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Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea in the 5th millennium BC

Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea in the 5th millennium BC

Profile image of Agathe ReingruberAgathe Reingruber

2018, COMMUNITIES IN TRANSITION

Graphite, one of the softest minerals, is an allotrope of carbon in its most stable form, chemically resistant and difficult to be ignited; it requires high temperatures to react even with oxygen. Since it was used until the end of the 19th century in pencils, it received its name from the ancient Greek word for drawing and/or writing: γράφω. Carbon, on the other hand, is present as a powder and is the main constituent of substances such as charcoal. It occurs with three natural isotopes, one of them being unstable and radioactive. This last, 14C, is a naturally occurring radioisotope mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial deposits; it is virtually absent in ancient rocks. Graphite has been used since the 5th millennium BC for ornamental purposes on vessels and/or specific parts of vessels. Such decorations are typical for certain regions at certain times, enabling archaeologists to create relative chronologies. The radioactive isotope 14C, on the other hand, can be used for absolute dating after calibration and hence be connected to calendar years. It is about time to join the information regarding both graphite painting and radiocarbon results to create a more comprehensive chronological scheme valid not only for a specific site but also for a larger region. Two vast cultural complexes: Kodžadermen-Gumelniţa-Karanovo VI (KGK VI) and Sălcuţa-Krivodol-Bubanj Hum (SKBh) were primarily defined according to pottery styles. In both complexes graphite paint occurred together with the use of metals during the 5th millennium BC. At first sight the differences between the complexes seem small. In detail, though, some notable distinctions are obvious, especially regarding the ornaments on vessels.

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An offprinT from COMMUNITIES IN TRANSITION The CirCum-AegeAn AreA during The 5Th And 4Th millenniA BC Edited by SØREN DIETZ, FANIS MAVRIDIS, ŽARKO TANKOSIĆ and TURAN TAKAOĞLU. Hardback Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-720-9 Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-721-6 (epub) © Oxbow Books 2018 Oxford & Philadelphia www.oxbowbooks.com Published in the United Kingdom in 2018 by OXBOW BOOKS The Old Music Hall, 106–108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JE and in the United States by OXBOW BOOKS 1950 Lawrence Road, Havertown, PA 19083 © Oxbow Books and the individual authors 2018 Hardback Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-720-9 Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78570-721-6 (epub) A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library and the Library of Congress All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher in writing. Printed in the United Kingdom by Short Run Press Typeset in India by Lapiz Digital Services, Chennai For a complete list of Oxbow titles, please contact: UNITED KINGDOM Oxbow Books Telephone (01865) 241249, Fax (01865) 794449 Email: oxbow@oxbowbooks.com www.oxbowbooks.com UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Oxbow Books Telephone (800) 791-9354, Fax (610) 853-9146 Email: queries@casemateacademic.com www.casemateacademic.com/oxbow Oxbow Books is part of the Casemate Group Front cover: Ships carved into a rock from the site of Strophilas on Andros (photograph from the personal archive of C. Televantou); drawing of a rock carving from the main bastion on the wall at the site of Strophilas on Andros representing a procession of ships (drawing by C. Televantou). Contents Preface Acknowledgements List of contributors List of sites Introduction ix x xi xii xiv PART I. INTRODUCTORY AND OVERARCHING STUDIES 1. Inventing the Final Neolithic Colin Renfrew 2. Transformation and changes at the end of the Neolithic Kostas Kotsakis 3. Village nucleation and centralisation in the Later Neolithic of South-Eastern Europe: A long-term, comparative approach William A. Parkinson, William P. Ridge and Attila Gyucha 4. Greece in the 5th and 4th millennia B.C.: Researching the “missing” 4th millennium Ioannis Aslanis 5. The shadowy “proto-Early Bronze Age” in the Aegean John E. Coleman and Yorgos Facorellis 6. Casting doubts on metallurgy and the transition to social complexity: The evidence from the Aegean Maria Mina 3 12 17 27 33 67 PART II. THE BALKANS 7. Settlement pattern changes during the Central Balkans Copper Age Aleksandar Kapuran, Aleksandar Bulatović and Dragan Milanović 8. Modelling the black box: Bulgaria in the 4th millennium BC Inga Merkyte 9. Possible approaches to tracing the fate of the population of the Varna, Kodjadermen-Gumelniţa-Karanovo VI and Krivodol-Sălcuţa cultures Petya Georgieva 10. Kozareva Mogila: A settlement and necropolis in the West Black Sea region Petya Georgieva, Margarita Popova and Veselin Danov 11. The Chalcolithic settlement at Varhari: A production and trade centre in the Eastern Rhodope Mountains Kamen Boyadzhiev and Yavor Boyadzhiev 12. The latest Late Chalcolithic settlement at Tell Yunatsite: Plan and architectural remains Velichka Matsanova and Tatyana Mishina 77 89 95 107 120 128 vi Contents 13. Late Chalcolithic cult tables from Tell Yunatsite, Bulgaria Stoilka Terzijska-Ignatova 14. Rethinking the absolute chronology of the South-Eastern Balkans in the latter half of the 5th and in the 4th millennium BC Mariusz Kufel and Łukasz Pospieszny 15. Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea in the 5th millennium BC Agathe Reingruber 16. Lithic technology in the region between the Lower Danube and Marmara in the 6th and 5th millennia BC Ivan Gatsov and Petranka Nedelcheva 17. Synchronisation of the Albanian and North Aegean Late Neolithic periods: New data from the lakeside dwelling of Kallamas (Albania) Cécile Oberweiler, Gilles Touchais and Petrika Lera 140 148 155 178 185 PART III. NORTH GREECE AND THESSALY 18. The chronological and social dimensions of the Late Neolithic I–II and the Late Neolithic–Early Bronze Age transitions in a long-lived settlement in Northern Greece (Dikili Tash, Kavala district) Zoï Tsirtsoni, Pascal Darcque, Haido Koukouli-Chryssanthaki, Dimitra Malamidou and René Treuil 19. Transformations of space in the Late Neolithic settlements of Northern Greece: Review of the evidence from Makriyalos and Thermi Maria Pappa 20. Visviki Magoula, Thessaly: Reconsidering cultural change from the Arapi to the Dimini phase Eva Alram-Stern 21. The role of the Theopetra cave in Thessaly, Greece, at the end of the Neolithic: Habitual or symbolic use? Nina Kyparissi-Apostolika 22. Beyond transition: Tracing eventfulness behind the Middle Neolithic–Late Neolithic ceramic divide Stella Katsarou 23. The beast with many heads: Assembling bodies and changing history in the 5th millennium BC Stratos Nanoglou 197 211 217 227 234 242 PART IV. WEST, CENTRAL AND SOUTH GREECE 24. Demographic transitions from the Earlier Neolithic stages until the first Early Bronze Age settlements in the plains and hill-country of Boeotia, Greece John Bintliff and Kalliope Sarri 25. Late Neolithic traditions: Evidence from Sarakenos Cave Adamantios Sampson and Vagia Mastrogiannopoulou 26. Lion’s Cave, Hymettus Mountain, Attica: Figurines, structures and material culture associations Lilian Karali, Fanis Mavridis and Dimitris Lambropoulos 27. The Later Neolithic use of the cave Oinoe IV, at Marathon (Attica, Greece): Preliminary report Alexandra Mari 28. The end of the Neolithic in East Attica: New data from Kontra Gliate (Kiapha Thiti) and Thorikos Mine 3 Margarita Nazou 29. The Kastria/Pangali group and the beginning of the Chalcolithic in Southern Greece Søren Dietz and Pernille Bangsgaard 30. Tracing social changes in the Late Neolithic/Final Neolithic transition at Drakaina Cave, Kephalonia, Western Greece Georgia Stratouli and Odysseas Metaxas 249 260 269 283 289 296 305 Contents 31. Caves and the landscape of Late Neolithic to Early Helladic I Greece: Comparing excavation and survey data from the Peloponnese Daniel J. Pullen 32. New evidence for the beginning of habitation at Aigeira, Achaia (Greece) Walter Gauss 33. Stones, pots … and now ornaments: Revisiting the Middle–Late Neolithic and the Late–Final Neolithic transitions at Franchthi Catherine Perlès 34. The Early Helladic I cemetery at Kalyvia in Ancient Elis Jörg Rambach 35. Long-distance exchange of obsidian: Diachronic changes at the cave site of Alepotrypa, Greece Danielle J. Riebe vii 314 323 331 341 350 PART V. AEGEAN ISLANDS, CRETE AND CYPRUS 36. Ayios Ioannis, Thasos: The economy of a small coastal site dated to the second half of the 4th millennium BC Stratis Papadopoulos, Ourania Palli, Sophia Vakirtzi and Eleni Psathi 37. The Neolithic to Chalcolithic transition on the island of Gökçeada (Imbros) Burçin Erdoğu 38. Land management in the Final Neolithic/Early Bronze Age Aegean? Some tantalising indications from Southern Euboea Žarko Tankosić 39. The Later Neolithic cultures of the Aegean archipelago with special reference to the Cyclades: Connecting strategies of space use Fanis Mavridis 40. Strofilas, Andros: New perspectives on the Neolithic Aegean Christina A. Televantou 41. The Late Neolithic and Final Neolithic phases on Kos and the Alasarna settlement pattern Mercourios Georgiadis 42. Settlement patterns and social organisation in Crete during the Final Neolithic and the beginning of the Bronze Age (ca. 3700–3000 BC) Krzysztof Nowicki 43. The introduction of pressure blade technologies into Crete in the late 4th millennium BC: Where, how, and to what end? Tristan Carter 44. The earliest phase of the Final Neolithic at Phaistos in a wider Cretan context: New perspectives Serena Di Tonto 45. The Final Neolithic–Early Minoan I transition in South-Central Crete: New data from Phaistos Simona Todaro 46. Gavdos, or