circumstances!are!complex.! Continually! suspended! between! rumors! of! her! husband’s! death! and! hope! of! their! ! ! 95! ! falsity,!the!Contessa’s!doubt!and!confusion!are!realistically!portrayed!by!Goldoni!in!a! scene!where!she!contemplates!the!insistence!of!the!Marchese:!! Ah!marchese,!non!so…! Che!risolvo?!che!fo?! (…)! Ah!non!so!dir!se!amore,!! necessità!o!timore! a!credere!mi!spinga;!! e!una!nuova!speranza!or!mi!lusinga.89!! ! The! Contessa! reveals! contrasting! emotions,! and! the! spontaneous! quality! of! her! fragmented! lines! realistically! portrays! her! emotional! confusion.! The! ‘new! hope’! to! which!she!refers!is!also!ambiguous,!for,!though!the!Marchese!interprets!it!as!the!first! signal! of! a! change! of! heart! in! his! favor,! the! Contessa! later! denies! any! intention! of! accepting!a!new!companion:! Ah,!ch’io!d’errar!pavento!e!non!ho!core! d’abbandonarmi!a!nuovi!affetti!in!preda;!! par!ch’estinto!il!consorte!ancora!non!creda.90!!! ! Especially!noteworthy!is!the!detail,!“par!ch’io!creda,”!which!further!underlines!the! Contessa’s!incapacity!to!comprehend!her!own!sentiments.!Through!this!small!detail! of! wording,! Goldoni! shows! a! character! surprised! by! her! instincts,! who,! in! her! confusion,!looks!in!on!her!own!feelings!almost!as!an!outsider.!! ! Along!with!the!newly1honed!psychological!characterization!here!shown,!the! true!groundbreaking!element!of!Il%Conte%Caramella!is!the!first!appearance!of!a!mezzo% carattere,! a! hallmark! of! later! opera! theatre! that! will! reappear! often! in! Goldoni’s! subsequent! drammi% giocosi.% The! mezzoacarattere! is! characterized! by! a! peculiar! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 89!Goldoni,! Il% Conte% Caramella,! Act! II,! ii.! Ah! Marchese! I! don’t! know…what! should! I! resolve?! what! should!I!do?!…!Ah!I!don’t!know!if!it!be!love/!or!need,!or!fear/!that!spurs!me!to!believe;/!and!a!new! hope!now!flatters!me.!! 90!ibid.,!Act!II,!iii.!Ah,!that!I!am!afraid!to!commit!error!and!have!no!heart/!to!give!myself!over!to!new! affections;/!it!would!seem!that!I!don’t!yet!believe!my!husband!dead.!! ! ! 96! ! suspension!between!tragic!and!comic.!It!occupies!the!space!between!buffo!and!serio% by!displaying!moderated!elements!of!each!in!a!flexible!equilibrium!that!realistically! responds!to!every!turn!of!events.!! In! Il% Conte% Caramella,% the! author! classifies! both! the! Count! and! his! servant! Dorina!as!mezzi%caratteri.!This!implies!that,!unlike!the!parte%seria%or!parte%buffa,!the! mezzo%carattere! is! uniquely! adjustable! to! characters! of! disparate! social! extraction,! both! popular! and! aristocratic.! In! what! way,! then,! do! these! roles! distinguish! themselves!from!the!others?!Dorina,!for!example,!who!in!origin!would!fulfill!a!parte% buffa,! does! not! elevate! her! character! through! refined! linguistic! expression! or! honorable! conduct,! but! atypically! assumes! a! directional! role! amongst! her! fellow! servants.! The! difference! between! her! and! her! peers! is! thus! not! a! question! of! style! but!rather!of!influence.!! Just! as! Dorina’s! role! is! invested! with! greater! responsibility,! the! Count’s! is! lightened!with!comic!elements,!largely!afforded!by!his!disguise.!The!unburdening!of! his! part! is! even! reflected! structurally! in! the! reduction! of! his! solo! arie% in! favor! of! shorter! pieces! internally! situated! within! scenes.! In! fact,! in! Act! II! of! Il% Conte% Caramella,%as!the!disguised!protagonist!presents!himself!as!a!necromancer,%we!find! Goldoni’s!first!arietta:%% CONTE.!Orsù!perché!crediate! ch’esser!possa!il!futuro!da!me!svelato! qualche!cosa!dirovvi!del!passato.!! ! Pria!d’essere!sposata,! il!conte!capitano! vi!prese!per!la!mano! una!mattina.! ! Fuggiste!modestina,!! ! ! 97! ! vi!vergognaste!un!poco! ma!vi!ridusse!in!loco!! solitario.!! ! Diceste:!“Temerario,!! andate!via!di!qui,”! movendo!in!dir!così! la!bocca!al!riso.!! ! Ed!ei!con!un!sorriso!! amante!pronto!e!scaltro…! ! CONTESSA.%Basta!cosi,!non!voglio!sentir!altro.!! DORINA.%(Com’è!venuta!rossa)!(da%sé)%etc.!91! ! The! playful! structure! and! flirtatious! details! of! this! text! further! contribute! to! the! lightness!and!quickness!of!this!piece.!While!it!could!hardly!stand!alone!as!a!full!aria% with!ornamentation,!as!an!arietta%the!Count’s!interlude!does!not!interrupt!the!flow! of! the! action,! as! further! testified! by! the! Countess’s! abrupt! objection! and! the! continuation!of!a!three1part!discourse!that!includes!Dorina.!The!entire!structure!is! then! repeated! as! the! Count! commences! a! second! arietta,% this! time% directed! to! Dorina,! who! like! the! Countess! soon! interrupts! him! as! sensitive! information! is! brought!to!light.!! As!we!may!evince,!this!arietta%is!also!part!of!an!ensemble!scene,!which!for!the! first!time!is!situated!in!the!middle!of!an!Act,!and!no!longer!only!at!its!conclusion.!!In! the!manner!of!a!true!ensemble!piece,!the!scene!is!animated!by!varying!dynamics!of! communication:! the! Count! and! the! two! women! speak! together,! the! two! women! speak!amongst!themselves,!the!Count!speaks!to!each!individually,!and!each!has!lines! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 91!ibid.,! Act! II,! iv.! Conte:! Alright! then,! so! you! believe! that! I! can! foretell! the! future,! I! shall! tell! you! something!of!the!past.!Before!you!were!married/!the!Count,!also!captain/!took!you!by!the!hand/!one! morning.!You!fled!in!modesty/!you!were!a!bit!ashamed/!but!he!brought!you/!to!a!solitary!place.!You! said!“You!are!too!bold/!go!away!at!once”/!while!speaking,!moving!your!lips/!to!laughter.!And!he!with! a!smile/!as!a!quick!and!artful!lover…!Contessa:!That’s!enough,!I!want!to!hear!no!more.!Dorina:!(Oh! look!how!she’s!turned!red)!(aside)! ! ! 98! ! “da! sé”! that! speak! only! to! the! audience.! Altogether,! these! combinations! create! a! realistic! discourse! and! a! fluidity! of! action! that! are! essential! traits! of! Goldonian! comedy.!! Notably,!the!comic!hue!of!the!Count’s!ariette,%which!we!can!easily!imagine!to! have! been! seasoned! with! a! certain! manner! of! acting,% gives! way! to! an! entirely! different! style! and! bearing! once! the! Count! reclaims! his! rightful! place! as! husband! (“Vattene,!scellerato,!il!piacer!di!trovare/!una!sposa!fedele!a!questo!segno/!tutta!mi! fa!depor!l’ira!e!lo!sdegno”92).!With!his!authority!returned!to!him,!the!Count!not!only! changes!tone!and!expression,!but!also!displays!the!clemency!of!a!true!noble!spirit.! His!elevation!from!beggar!to!ruler!takes!him!from!mezzo%carattere%to!full!parte%seria.!! In! this! light,! the! particular! connection! of! dramatic! role! to! social! situation! appears! fully! consolidated.! Just! as! serio% and! buffo! roles! are,! at! this! early! stage,! unequivocally! tied! to! characters! of! high! and! low! extraction,! the! mezzo%carattere%is! applied!in!this!first!case!to!a!countryman!of!commanding!influence!and!a!nobleman! fallen!from!his!rightful!place.!The!choice!of!role!and!style!therefore!ultimately!hinges! upon! the! realistic! portrayal! of! each! character,! reason! for! which! some! drammi% giocosi,%if!they!do!not!contain!noble!characters,!do!not!always!designate!parti%serie.! In!other!words,!these!do!not!appear!by!rule,!but!only!when!mandated!by!plot.!Even! with!the!idiosyncrasies!of!opera!theatre,! Il%Conte%Caramella%testifies!that!realism!is! the! primary! concern! of! our! author,! who! doses! comic! and! serio! with! nuanced! moderation,!and!promotes!their!coexistence!in!the!transformative!mezzo%carattere.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 92!ibid.,!Act!III!scena!ultima.!!Begone,!wicked!man,!the!pleasure!of!finding/!a!wife!so!faithful/!brings! me!to!set!aside!my!rage!and!scorn.!! ! ! 99! ! As!we!shall!see!later,!the!coexistence!of!buffo!and!serio!is!by!no!means!unique! to! Goldoni’s! libretti.! Its! centrality! to! our! author’s! dramatic! style! is! unequivocally! confirmed!by!the!combination!of!buffo%and!serio!roles!in!his!comic!prose!theatre!as! well.!! iii.%Buffo%and%serio%in%‘reformed’%prose%theatre! % In! 1750,! Goldoni! entered! into! his! famous! wager! with! Medebach! promising! sixteen! new! commedie%di%carattere%(original,! fully! written! works)! for! the! Teatro%S.% Angelo.%Of!this!vast!undertaking,!the!first!product!listed!in!print!editions!is!Il%teatro% comico%(The!Comic!Theatre).!Goldoni!explains!the!importance!of!this!work!in!these! terms:!! Questa,! ch’io! intitolo! Il! Teatro% Comico,! piuttosto! che! una! Commedia,! prefazione! può! dirsi! alle! mie! Commedie.! In! questa! qualunque! siasi! composizione,! ho! inteso! di! palesemente! notare! una! gran! parte! di! que’! difetti! che! ho! procurato! sfuggire,! e! tutti! que’! fondamenti! su’! quali! il! metodo! mio! ho! stabilito,! nel! comporre!le!mie!Commedie,!né!altra!evvi!diversità!fra! un!proemio!e!questo!mio!componimento,!se!non!che! nel! primo! si! annoierebbero! forse! i! leggitori! più! facilmente,! e! nel! secondo! vado! in! parte! schivando! il! tedio!col!movimento!di!qualche!azione.93! ! ! Il%teatro%comico,%in! accordance! with! the! author’s! expressed! intent,! has! long! been!considered!the!commediaamanifesto!of!Goldoni’s!reform,!the!herald!work!of!a! realistic!and!historically!relevant!theatre!here!launched!explicitly!for!the!first!time.! Goldoni’s! reasons! for! openly! declaring! the! foundations! of! his! “new! method”! are! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 93!Goldoni,! Il% teatro% comico,! Forward.! This,! which! I! title! the! Comic! Theatre,! more! than! a! Comedy,! could!be!deemed!a!Preface!to!my!Comedies.!In!this!work!of!whatever!type,!I!resolved!to!openly!make! known!a!large!part!of!those!defects!that!I!have!procured!to!avoid,!and!all!of!the!foundations!on!which! I!have!established!my!method!of!composing!Comedies,!nor!is!there!any!other!difference!between!a! Prologue!and!this!work!of!mine,!other!than!that!the!first!might!bore!the!reader!more!easily,!while!in! the!second!I!can!partly!avoid!tedium!with!the!stirring!of!some!action.!! ! ! 100! ! twofold.!First,!he!does!not!waste!an!opportunity!to!reignite!his!polemic!against!the! current!state!of!comic!theatre,!with!the!auspice!that!someone!may!rescue!it!from!its! present! decadence! (“…rendere! lo! smarrito! onore! alle! nostre! scene! con! le! buone! Commedie,! che! sieno! veramente! Commedie,! e! non! scene! insieme! accozzate! senz’ordine!e!senza!regola”94).!!Secondly,!now!over!a!decade!after!the!introduction! of! his! first! unmasked! character! in! Momolo% cortesan,! Goldoni’s! new! theatre! has! received!positive!attention!(as!Medebach’s!investment!in!his!work!testifies)!and!has! built! a! foundation! of! support! for! his! convictions,! so! as! to! allow! him! to! formally! launch!his!vision!for!theatre!in!specific!terms.!! The!result!is!a!courageous!and!clever!meta1theatrical!work!in!which!Goldoni! lays! bare! the! ‘backstage’! of! theatre! and,! even! within! his! cast! of! characters,! places! supporters! of! ‘real! comedy’! and! skeptics! at! odds.! The! entire! work! is! made! up! of! frank! discussion! between! actors! preparing! to! rehearse! a! fictitious! work! (Il% padre% rivale%del%figlio%(The!Father!Rival!of!his!Son),!of!which!Goldoni!supplies!one!Act!over! the!course!of!the!play),!therefore!the!entire!troupe!is!out!of!costume,!and!each!plays! the!part!of!his!ordinary!self.!As!was!his!custom,!Goldoni!tailored!each!role!to!reflect! the!innate!personality!of!each!member!of!the!company.!The!comedy!also!includes!an! explicitly!autobiographical!character,!Lelio!(poeta).!! ! Il% teatro% comico% abounds! with! observations! on! the! current! state! of! theatre! and! voices! the! author’s! impatience! to! move! forward! to! a! new! style.! Almost! every! scene! is! revealing! of! some! aspect! of! his! ideology,! as! the! meta1theatrical! nature! of! this! work! creates! manifold! levels! of! implications.! A! detailed! analysis! of! Il% teatro% !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 94!ibid.!(…)!to!return!long1lost!honor!to!our!stages!with!good!Comedies,!that!be!real!Comedies,!and! not!scenes!thrown!together!and!mashed!without!any!order!or!principle.!! ! ! 101! ! comico%(which!Goldoni!scholars!have!already!undertaken)!is!outside!of!the!focus!of! the!present!study,!but!certain!connections!to!opera!theatre!are!worth!noting.!! ! A! dialogue! between! the! capocomico% Orazio! (Medebach! himself)! and! the! prima%donna%Placida! (his! wife! Teodora,! alias! Rosaura,! the! famous! donna%di%garbo)! touches!several!important!points:!! EUGENIO.! Sedici! commedie! in! un! anno?! Pare! impossibile.!! ORAZIO.!Si!certamente,!egli!le!ha!fatte.!Si!è!impegnato! di!farle,!e!le!ha!fatte.! (…)! PLACIDA.! Perché! dunque! vogliamo! fare! una! farsa,! e! non!più!tosto!una!delle!migliori!commedie?!! ORAZIO.! Cara! signora,! sapete! pure,! che! ci! mancano! due! parti! serie,! un! uomo,! ed! una! donna.! Questi! si! aspettano,! e! se! non! giungono,! non! si! potranno! fare! commedie!di!carattere.!! PLACIDA.! Se! facciamo! le! Commedie! dell’Arte,! vogliamo! star! bene.! Il! mondo! si! è! annoiato! di! veder! sempre! le! cose! istesse,! di! sentir! sempre! le! parole! medesime,! e! gli! uditori! sanno! cosa! deve! dir! l’Arlecchino,! prima! ch’egli! apra! la! bocca.! Per! me,! vi! protesto! signor! Orazio,! che! in! pochissime! commedie! antiche! reciterò;! sono! invaghita! del! nuovo! stile,! e! questo!sol!mi!piace:!dimani!a!sera!reciterò,!perché,!se! la! commedia! non! è! di! carattere,! è! almeno! condotta! bene,!e!si!sentono!maneggiati!gli!affetti,!etc.!95! ! This!passage!is!remarkable!for!a!number!of!reasons.!Its!most!obvious!feature! is!the!outspoken!critique!of!the!Commedia%dell’Arte!voiced!by!Teodora!Medebach’s! character.!Her!motives!for!protest!are!the!same!notions!that!pepper!many!pages!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 95!ibid,! Act! I,! ii.! Eugenio:% Sixteen! comedies! in! a! year?! That! seems! impossible.! Orazio:% Yes,! he! sure! wrote! them.! He! promised! he! would,! and! he! did.! Placida:%Why! then! do! we! want! to! perform! a! farce,! instead!of!one!of!the!best!comedies?!Orazio:%My!dear!lady,!you!do!know!that!we!are!missing!two!parti% serie,!one!man!and!one!woman.!They!are!awaited,!but!if!they!don’t!come,!we!won’t!be!able!to!put!on! any!commedia%di%carattere.!Placida:%Well,!if!we!perform!Commedie!dell’Arte,!we’ll!do!well.!The!world! is! tired! of! always! watching! the! same! things,! of! hearing! the! same! words,! and! listeners! know! what! Arlecchino!will!say!before!he!opens!his!mouth.!As!for!me,!I!declare,!signor!Orazio,!that!I!will!recite! only! a! very! few! of! these! antique! comedies;! I’m! am! quite! taken! with! the! new! style,! and! I! enjoy! that! alone:!tomorrow!night!I!will!perform!because,!even!if!the!farce!is!not!a!full!character!comedy,!at!least! it!is!conducted!well,!and!the!emotions!are!handled!well,!etc.!!! ! ! 102! ! Goldoni’s! commentaries! on! his! theatre,! including! his! Italian! and! French! Memoires.% These!must!not!be!discounted,!however,!for!we!must!keep!in!mind!that!her!words! constitute!Goldoni’s!first!public!declaration!of!these!views,!given!before!an!audience! still! relatively! unaccustomed! to! his! new! comic! style! and! for! whom! the! Commedia% dell’Arte! continued! to! represent! a! competitive! entertainment! option.! Especially! relevant! in! this! light! are! the! continued! references! to! “gli! uditori”! and! their! preferences!as!justification!for!change.!! ! Most! importantly! as! concerns! opera! theatre,! this! passage! declares! that! the! commedia% di% carattere% needs! parti% serie% in! order! to! function! successfully! (“se! non! giungono,!non!si!potranno!fare!commedie!di!carattere”).!Again,!realism!hinges!upon! the!intermingling!of!comedy!with!serio%elements.!Goldoni’s!prose!theatre!being!the! corpus! in! which! he! achieves! realism! to! the! greatest! extent,! the! connection! of! buffo% and! serio! to! this! body! of! work! appears! especially! significant.! ! In! this! light,! we! can! understand! the! parti% serie% often! included! in! the! dramma% giocoso% not! only! as! the! heritage! of! Metastasian! opera% seria,! but! as! a! consciously! motivated! choice! on! the! part! of! the! author! in! his! effort! to! bring! comedy,! whether! recited! or! sung,! to! new! levels!of!complexity!and!efficacy.!This!is!further!evidenced!by!Placida’s!description! of!the!farce!that!is!to!be!rehearsed,!less!desirable!because!it!is!not!a!full!Goldonian! comedy,! but! which! possesses! redeeming! qualities! in! its! plot! because! “si! sentono! maneggiati!gli!affetti.”! ! As! it! so! happens,! historical! accounts! relate! that! the! real! Placida,! Teodora! Medebach,!had!a!natural!gift!for!serio%parts.!Ginette!Henry!has!written!of!her,!!!“(…)! non!ha!eguali!nelle!parti!patetiche!con!le!quali,!come!nessun’altra,!riesce!a!rendere! ! ! 103! ! umidi!gli!occhi!degli!spettatori!(…)!diventa!quindi!la!colonna!della!riforma.”96!At!the! premier! of! Il% teatro% comico,! Teodora! was! thus! not! only! reciting! a! script,! but! also! sharing!her!personal!opinions.!In!his!effective!manner,!Goldoni!created!a!role!for!her! that! reflected! her! own! self,! and,! in! the! fiction! of! theatre,! deployed! her! real1life! opinions!in!support!of!his!reform.!! ! A! partial! division! of! buffo% and! serio% is! furthermore! implicit! in! the! order! of! Goldoni’s!cast!listing.!After!Orazio!(“capo!della!compagnia!de’!comici”)!and!Placida! (“prima! donna”),! we! find! Beatrice! (“seconda! donna”)! and! Eugenio! (“secondo! amoroso”).! “Amoroso”! is! an! ennobling! title! that! does! not! exclude! a! serio% role,! therefore! this! second! pair! could! easily! function! as! mezzi% caratteri,% unlike! the! subsequently! listed! characters! Lelio! (“poeta”)! and! Eleonora! (“cantatrice”),! whose! titles! are! characterized! by! their! respective! trades.! Commedia%dell’Arte! actors! bring! up! the! rear,! presented! first! by! fictional! first! names,! and! then! by! mask! (“Vittoria! servetta! di! teatro,! detta! Colombina,! Anselmo! che! fa! il! Brighella,! Gianni! che! fa! l’Arlecchino,”!etc.;!Vittoria,!theatrical!servant1girl,!called!Colombina,!Anselmo!acts!as! Brighella,!Gianni!does!the!part!of!Arlecchino,!etc.).!As!noted!by!the!author,!the!buffo% parts! speak! in! “linguaggio! veneziano.”! The! use! of! Venetian! dialect! is! a! further! realistic!device!that,!especially!for!a!Venetian!audience,!adds!immediacy!to!the!work.!! As!a!final!note!before!returning!to!Goldoni’s!texts!for!music,!we!may!consider! the! other! face! of! Goldoni’s! reform! represented! by! Tonino,! a! buffo% character! who! usually! wears! the! Commedia! mask! of! Pantalone.! If! on! one! hand! Placida,! in! the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 96!Ginette!Henry,!“Goldoni!e!la!Marliani!ossia!l’impossibile!romanzo”!in!Studi%Goldoniani%quaderno%8,! (Venezia:!Casa!di!Goldoni!e!Istituto!di!Studi!Teatrali!dei!Musei!Civici!Veneziani,!1988);!141.!She!has! no! equals! in! the! pathetic! parts! with! which,! like! no! other,! she! is! able! to! wet! the! eyes! of! the! spectators(…)she!becomes!therefore!a!pillar!of!the!reform.! ! ! 104! ! elevated! tones! befitting! her! role,! sung! high! praises! of! Goldoni’s! new! comedies,! Tonino!admits!his!doubts!with!candid!language:!! TONINO.!Caro!sior!Orazio,!buttemo!le!burle!da!banda,! e! parlemo! sul! sodo.! Le! commedie! de! carattere! le! ha! butà! sottossora! el! nostro! mistier.! Un! povero! commediante,!che!ha!fatto!el!so!studio!segondo!l’arte,! e! cha! ha! fatto! l’uso! de! dir! all’improvviso! ben! o! mal! quel!che!vien,!trovandose!in!necessità!de!studiar,!e!de! dover! dir! el! premedità,! se! el! gh’ha! reputazion,! bisogna,!che!el!ghe!pensa,!bisogna,!che!el!se!sfadiga!a! studiar,! e! che! el! trema! sempre! ogni! volta,! che! se! fa! una! commedia,! dubitando,! o! de! no! saverla! quanto! basta,! o! de! no! sostegnir! el! carattere! come! xé! necessario.!97! ! This! excerpt! is! especially! significant! as! it! alludes,! at! the! moment! lightheartedly,! to! matters! that! would! soon! become! of! overbearing! concern! for! our! author.! During! Goldoni’s!lifetime!his!reform!was!as!much!a!battle!as!it!was!a!victory,!and!the!single! greatest!obstacle!he!faced!was!the!reluctance!of!actors!to!abandon!the!old!manner!of! improvised!recitation,!precisely!the!protest!voiced!in!Tonino’s!part.!! Goldoni’s! new! comedies! have! “thrown! the! trade! upside! down,”! and! notwithstanding! the! humor! afforded! by! Goldoni’s! use! of! dialectal! terms,! Tonino’s! part!gives!some!sense!of!a!genuine!struggle.!The!linguistic!realism!here!employed!is! only!the!surface!patina!of!a!deeper!psychological!realism!that!externalizes!interior! concerns.! Goldoni’s! approach! underlines! two! conspicuous! elements.! First,! Tonino! reveals! he! is! concerned! with! maintaining! a! reputation! and! risks! ruining! his! name! with! a! poorly! performed! commedia% di% carattere.! More! intimately,! he! confesses! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 97!Goldoni,!Il%teatro%comico,!Act!I,!iv.!Dear!sir!Orazio,!let’s!put!aside!all!bagatelles!and!get!straight!to! the! point.! The! commedie% di% carattere! have! thrown! our! trade! upside! down.! A! poor! actor,! who! has! learned! following! the! Commedia! dell’Arte,! and! who! has! made! a! habit! of! improvising,! for! better! or! worse,! with! what! comes! to! him,! now! finding! that! he! has! to! study,! and! to! recite! something! already! prepared,!if!he!has!any!reputation,!he!has!to!think!about!it,!and!to!toil!away!at!learning!the!part,!and! he!trembles!every!time!he!recites!a!comedy,!always!in!fear,!either!of!not!knowing!it!well!enough,!or! not!representing!the!character!as!required.!! ! ! 105! ! constant! fear! (“el! trema! sempre! ogni! volta”)! and! self1doubt! (“dubitando! de! no! saverla!quanto!basta”).!Just!as!Placida’s!part!reflects!her!interpreter’s!opinions,!we! can! easily! infer! that! in! Tonino’s! lines! Goldoni! mimics! the! tangible! reluctance! he! senses!from!some!of!the!actors,!perhaps!not!without!a!covert!sideswipe!of!reproach.! Here!at!the!beginning!of!his!career,!Goldoni!frames!his!adversaries!comically,!yet!the! obstacles! exposed! by! Tonino! resurface! throughout! his! Venetian! comedies! and! are! the! same! problems! that,! about! a! decade! after! Il% teatro% comico,! will! definitively! convince!Goldoni!to!abandon!Venice!to!seek!better!fortune!on!the!other!side!of!the! Alps.!We!will!consider!his!later!production!in!Paris!in!the!subsequent!chapter.!! In! sum,! as! we! continue! to! analyze! Goldoni’s! libretti,! it! will! be! beneficial! to! bear! in! mind! the! coexistence! of! buffo% and! serio% in! prose! comedy! as! well! as! opera! theatre! testified! by! Il% teatro% comico% and! subsequent! reform! comedies.! The! novel! serio% and! buffo% roles! seen! previously! in! Il% Conte% Caramella! appear! in! conjunction! with! Goldoni’s! first! declared! intentions! of! reform! in! this! commediaamanifesto.! The! correspondences!between!them!evidence!a!further!link!between!his!realist!reform! for!comedy!and!his!developing!operatic!style.!More!explicit!connections!between!the! two!types!of!theatre,!including!prose!comedies!adapted!to!music!or!vice1versa,!will! be!considered!later!in!the!present!chapter.!! iv.%The%dramma%giocoso%takes%shape%! To! recapitulate,! after! the! experimental! Il%mondo%della%luna%and! the! singular! dramma% comico,! Il% Conte% Caramella,! from! 1751! Goldoni! proceeded! to! write! exclusively! drammi%giocosi! until! his! move! to! Paris! eleven! years! later.! The! demand! for!prose!comedies!during!this!period!was!high,!and!the!sheer!volume!of!Goldoni’s! ! ! 106! ! output!for!Venetian!theatres!is!daunting.!Excluding!the!sixteen!new!comedies!of!the! famous! (or! infamous)! 1750151! season,! Goldoni! authored! nearly! 80! original! works! for! the! prose! theatre,! among! them! masterpieces! such! as! La% locandiera,! I% rusteghi% (The! Rustic! [unsociable]! Men),! Sior% Todaro% Brontolon% (Sir! Todaro! the! Grumbler),% etc.,!yet!still!managed!to!create!more!than!30!drammi%giocosi%at!the!same!time.!The! pages! that! follow! highlight! those! works! most! indicative! of! innovation! and! most! relevant!to!the!discourse!of!buffo%and!serio.!! While! Il% Conte% Caramella% formally! separated! buffi,% seri,% and! mezzi% caratteri,% this!practice!is!not!taken!up!again!by!Goldoni!before!1754,!after!which!it!is!applied! with!some!consistency.!The!first!dramma%giocoso%to!display!this!practice!is!Il%filosofo% di%campagna%(The!Country!Philosopher)!of!that!year,!which!returns!to!the!theme!of! authority! in! its! portrayal! of! an! intimate! relationship! between! a! Countess! and! her! servant.! In! particular,! the! interactions! of! serva% Lesbina! (parte% buffa)% and! padrona% Eugenia! (parte%seria)! progressively! consolidate! a! delicate! dynamic! of! role! reversal! that!is!evident!from!the!opening!scene:! LESBINA.%Io!vi!offerisco!! quel!che!so,!quel!che!posso.!È!ver!che!sono!! in!una!età!da!non!prometter!molto;!! ma!posso,!se!m’impegno,! par!valere!per!voi!l’arte!e!l’ingegno.!! EUGENIA.%Cara!di!te!mi!fido.!Amor,!pietade! per!la!padrona!tua!serba!nel!seno;!! se!non!felice!appieno,! almen!fa’!ch’io!non!sia!sì!sventurata.!! LESBINA.%Meglio!sola!che!male!accompagnata.!! Così!volete!dir;!si!si,!v’intendo.!! EUGENIA.%Dunque!da!te!qualche!soccorso!attendo.!98! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 98!Goldoni,!Il%Filosofo%di%Campagna,%Act!I,!i.!Lesbina:!I!offer!you!what!I!know,!what!I!can!do.!It’s!true! that!I!can’t!promise!too!much!at!my!age,!but!I!can,!if!I!set!my!mind!to!it,!make!good!use!of!art!and!wit.! Eugenia:!My!dear,!I!trust!in!you.!Keep!love!and!mercy!for!your!mistress!in!your!heart.!If!I!cannot!be! ! ! 107! ! ! In! the! manner! of! his! prose! comedies,! Goldoni! develops! numerous! realistic! characters,! among! them! Lesbina! and! the! Countess.! If! materially! impoverished! because!of!her!humble!state,!Lesbina!capitalizes!on!the!resources!of!her!mind!(“arte”! and! “ingegno”)! to! influence! the! action.! By! contrast,! Eugenia’s! state! bestows! social! dominance,! yet! she! is! powerless! in! her! own! home.! Eugenia’s! obligations! as! a! daughter! subject! her! to! paternal! authority! and! require! conventional! obedience,! which!inhibits!her!from!acting!to!bring!about!her!own!wishes!(namely,!marrying!her! secret!lover!and!not!the!country!philosopher,!as!her!father!intends).!Eugenia!is!more! powerful!than!Lesbina,!yet!impotent,!and!so!too!is!Rinaldo,!her!noble!lover.! !Lesbina! is! their! only! means! of! sidestepping! these! inhibitions,! but! she! imposes! a! will! of! her! own.! Her! power! grows! through! Acts! I! and! II! to! create! a! complete! role! reversal,! marking! Il%filosofo%di%campagna%as! an! ideological! precursor! of!Da!Ponte’s!Le%nozze%di%Figaro%(1786).!As!the!intrigue!becomes!more!complex,!the! characters’!language!intensifies!notably,!as!for!example:!! LESBINA.!Se!de’!consigli!miei! vi!volete!servir,!per!voi!qui!sono.!! Quando!no,!vel!protesto,!io!v’abbandono.!! EUGENIA.!Deh!non!mi!abbandonare,!ordina,!imponi;!! senza!cercar!ragioni! lo!farò!ciecamente;!! ti!sarò!non!temer,!tutta!obbediente.!99! ! The!Countess’s!helplessness!translates!to!submission,!and!Goldoni’s!choice!language! (“ordina,! imponi,! lo! farò! ciecamente”)! emphasizes! a! total! rovesciamento! of! roles.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! truly! happy,! at! least! let! me! not! be! so! unfortunate.! L:! Better! alone! than! in! bad! company,! you! mean.! Yes,!yes,!I!understand.!E:!Well!then,!I!will!await!your!assistance.!!! 99!ibid.,! Act! II,! i.! Lesbina:! If! you! want! to! make! use! of! my! advice,! I’m! here! for! you.! But! if! not,! you’ll! excuse! me,! I! will! leave! you.! Eugenia:! Pray! don’t! leave! me,! command,! impose! your! will.! Without! seeking!reasons!I!will!do!it!blindly;!don’t!worry,!I!will!be!all!obedient.!! ! ! 108! ! Instead!of!a!servant!seeking!her!mistress’s!benevolence,!we!see!the!exact!opposite.! Lesbina’s!decisions!alone!will!ultimately!determine!the!Countess’s!fate.!! ! Naturally,! the! reversed! master1servant! relationship! is! a! very! old! topos% of! comic! theatre.! Without! expatiating! upon! antecedents! of! previous! centuries,! even! closer!to!Goldoni’s!time!‘big!hits’!such!as!Pergolesi’s!La%serva%padrona%(1733)!make! this! clear.! In! a! tradition! of! theatre! that,! historically,! maintained! a! marked! distance! from! reality,! the! overturning! of! the! social! ladder! within! a! fictional! plot! created! laughter,!not!uproar.!While!Il%filosofo%di%campagna%is!closer!to!a!realistic!style!thanks! to!Goldoni,!we!may!still!relate!it!partially!to!the!preceding!tradition.!! Yet,!this!does!not!exclude!the!fact!that!at!the!same!time!(like!many!Goldonian! comedies),! it! reflects! the! early! symptoms! of! a! historical! transition.! Only! one! generation! later,! on! the! cusp! of! the! French! revolution,! a! servant! commanding! his! master! would! no! longer! appear! quite! so! laughable.! Da! Ponte’s! Le% nozze% di% Figaro% caused!raised!eyebrows!in!Vienna!even!after!the!author!had!sidestepped!censure!by! purging!it!of!Beaumarchais’!radical!political!content.!! While!questions!of!power!and!societal!influence!are!ever1present!in!Goldoni‘s! theatre,! considering! Il% filosofo% di% campagna% as! a! whole,! a! more! positive! facet! of! Enlightenment!thought!comes!to!the!forefront:!human!reason.!Lesbina’s!stratagems! showcase!the!power!of!the!mind,!and!the!opera’s!merry!conclusion!underlines!the! happy! outcomes! of! good! thinking.! The! hijinks! of! Goldoni’s! work! explore! and! promote! intelligence! as! man’s! most! precious! possession,! and! the! source! of! all! subsequent!material!gain.!! ! ! 109! ! These! considerations! are! present! even! in! the! opera’s! title,! for% Il% filosofo% di% campagna%is!also!the!surname!of!a!character!within!the!work!(who!however!is!not! the! protagonist)! known! for! his! reason! and! thinking.! In! reality,! the! “country! philosopher”!is!only!a!rustic!farmer,!Nardo:!“ricco!riccone,!un!villano,!egli!è!ver,!ma! sapientone.”100 !Despite,! or! perhaps! because! of! his! regressive! occupation,! Nardo! ennobles! himself! on! the! basis! of! his! judgment,! deploying! his! peculiar! sapienza! at! every!turn:!! Nato!son!contadino,! non!ho!studiato!niente! ma!però!colla!mente! talor!filosofando!a!discrezione! trovo!di!molte!cose!la!ragione.!! E!vedo!chiaramente!! che!interesse,!superbia,!invidia!e!amore! hanno!la!fonte!lor!nel!nostro!cuore.101! ! With!no!education,!he!capitalizes!on!reason!to!draw!knowledge!from!within!himself! in!a!facetious!Cartesian!approach.!Partly!thanks!to!his!‘philosophizing,’!Nardo!gains! the!attentions!of!the!aristocratic!Don!Tritemo!(Eugenia’s!father),!and,!with!material! wealth!and!sapienza,%becomes!the!father’s!preferred!candidate!for!his!daughter.!! Despite! his! eccentric! nature! and! the! drollery! of! his! erudite! mannerisms,! however,!Nardo!shares!a!new!philosophy!of!life!that!is!not!without!truth:!! Nelle!città!famose! ogni!generazion!si!cambia!stato.!! Se!il!padre!ha!accumulato! con!fatica,!con!arte!e!con!periglio,! distrugge!i!beni!suoi!prodigo!il!figlio.! Qui,!dove!non!ci!tiene!! il!lusso,!l’ambizion,!la!gola!oppressi,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 100 !ibid.,!Act!I,!iii.!Rich,!filthy!rich,!and!he’s!a!boor,!it’s!true,!but!a!wiseacre!too.!! 101 !ibid.,! Act! III,! ix.! I! was! born! a! farmer,! and! I! haven’t! studied! anything,! yet! with! my! mind,! philosophizing! at! discretion,! I! find! the! reason! behind! a! great! many! things.! And! I! see! clearly! that! personal!interest,!pride,!envy,!and!love,!have!their!source!in!our!very!hearts.!! ! ! 