BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION OF MACROALGAE
IN THE EYRE PENINSULA NRM REGION
REPORT TO EYRE PENINSULA
NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT BOARD
© H. Crawford
BY J.L. BAKER1 & C.F. GURGEL2
1
2
Janine L. Baker, Marine Ecologist: jannebaker@adam.com.au
Dr Fred Gurgel, Marine Botany Chair, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences,
University of Adelaide, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5005
JUNE 2011
1
CONTENTS
Executive Summary ...........................................................................................................3
List of Tables......................................................................................................................5
List of Figures ....................................................................................................................6
Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................8
Introduction ........................................................................................................................9
Materials and Methods ....................................................................................................13
Results and Discussion ..................................................................................................14
Comparison between NRM Regions................................................................................................14
Overview of Macroalgae in Eyre Peninsula NRM Region................................................................19
Species for which South Australian occurrence may be limited to Eyre Peninsula NRM Region...45
South Australian Endemic Species in Eyre Peninsula NRM Region...............................................48
Possibly Rare Species in Eyre Peninsula NRM Region..................................................................52
Introduced and Possibly Cryptogenic Species in Eyre Peninsula NRM Region..............................64
Macroalgae in the Aquatic Reserves of the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region......................................83
Macroalgae in proposed Marine Parks of Eyre Peninsula NRM region...........................................84
Conclusions and Recommendations .............................................................................86
Endemic, Rare (Uncommon) and Potentially Threatened Species..................................................84
Calcareous Macroalgae...................................................................................................................87
Introduced Species..........................................................................................................................87
Impacts on Macroalgae, and Impact Assessment...........................................................................89
Long-term Monitoring.......................................................................................................................97
Other Recommendations for Monitoring and Impact Management.................................................98
Summary of Recommendations.......................................................................................................98
Summary of Information Gaps, and Other Recommendations......................................................100
References .....................................................................................................................103
Appendices ....................................................................................................................120
2
Executive Summary
This report summarises the distribution, diversity and species composition of marine macroalgae in the Eyre
Peninsula Natural Resources Management (EP NRM) region, based on herbarium records from the South
Australian State Herbarium and other major Australian herbaria. We summarise data at various
2
organisational scales, from State-level down to 10km grid cells. The cleaned, corrected and taxonomically
updated databases used in the assessment are an amalgamation of many thousands of herbarium records
th
from the early 20 century to 2009.
There is a strong correlation between the number of records and the number of species known in 10km
square grid cells across EP NRM. Species richness across the region is difficult to determine due to the
patchiness and paucity of sampling in most areas, but a number of locations appear to be outstanding in
terms of species richness, including the Investigator Group islands, and parts of the Nuyts Archipelago. Very
few areas have been extensively sampled, but Waterloo Bay is one notable exception. Numerous data-poor
areas are highlighted.
The report discusses the 22 South Australian endemic species recorded in EP NRM to date, plus a number
of others which have a narrow geographical distribution, and/or are known from few records. An additional
35 species are of particular interest because they may be either endemic to EP NRM (i.e. known so far only
from Eyre Peninsula NRM region and nowhere else in the world), or may be endemic to South Australia (i.e.
known from EP NRM and at least one of the other 6 SA NRM regions with coast line, and nowhere else in
the world). Most macroalgal species in EP NRM are Australian endemics, found in other parts of southern
Australia as well as in SA, but nowhere else in the world. Additionally, we update and correct a previous
national assessment of threatened macroalgae that included examples of potentially rare and threatened
species in EP NRM region. In that regard, more than two dozen species can be discounted, and a revised
list of species which may be considered rare is provided.
Introduced species recorded in EP NRM are discussed. According to herbarium records, comparatively few
(7) introduced species of macroalgae have been recorded so far in the region, and none of the several
significant invasive macroalgal species known in South Australia appear to have reached EP NRM so far. An
additional 22 species of cryptogenic origin are also discussed. Macroalgae recorded in Aquatic Reserves
and in proposed marine parks of EP NRM are also briefly discussed.
A number of recommendations are made, for protecting habitats which support macroalgae as a major
component, and for monitoring of activities that threaten such habitats.
Some of the major recommendations include:
•
More information on the macroalgal species composition / biodiversity of data-poor areas such as
the northern, central and western sides of Spencer Gulf; southern Spencer Gulf region, particularly
waters deeper than 10m; coastal waters of south-eastern Great Australian Bight; south-western and
southern Eyre Peninsula, Thorny Passage islands, the Sir Joseph Banks group; and the Neptune
Islands.
•
Target studies to determine the current distribution and relative abundance of species known only
from very few records (EP NRM endemic and rare species).
•
Surveys to better determine the distribution and status of South Australian rare and/or endemic
species of macroalgae, particularly in the areas identified in this report as data-poor. Regions of
particular interest also include Aquatic Reserves, proposed marine park sanctuary zones, and port
areas.
•
Determine the level of genetic connectivity between distinct coastal regions along the EP NRM
coast.
•
Studies on the genetic diversity of various species of macroalgae in the EP NRM, and the spatial
structure of this diversity within the region.
3
•
An inventory of introduced species, particularly in port and harbour areas (and other bays where
shipping and boat traffic is high) and around aquaculture facilities, to ascertain the presence or
absence of invasive and cryptogenic species in these areas. This also includes areas where there
are previous (old) records of introduced and cryptogenic species, for which current presence and
status are unknown.
•
Tests of the status of macroalgae that are considered to be introduced and cryptogenic, using
modern techniques in molecular biology, and associated work on the precise taxonomic identification
of these species, particularly cryptogenic taxa.
•
Consideration of the invasive possibilities of Codium fragile ssp. fragile (= ssp. tomentosoides), and
development of measures to control such an occurrence. Also recommended are further studies of
various species of Ulva, Cladophora and Hincksia that may be introduced or cryptogenic.
•
Maintenance of monitoring programs, and increased public education and vigilance, to prevent
Caulerpa taxifolia from inadvertently spreading (e.g. via boating) from Gulf St Vincent to other high
risk areas of the State, such as port areas in the EP NRM region, as well as marinas and boat
havens.
•
Increased public awareness about potential vectors that may aid the spread of introduced
macroalgae.
•
Protection of calcareous reef flora that currently exists in and around EP NRM, from additional
anthropogenic stresses such as physical damage (e.g. from boats, anchors, dredging etc), sediment
smothering, and nutrient enrichment. Such protection may help calcareous reefs to persist longer in
the face of ongoing stresses which are harder to control, such as ocean warming and acidification
from climate change.
•
In conjunction with government agencies and research institutions, long-term and regular restoration
and monitoring works, to improve coastal water quality and the condition of marine and coastal
habitats.
4
List of Tables
Table 1: Species richness of Cystophora in NRM regions..............................................................17
Table 2: Species richness of Sargassum in NRM regions..............................................................18
Table 3: Presence in NRM regions of common canopy-forming species and other large species in
Heterokontophyta............................................................................................................................18
Table 4: Species in Chlorophyta known in EP NRM region from a single herbarium record..........25
Table 5: Species in Heterokontophyta (Phaeophyceae) known in EP NRM region from a single
record...............................................................................................................................................29
Table 6: Species recorded to date only in EP NRM region, and no other parts of SA....................45
Table 7: Number of species thought to be endemic within South Australia, recorded in herbarium
collections, for each NRM Region....................................................................................................48
Table 8: Species recorded in EP NRM region that are considered to be endemic within South
Australia...........................................................................................................................................49
Table 9: Macroalgae within EP NRM region, known from single or very few records, or species
known from restricted habitats, according to lists by Womersley (2004, 2005)...............................53
Table 10: Summary of the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (from IUCN Shark Specialist
Group, 2007)....................................................................................................................................56
Table 11: Species previously listed (Cheshire et al. 2000; Womersley 2004, 2005 or Baldock and
Ricci 2005) which would not qualify for listing as rare or threatened in South Australia, Australia,
and / or globally................................................................................................................................57
Table 12: Species found in EP NRM region which may qualify for formal listing as rare, or another
category of threat, in South Australia and/or nationally)..................................................................60
Table 13: Number of species introduced to South Australia, recorded to date in herbarium
collections, for each NRM Region....................................................................................................64
Table 14: Introduced species recorded to date in EP NRM region that are known to date from
location-specific records in SA State Herbarium data sets).............................................................69
Table 15: Species recorded to date in EP NRM region that are likely to be cryptogenic in origin...76
Table 16: Comparison between number of geo-referenced herbarium records of macroalgae in EP
NRM region, with numbers recorded to date within outer boundaries of proposed multiple use
marine parks in EP NRM region).....................................................................................................85
.
5
List of Figures
Figure 1: Marine biogeographic provinces in southern Australia: Flindersian (dark grey), Maugean
(black), and Peronian (light grey). Modified from Waters et al. (2010)..............................................9
Figure 2: South Australia‘s Natural Resource Management Regions)............................................10
Figure 3: Total number of species present in SA State Herbarium collections of macroalgae, from
each Natural Resources Management (NRM) region in South Australia) ......................................14
Figure 4: Jaccard association matrix for binary data, and non-metric MDS plot showing similarities
between NRM regions in terms of species composition and number of macroalgae, according to
SA State Herbarium records............................................................................................................15
Figure 5: Total number of records present in SA State Herbarium collections of macroalgae, from
each Natural Resources Management (NRM) region in South Australia.........................................16
Figure 6: Distribution of SA State Herbarium records of macroalgae in EP NRM region..............19
Figure 7: Total number of records of macroalgae per 10km2 grid cell in EP NRM region, based on
data from ADHerb 2010 and the Australian Virtual Herbarium database. ......................................20
Figure 8: Density map of total number of species of macroalgae per 10km2 grid cell in EP NRM
region, based on data from ADHerb 2010 and the Australian Virtual Herbarium database. High
numbers of species correspond with the best sampled locations....................................................21
Figure 9: Total number of species in Chlorophyta present in SA State Herbarium collections of
macroalgae, from each NRM region in South Australia...................................................................27
Figure 10: Density map of the total number of Chlorophyta records per 10km2 grid cell, based on
data from ADHerb 2010 and the Australian Virtual Herbarium database........................................28
Figure 11: Total number of species in Heterokontophyta present in SA State Herbarium
collections of macroalgae, from each NRM region in South Australia.............................................31
Figure 12: Density map of the total number of Phaeophyceae (Heterokontophyta) records per 10
km2 grid cells, based on ADHerb 2010 and data from the Australian Virtual
Herbarium........................................................................................................................................33
Figure 13: Total number of species in Rhodophyta (excluding Corallinales) present in SA State
Herbarium collections of macroalgae, from each NRM region in South Australia...........................34
Figure 14: Density map of the total number of Rhodophyta records per 10 km2 grid cells, based on
ADHerb 2010 and data from the Australian Virtual Herbarium........................................................39
Figure 15: Number of species in Corallinales, recorded in SA State Herbarium data sets, from all
NRM regions. ..................................................................................................................................40
Figure 16: Density map of the total number of Corallinales records (Rhodophyta) per 10 km2 grid
cells, based on ADHerb 2010 and data from the Australian Virtual Herbarium...............................41
Figure 17A and 17B: Jaccard association matrix for binary data, and non-metric MDS plot
showing similarities between the 10km square grid cells in EP NRM region for which there are
most species in the ADHerb data sets; (A) top 8 most speciose grids; (B) top 6 most speciose
grids, with the 7th and 8th (two outliers from Figure 18A) removed from the analysis...............43,44
6
Figure 18: Distribution of South Australian endemic species of macroalgae recorded to date in EP
NRM region. Species numbers correspond to those in Table 6......................................................51
Figure 19: Distribution of records of macroalgae considered by Womersley (2004, 2005) to be
―rare‖ in South Australia. Includes species known from single or very few records, or from restricted
habitats in southern Australia. Note: includes some introduced and some potentially cryptogenic
species.............................................................................................................................................52
Figure 20: Species found in EP NRM region which may qualify for formal listing as rare, or under
another category of threat, in South Australia, and/or nationally.....................................................62
Figure 21: Photos of Ulva fasciata, Ulva taeniata, Stictyosiphon soriferus and Gymnogongrus
crenulatus........................................................................................................................................66
Figure 22: Distribution of introduced marine macroalgal species in the EP NRM coast region,
according to SA State Herbarium records.......................................................................................72
Figure 23: Distribution of introduced marine macroalgal species of Chlorophyta in the EP NRM
coast region, according to SA State Herbarium records..................................................................72
Figure 24: Distribution of introduced marine macroalgal species of Phaeophyceae
(Heterokontophyta) in the EP NRM coast region, according to SA State Herbarium records.........73
Figure 25: Distribution of introduced marine macroalgal species of Rhodophyta in the EP NRM
coast region, according to SA State Herbarium records..................................................................73
Figure 26: Photos of Hildenbrandia rubra; Hypnea valentiae; Acrosymphyton taylorii, and
Grateloupia filicina...........................................................................................................................75
Figure 27: Location of Aquatic Reserves in EP NRM region..........................................................84
Figure 28: Proposed multiple-use marine parks in EP NRM region, and distribution of georeferenced records of macroalgae, in SA State Herbarium data base............................................84
Figure 29: Distribution of geo-referenced records of South Australian endemic species, in relation
to proposed multiple use marine parks in the EP NRM region........................................................86
7
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Board for
providing the funding for this project to be undertaken; and Kerryn McEwan (Coast and Marine
Management Officer) and Sophie Keen (Evaluation and Reporting Officer) of the Eyre Peninsula
NRM Board, for facilitating the contract process. Thanks also to Ms Jacquie Oates, GIS Analyst at
GIS & Image Services, Science Resource Centre of DEH, and Ms Amanda Gaetjens, GIS Analyst
(Marine Programs) at DEH for formatting and providing a number of GIS files for analysis. We
would also like to thank Ms Carolyn Ricci of the State Herbarium of South Australia for checking a
number of herbarium specimens. Thanks to staff at University of Adelaide for assisting with
contract arrangements, and providing library access.
8
Introduction
The marine flora of the State of South Australia lies within the temperate Flindersian Marine
Biogeographic Province which displays a transitional warm to cool temperate biota of southwestern Australia (Figure 1). However, it also contains elements of the cool temperate biota of
south-eastern Australia (the Maugean Province) (Womersley 1990, Waters et al. 2010). The State
of South Australia is divided into eight Natural Resource Management (NRM) Regions, seven of
which have coastline (Figure 2). From west to east they are: the Alinytjara Wilurara NRM
(hereafter AW NRM), the Eyre Peninsula NRM (hereafter EP NRM), the Northern & Yorke
Peninsula NRM (hereafter NYP NRM), the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges NRM (hereafter
AMLR NRM), the Kangaroo Island NRM (hereafter KI NRM), the SA Murray Darling Basin NRM
(hereafter MDB NRM) and the South East NRM (hereafter SE NRM).
Figure 1. Marine biogeographic provinces in southern Australia: Flindersian (dark grey), Maugean
(black), and Peronian (light grey). Modified from Waters et al. (2010).
9
Figure 2: South Australia’s Natural Resource Management Regions
The Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management region is not as well known phycologically as
the Adelaide Mount Lofty Range Natural Resource Management region. The latter region has a
long history of collecting of beach wrack and shallow subtidal specimens in the easily accessible
metropolitan areas of Adelaide, and along the southern beaches, coupled with collections from a
variety of phycological research projects have taken place in the area over a long period
(summarised in Baker and Gurgel 2010). However, a number of phycological projects have been
undertaken in and around the EP NRM region (particularly from the 1950s onwards) during which
collecting has occurred. Examples include the following:
Waterloo Bay near Elliston, where SCUBA diving, underwater sled, and numerous spot
dives from 1969 to 1974 produced 71 batch collections (comprising thousands of
specimens) for detailed analysis and mapping of the seagrass and macroalgal communities
(Shepherd and Womersley 1981);
Pearson Island in the Investigator Group: Detailed surveys were undertaken in 1969
(Shepherd and Womersley 1971) and 1993, the latter as part of a Statewide benthic survey
program to characterise marine regions in SA (SARDI data in Edyvane and Baker 1996,
Baker and Edyvane 2003, Baker et al. 2008);
10
Waldegrave Islands in the Investigator Group: Many of the specimens this area were
collected in either of these two years: 1970 (by S.A. Shepherd) and 1993 (when quadrat
samples at 5m and 10m deep were taken as part of a Statewide benthic survey program to
characterise marine regions in SA, SARDI data in Edyvane and Baker 1996).
Ward Island in the in the Investigator Group: Most of the samples from this area were
collected between 5m and 20m, in 1993, from replicate sampling using 1m2 quadrats
(Edyvane and Baker 1996, Baker and Edyvane 2003, Baker et al. 2008).
St Francis Isles, in the Nuyts Archipelago: Samples of macroalgae have been collected
from the St Francis Isles group during detailed benthic surveys in 1971 (Shepherd and
Womersley 1976) and 1992 (Baker and Edyvane 2003).
Gambier Isles, south of Spencer Gulf: Many of the specimens from Wedge Island and
North Islet were collected in 1993, as part a Statewide benthic survey program (SARDI
data in Edyvane and Baker 1998a).
Wanna area (eastern Sleaford Bay), south of Port Lincoln, where much intertidal drift
collecting was undertaken during the 1950s by H.B.S. Womersley. A number of other
locations along Eyre Peninsula were also sampled during that decade by H.B.S.
Womersley (e.g. Point Drummond, on the western side of Eyre Peninsula, from where
dozens of samples were taken from intertidal pools in 1951);
Point Avoid and Avoid Bay area (Coffin Bay Peninsula), where numerous samples from the
intertidal drift and reef pool samples were taken by H.B.S. Womersley in 1975, 1976 and
1987. Samples were also taken at Price Island (off Point Avoid) by the late K. Branden, in
1989, and between Golden and Price Islands in the same year, by P. Hone. Specimens
were also collected from the Avoid Bay area by C. Ricci, during the early 1990s;
Point Sinclair: Most samples were taken in the intertidal and shallow subtidal during 1951
and 1954 (by H.B.S. Womersley), and many of the samples from 1951 are from the drift. A
number of specimens were also collected in 1968, by W.J. Woelkerling and E.M. Gordon;
Point Fowler (including Fowlers Bay): Various samples were collected in the Point Fowler
area in 1980, between 2m and 18m deep (S.A. Herbarium data, collected by S.A.
Shepherd), and also in 1994, as part of a Statewide benthic survey program to characterise
marine regions (SARDI data, in Edyvane and Baker 1998b). More recently, various
samples were collected from the intertidal during a survey to determine the species
richness of Sargassum in the Great Australian Bight (Gurgel 2009);
Nuyts Reef: Various samples were collected in this area in 1980, between 5m and 30m
deep, as part of a study on vertical zonation of macroalgae (Shepherd and Womersley,
unpubl. MS), and in 1994, as part of a Statewide benthic survey program to characterise
marine regions in SA (Edyvane and Baker 1998b);
Point Lowly area (Whyalla): Numerous sampling efforts over the past few decades have
included benthic dredge samples from 1971 (collected by S.A. Shepherd), algal samples
from tyre reefs in the area (K. Branden, 1984 and 1987); samples from mangroves in False
Bay (P. Harbison, 1993), and samples for various environmental impact assessment
projects (B. Baldock, in 1999, 2004 and 2006).
11
A number of random collections across the EP NRM coast also became important specimens to
characterise the southern Australian flora as a whole, and some of these included new taxa. These
taxa have been documented extensively in the life-long work of Prof. Bryan Womersley, through
his book series The Marine Benthic Flora of Southern Australia (Womersley 1983, 1987, 1999,
2000, 2003, 2005).
Research which assessed and/or monitored the benthos in parts of the EP NRM region, but for
which macroalgae collections did not form a significant part of the projects, are not discussed in
detail here. Examples include:
(i) A study at Point Labatt Marine Reserve, which evaluated the effects of an aquatic reserve
on the biota of subtidal reefs, compared with unprotected reference point reefs (Currie and
Sorokin 2005), and for which many species of macroalgae were not identified to species
level
(ii) Benthic environmental impact assessment work offshore from Port Lincoln undertaken
during the mid 1990s in relation to the development of tuna cage aquaculture in the region
(e.g. Cheshire et al. 1996)
(iii) A nearshore marine life survey in February 2009, at Sceale Bay and several other bays in
the eastern Great Australian Bight (e.g. Friends of Sceale Bay 2010), and other surveys in
the Eyre Peninsula area as part of DEH‘s Establishing Marine Baselines project (see Eyre
Peninsula NRM Board 2006 for description)
(iv) Benthic habitat classification of South Australian nearshore habitats (e.g. Bryars 2003)
(v) Benthic habitat mapping carried out by Department for Environment and Heritage (now
DENR) at various bays on the western side of Eyre Peninsula (DEH data 2008).
Despite the numerous macroalgal collections that have been taken in parts of the EP NRM region
over several decades (particularly those described above, including the intertidal collections of the
1950s, the detailed benthic collections of Shepherd at several islands during the 1970s, and the
representative quadrat sampling of SARDI benthic surveys during the 1990s), there is still no
detailed and up-to-date assessment of the overall species composition and diversity of macroalgae
in the region. This report aims to provide that information by summarising the herbarium records
for EP NRM region from the South Australian State Herbarium and other Australian herbaria, at
various organisational scales. The current report also updates 1990s assessments of threatened
macroalgal species including examples of potentially rare taxa in the Eyre Peninsula region with
more accurate and detailed information than those previously published (e.g. Cheshire et al. 2000
and the associated database by Turner 2000). Moreover, this report summarises the number and
location of introduced and potentially cryptogenic macroalgae in EP NRM region. The report also
provides various recommendations for conserving the richness and diversity of macroalgae the
region; managing impacts on reefs where macroalgae dominate cover (or have dominated in past
decades, prior to impact), and outlines future research, conservation recommendations and
monitoring requirements.
12
Materials and Methods
Two main data sets were used for this project. One is a copy of the SA macroalgal database which
contains all records deposited in the SA State Herbarium (ADHerb 2010). The other is a copy of all
relevant macroalgal records into the Australian Virtual Herbarium database (AVH). The latter not
only encompass the ADHerb, but also includes macroalgal records deposited in the other 7 major
herbaria in Australia (i.e. Perth, Melbourne, Hobart, Darwin, Brisbane, Townsville and Canberra).
From these two main databases (ADHerb + AVH), several new datasets were created.
The first data set includes summed records of each species of macroalgae, for each NRM region
in South Australia. After cleaning (i.e. removal of irrelevant taxa, and erroneous records), this data
set contained 1,069 valid species of macroalgae, 741 of these from the EP NRM region.
The second main data set used for this project was a geo-referenced data set of records of
macroalgae within the EP NRM region, comprising 8,774 records (748 species) after cleaning.
In both data sets, the taxonomy for each species was checked, and updated where necessary,
using the current literature, in addition to databases such as Algaebase (Guiry and Guiry 2010),
Australian Virtual Herbarium (2010), and the Australian Marine Algal Names Index (Cowan 2006).
A referenced list of updated names for various taxa which were known in the South Australian
herbarium databases under their previous names (now junior synonyms), is available from the first
author.
Species recorded as genus only (e.g. ―Rhodymenia sp.‖) were removed from the data set for this
analysis. The only non-specific records which were retained were those for which only one species
is known in southern Australia for that particular genus.
Other datasets include number of genera per NRM region, and total number of species from each
main group of macroalgae (Chlorophyta, Heterokontophyta, Rhodophyta, and Corallinaceae in
Rhodophyta) per NRM region. Species records were also translated into presence / absence for
additional multivariate statistical analyses. Datasets were also created for endemic, introduced,
and cryptogenic species, according to literature discussed in other sections of this report.
Software used to summarise the contents include ESRI‘s ARCView and Spatial Analyst, PRIMER
6 (Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK), Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Access.
13
Results and Discussion
Comparison between NRM Regions
The total number of species of macroalgae recorded to date in each NRM region, according to
South Australian State Herbarium records, is shown in Figure 3. The number of species recorded
in the EP NRM region (741) is surpassed only slightly by the species tally for Kangaroo Island
NRM (753 species) and Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges (749). The large number of species
recorded in the Eyre Peninsula and KI NRM regions likely reflects large but sporadic sampling
efforts in specific locations, including detailed intertidal collections made by H.B.S Womersley
during the 1950s; extensive benthic collections by S.A. Shepherd from some island groups in the
eastern Great Australian Bight during the 1970s, and collections from many sites along Eyre
Peninsula coast and around Kangaroo Island, based on hundreds of quadrat samples taken during
a Statewide benthic survey program in the 1990s (SARDI data). Appendix 1 lists all species of
marine macroalgae recorded so far from the EP NRM region.
800
700
741
753
Total No. Species
600
749
673
656
500
400
300
200
200
100
117
0
Alinytjara
Wilurara
Eyre
Peninsula
Kangaroo
Island
Northern
& Yorke
Adelaide SA Murray
Darling
& Mt Lofty
Basin
Ranges
South
East
Figure 3: Total number of species present in SA State Herbarium collections of macroalgae, from
each Natural Resources Management (NRM) region in South Australia.
The similarity between NRM regions in terms of number and composition of species of
macroalgae, according to SA State Herbarium records, is shown in Figure 4. The Jaccard
coefficient (Jaccard 1901, Romesburg 1984) was used to compute similarity, because it is one of
the most suitable coefficients for use with binary data (but for improvements see Tulloss 1997),
and is not affected by joint absences (i.e. double zero values, when comparing species in two sets
of data). Give the opportunistic nature of the herbarium data over more than 150 years, it was
decided that joint absence of a species from any two NRM regions being compared should not
contribute to the determination of similarity, because it is it not known how many of the ―joint
absence‖ species do occur in either or both regions, but have not yet been sampled. This is
particularly the case for small epiphytic species which are easy to overlook unless specifically
searched for with targetted surveys, which rarely occurs.
14
As shown in the Jaccard similarity matrix, and less obvious in the non-metric MDS plot (Figure 4),
the two NRM regions which appear most similar are Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island, for
which 613 species in common have been recorded to date. Northern and Yorke NRM, and AMLR
NRM regions are also closely related to these, and to the EP NRM, in terms of the herbarium
specimens recorded to date. Therefore, species composition of macroalgae between those 4
regions is likely to be similar, at least when compared at the gross scale of ―all species recorded to
date for which herbarium records exist‖. This is not surprising, given that these 4 NRM regions are
the four of the five best sampled in South Australia (the fifth being the South East NRM), and, also
these four NRMs are the most central across the State, and hence share similar oceanography,
compared with NRM regions at the edges of the State, such as the warm AW NRM in the far west,
and the cooler SE NRM region in the far east of the State. As shown in Figure 4, NRM regions
which are not related with to each other, nor to the 4 similar NRM regions discussed above, are (i)
the AW NRM, for which only ~ 200 species have been recorded to date; the South Australian
Murray Darling Basin NRM region (only 116 species recorded, few of which are reef-dwelling
species, compared with the marine flora of other NRM regions where reefs are one of the
dominant habitat types), and (iii) the South East NRM - although recorded species number in the
latter is similar to some of the central coast bioregions (Figure 3), the South East contains a high
proportion of cool temperate (Maugean sub-province: Womersley 1990) species compared with
other bioregions in SA, and the marine flora has much in common with those of Victoria and
Tasmania.
AMLR
AW
EP
KI
NY
AW
22.323
EP
63.987
24.142
KI
63.043
23.157
69.659
NY
62.688
25.513
64.935
66.038
MDB
14.135
17.037
13.963
13.316
14.71
SE
59.484
21.419
55.556
59.933
52.759
Kruskal’s F-Stress: 0
MDB
15.52
SE
AW
MDB
AMLR
KI EP
NY
Figure 4: Jaccard association matrix for binary data, and non-metric MDS plot showing similarities
between NRM regions in terms of species composition and number of macroalgae, according to SA
State Herbarium records.
15
Figure 5: Total number of records present in SA State Herbarium collections of macroalgae, from
each Natural Resources Management (NRM) region in South Australia. Green bars = Chlorophyta;
brown bars = Phaeophyceae; red bars = Rhodophyta, including Corallinales.
The number of herbarium records of Chlorophyta (green), Phaeophyceae (brown) and Rhodophyta
(red, including Corallinales) macroalgae recorded in each Natural Resources Management region
in South Australia is shown in Figure 5. Approximately 867 herbarium records in Chlorophyta
alone have been recorded in the EP NRM region, 839 from Kangaroo Island, and similar numbers
in the AMLR NRM and the SE NRM regions (676 and 679 records, respectively). The largest
number of records of brown macroalgae have been recorded from EP NRM (2,336 records),
followed by Kangaroo Island NRM (2,312) and AMLR NRM (2,242 records). So far, more records
in Rhodophyta come from KI NRM region (5,947) than any other in South Australia, which may
partly reflect not only the extensive collecting by HBS Womersley during the middle decades of the
20th century (when numerous small red epiphytes and other taxa were collected from Kangaroo
Island bays, and later described), but also the species-richness of this biogeographical boundary
region, which contains both warmer western and cooler water south-eastern flora. Extensive
collection of red macroalgae have also been made from species-rich regions such as EP NRM
(5,549 records in SA State Herbarium), AMLR NRM (4,934 records), and the SE NRM (4,456
records). As is obvious from Figure 3, few records of macroalgae have been collected from the
remote AW NRM region in western South Australia, and also from the SA Murray Darling Basin,
which is largely a sand dominated area with few reefs.
The species richness of the common canopy-forming genera Cystophora and Sargassum for each
of SA‘s NRM regions is indicated in Tables 1 and 2. Reefs in the Eyre Peninsula, Kangaroo Island
and Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges NRM regions support the largest number of species in
Cystophora, with 17, 16 and 16 species recorded respectively to date. These regions contain a mix
of western species (e.g. C. pectinata, C. gracilis), as well as species broadly distributed across
southern Australia (e.g. C. monilifera, C. moniliformis, C. subfarcinata, C. platylobium, and most
others in Table 1).
16
Reefs in the three most central NRM regions of SA also contain a mix of wave-exposed and more
sheltered reefs, hence these regions can support species of Cystophora which require each type
of environment to flourish. Almost all species of Cystophora recorded in South Australia, occur in
the EP NRM region. The number recorded in the AW NRM region may be artificially low, because
although reefs are one of the dominant nearshore habitat types in much of the region, the sampling
effort in that relatively remote and less accessible region has been much lower compared with
NRM regions to the east. As would be expected, the number of reef canopy-forming species in the
MDB NRM region is low, given the lack of reef in the area.
The genus Sargassum, including its three subgenera Phyllotrichia, Arthrophycus and Sargassum,
is well represented in 6 of the 7 South Australian NRM regions. Fifteen species have been
recorded to date in the Eyre Peninsula, Northern and Yorke (NY) and AMLR NRM regions,
including the tropical and subtropical species Sargassum decurrens. Records of the south-eastern
species S. vestitum, from locations in the AW (East Coombra), KI (Seal Bay), NY (Althorpe Island)
and AMLR (Port Vincent, Carrickalinga and Port Elliot) NRM regions are unusual, given that this
species does not normally occur north of Robe in south eastern SA (Womersley, 1987), and most
records are from rough water coasts in Victoria and Tasmania. It is also noted that there are
several records even further west of the previously published range, from the Perth area and
Rottnest Island in WA (DEC and WA Herbarium 2010, Australian Virtual Herbarium 2010). Reefs in
three of the centrally positioned NRM regions of SA (EP, NY, and AMLR) are situated in
temperate and, in some places, warmer water conditions, which therefore support a greater
number of Sargassum species than do colder, more exposed coasts of the South East.
Table 1: Species richness of Cystophora in NRM regions. AW = Alinytjara Wilurara; EYR = Eyre;
KI = Kangaroo Island; NY and Northern and Yorke; AMLR = Adelaide and & Mt Lofty Ranges; MDB =
South Australian Murray-Darling Basin and SE = South East. Grey shading indicates presence of that
species. # = species identity of specimen(s) is being checked at SA State Herbarium.
Species
Cystophora botryocystis
Cystophora brownii
Cystophora congesta
Cystophora cuspidata
Cystophora expansa
Cystophora gracilis
Cystophora grevillea
Cystophora intermedia
Cystophora monilifera
Cystophora moniliformis
Cystophora pectinata
Cystophora platylobium
Cystophora polycystidea
Cystophora racemosa
Cystophora retorta
Cystophora retroflexa #
Cystophora siliquosa
Cystophora subfarcinata
Total No. Species
AW
EYR
KI
NY
AMLR
MDB
SE
8
17
16
14
16
3
14
17
Table 2: Species richness of Sargassum in NRM regions. AW = Alinytjara Wilurara; EYR = Eyre; KI =
Kangaroo Island; NY = Northern & Yorke; AMLR = Adelaide & Mt Lofty Ranges; MDB = South
Australian Murray-Darling Basin; SE = South East. Grey shading indicates presence of that species.
Species
Sargassum decipiens
Sargassum decurrens
Sargassum distichum
Sargassum fallax
Sargassum heteromorphum
Sargassum kendrickii
Sargassum lacerifolium
Sargassum linearifolium
Sargassum paradoxum
Sargassum podacanthum
Sargassum sonderi
Sargassum spinuligerum
Sargassum tristichum
Sargassum varians
Sargassum verruculosum
Sargassum vestitum
Total No. Species
AW
EYR
KI
NY
AMLR
MDB
SE
8
15
13
15
15
0
11
The presence in NRM regions of common canopy-forming species and other large species in
Phaeophyceae shown in Table 3, excluding Sargassum and Cystophora, discussed above. One of
the commonest species on subtidal reefs in southern Australia, the kelp Ecklonia radiata, occurs in
all NRM regions in South Australia. A few of the canopy-forming taxa are associated with the
cooler waters of south eastern Australia, such as Durvillaea potatorum (bull kelp), Phyllospora
comosa (crayweed) and Macrocystis pyrifera (giant kelp). The records of M. pyrifera (formerly
known in South Australia as M. angustifolia) in NRM regions other than the South East NRM are
from the drift, because this species does not grow in the gulfs region. It is noted that the three
species in Table 3 not recorded in SE NRM region to date (Caulocystis uvifera, Scytothalia
dorycarpa, and the largely shallow subtidal species Xiphophora chondrophylla) all have a broad
southern Australian distribution, and extend further east, into Victoria and Tasmania.
Table 3: Presence in NRM regions of common canopy-forming species and other large species in
Heterokontophyta. AW = Alinytjara Wilurara; EYR = Eyre; KI = Kangaroo Island; NY = Northern and
Yorke; AMLR = Adelaide & Mt Lofty Ranges; MDB = South Australian Murray-Darling Basin; SE =
South East. Grey shading indicates presence of that species. Species in Myriodesma not included,
due to their lower densities and lesser abundance as canopy flora in most areas.
Species
Acrocarpia paniculata
Caulocystis cephalornithos
Caulocystis uvifera
Carpoglossum confluens
Durvillaea potatorum
Eckonia radiata
Macrocystis pyrifera
Phyllospora comosa
Scaberia agardhii
Scytothalia dorycarpa
Seirococcus axillaris
Xiphophora chondrophylla
AW
EYR
18
KI
NY
AMLR
(drift)
(drift)
(drift)
MDB
SE
Overview of Macroalgae in Eyre Peninsula NRM Region
Region-wide Summary
The distribution of databased herbarium records of macroalgae in EP NRM region is shown in
Figure 6, with the seaward boundary of the management region indicated. The collection in the
data set (approximately 8,779 records) includes herbarium samples dating from the late 1800s to
2009.
N
SA State Herbarium records
Eyre Peninsula NRM boundary
80km
Figure 6: Distribution of SA State Herbarium records of macroalgae in EP NRM region
The number of records of macroalgae in SA State Herbarium collections, from 10km x 10km cells
in the EP NRM region, is shown in Figure 7. To date, well sampled areas include:
Nuyts Reef, Point Fowler and Point Sinclair, in the eastern Great Australian Bight (SA
Herbarium data, based on the collections of S.A. Shepherd, 1980);
some of the St Francis islands (Nuyts Archipelago), where a detailed benthic survey was
undertaken in 1971 at St Francis Island (Shepherd and Womersley 1976), further samples
were taken in 1980 (ADHerb 2010), and another survey was undertaken in 1992 (Edyvane
and Baker 1996, Baker and Edyvane 2003);
several of the headlands in the eastern Great Australian Bight, where samples were taken in
1994, from 5m to 20m deep, as part of a Statewide benthic survey program to characterise
marine regions (Edyvane and Baker 1998b, Edyvane 1999);
Waterloo Bay, near Elliston (e.g. Shepherd and Womersley 1981);
several islands in the Investigator Group, most notably Pearson Island (Shepherd and
Womersley 1969; Baker et al. 2008) and Ward Island (Baker and Edyvane 2003, Baker et al.