living on the southernmost Aegean island in the Neolithic cultural horizon Katerina Kopaka and Efthimis Theou 47. The entry of Cyprus into the circum-Aegean world and the growth of regionalism on the island Edgar Peltenburg 48. Rethinking the “Cypriot paradox”: Socio-economic change in Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic Cyprus Ioannis Voskos 357 367 373 381 389 397 405 415 420 426 441 456 466 PART VI. WEST ANATOLIA 49. The Middle Chalcolithic period in the Troad: A new look from Gülpınar Turan Takaoğlu and Abdulkadir Özdemir 479 viii Contents 50. On marble, conical rhyta: New evidence from Yeşiltepe in the West Anatolian hinterland Turan Takaoğlu and Onur Bamyacı 51. The Chalcolithic period at Yeşilova Höyük Zafer Derin and Tayfun Caymaz 52. What follows the Late Neolithic occupation in Central-Western Anatolia? A view from Ulucak Özlem Çevik 53. The Chalcolithic of Coastal Western Anatolia: A view from Liman Tepe, İzmir Rıza Tuncel and Vasıf Şahoğlu 54. Interaction as a stimulus? Çukuriçi Höyük and the transition from the Late Chalcolithic period to the Early Bronze Age in Western Anatolia Barbara Horejs and Christoph Schwall 55. Prehistoric culture at Çine-Tepecik and its contribution to the archaeology of the region Sevinç Günel 56. Cave habitations in Chalcolithic Lycia: The case of Tavabaşı near Tlos Taner Korkut, Gül Işın and Turan Takaoğlu 491 499 506 513 530 538 548 57. At the crossroads: Changing Chalcolithic settlement patterns in Phrygia Ali Umut Turkcan 556 Bibliography 567 Preface The volume before you represents a collective effort that brings together scholars from different countries and backgrounds united by a common interest in the transition between the Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age in the lands around the Aegean. We chose a title containing the word “communities” because we think that the changes that occurred in the 5th and 4th millennia in south-eastern Europe and western Anatolia changed the way people were organised, how they understood their place in society, and how they interacted with other social entities on a day-to-day basis. The Neolithic community was transformed, at some places incrementally and at others rapidly, into one that was, by the end of this period, more similar to what we would commonly associate with the Bronze Age. Terminology used to describe this period presented a special topic for consideration. Many different names (e.g. Final Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Eneolithic, Late Neolithic [I]–II, Copper Age) are used by colleagues with different scholarly backgrounds. To some extent, they reflect diverse archaeological evidence from varied geographical regions. During this long heterogenous period spanning two millennia, developments occurred that led to significant changes in material culture, use of space, adoption of metallurgical practices, establishment of far-reaching interaction and exchange networks, and increased social complexity. The 5th and 4th millennia BC transition, notwithstanding the variability inherent in a section of prehistory this long, is one of inclusions, entanglements, connectivity, and exchange of ideas, raw materials, finished products and, quite possibly, worldviews and belief systems. Largely, we kept the nomenclature used for regional archaeological cultures to show the variety and differences related to the period. However, after some deliberation, we settled on using the general term “Later Neolithic Stages” (not to be confused with the Late Neolithic phase) to describe the chronological focus of the conference itself. By using this somewhat neutral term, we wished to both advertise the focus on the fourth and later part of the 5th millennium as crucial for understanding the entire period and the intention to not include the earlier phases of the Late Neolithic or the developed phases of the Early Bronze Age, unless particularly pertinent to the discussion. The title of the volume, we felt, should be even more neutral and inclusive, which is the reason why we settled on the definition of the period in purely chronological terms. Inclusiveness was also high on the list of our priorities when organising the conference; we selected participants based purely on the criterion of scientific contribution. Most of the papers presented here are multifaceted and complex in that they do not deal with only one topic or narrowly focus on only a single line of reasoning or group of data. Hence, it was difficult to section them off into meaningful chapters based exclusively on their thematic content. After much consideration, we settled on geography as the overarching principle by which to structure this book, as being the least contentious and controversial. Hence, the papers are arranged in a roughly north–south direction (i.e., the Balkans, northern Greece and Thessaly, west, central, and southern Greece, the Aegean Islands, Crete and Cyprus and west Anatolia), preceded by introductory and synthetic contributions that either transcend regional divisions, span more than one region or address general topics related to this period. We, however, provide an overview of the papers according to their topical and thematic character in the introduction to this volume. Acknowledgements The list of people who contributed to the success of the conference, which had more than 130 participants, and the succeeding volume of this size and scope is necessarily very long. Unfortunately, we cannot thank everyone individually here but we are truly grateful to them all and we strongly believe that without them this work would not have been possible. We, of course, first and foremost thank all the participants and contributors to the conference for finding the time in their busy schedules to take part in the event. We wish to particularly thank the Danish Institute at Athens, which provided institutional support and a side venue for the conference and for recognising its scholarly potential. Dr Popi Sarri was irreplaceable as the conference secretary and her tireless and enthusiastic work was essential for holding together the various practicalities of conference organisation. We thank Dr Maria Vlazaki Andreadaki, the current General Secretary of Culture at the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports, who greeted the conference on behalf of the Ministry, and the Embassy of the Republic of Turkey and the Royal Danish Embassy in Athens for organising a reception for all conference participants. The Acropolis Museum at Athens provided the main conference venue. Our volunteers, namely Paschalis Zafeiriadis, Vasiliki Anevlavi, Athina Gerochristou, Alexandra Koutsoulou, Dimitris Lambropoulos, Georgia Loukopoulou, Eleni Papadopoulou, Irini Paraskevopoulou and Zaneta Tsambi ensured the smooth running of the conference. An excellent pool of anonymous reviewers, consisting of an international group of scholars established in the field, safeguarded the high scientific standards of the contributions to this volume. Ms Danai Vlachou was responsible for the visual identity of the conference, a job she performed marvelously, and our proofreader, Ms Freya Evenson, is responsible for the high linguistic quality in papers mostly written by authors whose first language is not English. Economic support for the conference was provided by The Danish Research Council for the Humanities, INSTAP, the Institute of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies, University of Copenhagen and the Danish Institute at Athens. We are grateful for their support and understanding. The publication of this book was sponsored by INSTAP, the Danish Institute at Athens, Consul General Gösta Enboms Foundation, and the Department of Cross-Cultural Studies, University of Copenhagen. We thank our colleague Christina Televantou for graciously providing the images from her excavation project at Strophilas on Andros to use for the cover of this book. And finally, the members of the Organising and Scientific Committees provided invaluable advice and served as a pool of reviewers for the paper contributions. Organising Committee Søren Dietz, The Danish Institute at Athens Fanis Mavridis, Ministry of Culture and Sports, Greece Žarko Tankosić, Norwegian Institute at Athens/Indiana University Turan Takaoğlu, Çanakkale Onsekizmart University Burçin Erdogu, Trakya University Vasıf Şahoğlu, Ankara University Ingolf Thuesen, University of Copenhagen. Scientific Committee Eva Alram, Mycenaean Commission of the Austrian Academy of Sciences Philip Betancourt, Temple University, Philadelphia Hayat Erkanal, University of Ankara Michael Fotiadis, University of Ioannina Kostas Kotsakis, University of Thessaloniki Krzysztof Nowicki, Institute of Archaeology of the Polish Academy of Sciences Mehmet Özdoğan, University of Istanbul William Parkinson, The Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago Colin Renfrew, University of Cambridge Adamantios Sampson, University of the Aegean Lucia Vagnetti, CNR, Rome Karen D. Vitelli, Indiana University Søren Dietz, Fanis Mavridis, Žarko Tankosić and Turan Takaoğlu List of contributors Alram-Stern Eva Aslanis Ioannis Bamyacı Onur Bangsgaard Pernille Bintliff John Boyadzhiev Kamen Boyadziev Yavor Bulatović Aleksandar Carter Tristan Caymaz Tayfun Çevik Özlem Coleman John E. Danov Veselin Darcque Pascal Derin Zafer Dietz Søren Di Tonto Serena Erdoğu Burçin Facorellis Yorgos Gatsov Ivan Gauss Walter Georgiadis Merkouris Georgieva Petya Günel Sevinç Gyucha Attila Horejs Barbara Işın Gül Kapuran Aleksandar Karali Lilian Katsarou-Tzevekeki Stella Kopaka Katerina Korkut Taner Kotsakis Kostas Koukouli-Chryssanthaki Haido Kufel Mariusz Kyparissi-Apostolika Nina Lambropoulos Dimitris Lera Petrika Malamidou Dimitra Mari Aleksandra Mastrogiannopoulou Vagia Matsanova Velichka eva.alram@oeaw.ac.at iaslanis@eie.gr aobamyaci@gmail.com pernille.bangsgaard@snm.ku.dk j.l.bintliff@arch.leidenuniv.nl kamenyb@abv.bg yavordb@abv.bg abulatovic3@gmail.com stringy@univmail.cis.mcmaster.ca