110! ! son!gl’uomini!ognor!sempre!gli!stessi.!102! ! In! a! number! of! texts! for! music,! Goldoni! uses! country! life! as! a! foil! for! the! materiality!and!corruption!of!the!city,!and!Nardo’s!philosophy!is!no!exception.!The! contrast!between!the!big!city!and!“qui,”!the!countryside!outside!in!which!the!action! takes! place,! is! largely! fueled! by! issues! of! material! wealth! and! of! appearance.! Through! Nardo,! Goldoni! issues! yet! another! condemnation! of! the! profligate! (“distrugge! i! beni! suoi! prodigo! il! figlio”),! a! new! ‘mask’! of! bourgeois! society! that,! unlike!Arlecchino!or!Pantalone,!bears!many!different!faces.!This!recurring!figure!is! frequently!targeted!in!Goldoni’s!libretti%and!prose!comedies!alike,!not!because!of!his! generosity,! but! rather! for! his! consuming! desire! to! appear! something! other! than! what!he!is!in!recklessly!living!beyond!his!means!to!create!the!illusion!of!opulence.!! “Il!lusso,!l’ambizion,”!and!“la!gola,”!denounced!by!Nardo!are!all!inherent!vices.!! The!country!philosopher!continues!along!the!same!lines!to!target!the!life!od! luxury!more!specifically:!! Per!lo!più!i!cittadini! hanno!pochi!quattrini!e!troppe!voglie! e!non!usano!molto!amar!la!moglie.!! Per!pratica!commune! nelle!cittadi!usata,! è!maggiore!l’uscita!dell’entrata.103! ! Nardo’s!pert!opinions!ultimately!link!material!wealth!to!moral!poverty!(“non!usano! molto!amar!la!moglie”),!an!affliction!that!erodes!the!foundations!of!any!prosperous! society.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 102 !ibid.,!Act!I,!vi.!In!the!famous!cities,!every!generation!changes!state.!If!a!father!has!saved!a!bit!with! toil,!with!art,!and!risk,!the!prodigal!son!destroys!his!riches.!Here![in!the!country],!luxury!ambition,!or! gluttony!do!not!oppress!us,!and!men!are!instead!always!them!same.!!! 103 !ibid.,!Act!I,!vi.!Most!city!dwellers!have!too!few!means!and!too!many!desires,!and!they!are!not!in! the!habit!of!loving!their!wives!very!much.!As!a!common!practice!in!cities,!the!outflow!far!exceeds!the! income.!! ! ! 111! ! ! In!conclusion,!in!Il%filosofo%di%campagna%Goldoni!not!only!continues!to!reflect! contemporary!life!through!his!targeted!critique!of!materiality!and!superficiality,!but! moreover! claims! reason! as! an! antidote! for! unawareness! or! narcissistic! illusion.! Nardo!and!Lesbina!alike!use!internal!resources!to!overcome!the!traditional!limits!of! their! lower! class! standing.! Goldoni’s! recoup! of! reason! places! clear! thinking! above! social! condition,! as! mind! and! will! alone! enable! one! to! determine! his! fate! or! to! undergo!it.!! ! As!a!final!note,!Goldoni!presents!another!small!innovation!in!his!treatment!of! the! character! Don! Tritemio.! While! Eugenia’s! heart! is! naïve! but! pure,! her! father! is! plagued!by!flaws.!Avarice!and!a!weak!mind!spur!him!to!give!Eugenia!in!marriage!to! a! man! he! considers! a! “villano,”! for! example.! Corrupt! and! unable! to! sustain! a! parte% seria%with!rectitude,!the!final!surprise!of!Il%filosofo%di%campagna%is!that!this!character,! while!an!aristocrat,!is!relegated!to!parte%buffa.%Goldoni!thus!commences!eroding!the! boundary!between!buffo%and!serio%relatively!early!in!his!career.!! In!structural!terms,!furthermore,!the!most!noteworthy!element!of!this!opera! is! the! author’s! continued! expansion! of! ensembles.! To! cite! just! one! example,! the! conclusion! of! Act! I! features! an! extended! ensemble! finale! with! the! peculiarity! of! rapid! action! interpolated! throughout.! While! several! characters! are! continually! present,! Goldoni! creates! a! circular! chase! between! Lesbina! and! Don! Tritemio,! who! enter!and!exit!continually.!A!masterfully!entangled!situation!intensifies!as!Lesbina,! in! the! guise! of! Eugenia,! accepts! attentions! and! ultimately! a! wedding! ring! from! Nardo,! but! at! each! advance! feigns! modesty! and! flees! when! Don! Tritemio! ! ! 112! ! approaches.!Don!Tritemio!in!turn,!who!believes!the!fleeing!figure!to!be!his!daughter,! fruitlessly!searches!for!her!while!becoming!ever!more!disoriented.!! Questions! of! social! rovesciamento! continue! in! Li% pazzi% per% amore! (The! Mad! for! Love,! 1754,! set! in! Livorno)! and! Il%povero%superbo%(The! Proud! Poor! Man)! 1755,! set! in! Bologna),! both! premiered! at! the! Teatro% San% Samuele,! in! which! Goldoni! continued! to! formally! separate! buffo% and! serio% roles.! These! drammi% giocosi% do! not! present! significant! innovations! in! the! author’s! treatment! of! comic! and! serio! parts,! but,!while!not!set!in!Venice,!do!nonetheless!continue!to!pursue!relevant!themes!in! their!content.%Without!entering!into!textual!detail,!therefore,!it!may!suffice!to!recall! that!in!the!first!opera,!the!serio!prima!donna!(again!named!Eugenia)!is!from!the!start! disguised!as!a!servant!girl,!while!by!contrast!Il%povero%superbo!targets!a!protagonist! of! lowly! origin! made! wealthy! by! inheritance.! Aptly! named,! Il! Cavaliere! dal! Zero! is! “reso! miserabile! dal! fumo! della! nobiltà.”104!Goldoni! thereby! adds! yet! another! facet! to!his!playful!critique!of!nobility!with!weak!foundations.!! We! find! a! more! significant! step! forward! in! Le% nozze% (The! Wedding)! of! the! same! year,! written! for! the! Teatro%Formagliari%in! Bologna.! Unlike! its! predecessors,! this!work!does!not!separate!parti%buffe%from!parti%serie!in!the!character!list.!In!fact,! Goldoni! will! suspend! this! practice! until! 1758,! though! divisions! remain! implicit! through!class!differences!and!mode!of!expression,!as!later!works!will!demonstrate.! In!the!case!of!Le%nozze%in!particular,!however,!the!lack!of!definition!of!the!parts!is!a! commentary! in! itself,! as! the! boundaries! between! buffo%and! serio! are! progressively! attenuated.!In!this!work,!for!example,!aristocratic!characters!do!not!suffer!from!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 104 !Goldoni,!Il%Povero%Superbo,!elenco!dei!personaggi.!(…)!rendered!miserable!by!the!smoke![illusion]! of!nobility.!! ! ! 113! ! want! of! power! that! Goldoni! elsewhere! has! shown,! but! do! not! preserve! the! mannerisms!of!a!parte%seria.!Rather,!the!author!injects!a!significant!dose!of!realism! in! their! frankness! as! they! often! lose! their! composure.! In! the! same! way,! their! servants! and! attendants! take! on! the! leading! roles,! and! display! some! elements! of! serio%in!mezzo%carattere!as!we!shall!see.!! The! opera! opens! with! a! Count! and! Countess! in! vehement! argument.! Their! exchanges!have!replaced!Metastasian!grace!with!pragmatism,!and!the!rapidity!of!the! discourse!is!rather!typical!of!a!buffo%scene:!! CONTE.!La!voglio!così.! CONTESSA.!Così!non!sarà.! CONTE.%Prevale!il!mio!sì.!! CONTESSA.%Stavolta!non!già.105!(etc.)! ! Goldoni! thus! enters! immediately! into! the! quotidian! reality! of! marriage! in! its! least! gracious! aspect,! marking! the! work! from! the! beginning! as! an! exercise! in! realism.! Most!unusually,!the!dispute!between!the!two!noble!characters!is!carried!to!a!point!of! extreme!aggravation!that!culminates!in!the!drastic!and!mutual!resolve!to!end!their! union.! While! preparations! are! made! to! summon! the! notary,! the! tone! remains! dry! and!practical:!! CONTE.%Come!dissi,!! d’ogni!effetto!dotale! che!portò!la!contessa!in!questa!casa,! preparatemi!i!conti.!! (…)! CONTESSA.%Badate;!nel!contratto! vi!ha!da!essere!un!patto,! per!cui!nel!caso!di!restituzione,!! s’han!da!considerare!i!frutti!ancora.!! (…)! CONTE.%Poi!penseremo!a!sciorre!il!matrimonio.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 105 !Goldoni,!Le%Nozze,!Act!I,!i.!Count:!I!want!it!this!way.!Countess:!It!won’t!be!this!way.!Count:!My!‘yes’! will!prevail.!Countess:!Not!so!quickly,!this!time.!! ! ! 114! ! CONTESSA.!Liberata!sarò!da!un!tal!demonio.!106! ! Only! away! from! her! husband! does! the! prideful! Contessa! transform! her! rigid! expression! into! a! softer! poetic! language! that! reflects! tones! of! melancholy! and! tenderness.!Her!first!solo!aria!is!one!of!reflection!on!surpassed!and!ephemeral!love,! through! which! Goldoni! creates! a! scene! of! pathos% dramatically! different! from! the! action!that!precedes!and!follows:!! Per!una!serva! il!marito!di!me!fa!poca!stima?!! Ah!dove,!dove!andò!l’amor!di!prima?!! ! ! Ah!dove!è!andato! ! quel!primo!affetto?! ! Ah!che!l’ingrato! ! mio!sposo!in!petto! ! cangiato!ha!il!cor.!! ! ! Duran!per!poco!! ! quei!primi!istanti;!! ! si!spegne!il!foco,!! ! cessa!l’ardor.107!! ! The! character’s! subdued! reflections! suspend! her! intimate! musings! within! a! moment!of!stillness!and!respite!from!the!hurried!external!events.!Her!text!is!colored! by!the!nostalgic!hues!of!recollection!and!longing!for!the!affection!now!lost.!All!these! elements,!together!with!the!fact!that!the!source!the!Countess’s!grief!is!her!husband’s! interest! in! a! lively,! intelligent! servant! girl,! cannot! but! remind! us! once! again! of! Da! Ponte!and!Mozart’s!masterful!Le%nozze%di%Figaro.%The!above!text!in!particular!rings! as! a! clear! precedent! for! the! famous! “Dove! sono! i! bei! momenti”! aria! of! that! opera,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 106 !ibid.,! Act! II,! scene! iii.! Count:! As! I! said,! I! wish! that! accounts! be! prepared! for! everything! the! Countess! brought! in! dowry! to! this! house.! Countess:! Be! careful;! in! the! contract! there! must! be! an! agreement,!that!in!the!case!of!restitution,!interest!accrued!must!also!be!considered.!C:!Then!we!shall! see!to!dissolving!this!marriage.!C.ss:!I!will!be!freed!from!such!a!demon.!! 107 !ibid.,!Act!I,!ii.!For!a!servant!girl,!my!husband!esteems!me!so!little?!Ah!where,!where!is!the!love!we! first!had?!Ah,!where!has!that!first!affection!gone?!Ah,!my!ungrateful!husband!has!changed!his!heart.!! Those!first!moments!are!fleeting;!then!the!flame!burns!out,!the!ardor!ceases.!! ! ! 115! ! written! forty! years! later.! Comparison! of! the! two! texts! does! not! suggest! direct! transposition,! but! attests! that! Goldoni’s! tendency! towards! psychologically1attuned! and! realistic! serio%content! within! comedy! was,! as! yet,! ahead! of! his! time! and! had! a! lasting!continuation!in!the!operatic!tradition.!!! Not!unlike!what!occurs!in!Le%nozze%di%Figaro%but!also!in!Goldoni’s!preceding!Il% filosofo%di%campagna,! when! the! aristocracy! becomes! ill1adept! at! conflict! resolution,! an!intelligent!and!tactful!servant!takes!charge!of!the!action.!In!the!case!of!Le%nozze,! the!Count!and!Countess!are!hindered!by!their!own!pride,!thereby!requiring!the!aid! of! Goldoni’s! proto1Figaro! character,! Masotto,! who! steps! in! to! (quite! literally)! bend! the!unyielding!Count!and!Countess!towards!reconciliation:!! MASOTTO.%Via,!s’accostino!un!poco.!! CONTESSA.%Oh!questo!no;!! la!prima!non!sarò.!! MASOTTO.%Da!bravo,!padron!mio.!! CONTE.%Non!voglio!essere!il!primo!ne’!men!io.!! MASOTTO.!Un!pochino!alla!volta.!! Un!pochino!per!uno.!! Vi!è!un!po’!di!ritrosia;!! con!licenza,!signor,!anderò!via.!! ! Servo!umilissimo,! ossequiosissimo,! quando!mi!chiamino! sarò!prontissimo,! verrò!a!server.!! ! Faccia!un!passo!in!là;!(all’uno)% volti!quel!viso!in!qua!(all’altro)% Ah!che!contento!amabile,! quando!due!sposi!s’amano,! il!cuor!che!d’ira!è!torbido! in!pace!ritornar.108! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 108 !ibid.,!Act!II,!iii.!Masotto:!Come!along,!move!a!bit!closer.!Contessa:!Oh,!no,!I!shall!not!be!the!first.!M:! Be!good,!my!master.!Count:!I’d!don’t!want!to!be!the!first!either.!M:!Just!a!little!at!a!time.!A!little!from! each.! I! see! there! is! some! reluctance;! with! permission,! sir,! I! think! I’ll! go.! Humble! servant,! very! obsequious,!whenever!you!call!me,!I!will!be!ready,!I’ll!come!to!serve.!Step!over!that!way!(to%one),!turn! ! ! 116! ! ! ! Masotto!displays!a!willingness!and!respectfulness!that!differentiates!him!completely! from! Lesbina! of! Il% filosofo% di% campagna.! Even! without! her! imposing! manners,! however,! he! rises! to! a! central! role! within! the! plot! to! facilitate! many! of! the! events.! Also!of!note!in!his!aria!is!the!progression!of!action!that!it!implies.!!The!aria!does!not! create!a!moment!of!stasis;!rather,!we!understand!that!while!Masotto!is!singing,!not! only! does! action! occur! but! more! importantly,! emotions! and! dispositions! are! changing! as! a! result.! This! dramatic! strategy! keeps! a! further! distance! from! the! declamatory!style!of!traditional!melodramma.!! ! Only! when! harmony! is! restored! do! the! Count! and! Countess! regain! their! composure.!As!this!occurs,!their!language!changes!dramatically:! CONTESSA.%Perché!confesso! la!debolezza!mia,! v’amo!e!figlia!d’amore!è!gelosia.!! ! Chi!può!nel!nostro!petto! l’affetto!regolar?! Io!non!lo!posso!no.!! E!sempre!v’amerò! penando!ognora.!etc.!! ! CONTE%(solo).%Per!dir!la!verità,% la!contessa!è!amorosa,!! compatirla!convien!s’ella!è!gelosa.! (…)! non!vuò!più!Guerra!con!la!sposa!mia.!! ! Dolce!amor!che!m’accendesti! delle!nozze!il!dì!primiero,! deh!ritorna,!nume!arciero,! questo!core!a!consolar.!! ! La!discordia!i!dì!funesti! più!non!renda!fra!due!sposi;!! ed!i!spasimi!cruciosi! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! that!face!this!way!(to%the%other).!Ah,!what!amiable!gladness,!when!two!spouses!love!each!other,!to!see! a!heart!clouded!by!rage!return!to!peace.!! ! ! 117! ! non!ci!tornino!a!turbar.109! ! Here!in!the!final!Act,!these!aristocratic!characters!express!themselves!in!true! serio% terms! for! the! first! time,! regaining! Metastasian! turns! of! phrase! (“penando! ognora,”! “nume! arciero”)! typical! of! opera% seria.! Overall,! however! (and! notwithstanding! a! few! classicizing! exceptions),! even! within! a! melodramatic! style! Goldoni! achieves! balance,! maintaining! the! language! elevated! without! sacrificing! flow,! nor! stalling! the! action! with! digressive! and! generic! metaphors.! On! a! psychological! level,! noteworthy! is! Goldoni’s! realistic! use! of! veiled,! non1explicit! terms!to!create!the!tender!sadness!that!permeates!the!Countess’s!wistful!recitative! and! aria.! ! The! Count’s! aria! too,! in! its! plaintive! invocation! of! Cupid’s! arrows,! resounds!almost!as!a!prayer!to!the!archaic!god!of!love.!! In!synthesis,!these!two!characters!journey!from!one!stylistic!boundary!to!the! other!over!the!course!of!the!work,!providing!comedy!and!gravity!at!different!times.! Their!transformative!roles!exemplify!the!way!in!which,!through!a!realistic!portrayal! of! his! characters,! Goldoni! continues! to! erode! the! boundaries! between! traditional! buffo%and!serio%roles.!! We! witness! this! not! only! in! the! traditional! serio% parts,! but! also! at! times! in! characters!of!lower!extraction,!who!manifest!a!broad!spectrum!of!dramatic!registers! through! the! changing! action.! If! at! first! the! Count! and! Countess! take! on! aspects! of! buffo% in! their! quotidian! language,! rapid! exchanges,! and! comic! obstinacy,! later! we! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 109 !ibid.,! Act! III,! ii1! iii.! Countess:! Because! I! confess! my! weakness.! I! love! you,! and! jealousy! is! the! daughter!of!love.!Who!is!able!to!command!the!affections!of!our!own!heart?!I!cannot,!no.!And!I!shall! always!love!you,!and!always!suffer.!(…)!Count:!To!tell!the!truth,!the!Countess!is!in!love,!and!if!she!is! jealous,!it!would!be!better!to!understand!her!pains.!I!no!longer!want!war!with!my!wife.!Sweet!love,! who! ignited! me! on! our! first! day! of! marriage,! oh! return,! arrowed! god,! to! console! this! heart.! Let! discord! no! longer! render! the! days! of! two! lovers! so! baleful;! and! spams! of! distress! never! upset! us! again.!! ! ! 118! ! find!the!comic!sense!of!these!traditionally!buffo%figures!is!darkened!by!more!serious! language.!! Unlike!the!melancholy!of!Eugenia!in!Il%filosofo%di%campagna,!most!of!the!serio% material! in! Le% nozze% is! prompted! by! rage,! and! notwithstanding! their! nearly! insurmountable! divisions,! the! Count! and! Countess! are! not! the! only! characters! to! express! themselves! with! intensity! in! this! respect.! Even! a! humble! gardener! (Mingone),!when!faced!with!rivalry,!uses!no!uncertain!terms:! …lo!voglio!sbudellare,!! se!fosse!in!mezzo!alle!più!forti!squadre,! se!fosse!ancora!in!braccio!di!sua!madre.!! ! Mi!par!di!ridere!! con!quel!ragazzo,! lo!voglio!uccidere!! con!le!mie!man.!! ! Poi!per!il!mondo! da!pellegrino! miglior!destino! cercando!andrò.110!etc.! ! !Choice! words! (e.g.! “sbudellare”)! evidence! that! Goldoni! deliberately! preserves! the! comic! element! in! this! aria,! unequivocally! exposing! Mingone’s! coarseness!and!lowly!state.!The!gardener’s!piece!therefore!would!not!be!considered! a!serio!aria.!However,!the!length!of!the!piece,!its!pivotal!structural!function!as!an!exit! aria,!and!most!importantly!the!intensity!of!Goldoni’s!terms!(“fosse!anche!in!braccio! di! sua! madre…lo! voglio! uccidere! con! le! mie! man”),! all! contribute! a! novel! sense! of! gravity!to!the!scene,!casting!a!cloud!over!the!underlying!comic!diversion.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 110 !ibid.,!Act!II,!scene!xii.!I!want!to!eviscerate!him,!even!if!he!were!protected!by!the!strongest!troops,! or!if!he!were!still!a!baby!in!his!mother’s!arms.!I!could!almost!laugh!with!that!young!man,!I!want!to!kill! him!with!my!own!hands.!Then,!as!a!wanderer,!I’ll!travel!to!world!seeking!better!fortune.!! ! ! 119! ! The!attenuation!of!rigid!boundaries!between!roles!continues!in!later!operas! such! as! La% diavolessa! (1755,! given! at! the! S.% Samuele% but! set! in! Naples).! Again,! no! explicit! division! of! roles! is! made,! yet! implicitly! the! cast! of! characters! is! listed! in! descending!order!of!prominence,!from!serio%to!buffo!with!many!nuances!in!between.! Textual! analysis! suggests! the! presence! of! two! mezzi% caratteri! of! different! social! standing,! the! gentleman! Don! Poppone! (likely! bourgeois,! as! his! title! is! never! made! explicit),! and! the! “avventuriera”! Dorina,! who! abandons! her! family! to! marry! her! lover,!Giannino.!! La% diavolessa% does! not! warrant! a! comprehensive! analysis,! but! it! does! contribute! a! few! elements! of! note! to! the! present! discussion,! all! connected! to! Goldoni’s!treatment!of!boundaries!between!the!well1to1do!and!the!plebeian.!In!this! opera,!our!author!returns!to!the!familiar!device!of!role!exchange!to!undermine!the! foundations! of! class! division.! When! Don! Poppone! mistakes! Dorina! for! a! noblewoman,!for!example,!she!transforms!into!one:!! Eh,!che!l’amore!! più!candido,!più!puro! vuole!il!suo!chiaroscuro.!! E!poi!convien!distinguere!! della!plebe!l’amor,!come!si!sa,!! da!quello!della!nostra!nobiltà.!! Voglio!che!civilmente!ci!trattiamo.!! O!che!siamo,!cospetto!!o!che!non!siamo.!! ! ! Si!distingue!dal!nobile!il!vile! ! anch’in!questo,!mio!caro!signor.!! ! Una!donna!ch’è!nata!civile! ! non!si!lascia!avvilir!dall’amor.111!etc.!! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 111 !Goldoni,!La%diavolessa,%Act!I,!vii.!Oh,!that!even!the!most!candid,!the!purest!love!desires!its!ups!and! downs.!It!would!be!better!to!distinguish!the!love!of!commoners!from!that!of!our!nobility.!I!want!us!to! deal! with! civility.! Whether! we! be,! or! not.! The! noble! will! distinguish! himself! from! the! commoner! in! this!too,!my!dear!sir.!A!woman!born!noble!does!not!let!herself!be!disheartened!by!love.!! ! ! 120! ! As!seen!in!previous!operas,!Goldoni!creates!an!external!projection!of!social!standing! through! the! realistic! imitation! of! mannerisms! and! language,! and! the! reiteration! of! common! ideas.! He! carries! this! technique! to! a! level! of! parody! a! short! while! later,! when!Giannino!too!improvises!the!manners!of!a!modern!aristocrat:!!! Vo’!provar!con!bassa!gente;!! e!vo’!far!il!prepotente.!! “Insolente,!non!do!niente…! Pagherò,!quando!vorrò.!! Ne!ho!bisogno,!via!di!qua.”! Ah!ah!ah.!(ridendo)%Bene!va.!! L’ho!trovata!in!verità.112! ! This! jesting! imitation! is! purely! comic,! but! pricks! at! familiar! contemporary! themes! of! corruption! and! moral! degradation.! The! likening! of! a! nobleman! to! a! “prepotente,”! together! with! allusions! to! disregard! for! debt! and! for! the! needs! of! others! again! connect! this! work! to! modernity! and! its! vices.! Notwithstanding! the! Neapolitan!setting,!this!opera!remains!relevant!to!the!Venetian!audience!through!its! social! commentary! and! even! includes! an! aria! in! Venetian! dialect! (sung! by! Dorina,! who!has!travelled!the!world).!! ! More!parody!of!serio%elements!ensues!in!La%cascina!(The!Farmstead,!1756),! but! of! different! nature.! Rather! than! targeting! the! paradoxes! of! city! life! and! profit,! this! bucolic,! pastoral! opera! retreats! once! more! to! simple! country! life,! in! which! pagan! gods! resurface! to! create! a! place! away! from! time.! Notably,! however,! classicizing!references!are!exaggerated!to!such!a!degree!that!the!Arcadian!stamp!of! the!work!becomes!jesting,!not!truthful.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 112 !ibid.,!Act!I,!ix.!I!want!to!try!my!hand!with!the!common!people,!I!want!to!act!assertive.!“Insolent,!I’ll! give!you!nothing….!I’ll!pay,!when!I!want.!I!need!that,!get!out!of!here.”!Ah!ah!ah!(laughing),!It’s!good.! I’ve!really!found!it.!! ! ! 121! ! The! character! of! Il! Conte! Ripoli,! for! instance,! is! a! serio! part! in! caricature;! indeed!he!is!called!“l’affettato.”!Ripoli!speaks!in!Arcadian!metaphors!but!with!none! of! the! Arcadian! gravity.! The! cascina! (farmstead)! is! allegorized! as! Carthage,! ladies! crossed! in! love! become! Virgilian! heroines! (“ecco! un’altra! Didone! abbandonata”),! and! constant! references! to! Alceste,! Demetrio,! Celonice,! and! others! saturate! his! recitative!to!exquisite!comic!effect.!When!the!Count!takes!up!a!rage!aria,!also!full!of! Classical! references! and! intense! language,! the! exaggeration! therein! thwarts! the! gravity!of!a!true!serio%piece,!and!the!number!is!downgraded!to!an!arietta,%preceded! and!followed!by!the!dialogue!of!others:!! Furie!del!cieco!Averno,! mostri!del!nero!abisso! orsi,!tigri,!leoni,! della!barbarità!crudel!deposito,!! su,!venite,!vuò!fare!uno!sproposito.!! Dov’è!quel!moro!infido?! Vuò!svenarlo!sugli!occhi!alla!mia!Dido.113!! ! While!signing!this!work!under!the!name!of!“Polisseno!Fegeio,!pastor!arcade,”! Goldoni! does! not! hesitate! to! revisit! the! Classical! world! and! the! serio% style! in! a! satirical!key,!further!distancing!himself!from!the!traditional!treatment!of!these!roles.! His!characterization!of!“l’affettato”!in!La%cascina%is!another!clear!example!of!how!our! author!progressively!dismantles!common!practices!in!his!libretti.!! ! Goldoni’s! unconventional! portrayal! of! traditionally! serio! characters! returns! markedly! in! La%ritornata%di%Londra! (The! Returned! from! London,! 1756),! a! peculiar! work!in!which!all!of!the!characters!are!of!noble!extraction,!as!will!recur!in!Il%festino% !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 113 !Goldoni,! La% Cascina,! Act! III,! iv.! Furies! of! the! blind! Hades,! monsters! of! the! black! abyss,! bears,! tigers,! lions,! repositories! of! barbarous! cruelty,! up,! come,! I! want! to! commit! a! crime.! Where! is! that! infamous!moor?!I!want!to!slash!his!veins!before!the!eyes!of!my!Dido.!! ! ! 122! ! (The!Banquet,!1777,!written!in!Paris!but!set!in!Venice).!The!only!figures!of!contrast! in! a! panorama! of! Counts,! Barons,! and! Marquis! are! Madama! Petronilla,! a! virtuosic! opera!star,!and!her!chambermaid.!With!many!rivals!for!the!attentions!of!Petronilla,! the! male! characters! cannot! escape! becoming! the! comic! source! of! the! work.! Their! forward,!haughty!mannerisms,!and!high1sounding!circumlocutions!go!hand!in!hand! with!the!vanity!of!each!believing!himself!to!be!the!favorite.!!! The!entangled!relationships!result!in!a!good!number!of!rage!arie!but!create! none!of!the!gravity!or!tragic!undertones!of!serio%material.!The!entire!opera,!in!a!way,! becomes! a! play! between! outward! appearance! and! inner! truth,! in! which! elaborate! formalities! and! ceremonious! ritual! expand! to! occupy! the! entire! dramatic! space.! Introspection!or!pathetic!elements!are!simply!rendered!obsolete!by!the!frivolity!that! dominates.!! La%ritornata%di%Londra%demonstrates!once!again!that,!in!the!realistic!dramma% giocoso,!serio%does!not!appear!by!definition!but!only!when!mandated!by!plot.!Earlier! works!of!Goldoni,!if!without!figures!of!nobility,!were!also!without!parti%serie.!To!this,! we! now! must! add! that,! even! in! the! presence! of! aristocratic! figures,! serio% is! not! guaranteed.!By!this!point!in!Goldoni’s!experience!with!libretti,!the!author’s!distance! from! previous! traditions! is! more! and! more! consolidated;! the! distinction! between! serio% and! buffo! is! no! longer! dependent! only! on! station,! but,! in! a! more! realistic! approach,!is!also!regulated!by!conduct.!! Furthermore,!what!La%ritornata%di%Londra!lacks!in!depth!of!characterization!it! gains! in! structure! and! ensemble! pieces.! These! excel! in! invention! and! complexity,! animating! the! triangular! (and! quadrangular)! relationships! between! prima% donna! ! ! 123! ! and! suitors.! Notably,! Goldoni! places! an! intricate! ensemble! as! early! as! the! second! scene! of! the! work,! in! which! the! Marquis! and! Baron! each! search! for! a! pretext! to! remain!alone!with!Petronilla,!much!to!the!chagrin!of!her!secret!lover,!Carpofero.!In! an!extended!and!dynamic!scene,!the!men!speak!to!Petronilla,!to!each!other,!and!to! the!audience!in!asides,!all!in!rapid!alternation.!The!innovation!resides!in!Goldoni’s! placement!of!such!a!developed!ensemble!well!before!the!closure!of!the!first!Act,!yet! after!the!opening!of!the!work.!Goldoni!then!replicates!the!scenario,!with!even!more! characters!tied!in,!at!the!closure!of!each!Act.!! v.%La%buona%figliuola%(prelude)! In!the!year!following!La%ritornata%di%Londra,!Goldoni!creates!one!of!the!most! successful!libretti%of!his!entire!production,!La%buona%figliuola!(The!Good!Girl,!1757).! This! dramma% giocoso% is! revealing! of! many! forward1looking! tendencies,! including! elements! of! romanzesco% from! the! new! fashion! of! novels! spreading! throughout! Europe,! and! most! notably,! established! mezzi% caratteri% and! new! elements! of! semiserio%and!larmoyant%that!significantly!inform!our!discussion!of!buffo%and!serio%in! combination.! Furthermore,! Goldoni! derived! the! work! from! his! largely! successful! reform!comedy,!La%Pamela,%premiered!with!Medebach!in!1750.%La%buona%figliuola,!or! La%Cecchina%as! it! is! alternatively! titled,! therefore! constitutes! a! valuable! example! of! direct! translation! from! prose! comedy! to! opera! theatre,! tangible! evidence! that,! for! Goldoni,!the!two!theatrical!mediums!were!not!as!divaricated!as!some!scholars!have! thought.! ! For! these! reasons! and! more,! we! will! examine! this! opera! in! detail! in! the! following!section.!! vi.%Goldoni%after%La%buona%figliuola% ! ! 124! ! ! After!La%buona%figliuola%and!before!Goldoni’s!departure!for!Paris,!our!author! continued!to!create!drammi%giocosi%for!numerous!Venetian!theatres!(San%Samuele,%S.% Angelo,%S.%Moisé),!even!while!his!comedies!were!suffering!the!growing!antagonism!of! opponents!Carlo!Gozzi!and!Pietro!Chiari.!By!1758,!the!challenges!and!hardships!of! the! theatrical! world! in! Venice! had! already! brought! Goldoni! to! consider! moving! elsewhere.! In! fact,! during! that! year! he! was! prompted! to! accept! an! invitation! to! collaborate! with! the!Teatro%di%Tordinona! in! Rome.! The! experience! was! short! lived,! and!the!author!returned!to!Venice!in!disappointment!less!than!a!year!later.!! Before!departing,!Goldoni!presented!Il%mercato%di%Malmantile!(The!Market!of! Malmantile)!among!other!works!at!the!Teatro%S.%Samuele.!It!is!his!first!text!for!music! in!which!the!protagonists!(the!governatore!Lampridio!and!his!daughter!Brigida)!are! members! of! the! borghesia.! In! fact,! the! mercantile! world! of! middle1class! commerce! constitutes!the!broader!universe!of!the!work,!as!the!title!suggests.!The!shared!space! of! the! marketplace! piazza,! in! which! all! buy! and! sell,! functions! as! an! element! of! cohesion!between!characters!of!varying!social!extraction.!% While!buffo%and!serio!characters!are!not!explicitly!divided,!this!opera!is!also! noteworthy! for! its! treatment! of! serio%material,! moderated! in! a! realistic! key.! When! Brigida,! desirous! of! ascending! the! social! ladder,! sets! her! sights! on! the! Conte! della! Rocca,!his!lover,!the!widowed!Marchesa!Giacinta!expresses!her!grief!in!a!short!aria:!! Ah!purtroppo!m’inganna!il!traditore.!! ! Non!vi!è!costanza!al!mondo,! non!vi!è!più!fedeltà.!! Misera!mi!confondo,! tutto!penar!mi!fa.!! ! Ma!se!il!crudel!ritrovo! ! ! 125! ! lo!sdegno!mio!saprà.!! O!l’amor!suo!rinova! o!il!fio!mi!pagherà.114!(parte)%! !! % This!piece,!which!in!some!measure!resonates!with!Donna!Elvira’s!debut!aria! (“Ah,!chi!mi!dice!mai”)!in!Mozart!and!Da!Ponte’s!later!Don%Giovanni,%is!measured!in! tone,! and! does! not! use! the! generic! language! or! poetic! hyperbole! of! the! traditional! melodramatic! style.! Instead,! it! is! realistic! in! its! moderation,! also! thanks! to! the! psychological! progression! it! contains.! In! the! span! of! hardly! two! strophes,! Goldoni! changes! the! emotional! content! from! grief! to! rage,! lending! the! action! a! sense! of! propulsion,!not!static!reflection.!! As!a!further!realistic!and!forward1looking!element,!Goldoni!makes!clear!that! Brigida’s!attractiveness!is!not!solely!the!result!of!her!uncommon!beauty,!but!rather! the!merit!of!her!intelligence:!“Il!suo!vanto!fu!sempre!il!saper.”!The!idea!of!interior! beauty! is! in! fact! pursued! quite! explicitly! (though! to! some! comic! effect),! here! expounded!upon!by!the!governatore%her!father!(Lampridio),!and!the!buffo%Rubicone:!! ! RUBICONE.%Si!conosce,!si!vede,!si!sa! di!quel!volto!la!rara!beltà! ma!del!bello!si!apprezza!ancor!più! la!famosa!stupenda!virtù.!! LAMPRIDIO.%Ma!del!bello!si!apprezza!ancor!più! la!famosa!stupenda!virtù.!! BRIGIDA.%Quel!ch’io!sono,!signore,!lo!so! ma!di!questo!vantarmi!non!vuò.!! Non!è!facil!trovar!oggidì! una!donna!che!parli!così.115!! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 114 !Goldoni,! Il% Mercato% di% Malmantile.! Act! I,! x.! Alas,! sadly! the! traitor! is! deceiving! me.! There! is! no! constancy!in!this!world,!fidelity!is!no!more.!I!am!wretched!and!confused,!everything!makes!me!suffer.! But!if!I!find!the!cruel!traitor,!he!will!know!my!anger.!Either!he!renews!his!love!to!me,!or!he!will!pay! me!retribution.! 115 !ibid.,!Act!I,!xii!(ensemble!finale)!Rubicone:!We!recognize,!we!see,!we!know!the!rare!beauty!of!that! face,!but!even!more!than!beauty,!we!esteem!famous,!stupendous!virtue.!Lampridio:!Even!more!than! beauty,!we!esteem!famous,!stupendous!virtue.!Brigida:!I!know!what!I!am,!sir,!but!I!don’t!want!to!brag! about!it.!It’s!not!easy!these!days!to!find!a!woman!who!can!speak!like!this.!! ! ! 