Proceeding of International Conference on
The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests
and Diseases in The Tropics
Editors:
Caroline Mohammed
Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Tasmania, Australia
Chris Beadle
The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Australia
Jolanda Roux
Forestry and Agriculture Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Sri Rahayu
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
Faculty of Forestry
Universitas Gadjah Mada
2012
Proceeding of International Conference on
The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
October 8th – 10th, 2012
Yogyakarta, Indonesia 2012
By Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada
Citation :
Mohammed, C., Beadle,C., Roux, J., Rahayu, S. (eds.) 2012. Proceeding of
International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and
Diseases in The Tropics, October 8th – 10th, 2012, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada
Published by Faculty of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada
Jln. Agro No. 1, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281
ISBN :
Cover Design : Faozan Indresputra
Printed in Indonesia
PREFACE
Clear evidence is emerging that climate change is altering the distribution, incidence and intensity
of forest pests and diseases. One example is the gall rust disease Falcataria moluccana caused
by Uromycladium tepperianum which is currently advancing from the North-East into SouthWest of South-East Asia. Given the probability for the further development of new climates, of
concern is the Asian long horn beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis). While this beetle is native to
regions of Japan, China and Korea, it is now also established in the US and Canada (FAO, 2009),
and with other similarly destructive pests, has the potential to move into tropical regions.
Changing climates can affect forest pests and the extent of the damage they cause by altering a
range of processes and behaviours. These include (i) their development, survival, reproduction,
distribution and spread; (ii) host physiology and plant defence; and (iii) relationships between
pests and diseases and environment, and their natural enemies, competitors and mutualists. To
address these issues, IUFRO WP 7.02.07 has organized an international conference on “The
Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in the Tropics” in Universitas Gadjah
Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia from October 8th - 10th 2012.
The aim of this conference is to update the status of pests and diseases in the tropics, and
to foster close collaboration and links between interested parties. This will be achieved by
addressing the following main topics:
1. Forest Trees Pest and Disease Biology and Epidemics
2. Updating Information on the Occurrence of Pests and Diseases in Planted Forest,
Community Forest and Natural Ecosystems
3. Management of Pests and Diseases
4. Emerging Pests and Diseases
5. Invasive alien pathogens and insects
6. Novel Associations between Insects and Pathogens
7. Climate Change and Tropical Pests and Diseases of Forest Trees
About 40 significant papers relating to the above topics appear in these proceedings. They have
been written by authors from Australia, Bangladesh, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia,
Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam.
I wish to acknowledge all our esteemed invited speakers, speakers, and all participants for
contributing to this conference. I also thank to APAFRI, APFISN, ACIAR, I-MHERE Universitas
Gadjah Mada (UGM), Faculty of Forestry UGM, Riau Pulp anf Paper (RAPP), PERHUTANI,
PT. Serayu Makmur kayuindo and PT Dharma Satya Nusantara, for their Financial support.
Sincerely Yours,
Dr. Sri Rahayu
Coordinator IUFRO WP 7.02.07
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
vii
viii | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
CONTENTS
PREFACE
CONTENTS
ABBREVIATION
1
THE CHALLENGES OF MODELLING FOREST PESTS IN A CHANGING
CLIMATE
Caroline Mohammed. (Keynote Speaker)
Page
v
vii
xi
1-9
2
EMERGING PESTS AND DISEASES IN NEW AREAS
S.S. Lee. (Keynote Speaker)
10-13
3
A REVIEW DISEASES IN NURSERIES AND PLANTATIONS IN
THAILAND
Uthaiwan Sangwanit.
14-20
APPRAISAL OF PEST AND DISEASES FOR FUTURE FOREST
PRODUCTIVITY IN BANGLADESH
M. Al-amin and S. Afrin.
21-28
4
5
WHY DOES THE JAPANESE OAK WILT OCCUR ONLY IN JAPAN?
Naoto Kamata, Hideaki Goto, Keiko Hamaguchi, Hayato Masuya, Dai Kusumoto,
Toshihide Hirao, Wen-I Chou, Wiwat Suasa-Ard, Sawai Buranapanichpan,
Sopon Uraichuen, Oraphan Kern-Asa, Sunisa Sanguansub, Thu Pham Quang,
Sih Kahono, and Heddy Julistiono.
6
Ceratocystis sp. CAUSES CROWN WILT OF Acacia spp. PLANTED IN
SOME ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF VIETNAM
Pham Quang Thu, Dang Nhu Quynh and Bernard Dell.
38-44
7
HEART ROT IN PLANTATION ACACIA HYBRID IN VIETNAM
T.T Trang, C. Beadle and C. Mohammed.
45-49
8
GALL RUST DISEASE AND GENETIC VARIATION OF
Falcataria moluccana IN INDONESIA
Sri Rahayu.
50-54
9
OCCURRENCE OF INSECTS ASSOCIATED WITH Khaya ivorensis
(AFRICAN MAHOGANY) IN SABAH, MALAYSIA
Arthur Y. C. Chung, Richard Majapun, Ahmad Harun, Robert Ong and Chak
Chee Ving.
29-37
55-60
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
ix
10 THE LACEBUG Tingis beesoni DRAKE., A NEW Gmelina arborea PEST
IN INDONESIA
Pujo Sumantoro, Frida E. Astanti, and Deden Sylva D.
61-67
11 DEFOLIATOR AND STEM BORER ATTACK ON JABON OF DIFFERENT
AGES AND PLANTED AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES
Selvi Chelya Susanty and Noor Farikhah Haneda.
68-73
12 WHITEFLIES (HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE)
Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. IN SOUTH INDIA
R. Sundararaj, T. G. Revathi, and K.P. Divya.
74-78
BREEDING
ON
13 EMERGING DISEASE PROBLEMS IN EUCALYPT PLANTATIONS IN
LAO PDR
Paul A. Barber, Pham Q. Thu, Giles E. Hardy, and Bernard Dell.
79-84
14 EMERGING INSECT PEST PROBLEMS ON INDIAN SANDALWOOD
(Santalum album L.) UNDER ITS CULTIVATION, A CAUSE OF
CONCERN
R. Sundararaj, Rajamuthukrishnan and O. K. Remadevi.
85-92
15 Streblote lipara (LEPIDOPTERA: LASIOCAMPIDAE) outbreak in
several mangrove rehabilitation sites in Peninsular
Malaysia
Ong, S.P., Che Salmah M.R., Khairun Y, and Kirton L.G.
93-98
16 AN OUTBREAK OF BAGWORMS ON Falcataria molluccana: A CASE
STUDY IN CENTRAL JAVA
Neo Endra Lelana and Illa Anggraeni.
99-103
17 SURVIVAL MECHANISM OF THE TEAK DEFOLIATOR, Hyblaea puera
DURING THE DRY SEASON IN EAST JAVA, INDONESIA
Enggar Apriyanto.
104-107
18 AN INSECT AND A FUNGUS-IMPENDING INVASION THREAT TO
INDIA
K.V. Sankaran and T.A. Suresh.
108-113
19 INVASIVE ALIEN PLANT PESTS IN INDIA, THEIR IMPACTS AND
OPTIONS FOR MITIGATION
Kavita Gupta and P.C. Agarwal.
114-123
20 ABUNDANCE OF PREDATORY ANTS IN WANAGAMA EDUCATION
FOREST, GUNUNG KIDUL, YOGYAKARTA
Musyafa, H. Supriyo and W.H. Pamungkas.
124-126
x | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
21 RETROSPECTIVE ON FOREST INSECT PESTS OF NEPAL WITH
REFERENCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Sanjaya Bista and Hasta B. Thapa.
127-135
22 INTEGRATED FOREST HEALTH MANAGEMENT WILL ASSIST IN
ADAPTING TO A CHANGING CLIMATE
Simon Taka Nuhamara and Haryono Semangun.
136-139
23 FOREST PEST DETECTION SYSTEMS IN FIJI
Binesh Dayal and Sanjana Lal.
140-146
24 OCCURRENCE, CHARACTERIZATION AND SPECIFIC DETECTION
OF BROWN ROOT DISEASE PATHOGEN IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
FOREST PLANTATIONS USING INTERNAL TRANSCRIBED SPACER
(ITS) SPECIFIC PRIMERS
Mohd Farid A., Maziah Z., Lee S.S., and Mohd Rosli H.
147-156
25 IDENTIFICATION OF SEVERAL GANODERMA SPECIES CAUSING
ROOT ROT IN Acacia mangium PLANTATION IN INDONESIA
D. Puspitasari, V. Yuskianti, A. Rimbawanto, M. Glen, and C. Mohammed.
157-161
26 RESPONDS OF YOUNG Falcataria moluccana TO GALL RUST
L. Baskorowati, A. Rohandi, and Gunawan.
162-168
27 SUSCEPTIBILITY OF URBAN TREES Polyalthia longifolia AND
Pterocarpus indicus TO ROOT ROT FUNGUS Ganoderma sp.
Widyastuti S.M, I. Riastiwi, and Harjono.
169-174
28 BIOLOGY, SPREAD AND MANAGEMENT OF ROOT ROT IN Acacia
Mangium PLANTATIONS IN INDONESIA
Chris Beadle (Keynote Speaker), Morag Glen, Luciasih Agustini, Vivi
Yuskianti, Anthony Francis, Anto Rimbawanto and Caroline Mohammed.
175-181
29 PREVENTIVE SPRAYS FOR Ceratocystis acaciivora INFECTION
CONTROL FOLLOWING SINGLING PRACTICES OF Acacia mangium
Marthin Tarigan, Budi Tjahjono and Abdul Gafur
182-185
30 DEVELOPMENT OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS TO PROTECT
PLANTATION FORESTS IN SUMATRA, INDONESIA
Abdul Gafur, Aswardi Nasution Marthin Tarigan, and Budi Tjahjono.
186-193
31 BIOFERTILIZER APPLICATION FOR MAINTAINING HEALTH AND
PRODUCTIVITY IN OIL PALM PLANTATIONS UNDER A CHANGING
CLIMATE
Mucharromah, Teguh Adi Prasetyo, Hidayat, Sigit Nugroho, and Merakati
Handajaningsih.
194-198
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
xi
32 FORMULATION OF A METARHIZIUM BASED MYCOINSECTICIDE
AND FIELD TRIALS AGAINST DEFOLIATOR PESTS OF Tectona
grandis AND Ailanthus excelsa
T.O. Sasidharan, O.K. Remadevi, N. Sapna Bai and M. Balachander.
33 TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT FOR PROTECTING SENGON FROM
GANODERMA INFECTION
Elis N. Herliyana, Darmono Taniwiryono, Ratna Jamilah, Benyamin Dendang,
Hayati Minarsih, Muhammad Alam Firmansyah, Permana Jenal, and Ai Rosah
Aisyah.
199-207
208-215
POSTERS
1
2
3
4
5
SOME NOTES ON INSECTS ASSOCIATED WITH Jatropha curcas IN
SABAH
Arthur Y. C. Chung, Chia Fui Ree, and Richard Majapun.
219-221
INFESTATION OF Achaea janata Linnaeus (LEPIDOPTERA:
NOCTUIDAE: CATOCALINAE) IN THE MANGROVES OF SANDAKAN,
SABAH
Arthur Y. C. Chung, Joseph Tangah, and Fadzil Yahya.
222-225
INSECTS IN TEAK (Tectona grandis L.F.) IN THE FOREST AREA
OF PASSO VILLAGE, CITY OF AMBON MALUKU PROVINCE
INDONESIA
Fransina, Latumahina, and Illa Anggraini
226-229
EFFECT OF ROOT EXUDATES OF SENGON (Paraserianthes falcataria L.
Nielsen) INOCULATED WITH THE FUNGAL ENDOPHYTE Nigrospora
sp. ON CONTROL OF THE ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE Meloidogyne
spp.
Nur Amin.
230-234
Occurrence of lac scales, Tachardina aurantiaca,
Peninsular Malaysia
Ong, S.P., Neumann, G., Che Salmah, M.R., Khairun, Y. & Kirton, L.G.
235-236
in
LIST OF PARTICIPANT
xii | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
ABBREVIATION
ACIAR
: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
ANOVA
: Analysis of Variance
APAFRI
: Asia Pasific Association of Forestry Institutions
APFISN
: Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network
CBD
: Convention on Biological Diversity
CoP
: Conference of Parties
CRB
: Completely Randomized Block
CSRIO
: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
DAC
: Department of Agriculture and Cooperation
DI
: Disease Index
DIP
: Destructive Insects and Pests
DSN
: Dharma Satya Nusantara
EPA
: Environment Protection Act
FDPM
: Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia
IAS
: Invasive Alien Species
IMPF
: Intensively Managed Planted Forest
IPM
: Integrated pest management
IUFRO
: International Union of Forest Research Organizations
MoEF
: Ministry of Environment and Forests
NPV
: Nuclear Polyhidrosis Virus
NRE
: Natural Resources and Environment
PDA
: Potato Dextrose Agar
PDA-WP
: Potato Dextrose Agar Wood Powder
PERHUTANI : Perusahaan Hutan Negara Indonesia (Indonesian state forestry company)
PIFWA
: Penang Inshore Fishermen Welfare Association
PRA
: Pest Risk Analysis
RAPP
: Riau Andalan Pulp and Paper
SBSTTA
: Subsidiary Body of Scientific Technical and Technological Advice
T
: Treatment
UGM
: Universitas Gadjah Mada
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
xiii
xiv | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
INVITED PAPER
THE CHALLENGES OF MODELLING FOREST PESTS
IN A CHANGING CLIMATE
Caroline Mohammed
Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
Corresponding author: caro.mohammed@utas.edu.au
Introduction
The full continuum of biosecurity activities (Figure 1) spans pre-border activities that reduce
the risk of incursion by exotic pests and pathogens not present in country.
Plantation forestry does have problems unique to its sector. Trees are planted and exposed to
risk for many years before harvest and remuneration. Trees could be negatively impacted by
pests shared with conservation forests, pests shared with timber in service, pests shared with
garden and nursery industry, forest biosecurity risks created by other industries or urban
trees. In particular, the close proximity of production forests to conservation forests leaves
both plantation and native production forests vulnerable to pest incursions that may
commence in native non-production forests. Conservation forest managers may consider that
a response to an incursion of a pest is not warranted or it may even be illegal, e.g. in World
Heritage Areas.
Figure 1. Schematic of the biosecurity continuum and associate management intervention.
There may be several barriers to effective biosecurity responses.
The ad-hoc nature of biosecurity understanding, knowledge, processes established and
communication pathways and a perception of inadequate forestry representation in
national biosecurity arrangements across the urban, rural and natural environments.
Industry stakeholders may consider biosecurity to be of high or moderate concern to
their companies but only half of the companies surveyed have a biosecurity plan.
Priority actions area a) an urgent need to demonstrate the benefits of industry investment in
biosecurity preparedness or the potential costs of non-participation, b) pathway analysis for
functional pest guilds and c) an investigation of the effects of changed environmental
conditions on forest biosecurity preparedness.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
1
Modelling Pest Distribution in A Changing Climate
Pest maps are excellent visual communication tools for either alien or native species which
describe their possible spatial and temporal distribution (Venette et al., 2010)They are
commonly used in pest risk analyses to determine where invasive alien species might arrive,
establish, spread, or cause harmful impacts. Such maps are increasingly being used to depict
the distribution of pest species under future climate scenarios. Strategic and tactical decisions
for the management of pest species depend on accurate spatial and temporal characterizations
of pest risk.
Most pest risk models attempt to characterise the dimensions of a species fundamental
niche(Sutherst, 2003). Models use a variety of techniques to identify and characterise a
species niche requirements and require spatio-temporal datasets to estimate where a species
could persist. Niche models vary from simple degree-day accumulation models to detailed
process-based life-cycle models. The power of niche models is their capacity to transfer, or
project reliably a species response to new situations such as introduction to a region, under
climate change, or to climate variability.
Mapping requires several steps and information.
Knowledge of a species current distribution including the absence of a species in a
particular region. "Absence" as a consequence of never having looked for a species, or of a
species never having had an opportunity to arrive in an area, indicates little about the
potential for establishment within that area. Unfortunately most pest databases and/or pest
surveys in forestry are constructed with little thought for the more stringent requirements
of models and may be of little use.
An understanding of the direct effects of environmental gradients on population processes
for a particular species.
Time series data that describe how population densities fluctuate.
Spatially explicit data (i.e., covariates) that describe environmental conditions within the
area of interest either under current climate or future climate scenarios.
Table 1 (taken from Venette et al. 2010) lists the different approaches designed to describe
the relationship between environmental covariates and the potential occurrence of a species.
Most models have adopted an inductive approach (statistical analyses of the known
distribution of a species and climatic data to estimate its climatic preferences). The deductive
approach uses detailed knowledge of pest climatic preferences determined from laboratory
studies. Some modeling approaches such as the one used in this project are more flexible and
use deductive or inductive methods to determine relationships between the presence of a
species and environmental covariates.
The quality of any pest map is subject to the constraints of available knowledge about the
biology of the species and the environmental conditions within an area of interest, and the
map’s quality should be considered when making decisions. Error and uncertainty in pest risk
maps is unavoidable. The incompleteness of knowledge of complex ecological systems is
well recognized. Recent studies that compared species-distribution models illustrate model
uncertainty well, showing clearly that different models can give divergent results. Inherent
uncertainties about the biology of pests, future climate conditions, and species interactions
further complicate map interpretation. Most pest risk maps also report risk as the relative
likelihood of a species entry, establishment, and distribution without addressing potential
impacts in those areas, such as yield loss or environmental damage. Whatever the recognised
limitations of pest mapping it is only by a better understanding of the strengths and
weaknesses of our current approaches that significant improvements in pest risk maps will be
made.
2 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Table 1. (taken from Venette et al. 2010). Common approaches used to predict species
distributions based on an inductive or deductive understanding of the influence of
environmental conditions on populations. (1Deductive and/or Inductive Approach)
Approach
Artificial Neural
Networks (ANN)
BIOCLIM/ANUCLIM
BioMOD
CART (Classification
and Regression Trees)
CLIMATE
CLIMATE
ENVELOPE
CLIMEX: Compare
locations function
CLIMEX: Match
climates function
DOMAIN
ENFA (Ecological
Niche Factor
Analysis)
Expert-driven rule set
FloraMap
GARP
GLM/GAM
GRASP
HABITAT
MaxEnt
NAPPFAST
STASH
Description
I
General modeling technique based on machine learning
I
Climate pattern-matching with minimum bounding rectangle
(MBR)
Applies the four most widely used modeling techniques in
species predictions, namely Generalized Linear Models
(GLM), Generalized Additive Models (GAM), Classification
and Regression Tree analysis (CART), and ANN
General statistical procedure for defining set membership
based upon environmental correlates
Climate pattern-matching with choice of several match
techniques, including MBR and point-to-point similarity
indices
Climate pattern-matching using MBR
I
I
I
I
Process-oriented model describing species response to I/D
climatic variables and predicting climatic suitability
Climate pattern-matching procedure generates an index of I
climatic similarity
Climate pattern-matching using a point-to-point similarity I
index
Computes suitability functions by comparing the species I
distributions in ecogeographical variables space with that of
the whole set of cells using a multivariate approach
Personal opinion about the factors and conditions that I/D
determine species presence; often expressed as a series of
“if...then” statements
Principal components analysis of monthly climate data using I
multivariate and Fourier transformation techniques
Generates environment-description rules using machine- I
learning techniques
Generalized linear model/generalized additive model; general I
statistical procedures for fitting species response functions to
sur vey data
Generalized regression analysis and spatial prediction.
I
Creates a convex polytope in n-dimensional space
I
Probabilistic machine learning technique based on the I
distribution of maximum entropy
Online templates for phenology, infection, and empirical I/D
models and a climate-matching tool
Process-oriented model describing species response to D
climatic variables, and predicting climatic suitability
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
3
Application of Predictive Systems to Forest Biosecurity and Management
Forest biosecurity risks are manifold: exotic pests and pathogens not yet established; pests
and pathogens (both native and exotic) established but occupying only a portion of their
range (of suitable sites); and, established pests and pathogens that are widespread throughout
their range of suitable sites.
Few major forest pests in sub-tropical or tropical systemshave been investigated in any detail
using predictive model systems because the data about the pest and/or host is not available.
Booth et al. 2000 was able to model the distribution of Puccinia psidii in Australia and the
neotropics as the environmental requirements of this serious rust of myrtaceous plants were
known. In Australia an overall measure of the net benefits (if any) frominvestment in the
management of key established pests and pathogens (cost of management versus value of
losses averted) is largely lacking. It is very significant that research investment in predictive
systems in Australia has only occurred when there has also been some industry investment or
interest in demonstrating the losses caused by any particular pest. The first decision forest
owners need to make is whether the impacts of a pest / pathogen are sufficiently severe to
warrant management to reduce those impacts. The lowest (operational) level of using
predictive systems for the management of individual outbreaks / epidemics are based on
action responses triggered by threshold levels of economic injury have been developed for
two forest pests and pathogens in the Australasian region – Dothistroma needle blight (Van
der Pas et al., 1984 )and the Tasmanian eucalypt leaf beetle, Paropsisternabimaculata
(Candy, 1999).
As mentioned above the only published predictive mapping of the potential distribution in
Australia of an alien forest pest was carried out with BIOCLIM for Puccinia psidii(Booth et
al., 2000). A strain of this pathogen entered and became established in Australia in 2010.
Indeed the value of losses averted for forest pests and pathogens not yet established in
Australia has only been calculated for pine pitch canker, Fusariumcircinatum(Cook and
Matheson, 2008). In their analysis Cook and Matheson predicted benefits of $13M could
accrue over time from delaying the entry and spread of the pathogen by as little as two years.
Beare et al. (2005)using data fromGadgil et al. (2003), calculated that an annual investment
of up to $260K in border controls would be justified if it reduced the risk of pitch canker
incursions from 40% to 30%.
Madden(1975) provided an early example of impact assessment in Australia when he
monitored mortality through a Sirexnoctilio outbreak in a P. radiata plantation. Females are
attracted to stressed trees after an initial flight. They drill their ovipositors into the outer
sapwood to inject a symbiotic fungus (Amylostereumareolatum), toxic mucus, and eggs. The
fungus and mucus act together to kill the tree and create a suitable environment for larval
development. In the most severely affected sections, mortality reached 80% with an annual
mortality rate of 20% at the height of the outbreak. The considerable investment in research
to develop the means of managing Sirex was not based on a formal cost: benefit analysis.
That was probably a reflection of an era when plantations were predominantly governmentowned and research had a high public-good component. Notwithstanding, the dramatic
impact of an unmanaged Sirex outbreak posed a significant threat to the viability of
Australia’s developing softwood plantation estate. Research provided an effective
management strategy for Sirex using a combination of silviculture and biological control. The
key agent is a parasitic nematode, Deladenussiricidicola, which infects sirexwoodwasp
larvae, and ultimately sterilizes the adult females. Sirex was first introduced into Tasmania in
1951, spreading to most radiata pine growing states and has recently been detected in
Queensland (Lawson, personal communication). Its distribution or interaction with its
biological control agent is changing yet there is only one publication applying predictive
systems to the investigation of Sirex in Australia(Carnegie et al., 2006).
4 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Dothistroma (Woods et al., 2005b, Welsh et al., 2009, Watt et al., 2011) needle blight of
pinesis one of the most extensively studied foliar diseases and is considered one of the most
important diseases of pines (Barnes et al., 2004, Woods et al., 2005a).
Dothistromaseptosporum and Dothistromapini are the two species which cause blight but it is
the former species that has caused significant damage to radiate pine plantations in the
southern hemisphere(Groenewald et al., 2007). It is present throughout the world (Harrington
and Wingfield, 1998, Bradshaw, 2004) and affects over 60 pinespecies in 45 countries (Ivory,
1994). It was first introduced into Australia in 1972. Wood yield loss is known to be
approximately proportional to disease severity, particularly when young photosynthetically
active needles are affected (Van der Pas et al., 1984 ). Dothistroma needle blight in
commercial forests of the southern hemisphere is currently controlled by breeding resistant
planting stock and by copper based fungicide spraying (Bradshaw, 2004). This disease has
been the subject of predictive modeling in the northern and the southern hemisphere for New
Zealand, not Australia (Woods et al., 2005b, Welsh et al., 2009, Watt et al., 2011).
The introduction into Australia in the mid to late 1990’s of the Monterey pine aphid,
Essigellacalifornica, resulted in widespread defoliation in affected P. radiata plantations
throughout southeastern Australia. May and Carlyle (2003) calculated a loss in wood volume
due to defoliation over the three years following the first appearance of Essigella in the Green
Triangle to be 230,000m3 valued at $6.9M. Using national data, May (2004) calculated the
total annual losses from defoliation by Essigella to be 570,000m3 valued at $21M. Based on
those data May showed investment in research and development for a biological control
would, if successful, provide a net present value benefit of $15M (@7.5% IRR) over 30
years. In 2010, after several years of research to select and screen a candidate biological
control agent the parasitic wasp Diaeretusessigellae(Kimber et al., 2010) was approved for
release in Australia to control E. californica. At about the same time HVP Plantations
announced the operational deployment of aphid-resistant lines of P. radiata(Sasse et al.,
2009). Essigellacalifornica is an aphid native to western North America, probably restricted
in distribution in its home due to poor competitive abilities and impact of natural enemies. It
was first detected in March 1998 on Pinus radiata in Canberra and has since been reported
from all radiata pine growing areas including New Zealand. E. californica is likely to remain
a permanent feature of the Australian pine industry. There is relatively detailed distributional,
life cycle and impact information available for this pest (Wharton et al., 2004, Wharton and
Kriticos, 2004)and CLIMEX models to predict distribution in Australia under current
climatic conditions have already been developed for this pest (Wharton and Kriticos, 2004).
There have been a large number of studies of native pests generated by a young eucalypt
plantation industry in Australia. Certain native pests and diseases such as Mycosphaerellaleaf
disease (MLD), a fungal leaf pathogen and Autumn Gum Moth (AGM) cause extremely
visible and high levels of foliar damage to juvenile eucalypt plantations. Industry needed a
clear indication of impact and for insect pests when and if to use costly chemical
management. It took at least a decade of research to clearly establish the robustness of young
eucalypts to a single defoliation event and that high levels of leaf damage were often required
to impact long term productivity (Rapley et al., 2009, Battaglia et al., 2011). However this
research led to the understanding of the physiology of defoliation in pine (Eyles et al., 2011)
and eucalypt (Battaglia et al., 2011)and the development/testing of various predictive
systems:
a DYMEX population dynamics model for AGM (GumMoth) uses temperature to
predict the development time of instars(Steinbauer et al., 2004). GumMoth clearly shows
the interplay between the insect’s development and ambient temperature and
photoperiod.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
5
a forest health module within a process-based productivity model CABALA (Battaglia et
al., 2004, Battaglia et al., 2011) which can predict the impact of defoliation and necrotic
damage.
application of a bioclimatic niche model in lieu of an epidemiological model to address
questions of risk, using MLD as a case study and process-oriented climatic niche model
CLIMEX to project the current and future potential distributions of MLD(Pinkard et al.,
2010b).
assessment of the impacts of a defoliating pest, Mycosphaerella leaf disease (MLD), on
rotation-length Eucalyptus globulus plantation productivity under current and future
climates by using the ecoclimatic species niche model CLIMEX to generate severity,
frequency and seasonality scenarios for MLD for specific E. globulus sites (Pinkard et
al., 2010a).
Appropriate Information Required for Effective Forest Biosecurity Responses
Is the type of information that has or can be generated appropriate for effective forest
biosecurity responsesunder a changing climate?
In respect to alien forest pests established in Australia the attitude of those representing the
commercial sectoris that historically forestry reacts effectively to such pests and that there
was no need for proactive investment and/or that there are other more important claims on
investment. In regard to established exotic or native pests there was a perception that i) pests
are or will be effectively managed ii) there is insufficient information on the costs of pest
damage to warrant further investment iii) there are few effective management methods for
certain pests even if an investment was made to increase the level of information about risk
and impact. The overwhelming message from the workshop was that biosecurity is not a risk
that receives priority compared to other environmental issues such as drought and current
market pressures.
A recent project in Australia included the development of risk maps for three pests
(Dothistroma, Sirexand Paropsisatomaria) two exotic pests but long established in Australia
on radiata pine and a native pest of eucalypt(Ireland, Pinkard, Kriticos, Lawson, Debuse,
Wardlaw,Mohammed, unpublished). Initially it had been planned that these maps would
depict pest functional group/guilds. It became rapidly apparent that the generic climatic
requirements for functional groups may be difficult to ascertain without first examining
individuals of these functional groups. Further work can then compare trends in responses of
individuals of functional groups in order to better understand their general response to
changing climates.
Under both climate change scenarios examined with CLIMEX it is projected that the
potential distribution of Sirex and Dothistroma (non-native pests) would expand southwards,
with particular increases in climatic suitability in Tasmania. While range for P. atomaria
(native pest) remained static under future climate scenarios as predicted by DYMEX,
predicted beetle performance (as measured by mean numbers of fourth instar larvae produced
over a season) varied over the eight locations studied.
Attempts to link severity to climatic suitability with Sirexand Dothistroma were not
successful. Potentially, with greater data on the severity of outbreaks within its native range
we may be able to elucidate whether a connection exists between climate and severity. Since
we do not currently have good data for P. atomariato relate population numbers generated in
the model to defoliation levels, and subsequently to potential economic loss, we attempted to
obtain an estimate of defoliation risk by assessing the frequency of outbreaking populations
of the beetle. This approach to defining risk was more meaningful to industry. However many
caveats exist on the interpretation of model outputs due to the lack of sufficient information
and data. Research in this project on the application of predictive systems highlighted the
6 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
need for more investment in the collection of data so that the connection between climate and
impact can be made.
In conclusion it is difficult to state which predictive system(s) can deliver the most
appropriate information required for effective forest biosecurity responses under a changing
climate. There are a limited number of studies which have resulted in potentially useful
information about potential pest incidence and impact to guide adaptation strategies such as
site-species matching. All these systems are data hungry which requires industry or public
investment in surveillance or other data collection methodology that can be used in such
predictive systems.
Acknowledgements
The concepts and discussion of this paper were developed under a project funded by the
Depart of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Australia (M18799 Forest Biosecurity and
Preparedness for climate change). Participants were Kylie Ireland (TIA, now working with
DEEDI, Queensland), Darren Kriticos (CSIRO CSE Canberra), Libby Pinkard (CSIRO CSE
Hobart), Simon Lawson (DEEDI, Queensland), Valerie Debuse (DEEDI, Queensland), Tim
Wardlaw (Forestry Tasmania), Mohammed, Caroline (TIA).
References
BARNES, I., CROUS, P. W., WINGFIELD, B. D. & WINGFIELD, M. J. 2004. Multigene
phylogenies reveal that red band needle blight of Pinus is caused by two distinct species of
Dothistroma, D-septosporum and D-pini. Studies in Mycology, 551-565.
BATTAGLIA, M., PINKARD, E. A., SANDS, P. J., BRUCE, J. L. & QUENTIN, A. 2011.
Modelling the impact of defoliation and leaf damage on forest plantation function and
production. Ecological Modelling, 222, 3193-3202.
BATTAGLIA, M., SANDS, P., WHITE, D. & MUMMERY, D. 2004. CABALA: a linked
carbon, water and nitrogen model of forest growth for silvicultural decision support. Forest
Ecology and Management, 193, 251-282.
BEARE, S., ELLISTON, L., ABDALLA, A. & DAVIDSON, A. 2005. Improving Plant
Biosecurity Systems: A Cost-Benefit Framework for Assessing Incursion Management
Decisions. ABARE eReport 05.10 Prepared for the Victorian Department of Primary
Industries. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Canberra, 47pp.
BOOTH, T. H., OLD, K. M. & JOVANIC, T. 2000. A preliminary assessment of high risk
areas for Puccinia psidii (Eucalyptus rust) in the neotropics and Australia. Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment, 82, 295 - 301.
BRADSHAW, R. E. 2004. Dothistroma (red-band) needle blight of pines and the
dothistromin toxin: a review. Forest Pathology, 34, 163-185.
CANDY, S. G. 1999. Predictive Models for Integrated Pest Management of the Leaf Beetle
Chrysophtharta bimaculata in Eucalyptus nitens Plantations in Tasmania. PhD thesis,
University of Tasmania.
CARNEGIE, A. J., MATSUKI, M., HAUGEN, D. A., HURLEY, B. P., AHUMADA, R.,
KLASMER, P., SUN, J. H. & IEDE, E. T. 2006. Predicting the potential distribution of Sirex
noctilio (Hymenoptera : Siricidae), a significant exotic pest of Pinus plantations. Annals of
Forest Science, 63, 119-128.
COOK, D. C. & MATHESON, A. C. 2008. An estimate of the potential economic impact of
pine pitch canker in Australia. Australian Forestry, 71, 107-112.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
7
EYLES, A., SMITH, D., PINKARD, E. A., SMITH, I., CORKREY, R., ELMS, S.,
BEADLE, C. & MOHAMMED, C. 2011. Photosynthetic responses of field-grown Pinus
radiata trees to artificial and aphid-induced defoliation. Tree Physiology, 31, 592-603.
GADGIL, P., DICK, M., SIMPSON, J., BEJAKOVICH, D., ROSS, M., BAIN, J.,
HORGAN, G. & WYLIE, R. 2003. Management Plan Response to an Incursion of Pine Pitch
Canker in Australia or New Zealand, Commissioned and published by the Forest Health
Committee on behalf of the Forestry and Forest Products Committee, Canberra.
GROENEWALD, M., BARNES, I., BRADSHAW, R. E., BROWN, A. V., DALE, A.,
GROENEWALD, J. Z., LEWIS, K. J., WINGFIELD, B. D., WINGFIELD, M. J. & CROUS,
P. W. 2007. Characterization and distribution of mating type genes in the Dothistroma needle
blight pathogens. Phytopathology, 97, 825-834.
HARRINGTON, T. C. & WINGFIELD, M. J. 1998. Diseases and the ecology of indigenous
and exotic pines. In: RICHARDSON, D. M. (ed.) Ecology and Biogeography of Pinus.
Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press.
IVORY, M. H. 1994. Records of foliage pathogens of Pinus species in tropical countries.
Plant Pathology, 43, 511-518.
KIMBER, W., GLATZ, R., CAON, G. & ROOKE, D. 2010. Diaeretus essigellae Starý and
Zuparko (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Aphidiini), a biological control for Monterey pine
aphid, Essigella californica (Essig) (Hemiptera: Aphididae: Cinarini): host-specificity testing
and historical context. Australian Journal of Entomology, 49, 377-387.
MADDEN, J. L. 1975. An analysis of an outbreak of the woodwasp, Sirex noctilio F.
(Hymenoptera, Siricidae), in Pinus radiata. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 65.
MAY, B. M. 2004. Assessment of the causality of Essigella-ascribed defoliation of midrotation radiata pine and its national impact in terms of cost of lost wood production.
FWPRDC report PN04.4002.
MAY, B. M. & CARLYLE, J. C. 2003. Effect of defoliation associated with Essigella
californica on growth of mid-rotation Pinus radiata. Forest Ecology and Management, 183,
297-312.
PINKARD, E. A., BATTAGLIA, M., BRUCE, J., LERICHE, A. & KRITICOS, D. J. 2010a.
Process-based modelling of the severity and impact of foliar pest attack on eucalypt
plantation productivity under current and future climates. Forest Ecology and Management,
259, 839-847.
PINKARD, E. A., KRITICOS, D. J., WARDLAW, T. J., CARNEGIE, A. J. & LERICHE, A.
2010b. Estimating the spatio-temporal risk of disease epidemics using a bioclimatic niche
model. Ecological Modelling, 221, 2828-2838.
RAPLEY, L. P., POTTS, B. M., BATTAGLIA, M., PATEL, V. S. & ALLEN, G. R. 2009.
Long-term realised and projected growth impacts caused by autumn gum moth defoliation of
2-year-old Eucalyptus nitens plantation trees in Tasmania, Australia. Forest Ecology and
Management, 258, 1896-1903.
SASSE, J., ELMS, S. & KUBE, P. 2009. Genetic resistance in Pinus radiata to defoliation by
the pine aphid Essigella californica. Australian Forestry, 72, 25-31.
STEINBAUER, M. J., KRITICOS, D. J., LUKACS, Z. & CLARKE, A. R. 2004. Modelling
a forest lepidopteran: phenological plasticity determines voltinism which influences
population dynamics. Forest Ecology and Management, 198, 117-131.
SUTHERST, R. W. 2003. Prediction of species geographical ranges (Guest editorial).
Journal of Biogeography, 30, 805 - 816.
VAN DER PAS, J. B., BULMAN, L. & HORGAN, G. P. 1984 Estimation and cost benefits
of spraying Dothistroma pini in tended stands of Pinus radiata in New Zealand. New Zealand
Journal of Forestry Science, 14, 23-40.
8 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
VENETTE, R. C., KRITICOS, D. J., MAGAREY, R. D., KOCH, F. H., BAKER, R. H. A.,
WORNER, S. P., RABOTEAUX, N. N. G., MCKENNEY, D. W., DOBESBERGER, E. J.,
YEMSHANOV, D., DE BARRO, P. J., HUTCHISON, W. D., FOWLER, G., KALARIS, T.
M. & PEDLAR, J. 2010. Pest Risk Maps for Invasive Alien Species: A Roadmap for
Improvement. Bioscience, 60, 349-362.
WATT, M. S., GANLEY, R. J., KRITICOS, D. J. & MANNING, L. K. 2011. Dothistroma
needle blight and pitch canker: the current and future potential distribution of two important
diseases of Pinus species. Canadian Journal of Forest Research-Revue Canadienne De
Recherche Forestiere, 41, 412-424.
WELSH, C., LEWIS, K. & WOODS, A. 2009. The outbreak history of Dothistroma needle
blight: an emerging forest disease in northwestern British Columbia, Canada. Canadian
Journal of Forest Research-Revue Canadienne De Recherche Forestiere, 39, 2505-2519.
WHARTON, T., COOPER, P. & FLOYD, R. 2004. Life stage development of Essigella
californica (Aphidoidea: Lachnidae: Cinarinae). Annals of the Entomological Society of
America, 97, 697-700.
WHARTON, T. N. & KRITICOS, D. J. 2004. The fundamental and realized niche of the
Monterey Pine aphid, Essigella californica (Essig) (Hemiptera: Aphididae): Implications for
managing softwood plantations in Australia. Diversity and Distributions, 10, 253-262.
WOODS, A., COATES, K. D. & HAMANN, A. 2005a. Is an unprecedented dothistroma
needle blight epidemic related to climate change? Bioscience, 55, 761-769.
WOODS, A. J., COATES, D. K. & HAMANN, A. 2005b. Is an unprecedented Dothistroma
needle blight epidemic related to climate change? Bioscience, 55, 761 - 769.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
9
INVITED PAPER
EMERGING PESTS AND DISEASES IN NEW AREAS
S.S. Lee
Forest Research Institute Malaysia, 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia
Corresponding author: leess@frim.gov.my
Abstract
Plantations of non-native fast-growing forest tree species have expanded very rapidly in
South-East Asia over the last two decades. Increasing rotations have been accompanied by
the emergence of new pests and diseases and new host-pest combinations not seen before.
New pest and disease problems have also emerged in areas previously free of such pests and
diseases. Acacia mangium which had initially been believed to be relatively free from pests
and diseases is now known to be very susceptible to red root rot caused by Ganoderma
philippii. More recently, dieback and stem canker associated with several species of
Ceratocystis was found to cause serious damage and mortality in young A. mangium
plantations in Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam. Similar examples can also be found in
plantations of other species such as Eucalyptus spp. and Falcataria moluccana. An upsurge
in invasive alien species (IAS) is also expected. This has been borne out by recent outbreaks
of the Australian blue gum chalcid, Leptocybe invasa in Eucalyptus plantations in several
countries in South East Asia.
Keywords: Emerging pests and diseases, fast-growing species, invasive alien species, nonnative species, plantations, South-East Asia
Introduction
Over the last two decades plantations of non-native fast-growing forest tree species have
expanded very rapidly in South-East Asia, particularly in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and
Vietnam. These plantations have largely been established in response to the rapid depletion of
natural forests in the region as well as to meet the increasing demand for forest products,
particularly pulp and paper. Species which are most popular are the nitrogen-fixing acacias,
mainly Acacia mangium, and various Eucalyptus spp.
In 2005 Vietnam and Indonesia were among the top ten reforestation countries in the world
(FAO, 2010). Indonesia is presently reported to have about 9 million ha of industrial forest
plantations consisting mainly of acacias (mostly A. mangium and some A. crassicarpa) and
Eucalyptus spp. and another 3.5 million ha of community forests comprising of mixed
species, including acacias (Neo Endra Lelana, pers. comm.). Vietnam has 2.9 million ha of
forest plantations of which 60 % consist of acacias and eucalypts (Dell et al., 2012). Thailand
is estimated to have about 3.9 million ha of forest plantations, mainly consisting of teak
(Tectona grandis), pine (Pinus kesiya), eucalypts, acacias (mostly Acacia mangium) and
casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia) (Supachote Uengwichanpanya, pers. comm.). In 2010
Malaysia was reported to have 1.8 million ha of planted forests (FAO, 2010), consisting
mainly of acacias (A. mangium) and rubber. Plantations of non-native fast growing species
have also been established on a small scale in Lao PDR and Cambodia (Dell et al. 2012). The
Philippines also have industrial scale forest plantations but up-to-date data are unavailable.
10 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
This paper discusses the emerging pests and diseases of non-native forest plantation species,
particularly Acacia mangium and eucalyptus species which have been extensively planted in
many South-East Asian countries.
New Pests and Diseases
Acacia mangium and other Acacia species
The natural distribution of A. mangium ranges from the coastal tropical lowlands of northern
Queensland, Australia to the Western Province of Papua New Guinea extending into Maluku
and Irian Jaya in Indonesia. A. mangium is the most popular species of Acacia for forest
plantations in the region. Apart from being fast-growing, nitrogen fixing, and non-site
demanding, it is relatively free from pests and diseases in its initial stages. Time has shown,
however, that this situation changes with increasing rotations.