2008);
19
Wanna, a beach in the southern part of Lincoln National Park (eastern Sleaford Bay), from
where many drift specimens were collected by H.B.S. Womersley;
islands in the Gambier group south of Spencer Gulf, particularly Wedge Island, where
hundreds of samples were taken in 1993, from 5m to 20m deep, as part of a Statewide benthic
survey program to characterise marine regions (Edyvane and Baker 1998a, Edyvane 1999)
Pt Sinclair
Nuyts
Reefs
Pt Fowler
St Francis
Isles
Pt
Lowly
Waldegrave I.
> 1000
Waterloo Bay
Ward I.
Pearson I.
600 - 1000
300 - 599
100 - 299
Gambier
Isles
10- 99
Wanna
< 10
N
80km
2
Figure 7: Total number of records of macroalgae per 10km grid cell in EP NRM region, based on data
from ADHerb 2010 and the Australian Virtual Herbarium database. High numbers of records
correspond with the best sampled locations.
20
Pt Sinclair
Pt Fowler
Nuyts
Reefs
St Francis
Isles
Pt
Lowly
Waldegrave I.
301 - 420
Waterloo Bay
Ward I.
Pearson I.
101 - 300
21 - 100
6 - 20
Gambier
Isles
2- 5
Wanna
1
N
80km
Figure 8: Density map of total number of species of macroalgae per 10km2 grid cell in EP NRM
region, based on data from ADHerb 2010 and the Australian Virtual Herbarium database. High
numbers of species correspond with the best sampled locations.
The number of species of macroalgae per 10km square cell in the EP NRM region is shown in
Figure 8. Areas of apparent high species richness relate to sampling effort and therefore to
number of records. There is a strong positive correlation between the number of records per cell
and the number of species per cell (N = 115; Spearman rho = 0.92). Consequently, it is clear that
although some areas are genuinely species-rich due to the variety of habitats and the
oceanographic conditions (e.g. the Investigator Group islands), the apparent species richness of
some areas within EP NRM is inflated by the vast collecting effort over time, compared with less
accessible locations. Conversely, some areas which are known to be species-rich (according to
other survey work), are poorly represented in this data set, because there are few to no voucher
specimens in the SA Herbarium. For example, it is known that parts of southern Eyre Peninsula
are rich in red macroalgae (SARDI data 1995 cited in Baker 2004), possibly due to the deeper
depth of the water there compared with adjacent gulf waters, strong currents, variety of reef
substrates and lack of coastal pollution. However the high macroalgal species richness of these
areas is not obvious in Figure 8, or the minimal amount of records deposited in herbaria.
On a 10km by 10km grid basis, recorded species richness is highest in Waterloo Bay (408 species
known so far), followed by several of the islands in the Investigator Group (275 recorded species at
Pearson Island); St Francis Island (Nuyts Archipelago); Wedge Island south of Spencer Gulf; Point
Sinclair, and two bays at the bottom of Eyre Peninsula. Once again, in most cases, the high
species numbers reflect the higher collecting effort in those areas. For example, the benthic
macroflora of Waterloo Bay was extensively sampled over a 6 year period during the early 1970s,
when more than 1,400 herbarium specimens were collected for identification (Shepherd and
Womersley 1981);
21
Areas where the greatest numbers of species have been recorded are discussed briefly below,
and approximate positions of these areas are shown on the labels in Figure 8.
Waterloo Bay: 1,471 geo-referenced records are known from the area, comprising 408 species.
The collecting effort at Waterloo Bay is disproportionately high compared with many other parts
of the EP NRM region. Some species are known in the area from multiple records, including the
following: Callophyllis rangiferina (21 records), Hymenena curdieana (19), Codium capitulatum
(16) Kallymenia cribrosa and Callophyllis lambertii (14 records each); Platysiphonia victoriae,
Laurencia shepherdii and Chondria incurva (13 records each); Glossophora nigricans,
Hymenena multipartita, Caulerpa vesiculifera, and Sarcomenia delesserioides (12 records
each), and 12 other species known from 10 or 11 records each. In that bay, 127 species
collected so far are known from a single herbarium record in the area. Some of these are
common, and others are not well known and have few Australian records, with examples
including the red epiphyte Placophora binderi (known from Africa, South America, Japan,
Indonesia, New Zealand, and few records in South Australia and Western Australia), Platyclinia
ramosa (a small red alga known from 9 specimens, collectively in WA and Eyre Peninsula
region of SA); the uncommon, deeper water epilithic species Erythrostachys strobilifera, known
only from drift specimens in South Australia and a single record in southern WA, near the SA
border; the brown epiphyte Flabellonema codii, and the small red epiphyte Medeiothamnion
repens (both possibly endemic within SA, Table 8). Other examples are discussed in the
section below on Rhodophyta.
Pearson Island in the Investigator Group: 1,250 records, comprising 275 species have been
recorded. At this site, 33 species are known from 10 or more herbarium records, and 9 species
are known from more than 20 records, including Callophyllis rangiferina, Rhodymenia foliifera,
Laurencia filiformis, Delisea pulchra, Peyssonnelia foliosa, Champia zostericola, Austrophyllis
alcicornis and Plocamium mertensii. Green macroalgae are well represented at the Investigator
Group islands, including Pearson, with 13 species (14 varieties) of Caulerpa recorded.
Waldegrave islands near Cape Finnis: 418 records (183 species). Examples of species known
from multiple records (e.g. 6 to 12 samples) in the area include Areschougia congesta,
Mychodea ramulosa, the unusual green alga Palmoclathrus stipitatus, Callophyllis rangiferina,
Distromium multifidum, Cladurus elatus, Erythroclonium sedoides, Osmundaria prolifera,
Rhodophyllis volans, Cystophora subfarcinata, Erythroclonium muelleri, Botryocladia sonderi
and Polysiphonia decipiens. A single specimen has been collected for 97 of the 183 species,
including 7 Cystophora species, and 5 Caulerpa species.
Ward Island in the Investigator Group: 893 records, comprising 182 species have been
recorded. Some species are known from a large number of records, e.g. 57 records of
Callophyllis rangiferina, 30 of Hypnea ramentacea, 26 of Laurencia filiformis, 24 of
Homoeostrichus sinclairii, 21 of Rhodymenia foliifera, and 22 common species of red, brown
and green macroalgae for which 10 to 19 specimens have been collected.
St Francis Island, in the Nuyts Archipelago: 520 records, representing 173 species. An
additional 470 records (178 species) have been recorded from the smaller islands to the south
(e.g. Fenelon), east and west of St Francis Island. At St Francis Island, there is large
discrepancy between the number of records and number of species, due to multiple specimens
of some common taxa, many of these collected during a survey in 1992, from replicate sampling
using 1m2 quadrats at various depths around the island. Some examples of multiple records
include Sargassum lacerifolium (26 specimens), Rhodymenia foliifera (14 specimens),
Cystophora monilifera, and Dictyota radicans (10 specimens each), Sargassum
heteromorphum, Pachydictyon paniculatum, Plocamium mertensii and Delisea hypneoides (11
specimens each), and Sargassum fallax, Lobospira bicuspidata and Polysiphonia decipiens (9
specimens each). At St Francis Island, 84 species are known so far from a single record,
including some red taxa of western affinity, and also a number known from deeper water (e.g.
Echinosporangium semipennatum, from 22 – 40 m depth, Womersley 2003).
22
Gambier islands group, south of Spencer Gulf: A total of 620 records (168 species), mostly
from Wedge Island (513 records, 157 species), with the remainder from North Islet and South
West Rock. Multiple records of common species from Wedge Island include Homoeostrichus
sinclairii (25 records), Plocamium angustum (16 records), Sargassum fallax (14), Lobospira
bicuspidata (12), Callophyllis rangiferina and Plocamium cartilagineum (11 records each), and
Asparagopsis armata and Laurencia filiformis (10 records each). Only a single specimen has
been collected for 60 of the species from Wedge Island, with examples including two brown
species of cryptogenic origin (Table 15), a number of globally distributed species (e.g.
Centroceras clavulatum), and several species of mainly western distribution (such as the brown
Sargassum tristichum, for which the identity of the specimen needs to be confirmed).
Wanna area (eastern Sleaford Bay), south of Port Lincoln: 286 records (148 species) have
been recorded, largely due to the intertidal collecting efforts of H.B.S. Womersley during the
1950s. In addition to the various larger species of red, brown and green macroalgae, numerous
epiphytic species of red algae (many of those in the families Ceramiaceae or Rhodomelaceae)
have been recorded. It is noted that 7 species in Cladophora, a genus of opportunistic green
macroalgae, have been recorded in the area. Also, 7 species of the canopy-forming brown
genus Cystophora have been recorded, each represented by multiple specimens. Two
introduced species of green macroalgae (Table 13), and one cryptogenic species, discussed in
other parts of this report, have also been collected at Wanna, as well as three species that are
likely to be South Australian endemics (Table 8).
Point Sinclair: 270 records (141 species). Examples of species known from multiple records
(e.g. 5 to 11 samples) in the area include Dictyota naevosa, Pterocladia rectangularis,
Antithamnion hanovioides, Cladophora coelothrix, Erythroclonium muelleri, Gelidium australe,
Gigartina densa and Sargassum tristichum. So far, 81 of the species are known in the area from
a single record, including tropical and sub-tropical species (such as Padina sanctae-crucis,
Peyssonnelia inamoena, and Hydrolithon munitum), and a number of western species for which
the eastern Great Australian Bight is the eastern edge of the known range (e.g. Pterocladia
rectangularis).
Point Avoid and Avoid Bay (Coffin Bay Peninsula): 171 records (122 species). Few species
from these two locations are known from multiple records, with the only notable example being
Corynophlaea cystophorae (5 specimens). A number of the species known from the area are
small red epiphytes, including 3 species of Audouinella and Ceramium, and also various
species in Anotrichium, Griffithsia and Spyridia. Five species in the green genus Codium have
been recorded from Avoid Bay area. Of the 122 species recorded so far from Avoid Bay and
surrounds, 84 are known in the area from a single record. Species recorded in the area which
may be endemic within South Australia include Euptilocladia villosa and Tylocolax microcarpus
(Table 8). Other species of note include the small endophytic species Audouinella liagorae, also
known from Hawaii, California, Mexico, Central American locations such as Barbados and
Bermuda; Lord Howe Island, and several sites in South Australia. Avoid Bay is the most
westerly record of the south-eastern species Griffithsia gunniana. Avoid Bay and nearby Point
Whidbey may be the most westerly locations known for the south-eastern species
Camontagnea oxyclada (also known from Chile in South America, New Zealand and
Antarctica). The south-eastern Australian species Gloioderma polycarpum (previously known as
Gloiocladia polycarpa) has also been recorded from the drift at Point Avoid. A number of
species, including Platyclinia ramosa, are known from few records;
Point Fowler area (including Fowlers Bay): 185 records (107 species). More than half (73) of
the species collected from this area are known from a single record. At least two species of
cryptogenic origin are known from this area (Table 13), plus a number of apparently rare
species known from few localities (e.g. Dasycladus densus). Examples of species for which
there are more than 5 records from the area include Cystophora racemosa and Plocamium
mertensii (9 records each), Cystophora retorta (7 records) and Scytothalia dorycarpa (6
records).
23
Point Lowly area (Whyalla): 140 records (80 species). More than half (47) of the species
recorded in the area so far are known from single records. The red species Schottera
nicaeensis, likely to have been introduced into SA (Table 14) has been recorded in the area,
along with the cryptogenic species Polysiphonia subtilissima (Table 15). A number of species
which form seasonal ―nuisance blooms‖ have also been recorded in the Whyalla area, including
the filamentous browns Hincksia sordida and H. mitchelliae (the latter is a globally distributed
species, but it is uncertain whether it was introduced to Australia).
Nuyts Reefs: 99 records (78 species): A single specimen exists for most (62) of the species
taken at Nuyts Reefs, including some species known mainly from Western Australia, such as
Hennedya crispa. A possibly endemic species, Polysiphonia propagulifera, has also been
recorded here (Table 8). Several specimens of the large, unusually structured Codium species
of western affinity, C. laminarioides, have been recorded here. Other western species include
the red Stictosporum nitophylloides (which has also been recorded in Madagascar: Silva et al.
1996).
Inadequately sampled areas of the EP NRM area include:
most of the northern, central and western sides of Spencer Gulf (the latter including the
Franklin Harbour area and adjacent coast (including Plank Point, Lucky Bay, Port Gibbon,
Arno Bay area etc);
much of the central and southern Spencer Gulf region, particularly waters deeper than 10m;
most parts of south-eastern Great Australian Bight (except for the St Francis Isles, Investigator
Group of islands, and Waterloo Bay, and a small number of headlands);
south-western Eyre Peninsula, particularly the coast south of Waterloo Bay, as far south as
Coffin Bay (e.g. including Sheringa, Kiana, Point Drummond, Greenly Beach, Convention
Beach, and Coles Point area)
Southern Eyre Peninsula, with the exception of the intertidal and shallow subtidal at Wanna
Beach (and including the Memory Cove / Lincoln National Park coast / Thorny Passage area,
for which there are very few records);
Thorny Passage islands, and the Sir Joseph Banks group; and
the Neptune Islands.
There are few SA State Herbarium records of macroalgae along the eastern side of Eyre
Peninsula, particularly north and south of Franklin Harbour, despite the occurrence of coastal
patch reefs in this area. The lack of records from this area represents a paucity of collecting effort
(perhaps due to inaccessibility of much of the coastal area from the land), compared with other
locations, rather than a lack of macroalgae in the area. Also, there are no records of macroalgae
for reefs along the lower mid-western side of Eyre Peninsula, north of Coffin Bay. This may also
reflect the relative inaccessibility of the area, which has few roads to the coast, and strong southwesterly swells and high wave energy in the nearshore area.
Chlorophyta
Compared with other NRM regions in South Australia, the largest number of records of green
macroalgae (Chlorophyta) comes from the EP NRM region (867 records, representing 84 species),
followed by Kangaroo Island (839 records, 86 species) (Figure 5). The largest number of species
recorded to date (92) comes from Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges NRM region, for which
comparatively fewer specimens (676) have been collected (Figure 9). The large number of
specimens of Chlorophyta from the Eyre NRM region reflects multiple records of some species,
with examples include Caulerpa flexilis and C. scalpelliformis (65 and 46 records respectively),
Apjohnia laetevirens (40 records), Cladophora valonioides (38 records), and between 23 and 38
records each of 7 species in Caulerpa. There are also multiple records of several Codium species,
including C. galeatum (29 records) and C. capitulatum (26 records), and also the unusually
structured, net-like green Struvea plumosa (26 records). The genera Caulerpa and Codium are
relatively species-rich in the EP NRM region. Of the 15 species in Caulerpa recorded in this NRM
region, a number have western affinities, such as the deeper water C. ellistoniae, which is found to
at least 60m deep (e.g. Womersley 1984).
24
To date, 12 species in Codium have been recorded in the region, including the provisionally named
species C. apiculatum (also known as C. ―nuytsianum‖), recorded from few localities. Codium
species are commonly found in them understorey on reefs, but some species also occur in sandy
habitats.
A comparatively large number of species of opportunistic macroalgae in the genera Ulva (9
species) and Cladophora (13 species) have also been recorded in the Eyre NRM, and many of
these species bloom in disturbed and eutrophic conditions. There are two records from Cape
Carnot of Palmophyllum crassum, collected by H.B.S. Womersley in 1951. This little known
species is found mainly in Europe, Atlantic Islands, and Hawaii, and has also been recorded in
Queensland (Cowan 2006, Guiry and Guiry 2010). Another little known green species, the
unusually structured Palmoclathrus stipitatus, has also been recorded in the Eyre NRM region (at
Waterloo Bay and Waldegrave Island). This deeper water alga has perennial stipes, but the upper
parts of the plant shed seasonally, and new growth commences in spring and summer (Womersley
1984).
Species of Chlorophyta in the EP NRM region known from a single herbarium record are shown in
Table 4. This includes 5 species of Cladophora, a genus containing many opportunistic species
which often bloom in warm, eutrophic conditions, such as occurs in harbours, marinas, and around
marine aquaculture facilities.
Table 4: Species in Chlorophyta known in EP NRM region from a single herbarium record. Table
includes common, uncommon, widespread, and geographically-limited species. (E) = species
possibly endemic within South Australia (see Table 8). LHI = Lord Howe Island; NI = Norfolk Island;
NSW = New South Wales; NZ = New Zealand; QLD = Queensland; SA = South Australia; TAS =
Tasmania; VIC = Victoria. Distribution notes from Womersley 1984; Cowan 2006, Guiry and Guiry
2010, and references therein).
Species
(alphabetical order)
Blidingia marginata
Blidingia minima
Bryopsis plumosa
Chaetomorpha billardierii
Cladophora aegagropiloidea (E)
Description and Distribution
A fine, filamentous alga that grows on samphires and mangroves,
and also in intertidal pools in calm waters. Widespread in
temperate regions of the world, including Europe (> 15 countries),
th
Africa, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Canada, eastern N America, parts of
th
central and S America, Japan, New Zealand and Australia (QLD,
NSW, VIC, TAS, SA, WA).
A fine, filamentous alga that grows on intertidal rocks on calm
shorelines. Widespread in temperate regions of the world,
including Europe (> 12 countries), Atlantic islands, parts of Africa,
th
Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Turkey, Kuwait, N America (~ 12 States),
th
Mexico, parts of S America, Korea, China, Japan, New Zealand,
Australia (QLD, NSW, VIC, TAS, SA) and sub-Antarctic islands.
A spreading, branched alga to 15 cm (rarely 25cm) high,
widespread in temperate and tropical regions of the world, in
areas of low and moderate water movement. Known from Europe
(> 20 countries), Atlantic islands, Africa (~ 20 countries), Turkey,
th
India, Sri Lanka, and other parts of SW Asia, N America (~ 13
th
States), Mexico, parts of central America and Caribbean, S
America, Korea, Taiwan, China, Japan, south-east Asia, Pacific
islands, New Zealand, New Guinea, Australia (VIC, TAS, SA,
WA).
A filamentous alga that forms tangled masses, found in shallow,
sheltered waters in WA, SA and TAS.
A green alga that forms small (1-3cm diameter) free-floating or
unattached balls of filaments. Known so far from Bay of Shoals on
Kangaroo Island, and from Wanna, near Port Lincoln.
25
Table 4 (cont.):
Species
(alphabetical order)
Cladophora crinalis
Cladophora dalmatica
Cladophora hutchinsioides
Cladophora sericea
Codium australicum
Derbesia marina
Derbesia tenuissima
Pedobesia clavaeformis
Rhipiliopsis robusta
Rhizoclonium tortuosum
Uronema marina
Description and Distribution
A densely tufted alga to about 10cm high, found on lower intertidal
and shallow subtidal rocks in New Zealand and Australia (VIC,
TAS and SA, and possibly QLD).
An alga that forms small (up to 2cm high) tufts in areas of
moderate water movement, or larger (to 10cm high) loose tufts in
calm water areas. Widespread in Europe (~ 18 countries,
including Mediterranean) and Africa; also records from southern
th
part of Nth America, S America, Japan, and Philippines, and
considered cryptogenic in Australia (QLD, SA and WA).
A branched, filamentous alga to 20cm high, recorded in SA and
VIC (plus one older record from NSW), and also known from
Japan and Korea.
A branching, tufted alga to 25cm high. Widespread in Europe (>
20 countries); also in Africa; Nth America and Asia (including SE
and SW), and some Pacific islands; Papua New Guinea, Australia
(QLD, SA, VIC and TAS) and New Zealand.
A large (to 50cm high) dark green, dichotomously branched alga.
Known from New Zealand and Australia (NSW, SA, VIC, TAS and
WA).
A small epiphytic or epilithic alga, widely distributed in cool to cold
temperate waters. Known from more than 12 countries in Europe;
th
also N America (mostly the colder States, including Alaska); few
th
parts of Central America, Caribbean and S America; several
Pacific islands; few parts of Asia (including Japan and Korea);
Australia (cryptogenic: SA, VIC, TAS, NSW, LHI, NI) and New
Zealand.
A small epiphytic alga, often on coralline algae, or in reef pools or
on marina piles. Known from ~ 12 countries in Europe; also
Atlantic islands; Africa; India; Japan; Korea; Philippines; several
Pacific islands; several Indian Ocean islands; Australia
(cryptogenic in SA and TAS).
A small, tufted alga to 6cm high. Australia (QLD, NSW, VIC, TAS,
SA and WA) and New Zealand.
A cryptic, usually small, spongy, ―pelt-like‖ green alga to about 9
cm high. Known from SA and WA.
A green alga that forms a mass of tangled filaments, known from
shaded, intertidal pools in calm conditions. Known from Europe (~
th
15 countries); Atlantic islands; N America (~ 8 States), Africa;
th
SW Asia; Japan; SE Asia; few countries in S America; New
Zealand, Australia (QLD, SA, WA) and Antarctica.
A small filamentous green epiphyte, known from Australia (LHI,
QLD, SA and WA), Micronesia and Hawaii, and the Yap Islands.
26
100
90
No. Species in Chlorophyta
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Alinytjara
Wilurara
Eyre Peninsula Kangaroo Island
Northern &
Yorke
Adelaide & Mt
Lofty Ranges
South
Australian
Murray-Darling
Basin
South East
Figure 9: Total number of species of marine Chlorophyta from each NRM region in South Australia
(based on records from ADHerb and AVH databases).
The number of records of green macroalgae per 10km cell in the EP NRM region is shown in
Figure 10 below. Numbers recorded to date are highest in the following areas, due to the influence
of preferential sampling at these locations:
Waterloo Bay: 182 records of 36 species in Chlorophyta have been collected in this wellsampled bay, including 11 species in Caulerpa and 9 species in Codium. Some species are
known from multiple specimens (e.g. 17 records of Codium capitulatum and 12 of Caulerpa
longifolia and C. vesiculifera. Less common species include the ―pelty‖ Avrainvillea
clavatiramea, known from WA, SA and Victoria; the uncommon, deeper water Caulerpa
species C. ellistoniae (also known from WA); and the unusually structured Palmoclathrus
stipitatus. The cryptogenic (CSIRO 2006) or introduced (Baldock 2010) species Ulva taeniata
(Table 14) has also been recorded in the bay.
Pearson Islands in the Investigator Group: 107 records in Chlorophyta have been collected,
representing 29 species. Thirteen species in Caulerpa have been recorded, including the
deeper water species C. ellistoniae. There are also several records of the large, unusually
structured, flat-bladed Codium, C. laminarioides, and several of the possibly endemic
species, Ulvaria shepherdii, a membranous, ribbon-like green alga, which may be confined to
deeper water (Table 8). The unusual, net-like green alga Struvea plumosa has also been
recorded in this area.
Ward Islands in the Investigator Group: 106 records in Chlorophyta have been collected,
representing 18 species. There are multiple records of some species (e.g. 19 specimens of
Apjohnia laetevirens, 14 specimens of Caulerpa obscura, and 11 specimens each of C.
simpliciuscula and Cladophora valonioides).
Wanna area (eastern Sleaford Bay), south of Port Lincoln: 40 records of 18 species have
been collected, including two species of Ulva likely to have been introduced to Australia (U.
fasciata and U. taeniata, Table 14). Seven species in the genus Cladophora, including
various species of opportunistic, fast-growing algae, have been recorded here.
Point Sinclair: 32 records have been collected, representing 15 species, including three
species in Cladophora. Point Sinclair is the type locality and presumed eastern limit for the
small, branched Pseudocodium australasicum, known from few records in southern Western
Australia and western South Australia (Womersley 1984, ADHerb 2010). It is noted that De
Clerck et al. (2008) reported that this southern Australian endemic species does not fit the
generic concept of Pseudocodium in that it does not possess a cortex composed of utricles.
27
There are few SA State Herbarium records of green macroalgae along the eastern side of Eyre
Peninsula, particularly north and south of Franklin Harbour, despite the occurrence of coastal
patch reefs in this area, where green macroalgae occur (Figure 10). The lack of records from this
area represents a paucity of collecting effort compared with other locations, rather than a lack of
green macroalgae in the area. Also, there are no records of green macroalgae for reefs along the
lower mid-western side of Eyre Peninsula, north of Coffin Bay. This may also reflect the relative
inaccessibility of the area, which has few roads to the coast, and strong south-westerly swells and
high wave energy in the nearshore area, as discussed above in relation to Figures 6 and 7.
N
number of records of
Chlorophyta per 10km cell
location of records
51 - 200
21 - 50
6 - 20
2- 5
1
80km
2
Figure 10: Density map of the total number of Chlorophyta records per 10km grid cell, based on data
from ADHerb 2010 and the Australian Virtual Herbarium database.
Phaeophyceae (Heterokontophyta)
Similar to the Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges (AMLR), Northern and Yorke, and Kangaroo Island
NRM regions, the large number of brown (phylum Heterokontophyta) species recorded in the EP
NRM (142 species: Figure 11) reflects not only the richness of species in canopy flora such as
Sargassum and Cystophora (Tables 1 and 2) but also the species richness in other large brown
macroalgae, such as Myriodesma (5 species), and understorey genera, such as Dictyota (9
species), and numerous epiphytes. Examples of the latter include 8 species in Sphacelaria. The
distribution of records of brown macroalgae per 10km cell in the EP NRM region is shown in
Figure 12.
28
Along with KI and AMLR NRM regions, the number of records of brown macroalgae in the EP
NRM region is high (2,336 records), which also contributes to the relatively high species number.
Additionally, there are many records of the some common species (e.g. 93 and 92 specimens of
Homoeostrichus sinclairii and Cystophora subfarcinata respectively; 73 specimens of Pachydictyon
paniculatum / Dictyota paniculata, amongst others). For some species however, only a single
specimen has been recorded in EP NRM region. Examples are shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Species in Phaeophyceae known in EP NRM region from a single herbarium record. Table
includes both common and uncommon species, and widespread and geographically-limited species.
(E) = species possibly endemic within South Australia (see Table 8). LHI = Lord Howe Island; NSW =
New South Wales; NZ = New Zealand; QLD = Queensland; SA = South Australia; TAS = Tasmania;
VIC = Victoria. Distribution notes from Womersley 1987, Cowan 2006, Guiry and Guiry 2010, and
references therein).
Species
(alphabetical order)
Ectocarpus fasciculatus
Feldmannia lebelii
Flabellonema codii (E)
Halopteris paniculata
(= Stypocaulon paniculatum)
Kuckuckia spinosa
Myriogloea sciurus
Myrionema strangulans
Myriotrichia clavaeformis
Nemacystus novae-zelandiae
Description and Distribution
A small brown epiphyte. Known from more than 20 countries in
Europe, and widespread globally, in temperate and colder waters.
Known in Australia mainly from SA, VIC and TAS. Susceptible to
viral infections (e.g. Parodi and Müller 1994; Sengco et al. 1996).
A small brown epiphyte known from several European countries,
th
Turkey; 2 countries in Africa; Brazil in S America, Hawaii and
Australia (SA, VIC, TAS, LHI).
A small brown epiphyte found on the utricle ends of the green balllike alga Codium mamillosum, and has been recorded at various
locations in SA, from Eyre Peninsula to Encounter Bay.
A densely tufted brown species to about 20cm (rarely 30cm) long,
th
recorded in Australia (SA, VIC, TAS, NSW), NZ, Chile in S
America, and sub-Antarctic islands.
A small (up to 5cm long), densely tufted epiphytic or epilithic
brown species, known from Europe (including the Mediterranean),
Canary Islands, Algeria in Africa, Australia (SA, TAS and VIC),
th
possibly Canada, and some states in N America. The
relationship between specimens from the northern hemisphere
and Australia requires further investigation (Womersley 1987).
CSIRO 2006 considered this species to be cryptogenic within
Australia.
A common, mucoid brown alga from the low intertidal, found in
Australia (SA, VIC, TAS, NSW) and possibly also India, Pakistan
(Silva et al. 2006), and South Africa (Womersley 1987).
A small brown epiphyte, often recorded on species of the green
alga Ulva. Widespread Europe (~ 20 countries); also several
Atlantic islands; Africa (~ 5 countries); Canada; Nth America (~ 9
th
States); Chile in S America; India; Turkey; Levant states;
Vietnam; Korea; Australia, New Zealand and Antarctica.
Cryptogenic in Australia, known from SA, VIC, TAS, NSW and
Lord Howe Island. The EP NRM record is from Wedge Island
(1963).
A tiny (1mm) brown epiphyte, found on various algae, particularly
th
species in Chordariales. Widespread in cool temperate N Atlantic
and Mediterranean. In Australia, known from few specimens, in
SA and VIC.
A mucoid brown alga, epiphytic on Sargassum and other large
macroalgae. Known from Australia (WA, SA. VIC), NZ and Easter
Island.
29
Table 5 (cont.):
Species
(alphabetical order)
Pylaiella littoralis
Rugulopteryx okamurae
(previously Dilophus marginatus)
Scytosiphon lomentaria
Sphacelaria bracteata
Sphacelaria fusca
Sphacelaria novae-hollandiae
Sphacella subtilissima
Sporochnema tomentosum (E)
Sporochnus moorei
Stictyosiphon soriferus
Strepsithalia liagorae
Striaria attenuata
Description and Distribution
A branched brown macroalga to ~ 20cm long. Widespread in
th
Europe (> 20 countries); also Canadian Arctic; N America (> 10
th
States); few countries in S America; SW Asia; Japan; Korea;
Vietnam; Australia (NSW, VIC, TAS and SA); New Zealand and
Antarctica. EP NRM record is from Billy Light's Point near Port
Lincoln (1975). Considered cryptogenic in Australia (Table 15).
A dichotomously branched brown macroalga to ~ 12 cm long.
Widely distributed in Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan,
Philippines); and also known from France (introduced); Mexico;
Baja in America; and Australia (QLD, NSW, LHI, SA, VIC, TAS), in
the latter country as Dilophus marginatus.
An alga composed of tall, hollow tubes (up to 30cm long; rarely
70+ cm), epilithic or epiphytic on seagrasses. Widespread in
temperate and colder waters, and known from Europe (~ 25
th
countries), Atlantic islands, N America (> 15 States), several
th
countries in S America, several countries in Africa, SW Asia,
Russia, China, Japan, Korea, SE Asia, Australia (QLD, NSW, VIC,
TAS, SA, WA), NZ, Antarctica, and sub-Antarctic islands.
A small epiphyte that forms tufts or mats on the branches of
Cystophora species. Recorded in SA, TAS and VIC.
A small epiphytic or epilithic alga that forms tufts. Known from
Europe (~ 12 countries), Atlantic islands, 2 countries in Africa, 4
States in the USA, Venezuela, Turkey, China, Korea, Indonesia,
and Australia (WA, SA, VIC)
A densely tufted, epilithic alga. Known from Atlantic islands,
several countries in Africa, India and other parts of SW Asia,
China, Philippines, Vietnam, at least 7 Pacific island groups,
several states in USA; Caribbean; Australia (QLD, LHI, WA, SA).
A small filamentous alga that forms dense tufts or masses.
Epiphytic on Bellotia (in Australia). Known from Europe (~ 6
countries) and the Canary Isles. Cryptogenic in Australia (SA).
A multi-branched brown alga (to 16cm long) with densely tufted
laterals, known so far only from few specimens in SA.
A slender alga, 10 – 20cm high (rarely to 80cm), with tufts of
filaments on the ends of the branchlets. Often epilithic in deeper
waters (e.g. to 50m deep), and known from Hawaii, NZ and
Australia (NSW, VIC, SA).
A brown epiphyte, known mainly from harbours. Recorded in
Europe (>10 countries); Turkey, Japan, Korea USA (2 States),
and introduced species in Australia (VIC; SA; WA).
A tiny epiphytic alga that forms tufts or patches, with a base that is
endophytic in Liagora. Known from Europe (France, Spain) and
Australia (VIC, SA).
A branched alga to 15cm (rarely 30cm) high. Widespread in
Europe (> 15 countries), and also known from USA (6 States)
th
Chile in S America, Japan, New Zealand and Australia (NSW,
VIC, TAS and SA).
30
180
160
No. Species in Heterokontophyta
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Alinytjara
Wilurara
Eyre Peninsula
Kangaroo I.
Northern & Yorke
Adelaide & Mt
Lofty Ranges
South Australian
Murray-Darling
Basin
South East
Figure 11: Total number of species of brown macroalgae (Phaeophyceae, Heterokontophyta) from
each NRM region in South Australia (data from ADHerb and AVH databases 2010).
At a finer scale (10km2 grid cells), areas in which the number of both records and species of brown
macroalgae is high include the following well-sampled areas:
Pearson Islands in the Investigator Group: Collectively, 284 records and 59 species of
brown macroalgae have been recorded in the ADHerb and AVH databases from this area,
including multiple records of some common species (e.g. 11 to 17 records of Bellotia
eriophorum, Cystophora subfarcinata, Dictyota furcellata, Dilophus fastigiatus, Distromium
flabellatum, Distromium multifidum, Sargassum heteromorphum, Sporochnus radiciformis
and Zonaria turneriana). Single records of less commonly recorded species include
Sphacelaria novae-caledoniae, an epiphyte known from New Caledonia (Keum et al. 1999)
and the western and central coasts of SA (ADHerb 2010). Western species for which the
eastern Great Australian Bight (i.e. the EP NRM) is the eastern edge of their range include
Padina elegans. The canopy genus Sargassum is rich in the area (10 species recorded), as
is Cystophora (8 species recorded within the 10km2 cells);
St Francis Island, in the Nuyts Archipelago (intersection of 2 x 10km2 grid cells): 251
records of 56 species of brown macroalgae have been recorded, including multiple
records of some common species (e.g. Cystophora monilifera and C. subfarcinata,
Lobospira bicuspidata, Pachydictyon paniculatum, Sargassum decipiens, Sargassum
lacerifolium). The widespread tropical species Padina sanctae-crucis has also been
recorded here. An additional 52 species (encompassing 155 records) of brown macroalgae
have been recorded from the smaller islands to the south (e.g. Fenelon), east and west of
St Francis Island. Multiple records from those surrounding islands include 8 to 10 records
each of Homoeostrichus sinclairii, Pachydictyon paniculatum and Sargassum lacerifolium.
As with the main island of St Francis, 10 species of Sargassum and 8 of Cystophora have
been recorded, and also the South Australian endemic Myriodesma harveyanum (Table 8).
31
Waterloo Bay: 237 records and 73 species. Species known from multiple records (8 – 12
specimens) include Glossophora nigricans, Homoeostrichus sinclairii, Distromium
multifidum, Cystophora siliquosa, and Sporochnus radiciformis. This area is species-rich in
Cystophora (14 species). Waterloo Bay may be the most westerly record of the southeastern Australian epiphyte Sphacelaria carpoglossi (ADHerb 2010), often found on
Carpoglossum confluens, on rough water coasts (Womersley 1987). Six species in Dictyota
have been recorded in the area, and four species of the common reef understorey brown
Zonaria. The South Australian endemic species Myriodesma harveyanum and
Flabellonema codii have also been recorded in Waterloo Bay (Table 8);
Ward Islands in the Investigator Group: 218 records comprising only 39 species. The high
record number relative to the species number is due to multiple records of species such as
Homoeostrichus sinclairii (24 specimens), Cystophora subfarcinata and Pachydictyon
paniculatum (19 specimens each), Zonaria turneriana (16), Cystophora pectinata (15),
Dilophus fastigiatus and D. robustus (14 specimens each) and Glossophora nigricans (12).
Less commonly recorded species include a single record of Cystophora grevillea, a deeper
water species of Cystophora with a broad southern Australian distribution, and, other than
several SARDI records of specimens collected in situ during a 1994 survey, known in SA
mostly from old (mid 20th century) records from the drift;
Wedge Island, near the entrance to Spencer Gulf: 200 records of brown macroalgae,
comprising 50 species. Species known in the area from multiple records (i.e. 12 to 25
specimens) include Homoeostrichus sinclairii, Sargassum fallax and Lobospira bicuspidata.