126! ! While! Brigida’s! false! modesty! is! derisible! and! calls! her! “stupenda! virtù”! into! question,! the! conversation! does! reflect! a! changing! ideal! and! seals! its! closeness! to! modernity!and!to!the!real!world!with!“oggidì”!(nowadays).!! Nor! is! Brigida! the! only! character! in! the! comedy! to! seek! social! change;! the! doctor!Rubicone!also!wishes!to!improve!his!condition!in!marrying!her,!and!Lena!the! contadina,% a! secondary! buffo,! also! tries! to! enter! society! by! securing! the! governor! Lampridio.!The!contrast!between!aspiration!and!reality!becomes!an!excellent!source! of!comedy,!as!Rubicone!asserts,!“Di!nobiltade!in!casa!mia!si!sguazza.!(Son!tutti!i!miei! feudi!un!banco!in!piazza).”116!In!the!end,!however,!all!are!paired!with!their!‘equals’:! the!Marchesa!with!the!Count,!Lena!with!Berto,!another!farmer,!and!Brigida!with!the! charlatan!doctor!Rubicone.!! Similar!strategies!for!realism,!and!analogous!moderation!of!tragic!and!comic! extremes,! can! be! found! in! La% conversazione! (The! Conversation)! of! the! same! year! (1758),! in! which! we! easily! discern! parti%serie,! parti%buffe,! and! mezzi%caratteri.%The! space!between!buffo%and!serio!is!occupied!by!a!borghese%who!has!traveled!the!world! (Giacinto),!and!a!nobleman!reduced!to!poverty!(Don!Fabio).!The!first!is!noteworthy! for!the!changeability!of!his!character:!! In!quattordici!lingue! parlo,!scrivo,!e!traduco.!! So!i!riti,!so!i!costumi! dei!popoli!remoti!! e!gl’incogniti!ancora!a!me!son!noti.!! Coi!vili!son!asiatico!(fa%il%grave)! coi!grandi!sono!italico!(fa%l’umile)!! Nel!spender!sono!inglese.!! Son!colle!dame!un!paladin!francese! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 116 !ibid.,!Act!III,!vii.!At!my!house,!we!are!dripping!with!nobility.!(All!my!holdings!are!a!stand!at!the! market).!! ! ! 127! ! (fa%riverenze%e%parte).!117! ! Giacinto!is!not!a!nobleman,!but!his!knowledge!of!the!world!gives!him!extra!assets! and!contributes!to!his!appeal!in!society.!! More! importantly,! thanks! to! his! travels,! Giacinto! is! also! able! to! stay! connected!to!the!latest!trends:!! Questo,!signora!mia,!! splin%si!chiama!in!inglese,!! che!in!Italia!vuol!dir!malinconia.!118! ! Splin%(spleen)%of! which! we! read! even! in! Shakespeare,! is! especially! relevant! and! in! vogue! as! a! poetic! concept! beginning! in! the! 18th! century.! Goldoni’s! reference! to! it! connects!the!opera!closely!to!the!contemporary!world!and!its!fashions.!! What! is! more,! the! particular! emphasis! brought! upon! melancholy! and! the! nostalgic! humors! represents! Goldoni’s! direct! acknowledgement! of! new! tendencies! that! have! slowly! become! part! of! his! theatre.! Serio% appears! no! longer! as! a! mere! question!of!Metastasian!style,!but!now!is!more!intimately!connected!to!sadness!or! melancholy.!This!same!new!trend!contributes!to!the!increasing!production!of!novels,! and!in!theatre!leads!to!new!hybrid!genres!such!as!the!French! comédie%larmoyante,! defined!by!P.!Larthomas!as!“(…)genre!intermédiaire!entre!la!comédie!et!la!tragédie,! qui! introduit! des! gens! de! condition! privée,! vertueux! ou! presque,! dans! une! action! sérieuse,! grave,! parfois! pathétique,! qui! nous! excite! à! la! vertu! en! attendrissant! sur! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 117 !Goldoni,!La%Conversazione,!Act!I,!i.!I!can!speak,!write,!and!translate!in!fourteen!languages.!I!know! the!customs!and!rituals!of!the!most!distant!peoples,!and!I!know!what!is!unknown.!With!the!lowly,!I! am! Asian! (with% gravity),! with! the! powerful,! I! am! Italian! (with% humility).! In! expenses,! I! am! English.! With!the!ladies,!I!am!a!French!paladin!(bows%and%exits).%! 118 !ibid.,!Act!I,!vii.!This,!my!lady,!is!called!spleen!in!English,!which!in!Italy!means!melancholy.!! ! ! 128! ! ses!infortunes!et!en!nous!faisant!applaudir!son!triomphe.”119!Goldoni!thus!connects! himself!to!a!contemporary!literary!trend!through!which!he!can!also!create!greater! realism.!! ! In!the!character!of!Giacinto,!Goldoni!looks!ahead!to!modernity.!By!contrast,! his!Don!Fabio,!an!impoverished!nobleman,!represents!the!shadow!of!a!past!regime! fading! into! oblivion.! Yet,! while! his! desire! remains! that! of! acting! as! a! gallant! protector! of! ladies! in! need,! he! too! has! been! led! to! accept! new,! enlightened! perspectives:! Non!stimo!l’esser!bella,!! stimo!la!cognizione! di!distinguere!il!merto!e!le!persone.120! ! The! character! of! Don! Fabio! is! balanced! by! a! foil,! Sandrino,! of! common! origins! but! extremely!wealthy.!The!opposite!social!and!financial!situations!of!the!two!men!earn! them! the! nicknames! “Il! Conte! del! Fumo”! (the! Count! of! Smoke)! and! “l’Asino! d’Oro”! (the! Golden! Ass),! and! the! contrast! between! them! affords! ample! pretext! for! comic! action.!! ! As!concerns!serio!material,!however,!Goldoni!yet!again!demonstrates!a!new,! moderated! approach! that! trades! a! recondite! poetic! language! for! realistic! tones! of! greater!immediacy.!A!love!aria!sung!by!Don!Filiberto,!a!full!serio%character!of!noble! birth!and!of!good!standing,!exemplifies!Goldoni’s!by!now!affirmed!new!style:!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 119 !P.! Larthomas,! cited! in! A.! M.! Finetto,! “La! Pamela! e! La! Buona! Figliuola:! Il! Linguaggio! Patetico! di! Goldoni”,! in! Studi% Goldoniani% quaderno% 8! (Venezia:! Casa! di! Goldoni! e! Istituto! di! Studi! Teatrali! dei! Musei! Civici! Veneziani,! 1988);! 107.! (…)! an! intermediary! genre! between! comedy! and! tragedy,! that! introduces! ordinary! people,! virtuous! or! almost,! into! serious,! grave,! and! at! times! pathetic! circumstances,! exciting! us! to! virtue! in! moving! us! by! their! misfortunes,! and! leading! us! to! applaud! their!triumph.! 120 !Goldoni,! La% conversazione,% Act! I,! i.! I! don’t! value! beauty,! I! rather! treasure! the! capacity! to! distinguish!merit!and!people.!! ! ! 129! ! Via!resterò!per!compiacermi!ancora.! Troppo!questo!mio!cuor!v’ama!e!v’adora.!! ! ! Lo!so!che!il!sospetto!! ! fa!torto!al!mio!bene!! ! ma!soffro!nel!petto! ! gli!affanni,!le!pene! ! di!un!timido!amor.!! ! ! Conosco!l’error,!! ! confesso!l’inganno;! ! Me!stesso!condanno.!! ! Ma!palpito!ancora.!(parte)121% ! The!lightness!and!simplicity!of!this!piece!could!hardly!have!been!conceivable! in! the! traditional! melodramatic! style.! It! is! thus! clear! that! Goldoni! has! left! the! preceding! tradition! entirely! behind,! and! in! the! name! of! realistic! portrayal,! is! accomplishing! a! gradual! attenuation! of! the! rigid! divisions! between! buffo%and! serio% roles,! his! works! not! seeking! pure! comedy! but! rather! a! balanced! representation! of! modern!life!and!styles.!! As! a! final! note,! La% conversazione,% true! to! its! title,! is! also! an! exercise! in! linguistic! variety.! This! type! of! realism,! unlike! the! personal! reflections! of! Don! Filiberto,! is! used! instead! to! enhance! buffo% roles.! While! a! noblewoman! (Lindora)! sings! an! arietta% in! Venetian! dialect,! Lucrezia! the! serving1girl! offers! another! in! Bolognese,!and!others!follow!in!a!parade!of!linguistic!sketches!from!all!parts!of!Italy.! Later! in! the! work,! Goldoni! even! inserts! a! Calabrian! aria,! which! denotes! strong! affinities!to!the!llengua%napolitana%native!to!the!original!commedia%per%musica%(note! also!the!typical!melancholic!tone):%! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 121 !ibid.,!Act!II,!ii.!Alright!I’ll!remain,!to!appease!you!once!more.!My!heart!loves!and!adores!you!too! much.!I!know!that!suspicion!is!an!injustice!to!my!beloved,!but!I!suffer!in!my!breast!the!anxieties!and! the!torments!of!a!timid!love.!I!know!my!mistake,!I!confess!I!was!wrong;!I!condemn!myself.!And!yet,! my!heart!beats!still.%(exits)! ! ! 130! ! La!notte!quanno!dormo!penzu!tanto! e!quanno!penso!a!buie!mm’adormento.! Po!me!resveglio!co!no!core!schianto,! vado!ppe!tte!parlare!e!non!te!siento.122! ! The! linguistic! virtuosity! of! La% conversazione! perhaps! brings! to! mind! the! observations!of!Franco!Fido,!who!once!affirmed! “nei!suoi![di!Goldoni]!libretti!quello! che! la! parola! infeudata! alla! musica! perdeva! sul! versante! del! referente1! cioè! in! termini! di! capacità! di! evocare! con! efficacia! mimetica! e! critica! il! mondo! reale:! mercanti,!donne!di!casa,!servitori,!ecc.1!essa!guadagnava!dalla!parte!del!significante1! scherzi!e!giochi!di!parole,!paradossi!e!calembours,!onomatopee!e!iperboli,!equivoci!e! cacofonie! plurilingui.”123!Goldoni’s! inclusion! of! regional! dialects! is! quite! removed,! however,!from!the!“cacofonie!plurilingui”!here!described.!Rather,!a!textual!approach! demonstrates!that,!within!an!opera!whose!central!theme!is!travel!and!exploration,! linguistic!variety!instead!directly!supports!the!very!“efficacia!mimetica”!that!Goldoni! was!thought!to!lack.!! ! In!a!long!list!of!successful!drammi%giocosi,!only!three!more!will!be!considered! within! the! limits! of! the! present! chapter.! The! first! to! follow! La%conversazione%is! La% fiera%di%Sinigaglia%(The!Fair!of!Sinigaglia,!1760),!a!special!commission!by!the!Teatro% delle%Dame%in!Rome.!Goldoni’s!presentation!of!the!work!outside!the!familiar!context! of!his!own!Venetian!audiences!by!no!means!tempers!his!critical!agenda.!In!fact,!La% fiera% di% Sinigaglia% features! two! aristocrats! in! full! decline,! the! Conte! Ernesto! and! Lisaura,!“nobile!discaduta.”! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 122 !ibid.,!Act!III,!iv.!At!night,!when!I!sleep,!I!think!a!lot,!and!when!I!think!in!the!dark!I!fall!asleep.!Then! I!awake!with!my!heart!in!pieces,!I!go!to!speak!to!you,!and!yet!hear!nothing.!! 123 !Franco!Fido,!“Riforma!e!controriforma!del!teatro.!I!libretti!per!musica!di!Goldoni!fra!il!1748!e!il! 1753! in! Studi% Goldoniani,% vol.% 7% (Venezia:! Venezia:! Casa! di! Goldoni! e! Istituto! di! Studi! Teatrali! dei! Musei!Civici!Veneziani,!1985);!65.![previously!translated]! ! ! 131! ! Il! Conte! Ernesto! displays! gentlemanly! composure! (though! with! evident! affectation)!and!expresses!himself!in!the!language!of!a!parte%seria:%!! Se!si!desta!al!rumor!delle!schiere! stringe!il!ferro!il!guerriero!più!ardito;!! e!all’invito!dell’armi!già!parmi! che!feroce!sen!corra!a!pugnar.!! ! Io!non!sono!mia!bella!così.!! Perché’!ho!il!cor!di!pietade!ripieno! e!vien!meno!se!chiedigli!aita! la!bellezza!che!sa!lagrimar.124! ! Notwithstanding,! he! has! long1running! debts! with! every! vendor! in! the! market! of! Sinigaglia.! His! aristocratic! self1image! compels! his! to! take! the! “discaduta”! Lisaura! under!his!protection,!yet!he!must!bend!over!backwards!to!assure!her!a!living,!for,!as! his!middleman!Griffo!explains,!“è!un!protettore!senza!monete,!di!quei!che!si!usano!ai! nostri!dì.”125! While!a!destitute!nobleman!at!this!stage!of!Goldoni’s!production!is!no!longer! a!surprise,!an!absolute!novelty!of!this!work!is!the!appearance!of!a!borghese%just!as! ill1equipped.! Orazio,! a! merchant! of! Sinigaglia,! is,! much! like! the! Count,! drowning! in! debt.!Ted!Emery,!who!deemed!Goldoni!“the!bard!of!the!bourgeoisie,”!has!seen!what! he! terms! “ideological! fragility”! in! the! author’s! less! adulatory! representation! of! exponents! the! middle! class! (though! he! does! not! analyze! La% fiera% di% Sinigaglia% explicitly).!Emery!concludes!that,!in!targeting!the!middle!class!once!emblematic!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 124 !Goldoni,!La%Fiera%di%Sinigaglia,%Act!I,!i.!If!he!awakes!to!the!noise!of!troops,!the!bravest!warrior!will! grasp!his!sword,!and!at!the!call!to!arms,!I!can!already!see!him,!fierce,!running!towards!combat.!I,!my! beauty,!am!not!like!that.!Because!my!heart!is!full!of!tenderness,!and!it!nearly!faints!if!a!tearful!beauty! asks!for!help.!! 125 !ibid.,!Act!I,!ii.!He’s!a!penniless!protector,!one!of!those!in!vogue!nowadays.! ! ! 132! ! his!‘reform’!comedies,!the!author!abandons!his!efforts!for!realism!and!commences! an!inverse!process!(what!Franco!Fido!called!“counter1reform”).126! Textual!analysis,!however,!reveals!a!different!reality.!If!the!working1class,!in! social!ascension!for!decades,!now!also!begins!to!feel!the!pricks!of!corruption!as!the! result! of! past! affluence,! Goldoni’s! indication! of! this! new! societal! risk! can! only! be! understood!as!a!courageous!step!towards!even!greater!realism!and!objectivity,!not!a! change! in! belief.! In! concrete! terms,! this! translates! to! the! use! of! a! rich! lexicon! of! technical! terms! from! the! world! of! commerce,! including! denari,% ipoteche,% creditori,% cambiali%(cash,!mortgages,!creditors,!promissory!notes),!etc.!! In! the! same! way,! rather! than! “ideological! fragility,”! the! author’s! newly! targeted!critique!demonstrates!a!willingness!to!confront!even!the!most!paradoxical! of!problems,!and!reiterates!his!implicit!belief!in!the!moral!utility!of!comedy.!Orazio,! like!the!Count,!pretends!to!be!who!he!is!not,!boasting!economic!success.!Once!more,! the!pragmatic!Griffo!checks!his!imbalance!with!truth!“Superbia!e!povertà!stan!male! insieme,”127!and!eventually!Orazio!admits!his!own!responsibilities,!“per!far!di!più!di! quello!che!comportava!il!mio!stato,!da!me!stesso!mi!son!precipitato.”128! Ultimately,!poverty!neutralizes!disparities!of!rank:!! ORAZIO.%Son!servitor!di!lei! la!venero!e!la!stimo;!! ma!se!non!ha!denari,!! signor!conte!padron,!noi!siam!del!pari.!! ! Cosa!val!la!nobiltà! senza!il!lustro!del!contante?!! Il!signore!ed!il!mercante! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 126 !Ted!Emery,!Goldoni%as%Librettist;%77.!! 127 !Goldoni,!La%Fiera%di%Sinigaglia,!Act!I,!vi.!Pride!and!poverty!don’t!go!well!together.! 128 !ibid.,!Act!II,!vi.!In!seeking!to!move!beyond!my!state,!I!brought!about!my!own!downfall.! ! ! 133! ! non!si!stima,!se!non!ha.!! Non!ho!il!capo!cincinnato,! non!vo’!liscio!ne!staccato! ma!mi!faccio!rispettar,!! se!la!quaglia!fo!cantar.!! ! Mi!fanno!ridere!! questi!zerbini,!! senza!quattrini,!! quando!pretendono!! farsi!stimar.!! Non!se!n’avvedono,!! si!fan!burlar.!129! ! !! ! Other!contemporary!figures,!both!male!and!female,!also!offer!timely!critique.! Griffo,!a!practical!and!prudent!proto1Figaro,!becomes!the!voice!of!truth.!With!direct! language,!he!reveals!the!true!state!of!the!more!changeable!characters,!including!the! Count,! Orazio,! and! the! trinket1seller! Prospero,! who! lends! money! at! high! rates! of! interest:!!“costui!che!finge!l’uom!dabben.”130! ! With!realism!and!practicality,!Griffo!explains!his!trade!in!the!following!terms:!! Non!voglio!che!l’onesto.! Anch’io!vivo!di!questo!e!se!m’ingegno! col!mio!cervello!e!coll’industria!mia,! è!di!dover!ricompensato!io!sia.!! ! Nel!mio!mestiere! suole!accadere!! dei!casi!brutti;!! non!è!per!tutti!! fare!il!sensal.!! ! Saper!non!basta!! pesi!e!misure! ma!le!imposture!! convien!saper.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 129 !ibid.,!Act!II,!vi.!I!am!your!humble!servant,!and!respect!and!esteem!you;!yet,!if!you!have!no!money,! then,!sir!Count!and!Lord,!we!are!equals.!Of!what!value!is!nobility!without!the!sparkle!of!gold?!Neither! the!lord!nor!the!merchant!are!esteemed!if!they!lack!it.!I’m!not!a!Cincinnatus![statesman!and!Roman! consul],! I! don’t! go! about! smoothly,! nor! aloof,! but! I! too! can! make! others! respect! me,! if! I! tell! what! I! know.!They!make!me!laugh,!these!doormats!without!a!dime,!when!they!have!the!pretention!of!being! esteemed.!They!don’t!realize!they!expose!themselves!to!ridicule.!! 130 !ibid.,!Act!I,!vi.!(…)!he!who!pretends!to!be!an!upright!man.!! ! ! 134! ! ! Saper!conoscere! chi!può!pagare,! saper!distinguere! che!vuol!gabbare,! darla!ad!intendere!! all’uno!e!all’altro,!! e!pronto!e!scaltro!! per!profittar! saper!discorrere,! saper!trattar.!131! ! The!direct!language!and!short!phrases!here!employed!clearly!designate!this! aria!as!a!buffo%piece,!though!its!comic!effect!is!sensibly!outweighed!by!its!practical! bent.!The!illustration!of!the!struggles!and!deceits!encountered!in!daily!life!connect! this!piece!so!completely!to!the!real!world!that!it!would!appear!(if!not!for!the!musical! rhythm),! almost! drawn! out! of! a! prose! comedy.! Griffo! evokes! a! world! governed! by! commerce,!in!which!every!sort!of!man!tries!to!draw!his!own!profit.!Again,!we!note! the!insistence!on!wit!and!readiness!as!one’s!best!assets,!indispensable!for!survival!in! an!increasingly!complex!world!of!simulation!and!deceit.!! Griffo’s! good! sense! is! known! by! women! as! well.! In! particular,! we! find! his! feminine! counterpart! in! Giacinta,! a! locandiera% not! without! the! perspicacity! of! Goldoni’s! heroine! Mirandolina! (from! the! widely! famous! La% locandiera,! prose! comedy!of!1753).!Giacinta,!who!earns!her!profit!through!honest!labor,!also!speaks! with!candor!and!denounces!the!vanity!of!both!the!borghese%Orazio,!who!aspires!to! gentlemanly!state!while!greatly!indebted,!and!of!Lisaura,!the!noblewoman!who!has! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 131 !ibid.,!Act!II,!v.!I!want!nothing!except!what!is!honest.!This!is!my!living!too!and!if!I!set!my!mind!to!it,! and!apply!my!wit!and!my!hard!work,!it’s!only!fair!that!I!should!be!rewarded.!In!my!trade/!unpleasant! cases/! often! arise;! being! a! broker/! is! not! for! everyone./! It’s! not! enough/! to! know! weights! and! measures/!but!one!must!know/!impostures!too./!Know!how!to!tell/!who!can!make!payment/!and!to! distinguish/! who! wants! to! cheat/! and! drop! hints/! to! one! and! the! other/! and! quick! and! ready/! to! make!a!profit/!know!how!to!converse/!and!how!to!negotiate.!! ! ! 135! ! dissipated!her!holdings!so!completely!as!to!be!reduced!to!panhandling!(but!not!any! wiser! for! it)! and! entirely! dependent! on! the! generosity! (or! pomposity)! of! any! protettore%she! can! find.! Unlike! Griffo,! who! speaks! in! asides! or! alone,! Giacinta! does! not!shy!from!direct!confrontation:!! Non!mi!seccate.!! (…)! Sulla!fiera!in!questo!stato! non!si!viene!a!civettar.!(a%Lisaura)% % Voglio!dir!quel!che!mi!pare.!(ad%Orazio)% Vi!dovreste!vergognare,!! questa!vita!non!si!fa.!(a%Lisaura)% Siete!ben!accompagnati,!! due!falliti,!due!spiantati,!(a%tutti%due)% e!la!vostra!falsità,!! no,!non!merita!pietà.!(parte%seguita%da%Orazio)132% In! conclusion,! La% fiera% di% Sinigaglia% is! a! markedly! modern! work! both! in! realistic! style! and! content,! which! offers! a! continual! critique! of! contemporary! and! widespread! social! issues.! The! ancient! class! divisions! appear! by! this! point! completely!dismantled,!and!Goldoni’s!portrayal!of!corruption!and!vanity!within!the! borghesia%signals!a!new!phase!in!his!society!and!in!his!theatre.!Much!like!Il%mercato% di%Malmantile,!the!very!setting!of!La%fiera%di%Sinigaglia,%anchored!within!the!world!of! commerce,%provides!a!fertile!shared!space!for!the!manifestation!of!a!large!array!of! social!types.!The!truthfulness!and!intelligence!of!those!who!are!honest!in!their!trade,! thrown! into! direct! comparison! with! those! who,! as! Goldoni! writes! “…non! se! n’avvedono,! si! fan! burlar”! (don’t! realize! that! they! expose! themselves! to! ridicule),! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 132 !ibid.,! Act! II,! xiii.! Don’t! bother! me.! You! shouldn’t! be! flirting! like! this! at! the! market! (to%Lisaura).! I! want!to!tell!you!what!I!really!think!(to%Orazio).!You!should!be!ashamed!of!yourself,!this!is!no!life!to! live!(to%Lisaura).!You!go!very!well!together,!two!failures,!and!penniless!(to%both),!and!your!falsehood,! no,!it!merits!no!pity.!! ! ! 136! ! allows!for!new,!forward1looking!ideals!of!integrity!and!social!equality!to!surface,!all! the!while!taking!Goldoni’s!realist!agenda!to!a!higher!level!of!efficacy.!! ! The! above1cited! operas! also! exemplify! how! the! artisanal! world,! since! the! 1750151! season! a! central! element! of! Goldoni’s! prose! comedies,! appears! with! increasing! frequency! in! Goldoni’s! drammi% giocosi.! The! realism! inherent! to! this! subject!matter!prompts!Goldoni!to!revisit!the!merchant!world!in!L’amore%artigiano% (Artisan!Love,!1761),%part!of!a!trilogy!with!L’amor%contadino%(Country!Love,!1760,!in! which!again!the!simplicity!of!rural!life!is!praised!as!an!antidote!to!moral!corruption)! and! L’amore% in% caricatura! (Love! in! Caricature,! 1761,! another! attack! on! the! ceremonial,!superficial!pretenses!of!aristocratic!protagonists).!L’amore%artigiano%too! revolves! around! a! shared! common! space! or! piazza,%in! which! different! botteghe%or! ateliers!are!shown!open!and!working!concurrently:! Piazzetta! come! nelle! scene! antecedenti,! colle! botteghe! aperte! del! fabro! e! del! calzolaio! e! di! più! in! mezzo!la!bottega!aperta!di!legnaiuolo!col!banco!fuori! e!varie!tavole!ed!instrumenti!di!cotal!arte.!Fuori!della! bottega! del! fabro! una! picciola! incudine! e! fuori! di! quella! del! calzolaio! una! pietra,! su! cui! tali! artisti! sogliono! battere! il! cuoio;! di! qua! e! di! là! le! case! come! prima,!etc.133! ! Perhaps! it! is! no! coincidence! that! this! same! realistic! strategy,! using! a! shared! work! space!that!permits!the!interaction!of!many,!will!be!used!by!Goldoni!for!the!signature! opening! of! Le% baruffe% chiozzotte% (The! Quarrels! in! Chioggia,! 1762),% a! famous! prose! comedy!written!just!a!few!years!later.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 133 !Goldoni,!L’Amore%artigiano,%Act!I,!xvii.!Small!piazza!as!in!the!previous!scenes,!with!the!smith!and! the! cobbler! shops! open,! and! in! addition! the! carpenter’s! house! between! them,! with! a! working! table! outside! and! various! other! tables! with! instruments! of! such! trade.! Outside! the! smith’s! shop,! a! small! anvil,!and!outside!of!the!cobblers,!a!stone,!on!which!these!artists!beat!and!soften!the!leather;!here!and! there!houses!as!before.!! ! ! 137! ! ! The! opera! furthermore! contains! an! arietta% in! Venetian! dialect! (Act! II),! and! furthers!Goldoni’s!newly!moderated,!disenchanted!approach!to!the!characterization! of!both!serio%and!buffo%roles.!The!artisans!are!humble!people!who!serve!the!resident! nobility,! yet! enter! into! discourse! with! the! higher! class! in! a! new,! unabashed! and! direct! manner,! claiming! the! rights! and! dignity! of! their! work! over! the! capricious! pretenses!of!their!patrons.!Rosina,!a!seamstress,!speaks!to!a!noblewoman!in!terms! that!hitherto!would!have!been!inconceivable:!! !! !! !! ! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! ! !! !! Così!mi!tratta?! Una!sarta!par!mio!tratta!così?! Sono!stata!una!pazza!a!venir!qui.! Servo!le!prime!dame,! servo!le!cittadine! ed!ho!piena!la!casa! d’abiti!di!velluto!e!di!broccato.! Altro!che!questo!straccio!rivoltato!!(strapazza%il%vestito)! (…)! Ragazza,!fanciulla! qual!ella!mi!vede,! la!testa!mi!frulla! più!ch’ella!non!crede.! Si!tenga!signora! la!sua!nobiltà,! Rosina!sartora! qui!più!non!verrà.!(parte)134! ! At!the!same!time,!part!of!this!working!class!is!by!no!means!immune!to!fallacy,! as!Goldoni!also!includes!characters!who!suffer!from!the!familiar!temptation!of!wine! and!gambling!(Titta),!and!who!behave!with!presumption.!In!a!scene!unlike!any!other! in! opera,! newlyweds! Rosina! and! Giannino,! after! a! long,! trying! odyssey! towards! marriage! and! much! poetic! vagheggiamento,! begin! to! vehemently! argue! over! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 134 !ibid.,!Act!I,!xiv.!This!is!how!you!treat!me?!A!seamstress!of!my!caliber!you!treat!like!this?!I!was!mad! to! come! here.! I! serve! the! first! ladies,! and! all! the! noblewomen,! and! my! house! is! full! of! velvet! and! brocade!gowns.!Far!from!these!pitiful!rags!!(she%crumples%the%gown)%(…)!Missy!or!maiden,!whatever! you! see! me! as,! my! head! is! spinning! more! than! you! think.! Keep! your! nobility,! Madam,! Rosina! the! seamstress!will!never!come!here!again.!(exits)% ! ! 138! ! expenses! as! soon! as! they! are! pronounced! man! and! wife,! partially! calling! into! question!the!traditional!lieto%fine.!! A! secondary! surprise! in! this! regard! is! the! elegant! serio% language! used! by! Giannino,! a! carpenter! (note! the! archaic! allusions! to! death! and! to! the! burning! of! love):! !! !! ! !! !! !! Non!posso!riposar,!non!trovo!loco,! cerco!qualche!ristoro!alla!frescura.! Ma!dove!i’!vado!porto!meco!il!foco! ed!è!il!mantice!mio!fra!quelle!mura.! (…)! Oh!s’io!potessi!rinfrescarmi!un!poco! non!morirei!dall’amorosa!arsura,! amore!il!tuo!Giannin!si!raccomanda,! fagli!vedere!il!sol!da!questa!banda.135! ! These!lines!are!almost!indistinguishable!from!those!uttered!by!the!true!parte%seria,% Fabrizio.! Again,! Goldoni! demonstrates! that! the! distinction! between! serio%and! buffo% has!now!moved!beyond!simple!distinctions!of!class!(ever!more!called!into!question),! and!has!come!to!hinge!instead!upon!the!interior!equilibrium!and!quality!of!conduct! of!the!individual.!! Finally,! we! come! to! the! last! noteworthy! opera! of! Goldoni’s! Venetian! years,! the!peculiar!La%donna%di%governo%(The!Governess,!1761,!premiered!in!Rome,!at!the! Teatro%Argentina).!Corallina,!the!donna%di%governo!is!labeled!as!a!parte%buffa,!though! her!condition!is!hardly!laughable.!She!is!bound!to!a!lover!(Ridolfo)!who!spends!his! money! and! hers! on! the! gambling! table,! and,! unaccustomed! to! working,! harbors! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 135 !ibid,!Act!I,!i.!I!cannot!rest,!I!find!no!place,!I!search!in!vain!for!cool!relief.!Instead,!wherever!I!go!I! bring! with! me! the! burning! fire,! and! my! bellows! are! behind! those! walls.! (…)! Oh,! if! only! I! could! find! refreshment,!I!would!not!die!from!the!burning!of!love,!love,!Giannino!entrusts!himself!to!you,!let!him! see!the!sun![the!face!of!his!beloved]!before!him.!! ! ! 139! ! other!vices!too:!“Ha!il!giochetto!e!l’osteria,!va!la!notte!in!compagnia,”136!etc.!Corallina! is!blind!to!his!true!nature,!yet!with!the!same!lies!and!deceptions!takes!advantage!of! the!elderly!and!wealthy!Fabrizio.!Fabrizio,!for!his!foolishness,!is!also!listed!as!a!parte% buffa,%while!his!virtuous!niece!is!instead!a!seria,%though!they!share!the!same!social! condition.%From!Fabrizio,!Corallina!obtains!gifts!and!attentions,!but!not!yet!satisfied! also! steals! from! his! cellar,! thereby! providing! for! her! lover! Ridolfo,! her! widowed! sister! Lindora,! and! Moschino,! a! servant! and! accomplice.! La%donna%di%governo%thus! features! a! negative! heroine,! who! creates! grief! for! the! parti% serie% yet! remains! unpunished!thanks!to!the!protection!procured!by!her!arts.!! Attention!to!profit!permeates!the!work.!It!is!manifest!in!the!actions!of!almost! every! character,! and! dispositions! change! in! relation! to! circumstance,! not! to! moral! regulation.! Even! Lindora,! who! at! first! tries! in! good! faith! to! alert! her! sister! to! Ridolfo’s!true!nature,!in!little!time!transforms!thanks!to!the!promise!of!payment!in! exchange! for! her! silence.! Goldoni! thereby! creates! a! desolate! panorama! of! superficiality!and!moral!emptiness!in!which!each!maneuvers!the!affections!of!others! to!his!own!gain,!such!that!even!his!social!critique!appears!flattened!by!saturation.!! Amidst!the!monotony!of!such!corruption,!some!relief!and!stylistic!variety!is! provided! by! the! parti% serie,% who! in! this! work! display! renewed! adherence! to! their! rightful! moral! foundation.! Interestingly,! it! is! not! made! explicit! whether! the! serio% characters! have! any! claim! to! aristocratic! heritage.! All! we! know! is! that! Rosalba’s! uncle! is! a! benestante% (a! wealthy! man).! This,! together! with! the! fact! that! they! are! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 136 !Goldoni,!La%Donna%di%Governo,!Act!I,!iii.!He’s!got!gambling,!and!the!pubs,!and!spends!the!night!in! company…! ! ! 140! ! never!addressed!nor!announced!by!any!title!within!the!work,!would!instead!suggest! their!pertaining!to!the!borghesia%and!not!to!the!nobility.!! We! may! therefore! consider! the! serio% pair! as! the! final! tile! in! Goldoni’s! vast! mosaic! of! social! types.! Having! idealized! and! criticized! commoners,! nobles,! and! borghesi%alike,!Goldoni!now!assigns!serio%content!to!figures!of!realistic!moral,!social,! and! financial! condition,! and! he! does! this! in! the! measure! not! of! verses! or! single! pieces!as!before,!but!over!the!entirety!of!their!roles.!The!consistent!characterization! and!reliable!behavior!of!the!parti%serie%is!in!fact!even!more!exalted!in!its!contrast!to! the!changeability!and!inconstancy!demonstrated!by!the!others.!! !On!the!textual!level,!the!most!noteworthy!characteristic!of!these!parti%serie%is! the! inclusion! of! elements! of! larmoyant,% present! in! the! arie! of! both! Rosalba! and! Fulgenzio!(her!lover).!To!cite!just!one!example,!the!following!aria!by!Rosalba!evokes! true!sympathy:!!! !! !! !! !! !! ! !! !! !! ! Sconsolata!quest’alma!dolente! solitaria!fra!taciti!orrori! va!spiegando!coll’erbe!e!coi!fiori! quell’affanno!che!strugge!il!mio!cor.! Fuggo!l’odioso!aspetto! dell’ingrata!famiglia.!Ogniun!m’insulta,! mi!tradisce!ciascun.!Il!zio!medesmo! frutto!del!vile!inganno! mio!nemico!si!è!reso!e!mio!tiranno.137! This!serio%piece!combines!elements!of!tragedy!and!despair!with!the!dignity!of! a! virtuous! woman,! and! the! bitter! awareness! of! being! the! victim! of! deceit.! It! is! a! delicately!balanced!example!of!the!new!brand!of!serio%that!Goldoni!has!established! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 137 !ibid.,% Act! III,! i.! Desolate,! my! sorrowful! soul,! solitary! amongst! tacit! horrors,! can! confide! to! the! meadows! and! flowers! the! torment! that! consumes! my! heart.! I! wish! to! flee! the! odious! image! of! my! ungrateful!family.!Each!insults!me,!all!betray!me.!My!uncle!himself,!as!a!result!of!the!vile!deception,! now!has!become!my!enemy,!and!my!tyrant.!! ! ! 141! ! through! the! course! of! his! production,! a! style! realistically! moderated! in! tone! and! enhanced!in!its!psychological!immediacy.!! Looking!back!over!the!production!of!his!Venetian!drammi%giocosi,%it!is!clear! that! Goldoni’s! mature! style! as! manifest! in! Rosalba’s! aria! has! traveled! a! great! distance!from!the!Metastasian!serio%of!La%scuola%moderna.%At!the!end!of!more!than!a! decade’s! work,! he! is! able! to! create! a% nuanced,! intimate! illustration! of! emotional! complexity! hardly! conceivable! fifteen! years! earlier,! the! product! of! a! lengthy! and! gradual!process!of!creative!experimentation.!The!attenuated!contrast!between!buffo% and!serio%and!the!new,!realistic!qualities!of!both!dramatic!types!have!now!matured! in! the! dramma% giocoso! to! form! the! foundation! of! a! decidedly! modern! and! newly! relevant!opera!theatre.!! ! From&speech&to&song& Having!witnessed!the!evolution!of!Goldoni’s!texts!for!music!within!the!opera! theatre! tradition,! the! final,! most! important! element! that! confirms! the! novelty! and! innovation! of! his! drammi% giocosi! resides! in! the! direct! connections! between! the! libretti!and!his!groundbreaking!works!of!prose!comedy.!! Common! ground! in! comedies! and! libretti! can! be! found! in! both! content! and! style.! The! sheer! volume! of! Goldoni’s! comedies! (well! over! 100)! does! not! permit! consideration! of! them! all,! or! even! a! portion,! in! the! detail! they! merit,! therefore! we! limit!the!discussion!to!only!a!reference!of!the!most!representative!points!of!contact! in!this!respect.!! ! ! ! 142! ! i.