Heart rot was the first significant disease problem detected in the 1980s (Gibson, 1981; Lee et
al., 1988) and it was later found to be associated with the invasion of wounds by a range of
fungi native to the new areas of plantations (Mahmud et al., 1993; Lee & Noraini Shikin,
1999). Another new disease was a phyllode gall rust associated with Endoraecium digitatum
(syn. Atelocauda digitata). This fungus which is widely present on native Australian acacias
had been previously recorded on A. auriculiformis in Java, Sumatra and South Kalimantan
(Santoso & Suharti, 1984). However, it became of concern when it was found to be
widespread on A. mangium in the major plantation-growing areas of Sumatra and Kalimantan
(Old et al., 2000). It has since also been found in A. mangium plantations in the Malaysian
states of Sabah and Sarawak on the island of Borneo. However, it has not been observed in
plantations in Peninsular Malaysia. In Vietnam the fungus is considered a biosecurity threat
as the country is still free from the disease but it may be a matter of time before it makes its
appearance there as the rust spores are easily wind dispersed.
Species of Ganoderma and Phellinus are common root pathogens in their native lowland
rainforests of South-East Asia. These fungi have a very wide host range and cause root
disease in many important commercial crops such as rubber, tea, and oil palm. Root disease
caused by native Ganoderma phillippii and other species of Ganoderma and Phellinus noxius
has emerged to become the most economically damaging disease of A. mangium with high
mortality rates, particularly in second and third rotations ((Lee, 2000; Eyles, 2008).
Another emerging disease of great concern is a dieback and wilt disease associated with
Ceratocystis spp. which kills young A. mangium trees. Some scientists believe that this is the
most important emerging disease problem in Acacia plantations in South-East Asia and that it
poses a very severe threat to the success of future plantations. The disease was reported from
Indonesia in 2011 (Tarigan et al., 2011) but has also been observed in Malaysia and Vietnam.
In fact Ceratocystis sp. was isolated from discoloured wood of A. mangium in Peninsular
Malaysia in 1985 but at that time no mortality was observed and the fungus was not identified
to species. In the light of current research, it is now recognised that typical symptoms of the
disease were observed on A. mangium trees in Sumatra in 1996. However, with no
subsequent research there was no further information about this disease until the recent
observations of high mortality rates in young A. mangium trees. Detailed and in-depth
research needs to be conducted to answer the many key questions associated with the disease,
e.g. is it a new disease or is it a disease that has long been present but only now making an
impact, and if so why; how is the disease spread; are there vectors involved; etc.
There are also significant areas of A. crassicarpa plantations in Indonesia. A severely
damaging leaf and shoot blight of A. crassicarpa observed in Australia and Indonesia since
the late 1990s had been believed to be caused by different fungi. However, careful research
has revealed that the disease in both countries are actually caused by the same pathogen,
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
11
Passalora perplexa (Beilharz et al., 2004). This fungus is apparently native to Australia and
is believed to have spread to the A. crassicarpa plantations in Indonesia.
Damage caused by many native insect pests has been recorded in Acacia plantations with the
the most serious damage being caused by the mosquito bug, Helopeltis spp. (Nair, 2000; Thu
et al., 2010). In contrast, there are no reports of introduced insect pests that have caused
serious damage to tropical acacias where they have been planted as non-natives.
Eucalyptus spp.
Eucalyptus spp. planted in South-East Asia are native to Australia and various hybrids, e.g. E.
grandis x E. urophylla are popular. A wide range of diseases are already present in SouthEast Asian Eucalyptus plantations (Old et al. 2003). However, a number of new delibitating
pests and pathogens seem to have appeared more rapidly in large recently established
plantations in the region, e.g. Teratosphaeria destructans (syn. Kirramyces destructans,
Phaeophleospora destructans) (Old et al., 2003). This fungus can cause extensive shoot
blight, distortion of young leaves and premature leaf abscission.
Chrysoporthe cubensis (syn. Cryphonectria cubensis) which is a native fungus on native
Melastomaceae in South Africa and South-East Asia is known to have undergone a host shift
to infect Eucalyptus species in these regions. This fungus which infects through wounds can
cause cankers which extend several metres up the stem. Chrysoporthe spp. are now believed
to pose a significant threat to eucalypts and other members of the Myrtaceae and
Melastomataceae in areas where these trees and shrubs are native (Wingfield et al., 2008).
Many insect pests are also found in eucalyptus plantations but of greater concern are several
new non-native insect pests. Outbreaks of the native Australian blue gum chalcid, Leptocybe
invasa have been reported in Vietnam (Thu et al., 2010) and Thailand (Supachote
Uengwichanpanya, pers. comm.) and was belileved to be absent in Malaysia until a recent
visit to plantations in Sabah revealed otherwise. The insect is also most likely present in
Indonesia. Feeding by the larvae causes the formation of galls on the shoots, petioles, leaf
midribs and leaves resulting in deformation, stunting, growth retardation and loss of
productivity. Another new insect pest to be aware of is the native Australian gall wasp,
Ophelimus maskelii which was very recently found in Vietnam (Thu, P.Q., pers.comm.).
Other forest plantation tree species
Examples of new diseases in new areas are also found in other species, for example, the gall
rust of Falcataria moluccana caused by the rust fungus, Uromycladium tepperanium. The
disease was first reported from the Philippines in the early 1990s and shortly thereafter it
appeared in Sabah, Malaysia (Lee, 2004). It is now known to be widespread on several
islands in Indonesia as well (Sri Rahayu et al., 2010). The origin of the disease outbreak in
the Philippines was apparently traced back to the importation of seeds from Australia
(Rogelio Valdez, pers. comm.).
Adaptation of native species and invasive alien species
The early non-native plantations in South-East Asia were generally pest and disease free in
their new locations because of their separation from the majority of their natural enemies.
Over time, some native pathogens at the new locations adapted to the new non-native hosts,
e.g. the fungi causing heart rot and root disease in A. mangium. These facultative parasitic
fungi possess very wide host ranges and it therefore comes as no surprise that they are able to
switch to A. mangium as a new host. Natural dispersal of the pests and pathogens, especially
of those which are wind dispersed, increased levels of trade and tourism, and importation of
large amounts of germplasm and planting material such as seeds and cuttings, have facilitated
12 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
the gradual arrival, build-up and emergence of new pest and disease organisms in the regions
which were free of the natural predators of these pests and diseases. Evidence shows that
once a pest or pathogen has become established in the plantations of a region where it was
previously absent, there is a good chance that it will spread to other regions (Wingfield et al.,
2010). The threat of invasive alien species to the biodiversity and economy of South-East
Asian countries has been identified as a major driver of environmental change, constraining
environmental conservation, economic growth and sustainable development (ASEAN Centre
for Biodiversity, 2010).
Outlook
There is emerging evidence of new associations between insects, microbes and trees
(Wingfield et al., 2010). It is likely that more new pests and diseases will emerge in new
areas in the near future. Field staff, foresters and pest and disease personnel need to be
observant and vigilant and report any unusual observations as soon as possible to the
responsible authorities so that appropriate action can be undertaken. More research, close
collaboration, cooperation and information sharing between scientists in the region is also
crucial in combating pests and diseases and prevention of their spread. In addition new
innovations and the development of new technologies such as gene markers will be necessary
for more effective forest protection in the future.
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank the organisers and APFISN for the invitation and support to participate
in this conference.
References
ASEAN CENTRE FOR BIODIVERSITY. 2010. ASEAN Biodiversity Outlook: Invasive
Alien Species – An assault with irreversible impact, pp. 88-90. Los Banos, Laguna,
Philippines.
BEILHARZ, V.C., PASCOE, I.G., WINGFIELD, M.J., TJAHJONO, B. & CROUS, P.W.
2004. Passalora perplexa, an important pleoanamorphic leaf blight pathogen of Acacia
crassicarpa in Australia and Indonesia. Studies in Mycology 50, 471-479.
DELL, B., XU, D. & THU, P.Q. 2012. Managing threats to the health of tree plantations in
Asia. Pp. 63-92. In: Bandani, A.A. (Ed.). New Perspectives in Plant Protection InTech.
Available from http://www.intechopen.com/books/new-perspectives-in-plant-protection
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
13
A REVIEW OF DISEASES IN NURSERIES AND PLANTATIONS IN THAILAND
Uthaiwan Sangwanit
Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University
Lardyaow, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Corresponding author: fforuws@ku.ac.th
Abstract
Diseases in several forest tree nurseries in three regions of Thailand, the Northeast, Center
and South, were surveyed during 1983 to 2002. Eight diseases on 47 tree seedling species,
caused by 45 species of fungi were recorded. Disease surveys in Eucalyptus camaldulensis
plantations located in all regions of Thailand recorded at least 25 species of fungi causing
damage to seedlings, cuttings, foliage, shoots, twigs, branches and stems. In 1 to 7 years old
stands of E. camaldulensis plantations, there were 7 diseases caused by 19 species of fungi
and one bacterial species. Disease severity varied with disease type, fungal pathogen,
eucalypt clones and environmental factors. The two most severe diseases in plantations were
Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti leaf spot and shoot blight and . In term of selection of disease
resistant clones to C. eucalypti pathogen, a rapid Phaeophleospora destructans leaf blight.
Disease management for both nursery and plantation diseases should rely on sound selection
and breeding programmes to obtain suitably disease resistant genotypes for propagation.
This should be combined with good silviculture.
Key words: Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti, Phaeophleospora
destructans
Introduction
The total land area of Thailand is about 513,000 km2. Due to forest degradation leading to a
reduction in forest land area from 43.2% of the total land area in 1973 to 25.3% in 1998, the
Thai government announced a logging ban and set up a national forest policy to maintain
forested land at 40% of the total land area. There have been numerous activities to establish
tree plantations and green areas by the government and private sectors since 1998. The efforts
have resulted in an increase in forested area to 33.4% of the total land area in a 2008
inventory (RFD 2012).
Among efforts to green Thailand, the large scale production of tree seedlings, both
indigenous and exotic species, as well as large areas of monoculture and economic tree
plantations were initiated mainly by the Royal Forest Department (RFD) in all regions of the
country. These plantations have, however, been affected by insect pests and plant diseases.
This paper aims to review the recorded plant diseases in forest nurseries and plantations of
economical importance.
Diseases in forest tree nurseries
Several reports of tree seedling diseases in nurseries in Thailand have been made since the
1980s. Out of them, reports by Pongpanich, Boonthaweekul and Chalermpongse (1988);
Kaewsrithong (1999) and Kawabe, Kamizore and Aihara (2002) contributed most
information. They surveyed tree seedling diseases in five large-scale RFD nurseries. Three
nurseries are located in the north eastern part of the Nakorn Ratchasima Province, one in the
14 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Central part of the Ratchaburi Province and one in the southern part of the Prachuabkirikhan
Province. The surveys were done by examination of disease symptoms, identification of
fungi associated with the symptoms , mostly using dissecting and compound microscopes and
comparison of fungal morphologies with disease causing agents from other research
publications. Isolation of fungi into pure culture was performed when it was necessary. These
studies reported eight plant diseases on 47 tree seedling species, caused by 45 pathogenic
fungi (Table 1). Effective methods to control the diseases were recommended as follows:
1. Sanitation aiming at reducing the inoculum sources of causal fungi in the nurseries, such
as removing and burning infected leaves, using clean soil and substrates for sowing and
planting.
2. Using disease resistant seeds or cuttings to produce seedlings.
3. Good nursery management to have enough light and moisture, good drainage and
aeration.
4. Adding some organic or inorganic fertilizer to soil as needed.
5. Application of appropriate fungicides at the correct time and dosages.
Table 1. Fungal diseases of forest tree seedlings found in nurseries in Thailand
Disease
1. Dampingoff
2. Powdery
mildew
3. Sooty mold
Seedling species
Tetrameles nudiflora
Fungal species
Fusarium sp.
Reference
Chalermpongse (1995)
Duabanga grandiflora
Eucalyptus spp.
Melia azedarach
Intsia palembanica
Cassia grandis
Cassia fistula
Gmelina arborea
Afzelia xylocarpa
Pinus kesiya
Acacia auriculaeformis
Botrytis cinerea
Botryodiplodia sp.
Rhizoctonia solani
Sclerotium bataticola
Phytophthora spp.
Pythium spp.
Oidium sp.
Pongpanich et al.(1988),
Acacia mangium
Oidium sp.
Peltophorum pterocarpum
Oidium sp.
Cassia siamea
Leucaena leucocephala
Acacia auriculaeformis
Oidium sp.
Oidium sp.
Meliola sp.
Chalermpongse (1993),
Kaewsrithong (1999),
Kawabe et al. (2002)
Chalermpongse (1995),
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Acacia mangium
Adenanthera pavonina
Sandoricum koetjape
Cassia floribunda
Cassia siamea
Acacia spp.
Shorea henryana
Alstonia scholaris
Alstonia macrophylla
Phyllanthus emblica
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Nephelium hypoluecum
Tamarindus indica
Meliola sp.
Meliola sp.
Meliola sp.
Meliola sp.
Meliola sp.
Meliola sp.
Cirsosia sp.
Meliola alstoniae
Meliola alstoniae
Meliola brideliae
Meliola helleri
Meliola spindi-esculenti
Meliola tamarindi
Dipterocarpus alatus
Lembosia sp.
Chalermpongse (1993),
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Chalermpongse (1995)
Saenglew (1989)
Saenglew (1989),
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Saenglew (1989)
Saenglew (1989)
Saenglew (1989)
Saenglew (1989),
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
15
4. Rust disease
Albizia odoratissima
Cassia occidentalis
Bambusa spp.
Dalbergia cochichinensis
Tectona grandis
Dalbergia oliveri
Phyllanthus emblica
Adenanthera pavonina
Albizia procera
Wrightia tomentosa
Bombax anceps
Afzelia xylocarpa
Cassia bicapsularis
5. Leaf spot
disease
Spondias pinata
Eucalyptus spp.
Melia azedarach
Pterocarpus macrocarpus
Acacia auriculaeformis
Acacia mangium
Sindora siamensis
Albizia lebbeck
Albizia procera
Pterocarpus macrocarpus
Dalbergia oliveri
Phyllachora sp.
Phyllachora sp.
Dalbergia cochinchinensis
7. Leaf blight
disease
8. Root rot
disease
Chaconia (Olivea)
tectonae
Maravalia achroa
Kernkampella emblicae
Ravenelia sp.
Sphaerophragmium
luzonicum
Hemileia wrightiae
Uredo bombacis
Uredo sp.
Uredo
cassieabicapsulalis
Kuehneola sp.
Phaeoseptoria eucalypti
Cercospora subsessilis
Cylindrosporium sp.
Cercospora sp.
Pseudocercospora
pterocarpicola
Pestalotiopsis guepinii
Pestalotiopsis guepinii
Phyllosticta sp.
Camptomeris albiziae
Camptomeris albiziae
Phyllachora pterocarpi
Pterocarpus indicus
6. Tar spot
disease
Uromyces
appendicularis
Ravenelia sp.
Aecidium spp.
Dasturella bambusina
Maravalia pterocarpi
Dalbergia cultrate
Millettia leucantha
Canarium subulatum
Albizia odoratissima
Pterocarpus indicus
Hopea ferrea
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Cassia fistula
Phyllachora pterocarpi
Phyllachora sp.
Phyllachora sp.
Phyllachora sp.
Phyllachora sp.
Stigmochora sp.
Phyllachora pterocarpi
Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides
Cylindrocladium sp.
Coniella sp.
Phytophthora palmivora
Pongpanich et al. (1988)
Lawsuwan et al. (1983)
Lawsomboon (1986)
Pongpanich et al. (1988),
Kaewsrithong (1999),
Kawabe et al. (2002)
Chalermpongse (1995),
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Chalermpongse (1995)
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Kawabe et al. (2002)
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Chalermpongse (1995),
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Kawabe et al. (2002)
Pongpanich et al. (1988),
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Kawabe et al. (2002)
Kaewsrithong (1999)
Kawabe et al. (2002)
Chalermpongse (1995)
Boonthaweekul (1991)
Keupratone et al. (1985)
Diseases in economic tree plantations
Eucalyptus species are of major economic, social and environmental importance to countries
in the Southeast Asian region, including Thailand. The most commonly grown species is E.
camaldulensis which at present covers approximately 443,000 hectares in Thailand. Major
losses due to fungal pathogens occurred where E. camaldulensis was grown in monoculture
and with genetically susceptible clones. Fungal diseases are a major problem in all growth
16 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
stages. Eucalypt seeds were destroyed by both parasitic and saprophytic fungi, and at least 25
species of fungi have been found to cause damage to seedlings, cuttings, foliage, shoots,
twigs, branches and stems. Detailed descriptions of the diseases were published in
Pongpanich et al. (2010). In one to seven years old E. camaldulensis plantations located in all
parts of Thailand, there were seven diseases caused by 19 fungi and a bacterial species
(Pongpanich 2002) (Table 2). The disease severity varied with disease type, fungal
pathogens, eucalypt clones and environmental factors. The most significant diseases of
plantation grown E. camaldulensis are leaf and shoot blight caused by Cryptosporiopsis
eucalypti and branch and stem cankers associated with fungi of the coelomycete and
ascomycete groups. Disease management using chemotherapy was found helpful in
controlling and minimizing damage to nursery stocks. In plantations, the most effective
control method is to select for resistant clones to local pathogens through the use of species,
provenance, progeny and clonal trials.
Table 2. List of Eucalyptus diseases in Thailand
Plant stage Disease/symptom
Associated fungi
Seedling
Damping off
Cylindrocladium scoparium
Sclerotium rolfsii
Rhizoctonia solani
Collar rot
Cylindrocladium sp.
Leaf spot
Kirramyces sp.
Cercospora sp.
Unknown (Coelomycetes)
Leaf blight
Coniella sp.
Unknown (Coelomycetes)
Top blight
Phomopsis sp.
Lasiodiplodia theobromae
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
Cuttings
Rot
Phomopsis sp.
Lasiodiplodia theobromae
Glomerella sp. (teleomorph) &
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
Top dieback in Dothiorella sp. & Botryosphaeria sp.
scion garden
(telemorph)
Plantation Leaf spot & Cryptospoiopsis eucalypti
blight
Shoot blight
Pseudocercospora sp.
Leaf spot
Cercospora sp. & Mycosphaerella
sp.
(teleomorph)
Mycotribulus sp.
Leaf blight
Unidentified (coelomycetes)
Cylindrocladium quinqueseptatum
Coniella sp.
Coniella fragariae
Cytospora sp.
Shoot dieback
Phomopsis sp.
Dothiorella sp.
Coniothyrium zuluense
Canker
Cytospora sp.
Host
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. deglupta
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. urophylla
E. camaldulensis
E. urophylla
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. urophylla
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. deglupta
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
E. camaldulensis
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
17
Lasiodiplodia theobromae
Dothiorella sp. & Botryosphaeria sp.
Heart rot
Source: Pongpanich (2002)
Unidentified (coelomycetes)
Cryphonectria cubensis
Valsa sp.?
Basidiomycetes
E. camaldulensis
E. urophylla
E. camaldulensis
E. deglupta
E. urophylla
E. deglupta
Selection of leaf and shoot blight disease resistant clones have been done using plantation
evaluations based on natural infection. However, Doungnamol (2004) carried out an
experiment to select E. camaldulensis resistance clones to Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti leaf
spot disease using a rapid screening method. He surveyed plantations located in Prachinburi,
Rayong and Chonburi Provinces in eastern Thailand and Ratchaburi and Kanchanaburi
Provinces in central Thailand and found that there were 10 eucalyptus clones planted. These
were CT37, CT76, CT190, SF5, SF7, C1, C2, T5, A17 and No.3048. These clones had
different levels of disease incidence: low level (A17 and CT76), medium level (C1 and C2),
severe level (CT190 and No.3048) and very severe level (CT37, SF5, SF7, and T5).
Diseased leaves of the 10 clones were sampled and examined for fungal structures by using
dissecting and compound microscopes. C. eucalypti were were isolated into pure culture
from each clone to obtain 10 isolates in total. These isolates were grown on Potato Dextrose
Agar (PDA) and presented different colony characteristics. Two isolates, CT76 and SF5
were selected based on their rapid growth on PDA and profuse sporulation, and used for
further studies to determine their pathogenic ability in order to screen eucalyptus clones for
their resistance to C. eucalypt. By using spore suspensions of isolates CT76 and SF5 to spray
on 5 E. camaldulensis clones, W13, CT37, CT76, W118 and W1, it was found that W1,
W118 and CT76 were resistant clones, while W13 and CT37 were non-resistant or
susceptible clones. These results corresponded with the results based on field surveys.
Therefore, the technique can be used as a rapid screening method.
Ayawong (2007) conducted a survey on leaf blight of Eucalyptus spp. caused by P.
destructans in 8 provinces including Chachoengsao, Prachin Buri, Sa Kaeo, Kanchanaburi,
Chon Buri, Rayong, Nakhon Ratchasima and Loei. P. destructans produces light-yellow
lesions on the infected leaves and later causes leaf blight and defoliation. The highest disease
severity was shown during the rainy season on E. camaldulensis in Dan Sai district, Loei
Province. Natural infection by the fungus on 19 clones in Tha Takhiab district, Chachoengsao
Province, showed that clone A2, A3 and KS1 were highly resistant (0.0%) whereas SI1 and
A5 were susceptible to the disease (83.3%)
Susceptibility of 6 clones of E. camaldulensis and its hybrids to P. destructans was evaluated.
After two weeks of inoculation in the greenhouse, clone ST2 and S4 were moderately
resistant and S2 was moderately susceptible with the disease indexes at 31.25, 31.25 and
72.9%, respectively. The transmission of this pathogen from fruit to seed and seed to seedling
was investigated using blotter and agar methods and the results revealed no occurrence of
infection and transmission.
At present, the disease has been reported as epidemic and having a negative effect on
Eucalyptus spp. growth because of severe defoliation. Since the information on biology,
infection, epidemiology and seed transmission of P. destructans is already obtained (Refs),
immediate recommendations on control measures by forest pathologists are possible.
Therefore, forest pathologists must be well prepared of any plant diseases which have
potential to become epidemic and cause severe damage to tree species, both in nursery and
18 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
plantation conditions, in order to have appropriate control measures against the diseases and
lessen the loss from them.
References
AYAWONG, C. 2007. Biology, Infection, Epidemiology and Seed Transmission of
Phaeophleospora destructans (M.J. Wingf. & Crous) Crous, F.A. Ferreira & B. Sutton, the
Fungal Pathogen of Eucalyptus Leaf Blight. Master Thesis, Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
79 pp. (in Thai)
BOONTHAWEEKUL, T. 1991. Violent diseases of Eucalyptus camaldulensis in plantations.
In The Forestry Annual Conference 1991. Pattaya, Chonburi, p. 374-378. (in Thail)
Chalermpongse, A., 1993: Management of Forest pathogens in Thailand. In Ecological &
Economics in Relation to Forest Conservation and Management. Malindo Printers, Selangor
Darul, Ehsan, p. 57-71.
CHALERMPONGSE, A. 1995. Forest tree diseases and soil micro-organisms in seedling
production and plantation establishment. In The Training Course on Plantation Establishment
and Agroferestry. Tak Forestry Training Center, Tak Province, p. 1-41. (in Thai)
DOUNGNAMOL, D. 2004. Selection of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. clones by a rapid
screening method for resistance to Cryptosporiopsis eucalypti leaf spot disease, Master
Thesis. Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 86 pp. (in Thai)
KAEWSRITHONG, S. 1999. Fungal Diseases of Forest Tree Seedlings in Nurseries. Master
Thesis. Kasetsart University, Bangkok, 94 pp. (in Thai)
KAWABE, Y., KAMIZORE, S. AND AIHARA, H. 2002. Seedling diseases in large-scale
nurseries of the reforestation and extension project in northeast Thailand. In Hutacharern, C.,
Napompeth, B., Allard, G. and Wylie, F. R. (eds.): Proceedings of the IUFRO/FAO
Workshop on Pest Management in Tropical Forest Plantations, May 25-29, 1998,
Chanthaburi, Thailand, p. 53-58.
KEUPRATONE, U., SENGKONG, S. AND TANTAYAPORN, S. 1985. Phytophthora spp.
in Thailand. In Proceedings of the 28th Conference on Plants. Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
p. 409-421. (in Thai)
LAWSOMBOON, P. 1986. Rust Fungi in Thailand. Master Thesis. Kasetsart University,
Bangkok. (in Thai)
LAWSUWAN, C., KAMHAENGRITTIRONG, T., TANTAYAPORN S. AND YUAEEM,
A. 1983. Study on morphology and taxonomy of rust disease of economic crops and weeds.
In Research Results of 1983 Vol. 1. Division of Plant Pathology and Microbiology,
Department of Agriculture, Bangkok. (in Thai)
PONGPANICH, K., BOONTHAWEEKUL T. AND CHALERMPONGSE, A. 1988.
Seedling diseases in Sakaerat Forest Nursery. In The 4th Seminar on Silvicullture, Pattaya,
Chonburi, p. 157-169. (in Thai)
PONGPANICH, K. 2002. Diseases of Eucalyptus in Thailand and options for reducing their
impact. In Hutacharern, C., Napompeth, B., Allard, G. and Wylie, F. R. (eds.): Proceedings
of the IUFRO/FAO Workshop on Pest Management in Tropical Forest Plantations, May 2529, 1998, Chanthaburi, Thailand, p. 47-52.
PONGPANICH, K., AYAWONG, C., HIMAMARN, W., DUANGKAE, K. AND
SKOLUCK, B. 2010. Eucalypt Diseases in Thailand. Agricultural Co-operative Group of
Thailand Co. Ltd., Bangkok. 56 pp.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
19
ROYAL FOREST DEPARTMENT. 2012. Forestry Statistics. Available Source:
http://www.forest.go.th/index.php?lang=en, Aug. 23, 2012.
SAENGLEW, P. 1989. Sooty Molds in Thailand. Master Thesis. Kasetsart University,
Bangkok. (in Thai)
20 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
APPRAISAL OF PEST AND DISEASES FOR FUTURE FOREST PRODUCTIVITY
IN BANGLADESH
M. Al-Amin and S. Afrin
Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, Chittagong University, Chittagong-4331, Bangladesh
Corresponding author: prof.alamin@yahoo.com or afrin_sanzida@yahoo.com
Abstract
Bangladesh has a potential to be a good habitat of diversified plants and organisms as she lies
in tropical zone of the world, which facilitates intrusion of harmful pest and diseases
particularly in forests. This study focuses on the major pest and diseases with their severity of
attack and incurred losses in the forests of Bangladesh. Pests are described with their place of
occurrences viz. nursery pests, plantation pests and wood and timber pests. Moreover, the
present status of the infestation and their monitoring and surveillance to prevent and control
the attack for conservation of forests securing its productivity were discussed with available
literatures. This piece of research concludes more research on invasive species and
detrimental pests are needed to cope future threats for productive forest where changing
climate also a concealed intimidation.
Key words: pest, diseases, tropical forest, monitoring, pathological research
Introduction
Bangladesh is a Unitary and sovereign Republic, known as the People’s Republic of
Bangladesh; it gained its independence on March 26, 1971. Bangladesh occupies a unique
geographic location (20ο34’N – 26ο38’N latitude to 88ο1’E – 92ο41’E longitude) – spanning a
relatively short stretch of land between the mighty Himalayan mountain chain and open
ocean. The broad physiographic regions are classified as – flood plains occupying about 80%,
terrace about 8% and hills about 12% of the land area (Rashid, 2000).
Bangladesh, is a tropical country, enjoys a wide range of bio-diversity covering both wild and
cultivated land. Of the total area of Bangladesh (147,570 sq. km.), agricultural land makes up
64%, forest lands account for almost 18%, whilst urban areas are 8% of the area. The total
forest area in Bangladesh, according to Forest Department, is estimated to be 2.52 million ha
corresponding to 17.4% of the surface area of the country. This includes 1.52 million ha
Forest Department controlled land, 0.73 million ha Unclassified State Forests (USF) under
the control of District Administration and 0.27 million ha village forest land (mostly
homesteads). Forestry plays a significant role in Bangladesh, by providing a source of energy,
supplies forest products such as fuel-wood, fodder, timber, poles, thatching grass, medicinal
herbs, construction materials and contributes to the conservation and improvement of the
country’s environment.
The warm humid climate of Bangladesh is favorable for various pest & diseases on plants
(Tree, Shrubs, and Crops etc.). Forests of Bangladesh face a number of threats. Pest and
disease is considered as one of the major threat for maintaining forest health and productivity.
In the face of the fact that they are integral components of forest ecosystems, insects and
diseases have considerable influence on the health of forests, trees outside forests and other
wooded lands. They can adversely affect tree growth, vigor and survival, the yield and
quality of wood and non-wood products, wildlife habitat, recreation, aesthetics and cultural
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
21
values. Forest insect pests and diseases may also result in the scantiness of plantation
programmes, the abandonment of a given tree species and the necessity to clear cut large
areas dominated by infested trees. Pest and diseases cause damaged of about 15% of the
plants annually in Bangladesh. Forests of Bangladesh need to be managed so that the risks
and impacts of unwanted disturbances are minimized.
Insect pests in forest of Bangladesh
3 major groups of forest insect pests are found in Bangladesh: nursery pests; plantation pests;
and wood and timber pests.
Nursery pests
The groups described under nursery pests are cutworms (Agrotis ipsilon), cockchafers or
white grubs (mainly Leucopholis, Holotrichia and Anomala spp.), termites and ants, crickets
and mole crickets (mainly Brachytrupes (Tarbinskiellus) portentosus, Gryllotalpa africana
and Tradactylla sp.), defoliators (including the leaf eaters - Catopsilla and Eurema spp., the
leaf rollers - such as Parotis marginata, and the leaf miners), and sap suckers.
Plantation pests
Six major groups of plantation pests are: the teak (Tectona grandis) defoliators Hyblaea
puera and Eutectona machaeralis; the teak and gamar (Gmelina arborea) canker grub,
Dihamnus [Acalolepta] cervinus; the gamar defoliator, Calopepla leayana; the sal (Shorea
robusta) heartwood borer, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis; the semul (Bombax malabaricum)
shoot borer, Tonica niviferana; and the mahogany shoot borer, Hypsipyla robusta, an
important pest of Meliaceae including Swietenia macrophylla (mahogany), Cedrela toona
(Toona ciliata) (toon) and Chickrassia (Chukrasia) tabularis (chickrassy).
Wood and Timber pests
The sequence of wood and timber pests found as drying and seasoning advances are: Borers
attacking green logs (e.g. Platypus, Crossotarsus, Xyleborus and Webbia spp.), sap and
heartwood borers infesting logs with moisture content <50% (the buprestids Chrysocroa,
Catoxantha (Chrysochroa) and Belionata spp., and the cerambycids Hoplocerambyx
spinicornis and Glenea spp.), and dry wood borers attacking drier wood (powder post beetles
such as Sinoxylon, Dinoderus, Lyctus and Heterobostrychus spp.) and well seasoned timber
(some cerambycids). Termite attack does not follow any sequence based on wood moisture
content, but mostly occurs 2-3 months after felling and is primarily caused by subterranean
termite species such as Microcerotermes beesoni and Odontotermes spp (Baksha, 1990).
22 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Table 1. Major pest and diseases with their host and causal factors.
Disease/Pest
Host
Pathogen/ Causal factor
Keora
(Sonneratia apetala)
Cytospora sp
Sundari
( Heritiera fomes)
Botryosphaeria ribis associated with
gall or canker on the tree
Bhaluka (Bambusa balcooa) &
Bhaijja (B. vulgaris)
Sarocladium oryzae
Gamar (Gmelina arborea), Teak
(Tectona grandis)
Scurrula gracilifolia,
Dendrophthae falcata, S.
parasitica
Dieback in
Plantation
Top dying of
Sundari
Bamboo Blight
Mistletoes in
plantation
Pyinkado
(Xylia dollabriformis)
Ganoderma lucidum
Root rot of
Pyinkado
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
23
Disease/Pest
Host
Pathogen/ Causal factor
Jackfruit
(Artocarpus heterophyllus)
Botryodiplodia theobromae
(pathogen of leaf blight)
Sal
(Shorea robusta Gaertn.f.)
Curvularia palliscens
Dieback, Canker &
Leaf blight disease
of Jack fruit
Leaf spot disease
Rubber
(Hevea brasiliensis)
Aphomopsis spp.
is closely associated with the
dieback
Dieback of Hevea
brasiliensis
Tectona grandis, Avicennia
officinalis, Callicarpa arborea, Vitex
spp. and Oroxylum indicum.
Hyblaea puera,
Eutectona machaerali
Keora(Sonneratia apetala),
Gewa (Excoecaria agallocha)
Streblote siva,
Trabala vishnou &Ercheia cyllaria
Teak Defoliator
Keora Defoliator,
Gewa Defoliator
24 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Table 2. Major Plantation Pests and Diseases with their symptoms, affected areas and control
measures in Bangladesh (adopted from Rahman et al, 1997, Chakraborty & Nandi,
1977)
Disease/Pest
Infested
Geographical
Locations
Host
Symptoms
Dieback in
Plantation
Keora
(Sonneratia
apetala)
High proportion of side
branches dying or top
dying condition
Massive
mortality in
Keora
plantation
Keora
(Sonneratia
apetala)
Death of leaf, twigs and
branches & ultimately
the whole tree
Top dying of
Sundari
Heritiera
fomes
Mangrove
Forests
Bamboo
Blight
Bhaluka
(Bambusa
balcooa) &
Bhaijja(B.
vulgaris)
Mistletoes in
plantation
Gamar, Teak
, Malakana
koroi
Trees develop galls
and/or canker,
mainly on twigs, to a
lesser extent on main
branches and
infrequently on
trunks. Affected Young
trees mostly die.
Little or no increase in
the number of blighted
culms. Blight starts
death and decay first of
culms sheath and then
of culms at node
Angiospermic parasitic
bushes havinggreen
foliage and small
branches ; it tries to
engulf the host branch
and ultimately kills the
portion of host branch
Root rot of
Pyinkado
Pyinkado
(Xylia
dollabriform
is)
Pale green color of leaf
at the initial stage and
finally dries up & fall
of, twigs and branches
dries up. Ultimately
death of crown.
Disease/Pest
Host
Symptoms
Dieback &
Canker of
Jackfruit
(Artocarpus
Dieback
Discoloring of leaves
Pathogen/ Causal
factor
Control
Cytospora sp
Dithane M45
2 gm / litre
The condition is
caused by sudden
heavy siltation in
coastal plantations
which covers all the
pneumetaphores at
and around the basal
area of keora trees
A fungus,
Botryosphaeria ribis
has been found to be
closely associated
with the gall and/or
canker
Avoid or
reduce the
extent of
siltation
Chittagong,
Dinajpur ,
Rangpur
Sarocladium oryzae
By improving
cultural
practices and
Dithane M45
2 gm / litre
Hill Forests
Scurrula gracilifolia,
Dendrophthae
falcata, S. parasitica
Sal Forests
Ganoderma lucidum
Infested
Geographical
Locations
Mixed
plantation
with
Evergreen
species may
reduce the
infection but
not yet tested
in large scale
Use of 2%
formaline in
water as soil
drench at the
initial stage,
raising mixed
plantation
Pathogen/ Causal
factor
Plantations of
Coastal
afforestation
divisions of
Chittagong,
Noakhali,
Barisal and
Patuakhali.
Mostly severe
in Chittagong
Coastal
plantations of
Bangladesh
Throughout the
country
-
Yet to be
identified
Control
Measures not
yet been
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
25
Jack fruit
heterophyllu
s)
Leaf blight
disease of
Jack fruit
Jackfruit
(Artocarpus
heterophyllu
s)
Eucalyptus
camaldulens
is
Albizia
procera
Leaf damage
in Eucalyptus
Canker
Disease in
Albizia
Leaf spot
disease
Sal (Shorea
robusta
Gaertn.f.)
Dieback of
Hevea
brasiliensis
Hevea
brasiliensis
Teak
Defoliator
Tectona
grandis,
Avicennia
officinalis,
Callicarpa
arborea,
Vitex spp.
and
Oroxylum
indicum
Keora
(Sonneratia
apetala),Ge
wa
(Excoecaria
agallocha)
Keora
Defoliator,
Gewa
Defoliator
and fall off and drying
of major branches &
most of the crowns
Canker
Blackening of bark at
the bases of dead
branches
Infected portion turned
yellow & lastly brown
in color surrounded by
yellow margin
Death of leaf in lower
& crown zone
found out
Throughout the
country
Botryodiplodia
theobromae
Aureofungin
& Brassicol
Throughout the
country
Yet to be identified
Yet to be
identified
Appearance of a stem
canker in the form of a
depressed grayish black
area, wood of the
affected trees showed
brown to grayish –black
discoloration in streaks
Appearance of a small
brownish circular spot
on the leaf blade
Hill Forests
Botryodiplodia
theobromae &
Pestalotiopsis
guepinii
Use of
Bavistin,
Dithane M45
2 gm / litre
Sal forests of
Bangladesh
Curvularia
palliscens
Yet to be
identified
Starts as death of
immature
leaves,followed by
death of young twigs &
then progressively
larger branches
Leaf damage & fall
Rubber Estates
in Bangladesh
Aphomopsis spp.
Is closely associated
with the dieback
Yet to be
identified
Hill Forests
Hyblaea puera,
Eutectona
machaeralis
Dithane M45
2 gm / litre
Leaf damage & fall
Coastal Forests
Streblote siva,
Trabala vishnou
&Ercheia cyllaria
Mixed
plantation,
Cultural
practices,
Light trapping
Status of Pest Monitoring and Surveillance Program in Bangladesh
Pest surveillance and forecasting systems of the country are yet to be developed. However,
scientists in Bangladesh are trying to get information using qualitative surveys. Almost all
research efforts have been directed towards the qualitative surveys of existing insects,
diseases and vertebrates. Although, some work has been done on quantitative aspects of pest
monitoring and surveillance. This study revealed that some research has been initiated in
areas necessary to support a pest monitoring and surveillance program. These areas include
development of economic thresholds, action levels, pesticide screening, race determinations
26 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
and population dynamics. Most of this work is rudimentary but very promising. Work is
also beginning in biological control of insect pest species through the use of predators and
parasites (Cole & Horne, 1985). Legislation is also developed for protection of plants
regarding pest and diseases. The existing plant quarantine legislation known as “Destructive
Insects and Pests Rules, 1966” (Plant Quarantine) was framed as per provisions delineated
under Sub-section (I) of Section-3, Section-4A & 4D of the Destructive Insect and Pests Act,
1914 (II of 1914). On the basis of the National Seed Policy, an amended Plant Quarantine
Acts, 2007 has been drafted, scrutinized and may get the final approval of the Government
soon.
Status of Research in Plant Pathology
In view of the acute shortage in supply of timber and fuel wood in Bangladesh, and damage
which diseases have caused to trees in various parts of the world, research on diseases of
forest trees was started in Bangladesh Forest research Institute at Chittagong, to understand
various diseases so as to find out means to avoid or minimize losses caused by them
(Rahman, 1990).
The status of research in plant pathology relating to pest monitoring and surveillance was
evaluated by conducting numerous interviews and reviewing a total of 179 published (Table
2).
Table 3. Breakdown in plant pathology relating to pest monitoring and surveillance from 179
Published papers (Cole and Horne, 1985)
Subject Area
Disease Description
Pathogen Cataloging
Monitoring and Surveillance
Disease Control (Methods other than varietal resistance)
Disease Control (Evaluation of varietal response to
pathogens)
Disease Etiology
Epidemiology
Evaluation of Disease Loss
Estimation of Disease Loss
Total
% of Papers
6
11
0
22
50
2
1
6
2
100
Conclusion
Forest pests and diseases are a global problem and have considerable impacts on forests and
the forest sector. They can adversely affect tree growth and the yield of wood and non-wood
products. Detecting pests or pathogens in trees and timber products is challenging, as is the
development of effective and affordable measures to control. Measures to protect forests
from insect pests and diseases are an integral part of sustainable forest management. Effective
pest management requires reliable information – information on the pests themselves, their
biology, ecology, and distribution, their impacts on forest ecosystems and possible methods
of control. However, Bangladesh has lots of available reliable information on pathogens of
crop species, but has limited comprehensive information in case of forests tree. It is high time
to become aware about this severe problem, take effective steps at regional, national level and
necessary to look beyond national borders to develop effective solutions.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
27
References
BAKSHA, M. W. 1990. Some Major Forest Insect Pests of Bangladesh and Their Control.
"Bulletin - Forest Entomology Series, Forest Research Institute (Chittagong)"
COLE, C.L. AND HORNE, W. C. 1985. Pest Monitoring and Surveillance in Bangladesh.
Bangladesh Agriculture Research Council, International Agricultural Development Service.
Chakrabarty, N. and Nandi, B., 1977. In-Vitro Inhibitory Effect Of Certain Fungicides on the
Growth of Botrydiplodia theobromae (Pat.). Indian Journal of Microbiology, 16(2): 97-98.
RAHMAN, M. A. 1990. Diseases in the forests of Bangladesh. Proceedings of the ILIFRO
Workshop on Pests and Diseases of Forest Plantation in the Asia Pacific. Regional Office for
Asia and Pacific (RAPA), Publication 1990/9, FAQ, Bangkok. 86-90 pp.
RAHMAN, M. A., BAKSHA, M. W. AND AHMED, F. U. 1997. Diseases and Pests of
Tree Species in Forest Nurseries and Plantations in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Agricultural
Research Council Farmgate, Dhaka.
RASHID, MD., A. 2000. A Review of the Forest Status in Bangladesh and the Potential for
Forest Restoration for Wildlife Conservation. In: Forest Restoration for Wildlife
Conservation, 2000. Proceedings of a Workshop with the International Tropical Timber
Organization and the Forest Restoration Research Unit, Chiang Mai University, Thailand.
FAO, 2009. Global Review of Forest Pests & Diseases: A thematic study in the framework
of the Global forest resources assessment 2005. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome.
28 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
WHY DOES THE JAPANESE OAK WILT OCCUR ONLY IN JAPAN?