Wedge Island contains both western Australian species (i.e. warmer water association) and
south-eastern Australian species (common in cooler temperate waters). Nine species in
Sargassum have been recorded at Wedge Island. Similar to a number of EP NRM locations
further west, the South Australian endemic species Myriodesma harveyanum has also been
recorded at this island.
For several locations, 40 to 80 records in Phaeophyceae have been collected, with examples
including:
Wanna / eastern Sleaford Bay: 62 records of 36 species, mostly from the beachwash, and
including the endemic species Myriodesma harveyanum and the endemic brown epiphyte
Myriactula caespitosa (Table 8), as well as globally distributed species such as Bachelotia
antillarum. Some species are known from multiple records (e.g. 10 specimens of
Cystophora siliquosa).
Point Sinclair: 66 records of 35 species, including 10 species in Cystophora. Tropical
species such as Padina sanctae-crucis have also been recorded here. The Point Sinclair
record of Splachnidium rugosum may represent the most westerly location in Australia to
date for this epilithic species (ADHerb data 2010; AVH 2010), also known from Atlantic
Islands, Chile, Amsterdam Island in the Indian Ocean, and several countries in Africa (Silva
et al. 1996; Guiry and Guiry 2010 and references therein).
Masillon and Fenelon Islands (in the St Francis Isles): 72 records comprising 28 species, in
the 10km2 grid cell that includes these two islands. A number of species in the area are
known from multiple records (e.g. 9 specimens of Sargassum lacerifolium).
Venus Bay: 49 records of 28 species of brown macroalgae, including the cryptogenic
species Feldmannia irregularis (Table 15);
Point Lowly area (Whyalla): 47 records of 23 species, including multiple records of some
taxa (e.g. 6 records of Cystophora polycystidea). Seasonally blooming epiphytes such as
the Hincksia sordida (often associated with high nutrient conditions – e.g. Campbell 2001;
Phillips 2006) and H. mitchelliae have also been recorded in this area.
32
N
80km
number of records of
Heterokontophyta
per 10km cell
location of records
81 - 300
21 - 80
6 - 20
2- 5
1
Figure 12: Density map of the total number of Phaeophyceae (Heterokontophyta) records
2
(Rhodophyta) per 10 km grid cells, based on ADHerb 2010 and data from the Australian Virtual
Herbarium
Rhodophyta
A large number of species of red macroalgae (Rhodophyta) have been recorded in EP NRM
region, totalling 485 species, excluding the coralline macroalgae (Figure 13). The number of
species in EP NRM region is comparable with that recorded to date in Kangaroo Island NRM
region (486 spp.) and AMLR NRM (472 spp.). The number of SA State Herbarium records of red
macroalgae is highest for Kangaroo Island (5,648 records) and Eyre Peninsula (5,188) NRM
regions. The genus Polysiphonia is species-rich in a number of NRM regions (17 spp. each in
Eyre Peninsula and Northern & Yorke; 18 in Kangaroo Island; and 14 in the South East). More
species in the understorey genus Peyssonnelia have been recorded in EP NRM (7 species) than in
any other region. Other species-rich genera in Eyre and several other NRM regions include Dasya
(15 species in Eyre), Mychodea (10 species), Chondria (10 species), Laurencia (10 species),
Griffithsia (9 species), the largely epiphytic genera Callithamnion (6 species in Eyre), and
Audouinella (9 species in EP NRM).
So far, 27 species of red macroalgae have been recorded in EP NRM and no other NRM region
(Table 6), and these are discussed in a later section of this report.
33
No. Species in Rhodophyta (excluding Corallinaceae)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Alinytjara Wilurara
Eyre Peninsula
Kangaroo Island
Northern & Yorke
Adelaide & Mt
Lofty Ranges
South Australian
Murray-Darling
Basin
South East
Figure 13: Total number of species in Rhodophyta (excluding Corallinaceae) present in SA State
Herbarium collections of macroalgae, from each NRM region in South Australia.
A total of 1,825 herbarium records of red macroalgae in EP NRM come from only two of the 10km2
grids in the region (Figure 14). Both of these areas, Waterloo Bay (985 records of 276 species)
and Pearson Island (840 records of 174 species) have been well sampled on more than one
occasion, as discussed in other parts of this report.
Species for which a large number of herbarium specimens (21 to 40) have been collected from
Pearson Island include Austrophyllis alcicornis, Callophyllis rangiferina, Champia zostericola,
Delisea pulchra, Laurencia filiformis, Peyssonnelia foliosa, Plocamium mertensii, and Rhodymenia
sonderi. Species for which 10 to 20 specimens are known from Pearson island include
Antithamnion armatum and A. hanovioides, Champia viridis, Delisea hypneoides, Dudresnaya
australis, Hemineura frondosa, Hymenena endiviaefolia, Hypnea ramentacea, Laurencia elata,
Mychodea ramulosa, Plocamium angustum and P. cartilagineum, Rhodophyllis membranacea and
R. volans, and Thamnoclonium dichotomum.
Approximately 66 species in Rhodophyta recorded from Pearson Island are known from a single
record, including:
the relatively rare species Amphiplexia hymenocladioides (known from few records in WA,
SA and Victoria), Gibsmithia womersleyi (see Table 12) and Kallymenia rubra;
the epiphyte Herposiphonia pectinella, known collectively from about 10 records in WA
(mostly), SA and Victoria;
Ceramium adhaerens, described in 2004 (Womersley 2004), and known from few records
in WA and SA;
western species for which the eastern Great Australian Bight is the eastern edge of the
range (e.g. Hennedya crispa);
south-eastern Australian species for which the eastern Great Australian Bight is the
western edge of the range (e.g. Polyopes constrictus, Inkyuleea ballioides, and Gigartina
pinnata, for which Pearson Island, St Francis Island and Nuyts Reef respectively are the
most westerly known records in the ADHerb database); and
sub-tropical species, such as Predaea huismanii, known from few records in WA and SA,
and also recorded in Tanzania in Africa, Canary Islands and Fiji.
34
At well-sampled Waterloo Bay, species for which multiple (10 – 21) specimens have been
recorded include Alleynea bicornis, Callophyllis lambertii and C. rangiferina, Chondria incurva,
Glaphyrymenia pustulosa, Haloplegma preissii, Heterosiphonia gunniana, Hymenena curdieana
and H. multipartita, Hymenocladia chondricola, Hypnea ramentacea, Kallymenia cribrosa,
Laurencia shepherdii, Platysiphonia victoriae, Plocamium cartilagineum, Ptilocladia pulchra,
Sarcomenia delesserioides.
At Waterloo Bay, 95 of the Rhodophyta species collected to date are known from a single
specimen, with notable examples including:
Gibsmithia womersleyi and Kallymenia rubra (relatively rare species);
south-eastern Australian species for which the eastern Great Australian Bight is the
western edge of the range (e.g. Callophyllis cervicornis, Chondria capreolis and C.
incrassata, Griffithsia elegans, Lenormandia marginata, Phacelocarpus complanatus,
Sarcodia marginata, Ptilothamnion schmitzii and Tsengia feredayae, the latter two species
also being found in New Zealand);
the mainly Tasmanian species Nitophyllum crispum (Womersley 2003) for which there are
very few records in South Australia;
the epiphyte Polysiphonia brevisegmenta (found on Codium), known only from Waterloo
Bay, and Lord Howe Island;
the epiphyte Amoenothamnion minimum, apparently known thus far from only 6 records at
4 locations (3 in SA, one in Victoria) (Womersley 1998; ADHerb 2010; AVH 2010);
Herpopteros fallax, a species of uncertain distribution, reported to occur in SA, Victoria and
Tasmania (Cowan 2006), but there are no herbarium specimens from Tasmania (AVH
2010; ADHerb 2010), and the only published Victorian specimen is a lectotype, presumed
to be in the Herb. Falkenberg, Naples (Womersley 2003);
the epilithic alga Wrangelia australis, reported to range from Eucla in WA to Kingston in
south-eastern SA, but it is noted that all specimens in ADHerb (2010) and Australian Virtual
Herbarium (2010) are from South Australia;
Heterostroma nereidiis, a widely distributed (central WA coast to South Australia) but
apparently rare epiphyte, known from few records, and occurring on: Amphibolis seagrass,
the brown understory alga Zonaria, and various coralline red algae. Also found growing on
limestone reef (Womersley 2003).
the large epiphyte Haplodasya tomentosa, recorded on Cystophora siliquosa plants, and
known mostly from South Australia, apart from one record at Bridgewater Bay near the SA /
Victorian border;
Audouinella unifila, a minute epiphyte species of apparently unusual distribution (might be
more widespread but easily overlooked) that occurs on Audouinella daviesii (common on
the seagrass Amphibolis) and other red species. It has been recorded at several locations
in South Australia, and also known from France, and Massachusetts in North America
(Womersley 1998; Guiry and Guiry 2010);
widely distributed tropical and/or sub-tropical species such as Dichotomaria spathulata,
Centroceras clavulatum and Sarconema filiforme;
Placophora binderi, a red epiphyte on species of the green algal genus Codium, known
from Africa, South America, Japan, Indonesia, New Zealand, and few records in South
Australia and Western Australia (Guiry and Guiry 2010).
Myriogramme cartilaginea, a cartilaginous red epiphyte known from only two collections in
southern Australia: Garden Island in WA and Waterloo Bay in SA (Womersley 2003;
ADHerb 2010) and also recorded recently in French Polynesia (N'Yeurt and Payri 2010).
The possibly South Australian endemic species Euptilocladia villosa and Medeiothamnion repens
(Table 8) have also been recorded in Waterloo Bay, along with Callithamnion circinnatum, the
endemic status of which is uncertain (Table 8).
35
Other examples of 10 km2 grid cells in which high numbers of specimens in Rhodophyta have
been recorded include the following, which correspond to the areas where sampling has been
concentrated at particular times:
Ward Islands: 554 records of 116 species have been recorded, including a large number
of specimens of several species, such as Callophyllis rangiferina (57 records), Hypnea
ramentacea (30 records), Laurencia filiformis (27 records) and Rhodymenia sonderi (21
records1). Species for which 10 to 13 specimens have been collected from the Ward
Islands include Areschougia congesta, Craspedocarpus venosus, Euptilocladia spongiosa,
Peyssonnelia foliosa and P. novae-hollandiae, Plocamium cartilagineum, Polycoelia
laciniata, Ptilocladia pulchra, Rhodophyllis membranacea and Wrangelia velutina. There
are 38 species in Rhodophyta for which a single record is known from these islands, with
examples including south-eastern species such as Tsengia feredayae (also known from
New Zealand) and Kallymenia tasmanica, for which the eastern Great Australian Bight is
the western edge of the range. The possibly South Australian endemic species Scinaia
proliferata (Table 8) has also been recorded at Ward Island.
St Francis Islands (intersection of 2 x 10km2 grid cells): 201 records of 93 species from
the main island, with an additional 275 records of 105 species from the smaller islands
around St Francis (i.e. Dog, West, Masillon, and Fenelon). At St Francis Island, 53 of the
93 species in Rhodophyta recorded so far are known from a single record, and a small
number are known from multiple records (e.g. 7 to 10 specimens each of Thamnoclonium
dichotomum, Peyssonnelia foliosa, Rhodymenia sonderi, Polysiphonia decipiens, Delisea
hypneoides and Plocamium mertensii). Some Rhodophyta species of interest recorded at
St Francis Island include Chylocladia grandis (a large, possibly endemic red species known
from about 18 specimens collected between Investigator Strait and St Francis Island),
Cryptonemia wilsonii (known mainly from Victoria and Tasmania, and single record from
the Eyre Peninsula), Dichotomaria ―marginata” (a misidentification, as this is the only
species of the 4 currently recognised for Australia that is restricted to tropical environments
- see Huisman and Kurihara 2006); and Pterocladia rectangularis (a western species for
which the eastern Great Australian Bight is the eastern edge of the known range). At the
smaller islands around St Francis, examples of species for which multiple records (i.e. 7 to
14 records from the 4 islands combined) include Callophyllis rangiferina, Areschougia
congesta, Ballia callitricha, Delisea hypneoides and D. pulchra, Plocamium mertensii, P.
angustum, P. cartilagineum, P. preissianum and Rhodymenia sonderi. At these islands,
almost half (52) of the 105 species in Rhodophyta collected are known so far from a single
record. Species of interest at islands around St Francis include (i) the tropical
Acrosymphyton taylorii (cryptogenic in South Australia); (ii) Western Australian species,
such as Tanakaella itonoi (for which the eastern Great Australian Bight is the eastern edge
of the range); (iii) the single representative (E. semipennatum) in the monospecific genus
Echinosporangium, a large, deeper water red alga known from only 22 records over the
relatively narrow range of the South Australian / Western Australian border through to
Encounter Bay; (iv) rarely known species, such as Callithamnion pinnatum (a small, multibranched red alga known from two locations in Victoria; Egg Island near St Francis Island
in SA, and also recorded in Korea, according to Lee 2008).
1
The genus Rhodymenia in temperate Australia has been recently reviewed, with the discovery of 12 new
species to a total of 20 genetic distinct taxonomic entities, phylogenetically assigned to 4 genera and 2 families
(Saunders and McDonald 2009). Consequently, the 21 records of Rhodymenia mentioned above should be
considered with care, and at present, the true total number of Rhodymenia-like species in the EP NRM is
probably underestimated.
36
Gambier islands: 292 records of 96 species in Rhodophyta have been recorded from the
10km2 grid in which Wedge Island and South-West Rocks are situated, and an additional 49
records (14 species) come from the grid to the north, which contains North Islet. Some of
the species for which multiple specimens exist include Plocamium angustum (16 records),
Plocamium cartilagineum and Callophyllis rangiferina (11 records each), Asparagopsis
armata, Laurencia filiformis and Plocamium preissianum (10 records each), Acrosorium
ciliolatum and Osmundaria prolifera (9 records each), Ballia callitricha (8 records) and
Areschougia congesta (7 records). Of the 96 species in Rhodophyta recorded so far from
Wedge Island, 36 are known from a single record, with examples including Audouinella
dictyotae (a small epiphyte known to date from California in North America, Korea, and
several states in southern Australia); Peyssonnelia boudouresquei (known from few
locations in North and South America, and in the western part of South Australia, where
specimens have been recorded on shells); Dichotomaria marginata (a tropical, epilithic
species, and probably a misidentification – see above); species of very broad global
distribution (e.g. Centroceras clavulatum2 and Pterocladiella capillacea); Western
Australian species, such as Tanakaella itonoi (for which the eastern Great Australian Bight
is the eastern edge of the range). Species of note at Wedge Island include Peyssonnelia
splendens and Pterocladiella minima, both known from few records in South Australia and
Victoria, the latter also recorded in one country in Africa.
Waldegrave islands, near Cape Finnis: 261 records of 112 species, including multiple
records (7 to 12 specimens) each of Areschougia congesta, Mychodea ramulosa,
Callophyllis rangiferina, Cladurus elatus, Erythroclonium sedoides, Osmundaria prolifera
and Rhodophyllis volans. Around half (59) of the species recorded from Waldegrave
islands are known from a single record, including Kallymenia rubra (known from very few
records in southern Australia, and possible also from Bangladesh: Table 12), and
Stictosporum nitophylloides, known from WA, SA and Madagascar. Species of note include
Callithamnion shepherdii and Polysiphonia shepherdii, both thought to be endemic within
South Australia (Table 8); and Dasya comata – an uncommon mucilaginous alga to 15cm
high, known from only 7 records in SA and Victoria, collected during the 1970s and 1980s.
Wanna / eastern Sleaford Bay: 178 records of 91 species, many of these small epiphytes
collected from the drift. Examples of species in Rhodophyta recorded at Wanna include
south-eastern Australian taxa for which southern Eyre Peninsula is the western edge of the
species range, such as Dasyphloea insignis; the large epiphyte Haplodasya tomentosa,
recorded on Cystophora siliquosa plants, and known mostly from South Australia, apart
from one record at Bridgewater Bay near the SA / Victorian border; the single known SA
record of the minute epiphyte Episporium centroceratis (also known from WA and South
Africa); the possibly rare (Womersley 2003) intertidal alga Ophidocladus simpliciusculus,
known from few records in SA and one record in WA, but also occurring in western Europe,
South Africa, and California in North America; the uncommon, deeper water epilithic
species Erythrostachys strobilifera, known only from drift specimens in South Australia and
a single record in southern WA, near the SA border. The possibly South Australian
endemic species Tylocolax microcarpus (Table 8) has also been recorded at Wanna. A
single specimen of the Western Australian species Kuetzingia canaliculata has also been
recorded from the drift at Wanna, but it is not known whether the species grows in South
Australia, or the specimen was transported from WA.
2
It should be noted that modern developments in molecular biology and phylogenetic analysis, plus many new
molecular data being generated by DNA barcoding programs in Australia (e.g. Fred Gurgel‘s lab at the
Univeristy of Adelaide), and the world, are revealing that in many cases, what were previously considered to be
species with worldwide distribution are really species complexes composed of geographically isolated species,
most of which still undescribed. This is probably the case of Australian species known as Centroceras
clavulatum, Pterocladiella capillacea, Corallina officinalis, Asparagopsis taxiformis, and Champia parvula.
37
Point Sinclair: 154 records of 82 species, with more than half (47) of the species known in
the area from a single record. Species known from multiple records (5 to 7 specimens, in
this case) include Antithamnion hanovioides, Erythroclonium muelleri, Gelidium australe,
Gigartina densa, and Pterocladia rectangularis. Taxa of interest include (i) Ptilota(?)
hannafordii, a south-east Australian species of uncertain generic placement, and the Point
Sinclair record is considerably further west in SA than the published limit of Port Elliot
(Womersley 1998), and (ii) and a number of western species for which the eastern Great
Australian Bight is the eastern edge of the known range (e.g. Pterocladia rectangularis),
and (iii) Peyssonnelia boudouresquei, a species of unusual known distribution (previously
considered to be South Australia, Brazil in South America, and North Carolina in North
America: Guiry and Guiry 2010, and references therein. However, the distribution and
identity of species previously considered to all be P. boudouresquei may change, due to
recent work on the taxonomy of Peyssonnelia, by K. Dixon at University of Melbourne).
As is the case with the total number of records of macroalgae per cell, there are relatively few SA
State Herbarium records of red macroalgae along the southern, south-eastern and south-western
sides of Eyre Peninsula, despite the prevalence of reefs in this area where red macroalgae occur
in abundance. The lack of records represents a paucity of collecting effort in these areas,
compared with other locations, rather than a lack of species in the area. In other cases, sampling
has been undertaken, but records were not included in the ADHerb datasets. Examples of some
areas in the eastern Great Australian Bight that are known to be species-rich in red macroalgae
include shallow reef at the Head of the Bight near Pilpuppie Well, and also Nuyts Reef, reefs in
Fowlers Bay and Point Bell Bay (Edyvane and Baker 1998b). Along the western and south-western
side of Eyre Peninsula, some of the areas that are species-rich in red macroalgae include Point
Whidbey, parts of Anxious Bay, Searcy Bay, Cape Bauer and Point Brown (Edyvane and Baker
1998b). Although percentage cover from those surveys was quantified, and voucher specimens
were taken, the full suite of samples was not lodged at the SA Herbarium.
38
N
80km
number of records of
Rhodophyta per 10km cell
location of records
301 – 1,000
101 - 300
21 - 100
6 - 20
2- 5
1
2
Figure 14: Density map of the total number of Rhodophyta records per 10 km grid cells, based on
ADHerb 2010 and data from the Australian Virtual Herbarium
Corallinales (Rhodophyta)
So far, 30 species of coralline macroalgae have been recorded in the EP NRM (Figure 15), one
more than the number recorded in AMLR NRM and the SE NRM, and less than the number
recorded in the KI NRM (35 species). However, the number of records of corallines in this NRM
region (361) is second only to AMLR NRM (406), due to multiple records of common reef
understorey species such as Amphiroa anceps (30 records), Haliptilon roseum (> 50 records),
Metagoniolithon radiatum (41 records), and calcareous epiphytic or epilithic species such as Jania
micrarthrodia (36 records) and Metagoniolithon stelliferum (28 records). There are also multiple
records of encrusting species such as Neogoniolithon brassica-florida (15 records) and Sporolithon
durum (11 records). A number of globally widespread species have also been recorded, such as
the epiphyte Melobesia membranacea. Tropical species have also been recorded at some
locations (e.g. Hydrolithon munitum at Point Sinclair). Lithophyllum frondosum, known from most
States in Australia, as well as the Mediterranean and central America has also been recorded at
one location in the Eyre NRM. Interestingly, there are no SA State Herbarium records of the
tropical and subtropical species Cheilosporum sagittatum from EP NRM, yet plants reported to be
this species have been commonly recorded in the adjacent Northern and Yorke NRM (32 records)
and AMLR NRM (33 records).
39
450
400
No. Species in Corallinaceae
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Alinytjara
Wilurara
Eyre Peninsula Kangaroo Island
Northern &
Yorke
Adelaide & Mt South Australian
Lofty Ranges
Murray-Darling
Basin
South
East
Figure 15: Total number of species in Corallinaceae, recorded in SA State Herbarium data sets, from
all NRM regions.
Total number of records of coralline macroalgae per 10km square cell in the EP NRM region is
shown in Figure 16. Both record and species numbers of corallines are lower than for other major
taxa, due to (i) the relatively lower number of species in Corallinaceae compared with Chlorophyta,
Heterokontophyta and the non-coralline groups in Rhodophyta; and (ii) the opportunistic (rather
than systematic) collection of records across South Australia, hence a number of high wave energy
reef areas where corallines would be prevalent, have not been sampled.
Numbers recorded thus far are highest in the following areas (Figure 16):
Waterloo Bay: 70 records of 17 species, including multiple records of some species, such
as Jania micrarthrodia (11 specimens) and J. verrucosa (8 specimens), Metagoniolithon
radiatum and M. stelliferum (7 specimens of each). Species of broad distribution include
Pneophyllum fragile, which is widespread in Europe and found in several other countries,
including Russia, Canada, Mexico and Australia (WA, SA, Victoria and Tasmania) (see
Womersley 1996; Australian Virtual Herbarium 2010), and Neogoniolithon brassica-florida,
found in more than 40 countries. Species known from single records in Waterloo Bay
include Synarthrophyton patena, Hydrolithon rupestris and Metagoniolithon chara. There
are also two records of the provisionally named species Haliptilon ―elegans‖ (a name
recognised in ADHerb 2010, but not in the taxonomic literature, which may refer to a form
of Haliptilon roseum);
St Francis Island (intersection of 2 x 10km2 grid cells): 40 records of 9 species in
Corallinaceae. An additional 16 specimens of 8 species have been recorded at smaller
islands to the north-east and south of St Francis Island. Species known in the area from
multiple records include Amphiroa anceps (12 records from around St Francis Island),
Metagoniolithon radiatum and Haliptilon roseum (7 records each). Species known in the
area from a single record include Jania minuta (epiphytic on seagrasses and some brown
macroalgae), Austrolithon intumescens (a small endophyte that forms galls on the branches
of Haliptilon roseum), and the tiny coralline Choreonema thuretii, epiphytic on larger
corallines such as Haliptilon roseum and species of Jania;
40
Wedge Island: 20 specimens representing 8 species, including the deeper water, epiphytic
and epilithic species Jania pulchella; and
Pearson Island: 19 specimens of 8 species, including the tropical epiphyte Lithophyllum
prototypum, found on Sporolithon durum, Avrainvillea and Utodea, and on rock, abalone
and mussel shells, gastropods, sponges, and bottles at depths of 1-20 m in southern
Australia (Woelkerling and Campbell 1992; Womersley 1996).
N
80km
number of records of
Corallinales per 10km cell
location of records
21 - 70
6 - 20
2- 5
1
Figure 16: Density map of the total number of Corallinales records (Rhodophyta)
2
per 10 km grid cells, based on ADHerb 2010 and data from the Australian Virtual Herbarium
41
Multivariate Analysis for 10km2 Grid Cells
There is a difference in the species composition of macroalgae between different parts of the EP
NRM, but this is not obvious in an analysis of the top 8 most speciose grid cells using data in
ADHerb (2010) (Figure 17A), due to the non-standardised and opportunistic nature of collections,
whereby (for example) the majority of samples from one area come from beach drift, and in
another area, from intense benthic sampling at 5m to 30m. The two outliers in Figure 17A have a
similar number of species recorded (148 at Wanna and 141 at Point Sinclair), but are dissimilar in
species composition. Of the 240 species recorded from both localities combined, only 49 (i.e. 20%)
have been recorded at both Wanna and Point Sinclair. Apart from the geographic and
oceanographic differences between these two localities (see Figure 8), the collecting methods
have also differed, with the majority of samples from Wanna being recorded in the intertidal
beachwash during the 1950s. In the 10km square grid in which Pt Sinclair is situated, the most
westerly of the 8 areas compared in Figure 17A, 19 species have been recorded in that grid and
none of the others, including one uncommon species (Anotrichium towinna), and another for which
Pt Sinclair appears to be the western edge of the known range (Ptilota hannafordii). Pt Sinclair is
the type locality and only known location for the green alga Pseudocodium australasicum (see
section above on Chlorophyta), and the only location in EP NRM where the following Rhodophyta
have been recorded: the coralline Lithophyllum frondosum (known from southern Australia, the
Mediterranean and few locations in and near central America); the coralline Hydrolithon munitum
(known from few locations in SA and WA, and also Caribbean / western Atlantic), and the small
epiphyte Acrochaetium (Audouinella) repens (known from SA, Tasmania, and several Atlantic
islands).
Figure 17B compares the 6 most speciose grids in the EP NRM, with the two outliers from Figure
17A removed, thus allowing differences between the remaining cluster of sites in Figure 17A to be
discerned.
Figure 17B indicates the similarity between the species composition of macroalgae recorded so
far from two of the main islands in the Investigator Group (Pearson and Ward), compared with
Waldegrave (another island in the group), which is much closer to the coast (Figure 8). At Pearson
and Ward islands, 319 species have been recorded, of which 131 species (41%) have been found
at both localities. The recorded species composition at Ward Island shows few distinguishing
characteristics, because only 5 of the 597 species recorded in all 8 of the most speciose grids
combined, have been recorded at that island. At Pearson Island, 27 species have been recorded
there and in none of the other 7 most speciose grids compared in Figure 17A.
All three of the islands in the Investigator Group that are compared here, are more similar in
species composition to each other, than to other islands in the Great Australian Bight (GAB), such
as St Francis, or to bays in the GAB, such as Waterloo. St Francis, in the Nuyts Archipelago north
of the Investigator Group, is more similar in specie composition to composition to islands in the
latter group, than to other locations compared here. The similarities and differences between
marine plant composition at islands in these two groups are further explored in papers by Baker
and Edyvane (2003) and Baker et al. (2008). Species recorded in the grid cell in which St Francis
is situated, but at none of the other 7 most speciose grid cells being compared, include the
coralline Amphiroa gracilis and Austrolithon intumescens, the browns Phloiocaulon spectabile and
Sphacelaria novae-hollandiae, and 12 species in Rhodophyta, some of which are tropical (e.g.
Palisada thuyoides) and most of which are epiphytic (e.g. Dasya cliftonii, also known from WA) and
some epilithic (e.g. the globally distributed Antithamnion cruciatum, cryptogenic and possibly
introduced in SA). Of the 12 non-coralline Rhodophyta, other species of interest recorded at St
Francis and not at other locations compared in Figures 17A and 17B include Chylocladia grandis,
Cryptonemia wilsonii and Dichotomaria marginata, all discussed in other parts of this report.
The well-sampled Waterloo Bay, near Ellison, does not group closely with any of the other most
speciose 10x10 km square grids compared in Figure 17B. Of the 8 most speciose grids compared
(Figure 17A), 79 species from Waterloo have not been recorded at any of the 7 other locations.
42
Many of those are small red epiphytes (e.g. species in Audouinella, Chondria, Heterosiphonia,
Myriogramme, Polysiphonia, Spyridia, Spongoclonium and many others), recorded due to the fairly
thorough sampling of the bay flora that was undertaken by S.A. Shepherd (Shepherd and
Womersley 1981). A number of species known so far in South Australia only from Waterloo Bay
are discussed in the section above, on Rhodophyta, as are several species recorded in the bay
that are likely to be endemic within South Australia.
Wedge Island, in the Gambier group of islands south of Spencer Gulf, also does not group closely
with any of the other locations compared in Figure 17B, which is not surprising, given that its
geographic position is further east than the other locations, all of which are in the eastern GAB,
and its oceanographic influences differ from those affecting sites in the GAB.
More standardised benthic sampling of macroalgae along the Eyre Peninsula (SARDI data, cited in
Edyvane and Baker 1998b) has shown that reef sites in the south-west and western sides of Eyre
Peninsula are similar in macroalgal species composition, and group together in multivariate space,
compared with sites further north-west (in the Murat bioregion), and in the eastern Great Australian
Bight. Examples of locations of potentially similar composition of macroalgae, also sharing a
species richness and diversity of red macroalgae, include Searcy Bay, Point Labatt, Weyland
Point, parts of Anxious Bay, Point Whidbey and islands of south-western Eyre Peninsula, such as
Liguanea Island (Edyvane and Baker 1998b). Sites in the south-western Eyre Peninsula / southeastern GAB are within a zone of periodic nutrient-rich upwelling (Kampf et al. 2004; Ward et al.
2006), which may influence the abundance and species richness of macroalgae in that region.
Waterloo Pearson Ward I. Waldegrave St Francis Wedge I. Wanna
Bay
I.
I.
I.
Pearson I.
Ward I.
Waldegrave I.
St Francis I.
Wedge I.
Wanna
Pt Sinclair
40.83
31.75
32.95
26.09
29.84
23.87
22.07
41.56
32.47
33.43
36
20.57
23.58
Kruskal’s F-Stress: 0.0
Wanna
38.17
34.86
34.49
22.01
22.22
31.36
31.46
17.79
14.54
26.76
17.58
22.74
21.07
23.2
20.50
Waldegrave I.
Ward I.
Wedge I.
Pearson I.
Waterloo Bay
St Francis I.
Pt Sinclair
A
Figure 17A and 17B: Jaccard association matrix for binary data, and non-metric MDS plot showing
similarities between the 10km square grid cells in EP NRM region for which there are most species in
th
the ADHerb data sets; (A) top 8 most speciose grids; (B) top 6 most speciose grids, with the 7 and
th
8 (two outliers from Figure 17A) removed from the analysis.
43
Waterloo Pearson Ward Waldegrave St Francis
Bay
I.
I.
I.
I.
Kruskal’s F-Stress: 0.04
Waterloo Bay
Pearson I.
Ward I.
Waldegrave I.
St Francis I.
Wedge I.
40.83
31.75
32.95
26.09
29.84
41.56
32.47 38.17
33.43 34.86
36 34.49
St Francis I.
31.36
31.46
26.76
Pearson I.
Ward I.
Waldegrave I.
Wedge I.
B
Figure 17A and 17B (cont.): Jaccard association matrix for binary data, and non-metric MDS plot
showing similarities between the 10km square grid cells in EP NRM region for which there are most
species in the ADHerb data sets; (A) top 8 most speciose grids; (B) top 6 most speciose grids, with
th
th
the 7 and 8 (two outliers from Figure 17A) removed from the analysis.
44
Species for which South Australian occurrence may be limited to Eyre Peninsula
NRM Region
Table 6 below lists the species recorded so far only in EP NRM region, and no other NRM region
in South Australia. Two of these species are endemic to South Australia; one of the species is
introduced (see following sections), and more than a dozen are Australian endemics, found in
other parts of southern Australia as well as in South Australia. There are 29 species of red
macroalgae (including one coralline) recorded only in the EP NRM region, and in no other parts of
South Australia, ranging from cosmopolitan species of broad global distribution, such as
Antithamnion cruciatum and Erythrocladia irregularis, to cooler water Maugean sub-province
(Womersley, 1990) species that are more common in Victoria and/or Tasmania (e.g. Cryptonemia
wilsonii / wilsonis), and also western species for which South Australia is the eastern limit of the
distribution (e.g. Carpopeltis elata, previously known only from Western Australia, and Kuetzingia
canaliculata, known mostly from southern WA, plus one drift specimen from Wanna, near Port
Lincoln in SA).
A number of species recorded in EP NRM region and no other parts of South Australia are known
from few records in other parts of southern Australia (Table 6). Examples include the following
(with notes on distribution from Cowan 2006; Womersley 2004; State Herbarium of South Australia
2007; Guiry and Guiry 2010; and Australian Virtual Herbarium 2010):
Dasycladus densus: A rare green plant with tropical affinities, known from 9 specimens in
two locations, in southern WA and western SA.
Cryptonemia wilsonii / wilsonis: A membranous red alga, to about 17cm high, known from
SA, Victoria and Tasmania. There are few records (reportedly 11 specimens), mostly from
Port Phillip Bay in Victoria, and from 3 locations in south-eastern Tasmania;
Dasythamniella superbiens: A multi-branched red species to 20+ cm high (rarely 50cm),
known from SA, Victoria and Tasmania. There are few records (e.g. a total of 11
specimens) from Elliston in the eastern Great Australian Bight; Douglas Bank in northern
Spencer Gulf; Phillip I. in Victoria, and two locations in south-eastern Tasmania;
Erythrotrichia ligulata: A small red epiphyte, known from SA, Victoria and Tasmania. There
are very few records (e.g. a total of 3 specimens, from one locality in each of South
Australia (Cape Carnot), Victoria (Warrnambool) and Tasmania (Reminie, west coast);
Griffithsia balara: A multi-branched red species to 14cm high, known from only 4
specimens, from two locations - Flinders I. in SA and Hopetoun in southern WA.
Herposiphonia pectinella: A multi-branched red epiphyte to 6cm high, known from 8
specimens, in Victoria (Western Port), SA (Pearson Is.) and southern WA (King George
Sound);
Heterostroma nereidiis: a small red alga, possibly rare (Womersley 2003), known from only
3 specimens, collectively from 3 locations (Yanchep and Rottnest I. in WA, and Elliston in
SA);
Kallymenia spinosa: a small (to 7cm), membranous, stalked red alga, known from few
locations in southern WA and western SA (latter examples include Pearson I. and St
Francis I.); and
Platyclinia ramosa: a small red alga known from 9 specimens in WA and SA (the latter
including Elliston, and Point Avoid on Eyre Peninsula); and
Polysiphonia brevisegmenta: a very small epiphyte, known from a few specimens,
collectively from Elliston in SA; Lord Howe Island; and possibly northern NSW.
A number of species of possibly cryptogenic origin in EP NRM are discussed below, in the section
on introduced and cryptogenic species.
45
Table 6: Species recorded to date only in EP NRM region, and no other parts of South Australia. (I) =
introduced or cryptogenic species. LHI = Lord Howe Island; NI = Norfolk Island; NSW = New South
Wales; NT = Northern Territory; NZ = New Zealand; PNG = Papua New Guinea; QLD = Queensland;
SA = South Australia; TAS = Tasmania; VIC = Victoria; WA = Western Australia.
Group
Green
Macroalgae
Brown
Macroalgae
Red Macroalgae
Species
Codium laminarioides
No. Records
in Eyre Peninsula
NRM Region
11
Dasycladus densus
Uronema marina
4
1
Australia (SA; WA)
Australia (QLD; LHI; SA; WA); Pacific
islands (Micronesia; Hawaii; Yap Is.)