%Common%themes% Thematically,!affinity!between!libretti%and!comedies!is!widely!apparent!in!the! character!types,!situations,!and!social!mores!exposed!in!both.!As!early!as!1748,!the! same! year! as! La%scuola%moderna,! Goldoni’s! prose! theatre! is! already! occupied! with! contemporary!custom!in!the!extraordinarily!famous!La%putta%onorata%(followed!by! the!sequel,!La%buona%moglie),!which!also!displays!precocious!elements!of!larmoyant.! Only! a! short! while! later,! we! find! hallmark! original! characters! in! works! such! as! L’avventuriero% onorato! (The! Honored! Adventurer,! 1751),! a! partially! autobiographical!comedy!that!presents!a!false!lawyer!and!a!failed!merchant,!and!La% moglie% saggia! (The! Wise! Wife,! 1752),! an! unicum% even! for! Goldoni,! in! which! the! heroine! Rosaura,! a! virtuous! wife! betrayed! by! her! husband! Ottavio! (naturally,! Medebach)!pays!an!unprecedented!visit!to!her!rival!(the!Marchesa!Beatrice)!to!ask! advice! on! how! to! win! him! back.138!Other! works! of! note! for! their! complexity! of! characterization!include!La%figlia%obbediente,!(The!Obedient!Daughter,!1752),!and!Gli% innamorati!(The!Beloveds,!1759).! I%mercatanti!(The!Merchants,!1753,!originally!I%due%Pantaloni,%though!masks! and! dialect! were! eliminated! when! Goldoni! sent! the! work! to! print)! launches! a! positive!image!of!the!merchant!class!and!targets!familiar!themes!of!prodigality!and! dissipation,! as! Pantalone,! on! the! edge! of! ruin! thanks! to! his! son’s! unchecked! spending,! is! saved! by! a! merchant! from! Holland.! Il% festino! (1754)! attacks! another! relevant!phenomenon,!cicisbeismo,%and!so!too!does!La%sposa%sagace!(The!Sagacious! Bride,! 1758),! set! in! Palermo.! Curiously,! this! work! presents! a! female! character,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 138 !Goldoni,!La%Moglie%Saggia,%see!in!particular!Act!II,!vii.!! ! ! 143! ! Petronilla,! homonymous! to! the! protagonist! of! the! libretto! La% ritornata% da% Londra.! The!two!women!not!only!share!their!name,!but!moreover!their!circumstances!and! character! traits:! both! are! surrounded! by! cicisbei,! and! both! seek! and! enjoy! their! attentions.! ! There! is! no! textual! evidence! to! suggest! a! direct! adaptation! from! one! work!to!the!other!in!this!case,!but!similarities!are!such!that!a!common!inspiration! for!both!characters!should!not!be!excluded.!! Naturally,! we! cannot! forget! the! elevated! realism! of! Goldoni’s! comedies! in! Venetian! dialect,! including! Le%donne%de%casa%soa%(The! Women! of! Their! Own! Home,! 1755,!given!at!the!Teatro%S.%Luca),!Il%campiello!(The!Venetian!Piazza,!1756),!and!the! later! Le% baruffe% chiozzote! (1762).! The! first! two! in! particular,! which! present! the! popular!life!of!Goldoni’s!city!in!a!genuine,!quotidian!style,!met!with!overwhelming! success,! and! not! only! in! Venice! despite! their! strong! dialectal! ties.! The! higher! echelons!of!Venetian!society!are!instead!central!to!Le%morbinose!(The!Spirited!Girls,! 1758).! While! we! recall! Goldoni’s! most! famous! accomplishments! in! the! direction! of! realistic!theatre,!however,!we!should!not!overlook!the!fact!that!the!author’s!process! in! prose! theatre,! much! like! for! his! libretti,! does! not! always! follow! a! comfortable! linear! trajectory.! In! particular,! just! as! Goldoni! often! but! not! always! illustrates! modernity! or! contemporary! life! in! his! libretti,! some! of! his! comedies,! or! the! styles! employed!in!them,!also!take!steps!away!from!the!current!reality.!! We!cannot!forget!that!his!mature!production!includes!works!such!as!Terenzio! (1754)! and! Torquato%Tasso! (1755),! for! example,! attempts! in! the! field! of! historical! comedy.! In! these! works,! Goldoni! abandoned! his! own! preferences! in! the! effort! to! ! ! 144! ! emulate! a! different! style! very! much! in! vogue,! and! thereby! match! or! contrast! the! great!success!of!Pietro!Chiari,!who!specialized!in!this!type!of!theatre.!! Other! comedies! parody! or! draw! from! the! generic! imagery! of! older! comic! currents!(e.g.!La%pupilla!(The!Pupil,!1757),!Il%padre%per%amore!(The!Father!for!Love,! 1757)),! and! most! importantly,! become! grounds! for! linguistic! experimentation.! In! fact,!a!surprising!number!of!Goldoni’s!comedies!are!not!written!in!the!realistic!prose! he! is! best! remembered! for,! but! in! versi% martelliani% (Alexandrian! verse)! and! endecasyllable.!La%scuola%di%ballo%(The!Dance!School,!1759)!is!even!a!rare!excursion! in!difficult!terzine!(tercets),!an!effort!to!gain!back!audiences!after!Goldoni’s!period!of! absence!in!Rome!(which!however!did!not!meet!with!much!success).!We!also!find!a! singular! return! of! the! Commedia% dell’Arte! masks! in! a! very! late! comedy,! Il% buon% compatriotto! (The! Good! Compatriot,! 1762),! written! just! before! the! author’s! departure!for!Paris.!Goldoni’s!theatre!once!in!Paris!will!also!more!consistently!slip! back! towards! the! Commedia% dell’Arte,! but! for! specific! reasons! concerning! his! appointment!at!the!Comédie%Italienne,%as!we!shall!see!in!the!following!chapter.!! Ultimately,! the! variation! of! content! and! language! in! his! prose! comedies! testifies!that,!much!like!his!libretti,!Goldoni’s!‘principal’!theatre!too!does!not!always! follow! a! clean! line! of! progress! in! the! direction! of! the! reform! agenda.! Rather,! it! is! subject!to!experimentation!and,!in!some!cases,!external!stylistic!demands.!Goldoni’s! deviations! or! ‘experiments’! do! not! however! undermine! the! success! or! integrity! of! his! larger! project,! but! are! instead! an! important! aid! to! understanding! the! multi1 faceted!nature!of!a!corpus!often!considered!homogeneous.!!! ii.%Common%dramatic%techniques:%ensemble% ! ! 145! ! Beyond! linguistic! experimentation,! a! more! significant! point! of! contact! between! comedies! and! drammi% giocosi% resides! in! Goldoni’s! improvements! of! structure! in! both! theatrical! genres.! In! opera,! this! is! particularly! manifest! in! the! expanded!use!and!complexity!of!ensembles,!as!we!have!seen.!While!the!layering!of! independent! voices! is! by! nature! a! musical! technique,! notably,! elements! of! textual! polyphony!also!become!noticeably!present!in!Goldoni’s!mature!prose!comedy,!and! moreover!acquire!increasing!prominence.!! His!Venetian!masterpiece!I%rusteghi!(1760)!can!be!considered!an!exemplary! end!result!in!this!respect.!This!comedy!in!dialect!boasts!the!particularity!of!featuring! four!protagonists,!all!of!similar!character!and!belief,!yet!each!clearly!individual;!not! an!easy!task,!as!Goldoni!reminds!us:!! Si! scorge! dal! titolo! della! Commedia! non! essere! un! solo! il! Protagonista,! ma! varii! insieme,! e! in! fatti! sono! eglino! quattro,! tutti! dello! stesso! carattere,! ma! con! varie!tinte!delineati,!cosa!per!dire!il!vero!dificilissima,! sembrando! che! più! caratteri! eguali! in! una! stessa! Commedia!possano!più!annoiare!che!dilettare.139!! ! The!four!rusteghi!(a!Count,!a!cittadino,!and!two!mercanti)!most!often!appear! together,! creating! symmetry! of! discourse! in! a! polyphonic! style.! To! the! quartet! of! protagonists! Goldoni! also! adds! the! coalition! of! their! respective! spouses,! who! counterweigh!their!husbands’!strictness!and!conservatism!(“El!xè!un!orso,!fia!mia;! nol! se! diverte! élo,! e! nol! vol! che! se! divertimo! gnanca! nu”140)! with! liveliness! and! a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 139 !Goldoni,!I%Rusteghi,%“The!Author!to!his!Readers.”!From!the!title!you!will!see!that!the!Comedy!does! not!have!one!single!protagonist,!but!different!ones!together,!and!in!fact!they!are!four,!all!of!the!same! character,!but!delineated!in!a!variety!of!tones,!something!to!tell!the!truth!very!difficult!to!do,!because! it! seems! that! multiple! similar! characters! in! a! Comedy! would! appear! to! be! boresome,! rather! than! entertaining.!! 140 !ibid.,!Act!I,!i.!He’s!a!bear,!my!child.!He!never!enjoys!himself,!and!he’s!determined!that!we!shouldn’t! either.!! ! ! 146! ! desire! to! experience! the! world! (“Via! donca,! che! el! ne! mena! un! pocheto! in! maschera”141).! The! interactions! of! the! two! quartets! thus! create! multiple! level! of! symmetry,! not! only! within! each! group! but! moreover! between! them,! as! the! conservative! men! and! progressive! women! challenge! each! other! in! a! battle! of! the! sexes.!! !! Midway!through!the!first!act,!Goldoni!creates!a!duet!that!reveals!more!than!a! few!affinities!with!the!choral!quality!of!his!drammi%giocosi.!A!musical!progression!is! carried!through!the!entire!scene!(therefore!a!larger!excerpt!is!required):!! LUNARDO.!Gh'aveu!dito,!che!el!volè!maridar?!! MAURIZIO.!Ghe!l'ho!dito.!! LUNARDO.!Cossa!dìselo?!! MAURIZIO.! El! dise,! che! el! xè! contento,! ma! el! gh'averave!gusto!de!véderla.!! LUNARDO.! Sior! no,! questi! no! xè! i! nostri! pati.! (con% isdegno)!! MAURIZIO.%!Via,!via,!no!andè!in!colera,!che!el!puto!farà! tuto!quelo!che!voggio!mi.!! LUNARDO.!Co!volè,!vegnimo!a!dir!el!merito,!la!dota!xè! parecchiada.!! (…)! MAURIZIO.!No!stè!a!spender!in!abiti,!che!no!voggio.! LUNARDO.!Mi!ve!la!dago,!come!che!la!xè.!! MAURIZIO.!Gh'àla!roba!de!séa?! LUNARDO.!La!gh'ha!qualche!strazzeto.!! MAURIZIO.!In!casa!mia!no!voggio!séa.!Fin!che!son!vivo! mi,! l'ha! da! andar! co! la! vesta! de! lana,! e! no! vòi! né! tabarini,! né! scuffie,! né! cerchi,! né! toppè,! né! cartoline! sul!fronte.! LUNARDO.! Bravo,! sieu! benedeto.! Cusì! me! piase! anca! mi.!! (…)! LUNARDO.! Ghe! xè! pochi,! che! pensa! come! che! pensemo!nu.!! MAURIZIO.! E! ghe! xè! pochi,! che! gh'abbia! dei! bezzi,! come!che!gh'avemo!nu.!! LUNARDO.!I!dise!mo,!che!nu!no!savemo!gòder.!! MAURIZIO.! Poverazzi!! ghe! vèdeli! drento! del! nostro! cuor?!Crédeli,!che!no!ghe!sia!altro!mondo,!che!quelo,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 141 !ibid.,!Act!I,!i.!Come,!take!us!out!in!costume!for!a!bit.!! ! ! 147! ! che! i! gode! lori?! Oh! compare,! el! xè! un! bel! gusto! el! poder!dir:!gh'ho!el!mio!bisogno,!no!me!manca!gnente,! e! in! t'una! ocorenza! posso! meter! le! man! su! cento! zecchini!!! LUNARDO.! Sior! sì,! e! magnar! ben,! dei! boni! caponi,! delle!bone!polastre,!e!dei!boni!straculi!de!vedèlo.! MAURIZIO.!E!tutto!bon,!e!a!bon!marcà,!perché!se!paga! de!volta!in!volta.!! LUNARDO.!E!a!casa!soa;!senza!strepiti,!senza!sussuri.!! MAURIZIO.!E!senza!nissun,!che!v'intriga!i!bisi.! LUNARDO.!E!nissun!sa!i!fati!nostri.!! MAURIZIO.!E!semo!paroni!nu.!! LUNARDO.!E!la!muggier!no!comanda.!! MAURIZIO.!E!i!fioi!sta!da!fioi.! LUNARDO.!E!mia!fia!xè!arlevada!cusì.!! MAURIZIO.!Anca!mio!fio!xè!una!perla.!No!gh'è!pericolo! che!el!buta!via!un!bagatin.! LUNARDO.! La! mia! puta! sa! far! de! tuto.! In! casa! ho! volesto,!che!la!faza!de!tuto.!Fin!a!lavar!i!piati.!! MAURIZIO.! E! a! mio! fio,! perché! no! voggio,! che! co! le! serve! el! se! ne! impazza,! gh'ho! insegnà! a! tirar! suso! i! busi!delle!calze,!e!metter!i!fondèli!alle!braghesse.! LUNARDO.!Bravo.!(ridendo)!! MAURIZIO.!Sì!dasseno.%(ridendo)!! LUNARDO.! Via! fémolo! sto! sposalizio;! destrighemose.! (fregandosi%le%mani,%e%ridendo)!! MAURIZIO.!Co!volè,!compare.!! LUNARDO.! Ancuo! v'aspetto! a! disnar! con! mi.! Za! savè,! che!ve!l'ho!dito.!Gh'ho!quatro!latesini,vegnimo!a!dir!el! merito,!ma!tanto!fati.!! MAURIZIO.!I!magneremo.!! LUNARDO.!Se!goderemo.!! MAURIZIO.!Staremo!aliegri.!! LUNARDO.!E!po!i!dirà,!che!semo!salvadeghi!!! MAURIZIO.!Puffe!! LUNARDO.!Martuffi!!(partono)142!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 142 !ibid.,!Act!I,!v.!Lunardo:!Have!you!told!him!that!you!want!to!marry!him!off?!Maurzio:!I’ve!told!him.! L:!And!what!does!he!say?!M:!He!says!he’s!happy,!but!he’d!like!to!see!her.!L:!No!sir,!this!was!not!our! agreement!(angrily)!M:!Oh!come!come,!don’t!get!angry,!the!boy!will!do!everything!I!want!him!to!do.!L:! Well! then,! whenever! you! like,! we! can! get! down! to! business.! The! dowry! has! been! prepared.! (…)! M:! Don’t!spend!in!fancy!dresses,!I!don’t!want!that.!L:!No,!I’ll!send!her!to!you!just!as!she!is.!M:!Does!she! have!silk!gowns?!L:!She’s!just!got!a!couple!strips!of!it.!M:!I!don’t!want!silk!in!my!house.!As!long!as!I’m! alive,!she’s!going!to!have!to!wear!a!plain!wool!dress,!and!I!don’t!want!cloaks,!or!bonnets,!or!hoops,! nor!decorations,!nor!bows!nor!frills!in!the!front.!L:!Good!for!you,!God!bless.!I!like!it!so!myself.!(…)!L:! There!are!few,!who!share!our!opinions.!M:!And!there!are!few!who!have!the!money!that!we!have.!L:! And!they!say!we!don’t!know!how!to!enjoy!life.!M:!Poor!fools!!Can!they!see!inside!our!hearts?!Do!they! really!think!that!there!is!no!other!world!but!theirs,!which!they!enjoy?!Oh!friend,!what!pleasure!it!is!to! be!able!to!say:!I!have!all!I!require,!I!lack!nothing,!and!if!I!ever!had!the!need,!I!could!draw!up!a!hundred! zecchini.!L:!Yes!indeed,!and!to!eat!well,!good!capons!and!hens,!and!veal!hanks.!M:!And!all!delicious,! and!a!good!deal,!because!we!pay!as!we!acquire.!L:!And!in!our!houses,!without!scenes!or!mutterings.! ! ! 148! ! ! Apart! from! the! comic! yet! realistic! characterization! of! the! two! men,! who! embody! the! “onesto! ridicolo”! that! Goldoni! so! often! shows! on! the! stage! to! expose! certain!universal!flaws,!this!scene!displays!a!keen!attention!to!pacing.!From!initially! unmeasured! prose! discourse,! Goldoni! gradually! transitions! into! shorter! and! symmetrical! exchanges! (“E! nissun! sa! i! fati! nostri/! E! semo! paroni! nu/! E! la! muggier…/! E! i! fioi…! “etc.),! and! ultimately! ends! the! scene! in! a! triumphant! chorale! style!(“I!magneremo/!se!goderemo”)!that!utilizes!both!rhyme!and!meter,!two!highly! musical!elements.!! We! must! also! note! the! musical! stringendo% created! by! his! progressive! shortening! and! rapprochement! of! entrances,! almost! as! a! fugal! diminution.! Such! is! the! affinity! to! operatic! style! by! the! end! of! this! scene,! that! its! final! verses! could! function! perfectly! in! a! musical! ensemble! finale,! accompanied! by! a! progressive! crescendo% and! culminating! in! the! hasty! exit! of! the! characters! with! enthusiastic! impetus.! ! To!cite!just!one!further!example,!we!find!the!same!complexity,!but!on!a!much! larger!scale,!in!the!nostalgic!masterpiece!Una%delle%ultime%sere%di%Carnovale%(One!of! the! Last! Evenings! of! Carnival,! 1762).! This! work! is! especially! significant! for! its! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! M:!And!without!anyone!to!poke!around!in!my!money.!L:!And!nobody!knows!our!business.!M:!And!we! are!the!boss.!L:!And!the!wife!can’t!tell!me!what!to!do.!M:!And!the!children!behave!as!children!should.! L:! And! I’ve! brought! my! daughter! up! this! way.! M:! And! my! son! is! a! pearl.! There’s! no! chance! of! him! wasting!a!penny.!L:!And!my!daughter!knows!how!to!do!everything.!At!home,!I!decided!she!should!do! all!sorts!of!jobs.!She!even!washes!the!dishes.!M:!And!my!son,!since!I!don’t!want!him!to!be!interested!in! servant! girls,! I’ve! taught! him! how! to! mend! his! own! socks,! and! hem! his! own! trousers.! L:! Bravo! (laughing)% M:! Yes! indeed! (laughing)% L:! Quick! then,! let’s! make! this! marriage! happen! (rubbing% his% hands%together%and%laughing)%M:!Whenever!you!like.!L:!Then!I’ll!expect!you!to!dine!with!me!tonight.! You! already! know,! I’ve! told! you.! I’ve! got! four! sweetbreads! at! home,! and! they’ll! be! cooked! as! they! should!be.!M:!And!we’ll!eat!them.!L:!And!we’ll!have!a!good!time.!M:!And!we’ll!be!merry.!L:!Let!people! say!that!we!are!savage!!M:!Puff!(expressing%marvel%and%disdain)%L:!Dimwits!!(both%leave)%! ! ! 149! ! allegorical! design,! through! which! Goldoni,! representing! himself! in! one! of! the! characters,!metaphorically!took!his!leave!from!his!Venetian!public!one!the!eve!of!his! journey! to! France.! Another! realistic,! Venetian! comedy! in! dialect,! Una% delle% ultime% sere%is!situated!within!the!domestic!world!of!a!textile!merchant,!and!pays!homage!to! the!industry!and!honest!profit!of!that!trade.!It!is,!in!Goldoni’s!own!words,!“la!pittura! del!sistema!e!del!costume!di!quel!ceto!di!persone.”143! ! The!entire!action!takes!place!within!one!evening!during!Carnevale,!as!the!title! suggests.! The! central! event! being! a! convivial! dinner! followed! by! festivities! and! games,!this!comedy!like!few!others!thrives!on!the!interaction!of!groups!and!exploits! the! close! interconnection! of! parallel! sub1plots.! Perhaps! the! largest,! and! most! prolonged! ensemble! of! Goldoni’s! entire! output! can! be! found! in! the! second! Act.! Marked! Tutti,% it! is! a! theatrical% feat! of! gigantic! proportions,! employing! virtually! all! characters!uninterruptedly!for!all!of!seven!scenes.!In!particular,!the!central!frame!is! a! game! of! cards! that! brings! all! together! around! the! same! table.! Characters! are! strategically!distributed!by!couple!so!that!each!pair!may!continue!their!own!sub1plot! while!the!broader!action!progresses!with!the!game.!! In! the! comedy,! Goldoni! is! allegorically! represented! by! Anzoletto,! a! young! fabric!designer!of!great!skill,!the!source!of!ideas!from!which!others!weave!together! the! final! product.! Goldoni! draws! the! parallel! to! play1writing! explicitly:! “I! Comici! eseguiscono! le! opere! degli! Autori,! ed! i! Tessitori! lavorano! sul! modello! de’! loro! Disegnatori.”144!Such!is!the!skill!of!Anzoletto!(though!covered!by!modesty),!that!he! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 143 !Goldoni,! Una%delle%ultime%sere%di%carnovale.%“The! Author! to! his! Readers.”! (…)! the! portrait! of! the! system!and!customs!of!that!class!of!people.!! 144 !ibid.!Actors!perform!the!works!of!Authors,!and!Weavers!work!on!the!models!of!their!Designers.!! ! ! 150! ! has!been!called!to!“Moscovia”!to!take!up!his!trade!in!that!place,!where,!as!in!Parisian! theatres,!demand!for!Italian!artistry!is!high.!! Many! things! still! tie! Anzoletto! to! Venice,! however,! including! the! love! of! Domenica,! an! authentic! putta% de% campielo.% A! central! component! of! the! action,! seasoned! by! secondary! plot! threads! between! other! characters,! remains! the! predicament!of!separation!that!threatens!the!young!lovers.!The!card!tournament,!an! open! game! that! notheless! affords! privacy! as! each! team! strategizes! in! secret,! becomes!a!pretext!ripe!with!possibilities!for!the!advancement!of!their!relationship.! The!brief!excerpt!below!illustrates!the!manner!in!which!Goldoni!embeds!important! progress! of! action! (a! resolution! between! two! lovers)! within! an! exteriorly! fixed! scene:!! MARTA.!Tocca!a!far!le!carte!a!sior'Elenetta.!(dà%le% carte%ad%Elena)!Via,!chi!manca!a!metter!su?!! ANZOLETTO.!Mancheremo!nualtri.!(prende%i%quattro% soldi)!! MARTA.!(Mo!i!compatisso,!poverazzi!)!! ANZOLETTO.!(Se!la!savesse,!quanto!che!me! despiase).(a%Domenica)%! DOMENICA.!(De!cossa?)!! ANZOLETTO.!(De!doverla!lassar).!(mettendo%i%soldi%nel% piatto)%% DOMENICA.!(Busiaro!)!(ad%Anzoletto)!! ELENETTA.!Che!la!leva.!(a%Polonia,%dandole%le%carte% perché%alzi)!! MARTA.!(Siora!Domenica,!come!vàla?)!(a%Domenica)!! DOMENICA.!(Qua!no!se!sente!altro,!che!de!le!busie).!(a% Marta)%! MARTA.!(Se!sè!un!putto!civil,!tratè!almanco!con! sincerità).!(ad%Anzoletto)!! ANZOLETTO.!(Per!farghe!véder,!che!no!son!busiaro,! ghe!farà!una!proposizion).!(a%Domenica,%che%senta% anche%Marta)%% DOMENICA.!(Che!xè?)!! ANZOLETTO.!(Vorla!vegnir!in!Moscovia!con!mi?)! (come%sopra)!! MARTA.!(Sì!ben,!che!l'accetta.!Nol!dise!mal).!(a% Domenica)!! ! ! 151! ! DOMENICA.!(Come?)!(ad%Anzoletto)%! ANZOLETTO.!(Col!consenso!de!so!sior!padre).!(come% sopra)%! MARTA.!(Se!gh'intende).!(a%Domenica)!! DOMENICA.!(Sposai?)!(ad%Anzoletto)%! ANZOLETTO.!(No!vorla?)!(come%sopra)! MARTA.!(Bravo,!bravo!dasseno).!(ad%Anzoletto,% rimettendosi%al%giuoco)!! AGUSTIN.!Spade,!che!la!vegna.!(giuocando)!! DOMENICA.!Spade?!Chi!zoga!spade?!(con%allegria)%! AGUSTIN.!Mi;!el!cinque!de!spade.!! DOMENICA.!E!mi!el!cavalo.!(allegra%butta%giù%la%carta)!! MARTA.!L'aspetta,!che!no!tocca!a!ela.!(a%Domenica)! (Adesso!la!se!confonde!per!!l'allegrezza).!Via!a!lori.!(a% Bastian%e%ad%Alba)!etc.145!! ! The! sheer! quantity! of! parenthesis! in! this! excerpt! denotes! the! author’s! constant!use!of!asides,!a!dramatic!strategy!often!found!in!opera,!which!enlivens!and! quickens! the! pace! of! the! discourse.! Of! note! is! the! equilibrium! of! roles! within! the! three1part!conversation!and!the!juxtaposition!of!the!trio!to!the!ongoing!game.!The! occasional!intrusion!of!other!characters!thereby!creates!the!illusion!of!simultaneity.! Here! we! witness! an! ensemble! technique! altogether! different! from! the! verbal! crescendo% of! I% rusteghi,! but! no! less! effective.! While! vocal! overlap! can! be! easily! created! in! musical! ensembles,! the! illusion! of! simultaneous! discourse! is! still! effectively!rendered!in!prose,!a!tangible!link!between!opera!theatre!and!comedy.!So! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 145!ibid.,! Act! II,! iii.! Marta:! It’s! my! turn! to! give! the! cards,! Ms.! Elena.! Now,! who’s! missing! them?! Anzoletto:!We!are!(takes%four%coins).!M:!(I!feel!for!them,!poor!things!)!A:!(If!only!you!knew!how!sorry!I! am)!(to%Domenica).!Domenica:!(What!for?)!A:!(For!having!to!leave!you)!(putting%the%coins%in%the%dish)% D:!Liar!!(to%Anzoletto)%E:!Pick!it!up!(to%Polonia,%giving%her%a%card%to%pick%up)%M:!Ms.!Domenica,!how!is!it! going?!(to%Domenica)%D:!(I’m!hearing!nothing!but!lies)!(to%Marta)%A:!(So!you!see!that!I’m!not!a!liar,!let! me!make!you!a!proposal)!(to%Domenica,%but%so%that%Marta%hears%too)!D:!What!is!it?!A:!Would!you!like! to! come! to! Moscow! with! me?! (as% above)% M:! (Oh! yes,! you! should! accept.! It’s! not! a! bad! idea)! (to% Domenica)%D:! What?! (to%Anzoletto)%A:! With! the! consent! of! your! father,! of! course! (as%above)%M:! Now! you!get!it!(to%Domenica)%D:!Married?!(to%Anzoletto)%A:!Don’t!you!want!to?!(as%above)%M:!Good,!good!for! you,! in! earnest! (to% Anzoletto,% going% back% to% the% game)! Ag:! Spades,! bring! it! on! (playing)% D:! Spades?! Who’s!playing!spades?!(happily)%Agustin:!I!am,!the!five!of!spades.!D:!Then!I’ll!play!the!horse!(happily% throws%down%her%card)%M:!Wait,!it’s!not!your!turn!(to%Domenica)%(Now!she’s!so!happy,!she’s!confused).! Over!to!you!(to%Bastian%and%Alba)%etc.!! ! ! 152! ! rich!are!the!possibilities!afforded!by!this!polyphonic!design,!that!Goldoni!adheres!to! this!strategy!for!the!entire!Act.!! iii.%Common%dramatic%techniques:%buffo%and%serio! Connections! between! comedy! and! opera! theatre! are! not! only! present! in! Goldoni’s! use! of! ensembles.! Una% delle% ultime% sere% di% carnovale% also! reflects! his! modernized! serio% style! in! the! detectable! presence! of! melancholic! tones;! and! this! work!is!not!the!only!comedy!in!which!serio!is!prominent,!as!we!shall!see.!! Serio% elements! are! no! longer! of! Metastasian! stamp,! by! this! point! long! abandoned,! but! rather! are! characterized! by! heightened! intimacy,! introspection,! often! self1doubt! and! confusion! (“no! so! cossa! dir”146),! and! they! evoke! pathos% in! response!to!candid!emotion.!The!monologue!is!a!typical!device!in!these!cases,!as!for! example:! MARTA!e!DOMENICA! ! MARTA.! Siora! Domenica,! cossa! gh'àla! intenzion! de! far?!! DOMENICA.!No!so!gnanca!mi.!! MARTA.!Ma!pur?!! DOMENICA.!Vorla,!che!andémo!dessuso!anca!nu?!! MARTA.!Quel!che!la!comanda.!! DOMENICA.! La! resta! servida,! che! adessadesso! vegno! anca!mi.!! MARTA.!Vorla!restar!qua?!! DOMENICA.!Un!pochetto.!Se!la!me!permette?!! MARTA.!La!se!comoda.!(Ho!capio;!la!se!vol!conseggiar! da! so! posta.! Che! la! varda! de! no! far! pezo.! Ho! sempre! sentio!a!dir,!che!amor!xè!orbo;!e!chi!se!lassa!menar!da! un!orbo,!va!a!pericolo!de!cascar!in!t'un!fosso).!(parte)%! ! DOMENICA!sola!! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 146 !ibid.,!Act!I,!xv.!“I!don’t!know!what!to!say,”!spoken!by!Anzoletto,!unsure!whether!to!remain!for!love! or!leave!for!honor.!! ! ! 153! ! DOMENICA.! No! so! quala! far.! No! voria,! che! l'andasse;! ma!no!vorave!gnanca!esser!causa!mi,!che!'l!perdesse! la! so! fortuna.! Certo,! za! che! se! vede,! che! sta! recamadora! gh'ha! corrispondenza! in! Moscovia,! se! poderia! farghe! parlar! per! qualchedun,! e! obligarla! a! scriver!de!là,!che!nol!sa,!che!no!l'è!bon,!che!ghe!n'è!de! meggio...! E! mi,! che! a! Anzoleto! ghe! voggio! ben;! mi! saria! capace! de! farghe! perder! el! so! conceto?! No,! no! sarà!mai!vero.!Che!'l!vaga,!se!l'ha!d'andar;!patirò,!me! despiaserà;! ma! pazzenzia.! No! faria! sto! torto! né! a! lu,! né!a!nissun,!se!credesse!de!deventar!principessa.!No,! no! certo;! patir,! crepar;! ma! rassegnarse! al! Cielo,! e! perder! tutto,! più! tosto! che! far! una! mala! azion.! (parte)147!! ! In! these! brief! scenes,! the! opening! dialogue! functions! almost! as! an! introductory! recitative!duet,!and!Domenica’s!monologue!as!a!solo!aria.!! Our! grieving! heroine! of! noble! resolve! is! no! longer! an! aristocratic! prima% donna,!but!a!humble!seamstress!within!a!guild!of!artisans!in!a!dialectal!world.!Yet,! her! piece! reflects! the! same! interior! conflict,! sadness,! longing,! and! ultimately! the! same! resolution! of! self1sacrifice! that! are! emblematic! of! the! true! serio! part;! nor! should! the! use! of! Venetian! be! seen! as! a! detraction! from! the! weight! of! her! words.! While!elsewhere!Goldoni!mixes!dialects!with!standard!Italian!for!comic!contrast!or! caricature,! this! comedy,! as! his! other! Venetian! works,! shares! no! affinity! to! that! purpose.!Rather,!it!is!simply!the!realistic!representation!of!the!world!of!the!author! and! his! audience! (not! to! mention! the! fact! that! Venetian! was! once! an! international! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 147 !ibid.,!Act!I,!xviii.!Marta:!Ms.!Domenica,!what!do!you!resolve!to!do?!Domenica:!I!don’t!know!M:!and! yet?!D:!Would!you!like!to!go!upstairs!to!join!the!others?!M:!Whatever!you!prefer.!D:!Alright!then,!I’ll! be! up! shortly.! M:! Do! you! prefer! to! stay! here?! D:! Just! a! little! bit.! Do! you! mind?! M:! As! you! wish.! (I! understand,! she! wants! to! counsel! herself.! Let’s! hope! she! doesn’t! make! matters! worse.! I’ve! always! heard! it! said,! that! love! is! blind;! and! who! is! led! blindly! risks! falling! into! a! ditch)! (exits).%D! (alone):! I! don’t!know!what!to!do.!I!don’t!want!him!to!go;!but!I!wouldn’t!want!to!be!the!cause,!if!he!were!to!lose! his!fortune.!Of!course,!there!is!this!embroiderer!who!has!contacts!in!Moscow,!and!we!could!make!her! speak!to!somebody,!and!write!over!there!that!he!doesn’t!know!anything,!that!he’s!not!capable,!that! they! could! find! someone! better…But! I,! who! love! Anzoletto,! would! I! be! capable! of! ruining! his! prospects?!No,!this!will!never!be.!Let!him!go,!if!he!must;!I’ll!suffer,!I’ll!be!sorry;!but!so!be!it.!I!cannot! betray!him!nor!anyone,!even!if!I!thought!it!would!make!me!a!princess.!No,!no!indeed,!to!suffer,!to!die,! but!to!resign!myself!to!the!Heavens,!and!lose!everything,!rather!than!commit!a!crime.!(exits)% ! ! 154! ! language!in!Europe,!and!that,!as!also!testified!by!Neapolitan!comedy,!dialect!did!not! pertain!only!to!popular!sphere!at!the!time).!Thus,!Domenica’s!resolve,!“patir,!crepar;! ma!rassegnarse!al!Cielo,!e!perder!tutto”!(to!suffer,!to!die,!but!to!resign!myself!to!the! Heavens,!and!lose!everything)!carries!the!full!weight!of!a!dramatic!serio!and!creates! an!aura!of!pathos%typical!of!the!new!larmoyant%fashion.!! The!shadow!of!impending!departure!that!looms!over!Una%delle%ultime%sere%di% carnovale%provides!ample!opportunity!for!similar!empathic!episodes!throughout!the! work,! such! that! an! overarching! hue! of! nostalgia! can! be! said! to! characterize! the! autobiographical!comedy!as!a!whole.!Notably,!elements!of!serio%or!larmoyant%as!we! find!in!Una%delle%ultime%sere!do!not!appear!exclusively!in!later!comedies.!As!in!opera! theatre,!precocious!symptoms!of!Goldoni’s!mature!style!can!be!traced!to!relatively! early! works.! The! prose! comedies,! like! drammi% giocosi,! that! reap! benefit! from! the! inclusion!of!serio%are!many.!! Among! these,! an! example! of! particular! strength! is! Le% avventure% della% villeggiatura! (The! Adventures! of! Vacationing,! 1761,! part! two! of! the! famous! trilogy! that! includes! Le% smanie% per% la% villeggiatura! (The! Yearning! for! Vacation)! and! Il% ritorno% dalla% villeggiatura% (The! Return! from! Vacation)),% in! particular! for! the! serio% character! Giacinta.! Portrayed! as! a! comic! flirt! in! the! first! comedy,! in! Le% avventure! Giacinta!undergoes!radical!transformation.!Her!role!becomes!tragic!as,!torn!between! her! love! for! Guglielmo! and! her! promise! of! marriage! to! Leonardo,! she! is! forced! to! renounce!her!feelings!in!order!uphold!her!engagement.!To!her!predicament!Goldoni! adds! the! additional! pain! of! witnessing! her! lover! ultimately! promised! to! another! ! ! 155! ! woman.!The!author!portrays!her!as!“incantata,!oppressa,!avvilita”!(in!the!words!of! her!servant,!“ella!è!così!melanconica”148).!! In!an!extended!dialogue,!Goldoni!colors!Giacinta’s!role!with!a!strong!language! of!suffering:!! GIACINTA.! (...)! Uso! ogni! arte! perché! egli! non! se! ne! accorga,!ma!ti!giuro!ch'io!patisco!pene!di!morte.!Quel! dover!usar!al!signor!Leonardo!le!distinzioni!che!sono! da!una!sposa!ad!uno!sposo!dovute,!e!vedere!dall'altra! parte! a! languire,! a! patire! colui! che! mi! ha! saputo! vincere! il! cuore,! è! un! tale! inferno,! che! non! lo! saprei! spiegare!volendo.!! BRIGIDA.!Ma!come!ha!da!finire,!signora!mia?!! GIACINTA.!Questo!è!quello!ch'io!non!so!dire,!e!che!mi! fa!continuamente!tremare.!! BRIGIDA.!Finalmente!ella!non!è!ancora!sposata.!! GIACINTA.! E! che! vorresti! tu! ch'io! facessi?! Che! mancassi! alla! mia! parola?! Che! si! lacerasse! un! contratto?! L'ho! io! sottoscritto.! L'ha! sottoscritto! mio! padre.! È! noto! ai! parenti,! è! pubblico! per! la! città.! Che! direbbe!il!mondo!di!me?149!etc.!! ! In!addition!to!familiar!manifestations!of!trembling!and!anguish,!we!find!once!again! the! pathetic! element! of! doubt! and! indecision! carried! throughout! the! work! (“sono! così!confusa”),!aggravated!in!this!dialogue!by!a!feeling!of!powerlessness!beneath!the! oppression! of! the! passions! and! the! confines! of! social! contracts! that! cannot! be! breached.!Giacinta’s!internal!illness!even!becomes!manifest!in!physical!symptoms!as! she!refuses!food!and!experiences!headaches!in!the!manner!of!a!tragic!lover.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 148 !Goldoni,!Le%avventure%della%villeggiatura,!Act!II,!i.!Transfixed,!oppressed,!mortified.! 149 !ibid.! Act! II,! i.! Giacinta:! I! use! every! art! so! that! he! [her! betrothed! Leonardo]! doesn’t! notice,! but! I! swear!to!you,!I!am!suffering!the!pains!of!death.!To!have!to!give!Leonardo!the!distinctions!owed!to!a! husband! by! his! wife,! and! to! see! the! other! languish,! to! see! suffer! the! man! who! has! conquered! my! heart,!is!such!great!torment,!that!I!could!describe!it!even!if!I!wanted!to.!Brigida:!But!how!will!it!end,! my!lady?!G:!This!is!what!I!don’t!know,!and!what!makes!me!tremble!constantly.!B:!In!the!end,!you!are! not! yet! married.! G:! And! what! would! you! have! me! do?! Should! I! betray! my! word?! Should! I! break! a! contract?!I’ve!signed!it.!My!father!has!signed!it.!It’s!known!by!to!our!family,!it’s!public!in!town.!What! would!the!world!say!of!me?!etc.!! ! ! 156! ! ! To! use! Goldoni’s! own! words,! the! role! of! Giacinta! in! Le% avventure% della% villeggiatura% is! “una! lunga! disperazione,! un! combattimento! di! affetti,! un! misto! d’eroismo!e!di!tenerezza,”150!precisely!the!elements!of!a!modern,!realistic!serio.