tayfuncaymaz@nevsehir.edu.tr arkeocevik@yahoo.com jec13@cornell.edu azgard@abv.bg pascal.darcque@mae.u-paris10.fr zaferderin@gmail.com soren.dietz@gmail.com serenaditonto@yahoo.it berdogu@gmail.com yfacorellis@yahoo.com igatsov@yahoo.com walter.gauss@oeai.at merkourisgeorgiadis@hotmail.com petyageorg@gmail.com sgunel@hacettepe.edu.tr gyuchaa@gmail.com Barbara.horejs@oeaw.ac.at gulisin@akdeniz.edu.tr a.kapuran@gmail.com likarali@yahoo.com stella@stellakatsarou.gr kopaka@phl.uoc.gr tkorkut@akdeniz.edu.tr kotsakis@hist.auth.gr ckoukouli@gmail.com mariuszkufel02@gmail.com nkyparissi@hotmail.com dimitrioslam@gmail.com petrika_lera@yahoo.it dimitra_malamidou@homail.com marichar70@gmail.com vagia.mastro@gmail.com mazanova@abv.bg Mavridis Fanis Merkyte Inga Metaxas Odysseas Milanović Dragan Mina Maria Mishina Tatyana Nanoglou Stratos Nazou Margarita Nedelcheva Petranka Nowicki Krzysztof Oberweiler Cécile Özdemir Abdulkadir Palli Ourania Papadopoulos Stratis Pappa Maria Parkinson William A. Perlès Catherine †Peltenburg Edgar Popova Margarita Pospieszny Łukasz Psathi Eleni Pullen Daniel Rambach Jörg Reingruber Agathe Renfrew Colin Ridge William P. Riebe Danielle Şahoğlu Vasıf Sampson Adamantios Sarri Kalliope Schwall Christoph Stratouli Georgia Tankosić Žarko Takaoğlu Turan Televantou Christina Terzijska-Ignatova Stoika Theou Efthimis Todaro Simona Touchais Gilles Treuil René Tsirtsoni Zoi Tuncel Rıza Turkcan Ali Umut Vakirtzi Sophia Voskos Ioannis fanismavridis@gmail.com merkyte@hum.ku.dk odymetaxas@hotmail.com draganarh@gmail.com m.mina@ucy.ac.cy tnmishina@mail.ru stratos.nanoglou@gmail.com nazoumarg@yahoo.com pnedelcheva@nbu.bg erganos@hotmail.com Cecile.Oberweiler@efa.gr akadir23@gmail.com opalli@culture.gr epapadopoulos@culture.gr mpappa@culture.gr wparkinson@fieldmuseum.org catherine.perles@mae.u-paris10.fr diane.bolger@ed.ac.uk margarita_po@abv.bg l.pospieszny@wp.pl epsathi@culture.gr dpullen@fsu.edu joergrambach@yahoo.gr agathe.reingruber@fu-berlin.de acr10@cam.ac.uk wridge2@uic.edu driebe2@uic.edu vasif.sahoglu@ankara.edu.tr adasampson@gmail.com Kalliope.Sarri@gmail.com christoph.schwall@oeaw.ac.at gstratouli@gmail.com ztankosic@gmail.com turantakaoglu@gmail.com chtele@otenet.gr ignatovatony@gmail.com efthimis80@hotmail.com svtodaro@unict.it touchais.gilles@wanadoo.fr rtreuil2@gmail.com zoi.tsirtsoni@mae.u-paris10.fr rtuncel@gmail.com aturkcan@anadolu.edu.tr sophiavakirtzi@hotmail.com ivoskos@hotmail.com List of sites map author: Dr. Rebecca Seifried xiii List of sites Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 Site name Ayia Irini Ayia Triada Ayios Demetrios Ayios Ioannis Aigeira Akrotiri Alasarna Alepotrypa Cave Alimia Antiparos Cave Aphrodisias Azoria Bakla Tepe Beycesultan Bubanj Hum Çatalhöyük Cernavoda Çine-Tepecik Corycian Cave Coţofeni Cucuteni Çukuriçi Höyük Cyclops Cave Dikili Tash Dimini Dispilio Divostin Doliana Drakaina Cave Durankulak Emporio Eutresis Ezero Ezero-Kale, Telish-Lîga Number 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 Site name Falasarna Franchthi Cave Ftelia Gortyn Grotta Gülpınar (Smintheion) Gumelniţa Hacılar Halieis Ilıpınar Kallamas Kalythies Cave Kalyvia Kamnik Kanlıtaş Höyük Karanovo Kastria Kavos Kephala Petras Kephala Kissonerga Kitsos Cave Klenia Cave Knossos Kodzhadermen Kontra Gliate (Kiapha Thiti) Korakou Kouphovouno Kozareva Mogila Krivodol Kulaksızlar Kumtepe Lemba Number Site name 68 Leontari (Lion's Cave) 69 Lerna 70 Liman Tepe (Klazomenai) 71 Limenaria 72 Măgura Gorgana 73 Makriyalos 74 Maliq 75 Mallia 76 Mandalo 77 Marki 78 Markiani 79 Maroulas 80 Mikro Vouni 81 Mikrothives 82 Mochlos 83 Nerokourou 84 Oinoe IV 85 Palaikastro 86 Paliambela Kolindrou 87 Palioskala 88 Pangali 89 Pefkakia 90 Petromagoula 91 Phaistos 92 Phylakopi 93 Plakari 94 Plakias 95 Pločnik 96 Poliochni 97 Promachon 98 Prosymna 99 Rachmani Number 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 Site name Rudna Glava Sălcuţa Saliagos Sarakenos Cave Selevac Sesklo Sitagroi Skoteini Cave Sredny Stog Strofilas Tavabaşı Cave Tell Yunatsite Theopetra Cave Thermi Thespies Thorikos Tigani Troy Tsepi Tsoungiza Uğurlu Ulucak Varhari Varna Vinča Visviki Magoula Yeşilova Höyük Yeşiltepe Zas Cave Zlotska Pećina 15 Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea in the 5th millennium BC Agathe Reingruber1 Introduction Graphite painting in the Balkan Peninsula Graphite, one of the softest minerals, is an allotrope of carbon in its most stable form, chemically resistant and difficult to be ignited; it requires high temperatures to react even with oxygen.2 Since it was used until the end of the 19th century in pencils, it received its name from the ancient Greek word for drawing and/or writing: γράφω. Carbon, on the other hand, is present as a powder and is the main constituent of substances such as charcoal. It occurs with three natural isotopes, one of them being unstable and radioactive. This last, 14C, is a naturally occurring radioisotope mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial deposits; it is virtually absent in ancient rocks. Graphite has been used since the 5th millennium BC for ornamental purposes on vessels and/or specific parts of vessels. Such decorations are typical for certain regions at certain times, enabling archaeologists to create relative chronologies. The radioactive isotope 14C, on the other hand, can be used for absolute dating after calibration and hence be connected to calendar years.3 It is about time to join the information regarding both graphite painting and radiocarbon results to create a more comprehensive chronological scheme valid not only for a specific site but also for a larger region. Two vast cultural complexes: Kodžadermen-Gumelniţa-Karanovo VI (KGK VI) and Sălcuţa-Krivodol-Bubanj Hum (SKBh) were primarily defined according to pottery styles. In both complexes graphite paint occurred together with the use of metals during the 5th millennium BC. At first sight the differences between the complexes seem small. In detail, though, some notable distinctions are obvious, especially regarding the ornaments on vessels. Graphite occurs as a mineral throughout the Balkan Peninsula, both in the Balkan mountain range and in the Rhodope mountains (Fig. 15.1, A–O). The graphite was rubbed into a fine powder, enriched with calcareous matter and then pressed into conical bars that were pierced for easier transportation (photo in Fig. 15.1). By rubbing the blunt end of the bar on a hard flat surface the graphite was regained (together with the chalk included in the bar). This was mixed into a paste that was probably applied with a brush. Such bars, used to exhaustion, have been identified at most West Pontic sites (Fig. 15.1.1–18), indicating that not the painted vessels but the raw material was traded from essentially the same areas as was copper. If the vessel was thereafter fired in an oxidising atmosphere, the graphite could chemically react with the oxygen at temperatures as low as around 600–700°C resulting in CO2, thus endangering the painting. In a reducing atmosphere, this problem did not occur, and the end product was a dark background with a silvery shimmering graphite design. Yet the potters succeeded in both techniques. In order to obtain brownish surfaces with a silvery graphite pattern, the pots were probably fired in two steps: first at high temperatures above 700°C and then, after the application of the graphite, for a short while at lower temperatures. Nevertheless, it is possible that graphite painted vessels were fired in a single step as well.4 Not only do the sophisticated patterns speak to an artistically high level of production, but also indicate that knowledge regarding chemical processes seems to have been widespread. Where exactly this painting technique appeared first is difficult to assess. One often reads that in 156 Agathe Reingruber the Late Neolithic (LN) whole vessels were covered with graphite,5 but such examples have never been illustrated. The possibility has been raised that only a band below the rim of the pot may have been “graphitised”.6 This treatment appeared between 5500 and 5000 cal. BC, before the conception of very precise and sophisticated ornaments after 5000 BC. The characteristics and advantages of graphite were therefore already known before 5000 cal. BC – a fact that is supported by observations made recently by J. Pechtl and F. Eibl:7 in the oldest phase of the LBK, pots with graphite surfaces were produced in Bavaria8 but disappear in the younger LBK. No such precursors are known from the Lower Danube region: there the white and red encrusted vessels with vegetable temper, characteristic of the LN, were quickly substituted by graphite paint and mineral temper. Yet, in the Strymon valley and near the Aegean coast many different substances (e.g. bitumen, manganese-based colours and earthen brown colours) as well as different techniques (e.g. black-topped) have been tested and applied – always on well levigated pastes with mineral temper. The great proliferation of painted wares, like e.g. in Sitagroi II (5000–4600 cal. BC) is explained by technical innovations that are based on a better control of oxidation.9 It might not be a coincidence that both the mineral graphite and graphite bars appear in this region, whereas they had to be imported to the territory of the Gumelniţa culture. We can therefore assume that graphite was used decades if not centuries earlier in the Central Balkans than in the Eastern Balkans. Figure 15.1. A–O: graphite sources and 1–18: graphite bars (modified after P. Leshtakov et al. 2007, map 1–2; photo: Hansen 2007, fig. 37). 15. Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea The geographical setting An interesting geographical aspect is the localisation of Chalcolithic sites either west or east of the watershed that separates rivers flowing into the Black Sea from those flowing into the Aegean (Fig. 15.2): 1. 