Myriactula caespitosa
2
Australia (SA)
Padina sanctae-crucis
2
Sargassum kendrickii
(= Sargassum flindersii)
Stictyosiphon soriferus (I)
5
Pakistan; Bangladesh; Japan &
Korea; SE Asia (Indonesia;
Philippines); North America; South
America; central America /
Caribbean; Pacific islands; Australia
(SA; WA)
Australia (SA; WA)
1
Europe (>10 countries); Turkey;
Japan; Korea; North America (2
States); Australia (VIC; SA; WA)
Acanthophora dendroides
1
Acrosymphyton taylorii (I)
1
Antithamnion cruciatum (I)
5
Antithamnion uniramosum
Callithamnion pinnatum
Carpopeltis elata
Chondria lanceolata
1
1
1
1
Cryptonemia wilsonii /
wilsonis
Dasythamniella
superbiens
Episporium centroceratis
Erythrocladia irregularis
1
Africa; India; Pakistan; Sri Lanka;
Indonesia; Australia (QLD; NSW;
LHI; SA; WA)
Pacific islands (Hawaii; Micronesia;
Fiji); Australia (QLD; NSW; LHI; NI;
SA; WA)
Europe (> 20 countries); Africa;
Atlantic islands (~ 5); India; North
America; Caribbean; South America;
Australia (SA)
Australia (SA)
Korea; Australia (VIC; SA)
Australia (SA; WA)
Korea; New Zealand; Australia (SA;
WA)
Australia (VIC; TAS: SA)
3
Australia (VIC; TAS: SA)
1
2
Erythrotrichia ligulata
Gelidiella ramellosa
1
1
Gracilaria flagelliformis
2
Africa; Australia (LHI; SA; WA)
Europe (~ 15 countries); Africa (>10
countries); Atlantic islands; Asia; SE
Asia; North America; South America;
Australia (NSW; VIC; TAS: SA; WA)
Australia (VIC; TAS: SA)
Europe (~ 7 countries); Africa;
Atlantic islands; Japan;
Australia (SA; WA)
New Zealand and Chatham Is.;
Australia (TAS; SA; WA)
46
Distribution
Australia (SA; WA)
Table 6 (cont.):
Group
Coralline Red
Macroalgae
Species
Griffithsia balara
Herposiphonia pectinella
Heterosiphonia crassipes
No. Records
in Eyre Peninsula
NRM Region
1
1
1
Heterostroma nereidiis
Hydropuntia preissiana
Kallymenia spinosa
Kuetzingia canaliculata
Myriogramme cartilaginea
Placophora binderi
1
3
3
1
1
2
Platyclinia ramosa
Polysiphonia
brevisegmenta
Predaea huismanii
7
1
Pterocladia rectangularis
16
Hydrolithon munitum
1
1
Distribution
Australia (SA; WA)
Australia (VIC; SA; WA)
Australia (NT; QLD; NSW; LHI; NI;
VIC; SA; WA)
Australia (SA; WA)
Australia (QLD; SA; WA)
Australia (SA; WA)
Australia (SA; WA)
French Polynesia; Australia (SA; WA)
Africa; Japan; Indonesia; New
Zealand; Australia (SA; WA); South
America (Peru); Tristan da Cunha
Australia (SA; WA)
Australia (LHI; NSW; SA)
Africa; Canary Is; Fiji; Australia (SA;
WA)
Australia (SA; WA)
Caribbean / western Atlantic;
Australia (SA; WA)
47
South Australian Endemic Species in Eyre Peninsula NRM Region
Table 7 compares the number of South Australian endemic species recorded in each NRM region.
The highest number (25) has been recorded in the Kangaroo Island region, followed by EP NRM
(20), and AMLR NRM (18). Three of the apparently endemic species are filamentous or
membranous green algae (Table 8); six of the endemic species (both red and brown macroalgae)
are small epiphytes, and there are several larger species of endemic red algae, growing to about
20cm or more. These and other endemic species are discussed in Table 8, which also provides
information on number of records in EP NRM region. It is noted that another green species,
Rhipiliopsis robusta, was long known only from Spencer Gulf and eastern GAB in South Australia,
until a specimen was recorded in 2002 from Figure of Eight Island in southern Western Australia
(WA Herbarium specimen, collected by N. Goldberg).
Table 7: Number of species thought to be endemic within South Australia, recorded in databased
herbarium collections, for each NRM Region (ADHerb 2010, AVH 2010).
NRM Region
No. SA Endemic
Species in
Herbarium
Collections
Alinytjara Wilurara
Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges
Eyre Peninsula
Northern and Yorke
Kangaroo Island
South Australian Murray-Darling Basin
South East
0
18
22
14
28
0
9
More widespread examples of South Australian apparent endemics, known from other parts of
S.A. in addition to EP NRM region, include Antithamnionella multiramosa, Callithamnion
shepherdii, Euptilocladia villosa, Jania parva, and Medeiothamnion repens, which are discussed in
Table 8.
Of the possibly endemic red macroalgae in EP NRM (Table 8), examples include Callithamnion
circinnatum and C. shepherdii, Chylocladia grandis, Euptilocladia villosa, Tylocolax microcarpus,
Medeiothamnion repens, Polysiphonia shepherdii, Pterothamnion flexile, Scinaia proliferata and
several others. As discussed in Table 8, several of the endemic red macroalgae known in EP
NRM, are very small epiphytes. For example, Medeiothamnion repens has been recorded on
Cystophora; Tylocolax microcarpus has been found on Lenormandia spectabilis (Womersley 2003)
and Antithamnionella multiramosa has been recorded on coralline algae. It is noted that specimens
of the deeper water species of Peyssonnelia (P. foliosa), previously considered to be endemic
within South Australia (Womersley 1994; Cowan 2006; Guiry and Guiry 2010), were recorded at
islands in the Recherche Archipelago in WA in 2002 and 2003 (Perth Herbarium data), and are
thus not included here.
48
Table 8: Species recorded in EP NRM region that are considered endemic within South Australia.
Species marked in gray shading have been recorded only in EP NRM region. # = possibly endemic,
but also known from a single Tasmanian record which is not included in the published distribution.
Distribution notes from Womersley 1984, 1987, 1994, 1996, 1998, 2003, and from ADHerb 2010 and
AVH 2010.
Species
No.
Species Name
Description
No. Records in
Eyre Peninsula
NRM Region
Green Macroalgae
1
Cladophora
aegagropiloidea
A green alga that forms small (1-3cm diameter) freefloating or unattached balls of filaments. Known from
Bay of Shoals on Kangaroo Island, and from Wanna,
near Port Lincoln.
1
2
Cladophoropsis magna
A green alga that forms filamentous masses, known
from 9 specimens, collectively from Bay of Shoals on
Kangaroo Island, and several locations in the eastern
GAB, such as Smoky Bay (type locality) and Denial
Bay.
7
3
Ulvaria shepherdii
A membranous, ribbon-like green alga, which may be
confined to deeper water. Known from rock lobster pots
12km south of Vivonne Bay, Kangaroo Island, at 50m –
70m deep, and from Pearson Island in the eastern
GAB, 22m – 50m deep. All specimens known to date
were collected between 1968 and 1969.
11
Brown Macroalgae
4
Corynophlaea cristata
A soft, mucoid brown epiphyte, found on Cystophora
species, and recorded from Point Westall in the eastern
Great Australian Bight (GAB); several islands in the Sir
Joseph Banks Group in Spencer Gulf, and Aldinga Reef
in Gulf St Vincent.
3
5
Myriactula caespitosa
A very small, mucoid epiphyte found on Scytosiphon
plants, and known so far only from Wanna, near Port
Lincoln (specimens collected 1967).
2
6
Flabellonema codii
A small brown epiphyte, which is found on the utricle
ends of the green ball-like alga Codium mamillosum, and
has been recorded at various locations in S.A., from Eyre
Peninsula to Encounter Bay.
1
7
Myriodesma
harveyanum
A pinnately and bi-pinnately branched brown alga, known
from at least 45 specimens, ranging from the St Francis
Isles in the eastern GAB, through to Robe in the upper
South East of SA. Most specimens collected so far are
from Eyre Peninsula, in areas of strong water movement.
24
8
Sporochnema
tomentosum
A multi-branched brown alga with densely tufted laterals,
known from few specimens, 8cm to 16cm long. Known
from Investigator Strait (31m deep) and Waldegrave
Island (22m deep).
2
Red Macroalgae
9
Anotrichium towinna
A small, densely tufted red alga, possibly endemic within
South Australia, known from Point Sinclair in eastern
GAB, Coffin Bay on Eyre Peninsula, and American River
Inlet on Kangaroo Island.
3
10
Antithamnion
uniramosum
A small, finely branched red alga known from a drift
specimen collected at Arno Bay in Spencer Gulf, in 1971.
1
11
Antithamnionella
multiramosa
A small, red epiphyte, that occurs on coralline algae such
as Corallina officinalis, and Haliptilon roseum. The
species is known from at least 14 records in SA, ranging
from Greenly Beach on Eyre Peninsula to West Island out
of Encounter Bay, where the majority of specimens have
been collected.
1
49
Table 8 (cont.):
Species
No.
Species Name
Description
No. Records in
Eyre Peninsula
NRM Region
12
Callithamnion
circinnatum #
A densely tufted, multi-branched red, which grows up to
12cm high, and has been recorded from Waterloo Bay
(Elliston) and Crinoline Point on Eyre Peninsula; also
15m deep off Crag Point in northern Spencer Gulf, and
Noarlunga tyre reef and Aldinga reef in GSV. It is noted
that there is an unverified record in the SA State
Herbarium database, of a specimen from Tasmania,
collected 1948 and more recently identified as
Callithamnion circinnatum; however, Tasmania is not
included as part of the distribution in published references
(e.g. Womersley, 1998).
2
13
Callithamnion
shepherdii
A small fluffy red alga, recorded to date from various
locations in S.A., ranging from Waldegrave I. in the
eastern GAB, through to American River on Kangaroo
Island, and several locations in Gulf St Vincent.
2
14
Chylocladia grandis
A large (20cm – 50cm), robust, multi-branched red alga,
known from 18 specimens, collectively from locations in
Investigator Strait (at 11m, 23m, and 34m deep); Cape
Coutts, Kangaroo Head and Ironstone Point in the Dudley
Peninsula (Kangaroo Island), and locations in eastern
GAB, such as Sceale Bay, and St Francis Island.
2
15
Euptilocladia villosa
A spongy, multi-branched alga, about 5cm – 15cm high,
recorded to date from various locations in South Australia
that range from Topgallant I. in the eastern GAB, through
to Cape Northumberland in the South East.
6
16
Medeiothamnion
repens
A small red epiphyte, found growing on Cystophora
species (Womersley, 1998), and recorded from a number
of South Australian locations, ranging from Elliston in the
eastern GAB, through to Port MacDonnell in the South
East.
1
17
Polysiphonia
propagulifera
A multi-branched red alga from 6cm to 22cm high, known
from off Troubridge Island; also Investigator Strait (off the
foot of Yorke Peninsula); Penneshaw on NE Kangaroo
Island, and Nuyts Reef in the GAB. Specimens have
been collected between 11m and 34m deep. It is noted
that two specimens from other States (Lakes Entrance in
Victoria, 1997, and Satellite Island in Tasmania, 1972),
were not included in Womersley‘s (2004) account of this
species, which considered it to occur only in South
Australia.
1
18
Polysiphonia
shepherdii
A multi-branched red alga to 18cm high, known from SE
of Troubridge Island off Yorke Peninsula; edge of Tapley
Shoal (15 km E of Edithburgh); a site in Investigator
Strait, and off Waldegrave Island in the eastern GAB.
Specimens have been collected between 13m and 33m
deep.
1
19
Pterothamnion flexile
A multi-branched red alga, about 4cm to 8cm high, which
is known from off Outer Harbour (found growing on old
shells, at 20m – 25m deep, in 1975: see Table 10) and
Point Lowly in Spencer Gulf (record from artificial reef at
14m deep, collected 1987).
1
20
Scinaia proliferata
A small (4cm – 6cm) red alga, known from Ward Island in
the eastern GAB, and Nora Creina in the upper South
East (type locality)
2
21
Tylocolax
microcarpus
A small red epiphyte found on Lenormandia spectabilis
(Womersley 2003) and recorded from Point Avoid and
Wanna on the Eyre Peninsula; Vivonne Bay and
Pennington Bay on southern Kangaroo Island; and
Encounter Bay.
2
50
Table 8 (cont.):
Coralline Red Macroalgae
22
Jania parva
A small (to 5mm high) multi-branched coralline, known
from Whyalla in Spencer Gulf; Point Turton and
Stansbury on the Yorke Peninsula; various locations in
north-eastern Kangaroo Island bays; and Port
MacDonnell in the lower South East. This small alga
might be more widespread than current records
indicate.
1
Figure 18 shows the location of endemic species of green, brown and red macroalgae in the EP
NRM region. The location of endemic species corresponds with those areas which have been
sampled in most detail, such as Waterloo Bay, Wanna (Sleaford Bay) and the islands of the Nuyts
Archipelago and the Investigator Group.
N
17
22
2
7 14
7
4,
14
7
22
7,8,13,18
20
7
12
19
6,7,15,1,6
15
10
3
7
11
9
15
15,21
4
4
7 1,5,
7
7,21
7
80km
Figure 18: Distribution of South Australian endemic species of macroalgae recorded from EP NRM
region as databased herbarium specimens in ADHerb 2010 and AVH 2010. Green = Chlorophyta;
brown = Heterokontophyta; red = Rhodophyta; pink =Corallinales in Rhodophyta. Species numbers
correspond to those in Table 8.
51
Possibly Rare Species in Eyre Peninsula NRM Region
Figure 19 shows the distribution in EP NRM region of records of macroalgae considered by
Womersley (2004, 2005) to be ―rare‖ in South Australia, and Table 9 details these species. In the
lists prepared by Womersley, rarity related to the inclusion of (i) species known from single or very
few records, and (ii) species known from restricted habitats in southern Australia. Also included
was a code for abundance (―rare‖, ―plentiful‖ or ―unknown‖) at sites where the species have been
recorded, and an indication of which species in the list are known only from old records (i.e. 50+
years). The Womersley lists included, for each species, recommendations for further collecting, to
assist study (e.g. culturing specimens to determine life cycle), and to confirm (or update) the
known distribution.
Some of the species in the Womersley lists are introduced to South Australia, and several are
endemic within South Australia (Table 8).
N
“Rare” species (Womersley 2004, 2005)
Eyre Peninsula NRM boundary
80km
Figure 19: Distribution of records of macroalgae considered by Womersley (2004, 2005) to be “rare”
in South Australia. Includes species known from single or very few records, or from restricted
habitats in southern Australia. Note: includes some introduced and some potentially cryptogenic
species.
52
Table 9: Macroalgae within EP NRM region, known from single or very few records, or species known
from restricted habitats, according to lists by Womersley (2004, 2005). The definition of rarity used
by that author is described in the text. Note that the table below includes a mix of SA endemic,
southern Australian, globally distributed, cryptogenic and introduced species, and a number of the
species – discussed in this report – are not considered here to satisfy formal criteria for listing as
rare in South Australia, nationally or globally. LHI = Lord Howe Island; NSW = New South Wales; SA
= South Australia; QLD = Queensland; WA = Western Australia.
Species in Eyre
Peninsula NRM,
included in Womersley
2004, 2005 lists
SA
Endemic
Southern
Australia
Global OR
Countries in
addition to
Australia
No. Records in
(a) SA & (b) Australia
Green Macroalgae
Cladophora
aegagropiloidea
(a) ~ 2
(b) ~ 2
Cladophoropsis magna
(a) ~ 9
(b) ~ 9
Dasycladus densus
(SA & WA)
(a) ~ 4
(b) ~ 9
Ulvaria shepherdii
(a) ~ 13
(b) ~ 13
Uronema marina
(a) ~ 2
(b) ~ 3
Brown Macroalgae
Myriactula caespitosa
(a) ~ 2
(b) ~ 2
Sargassum flindersii
(= Sargassum kendrickii)
(SA & WA)
(a) ~ 5
(b) > 6
Scoresbyella profunda
(SA & WA)
(a) 9
(b) > 9
Sphacella subtilissima
(a) 2
(b) 2
Sporochnema
tomentosum
(a) 2
(b) 2
Red Macroalgae
Acanthophora dendroides
(a) 1
(b) 55 (many from QLD)
Acrosymphyton taylorii
(a) 4
(b) 26
Anotrichium towinna
(a) 6
(b) 6
Antithamnion uniramosum
(a) 1
(b) 1?
Antithamnionella
glandifera
(SA & TAS)
(a) 4
(b) 5
Callithamnion circinnatum
(possibly
TAS)
(a) 6
(b) 7
Callithamnion confertum
(SA, VIC,
TAS)
(a) 8
(b) ~ 11
Callithamnion pinnatum
(SA & VIC)
53
(a) 1
(b) 3
Table 9 (cont.):
Species in Eyre Peninsula
NRM, included in Womersley
2004, 2005 lists
SA
Endemic
Southern
Australia
Global OR
Countries in
addition to
Australia
Ceramium cupulatum
Coeloclonium debile
(a) 3
(b) ~ 3
(SA & WA)
(a) 3
(b) ~ 5
Chondria lanceolata
Dasythamniella superbiens
(a) 1
(b) ~ 12
(SA, VIC, TAS)
(a) 3
(b) ~ 11
Episporium centroceratis
Erythrotrichia ligulata
(a) ~ 1
(b) > 1
(SA, VIC, TAS)
(a) ~ 1
(b) ~ 4
Gelidiella ramellosa
Gibsmithia womersleyi
Gigartina wehliae
(a) ~ 1
(b) ~ 5
(SA & WA)
(a) 4
(b) 10
(SA, VIC, TAS)
(a) 7
(b) ~ 12
(NB: Eyre NRM specimen missing from
database)
Griffithsia balara
No. Records in
(a) SA & (b) Australia
(SA & WA)
Kallymenia rubra
(a) 1
(b) 4
(possibly)
(a) 4
(b) > 4
Kallymenia spinosa
(SA & WA)
(a) ~ 5
(b) ~ 6
Mychodea spinulifera
(SA & WA)
(a) 6
(b) > 8
Myriogramme cartilaginea
(SA & WA)
(a) 1
(b) 3
Placophora binderi
(a) ~ 2
(b) ~ 4
Predaea huismanii
(a) ~ 1
(b) > 1
Polysiphonia brevisegmenta
(NSW, LHI, SA)
(a) ~ 1
(b) ~ 3
Polysiphonia propagulifera
(SA, possibly
also VIC & TAS)
(a) 6
(b) 8?
Pterothamnion flexile
(a) 2
(b) 2
Scinaia proliferata
(a) 3
(b) 3
Tylocolax microcarpus
(a) 7
(b) 7
54
In South Australia, the National Parks and Wildlife Act has a schedule for listing species as ―rare‖,
but macroalgae are not included. The category of rare may relate to either: a reduced area of
occupancy and/or extent of occurrence; a decline in abundance; small population sizes, and/or
restricted extent of occurrence or area of occupancy, with specific criteria for each of those
categories. At a global scale, the categories of the IUCN‘s Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN,
2001) no longer includes a category of ―rare‖, but some species which may qualify as rare due to
very small or restricted population (with evidence of fluctuation or decline), or very restricted
geographic range, may instead be listed critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable,
depending on specific numeric criteria. For example, according to IUCN criteria, if a species is
known from 5 or fewer locations, it may satisfy criteria for listing as vulnerable. Many other criteria,
including those relating to extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are also used to assess
status, as shown in Table 10 below. It is important to note that species assessments using the
criteria should only be undertaken using all known data on range, and number of records. Also,
even if a species qualifies for listing using any of the categories or criteria listed in Table 10 below,
the accuracy of the assessment is time-specific, and may be revised in future as better information
becomes available regarding distribution and relative abundance. This is particularly true for many
marine plant and invertebrate species, which are known from very few, opportunistically collected
records, and the true distribution may be much broader (and abundance may be considerably
higher), than is considered from the currently available records. For most of the small marine plant
species, particularly epiphytes, targeted searches of records have not been undertaken, and the
few examples known were incidental, recorded during surveys undertaken for some other purpose.
In the marine environment, area of occupancy and extent of occurrence are difficult to apply in
terms of square kilometres, due to the three dimensional nature of the sea, because depth range
(and therefore area in terms of volume) should also be considered, rather than a linear distance
along a coast. Also, due to the difficulties with sampling the marine environment, many species
which may not genuinely be uncommon or rare, are known from very few records.
A number of species which qualify as rare may not necessarily be vulnerable (if there are no
threatening processes occurring) and a number of species may not qualify for listing as rare, but
could be considered threatened if threatening processes are widespread and continuous.
It is noted that a previous national assessment of threatened species of macroalgae in Australia
(Cheshire at al 2000), defined the category of threat ―vulnerable‖ as
species that are reported to occur at five or fewer locations but are broadly distributed
(range >500 km); or
species that have five or fewer known locations and occur within 500 km of coastline.
In that report (Cheshire et al. 2000) ―vulnerable, potentially endangered‖ species were defined as:
species that have been recorded from only one location or have a distribution restricted to
less than 50 km of coastline.
Such an approach is useful for defining potentially threatened species if the known distributions
and number of records have been correctly determined, which was not the case for numerous
species listed in that report. Lists of rare and threatened species may also change over time, as
better information on distribution and/or abundance becomes available, or as assessments
become more accurate, and listing processes become more systematic. For example, a number of
species previously considered to be threatened in South Australia (Cheshire et al., 2000), would
not qualify for listing as such, due to actual number of records known and/or the geographic range
being larger than that reported in the Cheshire et al. report. Inaccuracies in assessment can result
from relying on published volumes which summarise distribution, and not conducing thorough
literature searches (e.g. of museum data or herbarium records, published papers, and
taxonomically validated survey data) for each species. A full list of corrections for temperate
(southern Australian species) included as threatened or endangered in the Cheshire et al. (2000)
report which would not qualify for listing as such, is available from J. Baker.
55
Table 10: Summary of the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (from IUCN Shark Specialist Group,
2007)
56
Table 11 shows the species previously listed (e.g. by Cheshire et al. 2000; Womersley 2004,
2005) which would not qualify for listing as rare or threatened in South Australia, and many others
would also not qualify for listing as rare nationally in Australia, or globally, using formal criteria such
as those associated with the IUCN threatened species categories. Many of the species in Table 11
are broadly distributed (and some are introduced to South Australia), and therefore are not
considered rare at a species level, despite some being known from few records in South Australia.
For example, the red alga Macrothamnion pellucidum is known from at least 145 records across
four states of southern Australia), and is thus not considered here to be a rare species, yet this
species was previously included as a ―vulnerable, species with a narrow range‖ in a previous
assessment of threatened species of macroalgae in southern Australia (Cheshire et al. 2000), with
the assumption that it had a range of 212km, and was known from only 2 locations. As with a
number of the other species listed in Table 9 below, it is likely that the inaccurate Cheshire et al.
(2000) assessments were based on the incomplete details of distribution published in the volumes
of Womersley, and it is also possible that inadequate searches of herbarium records in other
States were undertaken for that national assessment of threatened species. A number of the
species that do not qualify for rare or threatened species status (Table 11) are discussed in more
detail below, in Tables 13 and 14, on introduced and possibly cryptogenic species recorded to
date in the EP NRM region.
Table 11: Species occurring in EP NRM, previously listed as rare and/or threatened (Cheshire et al.
2000; Womersley 2004, 2005) which would not qualify for listing as rare or threatened (including
vulnerable or endangered) in South Australia, Australia, and/or globally. GAB = Great Australian
Bight; LHI = Lord Howe Island; NSW = New South Wales; SA = South Australia; TAS = Tasmania; WA
= Western Australia; VIC = Victoria.
Taxa
Justification for Species Not Qualifying as Rare or
Threatened in South Australia or southern Australia
Acanthophora dendroides
A multi-branched alga from about 5cm to 12cm high. Known from
at least 55 specimens, collectively from northern and southern
QLD, NSW, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, SA and WA. It has
been recorded in several countries in Africa, SW Asia and SE
Asia, and is widespread in the Indian Ocean. The SA record from
Denial Bay (collected 1951) is apparently the only herbarium
example of this species in SA.
Acrosymphyton taylorii
A mucilaginous red alga known mainly from the tropics. The type
specimen is from Hawaii. Also occurs in Australia, Micronesia and
Fiji. Known in Australia from 4 records in SA (Nuyts Archipelago);
at least 24 records along the QLD coast, and also specimens in
WA, NSW, and around LHI.
Amphiplexia racemosa
A multi-branched red alga between 5cm and 15ch high, known
from at least 10 records in SA and southern WA. Most records are
from the GAB.
Bonnemaisonia australis
A delicate, multi-branched alga from 4cm to 12cm high, known
from at least 16 records in WA, SA, VIC and TAS. Most records
are from the gulfs region in SA.
Callithamnion confertum
A very small (to 20mm high) multi-branched red epiphyte from
south-eastern Australia, with at least 11 records known
collectively from South Australia, Victoria and northern Tasmania
(SA State Herbarium data, and Australian Virtual Herbarium data).
Eight of the records are from South Australia, spread over 4 NRM
regions. The type specimen is from Robe, on the green alga
Caulerpa brownii in shallow subtidal pools.
Callithamnion pinnatum
A small, multi-branched red alga known from two locations in
Victoria, and from Nuyts Archipelago in South Australia. Also
recorded in Korea (Lee 2008).
57
Table 11 (cont.):
Taxa
Justification for Species Not Qualifying as Rare or
Threatened in South Australia or southern Australia
Chondria angustissima
A tangled, multi-branched red epiphyte with a broad distribution
(WA through to NSW). Known to date from at least 14 records in 4
States.
Cirrulicarpus nanus
A cartilaginous red alga between 5cm and 15cm high, known from
at least 52 specimens in more than 30 localities, collectively in
WA, SA, VIC and TAS.
Cladophora hutchinsioides
A filamentous, multi-branched green alga, 5cm – 20cm high,
Known from at least 17 records in WA, SA, VIC and NSW. Also
recorded in Japan and Korea (Hoek and Chihara 2000; Lee 2008,
cited in Guiry and Guiry 2010).
Episporium centroceratis
A minute alga, parasitic on Centroceras. Although known in South
Australia from only one record (Wanna, south of Port Lincoln), this
species also occurs in WA, and around LHI and South Africa.
Erythrotrichia ligulata
A small filamentous red epiphyte, widespread but rarely recorded.
There are herbarium records from SA, VIC and TAS, but it may
also occur in QLD and WA (according to Levring 1953, cited by
Womersley 1994).
Ditria expleta
An inconspicuous red epiphyte, prostrate on host plants of the
brown Zonaria and Lobophora. Known from at least 16 records,
mostly in SA, but ranging from the Houtman Abrolhos in WA
through to Kangaroo Island in SA.
Erythroclonium sedoides
A multi-branched red alga between 10cm and 25cm high, known
from at least 36 specimens from 7 or more locations in SA and
WA.
Gelidiella ramellosa
A small red alga, with branches about 1cm high, known from
about 5 specimens in 2 locations in SA and WA, as well as
various records from 7 countries in Europe, several Atlantic
Islands, and Japan (see Guiry and Guiry 2010, and references
therein). The validity of the overseas specimens is not known for
this report.
Gracilaria flagelliformis
A large (to 60cm), strap-like red alga, known to date from
approximately 39 records in more than 10 locations, in WA (most
records from here), SA and TAS.
Heterosiphonia callithamnium
A small (to 3cm high) red epiphyte, known from at least 35
specimens in SA and WA. SA specimens to date come from at
least 9 locations, in eastern GAB and the gulfs.
Heterosiphonia crassipes
A broad-ranging red alga recorded in WA, SA, NSW and around
LHI. Known from at least 68 records in NSW and WA, in the
respective herbaria of those States.
Mazoyerella arachnoidea
A small, densely-tufted red epiphyte, known so far from
approximately 10 records in at least 8 locations, in WA (Penguin
Island specimen, collected by J. Huisman), SA and TAS.
Macrothamnion pellucidum
A multi-branched red alga between 10cm and 30cm high, known
from at least 145 records across southern Australia (WA, SA, VIC,
TAS).
Palmoclathrus stipitatus
An unusually structured, epilithic, green alga, known from at least
24 records in more than 5 locations, collectively in southern WA
(Black Island specimen), SA and VIC.
Placophora binderi
A small epiphyte, known from SA, WA, New Zealand, Africa and
parts of South America. SA records are from Fowlers Bay
(collected by G. Kraft in 2005) and Elliston.
58
Table 11 (cont.):
Taxa
Justification for Species Not Qualifying as Rare or
Threatened in South Australia or southern Australia
Platysiphonia mutabilis
A multi-branched red epiphyte, between 4cm and 10cm high,
known from at least 30 records in WA, SA, VIC and TAS.
Predaea huismanii
A mucilaginous, lobed and compressed red alga, previously
known from the type locality at Rottnest Island in WA, and also
from Pearson Island in the eastern GAB in SA (12m deep)
(Womersley 1994). This species has also been recorded at the
Canary Islands; Tanzania in Africa; and in Fiji (Guiry & Guiry
2010, and references therein).
Pseudolithoderma australis /
australe
A crustose brown alga that is epilithic, and also grows on plastic
waste in the sea. Known from at least 12 records in 8 locations,
collectively in SA (from where most records have been collected)
and TAS.
A small red epiphyte, to 30mm high, known from at least 5 records
in WA, SA and TAS. SA records range from the GAB through to
the South East. WA records as far north as Houtman Abrolhos.
May be more abundant and widespread than the few current
records indicate, but small and easily overlooked.
Semnocarpa minuta
Sphacella subtilissima
A small brown epiphyte, for which Minorca in Spain is the type
locality. Known in Australia from two records in South Australia
(Pearson Island and Investigator Strait, in waters 16m – 34m
deep). It is likely that the species is more widespread in Australia,
but the depths at which it occurs have been inadequately sampled
for epiphytes.
Tanakaella itonoi
A small, tufted red epiphyte, known from SA and WA, extending at
least as far north as the Houtman Abrolhos. In South Australia,
known from 11 records ranging from eastern GAB (e.g. the Nuyts
Archipelago, and Elliston) to Gulf St Vincent.
Uronema marina
A small filamentous green epiphyte, known from Australia (LHI;
QLD, SA and WA), Micronesia and Hawaii, and the Yap Islands
(Guiry & Guiry 2010 and references therein).
A number of species identified by Womersley (2004, 2005), as well as several others not included
in those lists, may indeed qualify as rare in South Australia, and in some cases also nationally, but
more information is required on distribution, and comparison with examples from other localities is
needed. In particular, some of the small epiphytes may be more widespread than records indicate,
but targeted searches have not been made, and existing records are opportunistic. Examples of
possibly rare species in EP NRM region are included in Table 12, and locations where these
species have been recorded are shown in Figure 20 below.
59
Table 12: Species found in EP NRM region which may qualify for formal listing as rare, or another
category of threat, in South Australia and/or nationally. Species numbers correspond to those on
Figure 20.
Species
Number
Name of
Potentially Rare
Species in Eyre
Peninsula NRM
Region
Description and Justification
1
Anotrichium
towinna
a small, densely tufted red alga, possibly endemic within South Australia,
known to date from Point Sinclair in the eastern GAB, Coffin Bay on Eyre
Peninsula, and American River Inlet on Kangaroo Island.
2
Antithamnionella
multiramosa
Known from at least 14 records over 3 NRM regions, and thus may not be
rare in South Australia, but limited distribution on a national scale, due to
its apparent endemism in South Australia.
3
Callithamnion
shepherdi
A possibly endemic species recorded to date from various locations in
S.A., ranging from Waldegrave I. in the eastern GAB, through to American
River on Kangaroo Island, and several locations in Gulf St Vincent.
4
Callithamnion
circinnatum
A densely tufted, multi-branched red, which grows up to 12cm high, and
has been recorded from Waterloo Bay (Elliston) and Crinoline Point on
Eyre Peninsula; also 15m deep off Crag Point in northern Spencer Gulf,
and Noarlunga tyre reef and Aldinga reef in GSV. It is noted that there is
an unverified record in the SA State Herbarium database, of a specimen
from Tasmania, collected 1948 and more recently identified as
Callithamnion circinnatum; however, Tasmania is not included as part of
the distribution in published references (e.g. Womersley 1998; Cowan
2006; Guiry and Guiry 2010).
5
Chylocladia
grandis
A large (20cm – 50cm), robust, multi-branched red alga, known to date
from 18 specimens, collectively from locations in Investigator Strait (at
11m, 23m, and 34m deep); Cape Coutts, Kangaroo Head and Ironstone
Point in the Dudley Peninsula (Kangaroo Island), and locations in eastern
GAB, such as Sceale Bay, and St Francis Island.
6
Cladophora
aegagropiloidea
A green alga that forms small (1-3cm diameter), free-floating or
unattached balls of filaments. Known to date from Bay of Shoals on
Kangaroo Island, and one record from Wanna, near Port Lincoln.
7
Cladophoropsis
magna
A green alga that forms filamentous masses, known to date from 9
specimens, collectively from Bay of Shoals on Kangaroo Island, and
several locations in the eastern GAB, such as Smoky Bay (type locality)
and Denial Bay. There are 7 records from the EP NRM region.
8
Corynophlaea
cristata
9
Dasycladus
densus
10
Flabellonema
codii
11
Gibsmithia
womersleyi
An epiphyte found on Cystophora species, and known to date from 4
records in two NRM regions.
An unusually structured green alga known to date from 9 plants in only
two locations (Hopetoun in southern WA, and Point Fowler in western
SA).
An epiphyte known to date from 11 records in 3 NRM regions; and thus
may not be not rare in South Australia, but is limited in distribution on a
national scale, due to its apparent endemism in South Australia.
A multi-branched, mucilaginous plant from 3 to 48cm high (Womersley,
1994); known from approximately 10 records, collectively from southern
WA (Hopetoun and Esperance) and locations in SA including Pearson
Islands and Waterloo Bay in the eastern GAB, Emu Bay on Kangaroo
Island, and one location in Adelaide & Mt Lofty Ranges NRM region.
60
Table 12 (cont.):
Species
Number
Name of
Potentially Rare
Species in Eyre
Peninsula NRM
Region
Description and Justification
12
Gigartina wehliae
13
Griffithsia balara
14
Kallymenia rubra
A cartilaginous, multi-branched red from 5 – 15cm high, recorded in
South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania, mainly from drift specimens.
Known from approximately 12 records nationally; 6 herbarium records
from 3 locations in South Australia (SA State Herbarium data), and a
specimen collected in 1994, from Point Labatt in the eastern Great
Australian Bight during a SARDI benthic survey (identified by K. Edyvane
and confirmed by HBS Womersley). The Point Labatt specimen was
collected in situ on reef, not from the drift. It is not yet listed in ADHerb
2010.
a multi-branched red alga, 8cm - 14cm high, known from Hopetoun in
southern WA (collected 1968) and a location west of Flinders Island in the
eastern Great Australian Bight in South Australia (collected in 1988, from
32m deep).
Known from 4 records in South Australia (Waldegrave I. and Elliston in the
eastern GAB, and a drift specimen from Port Elliot in the AMLR NMRM
region), and a similarly small number nationally. There are only 3 records
in the Australian Virtual Herbarium (2010), the most recent being a
specimen collected in 2006 from Crawfish Rock in Victoria. If the record
of Aziz et al. (2008) from Bangladesh is correct, and the species is not
imported into that country, then Kallymenia rubra could not be considered
endemic to southern Australia, and would not qualify for listing as a rare
species on a global scale, using IUCN criteria.
15
Myriogramme
cartilaginea
A cartilaginous red alga, to 8cm high. Known to date from Elliston in SA
(specimen epiphytic on Osmundaria at 7m deep), and the ―Swan River‖
(old record, location inexact) and Garden Island in WA.
16
Pterothamnion
flexile
A multi-branched red, about 4cm to 8cm high, known to date off Outer
Harbour in Gulf St Vincent (found growing on old shells, at 20m – 25m
deep, in 1975) and Point Lowly in Spencer Gulf (record from artificial reef
at 14m deep, collected 1987) (Womersley, 1998; State Herbarium of
South Australia, 2010).
17
Scinaia proliferata
A small (4cm – 6cm) red alga, known to date from Ward Island in the
eastern GAB, and Nora Creina in the upper South East (type locality).
18
Sporochnema
tomentosum
A multi-branched brown alga with densely tufted laterals, known from few
specimens, 8cm to 16cm long. Recorded so far from Investigator Strait
(31m deep) and Waldegrave Island (22m deep).
19
Tylocolax
microcarpus
A small red epiphyte found on Lenormandia spectabilis (Womersley
2003), known to date from 7 specimens, all collected in South Australia.
Known to date from Point Avoid (1975) and Wanna (1959) on Eyre
Peninsula; Vivonne Bay (1948) and Pennington Bay (1957) on southern
Kangaroo Island; and an old record collected by J.B. Cleland from
Encounter Bay (State Herbarium of South Australia, 2010).