Naoto Kamata, Hideaki Goto, Keiko Hamaguchi, Hayato Masuya, Dai Kusumoto, Toshihide
Hirao, Wen-I Chou, Wiwat Suasa-Ard, Sawai Buranapanichpan, Sopon Uraichuen, Oraphan
Kern-Asa, Sunisa Sanguansub, Thu Pham Quang, Sih Kahono, Heddy Julistiono
The University of Tokyo Chichibu Forest, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-49 Hinoda-machi,
Chichibu, Saitama 368-0034, Japan
Corresponding author: kamatan@uf.a.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Abstract
In Japan, Japanese oak wilt (JOW) caused by a fungus Raffaelea quercivora carried by an
ambrosia beetle Platypus quercivors has been prevalent for more than two decades. P.
quercivorus was recorded from India, Indonesia, New Guinea, Thailand and Taiwan.
However, the JOW has been recorded only from Japan. The purpose of our project is to
answer the query “Why does the JOW occur only in Japan?” There are two types (Groups A
& B) of P. quercivorus and suggested taxonomic reexamination of this species. We collected
P. quercivorus from Japan, Thailand, Vietnam and Indonesia for the Group A, and from
Japan, Taiwan and Vietnam for the Group B. This is the first record of P. quercivorus from
Vietnam. Regarding to the Japanese populations of the Group A, phylogenic study indicates
that the mainland populations that cause the JOW was closest to Thai population while the
Ryukyu population was closest to Indonesian, and Vietnam population was intermediate. R.
quericovra was isolated from all populations of P. quercivorus indicating that absence of the
JOW outside Japan could not be explained by absence of R. quercivora. R. quercivora
isolates from each country did not form an independent clade. Virulence of R. quercivora to
Q. serrata differed greatly among isolates. An isolate from Taiwan showed stronger virulence
than strong-virulent strain in Japan indicating that virulence of R. querivora cannot explain
absence of the JOW outside Japan. Host plants that are distributed more north tended to show
higher mortality by the JOW. Quercus crispula, the most susceptible tree species, is
distributed in the most north showed the highest mortality by the JOW, whereas less
preferred by P. quercivorus than evergreen oaks. Because the subfamily Pltyponinae is
prosperous in tropics and sub-tropics, a lack of coevolutionary process among host trees-R.
quercivora-P. quercivorus is a likely cause of the current epidemics of the JOW in Japan. In
future, variations in tree susceptibility to R. quercivora need to be determined including host
species outside Japan.
Introduction
Since the late 1980s, the Japanese oak wilt (JOW) has been prevalent in Japan (Ito et al.,
1998). The JOW has been recorded since the 1930s, but up to 1980, epidemics lasted for only
a few years and were confined to a few areas on the west side of Japan (Figure 1) (Ito and
Yamada, 1998). More recently, epidemics have lasted for more than ten years, and the JOW
incidence has been spreading to new localities where dieback has never been recorded in the
past (Ito and Yamada, 1998). These incidences of the JOW have tended to spread
concentrically from a source population (Kamata et al., 2001a,b), exhibiting a pattern of
spread typical of introduced invasive species (Elton, 1958). Raffaelea quercivora Kubono et
Shin. Ito (Moniliales: Moniliaceae) is a pathogen of the disease (Ito et al., 1998; Kubono and
Ito, 2002). The ambrosia beetle, Platypus quercivorus (Murayama) (Coleoptera:
Curculionidae), is a major vector of this fungus (Ito et al., 1998; Kubono and Ito, 2002;
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
29
Kinuura and Kobayashi, 2006). Ambrosia beetles usually attack weakened or dead trees.
Some of the exceptions are Austroplatypus incompertus (Schedl) (Kent & Simpson, 1992)
and Platypus subgranosus Schedl in Australia (Kile & Hall, 1988), Platypus cylindrus
Fabricius in Europe (Baker, 1963), Platypus sulcatus Chapuis in Argentina (Mareggiani et
al., 2000), Trachyostus ghanaensis Schedl in Africa (Wagner et al., 1991), Dendroplatypus
impar Schedl (all Coleoptera: Platypodidae) in Southeast Asia (Brown, 1961), and Corthylus
columbianus Hopkins (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) in the USA. These species attack vigorous
trees but seldom kill the host. The present case in Japan is the first example of an ambrosia
fungus carried by an ambrosia beetle that kills vigorous trees. Platypus quercivorus can
reproduce on living as well as dead hosts if the gallery is successful (Kato et al., 2001a,b).
Necrosis has been observed around the gallery systems in sapwood, and has been attributed
to the symbiotic ambrosia fungus, Raffaelea quercivora (Kuroda & Yamada, 1996; Ito et al.,
1998). The necrosis stops water conductance, and a tree dies when necrosis completely
blocks any cross section of the tree (Kuroda & Yamada, 1996).
Platypus quercivorus is distributed in Thailand (Hulcr et al., 2008a), India (Beeson, 1937),
Papua New Guinea (Wood, 1972), and Vietnam (Kamata et al., unpublished), Taiwan
(Murayama, 1925), and Indonesia (Schedl, 1972). However, we cannot find the JOW
incidence outside Japan. Why does the JOW occur only in Japan? Some possibilities
incluede: host plant susceptibility, pathogenicity/virulence of R. querciovra, aggressiveness
of P. quercivorus, and environmental factors.
Before 1980
1995
2010
P. quercivorus wo. JOW
(incl. past records)
Past record of JOW incidence
JOW incidence
Figure 1. Records of an ambrosia beetle Platypus quercivorus and incidence of the Japanese
oak wilt in Japan
Life history of Platypus quercivorus (Kamata et al. 2002)
Platypus quercivorus is basically univoltine in Japan (Kinuura, 1995) with an occasional
second generation (Sone et al., 1998, 2000). Adult emergence of the main overwintering
generation was observed from May to September with a peak in early July, and emergence
of the second generation observed from late August to earlyDecember (Sone et al., 2000).
30 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Dispersal flight of newly eclosed adults detected by sticky interception traps continues from
late June to early December with a peak in July and early August (Esaki et al., in press; Igeta
et al., 2000). After a male selects a tree as a breeding site, it initially bores a cylindrical
entrance tunnel about 15 mm into the tree (max. 43 mm) (Kobayashi et al., 2001). When a
female arrives later at the entrance, the male emerges and leads the female into the tunnel.
After mating at the entrance hole, the male follows the female into the tunnel where she
starts to bore a horizontal gallery. This gallery branches a few times laterally and vertically.
Meanwhile the male plugs the entrance hole with his body to prevent natural enemies and
competitors from invading the gallery. One male and female pair occupy a single gallery. On
the thorax of the female are the mycangia in which the spores of the symbiotic ambrosia
fungus are transported. The female lays eggs on the walls of the gallery, spreading fungal
spores in the process. During the summer she grazes on the developing ambrosia fungus and
lays eggs up to the end of autumn (mid-November in Ishikawa). Both parents are presumed
to die before or during the winter period as no freshly laid eggs have been found in the
following spring. Eggs hatch within about a week and larvae graze on the ambrosia fungus
covering the walls of the horizontal gallery. Larvae pass through five instars and mature
larvae pupate in a vertical cradle in the gallery. Individuals that develop rapidly are able to
pupate by autumn of the same year (mid-October in Ishikawa) and emerge as adults of a
second generation from September to early December. The bulk of the population
overwinters in the larval stage and completes development in the following year.
Preference–performance relationship of P. quercivorus and host mortality (Kamata et
al. 2002)
Although 45 species among 27 genera in 17 families of woody plants have been recorded as
host plants of P. quercivorus (Nobuchi, 1993a,b; Sone et al., 1995; Ito et al., 2000), woody
plants belonging to the Fagaceae are considered as essential hosts of P. quercivorus because
beetle attack density is significantly higher on trees of the Fagaceae family (Sone et al.,
1995; Ito et al., 2000). There are many records of P. quercivorus outbreaks in stands of
evergreen species of Fagaceae in Japan, but few evergreen trees have been killed by this
ambrosia beetle fungus even though many entry holes have been found on the trunk surface
(Matsumoto, 1955; Sueyoshi, 1990a,b; Sone et al., 1995). It has been suggested that the
pathogenic fungus Raffaelea quercivora is an exotic fungus that has been accidentally
introduced into Japan, and that P. quercivorus was free of this fungus in places where no
tree mortality occurred (Yoshida, 1994). However, when oak dieback was first found in
mixed forest stands of evergreen and deciduous Fagaceae in Ishikawa Prefecture in 1997
(Ito & Yamada, 1998), this hypothesis was rejected because tree mortality caused by this
ambrosia beetle and fungus differed greatly among species: the mortality of newly attacked
Quercus crispula Blume was c. 40%, but no mortality was observed in associated species of
Fagaceae. However, the numbers of new entry holes made by this beetle in different species
of Quercus were similar. Significant differences in tree mortality were subsequently found
between Q. crispula and Q. serrata Thunb. ex Murray and between Q. crispula and Q. acuta
Thunb. ex Murray (Kamata et al., 2000). Several studies also proved that Q. crispula was
much more susceptible to this fungus than other sympatric species of Fagaceae (Inoue et al.,
1998; Nishigaki et al., 1998). Although necrosis of sapwood tissues was observed in all host
species regardless of the host fate, trees died when necrosis completely blocked any cross
section of the tree (Kuroda & Yamada, 1996). Thus, the fate of each individual Q. crispula
was determined by the balance between the rate of radial growth and the rate of
development of the necrosis. Although this applied to all host tree species, the rate of
development of necrosis was slow in evergreen species of Fagaceae.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
31
The reproductive success of P. quercivorus differed among the four species of fagaceae: Q.
crispula was the most suitable host species for reproduction (mean no. of offspring adults
emerged per gallery = 7.0 ± 0.82 SD), while Q. acuta was the least suitable (n = 1.0 ±1.0
SD) (fig. 4) (Kato et al., 2001a,b). The beetle attacks healthy, weakened, freshly-cut or even
dead Q. crispula. For example there was no significant difference in the mean number of
offspring emerging per gallery from newly-infested live (n = 7 1.1 SD) or dead trees (n = 8
0.38 SD) of Q. crispula (Kato et al., 2001a,b). However, infestation history influenced the
number of beetle attacks per tree, with virgin, non-infested trees receiving more attacks than
trees already infested by P. quercivorus. Fresh saw dust produced by beetles as they bored
into the wood was attractive to adults of the same species and led to a high infestation in the
first year. Fewer beetles attacked infested trees in subsequent years. Males of P. quercivorus
were observed initiating entrance holes in subsequent years, but left before mating took
place (Kato et al., 2001a,b). This may have been due to the advancing necrosis caused by
Raffaelea quercivora, that probably made the tree less suitable as a substrate for fresh insect
attack and fungus development (Inoue et al., 2000; Kato et al., 2001a,b). The quality and
amount of saw dust produced during the peak invasion period in summer was less attractive
overall, and so mass attacks did not occur on infested trees.
Kamata et al. (2001a,b) investigated the percentage of infested trees and plant species
composition in two stands with different tree composition. Platypus quercivorus showed the
least preference for Q. crispula (10.0% of individual trees were attacked in 1999, and 30.0%
in 2000) (Kamata et al., 2002), although its reproductive success was highest on this species.
An inverse relationship was found between the preference of P. quercivorus for different
tree species and its performance on these species. Its greatest preference was for Castanopsis
sieboldii (Makino) Hatusima ex Yamazaki (Fagaceae) with 45.6% and 67.6% of trees
attacked in 1999 and 2000, respectively. Because reproductive success of P. quercivorus on
trees other than Q. crispula is low, the aerial population density of P. quercivorus adults in
this stand (L) was lower than in the other stand with a high percentage of Q. crispula (H)
(H/L = 45.8 in 1999, 3.3 in 2000). The percentage mortality of Q. crispula was low in this
stand and the tree composition of the stand remained stable.
In the stand with a high percentage of Q. crispula, the infestation spread out very rapidly to
all species of Fagaceae. Tree mortality of newly infested Q. crispula was about 40% each
year, which caused great changes in tree composition.
Thus, the oak Q. cripsula was preferred least by P. quercivorus, but it was the most suitable
host for reproduction and was susceptible to the symbiotic ambrosia fungus.
Coevolution and global warming (Kamata et al. 2002)
Among the species of Fagaceae found in our research plots in Ishikawa, Q. cripsula tended
to occur in the coolest localities (Kurata, 1971–1976). Platypodinae are abundant in tropical
and subtropical regions (Kalshoven, 1958, 1960; Beaver, 1977, 1979; Kirkendall, 1993).
Platypus quercivorus is also distributed in South and Southeast Asia, Taiwan, and the
Japanese Archipelago (Nobuchi, 1993a,b). Japan is the northernmost edge of the distribution
of P. quercivorus. Oak dieback occurs in the northern regions and high altitude margins of
the distribution of P. quercivorus and in the southern/low altitude margins of the distribution
of Q. crispula. The other three associated species of Fagaceae are resistant to Raffaelea sp. 1
probably because a stable relationship has been formed among these tree species, the fungus,
and the insect over a long evolutionary process. Quercus crispula was probably left out of
this coevolution because of its more northerly distribution separate from that of P.
quercivorus.
It is proposed that the oak dieback in Japan is the result of the warmer climate since the late
1980s: 0.4°C higher than the average temperature of the past 100 years (Japan
32 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Meteorological Agency, 2000). The warmer climate has made it possible for P. quercivorus
to encounter Q. cripsula by allowing it to extend its range to more northerly latitudes and
higher altitudes in Japan. Because P. quercivorus can realize higher reproductive success on
Q. crispula than on other species, the percentage of Q. crispula in each stand is an important
factor influencing the density of this insect and the rate of spread of oak dieback. Once the
insect colonizes stands with a high percentage of Q. crispula, infestation spreads very
rapidly. This situation is similar to the invasion of exotic pests into new areas when
outbreaks last for a long period in the absence of normal regulating factors. The plant
species composition of forest stands can change greatly when there is a high initial
percentage of Q. crispula because of the high mortality rate of this species caused by
Raffaelea quercivora. The annual mortality rate of infested trees was c. 40% during the
study period.
Two types of Platypus quericivorus and phylogeny
Hamaguchi and Goto (2010) reported two types (Groups A & B) of P. quercivorus and
suggested taxonomic reexamination of this species. We collected P. quercivorus from Japan,
Thailand, Vietnam and Indonesia for the Group A, and from Japan, Taiwan and Vietnam for
the Group B. This is the first record of P. quercivorus from Vietnam. Regarding to the
Japanese populations of the Group A, phylogenic study indicates that the mainland
populations that cause the JOW was closest to Thai population while the Ryukyu population
was closest to Indonesian, and Vietnam population was intermediate.
Virulence of Raffaelea quericora and its phylogenetic signal
Raffaelea quericovra was isolated from all populations of P. quercivorus indicating that
absence of the JOW outside Japan could not be explained by absence of R. quercivora.
Raffaelea quercivora isolates from each country did not form an independent clade.
Virulence of R. quercivora to Q. serrata differed greatly among isolates. An isolate from
Taiwan showed stronger virulence than strong-virulent strain in Japan indicating that
virulence of R. querivora cannot explain absence of the JOW outside Japan.
Conclusion
Host plants that are distributed more north tended to show higher mortality by the JOW.
Quercus crispula, the most susceptible tree species, is distributed in the most north showed
the highest mortality by the JOW, whereas less preferred by P. quercivorus than evergreen
oaks. Because the subfamily Pltyponinae is prosperous in tropics and sub-tropics, a lack of
coevolutionary process among host trees-R. quercivora-P. quercivorus is a likely cause of the
current epidemics of the JOW in Japan. In future, variations in tree susceptibility to R.
quercivora need to be determined including host species outside Japan.
References
BAKER, J.M. 1963. Ambrosia beetles and their fungi, with particular reference to Platypus
cylindrus Fab. Symposia of the Society for General Microbiology 13, 232-264.
BEESON, C.F.C., 1937: New Crossotarsus (Platypodidae, Col.). The Indian Forest Records
New Series Entomology 3:49-103
BEAVER, R.A. 1977. Bark and ambrosia beetles in tropical forests, in Proceedings of
Symposium on Forest Pests and Diseases in Southeast Asia, 20-23 April, 1976, Bogor,
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
33
Indonesia. BIOTROP special publication no. 2, Regional Center for Tropical Biology. pp.
133-149.
BEAVER, R.A. 1979. Host specificity of temperate and tropical animals. Nature 281, 139141.
BROWN, F.G. 1961. The biology of Malayan Scolytidae and Platypodidae. Malayan Forest
Records 222, 1-255.
BYERS, J.A. 1988. Upwind flight orientation to pheromone in western pine beetle tested
with rotating wind vane traps. Journal of Chemical Ecology 14, 189-198.
CHOUDHURY, J.H. & KENNEDY, J.S. 1980. Light versus pheromone-bearing wind in the
control of flight direction by bark beetles, Scolytus multistriatus. Physiological Entomology
5, 207-214.
ELTON, C, S. 1958.The ecology of invasions by animals and plants. London, Methuen, 181
p.
ESAKI, K., KAMATA, N. & KATO, K. 2000. Temporal and spatial dynamics of ambrosia
beetle, Platypus quercivorus (Murayama) and oak dieback. I. Spatial and temporal
distribution of aerial population and the number of insect attack on tree trunks, in
Proceeding of the 111th Annual Meetings of Japanese Forestry Society, Fujisawa,
Kanagawa, 2-4 April 2000 Japanese Forestry Society, pp. 305-306. (in Japanese)
ESAKI, K., KAMATA, N. & KATO, K. 2002. A sticky screen trap for surveying aerial
populations of ambrosia beetle Platypus quercivorus (Coleoptera: Platipodidae). Applied
Entomology and Zoology 37(1): 27-35.
HAMAGUCHI, K., GOTO, H. 2010. Genetic variation among Japanese populations of
Platypus quercivorus (Coleoptera: Platypodidae), an insect vector of Japanese oak wilt
disease, based on partial sequence of the nuclear 28S rDNA. Appl. Entomol Zool 45:319328
HIJII, N., KAJIMURA, H., URANO, T., KINUURA, H. & ITAMI, H. 1991. The mass
mortality of oak trees induced by Platypus quercivorus (Murayama) and Platypus calamus
Blandford (Coleoptera: Platypodidae). - The density and spatial distribution of attack by the
beetles -. Journal of the Japanese Forestry Society 73, 471-476. (in Japanese with an English
summary)
HULCR, J., BEAVER, R. A., PURANASAKUL, W., DOLE, S. A., SONTHICHAI, S.
2008. A comparison of bark and ambrosia beetle communities in two forest types in
Northern Thailand (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae and Platypodinae). Environ
Entomol 37 (6):1461-1470
IGETA, Y., KATO, K. ESAKI, K. & KAMATA, N. 2000. Stand level distribution and
movement of aerial population of an ambrosia beetle, Platypus quercivorus. in Proceedings
of the 49th Annual Meetings of Chubu Branch of the Japanese Forestry Society, Tsu, 14
October 2000 Chubu branch, the Japanese Forestry Society. p. 16. (in Japanese)
INOUE, M., NISHIGAKI, S. & NISHIMURA, N. 1998. Attack density and seasonal
prevalence of two Platypodid beetles, Platypus quercivorus and Platypus calamus
(Coloeptera: Platypodidae) on live, dead and logged oak trees. Applied Forest Science 7,
121-126. (in Japanese with an English summary)
INOUE, M., NISHIGAKI, S. & NISHI, N. 2000. Attack by the oak borer, Platypus
quercivorus, to living oak trees. Applied Forest Science 9, 127-131. (in Japanese with an
English summary)
ITO, S., TAKEDA, A. & KAJIMURA, H. 2000. Host plant species of the ambrosia beetle,
Platypus quercivorus (Murayama) (Col, Platypodidae), in Japan, in Proceedings of the 49th
Annual Meetings of Chubu Branch of the Japanese Forestry Society, Tsu, 14 October 2000
Chubu branch, the Japanese Forestry Society. p. 16. (in Japanese)
34 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
ITO, S., KURODA, K., YAMADA, T., MIURA, Y. & INOUE, S. 1993. Investigation of
fungi associated with the mass mortality of oak trees. Annals of the Phytopathological
Society of Japan 59, 290-291. (in Japanese with an English summary)
ITO, S., KUBONO, T., SAHASHI, N. & YAMADA, T. 1998. Associated fungi with the
mass mortality of oak trees. Journal of the Japanese Forestry Society 80, 170-175. (in
Japanese with an English summary)
ITO, S. & YAMADA, T. 1998. Distribution and spread of mass mortality of oak trees.
Journal of the Japanese Forestry Society 80, 229-232. (in Japanese)
Japan Meteorological Agency, 2000: Report on Unusual Weather in ‘99. Tokyo, Printing
Bureau, Ministry of Finance, Japan, 61p+341p
KALSHOVEN, L.G.E., 1958: Studies on the biology of Indonesian Scolytoidea. 1.
Xyleborus fornicatus Eichh. As a primary and secondary shot-hole borer in Java and
Sumatra. Entomologische Berichten, Amsterdam 18, 147-160.
KALSHOVEN, L.G.E. 1960. Studies on the biology of Indonesian Scolytoidea. 7. Data on
the habits of Platypodidae. Tijdschrift voor entomologie 103, 31-50.
KAMATA, N., ESAKI, K. & KATO, K. 2000. Temporal and spatial dynamics of ambrosia
beetle, Platypus quercivorus (Murayama) and oak dieback. III. Factors related to tree
mortality, in Proceeding of the 111th Annual Meetings of Japanese Forestry Society,
Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 2-4 April 2000 Japanese Forestry Society, pp. 307-308. (in Japanese)
KAMATA, N., ESAKI, K. & KATO, K. 2001. Temporal and spatial dynamics of ambrosia
beetle, Platypus quercivorus (Murayama) and oak dieback. VII. Why oak diebacks are
prevalent in 1990s? in Proceeding of the 112th Annual Meetings of Japanese Forestry
Society, Gifu, GIfu, 2-4 April 2001 Japanese Forestry Society, pp. 276. (in Japanese)
KAMATA, N., ESAKI, K. & KUBO, M. 2001. Stand- and local-level analysis of spreading
pattern of oak decline using aero photos, in Proceedings of 2001 International Symposium
on Environmental Monitoring in East Asia -Remote Sensing and Forests-, Beijing, China, 19
June, 2001 EMEA Project, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Ishikawa, Japan. pp. 136-141.
KAMATA, N., ESAKI, K., KATO, K., IGETA, Y., WADA, K. 2002. Potential impact of
global warming on deciduous oak dieback caused by ambrosia fungus Raffaelea sp. carried
by ambrosia beetle Platypus quercivorus (Coleoptera : Platypodidae) in Japan. Bull Entomol
Res 92 (2):119-126
KATO, K., ESAKI, K. IGETA, Y. & KAMATA, N. 2001. Preliminary report on
comparison of reproductive success of Platypus quercivorus among four species of the
family Fagaceae. Chubu Forest Research 49, 81-84.
KATO, K., ESAKI, K. IGETA, Y. & KAMATA, N. 2001. Temporal and spatial dynamics
of ambrosia beetle, Platypus quercivorus (Murayama) and oak dieback. V. Gallery
construction and the reproductive success of the ambrosia beetle, in Proceeding of the 112th
Annual Meetings of Japanese Forestry Society, Gifu, Gifu, 2-4 April 2001 Japanese Forestry
Society, p. 274. (in Japanese)
KENT, D.S. & SIMPSON, J.A. 1992. Eusociality in the beetle Austroplatypus incompertus
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Naturwissenschaften 79, 86-87.
KILE, G.A. & HALL, M.F. 1988. Assessment of Platypus subgranosus as a vector of
Chalara australis, causal agent of a vascular disease of Nothofagus cunninghamii. New
Zealand Journal of Forestry Science 18, 166-186.
KINUURA, H. 1994. Oak dieback and biology of the ambrosia beetle, Platypus quercivorus
(Murayama). Ringyotoyakuzai 130, 11-20. (in Japanese)
KINUURA, H. 1995. Life history of Platypus quercivorus (Murayama) (Coleoptera:
Platypodidae). Behavior, Population Dynamics and Control of Forest Insects, in Proceedings
of the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations Joint Conference, Maui,
Hawaii, 6-11 February 1994 The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio. pp. 373-383.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
35
KINUURA, H. 1996. Fungal flora in the gallery system of the ambrosia beetle, Platypus
quercivorus (Murayama) (Coleoptera: Platypodidae) in Quercus crispula Blume, in
Proceeding of the 105th Annual Meetings of Japanese Forestry Society, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 24 April 1996 Japanese Forestry Society, pp. 307-308. (in Japanese)
KINUURA, H., KOBAYASHI, M. 2006. Death of Quercus crispula by inoculation with
adult Platypus quercivorus (Coleoptera: Platypodidae). Appl Entomol Zool 41 (1):123-128
KIRKENDALL, L.R. 1993. Ecology and evolution of biased sex ratios in bark and ambrosia
beetles (Scolytidae). pp. 235-345 in Wrensch, D.L. & Ebbert, M.A. (Eds.) Evolution and
Diversity of Sex Ratio: Insects and Mites. New York, Chapman & Hall.
KOBAYASHI, M., UEDA, A. & TAKAHATA, Y. 2001. Inducing infection of oak logs by
a pathogenic fungus carried by Platypus quercivorus (Murayama) (Coleoptera:
Platypodidae). Journal of Forest Research. 6: 153-156.
KUBONO, T., ITO, S. 2002. Raffaelea quercivora sp. nov. associated with mass mortality
of Japanese oak, and the ambrosia beetle (Platypus quercivorus). Mycoscience 43 (3):255260
KURATA, S. 1971-1976. Illustrated Important Forest Trees of Japan. Vol. 1-5. Tokyo,
Chikyu Shuppan. (in Japanese)
KURODA, K. & YAMADA, T. 1996. Discoloration of sapwood and blockage xylem sap of
ascent in the trunks of wilting Quercus spp. following attack by Platypus quercivorus.
Journal of the Japanese Forestry Society 78, 84-88. (in Japanese with an English Summary)
KUSUMOTO, D., MASUYA, H., OHMURA, K., KAMATA, N. 2012. Virulence of
Raffaelea quercivora isolates inoculated into Quercus serrata logs and Q. crispula saplings.
J For Res 17 (4):393-396.
MAREGGIANI, G., ETIENNOT, A., GIMENEZ, R. & GARCIA, G. 2000. Platypus
sulcatus: a rational approach to its control in Populus spp. in Argentina, in Abstract book I,
XXI-International Congress of Entomology, Iguas, Brazil, 20-26 August 2000
Entomological Society of Brazil, p. 461.
MATSUMOTO, K. 1955. An outbreak of Platypus quercivorus and its control. Forest Pests 4,
74-75. (in Japanese)
MURAYAMA, J. 1925. Supplementary notes on "The Platypodidae of Formosa". Journal of
the College of Agriculture, Hokkaido Imperial University 15:229-235
NISHIGAKI, S., INOUE, M. & NISHIMURA, N. 1998. The relationship between the
number of Platypus quercivorus and the water content of wood and mass mortality of oak
trees. Applied Forest Science 7, 117-120. (in Japanese with an English summary)
NOBUCHI, A. 1993a. Platypus quercivorus (Murayama) (Coleoptera, Platypodidae)
attacks on living oak trees in Japan, and information on Platypodidae (I). Forest Pests 42,
85-89. (in Japanese)
NOBUCHI, A. 1993B. ditto (II). Forest Pests 42, 109-114. (in Japanese)
PERTTUNEN, V. 1960. Seasonal variation in the light reactions of Blastophagus piniperda
L. (Col., Scolytidae) at different temperature. Annales Entomologici Fennici 26, 86-92.
SAFRANYIK, L., SILVERSIDES, R., MCMULLEN, L.H. & LINTON, D.A. 1989. An
empirical approach to modeling the local dispersal of the mountain pine beetle
(Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopk.) (Col., Scolytidae) in relation to sources of attraction,
wind direction and speed. Journal of Applied Entomology 113, 498-511.
SCHEDL, K. 1972. Monographie der familie Platypodidae (Coleoptera). W. Junk, Den Haag
SONE, K., MORI, T. & IDE, M. 1998. Life history of the oak borer, Platypus quercivorus
(Murayama) (Coleoptera: Platypodidae). Applied Entomology and Zoology 33, 67-75.
SONE, K., USHIJIMA, T., MORI, T., IDE, M & UMATA, H. 1995. Incidence and spatial
distribution of trees infested by the oak borer, Platypus quercivorus (Murayama)
36 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
(Coleoptera: Platypodidae), in a stand. Bulletin of the Kagoshima University Forests 23, 1122. (in Japanese with an English Summary)
SONE, K., UTO, K., FUKUYAMA, S. & NAGANO, T. 2000. Effects of attack time on the
development and reproduction of the oak borer, Platypus quercivorus (Murayama). Japanese
Journal of Applied Entomology and Zoology 44, 189-196. (in Japanese with an English
Summary)
SUEYOSHI, M. 1990a. The incidence of broadleaved trees attacked by Platypus
quercivorus (Coleoptera : Platypodidae) (1). Forest Pests 39, 58-61. (in Japanese)
SUEYOSHI, M. 1990b. The incidence of broadleaved trees attacked by Platypus
quercivorus (Coleoptera : Platypodidae) (2). Forest Pests 39, 242-245. (in Japanese)
WAGNER, M.R. 1991. Wood borers of living trees. pp. 59-87 in WAGNER, M.R.,
ATUAHENE, S.K.N. & COBBINAH, J.R. (Eds) Forest Entomology in West Tropical Africa:
Forest Insects of Gahana. London, Kluwer Academic.
WOOD, S.L. 1972. Review of K. E. Schedl, Monographie der familie Platypodidae
Coleoptera. Science 178 (4065):1085-1086.
YOSHIDA, N. 1994. Mass mortality of evergreen and deciduous oaks in Japan. Sanrin
1325, 35-40. (in Japanese)
YOSHIDA, N. & NUNOKAWA, K. 1994. Biology of the ambrosia beetle, Platypus
quercivorus (Murayama), in Kashiwazaki, Niigata, Japan in Proceeding of the 105th Annual
Meetings of Japanese Forestry Society, Fuchu, Tokyo, 3-5 April 1994 Japanese Forestry
Society, pp. 441-442. (in Japanese).
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
37
Ceratocystis sp. CAUSES CROWN WILT OF Acacia spp. PLANTED IN SOME
ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF VIETNAM
1)
Pham Quang Thu1), Dang Nhu Qynh1), Bernard Dell2)
Vietnamese Academy of Forest Science, Dong Ngac, Tu Liem Hanoi, Vietnam; 2) Centre of Excellence for
Climate Change, Woodland and Forest Health, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA Australia
Corresponding author: phamquangthu@fpt.vn
Abstract
The plantation area in Vietnam of Acacia auriculiformis, A. mangium and their hybrid has
expanded greatly in the last decade. Recently, a new stem canker disease causing symptoms
of crown wilt, followed by wood discoloration then death of infected trees has occurred in
many ecological zones. Ascomata were obtained by incubating discolored wood pieces in
moist chambers or by carrot baiting. Isolates of fungi were obtained on PDA medium by
taking spores emerging from the tips of ascomata necks. Ceratocystis was identified based on
ascospore morphology and conidial types. Twenty six isolates of Ceratocystis were used for
pathogenicity assessment on 8-month old seedlings of A. mangium in a nursery, with 5
seedlings per isolate. Stems were inoculated by inserting an 8 mm diameter PDA plug
covered with 15-day old mycelia onto the cambium about 50 cm above the ground. Five
seedlings were inoculated with sterile PDA plugs to serve as the control. The wounds and
plugs were sealed with parafilm to protect them against desiccation and rain. After 60 days of
inoculation, based on lesion development and tree death, the pathogenicity of the isolates
were identified: 2 isolates (AA8, AMH12) nil, 4 isolates (AAHX1, AMH40, AMD26,
AHDL1) low, 4 isolates (AA22, AMH9, AMMB7, AHXL3) moderate, 3 isolates (AMBL3,
AMPL2, AMH5) high, and 13 isolates (AA54, AA62, AMH24, AMH26, AMH41, AMHX1,
AMQN1, AMBL4, AHBB1, AHBD1, AHBP1, AHXL1 and AHXL2) very high level of
pathogenicity causing plant death. This is the first record of Ceratocystis causing damage to
Acacia plantations in Vietnam. The origin of the pathogen is unknown. Work is progressing
to determine whether the species is the same as that known to cause damage to A. mangium
plantations in Indonesia.
Keywords: Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia mangium, acacia hybrid, Ceratocystis, crown wilt,
new disease record, pathogenicity
Introduction
There are more than 1.1 million ha of acacia plantations in Vietnam, providing raw materials
for the pulp, chip, board and other industries. Acacias were introduced to Vietnam in the
1960s and Acacia auriculiformis was chosen for large scale plantings in many locations,
mostly in southern provinces (Turnbull et al., 1998). Later, A. mangium and A. auriculiformis
were selected for planting in the north-east, centre and south-east of Vietnam. In 1991,
naturally occurring A. mangium and A. auriculiformis hybrids were observed growing at Ba
Vi research station, near Hanoi city. Since then, hundreds of clones of natural and artificial
Acacia hybrids have been placed in trials in plantations. Industrial acacia plantations are
widespread in Vietnam especially in Quang Ninh, Tuyen Quang, Phu Tho, Thai Nguyen,
Thua Thien Hue and Dong Nai provinces.
From health surveys conducted 1-2 times a year in commercial plantations and genetic trials,
the main pathogens associated with A. mangium, A. auriculiformis and acacia hybrids were
38 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
shown to be Oidium spp. causing white mildew disease to seedlings in nursery and young
plantations, Meliola spp. associated with black mildew disease on mature leaves in the lower
part of the crown in high density plantations and in hedge orchards, and stem cankers infected
by Corticium salmonicolor, which has caused serious problems in hybrid plantations of
susceptible clones at 3 years of age (Old et al., 2000). Recently, a new disease of trees in
acacia plantations in Vietnam has emerged, associated with crown wilt and stem canker
followed by wood discoloration. These symptoms were observed for the first time in Quang
Ninh province in 2007 in an acacia hybrid at 3 years of age. Since then, the acacia wilt
problem has become a serious issue in Vietnam. In the same period, mortality of A. mangium
in plantations in Indonesia has been associated with the incidence of a virulent species of
Ceratocystis (Tarigan et al., 2010). Our objectives in this study were to determine if
Ceratocystis is associated with the new wilt decline of acacia plantations in Vietnam and to
test the virulence of the isolates on A. mangium. This is the first report of Ceratocystis
associated with acacia plantations in Vietnam.
Materials and Methods
Stem sampling
Trees with recent wilt symptoms were located in acacia plantation in Quang Ninh, Phu Tho,
Tuyen Quang, Thua Thien Hue, Binh Duong, Binh Phuoc, Lam Dong and Dong Nai
provinces in 2008 (Fig. 1). The trees were dissected with handsaws and samples of discolored
wood were removed, placed in paper packets and transported to the laboratory for isolation.
Fungal isolates
Isolates of Ceratocystis were obtained from the germination of single spores. The wood
samples were cut into small pieces, some pieces were placed in plastic bags containing
moistened tissue paper for 4-10 days to induce sporulation, other pieces were wrapped
between carrot slices (that had first been immersed for 1 min in 70% alcohol) and then placed
in plastic bags for 3-5 days, or until fruiting bodies were observed (Moller and De Vay,
1968). Single spore drops were collected directly from fungal fruiting bodies onto PDA
medium. Isolates collected in this study are maintained in the culture collection of the Forest
Protection Research Division, FSIV for further studies.
Observation and identification
Two-week-old cultures grown on PDA were used to describe the morphological
characteristics of the isolates. Fruiting structures were observed and measured with an
olympus BX50 microscope. Identification to genus was based on the morphology of fruiting
structures, ascospores, conidiphores and conidia.
Pathogenicity tests
Stems of 18-month-old A. mangium seedlings were inoculated 1 m above the ground with
mycelium from 20 isolates of Ceratocystis (Table 1). A 10 mm diameter cork borer was used
to remove a piece of bark from each stem to expose the cambium. A disc of the same size
was taken from the edge of a rapidly growing 11-day-old Ceratocystis colony and placed into
the exposed wound with the mycelium facing the cambium. In order to prevent desiccation,
the inoculation sites were covered with tissue paper moistened with sterile water and secured
with masking tape. After 10 weeks, the length (L) of the stem lesion was measured and the
pathogenicity of the Ceratocystis strains ranked on the following scale: 0 no damage, 1)L ≤
10 cm, 2)10 cm < L ≤ 20 cm, 3)20 cm < L ≤ 30 cm and 4) L > 30 cm.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
39
Based on the severity level of every tree, an average disease index (DI) was calculated
according to the following formula:
4
DI =
nivi
1
N
in which, DI is the average disease index, ni the number of trees infected at disease index i, vi
the disease index at level i, N number of trees assessed.
Result
Field observations
Discolored wood samples were collected from wilted A. mangium, A. auriculiformis and
acacia hybrid trees in 8 provinces that had large areas of acacia plantations and covered a
wide geographical range from the north to the south of Vietnam (Fig. 1). Wilt (Fig. 2a),
crown dieback (Fig. 2b) and canker symptoms were commonly observed on young A.
mangium, A. auriculiformis and acacia hybrid trees, up to 3 years of age, in plantations. The
bark and the wood surrounding the cankers were discolored. The discolored wood typically
had a streaked appearance, turning a uniform dark brown to dark blue color with age (Fig.
2c). Of the 26 samples that were collected (Table 1), 2 samples of acacia hybrid and 2
samples of A. mangium were associated with an ambrosia beetle Xylosandrus crassuisculus
(Quang Ninh and Phu Tho provinces, respectively), 1 sample of acacia hybrid was associated
with pruning wounds (Binh Phuoc province, Fig. 2d) and the remaining samples were not
associated with insects or pruning.
Figure1. Distribution of Ceratocystis causing wilt in acacia plantations in Vietnam
Ceratocystis isolates
A total of 26 Ceratocystis isolates were obtained from diseased acacia collected in Dong Nai,
Thua Thien Hue, Binh Duong, Binh Phuoc, Tuyen Quang, Quang Ninh and Lam Dong
provinces. Within two weeks incubation in the laboratory, mature ascomata were produced.
40 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
A Thielaviopsis anamorph formed from mycelia when grown on PDA. The isolates were
typical of Ceratocystis spp., the ascomata had black globose to sub globose bases (Fig. 3a)
and long necks with divergent ostiolar hyphae at their tips exuding hat-shaped ascospores
(Tarigan et al., 2011; Fig. 3b,c). Ascomata varied in size, the neck ranging from 0.3-1.1 mm
in length and the base from 0.2-0.6 mm. Primary phialides and second phialides were formed
in pure culture (Fig 3d,e). Both barrel-shaped and cylindrical conidia and chlamydospores
were present (Fig.3f, g, h).
a
b
c
d
Figure 2. Disease symptoms caused by Ceratocystis in acacia plantations in Vietnam
(a-d) a. Wilted Acacia mangium in 2-year-old plantation in Phu Tho
province, b. severely impacted Acacia mangium in 2-year-old plantation in
Phu Tho province, c. section of stem showing canker with stained wood
below associated with Xylosandrus crassuisculus and distal spread, d.
stained wood associated with a pruning wound.
Pathogenicity
After 10 weeks from inoculation, all of the Ceratocystis isolates caused stem cankers in A.
mangium and the majority were highly virulent. Cankers ranged in length from 3.5 to 40 cm
(data not presented) and the disease index ranged from 1.0-4.0 (Table 1).
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
41
Discussion
The first death of acacia associated with wilting, cankering and discolored wood was
observed in Quang Ninh province in north Vietnam in 2007. At this site, Xylosandrus
crassuisculus was present in all the acacia hybrid trees with wilt symptoms and Fig. 2c shows
an example of the distribution of blue-green stain in the wood of one tree. In the following
year wilt and stem canker symptoms were found in A. mangium and an acacia hybrid in Phu
Tho province associated both with and without an insect vector. Annual field surveys of
plantation health across Vietnam revealed that, between 2008 and 2011, the disease expanded
widely in the whole country with mortality rates of 15-20% in 2011 in Thua Thien Hue and
Dong Nai provinces. Ceratocystis wilt is now the main threat to acacia plantations in
Vietnam.
Ceratocystis is a worldwide pathogen of woody plants especially in tropical parts of the
world (Kile, 1993) and is known to cause wilt and canker in plantation-grown acacias (Roux
and Wingfield 2009). In past decades, several species have caused minor damage to acacia
plantations in Brazil (Ribeiro et al., 1988; C. fimbriata s.l. on Acacia decurrens) and South
Africa (Morris et al., 1993; Roux and Wingfield, 1997; C. fimbriata and C. albifundus on A.
mearnsii). More recently, however, Ceratocystis has been recognized as an emerging threat
to plantations in Asia and Australia (Wingfield et al., 2009). During the course of recent
disease surveys in A. mangium plantations in Sumatra (Indonesia), significant mortality of
young trees showing rapid wilt symptoms was observed and two species of Ceratocystis were
consistently associated with diseased trees, C. acaciivora and C. manginecans (Tarigan et al.,
2010). Both species produced lesions on inoculation but C. acaciivora was the most
pathogenic. Similar symptoms to those described by Tarigan et al. (2011) and also in Figure
2 are now present in industrial acacia plantations in Malaysia (David Boden, pers. comm.).
The rapid spread of the disease symptoms in plantations in Vietnam, that are annually
monitored for health, suggests that either the pathogen is being vectored or that stands of
trees are increasingly becoming stressed and hence are more susceptible to attack by insects
and pathogens. Indeed, many of the trees at the time of initial wilting showed symptoms of
nutrient imbalance. Whether abiotic stress can lead to bark fracture creating entry wounds for
Ceratocystis remains to be determined. Furthermore, it is not yet known whether the
Ceratocystis outbreaks in Vietnam are connected to events occurring elsewhere in SE Asia.
Whether the pathogen has been recently introduced or is endemic in the region is yet to be
determined. There are unpublished reports of Ceratocystis causing canker in some
horticultural trees in Vietnam such as Anacardium occidentale, Dimocarpus longan,
Theobroma cacao and Hevea brasiliensis.
In conclusion, this is the first report of a serious new disease of acacias in Vietnam. Work is
progressing to identify resistant acacia clones, the species of Ceratocystis that are most
virulent and factors that may predispose trees to infection.