%The! psychological!realism!of!her!lines!contributes!to!the!dramatic!impact!of!her!role!and! unequivocally! seals! the! comedy! as! an! exquisite! mixture! of! buffo% and! serio,! as! we! have!often!encountered!in!the!drammi%giocosi.!The!comedy!also!makes!ample!use!of! ensembles,!with!typical!theatrical!feats!such!as!asides!and!parallel!conversations,!as! well!as!the!convergence!of!all!characters!at!the!conclusion!of!Acts!in!operatic!chorale! style.!! As! a! side! note,! we! recall! that! the! idea! of! villeggiatura,% vacation! in! the! countryside!much!in!vogue!among!well1to1do!Venetian!families,!is!persistently!made! the!object!of!comic!critique!in!Goldoni,!who!in!particular!denounces!the!excesses!of! this! fashion.! The! tradition! is! targeted! not! only! in! the! other! comedies! of! the! villeggiatura%trilogy! (Le%smanie! and! Il%ritorno)! but! in! numerous! other! comedies! as! well,! including! La% castalda! (The! Gastald,! 1751),! I% malcontenti! (The! Dissatisfied,! 1755),!and!La%villeggiatura!(a!distinct!work,!1756).!Goldoni!also!tackles!the!issue!in! music,!beginning!with!the!dramma%comico%L’Arcadia%in%Brenta!(Arcadia!on!the!River! Brenta,!1749).!! Looking!back!further,!prototypical!antecedents!of!serio%and!larmoyant%can!be! found! as! early! as! La% putta% onorata% (The! Honorable! Venetian! Girl),% written! in! the! same!year!as!Goldoni’s!first!dramma%giocoso,%La%scuola%moderna.!A!largely!successful! Venetian!comedy!that!mixes!Italian!with!dialect!and!masks!with!original!characters,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 150 !ibid.,! Act! III,! xvi.! (…)! a! long! desperation,! a! contrast! of! affections,! a! mixture! of! heroism! and! tenderness.!! ! ! 157! ! La% putta% onorata! was! premiered! at! the! Teatro% S.% Angelo% in! 1749! and! given! for! 22! consecutive!nights.!Giuseppe!Ortolani!has!seen!in!the!work!“la!rivendicazione!della! virtù! del! popolo! nostro! [veneziano]! offesa,! con! triste! tradizione,! dalla! leggerezza! e! dalla! maldicenza! dei! viaggiatori! stranieri,” 151 !and! the! protagonist! embodies! Goldoni’s!attempt!to!create!a!positive!image!of!Venetian!women.!! In!a!letter!to!his!publisher!Bettinelli,!Goldoni!clearly!delineates!the!high!level! of! realism! of! the! work,! “avendo! io! in! più! luoghi! imitato! le! azioni! e! i! ragionamenti! della! minuta! gente.”! As! in! the! early! intermezzo,% La% Birba,! Goldoni! again! explicitly! derives! his! characters! from! the! direct,! ‘natural’! imitation! of! real1life! models:! “i! Gondolieri! di! Venezia…furono! da! me! nella! presente! Commedia! imitati! con! tanta! attenzione!che!più!volte!mi!posi!ad!ascoltarli,!quando!quistionavano,!sollazzavansi!o! altre!funzioni!facevano,!per!poterli!ricopiare!nella!mia!Commedia!naturalmente.”152! ! Bettina,! Goldoni’s! heroine! (originally! Teodora! Medebach),! earns! the! title! of! putta% onorata! as! she! defends! her! honor! when,! like! Lucia! of! Manzoni’s% Promessi% Sposi,!she!is!abducted!by!a!man!who!desires!her,!in!this!case!the!Marchese!Ottavio!di! Ripaverde! (already! married,! at! that).! Much! of! the! serio% or! larmoyant% of! the! work! arises! from! Bettina’s! pitiable! circumstances! during! this! episode,! particularly! from! her!confusion,!as!from!her!innocence:! Oh!povereta!mi!!Cossa!mai!sarà!de!mi?!Dove!songio?! In!che!casa!songio?!Chi!mai!xe!stà!che!m’ha!menà!via?! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 151 !Giuseppe!Ortolani,!“Introduzione”!to!La%Putta%onorata%in!Tutte%le%opere%di%Carlo%Goldoni,!a!cura!di! Giuseppe!Ortolani,!vol.!II.!(Milano:!Mondadori,!1936).!(...)!the!vindication!of!the!virtue!of!our!people,! offended,!in!a!sad!tradition,!by!the!carelessness!and!malicious!gossip!of!foreign!travelers.!! 152 !Goldoni,!La%Putta%onorata,%“Lettera!dell’Autore!al!Bettinelli.”!I!have!in!several!places!imitated!the! manners!and!discourse!of!the!common!people.! (...)the! Gondoliers,! in! the! present! work! imitated! with! such! great! attention! that! many! times! I! set! myself!to!observing!them,!listening!to!their!conversations!when!they!argued,!when!they!played,!and! when!they!did!other!things,!to!be!able!to!recopy!them!in!my!Comedy!naturally.!! ! ! 158! ! (…)!Povero!Pasqualin,!dove!xestu,!anema!mia?!Perché! no! viestu! a! agiutar! la! to! povera! Betina,! che! te! vol! tanto!ben?153!etc.!! ! In! her! Venetian! spirit,! Bettina! has! little! of! the! fearfulness! or! timidity! of! Manzoni’s!Lucia.!As!a!true!heroine,!she!is!quick!to!act!in!adverse!circumstances,!and! her! stricken! monologue! (cited! above)! soon! transforms! grief! into! rage,! even! resolving! to! inflict! physical! punishment! on! her! oppressor! (“ghe! darò…tante! sgrafignaure,! che! ghe! farò! piover! el! sangue”154).! The! changeability! of! her! role! not! only! adds! complexity! to! an! original! character! but! moreover! contributes! to! an! overarching!sense!of!continual!propulsion.!In!this!comedy,!in!which!action!is!dense! and!events!are!often!hurried,!characters!change!disposition!within!the!span!of!a!few! lines.!La%putta%onorata%is!in!essence!a!sequence!of!rovesciamenti,%as!also!testified!by! Goldoni’s! resolution! of! the! work! with! a! fantastic! peripezia.! The! third! Act! uncovers! two!mistaken!paternities:!Pasqualino,!Bettina’s!lover,!while!believed!to!be!the!son!of! a! gondolier,! in! reality! is! the! heir! of! the! rich! merchant! Pantalone;! conversely,! the! alleged!son!of!Pantalone!(Lelio)!is!in!fact!the!real!son!of!the!gondolier.!! More!than!Goldoni’s!inventiveness!alone,!the!dramatic!nature!of!these!events! and!of!La%putta%onorata%as!a!whole%reflects!a!growing!appreciation!for!romanzesco% elements.%The! combative! heroine,! the! continual! flow! of! action,! and! events! such! as! infants! swapped! in! the! cradle! or! the! abduction! of! a! maiden,! all! point! towards! the! adventurous,! almost! incredible,! brand! of! action! characteristic! of! new! 18th1century! novels.!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 153 !ibid.,! Act! II,! iii.! Oh! wretched! me!! What! will! become! of! me?! Where! am! I?! In! whose! house! am! I?! Who’s!taken!me!here?!(…)!Poor!Pasqualino,!where!are!you,!my!soul?!Why!don’t!you!come!to!the!aid! of!poor!Bettina,!who!loves!you!so?!etc.!! 154 !ibid.,!Act!II,!iii.!I’ll!scratch!and!swipe!at!him!so!much,!that!his!blood!will!pour.!! ! ! 159! ! We!must!remember!that!La%putta%onorata%is!still!an!early!work!and!in!more! mature! comedies! and! drammi% giocosi% Goldoni! will! often! prefer! more! realistic! solutions.! However,! elements! of! romanzesco% will! continue! to! inform! some! of! the! author’s! dramatic! choices,! particularly! in! new! strains! of! sentimentalism.! The! influence! of! romanzesco% elements% on! Goldoni’s! realistic! serio% style! are! not! to! be! overlooked,! and! will! particularly! inform! our! analysis! of! Goldoni’s! Pamela% (1750)% and! La% buona% figliuola% (the! dramma% giocoso% drawn! from! it,! 1757)! among! other! examples!in!the!following!section.!! ! Direct&translation&& The! close! relationship! between! Goldoni’s! comedies! and! libretti! is! not! only! detectable! in! the! shared! realism,! buffo%and! serio,! and! dramatic! techniques! that! we! have!seen,!but!is!further!confirmed!by!several!cases!of!direct!translation!from!one! genre! to! the! other.! Most! often,! Goldoni! drew! drammi% giocosi% from! his! comedies,! though! some! themes! first! explored! in! his! libretti%also! served! as! the! foundation! for! later! works! of! prose! theatre.! Seen! within! the! larger! context! of! the! author’s! entire! output,! occurrences! of! direct! translation! are! not! numerous,! yet! they! can! be! traced! from!his!early!years!through!his!mature!production.!! Naturally,! not! all! instances! of! adaptation! reflect! the! same! degree! of! adherence!to!their!original.!!The!early!intermezzo%Il%quartiere%fortunato!(The!Lucky! Neighborhood,!1744),!for!example,!cannot!be!considered!a!direct!source!but!rather! the! precedent! for! L’amante% militare% (The! Military! Lover,! a! reform! comedy! dated! ! ! 160! ! 1751).!In!the!same!way,!other!comedies!do!not!explicitly!testify!the!use!of!a!libretto% as!a!model,!yet!reveal!a!high!degree!of!thematic!affinity.!! The!previously!examined!La%ritornata%di%Londra%(1756),!for!example,!exploits! the!comic!yet!critical!topos%of!a!woman!pursued!by!an!entourage!of!suitors!taken!up! in!several!later!prose!works.!The!larger!outline!of!the!plot!is!faithfully!recovered!in! L’apatista! (The! Indifferent,! 1758),! in! which! the! countess! Lavinia,! like! her! musical! controfigura! Petronilla,! is! encircled! by! gentlemen! of! diverse! yet! complementary! nature.!By!no!coincidence,!the!typified!character!traits!of!the!men,!one!an!impetuous! captain,!another!the!antithetical,!apathetic!philosopher,!allow!comedy!and!character! study!(particularly!of!the!calibrated!indifference!of!the!latter)!at!the!same!time.!Also! akin! to! the! peculiarity! of! La% ritornata% di% Londra,% all! characters! are! of! noble! extraction;!their!tone!is!thus!consistently!elevated,!though!the!high!level!of!linguistic! propriety! is! not! always! maintained! in! their! actions.! A! final! element! of! affinity! between!the!two!works%resides!in!their!reduced!cast:!Goldoni’s!libretto%is!scored!for! seven! characters,! and! the! comedy! contains! six.! While! a! restrained! number! of! characters! is! necessary! in! opera,! where! every! plot! element! is! dilated! by! music,! a! small! cast! is! rather! atypical! in! Goldoni’s! prose! theatre,! especially! at! this! mature! stage.! The! relative! simplicity! of! L’apatista! is! clearly! intended! to! facilitate! performance,! particularly! as! the! comedy,! commissioned! by! the! Marquis! Francesco! Albergati,!was!written!for!the!semi1professional!troupe!of!actors!that!performed!in! the!private!theatre!of!his!villa!at!Zola.!! A! looser! resemblance! with! La% ritornata% di% Londra% can! also! be! found! in! La% donna%stravagante%(The!Bizzare!Woman),!a!comedy!in!verse!given!during!the!same! ! ! 161! ! carnival! season! as! the! dramma% giocoso% (1756).! Notwithstanding! metrical! constraints,!this!comedy!appears!particularly!well!developed!in!its!characterizations! and! gained! a! positive! reception! at! the! Teatro% San% Luca.! Its! protagonist! Livia! is! complex!and!original,!but!as!an!orphaned!girl!under!the!guardianship!of!her!uncle,! however! strong! willed,! she! has! little! in! common! with! the! emancipated! diva! Petronilla.! More! noteworthy! is! the! fact! that! from! La% donna% stravagante,! Goldoni! derived!a!second!comedy,!La%donna%bizzarra,!given!in!the!same!season!as!L’apatista% (1758).!La%donna%bizzarra,%also!written!for!the!Marchese!Albergati,%again!presents!a! noblewoman! (this! time! widowed)! amid! an! entourage! of! suitors.! The! number! of! gentlemen! has! now! grown! to! four,! none! of! whom! are! ultimately! desirable.! ! As! Goldoni!himself!admits,!the!comedy!was!written!in!undue!haste,!therefore!recycles! choice! scenes! from! the! earlier! La%donna%stravagante.! Poetically! put,! “qualche! volta! gli!autori!sono!costretti!a!valersi!del!loro!baule,!come!fanno!i!Maestri!di!musica.”155! For!this!reason,!the!comedy!preserves!the!versi%martelliani%of!its!source,!though!the! characters! have! been! modified! and! the! plot! somewhat! reworked,! so! that! Goldoni! may!assure,!“senza!scrupolo!ho!potuto!dargliela!per!cosa!nuova,!e!per!tale!posso!ora! darla!alle!stampe.”156 !! The! most! prominent! point! of! distinction! between! the! two! works! is! the! declared! critical! intent! of! the! second,! which! sheds! a! cautionary! light! on! the! protagonist,!as!on!her!suitors:! La!bizzarria!di!questa!mia!Donna!non!dipende!né!da! iracondia,! né! da! vivezza! di! spirito,! ma! da! capriccio,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 155 !Goldoni,!La%donna%bizzarra,%“The!Author!to!his!Readers.”!Sometimes,!authors!have!to!dip!into! their!trunk%just!like!musicians!do.!! 156 !ibid.!Without!scruple,!I!can!deliver!it!as!a!new!work,!and!as!such!send!it!to!print.!! ! ! 162! ! che! vale! a! dire! da! una! testa! mal! regolata.! Vi! sono! delle!Donne!e!degli!Uomini!di!tal!carattere;!meritano! di!esser!corretti,!ed!io!ho!avuto!animo!di!far!del!bene! a! chi! n'ha! bisogno,! e! di! far! ridere! chi! è! esente! da! tal! difetto.! Ma! chi! sa! che! non! rida! degli! altri! chi! è! più! attaccato! da! una! simile! malattia?! Raro! è! lo! specchio! che! disinganni,! l'amor! proprio! vi! mette! un! velo,! e! l'abituazione! fa! che! si! sente! l'odore! degli! altri,! e! non! si!fa!caso!del!nostro.157! ! We!find!in!this!introduction!an!exquisite!reprise!of!Goldoni’s!Horatian!belief!in!the! moral!potential!of!comic!theatre.!Of!particular!note!is!the!absence!of!differentiation! between! flawed! women! and! men.! In! a! spirit! close! to! La% ritornata% di% Londra,% the! panorama!of!flaw!is!of!universal!scope.!! Moving! beyond! these! primary! elements! of! contact! between! Goldoni’s! two! theatres,!we!may!now!consider!works!that!more!explicitly!testify!direct!translation! from! one! genre! to! the! other.! Goldoni! first! unequivocal! derivation! of! a! dramma% giocoso% from! a! reform! comedy! is% Lo% speziale% (The! Apothecary,! 1755),% built! from! elements! of! La% finta% ammalata% (The! False! Patient,! 1751).! As! its! opening! date! betrays,!the!comedy!was!one!of!sixteen!such!works!famously!turned!out!in!a!single! season! for! Girolamo! Medebach,! while! the! dramma% giocoso,! first! premiered! at! the! Teatro% S.% Samuele% with! music! by! Vincenzo! Pallavicini! and! Domenico! Fischietti! (it! was! not! uncommon! for! different! composers! to! set! serio%and! buffo%roles),! is! readily! available!even!today!thanks!to!the!musical!rendition!by!Franz!Joseph!Haydn.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 157 !ibid.! The! oddity! of! this! leading! lady! does! not! stem! from! temper! or! vivacity! of! spirit,! but! from! whim,!in!other!words!from!a!mind!that!is!not!well!governed.!There!are!women!and!men!of!this!type;! they!deserve!to!be!redressed,!and!I!have!a!mind!to!give!help!to!who!is!in!need,!and!to!entertain!those! who!are!exempt!from!these!flaws.!But!who!can!say!if!he!who!laughs!the!most!is!not!afflicted!by!the! same!illness?!Rare!is!the!mirror!that!disenchants,!for!pride!often!veils!it,!and!habit!leads!us!to!detect! the!smell!of!others,!but!does!notice!our!own.!! ! ! 163! ! With! the! expansion! of! every! verse! in! musical! theatre,! Goldoni’s! reworkings! from!a!prose!original!always!logically!appear!as!reductions.!In!this!particular!case,! however,! the! author! does! not! condense! the! entire! plot! while! maintaining! its! most! prominent! features! as! he! will! do! elsewhere,! but! instead! spins! an! entirely! new! libretto!from!a!single!element!of!the!comedy,!the!character!of!the!apothecary.!! La%finta%ammalata%revolves!around!a!hypochondriac!whose!only!real!malady! is! love,! and! the! attempts! of! an! équipe! of! doctors! (an! honest! one! and! two! corrupt! foils),!to!procure!her!remedy.!With!three!doctors,!an!anxious!father,!and!a!surgeon! in! the! picture,! the! apothecary,! whose! character! is! nevertheless! well! developed,! necessarily! remains! secondary! in! an! already! male1dominated! plot.! He! is! an! accomplice!of!the!false!doctors,!but!the!more!artisanal!nature!of!his!profession!does! not!grant!him!their!status.!!In!synthesis,!the!comedy!is!an!attack!on!false!medicine,! and! those! false! doctors! who,! simulating! abstruse! expertise,! make! their! fortune! treating! patients! with! invented! remedies.! ! While! the! apothecary! seldom! has! the! opportunity! to! treat! patients! directly,! he! too! participates! in! the! fraud! by! lobbying! for!a!greater!number!of!prescriptions!and!for!remedies!of!greater!cost.!!! Lo%speziale%takes! a! cue! precisely! from! this! aspect! of! the! La%finta%ammalata,! yet!the!comedy’s!polemical!bent!is!notably!softened!in!favor!of!the!introduction!of! amorous! sub1plots.! While! La% finta% ammalata% sees! all! characters! revolve! around! a! single! protagonist! and! her! desires,! Lo% speziale% is! built! upon! the! parallel! intrigues! between! the! apothecary’s! daughter,! another! young! girl! he! looks! after,! and! their! respective! romantic! partners.! Continuity! between! comedy! and! libretto% is! thus! manifest! uniquely! in! the! transposed! apothecary! Sempronio,! who! shares! with! his! ! ! 164! ! predecessor!crucial!aspects!of!character,!namely!a!scarcely!professional!predilection! for! the! latest! gossip,! and! reliance! upon! the! gazzetta% (a! sort! of! almanac)! for! his! medical! authority.! Despite! the! amorous! intrigues! new! to! Lo%speziale,%however,! the% original! theme! of! false! medicine! is! preserved! at! least! in! part! through! a! new! character,! the! assistant! pharmacist! Mengone.! While! Mengone! harbors! none! of! the! contrivance! of! the! profit1seeking! doctors! of! La%finta%ammalata,%being! illiterate! and! unable!to!decipher!prescriptions,!he!too!invents!cures!in!like!manner.!! A! much! higher! level! of! correspondence! between! comedy! and! opera! can! be! detected! in! the! dramma% giocoso% La% donna% di% governo% (The! Governess,! 1761),! reworked!from!a!comedy!of!the!same!title!written!for!the!Teatro%S.%Luca%in!1758.!Of! the! opera! we! have! spoken! earlier! in! this! chapter,! noting! in! particular! its! desolate! panorama! of! moral! corruption,! headed! by! the! unscrupulous! protagonist! Corallina.! The!introduction!to!the!comedy!befits!the!negative!heroine!of!the!libretto%as!much!as! its!own!protagonist:!! Eppure! anche! i! tristi! caratteri! s’hanno! da! far! conoscere! sulla! Scena,! per! rimproverarli,! per! opprimerli,! per! isvergognarli.! L’arte! insegna! in! tal! caso! a! moderarne! l’aspetto,! a! estendersi! fin! dovela! modestia! il! permette,! e! lasciar! campo! all’uditore! di! concepire!il!di!più,!che!non!apparisce!sul!palco!e!che! l’Autore!ritiene!nella!penna!per!onestà!e!per!dovere.! Si!trovano!delle!Donne!pur!troppo,!che!costrette!dallo! stato! loro! a! vivere! del! pane! altrui,! se! ne! abusano! malamente,! e! guadagnando! l’animo! del! Padrone,! lo! conducono! dove! l’ambizione! o! il! mal! costume! le! porta.!! Ho! veduto! cogli! occhi! miei! delle! Famiglie! in! disordine,! in! disunione,! in! rumori! grandissimi! per! causa! di! quelle! lusinghiere! serventi,! che! aspirano! a! dominare.! Entrano! in! casa! per! Governanti! delle! Famiglie,! e! il! loro! governo! tende! per! ordinario! a! fabbricare!la!propria!fortuna!sulle!rovine!dei!Figliuoli! medesimi.! Succede! poi! bene! spesso,! che! altri! divori! ! ! 165! ! alla! Governante! ciò! ch’ella! con! mala! arte! procaccia,! ma! non! sì! spesso! accade! ch’ella! finisca! con! quel! rossore! e! con! quel! castigo! che! merita,! poiché! gli! acciecati!Padroni!lasciano!talora!anche!dopo!morte!la! memoria!della!loro!fatuità!e!debolezza,!beneficandole! per!le!loro!insidie,!e!per!le!loro!studiate!simulazioni.!! Io! ho! avuto! in! vista! in! questa! Commedia! di! smascherare!alcune!di!queste!false!zelanti!per!li!loro! Padroni,! e! d’illuminare! altresì! que’! tali! che! più! credono! ad! una! mercenaria! adulatrice! servente,! anziché! ai! Parenti,! agli! Amici,! ed! al! loro! sangue! medesimo.158! ! ! Again,!we!are!made!aware!of!familiar!notions:!Goldoni’s!desire!to!denounce! and! redress! moral! corruption! through! the! benefits! of! comic! mimesis,! and! at! the! same!time!his!extraction!of!character!types!from!the!witnessed!experience!of!daily! life!(“ho!veduto!cogli!occhi!miei”).!Corallina,!like!her!prose!predecessor!Valentina,!is! one! of! those! women! who,! employed! by! others,! take! advantage! (“ne! abusano! malamente”),!spurred!by!ambition,!or!worse,!mal%costume.%% ! Differently! from! Lo% speziale,% Corallina! is! far! from! the! only! point! of! contact! between! the! prose! and! operatic! La% donna% di% governo.% From! comedy! to! libretto,! Goldoni! maintains! all! of! the! essential! characters,! even! allowing! a! direct! correspondence!of!names!in!the!case!of!Fabrizio,!the!benestante%head!of!the!house,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 158 !Goldoni,! La% donna% di% governo,! “The! Author! to! his! Readers.”! And! yet,! all! those! deplorable! characters!must!be!made!known,!to!reproach!them,!to!suppress!them,!and!to!give!them!shame.!Art! can! in! this! case! teach! moderation,! going! only! as! far! as! modesty! permits,! and! letting! the! listener! go! further!in!his!imagination!to!see!what!does!not!appear!on!the!stage,!which!the!Author!keeps!closed!in! his!pen!for!reasons!of!honor!and!duty.!There!are!certain!Women,!unfortunately,!who,!forced!by!their! condition!to!live!off!the!wealth!of!others,!take!advantage!savagely,!and,!earning!their!Master’s!soul,! lead!him!where!their!ambition!and!dishonorable!ways!desire.!I!have!seen!with!my!own!eyes!Families! in!disorder!and!disunion,!in!great!scandal!for!fault!of!those!flattering!servants!who!aspire!to!govern! the! house.! They! enter! as! Governesses! for! Families,! and! their! mode! of! government! usually! tends! to! produce!their!own!profit!to!the!ruin!of!the!children.!It!then!occurs!frequently,!that!another!takes!from! the! Governess! what! she! with! dubious! arts! has! gained,! though! not! so! often! does! it! happen! that! she! ends! up! with! the! redness! of! shame! and! the! punishment! that! she! deserves,! given! that! the! blinded! Masters!leave!even!after!death!the!memory!of!their!weakness!and!their!fatuousness,!rewarding!them! for!their!schemes!and!their!studied!pretentions.!In!this!comedy!I!set!my!sights!on!unmasking!these! actors!of!false!zeal!for!their!Masters,!and!on!enlightening!moreover!those!who!give!credence!to!such! flattering!mercenaries,!instead!of!to!their!Families,!to!their!Friends,!and!to!their!own!blood.!! ! ! 166! ! and! Fulgenzio,! the! serio% lover! of! his! niece! Giuseppina! (in! opera! Rosalba).! Other! important! characters! maintained! from! comedy! into! opera! include! the! governess’s! sister,! the! servant! who! is! Corallina’s! accomplice,! and! most! importantly! the! governess’s!lover,!who!reaps!benefit!from!her!deception!of!Fabrizio.!! ! While! the! lovers! of! Valentina! and! Corallina! do! not! share! a! name,! their! characterization! is! in! fact! identical.! Goldoni! not! only! leaves! their! dishonesty! uncovered,! but! more! conveniently! transposes! excerpts! from! his! comedy! into! recitativo,! carried! word! for! word.! The! procedure! becomes! apparent! from! the! opening! of! both! comedy! and! opera,! in! which! the! lover! protests:! “Non! so! far! niente…Servire?! ho! i! miei! riguardi.! Son! solito! dal! letto! levarmi! un! poco! tardi.! Sentirmi! comandare! avvezzo! non! son! io.! Mi! piace,! e! mi! è! piaciuto,! far! sempre! a! modo!mio.”159 !The!parallels!continue!almost!identically.!In!comedy,!! BALDISSERA.!Servir!non!fa!per!me.!! VALENTINA.!Qualche!cosa!nel!mondo!devi!pur!far.!! BALDISSERA.! Perché?! Ho! vissuto! finora! senza! far! nulla,! e! adesso! Dovrei! morir! di! fame! con! una! moglie! appresso?!! becomes,!! CORALLINA.!Qualche!cosa!dei!far.! RIDOLFO.!Per!qual!ragione?! Campai!senza!mestiere!infino!adesso! !e!ho!da!temer!con!una!moglie!appresso?160! ! We!note!that!just!as!Goldoni!must!reduce!the!plot!in!a!larger!structural!sense!to!fit! five! acts! of! comedy! into! three! of! opera,! he! also! operates! at! the! minute! level! to! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 159 !Goldoni,!Comedy,!I,!i;!Opera,!I,!v.!I!don’t!know!how!to!do!anything.!To!serve?!I!have!my!scruples.!I! am!used!to!getting!out!of!bed!late.!I’m!not!used!to!taking!orders.!I!like,!and!I’ve!always!liked,!to!do!as!I! please.!! 160 !ibid.! In! comedy:! B:! Serving! is! not! for! me.! V:! Well,! you’ll! have! to! do! something! in! this! world.! B:! Why?!I’ve!lived!until!now!without!doing!anything,!and!now!I!should!starve!with!a!wife!by!my!side?!! In! opera:! C:! You! must! do! something.! R:! For! what! reason?! I’ve! gotten! by! without! a! trade! until! now,! and!I!should!fear!with!a!wife!by!my!side?!! ! ! 167! ! render!his!text!concise!enough!for!music.!Masterfully,!even!while!Goldoni!reworks! his!comedy!in!such!a!high!degree!of!fidelity,!he!does!not!preclude!the!use!of!typically! operatic!devices,!such!as!the!aria!(Baldissera’s!exit!in!comedy!becomes!a!solo!piece! in!opera).!In!this!respect,!the!fact!that!Goldoni’s!comedy!had!been!written!in!verse! (versi%martelliani,%a!double!septenary!structure)%appears!particularly!advantageous,! a!further!motive!whereby!only!slight!changes!were!required!for!the!libretto.!! Textual! parallels! continue! to! the! end! of! the! scene! and! beyond,! traceable! in! the!interactions!of!the!central!characters,!while!secondary!figures!that!occupy!stage! time!in!the!comedy,!namely!a!second!sister!for!Giuseppina!and!a!maternal!aunt!who! takes!up!their!defense,!are!cut!by!Goldoni!to!streamline!his!libretto.%Certain!episodes! from! the! comedy! are! therefore! entirely! absent! from! the! libretto,! but! stretches! of! textual! parallelism! resurface! with! regularity,! preserving! all! the! distinct! character! flaws! of! the! principal! figures.! Considering! the! length! of! these! scenes,! we! may! consider!one!example!representative!of!others,!and!analyze!the!parallels!that!arise! as!the!governess!interacts!directly!with!Fabrizio.!Originally,!we!find:!! FABRIZIO.!Valentina.%(come%sopra)! VALENTINA.!Si!sfiati,!se!vuol,!quest’animale.!! Egli!ha!da!far!un!giorno!la!fin!delle!cicale.!! FABRIZIO.! Che! tu! sia! maladetta;! possa! cascarti! il! cuore.!(escendo%fuori,%senza%veder%Valentina)!Dove!sei,! Valenti...?!(scoprendo%Valentina,%rimane%sorpreso)% VALENTINA.! Eccomi! qui,! signore.! (facendo% una% riverenza%caricata)! FABRIZIO.!Grido,!grido,!e!non!sente.!(con%sdegno)! VALENTINA.!Grida,!grida,!e!si!sfiata.!(con%arroganza)% FABRIZIO.!Perché!non!rispondete?!(come%sopra)% VALENTINA.!Perch’era!addormentata.!(come%sopra)! FABRIZIO.!A!quest’ora?!! VALENTINA.!A!quest’ora.!Saran!quattr’ore!e!più!! Che!ho!fatto!in!questa!casa!levar!la!servitù.!! Ho!fatto!ripulire!le!stanze,!il!suolo,!il!tetto,!! Ho!fatto!spiumacciare!le!coltrici!del!letto,!! ! ! 168! ! Lustrar!nella!cucina!il!rame!insudiciato!! E!han!fatto!queste!mani!il!pane!ed!il!bucato.!! Ma!qui!non!si!fa!nulla.!Qui!si!fatica!invano.!! Il!padron!sempre!grida.!Che!vivere!inumano!!! Casa!peggior!di!questa!non!vidi!in!vita!mia;!! L’ho!detto!cento!volte,!voglio!di!qui!andar!via.!! FABRIZIO.!Subito!vi!scaldate.!(mansueto)! VALENTINA.!Mi!scaldo!con!ragione.!! FABRIZIO.!Non!sapea!che!dormiste.!! VALENTINA.!No,!non!vi!è!discrezione.!! Ritrovatene!un’altra!che!faccia!quel!ch’io!faccio.!! Se!non!foss’io...!ma!basta,!fo!il!mio!dovere,!e!taccio.!! Del!faticar!sinora!non!mi!ho!mai!lamentato;!! Spiacemi!aver!che!fare!con!un!padrone!ingrato!! FABRIZIO.!No,!cara!Valentina,!ingrato!io!non!vi!sono.!! Se!ho!detto!quel!che!ho!detto,!vi!domando!perdono.!! Ho!questo!naturale!perfido!e!doloroso,!! Facilmente!mi!accendo,!ma!poi!sono!amoroso;!! Amoroso!con!tutti,!e!più!con!voi,!carina.!! Non!so!che!non!farei!per!la!mia!Valentina.!! VALENTINA.!Questa!è!la!gratitudine!che!dal!padron!si! aspetta:!! Possa%cascarti%il%cuore;%che%tu%sia%maladetta.%% Mi!alzo!per!faticare,!che!ancor!non!ci!si!vede,!! Ed!ei!cogli!strapazzi!mi!rende!la!mercede.!! FABRIZIO.! Puh,! mi! darei! nel! capo! un! colpo! micidiale.% (dandosi%da%sé%stesso%un%pugno%nella%testa)! VALENTINA.!(Batti,!accoppati!pure).!(da%sé)! FABRIZIO.!Lo!so!ch’io!son!bestiale.!! E!voi!pure!il!sapete,!e!compatir!conviene!! Qualche!volta!il!difetto!di!un!uom!che!vi!vuol!bene.161! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 161 !Goldoni,!La%donna%di%governo%(comedy);!Act!I,!ii.!Fabrizio:!Valentina.!Valentina:!Let!him!run!out!of! breath,!this!animal.!F:!Curse!you,!may!your!heart!fall!out!(exiting%without%seeing%Valentina).!Where!are! you,! Valenti…?! (seeing%her,%he%is%surprised).%V:! Here! I! am,! sir! (with%an%exaggerated%curtsy)%F:! I! yell,! I! scream,!and!you!don’t!hear!me.!(with%irritation)%V:!You!yell,!you!scream,!and!you!waste!your!breath! (with%arrogance).%F:!Why!don’t!you!answer?!(as%above)%V:!Because!I!was!asleep.!(as%above)%F:!At!this! hour?!V:!At!this!hour.!It’s!now!been!more!than!four!hours!since!I!woke!up!all!the!servants.!I!had!them! clean!the!rooms,!the!floors,!the!roof,!I!had!them!shake!out!the!beds,!scrub!the!copper!in!the!kitchens,! and!with!my!own!hands,!I!made!the!bread!and!did!the!wash.!But!here!no!work!gets!done,!all!efforts! are!in!vain.!The!master!always!yells.!What!an!inhuman!way!to!live!!I!never!saw!a!worse!house!in!my! life;!and!I’ve!said!it!a!hundred!times,!I!want!to!leave.!F:!You!anger!so!quickly!(meekly)%V:!I!anger!with! good!reason.!F:!I!didn’t!know!you!were!asleep.!V:!No,!there!is!no!reserve.!Find!yourself!another!who! does!what!I!do.!If!it!weren’t!for!me…!but!enough,!I!do!my!duty,!and!hold!my!tongue.!I!never!before! complained!of!my!toils;!but!I!don’t!like!having!anything!to!do!with!an!ungrateful!master.!F:!No,!dear! Valentina,!I’m!not!ungrateful.!If!I!said!what!I!did,!I!ask!forgiveness.!I!am!of!an!ill1spirited,!distressed! nature,!I!am!quick!to!anger,!but!I!can!be!loving! too;!Loving!with!all,!but!more!so!with!you,!sweet.!I! don’t!know!what!I’d!do!for!my!Valentina.!V:!This!is!the!recognition!I!expect!from!my!master:!May%your% heart% fall% out;% may% you% be% damned.% I! get! up! to! work,! we’ve! yet! to! cross! paths! in! the! day,! that! you! immediately!thank!me!with!scoldings.!F:!Puh,!I’d!give!myself!such!a!blow!to!the!head!(hitting%himself% ! ! 169! ! ! In!opera,!all!the!above!content!is!preserved,!only!visibly!condensed:!! ! ! FABRIZIO.!Corallina.!(Di%dentro)! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! ! !! !! !! !! ! !! !! !! !! ! !! !! !! !! !! CORALLINA.!!Animalaccio.!(Da%sé)! %FABRIZIO.! Corallina.! Che! tu! sia! malede...! (Esce% e% s’incontra%in%Corallina)% CORALLINA.!Grazie,!signore.! FABRIZIO.!Grido,!grido!e!non!sente.!(Con%sdegno)! CORALLINA.!Grida,!grida!e!si!sfiata.!(Con%arroganza)! FABRIZIO.!Perché!non!rispondete?!(Come%sopra)! CORALLINA.!Perché!era!addormentata.!(Come%sopra)! FABRIZIO.!A!quest’ora?! CORALLINA.!A!quest’ora.!Saran!quattr’ore!e!più!! che!ho!fatto!risvegliar!la!servitù.! Ho!fatto!ripulire! le!stanze!infino!al!tetto,! spiumacciar!più!d’un!letto,! lustrar!nella!cucina! il!rame!insudiciato! e!han!fatto!queste!man!pane!e!bucato.! Ma!qui!non!si!fa!niente;! servo!un!padrone!ingrato.! Casa!peggior!non!vidi!in!vita!mia.! L’ho!detto!e!lo!farò;!voglio!andar!via.! FABRIZIO.!Uh!!Mi!darei!nel!capo! un!colpo!micidiale.!(Si%dà%nella%testa)! CORALLINA.!(Datti,!accopati!pur).!(Da%sé)! FABRIZIO.!!Sì,!son!bestiale.! Ma!voi!mi!conoscete! e!compatir!conviene! qualche!volta!un!padron!che!vi!vuol!bene.162! ! This! textual! evidence! proves! tangible! contact! between! Goldoni’s! opera! and! prose! theatre.! In! the! transposition! of! scenes! at! a! high! level! of! fidelity,! Goldoni! also! preserves!the!moral!and!critical!intent!of!the!comedy!is!his!libretto.%! Differences!between!the!two!works,!aside!from!the!natural!reduction!of!the! Acts! and! the! elimination! of! auxiliary! characters,! are! few.! The! most! notable! adjustment! in! content! is! the! replacement! of! rage! episodes! in! comedy! with! a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! on%the%head)!V:!(Beat,!go!ahead!and!kill!yourself)!(aside)%F:!I!know!I!am!an!animal.!And!you!know!it! too,!yet!you!must!have!compassion!for!a!man!who!loves!you.!! 162 !Goldoni,!La%donna%di%governo%(dramma%giocoso);%Act!I,!viii.!Translation!above.! ! ! 