20
Ulvaria shepherdii
A membranous, ribbon-like green alga, which may be confined to deeper
water. Known to date from rock lobster pots 12km south of Vivonne Bay,
Kangaroo Island, at 50m – 70m deep, and from 11 specimens from
Pearson Island in the eastern GAB, 22m – 50m deep. All 13 specimens
known to date were collected between 1968 and 1969.
61
N
9
99
1
7
7
7
5
4
16
8
5
17
13
3,14,18
4,10,11,
14,15
11,20
2
11
8
8
19
Eyre Peninsula NRM boundary
6,19
80km
Figure 20: Species found in Eyre Peninsula RM region which may qualify for formal listing as rare, or
under another category of threat, in South Australia, and/or nationally. Species numbers correspond
to those in Table 12.
Up to the present, records of possibly rare species (including South Australian endemics) are
distributed mainly across the western side of Eyre Peninsula, particularly in the well sampled areas
such as the Investigator islands group, Waterloo Bay, and Wanna. There are few records from the
eastern side of the peninsula, which reflects the lack of sampling in that area. There are only two
records (of the same species) from the entire Sir Joseph Banks Group of islands, which reflects
the lack of sampling in that area. Two species that may qualify as rare have been recorded on the
north-western side of Spencer Gulf, north of Whyalla (Figure 20).
Species listed in Womersley (2004, 2005) as rare and/or Cheshire et al. (2000) as threatened, but
for which the status is less clear, include:
Antithamnion uniramosum: a small, finely branched red alga known from a drift specimen
collected at Arno Bay in Spencer Gulf, in 1971. Given the lack of records and lack of
knowledge of the habitat and depth range, little can be said about the status of this species
Antithamnionella glandifera: a small red epiphyte, known from a single record of uncertain
locality in EP NRM region; plus several records in Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges NRM
region (2 locations off Outer Harbour, and a specimen from jetty pylon at Port Stanvac);
and Tasmania (on a barge off Beauty Point, 1964). Given the location of these records, it is
possible that this species is an introduction, despite lack of published records from
countries other than Australia (Womersley, 1998) and Korea (Lee, 2008)
Ceramium cupulatum: A small (to 1cm high) red alga, epiphytic on Haliptilon and other
corallines, and known from several specimens in SA and VIC. Womersley (1998)
considered that a record from Diego Garcia is of a related species, not C. cupulatum;
however, Cowan (2006) and Guiry and Guiry (2010) included the Diego Garcia Atoll, and
also the Seychelles in the distribution of C. cupulatum, based on Silva et al. (1996)
62
Chondria lanceolata: A small, multi-branched red alga known mainly from the central and
southern WA coast (at least 11 records). There is a specimen from an upper sublittoral pool
at Scott Bay in western South Australia (GAB), collected by H.B.S. Womersley in 1951. It is
not known if the species definitely occurs in South Australia, as the species assignment of
the Scott Bay specimens is provisional (Womersley 2003)
Codium nuytsianum / Codium apiculatum: Green species, known from Spencer Gulf,
Troubridge Island in lower Gulf St Vincent, and western SA (e.g. islands in the Nuyts
Archipelago, and Topgallant I.). Possibly also occurs in southern WA
Cryptonemia kallymenioides: A red alga to about 15cm high, with lobed, foliose fronds.
Known from about 39 specimens, mostly in WA. South Australian specimens are from
Cannan Reefs in the eastern Great Australian Bight
Cryptonemia wilsonii / wilsonis: A membranous red alga, to about 17cm high, known from
SA, Victoria and Tasmania. There are few records (reportedly 11 specimens), mostly from
Port Phillip Bay in Victoria, and from 3 locations in south-eastern Tasmania
Dasythamniella superbiens: a multi-branched red species to 20+ cm high (rarely 50cm),
known from SA, Victoria and Tasmania. There are few records known: e.g. a total of 11
specimens, from Elliston in the eastern Great Australian Bight; Douglas Bank in northern
Spencer Gulf; Phillip I. in Victoria, and two locations in south-eastern Tasmania
Heterostroma nereidiis: a small red alga, possibly rare (Womersley 2003), known from only
3 specimens, collectively from 3 locations (Yanchep and Rottnest I. in WA, and Elliston in
SA)
Jania parva: A small (to 5mm high) multi-branched coralline, known from Whyalla in
Spencer Gulf; Point Turton and Stansbury on the Yorke Peninsula; various locations in
north-eastern Kangaroo Island bays; and Port MacDonnell in the lower South East. This
small alga might be more widespread than current records indicate
Kallymenia spinosa: a small (to 7cm), membranous, stalked red alga, known from few
locations in southern WA and western SA (latter examples include Pearson I. and St
Francis I.)
Mychodea spinulifera: A small (to 6cm), spinous, branched red alga, epiphytic on
Amphibolis seagrass, and known from South Australia and southern Western Australia.
There are approximately 8 records from SA, mostly from the northern to north-eastern
Great Australian Bight
Myriactula caespitosa: a very small, mucoid epiphyte found on Scytosiphon plants, and
known so far only from Wanna (Sleaford Bay), south of Port Lincoln (2 specimens collected
1967)
Myriodesma harveyanum: Probably endemic within South Australia, but widely distributed
within the State, and known from at least 45 records, ranging from the Great Australian
Bight through to the South East
Polysiphonia brevisegmenta: a small (3-5mm high) red alga, known from Elliston in the
eastern Great Australian Bight, and Lord Howe Island, and possibly also from northern New
South Wales, near the Queensland border (unverified specimen in AVH, 2010)
Rhipiliopsis robusta: a green alga, previously known only from Spencer Gulf and eastern
GAB in South Australia, until a specimen was recorded in 2002 from Figure of Eight Island
in southern Western Australia (WA Herbarium specimen, collected by N. Goldberg)
Sargassum flindersii (= Sargassum kendrickii): A brown alga known from few locations in
southern WA and western SA. This species was described by two separate parties in the
same year. The name Sargassum kendrickii N.A. Goldberg and Huisman 2004 has
precedence (Cowan 2006), and Sargassum flindersii Womersley 2004 is a junior synonym
Scoresbyella profunda: a brown alga known from few records, mainly from deeper waters
(e.g. 25m – 38m) in South Australia (Womersley 1987) and Western Australia (Huisman
and Walker 1990; De Clerk et al. 2006).
63
Additionally, the multi-branched, flat-bladed red alga Kuetzingia canaliculata is known mainly from
Western Australia, plus a single drift specimen from Wanna, south of Port Lincoln in South
Australia (collected 1959). It is not known whether this species occurs in situ in South Australia, or
whether the drift specimen was from Western Australia, and reached SA via the Leeuwin Current.
Introduced and Possibly Cryptogenic Species in Eyre Peninsula NRM Region
Table 13 below shows the number of introduced and cryptogenic species recorded so far in each
of South Australia‘s NRM regions. A search of State, national and international literature and
databases was undertaken to determine the status of all potentially introduced and cryptogenic
species in South Australia. The highest number of introduced species of macroalgae in South
Australia (at least 15, according to herbarium data only) has been recorded in the Adelaide and Mt
Lofty Ranges (AMLR) NRM region. Similarly, AMLR NRM region also contains the highest number
of potentially introduced species (at least 37), for which the origin of the South Australian records is
uncertain (i.e. cryptogenic). AMLR NRM contains South Australia‘s major port, at Port Adelaide,
and also a secondary port (not currently used) at Port Stanvac, and many of the introduced
species in that NRM region are associated with those two ports (see maps in Baker and Gurgel
2010). The EP NRM contains at least 7 introduced species, and at least 22 species of cryptogenic
origin, as discussed below. These are minimum numbers, based on herbarium data. It is possible
that a slightly higher number of introduced species exist, for which there are no herbarium records
so far. EP NRM region contains the second highest number of introduced macroalgal species,
after AMLR.
Table 13: Number of species introduced to South Australia, recorded to date in herbarium
collections, for each NRM Region
NRM Region
Alinytjara Wilurara
Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges
Eyre Peninsula
Northern and Yorke
Kangaroo Island
South Australian Murray-Darling Basin
South East
No. Introduced
Species in
Herbarium
Collections
0
15
7
0
3
0
4
No. Cryptogenic
Species in Herbarium
Collections
1
37
22
15
19
2
26
Table 14 details the introduced species in the EP NRM region that are known from geo-referenced
South Australian State Herbarium records, currently comprising 3 species of green macroalgae, 2
species of brown macroalgae, and 2 species of red macroalgae. It is noted that Table 14 includes
only those species known from location-specific records listed in ADHerb (2010) database. Several
other introduced species may have been recorded either recently or in the past in the EP NRM
region, but if these did not have specimens deposited in the SA State Herbarium, or do not have
accurate distributional data, they have not been included here.
The three green species, Cladophora prolifera, Ulva fasciata and Ulva taeniata which are
opportunistic, can proliferate in conditions of high nutrients (particularly nitrogen), and may outcompete other macroalgae for substrate space, as discussed below.
64
Cladophora prolifera, from the Mediterranean, is established in most States of Australia, including
South Australia (Table 14). Purportedly, it was first recorded in Australia in 1956 (Commonwealth
of Australia 2006). It has been found at a number of locations in Gulf St Vincent, but there is also
at least one record from EP NRM region (Fowlers Bay). This species colonises and is locally
abundant on exposed coastal rock platforms, but is also found in deeper water. Often, locations
where this species is found are close to international shipping lanes, and shipping must be
considered a potential vector for the introduction of this species (Lewis 1999, in Hayes et al. 2005).
Cladophora prolifera has the potential to bloom (i.e. enhanced growth and increased biomass) in
situations which nitrogen and phosphorous are enriched, and overgrow seagrasses and other
benthos (Schramm and Booth 1981; Lapointe and O‘Connell 1989), as occurs in areas of
agricultural runoff and nutrient seepage. Therefore, it is one of the species with potential use in
bioremediation of nutrient-rich sites, such as waters exposed to aquaculture wastes (e.g. Pierri et
al. 2006; Giangrande and Addolorata-Pierri, 2007). Recently, molecular probe work has been done
on this species to investigate phylogeny, and assist with the identification and detection of these
species (Blair et al. 2009).
Ulva fasciata, for which Egypt is the type locality, is considered to be a possible introduction into
Australia (CRIMP / NIMPIS 2002; Parliament of Victoria, undated; CSIRO 2006), and plants of this
species are often associated with high-nutrient areas (e.g. mangroves, bird roosting islands),
polluted areas, near freshwater sources or in the vicinity of ports. Ulva fasciata has a high growth
rate, and high chance for successful settlement, due to motile, photosynthetic zoospores and
gametes, able to rapidly colonise new areas (Beach et al. 1995, cited by Bishop Museum 2010).
Areas where nutrients are enriched, from fertiliser run-off and/or sewage seepage, may be prone
to infestation by Ulva species. Ulva fasciata is globally widespread in tropical to temperate regions
(Table 14), but known from few locations in South Australia, including Wanna (Sleaford Bay) south
of Port Lincoln, and West Lakes and possibly Glenelg in Gulf St Vincent (ADHerb 2010; Wiltshire
et al. 2010). The records of U. fasciata at Wanna are old (1959: SA Herbarium records). There are
also several records from New South Wales, and from Fraser Island off the southern Queensland
coast (Australian Virtual Herbarium 2010), and more recently from the port of Albany and from the
Swan River in Western Australia (McDonald et al. 2009). This species is commonly found in
habitats where groundwater or streams enter the ocean, and occurs mostly in the intertidal and
shallow subtidal (Bishop Museum 2010). U. fasciata is used as a traditional food in some parts of
the world (e.g. Hawaii), and is also cultured commercially as a food supplement. Ulva fasciata has
been shown to have anti-viral properties (e.g. Romanos et al. 2002; Mendez et al. 2010)
As shown in Table 14, although there are no records of ecological impacts of U. fasciata in
Australian waters yet, it is considered probable that it could become a fouling nuisance in
industries that utilise shallow water areas (CRIMP / NIMPIS 2002). Hayes et al (2005) reported
that U. fasciata can dominate / out-compete and limit resources of native species.
65
A
B
C
D
Figure 21: Photo of Ulva fasciata (A), Ulva taeniata (B) (from Baldock 2010), Stictyosiphon soriferus
(C) and Gymnogongrus crenulatus (from Baldock 2010) (D). Copyright: photo A = Bishop Museum,
Hawaii; photo B = State Herbarium of South Australia; photo C = Kjersti Sjøtun, in Norwegian
Seaweeds web site: http://seaweeds.uib.no/?art=277; photo D = State Herbarium of South Australia.
Ulva taeniata, for which California in USA is the type locality, is known in southern Australia from at
least 15 locations (comprising 33 herbarium specimens: ADHerb 2010; Australian Virtual
Herbarium 2010), mostly in South Australia. Records in Australia date back to 1948 (Wiltshire et al.
2010) or 1960 (Commonwealth of Australia 2006). In the EP NRM region, this species has been
recorded from Wanna (Sleaford Bay), and also two sites in the south-eastern Great Australian
Bight (Elliston / Waterloo Bay area and Sheringa) and both are relatively old records (1970 and
1981). This species is established and widespread in South Australia, from the eastern GAB
through to the South East (Wiltshire et al. 2010). It has been recorded in a few locations in WA,
Victoria and Tasmania. This membranous green alga can grow large (to 80cm) and is found mainly
on rough-water rock platforms at low tide level (Womersley 1984; Baldock 2010). It is now
considered to be naturalised in Australia and New Zealand (Baldock 2010).
66
There is only one herbarium record in EP NRM of the widespread European species Striaria
attenuata (Table 14), recorded at Cowell on the eastern side of the peninsula, in 1993 (ADHerb
2010). The Australian State of the Environment Report (Commonwealth of Australia 2006)
considered that this brown alga, which grows to 15cm and rarely to 30cm high, was introduced to
Australia in 1950. Striaria attenuata is reported to be spread by hull fouling, ballast water, and
equipment and gear (Hewitt et al., 2007). This species has a high temperature tolerance (Peters
and Breeman 1992), which can aid its spread.
The brown epiphyte Stictyosiphon soriferus is an ephemeral species (Brown and Hooper 1976)
known mainly from harbours (Tables 5 and 14). It can grow on harbour structures, such as
pontoons (Rogers 2005) and is considered a fouling organism in ports, harbours and estuaries
(e.g. Aquenal 2008). In South Australia, this species is known so far only from the Port Lincoln
area, based on a specimen on a Pinna razorfish shell, collected from 500m off Billy Lights Point in
1975, by S. Shepherd (ADHerb 2010). Womersley (1987) considered this species likely to be
introduced to South Australia from the North Atlantic. Apparently, there are no more recent records
in South Australia (Wiltshire et al. 2010).
The two red species that may have been introduced into EP NRM are Gymnogongrus crenulatus
and Schottera nicaeensis. Gymnogongrus crenulatus is a cartilaginous, branched red alga which
grows to about 10cm high (Dixon and Irvine 1977; Bunker and Maggs 2010). It is found on rocks in
the intertidal and shallow subtidal (to about 13m deep, according to current records), often near
jetties, and in ports and harbours (Womersley 1994). It also grows as an epiphyte (e.g. on kelp)
(Kelly 2005). G. crenulatus plants are tolerant of partial sand cover, and are often encrusted with
bryozoans, foraminifera and calcareous algae (Dixon and Irvine 1977, cited by Guiry and Guiry
2010). Most records in South Australia are from near jetties and boat harbours (e.g. multiple
records from Port Noarlunga, and also recorded at Henley Beach and Barcoo outlet at West Beach
in Gulf St Vincent, and Robe jetty in upper South East: Table 14). However, there is also a record
from a more remote location, Topgallant Island in the eastern Great Australian Bight (ADHerb
2010). Gymnogongrus crenulatus is reported to have been first recorded in Australia in 1969 (Blair
et al. 2009), and is considered to be a low priority introduced species in Australia (Hayes et al.
2005). Experiments in the Mediterranean have shown that extracts of G. crenulatus have antimicrobial and anti-yeast properties (Salvador et al. 2007).
Schottera nicaeensis, the other introduced red species known from EP NRM region, is widespread
in Europe (Table 14), and is listed as an imported species in southern and south-eastern Australia.
It was first recorded in Port Phillip Bay in Victoria during the early 1970s, and shipping is
considered to be a possible vector (Lewis and Kraft 1979; Hewitt and Campbell 2010). By the late
1980s, this species was reported to have spread to every port or harbour in south-eastern
Australia (Sanderson 1987). A number of the Australian specimens were found around jetty piles
or other structures (e.g. lighthouse foundations), or on molluscs. Although specimens in Australia
were recorded from less than 10m deep, and mostly less than 5m (see Womersley 1994), there
are records from deeper than 30m in Ireland (Maggs and Guiry 1982). In the British Isles, this
species often grows in the shallow subtidal, on the edges of shaded rock pools (Guiry and
Hollenberg 1975). There are only two records in the South Australian Herbarium of S. nicaeensis
in South Australia, one from Stony Point near Whyalla in the EP NRM region (collected 2006), and
a drift specimen from Glenelg in Gulf St Vincent (collected 1970).
Two of the most significant invasive species in South Australia, Caulerpa taxifolia and Codium
fragile spp. fragile (previously known as Codium fragile ssp. tomentosoides), apparently have not
been recorded in the EP NRM region yet. Wiltshire and Rowling (2009), Wiltshire (2010) and Baker
and Gurgel (2010) provided reviews of these two species and their distribution in South Australia.
According to Wiltshire and Rowling (2009), C. taxifolia has expanded its range in South Australia,
and cannot be eradicated with current technology. Eradication attempts have been made since the
early 2000s when this species was first discovered in Gulf St Vincent.
67
In South Australia, an environmental risk assessment for Caulerpa taxifolia is being developed to
examine the physiological tolerances of the species, and the factors associated with colonisation
success and growth. The biological features of invaded sites (such as the Port River system in
Gulf St Vincent) and control sites are being compared, and changes to invaded environments are
being quantified, as part of a risk analysis framework to determine areas at risk of C. taxifolia
colonisation (Marine Innovation South Australia project, 2010), or spread of current infestations.
Establishment of this species is considered to be particularly successful in areas exposed to
wastewater pollution (Wiltshire and Rowling 2009, citing Jaubert et al. 2003). Vigilance is required
to reduce as far as possible the possibility of this species spreading westwards to Eyre Peninsula
and other parts of western South Australia.
The other introduced macroalga of most concern in South Australia, Codium fragile ssp.
tomentosoides (now known as Codium fragile spp. fragile) also has not yet been recorded from
Eyre Peninsula, according to Wiltshire and Rowling (2009), Dittman et al. (2010) and ADHerb 2010
data. This introduced species from Japan is now considered, based on results from 126
questionnaires, to potentially be one of the 10 most damaging marine pest introductions in
Australia (Hayes et al. 2005). Baker and Gurgel (2010) provided a summary review of this species.
It is noted that C. fragile spp. fragile is reported to have significantly higher concentrations of the
sulphonium compound dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP) compared with non-invasive subspecies of Codium, and also compared with various other species of green macroalgae, and the
higher concentration is speculated to act as a deterrent to herbivores (other than the sea slug
Elysia maoria, which feeds on C. fragile spp. fragile: van Alstyne 2008). In South Australia, there
are records of Codium fragile ssp. fragile (as C.f. tomentosoides) from American River on
Kangaroo I. (AVH, a record from 2008, coll. F. Gurgel), and locations in Gulf St Vincent, including
North Haven and West Lakes (2008 and 2002, respectively; ADHerb data). It is noted that a
number of purported non-invasive sub-species of Codium fragile have been recorded at various
locations in south-eastern South Australia. The distribution and spread of Codium fragile
ssp.fragile has so far been considered of lower concern in South Australia than the highly invasive
Caulerpa taxifolia.
A third species of potential concern, the sub-tropical Caulerpa racemosa var. cylindracea, has
been recorded in Gulf St Vincent, but apparently not yet from Eyre Peninsula. Caulerpa racemosa
var. cylindracea occurs naturally in Western Australia, but has the capacity to be highly invasive
and spread to other regions. Within Australia, there are also records from Northern Territory,
Queensland, and South Australia. Confirmed records from SA include St Kilda boat ramp and
Bolivar (Wiltshire and Rowling 2009), Garden I., Port River, Outer Harbour / North Haven area,
Semaphore reef, and O‘Sullivans Beach boat ramp and marina (Turner et al. 2007; Wiltshire and
Rowling 2009; ADHerb 2010). The cylindracea variety was first recorded in South Australia in
2001- 02, on a settlement sheet in the Port Adelaide River, and is now well established in the Port
River estuary and along the metropolitan Adelaide coast (Baldock 2005a). This variety of C.
racemosa has occurred in the Mediterranean since the early 1990s (Klein 2007; Klein and
Verlaque 2008). It is now in 9 European countries, and spreading globally (Klein and Verlaque
2008). The current and potential future impacts of this species in South Australia are still being
determined.
68
Table 14: Introduced species recorded in EP NRM region, known from location-specific records in SA
State Herbarium database (ADHerb). Species status determined according to information from
CRIMP / NIMPIS 2002; Hewitt et al. 2004; Hayes et al. 2005; Sliwa et al. 2006; Cowan 2006; Womersley
1984, 1987, 1994, 1996, 2003, 2004, 2005; CSIRO 2006; Guiry & Guiry 2010; Baldock 2010, Wiltshire et
al. 2010 and record dates in State Herbarium of South Australia. Note: a number of globally
distributed Audouinella species have been excluded from the table below because these are known
from very few Australian records, and status in southern Australia is hard to determine. Numbers in
parentheses in the Species column refer to the number of records of each species documented in
the SA State Herbarium database for EP NRM region (NB not all records from SA are lodged in SA
Herbarium). State abbreviations are listed in the caption for Tables 9 and 11.
Species
Type Locality
Distribution
Notes
Mediterranean
Widespread warm temperate
Europe and Africa, numerous
Atlantic islands, few countries in
th
SW and SE Asia, few states in N
America, Central America and
th
Caribbean and S America, few
islands in Indian and Pacific
oceans, Australia and New
Zealand.
Forms blooms in some countries
(e.g. Schramm and Booth 1981).
Green Macroalgae
Cladophora prolifera
(1)
In Australia, recorded from all
States except NT and TAS. There
are numerous records from QLD.
SA records from Fowlers Bay in
GAB (1994), Muston (American
River on Kangaroo I) (1996),
Granite I. (1981), and locations in
GSV such as The Dredge wreck
off Glenelg (2005), Semaphore
(2005) and St Kilda (1972). This
species is common in Gulf St
Vincent / AMLR NRM region (see
map in Wiltshire et al. 2010).
Ulva fasciata (1)
Alexandria,
Egypt
Widespread Africa (~ 21
countries); also Europe (~ 6
countries); various Indian Ocean
islands; 5 Atlantic islands; also
th
SW Asia (9 countries); N
America (6 States); Hawaii;
Central America / Caribbean (13
th
locations); and S America (~ 5
countries); China; Japan; Korea;
Taiwan; SE Asia (4 countries);
Papua New Guinea, Australia and
New Zealand
In Australia, records from WA, SA,
VIC, NSW, QLD, & Norfolk Island.
SA State Herbarium records from
Wanna south of Pt Lincoln (1959),
and West Lakes in GSV (1980).
An Ulva reported to be this
species has also been found in
the Glenelg area (SARDI data,
cited by Wiltshire et al. 2010).
69
Hewitt et al. (2004), Hayes et al.
(2005) and CSIRO (2006) reported
this species to be non-native in
Australia. Listed in Hayes et al.
(2005) report on introduced pests as
low priority introduced species in
Australia. There is a very large
literature on this species. The
occurrence in Australia has been
linked with that of the introduced
opisthobranch Aplysiopsis formosa,
considered to be an introduction
from the North Atlantic /
Mediterranean (Fuhrer et al. 1988,
cited by Hayes et al. 2005). Has
colonised and is locally abundant on
exposed coastal rock platforms,
also in deep water. However, these
locations are close to international
shipping lanes. Shipping must be
considered a potential vector for the
introduction of this species (Lewis
1999 in Hayes et al. 2005).
Considered to be a possible
introduction into Australia (CRIMP /
NIMPIS 2002; Parliament of
Victoria, undated; CSIRO 2006).
Hewitt et al. (2004) reported this
species to be introduced in Australia
from the Mediterranean.
Plants are often associated with
high-nutrient areas (e.g. mangroves,
bird roosting islands), polluted
areas, near freshwater sources or in
the vicinity of ports. Although there
are no major impacts of this species
in Australian waters, it is considered
probable that it could become a
fouling nuisance in industries that
utilise shallow water areas (CRIMP /
NIMPIS 2002).
Hayes et al (2005) reported that U.
fasciata can dominate/out compete
and limit resources of native
species.
Table 14 (cont.):
Species
Ulva taeniata (5)
Type Locality
Monterey,
California, USA.
Distribution
Notes
th
Recorded in few locations in N
th
America, Central America & S
America; Galapagos Is.; India;
Turkey; Pakistan; Korea; Australia
& New Zealand.
CSIRO (2006) reported this species
to be cryptogenic in Australia.
Baldock (2010) reported this
species to be introduced or
adventive.
Originally from west coast USA,
now considered to be naturalised
in New Zealand & Australia
(Baldock 2010).
In Australia, known from WA, SA,
VIC & TAS.
SA records from eastern GAB,
such as Elliston (1970) &
Sheringa (1981); Wanna south of
Port Lincoln (1959); Pennington
Bay (1948) & Vivonne Bay (1950)
on Kangaroo I.; Victor Harbor
(1980); Robe (1960) and
Beachport (1960). Recent
unverified record from Pt Stanvac
in GSV (Dutton & Benkendorff
2008).
Brown Macroalgae
Striaria attenuata (1)
Isle of Bute,
Scotland
Widespread Europe (> 15
th
countries); N America (6 States);
th
Chile in S America; Japan; New
Zealand & Australia.
In Australia, recorded from NSW,
VIC, TAS & SA.
SA records from Cowell (1993)
and West Lakes (1978).
Stictyosiphon
soriferus
West Baltic Sea
Recorded in Europe (>10
countries); Turkey; Japan; Korea;
North America (2 States);
Australia (WA; VIC; SA; NSW, and
TAS).
The single record from SA comes
from the Port Lincoln area of Eyre
Peninsula (500m off Billy Lights
Point).
70
Sliwa et al. (2006) & CSIRO (2006)
reported this species to be nonnative in Australia.
Considered to be an introduced
species in Tasmania (Lewis 1999,
cited by Underwood 2001).
An adventive species (Womersley
2003).
A brown epiphyte, known mainly
from harbours.
Considered non-native / introduced
in Australia (Womersley 1987, 2003;
Lewis 1999; CSIRO 2006; Wells et
al. 2009; Wiltshire et al. 2010)
Table 14 (cont.):
Species
Type Locality
Distribution
Notes
Oporto, Portugal
Recorded in ~ 8 countries in
Europe; also Atlantic islands;
Turkey; few parts of Africa; few
th
th
parts of N & S America;
Canada (Le Gall & Saunders
2010), Australia & New Zealand.
In England, there are records from
as early as 1800 (Tittley and
Peckham 2004)
Hewitt et al. (2004) and CSIRO
(2006) reported this species to be
non-native in Australia. CSIRO
(2006, citing Lewis 1999) recorded
the introduction date into Australia
(Port Philip Bay) as 1969.
Red Macroalgae
Gymnogongrus
crenulatus (1)
In Australia, records from NSW
(e.g. Port Jackson), SA, VIC (e.g.
Port Phillip Bay).
SA records from Topgallant Island
in GAB (1992); locations in GSV
such as Port Noarlunga (1993),
Henley Beach (1992), & Barcoo
outlet at West Beach (2009); and
Robe jetty in upper SE SA (1991).
Schottera nicaeensis
(1)
Marseilles,
France
Widespread Europe (~ 14
countries, mostly in
Mediterranean); several countries
in Africa; few countries in SW
th
Asia; few locations in S America
and Atlantic islands; & Australia.
In Australia, records from NSW,
Lord Howe Island, VIC (especially
Pt Phillip Bay), TAS & SA.
SA records from Stony Point in
upper Spencer Gulf (2006) on a
Trichomya mussel, and Glenelg
(1970).
Womersley (1994, 2003) considered
that the species may be adventive,
since most Australian specimens
are from near harbours.
Hewitt et al. (1999, 2004) and
Parliament of Victoria (undated)
recorded it as an introduced species
in Victoria.
Listed in Hayes et al. (2005) report
as a low priority introduced species
in Australia.
Hewitt et al. (2004) and CSIRO
(2006) reported this species to be
non-native in Australia.
Listed in Hayes et al. (2005) report
as a low priority introduced species
in Australia.
Lewis & Kraft (1979) hypothesised
that the species was introduced
from Europe into Port Phillip Bay in
VIC during the 1970s, and
suggested shipping as a possible
means of Importation.
Considered in Tasmania to be an
introduced species (Anonymous
2009).
Figures 22, 23, 24, and 25 show the distribution of all, green, red and brown introduced species of
macroalgae respectively in the EP NRM region.
71
80km
number of records of introduced
species per 10km cell
6 - 10
2- 5
1
N
Figure 22: Distribution of introduced marine macroalgal species in the EP NRM coast region,
according to SA State Herbarium records.
N
80km
number of records of introduced
Chlorophyta species per 10km cell
6 - 10
2- 5
1
Figure 23: Distribution of introduced marine macroalgal species of Chlorophyta
in the EP NRM coast region, according to SA State Herbarium records.
72
N
80km
number of records of introduced Heterokontophyta per 10km cell
1
Figure 24: Distribution of introduced marine macroalgal species of Phaeophyceae
(Heterokontophyta) in the EP NRM coast region, according to SA State Herbarium records
N
80km
number of records of introduced Rhodophyta per 10km cell
1
Figure 25: Distribution of introduced marine macroalgal species of Rhodophyta
in the EP NRM coast region, according to SA State Herbarium records
73
Table 15 details the 22 species likely to be cryptogenic in EP NRM region, according to
information from CRIMP / NIMPIS 2002; Hewitt et al. 2004; Hayes et al. 2005; Sliwa et al. 2006;
Womersley 1984, 1987, 1994, 1996, 2003, 2004, 2005; CSIRO 2006; Cowan 2006; Wiltshire et al.
2010, Baldock 2010, Guiry and Guiry 2010, the ADHerb 2010 database, and references detailed in
Table 15). Of these possible cryptogenics, 9 are species of green macroalgae. A number of these,
such as various species of Cladophora, Chaetomorpha and Ulva (the latter including
Enteromorpha) have the potential to bloom in eutrophic conditions, such as those present in ports /
boat harbours and estuaries. Some of these species have wide temperature tolerances, which can
assist global spread. A number of such species (e.g. Chaetomorpha indica, Chaetomorpha linum,
Cladophora dalmatica, Cladophora sericea, and Ulva rigida) can proliferate in warm, eutrophic
conditions, and have been responsible for the formation of ―green tides‖ in other countries (Taylor
et al. 2001; Silva et al. 2008, CSIRO 2009, Sfriso 2010 and Notes section of Table 15). One of the
Ulva species of uncertain origin, Ulva rigida, has been recorded commonly in South Australia (46
records), with recorded locations in EP NRM region including lower Eyre Peninsula, and Point
Sinclair in Great Australian Bight. This species has the potential to bloom in abundance in
eutrophic conditions, as has been shown in the Mediterranean (e.g. Sfriso 2010).
Of 6 species of brown macroalgae in EP NRM likely to be of cryptogenic origin, 5 are small
epiphytes, and all are widespread in Europe. In EP NRM region, the large (to ~ 40cm), multibranched brown alga Cutleria multifida has been recorded in a turfing community of macroalgae at
West I. in the Nuyts Archipelago (2006), and also on the seagrass Posidonia australis at Billy
Lights Point near Port Lincoln (1975), and at Wedge Island in the Gambier islands group (1992). It
is uncertain whether C. multifida is a definite introduction to Australia (Table 15), hence is listed
here as cryptogenic. It was reportedly introduced to New Zealand as early as 1870, from hull
fouling or ballast water (Hayward 1997), and is found growing abundantly on wharf piles, and in the
drift in some areas (e.g. Naylor 1954). It also occurs on oyster and mussel shells (Adams 1991;
Mineur et al. 2007) and thus aquaculture could be included in the list of vectors. This species may
be more abundant in spring and summer (Womersley 1987). A number of projects in Europe have
investigated the properties of organic compounds in C. multifida. This species has three types of
plants: the large, dichotomously branched gametophyte plants (male and female), and small,
membranous, fan-shaped sporophyte plant (van den Hoek et al. 1995).
The 7 species in Rhodophyta that may be of cryptogenic origin in Eyre Peninsula are discussed in
Table 15. One of these, Hildenbrandia rubra (Figure 26A) is very abundant and widespread
globally in both tropical and temperate areas, and found as a thin surface cover on rocks and
stones at all tidal levels. This species is very tolerant of extremes in temperature, light and salinity.
Globally, Hildenbrandia rubra may really comprise a complex of closely related species. It has
been found in South Australia from the west coast to the south east (Baldock 2010). In EP NRM
region, this species has been recorded in the Lipson Cove or Tumby Bay area. It may be more
widespread in SA than records indicate, but is easily overlooked (Baldock 2010).
Another species in Rhodophyta of uncertain origin is Antithamnion cruciatum, which is widespread
in Europe, and Italy is the type locality. To date, South Australian records are from Whyalla (1994)
and on Webervanbossea splachnoides at St Francis Island in the eastern GAB (2002). Womersley
(1998 considered this an introduced (adventive) species in SA, based on its occurrence at a major
port, and other authors also consider it to have been introduced to Australia in 1994 (Sliwa et al.
2006 and associated SOE database). However, the record at St Francis Island, an area which is
remote from ports, supports crytogenic status rather than definite introduction.
Another cryptogenic species known in EP NRM is Hypnea valentiae (Figure 26B; Table 15) from
the Red Sea, which is widespread in Africa, and occurs in most states and territories of Australia.
Eyre Peninsula records include the Port Bonython loading terminal near Whyalla, and Crinoline
Point (near Coffin Bay) on southern Eyre Peninsula.
74
A
B
D
C
Figure 26: Photo of (A) Hildenbrandia rubra; (B) Hypnea valentiae; (C) Acrosymphyton taylorii (from
Baldock 2010); and (D) Grateloupia filicina, a European species closely related to the unnamed
Grateloupia in Australia that was formerly known as G. filicina. Copyright: photo A = M. Guiry, in
Guiry and Guiry (2010) Bishop Museum, Hawaii; photo B = J. Huisman, from Huisman (2000),
reproduced in Guiry and Guiry (2010); photo C = State Herbarium of South Australia; photo D = from
Littler et al. 2008, in Guiry & Guiry 2010.
Acrosymphyton taylorii (Figure 26C; Table 15), a mucilaginous red alga known mainly from the
tropical Pacific, is also recorded in warmer waters of Australia. EP NRM records are from Nuyts
Archipelago (e.g. Egg Island, in the St Francis Isles), and there are no other herbarium records
from South Australia.
Another red algal species of cryptogenic origin in SA is a species formerly known as Grateloupia
filicina (Figure 26D; Table 15), considered to be part of a complex of species that are widespread
worldwide, including Australia. Specimens identified as G. filicina have been recorded in EP NRM
region from Wanna, south of Port Lincoln. An rbcL-based molecular phylogeny, encompassing
samples covering the entire geographic distribution of the species, revealed a plethora of ‗‗cryptic‘‘
species, and the presence of genuine G. filicina is limited to the Mediterranean basin (De Clerck et
al. 2005).
Erythrotrichia carnea, which is widespread in Europe, Asia and the Americas (Table 15), is known
from most States in Australia, and occurs as far south as Antarctica. This species is epiphytic on
various macroalgae, such as Champia (Hackett 1977) Porphyra, Hypnea, Polysiphonia,
Ceramium, Dictyota, Padina, Splachnidium, Cladosiphon, and various kelps, and also on
Posidonia seagrass (Villegas 2006), eelgrasses Zostera and Heterozostera, and artificial reefs
(e.g. Reimers and Branden 1994). It is usually found in the intertidal and shallow subtidal, often in
muddy waters, but also occurs deeper in some areas (Adams 1991; SA State Herbarium data;
Brodie and Irvine 2003, cited by Guiry and Guiry 2010).