157 In the Lower Danube region, sites are arranged in a triangle around the Ludgorie Plateau. They are concentrated in the south near the rivers Kamčija and Provadia, around the lake of Varna and near Burgas Bay. In the north, some of the largest tells are situated Figure 15.2. Map of the West Pontic and Northern Aegean region with some of the most important tell sites of the 5th millennium BC. 158 2. Agathe Reingruber on the left bank of the Danube valley, or rather on the northern shore of the reconstructed palaeo-lake that covered most of today’s plain.10 West of the watershed, the Thracian sites are located mainly south of the Upper Tundža in hilly areas in the Sredna Gora or the Branica between the rivers Marica and Tundža; sites near the upper reaches of the rivers Marica/Evros/Meriç, Struma/Strymon and Mesta/ Nestos are all situated around the Rhodope Mountains. Apart from a few rivulets, no rivers empty into the Sea of Marmara; the Ergene drains most of the Turkish-Thracian plain into the Meriç/Marica river. This basin-like area was not only intriguingly empty during the Chalcolithic, but it also appears almost uninhabited in the Neolithic. Interestingly, the few sites in this region with the largest river confluences and in the direct vicinity of the three seas (esp. Turkish Thrace11) were the first to be abandoned at the end of Karanovo IV, the latest around 4800 cal. BC as attested by the 14C sequence from Aşagi Pınar.12 The lack of sites during prehistory cannot be explained merely by the silting up of river plains with alluvial deposits, nor do insufficient research and lack of excavation programmes caused by political circumstances or border problems between modern countries serve as profound explanations. A thorough study regarding the absence of sites in this area would require a combination of archaeological and extensive geomorphologic research. According to geographical conditions, the vast area between the Lower Danube and the Northern Aegean Sea will be subdivided into several regions, comprising from north to south:13 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The Lower Danube region with its northern and southern tributaries east of the line formed by the rivers Vedea and Yantra; it is the area of the Gumelniţa culture for which the site of Pietrele serves as a backbone regarding both relative and absolute chronology; The rivers Kamčija and Provadia discharging into the Black Sea: whereas the upper part of the mentioned rivers is the area of the Kodžadermen culture, the coastal area can be attributed to the Varna culture with the eponymous graveyard as the most prominent representative; The southern fringes of the Balkans and the Upper Tundža river are the area of the Karanovo VI culture with a good sequence of radiocarbon dates deriving from Tell Azmak; An area that came under closer investigation only recently is the Black Sea coast around the bay of Burgas (the finds from here will not form part of the analyses since the information on relative and absolute chronology is still too scant). The area of the Karanovo VI culture also includes the long and narrow strip between the Rhodope mountains and the Marica river, with Junacite at its westernmost edge; 6. 7. 8. The Strymon/Struma valley separates the Rhodope massive from the Rila and Pirin mountains; in its upper part the Slatino culture merges at the height of the site of Promachon-Topolnica with… …the coastal area between the rivers Strymon and Nestos, where Sitagroi and Dikili Tash are situated; The Lower Danube area west of the line formed by the rivers Olt and Osam is occupied by the cultures Sălcuţa/ Krivodol/Bubanj Hum – in this contribution this region will be treated only marginally (also, only few such sites are shown on Fig. 15.2). The Lower Danube The tell sites in region 1 are among the youngest in the whole West Pontic area, none predating the 5th millennium BC. As discussed elsewhere, these tells, measuring 9–10 m high, are among the highest Chalcolithic tells in the Eastern Balkans.14 Outstanding among them is the site of Pietrele for the amount of available information. As has been shown by a team of geographers from the University of Frankfurt, the site lay on the shore of a vast lake.15 This palaeo-lake connected the settlements between Pietrele in the west and at least Gumelniţa if not as far as Cuneşti in the east, a minimum distance of 60 km. The complex site of Pietrele consists of the tell itself (called Măgura Gorgana) and the flat settlement around it. Of the ca. 10 m height, 7.20 m have been excavated until 2013 in trench F, consisting of the remains of seven burnt or unburnt houses lying one on top of the other. Fifteen radiocarbon dates from this trench alone are arranged in Fig. 15.3 according to their stratigraphical position showing their calibrated values. Single outliers or those dates that reflect a long duration (attributable to the flat portion on the calibration curve at the end of the 5th millennium16) certainly need a better interpretation. This is possible using the statistical approach based on Bayesian modelling: relying on the arrangement according to the six house phases with available 14C dates, the probable duration of each phase can be calculated and outliers straightened out (Fig. 15.4). 17 The oldest dates place house phase 6 around 4540–4480 BC, the samples from the level under it are expected to date around 4600–4540 cal. BC. The pottery from this older house phase marks the transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic, vessels of the Neolithic period being tempered with vegetable matter in contrast to the Chalcolithic pottery that is exclusively mineral tempered. It seems therefore secure to date the Gumelniţa culture in Pietrele between 4600 cal. BC and 4250 cal. BC. Both wiggle-matching and Bayesian statistical approaches confirm the duration of single house phases in Pietrele between 30 and 70 years.18 We can therefore now speak in terms of decades when considering the sequences in 15. Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea 159 Figure 15.3. Radiocarbon dates from Pietrele, Trench F, arranged according to their stratigraphical position. Chalcolithic tells rather than in a very rough and general way in terms of centuries. Graphite painting in Pietrele Graphite was in use in Pietrele since at least 4600 cal. BC, presumably even earlier. After 4600 cal. BC, it was applied mainly to the inner surfaces of large open mineral tempered bowls and cups, but also on the outer surfaces of big lids and the shoulders and necks of closed vessels. In the lowest level so far, graphite appears as additional paint to already existing red and white ornaments.19 When the entire ornamentation was executed in graphite, broad lines were rendered either in the positive or in the negative (Fig. 15.5.5). Such lines prevail also in the next levels when they simply outline the main motifs. In house phase 2, lines become thinner and ornaments more complex. In house phase 1, very thin, intersecting lines dominate, leaving enough space for zonal patterns in the spandrels that frame the main negative motif (Fig. 15.5.1–4). The inner division of large open bowls or cups is either in halves or in quarters (the latter called “swastika” by Todorova20). The motifs therein are repeated in a certain manner, either in one or in two pairs of two identical ornaments (Fig. 15.5). Only in the upper levels are the segments further separated into horizontal registers – this being achieved by the application of very thin and exact lines resulting in sophisticated designs. Usually the main motifs are rendered in the negative, the polished surface of the vessel having been reserved in the shape of drop-like or wavy motifs.21 Wave-like ornaments were also incised; this motif is famous in Precucuteni22 and Hamangia IV pottery23 of the first half of the 5th millennium. More numerous though are the incised helices, a motif that consists of two interlocking spirals.24 In Pietrele the broad bands are bordered by deep lines filled with white encrusted paste. The spandrels of the curvilinear motifs are also roughened around a polished circle (Fig. 15.6.1). In the upper layers the circle is substituted by a drop-like motif (Fig. 15.6.2). Interestingly, helices in Pietrele are never shown in graphite.25 This clear-cut rule is a feature that distinguishes the pottery of the Lower Danube area from the regions south and west of it, where the main motif is the helix executed in graphite. 160 Agathe Reingruber Figure 15.4. Radiocarbon dates from Pietrele, Trench F, modelled according to Bayesian statistics. Radiocarbon dated sites north of the Balkans with graphite painted pottery Graphite painting at Varna occurs only on a few small vessels (cups) but not on large bowls.26 On the other hand a large open bowl from Grave 4 was painted with gold dust. The decoration resembles the bowl from Pietrele with broad lines and “breaking waves”, but additionally it displays a netlike pattern of lozenges.27 No 14C dates are available from Grave 4; in comparison to painted bowls from Pietrele it could be dated to around 4400 cal. BC. The published dates from Varna are predominantly derived from human bones (Fig. 15.7) – yet a reservoir effect has been excluded.28 When comparing the dates from human bone with those from animal bones there seems not to be a significant difference: human bones date between 4800–4340 cal. BC, animal bone between 4700–4340 cal. BC. But when analysing the pairs of dates from the same grave consisting of one human and one animal bone, differences become obvious: in Grave 111 15. Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea 161 Figure 15.5. Pietrele, main motifs painted with graphite on bowls and lids: 1–2, 4: simple or breaking waves and drops; 2–3: net-like motifs; 4: waves and drops; 5: simple rods (drawings by 1: Waltraut Rust; 2: Cristina Georgescu; 3: Heide Wrobel-Nørgaard; 4: Irma Berdženishvili; 5: Tilmann Vachta). 