42 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
b
d
a
f
g
c
e
h
Figure 3. Diagnostic features of the pathogen. a. Globose ascomata with long neck; b. hat-shaped
ascospores; c. Divergent ostiolar hyphae; d. primary phialides; e. secondary phialides; f.
cylindrical conidia; g. barrel-shaped conidia; h. Chlamydospores. Scale bars a = 90 μm; d–e
= 10 μm; b, c, f, g, h = 5 μm.
References
KILE GA. 1993. Plant diseases caused by species of Ceratocystis sensu strict and Chalara.
In: Wingfield MJ, Seifert KA, Webber JF, (Eds) Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma: Taxonomy,
Ecology and Pathogenicity. The American Phytopathology Society, St. Paul, Minnesota, pp
173-183.
OLD KM, LEE SS, SHARMA JK, & YUAN ZQ. 2000. A manual of diseases of tropical
acacias in Australia, South-East Asia and India. Center for International Forestry Research,
Jakarta.
MOLLER WJ, DE VAY JE. 1968. Insect transmission of Ceratocystis fimbriata in deciduous
fruit orchards. Phytopath 58: 1499-1508.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
43
MORRIS MJ, WINGFIELD MJ, DE BEER C. 1993. Gummosis and wilt of Acacia mearnsii
in South Africa caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata. Plant Path 42: 814-817.
RIBEIRO IJA, ITO MF, FILHO OP, DE CASTRO JP. 1988. Gomose da Acacia negra
causada por Certaocystis fimbriata Ell. & Halst. Bragantia Campinas 47: 71-74.
ROUX J, WINGFIELD MJ. 1997. Survey and virulence of fungi occurring on diseased
Acacia mearnsii in South Africa. For Ecol Man 99: 327-336.
ROUX J, WINGFIELD MJ. 2009. Ceratocystis species: emerging pathogens of non-native
plantation Eucalyptus and Acacia species. Southern Forests: a Journal of Forest Science 71:
115-120.
TARIGAN M, VAN WYK M, ROUX J, TJAHJONO B, WINGFIELD MJ. 2010. Three new
Ceratocystis spp. in the Ceratocystis moniliformis complex from wounds on Acacia mangium
and A. crassicarpa. Mycoscience 51: 53-67.
TARIGAN M, ROUX J, VAN WYK M, TJAHJONO B, WINGFIELD MJ. 2011. A new wilt
and die-back disease of Acacia mangium associated with Ceratocystis manginecans and C.
acaciivora sp. nov. in Indonesia. S Afr J Bot 77: 292-304.
TURNBULL JW, MIGLEY SJ, COSSALTER C. 1998. Tropical acacias planted in Asia: an
overview. ACIAR Proceedings 82: 14-28.
WINGFIELD MJ, ROUX J, WINGFIELD BD. 2009. Insect pests and pathogens of
Australian acacias grown as non-natives – an experiment in biogeography with far-reaching
consequences. Diversity Distrib 17: 968-977.
44 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
HEART ROT IN PLANTATION ACACIA HYBRID IN VIETNAM
1)
T.T Trang1), C. Beadle2) and C. Mohammed3)
Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences, Hanoi; 2) CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, Hobart;
3)
Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania
Corresponding author: trangfsiv@gmail.com
Abstract
High levels of heart rot incidence were associated with pruned Acacia hybrid in southern
Vietnam. Pruning however is not the only entry point for stem decay and the cause of stem
defects. Wind damage and Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor) also contributory factors.
Recommendations are made on strategies to reduce stem defect in Acacia hybrid.
Introduction
Vietnam is recovering from a period of catastrophic decline of its forest resources. The
establishment of plantation monocultures based on acacia species, particularly on degraded
soils and cleared land, forms a significant part of this recovery program.
Acacia trees are pruned and thinned to optimize the productivity of sawlogs. A project funded
by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (FST/2006/087) is
examining silvicultural practices such as pruning and thinning that optimise the production of
high-quality sawlogs from Acacia hybrid (Acacia auriculiformis Acacia mangium).
Wounds in acacia can negatively impact on the quality of acacia wood due to the entry via
pruning wounds of fungi which cause stem defects and affect the quality of timber e.g. heartrot fungi, sapwood bluestain fungi and various canker fungi. Acacia mangium is known to be
high susceptible to heart-rot (Mohammed 2006) but the susceptibility of Acacia hybrid has
not been investigated.
Methods
Assessment of Heart Rot Levels at Phan Truong II (PT2)
This trial in southern Vietnam was planted in August 2008, singled in March 2009, formpruned in September 2009 and form pruned to 4 m in January 2010. There are 3 thinning
treatments x 2 times of thinning x 3 fertiliser x 3 replicates (blocks).
For the purpose of stem defect assessments at the second time of thinning (in July 2011) we
harvested 3 trees/plot x 9 treatment combinations x 3 replicates = 81 trees, 27 in un-thinned
plots and 54 in thinned plots. After felling, each of the trees was cut into ½ meter sections
and sections assessed for decay.
27 trees were cut up in un-thinned plots and 54 in thinned plots. After felling, each of the
trees was cut into ½ meter sections and the top of each section assessed for decay. A rating
scale for heart-rot decay was established.
More than 250 samples of fungi were isolated into pure culture from small samples taken
from each of decay columns.
Pruning-Associated Heart-Rot Trial at Nghia Trung
This Acacia hybrid trial was planted in August 2009 at Nghia Trung in southern Vietnam.
The primary purpose of this trial is to investigate the effect of two different thinning
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
45
treatments (control and 600 sph) and three fertilisation treatments. Trees were lift-pruned in
December 2010 to 1.5 m and thinned immediately after lift-pruning.
A pruning associated decay trial was set up at this site in each of the 18 treatment blocks in
The number of branches tip-pruned in the stem section up to 1.5 m in unpruned trees and
number of large diameter (> 2 cm) branches in unpruned trees or fresh pruning wounds in
pruned trees in the stem section up to 1.5m
The number of older unoccluded wounds in the stem section up to 1.5 m. These wounds had
been made prior to the December 2010. Ten buffer trees (those with the best form) were
selected in each block. Five trees were pruned up to 1.5 m and 5 trees left unpruned. The
following observations were recorded at trial establishment:
Tree diameter and total number of branches or pruning stubs in the stem section up to 1.5
m
visit and were counted in both unpruned and pruned trees.
In the stem section above 1.5 m the number of branches which had split away from the
main stem and the number of any large stem wounds
In July 2012 the 180 buffer trees at Nghia Trung pruned in 2010 to investigate heart-rot
were destructively harvested.
For each tree we cut the pruned or unpruned 1.5 m sections into 3. The stage of decay was
recorded by taking photos at the top end of each section.
For each of the 18 treatment plots we also cut 4 of the trees into 10 sections, 2 unpruned
and 2 pruned trees also recording the decay stage by taking photos.
Results
Assessment of Heart Rot Incidence and Severity at Phan Truong II (PT2)
Nearly all trees sampled had various stages of heart-rot, only one tree in a thinned plot was
clear of heart rot. In a preliminary analysis of data just over two thirds of the trees in unthinned plots each had over 10 segments with significant heart-rot. In thinned plots just under
two thirds of the trees each had more than 10 decayed segments but more trees in un-thinned
plots were decayed along the entire length of the pruned section.
In an external assessment of the wounds of 360 standing trees after the second thinning most
of the wounds were occluded, even larger wounds in the most recently pruned sections of the
stem.
A heart-rot rating scale was established for Acacia hybrid (Figure 1), based on a similar
assessment for heart rot in Acacia mangium in Indonesia but, unlike A. mangium, rating 4
(decay with hollow stem) was rarely observed. Most of the segments with decay were
assessed as Rating 2 e.g. for the 54 thinned trees,
No. of trees (10) with only rating 1 = 18.5%
No. of trees (36) with rating 2 section(s) = 66.7%
No. of trees (8) with rating 3 section(s) = 14.8%
46 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Rating 0: Healthy solid heart wood: Rating 1: Discoloration and sound staining often like A. mangium
often lighter than A. mangium
Rating 2: Discoloration and decay in Rating 3: Advanced decay, not sound,
the center (wood feels rough) but fibrous and soft but no hollows
generally sound
Figure 1. Rating scale for heart-rot in Acacia hybrid
Pruning-Associated Heart-Rot Trial at Nghia Trung
The following observations were made at the site in December 2010;
a large number of wounds with poor occlusion with visible fungal growth present on
the surface of the pruning stubs
significant wind damage that had caused branches in the top of the crown to break,
strip bark from trees resulting in large wounds
stem decay visible in large stubs from branches pruned during the visit
stem decay fungi fruiting on debris in the plantation
Out of the 180 trees first lift pruned in December 2010:
92 trees had either fresh pruning wounds or branches in the section of the stem up to
1.5m which were >2cm in diameter. The total number of wounds or branches >2cm in
diameter was 148, between 1 to 4 large branches or wounds per tree.
The number of trees with older unoccluded wounds in the stem section up to 1.5 m
was very high (147). The total number of such wounds for the 147 trees was 337, an
average of more than 2 per tree.
There were 21 out of 180 trees observed with wind damage and branches splitting
away from the main stem.
In July 2012 there was little difference between pruned (below left) and unpruned (below
right) log sections in terms of heart rot incidence in the bottom section of stem (up to 1.5 m)
(Figure 2). However pruning a large diameter branch (below left) is associated with more
advanced or severe heart rot (below left) compared to naturally abscised branches in
unpruned logs (below right).
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
47
Figure 2. Comparison of severity of heart-rot originating from a large diameter
unpruned stub (right) compared to a large diameter pruned stub (left).
The incidence and severity of heart-rot decay and other stem defects were higher up the stem
(above 1.5 m) and associated with large wounds (perhaps wounds associated with thinning),
cankers (Pink disease), and obviously wind damage. Sometimes it was impossible to saw
stem into 10 sections as above 3 m the stems were broken or completely rotten. Many
sporocarps of basidiomycete “rotters” were present in the plantation and on rotted stem
sections (eg. Ganoderma, Trametes). Termite damage was also significant, many stumps
were hollow.
Discussion
The incidence and severity of heart rot at both Nghia Trung and PT2 indicate that heart rot in
southern Vietnam could be a significant problem. However it is well understood that entry of
decay into pruning wounds can be reduced by careful silvicultural practices which reduce the
size of the branches to be pruned (Beadle at al 2006). A rule not to prune in the wet season
(to avoid decay entry) should be followed. Many clones of Acacia hybrid with very high
early growth rates such as at Nghia Trung, without intervention, will be multi-stemmed, often
with large branches the development of fewer but larger branches than at the other sites. Tip
pruning removes a proportion of the length of undesirable branches and branches. The
advantages of tip pruning are:
Dominance of competing stems or leaders is removed but leaf area and therefore growth
potential is retained;
Excision of unhardened stems/branches at the point where they join the retained stem is
avoided, potentially reducing the potential for disease entry. Observations at PT2
indicated that well occluded wounds were still associated with heart-rot indicating that
fungal entry is relatively rapid after pruning of unhardened stems.
It is clear from stem dissections at both sites that there are other sources of decay entry apart
from pruning wounds and these are often associated with damage to the higher sections of the
stem. Wind damage and Pink disease are two such damage agents. While it is more
problematic to avoid wind damage clones resistant to Pink disease are available and should
be deployed. Much of the heart-rot at both sites was assessed at rating 2. It is not known how
quickly the heart-rot will develop in severity and what problems this or a more serious rating
will pose at the sawmill.
48 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Further research should determine if the fungi associated with heart-rot are generalist rotters
or more specific in identity. A. auriculiformis has been shown to be more resistant to heart-rot
and to produce antifungal compounds (Barry et al. 2005). The biochemical response of
Acacia hybrid clones to fungi playing a major causative role in heart rot should be
investigated and the results applied to the screening of clones for resistance.
References
BARRY, K.M., MIHARA, R., DAVIES, N.W., MITSUNAGA, T., MOHAMMED, C.L.
2005. Polyphenols in Acacia mangium and Acacia auriculiformis heartwood with reference
to heart rot susceptibility. Journal of Wood Science 51, 615-621.
BEADLE, C., BARRY, K., HARDIYANTO, E., IRIANTO, R., JUNARTO, MOHAMMED,
C., RIMBAWANTO, A. 2007. Effect of pruning Acacia mangium on growth, form and heart
rot. Forest Ecology and Management 238, 261-267.
MOHAMMED, C. 2006. Heart rot and root rot in Acacia mangium: identifying symptoms
and conducting assessments of incidence and severity. Heart rot and root rot in Acacia
plantations: a synthesis of research progress Oral presentation and published proceedings, 79th February, Grand Mercure Hotel, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
49
GALL RUST DISEASE AND GENETIC VARIATION OF
Falcataria moluccana IN INDONESIA
Sri Rahayu
Department of Forest Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University,
Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia
Corresponding author: tatarahayu@yahoo.com
Abstract
Pathogens are considered a major threat to genetic variation of forest tree species. In the case
of exotic pathogens, a balance between host and pathogen does not exist, increasing the
likelihood that a disease epidemic might decimate tree populations and erode their genetic
diversity. Falcataria moluccana (batai, sengon) occurs naturally in Indonesia (Moluccas and
Irian Jaya), Papua New Guinea, New Britain and the Solomon Islands. Trees have been
planted and established for more than fifty years in community forests and more than twenty
years in plantation forests in Java Island. In 2004, outbreaks of gall rust disease caused by
Uromycladium tepperianum fungus first occurred in East Java and have now spread
throughout the island. The disease causes severe damage to all growth stages from seedlings
in the nursery to mature trees in the field. As almost all the genetic resources of F. moluccana
have been affected to some extent by the gall rust fungus, it is necessary to assess the current
genetic diversity and ascertain its relationship to disease severity. Using the RAPDs
technique, it was found that the genetic diversity was small, with 1.04 to 1.1 effective alleles,
34-55 polymorphic loci, 0.12-0.19 Shannon Diversity Index and 0.2-0.3 Nei’s Diversity
index. The genetic distance among the seed sources assessed was narrow (0.04 to 0.15). All
seedlings from Brumas seed sources (R02, R05, R2001 and 2S/75) were closely related to
those from East Timor, East Flores, Moluccas and Java (Kediri, Jasinga, Ampel), but were
distant from Wamena in Irian Jaya. Seedlings from Wamena were more tolerant to gall rust
disease than those from other seed sources. Thus, in situ and ex situ gene conservation from
native populations of Irian Jaya, particularly Wamena are required to prevent the loss of low
frequency alleles that may be genes that confer protection against gall rust fungus.
Introduction
Genetic variation is the basis of evolution and the catalyst for species to adapt to changes in
the environment (FAO, 2009), including pest and disease attack. Pathogens are posed to be a
major threat to genetic variation of forest trees species. In the case of exotic pathogens, a
balance between host and pathogen is absent, thus it is more likely that disease epidemics
may decimate tree populations and erode their genetic diversity (Byrne, 2000). Falcataria
moluccana (Albizia, batai, sengon) occurs naturally in Indonesia (Moluccas and Irian Jaya),
Papua New Guinea, New Britain and the Solomon islands, ranging from 10°S to 30° N
(Richter and Dallwitz, 2000). Trees have been planted for more than fifty years in community
forests and more than twenty years in plantation forests in Java Island (Zebala, 1997). In
2004, outbreaks of gall rust disease on F. moluccana caused by the rust fungus
Uromycladium tepperianum were detected in East Java and the disease now affects the entire
island (Rahayu, 2009). It causes severe damage to all growth stages from seedlings in the
nursery to mature trees in the field (Rahayu, 2007). The objectives of this study were to
demonstrate the genetic diversity of F. moluccana and its relationship among 44 genotypes
50 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
originating from eleven seed sources using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and
to distinguish the effects of gall rust disease on seedlings from eleven seed sources.
Materials and Methods
A Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with 3 blocks, 7 replications per block and 4
samples per replication using 4-week-old F. moluccana seedlings from 11 seed sources
(Table 1) were set up for gall rust inoculation or control treatments. The genomic DNAs used
in the study were extracted from seedling leaves of 44 accessions belonging to control
seedlings. DNA quantification, PCR amplification and gel electrophoresis were conducted
using the random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique. Symptoms exhibited by
gall rust on seedlings vary in different plant tissues and can appear on the shoot, leaf stalk and
stem. In this study, the scores were based on estimations made on the stem since earlier
findings had indicated that the stem is the most susceptible tissue (Rahayu et al., 2006).
Based on an index score for gall rust symptoms, gall rust disease severity (DS) was calculated
using a modified Chester's formula (Chester, 1959). The genomic DNAs used in the study
were extracted from control seedling leaves of 44 accessions belonging to the eleven seed
sources.
Table 1. Forty-four accessions belonging to eleven seed sources of F. moluccana used in
the phylogenetic study
No
Accession
Seed Source
Origin
1-4
(W) Wamena 1, 2, 3, 4
Wamena
Papua New Guinea (PNG)
5-8
(G) WG 1, 2, 3, 4
Walang Gintang
East Flores, Indonesia
9-12
(X) R05 1, 2, 3, 4
RO5/95
Java island, Indonesia
13-16 (Y) R02 1, 2, 3, 4
RO2/95
Java island, Indonesia
17-20 (Z) R2001 1, 2, 3, 4
RO2/2001
Java island, Indonesia
21-24 (M) Morotai 1, 2, 3,4
Morotai
Moluccas island , Indonesia
25-28 (K) Kediri 1, 2, 3, 4
Kediri, Puncu
East Java, Indonesia
9-32
(J) Jasinga 1, 2, 3, 4
Jasinga, Bogor
West Java, Indonesia
33-36 (E) East Timor 1, 2, 3, 4 East Timor
Timor, Timor Leste
37-40 (A) Ampel 1, 2 ,3, 4
Ampel, Boyolali
Central Java, , Indonesia
41-44 (S) 2S/75 1, 2, 3, 4
2S/75
Java island, Indonesia
Results and Discussion
Genetic Diversity
The genetic diversity of F. moluccana seedlings assessed using RAPDs was small. All
estimated genetic parameters, effective number of alleles (1.036-1.094), number of
polymorphic loci (34-55), proportion of polymorphic loci (35.05% to 56.76%), Shannon
Diversity Index (0.115-0.192) and Nei's Diversity Index (0.176-0.291) had low values.
However, the mean percentage of polymorphic loci of seedlings from all seed sources was
higher than that recorded for other tropical species (27.60%) (Hamrick and Lovelles, 1986).
However it was lower than for Gliricidia sepium (59.9%) which, like F. moluccana is also a
legume species (Chamberlain et al., 1996a). While this suggests that F. moluccana as
assessed in this study is less potentially adapted to variable environmental conditions than G.
sepium, it is more adapted than other tropical trees species. This implies that seed sources
with high adaptation to severe conditions, including resistance to gall rust disease, may be
available.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
51
Genetic Similarities
The genetic distance among the 11 F. moluccana seed sources were small (0.0358 to 0.1515),
while the genetic similarities among them were high, ranging from 0.859 to 0.965. All
seedlings from Brumas (RO2, RO5, R2001 and 2S/75) seed sources were closely related to
those from East Timor, East Flores, Moluccas and Java, but were distant to Wamena (Fig. 1).
The percentage of disease severity of each seed source obtained from artificial inoculation for
7, 17, 27, 37 and 47 days after inoculation (DAI) are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Severity of Gall rust disease of F. moluccana seedlings from eleven seed sources at
7, 17, 27, 37 and 47 days after inoculation
Means of Disease severity (%)
No
Seed Source
7 DAI 17 DAI 27 DAI 37 DAI 47 DAI
Category
1
Wamena
13.1ab 37.4ab 49.3 ab 55.5a
59.0 a
Moderate (M)
2
Walang Gintang 6.8 a
28.8ab 43.0 ab 70.9ab 74.4 b
susceptible ( S )
3
12.4ab 36.2ab 57.5 c
76.4ab 83.9 bc susceptible ( S )
RO5/95
4
RO2/95
13.9a
32.2ab 45.2ab 76.5ab 88.2 bc susceptible ( S )
5
RO2/2001
7.2 a
23.2ab 43.0a
76.5ab 83.8 bc susceptible ( S )
6
Morotai
7.1a
22.1ab 41.0a
76.5ab 81.4 bc susceptible ( S )
7
Kediri, Puncu
5.7a
22.4ab 41.2a
74.8ab 75.0 b
susceptible ( S )
8
Jasinga, Bogor
11.1ab 29.7ab 49.0ab 87.0 c
89.7 bc susceptible ( S )
9
East Timor
10.2ab 26.4ab 40.7a
78.8bc 80.7 bc susceptible ( S )
10 Ampel, Boyolali 12.8ab 33.5ab 52.2ab 77.4ab 77.7 b
susceptible ( S )
11 2S/75
11.6ab 33.4ab 50.9ab 74.8ab 80.8 bc susceptible ( S )
Note: Means followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at
1%
4.606
Wamena
Walang
Gintang
RO5
RO2
R2001
0.608
2.524
0.608
1.248
0.579
Morotai
East Timor
0.663
0.669
0.327
1.368
0.481
Ampel
0.544
0.702
2S/75
0.666
Kediri
Jasinga
1.473
0.413
2.239
2.720
Dendrogram of RAPD data for eleven seed sources of F.moluccana
seedlings, based on Nei's genetic similarities. Numbers
indicate the genetic distance
52 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
90
90
80
80
Disease Severity,47 DAI (%)
Disease Severity, 47 DAI (%)
Seedlings from Wamena also showed more tolerance to gall rust disease than other seed
sources (Table 2), (Rahayu et al., 2009). There were negative and weak relationships between
polymorphic loci, Shannon's Diversity Index, Nei's Diversity Index and gall rust disease
severity at 7, 17 and 27 DAI (R2 = 4% to 27%). However, the relationships at 37 and 47 DAI
were positive and moderate (R2 = 39% to 49%).
Thus, the correlations between genetic variation and gall rust disease severity of F.
moluccana seedlings varied with time and their relationship was not strong. However, in situ
and ex situ gene conservation from the native populations of Irian Jaya, particularly Wamena,
are required in order to prevent the loss of low frequency alleles that may be genes that
confer protection against gall rust fungus.
70
60
50
40
30
y = 132.28x + 47.785
20
2
R = 0.4388
10
0
70
60
50
40
30
y = 198.06x + 48.184
20
2
R = 0.4418
10
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0
Nei's Diversity Index
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Shannon's Diversity Index
Disease Severity,47 DAI (%)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
y = 0.627x + 50.453
20
2
R = 0.4011
10
0
0
20
40
60
Proportion of polymorphic locy (%)
References
BYRNE, C. M., BOLTON, D. J., SHERIDAN, J. J., MCDOWELL, D. A., & BLAIR, I. S.
2000. The effects of preslaughter washing on the reduction of E. coli O157:H7 transfer from
cattle hides to carcasses during slaughter. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 30, 142–145.
CHESTER, K.S. 1959. How sick is the plant. J.G.H Horsfall and A. Diamond eds., Plant
Pathology Vol: 1. Academic Press, Inc, New York.
FAO. 2009. Forest genetic resources. Internet document: www.fao.org/forestry/fgr/en.
Accessed on 19 September 2009.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
53
RAHAYU, S., LEE, S.S., NOR AINI, A.S., GHIZAN, SALEH. 2009. Responses of
Falcataria moluccana seedlings of different seed sources to inoculation with Uromycladium
tepperianum. Journal of Silvae Genetica. Vol: 58, 1-2: 62-68
RAHAYU, S., LEE, S.S., NOR AINI, A.S., GIZAN, S. AND AHMAD, S.S. 2006. Infection
of Falcataria moluccana (Miq.) Barneby & Grimes seedling by gall rust fungus
Uromycladium spp. is associated with a reduction in growth and survival. Pages 243 – 247.
Proceeding of International Post Graduate Student Conference. Penang: University Science
Malaysia (USM).
RAHAYU, S., LEE, S.S., NOR AINI. 2007. Gall rust disease epidemic on Falcataria
moluccana (Miq.)Barneby & J.W.Grimes in Java Island, Indonesia. Proceeding of the Asia
Congress Plant Pathology. Universitas Gadjah Mada. Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
RICHTER, H.G. AND DALLWITZ, M.J. 2000. Commercial timber. Internet document:
www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/wood/english. Accessed on 3 January 2003.
54 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
OCCURRENCE OF INSECTS ASSOCIATED WITH Khaya ivorensis
(AFRICAN MAHOGANY) IN SABAH, MALAYSIA
Arthur Y. C. Chung, Richard Majapun, Ahmad Harun, Robert Ong & Chak Chee Ving
P. O. Box 1407, Forest Research Centre, Sabah Forestry Department, 90715 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
Corresponding author: Arthur.Chung@sabah.gov.my
Abstract
Insects associated with the African Mahogany, Khaya ivorensis, were documented in this
study. More than 10 insect species were recorded causing damage to young African
Mahogany saplings in selected forest plantations in Sabah. Some are new records to this tree
species. Termite infestation of the genus Coptotermes at one of the plantations has caused
severe damage and mortality to a few trees. The sap-sucking bug, Mictis longicornis
damaged some of the shoots while the gold-dust weevil, Hypomeces squamosus was found
feeding on the leaves of trees. Other insects were caterpillars of the Lepidopteran families
Geometridae, Limacodidae, Psychidae, Lymantriidae, Pyralidae and Nymphalidae.These
caterpillars occurred in low numbers and are considered of minor importance. Some spiders
were found nesting on the trees. They are effective natural predators to control some of the
insect pest populations.
Introduction
Khaya ivorensis A. Chev. belongs to the family Meliaceae, and is also known as the African
Mahogany. This species occurs naturally in West Africa, mostly in Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana,
Togo, Benin and Nigeria. K. ivorensis is widespread, and is found in deciduous forests, moist
forests, rainforests and secondary forests up to an altitude of 450 m in these countries.
K. ivorensis is a very large tree with high buttresses and a dark green, rounded crown, with
pendulous spherical fruits. It can reach a height of 60 m at maturity. The average dbh can
reach 115 cm. The leaves are paripinnate, with usually 6 pairs of opposite leaflets. The leaflet
is oblong to oblong-elliptic, glabrous, glossy, entire, acuminate especially on the young plant,
but broadly apiculate on old ones and with a short petiolule. The flowers are yellow and
scented and occur in profuse panicles borne on the crown of the tree. The fruit is a globose,
woody capsule on a woody stalk. It opens by 5 valves and the winged seeds are packed above
each other against the 5 faces of the vertical columella. The seed is brown, flat, irregular or
oblong to triangular in shape, and surrounded by a narrow wing (Lee et al. 2008).
The timber of K. ivorensis is durable and has a fine, fairly regular grain.I It is easy to work
and season but is difficult to impregnate. The wood commands a very high price on the
market, and is used above all for high-quality cabinet work, furniture and expensive interior
finishing. Large quantities are also used for boat and ship construction. A high percentage of
the wood sold in Europe as ‘mahogany’ comes from K. ivorensis. The bitter bark is used for
the treatment of coughs and whooping cough. When mixed with black peppercorns, it is also
used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. A bark decoction is used as a drink or bath for back
pains and as a lotion for rheumatism (Anon. 2012).
Not much is known about the insects associated with K. ivorensis, except for the shoot borer,
Hypsipyla robusta (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) (Robinson et al. 2001) and the sapwood borer,
Apate monachus (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) in Nigeria (Anon. 2012). Hence, it is appropriate
and timely that any insects causing damage to this forest tree are documented to provide a
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
55
better understanding of the growth and management of this species in forest plantations since
it is a recommended high value exotic species to be planted in Sabah (Lee et al. 2008).
Materials & Methods
Surveys were carried out at two small plots of forest plantations, namely Maxland and
Lebihasil, in central Sabah (Figure 1). The trees were planted on a trial basis. They were
about 1.5 – 3 years old when the surveys were conducted in 2010 and 2011. Insects that were
found damaging K. ivorensis were collected manually while surveying the plots. Pictures of
the attacked area and the specimens were taken and the extent of the damage was recorded. In
many cases, the damage was caused by larvae of insects, and thus a sample of the larvae was
collected and was bred in plastic containers to monitor their life cycle. When the adult
emerged, it was dry-mounted for identification, based on reference materials at the Forest
Research Centre, Sepilok.
Lebihasil Plantation
U
%
KUDAT
MAP OF SABAH
CLASS II (COMMERCIAL FOREST RESERVE)
Forest Research Centre, Sepilok
Maxland Plantation
U
KOTA KINABALU%
SANDAKAN
U
%
LAHAD DATU
U
%
N
TAWAU
U
%
30
0
30
60 Kilometers
Figure 1. Location of surveyed sites in Sabah (green denotes Commercial Forest Reserves –
Class II).
Results and Discussion
Overview of insects associated with Khaya ivorensis
More than 10 species of insects were recorded causing damage to K. ivorensis in this study
(Table 1). Most of them are moth larvae feeding on the leaves.
56 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Table 1. Insects recorded from Khaya ivorensis in this study
Order
Family
Species
Damage
Blattodea
Termitidae
Coptotermes sp.
Hemiptera
Coreidae
Mictis longicornis
Westwood
Coleoptera
Lepidoptera
Curculionidae Hypomeces
squamosus
Fabricius
Geometridae Biston insularis
Warren
Geometridae Ectropis bhurmitra
Walker
Limacodidae Thosea vetusta
Walker
Limacodidae Setora sp.
Lepidoptera
Nymphalidae
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Occurrence
Remarks
Root &
trunk
Young
shoot &
leaf
Leaf
Moderate
-
Moderate
New record
Moderate
-
Leaf
Low
New record
Leaf
Low
New record
Leaf
Low
New record
Leaf
Low
Leaf
Low
Psychidae
Polyura athamas
uraeus (Rothschild
& Jordan)
Unidentified spp.
New record
(genus)
New record
Leaf
Moderate
-
Lymantriidae
Pyralidae
Unidentified spp.
Unidentified sp.
Leaf
Leaf
Low
Low
-
Some notes of the insects associated with Khaya ivorensis
Termites Coptotermes sp. (Blattodea: Termitidae)
The soldier termites exudated a milky solution when disturbed (this is one of the typical
defense strategies of this genus). The termites are subterranean, making soil trails connecting
its subterranean nest to the tree trunk through the roots. Although healthy in appearance at the
initial stage, the affected trees would eventually degrade and die due to gradual attack on the
basal trunk and root system.
In plantations, chemical control is usually used to protect trees against attack by termites.
Any infested trees (with the presence of mud runways at the basal part of the stem) can be
treated with liquid insecticide to prevent further damage from the termites. The insecticide is
diluted with water (according to formulation) to form a milky or opaque emulsion. It is easy
to apply, requires little agitation, and rarely leaves a visible residue. The trenching and
drenching method is commonly used to control subterranean termites. A shallow channel of
about 10 cm depth is dug in the soil surrounding the tree base. Any hardened soil on the
infested basal trunk is scraped. The diluted liquid termiticide is then poured down the basal
part of the trunk to drench down the root system. Besides killing the termites at the infested
areas, the insecticide will create a chemical barrier which is not favorable to the termites. The
formulation and long residual activity of the insecticide will ensure that the barrier will
remain effective for a few years. It is also recommended to treat the trees next to the infested
tree / area.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
57
Besides chemical control, there are a number of alternative, traditional control methods,
largely relating to silvicultural practices or plantation management, which are also very
important, and should be considered.
Stink bug Mictis longicornis (Hemiptera: Coreidae) and other sap feeders
A few species of sap-sucking bugs were observed damaging young shoots and leaves of K.
ivorensis, e.g. scale insects, mealybugs, small plant hoppers and aphids. Of all these, the giant
stink bug Mictis longicornis, occurred in many of the trees and had caused considerable
damage in both plantations, but not killing the trees.
Sap feeders affect the sapling vitality by extracting sap required for normal functioning of the
plant, such as shoot extension and leaf expansion. This results in stunting, distortion or
wilting, as depicted in some of the surveyed K. ivorensis. They do not generally cause serious
damage to the plants, but they do affect the plant growth when they occur in high population
numbers. For mealybugs and aphids, target-spraying the insects with soapy water solution
(two teaspoons of a mild dish detergent, per gallon of water) would normally dislodge the
pests from the plants. For the more robust sap-sucking bugs, e.g. Mictis longicornis, chemical
spraying using Malathion would have to be applied if they occur in high abundance. The
stink bugs can also be collected and terminated manually.
Gold dust weevil Hypomeces squamosus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Quite a number of this beetle was found feeding on the leaves of K. ivorensis at Lebih Hasil
but the population was lower at Maxland plantation. H. squamosus is highly polyphagous,
feeding on a wide range of trees. The mode of leaf damage is usually from the leaf edge
inwards, forming a semi circle. No control measure was needed as the damage did not
significantly affect the tree health. If occurring in high abundance, the weevils can be
collected manually.
Other insects associated with Khaya ivorensis
Other insects sampled from the survey did not pose any significant problems to the trees as
they occurred in low abundance. All of them were leaf feeders from various lepidopteran
families.
Two moth species from the Geometridae family were recorded, namely Biston insularis and
Ectropis bhurmitra. The larvae can be easily recognized through their looper-like caterpillars.
When they are not moving, they look like a twig, which is a strategy not to be spotted by
predators, especially insectivorous birds.
Biston insularis is a fairly large moth and the larva could grow up to 55 mm in length. The
looper is green in colour which mimics the African Mahogany leaf stalk. This species is
found within the Sundaland and it is abundant in a range of lowland forest types but rarely
encountered above 1,000 m (Holloway 1993). Other host plants of this species include
Aleurites montana and Albizia saman (Robinson et al. 2001).
Ectropis bhurmitra is a smaller geometrid moth. Chey (1996), reported that E. bhurmitra was
the most common defoliator on young Sentang (Azadirachta excelsa) seedlings planted at
Segaliud Lokan. This is a polyphagous species, feeding on various plant species but the
African Mahogany is a new host-plant record (Robinson et al. 2001). A mature cylindrical
brownish looper measures more than 25 mm and the pupal stage is 8 days. The adult moth
has a wing span of 28 mm and a body length of 10 mm. Other description and ecological
details of this species are provided by Holloway (1993) and Chey (1996).
Setora sp. is one of the two Limacodidae species recorded feeding on the foliage of K.
ivorensis in this study. Colour variation in the caterpillars is common. This insect is
polyphagous, but it is a serious pest of coconut and oil palm. The nettle caterpillar has been
58 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
known to defoliate large tracts of palms before the outbreak is terminated, often by its natural
enemies (Khoo et al. 1991).
Another nettle caterpillar, Thosea vetusta was found causing damage to K. ivorensis leaves.
Armed with stinging lateral spines, the caterpillar was light green in colour with a dorsal
white discrete band lined with blue, and two tiny orangey spots in the middle. A mature
caterpillar is 25 mm in length. The adult emerged after more than three weeks of pupation.
The dull-brown moth has a wing span of 27 mm and a body length of 14 mm. Other
information pertaining to this species is provided by Holloway (1986). The caterpillar feeds
on quite a wide range of plants (Robinson et al. 2001).
Other lepidopteran defoliators include larvae from the families Lymantriidae, Psychidae,
Pyralidae and Nymphalidae.
Natural predators of some insect pest species
Throughout the survey within the K. ivorensis plots, many spiders were found nesting on the
trees. They are effective natural predators to control some of the insect pest populations.
Thus, they are important to be incorporated as part of the integrated pest management.
Economic importance and management of Khaya ivorensis insect pests
Although many species of insects were recorded associated with K. ivorensis from this study,
especially defoliators, they do not seem to cause significant damage that would affect the tree
health and growth. Termite infestation, however, may lead to mortality to some of the trees.
As the attack is often localized, it can be treated with appropriate termiticide when detected
early. Hence, pest surveillance and monitoring is important to detect the early stages of
termite infestation.
Acknowledgements
We thank En. Albert Ganing of Maxland (Tree Plantation) Sdn. Bhd. and En. Wong Yin
Chun, En. Liew and En. Jackson of Lebihasil Sdn. Bhd. for logistic support and information
pertaining to the plots. Dr Lee Ying Fah (Head, Forest Research Centre (FRC), Sepilok), Dr
Chey Vun Khen and staff of FRC (Consultancy, Entomology & Pathology Sections) are also
acknowledged for their support and contribution in this study.
References
ANONIM.2012.
http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/Products/AFDbases/af/asp/
Species Info.asp?SpID=1736
CHEY, V.K. 1996. Forest pest insects in Sabah. Sabah Forest Record No. 15. Sabah Forest
Department, Sandakan. 111 pp.
HOLLOWAY, J.D. 1986. Moths of Borneo: key to families: families Cossidae, Metarbelidae,
Ratardidae, Dudgeoneidae, Epipyropidae and Limacodidae. Malayan Nature Journal 40: 1166.
HOLLOWAY, J.D. 1993. The moths of Borneo: part 11; family Geometridae: Ennominae.
Malayan Nature Journal 47: 1-309.
HOLLOWAY, J.D. 1999. The moths of Borneo: family Lymantriidae. Malayan Nature
Journal 53: 1-188.
KHOO, K.C., OOI, P.A.C. & HO, C.T. (1991). Crop pests and their management in
Malaysia. Tropical Press, Kuala Lumpur. 242 pp.
LEE, Y.F., ANUAR, M. & CHUNG, A.Y.C. 2008. A guide to plantation forestry in Sabah.
Sabah Forest Record No. 16. Sabah Forestry Department. 150 pp.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
59
ROBINSON, G.S., ACKERY, P.R., KITCHING, I.J., BECCALONI, G.W. &
HERNANDEZ, L.M. 2001. Hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the Oriental
Region. The Natural History Museum, London & Southdene Sdn. Bhd., Kuala Lumpur. 744
pp.
60 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
THE LACEBUG Tingis beesoni Drake., A NEW Gmelina arborea PEST IN
INDONESIA
Pujo Sumantoro, Frida E. Astanti, and Deden Sylva D.
Center of Research and Development, Perum Perhutani, Wonosari Street,
Batokan, Tromol Pos 6 Cepu 58302, East Java.
Corresponding author: alascepu@gmail.com
Abstract
The lacebug, Tingis beesoni (Hemiptera: Tingidae), is one of the three most serious insect
pests in plantations of native Gmelina arborea Roxb. in Indonesia. It also causes damage to
these trees in India, Myanmar and Thailand. Infestation of T. beesoni was found in Indonesia
(Java Island) since 2009/2010 and causes serious damage to plantations and shade trees.
Since its first report in 2010 until April 2012, T. beesoni has damaged more than 7,500
hectares at Perum Perhutani (state-owned forestry company). The infestation of lacebug has
resulted in serious defoliation, dieback and tree death. Infestation of the lacebug has been
experienced in large areas in the Provinces of Jakarta, West Java, Central Java, and East
Java. Chemical control trials of T. beesoni have been done using trunk injections of the
systemic insecticides dimehipo and imidacloprid.. The trials showed effective control of lace
bugs, but the control efforts were not economically viable. Surveys for alternative hosts
showed that besides G. arborea, T. beesoni also infested G. elliptica, a wild shrub species.
Keyword: Tingis beesoni, Gmelina arborea, new pest record
Introduction
Gmelina arborea Roxb. (Verbenaceae) is exotic to Indonesia, (Yap et al. 1993). It is
indigenous to India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia,
Vietnam, and the Provinces of Yunan and Guangxi in China (CABI 2000). It is a relatively
fast growing species which produces a lightweight hardwood suitable for construction,
carving, etc. It also yields good quality pulp. G. arborea is planted in large-scale plantations
in Sumatra (Riau, West Sumatra, Jambi, South Sumatra and Lampung), Kalimantan (West,
Central, South and East Kalimantan) and the Moluccas, while small plantations have been
raised in Java (Cossalter and Nair 2000). In Java, G. arborea species trials have been grown
since approximately 1988 by Perum Perhutani (state-owned forestry company) , while larger
scale developments have taken place in East, Central and West Java since 2006.
No major insect pests have been found on G. arborea plantations in Indonesia, although there
are minor pests (Nair and Sumardi, 2000). One of the insects consistently associated with this
species is a carpenter worm, Prionoxystus sp. (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) (Ngatiman and
Tangketasik 1987; Sitepu and Suharti 1998). The larva bores into the stems of saplings, feeds
from within and weakens the tree. In East Kalimantan, 5 – 70% of saplings may be infested
(Ngatiman and Tangketasik 1987) and it also occurs in Java and Sumatra. However, the
damage is not serius. Multiple infestations may weaken the saplings, but they are not killed,
and insects does not build up in large numbers, passing through only one generation per year.
Other pests that have been reported are Alcidodes ludificator and Apion argulicolle
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Xyleborus fornicatus (Coleoptera, Scolytidae), Selepa celtis
(Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) and Calopepla leayana (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) (Suratmo,
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
61
1996), as well as Xyleutes ceramicus,
1998).
the teak beehole borer (Rachmatsjah and Haneda
Infestation of the lacebug, Tingis beesoni Drake. (Hemiptera: Tingidae)
The first reports of serious damage to G. arborea plantations, caused by the lacebug Tingis
beesoni, was at the forest district of Semarang, Central Java in June 2010. The pest was first
observed in 3 year-old G. arborea trees, with ~ 22.4 ha of affected trees showing 100%
defoliation and dieback (twigs and branches died). Other tree species in the area, such as
Cassia siamea, were not infested. Identification of the pest was by means of the published
literature as recorded by Nair and Sumardi (2000), Speight and Wiley (2001) and Mathur
(1979). (Sumantoro, 2011). T. beesoni has previously been recorded from India, Thailand
and Myanmar, where it is a serious pest of G. arborea , causing defoliation and dieback in
young plantations (Mathew, 1986; Harsh et al., 1992; Nair, 2001; Speight and Wylie, 2001;
Nair, 2007).
The development T. beesoni infestations in young plantations results in defoliation and
dieback and may leas to tree mortality . Since its first report in Indonesia in June 2010
affected areas have increased from 75 ha (June 2010) to 2002.3 ha (November 2010) (Table
1).
Table 1. The development of lacebug, T. Beesoni, infestation in the Forest District of
Semarang, Central Java, period June – November 2010.