75
There is some indication from South America that one means of transport between countries may
be rafting (e.g. on Sargassum plants) in currents (Oliveira et al. 1979; Thiel and Gutow 2005).
Within the EP NRM region, there are records from Venus Bay (1951) and Coffin Bay (1951), and
also at the EP NRM region boundary (Port Augusta power station aquaculture ponds, 1987)
Womersley 1994; ADHerb 2010).
Polysiphonia subtilissima, which is native to French Guiana, is known from various countries in
Europe, Africa, Asia, the Americas, Australia and New Zealand (Table 15). It occurs epiphytically
(e.g. on other macroalgae, or mangrove roots) or on sponges, wooden structures (including jetty
piles / fishing boat moorings), wooden debris, anchorages, and buoys etc. This species prefers
sheltered conditions such as bays, channels and estuaries, and is commonly found in waters of
reduced salinity (Womersley 1979, Adams 1991, Aquenal 2002), including brackish environments.
The status of this sub-tropical species in Australia is uncertain (e.g. Hewitt et al. 2004 and CSIRO
2006, compared with Hewitt and Campbell 2010). It is a fouling species (Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institute 1952) and has reportedly been introduced to some countries via
aquaculture (e.g. to Ireland: Stokes et al. 2004) or hull fouling (Hayward 1997).
Several species of macroalgae known from herbarium records in EP NRM region, that have been
listed in other reports (e.g. Hewitt et al. 2004; CSIRO 2006) as cryptogenic in Australia, are not
included in the table below, because of their presence in South Australia in areas remote from
ports or other source areas for introduction, and/or presence in South Australia dates back to at
least the 1940s or 1950s, when specimens were first recorded during general collecting by H.B.S.
Womersley for taxonomic work. Examples include the following, in alphabetical order: Centroceras
clavulatum, Ceramium rubrum, Chaetomorpha aerea, Cladostephus spongiosus, Colpomenia
peregrina and C. sinuosa, Dictyota dichotoma, Ectocarpus fasciculatus and E. siliculosus,
Feldmannia globifera, Gelidium pusillum, Hincksia granulosa and H. mitchelliae, Nemalion
helminthoides, Pterocladiella capillacea, Scytosiphon lomentaria, Ulva compressa and Ulva
lactuca. The introduced status of some of these species is uncertain, and there are also taxonomic
issues regarding specific specimens, particularly older records (e.g. of Ulva lactuca). A number of
globally distributed Audouinella species have also been excluded from Table 15 below, because
these are known from very few Australian records, and status in southern Australia is hard to
determine.
Table 15: Species recorded to date in EP NRM region that are likely to be cryptogenic in origin.
Species status determined according to search of literature on: type locality; distribution at global,
national and State scales; number, location and date of records in South Australia; plant habitat,
habit and mode of reproduction; and literature on status in Australia (see literature list for introduced
species, in Table 12). Note: a number of globally distributed Audouinella species have been
excluded, as for Table 14. Numbers in parentheses in the Species column refer to the number of
records of each species in the SA State Herbarium database, for the EP NRM region. State and intraState abbreviations are listed in the caption for Tables 9 and 11.
Species
Type
Locality
Distribution
Notes
Green
Macroalgae
Bryopsis
plumosa (1)
Devon,
England
Global distribution (especially Europe and
Africa, but also the Americas & Asia).
Australian records from 1934 onwards
(Rottnest I., 1934 is the single WA record
in SA State Herbarium database). Records
in all southern Australian States.
SA records from Eyre Peninsula, Spencer
Gulf, Gulf St Vincent, Kangaroo Island and
the South East (see map in Wiltshire et al.,
2010).
76
Most records in SE Australia come from bays
where boats reside, but some from remote
areas e.g. Cape Bridgewater in VIC.
Hewitt et al. (2004, citing Womersley 1966)
and CSIRO (2006) reported this species to
be cryptogenic in Australia, possibly from the
NE Atlantic.
Plants currently known as B. plumosa may
comprise a complex of species (B. Baldock,
pers. comm., cited by Wiltshire et al. 2010).
Table 15 (cont.):
Species
Chaetomorpha
indica (2)
Type
Locality
Tanque,
India
Distribution
Notes
Found in SW Asia (India, Kuwait, Pakistan,
Sri Lanka) and SE Asia; several Pacific
islands; 2 countries in Africa, and all over
Australia (including TAS and Lord Howe I.)
except NT, NSW and TAS.
Considered to be a ―green tide‖ alga that
spreads prolifically, and has a wide salinity
tolerance range (Silva et al. 2008)
SA records from Kellidie Bay (Coffin Bay
area of southern Eyre Peninsula) (1959),
North Arm area of GSV and Robe Lake
(1983).
Chaetomorpha
linum (8)
Lolland,
Denmark
Widely distributed Europe and Africa (many
th
countries in both continents); also N
America, Caribbean, SE and SW Asia,
China, Japan, Korea, Indian Ocean
islands, Australia, Papua New Guinea,
New Zealand.
SA records from Bay of Shoals on
Kangaroo I. (1947); Coffin and Kellidie
bays on Eyre Peninsula (1967), Port
Adelaide area (1951 and 1984), Garden I.
(1999), and Onkaparinga River (1983) in
GSV; and Port MacDonnell in the lower
South East (1982).
Cladophora
dalmatica (1)
Split,
Croatia
Widespread Europe (~ 18 countries,
including Mediterranean) and Africa; also
records from southern part of Nth America;
Sth America; Japan; Philippines.
Most Australian records from ports, harbours
and estuaries.
Common in eutrophic estuaries e.g. Peel
Inlet in WA (Lavery and McComb 1991).
Littler et al (1983) considered it to be an
opportunistic species. Forms ―green tides‖
(Taylor et al. 2001).
CSIRO (2006) reported this species to be
cryptogenic in Australia.
There is a large literature on the physiology
of this species.
Forms ―green tides‖ during summer in
eutrophic estuaries and inlets (e.g. Taylor et
al. 2001).
In Australia, records from QLD, SA and
WA. Records in SA from Baird Bay (1954);
Barker Rocks on Yorke Peninsula (1967
and 1981); American River on Kangaroo I.
(1946) and in a rock pool at West I., near
Encounter Bay (1985).
Cladophora
sericea (1)
Kent,
England
Widespread Europe (> 20 countries); also
th
in Africa; N America and Asia (including
SE and SW), and some Pacific islands;
Papua New Guinea, Australia & New
Zealand.
In Australia, known from QLD, SA, VIC
(various sites in Pt Phillip and Western Port
bays) and TAS (all sides, particularly SE).
Considered in Tasmania to be an
introduced species (Anonymous 2009)
In SA, records from Coffin Bay on Eyre
Peninsula, Yatala Harbour (Nth Spencer
Gulf) and Pt Stanvac in GSV.
77
An opportunistic species, that forms episodic
and nuisance blooms in some countries,
such as Hawaii (e.g. Smith et al. 2005).
Table 15 (cont.):
Species
Derbesia
marina (5)
Type
Locality
Type
locality =
Kvivig,
Strømø,
Faeroes
Distribution
Notes
Known from more than 12 countries in
th
Europe; also N America (mostly the
colder States, including Alaska); few parts
th
of Central America, Caribbean and S
America; several Pacific islands; few parts
of Asia (including Japan and Korea);
Australia & New Zealand.
In Australia, recorded from SA, VIC, TAS,
NSW Lord Howe I. and Norfolk I.
Widely distributed in cold temperate waters
(Cowan 2006).
CSIRO (2006) reported this species to be
cryptogenic in Australia.
Considered by Parliament of Victoria
(undated) to be cryptogenic and possibly
introduced in Australia.
SA records from Scott Bay 6km W of
Fowler Bay in GAB (1951); Port Pirie
(1984); Vivonne Bay, Kangaroo I. (1950);
locations in GSV such as Grange artificial
reef (1985); Port Stanvac jetty pylons
(1972) and Aldinga Bay (1967); Nora
Creina bay in upper South East of SA
(1981). Near the SA / VIC border, record
from Cape Bridgewater (1953).
Derbesia
tenuissima (3)
Caprara,
Italy
Recorded in at least 11 countries in
Europe; 5 countries in Africa; several
islands in Atlantic; several islands in Indian
and Pacific oceans; India; Japan; Korea.
In Australia, recorded from WA, SA, VIC
and TAS.
In SA, recorded from Nora Creina in upper
South East (1983); also on pontoons at Pt
Adelaide and North Arm in GSV (1983,
1984); Vivonne Bay at Kangaroo I. (on
Spyridia opposita) (1957) and Scotts Bay
6km W of Fowlers Bay in GAB (1951).
Ulva flexuosa
(previously
Enteromorpha
flexuosa) (5)
Duino
(near
Trieste),
Adriatic
Sea
Very widespread Europe (~ 20 countries) &
Africa (~20 countries); also SW Asia /
Middle East; SE Asia; Atlantic islands;
Pacific islands, the Americas, Australia &
New Zealand. Aust Virtual Herbarium lists
records from at least 18 locations in QLD, 2
locations in each of WA and VIC, and 3
locations in SA.
SA State Herbarium on-line database lists
4 localities (as Enteromorpha flexuosa):
Mexican Hat (eastern Great Australian
Bight) (2008); BHP Whyalla Tailings Dam
(1999); and locations in GSV, including
Port Adelaide (1984), and 4km off Seacliff
(1988).
Unpublished SA records in working data
set from St Kilda and North Arm, and
Seacliff area.
78
Often found in reef pools and on marina
pylons (Baldock 2010).
Table 15 (cont.):
Species
Type
Locality
Distribution
Notes
Ulva rigida
(46)
Cádiz,
Spain
Cosmopolitan distribution. Widespread
Europe and Africa (> 15 countries each);
also Atlantic islands; Nth, Central & South
America; SW Asia; Philippines; Australia,
New Zealand and Antarctica.
Hewitt et al. (2004) and CSIRO (2006)
reported this species to be cryptogenic in
Australia.
In Australia, known from WA, SA, VIC,
TAS, Macquarie I., NSW, Lord Howe I. and
QLD.
Has the potential to bloom in abundance in
eutrophic conditions (e.g. Sfriso 2010).
SA records from Hardwicke Bay in lower
Spencer Gulf (1980); and locations in GSV
such as Coobowie (1981), Port Wakefield
(1950), West Lakes (1980), and Port
Stanvac (1982); also Victor Harbor /
Rosetta Head area (1980, 1982).
Seventeen records listed for EP NRM
region, including lower Eyre Peninsula, and
Point Sinclair in Great Australian Bight.
Brown
Macroalgae
Cutleria
multifida (6)
Yarmout
h,
Norfolk,
England
Widespread Europe (> 15 countries); also
Atlantic islands; few countries in Africa; few
th
countries in S America; Japan; Samoa;
Australia and New Zealand.
In Australia, known from WA, SA, VIC,
TAS, NSW and QLD. SA records from
West I. (in eastern GAB) (2006); Port
Lincoln (1975); Wedge I. (1992); locations
in Spencer Gulf, such as Port Victoria
(1973) and Point Turton (1973); locations
in GSV, such as Edithburgh (1988),
Torrens I. (1887), Glenelg tyre reef (1987)
and Port Noarlunga (1996); American River
on Kangaroo I. (1966 and 1972); Port Elliot
(Encounter Bay) (1960), and Lake Butler at
Robe (1985).
Feldmannia
irregularis (15)
Adriatic
Sea
Widespread Europe (~ 15 countries); also
~ 5 Atlantic island groups; Africa (~ 12
countries); SW Asia / middle East (~ 11
th
th
countries); few areas of N , Central and S
America; Hawaii; China; Japan; Korea; SE
Asia; Pacific islands (~ 5 countries);
Australia.
In Australia, recorded from WA, SA, VIC,
NSW, QLD, Norfolk I.; Lord Howe I.
SA records from Venus Bay (1954);
Fishery Bay near Pt Lincoln (1984); Port
Hughes (1983); and locations in GSV
including Black Point (1986), St Kilda
Beach (1973), Port Noarlunga (1974),
Aldinga Reef (1978), Normanville (1974),
Cape Jervis (1974); American River on
Kangaroo I. (1966); Encounter Bay (1974,
1980) and Port Elliot (1974), and Nora
Creina (1985).
79
Hewitt et al. (2004) and CSIRO (2006)
reported this species to be cryptogenic in
Australia.
Reported in Tasmania to be an introduced
species (Anonymous 2009) or a cryptogenic
species (Tasmania Planning Commission
2009).
Listed by Parliament of Victoria (undated) as
cryptogenic and possibly introduced into Port
Phillip Bay in VIC.
Hewitt et al. (2004) and CSIRO (2006)
reported this species to be cryptogenic in
Australia.
Considered to be cryptogenic and possibly
introduced to Lord Howe I. (Aquenal 2006)
and Victoria (Parliament of Victoria,
undated).
Table 15 (cont.):
Species
Kuckuckia
spinosa
(2 at edge of
EPNRM)
Type
Locality
Spalato,
Italy
Distribution
Notes
Known from ~ 10 countries in Europe
(including the Mediterranean), Canary
Islands, Algeria in Africa, Australia (SA,
TAS and VIC), and possibly Canada and
some states in Nth America. The
relationship between specimens from the
northern hemisphere and Australia requires
further investigation (Womersley 1987).
CSIRO (2006) considered this species to be
cryptogenic within Australia.
There are specimens adjacent to the EP
NRM region at Reed Cliff Point (north of
Whyalla). Other SA records include Tiparra
Reef, ―hell‖ of Yorke Peninsula and Black
Point; Seal beach and Pennington Bay on
Kangaroo Island, and Cape
Northumberland near the SA – Victoria
border.
Myrionema
strangulans (17)
Appin,
Argyll,
Scotland
Widespread Europe (~ 20 countries); also
several Atlantic islands; Africa (~ 5
th
countries); Canada; N America (~ 9
th
States); Chile in S America; India; Turkey;
Levant states; Vietnam; Korea; Australia,
New Zealand and Antarctica.
In Australia, known from SA, VIC, TAS,
NSW and Lord Howe I.
SA records from Wedge I. (1963);
American River on Kangaroo I.; (1950);
and locations in GSV such as Hallett Cove
(1977), Aldinga (1977) and Normanville
(1977); also Encounter Bay (1976, 1986),
and locations in the South East of SA, such
as Robe (1976); Nora Creina (1976) &
Beachport (1978).
Pylaiella littoralis
(2)
Europe
Widespread Europe (> 20 countries); also
th
Canadian Arctic; N America (> 10 States);
th
few countries in S America; SW Asia;
Japan; Korea; Vietnam; Australia, New
Zealand and Antarctica.
Hewitt et al. (2004) and CSIRO (2006)
reported this species to be cryptogenic in
Australia.
Listed by Parliament of Victoria (undated) as
cryptogenic and possibly introduced into Port
Phillip Bay in VIC.
Specimens often recorded on green alga
Ulva.
Hewitt et al. (2004) reported this species to
be cryptogenic in Australia.
In Australia, recorded from NSW, VIC, TAS
and SA.
SA records from Billy Light's Point near
Port Lincoln (1975) and St Kilda in GSV
(1972).
Sphacella
subtilissima (1)
Balearic
Islands,
Spain
Recorded in Europe (~ 6 countries) and the
Canary Isles. In Australia, recorded from
SA.
SA records from Investigator Strait, and
also Pearson Isles in the eastern GAB.
80
Considered to be cryptogenic, possibly nonnative (CSIRO 2006; Sliwa et al. 2006;
Wiltshire and Rowling 2009)
Table 15 (cont.):
Species
Type
Locality
Distribution
Notes
Red
Macroalgae
Acrosymphyton
taylorii (1)
Hawaii
A mucilaginous red alga known mainly
from the tropical Pacific (Hawaii;
Micronesia; Fiji); and also recorded in
Australia.
Known in Australia from 4 records in SA
(Nuyts Archipelago); at least 24 records
along the QLD coast, and also specimens
in WA, NSW, and around Norfolk Island
and Lord Howe Island.
Antithamnion
cruciatum (5)
Trieste,
Italy
Known from Europe (> 20 countries); Iran;
Africa (5 countries); Atlantic islands (~ 5
countries); India; North America (5 States);
Caribbean; South America (Chile);
Australia (SA).
SA records from Whyalla (1994) and on
Webervanbossea splachnoides at St
Francis Island in the eastern GAB (2002).
Erythrotrichia
carnea (2)
Loughor
(Llwchwr)
,
Glamorg
an,
Wales
Cosmopolitan distribution. Widespread in
Europe (~ 21 countries) and Africa (~ 15
countries); 7 groups of Atlantic islands;
th
also Russia; N America (> 12 States),
Central America / Caribbean and South
America (~ 6 countries); SW Asia (~11
countries); Japan; Korea; SE Asia; Pacific
islands Papua New Guinea; Australia and
Antarctica.
Considered to be introduced to Australia in
1994 (Sliwa et al. 2006 and associated SOE
database), but a record at St Francis Island
(which is remote from ports) supports
crytogenic status rather than definite
introduction.
Hewitt et al. (2004) and CSIRO (2006)
reported this species to be cryptogenic in
Australia.
Epiphytic on various algae (e.g. Porphyra,
Polysiphonia, Dictyota, Padina, Cladosiphon)
and on eelgrass Zostera, often in intertidal
and shallow subtidal, but deeper in some
areas (SA State Herbarium data; Brodie and
Irvine 2003, cited by Guiry and Guiry 2010).
In Australia, known from WA (Huisman &
Borowitzka 2003), SA, VIC, TAS, NSW,
Lord Howe I. and QLD.
SA records from Venus Bay (1951); Coffin
Bay (1951); Port Augusta power station
aquaculture ponds (1987); tyre reef in
eastern Gulf St Vincent (Reimers and
Branden 1994); Port Stanvac in GSV
(1979) and Robe (1967) in the upper South
East.
Grateloupia
“filicina ” (7)
Trieste,
Italy
Species previously referred to as G. filicina
are widespread in Europe (~ 14 countries)
th
and Africa (~ 18 countries); also N ,
th
Central and S America; Asia; Pacific
Islands.
In Australia, species formerly known as G.
filicina known from WA (e.g. Fremantle;
Cottesloe beach and Point Peron); SA, VIC
(especially Pt Philip Bay), NSW and TAS.
SA specimens from Outer Harbour (1959)
and on jetty piles at Pt Stanvac (1972) in
GSV, and Carpenter Rocks (SE SA)
(1993). One record from EP NRM region
listed in ADHerb 2010 (Wanna, south of
Port Lincoln).
81
An rbcL-based molecular phylogeny,
encompassing samples covering the entire
geographic distribution of the species,
revealed a plethora of ‗‗cryptic‘‘ species, and
presence of genuine G. filicina is limited to
the Mediterranean basin (De Clerck et al.
2005).
Found mainly in harbours.
Table 15 (cont.):
Species
Hildenbrandia
rubra (1)
Type
Locality
Nordland
, Norway
Distribution
Notes
Cosmopolitan distribution. Widespread
Europe (~ 19 countries); Africa (~ 11
th
countries); also Russia; Alaska; N America
and Canada; Central America / Caribbean;
few countries in Sth America; India; Japan;
Commander Is.; Korea; Indonesia; several
Pacific islands; Australia.
Hewitt et al. (2004) and CSIRO (2006)
reported this species to be cryptogenic in
Australia.
In Australia, known from QLD, SA, VIC and
TAS.
Very abundant and widespread species
globally; on rocks and stones at all tidal
levels.
Listed as a cryptogenic and possibly
introduced species in Victoria (Parliament
of Victoria, undated)
SA records from Lipson Cove or Tumby Bay
(1990); Outer Harbour breakwater in GSV
(1950); Vivonne Bay on Kangaroo I. (1950);
and locations in SE SA including Cape
Buffon (1992) and Carpenter Rocks (1991).
Hypnea
valentiae (5)
Red Sea
Widespread in Africa (12 countries); also SW
Asia / Middle East (10 countries); Atlantic
Ocean islands; Indian Ocean islands; Nth
America, Caribbean, Sth America; SE Asia,
Australia, New Zealand and Papua New
Guinea.
In Australia, known from WA, SA, VIC, NSW,
QLD and NT. Many records from along QLD
coast.
SA records from Coffin Bay (1975); Port
Bonython loading facility (northern Spencer
Gulf) (2009); Althorpe I. (2004); locations in
GSV including Port Adelaide (1984), Port
Stanvac (1987) and Hallett Cove (1978)
(GSV); American River / Muston on
Kangaroo I. (1956, 1977).
Polysiphonia
subtilissima (3)
Cayenne,
French
Guiana
Recorded Europe (~ 5 countries); Africa (~
12 countries); also several Atlantic islands;
th
N America (7 States plus Hawaii); Central
America / Caribbean (~ 11 island groups); 5
th
countries in S America; India & Levant
states; Korea; Philippines; Vietnam;
Indonesia; several Pacific islands; several
Indian Ocean islands; Australia and New
Zealand.
In Australia, known from WA, SA, VIC, TAS,
NSW, QLD and Australian Antarctic
territories. Widespread in Australian ports
(Hewitt and Campbell 2010)
SA records from Kellidie Bay (Coffin Bay)
(1967); Port Lincoln jetty (1968); Stony Point
th
in N Spencer Gulf (2004); locations in GSV
including St Kilda beach (1972), Port
Stanvac (1982) and Port Noarlunga (1996);
also Ballast Head (1996) and American River
(1997) on Kangaroo I; boat harbour at Robe
(1973), and Port MacDonnell (1996) in the
lower South East.
82
Hewitt et al. (2004) and CSIRO (2006)
reported this species to be cryptogenic in
Australia. However, Hewitt and Campbell
(2010) reported P. subtilissima to be
introduced in Australia. It is noted that this
species was not included in a recent report
on introduced marine species in South
Australia (Wiltshire et al. 2010).
Macroalgae in the Aquatic Reserves of the Eyre Peninsula NRM Region
The following section discusses the number of species and number of records from ADHerb that
occur in each of the Aquatic Reserves in the EP NRM region. Figure 27 shows the location of the
three Aquatic Reserves in the EP NRM region. The Aquatic Reserves in the EP NRM region are as
follows (Ivanovici 1984, 1993; Johnson 1988; PIRSA 2009), with numbers corresponding to Figure
27:
1: Point Labatt: This reserve was designated in October 1986, adjacent to the Point Labatt
Conservation Park. The primary purpose is to protect breeding habitat for one of the largest
mainland breeding sites for Australian sea lions (Neophoca cinerea) in Australia. The reserve
extends seaward for one nautical mile, and entry to the reserve is prohibited, as are fishing or
collecting in the reserve. As at 2010, there were only 2 records of macroalgae (both of
Phacelocarpus apodus) from this reserve in the SA State Herbarium data sets. However, it is
noted that the species composition of macroalgae in the area was investigated in a survey during
2004/05 (Currie and Sorokin 2005, 2009). During that survey, the common species recorded on
rocky reef within the reserve at various depths between 5m and 20m collectively included canopyforming browns such as Ecklonia radiata, Acrocarpia paniculata, Cystophora moniliformis, C.
subfarcinata and C. retorta, and a mixed understorey of few species of green (e.g. Caulerpa
brownii), red (e.g. Phacelocarpus peperocarpus, Plocamium angustum and P. costatum,
Lenormandia smithiae and L. marginata, Jeannerettia lobata) and brown (e.g. Zonaria angustata)
macroalgae. Analysis of the survey results showed that transects from the reserve and adjacent
non-reserve regions intergraded considerably, and indicated that the marine reserve had no
discernible influence on the community composition of macroalgae across the study area, after 18
years formal protection. As might be expected, there were strong depth-related differences in the
composition and abundance of macroalgae, both inside and outside the reserve (Currie and
Sorokin 2005, 2009).
2: Blanche Harbour – Douglas Bank: Designated in 1980 primarily to protect mangrove and
shallow seagrass communities, and the associated fish and crustacean nursery areas. Boating and
the use of hand spears for taking of fishes and sharks are allowed in the reserve, but all other
activities are prohibited. The southern third of the reserve forms the north-eastern boundary of the
EP NRM region, and the northern part of the reserve is in the adjoining Northern and Yorke NRM
region. No records of macroalgae from the Blanche Harbour – Douglas Bank reserve are in the SA
State Herbarium data sets. However, 200m from the southern boundary, there are 34 records
comprising the following 32 species, in alphabetical order: Areschougia congesta; Asparagopsis
armata; Asperococcus bullosus; Austronereia australis; Ceramium cliftonianum, C. excellens and
C. macilentum; Champia zostericola; Chiracanthia arborea, Chondria harveyana; Coelarthrum
opuntia; Craspedocarpus ramentaceus; Crouania robbii; Dasya hookeri; Dasythamniella
superbiens; Dictyota polyclada (= Pachydictyon polycladum); Doxodasya bolbochaete; Gattya
pinnella; Haloplegma duperreyi; Hirsutithallia angustata; Platysiphonia mutabilis; Sargassum
decurrens, S. paradoxum and S. spinuligerum; Solieria robusta; Sphacelaria rigidula;
Spongoclonium fasciculatum; Sporochnus comosus and S. moorei; Spyridia filamentosa,
Tiparraria aurata, and Warrenia comosa. Additionally, 1.2km east of the reserve is a record of
Kuckuckia spinosa (cryptogenic: Table 15). The few other SA State Herbarium records in the area
include Platysiphonia delicata (1.2km SE of the south-eastern reserve boundary), and records of
Ceramium shepherdii, Champia zostericola and Protokuetzingia australasica from 1.9km southeast of the south-eastern boundary of the reserve.
3: Whyalla – Cowleds Landing: Designated in 1980 primarily to protect mangrove and shallow
seagrass communities, and the associated fish and crustacean nursery areas. Boating, diving and
swimming are permitted in the reserve, as is the taking of blue swimmer crabs by hand, crab rake
or hoop net, within one area of the reserve (adjacent to Eight Mile Creek Beach). No records of
macroalgae from the Whyalla – Cowleds Landing reserve exist in the SA State Herbarium
database. However, 400m from the southern boundary, there is a single herbarium record of
Gelidium pusillum.
83
Aquatic Reserves
Eyre Peninsula NRM boundary
40km
2: Blanche Harbour –
Douglas Bank
3: Whyalla –
Cowled’s Landing
1: Point
Labatt
N
Figure 27: Location of Aquatic Reserves in EP NRM region.
Macroalgae in proposed Marine Parks of Eyre Peninsula NRM region
Figure 28 shows the location of proposed marine parks in the EP NRM region, as part of the
South Australian Government‘s long-term commitment to developing the SA State component of a
national representative system of marine protected areas (NRSMPA). Of the 8,774 georeferenced records of marine macroalgae in the EP NRM region, 72% (= 6,325) of those records
occur inside the perimeter of proposed parks. There are 749 species in the geo-referenced data
set of EP NRM macroalgae records, and of those, 687 species (92%) of macroalgal species known
in that NRM region have been recorded within the boundaries of proposed marine parks.
N
Proposed multiple-use marine parks
(DENR 2010)
Geo-referenced records of macroalgae
in Eyre Peninsula NRM region
Eyre Peninsula NRM boundary
80km
Figure 28: Proposed multiple-use marine parks in Eyre NRM region, and distribution of georeferenced records of macroalgae, in SA State Herbarium data base.
84
Approximately 65% of the number of geo-referenced herbarium records of Chlorophyta in EP NRM
region have been recorded in the proposed multiple use marine parks (Table 16), which includes
79 of the 83 species recorded to date (i.e. 95% of Chlorophyta species known in the EP NRM).
For the Rhodophyta (excluding coralline algae), about 70% of the number of records and 90% of
the number of species recorded in the EP NRM region, occur in the proposed multiple use marine
parks. For the Corallinaceae, 67% of records and 90% of species recorded thus far in EP NRM
region occur in the proposed multiple use marine parks.
About 78% of the number of records and 93% of the number of species of brown macroalgae
(Heterokontophyta) recorded thus far in the EP NRM region, occur inside the proposed multiple
use marine parks.
Although the ‗aforementioned percentages are high, it is important to note that this figure does not
relate to numbers of known species in high protection areas (Sanctuary Zones) in the EP NRM
region, because zoning was preliminary at the time this report was written.
Table 16: Comparison between numbers of geo-referenced herbarium records of macroalgae in EP
NRM region, with numbers recorded within outer boundaries of proposed multiple use marine parks
in EP NRM region.
Number of Geo-Referenced
Records (and corresponding
Species) of Macroalgae in
Eyre Peninsula NRM
Number of Geo-Referenced Records
(and corresponding Species) of
Macroalgae in Proposed Multiple
Use Marine Parks
8,774 (749 species)
6,325 (687)
Chlorophyta
881 (83)
576 (79)
Heterokontophyta (Phaeophyceae)
2,344 (145)
1,829 (135)
Rhodophyta (excluding Corallinales)
5,203 (490)
3,638 (441)
Rhodophyta (Corallinales)
351 (30)
237 (27)
All species
There are 22 species (comprising 72 records) in the EP NRM region that are thought to be
endemic within South Australia (Figure 18), and there are geo-referenced records for 20 of these
species. Of these 22 endemic taxa, 14 species (54 records) occur within the boundaries of
proposed multiple-use marine protected areas (Figure 29). Note that this figure does not relate to
numbers of endemic species in high protection areas (Sanctuary Zones) in the EP NRM region,
because the locations of high protection zones were still provisional at the time this report was
written. The endemic species which are known to occur within proposed boundaries of multipleuse MPAs in the EP NRM (Figure 30) are: Callithamnion circinnatum, Chylocladia grandis,
Cladophora aegagropiloidea, Cladophoropsis magna, Corynophlaea cristata, Jania parva,
Euptilocladia villosa, Myriactula caespitosa, Myriodesma harveyanum, Polysiphonia propagulifera,
Pterothamnion flexile, Scinaia proliferata, Tylocolax microcarpus, Ulvaria shepherdii. Endemic
species for which there are no geo-referenced records yet known from areas proposed as MPAs
include Anotrichium towinna, Antithamnion uniramosum, Antithamnionella multiramosa,
Callithamnion shepherdii, Flabellonema codii, Polysiphonia shepherdii and Sporochnema
tomentosum.
85
N
Proposed multiple-use marine parks
(DENR 2010)
Geo-referenced records of SA endemic
macroalgae in Eyre Peninsula NRM region
Eyre Peninsula NRM boundary
80km
Figure 29: Distribution of geo-referenced records of South Australian endemic species, in relation
to proposed multiple use marine parks in the EP NRM region.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Endemic, Rare (Uncommon) and Potentially Threatened Species
The distribution and status of South Australian endemic species and other potentially threatened,
limited range, rare or uncommonly recorded macroalgae is not well known. Records are sparse,
and span many decades. Records of possibly rare / uncommon species (including some of the
South Australian endemics) are concentrated in the best sampled areas, such as Waterloo Bay;
islands in the Investigator group; and Wanna (Sleaford Bay). Various records also come from the
south-western side of Eyre Peninsula, in the Coffin Bay area, and from bays in the eastern GAB,
and the sparsely sampled Sir Joseph Banks Group of islands off south-eastern Eyre Peninsula.
Several endemic species have also been recorded at islands in the Nuyts Archipelago (eastern
GAB), and in the highly industrialised Whyalla area.
Several locations in the EP NRM region were previously highlighted by Cheshire et al. (2000) as
important sites for limited range species, and all such species were considered as ―threatened
species‖ in that report. These sites include Elliston (Waterloo Bay, from where the highest number
of Eyre Peninsula records in ADHerb database have originated, hence the chance of uncommon
species being recorded is higher for this location than for others that have been less well sampled),
Pearson Island and Waldegrave Island in the Investigator Group, St Francis Island in the Nuyts
Archipelago, and ―Port Lincoln‖ area. The latter possibly refers to Wanna / Sleaford Bay, from
where many specimens of macroalgae have been collected.
A number of records of potentially rare / limited range species in the EP NRM area are old (e.g.
from the middle of the 20th century, and some even earlier), and it is not known in some cases
whether those species still exist in the areas where they were originally collected, because
targeted searches have not been made, and some of the areas where such species were
previously recorded have been subject to numerous impacts, as discussed below.
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Many of South Australia‘s apparently endemic species of macroalgae are small, inconspicuous
epiphytes. Such species are likely to be more widespread but have not yet been sampled.
Similarly, many species of macroalgae are also considered rare, based on the paucity of records;
however, a substantial number of these are likely to be more widespread but have not yet been
sampled due to their small size and/or cryptic habits, and/or the opportunistic, non-standardised
nature of macroalgal collections.
Calcareous Macroalgae
Of particular concern is the lack of knowledge about the true abundance, distribution and
biodiversity of crustose calcified red macroalgae in the EP NRM region. This lack of knowledge
also extends to national and international levels. Calcified macroalgae (i.e. calcareous macroalgae
with CaCO3-impregnated cell walls) play a major role in the establishment and maintenance of reef
super-structure. They are one of the principal cementing agents of the world‘s reefs. Calcareous
macroalgae are of major significance to reef building in temperate waters, but despite their
importance in reef accretion and ecology, knowledge of the diversity and biogeography of
calcareous macroalgae remains extremely poor. It is of primary importance that calcareous
macroalgae are better understood, to maximise the potential for conservation of this important
group, and to help manage processes and activities that impact upon it. Ocean acidification, a
consequence of climate change, is discussed below in the section on Climate Change. It is
believed that acidification can have very signficiant impacts on the distribution and abundance of
calcareous macroalgae.
Introduced Species
There are 7 introduced species of macroalgae that are known in EP NRM from SA State
Herbarium records, and these are described in this report. Two others, of most significance in
South Australia (Caulerpa taxifolia and Caulerpa racemosa var. cylindracea) have not yet been
recorded in the EP NRM region, but are part of a regular monitoring program by Primary Industries
and Resources South Australia and SARDI Aquatic Sciences in Gulf St Vincent, where these
species have become established (e.g. Rowling 2008, 2009; Wiltshire and Rowling 2009; Wiltshire
2010). Caulerpa taxifolia has attracted a large research and management effort in South Australia
since the early 2000s when it was discovered in the Port Adelaide River and West Lakes. The
current monitoring program could be considered an important step in controlling the spread of this
invasive species, which to date has resisted eradication attempts. Public education and vigilance
are required to prevent Caulerpa taxifolia from inadvertently spreading to other high risk areas of
the State (Rowling 2009), which would include port areas in the EP NRM region, as well as
marinas and boat havens. In particular, anchors and other equipment associated with recreational
craft have the potential to transport fragments of this Caulerpa, hence operators of boats moving
between Gulf St Vincent and other areas of the State should be cognisant of that possibility.
Reducing (and eventually eliminating) land-based nutrient flows into high risk areas may also
reduce the possibility of invasive species proliferating in other parts of South Australia.
A third species, Codium fragile ssp. fragile (= ssp. tomentosoides), appears to have received little
attention in South Australia, compared with Caulerpa taxifolia. In S.A., this Codium species has
been recorded from American River on Kangaroo Island, and from North Haven and West Lakes in
the Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges NRM region (ADHerb data), and was considered to be common
in the latter area in 2002 when it was discovered there (Womersley 2003). Codium fragile ssp.
fragile is now a pest species in south-eastern Australia (CRIMP / NIMPIS 2002, citing Campbell
and Hewitt 1999; Trowbridge 1999), and is considered number one in a list of invasive, introduced
marine macroalgae in Europe (Nyberg and Wallentinus 2005). Impacts in Australia are discussed
in Trowbridge (1999) and Bridgwood (2010). This species can alter benthic community structure
and species composition, by competing for space with native marine plants and taking over large
areas of the available substrate. It can also settle on native algae and shellfish, and foul fishing
nets. Large wracks of this species rot on beaches after storms, in some areas.
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Given that this species is now established in the areas of South Australia listed above (SA State
Herbarium data; Womersley 2003; Wiltshire et al. 2010), the potential for this form of Codium to
spread to other parts of the State should be considered, and measures to control such an
occurrence should be undertaken where possible. However, it is noted that a recent summary of
Codium fragile ssp. fragile in Western Australia, Bridgwood (2010, citing Trowbridge 1999),
concluded that all current potential means of control (chemical treatment, mechanical removal,
manual removal, and biological control) may be either ineffective, or highly damaging to other
marine flora in the infested area, and therefore control options are currently limited, and more
research is required to determine effective, non-destructive methods of control.