170! ! larmoyant%type!of%serio!in!the!opera,!advantageous!in!many!respects.!The!choice!for! new! tragic! hues! does! not! subtract! from! the! realism! of! the! parti%serie%involved,! but! rather!enhances!it!as!we!have!seen,!and!this!ampler!diversification!in!turn!translates! into! greater! musical! variety.! Furthermore,! we! must! understand! the! expansion! of! serio%as!a!logical!dramatic!consequence!of!Goldoni’s!other!changes.!In!particular,!in! comedy! the! governess! prevails! over! two! sisters,! who! however! can! count! on! their! mutual!support!and!that!of!an!aunt!to!ultimately!resolve!the!plot!in!their!favor.!The! necessary! reductions! for! the! dramma% giocoso! leave! only! one! sister,! and! Goldoni! removes!all!of!her!supporting!characters.!The!tendency!of!Rosalba!towards!despair! and!self1pity!is!thus!a!natural!consequence!of!her!isolation,!and!appears!a!realistic! reaction!to!her!impotence.!! The!analogous!conclusions!of!the!two!works!prove!that,!aside!from!these!few! crucial! differences,! the! relationship! between! them! is! one! of! common! purpose.! In! particular,! in! opera! as! in! comedy! Goldoni! preserves! his! commentary! and! condemnation! of! blind! infatuation.! Both! protagonists! are! ultimately! forgiven! by! a! hurt! but! still! love1struck! Fabrizio,! who! furthermore! bestows! a! hefty! dowry! upon! them,!as!foretold:!“non!sì!spesso!accade!ch’ella![the!governess!who!takes!advantage]! finisca! con! quel! rossore! e! con! quel! castigo! che! merita,! poiché! gli! acciecati! Padroni! lasciano! talora! anche! dopo! morte! la! memoria! della! loro! fatuità! e! debolezza,! beneficandole! per! le! loro! insidie,! e! per! le! loro! studiate! simulazioni.”163 !In! sum,! together! with! his! augmentation! of! serio% in! the! dramma% giocoso,! Goldoni! does! not! hesitate!to!expose!the!real!world!in!opera!theatre!in!equal!measure!as!in!his!comedy.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 163 !Goldoni,!La%donna%di%governo%(comedy),!previously!cited.!! ! ! 171! ! The!two!renditions!of!La%donna%di%governo%testify!that!Goldoni!could!not!have!seen! comic! theatre! and! opera! theatre! as! incompatible! arts,! nor! did! he! believe! musical! theatre!to!be!less!capable!of!harboring!the!same!reformist!traits!and!social!critique! at!the!core!of!his!best!comedies.!! We! come! finally! to! Goldoni’s! dramma%giocoso%La%buona%figliuola%(The! Good! Girl),%adapted!from!his!comedy!La%Pamela.%The!prose!version!has!been!extensively! noted! in! scholarship! particularly! for! its! tragic! or! pathetic! accents,! and! the! opera! derived!from!it,!which!preserves!and!augments!these!traits,!represents!a!significant! innovation!in!the!direction!of!Goldoni’s!reform,!and!more!broadly!in!the!direction!of! a! new,! contemporary,! and! realistic! opera! theatre.! Paolo! Gallarati! places! the! opera! clearly! between! buffo% and! serio,! “…[La! buona! figliuola]! inaugurava! il! filone! dell’opera! semiseria! destinata! a! rappresentare! in! seguito,! praticamente! sino! a! Rossini,!una!valida!alternativa!alla!radicale!opposizione!dei!due!generi!principali.”164! While!it!is!arguable!whether!La%buona%figliuola%can!be!considered!a!first!example!of! opera% semiseria,! it! is! known! that! it! was! particularly! appreciated! at! the! premiere! precisely! for! its! pathetic! accents,! to! which! we! add! the! presence! of! balanced! mezzi% caratteri.! La% buona% figliuola% and! even! more! so! its! original,! La% Pamela,% are! important! indicators!of!the!new!influence!of!English!novels!on!the!European!imagination,!and! most! importantly! of! the! new! larmoyant% style! previously! defined.! As! the! author! announces! in! his! Prefazione,% “questa! è! una! Commedia! in! cui! le! passioni! sono! con! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 164 !P.! Gallarati,! Musica% e% Maschera,% (Torino,! EDT,! 1984);! 135.! [La! buona! figliuola]! inaugurated! the! new!strand!of!opera%semiseria!later!destined!to!represent,!all!the!way!to!Rossini,!a!valid!alternative!to! the!radical!opposition!of!the!two!principal!genres.!! ! ! 172! ! tanta!forza!e!tanta!delicatezza!trattate,!quanto!in!una!Tragedia!richiederebbesi,”165! reason! for! which! AnnaMaria! Finetto! asserts,! “ascrivere! la! Pamela! di! Goldoni! al! genere! “commedia”! è! …per! certi! aspetti! riduttivo.”166!! Derived! by! Goldoni! from! Samuel!Richardson’s!epistolary!novel,!Pamela%or%Virtue%Rewarded%(1741),!La%Pamela% overturns!all!of!the!comic!irreality!of!the!traditional!serva%padrona.!Another!legacy! of!Goldoni’s!prodigious!year!of!the!sixteen!comedies,!it!was!first!given!in!1750!with! Medebach.!A!sequel!of!even!greater!success,!La%Pamela%maritata%(Pamela!Married),% followed!ten!years!later!(immediately!translated!into!German,!Spanish,!and!French),! prompting!editors!Bettinelli!and!Paperini!to!subsequently!list!the!original!as!Pamela% fanciulla%(Pamela!Nubile)!for!reasons!of!distinction.!! Before! considering! Goldoni’s! operatic! adaptation! (with! particular! regard! to! its!treatment!of!serio),%a!word!must!be!said!regarding!the!author’s!intervention!on! Richardson’s! original.! The! story! of! Pamela! is! one! of! contrast! between! internal! affection! and! social! obligation,! and! it! confronts! the! potential! incompatibility! between! 18th1century! class! structure! and! Enlightenment! philosophy.! The! heroine,! whose! letters! to! home! make! up! the! novel,! is! a! modern! English! putta% onorata,! of! humble!origin!but!noble!spirit.!With!the!protection!of!a!noblewoman!who!comes!to! love!her!as!a!daughter,!Pamela!receives!an!excellent!education!and!all!that!she!needs! to! function! in! high! society.! Her! fortune! changes! dramatically! at! the! death! of! the! Lady,! as! Pamela! becomes! victim! of! the! violent! temperament! of! her! son,! torn! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 165 !Goldoni,!La%Pamela,!Forward.!This!is!a!Comedy!in!which!the!passions!are!treated!with!such!force! and!such!delicacy!as!would!be!required!in!a!Tragedy.! 166 !AnnaMaria!Finetto,!“La!Pamela!e!La!Buona!Figliuola:!Il!Linguaggio!Patetico!di!Goldoni”,!in! Studi% Goldoniani%quaderno%8!(Venezia:!Casa!di!Goldoni!e!Istituto!di!Studi!Teatrali!dei!Musei!Civici!Veneziani,! 1988);!107.!Ascribing!Goldoni’s!Pamela%to!the!genre!of!comedy!is!in!some!ways!reductive.!! ! ! 173! ! between! his! love! and! admiration! for! Pamela’s! character! and! contempt! for! her! origins.! Pamela’s! virtue! never! falters,! and,! after! many! tempestuous! ordeals! including!attempted!physical!assaults!and!abduction!(the!hallmark!of!a!romanzesco! work),! rewards! her! with! a! felicitous! union! to! the! son! of! her! late! mistress,! transcending!every!social!barrier!and!norm.!! An!extremely!popular!tale,!Richardson’s!novel!was!partially!reworked!in!Italy! by!Pietro!Chiari!and!the!Neapolitan!Francesco!Cerlone!(173011812)!among!others.! As!a!side!note,!Cerlone,!who!worked!as!a!librettist!in!Rome!from!1750,!like!Goldoni! authored!two!comedies,!Pamela%nubile%and!Pamela%maritata.!It!is!unknown!whether! the!authors!ever!interacted,!but!it!is!certain!that!they!shared!a!composer,!Giovanni! Paisiello,!who!first!set!Goldoni’s!Il%mondo%della%luna.!! Goldoni’s!own!rendition!of!Pamela!boasts!a!long!legacy.!His!comic!reduction! was! published! in! England! in! 1756! (editor! John! Nourse)! together! with! another! Medebach!comedy,!Il%padre%di%famiglia%(The!Family!Father,!1750),!within!a!bilingual! edition! interestingly! advertised! as! A% New% Method% of% Learning% the% Italian% Tongue.! More! importantly,! scholars! have! identified! Goldoni! as! a! source! for! subsequent! Pamela% adaptations! throughout! Europe,! including! Voltaire’s! L’Ecossaise! (The! Scottish! Girl,! 1760)! and! Pamela,% ou% la% vertu% récompensée% (Pamela,! or! Virtue! Rewarded)!by!François!de!Neufchâteau!(1793)!in!France.167! Goldoni’s! changes! are! necessarily! oriented! towards! a! reduction! of! content.! Indeed,!his!comedy!begins!long!after!the!death!of!Pamela’s!kind!mistress,!almost!at! the!eve!of!the!union!between!the!maiden!and!the!heir!Bonfil.!Consequently,!Bonfil! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 167 !T.!Keymar,!P.!Sabor,!Pamela%in%the%Marketplace:%literary%controversy%and%print%culture%in%eighteenth% century%Britain%and%Ireland.%(New!York:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2005);!138.!! ! ! 174! ! retains!some!of!Richardson’s!characterization!in!his!rash!temper,!but!displays!none! of! the! violent! behavior! of! his! early! days.! Goldoni! prefers! to! highlight! instead! a! mature! state! of! respectful! admiration! for! Pamela,! intensified! by! an! all1consuming! love! and! dependence! on! her! presence,! and! a! resulting! tendency! towards! melancholic! humor.! The! action! is! entirely! carried! out! within! the! walls! of! Bonfil’s! home;!dramatic!episodes!of!physical!nature,!such!as!Pamela’s!abduction,!are!wholly! excluded!in!favor!of!emphasis!on!interior!conflict,!which!constitutes!the!core!of!the! action.!These!changes!are!by!no!means,!however,!the!most!noteworthy.! More! than! a! mere! reduction,! Goldoni! also! directly! alters! Richardson’s! plot.! Most! notably,! he! removes! the! political! undertones! of! the! original! in! effacing! its! radical!message!of!equality.!Goldoni’s!Pamela,!unlike!her!predecessor,!is!discovered! through! a! coup% de% scene% to! be! of! noble! blood.! She! does! not,! therefore,! attain! marriage! directly! because! of! her! personal! merits,! but! only! thanks! to! a! deliverance! from! her! social! status! in! which! she! plays! no! active! role.! Not! only! does! Bonfil! not! transcend!the!constraints!of!his!social!order!in!acknowledgment!of!her!moral!worth,! but! moreover! Pamela’s! virtuous! conduct! is! retrospectively! framed! almost! as! a! physiological!consequence!of!her!blood,!therefore!her!free!will!undermined,!and!its! merit!reduced.!Goldoni!explains:!! Il!premio!della!virtù!è!l'oggetto!dell'Autore!Inglese;!a! me! piacque! assaissimo! una! tal! mira,! ma! non! vorrei! che!al!merito!della!virtù!si!sagrificasse!il!decoro!delle! Famiglie.! Pamela,! benchè! vile! ed! abbietta,! merita! di! essere!da!un!Cavaliere!sposata;!ma!un!Cavaliere!dona! troppo!al!merito!di!Pamela,!se!non!ostante!la!viltà!de'! natali,!la!prende!in!isposa.!Vero!è!che!in!Londra!poco! scrupolo!si!fanno!alcuni!di!cotai!nozze,!e!legge!non!vi! è! colà! che! le! vieti;! ma! vero! è! non! meno,! che! niuno! amerà! per! questo! che! il! figliuolo,! il! fratello,! il! ! ! 175! ! congiunto!sposi!una!bassa!femmina,!anzichè!una!sua! pari,!quantunque!sia,!più!di!questa,!virtuosa!quella!e! gentile.168! ! This! decision! may! appear! uncharacteristic,! especially! in! light! of! the! Enlightenment! ideals! we! often! associate! with! Goldoni’s! comedies.! We! must! remember,! however,! that! La% Pamela% is! a! relatively! early! work,! written! during! Goldoni’s! first! contract! as! a! dramatist.! Preservation! of! all! aspects! of! Richardson’s! original!would!easily!have!ascribed!a!radical!stance!to!a!young!author!just!beginning! to!gain!the!goodwill!of!Venetian!spectators.!The!delicacy!of!this!societal!matter,!and! likely! a! certain! discomfort! with! the! issue,! is! betrayed! by! the! ambiguity! of! the! remarks!that!follow:! Non! so,! se! su! tal! punto! saranno! i! perspicacissimi! ingegni!dell'Inghilterra!di!me!contenti.!Io!non!intendo! disapprovare! ciò! che! da! essi! non! si! condanna;! accordar! voglio! ancora,! che! coi! principi! della! natura! sia!preferibile!la!virtù!alla!nobiltà!e!alla!ricchezza,!ma! siccome! devesi! sul! Teatro! far! valere! quella! morale! che! viene! dalla! pratica! più! comune! approvata,! perdoneranno! a! me! la! necessità,! in! cui! ritrovato! mi! sono,!di!non!offendere!il!più!lodato!costume.169! ! Goldoni’s! language! suggests! a! high! regard! for! the! ‘great! minds’! of! England,! and! his! request! for! pardon,! however! rhetorical,! leaves! open! the! possibility! of! a! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 168 !Goldoni,!La%Pamela,%“The!Author!to!his!Readers.”!The!reward!of!virtue!is!the!subject!of!the!English! author;! I! liked! it! very! much,! but! I! wouldn’t! want! to! sacrifice! the! dignity! of! Families! to! the! merit! of! virtue.! Pamela,! while! vile! and! abject,! merits! that! a! Gentleman! should! marry! her;! but! a! Gentleman! would!give!her!too!much!merit,!if!her!were!to!marry!her!in!spite!of!the!lowliness!of!her!birth.!It!is!true! that!in!London!such!a!union!does!not!raise!concern,!and!there!is!no!law!there!to!forbid!it;!but!it!is!no! less! certain! that! no! one! because! of! this! would! like! for! his! son,! brother,! or! other! relation! to! marry,! instead! of! a! lady! his! equal,! a! lowly! women,! even! if! she! were! more! virtuous! and! ladylike! than! the! other.!!! 169 !ibid.! I! don’t! know! if! on! this! matter! the! perceptive! minds! of! England! will! approve! of! what! I’ve! done.! I! do! not! intend! to! disapprove! of! what! they! do! not! condemn;! and! I! further! convene! that! following!the!principles!of!nature,!virtue!is!always!preferable!to!nobility!and!to!wealth,!but!since!in! the! Theatre! I! must! reflect! those! customs! upheld! by! common! practice,! they! will! forgive! me! for! the! necessity!in!which!I!found!myself,!to!not!offend!the!more!largely!approved!tradition.!!! ! ! 176! ! divarication!between!his!personal!beliefs!and!the!constraints!of!his!first!professional! debut.! What! is! more,! while! Goldoni! resolves! the! action! in! a! less! socially! charged! manner,!he!does!not!wholly!eliminate!egalitarian!notions!from!his!comedy,!offered! by!various!characters!throughout!the!work.!An!unequivocal!example!is!the!following! tirade!spoken!by!Pamela’s!governess,!which!appears!almost!as!a!prose!exit!aria:!! Che!si!abbia!a!morire!per!salvar!l'onore,!l'intendo;!ma! che! sia! disonore! sposare! una! povera! ragazza! onesta,! non! la! capisco.! Io! ho! sentito! dir! tante! volte! che! il! mondo! sarebbe! più! bello,! se! non! l'avessero! guastato! gli! uomini,! i! quali! per! cagione! della! superbia! hanno! sconcertato! il! bellissimo! ordine! della! natura.! Questa! madre! comune! ci! considera! tutti! eguali,! e! l'alterigia! dei! grandi! non! si! degna! dei! piccoli.! Ma! verrà! un! giorno,! che! dei! piccoli! e! dei! grandi! si! farà! nuovamente!tutta!una!pasta.!(parte)170!!! ! We! may! also! recall! certain! strong! lines! given! to! Bonfil! (e.g.! “Quanto! cambierei! volentieri!questo!gran!palazzo!con!una!delle!vostre!capanne!”171 ),!in!which!we!note! the! incompatibility! of! logic! and! rationality! with! imposed! constraints! of! class! division:! Tutti!amano!Pamela,!ed!io!non!la!dovrò!amare?!Ma!il! mio! grado...! Che! grado?! Sarò! nato! nobile,! perché! la! nobiltà! mi! abbia! a! rendere! sventurato?! Pamela! val! più! d'un! regno,! e! se! fossi! un! re,! amerei! Pamela! più! della! mia! corona.! Ma! l'amo! tanto,! ed! ho! cuor! di! lasciarla?!Mi!priverò!della!cosa!più!preziosa!di!questa! terra?! La! cederò! a! mia! sorella?! Partirò! per! non! più! vederla?172! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 170 !ibid.;!Act!III,!iii.!That!one!should!die!to!save!his!honor,!I!understand;!but!that!it!be!dishonorable!to! marry!an!honest!girl!because!she!is!poor,!I!do!not!comprehend.!I’ve!heard!it!said!many!times!that!the! world!would!be!more!beautiful!if!only!men!had!not!ruined!it,!men!who,!by!reason!of!their!arrogance,! have! upset! the! superb! order! of! nature.! This! common! mother! considers! us! all! equals,! while! the! haughtiness!of!the!greats!disdains!the!common!people.!But!there!will!come!a!day!in!which!the!great! and!the!humble!will!once!more!become!one!mold.!(exits)!! 171 !ibid.;!Act!III,!vi.!How!gladly!I!would!exchange!this!great!palazzo%for!one!of!your!huts!! 172 !ibid.,!Act!I,!xii.!Everyone!loves!Pamela,!and!I!should!not!love!her?!But!my!rank…what!rank?!Was!I! born! a! nobleman! so! that! my! nobility! could! make! me! wretched?! Pamela! is! worth! more! than! a! kingdom,!and!were!I!a!King,!I!would!love!her!more!than!my!crown.!I!love!her!so,!yet!I!have!heart!to! ! ! 177! ! ! Also!of!note!in!this!excerpt!is!the!larmoyant%quality!of!serio%that!colors!these!lines.!In! particular,!the!sequence!of!questions!creates!a!feeling!of!restlessness,!yearning,!and! again,!the!most!powerful!element!of!pathos:!self1doubt.!! Gallarati! has! observed! that,! in! opera,! Goldoni! further! removes! the! more! weighted! monologues! of! his! comedy! (such! as! those! above),! though! his! conclusion,! “Goldoni! li! considerava! evidentemente! incompatibili! con! la! ‘frivolezza’! del! teatro! cantato”173!is!not!entirely!supported!by!Goldoni’s!operatic!text.!In!particular,!while! in! his! dramma% giocoso! Goldoni! does! distance! himself! further! from! the! original! Pamela,%Goldoni’s! libretto! clearly! maintains! elements! of! moderated! serio%as! above,% largely!responsible!for!the!work’s!success.!What!is!more,!the!many!drammi%giocosi! examined! through! the! course! of! this! chapter! (not! to! mention! the! close! interconnection!of!opera!theatre!to!comedy!in!La%donna%di%governo)!all!testify!that! Goldoni!hardly!avoided!taking!a!stance!on!social!issues!through!his!musical!theatre.! As! we! have! seen! in! numerous! libretti% (Il% filosofo% di% campagna,% etc.)! the! life! of! commoners,!in!its!closeness!to!nature,!is!often!cited!as!a!positive!foil!for!corruption! in! the! city,! where,! in! the! words! of! M.me! Jevre,! “gli! uomini! (…)! per! cagione! della! superbia! hanno! sconcertato! il! bellissimo! ordine! della! natura”! (men,! by! reason! of! their!arrogance,!have!upset!the!beautiful!order!of!nature).!! ! Let! us! now! consider! La%buona%figliuola%in! greater! detail.! First! premiered! in! Parma! in! 1757! with! music! by! Egidio! Romualdo! Duni,! the! opera! became! widely! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! leave! her?! Will! I! deprive! myself! of! the! most! precious! thing! on! this! earth?! Will! I! give! her! up! to! my! sister?!Depart!to!never!see!her!again?!! 173 !P.! Gallarati,! Musica% e% Maschera;! 135.! Goldoni! evidently! considered! them! incompatible! with! the! ‘frivolity’!of!opera!theatre.!! ! ! 178! ! renowned!in!1760,!when!it!was!given!with!a!new!musical!setting!by!Niccolò!Piccinni! at!the!Teatro%delle%Dame%in!Rome.!An!instant!success,!the!dramma%giocoso%boasts!a! long! itinerary! throughout! Europe,! subsequently! performed! in! Vienna,! London,! Madrid,!Berlin,!Stockholm,!Copenhagen,!Paris,!and!even!young!Philadelphia.!! Goldoni’s! derivation! from! La% Pamela% preserves! an! intermediate! degree! of! fidelity!to!his!source.!While!the!author!never!includes!close!textual!citation!(nor!any! correspondence!of!name!between!characters)!as!we!find!in!La%donna%di%governo,!he% also! does! not! create! an! altogether! new! plot! as! with! Lo% speziale.% Instead,! Goldoni! maintains!the!same!dynamics!of!relation!between!the!central!characters,!preserving! Pamela! (now! Cecchina,! perhaps! named! after! a! character! from! an! earlier! dramma% giocoso,%La%cascina),!her!Bonfil!(the!Marchese!della!Conchiglia),!and!his!aristocratic! and! disapproving! sister! Lady! Daure! (the! Marchesa! Lucinda),! yet! also! transposing! the! saga! to! an! Italian! setting,! and! most! importantly! diversifies! the! dramatic! spectrum! of! the! opera! with! new! secondary! characters.! Entirely! original! additions! include! a! lover! of! the! Marchesa! (serio)% and! an! array! of! parti% buffe:% a! maid,! two! farmers,!and!a!foreign!soldier.!! Perhaps!the!most!noteworthy!aspect!of!this!dramma%giocoso%is!its!treatment! of! Cecchina! and! the! Marchese! as! realistic! mezzi% caratteri,% immediately! apparent! from! their! central! collocation! in! Goldoni’s! elenco% dei% personaggi,% as! from! their! conduct.! Their! parts,! in! particular! Cecchina’s! role,! are! colored! by! accents! of! moderated! serio,% while! the! more! traditional! parti% serie! (Lucinda! and! her! lover)! continue!in!an!older!Metastasian!style.!In!La%Pamela,%the!Conte!Ernold!admonishes! Bonfil:! “Se! andate! a! teatro,! ove! si! fanno! le! opere! musicali,! vi! andate! solo! per! ! ! 179! ! piangere,!e!vi!alletta!solo!il!canto!patetico,!che!da!solletico!all’ipocondria.”174!We!find! some!aspects!of!this!new,!modernized!serio%in!the!tearful!but!calibrated!manners!of! our! protagonist! Cecchina,! such! that! AnnaMaria! Finetto! has! observed,! “proprio! da! Cecchina! inizia,! sotto! certi! aspetti,! la! moda! del! canto! patetico! che! si! svilupperà! nell’opera!seria!romantica.”175!! While! the! delicacy! and! changeability! of! Goldoni’s! mezzo% carattere% appears! wholly!antithetical!to!the!tragic!roles!of!Romantic!opera,!it!is!true!that!later!musical! tradition!will!continue!in!the!direction!of!psychological!realism.!In!this!light,!and!as! we! will! see! in! the! following! chapter,! Goldoni’s! contributions! reach! far! beyond! his! time.!! In!La%buona%figliuola,%we!note!that!the!protagonist’s!serio%style!retains!little!of! the! Arcadian! stateliness.! Goldoni! condenses! Cecchina’s! lines! and! simplifies! her! language!in!reflection!of!her!unaffectedness!and!naiveté:! !! !! ! Vo!cercando!e!non!ritrovo! la!mia!pace!e!il!mio!conforto,! che!per!tutto!meco!porto! una!spina!in!mezzo!al!cor.!176! ! By! contrast,! Pamela! in! comedy! is! much! more! Metastasian,! notwithstanding! the! greater!freedom!allowed!by!her!prose!part:!! Oh! Dio!! Che! è! mai! questo! nuovo! tremor,! che! mi! assale! le! membra!! Ahi! che! vuol! dir! questo! gelo,! che! mi! circonda! le! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 174 !Goldoni,! La% Pamela,! Act! I,! xvi.! If! you! go! to! theatres! where! they! perform! opera,! you! go! only! to! weep,!and!you!draw!pleasure!only!from!pathetic!song,!which!feeds!your!imaginary!illnesses.!! 175 !! AnnaMaria!Finetto,!“La!Pamela!e!La!Buona!Figliuola:!Il!Linguaggio!Patetico!di!Goldoni”,!in!Studi% Goldoniani% quaderno% 8.! The! fashion! of! pathetic! song! that! will! develop! into! Romantic! tragic! opera! begins!precisely!from!Cecchina.!! 176 !Goldoni,! La% Buona% Figliuola,% Act! I,! xvi.! I! seek! but! I! can’t! find/! my! peace! nor! my! comfort/! and! everywhere!I!carry/!a!thorn!within!my!heart.!! ! ! 180! ! vene!! Oimè,! come! dal! gelo! si! passa! al! fuoco?! Io! mi! sento! ardere,!mi!sento!morire.!177! ! Even!when!Cecchina!invokes!death,!she!is!more!moderate:!! ! !! !! ! !! Almen!fra!queste!piante! avrò!un!po’!di!riposo.!Ah!son!sì!stanca! di!sofferir!gl’insulti! della!nemica!sorte! che!son!costretta!a!desiar!la!morte.178! ! The! pathetic! nature! of! Cecchina’s! role! is! not! only! evident! through! her! language,!but!more!broadly!in!the!irony!of!the!events!that!befall!her.!Goldoni!makes! extensive!use!of!the!ensemble!finale%in!this!dramma%giocoso,!using!expansive!group! pieces! as! a! vehicle! for! plot! development.! Elements! of! larmoyant% often! surface! in! these!scenes,!as!for!example!the!finale%of!Act!I,!in!which!Cecchina!is!portrayed!as!an! innocent!victim.!Banished!by!Bonfil!because!he!believes!her!indifferent!to!him,!and! by! her! faithful! friend! Mengotto! because! of! jealously,! Cecchina! is! also! attacked! in! spite! by! servants! Sandrina! and! Paoluccia,! who,! envious! of! the! attentions! she! receives,! plot! to! undermine! her! reputation.! Cecchina’s! repeated! interjections,! “Chi! mi! aiuta,! per! pietà?”! create! a! sense! of! pleading! urgency! and! enhance! the! pitiable! tenderness!of!the!scene.!Further!pathos%in!Goldoni’s!dramma%giocoso%is!afforded!by! an! original! scene! of! abduction,! absent! from! La% Pamela,% in! which! Cecchina! is! put! under! arrest! by! the! Cavaliere! Armidoro! (Act! II).! This! added! adventurous! episode! would! appear! to! return! in! music! some! elements! of! romanzesco%removed! from! the! comedy! (though! of! new! invention).! Franco! Fido’s! observation,! “il! dramma! per! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 177 !Goldoni,!La%Pamela;%Act!III,!xi.!Oh!God!!What!on!earth!is!this!new!tremor!that!seizes!me!!What!is! the!meaning!of!this!chill!that!surrounds!my!veins!!Ahi,!how!is!it!that!from!such!cold!I!pass!to!fire?!I! feel!myself!burning,!I!feel!myself!dying.!! 178 !Goldoni,!La%Buona%Figliuola.%Act!II,!xii.!At!least!amid!these!plants!I!may!find!some!respite.!Ah!I!am! so!weary!of!suffering!the!blows!of!my!enemy!fate,!that!I!am!forced!to!desire!death.!! ! ! 181! ! musica! può! accogliere! una! dimensione! romanzesca! e! avventurosa! negata! alla! commedia,”179!appears!relevant!in!this!respect.!! Notably,!the!tender!hues!of!Cecchina’s!role!do!not!fade!even!in!the!felicitous! resolution!of!the!plot.!Her!noble!origins!revealed!to!her,!Cecchina’s!reaction!is!one!of! familiar!stupor!and!emotional!conflict:!! !! !! Ah!signori,!vorrei! far!i!doveri!miei;!! ma!ho!ancora!il!cuore! fra!la!gioia!confuso!! e!fra!il!timore.180!! ! Rather! than! outright! joy,! Goldoni! colors! Cecchina’s! apotheosis! with! hints! of! “fear”! that!underline!her!modesty!and!deep!sentiment.!! In!sum,!La%buona%figliuola!appears!an!exercise!in!sentimentalism,!supported! by! Goldoni’s! use! of! the! moderated! mezzo% carattere! and! by! his! consistent! use! of! larmoyant% elements! to! characterize! the! heroine.! These! elements! in! particular! contributed! to! a! lasting! success.! In! the! words! of! Daniel! Heartz,! the! opera! was! “destined!to!surpass!all!his!other!librettos!in!the!influence!in!wielded.”181!While!the! dramma%giocoso%presents!significant!departures!from!Goldoni’s!comedy,!it!remains! an!important!milestone!in!psychological!realism!and!moreover,!in!the!creation!of!a! new! brand! of! serio! that,! attenuated,! realistic,! and! freed! from! all! Metastasian! influence,!is!decidedly!modern!and!will!have!a!lasting!influence!beyond!18th1century! Venice.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 179 !F.!Fido,!Nuova%Guida%al%Goldoni;%69.!!The!dramma%per%musica%can!sustain!a!romanzesco%and! adventurous!dimension!denied!to!comedy.!! 180 !Goldoni,! La%Buona%Figliuola;! Act! III,! xi.! Ah! sirs,! I! would! like! to! do! my! duty;! but! my! heart! is! still!! confused!between!joy!and!fear.!! 181 !D.! Heartz,! “Goldoni,! the! Dramma! Giocoso,! and! Don! Giovanni,”! in! The% Musical% Times% vol.! 120! n.! 1642.! ! ! 182! ! Furthermore,! the! examples! of! direct! translation! cited! above! prove! varying! degrees!of!contact!between!Goldoni’s!comic!theatre!and!his!opera!texts.!Most!of!all,! they! testify! to! the! author’s! efforts! to! improve! comedy! through! realism! by! the! progressive! attenuation! of! stereotypical! role! divisions.! Thanks! to! the! foundations! laid!by!our!author,!opera!after!Goldoni!will!be!able!to!accomplish!what!Gallarati!has! called! “la! trasformazione! del! melodramma! comico! in! una! grande! commedia! musicale.”182!! ! Thematic&ritornelli&and&ideological&reform&& Goldoni’s! realist! reform,! undertaken! at! great! cost! in! his! prose! theatre! and! reflected!in!his%drammi%giocosi,%can!be!understood!from!many!angles.!The!author’s! autobiographical!remarks!are!filled!with!testimony!of!a!changing!horizon.!From!an! initial! desire! to! move! beyond! the! masks! of! the! Commedia% dell’Arte,% Goldoni’s! new! style! and! a! new! comic! practice! set! in! motion! a! transformation! of! greater! scope,! which!comes!gradually!into!focus:!! Nel!primo!e!secondo!anno!di!tale!mio!esercizio![as!a! comic! author]! non! ho! azzardata! Commedia! alcuna! senza!le!Maschere,!ma!queste!bensì!a!poco!per!volta! sono! andato! rendendo! men! necessarie,! facendo! vedere!al!popolo!che!si!poteva!ridere!senza!di!loro,!e! che! anzi! quella! specie! di! riso,! che! viene! dal! frizzo! nobile! e! spiritoso,! è! quella! propria! degl’omini! di! giudizio.183! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 182 !P.! Gallarati,! Musica% e% Maschera;! 136.! The! transformation! of! comic! opera! into! great! musical! comedy.!! 183 !Goldoni,! Nona% Lettera% dell’Autore% allo% Stampatore% dell’edizione! Bettinelli! di! Venezia,! 17501! 52,! riportato!in!Opere%di%Carlo%Goldoni,%a!cura!di!Gianfranco!Folena!e!Nicola!Mangini,!(Tomo!VII!a!cura!di! Giovanni! Getto)! (Milano:! Mursia,! 1975);! 1334.! During! my! first! two! years! as! a! playwright,! I! did! not! venture!any!comedy!without!Masks,!but!instead!little!by!little!I!made!these!less!necessary,!showing! audiences!that!they!could!laugh!even!without!them,!and!moreover,!that!laughter!which!is!the!product! of!noble!and!clever!quip,!is!more!befitting!of!a!man!of!judgment.!! ! ! 183! ! ! A!comic!theatre!for!a!new,!enlightened!audience!(“uomini!di!giudizio”)!is!one! capable! of! responding! to! its! own! times,! without! the! abstraction! of! masks! or! stereotyped! characters.! Beyond! a! question! of! style,! Goldoni’s! realist! reform! necessarily! acquires! a! higher! implication,! as! it! reflects! the! transformations! of! the! social!makeup,!and!captures!the!virtues!and!shortcomings!of!the!modern!lifestyle!in! all! social! contexts.! ! Goldoni’s! reform! comedies! and! drammi% giocosi% must! also! acknowledge! current! trends! of! thought,! including! Enlightenment! messages! of! equality,!as!for!example!(from!two!operas),! Signor,!vi!parlo!schietto! Tutti!nudi!siam!nati,! Tutti!nudi!morremo;! Levatevi!il!vestito!inargentato! E!vedrete!che!pari!è!il!nostro!stato.184! or!! Per!me!sostengo!e!dico! Ed!ho!la!mia!ragione! Che!sia!la!condizione!un!accidente.! Sposare!una!servente! Che!cosa!importa!a!me!se!è!bella!e!buona?! Peggio!è!assai,!se!è!cattiva,!una!padrona.185! ! Goldoni’s!reform!of!the!spoken!theatre!is!a!thus!double1sided!coin,!aiming!at! the! renewal! of! theatrical! custom! and! of! social! mores.! While! developing! comedy! without! the! Commedia% dell’Arte% mask! and! beyond! the! limits! of! superficial! improvisation,!Goldoni!also!makes!his!theatre!the!mirror!of!everyday!life!to!exalt!or! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 184 !Goldoni,!Bertoldo,%Bertoldino%e%Cacasenno;%Act!I,!iv.!Sir,!let!me!speak! to!you!frankly.!We!were!all! born!naked,!and!naked!we!will!die;!remove!your!silvered!gown,!and!you’ll!see!that!our!condition!is! even.!! 185 !Goldoni,!Il%Filosofo%di%Campagna,%Act!II,!xiv.!For!my!part,!I!profess!and!have!my!reasons!for!saying! that!social!condition!is!merely!a!matter!of!chance.!What!does!it!matter!if!I!marry!a!servant,!if!she!is! beautiful!and!good?!It!would!be!much!worse!were!she!noble!and!mean!spirited.!! ! ! 184! ! deprecate!its!characters,!a!choice!radically!detached!from!the!fantastical!theatre!of! Carlo! Gozzi,! much! in! fashion! in! his! day.! Goldoni’s! contributions! to! the! dramma% giocoso%must!be!evaluated!according!to!this!double!achievement!of!ideological!and! formal!renewal.! The! ideological! continuity! between! the! majority! of! the! drammi% giocosi% and! the! reform! plays! becomes! apparent! as! Goldoni,! following! natural! inclination,! confronts! the! most! widespread! societal! flaws! in! his! libretti.! Drammi% giocosi% and! comedies! alike! are! filled! with! positive! and! negative! examples! of! every! social! condition,!derived!from!first1hand!observation!