162 Agathe Reingruber Figure 15.6. Pietrele, main motifs incised on lids and closed vessels: 1. helices and circles; 2. helices and drops (drawings by 1a–b: Cristina Georgescu; 2a: Irma Berdženishvili, 2b: Tilmann Vachta). the date for the human bone (OxA-13865) is up to 200 years older than that for the animal bone, in Grave 117 the difference is up to 360 years. Most probably the graveyard was in use not before 4600 BC and not after 4300 BC. Tell sites in the Kamčija river basin are older than those in the Lower Danube region; their lowest levels can be dated to the Early Chalcolithic (EC) after 5000/4900 cal. BC. In Goljamo Delčevo graphite painting was in use since horizon 3 of the Middle Eneolithic, although white and red incrustations prevail.29 The three dates from horizons 3 and 4 centre around 4700 cal. BC (Fig. 15.9).30 Linear motifs on the outer surfaces of slightly closed vessels are executed in negative style accompanied by red and white paint,31 whereas on lids in positive style.32 Discrete graphite ornaments first appear as simple or right-angled bar-like motifs and after 4600 cal. BC, in the Late Chalcolithic (LC), as curvilinear motifs.33 Graphite on the vessels from Ovčarovo occurs only on the outer surfaces of slightly closed vessels or on lids.34 In levels 2–3 (acc. to Todorova phase Poljanica III of the EC), graphite was used in addition to white and polychrome painting.35 The motifs, thin lines, semicircles and circles are rendered in the negative. In levels 4–5 lids are decorated in the positive with broad lines and triangles, similar to those from Goljamo Delčevo horizon 4.36 Throughout the Middle and Late Chalcolithic, motifs are rendered in the negative on closed vessels and in the positive on lids.37 Along the Danube and its tributaries, the Chalcolithic (in Romanian terminology) or Late Chalcolithic (in Bulgarian terminology) started around 4600 cal. BC and ended around 4250 cal. BC. Near the coast the picture is similar: the oldest graves at Varna might have been used around 4600 BC; the end of the settlement at Durankulak38 can be dated to ca. 4250 BC. The ca. two centuries that led to the flourishing cultural complex KGK VI deserve special attention: it seems appropriate to consider the final phase of the Late Neolithic (LN) in Romanian terminology (phase “Boian-Spanţov”) 15. Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea Figure 15.7. Varna, radiocarbon dates from human and animal bones. 163 164 Agathe Reingruber Figure 15.8. Varna: pairs of dated human and animal bones from Graves 111 and 117. Figure 15.9. Goljamo Delčevo, modelled radiocarbon dates. 15. Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea 165 Figure 15.10. Tell Azmak, radiocarbon dates from seeds only, modelled according to phases III and IV. also as a transitional phase similar to the Middle Chalcolithic (MC) in Bulgarian terminology, especially since during 4750–4600 cal. BC a bundle of innovations, to which the graphite painting belongs, reached the region. This phase (Table 15.1 in dark grey shade) has not been reached in 2013 at Pietrele, Măgura Gorgana, yet. Radiocarbon dated sites south of the Balkans with graphite paint A cluster of sites in the Sredna Gora, along the Upper Tundža near Kazanluk and south of the mountainous hills in the district of Stara Zagora have been under excavation for more than 100 years. The most famous site in this area, Tell Karanovo, remains as good as unpublished for its Copper Age layers. Additionally, only selected well-preserved finds from other sites in this region circulate in the literature, mainly in catalogues. The important finds from Tell Azmak, for example, necessary for establishing a convincing scheme of relative chronology, are largely unknown. Fortunately, a series of 18 radiocarbon dates has been put forward from this site according to phases. They date phases Azmak III and IV (coeval with Karanovo V–VI) between 4900 and 3650 cal. BC. The reason for this seemingly long duration is the large standard deviation of 100 to 200 years. When roughly modelled according to layers the dates from seeds reveal that Azmak III started not earlier than 4800 BC and belongs therefore mainly to the MC. The transition to Azmak IV (the LC phase) occurred around 4600 cal. BC (Fig. 15.10). There are no dates available from the youngest phase Azmak IV-4, but the sequence stops around 4300 cal. BC meaning that the tell also might have been abandoned only around 4250 cal. BC. Judging from the few published finds, the graphite ornamentation consisted already in the beginning of thin parallel lines, either linear or curvilinear.39 Published as “EC” (but by radiocarbon dates belonging to the MC) a closed medium-sized vessel and a “ceramic drum” are painted with thin lines resulting in helices.40 The curved surface of a lid, on the other hand, is divided into four segments each of which displays three broad parallel lines separated by thin ones.41 To the LC belong a number of small cups (3–9 cm high) and mid-sized vessels (16–17 cm high) decorated under the rim with parallel lines or broader stripes leaving out the main motifs like semicircles, circles and triangles.42 Along the Upper Marica river the most comprehensively published site of Junacite is also the westernmost of this region. The graphite painted pottery from this site has 166 Agathe Reingruber Table 15.1: Regions 1-6 with a schematic overview of ornamental styles and the resulting patterns in graphite (in light grey shade). Sequences of the different sites are organized according to their 14C dates and not according to the relative sequence proposed by the excavators (dark grey shade: levels of the purported Middle Chalcolithic according to the Bulgarian terminology) calBC N-Aegean Strymon coast valley Upper Marica 4250 DT IIC Sit IIIC TP IV (“EC”) Jun. LC I-II 4300 -v.f. lines v.f. lines -helices curvi- 4350 -several zones -several zones rectilinear 4400 -circ in spandrels 4450 Sit IIIB 4500 Upper Tundža “Aegean” motifs KamčijaProvadia Lower Danube “Pontic” motifs -pos “helices” GD 11-17 Piet HP 1-3 -neg “waves”, Ovč 11-13 -lines in bundles “drops” in reg. -neg motifs in reg -intersecting Azmak IV in registers -intersecting -swastika-motif -conc motifs -simple lines thin lines -conc motifs -conc motifs thin lines Sl 5-6 “EC III”: -rhombus in -stylized vegetal -spandrels GD 8-10 Piet HP 4-6 -broad lines in -lines in bundles -v.f. lines spandrels -neg orn (semi/ filled and geom Ovč 8-10 -broad lines pos+ neg style, 4550 Sit IIIA -grp+red pnt -neg orn: circle circle, triangle) orn inscribed -circ in neg -neg motif -2 or 4fold orn 4600 -filled spandrels -neg in spandrels -grp+red pnt in the neg -grp on rims -grp+red+white (“swastika”) 4650 DT IIB TP IIIB (Sl 3-4: Marica IV Azmak III -helices GD/Ovč 3-7 not 4700 -grp+inc “EC II”) -broad -neg nonlinear (“EC”): broad curvi(linear) -broad lines, circ 4750 -broad lines and thin lines -pos. (curvi) lin and thin lines -spandr filled -grp+red+white yet 4800 DT IIA (Sit II) TP IIIA (Sl 2) Marica III: -grp as fill GD 2, Ovč 1-2 4850 -broad grp lines -broad grp lines -pos. (curvi) lin -grp with -white and red 4900 -inc+grp as fill -grp+inc/ pricks Marica I-II: simple lines -incisions 4950 -black on red -black on red -grp. v.rare, lin -inc helix 5000 -Marica style -Marica style -incisions Azmak II excavated -grp+red+white (Abbreviations for sites: DT=Dikili Tash, GD=Goljamo Delčevo, Jun=Junacite, Ovč=Ovčarovo, Piet HP=Pietrele housephase, Sit=Sitagroi, Sl=Slatino, TP=Topolnica-Promachon; other abbreviations: circ=circle, conc=concentric; geom.=geometric, grp=graphite, inc=incisions, lin=linear, neg=negative, orn=ornament, pnt=paint, pos=positive, reg=register spandr=spandrel, v.f.=very fine, v.rare=very rare). been published from a technological rather than relative chronological point of view. Thus, no distinction is possible between the ceramics of the two LC phases with a time depth of almost 400 years (Fig. 15.11). It is noticeable that in House 12 linear patterns in combination with red/ochre paste are present,43 whereas in Houses 3 and 5 curvilinear and rectilinear helices with a rhombus in the centre dominate. In House 1 closed shapes appear with or without handles and broad registers of graphite ornaments painted in the negative.44 Wide open plates are decorated either with two or four identical motifs or in zones arranged in concentric registers. The positive style consists of bundles of lines forming curvilinear or rectilinear helices with negative motifs only in the spandrels.45 Motifs in the negative are the same as in Azmak: circles and semicircles separated by lines. Only one plate displays the “snake pattern”.46 When modelling the LC dates from Junacite, similar results to those from Azmak are obtained: the beginning of the LC phase can thus also be dated to 4600 BC, the end to ca. 4250 cal. BC (Fig. 15.11). 15. Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea 167 Figure 15.11. Junacite, modelled radiocarbon dates. Graphite painted pottery in the Strymon/Struma valley Slatino is said to be a site of the EC in the Upper Struma valley.47 Regarding the 14C dates from Slatino-Čardako some misunderstandings arise from the different assessments of phases: whereas the excavator places them all in horizon 3, Görsdorf and Boyadzhiev consider them as deriving from horizon 4.48 The oldest and the youngest dates were extracted from grains of wheat; the other two are from charcoal. According to the excavator the date from Hannover is an outlier, being too young even for KGK VI – but this is only partially the case since the calibrated date falls within the 1σ-range between 4259–3995 cal. BC and at 2σ between 4358–3818 cal. BC and is therefore consistent with the end of KGK VI. Chohadhziev takes into consideration the earliest possible beginning of the oldest date, placing this way the EC II horizon at Slatino around 4800 cal. BC.49 Such an early dating seems to be supported by the black on red pottery which is said to be an indicator for the transition from the LN to the EC, many motifs occurring both in black and in graphite paint.50 Yet black on red pottery also appears much later during the LC, as shown by Chohadzhiev himself51 (see also below). Also another aspect in the relative chronological scheme of Chohadzhiev needs attention: before the year 2007 he made no distinction between an EC and a MC phase, the EC at Slatino covering therefore in absolute chronological terms the 48/47th century BC.52 Two of the radiocarbon dates from Slatino place horizons 3–4 just as well into the centuries 4700–4500 cal. BC, when they overlap also with the older date Bln-3350 (Fig. 15.12). Around 4600 BC the MC in Thrace and North-Eastern Bulgaria ended. The consequence of such a reading of the dates from Slatino is the placement of the pottery from Slatino 5–6 into the LC – this is contrary to the relative chronology proposed by Chohadzhiev but not at all incompatible with the pottery traditions at Dikili Tash. During the LN, no graphite painted sherds occurred at Slatino, such fragments – two sherds painted with simple lines – appearing first in the EC I in the flat site of Slatino-Karo I.53 In the tell Slatino-Čardako, in the lower levels of the EC (and only there) graphite does appear accompanying pricks or incisions. The latter disappear in level 3, being a valuable chronological marker.54 An interesting feature is the application of red paint: red and white paint in combination with incisions is detected in horizon 4; in horizons 5–6 the combination is of incisions and red paint.55 The interesting combination of graphite and red paint also seems to be restricted to horizons 5 and 6 (according to the published figures).56 There seems to be a tendency of first using graphite in zones rather than in lines and/or combining it with other pigments. Discrete 168 Agathe Reingruber Figure 15.12. Slatino-Čardako, calibrated radiocarbon dates. Figure 15.13. Slatino-Čardako, pottery from phases 3–6 (after Chohadzhiev 2006, figs 117, 123, 137). graphite lines are thicker in lower levels and appear in bundles running in different directions, whereas in the upper levels they can be as thin as 1.5–2 mm. In the upper horizons, a “negativization” is observed.57 Yet, negative motifs (zigzags, circles) serve only as fill-ornaments in the corner spandrels, like at Dikili Tash. The main motifs in horizons 3–4 are: thick linear motifs; also, curvilinear lines that form interconnected hooks and helices.58 Also typical are meander-helices next to spiralled helices. The former are formed by two rectilinear hooks facing each other, in the rhomboid centre of which is inscribed a circle. The repetition of linear motifs results in the appearance of corners and spandrels (most often distorted triangles or rhomboids, with a negative circle in their centre) that were covered also with graphite (Fig. 15.13.1–2). 15. Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea 169 Figure 15.14. Promachon-Topolnica, modelled radiocarbon dates from phases II–IV. In horizons 5–6 thin lines show more elaborate and sophisticated variations to the three main patterns: bundles of lines, sometimes concentric; spiralled helices; multiple meandering helices (Fig. 15.13.3–4).59 Most impressive are the combinations of rounded and rectilinear helices, like on a plate – here too the (mostly triangular) surfaces in between the positive main motifs are filled with graphite in which a symbol in negative is rendered, just as in “EC II”.60 A link connecting the Upper Strymon valley with the coastal area is the pottery from Promachon-Topolnica (PT) situated on the border between Bulgaria and Greece. Graphite has been used for decorative purposes since PT II when it was applied to the upper parts of black topped vessels.61 The first graphite painted motifs appear in PT IIIA dated to ca. 5000–4700 cal. BC (Fig. 15.14). According to Vaysov, this can be directly connected to the black/brown on red/buff painted pottery of the Strumska-Akropotamos variant sharing not only the same motifs but also the same shapes of decorated vessels.62 In PT IIIB, 0.5–2 cm broad lines are accompanied by thin ones leading to very thin lines at the end of the “EC” and also into PT IV. In the phase PT IV, according to the radiocarbon dates coeval with the phase Gumelniţa A2 dating to 4400–4250 BC, only thin positive lines are applied on vessels fired in a reduced atmosphere.63 Nevertheless, Vaysov places this phase in the early 5th millennium, simultaneous with the EC cultures of Slatino-Dikili Tash I and Marica.64 The southernmost region, where the Lower Strymon and Nestos valleys discharge into the Aegean, has received a great amount of attention from Greek and foreign archaeologists, especially the sites of Sitagroi and Dikili Tash. The analysis of the Chalcolithic pottery from Dikili Tash, excavated under the directorship of J. Deshayes in 1961–75, was completed in 1986 and published in 2004. Correlation with 14C dates has not yet been performed – the pottery phases elaborated for Dikili Tash II are based on stylistic and typological changes. Although phase II lasted from ca. 4900–4300 cal. BC (Fig. 15.15), no specific breaks in pottery production can be singled out during these 600 years of continuous habitation.65 The differences in decoration styles consist of a prevalence of incised motifs in the beginning and a shift towards graphite paint during the end of the phase. For 170 Agathe Reingruber Figure 15.15. Dikili Tash, modelled radiocarbon dates from phases I–III. example, the Marica style with incisions and ladder-like infills are abundant in Dikili Tash IIA and continue with fewer numbers of sherds throughout the entire phase.66 The main motifs are rectilinear and curvilinear incised helices,67 and the spandrels were painted with graphite. Graphite in these cases serves merely as fill (Fig. 15.16.1–2).68 Also present in phase DT IIA is black on red painted pottery that becomes more numerous in DT IIB and is still applied in DT IIC.69 The tendency in this kind of ornament is the application of broader bands in the beginning, and multiple thin lines towards the end in DT IIC.70 Main motifs are also rectilinear and curvilinear helices and spirals.71 The graphite ornaments are similar to those of the black on red pottery (Fig. 15.16.3–4);72 linear and spiralled helices and their derivates were rendered in graphite, some graphite-painted spandrels containing circles in the negative (comparable to Slatino 5–6). In phase DT IIB graphite was still used adjacent to incisions.73 Simple conical bowls are elaborately decorated both inside and out with lines usually broader than in the next phase.74 In DT IIC ornaments are organised in several zones separated by very fine lines; as a rule, spandrels in between the positive helices and spirals are inscribed with circles in the negative. Often, very fine, irregular lines are intersecting.75 15. Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea 171 Figure 15.16. Dikili Tash, pottery from phase IIA (after Demoule 2004. pls 37–9). Thicker lines were substituted by multiple thin lines, bundles of 3–4 parallel lines being the rule from IIB onwards.76 Incisions are still in use, they were filled with white paste and appear on the lower parts of open conical bowls of which the upper third – that curves slightly inward – is ornamented with graphite (helices and loops).77 On occasion of the very famous dates from Sitagroi, Sir C. Renfrew started an important discussion in 1971 that disassembled the generally accepted knowledge of that time and reassembled it again, providing the basis for new discussions.78 At first it was thought that the phase Sitagroi III lasted until 3600 cal. BC – and indeed there is quite a young date in the sequence. But when modelled it appears that phase III lasted also here from ca. 4600 until 4200 cal. BC (Fig. 15.17). These results are supported by the dates from Dikili Tash where phase II ended around ca. 4300 cal. BC. Similar to Dikili Tash, Sitagroi during the Copper Age was also linked to the Balkans rather than to the Aegean, not least by to the use of graphite paint.79 Already to Sitagroi II might belong two graphite painted sherds reflecting very early experimentation with graphite.80 Graphite painting makes its latest appearance at Sitagroi III together with black on red paint. Most of the pots were fired in an oxygen-rich atmosphere at 730°C.81 Also similar to Dikili Tash II, three pottery phases were proposed for Sitagroi III, but gaps are postulated for the latter sequence.82 Certainly it might have been the case that people left the site for short periods, resettling after only a few decades. Yet short interruptions cannot be substantiated by the conventional 14C dates since the resolution of such dates is not refined enough. Discussion and conclusions Therefore, in a very general way, we can speak of two distinct traditions in the vast West Pontic area regarding both the shapes that were ornamented as well as the ornaments themselves: 1. 2. The “Pontic tradition”: in the Lower Danube region, the main motifs are reserved in the negative: “waves” and “drops” are most often applied on the inner surface of bowls and cups or the outer surface of lids and certain closed shapes. Never are “helices” encountered in graphite – they appear only as incised decoration, the lines being filled with either red or white paste applied after firing. The “Aegeo-Thracian tradition”: throughout the Strymon valley, but also in the Upper Marica and as far as the Upper Tundža similarities in pottery production are seen in: • • specific shapes that were decorated: two-handled jugs with conical necks (amphorae) and simple conical bowls; specific motifs that were painted: rectilinear and curvilinear helices in the positive; only in the spandrels were geometric figures reserved in the negative (circles, semi-circles and triangles). 