The various species of Ulva and Cladophora highlighted in this report as being introduced or
cryptogenic should be monitored in nutrient-rich locations (such as port areas, estuaries, and near
aquaculture facilities), for their potential to bloom. A number of these species have been
responsible for ―green tides‖ in other countries. It is noted that opportunistic green macroalgae
such as species of Ulva have potential to bloom in near aquaculture facilities due to the artificially
enhanced nutrient status of such areas, and fouling of aquaculture nets with Ulva has been
observed at sites off Port Lincoln where sea cage aquaculture is established (e.g. Cheshire et al.
1996).
One of the potentially invasive Cladophora species (C. prolifera) has been recorded at Fowlers
Bay in the eastern GAB, according to 1994 data from the S.A. Research and Development Institute
(SARDI, cited in State Herbarium of South Australia 2010). This Cladophora species has been the
subject of genetic work (Leliaert et al. 2007, cited by Blair et al. 2009), as has Codium fragile ssp.
fragile (Lam and Zechman 2006, Provan et al. 2008), the latter of which has not yet been recorded
in the EP NRM region, but has the potential to spread to the region. Molecular research can assist
studies of origin, detection, and potential spread of invasive species. Both native and possibly
cryptogenic species with the capacity to form seasonal algal blooms in eutrophic conditions (e.g.
species in Hincksia), should also be monitored, and some of these species occur in the EP NRM
region (e.g. Hincksia sordida and H. mitchelliae have been recorded in the Whyalla area).
Reduction of nutrient contamination of nearshore waters may assist in controlling blooms.
Locations in the EP NRM for which older records of introduced species exist should be resurveyed,
to determine if populations of those potentially invasive algae have established there. Examples
include the Franklin Harbour (Cowell area). The lack of herbarium records of introduced species
from major port areas such as Port Lincoln, Thevenard, Whyalla (and, to a lesser extent, Cowell)
likely reflects a lack of specific and systematic sampling of macroalgae in those areas, rather than
an absence of introduced species. Give the capacity of invasive algae to spread from port areas,
and the conditions that ports provide which are conducive to proliferation of such species, an
inventory of introduced species in the port areas (and other bays where shipping and boat traffic is
high) should be undertaken. In areas where shipping activity is concentrated (e.g. Port Lincoln,
Thevenard and Whyalla), there is an increased risk of marine pests introduced by the discharge of
ballast water or hull fouling.
Generally, more information about the nature and extent of marine pests in the EP NRM region is
needed (Eyre Peninsula NRM Board 2009). It is noted that the issue of introduced species in EP
NRM region is now starting to be addressed, with a review as a first step; however, that review
concentrated on marine invertebrates, not macroalgae (see Dittman et al. 2010).
It is important that public awareness is increased of the potential vectors that may aid the spread of
introduced macroalgae, such as ballast water, hull fouling, algal fragments on boat propellers,
ropes or other marine equipment. Public awareness may help decrease the probability at which
introduced species spread in SA.
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Impacts on Macroalgae, and Impact Assessment
Within the Eyre Peninsula NRM region, there has been no significant research on the potential
degradation of macroalgae-rich reefs. This is in contrast to the Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges NRM
region (AMLR NRM), where much research and reporting has occurred during the past decade,
both by universities and government research organisations (see Connell et al. 2008, and
summary description of macroalgal impact research projects in Baker and Gurgel 2010). According
to a reef cover reconstruction study, there is evidence of loss of up to 70% of the canopy-forming
macroalgae on parts of the Adelaide metropolitan coast since major urbanisation (Connell et al.
2008). In the metro area, there is strong evidence to indicate that increased nutrients and
sedimentation has led to the declines in canopy-forming kelp and other large brown macroalgae,
and an increase in the cover of sediment-trapping, turf-forming algae (Turner 2005, Turner and
Kildea 2006, Turner et al. 2007, Gorman 2009). No such studies have been done in the EP NRM
region, but it is probable that in areas of major industry and shipping (e.g. Whyalla, Port Lincoln
and Thevenard) and also in areas with increased nutrient contamination of nearshore habitats (e.g.
variously from agricultural runoff, increased urbanisation and consequent sewage and stormwater
runoff, aquaculture development, or areas where shack / holiday house and marina development is
concentrated), change in macroalgal cover has occurred over time, but has not been documented.
In addition to (and synergistic with) nutrient-induced impacts, sedimentation from coastal
discharges, and also from dredging works, can also have a detrimental effect on recruitment of
canopy-forming macroalgae. In parts of the EP NRM where dredging works are regularly
undertaken, monitoring should be undertaken to gauge the impacts on reef and seagrass cover in
the adjacent nearshore area, and best practice measures to reduce impacts should be introduced
where possible.
Generally, a significant, ongoing source of sedimentation to coastal reefs in southern Australia
(including South Australia) is from coastal rivers, creeks and stormwater drains. Compared with
some other parts of South Australia, the lack of significant rivers, creeks and other drainage points
along most parts of Eyre Peninsula reduces the risk of sedimentation in many areas. However,
there is a lack of monitoring of runoff and sedimentation onto seagrasses and reefs in the EP NRM
region (including agricultural runoff; and urban run-off from built-up areas such as coastal housing
developments), hence this cannot be discounted as a source of impact on macroalgae without
further research and monitoring.
Apart from reefs, seagrass beds also contribute significantly to the diversity of macroalgae in the
EP NRM region, because most seagrasses, particularly the two species of Amphibolis, can support
numerous epiphytic macroalgae. Locations where significant loss of seagrass beds have been
recorded during the past few decades include Spencer Gulf near Whyalla, Boston Bay and Proper
Bay in south-western Spencer Gulf, and Smoky Bay and Coffin Bay on the west coast of Eyre
Peninsula / eastern Great Australian Bight (GAB) (Resource Information Group 1999a,b).
Other benthic habitat types, such as shells beds and other combined hard/soft substrates, support
epilithic macroalgae. Native shellfish beds (including Pinna bicolor razorfish in some areas, and
native oysters and cockles in others) have been adversely affected in several parts of the EP NRM
region, such as Streaky Bay – Blanche Port area (Bond 1994) and Coffin Bay.
Baker (2004, Chapter 9) provided examples from bays in the eastern Great Australian Bight and
coastal locations around Eyre Peninsula and in Spencer Gulf, where nearshore habitat impacts
have been recorded. Some areas, such as Port Lincoln, Whyalla, Franklin Harbour and Coffin Bay,
are subject to more impacts than other areas within the EP NRM. For example, some of the main
marine impacts in northern Spencer Gulf, according to scientific assessments during the past
decades, include nutrients, industrial effluents, pollutants from stormwater run-off, high salinities
and water temperatures, metal contamination, ballast water discharges, and shipping accidents
(Dainis 1994, and references in Baker 2004). In the Whyalla area, registered marine point pollution
sources have included metals from the Whyalla steelworks (which has operated since 1964);
nutrients (SA Water), and oil (Port Bonython).
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Further south, at Franklin Harbour, the National Land and Water Resources Audit‘s assessment of
estuaries in South Australia (1999-2001) classified the harbour as ―severely modified‖, describing it
as ―intensively modified, and under high to very high pressure‖ (GeoScience Australia 2001). At
the bottom of Eyre Peninsula, Coffin Bay was described in that waterway assessment as
―modified‖ and under ―high to very high pressure‖. Assessment criteria included catchment natural
cover, land use, catchment hydrology, tidal regime, floodplain, estuary use, pests, weeds, and
estuary ecology (Barnett 2001, cited by DEH 2003). Baker (2004, Chapter 9:
http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/marineparks/pdfs/part_3.pdf) provided a detailed overview of
the marine impacts in the Spencer Gulf and nearshore eastern GAB region, as well as a summary
of impact mitigation measures during the 1990s and early 2000s.
Within the EP NRM, some of the impacts noted during the past decade which may adversely affect
(or may have already affected) cover of macroalgae (on reefs, and also epiphytic on seagrasses or
mangroves in some areas) include the following:
Marinas and associated residential canal estates / holiday housing developments: Coastal
developments and marina / boat harbour construction and maintenance can impact coastal reefs
and seagrass beds in the Eyre Peninsula NRM, and therefore adversely affect the cover of
macroalgae. General impacts of marinas and waterfront housing developments include the
following (from Harvey 1993; Eyre Peninsula NRM Board 2009).
hydrocarbon pollution of water, sediments and benthos from bilge and ballast waters, and
fuel spills;
contamination of sediments and biota with metals and other pollutants from hull cleaning,
painting and antifouling agents associated with increased recreational and commercial
boating;
physical damage to benthos, and reduction of benthic habitat quality (including destruction
of saltmarsh, wetlands, mangroves, dune systems, seagrass, macroalgae and benthic
fauna), from channel dredging and maintenance, waterfront housing construction, anchor
damage, and boat hull scouring;
increased turbidity and/or sedimentation from channel dredging and maintenance;
nutrient contamination from increased effluent loads;
exotic species introductions.
In part of the EP NRM region, the demand for residential development on the coast is increasing,
and a number of significant marina and residential developments are currently underway or being
planned (Eyre Peninsula NRM Board 2009). Holiday housing development in some areas (e.g.
Streaky Bay and surrounds) may result in physical damage in the coastal and near-shore marine
environment, particularly linear / ribbon developments (Ellis 1999). Marinas currently exist at
Whyalla, Tumby Bay, and Port Lincoln, and a marina is also being developed at Ceduna / Murat
Bay. Other locations have also been proposed in recent years (e.g. Blancheport). Marinas and
waterfront housing / canal estates are some of the most destructive agents known, for nearshore
marine habitats.
Over the past two decades, there has been a growing trend along many parts of the Eyre
Peninsula coast for shacks and holiday housing or retirement housing developments. Significant
free-holding of shacks took place in early 2000 (Eyre Peninsula NRM Board 2009). Holiday
housing developments on the coast can result in nearshore pollution from stormwater and effluent
discharge (see section below), and coastal erosion issues. As an example, disposal of stormwater
runoff from the Blancheport Rise residential subdivision has been noted as an important issue, as
it is possible that stormwater runoff from this area, which is likely to increase, is received by
wetland environments in part of Streaky Bay (Connell Wagner Pty Ltd 2003). Freshwater runoff
may have a detrimental effect on some nearshore habitats, by changing the water quality (e.g.
reducing salinity); and also, contaminants in residential stormwater runoff (such as fertilisers and
other garden supplements) may result in increased nutrient levels in the nearshore area.
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In another example, Morelli and de Jong (1995) and PISA Fisheries - Aquaculture Group (1997)
suggested that built-up urbanised areas such as Tumby Bay are subject to effluent discharge into
waterways and the adjacent marine environment. PIRSA Sustainable Resources unit reported that
water quality problems were evident in First Creek, immediately south of the causeway at Tumby
Bay. Mats of the green alga Ulva (sea lettuce) have been observed, an indicator of nutrient
pollution, presumably from stormwater run-off from an adjacent residential development.
Shack developments in coastal locations often rely upon on-site wastewater treatment systems
such as septic tanks and soakage trenches. If such systems are not designed to suit local soil and
water conditions or high seasonal loads, they discharge poorly treated effluent into the marine
environment (see section below, on Septic Systems) (Eyre Peninsula NRM Board 2009), and this
can cause blooms of nuisance macroalgae.
Recreational Use / Boating: Access by coastal vehicles and boats in shallow waters may have
damaged mangroves and nearshore habitats in the Davenport Creek, Laura Bay and Gibson
Peninsula / Blanche Port / Streaky Bay / Acraman Creek areas. Hydrocarbon pollution from
boating activity in various west coast bays, and also in Coffin Bay, Franklin Harbour and Tumby
Bay, has been listed as a potential threat to habitats such as tidal flats and creeks, mangrove
habitats and saltmarsh (Bryars 2003). Epiphytic macroalgae on seagrasses in such areas are also
likely to be affected by hydrocarbon pollution, but no studies have been undertaken. At Tumby Bay
in Spencer Gulf, there is heavy access by boats through First Creek (Morelli and de Jong 1995).
An increased level of hydrocarbons has been reported due to boating activity in First Creek, and at
the Tumby Bay marina (Bryars 2003).
Septic systems and effluent discharge: There are various locations in the EP NRM region where
septic tank discharge/overflow could threaten marine habitats (Eyre Peninsula NRM Board 2009),
and such pollutants may alter the species composition and abundance of macroalgae, particularly
canopy-forming species. Seagrasses (and their natural epiphytes) may also be adversely affected,
and Ulva sea lettuce and nuisance microalgae can both bloom in septic-contaminated areas. In
general, pollution of water and sediments along the developed parts of the Eyre Peninsula coast
has long been recognised (e.g. Buckley 1986), and detrimental effects on benthic flora were
considered amongst the suite of potential impacts. Septic disposal, septic tank overflow and
consequent near-shore nutrient contamination are considered to be issues along parts of the Eyre
Peninsula and eastern Great Australian Bight coast, including Coffin Bay, and further north around
Streaky Bay, Haslam and Perlubie Beach / Eba Island area, Smoky Bay and Denial Bay (Ellis
1999, Bryars 2003). Within Spencer Gulf, there are also reported to be increased levels of
nutrients caused by septic tank overflow at Port Gibbon and Cowell (Bryars 2003). During the
2000s, there were plans to connect all residences in Streaky Bay and Ceduna to a septic drainage
system (see Ellis 1999), because the District Council of Streaky Bay‘s Strategic Plan (2002),
reported that a major issue in the area is the management of the STED (Septic Tank Effluent
Disposal) scheme, especially in terms of overflow from areas close to the water‘ edge.
Investigations into the re-use of water and the establishment of treatment ponds have been
considered by the Council to be critical from an environmental and health perspective. Other
related issues include the associated problems caused by the expansion of coastal urban
development, and new areas which may need to be covered by a STED scheme. Waste
management in the towns is considered ―crucial‖ (District Council of Streaky Bay 2002), in terms of
limiting impact on the environment. Other related pollution sources identified in the shallow bays of
the eastern GAB include land-applied treated wastewater systems and effluent reuse systems.
There has also been some concern that holiday housing developments in the Streaky Bay area
during the past two decades (described in Ellis 1999) may result in further discharges into the
near-shore marine environment.
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Stormwater discharge: Stormwater can carry nutrients; heavy metals; oils; sediment; and
industrial, rural and/or domestic chemicals (amongst other pollutants) into the nearshore area. The
effect can be worst in built-up areas with numerous hard surfaces (roads, paved paths, carparks,
driveways) and drains, and coastal developments with such built-up areas (such as the holiday
housing developments associated with marinas) are increasing in the EP NRM region over recent
decades (see section above, on Marinas).
Coastal industrial development: In areas of EP NRM where light and heavy industries are
established (e.g. Whyalla, Port Lincoln and Thevenard), potential threats to the marine
environment include industry-processing discharges and heavy metal contamination; shipping and
potential impacts from ballast water and leakages; spills of oil and other petro-chemicals during
shipping operations; dredging, and mining activity (Bryars 2003; Baker 2004; Eyre Peninsula NRM
Board 2009).
For example, at Whyalla, where there is a steelworks and pellet plant: suspended solids, iron, lead,
zinc, manganese, ammonia, cyanides, phenols, and contaminated and heated cooling water are
released in the area from the steelworks, blast furnace and coke ovens (Dainis 1994; Lewis et al.
1998; EPA statistics 2002). The pollutants are advected into False Bay. Historic discharges from
the steelworks have resulted in elevated concentrations of metals such as lead, manganese, zinc
and cadmium in the intertidal mudflats in the Whyalla area (Harbison, 1984 and 1993), with some
concern for the accumulation of metals through marine food chains, as well as localised loss of
seagrass (previously, 2000 ha) (Harbison 1984, cited by Lewis et al. 1998 and Harris and O‘Brien
1998). A previous estimate of the amount of contaminated wastewater discharged into False Bay
(via a settlement pond), was around 429,000 m3 /day. That water contained ~ 5 g/l suspended
solids, which in turn contained high concentrations of lead, zinc, copper and manganese (McLaren
and Wiltshire 1984, cited by Harris and O‘Brien 1998). Discharges from the tailings dam, which
contain elevated levels of dissolved iron, can also percolate into the nearshore marine environment
though the walls of the settlement pond system (Miller 1982, cited by Lewis et al. 1998). There is
also reported to be some seepage from the effluent dams (Bryars 2003), which contributes to
metal contamination in the area. Also, the ―physical disturbance‖ caused by the dumping of
steelworks effluent into dams adjacent to Whyalla, has been listed as a minor threat to mangrove
habitat in the Whyalla area (Bryars 2003). During the past decade, previous examples of annual
loads of pollutants from the steel works include 310kg of lead and compounds; 2900kg of
manganese and compounds; 3100kg of zinc and compounds, and 210,000kg of nitrogen (EPA
statistics 2002, cited by DEH 2003). Studies over a number of years have identified the effluent
from coke ovens as a significant source of organic pollutants (e.g. phenols) and ammonia
(Environment Australia 2001). Apart from metal contamination of the sediments and biota, other
reported impacts in the area include degradation of seagrass (Dainis 1994). A serious decline of
Posidonia seagrass in False Bay has been attributed to pH change in sediment, due to iron
deposition (data by P. Harbison, cited by S. Shepherd, pers. comm., 2004). Concern has also
been expressed about dioxin levels emitted from the steel works (Extract from Hansard, Legislative
Council 4 July 2001). Prior to the installation of the waste gas cleaning plant on the pellet plant‘s
exit gas stack in November 1998, the reported concentration of dioxin in waste gas was 1.21.4ng/m3. This equated to a total emission of ~4g/year of dioxins. After the installation of the waste
gas cleaning plant on the pellet plant exit gas stack, the concentration of dioxin was measured as
averaging 0.08ng/m3 in the exit gas (average of 4 samples). This equates to a total mass emission
of less than 0.5g / year of dioxins (Extract from Hansard, Legislative Council 24th July, 2001).
Some of the environmental improvements that have been undertaken in northern Spencer Gulf by
industries during the past decade are discussed in Baker (2004). Although some work has been
undertaken in northern Spencer Gulf indicating bioaccumulation of metals in seagrasses (Ward et
al. 1986), the effects of heavy metals and other industrial contaminants on macroalgae in the
Whyalla and Port Pirie areas have not been investigated. However, work from both interstate and
overseas has shown that metals bioaccumulate in macroalgae, and that metal contamination of
canopy flora such as Sargassum, and also of red and green understorey macroalgae, can have
adverse effects on epifaunal assemblages that live and feed on the macroalgae (Roberts et al.
2006 and 2008, Riosmena-Rodríguez et al. 2010).
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Shipping: South-western Spencer Gulf and northern Spencer Gulf are major shipping lanes, used
by international tankers and other large vessels. On the western side of Spencer Gulf, shipping
activities are concentrated around Whyalla and Port Bonython. The presence of international
shipping within these waters poses a threat to the Spencer Gulf ecosystems. Dainis (1994)
summarised shipping impacts in the northern Spencer Gulf area according to activity:
Entry of Ships: Results in resuspension of bottom sediments, due to ships entering shallow
bays, resulting in turbidity in the water column, siltation and smothering of benthic biota, and
release of toxic metal-rich sediments that may adversely affect biotic distribution and function.
Loading: Spillage of metal concentrates into the marine environment may occur, from
wharves and stockpiles, and during loading. This can increase the concentration of heavy
metals (lead, copper, cadmium, zinc etc) in sediments, and increase the circulation of
particulate metal. Other effects include reduction in oxygen levels in water and sediment,
suspension of metal-rich matter (causing turbidity and increasing the component of toxic
substances in the water column in the short term), smothering of benthic biota, and toxic effects
on biotic function. Organic dusts are also released during loading of grain, resulting in turbidity
and smothering.
Dredging: Occurs at Whyalla and Port Bonython (Dainis 1994), mainly to maintain shipping
channels, but other dredging events occur periodically, associated with coastal developments.
Dredging mobilises silts into suspension, as well as particulate metals, which can accumulate in
channel areas in northern Spencer Gulf (Dainis 1994). Impacts include short-term increased
water turbidity (and reduction in light penetration), smothering of benthic flora and fauna,
reduction in dissolved oxygen, and suspension of metal-rich sediments, which may cause toxic
effects on distribution and function of biota. Some of the effects of heavy metal accumulation
are discussed above.
Spillage: Spillage of oil and other hydrocarbons, bilge water and other substances (which
may accumulate at shorelines and affect biotic distribution, abundance and function). If oil is
spilled in large quantities, it may cause acute or (in some cases) longer term impacts on the
distribution and abundance of biota in the area. Hydrocarbon pollution from petro-chemical
spillage during shipping operations in northern Spencer Gulf (e.g. Port Pirie, Whyalla and Port
Bonython) has been listed as a potential threat to habitats in the area (Bryars 2003).
Storage, processing and shipping of liquid hydrocarbons in the Whyalla area also has impacts on
the adjacent marine environment. Oils, particulates and oily ballast water have been discharged
from the hydrocarbon handling facility at Port Bonython (Dainis 1994; PISA Fisheries –
Aquaculture Group 1996). Periodic oil spills are also another threat from oil handling facilities. The
spill of 296 tonnes of bunker oil at Port Bonython in 1992, the worst spill in South Australia‘s
maritime history, included the death and/or total defoliation of 2.3ha of mangroves, with no
significant signs of recovery after 2 years (Wardrop et al. 1993; Edyvane, Baker and Seddon:
unpublished SARDI data 1994; Butler 1995). False Bay has been classified as having high oil
strike probability (i.e. 15 - 20%), and Fitzgerald Bay as having intermediate probability (Kinhill
Stearns 1987). Other impacts include ongoing contamination of marine biota due to the increased
levels of hydrocarbons (in the vicinity of processing, storage and shipping areas).
Apart from oil spills, the presence of international shipping within the major shipping lanes of southwestern Spencer Gulf and northern Spencer Gulf poses a threat to the nearshore ecosystems from
the introduction of pest species in ballast water, or on hulls of ships. Over the years, ships have
discharged ballast water into the harbours at Port Pirie and Whyalla / Port Bonython, provided that
they follow any voluntary precautions against contaminated ballast water as may be required
(Harris and O‘Brien 1998). Ballast water discharge poses the threat of introduction of exotic
organisms, including the organisms associated with the development of Harmful Algal Blooms,
although the high salinities of northern Spencer Gulf could restrict the establishment of many such
species, at least in the uppermost area of the gulf. Also recognised is the threat of introduction of
exotic organisms / pest species via ballast water due to international shipping in the Thevenard /
Murat Bay / Denial Bay area (Ashman 1996; Bryars 2003).
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In general, ballast water discharge has been identified as a pollution source along the western
Eyre Peninsula coast and in Spencer Gulf, and port operations at Thevenard and Whyalla are
considered to be main risk areas regarding ballast water introductions (Ellis 1999; Dainis 1994). In
the eastern GAB, it is possible that ―large quantities of potentially contaminated ballast water‖
could be released into Bosanquet Bay (Ellis 1999).
Ellis (1999) reported that the spread of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum in South
Australia has been directly related to shipping, as well as recreational craft, and a 1990 survey
reported cysts of A. minutum in the sediments at Thevenard and Streaky Bay, and that several
other dinoflagellates and cyanobacteria have been recorded in west coast waters. Upwelling
events have been implicated in phytoplankton blooms of such species.
Additionally, the construction, operation and maintenance of wharves, harbours, jetty approaches,
boat ramps, landings and other infrastructure may disturb the nearshore benthic environment, and
pose a potential ongoing pollution threat (Eyre Peninsula NRM Board 2009). Initial and
maintenance dredging to deepen access to such facilities in shallow coastal waters can impact
local seagrass and macroalgal communities, and can permanently alter sand and water
movements. For example, at Franklin Harbour, deepening of the boating channel, and potential
dredging of the harbour have been listed as potential impacts in the area (Bryars 2003).
On the other side of Eyre Peninsula, there is some anecdotal evidence that work practices at
Thevenard shipping harbour may have resulted in localised contamination of marine waters (Ellis
1999). Spills of grain and fertiliser into the water during loading have also been reported.
Wastes from fish processing plants have also been identified as a pollution source in the Eyre
Peninsula region (Ellis 1999).
Farming, and farm chemical run-off: Catchment-derived discharges of agricultural fertilisers and
chemicals are also a concern, and the increased level of nutrients from both concentrated
agricultural run-off (via creeks) and diffuse agricultural run-off entering the bays such as Smoky
Bay, Laura Bay, Streaky Bay, Acraman Creek, Tumby Bay and Franklin Harbour has been listed
as a potential threat to habitats in those areas (Bryars 2003). There is a substantial amount of
farming and cropping in areas adjacent to nationally important wetlands and estuaries of the
eastern Great Australian Bight, and good farm management skills are needed to prevent losses of
nutrients to the marine environment in catchment run-off. All of the above-mentioned discharges
are considered to have adverse effects on water quality and marine ecosystems in general (Ellis
1999). There is also stock grazing in some coastal areas (e.g. Davenport Creek; Gibson Peninsula
/ Blanche Port / Streaky Bay, and Baird Bay), with potential for physical damage and also
increased nutrients in the nearshore area (Hames Sharley Australia 1989; Morelli and de Jong
1995; Australian Heritage Commission undated; Bryars 2003). Nutrients from farm run-off have the
potential to alter the composition and abundance of macroalgae in habitats of the receiving waters.
Aquaculture: In the Eyre Peninsula region, Planning S.A. (2002) reported that, in broad terms,
―There is the potential for a larger area of the marine environment to be impacted by subsequent
development as the size of area available for aquaculture increases‖. Some of the many examples
of aquaculture impacts are outlined below.
There has been reduction in the cover of seagrass beds in some of the bays of the eastern Great
Australian Bight, and also in Franklin Harbour, from shellfish aquaculture leases (which can cause
shading and also increase sedimentation). This issue is discussed in detail in Chapter 9 of Baker
(2004). Physical disturbance to benthic habitats caused by oyster aquaculture operations has
been listed as a potential threat to habitats in Denial Bay, Murat Bay, around St Peter Island and in
Streaky Bay (e.g. The Spit) (Bryars 2003). Further south, oyster production has been undertaken
in Coffin Bay since the 1980s, and the number of leases (and consequent production) increased
significantly by the early-mid 2000s.
94
In general, some of the issues associated with oyster farming include competition with native filter
feeders, benthic habitat damage, spread of disease, and non-target effects of chemicals for
disease control. There is an ongoing monitoring program in Coffin Bay, and the importance of
continuing this is noted, particularly in light of the increased aquaculture production that has
occurred since some of the previous environmental impact studies were undertaken (see Baker
2004).
Concern has been expressed that the almost enclosed Kellidie Bay (near Coffin Bay) may not be
sufficient (in terms of hydrodynamics / flushing) to support the level of oyster farming that has been
permitted in that bay. There is some concern that the assimilative capacity of the bay is being
reached. Algal blooms have occurred periodically in Coffin Bay (PISA Fisheries - Aquaculture
Group 1997), including the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum (PIRSA web site, 2003). It is
likely that species composition and abundance of macroalgae have changed in such areas of
aquaculture development, but long term benthic studies are lacking.
Localised increases in nutrients and waste levels may also result from aquaculture in its various
forms in the bays of eastern Great Australian Bight (Ellis 1999). Public submissions to the Streaky
Bay Aquaculture Management Plan (Bond 1994) listed waste water from aquaculture facilities as a
concern in the Streaky Bay area, and requests were made that waste water should not be allowed
to re-enter the sea unless adequately treated. Previously, there has also been concern about
waste-washing water from an oyster processing plant entering Denial Bay, about 300m north of the
jetty (Hames Sharley Australia 1989).
One of the most significant impacts of aquaculture is increased nutrients affecting water quality,
and increased level of nutrient-rich waste degrading the benthic environment. Some of the impacts
in areas where some forms of aquaculture (such as caged fish ranching) have proliferated include:
high levels of ammonia and nitrogen; change in the composition of the benthic environment
(including reduction in cover of macroalgae and seagrass, and increased cover of opportunistic
species); increase in hydrogen sulphide levels in the sediments; and toxic blooms of microalgae.
Specific examples are discussed in detail in Baker (2004). Aquaculture may, in cases where
supplementary feeding is required (particularly in semi-enclosed waterways), reduce water quality
and composition of the benthos through nutrient increases (Ashman 1996; Madigan and Clarke
1998). The Commonwealth‘s Senate Inquiry into Marine and Coastal Pollution (October 1997) and
the Commonwealth‘s State of the Marine Environment Report (1995) both highlighted as a major
issue, waste production from aquaculture, leading to local increases in nutrients and excessive
algal growth. In South Australia, concern was expressed by the Parliament‘s ERD Committee
(2000) about ―the lack of control that the Environment Protection Authority has over an industry
which is a heavy polluter of the environment. The Committee believes that finfish farming should
be put into Schedule 1 of the Environment Protection Act‖ (ERD Committee 2000, p.22).
Although there is little publicly available information specific to the lower Eyre Peninsula area, a
number of studies have shown impacts due to benthic enrichment. For example, Cheshire et al.
(1996) reported localised impacts on the benthic environment under tuna grow-out cages, as
follows, indicating changes to the benthic composition and abundance of fauna in the vicinity of the
cages: ―In general the epibenthic communities were impacted up to 150m from the cages. Surveys
at 200m indicated that epibenthic communities were not different to those on the control transect‖
(Cheshire et al. 1996). In a review of the 1996 study and other studies at the time, PIRSA (2002),
stated that ―it can be seen that there is a level of human impact upon the region in terms of water
quality, and in some cases biodiversity (e.g. Proper Bay: Hall et al. 2000, Boston Bay West:
Cheshire et al. 1996a,b, and Boston Island East: Clarke et al. 2000). It appears that various inputs
into the coastal region (including sewage waste, fisheries processors waste, runoff from
stormwater, agriculture and aquaculture) have all acted in a synergistic fashion to contribute to a
decline in water quality in the region‖. Nutrient-rich waste material and animal by-products
generated by aquaculture can lead to impacts on marine ecosystem health, particularly the
abundance of seagrass and macroalgae both directly adjacent to and distant from the source of
nutrient input (Planning S.A. 2002).
95
Planning S.A. (2002, summarised in Baker 2004:
http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/marineparks/pdfs/part_3.pdf) provided a number of
recommendations to limit and mitigate the impacts of caged fish grow-out in Spencer Gulf, and
some of these have been undertaken during the past decade, including moving cages to deeper
water with better flushing characteristics, and more efficient feeding methods. Other
recommendations should also be undertaken where possible.
Other impacts of aquaculture industries that may adversely affect macroalgae and/ or seagrass
cover include physical disturbance to tidal flats and shallow subtidal areas from aquaculture
operations; impacts from land-based aquaculture facilities (e.g. abalone farms) which may
increase the levels of nutrients in bays due to point-source effluent discharge; spillage of fuel and
oil; and anchor and propeller damage to seagrass meadows and reefs from aquaculture farmservicing boats etc.
Acid sulphate soils: Acidic, iron sulphide-containing soils have been identified as a potential
problem in parts of the EP NRM region where saltmarsh and/or mangroves are abundant, such as
Ceduna township, Murat Bay and Davenport Creek, Smoky Bay and surrounds, Cape Misslessy,
Laura Bay, Streaky Bay and surrounds, Baird Bay, Venus Bay, Tumby Bay and Cowell / Franklin
Harbour. The acid sulphate soils may be actual (pH 4 or less) or potential (containing iron
sulphides, but not yet exposed to air), and have the potential to result to degrade nearshore marine
habitats, through anoxic conditions, and also pulses of acidic (and therefore toxic) water (Eyre
Peninsula NRM Board 2009).
Desalination: Desalination plants are being developed in Spencer Gulf, including a large one in the
planning stages near Whyalla, to serve the mining industry. The desalination process removes
minerals from sea water to produce fresh water. Discharge from the process to the marine
environment can include high quantities and concentrations of salt, chemicals used during
defouling of plant and equipment and pre-treatment of water, and toxic metals. This waste stream
is considered to potentially have major impacts on the receiving environment, especially if wastes
are introduced at sites of low-flow that cannot flush the highly concentrated salt brine (Eyre
Peninsula NRM Board 2009). Other impacts may include increased turbidity, reduced oxygen
levels and a concentrated salt layer on the benthos (Eyre Peninsula NRM Board 2009)
Some of the potential impacts of relevance to benthic macroalgae include erosion of benthos,
interruption to algal recruitment processes (including potentially reduced success of spore
settlement), and change in benthic species composition due to increased salinity over time (which
provides favourable conditions for salt-tolerant species). Modelling studies have shown that due to
slow flushing, the upper reaches of Spencer Gulf is a most unsuitable discharge location for
desalination plant brine that is twice the salinity of normal seawater, and, owing to particularly
weak neap tides, discharge water can attain high concentrations of >10% (1/10 dilution) and a
salinity excess of>5 psu within 100m distance from the discharge location (Kampf et al. 2009).
Apart from salinity effects, the damage that desalination brine will have on the benthic ecology of
Spencer Gulf will depend on the water quality (e.g. levels of dissolved oxygen and other
chemicals) of water discharged (Kampf et al. 2009).
Climate change: Some of the antiticipated consequences of climate change generally include sea
level rise (and increased episodes of inundation from coastal flooding, coastal erosion,
sedimentation, habitat change and damage), and ocean acidification from increased levels of
carbon dioxide dissolved in the seawater, and warmer ocean waters. All these processes can lead
to changes in species composition and distribution. According to McInnes et al. 2003 (cited in Eyre
Peninsula NRM 2009), seawater temperatures on the continental shelf and Great Australian Bight
increased marginally (i.e. by 0.39°C and 0.43°C respectively) between 1950 and 2000. It is
predicted that further temperature increases on the continental shelf could be 0.2 - 1.2°C by 2030
and 0.6 - 3.6°C by 2070. In the deeper waters further south, smaller temperature increases are
predicted (i.e. 0.1–1.2°C to 2030 and 0.3–3.6°C by 2070) (McInnes et al. 2003, cited in Eyre
Peninsula NRM 2009).
96
Venus Bay and Baird Bay are low lying areas and are likely to be affected by sea level rise.
The environment of Spencer Gulf, particularly northern Spencer Gulf, may also be particularly
susceptible to the impacts of sea level rise due to its low lying nature, wide expanses of supratidal
and intertidal sediments, and reported level of seismic activity, although the coastal progradation of
sediments that has historically occurred in the north due to geological processes, may mitigate the
effects to some extent. Harvey et al. (1995) undertook a coastal vulnerability assessment of the
northern Spencer Gulf area.
Considering that habitats in northern Spencer Gulf display a distinct zonation from the supratidal to
the deeper central channels areas, it is possible that the distribution of current nearshore benthic
habitats will change during the coming decades, which should be considered in any future zonation
of the northern gulf waters for any purpose (including protected areas / conservation zones;
industrial zones; residential zones; aquaculture zones etc). Coastal settlements are likely to be at
increased risk of coastal flooding and erosion, which may also adversely affect nearshore habitats.
Further impacts to the nearshore marine environment are likely due to released contaminants and
sediments/foreign matter (Eyre Peninsula NRM Board 2009).
Of particular concern is the likely impact of climate change on calcareous macroalgae. Minor
reductions in oceanic pH (from 8.1 to 7.8) can reduce calcification by as much as 21% for coral
reef communities that include calcareous macroalgae (Leclerq et al. 2000). In experiments using
aquaria enriched with CO2, calcareous macroalgae - the dominant contributors to calcium
carbonate mass on seagrass blades - disappears at pH = 7.7 (Martin et al. 2008). Indeed,
calcareous red macroalgae are more sensitive to climate change, in terms of ocean acidification
and warming, than corals (Anthony et al. 2008). Their recruitment rates and growth are also
severely inhibited in elevated CO2 conditions (Kuffner et al. 2008). These results demonstrate that
calcareous macroalgae are the most sensitive and threatened reef-building organism in the world
when it comes to processes associated with climate change (i.e. ocean acidification, higher CO2
concentrations and warmer temperatures). The obvious susceptibility of calcareous macroalgae to
ocean acidification, and their importance in reef building and maintenance, argues strongly that
their conservation is of critical importance for maintaining reefs into the future, and should be
afforded the highest priority. Efforts are required to protect calcareous reef flora that currently
exists, from additional anthropogenic stresses such as physical damage (e.g. from boats, anchors,
dredging etc), sediment smothering, and nutrient enrichment. Such protection may help
calcareous reefs to persist longer in the face of ongoing stresses which are harder to control, such
as ocean acidification from climate change.