(as!the!author!deliberately!reminds! us).! As! the! rigid! barriers! of! tradition! are! dismantled,! commoners,! borghesi,! and! aristocratic!characters!display!honesty,!dishonesty,!intelligence!and!foolishness.!! We! have! also! traced! a! number! of! recurring! themes! in! Goldoni’s! opera! theatre,! including! the! contrast! between! Nature! and! civil! corruption,! between! nobility!of!name!and!of!deed,!and!the!critique!of!rampant!vices!including!excessive! vanity,! materialism,! and! fraud.! Franco! Fido’s! affirmation! that! the! libretti! are! used! more!as!ground!for!theatrical!experimentation!and!farce!(“scherzi!e!giochi!di!parole,! paradossi!e!calembours,!onomatopee!e!iperboli,!equivoci!e!cacofonie!plurilingui”186)! than! for! real! social! commentary! does! not! seem! to! fully! correspond! to! the! subjects! and!characters!of!the!mature!drammi%giocosi.!While!certainly!not!excluding!verbal!or! theatrical! play,! these! works! make! sport! of! real! moral! problems! and% are! able! to! integrate!more!serious!tones!with!the!prevailing!comedy.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 186 !Franco!Fido,!“Riforma!e!controriforma!del!teatro:!I!libretti!per!musica!di!Goldoni!fra!il!1748!e!il! 1753,”!in!Studi%Goldoniani%vol.!7;!63.![Previously!translated]! ! ! 185! ! Ultimately,& in! prose! comedy! and! opera! theatre! alike,! even! through! the! author’s!experimentation!in!many!styles!and!settings,!we!may!always!reconnect!his! theatre! to! one! unified! intention:! “Vorrei! di! buon! cuore! aver! fatto! e! poter! tuttavia! fare! con! le! Opere! mie! qualche! frutto,! indirizzando! io! tutti! i! miei! pensieri! non! solamente! a! dilettare,! che! sarebbe! piccolo! pro,! ma! a! far! ancora! qualche! giovamento.”187!In!countless!ways,!in!commentary!as!through!direct!practice,! from! his! theatrical! debut! to! his! mature! works,! Goldoni! underlines! his! conviction! of! the! higher!potential!of!comic!theatre.!! It!follows!that!the!restitution!of!comedy’s!capacity!of!moral!regulation!hinges! upon! the! level! of! realism! attained! within! it.! The! psychological! characterizations! achieved!in!his!mature!libretti,!therefore,!unequivocally!connect!his!drammi%giocosi! to!these!higher!aims.!& & Buffo,&serio,&and&melodramatic&reform&! From! the! Metastasian! serio% of! La! scuola% moderna! to! the! emotional! moderation!and!pathos!of!La%buona%figliuola,!and!the!complete!social!disintegration! of! La% donna% di% governo,! we! can! clearly! trace! the! trajectory! of! Goldoni’s! reform! in! music.! The! psychological! characterizations! that! have! contributed! to! the! success! of! Goldoni’s!drammi%giocosi%are!the!end!result!of!a!gradual!process!that,!beginning!with! the!integration!of!serio%within!prevalently!comic!structures,!continues!towards!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 187 !Goldoni,! Ottava%Lettera%dell’Autore%allo%Stampatore%dell’edizione! Bettinelli! di! Venezia,! 17501! 52,! riportato!in!Opere%di%Carlo%Goldoni,%a!cura!di!Gianfranco!Folena!e!Nicola!Mangini,!Tomo!VII!a!cura!di! Giovanni! Getto! (Milano:! Mursia,! 1975);! 1333.! I! hope! that! I! have! borne,! and! that! I! may! continue! to! bear! with! my! Works! some! fruit,! as! I! have! directed! all! my! thoughts! not! only! to! the! aim! of! giving! pleasure,!a!small!benefit,!but!indeed!to!being!of!some!use.!& ! ! ! 186! ! progressive!attenuation!of!the!divisions!between!buffo%and!serio,!as!testified!by!the! realistic! mezzo% carattere.! Moreover,! the! coexistence! of! buffo% and! serio! roles! as! a! realistic!device!is!further!confirmed!by!the!inclusion!of!moderated!serio!elements!in! his!prose!theatre!as!well.!!! ! From!a!formal!point!of!view,!Goldoni!must!be!considered!author!of!a!number! of! structural! innovations! that! most! markedly! characterized! Classical! opera! throughout! Europe! in! the! later! 18th! century.! First,! the! author! modified! the! rigid! succession! of! arie% and! recitativi% of! Metastasian! opera! with! the! introduction! of! ariette.%Unlike!grand!arie,!these!shorter!pieces!did!not!require!the!character!to!exit! the! scene,! therefore! creating! more! possibilities! for! plot! development! and! musical! variety.! Goldoni! further! limited! the! use! of! static! arie% by! making! frequent! use! of! ensembles.! Along! these! lines,! another! major! innovation! of! Goldoni! is! the! canonization! of! the! ensemble! finale,! a! practice! that! can! be! detected! already! in! the! intermezzi.! The! conclusion! of! L’amante% cabala% (1736)% provides! an! excellent! blueprint! for! the! style! of! collective! address! that! characterizes! so! many! Classical! works!all!the!way!to!Mozart!and!Da!Ponte:!“Imparino!tutti/!da!sì!bell’esempio/!che! l’arte!d’un!empio/!trionfare!non!può.”188!Importantly,!in!the!mature!drammi%giocosi,% ensemble! pieces! surpass! the! chorale! function! exemplified! above! to! acquire! an! increasingly! polyphonic! dimension.! No! longer! static,! they! serve! as! vehicles! for! the! advancement!of!the!action,!rendering!opera!theatre!more!lifelike!and!dynamic.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 188 !Carlo!Goldoni,!L’%Amante%Cabala;%Act!II,%scena!ultima.%Let!all!learn/!from!this!example/!that!the!art! of!a!villain/!can!never!prevail.! ! ! ! 187! ! Many!of!these!innovations,!especially!the!integration!of!serio%with!buffo%and! the!use!of!ensembles!within!scenes,!are!absolute!and!unique!to!Goldoni.!The!chapter! that! follows! is! dedicated! to! his! musical! legacy,! to! make! clear! the! extent! to! which! these! features! shaped! comic! opera! throughout! the! century! in! the! best! European! schools.!In!Mozart’s!operas!and!the!prestigious!Austrian!tradition,!for!example,!we! can!find!in!full!form!the!entire!catalog!of!Goldoni’s!dramatic!effects.!It!is!important! not!to!overlook!these!relevant!innovations!in!order!to!understand!the!stature!of!this! playwright!in!his!own!time,!and!in!our!musical!tradition.! & ! & ! 188! ! CHAPTER&IV.&! Towards&the&European&Stage& ! Between!1749!and!1761,!Venetian!theatres!produced!a!total!of!69!new!comic! operas.189Of!these,!44!used!libretti!by!Carlo!Goldoni.!After!he!left!Venice,!Goldoni’s! drammi% giocosi% continued! to! receive! performance! every! year! until! 1768.! Over! the! entire! arc! of! the! 18th! century,! an! estimate! of! nearly! 2000! comic! operas! were! produced!in!all!of!Italy,!of!which!283!productions!with!our!author’s!texts.!Goldoni’s! texts!began!to!circulate!outside!of!Italy!as!early!as!the!1749,!launching!the!dramma% giocoso%throughout!the!whole!of!Europe.!! !Within! his! own! lifetime,! Goldoni’s! publication! history! provides! further! testimony!of!the!wide!circulation!of!his!work.!In!the!preface!to!the!Pasquali!edition! (one!of!the!last!undertaken!during!his!life),!Goldoni!offers!this!modest!summary:!! Ecco!dunque!alla!luce!del!mondo!il!primo!tomo!della! nuova! edizione! delle! mie! Commedie,! ed! eccolo! a! fronte! di! altre! dieci! edizioni! che! lo! hanno! fin’or! prevenuto,! ed! hanno,! posso! dir! senza! ostentazione,! empito!il!mondo!delle!Opere!mie!(…)!Cinque!edizioni! del! Bettinelli,! una! del! Pitteri! in! Venezia,! la! mia! di! Firenze,!quantunque!spacciata!prima!di!terminarla;!le! ristampe!di!Pesaro,!di!Torino,!di!Napoli,!di!Bologna;!le! traduzioni! in! Francese,! in! Inglese,! in! Tedesco(…)! etc.190! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 189 !as!explained!by!E.!Dent!&!P.!Smith,!!“The!Italian!libretto!to!1800”!in!New%Grove%Dictionary%of%Music%% and%Musicians,!14th!Edition,!vol.!13.!(New!York:!Macmillan!Press,!1995).!! 190 !Goldoni,! Memorie% Italiane% (Prefazioni% ai% Diciassette% Tomi% delle% Commedie% edite% a% Venezia% da% G.B.% Pasquali),%tomo!I.!Here!then,!brought!to!the!light!of!the!world,!is!the!first!volume!of!the!new!edition!of! my! Comedies,! at! the! head! of! ten! other! editions! that! have! preceded! it,! and! have,! I! can! say! without! boasting,!filled!the!world!with!my!Works!(…)!Five!editions!by!Bettinelli,!one!by!Pitteri!in!Venice,!my! own!in!Florence,!however!doomed!it!was!before!I!even!finished!it;!then!reprinting!in!Pesaro,!Torino,! Naples,!and!Bologna;!not!counting!the!translations!into!French,!English,!German,!(…)!etc.!! ! ! 189! ! Goldoni’s!comedies!and!drammi%giocosi%boast!an!impressive!reach.!The!vast! diffusion! of! these! works! has! in! large! part! been! traced! and! catalogued! in! the! latest! critical! edition! of! Goldoni’s! complete! works! (directed! by! Anna! Laura! Bellina! and! Anna!Vencato).191!The!present!study!will!therefore!not!aim!to!provide!complete!lists! of! performances! at! foreign! venues,! as! these! are! already! available.! Instead,! we! will! refer!to!the!authoritative!new!edition!as!a!resource!for!the!present!discussion.!! ! International&drammi!giocosi!and&diffusion&of&a&new&genre The!exportation!of!Goldoni’s!texts!for!music!began!from!his!intermezzi.%While! the!earliest!of!these!did!not!appear!outside!of!Italy,!Il%filosofo%(1735)!was!performed! at! the! royal! theatre! in! Potsdam! set! to! music! by! Johann! Friedrich! Agricola! (17201! 1774),!who!also!translated!the!libretto!into!German.!Agricola’s!musical!setting!has! been! traced! from! Prague! (1752)! to! the! electoral! court! of! Mannheim! (1753),! Bonn! (1757),!Dresden!(1762),!and!a!new!appearance!at!Mannheim!as!late!as!1771.!Similar! itineraries! were! made! by! L’amor% fa% l’uomo% cieco% (Hamburg! 1743,! Leipzig! 1744,! Prague!1744)!and!Il%finto%pazzo%(Dresden!1747,!Vienna!1759,!Prague!1748).!An!even! longer!trail!was!left!by!the!popular!La%favola%dei%tre%gobbi%(1749),!which!from!Venice! traveled!to!Verona!and!Padua!(1750),!Ferrara!(1756),!Parma!(1773,!performed!for! Duke!Ferdinando!di!Borbone),!and!Naples!(1783)!in!the!original!musical!setting!of! Neapolitan1trained!composer!Vincenzo!Ciampi.!Outside!of!Italy,!the!intermezzo%saw! performances! in! Potsdam! (1754),! Munich! (1758),! Vienna! (1759),! Prague! (1760),! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 191 !Edizione%Nazionale%delle%opere%di%Carlo%Goldoni!(Venezia:!Marsilio,!20091!present).! ! ! 190! ! Bonn! (1764),! Brussels! (1766),! Saint! Petersburg! (1759),! and! even! appearing! in! French!(Les%trois%bossus)%and!Slavic!(Tri%brata%gorbuni)%translations.!! The! paths! of! Goldoni’s! early! works! foreshadow! the! diffusion! of! his! drammi% giocosi,% which! come! to! overwhelming! numbers! in! their! appearances! throughout! Europe.!The!first!dramma%giocoso%to!appear!outside!of!Italy!was!Il%negligente,!given! in! London! in! 1749! and! 1750.! ! It! was! followed! by! Il% mondo% della% luna,% given! in! Barcellona!(1751,!1765),!Brussels!(1753),!Dresden!(1754),!Prague!(1755),!Hamburg! (1755),! Saint! Petersburg! (1758),! Brunswick! (1760),! London! (1760,! 1761),! Brno! (1761),! and! many! others.! Virtually! all! of! Goldoni’s! principal! libretti! traveled! throughout! Europe;! even! the! lesser1known! La% scuola% moderna% appeared! in! Berlin! and!in!Paris!by!1754.! Beyond! the! original! works,! we! must! especially! take! into! account! foreign! translations! and! the! manifold! musical! settings! undertaken! by! composers! of! many! nations.!The!list!of!composers!who!set!Goldoni’s!libretti!(often!several)!to!music!is! almost! as! endless! as! the! chronology! of! their! performances.! Outside! of! Italy,! these! include!Florian!Gassmann!(172911774)!in!Presburg,!Pedro!Avondano!(171411782)! in!Lisbon,!Venanzio!Rauzzini!(174611810)!in!Munich,!Carl!Dittersdorf!(173911799)! and!Franz!Joseph!Haydn!(173211809)!in!Esterhaza,!Antonio!Salieri!(175011825)!in! Vienna,! and! finally! the! young! W.! A.! Mozart! (175611791)! among! many! others.! The! great! variety! of! musical! adaptations! created! implies! the! gradual! assimilation! of! Goldoni’s! theatrical! innovations! within! the! traditions! of! other! national! schools,! accounting! for! their! reappearance! in! the! works! of! Mozart! and! Da! Ponte! among! others.! Naturally,! a! great! number! of! musical! reworkings! was! produced! in! Italy! as! ! ! 191! ! well,!and!these!too!traveled!beyond!the!Alps!as!far!as!Russia,!particularly!the!scores! of! Domenico! Cimarosa! (174911801),! Giovanni! Paisiello! (174011816),! and! Niccolò! Piccinni!(172811800).!! Goldoni’s! works! did! not! travel! exclusively! through! the! exportation! of! texts,! but! also! thanks! to! a! thriving! network! of! cultural! exchange! that! characterized! the! entire!18th1century,!marking!in!this!sense!the!beginning!of!the!modern!era.!To!cite!a! rather! extreme! example,! we! know! that! Lorenzo! da! Ponte! traveled! the! whole! of! Europe,!from!then1Austrian!Gorizia!to!Dresden,!Vienna!(where!he!collaborated!with! Salieri),! Prague! (where! he! met! Giacomo! Casanova,! another! such! adventurous! figure),!then!London,!and,!fleeing!financial!disaster,!finally!to!New!York!city,!where! as! a! naturalized! American! he! became! the! first! professor! of! Italian! at! Columbia! University.!! In! the! same! way! (though! for! more! honorable! reasons),! several! of! Goldoni’s! direct! collaborators! traveled! extensively! (as! the! author! himself! did,! throughout! Italy),!becoming!conduits!of!Goldoni’s!texts.!Baldassarre!Galuppi,!for!example,!one!of! Goldoni’s! regular! composers! who! first! set! to! music! L’Arcadia% in% Brenta,% Il% Conte% Caramella,%and!Arcifanfano%re%dei%matti%(for!the!Teatro%S.%Angelo,%Accademia%Vecchia% in! Verona,! and! the! Teatro% S.% Moisé% respectively),! and! following! their! success! Il% mondo%della%luna,%Il%paese%della%cuccagna,%Il%mondo%alla%rovescia%ossia%Le%donne%che% comandano,%Il%filosofo%di%campagna%(considered!his!masterpiece),%Le%virtuose%ridicole% and!Le%pescatrici%in!a!collaboration!that!lasted!until!1756,!acquired!such!fame!that! he! was! called! to! Saint! Petersburg! by! Catherine! II,! where! he! served! as! maestro% di% cappella% at! her! court.! Goldoni’s! drammi% giocosi% received! an! additional! impulse! in! ! ! 192! ! Russia!thanks!to!the!Florentine!composer!Giovanni!Rutini!(172311797),!who,!during! a!tour!with!Locatelli,!proposed!his!own!settings!of!Goldoni!texts.!! ! Goldoni&on&opera&theatre:&realism&and&critique! ! Goldoni’s!works!were!performed!outside!of!Venice!throughout!his!career,!but! began! to! circulate! in! northern! Europe! especially! after! his! move! to! Paris! in! 1761.! During!his!voyage!to!the!city!of!Molière,!Goldoni!fell!ill!and!was!required!to!delay!his! arrival.! While! convalescing! in! Bologna,! he! authored! the! dramma% giocoso% La% bella% verità%(The!Pretty!Truth),%for!his!patron!and!frequent!correspondent!the!Marchese! Albergati.!Clearly,!Goldoni!thought!it!not!his!best!work:!“Arrivé!à!Bologne,!je!tombai! malade;! on! me! fit! faire! par! force! une! Opéra! Comique;! l’ouvrage! sentoit! le! fièvre! comme!moi.”192! While! perhaps! not! as! poetic! as! others,! this! dramma% giocoso! is! of! twofold! importance.!First,!it!continues!in!the!realist!tradition!that!Goldoni!hoped!to!develop! with! more! freedom! at! the! Comédie% Italienne.! As! a! metatheatrical! work,! La% bella% verità! offers! a! playful! critique! of! the! absurdities! of! show! business.! Goldoni! even! represents!himself!through!an!autobiographical!character,!Loran!Glodoci,!a!librettist! subject!to!the!demands!and!whim!of!his!vocalists!and!actors.!! As! a! side! note,! it! is! well! known! that! comic! criticism! of! theatre! was! rather! diffused! in! the! 18th! century,! and! with! good! reason.! Being! the! principal! source! of! public!entertainment,!theatres!were!numerous,!and!privileges!and!hierarchies!often! characterized! the! relationship! between! impresari% and! artists.! In! opera,! the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 192 !Goldoni,!Memoires,!vol.!II,!XLVI.!Once!I!arrived!in!Bologna,!I!fell!ill;!they!forced!me!to!write!a!comic! opera;!the!work!felt!the!fever!as!much!as!I!did.!! ! ! 193! ! pretentious!lead!roles!and!their!efforts!to!dominate!the!scene!became!a!stereotype,! as!Benedetto!Marcello!highlighted!early!on!in!his!popular!satire,!Il!Teatro%alla%Moda% (1720).! %Coincidentally,!Marcello’s!pamphlet!also!took!issue!with!the!lack!of!realism! in! the! content! and! structural! patters! of! traditional! melodramatic! theatre.! Of! the! lavish!appearance!of!singers,!he!comments,!! Se! il! Virtuoso! rappresentasse! una! parte! di! Prigioniero,! di! Schiavo,! etc.,! dovrà! comparire! ben! incipriato,! con! Abito! ben! carico! di! gioie,! Cimiero! altissimo,! Spada! e! Catene! ben! lunghe,! e! rilucenti,! battendole! e! ribattendole! frequentemente! per! indurre!il!popolo!a!compassione.193! !! More! sweeping! criticism! is! provided! in! his! chapter,! “Ai! Poeti,”! to! whom! he! sarcastically!recommends:!! Scriverà! tutta! l’opera! senza! formalizzarsi! Azione! veruna! della! medesima,! bensì! componendola! verso! per!verso,!acciocché!non!intendendosi!mai!l’Intreccio! dal! Popolo,! stia! questi! con! curiosità! sino! al! fine.! Avverta! sopra! ogni! cosa,! il! buon! Poeta! moderno,! che! siano! fuori! ben! spesso! tutti! li! Personaggi! senza! proposito,!quali!poi!ad!uno!ad!uno!dovranno!partire,! cantando!la!solita!Canzonetta!(…)!Non!lascerà!partire! assolutamente! il! Musico! dalla! scena! senza! la! solita! Canzonetta,! e! particolarmente! quando! per! Accidente! del! dramma! dovesse! quegli! andare! a! morire,! ammazzarsi,!bever!veleno,!etc.”194! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 193 !Benedetto! Marcello,! Il% Teatro% alla% Moda,! “Al! Musico.”! If! the! Singer! should! take! the! role! of! a! Prisoner,!a!Slave,!etc.,!he!will!have!to!appear!well!powdered,!with!a!Dress!well!encrusted!with!jewels,! a!high!helmet,!Sword,!and!Chains!that!are!long!and!shiny,!that!he!should!strike!together!frequently!to! move!the!Audience!to!compassion.!! 194 !ibid.!He![the!librettist]!will!write!the!whole!opera!without!a!plot,!but!rather!proceeding!verse!by! verse,!so!that!the!Audience,!being!unable!to!understand!the!action,!will!listen!with!curiosity!through! to!the!end.!Let!the!good!modern%poet!take!care,!above!all!else,!that!all!characters!be!out!often,!who! will!then!have!to!leave!one!at!a!time,!singing!the!usual!little!Song!(…)!He!shall!never!let!a!Singer!leave! the!stage!without!the!usual!Aria,!particularly!when!the!Plot!requires!he!go!and!die,!kill!himself,!drink! poison,!etc.!! ! ! 194! ! The!later!Memorie!of!Lorenzo!da!Ponte!(published!in!1823)!no!longer!react!to! an! unrealistic! theatre,! but! as! Goldoni! does! in! a! comic! vein,! bemoan! the! wretched! condition!of!the!opera!librettist,!always!subject!to!the!demands!of!composer,!stage! producer,! and! vocalists! (“Fui! dieci! volte! al! procinto! di! bruciare! quello! che! aveva! fatto! e! di! andare! a! chiedere! il! mio! congedo”195).! One! element! among! many! that! surfaces!in!Da!Ponte’s!autobiography!is!the!consolidation!of!the!ensemble!finale!as!a! standard! practice,! though! this! does! not! meet! with! such! enthusiasm! on! the! part! of! the!librettist:!! In! questo! finale! devono! per! teatrale! domma! comparire!in!scena!tutti!i!cantanti,!se!fosser!trecento,! a! uno,! a! due,! a! tre,! a! sei,! a! dieci,! a! sessanta,! per! cantarvi! dei’! soli,! de’! duetti,! de’! terzetti,! de’! sestetti,! de’! sessantetti;! e! se! l’intreccio! del! dramma! nol! permette,! bisogna! che! il! poeta! trovi! la! strada! di! farselo! permettere,! a! dispetto! del! criterio,! della! ragione!e!di!tutti!gli!Aristotili!della!terra;!e,!se!trovasi! poi!che!va!male,!tanto!peggio!per!lui.196! ! Goldoni’s!La%bella%verità!is!thus!one!small!tile!in!a!longstanding!tradition,!but! worthy! of! note! because! of! the! realism! that! constitutes! its! efficacy.! It! is! also! by! no! means! Goldoni’s! only! metatheatrical! work! (though! by! far! the! most! targeted! in! its! critique).! The! world! of! prose! comedy! is! naturally! highlighted! in! Il% teatro% comico% (1750)! but! also! La% cameriera% brillante! (The! Brilliant! Chambermaid,! 1754),! and! in! musical! theatre! in! a! portion! of! L’Arcadia% in% Brenta% (1949),! the! farce! La% cantarina% !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 195 !Lorenzo! da! Ponte,%Memorie,! edited! by! G.! Gambarin! &! Fausto! Nicolini! (Bari:! Giuseppe! Laterza! &! Figli,!1918);!I,!97.!Ten!times!I!was!tempted!to!burn!everything!I’d!written!and!take!my!leave.!! 196 !ibid.;!147148.!In!this!finale,!theatrical!practice!dictates!that!all!singers!should!appear!on!the!stage,! be!they!one,!two,!three,!six,!ten,!or!sixty,!to!sing!soli,!duets,!trios,!sextets,!or!sixtyets;!and!if!the!plot! does!not!permit!it,!the!poet!must!find!a!way!to!make!it!possible,!despite!his!scruples,!reason,!and!all! the!Aristotles!of!this!Earth;!and,!if!he!were!to!discover!that!it!not!go!well,!too!bad!for!him.!! ! ! 195! ! (The!Singer,!1756),!and!through!the!character!of!Petronilla!in!La%ritornata%di%Londra% (1756).!! Looking!beyond!the!satirical!realism!of%La%bella%verità,%the!second!element!of! note! in! this! work! is! the! relative! abstraction! afforded! by! the! subject! matter.! Embedded! within! a! specific! professional! environment,! this! dramma% giocoso% looks! inwards! rather! than! to! the! society! outside! of! the! theatre.! Goldoni! thereby! avoids! connection! to! any! specific! city,! creating! a! libretto! that! is! realistic! but! at! the! same! time,!of!general!applicability.!The!lack!of!explicit!setting!in!this!transitional!work!is! indicative! of! an! important! shift! in! focus! from! the! particularities! of! Venetian! life! towards!a!more!universal!stage.!! ! Expectations&and&reality&in&Paris During!his!séjour%in!Paris,!Goldoni!produced!eight!new!libretti,!of!which!five! during! a! period! of! five! years,! 1763168,! and! the! latter! three! between! 1777179.! In! keeping!with!Goldoni’s!new!international!perspective,!the!libretti!of!the!first!group! were!almost!all!derived!from!contemporary!literary!models!of!non1Italian!authors.!Il% re%alla%caccia%(1763,!premiered!at!the!Teatro%S.%Samuele),!for!example,!can!be!tied!to! La%partie%de%chasse%d’Henri%IV%(The!Hunting!Match!of!King!Henry!IV,!1762),!a!French! comedy!by!Charles!Collé,!as!well!as!to!the!French!opéra%comique!drawn!from!it,!Le% roi% et% le% fermier% (The! King! and! the! Farmer)! libretto! by! Michel1Jean! Sedaine),! of! which!Goldoni!recalls:!! Je! vus! le! Roi! et! le! Fermier! à! sa! première! représentation,!j’en!fus!extrêmement!content,!et!je!le! voyois!avec!douleur!prêt!a!tomber,!il!se!releva!peu1a1 ! ! 196! ! peu,! on! lui! rendit! justice;! il! eut! un! nombre! infini! de! représentations,!et!on!le!voit!encore!avec!plaisir.197!!! ! Il% re% alla% caccia! was! followed! by! La% finta% semplice% (1764,! premiered! at! the! Teatro%S.%Moisé%),!based!on!La%fausse%agnès%ou%le%poète%campagnard,%prose!comedy!in! three!acts!by!Destouches!(translated!by!the!Marchesa!Ottoboni,!friend!of!Giuseppe! Parini,!with!the!title!I%poeti%in%villa).!La%notte%critica%(The!Critical!Night,!1766,!for!the! Teatro% S.% Cassiano)! is! based! on! a! French! scenario% by! Goldoni,! Les% rendezavous% nocturnes% (Nighttime! Encounters),! and! the! first! period! concludes! with! L’astuzia% felice%(Happy! [successful]! Guile)! 1767,! originally! titled! La%cameriera%spiritosa%(The! Spirited! Maid)! for! its! premier! in! Milan,! 1766)! and! Le% nozze% in% campagna% (The! Country!Wedding,!1768,!for!the!Teatro%S.%Moisé).!! Importantly,! these! first! Parisian! drammi% giocosi% were! all! written! for! Italian! audiences,!and!most!for!Venetian!premieres.!Goldoni’s!initial!intent!was!to!remain!in! France!only!for!a!limited!period,!and!these!collaborations!were!doubly!important!as! they! allowed! him! to! maintain! professional! grounds! for! a! return! to! Venice.! The! libretti! therefore! do! not! present! significant! departures! from! Goldoni’s! now1 consolidated! style,! but! rather! continue! in! the! new! mode! of! realism! attained! at! the! end!of!the!Venetian!period.!! La%notte%critica%and!Le%nozze%di%campagna%are!of!greatest!significance!to!our! discussion! for! their! respective! use! of! ensembles! and! of! realistic! serio.% ! La% notte% critica! appears! similar! to! prose! comedy! in! many! respects,! and! while! no! specific! setting! is! named,! the! typical! serenade! scene! that! opens! the! work,! the! familiar! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 197 !Goldoni,!Memoires;%II,!xv.!I!saw!The!King!and!the!Farmer!at!its!premier,!I!liked!it!very!much,!and!I! was!pained!to!see!it!on!the!verge!of!failure,!but!it!recovered!little!by!little,!and!in!the!end!was!given! justice;!the!work!received!an!infinite!number!of!productions,!and!it!is!still!viewed!with!pleasure.!! ! ! 197! ! familial! structure! of! a! strict! father! (Pandolfo)! and! two! spirited! daughters! without! the! guidance! of! a! maternal! figure,! and! the! staging! around! a! palazzo! of! a! Borghese% family,!all!suggest!a!Venetian!setting.!! While! it! is! typical! of! operas! to! commence! with! a! collective! scene,! almost! always!in!a!chorale!style,!Goldoni’s!opening!ensemble!in!this!opera!is!distinct!in!its! immediate! polyphonic! effect.! Rather! than! with! the! introduction! of! the! characters,! the!action!begins!in%medias%res:!!Carlotto!is!serenading!his!Marinetta!at!her!balcony! amid!constant!intromissions!by!his!master!Leandro.!Leandro!in!turn!negotiates!the! aid!of!both!lovers!in!conquering!the!heart!of!Cecilia,!one!of!the!ladies!of!the!house.! The!opening!exchanges!could!not!be!more!like!a!comedy:! LEANDRO.!Ehi!Carlotto.!! CARLOTTO.!Signor.! LEANDRO.!Venuta!è!ancora?!! CARLOTTO.!Zitto.!! LEANDRO.!Venuta!è!ancor?!! CARLOTTO.!Zitto!in!malora.!198! ! Soon! thereafter! this! exchange! expands! to! a! three! part! ensemble! in! the! same! vein,! further! complicated! by! the! cover! of! the! “notte! tetra! e! oscura” 199 !(gloomy! and! darkened!night)!during!which!the!action!takes!place.!! Simple! dialogues! between! two! characters! are! also! scarce! in! Le% nozze% di% campagna,!yet!while!ensembles!are!used!frequently,!the!most!noteworthy!element! of!this!dramma%giocoso%is!its!realistic!moderation!of!buffo%and!serio%roles.!!Le%nozze%in% campagna!features!a!second!Cecchina,!here!too!a!mezzo%carattere,!born!a!commoner! (villanella)!but!desired!by!a!Count.!Unlike!her!predecessor!in!La%buona%figliuola,%the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 198 !Goldoni,!La%notte%critica,!Act!I,!i.!Leandro:!Ehi,!Carlotto.!Carlotto:!Sir.!L:!Has!she!come!yet?!C:!Be! quiet.!L:!Has!she!come!yet??!C:!Quiet,!go!to!hell.!!! 199 !ibid.;%III,!scena!ultima.!!! ! ! 198! ! new!Cecchina!does!not!aspire!to!social!ascension!and!is!in!love!with!Lallo,!a!young! man! of! her! own! rank.! Notwithstanding! her! modest! origins,! however,! Goldoni! characterizes!the!heroine!through!a!serio!language!that!is!attenuated!but!direct:! !! !! !! ! !! !! !! !! !! ! !! !! !! !! ! !! ! CECCA.!!Ah!sì,!purtroppo! Lallo!mio!t’ho!perduto.! (…)! LALLO.!E!con!questa!franchezza! che!mi!perdi!confessi!!Ah!traditora,! ingrata,!senza!fede,! cagna,!ladra,!spergiura...! Così!Lallo,!crudel,!da!te!si!cura?! CECCA.!Ammazzami.! LALLO.!Perché?! CECCA.!Perché!ammazzata! sarà!tutta!la!cosa!terminata.! (…)% LALLO.!E!morta,! come!potrò!sposarti?! CECCA.!Così!di!tormentarti,! Cecca!di!tormentar!avrai!finito! e!ciascun!che!m’affanna!e!m’adolora! finito!avrà!di!tormentarmi!ancora.200! While!simple!in!expression,!Cecchina’s!role!is!not!without!gravity,!and!the!measure! of!her!suffering!evokes!compassion!in!a!now1familiar!larmoyant%style.!! In! the! same! way,! the! traditional! parti% serie! are! also! treated! with! realistic! moderation.! For! example,! we! hear! an! impoverished! Countess! express! surprising! resignation!to!her!fate:! ! !! !! ! !! !! Povera!nobiltà!sì!vilipesa,! di!una!villana!resa! cognata,!anzi!soggetta;!ah!mi!si!scuote! tutto!il!sangue!in!le!vene! ma!soffrire!e!tacer!pur!mi!conviene.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 200 !Goldoni,! Le% nozze% in% campagna,% Act! I,! xiv.! Cecca:! Ah! yes,! unfortunately! I’ve! lost! you,! my! Lallo.! Lallo:!And!with!such!frankness!you!confess!it!!Ah!traitor,!ingrate,!faithless,!tramp,!thief,!liar….!This!is! the!way,!oh!faithless,!you!care!for!Lallo?!C:!Kill!me.!L:!Why?!C:!Because!once!killed,!the!whole!thing! will!be!finished.!L:!And!when!you’re!dead,!how!will!I!marry!you?!C:!At!least!you!will!cease!tormenting! me,! and! yourself,! and! everyone! else! who! brings! me! anguish! and! pain,! their! torments! will! cease! as! well.!! ! ! 199! ! !! !! !! ! !! !! !! !! % !Nobiltà!senza!ricchezza,! ah!lo!vedo!a!mio!rossore,! assomiglia!ad!un!bel!fiore! dalla!pianta!distaccato! che!l’odor!perdendo!va,! son!contessa!ma!che!serve! se!sol!conto!povertà.!(parte)201% As! through! the! later! Venetian! libretti,! the! tone! of! this! aria! is! radically! softened!with!respect!to!the!serio%of!Goldoni’s!early!operas.!The!characters!of!these! mature!drammi%giocosi%are!undoubtedly!lifelike!as!their!lines!take!on!an!ever!more! discursive,! less! declamatory! style.! In! sum,! the! realism! and! attenuated! contrast! between! buffo%and! serio%in! Goldoni’s! first! Parisian! libretti! evidences! new! horizons! but!also!important!elements!of!continuity!with!the!author’s!Venetian!output.!!! Differences! arise! in! Goldoni’s! final! three! libretti,! no! longer! written! for! Venetian! theatres.! These! works! are! of! diverse! name! and! nature:! while! Vittorina% (1777)!is!still!a!dramma%giocoso%(or!“new!comic!opera,”!as!it!was!called!in!London! for!its!world!premiere!at!the!King’s!Theatre),%I%volponi%(The!Old!Foxes)!of!the!same! year!(premiered!in!Paris)!carries!a!slightly!different!title,!dramma%per%musica,!while! Il% talismano% (The! Talisman,! 1779,! premiered! at! the! Teatro% Canobiana! in! Milan)! is! instead!a!commedia%per%musica.!!! Notably,!of!the!three!texts,!Vittorina%is!the!only!to!retain!some!continuity!with! Goldoni’s! preceding! realistic! tradition,! by! no! coincidence! the! only! named! dramma% giocoso%of!the!three.!In!particular,!this!opera%betrays!clear!points!of!contact!with!La% buona%figliuola,! a! story! well! known! to! Parisian! audiences.! By! contrast,! I%volponi! is! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 201!ibid.,!I,!iv.!Poor!scorned!nobility,!I’ll!have!to!become!the!in1law!of!a!commoner,!worse,!subject!to! her;! ah,! all! my! blood! thrashes! in! my! veins! and! yet! I! must! hold! my! tongue,! and! bear! it.! Nobility! without! wealth,! ah! I! see! it! to! my! own! shame,! is! like! a! beautiful! flower! picked! from! its! plant! that! slowly!loses!its!scent.!I!am!a!Countess!but!of!what!use!is!that,!if!all!I!can!count!is!my!poverty.!! ! ! 200! ! surprisingly!general!in!content,!without!a!definite!setting!(Goldoni’s!only!indication! is! “nel! castello! del! Marchese”),! and! even! without! specific! names! for! some! of! the! characters! (the! “Marchese,”! for! example,! is! known! only! by! title).! In! this! work! we! find! characters! who,! contrary! to! Goldoni’s! norm,! are! not! well1developed! originals! but!rather!typified!exponents!of!different!trades!and!social!spheres,!as!Franco!Fido! has! observed.202!In! equal! measure,! Il% talismano! is! largely! occupied! with! exoticism! rather!than!realism.!Set!in!a!feud!in!an!unspecified!time,!this!commedia%per%musica% involves! gypsies! and! draws! action! from! the! mystical! elements! of! their! world,! including!palm!readings!and!a!famous!talisman!that!allows!its!holder!to!take!on!the! appearance! of! others.! Despite! the! popularity! of! fantastical! theatre! at! the! time,! Goldoni’s! talisman! does! not! detain! any! true! supernatural! power.! Yet,! at! the! same! time,! our! author! does! not! undertake! a! satirical! critique! of! such! simulations,! as! elsewhere!he!appeared!ready!to!do!