No
Data Report
The
Total damage
Notes
development
(ha)
of damage (ha)
1
June, 24, 2010
75 ha
75 ha All trees in the plantation
2
July, 19, 2010
+ 10 ha
85 ha where the first reported
3
September, 20,
+ 188.25 ha
273.25 ha attacked on G. arborea (aged 3
2010
years) were made,
were
4
October, 18,
+ 260.1 ha
533.35 ha completely defoliated and and
2010
alltrees died.
5
November, 13,
+ 1948.95 ha
2002.3 ha
2010
Source : Perum Perhutani Unit I, Forest District of Semarang
Populations of T. beesoni in infested trees may reach very large proportions. The nimphs
congregate on the lower surfaces of the foliage and suck sap at the bases of the lamina or in
the axils of leaves. Observations of feeding clusters on sampled trees, resulted in the
counting ofr from 3 to 101 lacebugs on a single leaf (average 24 lacebugs) (Table 2).
Table 2. Infestation of T. beesoni and the defoliation impact at an observation plot ( trees
aged one year and 3 years) in the Semarang forest district.
amount of
cluster of
ages
dbh infestation
defoliation (%)
samples
lacebug/leaf
No
not
20 s.d.
(year) (saplings) (cm)
(%)
100 average
range
seen
> 90
1
1
274
4
100
17.0
37.0 46.0 24.35
3 - 101
2
3
280
8
100
9.3
35.7 55.0
13.1
6 - 26.5
Note: observation of a feeding cluster was done at 2 leaves of 21 trees at each plantation age
class.
62 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
The outbreak of T. beesoni in Java is larger than reported outbreaks in India (References for
Indian outbreaks). At the first infestation at the forest district of Semarang, in a 22.4 ha
plantation, 100% of the plants were infested and suffering total defoliation and dieback of the
terminal shoots. Other observations at small plots (Table 2) of 1-year-old and 3 years-old
plantations similarly showed 100% of the plants infested, with 46% and 55% respectively
suffering total defoliation and dieback. Nair and Mathew (1988) reported that during one
outbreak in a 10 ha plantation of 1-year-old trees in India, 67% of the plants were infested,
21% suffering total defoliation and dieback of the terminal shoot.
Since the first report in June 2010 until June 2012, T. beesoni have infested more than 7598
ha plantation in the forest districts of Java and ornamental trees at the edges of streets (Table
3; Figure 1).
Table 3. Distribution of Tingis beesoni infestation in various districts on Java Island and
damage at the forest districts of Perum Perhutani, for the period 2010 – 2012.
No Distribution (Province, District)
Function trees
Damage at Forest District
1
Jakarta
ornamental trees 2
West Java : Bogor and forest plantation, Bogor : the filler trees
Sumedang
ornamental trees Sumedang : 2052.87 ha from
5431.28 ha (37.8%)
3
Central Java : Pekalongan, forest plantation, Semarang : 4350 ha.
Batang, Kendal, Semarang, ornamental trees Gundih : 4.1 ha
Grobogan, Solo, Sragen
4
East Java : Tuban, Lamongan, forest plantation, Mojokerto: 974.7 ha
Bojonegoro, Ngawi, Nganjuk, ornamental trees
(the filler trees ± 874 ha;
Kediri, Probolinggo
the core trees > 100 ha)
Bojonegoro : the filler trees
Kediri : the filler trees
Figure 1. Distribution of Tingis beesoni infestation in various districts on Java Island
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
63
amount of lacebug
Pilot control trial of T. beesoni
Lace bugs cause stippling of foliage and, in heavy infestations, yellowing and premature leaf
drop. Insects, including lace bugs, have traditionally been suppressed by foliar applications of
pesticides. Such applications have a number of disadvantages: Complete spray coverage can
be difficult when treating large trees and drift can be a problem, especially when trees are on
small lots or near boundaries. Risk, both real and imagined, to the environment is also a
concern (Sclar and Cranshaw 1996). By using systemic insecticides, the applicator can avoid
or minimize some problems associated with spray application.
For the control of T. beesoni, the systemic insecticides used are dimehipo, imidakloprid, and
carbofuran were selected. Tree were treated using a variety of techniques including soil
application and trunk injection.. Preference of the technique was based on the kind of
insecticide formulation: carbofuran (G) for soil application, dimehipo (WSC) and
imidacloprid (WP) by trunk injection. Application of insecticides were partly combined with
fertilizer application.
Evaluation of treatments were based on the position of the new foliage sprouting and the
counting of lacebug on the stems. The results showed that application of dimehipo and
imidacloprid by trunk injection results in effective decrease of lacebug populations compared
to soil application by carbofuran and the control at two months (Figure 2). The application of
insecticides to one year old G. arborea also showed the effectivenes of dimehipo and
imidacloprid over carbofuran (results not shown).
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
-
dimehipo
imidacloprid
carbofuran
dimehipo + urea
imida + urea
carbofuran + urea
control
0-month
1-month
month after treatment
2-months
dimehipo
imidacloprid
Figure 2. The development of T. beesoni populations under different insecticide treatments
on three-year-old G. arborea.
Morse et al. (2007), reported that treatment of avocado lacebug using acephate, imidacloprid,
and dinotefuran provided excellent control at six weeks and that imidacloprid and
dinotefuran both resulted in high levels of lacebug mortality after eleven weeks. Trunk
injection may be useful for situations in which quick control of a pest problem is desired,
whereas soil injection may provide a more long-term solution (Tattar et al. 1998). When
imidacloprid was soil applied, 8 to 12 weeks were required to reach concentrations of 0.15
ppm in eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), pin oak (Quercus palustris), and eastern white
pine (Pinus strobus). This concentration was determined to be lethal in a bean aphid study
(Elbert et al. 1991). Imidacloprid that was trunk injected reached lethal concentrations in Q.
palustris and T. canadensis in 1 and 4 weeks, respectively (Tattar et al. 1998).
The spread of T. beesoni infestation reached high proportions in a very short time. Because
of this, the control efforts with insecticides became un-economical. I Insecticide-treatment
64 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
must be done at the same time and periodically at large area.Currently, to prevent the higher
damage and loss, new plantings at the forest plantation does not use G. arborea.
Alternate hosts of T. beesoni
Nair (2007) stated that T. beesoni has not been recorded on any other host. To investigate
this in Indonesia we conducted infestation studies on two other plant species in the
Verbenaceae that occur in Indonesia.
These were Gmelina elliptica (a wild shrub species found in teak ecosystems) and Lantana
camara. G. Arborea was used as control species. The trial was done twice by releasing the
lace bug onto seedlings. Six seedlings were used for each plant species. Results were
obtained after days/weeks?
It was found that T. beesoni could also infest G. elliptica . Our results further showed that
infestation levels of T. beesoni on G. elliptica was about half of that on G. Arborea (Table 4).
Table 4. The trial to found the alternate hosts of lacebug T. beesoni.
Day
G. arborea
G. elliptica
Lantana camara
1
The first releasing of 250 lacebug T. beesoni (the first trial)
2
not observed
not observed
not observed
3
infested
infested
no infestation
4
infested;
infested:
not found
(average
:16 (average : 12.3
lacebugs/ seedling) lacebugs/ seedling)
5
no foliage;
no foliage;
green foliage;
no lacebug found
no lacebug found
no lacebug found
6
no foliage;
no foliage;
green foliage;
no lacebug found
no lacebug found
no lacebug found
7
no foliage;
no foliage;
green foliage;
no lacebug found
no lacebug found
no lacebug found
8
no foliage : 6 no foliage : 6 green foliage;
seedlings died; no seedlings died; no no lacebug found
lacebug found
lacebug found
9
The second releasing of 250 lacebug T. beesoni (the second trial)
10 infested :
infested:
found : 1.3
(average :15.6
(average: 8.5
lacebugs/seedling)
lacebug/ seedling)
lacebugs/ seedling)
11 infested :
infested:
found : 1.5
(average: 20.2
(average: 8.8
lacebugs/seedling
lacebugs/seedling)
lacebugs/seedling)
12 infested :
infested :
found : 1.3
(average: 23.6
(average: 6.6
lacebugs/seedlings
lacebugs/seedling)
lacebugs/seedling)
13 no foliage;
no foliage;
green foliage;
no lacebug found
no lacebug found
no lacebug found
14 no foliage;
no foliage;
green foliage;
no lacebug found
no lacebug found
no lacebug found
15 no foliage : 5 no foliage : 6 green foliage; no
seedlings died; the seedlings died; no lacebug found
stem of 1 seedling lacebug found
was still green; no
lacebug found
Day
Amount
of
seedlings were 6
seedlings at every
species.
At the second
trial, the seedling
of L. camara
were used at the
first trial.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
65
Acknowledgement
Special thanks to Agus Pramono for help on the observation of T. beesoni on the alternate
hosts.
References
CABI (COMMONWEALTH AGRICULTURAL BUREAU INTERNATIONAL). 2005.
Forestry Compendium, 2005 edn., (CD version). Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
ELBERT, A., B. BECKER, J.HARYWIG, AND C. ERDELEN. 1991. Imidakloprid: a new
systemic insecticide. Pflanzenschutz-Nachrchten Bayer 44(62): 113-136.
HARSH, N.S.K., JAMALUDDIN AND TIWARI, C.K. 1992. Top dying and mortality in
provenance trial plantations of Gmelina arborea. Journal of Tropical Forestry 8, 55 – 61.
JOSEPH MORSE, FRANK BYRNE, NICK TOSCANO, ROBERT KRIEGER. 2007.
Evaluation of Systemic Chemicals for Avocado Thrips and Avocado Lace Bug Management.
Production Research Report California Avocado Commission.
MATHEW, G. 1986. Insects associated with forest plantations of Gmelina arborea Roxb. In
Kerala, India. Indian Journal of Forestry 9, 308 – 311.
MATHUR, R.N. 1979. Biology of Tingis (Caenotingis) beesoni Drake (Hetereptera:
Tingidae). Indian Forest Bulletin No 276.
NAIR, K.S.S. (ed). 2000. Insect Pests and Diseases in Indonesia Forest: An Assessment of
Major Threats, Research Efforts and Literature. Center for International Forestry Research,
Bogor, Indonesia. 101p.
NAIR, K.S.S. 2001. Pest Outbreaks in Tropical Forest Plantations: Is There a Greater Risk
for Exotic Tree Species?. Center for International Forestry Research. Bogor. Indonesia.
NAIR, K.S.S. 2007. Tropical Forest Insect Pests. ecology, impact and management.
Cambridge University Press.
NAIR, K.S.S. & MATHEW, G. 1988. Biological and controlof insects pests and of fastgrowing hardwood species. Albizzia falcataria and Gmelina arborea. KFRI research Report
No. 51. Kerala Forest Research Institute Peechi, India, 8 p.
NAIR, K.S.S. & SUMARDI. 2000. Insect pests and diseases of major plantation species. In
Insect Pests and Diseases in Indonesian Forests, an assessment of the major threats, research
efforts and literature. CIFOR. Bogor, Indonesia.
NGATIMAN AND TANGKETASIK, J. 1987. Some insect pests on trial plantation of PT
ITCI, Balikpapan, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Tropical Forest research Journal Samarinda
2: 41-53.
RACHMATSJAH, O. AND HANEDA, N.F. 1998. Jenis-jenis serangga hama potensial pada
hutan tanaman di Indonesia (Kinds of potential pests in Indonesian plantation forest). In:
Suratmo, F.G. , Hadi, S., Husaeni, E.A., Rachmatsjah, O. Kasno, Nuhamara, S.T. and
Haneda, N.F. (eds) Proceedings Workshop Permasalahan dan Strategi Pengelolaan Hama di
Areal Hutan Tanaman, 167-170. Fakultas Kehutanan IPB dan Departemen Kehutanan,
Bogor, Indonesia.
SCLAR, D.C., AND WS. CRANSHAW. 1996. Evaluation of new systemic insecticide for
elm insect pest control. J. Environ. Hortic. 14: 22-26.
SITEPU, I.R. AND SUHARTI, M. 1998. Pest and disease management in industrial forest
plantation in Indonesia. Proceedings of a workshop held at Bogor, Indonesia, 6-7 May 1998,
39-47. CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Australia.
SPEIGHT, M.R. AND F.R. WYLIE. 2001. Insect pests in tropical forestry. CABI Publishing.
UK.
66 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
STANTON GILL, DAVID K. JEFFERSON, RONDALYN M. REESER, AND MICHAEL
J. RAUPP. 1999. Use of soil and trunk injection of systemic insecticides to control lace bug
on hawthorn. Journal of Arboriculture 25(1): January 1999.
SUMANTORO, P. 2011. Ancaman Hama Kepik Renda Tingis beesoni (Hemiptera:
Tingidae) pada Tanaman Gmelina arborea di Indonesia (Threat of Tingis beesoni lace bug
(Hemiptera: Tingidae) on Gmelina arborea in Indonesia). In: Budiadi, H. Supriyo, S.
Indrioko, S. Rahayu, Y. Widyana, Widiyatno (eds.). Prosiding Seminar Nasional ‘Rimbawan
Kembali Ke Hutan: melestarikan sumberdaya dan menyejahterakan masyarakat’. held at
Yogyakarta. Indonesia, December 17, 2010, p 60-65. Faculty of Forestry Gadjah Mada
University, Yogyakarta. Indonesia
SURATMO, F.G. 1996. Emerging insect pest problems in tropical plantation forest in
INDONESIA, IN: NAIR, K.S.S., SHARMA, J.K. AND VARMA, R.V. (eds.) Impact of
diseases and insect pests in tropical forests, 502-506. Kerala Forest Reearch Institute and
FAO/FORSPA, Peechi, India.
TATTAR, T.A., J.A. DOTSON, M.S. RUIZZO, AND V.B. STEWARD. 1998. Translocation
of imidakloprid in three tree species when trunk and soil injected. J. Arboric. 24: 54-56.
YAP, S.K., SOSEF, M.S.M. AND SUDO, S. 1993. Gmelina L. In Soerianegara, I. And
Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (eds.) Plant resources of South-East Asia No 5(1)-Timber trees: major
commercial timberrs, 215-221. Pudoc Scientific Publishers. Wageningen.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
67
DEFOLIATOR AND STEM BORER ATTACK ON JABON OF DIFFERENT AGES
AND PLANTED AT DIFFERENT ALTITUDES
Selvi Chelya Susanty and Noor Farikhah Haneda
Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural University, Darmaga Campus,
Bogor, Indonesia
Corresponding author: Chelya_moeslim@yahoo.id
Abstract
Jabon (Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.) is widely planted as a main species in community
forests in Indonesia. In plantations, defoliators and stem borers slow growth and reduce stem
quality. The aim of this research was to obtain information on these pests of A. cadamba
growing at altitudes of 410 and 900 m above sea level (asl) and when the trees were age 7,
11, and 17 months. The results showed that defoliators attacked at both altitudes while the
stem borer attacks occurred only at 900 masl. Percentage defoliation was greater at age 7
than at age of 11 and 17 months. Three defoliators, Arthochista hilaralis, Moduza procis,
Daphanis hypothous were identified; one defoliator remains unidentified. Thus altitude and
the age of Jabon may affect the incidence and severity of pest attack.
Keywords: Anthocephalus cadamba, defoliator, stem borer
Introduction
Every year, Indonesia’s demand for timber increases, but as this demand cannot be fulfilled
by the domestic supply, wood is imported from other countries, including China, Japan,
Malaysia (ITTO, 2011). The situation has worsened because deforestation has contributed to
this decreasing wood supply. Jabon is planted in community forests and also as plantation
forest. Jabon is fast growing, produces cylindrical and straight stems, is well-adapted to
various locations, and is easy to manage silviculturally. However, plantation monocultures
across large areas cause jabon to be vulnerable to insect pests. These pests have a greater
impact in plantations because of the abundance of food.
A study of defoliator and stem borer attack on jabon is needed to obtain basic information for
pest management of this species. The purpose of this study is to provide knowledge about the
levels of incidence of defoliators and stem borers on jabon at 410 and 900 masl, and when
the trees were 7, 11, and 17 months old.
Materials and Methods
The study was conducted in community forests of jabon in Sukamakmur, Megamendung, and
Pamijahan. Levels of incidence of defoliators and stem borers were measured in the stands at
Sukamakmur (at 410 masl) and Megamendung (900 masl) which were two years old.
Species identification was undertaken and levels of incidence of defoliators were measured in
Pamijahan (435 masl) on trees that were 7, 11 and 17 months old. This study was carried out
between May until June 2012.
Three 0.02 sample plots that allowed systematic sampling were set up in each location. For
each plot the number of trees attacked by defoliators and stem borers was counted. Each tree
was also assessed for the presence of pests in leaf, twig, branch, bark, stem and root material.
The insect pest samples were brought to the laboratory for further investigation and
68 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
identification. The samples were reared until the adult stage in the laboratory to allow
identification up to species level (if possible) using the following insect identification books:
Tsukuda (1991), Holloway (1987), Sutrisno (2010). ‘Percentage of Pest Incidence’ was
calculated by the following equation:
K= Percentage of Pest Incidence
n =Number of damaged trees in a plot
N= Total number of trees in a plot
Results and Discussion
Defoliator and Stem Borer Attack
Percentage incidence of defoliator attack on jabon (A. cadamba) at Sukamakmur and
Megamendung can be seen in Figure 1.
100%
100%
Percentace
incidence
67%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Sukam akm ur (410 m sal)
Megam endung (900 m sal)
Place (Altitude )
Figure 1. Percentage incidence defoliator attack in Sukamakmur and Megamendung
Defoliator attack occurred at both Sukamakmur and Megamendung. In Sukamakmur at an
altitude of 410 masl, the percentage incidence (100%) was greater than at Megamendung
(67%) at an altitude of 900 masl.
Defoliator development that occurred at both locations is influenced by several biotic and
abiotic factors. Abiotic factors that may be influential are environmental conditions such as
temperature, humidity, pH, and rainfall, or the management system implemented.
Suitable environmental conditions for plant growth will make jabon grow, and be healthy and
resistant to pests. However, the environmental conditions that are less favorable for plant
growth may make plants more susceptible to pests.
Anggraeni et al. (2010) described conditions that could result in damage to the leaves and the
effectiveness of photosynthesis, thus affecting the growth of plants. Severe defoliation can
cause plant death.
The percentage of stem borer attack on jabon (A. cadamba) in Sukamakmur and
Megamendung can be seen in Figure 2.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
69
32%
35%
30%
25%
Percentage
incidence
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
0%
Sukamakmur (410 masl)
Megamendung (900 masl)
Pleace (Altitude)
Figure 2.
The percentage incidence of stem borer attack at Sukamakmur (at 410 m
altitude) and Megamendung (at 900 m altitude).
At an altitude of 410 masl at Sukamakmur, jabon was not attacked by the stem borer. At
Megamendung at an altitude of 900 masl, the percentage of stem borer attack reached 32%.
Mansur (2010) showed that the optimal altitude for the growth of jabon is less than 500 masl.
The finding of an absence of stem borer attack at Sukamakmur suggests that lower altitudes
allow this species to maximise its genetic potential for growth because of its resistance to
stem borer attack. Maximum growth rates support the generation of plant saponin compounds
and other secondary metabolites that play a role in protecting plants from insect attack.
In addition to the influence of high altitude in the promotion of stem borer attack at
Megamandung which is affected by overcast conditions, the presence of weeds growing
under the stand may also have promoted stem borer attack. At this site, the understorey was
overgrown by grass weeds, while Sukamakmur was weed free. Anggraeni et.al (2010) state
that as well as weeds competing with the crop for water, nutrients and sunlight, they can also
serve as a host plant for pests.
The existence of stem borers can be seen where the trunk and branches have disintegrated
because of the presence holes formed by the borers. If the larvae are still active on the inside,
frass will form as small dots on the surface. Stem borers inside the tree can remain active for
long periods, creating hollows and lowering the quality of the wood produced. Severe attacks
can cause the whole tree to become brittle and fall. Stem borer attack can also cause
disruption of the transport of nutrients and water, so that the plant becomes water-stressed,
and the leaves wither and eventually die.
The percentage incidence of stem borer attack and defoliators on jabon (A. cadamba) in
Sukamakmur (410 masl) and Megamendung (900 masl) can be seen in Figure 3. There was a
greater percentage of defoliator attack compared to stemborer attack in both locations. In
Sukamakmur defoliator attack reached 100% while stem borer attack was absent. At
Megamendung, defoliator attack reached 67%, while stem borer attack was lower at 32%.
This shows that for jabon at both altitudes, defoliator attack is more dominant than the stem
borer.
70 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
100%
67%
100%
Percentage
incidence
80%
32%
60%
40%
0%
20%
0%
Sukamakmur (410 masl) Megamendung (900
masl)
Place (Altitude)
Figure 3. Graph the percentage incidence of defoliator and stem borer
attack in Sukamakmur and Megamendung
Defoliator Attack Rates in Different Age
Percentage incidence of defoliator attack on jabon (A. cadamba) ages 7, 11, and 17 months
can be seen in Figure 4.
Percentage
incidence
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
100%
77%
7 month
11 month
82%
17 month
Age
Figure 4. Percentage incidence of defoliator attack on jabon stands at ages 7, 11, and 17
months
In Pamijahan, the magnitude of defoliator attack on jabon varied with plant age. The highest
percentage defoliator attack was at the age of 7 months (100%) and the lowest at the age 11
months (77%). Percentage defoliator attack at age 17 months was 82%, which is lower than
at age 7 months, but higher than at age 11 months. Thus the magnitude of attack by plant
defoliators on jabon varies with plant age.
The types of defoliator species found at ages 7, 11 and 17 months at Pamijahan were different
(Table 1).
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
71
Table 1. The types defoliator found in jabon stands at Pamijahan at ages of 7, 11, and 17
months
Age of the plant
Species of Defoliator
7 month
Arthochista hilaralis, Moduza procis, Daphanis hypothous, and one
species not yet identified
11 month
Arthochista hilaralis, and one species not yet identified
17 month
Arthochista hilaralis, Moduza procis , and Attacus atlas
Species diversity of defoliators on jabon in Pamijahan was highest at age 7 months and
lowest at age 11 months. At age 7 months there were four types of defoliator Arthochista
hilaralis, Moduza procis, Daphanis hypothous, and 1 species that has not yet been identified.
At age 17 months there were three types of defoliator (Arthochista hilaralis, Moduza procis
and Attacus atlas) and at age 11 months two types of defoliator (Arthochista hilaralis, and
one species which has not yet been identified).
Arthochista hilaralis was found in stands of jabon of all ages (7, 11 and 17 months). This
species was also found in the highest numbers in comparison with the other defoliator
species. Pribadi (2010) has observed previouslythat Arthocista hilaris is a defoliator pest that
can cause high levels of damage to jabon tree crops.
Arthochista hilaralis is a moth which is active at night. During the larval stage, young leaves
are attacked and consumed, leaving only the veins. These pests will eat the leaves with a soft
silky coated by some sort of way (the net silk). Anggraeni (2010) and Sutrisno (2010)
describe the larvae of A. hilaris as reaching 25 mm in length with a translucent green body
color and dark brown head. When it reaches its adult stage, the body length reaches 34 mm
and has a bluish-green color with an orange-yellow stripe along the front wing. The maxillary
and labial palpi of A. hilaris are usually large and orange and brown with a white stripe on
the bottom. Figure 5 show the larva and adult forms of A. hilaris.
Figure 5. A. hilaris (a) larva stage and (b) adult stage
Conclusion
Defoliator attacks in jabon stands occurred at altitudes of 410 and 900 m above sea level,
while stemborer attacks occurred only in a stand at 900 m above sea level location. The
percentage of attacks and the diversity of defoliators were higher at age 7 months than at ages
11 and 17 months. Four species of defoliator Arthochista hilaralis, Moduza procis, Daphanis
hypothous, and one yet to be identified were observed.
72 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
References
ANGGRAENI et al. 2010. Hama, Penyakit, dan Gulma Hutan Tanaman. Jurnal Pusat
Penelitian dan Pengembangan Peningkatan Produktivitas Hutan. Bogor.
HOLLOWAY, J.D. 1987. The Moth of Borneo Part 3. CAB International Intitute of
Entomology. London.
ITTO. 2011. Annual review and assessment of the world timber situation 2010, International
Tropical Timber Organization.
MANSUR, I DAN F. D. TUHETEU. 2010. Kayu Jabon. Penebar Swadaya. Bogor.
PRIBADI, A. 2010. Pest The Effect of Temperature and Humidity to the Severity Level
Caused by Arthrochista hilaralis in Jabon. Bogor: Jurnal Balai Penelitian Hutan Penghasil
Serat, Kuok. Vol VII: 451-458. Riau.
SUTRISNO, H and DARMAWAN. 2010. Kajian Biodiversitas Kupu-Kupu Malam Ternate.
Pusat Penelitian Biologi LIPI. Bogor.
TSUKUDA, E. 1991. Butterflies of the South East Asian Island part 5 Nymphalidae.
Azumino Butterfile’s Research Institute.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
73
WHITEFLIES (HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE) BREEDING ON Dalbergia latifolia
Roxb. IN SOUTH INDIA
R. Sundararaj, T.G. Revathi, and K.P. Divya
Wood Biodegradation Division, Institute of Wood Science & Technology,
18th Cross Malleswaram, Bangalore 560 003, India
Corresponding author: rsundariwst@gmail.com or rusndararaj@icfre.org
Abstract
The Aleyrodids comprise hemipterous insects of the family Aleyrodidae, and are commonly
known as ‘whiteflies’. They typically feed mainly on the underside of plant leaves by tapping
into the phloem of plants, introducing toxic saliva and decreasing the plants' overall turgor
pressure. Since whiteflies congregate in large numbers, susceptible plants can be quickly
overwhelmed. Further harm is done by mold growth encouraged by the honeydew whiteflies
secrete. Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. is an economically important timber species indigenous to
India. The timber is used for fine furniture and cabinet making, musical instruments, turnery
and decorative veneers. Medicines and an appetizer are made from tannins in the bark. The
species is planted as a shade tree and so far reported to infested by six species of whiteflies
viz., Aleurodicus disperses Russell, Aleurolobus cassiae Jesudasan & David, A. dalbergiae
Dubey & Sundararaj, A. singhi Regu & David, Aleuromarginatus kallarensis David &
Subramaniam, A. pseudokallarensis David & David. In the present study surveys were
conducted to identify the whiteflies infesting D. latifolia in south India. The study revealed
that in addition to the six reported Acaudaleyrodes rachipora (Singh) was found breeding on
D. latifolia and its record form new host record. The finding support the fact that sucking
pests increase their host range due to changes in the environment including global warming.
This paper deals with the whiteflies breeding on D. latifolia and their host range in south
India.
Introduction
Dalbergia latifolia Roxb is a multipurpose nitrogen-fixing timber tree which yields the
valuable Indian rosewood of commercial importance. The tree is commonly called sitsal,
beete, shisham or Bombay blackwood in India, and sonokeling or sonobrits in Indonesia. The
leaves of the trees are lopped as fodder. Medicines and an appetizer are made from tannins in
the bark. (CSIR, 1952). It produces numerous root suckers (Troup and Joshi, 1983) and is a
frost-tender species (Tewari, 1995). Trees can tolerate a dry season of about six months with
a high saturation deficit (Troup and Joshi, 1983). It is used mainly for high-class furniture,
cabinets, panelling, carving, turnery and other decorative applications. Wherever available, it
is also used for building construction as posts, rafters, doors, windows, flooring and for cart
and carriage building (Pearson and Brown, 1981). Rosewood is in great demand for veneers
of decorative plywood and blockboard, and is used for marine and aircraft grade plywood
(Ramesh Rao and Purkayastha, 1972). Although technically suitable for railway sleepers,
mining and constructional timber, rosewood is too valuable to be used for such purposes
(Tewari, 1995). It is one of the best timbers for railway wagon-building, vehicle bodies, boat
building, tool handles, agricultural implements and bentwood furniture. Rosewood is also
commonly used for musical instruments, novelty items, woodware, toys, brush backs, sports
goods, etc. (Ramesh Rao and Purkayastha, 1972). The species also has potential for soil
improvement programmes. In Java it is recommended for afforestation of eroded soils
(Soerianegara and Lemmens, 1993). In India it is found in the dry deciduous forests
74 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
throughout the Indian peninsula. It grows in the sub-Himalayan tract from Oudah eastwards
to Sikkim, Bihar, Orissa, and throughout central and southern India. Because D. latifolia is
relatively slow-growing, it is not much preferred as a forest plantation species at present.
However, its potential as one of the most reputed timber species and the flexibility of its
ecological requirements makes the species suitable for a range of agroforestry uses in the
humid tropics. It has rich complexes of insect fauna and suffers assiduously from insect
damage from seed to mature trees with over 60 species of them identified as its pests (Mathur
and Singh, 1959). It is reported to be infested by six species of whiteflies viz., Aleurodicus
disperses Russell, Aleurolobus cassiae Jesudasan & David, A. dalbergiae Dubey &
Sundararaj, A. singhi Regu & David, Aleuromarginatus kallarensis David & Subramaniam,
A. pseudokallarensis David & David. In the present study surveys were conducted to identify
the whiteflies infesting D. latifolia in south India. It revealed that in addition to the six
reported whitefly species two more species Acaudaleyrodes rachipora (Singh) and
Viennotaleyrodes megapapillae (Singh) were breeding on D. latifolia and it form new host
record for these whiteflies. The present paper deals with the whiteflies breeding on D.
latifolia and their host range in south India.
Materials and Methods
The present study was largely based on the whitefly puparia collected from D. latifolia
growing in various localities of south India covering the states of Andhra Pradesh, Goa,
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu during the period 2008-12. The whitefly infested leaves
were collected from D. latifolia plants and permanent mounts of the puparia were prepared
by adopting the method of David and Subramaniam (1976). The best mounts were obtained
from puparium from which adults have emerged. Observations, micro-measurements and
camera lucida drawings were made by using Nikon Optiphot T-2 EFD microscope and the
identity of the whiteflies were confirmed. The studied specimens are in the collection of
Institute of Wood Science & Technology, Bangalore, India (IWST).
Results and discussion
The survey revealed the presence of eight species of whiteflies breeding on D. latifolia in
south India. They were Aleurodicus disperses Russell, Acaudaleyrodes rachipora (Singh),
Aleurolobus cassiae Jesudasan & David, A. dalbergiae Dubey & Sundararaj, A. singhi Regu
& David, Aleuromarginatus kallarensis David & Subramaniam, A. pseudokallarensis David
& David and Viennotaleyrodes megapapillae. Their distribution and host range are as
follows:
Aleurodicus dispersus Russell
Aleurodicus dispersus Russell, 1965. The Florida Entomologist, 48: 49 - 54. Material examined.
India: Karnataka: IWST campus, one puparium, Dalbergia latifolia, 20.vi.2012, K.P.Divya.
Hosts. 481 host plants in the world and 253 host plants from India (Srinivasa, 2000);
Actinodaphne angustifolia, Ampelocissus latifolia, Bauhinia purpurea, Cinnamomum
malabathrum, Dalbergia latifolia, Eucalyptus teriticornis, Ficus asperrima, Flemingia
macrophylla, Lobelia excelsa, Polyalthia longifolia (Dubey and Sundararaj, 2004).
Acaudaleyrodes rachipora (Singh)
Acaudaleyrodes rachipora Singh, 1931. Mem. Dep. Agric. Bull. Minst. Agric. Egypt. Tech.
Sci. Serv., 145: 7 - 8.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
75
Material examined. India: Karnataka, Malleswaram, 2 puparia, Dalbergia latifolia,
15.v.2012, K.P.Divya.
Hosts. Bauhinia sp., Dalbergia sissoo, Euphorbia pilulifera (Singh); Cassia auriculata;
Tamarindus indicus (Rao, 1958); Abrus precatorius, Delonix elata, Inga dulce, Prosopis
juliflora (David and Subramaniam, 1976); Securrinega virosa, Peltophorum ferrugineum,
Erythoxylon monogynum, Dodonaea viscosa, Tephrosia purpurea (Jesudasan and David,
1991); Carissa carandas, Dichrostachys cinerea, Acacia pennata, Indigofera sp., Derris
elliptica, Phyllanthus sp. (David et al., 1994); Helianthus annus, Cordia myxa, C. gharaf, C.
rothii, Tecomella undulata, Cassia alata, C. fistula, C. montana, C. siamea, C. tora, Delonix
regia, Parkinsonia aculeate, Euphorbia hirta,Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, Sesbania
grandiflora, Acacia cavan, A. farnesiana, A. senegal, A. seyal, A. tortilis, Albizia lebbeck,
Leucaena leucocephala, Pithecellobium dulce, Ficus racemosa, Morus alba, Eucalyptus
camaldulensis, Punica granatum, Delonix regia, Rosa chinensis, (Sundararaj et al., 2000);
Albizia procera, Berberis sp., Bombax ceiba, Commiphora wightii, Derris indica, Ficus
carica, F. religiosa, Hiptage benghalensis, Mimusops hexandra, Tecoma stans, Terminalia
arjuna (Pandey and Sundararaj, 2005); Acacia pennata, Albizia amara, Radermachera
xylocarpa, Phyllanthus reticulatus, Securinega leucopyrus, Senna auriculata, Zizyphus
xylopyrus (Sundararaj and Pushpa, 2011).
Aleurolobus cassiae Jesudasan & David
Aleurolobus cassiae Jesudasan & David, 1991. Oriental Ins., 25: 271 - 272.
Material examined. India: Andhra Pradesh: Hyderabad, 3 puparia, on Dalbergia latifolia,
3.v.08, R. Pushpa
Hosts. Cassia fistula (Jesudasan and David, 1991); Cryptolepis buchanani, Dalbergia sp.,
Erythrina lithosperma, Vitex negundo (Dubey and Sundararaj, 2006b); Dalbergia latifolia, D.
sissoo, Premna sp. (Sundararaj and Pushpa, 2011).
Aleurolobus dalbergiae Dubey & Sundararaj
Aleurolobus dalbergiae Dubey & Sundararaj, 2006. Oriental Ins., 40: 42 - 43.
Material examined. India: Karnataka: Bangalore, Gottipura, Dalbergia latifolia, 15.ii.2012,
R. Sundararaj.
Host. Dalbergia latifolia (Dubey and Sundararaj, 2006).
Aleurolobus singhi Regu & David
Aleurolobus singhi Regu & David, 1993. FIPPAT Entomology Series, 4: 46.
Material examined. India: Karnataka: Nagarahole Rajiv Gandhi National Park, 8 puparia, on
Dalbergia latifolia, 12.iii.09, R. Pushpa.
Hosts. Unidentified plant (Regu and David, 1993); Dalbergia latifolia (Sundararaj and
Pushpa, 2011).
Aleuromarginatus kallarensis David & Subramaniam
Aleuromarginatus kallarensis David & Subramaniam, 1976. Rec. Zool. Surv. India, 70: 162.
Material examined. India: Karnataka: IWST campus, Dalbergia latifolia, 11.ii.2011; Kerala:
Kayamkulam, Dalbergia latifolia, 4.xi.2011, T.Sivakumar.
Hosts. Pongamia glabra, Pterolobium indicum (David and Subramaniam, 1976); Cassia
fistula, Dalbergia lanceolaria, Pongamia pinnata (Jesudasan and David, 1991); Dalbergia
latifolia, Dalbergia paniculata (Sundararaj and Pushpa, 2011).
76 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Aleuromarginatus pseudokallarensis David & David
Aleuromarginatus pseudokallarensis David & David, 2007b. Oriental Ins., 41: 391 - 426.
Material examined. India: India: Goa: Volpoi, 2 puparia, on Dalbergia latifolia, 12.iv.2012,
R.Sundararaj.
Viennotaleyrodes megapapillae (Singh)
Trialeurodes megapapillae Singh, 1932. Rec. Indian Mus., 34: 86.
Moundiella megapapillae (Singh) David, 1974. Oriental Ins., 8 (1): 43.
Viennotaleyrodes megapapillae (Jesudasan & David) David et al., 1994. Hexapoda, 6 (1): 33
- 38.
Material examined. India: Karnataka: IWST campus, 8 puparia, Dalbergia latifolia,
20.vi.2012, K.P. Divya.
Hosts. Cassia fistula, C. timorensis, Tamarindus indicus, Chloris barbata (Jesudasan and
David, 1991); Dichrostachys cinerea (David et al., 1994); Blumea mollis (Meganathan and
David, 1994); Careya arborea (Dubey and Ko, 2008).
Whiteflies are small inconspicuous phytophagous bugs, often overlooked despite their
abundance on the lower surface of leaves. They are emerging as major pest species in
agriculture, horticulture and forestry in all warmer parts of the world (Sundararaj and
Murugesan, 1996). Both nymphs and adults suck the plant sap, and production of honey-dew
leading to the development of mould on leaves, adversely affecting photosynthesis. Severe
infestation results in death of seedlings and young plants. D. latifolia is an important tree of
multifarious uses in India and obviously there is a huge demand of developing nurseries.
Hence, the problem of insect pest management needs more attention and investigations on the
bionomics and reproductive behavior of whitefly pests particularly in nurseries may lead to
efficient management practices.
References
CSIR. 1962. The wealth of India - raw materials. Vol. VI. New Delhi, India: Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research, p. 154-155.
DAVID, B.V. 1974. Description of new genus Moundiella for Trialeurodes megapapillae
Singh, (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) from Burma. Oriental Ins., 8 (1), p. 43 - 45.
DAVID, B.V. KRISHNAN, B. AND THENMOZHI, K. 1994. A new species of
Viennotaleyrodes Cohic (Aleyrodidae: Homoptera) from India. Hexapoda, 6 (1): 33 - 38.
DAVID, B.V. AND SUBRAMANIAM, T.R. 1976. Studies on some Indian Aleyrodidae.
Rec. Zool. Sur. India, 70, p. 133-233.
DAVID, P.M.M. AND DAVID, B.V. 2007. Descriptions of new species of whiteflies
(Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) from south India. Oriental Ins., 41, p. 391 - 426.
DUBEY, A. K. AND KO, C. C. 2008. Whitefly (Aleyrodidae) host plants list from India.
Oriental Ins., 42, p. 49-102.
DUBEY, A.K. AND SUNDARARAJ, R. 2004. Host range of the spiralling whitefly
Aleurodicus dispersus Russell (Aleyrodidae: Homoptera) in western ghats of South India.
Indian J. Forestry, 27 (1), p. 63 - 65.
DUBEY, A.K. AND SUNDARARAJ, R. 2006. Key to whiteflies of the tribe Aleurolobini
(Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) of India with description of five new species and host records.
Oriental Ins., 40, p. 33 - 60.
JESUDASAN, R.W.A. AND DAVID, B.V. 1991. Taxonomic studies on Indian Aleyrodidae
(Insecta: Homoptera). Oriental Ins., 25, p. 231-434.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
77
MATHUR, R.N. AND SINGH, B. 1959. A list of insect pests of forest plants in India and the
adjacent countries. Indian Forest Bulletin no. 171 (4), 165 pp.
MEGANATHAN, P. AND DAVID, B.V. 1994. Aleyrodidae fauna (Aleyrodidae:
Homoptera) of Silent Valley, A tropical evergreen rain-forest, in Kerala, India. FIPPAT
Entomology Series, (5), 66 pp.
PANDEY, V.P AND SUNDARARAJ, R. 2005. Distribution and host range of the babul
whitefly Acaudaleyrodes rachipora (Singh) in Indian subcontinent. In Ignacimuthu, s.j, S.
and Jayaraj, S. (Eds.): Biodiversity and Insect Pest Management, Narosa Publishing House
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, p. 195-197.
PEARSON, R.S. AND BROWN, H.P. 1981. Commercial Timbers of India, Vol. II. New
Dehli, India: AJ Reprints Agency, p. 941-944.
RAMESH RAO, K. AND PURKAYASTHA, S.K. 1972. Indian woods Vol. III. Manager of
Publications, Govt. of India, Delhi, India, 262 pp.
RAO, A.S. 1958. Notes on Indian Aleurodidae (Whiteflies) with special reference to
Hyderabad. Proc. 10th Int. Cong. Entomol., 1, p. 331 - 326.
REGU, K. AND DAVID, B.V. 1993. Taxonomic studies on Indian Aleyrodids of the tribe
Aleurolobini (Aleyrodinae: Aleyrodidae: Homoptera). FIPPAT Entomology Series, (4), 79
pp.
RUSSELL, L.M. 1965. A new species of Aleurodicus Douglas and two close relatives
(Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Fla. Entomol., 48, p. 47 - 55.
SINGH, K. 1931. A contribution towards our knowledge of the Aleyrodidae (whiteflies) of
India. Mem. Dept. Agric. India. Entomol. Ser., (12), 98 pp.
SINGH, K. 1932. On some new Rhynchota of the family Aleyrodidae from Burma. Rec.
Indian Mus., 34, p. 81- 88.
SOERIANEGARA, I. AND LEMMENS R.H.M.J. 1993. Plant resources of South-East Asia
No. 5(1), 610 pp.
SRINIVASA, M.V. 2000. Host plants of the spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus
Russell (Hemiptera: Aleurodidae). Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems, 6 (2), p.
79 - 105.
SUNDARARAJ, R., MEETA SHARMA AND AHMED, S.I. 2000. Aleyrodids infesting
Rose (Rosa chinensis) in Indian Arid zone. Hexapoda, 12 (1&2), p. 19 - 20.
SUNDARARAJ, R. AND MURUGESAN, S., 1996: Occurrence of Acaudaleyrodes
rachipora (Singh) (Aleyrodidae: Homoptera) as a pest of some important forest trees in
Jodhpur (India). Indian J. Forestry, 19 (3), 247-248.
SUNDARARAJ, R. AND PUSHPA, R. 2011. Aleyrodids (Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera) of India
with description of some new species and new host records. In Gupta, Rajiv K. (Ed.):
Advancements in Invertebrate Taxonomy and Biodiversity. AgroBios (International), p. 407534.
TEWARI, D.N. 1995. A Monograph on Rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.). Dehra Dun,
India: International Book Distributors, 74 pp.
TROUP, R.S., and JOSHI, H.B. 1983. Troup's The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Vol IV.
Leguminosae. Delhi, India; Controller of Publications, 344 pp.