172 Agathe Reingruber Figure 15.17. Sitagroi, modelled radiocarbon dates from phases II–III. When taking into consideration the relative chronology of pottery styles, pottery specialists pursue a stringent picture based on the logic of possible anteriority, contemporaneity and posteriority of ornaments. Yet perception and logic are subject to personal ability and experience. Certainly, every archaeologist dealing with huge amounts of pottery “gets a feeling” for the sequences he/she is in charge of. But let us face it: more often than not we are confronted with evolutionist schemes resulting in linear models from simple to complex. This in some cases might be right. But when taking into account additional parameters as a corrective – in this case absolute chronology based on modelled 14C dates – the outcome may differ. For graphite painting such an evolutionist model results in the linearity of: • • • • • • • graphitised surfaces graphite as accompanying filling graphite combined with other colours and techniques discrete graphite in broad (positive) strokes graphite in thin (positive) lines graphite in spandrels (with or without negative motif therein) graphite in negative main motifs. Such a line is not applicable to the “Pontic tradition”. Here, graphite is used from the very beginning to give contours to the negative main motif; thin intertwined lines are part of the complex ornaments on the same vessels. Neither is the succession of first positive and later negative ornaments valid in the “Aegeo-Thracian tradition”: from the very beginning negative ornaments adorn the spandrels – they even tend to become less frequent in Dikili Tash IIC. Evolutionist schemes as postulated by H. Todorova83 do not take into account the differences throughout the regions. Illustrated by three painted bowls from phases Marica IIIa, IIIb and Karanovo VI, it is thought that in the beginning positive lines dominated, followed by negative zonal ornaments, resulting finally in the abandonment of lines in favour of purely negative patterns. As has been argued, the pottery from Marica has to be analysed in the context of the “Aegeo-Thracian” style, whereas the bowl from Nevski, near Lovec, belongs to the “Pontic tradition”. For the same reason caution is required with the “development of spiral-shaped motifs” from Junacite and other sites suggested by N. Todorova who posits a logical development from positive linear patterns to negative motifs.84 The south-western and western area of pottery traditions along the Strymon-Iskar valleys are connected via Thrace with the north-eastern pottery tradition from the Danube, the Lom and the Kamčija rivers. The division can be followed up by the watersheds: sites close to the rivers that flow into the Black Sea display a “Pontic tradition” and sites near to rivers that flow into the Northern Aegean an “Aegean- 15. Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea 173 Appendix Table with 14C dates used for the modelling of sequences and phases from the sites discussed in the paper. 1. Kohl and Quitta, 1966, 34–35; 2. Görsdorf and Boyadžiev 1996; 3. R. Treuil (ed) 1992; 4. Banador (http://www.archeometrie.mom. fr/banadora/); 5. H. Todorova et al. 1975, 2; 6. Boyadzhiev 1998, 361; 7. Junacite 2007, 234 tab. 1; 8. Weninger et al. 2010; 9. Hansen et al. 2012; 10. Renfrew 1971; 11. Bem 2000–2001, tab. 3; 12. Koukouli-Chryssanthaki et al. 2007; 13. Higham et al. 2007. Appendix: Table with 14C dates used for the modelling of sequences and phases from the sites discussed in the paper. Site Lab.-No. BP ± BC 1σ d13C Material Unit, horizon, phase Reference Azmak Bln-141 5642 100 4680–4340 –23.60 seeds Qu. B 84, hor. IV-3 1; 2 Azmak Bln-135 5689 100 4690–4390 –25.70 charcoal Qu. B 113, hor. IV-3 1; 2 Azmak Bln-134 5546 200 4700–4100 –23.40 charcoal Qu. B 98, hor. IV-3 1; 2 Azmak Bln-138 5618 200 4720–4250 –25.20 charcoal Qu. A115, hor. IV-3 1; 2 Azmak Bln-144 5592 120 4550–4250 –25.30 seeds Qu. G 83, hor. IV-2 1; 2 Azmak Bln-131 5683 100 4680–4370 –27.10 charcoal Qu. B 99, hor. IV-2 1; 2 Azmak Bln-139 5698 100 4690–4410 –25.30 seeds Qu. G 83, hor. IV-2 1; 2 seeds Qu. W 84, hor. IV-1 1; 2 –25.20 seeds Qu. B 116, hor. IV-1 1; 2 seeds Qu. W 84, hor. IV-1 1; 2 –25.30 seeds Qu. W 97, hor. III-4 1; 2 charcoal Qu. W 115, hor. III-4 1; 2 –25.60 seeds Qu. A 84, hor. III-4 1; 2 Azmak Bln-146 5006 150 3970–3650 Azmak Bln-145 5387 100 4340–4080 Azmak Bln-149 5888 100 4940–4590 Azmak Bln-147 5214 150 4250–3800 Azmak Bln-137 5697 100 4690–4400 Azmak Bln-142 5793 150 4820–4460 Azmak Bln-148 5760 150 4790–4450 seeds Qu. G 69, hor. III-3 1; 2 Azmak Bln-151 5807 100 4790–4540 –26.40 seeds Qu. G 69, hor. III-3 1; 2 Azmak Bln-150 5632 150 4690–4640 –24.90 seeds Qu. G 83, hor. III-2 1; 2 –25.50 Azmak Bln-143 5729 150 4770–4440 Azmak Bln-136 5840 100 4810–4550 seeds Qu. W 70, hor. III-2 1; 2 charcoal Qu. A 84, hor. III-2 1; 2 Dikili Tash I Gif-2630 6720 160 5754–5485 niv XIV / W30 (sond. est) 3 Dikili Tash I Gif-1740 6450 160 5607–5231 niv. 13? / X30 3 Dikili Tash I Gif-1426 6800 150 5870–5562 niv. II / W30 (sond. est); niv. XI (Banadora) 3 Dikili Tash I Gif-1735 6170 160 5311–4934 niv. 13 / X29, fosse 3 Dikili Tash I Gif-1737 6400 160 5529–5214 niv. 13 / X29 3 Dikili Tash I Gif-2628 7020 170 6046–5733 niv. 0.39 m / AA 28 3 Dikili Tash I Gif-2629 6250 160 5372–5003 niv. 0.39 m / AA 28 3 Dikili Tash I Gif-2627 6370 170 5511–5081 niv. 1.05 m / AA 28 3 Dikili Tash II Gif-1423 5650 140 4669–4353 niv. VIII / W30 3 Dikili Tash II Ly-1064 6040 120 5203–4789 niv. 16 / U24 3 Dikili Tash II Ly-1062 6100 200 5292–4796 niv. 16 / T24 3 Dikili Tash II Gif-1738 5600 150 4653–4271 niv. 16 / R24 3 Dikili Tash II Gif-1736 5850 160 4908–4525 niv. 12 / X29 3 Dikili Tash II Gif-1424 5750 140 4770–4454 niv. 9 / X29 Neo. 3 Dikili Tash II Gif-1425 5750 140 4770–4454 niv. 16 / R24 3 Dikili Tash II? Ly-10090 5740 45 4679–4535 bone 4 Dikili Tash III? Ly-10089 4805 40 3645–3531 bone 4 Dikili Tash IIIA Ly-1061 6480 270 5704–5080 niv. 14 / T24 3 (Continued) 174 Agathe Reingruber Appendix: Table with 14C dates used for the modelling of sequences and phases from the sites discussed in the paper. (Continued) Site Dikili Tash IIIB Lab.-No. Ly-1305 BP 5030 ± BC 1σ 160 3977–3653 d13C Material Unit, horizon, phase niv. 3 / P24 Reference 3 Goljamo Delcevo Bln-920 5590 100 4529–4342 charcoal Qu. 462, hor. 12 5 Goljamo Delcevo Bln-920A 5640 100 4582–4357 charcoal Qu. 462, hor. 12 2 Goljamo Delcevo Bln-921 5515 100 4461–4258 charcoal Qu. 431, hor. 09 5 Goljamo Delcevo Bln-922 5930 120 4988–4686 charcoal Qu. 954, hor. 07 5 Goljamo Delcevo Bln-923 5970 100 4982–4727 charcoal Qu. 326, hor. 05 6 Goljamo Delcevo Bln-924 5840 100 4799–4555 charcoal Qu. 431, hor. 04 2 Goljamo Delcevo Bln-966 5780 100 4727–4501 charcoal Qu. 431, hor. 04 2 Goljamo Delcevo Bln-925 5940 100 4952–4707 charcoal Qu. 563, hor. 03 2 Junacite IGAN-2944 5380 130 4338–4054 human bone skeleton 72, Hor A 7 Junacite IGAN-2796 5650 90 4578–4365 wood central profile 5.30 m, Hor A 7 Junacite IGAN-2797 5560 70 4456–4346 wood central profile 5.52 m, Hor A 7 Junacite IGAN-2943 5520 160 4548–4080 human bone skeleton 66, Hor A 7 Junacite IGAN-2800 5460 170 4459–4057 charcoal central profile 5.37–5.41 m, Hor A 7 Junacite IGAN-2793 5410 70 4346–4081 wood central profile 5.45 m, Hor A 7 Junacite IGAN-2801 5890 90 4899–4619 charcoal central profile 7.08–7.40 m, Hor B 7 Junacite IGAN-2802 6050 140 5207–4793 charcoal central profile 8.55–8.59 m, EC 7 Pietrele Bln-5716 5328 39 4236–4062 wheat P04/F/016 8 –24.7 Pietrele Bln-5717 5366 34 4322–4080 –25.5 cereals P04/F/016 8 Pietrele Bln-5718 5443 38 4342–4262 –24.8 cereals P04/F/016 8 Pietrele Bln-5720 5424 33 4333–4260 –25.1 charcoal P04/F/003 8 Pietrele Bln-5847 5602 47 4461–4366 –24.5 charcoal P05/F/142 8 Pietrele KIA29315 5520 30 4442–4336 –21.05 bone P04/F/032 8 Pietrele Bln-5930 5478 36 4357–4269 –26.0 charcoal P06/F/366 8 Pietrele Bln-5932 5473 32 4353–4269 –25.9 charcoal P06/F/372 8 –25.33 Pietrele KIA39322 5548 32 4446–4350 Pietrele KN-5988 5770 33 4685–4584 charcoal P08/F/907 9 charcoal P07/F/402 9 Pietrele KN-5989 5539 43 4446–4345 charcoal P07/F/409 8 Pietrele MAMS14558 5602 25 4459–4371 –25.0 barley P10/F/323 9 Pietrele MAMS14559 5632 24 4498–4406 –20.3 barley P10/F/354 9 Pietrele MAMS14561 5689 24 4546–4490 –22.1 barley P10/F/418 9 Pietrele MAMS14560 5671 23 4526–4464 –18.5 barley P10/F/415 9 Promachon-Top. HD-20461 5447 42 4345–4261 –19 bone Qu. IA; 80,05 m.a.s.l. 12 Promachon-Top. HD-20462 5530 48 4446–4339 –19 bone Qu. IA; 80,01 m.a.s.l. 12 (Continued) 15. Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea 175 Appendix: Table with 14C dates used for the modelling of sequences and phases from the sites discussed in the paper. (Continued) Site Lab.-No. BP ± BC 1σ d13C Material Unit, horizon, phase Reference Promachon-Top. DEM-1185 5895 33 4793–4723 –25 charcoal Qu. ST, pasa 10; 79,31 m.a.s.l. 12 Promachon-Top. DEM-1173 5996 25 4932–4844 –25 charcoal Qu. ST, pasa 10; 79,30 m.a.s.l. 12 Promachon-Top. HD-20459 5999 47 4946–4808 –19.3 bone Qu. G; 12 Promachon-Top. Bln-3348 6000 80 4992–4795 charcoal Hor. 2b, Qu. M14; 0,90 m 12 Promachon-Top. DEM-1254 6038 40 4997–4851 –25.77 charcoal Qu. ST, pasa 11; 78,99 m.a.s.l. 12 Promachon-Top. DEM-1250 6068 40 5042–4913 –25 charcoal Qu. ST, pasa 11; 78,99 m.a.s.l. 12 Promachon-Top. Bln-3382 6100 60 5205–4936 charcoal Hor. 2c, Qu. J14; 1,10 m 12 Promachon-Top. HD-20457 6188 38 5213–5070 charcoal Qu. G; 78,17 m.a.s.l. 12 Promachon-Top. Bln-3349 6240 90 5311–5066 charcoal Hor. 2c, Qu. O12; 1,20 m 12 Promachon-Top. Bln-3381 6270 60 5323–5081 charcoal Hor. 2b, Qu. J11; 0,80 m 12 Sitagroi II Bln-884 6240 100 5315–5059 charcoal ZA 50 10 Sitagroi II Bln-777 5920 120 4974–4620 charcoal ZA 59 10 Sitagroi II BM-649 5904 66 4877–4703 charcoal ZA 50 10 Sitagroi II Bln-776 5720 100 4686–4463 charcoal ZA 52 10 Sitagroi III Bln-881 5555 100 4504–4271 charcoal ZB 125 10 Sitagroi III Bln-882 5795 100 4770–4536 charcoal MM 52 10 Sitagroi III Bln-774 5100 120 4038–3715 charcoal ZA 41a 10 Sitagroi III BM-650b 5367 85 4327–4070 charcoal ML 118 10 Sitagroi III Bln-883 5545 100 4496–4269 wheat MMb 69 10 Slatino-Cardako Hv-12758 5305 111 4259–3995 wheat Hor. 4, 11 Slatino-Cardako Bln-3820 5680±50 4580–4450 charcoal Hor. 4, 1,25m 2 Slatino-Cardako Bln-3821 5720±50 4670–4470 charcoal Hor. 4, 1,25m 2; 11 Slatino-Cardako Bln-3350 5860±80 4890–4590 wheat Hor. 4, Qu. K8, 1,10m 2 Varna Cemetery OxA-13251 5702 32 4584–4489 human bone VEN 2/112 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13811 5530 36 4445–4340 bone Grave 117 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13687 5569 32 4447–4364 human bone B10/Area E 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13686 5639 32 4519–4406 human bone B11/Area E 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13848 5766 36 4683–4556 human bone Grave 117 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13865 5855 34 4777–4692 human bone Grave 111 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13846 5757 34 4680–4550 bone Grave 111 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13250 5626 31 4497–4375 human bone VEN 1/94 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13694 5654 36 4528–4455 human bone B137/Area N 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13692 5657 30 4521–4457 human bone B44/Area WC 13 (Continued) 176 Agathe Reingruber Appendix: Table with 14C dates used for the modelling of sequences and phases from the sites discussed in the paper. (Continued) Site Lab.