(for!example,!the!parody!of!false!medicine!in!La% finta% ammalata).! Rather,! it! appears! as! one! among! many! adventurous! elements,! including! the! recovery! of! a! daughter! long1lost! at! sea,! that! focus! the! work! on! extraordinary!rather!than!quotidian!events.!!! To! judge! from! his! very! last! works,! Goldoni’s! career! appears! to! close! in! an! enigmatic!retrocession!from!the!hallmark!characteristics!of!his!drammi%giocosi%and! the! dilution! of! their! realistic! elements.! Notably,! an! analogous,! or! perhaps! more! burdensome! surrender! of! the! reform! principles! also! occurs! in! Goldoni’s! prose! theatre!during!this!time.!!While!a!departure!from!decades!of!innovative!work!may! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 202 !F.!Fido,!Nuova%Guida%al%Goldoni!(Torino:!Einaudi,!2000);!150.!!! ! ! 201! ! appear!surprising,!the!changes!in!Goldoni’s!late!Parisian!works!must!be!understood! within!the!context!of!the!author’s!broader!circumstances.!! Goldoni!was!called!to!Paris!to!renew!public!interest!in!the!Comédie%Italienne,% of! which! he! was! named! director.! The! author’s! decision! to! accept! this! new! charge! was!optimistic!but,!at!the!same!time,!undeniably!motivated!by!disappointments.!The! theatrical!reform!in!Venice!did!not!come!without!cost,!and!Goldoni!was!tried!by!the! envy!of!his!rivals!(Carlo!Gozzi!and!Pietro!Chiari),!the!demands!of!his!impresari,!and! the! continual! protests! of! actors,! who,! accustomed! to! the! greater! freedom! of! the! Commedia%dell’Arte,!were!reluctant!to!always!memorize!their!parts.!Paris,!one!of!the! cultural! capitals! of! Europe,! held! a! prestigious! theatrical! tradition! everywhere! acknowledged.!In!particular,!Goldoni!was!a!great!admirer!of!Molière,!with!whom!he! shared! the! inclination! for! social! criticism! and! realism,203and! on! more! than! one! occasion!had!received!the!praises!of!Voltaire!for!his!theatre.! Goldoni!therefore!set!out!for!Paris!not!without!a!certain!sadness,!as!testified! by! his! autobiographical! farewell! play! Una% delle% ultime% sere! di% carnovale,! but! with! high!hopes!of!finding!a!new!audience!and!new!collaborators!more!open!to!his!ideas.! His!experience!is!recounted!in!the!Mémoires,!but!perhaps!with!greater!candor!in!his! personal!correspondence.!! Early! letters! testify! great! enthusiasm! and! satisfaction! for! the! distinguished! treatment!received!(“Che!bella!novità!Le!recherà!questa!lettera!!Goldoni!va!a!Parigi...! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 203 Giorgio! Padoan! has! stated! that! “L’attenzione! di! Goldoni! a! Molière! si! lega! concretamente! all’attuazione! della! riforma.”!Giorgio! Padoan,! in! Carlo% Goldoni,% 1793a% 1993.% Atti% del% Convegno% dei% Bicentenario%(Venezia:!Regione!del!Veneto,!1995);!24.! ! ! 202! ! e!potrà!abbracciare!M.r!De!Voltaire.”204),!so!different!from!what!he!had!left!behind:! “Che! ne! dite,! eh?! Bella! differenza!! Dover! faticare! come! un! cane! per! guadagnare! cento! ducati,! amareggiati! ancora! da! rimproveri! e! malegrazie!”205!As! early! as! 1762,! however,! problems! began! to! arise! as! Goldoni! suspected! Denis! Diderot! of! plagiarizing! his! Il% vero% amico% (The! True! Friend,! 1750)! in! the! creation! of! Le% fils% naturel%(The!Natural!Child,!1757).%Some!scholars!suggest!that!this!diatribe!may!have! contributed! to! the! relative! indifference! accorded! to! Goldoni’s! reform! project! in! France.206! Whatever! the! reason,! it! soon! became! apparent! that! Goldoni’s! work! in! Paris! presented!no!fewer!challenges!than!his!previous!charges!in!Venice.!Not!only!was!the! Comédie%Italienne%incorporated!within!the!Opéra%comique,!contributing!to!its!crisis,! but! moreover! Goldoni! soon! discovered! that! the! preferences! of! Parisian! audiences,! not!to!mention!of!his!new!actors,!did!not!go!beyond!the!Commedia%dell’Arte%he!had! so! labored! to! leave! behind.! Roberta! Turchi’s! description! of! Goldoni’s! condition! as! one! of! “disagio! culturale! e! esistenziale,”207!is! perhaps! no! understatement! to! judge! from!his!later!correspondence:!“Questi!commedianti!italiani!sono!des%parasseux...!Il! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 204 !“Al!Marchese!Albergati!Capacelli”!(Venice,!Sept.!5,!1761),!from!Lettere%di%Carlo%Goldoni,%ed.!by! Ernesto!Masi!(Bologna:!Zanichelli);!147.What!great!news!this!letter!will!bring!you!!Goldoni!is!off!to! Paris…and!will!be!able!to!embrace!M.!Voltaire.! 205 !ibid.!“Al!Sig.!Gabriele!Cornet”!(Paris,!Sept.!27,!1762);!175.!What!do!you!say,!eh?!A!nice!difference!! To!have!to!work!like!a!dog!to!earn!a!hundred!ducats,!and!on!top!of!that!embittered!by!reproofs!and! ingratitude.! 206 !See!Paola!Luciani,!Drammaturgie%goldoniane,%(Firenze:!Società!Editrice!Fiorentina,!2012).!! 207 !Roberta!Turchi,!“Un’edizione!‘colta!e!magnifica,’!”!introduzione!a!Carlo!Goldoni,!Memorie%Italiane,% III%(Venezia:!Marsilio,!2008);!23.!cultural!and!existential!unease.!! ! ! 203! ! paese! sempre! più! mi! diletta.! Ma! il! diletto! senza! l’utile! non! è! per! un! uomo,! che! ha! bisogno!dell’uno!e!dell’altro.”208! Cultural!differences!became!a!hindrance!in!more!ways!than!one,!as!Goldoni! struggled!to!find!original!characters!to!inspire!new!comedies!amid!the!uniformity!of! Parisian!reality:!! Vi! è! il! buono,! e! vi! è! il! ridicolo! dappertutto,! ma! il! ridicolo!di!Parigi!non!è!certamente!quello!che!si!crede! in! Italia…! O! il! carattere! della! Nazione! è! cangiato,! o! dicono! il! falso! tutti! quelli! che! ne! hanno! scritto,! ! e! parlato.! Le! caricature! in! Francia! sono! in! oggi! si! dilicate,! che! bisogna! avere! tutta! l’acutezza! di! spirito! per! ravvisarle.! L’uniformità! è! quella! che! domina! in! questo!Paese.!Tutti!cercano!d’imitar!gli!altri,!e!quello,! che! sarebbe! portato! a! qualche! caricatura,! si! maschera,! e! si! fa! forza! per! comparire! uniforme.! Malgrado! lo! studio! dell’uniformità! ,! traspira! un! poco! il! carattere! particolare,! ma! la! caricatura! divien! si! leggiera,! che! sfugge! assai! facilmente! agli! occhi! del! forestiere.209 ! ! ! As!a!result,!little!more!than!one!year!after!his!arrival!Goldoni!could!already!declare! with! certainty:! “Il! gusto! delle! buone! commedie! in! questo! paese! è! finito.! Fa! pietà! il! Teatro!moderno!francese:!non!si!bada!più!alla!condotta,!ai!caratteri,!alla!verità.”210!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 208 !ibid!“Al!Marchese!Albergati!Capacelli”!(Paris,!Dec.!13,!1762)!from!Lettere%di%Carlo%Goldoni,%ed.!by! Ernesto! Masi! (Bologna:! Zanichelli);! 188.! These! Italian! actors! are! lazy…this! country! entertains! me! every!day!more.!But!pleasure!without!usefulness!is!not!for!a!man,!who!has!need!of!one!and!the!other.!! 209 !Carlo!Goldoni,!dedica!a!S.!Guerra!de!La%Buona%Madre%(a!cura!di!A.!Scannapieco,!Venezia:!Marsilio,! 2001).!There!is!the!good!and!the!derisible!in!every!place,!but!the!ridiculous!in!Paris!is!not!at!all!what! we!believe!it!to!be!in!Italy…Either!the!character!of!this!Nation!has!changed,!or!all!of!those!who!have! written!or!spoken!of!it!have!lied.!Caricatures!in!France!are!nowadays!so!delicate!that!you!need!all!the! acumen!of!your!wit!to!discern!them.!Uniformity!is!what!dominates!in!this!Country.!All!seek!to!imitate! others,! and! he! who! would! be! prone! to! some! caricature! masks! himself,! and! makes! every! effort! to! conform.!Despite!the!studied!uniformity,!a!bit!of!original!character!still!transpires,!but!the!caricature! becomes!so!insubstantial,!that!it!easily!escapes!the!eyes!of!a!foreigner.!! 210 !Lettera!al!Marchese!Albergati!Capacelli!(13!June!1763)!in!Tutte%le%opere%di%Carlo%Goldoni,%vol.!XIVa! cura!di!G.!Ortolani!(Milano:!Mondadori,!19351!43);!287.!!The!good!taste!in!comedy!of!this!Country!is! finished.!Modern!French!theatre!is!pitiful:!there!is!no!attention!to!plot,!to!the!characters,!and!to!truth! [realism].!! ! ! 204! ! ! Goldoni! did! not! cease! his! efforts! to! improve! the! state! of! comic! theatre! in! France! without! some! experimentation.! His! comedy! L’éventail%(1763),! for! example,! testifies!a!will!to!work!around!the!obstacles:!! !Ora!ho!pensato!a!un!nuovo!genere!di!commedie,!per! vedere!se!da!questi!attori!posso!ricavare!qualcosa!di! buono.! Essi! non! imparano! le! scene! studiate;! non! eseguiscono!le!scene!lunghe,!ben!disegnate;!ed!io!ho! fatto! una! commedia! di! molte! scene! brevi,! frizzanti,! animate! da! una! perpetua! azione,! da! un! movimento! continuo,! onde! i! comici! non! abbiano! a! far! altro! che! eseguire!più!coll’azione!che!colle!parole.!Vi!vorrà!una! quantità! grande! di! prove! sul! luogo! dell’azione,! vi! vorrà!pazienza!e!fatica,!ma!vuò!vedere!se!mi!riesce!di! far! colpo! con! questo! metodo! nuovo.! Il! titolo! della! commedia!è!l’Eventail.211! ! Unfortunately,! even! this! new! attempt! did! not! prevent! the! greater! disappointment! that! would! prevail.! A! further! element! of! disenchantment! followed! in!the!treatment!given!to!Goldoni’s!comedies!at!court,!where!they!where!“scannate! in! tre! quarti! d’ora”! because! “il! Re! voleva! andare! al! soupé”! (slaughtered! in! three! quarters!of!an!hour,!as!the!King!wanted!to!go!to!supper).!As!Roberta!Turchi!rightly! observes,! ”Il! destino! toccato! a! corte! alle! sue! commedie! segnò! la! fine! del! convincimento,! legato! al! mito! di! Luigi! XIV,! che! gli! uomini! di! lettere! godessero! in! Francia! di! favori! maggiori! che! in! Italia.” 212 !Despite! some! modest! successes! in! theatre,! therefore,! in! 1765! Goldoni! officially! resigned! his! post! at! the! Comédie% !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 211 !Lettera!al!Marchese!Albergati!(18!April!1763).!ibid.;!280.!I’ve!now!devised!a!new!type!of!comedy,! to!see!if!these!actors!can!make!some!good!of!it.!They!don’t!learn!scenes!by!heart;!they!don’t!perform! scenes!that!are!long!or!well!developed;!so!I’ve!made!a!comedy!from!scenes!that!are!short,!lively,!and! driven!by!constant!action!and!movement,!so!that!the!actors!need!not!do!anything!but!perform!more! with!movement!than!with!recitation.!We’ll!need!a!good!number!of!rehearsals!on!the!stage,!as!well!as! patience!and!effort,!but!I!want!to!see!whether!I!can!make!an!impression!with!this!new!method.!The! title!of!this!comedy!is!L’éventail.%% 212 !Roberta!Turchi,!“Un’edizione!‘colta!e!magnifica,’!”!introduzione!a!Carlo!Goldoni,!Memorie%Italiane,% III%(Venezia:!Marsilio,!2008);!25.! The!fate!met!by!his!comedies!at!court!marked!the!end!of!the!belief,! tied! to! the! legacy! of! Louis! XIV,! that! men! of! letters! could! enjoy! more! favorable! treatment! in! France! than!in!Italy.!! ! ! 205! ! Italienne,%and!became!the!official!Italian!language!tutor!at!the!court!of!Louis!XV!(his! pupils!Madame!Adelaide,!the!king’s!firstborn!daughter,!and!Marie!Joseph!of!Saxony! learned! Italian! with! the! help! of! his! texts),! following! the! entourage! from! Paris! to! Versailles.! Goldoni! lived! through! the! French! revolution,! during! which! his! court! stipend! was,! of! course,! suspended.! Troubled! by! debt! and! outliving! his! fame,! the! author!died!in!Paris!in!1793,!just!as!his!income!was!being!reinstated.!! ! In! northern! Europe! where! the! musical! schools! were! in! constant! evolution,! however,!Goldoni’s!works!lived!on!to!make!a!lasting!imprint.! ! ! ! ! 206! ! CHAPTER&V.&! Goldoni’s&Musical&Legacy&& From&Goldoni&to&Da&Ponte:&the&dramma!giocoso!fully&formed!& The!principal!aim!of!this!thesis!is!to!shed!greater!light!on!Goldoni’s!musical! legacy.!As!a!representative!of!the!Venetian!Enlightenment!and!a!pioneer!of!modern! theatre,! he! is! often! overlooked! as! an! innovator! in! the! musical! sphere.! Goldoni’s! comic!opera,!and!in!particular!his!determining!contributions!to!the!dramma%giocoso,! before!him!only!nascent,!after!him!an!international!genre,!cannot!be!overstated!and! warrant! significant! reappraisal! in! the! study! of! music! history.! Having! seen! the! widespread! diffusion! of! Goldoni’s! texts! for! music,! to! understand! the! depth! of! his! musical! legacy! we! must! also! account! for! his! influence! in! the! work! of! subsequent! generations.!! Testimony!of!our!author’s!continued!presence!in!the!field!of!comic!opera!is! provided!in!part!by!direct!textual!citation.!Generations!after!Goldoni,!it!is!possible!to! find! echoes! of! his! celebrated! texts! in! the! works! of! many.! Il% maestro% di% cappella% (1793,! first! performed! in! Berlin)! of! Domenico! Cimarosa! (174911801,! librettist! in! this!case!unknown),!for!example,!uses!verses!taken!directly!from!Goldoni’s!dramma% giocoso,%Il%viaggiatore%ridicolo%(1757):!! Ci!sposeremo!fra!suoni!e!canti! Sposi!brillanti,!pieni!d’amor.!! Voglio!i!violini,!voglio!i!violoni,! Voglio!il!fagotto,!con!l’oboè! [suonano%corni%da%caccia]% questo!strumento!non!fa!per!me.213! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 213 !Goldoni,!Il%viaggiatore%ridicolo;!Act!III,!iii.!We!will!be!wed!amidst!music!and!song,!shining! newlyweds,!brimming!with!love.!I!want!violins,!and!want!violas![and!celli],!I!want!bassoon!with!oboe.! [hunting%horns%are%heard].!No,!this!instrument!doesn’t!suit!me!! ! ! 207! ! ! The!musical!use!of!the!horn!to!signify!“cornuto”!(cuckold)!is!a!comic!device!used!by! Mozart!as!well,!in!Figaro’s!aria!“Aprite!un!po’!quegli!occhi”!(Le%Nozze%di%Figaro,%Act! IV,!viii).!!! !More! famously,! Da! Ponte’s! Don% Giovanni% appears! to! quote! various! Goldoni! texts.! Most! notably,! the! character! of! Semplicina! in! Arcifanfano% re% dei% matti! first! utters! the! verses! “vorrei! e! non! vorrei...son! fra! il! si! e! il! no,”214!the! hallmark! of! Zerlina’s! role! in! Mozart’s! famous! duet,! “Là! ci! darem! la! mano”! (I,! iii).! Goldoni’s! Il% viaggiatore%ridicolo,%known! throughout! Europe! by! 1770,! also! contains! a! ‘catalogue! aria’! that,! while! in! comic! key,! bears! notable! similarities! to! Leporello’s! analogous! exploit:!! A!Lion!la!Contessa!la!Cra.!! A!Paris!la!Marchesa!la!Gru.! A!Madrid!la!Duchessa!del!Bos.!! In!Inghilterra!Miledi!la!Stos.!! In!Germania!ho!le!mie!Baronesse.! In!Italia!le!mie!Principesse.!..etc.215!! ! ! Lorenzo! da! Ponte! (174911838),! together! with! Giambattista! Casti! (17241 1803),!was!one!of!the!most!prominent!librettists!to!continue!in!the!Goldonian!style,! though!Goldoni’s!theatre!was!also!imitated!by!Marco!Coltellini!(171911777),!author! of!opera%seria%libretti!for!Gluck,!Traetta,!and!others,!and!by!Giovanni!Bertati!(17351 1815),! best! known! for! Cimarosa’s! Il% matrimonio% segreto% (The! Secret! Wedding,! 1792).!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 214 !Goldoni,!Arcifanfano%Re%dei%matti,;%Act!II,!viii.!I’d!like!to!and!I!wouldn’t…I’m!between!yes!and!no.! 215 !Goldoni,!Il%viaggiatore%ridicolo,%Act!II,!iv.!In!Lyon!the!Countess!of!Crow.!In!Paris!the!Marchesa!of! Stork.!In!Madrid!the!Duchess!of!Bos.!In!England!Mylady!of!Stos.!In!Germany!I!have!my!baronesses.!In! Italy!my!princesses!(…).!! ! ! 208! ! In! the! case! of! Don% Giovanni,% notwithstanding! the! original! Tirso! de! Molina,! Moliere’s!Le%festin%de%pierre!(1665),!and!Goldoni’s!own!Don%Giovanni%Tenorio%o%sia%il% dissoluto!(1736),!the!direct!model!used!by!Da!Ponte!was!most!likely!Don%Giovanni%o% sia%Il%convitato%di%pietra%(The!Stone!Guest),!libretto!in!one!Act!dated!1787!by!Bertati.! Notably,! Bertati! became! one! of! the! most! sought1after! librettists! in! Venice! after! Goldoni’s! departure.! His! texts! therefore! drew! from! the! same! context! that! Goldoni! had! helped! to! create! and! establish! before! leaving! to! Paris.! The! music! for! Bertati’s! rendition! was! by! Giuseppe! Gazzaniga,! and! some! scholars! have! furthermore! seen! direct!influences!in!Mozart’s!score.216!! A!further!bridge!of!connection!from!Goldoni!to!Da!Ponte!is!the!figure!of!Casti,! author!of!ll%Re%Teodoro%in%Venezia!drawn!from!Voltaire’s!Candide!(chapter!XXVI).!For! Paolo!Gallarati,!Casti!is!a!point!of!transition!from!the!net!divisions!of!buffo!and%serio! of! the! ‘rationalistic’! Goldoni! to! the! entirely! realistic! and! psychologically1oriented! Mozartian! theatre,217!though! the! attenuation! of! buffo% and! serio% in! opera! clearly! already!commences!in!Goldoni’s!later!drammi%giocosi,!especially!through!the!mezzo% carattere% and! new! elements! of! larmoyant! as! we! have! seen.! Casti! definitively! abolishes!the!sententious!Metastasian!style!of!arias!as!well!as!caricature!or!satirical! humor!in!the!comic!sphere.!As!the!following!description!of!his!own!work!shows,!he! contributes! to! the! continuation! of! Goldoni’s! desire! for! realism! through! a! different! approach:!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 216 !D.!!Heartz,!“Goldoni,!Don!Giovanni,!and!the!dramma!giocoso”!(Musical!Times!n.!1642,!1979).! 217 !P.! Gallarati,! Musica! e! Maschera.! “Tutto! volge! verso! una! medietas! che! neutralizza! il! divario! tra! personaggi!seri!e!comici!e!tende!a!fare!di!ciascuno!un!carattere!individuale.”!! Everything! turns! towards! a! medietas% that! neutralizes! the! divarication! between! tragic! and! comic! roles,!and!tends!to!make!each!an!original!character.!! ! ! 209! ! (…)dieci!o!dodici!drammi!eroicomici!di!genere!affatto! nuovo,! ove! trattandosi! temi! e! soggetti! seri,! eroici,! tragici,! vi! si! trappongono! dei! tratti! comici! ove! la! circostanza! della! cosa! o! delle! persone! lo! richiede,! seguendo!in!ciò!la!natura!stessa.218 !! ! While!Casti!also!continued!Goldoni’s!legacy!of!expanding!ensemble!pieces!and!using! them! more! frequently,! he! did! not! emulate! Goldoni! in! every! respect,! as! his! title! of! “drammi!eroicomici”!shows.!Furthermore,!in!a!spirit!of!affinity!with!tragic!theatre,! he! often! included! dramatized! prologues! (“esposizione! dell’argomento”)! to! his! operas!in!the!manner!of!Metastasio.!! Notably,! it! was! the! cultivated! medietas% of! Casti’s! theatre! that! assured! his! fame,!but!also!brought!criticism!from!Da!Ponte,!who!in!his!colorful!Memorie%recalls:!! Non! vi! mancava! purità! di! lingua,! non! vaghezza! di! stile,! non! grazie! e! armonia! di! verso,! non! sali,! non! eleganza,! non! brio;! le! arie! erano! bellissime,! i! pezzi! concertati! deliziosi,! i! finali! molto! poetici;! eppure! il! dramma!non!era!né!caldo,!né!interessante,!né!comico,! né!teatrale.!L’azione!era!languida,!i!caratteri!insipidi,! la! catastrofe! inverisimile! e! quasi! tragica.! Le! parti! insomma!erano!ottime,!ma!il!tutto!era!un!mostro.!Mi! parve! di! veder! un! gioielliere,! che! guasta! l’effetto! di! molte! pietre! preziose! per! non! saper! bene! legarle! e! disporle!con!ordine!e!simmetria.!(...)!Non!osai!tuttavia! dire! ad! alcuno! il! pensiero! mio,! certissime! essendo! che,! se! fatto! l’avessi,! m’avrebbero! lapidato! o! messo! come!farnetico!ai’!pazzerelli.!Casti!era!più!infallibile!a! Vienna!che!il!papa!a!Roma.”!219! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 218 !G.! B.! Casti,! Lettera! (20! July! 1796)! cited! in! Paolo! Gallarati;! 157.! (…)! ten! or! twelve! drammi! eroicomici! of! a! new! genre,! where,! dealing! with! subjects! that! are! serious,! heroic,! and! tragic,! we! juxtapose! some! comic! elements! where! the! circumstances! of! the! action! or! the! characters! requires,! following!Nature!herself.!! 219 !Lorenzo! da! Ponte,! Memorie,% I,! ii.! It! was! not! without! purity! of! language,! nor! without! beauty! of! style,!nor!spirit,!nor!elegance,!nor!verve;!the!arias!were!very!beautiful,!the!ensemble!pieces!delightful,! and!the!finali!very!poetic;!and!yet!the!dramma!did!not!have!warmth,!nor!was!it!interesting,!nor!comic,! nor!theatrical.!The!action!was!languid,!the!characters!insipid,!the!action!unrealistic!and!almost!tragic.! The!parts!were!very!good,!yet!the!whole!was!a!monster.!It!was!like!seeing!a!jeweler!who!ruins!the! effect! of! many! precious! gems! because! he! does! not! know! how! to! order! them! in! symmetry.! (…)! I! nonetheless!did!not!dare!to!share!my!thoughts!with!anyone,!because,!had!I!done!so,!they!would!have! stoned!me!or!thrown!me!into!the!asylum.!Casti!was!more!infallible!in!Vienna!than!the!Pope!in!Rome.!! ! ! 210! ! It!is!not!surprising!that!Da!Ponte,!to!a!greater!extent!than!Casti,!in!his!libretti! preserves! Goldoni’s! structure! of! buffi,% seri,% and! mezzi% caratteri% in! psychological! characterization,% and! inserts! serio% material! within! an! overarching! structure! of! comedy.!Da!Ponte!also!follows!the!trajectory!of!Goldoni!and!of!Casti!in!the!expansion! of!the!ensemble!finale,!which!in!his!theatre!becomes!“una!spezie!di!commediola!o!di! picciol! dramma! da! sé,! e! richiede! un! novello! intreccio! ed! un! interesse! straordinario.”220! i.%Mozart%and%Goldoni% % In! Mozart’s! collaboration! with! Emanuele! Conegliano! (better! known! as! Lorenzo! da! Ponte),! both! structural! and! ideological! elements! of! Goldoni’s! drammi% giocosi%are!found.!Even!before!his!work!with!the!Veneto!librettist,!however,!Mozart! had! become! acquainted! with! Goldoni’s! libretti! through! direct! experience.! His! first! opera! (written! at! the! young! age! of! 12),! La% finta% semplice% (The! False! Simpleton,! 1768),% was! based! on! a! reworking! of! Goldoni’s! dramma% giocoso% of! the! same! title! (1764)!by!Marco!Coltellini,!then!court!poet!in!Vienna.!Four!years!later,!Mozart!also! produced! La% finta% giardiniera% (The! False! Gardener),! which,! despite! its! lack! of! attribution!to!an!author,!Daniel!Heartz!has!connected!to!La%buona%figliuola.221%% By! the! time! Mozart! began! setting! operatic! texts,! the! spectrum! of! dramatic! roles! developed! by! Goldoni! through! a! lifetime! of! innovation! had! become! common! practice,! or! in! the! words! of! Da! Ponte,! “domma! teatrale.”! This! is! manifest! not! only! through! the! works! themselves! (and! let! us! not! forget! the! episodes! of! close! textual! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 220 !ibid.;!I,!ii!(…)!a!sort!of!small!comedy!or!drama!unto!itself,!requiring!a!new!plot!and!extraordinary! appeal.! 221 !D.! Heartz,! Mozart’s% Operas! (Berkeley:! University! of! California! Press,! 1990);! 199.! “(…)! an! anonymous!and!clumsy!offspring!of!La%Buona%Figliuola.”%! ! ! 211! ! resemblance! between! Goldoni! and! Da! Ponte! libretti! previously! cited),! but! also! confirmed!explicitly!in!Mozart’s!correspondence,!in!which!opera!theatre!is!often!the! central!point!of!discussion.!In!a!letter!to!his!father!requesting!a!new!text!for!music,! for!example,!the!composer!recommends:!!!! !(...)! das! nothwendigste! dabeÿ! aber! ist! recht!Comisch!im! ganzen! –!und! wen!es! dan! möglich! wäre!2! gleich! gute! frauenzimer! Rollen!hinein! zu! bringen.! –! die! eine! müsste! Seria,! die! andere! aber!Mezzo% Carattere!seÿn! –! aber!an! güte!–! müssten! beÿde! Rollen! ganz! gleich! seÿn.! –! das! dritte! frauenzimer!kan!aber!ganz!Buffa!seÿn.222!! % Looking! ahead! to! Mozart’s! works! with! Da! Ponte,! Le% nozze% di% Figaro%! (1786),%in!its!realistic!representation!of!humble!servant!life,!rapid!exchanges!of!text,! and!collective!musical!numbers,!appears!to!resonate!fully!with!the!intentions!of!our! Venetian!reformer.!Of!the!28!total!pieces!within!the!work,!for!example,!only!14!are! arie! and! the! rest! are! ensembles! of! two! or! more! characters.! As! a! general! characteristic,! Mozart! contributes! further! realism! in! the! musical! sphere! not! only! through!the!use!of!realistic!discourse!in!recitative,!but!most!importantly!through!the! dramatic! acceleration! of! the! arie! that! follow,! such! that! a! long! page! of! text! may! be! consumed! in! a! short! span! of! time.! Da! Ponte’s! arie! for! Mozart! are! often! free! form,! adding! to! their! natural,! non1theatrical! quality.! Another! realistic! element! of! particular! strength! in! Le% nozze% di% Figaro% is! the! fragmentation! of! dialogue,! already! manifest!in!Goldoni,!which!with!Da!Ponte!is!carried!to!an!extreme!level!of!concision.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 222 !! W.!A.!Mozart,!letter!to!L.!Mozart!(7!May,!1783).!The!most!important!thing!is!that!the!story,!on!the! whole,!be!truly!comic,!and,!if!possible,!the!author!ought!to!introduce!two!equally!good!female!parts;! one!must!be!Seria,!the!other!Mezzo!Carattere,!but!both!roles!must!be!entirely!equal!in!quality.!The! third!female!character,!however,!may!be!buffa.!! ! ! 212! ! As! regards! content,! the! opera! carries! strong! ideological! implications! in! its! exaltation! of! personal! intelligence! above! social! standing! and! its! deprecation! of! the! corrupt! nobility.! The! original! source! text! of! Beaumarchais! (La% folle% journée% (The! Crazy! Day),% 1778)! initially! met! with! censure! for! these! reasons.! Most! importantly,! the!work!includes!buffo%and!serio%characters,!as!well!as!mezzi%caratteri,%and!exquisite! moments!of!introspective!serio,%most!notably!in!the!role!of!the!Contessa.!! ii.%The%darkest%dramma%giocoso% ! We! come! finally! to! Don% Giovanni% (1787),! Mozart’s! only! opera! to! carry! the! name! of! dramma% giocoso! (not! opera% buffa),! in! which! ‘dramma’! appears! as! a! clear! link!to!opera%seria!and!tragedy.!As!requested!in!Mozart’s!letter,!this!opera!features! three!prime%donne,%a!full!serio%(Donna!Anna),!a!sentimental!mezzo%carattere!(Donna! Elvira),! and! a! full! buffa,! Zerlina.! This! work! is! formed! from! such! a! variety! of! characters! and! dramatic! registers! that! it! remains! in! part! enigmatic,! as! modern! productions! of! the! most! disparate! nature! make! clear.! While! not! entirely! realistic! because! of! its! necessary! dependence! upon! the! picaresque! legend! of! Don! Juan,! and! most! notably! its! supernatural! retrieval! of! the! Commendatore! from! the! grave,! this! dramma%giocoso%is!most!relevant!to!our!discussion!as!is!demonstrates!the!surprising! depth!and!darkness!that!this!prevalently!comic!genre!can!support.! ! In! sum,! the! highest! achievements! of! Mozart! and! Da! Ponte,! still! today! universally! known,! are! emblematic! of! Goldoni’s! innovations! and! how,! perfected! at! the!end!of!the!18th!century,!these!became!canonical!and!enduring.!! ! ! ! ! 213! ! Conclusions& ! As!we!have!seen,!Goldoni’s!reform!in!musical!theatre!is!of!both!technical!and! ideological! nature.! His! many! structural! innovations,! such! as! the! use! of! ariette% instead! of! static! exit! arie,! duets! and! ensembles! at! the! beginning! of! and! within! scenes,!and!the!collective!ensemble!finale,!serve!to!diversify!the!means!of!conveying! the!plot!and!ideology!of!his!works.!In!terms!of!content,!the!social!types!and!societal! customs! that! Goldoni! examines! and! playfully! criticizes! are! universal.! Nobility! is! ridiculed! but! so! too! are! servants! too! attached! to! wealth.! Even! the! industrious! bourgeoisie,!when!at!fault,!is!denounced.!The!power!of!Goldoni’s!social!commentary! stems! from! the! relevance! and! timeliness! of! his! depictions,! and! his! adherence! to! figures!and!styles!(dialects,!for!example,!and!discursiveness)!of!daily!life.! Most!importantly,!the!combination!of!serio%and!buffo%elements!in!the!dramma% giocoso,% and! the! progressive! attenuation! of! the! boundaries! between! them,% represents!the!highest!outcome!of!the!author’s!search!for!realism,!and!a!significant! point!of!contact!with!his!reform!of!the!prose!theatre.!With!the!lifelike!representation! of!comic!characters,!tragic!foils,!and!mezzi!caratteri!in!the!dramma%giocoso,!Goldoni! casts! buffo! and! serio% into! coexistence,! creating! a! new,! realistic! opera! theatre! that! responds!to!its!own!time!and!that!continues!to!be!relevant.!! !Ultimately,!reaching!well!beyond!his!own!vast!production,!Goldoni’s!musical! innovations! form! the! foundations! of! the! fully! evolved! dramma% giocoso% of! the! Viennese! school.! From! its! complex! origins! to! its! most! sophisticated,! psychological! forms,!this!theatrical!genre!develops!in!a!philosophy!of!realism!and!social!relevance.! Goldoni’s! influence! on! this! type! of! musical! representation! has! not! been! fully! ! ! 214! ! considered,! and! much! remains! to! be! explored,! but! the! realism! in! music! that! he! achieves!through!the!dramma%giocoso%must!be!re1evaluated!and!acknowledged!as!a! lasting!contribution!to!modern!literature,!and!to!operatic!history.! ! ! ! ! & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & & ! ! 215! ! Works&Cited& ! Goldoni,!Carlo.!Lettere%di%Carlo%Goldoni,!a!cura!di!Ernesto!Masi.!Bologna:!Zanichelli,!1880.!! ! Goldoni,!Carlo.!Carlo%Goldoni%e%il%Teatro%di%San%Luca,%carteggio%inedito%(1755a1765),%a!cura!! ! di!Dino!Mantovani,!con!intro.!di!Nicola!Mangini.!Venezia:!Marsilio,!1979.!! ! Goldoni,! Carlo.! Lettere%dell’Autore%allo%Stampatore%dell’edizione%Bettinelli%di%Venezia,! 17501! 52,!! ! in!Opere%di%Carlo%Goldoni,%a!cura!di!Gianfranco!Folena!e!Nicola!Mangini.!Milano:!! ! 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Vescovo,!Pier!Mario.!Entracte.%Drammaturgia%del%tempo.%Venezia:!Marsilio,!2007.!! ! Weiss,!Piero.!Goldoni%Poeta%d’Opere%Serie%per%Musica.!Venezia:!Casa!Goldoni,!1973.!! ! Weiss,!Piero.!Goldoni,%Librettist:%The%Early%Years.%Dissertation,!Columbia!University,!! ! 1969.!! ! Weiss,!Piero.!La%diffusione%del%repertorio%operistico%nell’Italia%del%Settecento:%il%caso%% % dell’opera%buffa!in!Civiltà%teatrale%e%Settecento%emiliano.%Bologna:!Il!Mulino,!! ! 1986:!2411!256.!% ! Whedbee,!William!Harvey.!Notes%on%Carlo%Goldoni's%Influence%on%Western%Theatre.%% % Dissertation,!University!of!Hawaii,!1965.!! ! Zorzi,!Alvise.!Monsieur%Goldoni:%un%veneziano%a%Parigi%tra%il%declino%di%una%Repubblica%% % e%la%Morte%di%un%Regno,%1762a%1793.%Milano:!Corbaccio,!1993.!! ! Goldoni%in%Francia.!Atti!di!conferenza!dell’Accademia!Nazionale!dei!Lincei!in!! ! Collaborazione!con!l’Ambasciata!di!Francia!presso!il!Quirinale!(Roma,!291!30!! ! maggio,!1970).!Roma:!Accademia!Nazionale!dei!Lincei,!1972.!! ! Indici,%da%Opere%Complete%di%Carlo%Goldoni,%edite%dal%Municipio%di%Venezia%nel%% % centenario%della%nascita.%Premessa!di!Nicola!Mangini.!Venezia:!Tipografia!! ! commerciale,!1971.% ! Parola,%musica,%scena,%lettura.!!Percorsi%nel%teatro%di%Carlo%Goldoni%e%Carlo%Gozzi,!a!! ! ! 221! ! ! cura!di!Giulietta!Bazoli!e!Maria!Ghelfi.!Venezia:!Marsilio,!2009.!! ! Tra%Commediografi%e%Letterati,!a!cura!di!T.!Agostini!e!E.!Lippi.!Ravenna:!Longo!! ! editore,!2007.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! 222! ! About&the&Author! ! ! Born in Italy November 9, 1988, Pervinca has earned a PhD in Comparative Literature at the Johns Hopkins University (Baltimore, MD) and also holds numerous graduate degrees in music from the Peabody Conservatory of Music (Baltimore, MD) and the Conservatorio Benedetto Marcello in Venice. An advocate of interdisciplinary studies, Pervinca combines her passion for music with a strong interest in the humanities. She has several years of experience in undergraduate teaching and is actively engaged in scholarly research. Pervinca has won numerous academic and musical awards, and also regularly performs concerts in the US and Italy as a professional musician. She has authored texts for music and has translated numerous works from Italian to English. Her research and teaching interests include the history of Italian literature and culture, the relationship between literature and music, the history of opera, and Italian and French comic theatre of the Enlightenment. To request a CV, please send a note to prista1@jhu.edu. ! ! ! 223! !

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