78 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
EMERGING DISEASE PROBLEMS IN EUCALYPT
PLANTATIONS IN LAO PDR
1)
Paul A. Barber 1)&2), Pham Q. Thu 3), Giles E. Hardy2), and Bernard Dell2)
Arbor Carbon Pty Ltd, PO Box 1065 Willagee Central, WA, Australia, 6163; 2) Centre of Excellence for
Climate Change, Woodland and Forest Health, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA Australia; 3) Vietnamese
Academy of Forest Science, Dong Ngac, Tu Liem Hanoi, Vietnam
Corresponding author: enquiries@arborcarbon.com.au
Abstract
Surveys of nurseries and plantations of Eucalyptus species were conducted within Lao PDR
in 2009. A range of pathogens were isolated including species within Phytophthora, Pythium,
Fusarium, Colletotrichum, Neofusicoccum, Lasiodiplodia, Pilidiella, Calonectria,
Cryptosporiopsis, Corticium and Teratosphaeria. Some diseases caused significant
defoliation and loss of stock within nurseries and plantations. The presence of these diseases
in combination with a changing climate poses many challenges for the future sustainable and
profitable management of plantations in Lao PDR.
Introduction
Lao PDR is a small landlocked country surrounded by neighbouring countries Thailand,
Vietnam, China, Myanmar and Cambodia. The eucalypt plantation industry in Lao PDR is in
its infancy when compared to these neighbouring countries, only becoming established over
the past decade. With the recent introduction of planting stock from nearby countries comes
the risk of entry of pests and diseases with the potential to cause significant losses if not
managed correctly. Few surveys have been carried out across plantations throughout Lao
PDR to determine the presence and extent of diseases of eucalypt plantations. In 2009 we
carried out a survey of 16 nurseries and plantations within Lao PDR.
Materials and Methods
A total of sixteen nurseries and plantations were surveyed across central Laos PDR along a
north-west to south-east gradient during the wet season (June) 2009. At each site a survey of
signs and symptoms of disease was undertaken, samples collected, and transported back to
the laboratory for further analysis. Samples included foliage, soil, stems, roots and water. All
samples were collected, transported, examined and fungi and oomycetes isolated using a
variety of methods previously described (Barber et al., 2011, Scott et al., 2009, Taylor et al.,
2011, Taylor et al., 2009). DNA was extracted, sequenced and phyologenetic analysis
undertaken using the methods described previously (Andjic et al., 2011, Scott et al., 2009,
Adair et al., 2009).
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
79
Results
Nurseries
The three nurseries surveyed had small to significant losses through plant death and reduced
vigour of cuttings and seedlings. Three Phytophthora species and one Pythium species were
isolated from irrigation water, soil and diseased roots. The presence of these pathogens
combined with sub-optimal hygiene procedures in some nurseries compromised the quality of
planting stock and probably increased seedling mortality (Fig. 1). The Phytophthora species
were undescribed based on morphological characters and DNA, with alignment based on
DNA sequence nearest to Phytophthora alticola, P. parsiana and P. citrophthora. The
Pythium species isolated from five separate collections in the same nursery all aligned closely
based on DNA sequence with Pythium aff. vexans/chamaehyphon.
A range of stem and foliar diseases caused by species within the genera Fusarium,
Colletotrichum, Pilidiella, Calonectria, and Teratosphaeria were identified on eucalypts,
some causing significant defoliation of seedlings and mother plants. Calonectria and
Fusarium species were isolated most frequently, being found in all three nurseries from
necrotic lesions occurring on cuttings, causing death and significant losses when the severity
of disease was high (Fig. 2). Disease was observed in the clonal cutting gardens and was the
likely source of entry into the seedling trays. Poor hygiene and soil media resulted in suboptimal conditions for strong plant growth, but ideal conditions for disease development.
Figure 1. Significant losses of nursery stock caused by the presence of root pathogens
Phytophthora and Pythium in combination with poor hygiene.
Figure 2. Fusarium and Cylindrocladium species were isolated from necrotic lesions on
cuttings as indicated by the circles and arrows.
80 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Plantations
A range of diseases was observed on stems of eucalypts during surveys of plantations
including measle canker disease caused by Teratosphaeria zuluensis (Fig. 3). Severe basal
cankers were observed on one clone of eucalypt only (Fig. 3). The following species were
isolated and identified during surveys of eucalypts exhibiting symptoms of stem canker
diseases: Hypocreales sp., Lasiodiplodia parva, L. pseudotheobromae, Neofusicoccum aff.
ribis, Pseudofusicoccum kimberleyense and Valsa fabianae. A number species not previously
described based on existing DNA sequence databases were recorded, including Hypocreales
sp. and Neofusicoccum aff. ribis.
Figure 3. Bark canker symptoms observed on eucalypt clones included measle canker (left)
and large basal lesions (right).
The bacterial pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum that causes bacterial wilt disease in eucalypts
and other tree species, was observed on young (1-2 year old) trees in plantations, but was
mostly confined to low-lying sites prone to water-logging. Symptoms observed included
streaking within the vascular tissues, bacterial ooze from the wood, necrotic vein-limited
lesions on leaves, wilting of foliage, and patches of tree death within plantations (Fig. 4).
A number of foliar pathogens were identified from plantations within Lao PDR. One of the
most serious was Calonectria quinqueseptata, causing large necrotic blights of foliage (Fig.
5). The two serious eucalypt plantation pathogens, T. destructans and T. epicoccoides were
both observed and were widespread throughout the plantations surveyed, causing severe
defoliation in some clonal lines during the wet season. Cryptosporiopsis, Pilidiella,
Calonectria, and other Teratosphaeria species with Pseudocercospora anamorphs were
observed within plantations at low incidence. Cryptosporiopsis was associated with the
characteristic dark purple lesions (Fig. 5) and the Teratosphaeria spp. were associated with a
range of disease symptoms, dependent upon the species of pathogens causing the disease.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
81
Figure 4. Disease symptoms associated with infection of eucalypts by the bacterial wilt
pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum.
Figure 5. Foliar disease symptoms associated with infection of eucalypts by the foliar
pathogens belonging to the genera Calonectria (A), Cryptosporiopsis (B), and
Teratosphaeria (C-E).
82 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Discussion
This survey has identified a range of diseases throughout nurseries and plantations within Lao
PDR. Based on experience from surrounding countries (Dell et al., 2008, Dell et al., 2012),
and the symptoms and disease incidence levels observed, we suspect a number of these
diseases are likely to cause economic loss. We can ascertain that many of the diseases present
within the plantations are also present within nurseries and mother plants, suggesting these
diseases are being introduced into plantations with diseased planting stock. Findings from
this study also suggest that disease in the nurseries could be greatly reduced by the
improvement of soil media, sterilization of irrigation water, and improved hygiene practices
such as sterilization of equipment and removal of seedlings from the ground.
Given that industrial eucalypt plantations are recent in Lao PDR, it is likely that the extent of
damage, the incidence of particular fungal taxa and their population composition and size will
change with time. Hence, it is important that permanent monitoring plots are established for
the purpose of monitoring the changes in disease incidence and severity over time. A
database of photographs of disease symptoms and herbarium specimens has been initiated
during the present study. It is imperative that this is expanded upon to facilitate the ongoing
monitoring of these diseases, and assist with the identification of new pathogens. A number
of new species were identified during the present study and further research is required to
describe them and determine their pathogenicity to clonal lines.
Temperatures are likely to increase across Asia as is the frequency of extreme weather
events, leading to an increase in the spread and impact of pests and diseases in the region
(Dell et al., 2012). It is therefore imperative that abiotic and biotic threats are managed under
a prolonged period of climate change, with a focus on matching the species to the site and
breeding for optimal growth but also for disease resistance as has been adopted in countries
like South Africa and Brazil, and suggested previously for south-east Asian countries like
Indonesia (Barber, 2004).
References
ADAIR, R. J., BURGESS, T., SERDANI, M. & BARBER, P. 2009. Fungal associations in
Asphondylia (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) galls from Australia and South Africa: implications
for biological control of invasive acacias. Fungal Ecology, 2, 121-134.
ANDJIC, V., DELL, B., BARBER, P., HARDY, G., WINGFIELD, M. & BURGESS, T.
2011. Plants for planting: indirect evidence for the movement of a serious forest pathogen,
Teratosphaeria destructans, in Asia. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 131, 49-58.
Barber, P. A. 2004. Forest Pathology: The threat of disease to plantation forests in Indonesia.
Plant Pathology Journal, 3, 97-104.
BARBER, P. A., CROUS, P. W., GROENEWALD, J. Z., PASCOE, I. G. & KEANE, P.
2011. Reassessing Vermisporium (Amphisphaeriaceae), a genus of foliar pathogens of
eucalypts. Persoonia, 27, 90-118.
DELL, B., HARDY, G. & BURGESS, T. 2008. Health and nutrition of plantations eucaylpts
in Asia. Southern Forests, 70, 131-138.
DELL, B., XU, D. & THU, P. Q. 2012. Managing threats to the health of plantations in Asia,
new perspectives in plant protection, Pp. 63-92 in: Bandani AR (Ed.), New Perspectives in
Plant
Protection,
Prof.
ISBN:
978-953-51-0490-2,
InTech,
http://www.intechopen.com/books/new-perspectives-in-plant-protection/managing-threats-tothe-health-of-tree-plantations-in-asia.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
83
SCOTT, P. M., BURGESS, T. I., BARBER, P. A., SHEARER, B. L., STUKELY, M. J. C.,
HARDY, G. E. S. & JUNG, T. 2009. Phytophthora multivora sp. nov., a new species
recovered from declining Eucalyptus, Banksia, Agonis and other plant species in Western
Australia. Persoonia, 22, 1-13.
TAYLOR, K., ANDJIC, V., BARBER, P. A., HARDY, G. E. S. & BURGESS, T. I. 2011.
New species of Teratosphaeria associated with leaf diseases on Corymbia calophylla (Marri).
Mycological Progress, 11, 159-169.
TAYLOR, K., BARBER, P. A., HARDY, G. E. S. & BURGESS, T. I. 2009.
Botryosphaeriaceae from tuart (Eucalyptus gomphocephala) woodland, including
descriptions of four new species. Mycological Research, 113, 337-353.
84 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
EMERGING INSECT PEST PROBLEMS ON INDIAN SANDALWOOD
(Santalum album L.) UNDER ITS CULTIVATION, A CAUSE OF CONCERN
R. Sundararaj, Rajamuthukrishnan and O.K. Remadevi
Wood Biodegradation Division, Institute of Wood Science & Technology,
18th Cross Malleswaram, Bangalore 560 003, India
Corresponding author: rsundariwst@gmail.com or rusndararaj@icfre.org
Abstract
Santalum album Linn., commonly known as Indian sandalwood, is indigenous to Peninsular
India, and has been the source of highly prized wood and fragrant oil since at least the fifth
century B.C. Known in the ancient Sanskrit as Chandana, the wood and its valuable oil
traveled from India along the ancient Silk Roads to Persia as “Sandal”, to Greece as
“Santalon” and to Rome as “Santalum”. It is a small to medium sized, evergreen tree species
occupying a pre-eminent position in Indian forestry. It is a semi root parasite found in
association with other trees and parasitises over 300 species of plants and through haustoria
obtains their nutrient material. It is distributed all over India but more than 90% lies in
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (accounting for 90% of total area) and the rest distributed in other
states. The annual global sandalwood production is estimated to be approximately 5610
tonnes and India contributes 90% of the S. album output of the world, which has declined
markedly over the past 20-30 years. In the context of unsuccessful conservation of sandal in
natural areas, ex-situ conservation strategies assume great relevance which includes growing
sandal outside forest areas in agroforestry, farm forestry systems etc. Many insect pests of
agricultural and horticultural importance were found affecting sandal in outside forest areas.
A total of 170 species of insects representing seven orders viz., Coleoptera, Hemiptera,
Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera, Orthoptera and Thysanoptera were reported infesting
sandal in nurseries and plantations in varied agri-silvi-horticultural and mixed plantations. It
includes 92 species of sapsuckers, 60 species of defoliators, 6 species of stem borers, 5
species of bark/dead wood feeders, 3 species each of seed feeders and dry wood borers and a
species of flower feeder. Recent extensive surveys conducted on sandal under cultivation in
different agri-silvi-horti combinations indicated the presence of six more new pests in
addition to the earlier recorded pests. The new records include three species of sap suckers
viz., Coccus viridis (Green), Chrysomphalus sp. and Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell; two
species of defoliators viz., Myllocerus delicatulus Boh. and Peltotrachelus cognatus
Marshall and a species of stem borer Derolus volvulus (Fabricius). It confirms the fact that
insects are increasing their host range due to change in environment including global
warming. In the light these observations the concern on the insect pest problems of sandal on
its establishment in areas outside forest is discussed in this communication.
Introduction
The plant genus Santalum consists of 16 economically important species, which are xylemtapping root hemi-parasites with high valued aromatic heartwood (Anonymous, 1990).
Among them the Indian sandalwood, Santalum album L. is a small to medium sized,
economically important evergreen tree species. The tree has been synonymous with ancient
Indian culture, heritage and has gained importance mainly for its scented heart wood which
yields the commercially important “East Indian sandalwood oil”. Even its sapwood finds
utilization in carving and turnery (Parthasarathi and Rai, 1989). It attains maximum
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
85
heartwood formation at the age of around 30 to 50 years. It is distributed all over India but
more than 90% lies in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu (accounting for 90% of total area) and the
rest distributed in other states (Srinivasan et al., 1992). It has also been introduced into other
states and has become naturalized in Rajasthan, Orissa, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Annual global sandalwood production is estimated to be
approximately 5610 tonnes, which has declined markedly over the past 20-30 years. India
contributes 90% of the S. album output of the world. Due to increased demand in internal and
external markets and also the decrease in supply, sandalwood prices have skyrocketed.
Currently, sandalwood oil is sold in the international market at the rate of Rs.70,000 to
100,000 per kg. India’s production during 1930s through 1950s was around 4000 tonnes of
heartwood per year which has now decreased to meager 400 tonnes of wood per year due to
depletion of sandal in natural forests (Gowda et al., 2008). This bioresource in India,
especially its wild populations, is currently threatened mainly because of illicit felling, forest
fire and grazing and to certain extent spike disease coupled with heavy domestic and
international demand and with inadequate uniform regulation in southern states (Gairola et
al., 2008). In the context of unsuccessful conservation of sandal in natural areas, ex-situ
conservation strategies assume great relevance, which includes growing sandal in outside
forest areas like in agroforestry, farm forestry systems etc. Large-scale plantation programs
have been necessitated in different sandal growing states with the relaxation of rule by the
Karnataka Forest (Amendment) Act 2001 and the Tamil Nadu Forest (Amendment) Act 2002
which clearly state that, “every occupant or the holder of land shall be legally entitled to the
sandalwood trees in his land”. This is encouraging most of the progressive farmers to take up
sandal plantations outside forest areas and large scale plantations are coming up. Nurseries
have been established in different states. Sandalwood seedlings and grafted plants often face
problems from insect pests and diseases, which take a heavy toll and sometimes the whole
stock is wiped out. It is reported that 170 species of insects representing seven orders viz.,
Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Lepidoptera, Orthoptera and Thysanoptera
were found breeding on sandal in nurseries and sandal plantations in varied agri-silvihorticultural modals (Sundararaj, 2011). This paper deals with the insect pest problems of
Indian sandal wood under cultivation.
Material and Methods
Surveys were conducted in nurseries and plantations of Indian sandalwood covering the states
of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu from 2004 to 2011. Insect pest
infested sandal plant parts with immature stages and adults were collected. The close-up of
natural infestation along with associated insects and symptoms, if any, were photographed
with micro-lens. The specimens were preserved for identification and slide mounts for microinsects, were made. The pests, which could not be identified at the institute, were sent to
concerned experts and got identified. Based on the identification the insect pest spectrum was
documented.
Results and Discussion
The study revealed the presence of 176 species of insect pests on Indian sandalwood under its
cultivation (Table 1). It includes 95 species of sapsuckers, 61 species of defoliators, 7 species
of stem borers, 5 species of bark/dead wood feeders, 3 species each of seed feeders and dry
wood feeders and a species each of flower feeder and bark/stemborer. The sucking pests
comprise 75 species of hemipteran and 20 species of thysanopteran insects. The hemipteran
sucking pests include 21 species of Cicadellidae followed by 8 species of Coccidae, 7 species
86 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
of Pentatomidae, 6 species each of Margarodidae, Membracidae and Pseudococcidae, 4
species of Aleyrodidae, 3 species of Diaspididae, 2 species each of Alydidae, Coreidae,
Delphacidae, Pyrrhocoridae and Scutelleridae and one species each of Cercopidae,
Eurybrachidae, Kerridae, and Ortheziidae. Among the hemipteran sucking pests the
members of Aleyrodidae, Cicadellidae, Coccidae, Coreidae, Delphacidae, Diaspididae,
Eurybrachidae Kerridae, Margarodidae, Membracidae, Ortheziidae. Pentatomidae,
Pseudococcidae and Pyrrhocoridae were found highly polyphagous breeding on other host
plants. Insects of the orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera were found defoliating
sandal. There were 16 species of Coleoptera, 28 species of Lepidoptera and 18 species of
Orthoptera defoliate sandal. There were 6 species of cerambycid (Coleoptera) stem borers
and a species of cossid (Lepidoptera) stem borer and three species of dry wood borers. The
bark/dead feeders are mainly termites and Xylocopa latipes Drury and Indarbela
quadrinotata Walker. Besides a species of flower feeder was found phytophagous on sandal.
Though these pests are not severe in natural forest areas their outbreak is common on sandal
grown in areas outside forests. Sundararaj (2011) reported the occurrence of 170 species of
insect pests on sandal. The present study revealed the occurrence of six more insect pests on
Indian sandalwood. They were three species of sap suckers viz., Coccus viridis (Green),
Chrysomphalus sp. and Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell; two species of defoliators viz.,
Myllocerus delicatulus Boh. and Peltotrachelus cognatus Marshall and a species of stem
borer Derolus volvulus (Fabricius). Among these insect pests, sucking pests particularly
scales and mealybugs are deleterious in younger plantations as they affect the normal growth
and reproduction of sandal plants (Sundararaj et al., 2008). The new record of pests indicated
a continued influx of insect pest on sandal from agricultural and horticultural environments
which forms a major threat to conservation and protection of sandal trees. Ananthakrishnan
(2007) commented that climate change is expected to bring extension in the host range of
many pests and diseases. Besides the change in population structure and growth rate among
insect species due to global warming will have profound ecological effect by altering species
composition and disrupting food webs. Singh (2010) reported unprecedented rise in drying of
many woody tree species due to the invasion of longhorn beetles. The concerns outlined
above emphasize the need to develop more integrated insect pest management approaches for
sandal insect pests under its cultivation in areas outside forests.
Table 1. Pests of Indian sandalwood under its cultivation
Sl. No
Inset pest species
I Bark feeder/borer
1
Indarbela quardinotata Walker
2
3
4
5
6
Microcerotermes fletcheri Holmgren & Holmgren
Odontoterms brunneus (Hagens)
O. horni (Wasmann)
O. obesus (Rambur)
O. redemanni (Wasmann)
II Bark/Dead wood feeders
Family
Order
Metarbelidae
Lepidoptera
Termitidae
Termitidae
Termitidae
Termitidae
Termitidae
Isoptera
Isoptera
Isoptera
Isoptera
Isoptera
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
87
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
Acanthopsyche moorei Heyl.
Achaea janata (L.)
Acherontia styx (Westw.)
Acrida turrita (L.)
Adoretus latirostris Ohaus
A. nephriticus (Ohaus)
A. versutus Harold
Amata passalis (Fabricius)
Amsacta lactinea (Cram.)
Asota sp.
III Defoliators
Aspidomorpha miliaris (Fabricius)
Astycus aurovittatus Heller
Cassida circumdata Herbst
Cataontops sp.
Ceryx imaon Cramer
Chrotogonus sp.
Clania variegata Snell
Crytacanthacris tatarica (L.)
Dereodus mastos Herbst
D. sparsus Boheman
D. vigilaus Marshall
Diabolocatantops sp.
Dittopternis vensuta (Walker)
Duomitus sp.
Elimaea securigera (Brunner)
Erebus macrops L.
Eumeta crameri (Westwood)
Euproctis sp.
E. fraterna (Moore)
Euproctis scintillans (Walker)
Euthymia kirbyi Finot.
Gastrimargus africanus (Saussure)
Glyphodes sp.
Holochlora albida Brunner
H. biloba Stål
H. indica Kirby
Indomias cretaceous (Faust.)
Letana inflata Brunner
Mecyna gilvata Fabricius
Mocis frugalis (Fabricius)
Myllocerus delicatulus Boh.*
M. dorsatus Fabricius
M. laetivirens Marshall
M. tranamarinus (Herbst)
Orthacris sp.
Oxya sp.
Parasa lepida Cram.
Psychidae
Noctuidae
Sphingidae
Acrididae
Scarabaeidae
Scarabaeidae
Scarabaeidae
Arctiidae
Arctiidae
Hypsidae
Chrysomelidae
Curculionidae
Chrysomelidae
Acrididae
Syntomidae
Tettigonidae
Psychidae
Acrididae
Curculionidae
Curculionidae
Curculionidae
Acrididae
Acrididae
Cossidae
Tettigonidae
Noctuidae
Psychidae
Lymantriidae
Lymantriidae
Lymantriidae
Acrididae
Acrididae
Pyralidae
Tettigonidae
Tettigonidae
Tettigonidae
Curculionidae
Tettigonidae
Pyralidae
Noctuidae
Curculionidae
Curculionidae
Curculionidae
Curculionidae
Tettigonidae
Acrididae
Limacodidae
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Orthoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Orthoptera
Lepidoptera
Orthoptera
Lepidoptera
Orthoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Lepidoptera
Orthoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Lepidoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Coleoptera
Orthoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Orthoptera
Orthoptera
Lepidoptera
88 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
Peltotrachelus cognatus Marshall*
Pericallia dentata Walker
P. ricini Fabricius
Phaneroptera sp.
Platyptilia pusillidactyla (Walker)
Semiothisa sp.
Spathosternum prasiniferum (Walker)
Speiredonia suffumosa (Guene)
Spodoptera litura (Fabricius)
Sterrhopterix sp.
Syntomis passalis Fabricius
Trigonocorypha unicolor (Stoll)
Thyridipteryx sp.
Unidentified
IV Dry wood borers
Curculionidae
Arctiidae
Arctiidae
Tettigonidae
Pterophoridae
Geometridae
Acrididae
Noctuidae
Noctuidae
Psychidae
Syntomidae
Tettigonidae
Psychidae
Pyraustidae
Coleoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Orthoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Orthoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Orthoptera
Lepidoptera
Lepidoptera
Xylocopa latipes (Drury)
Bostrichidae
Scolytidae
Anthophoridae
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Hymenoptera
Sinoxylon ? indicum Lesne
Xyloborus sp.
V Flower feeder
71
Mylabris pustulata Thun.
72
Aduncothrips asiaticus (Ramakrishna and
Margabandhu)
Aleurocanthus martini David
Aleurodicus dispersus Russell
Aleurolobus burliarensis Jesudasan &David
Amritodus atkinsoni (Leth.)
Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead)
Batracomorphus sp.
B. brunomaculatus (Evans)
Calodia kirkaldyi Nielson
Cardiococcus bivalvata (Green)
Ceroplastes actiniformis Green
C. ceriferus (Fabricius)
Chrysocoris sp.
Chrysomphalus sp.*
Cletomorpha sp.
Coccus viridis (Green)*
Cofana spectra Dist.
C. unimaculatus (Sign.)
Crotonothrips davidi Ananthakrishnan
Dialeurodes icfreae Sundararaj & Dubey
Dinothrips sumatrensis Bagnall
Dolichothrips indicus (Hood)
Dysdercus sp.
D. koenigii (Fabricius)
Elaphrothrips chandana Ramakrishna
Eocanthoecona furcellata (Wolff.)
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
VI Sap suckers
Meloidae
Aeolothripidae
Thysanoptera
Aleyrodidae
Aleyrodidae
Aleyrodidae
Cicadellidae
Diaspididae
Cicadellidae
Cicadellidae
Cicadellidae
Coccidae
Coccidae
Coccidae
Scutelleridae
Diaspididae
Coreidae
Coccidae
Cicadellidae
Cicadellidae
Phlaeothripidae
Aleyrodidae
Phlaeothripidae
Phlaeothripidae
Pyrrhocoridae
Pyrrhocoridae
Idolothripidae
Pentatomidae
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Thysanoptera
Hemiptera
Thysanoptera
Thysanoptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Thysanoptera
Hemiptera
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
89
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
Erthesina fullo (Thunberg)
Ethirothrips agasthya (Ramakrishna)
E. beesoni (Moulton)
Eurybrachys tomentosa (Fabricius)
Exitianus indicus (Dist.)
Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell)
Fiorinia fioriniae (Targioni-Tozzetti)
Halyomorpha picus (Fabricius)
Halys dentatus Fabricius
Haplothrips ceylonicus Schmutz
H. ganglbaueri Schmutz
H. (Trybomiella) ramakrishnae (Karny)
Hecalus albomaculata Dist.
Hemaspidoproctus cinereus (Green)
Homoeocerus sp.
Icerya aegyptiaca (Douglas)
I. formicarum Newstead
I. purchasi Maskell
I. seychellarum (Westw.)
Idioscopus clypealis (Leth.)
I. nagpurensis (Pruthi)
Kola paulula (Walker)
Lankacoccus ornatus (Green)
Ledra mutica Fabricius
Leofa truncata Viraktamath and Viraktmath
Leptocorisa acuta (Thunb)
Leptocentrus longispinus Dist.
L. taurus (Fabricius)
Macropsis nigrolineata Viraktamath
Mecynothrips simplex Bagnall
Megalurothrips usitatus (Bagnall)
Megapulvinaria maxima (Green)
Mesargus albimaculata Dist.
Me1sothrips manii Ananthakrishnan
Neodartus penthimioides (Dist.)
Neosmerinthothrips fructuum Schmutz
Nephotettix virescens (Dist.)
Nezara viridula (L.)
Nilaparvata lugens (Stall)
Nipaecoccus filamentosus (Cockerell)
N. viridis (Newstead)
Orthezia insignis (Browne)
Otinotus oneratus Walker
Oxyrhachis taranda (Fabricius)
O. rufesens Walker
Paracritheus trimaculatus (Le& Serr.)
Parasaissetia nigra (Niet.)
Paratachardina silvestri (Mahdihassan)
Pentatomidae
Idolothripidae
Idolothripidae
Eurybrachyidae
Cicadellidae
Pseudococcidae
Diaspididae
Pentatomidae
Pentatomidae
Phlaeothripidae
Phlaeothripidae
Phlaeothripidae
Cicadellidae
Margarodidae
Coreidae
Margarodidae
Margarodidae
Margarodidae
Margarodidae
Cicadellidae
Cicadellidae
Cicadellidae
Pseudococcidae
Cicadellidae
Cicadellidae
Alydidae
Membracidae
Membracidae
Cicadellidae
Idolothripidae
Thripidae
Coccidae
Cicadellidae
Phlaeothripidae
Cicadellidae
Phlaeothripidae
Cicadellidae
Pentatomidae
Delphacidae
Pseudococcidae
Pseudococcidae
Ortheziidae
Membracidae
Membracidae
Membracidae
Pentatomidae
Coccidae
Kerridae
Hemiptera
Thysanoptera
Thysanoptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Thysanoptera
Thysanoptera
Thysanoptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Thysanoptera
Thysanoptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Thysanoptera
Hemiptera
Thysanoptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
90 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Parayasa elegantula Dist.
Penthimia compacta Walker
Perissopneumon phyllanthi (Green)
Petalocephala sp.
P. nigrilinea (Walker)
Plautia fimbriata (Fabricius)
Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni-Tozzetti)
Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell.*
Ptelys sp.
Ramakrishnaiella nirmalapaksha Ramakrishna
Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green)
Recilia dorsalis (Motsch.)
Riptortus sp.
Saissetia coffeae (Walker)
Scutellera sp.
Sogatella furcifera (Horvath)
Trybomiella ramakrishnae Karny
Taeniothrips balsaminae Priesner
Thrips florum Schmutz
Thrips palmi Karny
Thrips subnudula (Karny)
Membracidae
Cicadellidae
Margarodidae
Cicadellidae
Cicadellidae
Pentatomidae
Pseudococcidae
Coccidae
Cercopidae
Phlaeothripidae
Pseudococcidae
Cicadellidae
Alydidae
Coccidae
Scutelleridae
Delphacidae
Phlaeothripidae
Thripidae
Thripidae
Thripidae
Thripidae
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Thysanoptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Hemiptera
Thysanoptera
Thysanoptera
Thysanoptera
Thysanoptera
Thysanoptera
167 Callosobruchus sp.
168 Pachymerus sp.
169 Tribolium castaneum (Herbst)
VIII Stem borers
170 Aristobia octofasciculata Aurivillius
171 Aeolesthes holosericea (Fabricius)
172 Blepephaeus modicus Gahan
173 Capnolymma cingalensis Gahan
174 Derolus volvulus (Fabricius)*
175 Purpuricenus sanguinolentus Oliv.
176 Zeuzera coffeae Nietn.
* indicates new record on Indian sandalwood
Bruchidae
Bruchidae
Tenebrionidae
Coleoptera
Cerambycidae
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
Lepidoptera
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
VII Seed feeders
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
Cerambycidae
Cossidae
Coleoptera
Coleoptera
References
ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T.N. 2007. Insects and Climate. Entomology Academy of India
Base Paper No. 1, 27 pp.
ANONYMOUS. 1990. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report. Pacific Southwest
Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, 122 pp.
GAIROLA, S., RAVIKUMAR, G AND AGGARWAL P. 2008. Status of production and
marketing of sandalwood (Santalum album L.). In GAIROLA, S., RATHORE, T.S., JOSHI, G.,
ARUN KUMAR, A.N. and AGGARWAL, P. (eds.) Proceedings of the National seminar on
“Conservation, Improvement, Cultivation and Management of Sandal (Santalum album L.).
Brilliant Printers, Bangalore, p.1-8.
GOWDA, S.V. V, PATIL, K.B. AND ANILKUMAR, B.H. 2008. Natural sandalwood industrypresent scenario and future prospects. In GAIROLA, S., RATHORE, T.S., JOSHI, G., ARUN KUMAR,
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
91
A.N. AND AGGARWAL, P. (eds.) Proceedings of the National seminar on “Conservation,
Improvement, Cultivation and Management of Sandal (Santalum album L.). Brilliant Printers,
Bangalore, p. 196-203.
PARTHASARATHI, K. AND RAI, S.N. 1989. Physiology, chemistry and utilization of sandal
(Santalum album Linn). My forest, 25(2), p. 181-219.
SINGH, M.P. 2010. Signals of climate change: the growing menace of cerambycids in the arid
regions. In RAMAKRISHNA, CHANDRA, K., BOHRA, P., SHARMA, G and SEWAK, R. (eds.) Abstracts of
the National Seminar on “Impact of climate change on biodiversity and challenges in Thar desert”,
Desert Regional Centre, Zoological Survey of India, p. 65-66.
SRINIVASAN,
V.V.,
SIVARAMAKRISHNAN,
V.R.,
RANGASWAMY,
C.R.,
ANANTHAPADMANABHA, H.S. AND SHANKARANARAYANA, K.H. 1992. Sandal (Santalum
album Linn). Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bangalore (ICFRE),. 233 pp.
SUNDARARAJ, R. 2011. Biological control of insect pests of Indian sandalwood, Santalum album
L., an imperative in the present scenario. In DUNSTON P. AMBROSE (ed), Insect Pest Management, A
Current Scenario, Director, Entomology Research Unit, St. Xavier's College, Palayamkottai Tamil
Nadu India, p. 259-269.
SUNDARARAJ, R., KARIBASAVARAJ, L.R., SHARMA G. AND MUTHUKRISHNAN,
R. 2008. Hemipteran fauna (Insecta) infesting sandal Santalum album Linn. in southern India.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105(2), p. 223-226.
92 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Streblote lipara (LEPIDOPTERA: LASIOCAMPIDAE) OUTBREAK IN SEVERAL
MANGROVE REHABILITATION SITES IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
1)
Ong S.P.1), Che Salmah M.R.2), Khairun Y.2&3), and Kirton L.G.1)
Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia, 2)School of Biological
Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia, 3)Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies
(CEMACS), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
Corresponding author : ongsuping@frim.gov.my
Abstract
The devastating 2004 tsunami caused a high rate of casualties and property destruction in the
Indian Ocean coastline where there were no coastal forests. This highlighted the importance
of coastal forests as a natural protection for the coastline. Malaysia has initiated large scale
mangrove rehabilitation throughout the country. Mangrove replanting is a challenging task,
as the survival of the seedlings is affected by various factors including attack by various
insect pests. The outbreak of the snout moth, Streblote lipara, was observed on several
rehabilitation sites in the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The larvae had caused severe
defoliation on the planted Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata seedlings. Percentage of
seedlings infested with S. lipara was 80%–90% in Perak, 40% in Penang and 3%–10% in
Selangor. The low population of S. lipara in the replanted site in Selangor was due to
parasitism by scelionid wasps and tachinid flies. Damage on mangrove seedlings by S. lipara
is a new record in peninsular Malaysia. The moth has a life cycle of up to 72 days from egg
to adult.
Keywords: Streblote lipara, outbreak, mangrove rehabilitation, parasitism, life cycle
Introduction
Coastal forests such as mangrove and beach forests play important roles in mitigating the
impact of natural disasters such as storms, cyclones and tsunamis besides providing a
livelihood for fishermen. Plantations of pine in Japan and casuarinas in India, Sri Lanka and
Thailand have proved effective against tsunami (Forbes & Broadhead, 2007). However, the
coastlines of many Asian countries are heavily populated and most have been converted to
aquaculture ponds, therefore they are exposed to strong winds and waves. Severe destruction
and loss of life due to the strong force of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami were evident in
areas devoid of coastal forests. After the tsunami episode, Malaysian government has
initiated large scale mangrove rehabilitation throughout the country. Some of the species
commonly used for replanting are Avicennia alba, Rhizophora mucronata and R. apiculata.
Successful establishment of mangrove seedlings often depends on various factors such as soil
characteristics, tidal inundation and predation by animals. Insects are known as major seed
eaters (Robertson et al., 1990) and important consumer in the tropical rainforests (Coley &
Barone, 1996). However herbivorous insects in the mangrove forests have often been
overlooked (Macnae, 1968; Murphy, 1990; Tong et al., 2006) though they are important in
ecosystem functioning (Anderson & Lee, 1995; Cannicci et al., 2008). High levels of
herbivory during outbreak period may alter community structure and affect the survival of
mangrove seedlings (Anderson & Lee, 1995; Robertson et al., 1990). Pest outbreaks are
usually associated with changes in weather patterns, quality of the host plants and regulation
of natural enemies.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
93
In this paper, we reported on the incidence of pest outbreak on replanted mangrove seedlings
and its biology in Peninsular Malaysia. Outbreak of snout moth, Streblote lipara was
observed at mangrove replanting sites in Penang and Perak in 2009 and Selangor in 2011.
This species was discovered feeding on the needles of Casuarina equisetifolia in Selangor in
1956. However, no mention was made about the severity of defoliation. The genus Streblote
is distributed in Africa but has a number of species in Middle East, India and Southeast Asia
(Holloway, 1987).
Methodology
Study site
A half day site survey was conducted for each mangrove replanting site infested with
S. lipara following reports from Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM) and
Penang Inshore Fishermen Welfare Association (PIFWA). All the sites were located on the
west coast of Peninsular Malaysia namely Byram Forest Reserve, Penang (N5°10.666’
E100°25.129’), Lekir, Perak (N4°7.388’ E100°43.593’) and Kuala Bernam Forest Reserve,
Selangor (N3°45.827’ E100°52.772’) (Figure 1). The planted seedlings were between 1 to 2
years old.
The landward side of Byram Forest Reserve has been converted into shrimp ponds and
landfill site and what is left of the mangrove forest is now retained as buffer zones.
Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata seedlings were planted in 2007 at the seafront and a
small road extending all the way out into the seafront was built to protect the seedlings. In
Lekir and Kuala Bernam Forest Reserve, R. apiculata and R. mucronata seedlings were
planted at the landward side of the mangrove forests in 2008 and 2007 respectively.
Figure 1. Mangrove rehabilitation sites in Peninsular Malaysia infested with Streblote lipara
Levels of herbivore damage
Levels of herbivore damage in each site were estimated using five damage classes (Table 1).
A visual assessment on the defoliation level at each study site was conducted on 100
seedlings. The defoliation level for each leaf was determined by dividing the leaf into four
parts. For example, if defoliation was not more than one quarter of the whole leaf, then it will
94 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
be categorised under low defoliation level. The defoliation levels of each leaf were averaged
to estimate the defoliation level for the whole seedling.
Table 1. Five classes of leaf defoliation level for a quick assessment of herbivory damage
Leaf defoliation level
Percentage of defoliated area
None
0
Low
1-25%
Moderate
26-50%
High
51-75%
Severe
76-100%
Biology of Streblote lipara
Eggs of S. lipara were collected and reared in the laboratory under room temperature at
25°C–28°C and 60%–80% relative humidity. After the eggs hatched, larvae were reared on
fresh leaves of the host plant and were replaced every two days until they pupated. Duration
of each stage was recorded.
Results and Discussion
Biology of Streblote lipara
The eggs of S. lipara are laid on the upper and underside of leaves in masses of up to 60 eggs
in the field. The eggs measure 2 mm in length and are white in colour with mottled brown
markings. In the laboratory they hatched within 9 to 14 days. Lasiocampids are social
caterpillars and they often forage together as a strategy to avoid predation. Larvae have
greyish body with distinct brown diamond-shaped markings on each abdominal segment.
Their bodies are covered with spiny hairs and short setae. When they are provoked, they will
raise their black setae on their thorax, which can embed into the skin when touched
(Holloway, 1987). After each moult, the larvae consumed their shed skins and sometimes
their head capsules. Mature larvae were 60 mm in length. Larval stages took 40–41 days
before pupation in the laboratory. Pupae measured 25 mm in length and were enclosed in pale
yellow cocoons. Adults took 10–17 days to emerge from pupation. A complete life cycle of
this species took 59–72 days. Adult moths were brown in colour and have a wingspan of 30–
60 mm. Females were usually larger and their wings were more rounded compared to the
males. An adult female could lay 241 eggs over the span of 5 days in the laboratory.
The climate in Peninsular Malaysia is rather uniform throughout the year with temperature
ranging from 23°C–34°C and 78%–98% relative humidity. This range of temperature and
humidity provides an optimum environment for the growth and development of S. lipara and
many other pests in the tropics. Studies by Calvo & Molina (2005) showed that Streblote
panda had short development time when reared at 28°C and 31°C.
Levels of herbivore damage
About 80%–90% of Rhizophora seedlings in Lekir were infested with S. lipara and had
varying degrees of leaf damage (Figure 2). Some of the seedlings were missing from the
replanting plots and could have drifted away during tidal inundation. In Byram Forest
Reserve, 40% of the seedlings were attacked by S. lipara, and half of the seedlings were
severely defoliated (Figure 3). In the Kuala Bernam Forest Reserve, only 3%–10% of the
seedlings were infested by S. lipara (Figure 4).
All the samples of S. lipara from the Kuala Bernam Forest Reserve (with low pest incidence)
were parasitized; scelionid wasps and tachinid flies emerged from the parasitised eggs and
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
95
No. of seedlings
pupae respectively when reared in the laboratory. A braconid and an unidentified wasp were
also obtained from the pupae of S. lipara in Lekir. No parasitoid was recorded from Byram
Forest Reserve where significant pest damage was observed. These results show that
parasitoids of S. lipara are present in the area but indicate that the parasitoid population may
not always be sufficient to suppress the pest.
80
60
40
20
0
Site
1
Defoliation level
Figure 2. Defoliation levels for R. apiculata and R.mucronata seedlings in Lekir
No. of seedlings
80
60
40
20
0
None
Low
Moderate
High
Severe
Defoliation level
Figure 3. Defoliation levels for R. apiculata and R.mucronata seedlings in Byram Forest
Reserve
60
No. of seedlings
40
20
0
Site
1
Defoliation level
Figure 4. Defoliation levels for R. apiculata and R. mucronata seedlings in Kuala Bernam
Forest Reserve
Seedlings of Rhizophora apiculata and R. mucronata seedlings in Lekir and Kuala Bernam
Forest Reserve were stunted and unhealthy at the time of survey. Man-made drainage
channels were created for entry of seawater into these sites which were planted at the
landward side of the mangrove forests; however the sites were only fully inundated during
high spring tide. Inundation at least twice daily is vital for these seedlings not to suffer
96 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
prolonged water stress. The high rate of seedling mortalities at these sites could be attributed
to the direct effects of water-stress especially at Kuala Bernam Forest Reserve or its indirect
effects such as the increased susceptibility of droughted seedlings to pests (Coley 1998). This
association between pest damage and water stress is further supported by the fact that the
outbreak of S. lipara in the mangrove replanting plots was first noted during the dry season.
The nutritional quality of leaves such as their carbon/nitrogen ratio, tannin content (Awmack
& Leather, 2002) and leaf toughness (Coley, 1983) influence the performance of herbivores.
Water stress not only reduces tree vigour but may increase the levels of leaf nitrogen, thus
making plants more susceptible to pests such as S. lipara (Speight & Wylie, 2001; Mattson &
Haack, 1987). This theory does not always stand up as healthy seedlings (such as in the
Byram Forest Reserve) were also attacked by S. lipara . However seedlings were only 1-2
years old. Higher nitrogen level in young leaves is highly preferred by herbivores compared
to mature leaves (Bernays & Chapman, 1994; Coley & Barone, 1996). This preference was
also reported in the mangroves of Hong Kong where young leaves of Kandelia obovata with
a higher nitrogen content compared to older leaves had a higher level of attack by
herbivorous insects (Tong et al., 2006).
Conclusion
Within the Malaysian climate, S. lipara took 2–2 ½ months to complete its life cycle on
mangrove species. Long term monitoring of S. lipara will be useful to predict population
fluctuations in S. lipara and to understand the underlying ecological and environmental
factors triggering severe outbreaks. Increasingly frequent and prolonged periods of drought
under a changing climate, especially during El Nino events, will most likely increase
herbivore populations but reduce the parasitoid populations. The presence of natural enemies
is important to keep pest populations in check.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the State Forestry Department of Perak, Selangor and Penang for
cooperation and assistance in the field. Thanks also to Dr. Mohd Farid Ahmad and Patahayah
Mansor for suggestions and guidance in the field. This study was funded by Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) and Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia
(FDPM).