Some of the other ways in which global warming may impact macroalgae include:
changes to algal recruitment due to increasing water temperatures;
interruption to spore settlement in the shallow subtidal (e.g. due to increased levels of
inundation, and/or changing tide lines over time;
reduction in the cover of seagrass meadows, with consequent impacts on epiphytic
macroalgae, which have important ecological functions (see Baker 2004); and
increased potential for marine pest species to flourish, due to nutrient changes (particularly
from nearshore contamination with rising sea levels), increased CO2 levels, and ecosystem
disturbance (EP NRM Board 2009).
Long-term Monitoring
A number of coastal and marine monitoring projects currently exist along Eyre Peninsula, on an
on-going basis. Examples include:
site monitoring by EPA in the waters of Boston Bay, Venus Bay and Coffin Bay, and at
Dutton River and Tod River (Koppio and White Flat) (Eyre Peninsula NRM Board 2009);
monitoring by PIRSA of aquaculture impacts (e.g. in waters off Port Lincoln), in addition to
the Environmental Monitoring Program reports that aquaculture licence holders are
required to submit an PIRSA Aquaculture each year (e.g. PIRSA 2005, for finfish
aquaculture); and
wetlands monitoring, by EP NRM Board.
97
It is recognised in the Eyre Peninsula NRM‘s Evaluation, Reporting and Improvement Framework
(2009) that more ―consistent, meaningful and widespread monitoring is needed for aquatic system
and impacts from diffuse and point sources‖, and that ―there currently are little data available to
adequately monitor these indicators‖ (p. 31).
In terms of community-based monitoring, a pilot extension to Eyre Peninsula of the Reef Watch
program in South Australia has been undertaken in recent years (see Eyre Peninsula NRM Board
2006 for summary). Training has been undertaken at sites around Whyalla and Port Lincoln (A.
Gaut, CCSA, pers. comm. 2010). The community-based monitoring program run by Reef Watch,
uses the line intercept transect method (LIT), to survey the sessile macro-benthos (bottom-dwelling
species) that forms the major structural components of reef systems. The LIT method is described
in Miller et al. (1998) and Turner (2005). In the Reef Watch monitoring program, macroalgae are
not usually identified to species level, but are coded as ―life forms‖ based on the appearance /
morphology of the plant. Plants are divided into basic groups according to the shape and texture,
such as foliaceous, lobed, leathery, lumpy, robust, branched etc. For example, a brown, branching
plant would be coded ―BBRANCH‖, where ―B‖ is for ―brown‖, and ―BRANCH‖ for ―branching‖ (Reef
Watch 2004). Although this method is useful for characterising the major component of the
benthos, additional specialised training would need to be undertaken by volunteer divers to identify
rare taxa to species level, given that the majority of endemic and otherwise rare species known in
SA to date are small, inconspicuous epiphytes, and also, the Reef Watch monitoring program is
not species-specific in the identification of macroalgae. It is hoped that the Reef Watch program
can be expanded and developed in the EP NRM region.
Other Recommendations for Monitoring and Impact Management
In addition to the recommendations above, relating to rare and endemic species, introduced
species, and sediment and water quality monitoring, other recommendations include continuing the
current and proposed work of the EP NRM Board and associates with regard to coast and marine
monitoring and impact management (e.g. as outlined in the Eyre Peninsula Natural Heritage Trust
Investment Strategy 2006 – 2008; the Eyre Peninsula NRM Board‘s Monitoring, Evaluation,
Reporting and Improvement Framework 2009, and State of Our Resources report 2009), to ensure
the persistence of remaining healthy reefs and seagrass beds, and the restoration of these where
degraded, through the 21st century. Such work includes:
qualification and quantification of nutrient and chemical inputs into coastal embayments and
near shore environments in the EP NRM region, because little is known about nutrient cycling
in estuaries, or the impact of land-based pollutants on near shore environments in the region
(Eyre Peninsula NRM 2009);
more information on groundwater inputs to estuarine (and other nearshore) environments,
because, due to little surface water, some Eyre Peninsula estuaries may receive much of the
freshwater input from groundwater. Groundwater inputs have never been quantified nor has
the ecosystem dependence on groundwater been assessed (Eyre Peninsula NRM 2009);
continued assistance for watercourse improvement and land management works;
continued restoration and management of rivers and land upstream to stop erosion and
reduce the amount of sediment and nutrients that enters rivers and creeks (and thus ends up
on coastal reefs), particularly during peak load times as occurs after major storms;
building of settlement or sediment ponds to reduce the amount of stormwater reaching the
sea;
continued treatment and recycling of wastewaters on land, and reduction of effluent-rich flows
to the sea;
where possible, particular protection of existing Aquatic Reserves and proposed Sanctuary
Zones of marine parks from physical impacts, nutrient enrichment, and sedimentation,
especially those which are known to provide habitat for apparently endemic / limited range
species of macroalgae;
98
long-term and regular water quality monitoring to improve coastal water quality and the
condition of marine and coastal habitats, as is currently occurring with the AMLR NRM Board‘s
monitoring and report card program.
It is recognised in the Eyre Peninsula NRM‘s Evaluation, Reporting and Improvement Framework
(2009) that independent estuarine and marine monitoring is lacking and needs to be initiated in
strategic locations. Examples would include monitoring of water quality and benthic marine
habitats in and adjacent to ports, harbours, and in bays where coastal development is burgeoning,
because impacts (such as nutrient enrichment) in such areas may affect species richness and
abundance of native macroalgae, and encourage the proliferation of invasive species.
Summary of Recommendations
• Surveys to better determine the distribution and status of South Australian rare and/or
endemic species of macroalgae, particularly in the areas identified in this report as datapoor, such as EP eastern coastline (e.g. Spencer Gulf coastline between Port Lincoln and
Whyalla). Regions of particular interest also include Aquatic Reserves, proposed marine
park sanctuary zones, and port areas (and other highly modified areas where threatening
processes exist).
•
Determine the level of genetic connectivity between distinct coastal regions along the EP
NRM coast (a DENR scientific priority in marine sciences) in order to establish a marine
connectivity map. This is important for marine environmental conservation, management
and informed decision-making.
•
Studies on the genetic diversity of various species of macroalgae in the EP NRM, and the
spatial structure of this diversity within the region.
•
An inventory of introduced species, particularly in port and harbour areas (and other bays
where shipping and boat traffic is high) and around aquaculture facilities, to ascertain the
presence or absence of invasive and cryptogenic species in these areas. This also includes
areas where there are previous (old) records of introduced and cryptogenic species, for
which current presence and status are unknown.
•
Tests of the status of macroalgae that are considered to be introduced and cryptogenic,
using modern techniques in molecular biology, and associated work on the precise
taxonomic identification of these species, particularly cryptogenic taxa.
•
Consideration of the invasive possibilities of Codium fragile ssp. fragile (= ssp.
tomentosoides), and development of measures to control such an occurrence. Also
recommended are further studies of various species of Ulva, Cladophora and Hincksia that
may be introduced or cryptogenic. Studies should be concentrated in port and harbour
areas, and around aquaculture facilities, and include nutrient, temperature and pH
responses, as these species and parameters when combined have the potential to produce
blooms.
•
Maintenance of monitoring programs, and increased public education and vigilance, to
prevent Caulerpa taxifolia from inadvertently spreading (e.g. via boating) from Gulf St
Vincent to other high risk areas of the State, such as port areas in the EP NRM region, as
well as marinas and boat havens. Reducing (and eventually eliminating) land-based
nutrient flows into high risk areas may also reduce the possibility of this species spreading
to other parts of South Australia.
99
•
Increased public awareness about potential vectors that may aid the spread of introduced
macroalgae (e.g. ballast water, hull fouling, algal fragments on boat propellers, ropes or
other marine equipment) and their consequences for the local economy. Public awareness
may help decrease the probability at which introduced species spread in SA.
•
Protection of calcareous reef flora that currently exists in and around EP NRM, from
additional anthropogenic stresses such as physical damage (e.g. from boats, anchors,
dredging etc), sediment smothering, and nutrient enrichment. Such protection may help
calcareous reefs to persist longer in the face of ongoing stresses which are harder to
control, such as ocean warming and acidification from climate change.
•
In conjunction with government agencies and research institutions, long-term and regular
monitoring to improve coastal water quality and the condition of marine and coastal
habitats. Locations of particular interest for marine water quality monitoring include within
and adjacent to ports, harbours, and in bays where coastal development is burgeoning.
The numerous government recommendations provided during the past decade, for
mitigating the adverse effects of aquaculture on the benthic environment and water quality,
should be implemented where possible. Also needed is expanded treatment and recycling
of wastewaters on land, and reduction of effluent-rich flows to the sea (e.g. from towns,
marinas / boat harbours, and coastal holiday housing or retirement housing developments).
•
In parts of the EP NRM where dredging works are regularly undertaken, monitoring should
be undertaken (in conjunction with government agencies and research institutions), to
gauge the impacts on reef and seagrass cover in the adjacent nearshore area, and best
practice measures to reduce impacts should be introduced where possible.
•
Assistance for watercourse improvement and land management. Where possible,
restoration (e.g. revegetation) and management of rivers and land upstream to stop erosion
and reduce the amount of sediment, nutrients and farm chemicals that enter rivers and
creeks (and thus end up on coastal reefs), particularly during peak load times as occurs
after major storms.
•
More information on the macroalgal species composition / biodiversity of data-poor areas
such as the northern, central and western sides of Spencer Gulf; all Eyre Peninsula waters
deeper than 30m;coastal waters of south-eastern Great Australian Bight; south-western
and southern Eyre Peninsula, Thorny Passage islands, the Sir Joseph Banks group; and
the Neptune Islands.
Summary of Information Gaps, and Other Recommendations
As shown in this report, little is known of the species-specific composition of macroalgae in many
parts of the EP NRM region despite the intense historical sampling efforts in a few areas.
Macroalgae collection history in EP NRM has been patchy and highly geographically
heterogeneous (e.g. two 10km2 cells with >1000 red algal records, while many others have zero).
Furthermore, despite its ecological and economical importance for the State, Spencer Gulf still
remains one of the poorest known coastlines phycologically.
More is known of the flora of a few offshore Islands along the EP NRM (which are far more difficult
to assess, and more expensive to research) than many parts of the coastline. Examples of areas
for which more information is required include:
most of the northern, central and western sides of Spencer Gulf (the latter including the
Franklin Harbour area and adjacent coast (including Plank Point, Lucky Bay, Port Gibbon,
Arno Bay area etc) ,
much of the central and southern Spencer Gulf region, particularly waters deeper than 10m,
and all waters deeper than 30m;
100
most parts of south-eastern Great Australian Bight (except for the St Francis Isles, Investigator
Group of islands, and Waterloo Bay, and a small number of headlands);
south-western Eyre Peninsula, particularly the coast south of Waterloo Bay, as far south as
Coffin Bay (e.g. including Sheringa, Kiana, Point Drummond, Greenly Beach, Convention
Beach, and Coles Point area)
southern Eyre Peninsula, with the exception of the intertidal and shallow subtidal at Wanna
Beach (and including the Memory Cove / Lincoln National Park coast / Thorny Passage area,
for which there are very few records);
Thorny Passage Islands, the Sir Joseph Banks group; and the Neptune Islands.
For national parks and conservation parks abutting the coast (e.g. Sir Joseph Banks Group,
Lincoln, Coffin Bay, Lake Newland, Venus Bay, Baird Bay islands and various others), more
should be known about the biodiversity, to ensure adequate environmental management, and wellinformed conservation decision-making. It is noted that the species composition of macroalgae of
the nearshore waters of the far west coast of S.A., particularly adjacent to the Great Australian
Bight, has been investigated in recent years by staff (C.F. Gurgel) and students (e.g. G. Belton) of
the University of Adelaide.
Targeted studies are required to better determine the current distribution and relative abundance of
rare species known from few records, and for various endemic species. In particular, further
research is required to improve the current paucity of knowledge about species for which the
herbarium records are oldest. A number of species recorded to date in EP NRM region and no
other parts of South Australia are known from few records in other parts of southern Australia
(Table 6). As with the South Australian endemic species, awareness of the existence of (and
currently known locations of) such species, and measures to ensure maintenance of populations in
those areas, may be important to ensure that the genetic integrity of such species is maintained
over time. Also, the status of many species considered cryptogenic should be tested using modern
techniques in molecular biology, as they most likely correspond to cryptic species and/or species
complexes for which morphological characters alone are not able to resolve long-standing
problems about their true biogeography and diversity.
Related to the above, targeted searches are also required to better determine the distribution of
many of the small, inconspicuous epiphytes that are currently considered to be endemic within
South Australia, and many of these are currently considered to be potentially rare, based on the
paucity of records. Many of these species are likely to be more widespread, but have not yet been
sampled due to their small size, and/or cryptic habits. The distribution, relative abundance and
threats to rare, apparently limited range species are difficult to determine, because knowledge of
their existence is limited to a number of old records of dried specimens, from few locations. Also,
many of the small, inconspicuous epiphytic species require highly trained taxonomists for their
precise taxonomic identification. Without substantial survey and collecting effort, it is not possible
to determine true ―rarity‖ over any spatial scale, or to produce reliable, systematic maps of the
range of even key species of macroalgae (let alone many of the smaller, poorly known understorey
species, including endemics), even though such maps are required for robust analyses of diversity
patterns (e.g. Whittaker 2005). The datasets here analysed were based on presence and absence
only. Frequency data based on number of herbarium records is too unreliable to calculate any
indices of diversity that require an accurate assessment of abundance (or evenness).
Currently, analyses of species richness hotspots, and spatially-explicit reserve planning (e.g.
MARXAN: Ball and Possingham 2000, Ball et al. 2009) cannot be meaningfully employed for
macroalgae using opportunistically collected records of macroalgae over space and time,
considering (i) substantial gaps in collecting effort (and record numbers) for numerous localities, as
occurs in many parts of the EP NRM area, and other regions in South Australia; (ii) lack of
knowledge of the current presence and spatial extent of species known only from old records, and
(iii) the inability to compare ―like with like‖ in herbarium data sets, because the records are an
amalgamation of data using different sampling techniques, variable survey or collecting intensity
per area, and different time scales (ranging from the present back to more than 100 years).
101
Our multivariate analysis suggests that there are substantial floristic differences along the EP NRM
coastline, and that this difference seems to be predominantly determined by cryptic, epiphytic or
rare species rather than major foundation species in the canopy.
However, our data sets are not optimal for such analysis, because herbarium collections are
opportunistic and reflect the historical accumulation of several (or many) distinct studies rather
than a targeted design to test community spatial turnover along the SA coast. More systematic,
targeted research is necessary to test small scale beta-diversity and biogeographic hypotheses
along the EP NRM coastline.
This report has provided some indication of the species richness and composition of the marine
benthic macroalgae of the EP NRM region, based on historical herbarium records. We have also
provided an assessment, including maps, of the gaps in knowledge and poorly studied regions
along the Eyre Peninsula coastline. This clearly shows where further studies should focus if we are
to produce a comprehensive description of the true biodiversity and biogeography of the benthic
macroalgae in this region, and in the wider South Australian coastal waters area, which supports
one of the richest marine benthic floras in the world.
102
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Species list of herbarium records to date, for the EP NRM region.
Chlorophyta
Acetabularia peniculus
Chlorodesmis baculifera
Dictyosphaeria sericea
Apjohnia laetevirens
Cladophora aegagropiloidea
Gayralia oxysperma
Avrainvillea clavatiramea
Cladophora albida
Palmoclathrus stipitatus
Blidingia marginata
Cladophora coelothrix
Palmophyllum crassum
Blidingia minima
Cladophora crinalis
Pedobesia clavaeformis
Bostrychia intricata
Cladophora dalmatica
Pseudocodium australasicum
Bryopsis gemellipara
Cladophora feredayi
Rhipiliopsis peltata
Bryopsis macraildii
Cladophora fracta
Rhipiliopsis robusta
Bryopsis plumosa
Cladophora hutchinsioides
Rhizoclonium riparium
Caulerpa brownii
Cladophora laetevirens
Rhizoclonium tortuosum
Caulerpa cactoides
Cladophora lehmanniana
Sporocladopsis novaezelandiae
Caulerpa cliftonii
Cladophora sericea
Struvea plumosa
Caulerpa ellistoniae
Cladophora vagabunda
Ulva australis
Caulerpa flexilis
Cladophora valonioides
Ulva clathrata
Caulerpa geminata
Cladophoropsis herpestica
Ulva compressa
Caulerpa hedleyi
Cladophoropsis magna
Ulva fasciata
Caulerpa longifolia
Codium apiculatum
Ulva flexuosa
Caulerpa obscura
Codium australicum
Ulva lactuca
Caulerpa papillosa
Codium capitulatum
Ulva rigida
Caulerpa scalpelliformis
Codium duthieae
Ulva spathulata
Caulerpa sedoides
Codium galeatum
Ulva taeniata
Caulerpa simpliciuscula
Codium harveyi
Ulvaria shepherdii
Caulerpa trifaria
Codium laminarioides
Uronema marinum
Caulerpa vesiculifera
Codium lucasii
Chaetomorpha aerea
Codium mamillosum
Chaetomorpha billardieri
Codium muelleri
Chaetomorpha coliformis
Codium pomoides
Chaetomorpha indica
Codium spongiosum
Chaetomorpha linum
Derbesia marina
Chaetomorpha valida
Derbesia tenuissima
120
Appendix 1 (cont.)
Acrocarpia paniculata
Phaeophyceae
Dictyota dichotoma
Myriactula caespitosa
Asperococcus bullosus
Dictyota diemensis
Myriactula haydenii
Austronereia australis
Dictyota furcellata
Myriodesma calophyllum
Bachelotia antillarum
Dictyota naevosa
Myriodesma harveyanum
Bellotia eriophorum
Dictyota polyclada
Myriodesma integrifolium
Carpoglossum confluens
Dictyota radicans
Myriodesma leptophyllum
Caulocystis cephalornithos
Dilophus angustus
Myriodesma quercifolium
Caulocystis uvifera
Dilophus fastigiatus
Myriogloea sciurus
Chlanidophora microphylla
Dilophus gunnianus
Myrionema strangulans
Cladosiphon filum
Dilophus marginatus
Myriotrichia clavaeformis
Cladosiphon vermicularis
Dilophus robustus
Nemacystus novae-zelandiae
Cladostephus spongiosus
Dilophus tener
Notheia anomala
Colpomenia peregrina
Distromium flabellatum
Pachydictyon paniculatum
Colpomenia sinuosa
Distromium multifidum
Padina elegans
Corynophlaea cristata
Ecklonia radiata
Padina sanctae-crucis
Corynophlaea cystophorae
Ectocarpus fasciculatus
Phloiocaulon spectabile
Cutleria multifida
Ectocarpus siliculosus
Polycerea nigrescens
Cystophora botryocystis
Encyothalia cliftonii
Pseudolithoderma australe
Cystophora brownii
Feldmannia globifera
Pylaiella littoralis
Cystophora congesta
Feldmannia irregularis
Ralfsia verrucosa
Cystophora cuspidata
Feldmannia lebelii
Sargassum decipiens
Cystophora expansa
Flabellonema codii
Sargassum decurrens
Cystophora gracilis
Giraudia robusta
Sargassum distichum
Cystophora grevillei
Giraudia sphacelarioides
Sargassum fallax
Cystophora intermedia
Glossophora nigricans
Sargassum heteromorphum
Cystophora monilifera
Halopteris funicularis
Sargassum kendricki
Cystophora moniliformis
Halopteris paniculata
Sargassum lacerifolium
Cystophora pectinata
Halopteris pseudospicata
Sargassum linearifolium
Cystophora platylobium
Hincksia granulosa
Sargassum paradoxum
Cystophora polycystidea
Hincksia mitchelliae
Sargassum podacanthum
Cystophora racemosa
Hincksia sordida
Sargassum sonderi
Cystophora retorta
Homoeostrichus sinclairii
Sargassum spinuligerum
Cystophora siliquosa
Hormosira banksii
Sargassum tristichum
Cystophora subfarcinata
Hydroclathrus clathratus
Sargassum varians
Cystoseira trinodis
Kuckuckia spinosa
Sargassum verruculosum
Dictyopteris muelleri
Leathesia marina
Scaberia agardhii
Dictyopteris nigricans
Lobophora variegata
Scoresbyella profunda
Dictyota alternifida
Lobospira bicuspidata
Scytosiphon lomentaria
121
Appendix 1 (cont.)
Phaeophyceae (cont.)
Scytothalia dorycarpa
Seirococcus axillaris
Sphacelaria biradiata
Sphacelaria brachygonia
Sphacelaria bracteata
Sphacelaria carpoglossi
Sphacelaria fusca
Sphacelaria novae-caledoniae
Sphacelaria novae-hollandiae
Sphacelaria rigidula
Sphacelaria tribuloides
Sphacella subtilissima
Splachnidium rugosum
Sporochnema tomentosum
Sporochnus apodus
Sporochnus comosus
Sporochnus moorei
Sporochnus radiciformis
Stictyosiphon soriferus
Strepsithalia liagorae
Striaria attenuata
Suringariella harveyana
Taonia australasica
Tinocladia australis
Xiphophora chondrophylla
Zonaria angustata
Zonaria crenata
Zonaria spiralis
Zonaria turneriana
122
Appendix 1 (cont.)
Rhodophyta (excluding Corallinales)
Acanthophora dendroides
Audouinella porphyrae
Acrosorium ciliolatum
Audouinella repens
Acrosymphyton taylorii
Audouinella spongicola
Acrothamnion preissii
Audouinella unifila
Acrotylus australis
Austroclonium charoides
Adelophycus corneus
Austrophyllis alcicornis
Alleynea bicornis
Ballia callitricha
Amansia pinnatifida
Bonnemaisonia australis
Amansia serrata
Bornetia binderiana
Amoenothamnion minimum
Bostrychia intricata
Amoenothamnion planktonicum
Bostrychia simpliciuscula
Amphiplexia hymenocladioides
Botryocladia sonderi
Amphiplexia racemosa
Brongniartella australis
Anotrichium crinitum
Calliblepharis planicaulis
Anotrichium elongatum
Callithamnion byssoides
Anotrichium licmophorum
Callithamnion caulescens
Anotrichium tenue
Callithamnion circinnatum
Anotrichium towinna
Callithamnion confertum
Antithamnion armatum
Callithamnion obstipum
Antithamnion cruciatum
Callithamnion pinnatum
Antithamnion delicatulum
Callithamnion shepherdii
Antithamnion gracilentum
Callophycus oppositifolius
Antithamnion hanovioides
Callophyllis cervicornis
Antithamnion pinnafolium
Callophyllis lambertii
Antithamnion uniramosum
Callophyllis rangiferina
Antithamnion verticale
Camontagnea oxyclada
Antithamnionella glandifera
Capreolia implexa
Antithamnionella multiramosa
Carpopeltis elata
Antrocentrum nigrescens
Carpopeltis phyllophora
Apoglossum spathulatum
Carpopeltis spongeaplexus
Areschougia congesta
Carpothamnion gunnianum
Asparagopsis armata
Centroceras clavulatum
Asparagopsis taxiformis
Ceramium adhaerens
Audouinella bonnemaisoniae
Ceramium cliftonianum
Audouinella caespitosa
Ceramium cupulatum
Audouinella daviesii
Ceramium excellens
Audouinella dictyotae
Ceramium filiculum
Audouinella humilis
Ceramium flaccidum
Audouinella liagorae
Ceramium isogonum
Audouinella microscopica
Ceramium macilentum
Audouinella polyidis
Ceramium puberulum
123
Appendix 1 (cont.)
Rhodophyta (excluding Corallinales) (cont.)
Ceramium pusillum
Cryptonemia kallymenioides
Ceramium rubrum
Cryptonemia undulata
Ceramium shepherdii
Cryptonemia wilsonii
Champia affinis
Curdiea angustata
Champia viridis
Curdiea obesa
Champia zostericola
Dasya baldockii
Chauviniella coriifolia
Dasya capillaris
Chiracanthia arborea
Dasya ceramioides
Chondria angustissima
Dasya clavigera
Chondria bulbosa
Dasya cliftonii
Chondria capreolis
Dasya comata
Chondria curdieana
Dasya crescens
Chondria fusifolia
Dasya divergens
Chondria harveyana
Dasya extensa
Chondria incrassata
Dasya haffiae
Chondria incurva
Dasya hookeri
Chondria lanceolata
Dasya kraftii
Chondria succulenta
Dasya naccarioides
Chondrophycus brandenii
Dasya quadrispora
Chondrophycus thuyoides
Dasya villosa
Chondrophycus tumidus
Dasycladus densus
Chylocladia grandis
Dasyclonium flaccidum
Cirrulicarpus nanus
Dasyclonium incisum
Cladurus elatus
Dasyphila preissii
Claudea elegans
Dasyphloea insignis
Cliftonaea pectinata
Dasythamniella plumigera
Coelarthrum cliftonii
Dasythamniella superbiens
Coelarthrum opuntia
Dasythamniella wollastoniana
Coeloclonium debile
Delisea elegans
Coeloclonium tasmanicum
Delisea hypneoides
Coeloclonium umbellula
Delisea pulchra
Coeloclonium verticillatum
Dichotomaria australis
Colacodasya australica
Dichotomaria marginata
Craspedocarpus blepharicarpus
Dichotomaria spathulata
Craspedocarpus ramentaceus
Dicranema cincinnalis
Craspedocarpus tenuifolius
Dicranema revolutum
Craspedocarpus venosus
Dictyomenia harveyana
Crassilingua marginifera
Dictyomenia sonderi
Crouania mucosa
Dictyomenia tridens
Crouania robbii
Diplocladia patersonis
Crouania shepleyana
Dipterosiphonia dendritica
124
Appendix 1 (cont.)
Rhodophyta (excluding Corallinales) (cont.)
Ditria expleta
Gloioderma polycarpum
Doxodasya bolbochaete
Gloiophloea scinaioides
Doxodasya lanuginose
Gloiophyllis barkeriae
Drewiana nitella
Gloiosaccion brownii
Dudresnaya australis
Gonatogenia subulata
Echinosporangium semipennatum
Gracilaria chilensis
Echinothamnion hookeri
Gracilaria cliftonii
Echinothamnion hystrix
Gracilaria flagelliformis
Elisiella arbuscula
Gracilaria preissiana
Endosiphonia spinulosa
Grateloupia filicina var. luxurians
Epiglossum smithiae
Griffithsia balara
Episporium centroceratis
Griffithsia crassiuscula
Erythrocladia irregularis
Griffithsia elegans
Erythroclonium angustatum
Griffithsia grandis
Erythroclonium muelleri
Griffithsia gunniana
Erythroclonium sedoides
Griffithsia monilis var. monilis
Erythrostachys strobilifera
Griffithsia ovalis
Erythrotrichia carnea
Griffithsia pulvinata
Erythrotrichia ligulata
Griffithsia teges
Erythrymenia minuta
Gulsonia annulata
Euptilocladia spongiosa
Gymnogongrus crenulatus
Euptilocladia villosa
Halicnide similans
Euptilota articulata
Haloplegma duperreyi
Ganonema codii
Haloplegma preissii
Gattya pinnella
Halydictyon arachnoideum
Gelidiella ramellosa
Halymenia floresia ssp. harveyana
Gelidium australe
Halymenia muelleri
Gelidium crinale
Halymenia plana
Gelidium pusillum
Haplodasya tomentosa
Gelinaria ulvoidea
Haplodasya urceolata
Gibsmithia womersleyi
Haraldiophyllum erosum
Gigartina brachiata
Helminthocladia australis
Gigartina densa
Helminthora australis
Gigartina disticha
Hemineura frondosa
Gigartina pinnata
Hennedya crispa
Gigartina sonderi
Herpopteros fallax
Glaphyrymenia pustulosa
Herposiphonia calothrix
Gloiocladia australe
Herposiphonia filipendula
Gloiocladia fruticulosa
Herposiphonia monilifera
Gloiocladia halymenioides
Herposiphonia pectinella
Gloioderma australis
Herposiphonia rostrata
Gloioderma fruticulosum
Herposiphonia versicolor
125
Appendix 1 (cont.)
Rhodophyta (excluding Corallinales) (cont.)
Herposiphoniella plurisegmenta
Kallymenia cribrogloea
Heterocladia australis
Kallymenia cribrosa
Heterocladia caudata
Kallymenia rubra
Heterocladia umbellifera
Kallymenia spinosa
Heterodoxia denticulata
Kallymenia tasmanica
Heterosiphonia australis
Kraftia dichotoma
Heterosiphonia callithamnium
Kuetzingia canaliculata
Heterosiphonia crassipes
Laurencia aldingensis
Heterosiphonia curdieana
Laurencia arbuscula
Heterosiphonia gunniana
Laurencia brongniartii
Heterosiphonia lawrenciana
Laurencia clavata
Heterosiphonia muelleri
Laurencia elata
Heterosiphonia wrangelioides
Laurencia filiformis
Heterostroma nereidiis
Laurencia forsteri
Hildenbrandia crouaniorum
Laurencia heteroclada
Hildenbrandia rubra
Laurencia majuscula
Hirsutithallia angustata
Laurencia shepherdii
Hirsutithallia formosa
Lejolisia aegagropila
Hirsutithallia laricina
Lenormandia latifolia
Hirsutithallia mucronata
Lenormandia marginata
Hirsutithallia tincta
Lenormandia pardalis
Holotrichia comosa
Lenormandia spectabilis
Husseya rubra
Leptophyllis conferta
Hymenena affinis
Leptosomia rosea
Hymenena curdieana
Liagora harveyana
Hymenena endiviaefolia
Lomentaria australis
Hymenena multipartita
Lophosiphonia prostrata
Hymenocladia chondricola
Lophothalia hormoclados
Hymenocladia usnea
Lophothamnion hirtum
Hypnea charoides
Macrothamnion pellucidum
Hypnea filiformis
Macrothamnion secundum
Hypnea ramentacea
Martensia australis
Hypnea valentiae
Mazoyerella arachnoidea
Hypneocolax stellaris ssp. orientalis
Medeiothamnion halurus
Hypoglossum armatum
Medeiothamnion repens
Hypoglossum dendroides
Melanthalia abscissa
Hypoglossum heterocystideum
Melanthalia fastigiata
Hypoglossum revolutum
Micropeuce feredayae
Inkyuleea ballioides
Muellerena wattsii
Inkyuleea mariana
Mychodea aciculare
Involucrana crassa
Mychodea australis
Janczewskia tasmanica
Mychodea carnosa
126
Appendix 1 (cont.)
Rhodophyta (excluding Corallinales) (cont.)
Mychodea disticha
Plocamium cartilagineum
Mychodea gracilaria
Plocamium costatum
Mychodea hamata
Plocamium leptophyllum
Mychodea marginifera
Plocamium mertensii
Mychodea pusilla
Plocamium patagiatum
Mychodea ramulosa
Plocamium preissianum
Mychodea spinulifera
Pollexfenia lobata
Myriogramme cartilaginea
Pollexfenia pedicellata
Myriogramme gunniana
Polycoelia laciniata
Naccaria naccarioides
Polyopes constrictus
Nemalion helminthoides
Polyopes tenuis
Nitophyllum crispum
Polysiphonia amphibolis
Nitospinosa pristoidea
Polysiphonia australiensis
Nizymenia australis
Polysiphonia blandii
Nizymenia conferta
Polysiphonia brevisegmenta
Ophidocladus simpliciusculus
Polysiphonia constricta
Osmundaria prolifera
Polysiphonia crassiuscula
Ostiophyllum sonderopeltae
Polysiphonia daveyae
Palisada cruciata
Polysiphonia decipiens
Parviphycus antipai
Polysiphonia infestans
Perischelia glomulifera
Polysiphonia isogona
Perithamnion muelleri
Polysiphonia mollis
Peyssonnelia boudouresquei
Polysiphonia propagulifera
Peyssonnelia capensis
Polysiphonia scopulorum
Peyssonnelia dubyi
Polysiphonia sertularioides
Peyssonnelia foliosa
Polysiphonia shepherdii
Peyssonnelia inamoena
Polysiphonia subtilissima
Peyssonnelia novae-hollandiae
Polysiphonia succulenta
Peyssonnelia splendens
Porphyra columbina
Phacelocarpus apodus
Porphyra lucasii
Phacelocarpus complanatus
Porphyropsis minuta
Phacelocarpus peperocarpos
Predaea huismanii
Phacelocarpus sessilis
Protokuetzingia australasica
Phitymophora amansioides
Pterocladia lucida
Phloiocaulon spectabile
Pterocladia rectangularis
Placophora binderi
Pterocladiella capillacea
Platyclinia ramosa
Pterocladiella minima
Platyclinia stipitata
Pterocladiella rectangularis
Platysiphonia delicata
Pterosiphonia pennata
Platysiphonia mutabilis
Pterothamnion flexile
Platysiphonia victoriae
Ptilocladia australis
Plocamium angustum
Ptilocladia crouanioides
127
Appendix 1 (cont.)
Rhodophyta (excluding Corallinales) (cont.)
Ptilocladia pulchra
Shepleya verticillata
Ptilocladia vestita
Shepleya wattsii
Ptilota hannafordii
Solieria robusta
Ptilothamnion schmitzii
Sonderopelta coriacea
Rhabdonia clavigera
Spongoclonium australicum
Rhabdonia coccinea
Spongoclonium brownianum
Rhabdonia verticillata
Stenogramme interrupta
Rhodocallis elegans
Stictosporum nitophylloides
Rhodoglossum gigartinoides
Taenioma perpusillum
Rhodopeltis australis
Tanakaella itonoi
Rhodophyllis membranacea
Thamnoclonium dichotomum
Rhodophyllis multipartita
Thamnophyllis lacerata
Rhodophyllis volans
Thuretia australasica
Rhodymenia obtusa
Thuretia quercifolia
Rhodymenia sonderi
Tiffaniella cymodoceae
Rhodymeniocolax austrina
Tiparraria aurata
Sarcodia marginata
Trithamnion aculeatum
Sarcomenia delesserioides
Trithamnion vulgare
Sarconema filiforme
Tsengia comosa
Sarcothalia insidiosa
Tsengia feredayae
Sarcotrichia dolichocystidea
Tylocolax microcarpus
Sarcotrichia tenera
Tylotus obtusatus
Schizymenia dubyi
Vidalia spiralis
Schottera nicaeensis
Warrenia comosa
Scinaia aborealis
Webervanbossea kaliformis
Scinaia australis
Webervanbossea splachnoides
Scinaia moniliformis
Webervanbossea tasmanensis
Scinaia proliferata
Wetherbeella australica
Scinaia tsinglanensis
Wetherbeella foliosa
Semnocarpa corynephora
Wilsonaea dictyuroides
Semnocarpa minuta
Wollastoniella myriophylloides
Shepleya australis
Wrangelia australis
Spongoclonium conspicuum
Wrangelia nobilis
Spongoclonium fasciculatum
Wrangelia plumosa
Spyridia dasyoides
Wrangelia velutina
Spyridia filamentosa
Spyridia squalida
Spyridia tasmanica
128
Appendix 1 (cont.)
Corallinales
Amphiroa anceps
Amphiroa gracilis
Austrolithon intumescens
Choreonema thuretii
Corallina officinalis
Haliptilon “elegans”
Haliptilon roseum
Hydrolithon farinosum
Hydrolithon munitum
Hydrolithon rupestris
Jania adhaerens
Jania affinis
Jania micrarthrodia
Jania minuta
Jania parva
Jania pulchella
Jania pusilla
Jania verrucosa
Lithophyllum frondosum
Lithophyllum prototypum
Melobesia membranacea
Mesophyllum engelhartii
Metagoniolithon chara
Metagoniolithon radiatum
Metagoniolithon stelliferum
Metamastophora flabellata
Neogoniolithon brassica-florida
Pneophyllum coronatum
Pneophyllum fragile
Synarthrophyton patena
129
Janine Baker