-No. BP ± BC 1σ d13C Material Unit, horizon, phase Reference Varna Cemetery OxA-13693 5660 29 4520–4459 human bone B225/Area NE 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13691 5668 32 4526–4461 human bone B215/Area NE 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13252 5672 34 4535–4462 human bone VEN 3/121 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13253 5685 33 4545–4464 human bone VEN 4/125 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13689 5690 32 4548–4464 human bone B143/Area N 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13690 5700 30 4582–4488 bone B143/Area N 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13688 5787 30 4692–4600 human bone B158/Area W 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13685 5720 29 4600–4504 human bone B43/Area E 13 Varna Cemetery OxA-13254 5732 33 4652–4521 human bone VEN 6/255 13 Thracian tradition”.85 The main symbols (“waves”, “drops”) appeared already on Neolithic pottery of Precucuteni III and Hamangia IV cultures in the northeast, and intertwined spirals (“helices”) are known from Starčevo and Karanovo I–II pottery in the Southwest. Yet, what their initial meaning may have been remains largely a matter of interpretation. Notes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 This article has benefited greatly from the reliable collaboration with members of the team working over many years in Pietrele. I would like to thank especially the director of the excavation, S. Hansen, for all his support, U. Koprivc for checking and discussing with me close to 3000 features and units necessary for clearing stratigraphical issues, and C. Schröder for persisting in processing with me the immense quantities of pottery from the site. Lehrberger et al. 2011, 313–48. Libby 1952. A. Dittus pers. comm. Chohadzhiev 2007, 79; Gardner 2003, 296; Vaysov 2007, 85. Chohadzhiev 2007, 84; Vaysov 2007, 85. Pechtl and Eibl 2011, 349–432. Pechtl and Eibl 2011, fig. 2. Gardner 2003, 284. Benecke et al. 2013. Parzinger and Özdoğan 1995, 17. Görsdorf 2005, 417–22. The goal of this study is a compact and comprehensive synopsis of the available published information. The rough picture presented here must and certainly will be improved in the future. Reingruber 2015. Benecke et al. 2013. Relying on single dates from the end of the 5th millennium, the duration of the Gumelniţa culture has been erroneously 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 stretched by different authors into the 4th millennium BC (e.g. Bem 2000–2001; Bréhard and Bălăşescu 2012). At Pietrele, the first level from the end of the Gumelniţa culture is secured by ten radiocarbon dates from trenches B and F that, when modelled, do not fall below the value of 4250 cal. BC. Problematic are the dates for house phase 4 with only poor agreements. Yet the previous and the following phases form a reliable sequence. Hansen et al. 2012, 59–62; Reingruber 2015; Weninger et al. 2010, 141–9. Hansen et al. 2011, figs 55–6. Todorova H. 1978, 30. Such motifs are often labelled “snakes” or S-like patterns – with today’s knowledge of the extensive use of bodies of water in the region I would rather tend to interpret them as waves, the accompanying concentric broad lines might even indicate breaking waves. Marinescu-Bîlcu 1974, figs 58.8, 61.1 (both from phase Precucuteni III). Todorova H. 2002a, vol. 2, e.g. table 37, grave 299, table 60, grave 415. Palaguta 2007. There is only one exception to this rule: on the large open bowls the basic principle of the “swastika”-motif that structures the inner surface into four segments is the rectangle whose four sides are prolonged from the base up to the rim. It can be interpreted as two pairs of interlocked linear helices that contain a geometric shape in the negative in their rectangular centre (Fig. 15.5.1, 4). Therefore, it is not a true “swastika” (Todorova H. 1978, 30) but rather a dislocated cross. Also in Durankulak graphite paint is seldom met: of 1606 vessels only 29 were painted with graphite usually in combination with other techniques, Todorova H. 2002a, fig. 76. They appear first in Hamangia IV around 4600 cal. BC, Boyadzhiev 2002, 69. 15. Graphite and carbon: Relative and absolute chronology between the Aegean and the Black Sea 27 Fol and Lichardus 1988, 47, fig. 19. 28 Honch et al. 2006, 1493–504. 29 Todorova H. 1982, 92. Some sherds with graphite might be attributed to the second horizon of the Early Eneolithic, Todorova H. 1982, 88. 30 Görsdorf and Boyadzhiev 1996. 31 Todorova H. et al. 1975, 92, no 13, pl. 21.6. 32 Todorova H. et al. 1975, pls 30.8–9, 36.3, 6, 8. 33 Todorova H. 1982, figs 53.12–13, 54.1–2, 59.21–22. 34 Todorova H. 1982, figs 75–87. From the two published exceptions one bowl is painted with a yellowish paste, the other possibly with graphite, Todorova H. 1982, figs 84.1, 87.11. 35 Todorova H. 1982, 75–6. 36 Todorova H. 1982, figs 77.1–8. 37 Todorova H. 1982, figs 82–7. 38 Boyadzhiev 2002, 67–9. 39 Todorova H. 1978, tab. 17. In her chronological system, this phase is coeval with Marica IIIA of the Early Chalcolithic. 40 Kalchev 2005, 23, 27. An anthropo-zoomorphic vessel from nearby Stara Zagora was painted in the same way, Kalchev 2005, 50. Also the Chalcolithic sites from this region like Čatalca (Stara Zagora), Madrec, Kirilovo, Kalchev 2005, 24–6, bear the linear thin line motifs resulting in helices or concentric circles or broad stripes – no negative motifs being intended. 41 Kalchev 2005, 27. 42 Kalchev 2005, 31–3. 43 Todorova N. 2003, pl. 12.5, 7. 44 Todorova N. 2003, tab. 12.2–3; Todorova N. and Matsanova 2000, Fig. 26.6.3. 45 Todorova N. and Matsanova 2000, Fig. 26.1, 3–4. 46 Todorova N. 2003, tab 11.1. 47 Chohadzhiev 2006, 77. 48 Chohadzhiev 2006, 48; Görsdorf and Boyadzhiev 1996, 146. However, both horizons belong to the EC II (Chohadzhiev 2006, 92, tab. 11). 49 Chohadzhiev 2006, 48. 50 Chohadzhiev 2007, 98–9. The LN III phases Akropotamos IIIA–B that are distributed northward through the Struma valley are known in two basic variants: brown on beige (in Sitagroi I and Dikili Tash Ia) or brown on red and black on red (Sitagroi II and Dikili Tash IB). 51 Chohadzhiev 2006, fig. 11, 203. Brown on beige or on red surfaces was common in the EC II but not anymore in EC III with the appearance of black on red, Chohadzhiev 2006, tab. 10. 52 Chohadzhiev 2007, 101. 53 Chohadzhiev 2006, Fig. 66.9–10. 54 Chohadzhiev 2006, 67, Fig. 98.26–30. The graphite covers the major part of the surface. In it lines were incised that possibly were filled with white colour; or the graphite served just as filling, secondary to the main incised motive. 177 55 Chohadzhiev 2006, 67, figs 99.15–26, 113.6, 116.4. 56 Horizon 5, Chohadzhiev 2006, figs 122.2–4, 131.9, 205 right upper corner; horizon 6, Chohadzhiev 2006, figs 138.5, 147.12. Junacite House 12 also had vessels with red paint and graphite – here they belong to the LC. 57 Chohadzhiev 2006, 65–6, Fig. 92.4–7. 58 Chohadzhiev 2006, figs 115.10, 116.2, 117.1. 59 Chohadzhiev 2006, figs 120.13, 137.3, 121.10, 123.1, 4. Chohadzhiev insists that meanders and spirals are rare in EC III, Chohadzhiev 2006, 66, a view not supported by the published figures. 60 Chohadzhiev 2006, Fig. 135.3, compare with figs 132.6, 137.5, 143.8. 61 Vaysov 2007, 98. 62 Vaysov 2007, 97. 63 Vaysov 2007, 102, fig. 27. Yet the figures show oxidised reddish surfaces (fig. 18, 2–3). Also the graphite painted vessels from Sitagroi III were all oxidised (Gardner 2003, 296). 64 Vaysov 2007, 105, fig. 65 Demoule 2004, tab. 4.14. 66 Demoule 2004, 219, tab. 3.2.d. 67 Demoule 2004, 244, tab. 3.20. 68 Demoule 2004, pl. 39. 69 Demoule 2004, 218, tab. 3.2.b. 70 Demoule 2004, 238, tab. 3.13. 71 Demoule 2004, 239, tab. 3.14. 72 Demoule 2004, pls 36–7, pl. E. This technique is in use until the end of DT IIC around 4300 BC. 73 Demoule 2004, pls 42–3. 74 Demoule 2004, pls B.1–3, C.1 75 Demoule 2004, pls 95–105. 76 Demoule 2004, 234, tab. 3.7–8. 77 Demoule 2004, pl. C.2–4. 78 Elster and Renfrew 1986; Renfrew 1971, 275–82. 79 Gardner 2003, 296. 80 Gardner 2003, 286. 81 Gardner 2003, 288–9. 82 Demoule 2004, 263 tab. 4.14. We have to bear in mind that the pottery phases elaborated for the two sites are nothing more (but also no less) than stylistic phases; possible gaps and discontinuities possibly reflect stylistic absences in the decoration programme. 83 Todorova, H. 1978, tab. 17. 84 Todorova, N. 2003, 300, tab. 7.16–23. 85 Whether the picture described here may be supported for example by the use of raw material sources, especially of metals and flints, must be proven in the future. Further, the circulation of end products, especially the different types of metal tools (e.g. Vidra and Pločnik axes) has to be contrasted with the information of their metal content and mapped according to the different regions outlined here. 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