References
ANDERSON, C. & LEE, S.Y. 1995. Defoliation of the mangrove Avicennia marina in Hong
Kong: cause and consequences. Biotropica 27(2): 218–226.
AWMACK, C.S. & LEATHER, S.R. 2002. Host plant quality and fecundity in herbivorous
insects. Annual Review of Entomology 47: 817–844.
BERNAYS, E.A. & CHAPMAN, R.F. 1994. Host-plant selection by phytophagous insects.
Chapman and Hall, United States of America. 312 pp.
CALVO, D. & MOLINA, J.M. 2005. Developmental rates of the lappet moth Strblote panda
Hubner (1820) (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae) at constant temperatures. Spanish Journal of
Agricultural Research 3 (3): 319–325.
CANNICCI, S., BURROWS, D. FRATINI, S., SMITH III, T.J., OFFENBERG, J. &
DAHDOUH-GUEBAS, F. 2008. Faunal impact on vegetation structure and ecosystem function
in mangrove forests: A review. Aquatic Botany 89: 186–200.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
97
COLEY, P.D. 1983. Herbivory and defensive characteristics of tree species in a lowland tropical
forest. Ecological Monographs 53: 209–234.
COLEY, P.D. 1998. Possible effects of climate change on plant/herbivore interactions in moist
tropical forests. Climatic Change 39 (2–3): 455–472.
COLEY, P.D. & BARONE, J.A. 1996. Herbivory and plant defences in tropical rainforests.
Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 27: 305–335.
FORBES, K. & BROADHEAD, J. 2007. The role of coastal forests in the mitigation of tsunami
impacts. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Bangkok. 30 pp.
HOLLOWAY, J.D. 1987. The moths of Borneo: Superfamily Bombycoidea: families
Lasiocampidae, Euterotidae, Bombycidae, Brahmaeidae, Saturniidae, Sphingidae. Kuala Lumpur:
Southdene. 199 pp.
MACNAE, W. 1968. A general account of fauna and flora of mangrove swamps and forests in
Indo-West-Pacific region. Advances in Marine Biology 6: 73–230.
MATTSON, W.J. & HAACK, R.A. 1987. The role of drought stress in provoking outbreaks of
phytophagous insects. Pp. 365–407 in Barbosa P. & Schultz, J.C. (Eds.) Insect outbreaks.
Academic Press Inc., United Kingdom. 578 pp.
MURPHY, D.H. 1990. The natural history of insect herbivory on mangrove trees in and near
Singapore. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 38(2): 119–203.
ROBERTSON, A.I., GIDDINS, R. & SMITH, T.J. 1990. Seed predation by insects in tropical
mangrove forests: extent and effects on seed viability and the growth of seedlings. Oecologia 83:
213–219.
SPEIGHT, M.R. & WYLIE, F.R. 2001. Insect pests in tropical forestry. CABI publishing, United
Kingdom. 307 pp.
TONG, Y.F., LEE, S.Y. & MORTON, B. 2006. The herbivore assemblage, herbivory and leaf
chemistry of the mangrove Kandelia obovata in two contrasting forests in Hong Kong. Wetlands
Ecology and Management 14: 39–52.
98 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
AN OUTBREAK OF BAGWORMS ON Falcataria molluccana:
A CASE STUDY IN CENTRAL JAVA
Neo Endra Lelana & Illa Anggraeni
Centre for Forest Productivity Improvement Research and Development,
Jl. Gunung Batu No. 5 Bogor 16610, Indonesia
Corresponding author : neo_3L@yahoo.com
Abstract
Falcataria molluccana (Miq) Barbeny and JW Grimes (Sengon) is one of the most dominant
plants in community forests, especially on Java Island, Indonesia, providing wood for both
existing industries and new wood processing industries. In recent years serious outbreaks of
bagworms have been reported in sengon plantations. The identities of the causal agents were,
however, not known since previously outbreaks were low and they were not considered to be
of economic importance. he increasing number of outbreaks, however suggest an increasing
importance for these insect. This study aimed to identify the bagworm species attacking
sengon and to determine the levels of bagworm infestation in the Province of Central Java.
Surveys were conducted using a purposive random sampling method in two districts. Results
showed there were three species of bagworm causing outbreaks, i.e. Pteroma sp.,
Cryptothelea sp. and Amatissa sp., with Pteroma sp. being the most dominant species. The
level of infestation of bagworm varied, from low to heavy. Heavy infestation mainly occured
in the area with an altitude below 500 m above sea level (asl).
Keywords: bagworm, province of Central Java, Falcataria moluccana
Introduction
Over the last decade, community forests in Indonesia has grown rapidly and currently it
covers about 3.5 million hectares (ha) with 2.7 million ha located on Java Island. Community
forests are important suppliers of wood for the wood industry, creates jobs and increases
foreign exchange through exports. The development of community forests is predicted to
increase significantly in the future due to millions of hectares of suitable land that has not yet
been utilized.
One of the most dominant species planted in community forest areas is Falcataria moluccana
(Miquel) Barneby & Grimes, locally known as sengon. This tree is exceptionally fast
growing, native to the eastern islands of the Indonesian archipelago and New Guinea (Nair
and Sumardi, 2000). Sengon currently dominates the community forests in Indonesia and is
already cultivated in 13 provinces with the largest area occurring on the Island of Java.
According to the Ministry of Forestry and Central Bureau of Statistics (2004), sengon
plantations on Java comprises 83.69% of the total plantation areas of sengon in Indonesia
with a total area of more than 1.2 million hectares. Sengon plantation areas have steadily
increased over recent years and currently successfully supplies the wood for the existing
industry or new wood processing industry. Wood from sengon plantations can be utilized for
various purposes, such as building materials, particle board, raw material for pulp, and
container.
Bagworms (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) are important insect pests that defoliates trees. The
bagworm family includes approximately 1000 species, all of which complete larval
development within a self-enclosing bag (Rhainds et al., 2009). Bagworms have many host
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
99
plants, including F. mollucanna, Acacia mangium, A. auriculiformis, Leucaena leucochepala,
Tamarindus indicus, Shorea spp, and Rhizophora sp. (Suharti et al., 2000). These pests are
typically sporadic pests, which usually occurs repeatedly in endemic patches. Repeated heavy
infestation may result in tree dieback. Previously bagworm has not been considered an
important pest of sengon due to low infestation levels. In recent years, however, the
frequency of bagworm attack has increased on sengon and there has been an increase in their
impact. The outbreaks of bagworms, especially in sengon and acacias, have been recorded in
several places, including Lampung, South Sumatera, West Java and Banten (Zulfiah, 1998;
Suharti et al., 2000; Sumardi & Nair 2000).
In the last few years, bagworms have also become a problem in sengon plantations in the
Province of Cetral Java. Since 2008, many reports have been received from the Local Office
of Forestry of outbreaks of these insects. For that reason, this preliminary study to identify
the bagworm species and to determine how sengon farmers have been managing the
problem was considered important.
Materials and Methods
The survey was conducted by using purposive random sampling in two districts, the
Wonosobo District and the Batang District. In Wonosobo district, the survey was conducted
in three sub-districts, namely Wadaslintang, Kaliwiro and Kepil Sub-district, whereas in
Batang surveys were conducted in two sub-districts, namely Batang and Warungasem Subdistrict.
Geographically, Wonosobo District is located in the centre of the Province of Central Java
(7o40’11’’S and 190o43’19’’-110o04’40’’E). This district is dominated by mountainous areas.
Meanwhile, Batang District is located along the north coast of Central Java (6o51' 46" - 7o11'
47" S and 109o40'19" - 110o03'06"E). Batang District is dominated by hilly and mountainous
areas.
The level of bagworm infestation was determined based on the level of sengon crown
damage. It was ranked from healthy to very heavy, spanning five levels (Table 1).
Table 1. Classification level of crop damage due to bagworm infestation
Level of infestation
Damage on crown trees
Healthy
Low
Moderate
Heavy
Very heavy
Damage 5%
Damage between 5% < x 25%
Damage between 25% < x 50%
Damage between 50% < x 75%
Damage between 75% < x 100%
Identification of bagworms collected from sengon plantations were carried out at the
Laboratory of Pest and Disease, Centre for Forest Productivity Improvement Research and
Development.
To obtain information of how sengon farmers manage bagworms, interviews were conducted
with farmers during the surveys.
Results and Discussion
Sengon plantations at all surveyed locations were infested with bagworms, with the level of
infestation varying from low to very heavy (Table 2). In Batang District, bagworm
infestations in Batang and Warungasem Sub-District respectively covered 189 and 28 ha.
100 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Meanwhile in Wonosobo District, bagworm infestation in Wadaslintang, Kaliwiro and Kepil
Sub-district respectively reached 37, 21 and 30 ha.
Table 2. Bagworm infestation per surveyed area.
District
Batang
Wonosobo
Sub-district
Batang
Warungasem
Wadaslintang
Kaliwiro
Kepil
Altitude (m
asl)
± 100
± 100
± 275
± 300
± 425
Area
Infestation
189 ha
28 ha
37 ha
21 ha
30 ha
Level Infestation
moderate-heavy
moderate-heavy
moderate-heavy
moderate-very heavy
low-heavy
Generally, the level of infestation ranged from moderate to heavy. The lowest bagworm pest
infestation was found in Kepil Sub-district, while the highest was found in Kaliwiro district.
High levels of infestation resulted in tree defoliation (Figure 1). All of surveyed locations
were at an altitude below 500 m asl. This was in contrast to the perception of some people
who think the attacks frequently occur in areas with an altitude above 500 m asl.
a
b
Figure 1. Damage of sengon tree due to bagworm attack: a. moderate infestation in Batang
Sub-District; b. very heavy infestation in Kaliwiro Sub-District
Bagworm is a general term for the larvae of certain moth species. These larvae construct a
case around themselves to protect them from predators. Three types of bagworm were found
to attack sengon trees in Central Java. These were Pteroma sp., Amatissa sp., and
Cryptothelea sp. (Figure 2). Pteroma sp. has a small conical case, no more than 6 mm high
and cover the mosaic of leaf particles. This species has a distribution in Java and Sumatera.
When pupation approaches, the cases are modified into an ellipsoidal form and hang on
threads from the under sides of branches. Amatissa sp., is bigger than Pteroma sp. and has
long, narrow cases (about 36 mm high). In Java, besides attacking sengon, this species has
also been reported to attack Pinus merkusii, Rhizophora sp. and Camellia sinensis (Refs).
The third bagworm species identified, Cryptothelea sp., has a wide distribution throughout
Indonesia and a wide host range. This species cases of more than 30 mm long which are
covered with pieces of longitudinally placed twigs. Cryptothelea sp not only attack the leaves
but also attack bark if there is no more leaves (Kalshoven, 1981).
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
101
a
c
b
Figure 2. The type of bagworm species: a. Pteroma sp; b. Amatissa sp; c. Cryptothelea sp.
Bagworm outbreaks have a correlation with the dry season. Suharti et al. (2000), noted that
when shrubs become dry because of drought, the bagworms move to other green plants, often
plantation trees, to survive. This was also supported by information gained from interviews
with sengon farmers that bagworms began to attack trees when there was no rain. If bagworm
attack occurred at times when there was no rain for a long period, it could cause plant death.
Interviews of sengon growing farmers indicated that although most knew that damage to
their trees are caused by bagworms, most did not have a solution to the problem (Table 3).
Based on interviews, only a few farmers have carried out bagworm control programmes.
Some farmers knew about the use of chemical application against bagworms, but they did
not do anything because of economical factors. Most hoped for rain to reduce bagworm
infestation and favour plant growth. In Warungasem, some farmers have conducted bagworm
pest control using stem injection methods regularly. Pest control was done after periods of no
rain to prevent bagworm attacks. The types of insecticides used included those with e
dimethoate, carbofuran and lambda sihalotrin active ingredients.
Table 3. Sengon farmer perception about bagworm attack and control methods applied by
them
District
Batang
Wonosobo
Knowing
bagworms
+
+++
+++
Control
method
+++
-
Kaliwiro
+++
+
Kepil
+++
-
Sub-district
Batang
Warungasem
Wadaslintang
Pesticide used
Lambda sihalotrin
Dimethoate, carbofuran,
lambda sihalotrin
-
Notes: level of perception: + = fair, ++ = good, +++ = very good
Conclusions
Sengon plantations at all surveyed locations were infested with bagworms. Infestation levels
ranged from low to very heavy. In Batang District, bagworm infestations in Batang and
Warungasem Sub-District respectively reached 189 and 28 ha. Meanwhile in Wonosobo
District, bagworms infestation in Wadaslintang, Kaliwiro, and Kepil Sub-District respectively
reached 37, 21 and 30 ha. The lowest bagworm pest infestation was found in Kepil Subdistrict, while the highest was found in Kaliwiro Sub-district. Although most sengon farmers
knew that sengon damage was caused by bagworms, but most of them did nohing to control
the problem.
102 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
References
KALSHOVEN, L.G.E. 1981. Pests of Crops in Indonesia. Revised by P.A van der Laan.
Ichtiar Baru-Van Hoeve. Jakarta.
MINISTRY OF FORESTRY AND CENTRAL BUREAU OF STATISTICS. 2004. Potency
of Community Forest in Indonesia 2003. Jakarta
NAIR, K.S.S. AND SUMARDI. 2000. Insects pests and diseases of major plantation species.
In Nair, K.S.S (ed). Insect Pests and Diseases in Indonesian Forests: an assessment of the
major threats, research Efforts and literature. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia.
RHAINDS, M., D.R. DAVIS, AND P.W PRICE. 2009. Bionomics of bagworms
(Lepidoptera: Psychidae). Annu. Rev. Entomol. 54:209-226.
SUHARTI, M., I.R SITEPU, W. DARWIATI AND I. ANGGRAENI. 2000. Effication study
of several biological, floral and chemical control afents to bagworms pest. Buletin Penelitian
Hutan 624: 11-28.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
103
SURVIVAL MECHANISM OF THE TEAK DEFOLIATOR, Hyblaea puera DURING
THE DRY SEASON IN EAST JAVA, INDONESIA
ENGGAR APRIYANTO
Forestry Department, Bengkulu University
Corresponding author: enggavan@yahoo.com
Abstract
Global warming is beginning to influence the distribution and behaviour of many organisms.
Insects have a marked capacity to adapt to changing climatic conditions. This study
investigated the survival mechanisms of the teak defoliator in the dry season. This research
was conducted from 2005 to 2008 in the teak plantations of East Java, Indonesia. Surveys
were conducted in teak stands with trees with new flushes. The teak defoliator survives
during the dry season by maintaining small patches of low level populations and by short
range migration. The distances observed between one infestation and another ranged between
44 to 3608 m. The pupal stage was not been found during the surveys. Eggs were laid singly
on near veins on young soft leaves close to the soil surface thus providing some protection
from high temperatures and dehydration.
Keywords: teak defoliator, infestation, dry season, population dynamics, diapause
Introduction
Plantations of teak (Tectona grandis) were first established in Java, Indonesia around the
1880s (Cordes 1881). Mixed plantations of teak with other tree species are generally less
susceptible than pure teak plantations to soil erosion and pest and disease risks. Pure teak
plantations are susceptible to defoliating pests, particularly when understorey growth is
suppressed and site conditions are suboptimal. Hyblaea puera Cramer (Lepidoptera:
Hyblaeidae) commonly known as the teak defoliator, is a moth native to southeast Asia.
There are five larval instars. The first and second instars mainly feed on the leaf surface.
Starting with the third instar, the larva cuts out a leaf flap, usually at the edge of the leaf,
folds it over, fastens it with silk, and feeds from within. The entire leaf, excluding the major
veins of tender leaves, is eaten, but more veins are left in older leaves. Under the optimal
conditions, the larval period lasts 10–12 days and the entire life cycle approximately 3 weeks.
Outbreaks of this insect pest can lead to near total defoliation (Apriyanto, 2010). The teak
defoliator is present the year round in teak plantations, but in varying population densities.
Teak in Java is semi- deciduous and, during the period of natural defoliation in the dry
season, populations of the teak defoliator are low and difficult to observe compared to the wet
season (Sulthoni, 1970 and 1991). The wet season in Java usually falls between October and
April, and the dry season falls between May and September. This study investigated the
survival mechanisms of the teak defoliator during the dry season.
104 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Materials and Methods
The study was conducted in a teak plantation in the forest of Walikukun, Ngawi (“BH
Walikukun, KPH Ngawi”). Teak trees were planted at a spacing of 2.5 m x 3 m. The research
was conducted during August and September 2005, April to May 2006, July to October 2007,
and May to October 2008.
Teak defoliators prefer younger leaves so the study was carried out in one to two year old
young teak stands in flush. The population density of teak defoliator is very low in the dry
season and therefore sampling had to be purposive. Two plots were established when an
insect infestation was detected. A larger survey plot consisted of 256 to 300 trees, and within
this 16 trees were selected for sampling. Four flushes per tree, each with 2-3 pairs of young
leaves, were very carefully selected and removed with pruning equipment to count the
number and type of larvae. Low numbers of larvae acquired from randomly selected foliage
samples may introduce a sampling error that is too great to provide accurate data to study
population dynamics (Raimondo et al., 2004).
Results and Discussion
Low level infestations of teak defoliator (Figure 1) occurred spatially in small patches within
the teak plantations, feeding on tender leaves of new flushes. In August 2007 the distance
between patches ranged from approximately 112 to 685 m, in August 2008 from 95 to 3608
m, in September 2007 from 346 m to 3000 m, and in October 2007 from 44 m to 1615 m.
The adult moth of teak defoliator can migrate about 5 – 20 km (Vaishampayan & Bahadur,
1983 cited in Baksha & Crawley, 1998). Shorter distances in the dry season in Java suggest
short migration or even non-migratory behaviour.
Higher temperatures and lower rainfall experienced in the dry season increases fire risk. Teak
is fire resistant and fire stimulates new shoot on stumps and in standing teak trees (Heddy,
1986; Anonymous, 1979). In October 2007 fire in teak resulted in new shoots and heavier
infestations of the teak defoliator. In the ensuing wet season (October up to February 2008)
the teak defoliator was widespread and populations high. Moving into the dry season these
populations decreased and the teak defoliator moved to new flushes on young teak or stumps.
The maintenance of low populations of teak defoliator indicates that these insects are well
adapted to teak forest ecosystems during the dry season in Java, surviving with a limited food
supply of tender leaves. Single eggs were observed in the dry season near veins on young soft
leaves close to the soil surface. Teak defoliators deposit approximately 700 eggs on the lower
surface of young leaves (Apriyanto, 2010), but lay eggs singly different leaves thus greatly
increasing the survival chances of eggs and larvae. Laying eggs (usually on the underside) of
leaves low in the canopy protects from both sunlight and larval parasites. Temperatures in the
teak stands reach more than 40 °C in the dry season and could significant stress to the pest
(Huges et al. 1984).
All five stages of larvae were observed at the same time during a generation (Figure 2)
supporting reports that the teak defoliator does have a diapause stage (Nair et al., 1985;
Baksha & Crawley, 1998). No pupae were observed.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
105
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
First instar
Second instar
Third instar
Fourth instar
Fifth instar
Population of larva
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Density (larvae/shoot)
Proportion of population (%)
A.
Date
100
Third instar
First instar
Second instar
Fourth instar
Fifth instar
Population density
80
7
6
5
60
4
40
3
2
20
1
0
Density (larvae/shoot)
Proportion of population (%)
B.
0
Date
Percentage of larval stage (%)
Figure 1. The larval population structure of the teak defoliator (Hyblaea puera) observed in
teak forest from July – October 2007 (A) and May – August 2008 (B)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
First instar
Second instar
Third instar
Fourth instar
Fifth instar
12-8-2005
21-8-2005
19-9-2005
Date
Figure 2. The laval population structure of the teak defoliator (Hyblaea puera) observed in
teak forest from July to October 2007
106 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Conclusion
Infestations in the dry season are distributed in discrete patches. These populations survive on
a small but continuous supply of tender leaves prevalent due to phenological variation of teak
and new flushes stimulated by fire. Until the next flushing event or season the population of
teak defoliator in the dry season remains small, with short migratory behaviour but active.
When general flushing of teak occurs in the wet season the population starts building up
generation by generation.
References
APRIYANTO, E. 2010. Dinamika Populasi ulat jati Hyblaea puera Cramer di Hutan Jati
KPH Ngawi (thesis S3). Forestry Department, Gadjah mada University
ANONYOMOUS, 1979. Eucalypts for planting. FAO. Roma. Forestry Series No.11: 678
pp.CORDES, J.W.H. 1881. Hutan jati di Jawa dengan alam, penyebaran, sejarah dan
eksploitasinya; Terjemahan oleh Yayasan Manggala Sylva Lestari. Biro Jasa Konsultan
Perencanaan Hutan. Malang. 403 pp. (Not Published).
BASKHA, M.W. & CRAWLEY, M.J. 1998. Population dynamics of teak defoliator,
Hyblaea puera Cramer (Lepidoptera: Hyblaeidae) in teak plantations of Bangladesh. J. of
App. Entomol. 122(2/3): 79-83.
HAQUE, M.A., 2000. Site, Technology and Productivity of Teak Plantations in Bangladesh.
pp. 35–50. FORSPA Publication No.24/2000, Teak Publication No. 3, Bangkok, Thailand
HEDDY, S. 1986. Hormon tumbuhan. CV. Rajawali, Jakarta. 98p.
MARSONO, D. 2002. Keharusan Konservasi Dalam Pengelolaan Hutan.Dipresentasikan
dalam seminar rehabilitasi dan keras menuju pengelolaan hutan masa depan, Yogyakarta 2-3
Sepetember 2002. Fakultas Kehutanan Yogyakarta. Fakultas Kehutanan Yogyakarta.
MARSONO, D. 2008. Keharusan basis ekosistem dalam pengelolaan hutan dan lahan. Pidato
dies natalis lustrum IX Fakultas Kehutanan, Universitas Gadjah Mada. Fakultas kehutanan,
UGM. Yokyakarta. 19p.
SULTHONI, A. 1970. Diktat ilmuhama/penyakithutan. Didalam Cakrawala Perlindungan
Hutan. Kumpulan tulisan sepanjang karir. Fakultas Kehutanan Universitas Gadjah Mada.
Yogyakarta. 2002.
SULTHONI, A. 1991. Pengendalian hama dan penyakit hutan secara terpadu. Proseding
seminar nasional pengendalian hama-penyakit HTI secara terpadu, Fak. Kehutanan IPB 1925. Dalam:Cakrawala Perlindungan Hutan. Kumpulan Tulisan sepanjang karir. Fakultas
Kehutanan Universitas Gadjah Mada. Yogyakarta. 2002.
RAIMONDO, S., STRAZANAC, J. S., & BUTLER, L. 2004. Comparison of sampling
techniques used in studying lepidoptera population dynamics. Environ. Entomol. 33(2): 418425.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
107
AN INSECT AND A FUNGUS – IMPENDING INVASION THREAT TO INDIA
K.V. Sankaran and T.A. Suresh
Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi - 680 653, Kerala, India
Corresponding author: sankarankv@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper reports two potential invasive alien species threats to the Indian subcontinent, viz.,
Brontispa longissima- the coconut leaf beetle and Puccinia psidii - the eucalypt rust fungus.
The coconut leaf beetle, a native of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, is one of the most
damaging pests of coconut and 20 other palm species-coconut being the most favored host.
Larvae of the beetle chew on large areas of the surface of leaflets still in the throat of the
palm (the spear leaf) which causes death of underlying tissues. Severe attacks destroy
unopened leaves, affect the growth of the palm and reduce its productivity. In most cases, all
the central leaves of the affected palms appear brown and fruit shedding occurs in such
palms. Damage caused to millions of palms and substantial yield loss has been reported from
countries infested by the beetle. A study commissioned by the FAO showed that, if left
uncontrolled, the damage due to coconut leaf beetle could be the tune of US$ 1 billion in
Vietnam alone.
Coconut leaf beetle is now distributed in more than 11 countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, the major coconut growers, are at high risk since
neighboring countries such as Maldives and Myanmar are already infested. The beetle
spreads mostly through the movement of infested plant material. Its natural spread is very
slow since the beetles cannot fly long distances. Shipment of ornamental palms from infested
countries is the main source of spread within the Asia-Pacific region. It is necessary to raise
awareness and capacity building to contain the problem. To avoid further spread, noninfested countries should adopt strict quarantine measures to control the import of plant
materials, soil and any organic matter from infested countries.
The eucalypt rust fungus was first recorded on Eucalyptus citriodora in Brazil in 1943. It has
a wide host range in the family Myrtaceae which include guava and cloves. The pathogen
attacks the foliage, inflorescence and young fruits resulting in significant yield loss in
seedlings and young trees of all the susceptible host plants, especially eucalypts. The
countries currently infested include Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic,
Ecuador, Jamaica, Paraguay, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, Uruguay, USA (south of Florida) and
Venezuela. Despite tight quarantine efforts and precautions the rust has already spread to
Australia (2010) affecting not only eucalyptus but the native Melaleuca and Agonis. The
pathogen has also spread to Japan (2007) and China (2011). It is shown that contaminated
pollen, seeds, and eucalypt planting material, personal items such as foot wear, clothes,
spectacles and baggage aid in spread of the pathogen. Countries such as India which is
currently free of infestation should adopt strict bio-security measures to prevent incursion.
Key words: Coconut leaf beetle, Puccinia psidii, eucalypt rust fungus, invasion, India
108 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Introduction
Of the several invasive species which pose a threat of invasion into the Indian subcontinent,
two species, an insect and a fungus viz., Brontispa longissima (the coconut leaf beetle) and
Puccinia psidii (the eucalypt rust fungus) are considered as the most risky due to the huge
economical and ecological damage they can cause. This paper reviews the distribution, host
range, symptoms of attack and mode of spread of these invasive species and examines how
the impending invasion could be thwarted. It is hoped that this review will stir up urgent
action against the incursion of these species into India and other unaffected countries in the
Asia-Pacific region.
Coconut leaf beetle
The coconut leaf beetle (Brontispa longissima Gestro), native to Indonesia (Aru Islands,
Maluku Province and Papua Province) and Papua New Guinea, including Bismarck
Archipelago is one of the most damaging pests of coconut and other palms (Appanah et al.,
2007).
Biology of the beetle
The adult beetle is with a flat body that is black in colour and with orange head and
shoulders; 7.5 to 10 mm long and 1.5-2 mm wide. Females are generally larger than males.
The larvae and adults of the beetle are nocturnal in habit and remain in unopened leaves,
moving outside only to infest nearby palms or for mating. The eggs are brown and flat (1.4
mm long and 0.5 mm wide) commonly laid in longitudinal rows in the unopened leaflets of
palms. The eggs hatch in 3-7 days for form larvae ( 8-10 mm long) that are white in colour
with two pincer-like spines at the rear end of the body.
Host range
The hosts of the beetle include more than 20 species of palms. These include coconut (Cocos
nucifera), Royal palm (Roystonea sp.), Alexandra palm, (Archontophoenix alexandrae), Sago
palm (Metroxylon sagu) California fan palm (Washingtonia filifera) Mexican palm (W.
robusta), Bottle palm (Hyophorbe lagenicaulis) Chinese fan palm (Livistonia chinenesis)
Madagascar palm (Chrysalidocarpus lutescens) and Areca nut palm (Areca catechu). Of
these, coconut is the most favoured host of the beetle (APFISN, 2008).
Distribution
The beetle is currently distributed in Australia (Darwin, Broome, Moa Island, Cooktown,
Cairns, Innisfail, Marcoola and Townsville), Malaysia, Singapore, Cambodia, Laos,
Thailand, Vietnam, the Maldives, Philippines, Myanmar, and Peoples Republic of China
(Hainan, Guangdong and Taiwan provinces) and several Pacific islands.
Symptoms of attack
The beetle attacks both seedlings and mature palms, but young palms are more susceptible to
infestation. The heart leaves of older palms are firmer and less suitable as breeding grounds
for the beetle and hence they are generally avoided. Larvae of the beetle chew the surface of
leaflets which are still in the throat of young palms (the spear leaf) which kills the underlying
tissues. Photosynthesis is reduced to zero in the affected leaflets which can be identified by
the presence of longitudinal white streaks. As the leaf emerges, the leaflets curl and turn
brown which gives a characteristic burned and ragged appearance. As the spear unfurl, the
beetle moves on to other palms or the next emerging spear. The beetle does not attack leaves
that emerge un-damaged. Severe attacks destroy unopened leaves, reduce amount of reserves
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
109
available to the plant to grow and produce reproductive structures and ultimately nut
production is significantly reduced. Infested palms will appear stunted and become more
susceptible to drought and incidence of fungal diseases. Severe infestations will result in nut
fall, defoliation and death, especially if the palms are young (APFISN, 2008).
Economic impact
Coconut production loss due to the leaf beetle is to the tune of 30-50% in Vietnam and 5070% in Samoa. It has affected livelihood of people depended on coconut farming in some
countries in South-east Asia and the Pacific. In several cases, coconut processing factories
had to be closed down due to non availability of nuts and thousands of workers lost their job.
A study by FAO has shown that, if left uncontrolled, beetle infestation can cause in excess of
US$ 1 billion damage in Vietnam alone. Beetle infestation affects the tourism industry also
since dying or dead palms degrade landscapes and become unattractive to tourists (ISSG
Database, 2009).
Mode of spread
The beetle is capable of only short flights, only a few hundred meters, and hence its natural
spread is slow. Spread is mostly through movement of infested palm seedlings or palm
produce. Shipment of infested ornamental palms is the main source of spread within the AsiaPacific region.
Strategies to avoid spread
Since the neighbouring countries like Maldives and Myanmar are already infested, India
should tighten its quarantine measures by controlling import of plant material, soil and any
organic material from infested countries. It is also necessary to help containing the population
of the beetle in Maldives through adoption of biological and other control measures, since it
is easy for the beetle to spread from Maldives to Southern India. Sri Lanka is equally under
threat. Incursion of the beetle will seriously affect coconut cultivation in Kerala and the
neighbouring states in South India where coconut is the only source of livelihood for a large
section of the society.
Since beetle affected palms and palm products are the main source of spread, these should be
checked to make sure that they are beetle free before movement from infested areas to uninfested areas. Phytosanitary measures in plantations and nurseries also need be encouraged.
Potential spread through animals and human beings who can carry eggs, larvae or beetle on
their bodies cannot be ruled out. Passengers who travel from infested countries should be
directed to examine their baggage for the presence of beetle or eggs or larvae of the beetle.
Raising awareness of the beetle problem and capacity building among all stakeholders will
also help to prevent further spread.
Eucalyptus rust
Puccinia psidii Winter, the eucalyptus rust fungus, is an autoecious rust native to South and
Central America and the Caribbean region which causes serious leaf and shoots disease in
seedlings and young trees of several species of the family Myrtaceae. It is a serious threat to
eucalypt cultivation in several countries wherever the fungus has spread (Coutinho et al.,
1998).
110 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Description of the fungus
The fungus produces different types of spores such as aeciospores, urediniospores,
teliospores and basidiospores and all stages of its life cycle occur on a single host. Aecia and
aeciospores are morphologically identical to uredinia and urediniospores. The fungus
produces abundant urediniospores under field conditions which disperse through air and aid
in the quick spread of the disease. High humidity, leaf wetness and darkness for a minimum
of six hours are pre-requisites for successful germination and infection. Teliospores and
basidiospores are comparatively rare although teliospores are common on some hosts such as
Syzygium jambos ( Ferreira, 1983). A full description of the fungus can be found in Glen et
al., (2007).
Host range
The fungus has a wide host range unlike other rust fungi. The hosts include several species of
Eucalyptus and species under the genera Abbivillea, Acca, Angophora, Agonis, Callistemon,
Calycorectes, Campomanesia, Corymbia, Eugenia, Jambosa, Kunzea, Marlierea, Melaleuca,
Myrcia, Myrcianthes, Myrciaria, Myrtus, Phyllocalyx, Pimenta, Pseudomyrcianthes,
Psidiopsis, Psidium Syphoneugena, Syncarpia and Syzygium - all belonging to the family
Myrtaceae (Simpson et al., 2006 ; Glen and Mohammed, 2012). It causes a severe disease in
guava infecting leaves, stem and fruits causing defoliation and mummification of fruits. The
full host range of the fungus is still unknown. It is possible that all genera of Myrtaceae are
potentially susceptible. Recent reports indicate that the rust causes disease in Metrosideros
polymorpha (‘ohi’a), a dominant tree species in the Hawaiian forests (Killgore and Heu,
2007). The only non Myrtaceous host so far known is Heteropyxis natalensis in South Africa
(Alfenas et al., 2005). .
Distribution
Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Jamaica, Paraguay,
Puerto Rico, Trinidad, Uruguay, USA (south of Florida), Venezuela, Japan and Australia. It
has recently been reported from China (2011).
Symptoms of the disease
The fungus attacks foliage, inflorescence and young, succulent twigs of the hosts. The first
evidence of infection is the appearance of pale yellow powdery eruptions on the leaf or stem
surface. Within a few days, these eruptions deepen in colour to a characteristic egg-yolk
yellow which shows the presence of uredenia and urediniospores. Infected areas coalesce
with age. Secondary infections occur within a few days on primordial leaves, petioles, fruits
and branch tips. In severe cases, the main and secondary branches of young plants are
attacked and the infected parts of the tree shrivel and die. Deformation of leaves, defoliation,
dieback and stunted growth are other symptoms.
Economic impact
Since Eucalyptus occupy around 5 million ha in India and it is one of the major species
under forest plantations, the rust fungus will impose huge economic loss in the forestry/agroforestry sector. Eucalyptus grandis, one of the widely cultivated species of Eucalyptus in
India, is reported to be one of the species most susceptible to the pathogen. Infestation on
other economically important plants of the family Myrtaceae such as guava and clove will
impact the agricultural sector significantly.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
111
Mode of spread
Movement of infected plant material is the main pathway of spread of the pathogen.
Contaminated pollen, seeds and personal items such as foot wear, clothes and baggage also
aid in new incursions across countries and continents. Urediniospores are produced in large
quantities during the infection cycle which will get wind dispersed over large distances
helping the fast spread of the disease. Potential for insect, bird or mammal-vectored spread is
also reported (Glen et al., 2007).
Strategies to avoid spread
The wide host range and the occurrence several races and biotypes of the pathogen makes it a
potential threat the world over. The spores of the fungus are capable of travelling long
distances making early detection of spread a formidable task. It may be noted that despite
stringent quarantine measures and other precautions, the pathogen has spread to Australia in
2010 where it affects other members of the family Myrtaceae such as Agonis and Melaleuca.
The source of the incursion has been tentatively identified as North America (Glen and
Mohammed, 2012). It has already spread to Japan (2007) and more recently to China (2011).
There is an impending threat of its spread to India and other countries in the Asia-Pacific
region.
Countries which are free from infestation should strengthen their quarantine measures and
implement these scrupulously to avoid incursion of the pathogen. Import of nursery stock,
cut-vegetation products and seeds from infested countries should be done with extreme
caution. Bio security measures and disease surveillance also need to be done on a continuous
basis. Reports indicate that the pathogen continues to spread irrespective of all human efforts.
Since the pathogen is next door, unless the quarantine officials, foresters, agriculturists and
pathologists wake up and work hard, it will stealthily enter and undermine the ecological
stability and economy of all countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank the IUFRO and APFISN for kind support to K.V. Sankaran to participate
in the workshop.
References
ALFENAS, A.C., ZAUZA, E.A.V.,WINGFIELD, M.J., ROUX, J., AND GLEN, M. 2005.
Heteropyxis natalensis, a new host of Puccinia psidii rust. Australasian Plant Pathology 34,
p. 285-286.
APFISN. 2008. Coconut leaf beetle, Invasive Species Fact Sheet, Asia-Pacific Forest
Invasive Species Network Secretariat, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Kerala, India, 2pp.
APPANAH, S., SIM, H.C. AND SANKARAN, K.V. 2007. Developing an Asia-Pacific
strategy for forest invasive species: The coconut beetle problem – bridging agriculture and
forestry. Report of the Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network Workshop, RAP
Publication 2007/02, FAO, Bangkok, 142 pp.
COUTINHO, T.A., WINFILED, M.J., ALFENAS, A.C.AND CROUS, P.W. 1998.
Eucalyptus rust: A disease with the potential for serious international implications. Plant
Disease, 82, p. 819-25.
GLEN, M., ALFENAS, A.C., ZAUZA, E.A.V., WINGFIELD, M.J. AND MOHAMMED, C.
2007. Puccinia psidii: a threat to the Australian environment and economy. Australasian
Plant Pathology, 36, p. 1-16.
112 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
GLEN, M. AND MOHAMMED.C. 2012. Puccina psidii? What next? Abstract of paper
presented at the 3rd meeting of IUFRO Working Unit 7.03.12 ‘Alien invasive species and
international trade’, University of Tokyo, Japan, June 10-16, 2012.
ISSG Database. 2009. Ecology of Brontispa longissima. IUCN/SSC Invasive Species
Specialist Group, 3pp.
KILLGORE, E.M. AND HEU, R.A. 2007.‘Ohia’ rust: Puccinia psidii Winter. New Pest
Advisory No. 05-04. Honolulu, Hawaii Department of Agriculture, 5pp.
SIMPSON, J.A., THOMAS, K. AND GRGURINOVIC, C.A. 2006 Uredinales species
pathogenic on species of Myrtaceae. Australasian Plant Pathology, 35: p. 546-562.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
113
INVASIVE ALIEN PLANT PESTS IN INDIA, THEIR IMPACTS AND OPTIONS
FOR MITIGATION
Kavita Gupta and P. C. Agarwal
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources,
Pusa Campus, New Delhi – 110 012
Corresponding author : kavita@nbpgr.ernet.in or kavita6468@gmail.com
Abstract
The Indian subcontinent is the home to several centers of plant biodiversity, supporting
valuable local species, but these centers are under considerable threat from invasive alien
species (IAS). Introduction of seed, plants and planting material over the past several decades
without proper inspection for associated pests has resulted in introduction of several alien
pests into new areas and has proved disastrous to the economy as well as the environment.
Two types of negative effects of invasions have been identified which are not mutually
exclusive-one is that the colonizing species becoming a pest, and/ or the colonizing species
leads to extinction of native species. The main impact of alien invasive plant pests include
reduction in yields and quality of produce, increase in labour costs and the secondary impacts
from the management methods used for their control include environmental pollution and
health hazards.
Several alien species were introduced on various crops in India which have since become
serious pests and continue to cause damage year after year. The San Jose scale
(Quadraspidiotus perniciosus), a pest of apple (1930s) and causes enormous losses in apple
orchards in Himachal Pradesh. The fluted scale (Icerya purchasi), a serious pest of citrus and
native of Australia was introduced into India before 1928 from Sri Lanka to later become a
serious pest on citrus in south India. A large-scale campaign was organized in south India
from 1946 to 1950 to check the spread of this pest. Heavy losses in grain yield of Cicer
arietinum crop in states of Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab and adjoining areas occurred
during 1981-82 due to the introduction of virulent biotype of Aschochyta blight from the
Middle East. Bunchy top of banana caused by Banana bunchy top virus entered India from
Sri Lanka and causes loss to banana of over Rs 40 million annually. The dreaded Golden
nematode (Heterodera rostochiensis) introduced from UK along with exotic seed material in
1960s has been causing severe infestation of potato tubers in the Nilgiris region. The noxious
weed Parthenium hysterophorus introduced into India along with wheat import from Mexico
in 1956 has invaded the entire country and causes losses to the tune of Rs 6 million annually.
In order to develop a step-wise operational procedure for management of IAS, it is vital to
understand their status, which can be classified as introduced and established, recently
introduced, or not yet present but with potential to be introduced. For the IAS already
established in India (e.g. Parthenium, Lantana, Mikania, etc.), there is a need for an intensive
official control programme through integrated pest management with special emphasis on
biological control. In addition, management of established IAS also requires habitat
restoration to be accorded importance. In the case of recently introduced IAS (e.g. whitefly
biotype ‘B’), there is a need for early detection, which necessitates extensive surveys that
may be site specific or species specific, or both as the case may be. Based on its status as
revealed by the survey, further actions to mitigate its effects may be decided upon.
Quarantine is critical to prevent the ingress of alien pests and identifying the pathways that
lead to harmful invasions and addressing the gaps in plant quarantine measures would help in
building the national capacity to prevent IAS.
114 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
In India, at the national level, various aspects of IAS problems are being directly or indirectly
dealt with by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) as the nodal agency to deal
with IAS for negotiations with Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The Ministry of
Commerce and Industry in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture is the nodal ministry
for implementation of the sanitary and phytosanitary measures of the WTO Agreements
which deals with quarantine norms and standards to be set up at national level as per
international requirements for minimizing the risks associated with the transboundary
movement of pests along with agricultural commodities. So far, there is no clear cut emphasis
on IAS though the subject is dealt from time to time in several Departments of these
Ministries. However, the National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan of India highlights the
actions to be taken for management of IAS. Besides, the need for a cohesive policy to deal
with IAS at the ground level has also been highlighted in the Conference of Parties (CoP) and
the Subsidiary Body of Scientific Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) meetings
of CBD.
Introduction
The Indian subcontinent is the home to several centers of plant biodiversity, supporting
valuable local species, but these centers are under considerable threat from invasive alien
species (IAS). Introduction of seed, plants and planting material over the past several decades
without proper inspection for associated pests has resulted in introduction of several alien
pests into new areas and has proved disastrous to the economy as well as the environment.
Two types of negative effects of invasions have been identified which are not mutually
exclusive- one is that the colonizing species becoming a pest, and/ or the colonizing species
leads to extinction of native species. The main impact of invasive alien plant pests include
reduction in yields and quality of produce, increase in labour costs and the secondary impacts
from the management methods used for their control include environmental pollution and
health hazards.
Plant quarantine is a government effort enforced through legislative measures to regulate the
introduction of planting materials, plant products, soil, living organisms etc. in order to
prevent inadvertent introduction of pests, pathogens and weeds harmful to the agriculture of a
country/state/region and if introduced, prevent their establishment and further spread. The
present day definition of a pest is any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal or pathogenic
agent injurious to plants or plant products. While discussing IAS it is important to first clarify
certain definitions. A quarantine pest as per the internationally accepted definition is a “pest
of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and not yet present there, or
present but not widely distributed and being officially controlled”(www.ippc.org). IAS are,
however, generally considered as plants and animals that are introduced into new areas where
they are not part of the native flora and fauna, and because they no longer face the natural
enemies or competition they do in their areas of origin, they spread or reproduce prolifically.
Hence, it may be noted here that all IAS qualify to be called as quarantine pests while all
quarantine pests are not necessarily invasive.
IAS have serious economic and environmental implications in a wide range of ecosystems.
History has witnessed that due to trade and exchange of plant material, several countries
suffered enormous losses due to the inadvertent introduction of exotic pests along with
planting material of crops. The Irish potato famine of 1845 is well known example of total
devastation of potato crop caused by late blight fungus (Phytophthora infestants) introduced
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
115
from Central America. Potato being a staple food for the people, caused starvation and mass
migration of Irish people to America and other parts of the world. Likewise, the vine industry
of France in the middle of 19th century was virtually destroyed due to introduction of
powdery mildew (Uncinula necator) and downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola) of grapes
from America. The 1912-1927 outbreak of citrus canker disease in Florida, USA, caused by
bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. citri cost 6 million US dollars for eradication
and when the disease reappeared in Florida in 1984, the control efforts have thus far cost
more than 70 million US dollars (Khetarpal and Gupta, 2008).
Several pests were introduced on various crops in India too which have since become serious
pests and continue to cause damage year after year. Some of them have been listed below:
The San Jose scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus), a pest of apple (1930s) and causes
enormous losses in apple orchards in Himachal Pradesh.
The woolly aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum), a serious pest of apple also introduced into India
causes substantial losses in apple growing states of north India.
The fluted scale (Icerya purchasi), a serious pest of citrus and native of Australia was
introduced into India before 1928 from Sri Lanka probably on wattles (Acacia sp.) to later
become a serious pest on citrus in south India. A large-scale campaign was organized in
south India from 1946 to 1950 to check the spread of this pest.
Heavy losses in grain yield of Cicer arietinum crop in states of Haryana, Madhya Pradesh,
Punjab and adjoining areas occurred during 1981-82 due to the introduction of virulent
biotype of Aschochyta blight from the Middle East.
Bunchy top of banana caused by Banana bunchy top virus entered India from Sri Lanka
and causes loss to banana of over Rs 4 Crores annually.
The dreaded Golden nematode (Heterodera rostochiensis) introduced from UK along with
exotic seed in 1960s has been causing severe infestation of potato in the Nilgiris.
All these examples clearly demonstrate that imported seed/ planting material, especially bulk
imports, without proper quarantine may result in introduction and establishment of alien pests
into new areas which may severely damage the crop production and economy of a nation.
Legislation to address IAS in India
With the trade in agricultural commodities brought under the WTO Agreement on
Agriculture, plant quarantine and phytosanitary measures assume greater importance as it
could serve as a mode of transport for exotic pests and diseases among trading countries.
Plant quarantine is critical to protect the agriculture from the ingress of alien pests. The
policy of using government authority to prevent entry of dangerous exotic pests is based on
the principle that it is preferable to undergo some inconvenience in an effort to exclude pests
than to later bear the expense of controlling them.
The Government of India passed the first Act in 1906 under the Sea Customs Act of 1878 to
stop the entry of the Mexican cotton boll weevil Anthonomus grandis and ordered
compulsory fumigation of imported cotton bales. The first quarantine law in India was
enacted in 1914 as the Destructive Insects and Pests (DIP) Act. A gazette notification entitled
Rules for Regulating the Import of Plants etc. into India was published in 1936. Over the
years, the DIP Act was revised and amended several times to meet the changing global
requirements. Even today, A. grandis is a regulated pest and import of cotton seed or bales
are required to be free of this pest.
After the coming of New Policy on Seed Development in 1988, and the WTO Agreements in
1995, import of agricultural commodities was being allowed more freely. Thus, the Plant
Quarantine (Regulation for Import into India) Order 2003 came into force as there was an
urgent need to:
116 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Fill-up the gaps in existing PFS order viz., regulating import of germplasm/GMO’s/
transgenic plant material; live insects/fungi including bio-control agents etc.
Protect the interest of the farmers of the country by preventing the entry, establishment
and spread of destructive pests, vectors and alien species and also safeguard the national
biodiversity from threats of invasion by alien species
Under this order, the need for incorporation of additional/special declarations for freedom of
import commodities from quarantine and alien pests, on the basis of standardized pest risk
analysis (PRA), particularly for seed/ planting materials is also taken care of.
Apart from the PQ Order 2003, the Indian Biodiversity Act 2000 has been drafted in line with
the obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). In addition, the
Environment (Protection) Rules (1989) empowers the government to prohibit or restrict the
handling, export and import of living creatures, plants, etc. because of its damage causing
potential to the environment. Although IAS are covered under the Environment Protection
Act (EPA), it does not state clearly the modality for their restriction and prohibition. All the
above mentioned legislative measures cover diverse aspects of IAS including quarantine,
environment protection and trade (Gupta and Khetarpal, 2006).
As such the usage of the term “Invasive Alien Species” is not very popular at present and IAS
are dealt in under the guise of exotic-organisms or pests. These need to be reviewed in order
to streamline the approach for managing the IAS.
Mitigation of IAS
Management of invasive species has three broad approaches, exclusion of IAS from the area
to be protected (e.g. by quarantine or physical barriers), eradication and control. Control in
this context assumes that the invasive is established but can be managed at undamaging
population levels. These options are influenced by the extent of the invasion, the nature of the
ecosystem invaded and particularly by the type of the invader.
While it is possible to establish general principles and tools for invasive species management,
practical management strategies differ greatly between the various organisms and these need
to be developed on a case-to-case basis by identifying the best options, tools and integrated
strategies for eradication or long term management. The officials dealing in IAS need to
establish long term programmes, arrange funding, establish cooperation between government
agencies (and often between governments where IAS are trans-border problems) and involve
the public at large. The appropriate legal and regulatory frameworks must also be in place to
drive this process. All of these factors play a role in management of invasive species at the
national level (Khetarpal and Gupta, 2006).
The 15 Guiding Principles for the Prevention, Introduction and Mitigation of Impacts of
Alien Species that Threaten Ecosystems, Habitats or Species were adopted by CoP 6 of CBD
in 2002. These serve as broad guidelines for management of IAS. Besides these, a
comprehensive toolkit on prevention and management practices of IAS has been brought out
by CABI on behalf of GISP which proposes three major management options, prevention,
early detection and eradication, and control (Wittenberg and Cock, 2001).
Prevention of introductions is the first and most cost-effective option. This lesson has been
learned the hard way from several cases of highly destructive and costly invasive organisms
such as Ascochyta blight of chickpea, late blight of potato, whitefly “biotype B” in India.
Exclusion methods based on pathways rather than on individual species provide a way to
focus efforts on pathways along which pests are most likely to enter national boundaries and
to intercept several potential invaders linked to a single pathway. Three major possibilities to
prevent further invasions exist:
1) Interception based on regulations enforced with inspection and fees
2) Treatment of material suspected to be contaminated with non-indigenous species
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
117
3) Prohibition of particular commodities in accordance with international regulations.
All this calls for stringent quarantine measures to be adopted. To meet this challenge, the PQ
Order 2003 has given a list of >700 plant species/ type of materials given in its schedules IV,
V and VI which are either prohibited for import or require additional declarations regarding
freedom from specific pests or can be imported by specific organizations only (Plant
Quarantine Order, 2003) (Figure I).
Deliberate introductions of non-indigenous species need to be subject to pest risk
assessment/invasiveness risk assessment. Based on the invasive/non-invasive nature of the
species within its geographic distribution and taking into account its adaptability/suitability in
the new ecosystem it would be possible to assess its potential invasiveness. The species
posing no or negligible risk can be immediately cleared for import but those with moderate
risk should be tested on a trial basis under controlled conditions to assess invasive potential.
The cost and time involved in understanding such studies is fully justified and would be
much less than any eradication/control strategy adopted in case it becomes invasive. The
import of high risk species should be strictly prohibited. Special care should be taken for
import of biocontrol agents to verify and ensure its host specificity (Gupta and Khetarpal,
2004).
Over the years, during quarantine processing, a large number of pests have been intercepted
in imported bulk consignments and in germplasm and other research material (Khetarpal et
al., 2006).
Table 1. Category of pest intercepted of pest/host/source of countries
No
Category of pest intercepted
1.
Not known to occur in India
2.
Known to occur but the race/
biotype/strain intercepted is not
known to occur
Intercepted on a host on which it
was never reported before
3.
4.
5.
6.
Intercepted from a source
country from where it was never
reported before
A
new
species
hitherto
unreported
Known to occur in India but
possess a wide host range
Pest/ host/ source country
Uromyces betae/ Sugarbeet/ USA and Italy
Fusarium nivale/ Wheat/ UK
Cowpea mottle virus/ Cowpea/ Philippines
Heterodera schachtii/ Sugarbeet/ Denmark
Anthonomus grandis/ Cotton/ USA
Quadrastichodella eucalyptii/ Eucalyptus/ Australia
Helminthosporium maydis/ race T/ Sorghum/ USA
Pea seed-borne mosaic virus/ Broadbean
Burkholderia solanacearum biovar 3/ Groundnut/ Australia
Alternaria zinniae/ Tobacoo/ Japan
Pseudomonas syringae pv syringae/ Hibiscus cannabinus/
Bangladesh
Aphelenchoides besseyi/ Stylosanthes hamata/ Australia
Merobruchus columbinus/ Samanea saman/ UK
Bruchus ervi/ Acacia brachustachva/ Australia
Pachymerus lacerdae/ Orbygnya phalerata/ Italy
Peronospora manschurica/ soybean/ Malaysia
Heterodera zeae/ Vetiveria zizanioides/ Tanzania
Bruchus ervi/ Acacia brachustachva/ Australia
Drechslera pluriseptata/ Eleusine coracana/ Zambia
Tylenchorhynchus neoclavicaudatus on potato tubers from
USA
Polenchus minutus/ Palm plants/ UK
Collectotrichum graminicola, Drechslera turcica and
Gloeocercospora sorghi/ Sorghum/ Nigeria
Drechslera siccans/ Soybean/ USA
Claviceps purpurea/ Avena sativa/ USA
(After Khetarpal and Gupta, 2007, 2008)
118 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
These interceptions, especially of pests and their variability not yet reported from India
signify the importance of quarantine in preventing the introduction of destructive alien pests.
The third and fourth category of pests are not expected in the sample as per the risk analysis
which is literature based and since no records are available on the pest/ host their presence is
unexpected and hence, important from quarantine view point. The last category - pests with a
wide host range are critical and could become invasive in case they find suitable
environmental conditions. This category of intercepted pests is highly dangerous because of
their potential invasiveness.
Ug99- immediate attention needed!
Another potential IAS threat by a fungal pathogen Ug99 looms large on our nearly 50
million wheat farmers in India. If introduced, farmers in Gangetic plains are likely to lose
over 7 million tons of wheat and wheat products annually due to a virulent race Ug99 of
wheat stem rust pathogen (Puccinia graminis tritici), first reported in Uganda in 1999.
Ug99 has subsequently spread from Uganda and to Kenya (1999), to Ethiopia (2003); to
Yemen and Sudan (2003); and to Iran (2008). Its arrival in Iran means that it is a matter of
time when the spores of Ug99 would move over to Pakistan which then will serve as a entry
point to the adjoining Punjab (India) from where it would hit other wheat producing areas
of India. Presently, the Indian government is trying to identify resistant Indian genotypes in
disease hotspots like Kenya and Uganda to be prepared to deal with the pest if/when it
arrives in India.
Early detection and eradication of a potential invasive species is often crucial in determining
the possibility of eradication or at least of effectively containing a new colonizer. Early
detection in the form of surveys may focus on a species of concern or on a specific site.
Species-specific surveys are designed, adapted or developed for a specific situation, taking
into consideration the ecology of the target species. Site-specific surveys are targeted to
detect invaders in the vicinity of high-risk entry points or in high value biodiversity areas. In
this regard, India needs to have specific programmes to detect invaders at an early stage.
Eradication is successful and cost-effective only in response to early detection of a nonindigenous species. However, a careful analysis of the costs and likelihood of success must
be made, and adequate resources mobilized, before eradication is attempted. Most eradication
programmes need to employ several different methods. Each programme must evaluate its
situation to find the best methods in that area under the given circumstances. Successful
eradication programmes in the past have been based on 1) mechanical control, e.g.
handpicking of snails, 2) chemical control, e.g. using pesticides or irradiation methods, and 3)
habitat management, (e.g. grazing and prescribed burning). Island ecosystems are particularly
amenable to eradication as the area is defined due to the presence of natural water barrier.
The Sterile Insect Technique used in Japan and Mauritius for eradication of certain species of
fruit flies, a serious pest of several fruits and vegetables, is a good example.
Control is the last step in the sequence of management options of an invasive species when
eradication is not feasible. The aim of control is to reduce the density and abundance of an
invasive organism to keep it below or at an acceptable threshold. There are several specific
methods for controlling invasive species. Many of the control methods can also be used in
eradication programmes.
Mechanical control is highly specific to the target, but always very labour-intensive. In
countries where human labour is costly, the use of manual methods is limited mainly to
volunteer groups.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
119
Chemical control is often very effective as a short-term solution. The major drawbacks are
the high costs, the adverse effects on non-target species, and the possibility of the pest
species evolving into resistant strains and environmental pollution.
Biological control in comparison with other methods, when successful, is highly cost
effective, permanent, self-sustaining and ecologically safe because of the high specificity
of the agents used. Biological control is particularly appropriate for use in nature reserves
and other conserved areas because of its environmentally friendly nature and the
increasing instances of prohibition of pesticide use in these areas.
Integrated pest management (IPM), combining several approaches, will often provide the
most effective and acceptable control.
Invasive Alien Species
Pests/ Biocontrol Agents
Introduction
Accidental
Intentional
(Smuggling)
Import Risk Analysis
(CBD/ WTO/ DIP Act/ PQ Order)
Harmful
Sch. IV
(PQ Order)
Entry
prohibited
PREVENTION
Harmless
Sch. VII (PQ
Order)
Strict legislation/
Inspection
Import under
strict
quarantine
EARLY
DETECTION
Periodical Monitoring/ Surveillance
Detected- Invasive
Not detected
Fail to
establish
Not established
Periodic
survey
Eradication
feasible
Official
control
IPM
Habitat
restoration
Established
No adverse
impact
detected
Eradication
not feasible
Control
methods
No
control
Adverse impacts
ERADICATION
CONTROL
Harmless
Fig 1 Flow Chart for Management of IAS
120 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Finally, there are situations where the current techniques for management of IAS are simply
inadequate, impractical or uneconomic. In such situations the only way is to specifically
tailor ways to reduce their impact on habitats and other species (Gupta and Khetarpal, 2010).
The way forward
The 15 Guiding Principles for the prevention, introduction and mitigation of impacts of alien
species adopted after the VI CoP meeting invited the international organizations to further
develop standards and devise new or revise agreements existing standards and Agreements,
including for pest risk assessment/analysis and to consider incorporating criteria related to the
threats to biological diversity posed by IAS. With these Guiding Principles as the base, the
Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC), Ministry of Agriculture has proposed a
National Policy for the Control of IAS keeping in view that the national IPM Programme
under the DAC as the mechanism to prevent and control the threat posed by IAS within the
country. This would include the involvement of State Governments, NGOs, private sector,
research institutions and farmer self-help groups for surveillance and detection of
pests/diseases and for taking eco- friendly corrective action within the IPM scheme.
Locust watch- guarding our borders from locust invasion
Migratory Locust is a menace for the Asian region and an active coordination with FAO
and neighboring countries for surveillance, early detection and control measures for the
same is already in place. Locust survey and control are under the Ministry of Agriculture in
India. There are also several regional locust organizations that assist with survey and
control operations. FAO operates a centralized Desert Locust Information Service and
transmits locust data to FAO, Rome who analyze it along with weather and habitat data and
satellite imagery to assess the current locust situation, provide forecasts and issue warnings
on an ad-hoc basis.
Domestic Quarantine rules promulgated for nine invasive pests (Fluted scale, San José scale,
coffee berry borer, codling moth, banana bunchy top and mosaic viruses, potato cyst
nematode, potato wart and apple scab) with limited distribution exist in the DIP Act, 1914
and needs to be more stringently implemented. In the past, huge economic losses have been
incurred due to introduction of IAS like Ascochyta blight (from Middle East). There is an
urgent need to check not only spread of above pests but also to promulgate domestic
quarantine against certain important alien pest species which have been introduced/detected
in the country in the recent years and which are likely to spread fast. The important examples
of reports of such pests are American serpentine leaf miner (Liriomyza trifolii) from
Karnataka in 1991, spiraling white fly (Aleurodicus dispersus) recorded from Tamil Nadu in
1993, papaya ring spot virus from Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh in 1994, sunflower
downy mildew (Plasmopara halstedii) recorded for the first time from Maharashtra in 1984
and Peanut stripe potyvirus initially recorded at Raichur in Karnataka in 1987 are now being
reported from certain other states. In 1999, a new biotype B’ of the white fly Bemisia tabaci
which is an efficient vector for Tomato leaf curl virus has been reported in Kolar taluk of
Bangalore and is suspected to have been introduced with imports of horticultural crops. All
these introduced pests have caused and are still causing enormous loss to human health,
environment and biodiversity.
Presently, greater emphasis is being laid on research being conducted to study impact of
climate change on threat of IAS. Substantial crop damage and serious losses were incurred in
parts of peninsular India in 2002 due to white woolly aphid infestation of sugarcane crop.
This pest had previously never infested sugarcane in India. The task of research, future
prevention and control measures is being handled by Ministry of Agriculture in coordination
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
121
with other Central Government Departments, concerned State Governments, ICAR, other
research institutions and Agriculture Universities, Private Sector and Sugar Factories. This is
one example of an attempt to manage IAS.
1.
2.
3.
4.
National strategy for management of IAS
Identify a cross-sectoral group to develop an invasive species programme. This group
would assess and present the case studies of invasive species that are a major threat to
biodiversity in the country for which action needs to be taken. This would include
developing an inventory/database invasive species, their ecological and economic
impacts, and the ecosystems invaded.
Identify and involve all stakeholders to address the IAS problem. Key persons need to
be strategically involved, and conspicuous invasive species problems in the country used
to generate public awareness to educate the public about the problems caused by
invasive species and the options available for solving or preventing the problem.
Formulate a national strategy after the initial assessment and identification of
stakeholders. Ideally, a single nodal agency should be identified. If however, many
agencies are involved, the responsibilities and work needs to be clearly defined and
allocated between the agencies and each allocated with complete administrative and
technical powers. The goals and objectives for the national strategy should be realistic
and result oriented.
Develop legal framework for prevention and management of IAS needs to be
considered. Effective management requires appropriate national laws as well as
coordinated international action based on jointly agreed standards. Many international
Agreements address components of the IAS problem, but national legislation is needed
for implementation in each country.
In India the Ministry of Environment and Forests is the nodal agency for matters related to
biodiversity and deals and negotiates with CBD. The Ministry of Commerce and Industry in
cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture is the nodal ministry for implementation of the
sanitary and phytosanitary measures of the WTO Agreements which deals with quarantine
norms and standards to be set up at national level as per international requirements for
minimizing the risks associated with the transboundary movement of pests and pathogens
along with agricultural commodities. So far, there is no clear cut emphasis on IAS though the
subject is dealt from time to time in several Departments of these Ministries.
With increases in trade, transport, travel and tourism there is greater movement of people and
commodities both domestically and internationally and consequently greater risk of spread of
IAS. Identifying and, where possible, quantifying the importance of the pathways that lead to
harmful invasions and addressing the gaps in plant quarantine measures will help in building
the national capacity to tackle with IAS (Rana et al., 2004).
In fact, the fifteen Guiding Principles of the sixth Conference of Parties of the CBD give a
very comprehensive approach that can be modified and adopted to suit our national action
plan. The recently developed National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan of MoEF highlights
the actions to be taken for management of IAS. Hence, a holistic approach with an interministerial working groups and compliance to the norms of WTO and CBD for trade without
compromising with environmental issues would be the only way to effectively tackle the
issue of invasive alien plant pests and diseases.
122 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Acknowledgement
The authors sincerely acknowledge the contributions of Dr R K Khetarpal, Former Head,
Plant Quarantine Division, who was instrumental in initiating work on policy issues related to
invasive alien species at NBPGR and in shaping our understanding of the subject.
References
GUPTA, K. AND KHETARPAL, R. K. 2004. Concept of regulated pests, their risk analysis
and the Indian scenario. Annual Review of Plant Pathology, 4, 409-441.
GUPTA, K. AND KHETARPAL, R. K. 2010. A Strategy for Management of Invasive Alien
Species in India: A Case Study for Developing Countries In: Gautam et al., (eds)
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Parthenium, December 8-10, 2010,
Division of Entomology, IARI, New Delhi, India. p 87-90.
GUPTA, K. AND KHETARPAL, S. 2006. Regulatory Measures dealing with Invasive Alien
Species: Global and National Scenario. In: (eds.) Rai, L.C. and Gaur, J. P. Invasive Alien
Species and Biodiversity in India, Banaras Hindu University, Department of Botany, Centre
of Advanced Study, Varanasi, p 169-185.
KHETARPAL, S. AND GUPTA, K. 2006. Management of Invasive Alien Species: National
Strategy. In: (eds.) Rai, L.C. and Gaur, J. P. Invasive Alien Species and Biodiversity in India,
Banaras Hindu University, Department of Botany, Centre of Advanced Study, Varanasi, p
43- 56.
KHETARPAL, R, K, AND GUPTA, K. 2008. Plant quarantine in India in the wake of
international agreements: A review. Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur, Review of Plant
Pathology 4, 367-391.
KHETARPAL, R. K. AND GUPTA, K. 2007. Plant Biosecurity in India- Status and
Strategy. Asian Biotechnology and Development Review 9(2), 39-63.
KHETARPAL, R. K., LAL, A., VARAPRASAD, K. S., et al. 2006. Quarantine for Safe
Exchange of Plant Genetic Resources. In: Singh A. K., Saxena S., Srinivasan K. and Dhillon
B.S. (eds) 100 years of PGR Management in India National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources, New Delhi, India, p 83-108.
RANA, R. S., DHILLON, B. S. AND KHETARPAL, R. K. 2004. Invasive Alien Species:
The Indian Scene. Indian Journal of Plant Genetic Resources 16(3): 190-213.
WITTENBERG, R. AND COCK, M. J. W. (eds.). 2001. Invasive Alien Species: A Toolkit of
Best Prevention and Management Practices. CABI Publishing, UK, 228 p.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
123
ABUNDANCE OF PREDATORY ANTS IN WANAGAMA EDUCATION FOREST,
GUNUNG KIDUL, YOGYAKARTA
Musyafa, H. Supriyo, and W.H. Pamungkas
Faculty of Forestry Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia;
Corresponding author: mus_afa@yahoo.com
Abstract
Tree species such as Acacia mangium, eucalypt (Eucalyptus spp.) and teak (Tectona grandis)
planted at Wanagama Education Forest are often attacked by insect pests. Predatory ants may
have an important role in controlling insect pest populations. This aim of this study was to
identify predatory ants and quantify their abundance in stands of A. mangium, eucalypt and
teak at Wanagama. Ants were sampled using pitfall traps set up in both dry and wet seasons.
Environmental factors such as litter water content, soil water content, litter thickness were
determined. Five species of predatory ants were found in A. mangium, six species in
eucalypts and four species in teak. The abundance of ants in the wet season was higher than
in dry season. Odontoponera sp. was the most dominant species in A. mangium and eucalypt
stands, while Oecophylla sp. was the most abundant in the teak stand.
Introduction
Tree species planted at Wanagama Education Forest, Gunung Kidul are often attacked by
insect pests in the field and nursery. Important pests of teak are Hyblaea puera, Paliga
damastesalis and Neotermes tectonae. Hyblaea puera is known as the teak defoliator and
usually eat the young leaves at the beginning of the rainy season. Severe defoliation can
reduce teak growth. Paliga damastesalis (teak leaf skeletonizer) eats the soft parts of the
leaves (mesophyll) and leaves the veins. These pests have caused widespread severe damage
to mature trees in Mantingan, Randu Blatung, Cepu and Blora and Kendal (Husaini, 2001).
Other pests of teak are Xyleutes ceramicus, Xyleborus destruens and Zeuzera coffeae. The
latter pest is known to attack young plants tissue culture propagated in Kendal, Central Java.
Locusts also sporadically attack teak.
Seedlings of A. mangium in the nursery are often attacked by bagworms and grasshoppers.
Helopeltis theivora causes dieback on young shoots. Eucalypt seedlings are also often
attacked by several insects in the nuresey; tea mosquito bug, Helopeltis spp, leaf roller and
shoot borer, In Hutan Persada plantation, Supangkat (1998) reported that 1000 ha of 2-3 yearold Eucalyptus deglupta was attacked by the borer Agrilus sexignatus.
Reliance on chemical insecticides is undesirable due to negative impacts on the environment.
Predatory ants may play an important role in controlling insect pests and providing an
environmentally friendly biocontrol. Mostly they have been shown to be effective insect pest
control agents in agricultural crops; cashew in Australia (Ozaki et al 2000, Offenburg et al,
2004). In Indonesia predatory ants are reported to reduce insects pests in citrus, cocoa,
rambutan in Indonesia; Subagiya et al. (2009) reports that Oecophylla smaragdina is
eefective in citrus orchards and a Forestry Research report (2009) states that in cocoa
Dolichoderus thoracicus reduces fruit borer and Iridomirmex (a genus of ants that belongs to
the subfamily Dolichoderinae) controls Holopeltsis antonii. Predatory ants are seldom
envisaged as biocontrol agents for forest plantations especially in in Indonesia although they
have been shown to reduce pests in mangrove (Peng et al 1995, Peng et al. 1997). The
124 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
objective of this study is to identify and quantify the abundance of predatory ants in A.
mangium, eucalypt and teak during both the wet season and dry season.
Materials and Methods
The study was carried out in stands of A. mangium, eucalyptus and teak stands in
Compartment 17 of the Education Forest Wanagama operated by Gadjah Mada University. It
is located in Gunungkidul Yogyakarta, 202 m above sea level.. Rainfall in Wanagama is
1900 mm per year. The study was conducted in February (wet season) and August (dry
season) in 2006. Ants were collected from the floor of each stand using pitfall traps. These
traps were constructed from plastic cups with a diameter of 5 cm and height of 7 cm. Twenty
traps were established for each stand and left over a period of two days. The ants collected
were preserved in 70% alcohol for identification in laboratory. The moisture content of both
the soil and the litter were determined during the study.
Results and Discussion
Individual numbers of predatory ants are shown in Figure 1. The number of ants trapped in
A. mangium and eucalypt stands during the wet season were much higher than during dry
season. These results are similar to those of Musyafa (2002) in A. mangium stands in which
the numbers of soil macrofauna in the wet season were much higher than those in the dry
season. The moisture content of soil and litter in wet seasons is significantly higher than the
dry season (Table 1) this favouring build-up of ant populations.
16
14
12
10
8
dry season
6
wet season
4
2
0
mangium
eucalypt
teak
Figure 1. Individual number of ants collected from the plantation floor in A. mangium,
eucalypt and teak stands in the Education Forest Wanagama, Gunungkidul
Yogyakarta (average of individuals/trap)
Table 1. Soil and litter water content, litter thickness in stands of A. mangium, eucalypt
and teak in Education Forest Wanagama, Gunungkidul Yogyakarta
Soil water
Litter water
Litter thickness
content (%)
content (%)
(cm)
Stands
dry
wet
dry
wet
dry
wet
A. mangium
11
35
3
38
1.5
2.4
eucalypt
10
37
6
20
1.5
1.7
teak
12
30
6
41
8.1
0.8
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
125
Table 2. Abundance of predatory ant species in A. mangium, eucalypt and teak stands
in the Education Forest Wanagama, Gunungkidul, Yogyakarta
Acacia
No.
Species
eucalypt
teak
mangium
1
Pheidologeton sp
0
52
0
2
Oecophylla smaragdina
53
1
13
3
Componatus sp
5
6
1
4
Odontoponera sp.
252
79
15
5
Pachycondyla sp.
0
17
0
6
Odontomachus sp.
36
0
0
7
Iridomyrmex sp.
2
15
12
Five species of predatory ants were found in A. mangium, 6 in eucalypt and 4 in teak stands.
In A. mangium stands Odontoponera sp., Oecophylla smaragdina and Odontomachus sp.
were the most commonly encountered predatory ant species. In eucalypt stands the predatory
ant community was different to that in A. mangium with greater numbers of predatory ants in
the genera Odonoponera, Paedologeton and Pachycondila. The ant community in teak had
overall lower numbers but was more similar in composition to A. mangium with
Odontoponera sp and O. smaragdina as the most dominant species (Table 2.).
Oecophylla smargdina has the potential to protect A. mangium and teak from insect pest
attack and are the same ants that effectively control insect pests in citrus, mangrove, cashew
plantation (Peng et al 1995, Peng et al. 1997, Ozaki et al 2000, Offenburg et al, 2004,
Subagiya 2004). The number of ants belonging to Odontoponera was also high in the stands
and the role of this species in controlling insect pest should be studied.
References
HUSAINI, E.A. 2001. Hama hutan di Indonesia. Fakultas Kehutanan IPB. Bogor.
Indonesian. 764-768
NAIR.K.S.S. & SUMARDI. 2001. Insect pests and diseases in Indonesian Forest.CIFOR.
Bogor. Indonesia
OFFENBERG, J., HAVANON, S., AKSORMKOAE, S., MAINTOSH, D.J., NIELSON,
M.G. 2004. Observation on the ecology of weaver ants (Oecophylla smaragdina ) in Thai
mangrove ecosystem and their effect in herbivory of Rhizopora mucronata. Biotropica 36
(3):344-351
OZAKI, K., TAKSHIMA, S., SUKO, S. 2000. Ant predator suppress population of scale
insect Aulacapsis sp. in natural mangrove forest. Biotropica 32: 764-768
PENG, R.K., CHRISTIAN,K. AND GIBB, K. 1995. The effect of green ant, Oecophylla
smaragdina (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) on insect pests of cashew trees in Australia. Bull
Entomol. Res. 85:279-284
PENG, R.K., CHRISTIAN,K. AND GIBB, K. 1997. Distribution of green ant in relation to
native vegetation and insect pests in cashew plantation in Australia. J. Pest Management
43:203-211
SUBAGIYA, HIMAWATI, M.K., & WIDONO, S. 2009. Efektifitas pelepasan semut
predator Oecophylla Smaragdina terhadap hama-hama pada pertanaman jeruk. LPPM UNS.
126 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
RETROSPECTIVE ON FOREST INSECT PESTS OF NEPAL WITH REFERENCE
TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Sanjaya Bista1) and Hasta B. Thapa2)
1) Entomology Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal.; 2)Department of
Forest Research and Survey, Babar Mahal, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Corresponding author : ento@narc.gov.np or info@dfrs.gov.np
Abstract
Nepal experiences a wide range of climatic conditions ranging from sub-tropical in the
lowlands to arctic in the high mountains. The economy is predominantly characterized by a
large rural sector where subsistence farming is the mainstay, with strong dependency on
forest resources for basic need fulfillment and additional income. Nepal is experiencing a
noticeable rise in temperature along with changes in rainfall patterns and these are predicted
to continue in years to come. These changes in climate may result in changes in the
dispersion and survival of pests and pathogens and thus the forest ecology. The effects of
climate change on forest health in Nepal is not clear because it . is very difficult to predict
changes due to the complex interactions among climatic conditions, insect pest habitat and
the existing forest ecosystem. However, there is consensus in the fact that climate change
already has, and will continue to have an impact on the frequency and intensity of pest
outbreaks as well as their distribution to new ecological ranges. Different authors have
reported a number of forest insect pest outbreaks in Nepal, but studies on their linkages with
climate change components are lacking. Trade of forest plant products is another major
concern as they carry a high risk of non-native species invading the forest areas. Recently the
non-native gall chalcid, Leptocybe invasa (Fisher & Lasalle) has resulted in epidemics on
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Under the changing climatic conditions, similar patterns may
exist in other natural and plantation forests in the future. Measures to protect forests from
insect pests and diseases are an integral part of sustainable forest management. Effective pest
management requires accurate information on the biology and epidemiology of pests and
their possible management methods. Although some qualitative information exists at local
level, reliable quantitative information is still lacking for Nepal.
The aim of this study is to review knowledge and management strategies for forest insect
pests in Nepal, under different climatic predictions for the future.
Keywords: climate change, insect pests, forest ecosystems, forest health, research and
management
Introduction
Nepal is situated on the southern slopes of the central Himalaya Mountains and occupies a
total area of 147,181 km2. The average length of the country is 885 km from east to west and
its width varies from 145 to 241 km with a mean of 193 km north-south. About 86% of the
total land area is covered by hills and high mountains, and the remaining 14% are the flat
lands, Terai, less than 300 m in elevation. Altitude varies from some 67 m asl in the southeastern Terai to 8,848 m at the peak of the world’s highest mountain, Mount Everest
(MoFSC, 2009). There is, therefore, extreme spatial climate variation in Nepal, from tropical
to arctic within a very short geographic distance. The physiographic and ecological zone
extends in an east-west direction and varies in altitude, climate and geology (Table 1).
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
127
Table 1. Physiographic zones and climate of Nepal
Surface area
Physiographic zone
Elevation (m)
(%)
Lowlands (Terai)
14
Below 500
Lowlands
13
500 – 1000
(Siwalak)
Middle Mountain
29
1000 – 2000
2000 – 3000
High Mountain
20
High Himalaya
24
3000 – 4000
4000 – 5000
Above 5000
Climate
Hot monsoon/Tropical
Hot monsoon/Sub-Tropical
Lower:
Warm
temperate
monsoon,
Higher:
Cool
temperate monsoon
Sub-Alpine
Alpine
Tundra type, Arctic
The latest physiographic information indicates that Nepal comprises around 4.27 million ha
(29% of total land area) of forest, 1.56 million ha (10.6%) of shrub land and degraded forest,
1.76 million ha (12%) of grassland, 3.09 million ha (21%) of farmland, 0.38 million ha
(2.6%) water bodies, 1.03 million ha (7%) of uncultivated inclusions and 2.61 million ha
(17.8%) classified as other (MoFSC, 2009). The immense bio-climatic diversity in Nepal
supports more than 35 forest types, distributed across the five major geographic regions.
These forest types are further categorized into ten major groups, which are: Tropical forest
(below 1000 m; predominantly composed of Shorea robusta in the southern parts and Acacia
catechu/Dalbergia sissoo replacing S. robusta along streams and rivers); Sub-tropical
broadleaved forest (1000-2000 m; Schima wallichii-Castanopsis indica in the central and
eastern parts); Sub-tropical pine forest (1000-2200 m; Pinus roxburghii forests on the southfacing slopes of the mid-hills and Siwalak); Lower temperate broadleaved forest (2000-2700
m in the west and 1700-2400 m in the east with Alnus nitida, Castanopsis species,
Lithocarpus pachyphylla and several species of Quercus); Lower temperate mixed
broadleaved forest (1700-2200 m; confined to north and west facing slopes, which especially
include the Lauraceae family); Upper temperate broadleaved forest (2200-3000 m; Quercus
semecarpifolia forests widespread in the central and eastern parts on south-facing slopes);
Upper temperate mixed broadleaved forest (2500-3500 m; occurs in the central and eastern
parts, mainly on north and west-facing slopes, Acer and Rhododendron are prominent
species); Temperate coniferous forest (2000-3000 m; Pinus wallichiana, Cedrus deodara,
Cupressus torulosa, Tsuga dumosa and Abies pindrow characterize the temperate conifer
forest type); Sub-alpine forest (3000-4100 m; Abies spectabilis, Betula utilis and
Rhododendron forests occur in subalpine zones, the latter in very wet sites; and Alpine scrub
(above 4100 m; Juniper-Rhododendron associated with Ephedra gerardiana, and Hippophae
tibetana in inner valleys) (MoFSC, 2011).
Water and forests are the major natural resources of Nepal. Nepal’s wide climatic and topographic
variation includes 118 ecosystems, 75 vegetation and 35 forest types. Nepal has a very high species
diversity falling in the 25th position globally and 11th position regionally, although it covers
only about 0.3 percent of the landmass of Asia and 0.1 percent of the World. Species richness
among floral diversity comprises 465 lichen species (2.3% of the global diversity); 1,822
fungal species (2.4%); 687 algal species (2.6%); 853 bryophyte species (5.1%); 534
pteridophyte species (4.71%); 27 gymnosperm species (5.1%); and 5,856 angiosperm
species (2.7%). Faunal diversity includes 168 platyhelminthe species (1.4%); 144 spider
species (0.2%); 5,052 insect species (0.7%); 640 butterfly species and 2,253 moth species
(together 2.6%); 182 fish species (1.0%); 77 amphibians (1.84%); 118 reptile species
(1.87%); 863 bird species (9.53%); and 181 mammal species (4.52%) (MoFSC, 2009).
128 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
In terms of ownership rights, all of Nepal’s forests, except that on private land are state
owned national forests. Under national forests there are five major categories: government
managed, protected forests, community forests, leasehold forests and religious forests. The
amount of forest cover on private land is increasing: from the perspective of communities’
rights, nearly 22% of the country’s forests are now governed by communities, and the
remaining 78% is still controlled by the state (Pokharel and Byrne, 2009). The forestry sector
used to cover more than 45% area of the country during 1964; this area was 43% around
1979 and 37.4% in 1986; and a survey report in 1998 shows that the forest area is around
40% of the total land area, which also includes 10.6% shrub area. The rate of deforestation in
the country is 1.7% per year between 1978 and 1994. It is 1.3% in the Terai, but 2.3% in the
hills and mountains (MoFSC. 2009).
The majority of the Nepalese live in rural areas and forests are the largest natural resources
for basic need fulfillment, as well as additional sources of income. A significant percentage
of the local communities sustain their livelihoods by direct use of forest ecosystem goods and
services for household consumption, including food, fodder, fuel wood and medicinal plants.
Nearly 88.3% of the population depends on the forests for daily fuel wood supply and 42%
population for fodder for livestock. They also generate income from the trade of many forest
goods, especially non-timber forest products (NTFPs). In addition to supporting local
communities the forests also contribute to the national economy of the country, especially
through timber and NTFPs exports. Overall the forestry sector contributes a major source of
government revenue, foreign exchange and employment. The direct contribution is up to
9.45% of total GDP whereas the indirect contribution is estimated 27% of national GDP of
the country (DoF, 2009).
Temperature and precipitation changes
The climate of Nepal is primarily influenced by the Himalayan mountain range and the South
Asian monsoon. It experiences a wide range of climates varying from the sub-tropical in the
south to the alpine type in the north within a short north-south span. Nepal has four distinct
climatic seasons (Table 2): pre-monsoon (Mar-May), monsoon (June-Sept), post-monsoon
(Oct-Nov) and winter (Dec-Feb) in its different ecological/physiographic zones (MoEnv,
2010).
Table 2. Climate characteristics in different ecological belts of Nepal
Physiographic
Ecological Belt
Climate
Average Annual
Zone
Precipitation
High Himalaya
High Mountain
Arctic/Alpine
Snow/150 – 200
mm
High Mountain
Middle
Middle
Cool/Warm
275 – 2,300 mm
Mountain/Hills
Mountain
Siwalaks
Churia/Terai
Tropical/Sub1,100 – 3,000
tropical
mm
Terai
Mean Annual
Temperature
< 3 – 10 ºC
10 – 20 ºC
20 – 25 ºC
Nepal’s average maximum temperature has shown an increase (Figure 1) of 1.8°C during
the last 32 years (Malla, 2008). The national mean temperature of the country is
approximately 15°C, and increases from north to south, with an exception in the mountain
valleys. The studies carried out by the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology show that
the average temperature in Nepal is increasing at the rate of approximately 0.06 degrees
Celsius per year. The maximum temperature of the year occurs in May or early June and
starts decreasing rapidly from October and reaches a minimum in December or January.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
129
Temperature data indicate that the rise in temperature was greater at the higher altitudes; and
increase in temperature was more observed during the cooler months (0.06–0.08°C per year
from October–February, for all of Nepal) than for the warmer months (0.02–0.05°C per year
for March–September). Studies also indicate that the observed warming is not uniform across
the country and is more pronounced in high altitude regions compared to the Terai and
Siwalak regions (MoEnv, 2010).
Figure 1: Average annual maximum temperature trend for Nepal (1975-2006)
The temperature varies with topographic and orographic variations. The maximum recorded
temperature during summer varies from 25°C to 46°C and the minimum temperature during
winter varies from minus 26°C to nearly freezing point. Deforestation, industrialization and
urbanization have influenced the rise in temperature in recent years. Aspect also has an
important influence on vegetation. In general, moisture is retained more on north and west
faces, while south and east faces are drier due to their longer exposure to the sun.
Nepal falls within the monsoon region and the national average rainfall is about 1,500 mm,
with rainfall increasing from west to east. About 80% of rain falls between June to September
in the form of summer monsoon. Most of the winter rainfall occurs during December to
February. Nepal receives abundant rainfall, but the distribution throughout the year is of great
concern with regards to the occurrence of floods, landslides and other extreme events. Most
floods occur during the monsoon season when heavy precipitation coincides with snowmelt
in the mountains. Rainfall also varies by altitude; areas over 3,000 m experience a lot of
drizzle, while heavy downpours are common below 2,000 m (Gaire et al., 2008).
130 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Figure 2: Trend in total precipitation (1971-2006) for Nepal.
Unlike temperature trends, precipitation data for Nepal does not reveal any significant trends
and is erratic in pattern (Figure 2). Erratic rainfall events (i.e. higher intensity of rains but less
number of rainy days and unusual rain) with no decrease in total amount of annual
precipitation have, however, been experienced. Such events increases the possibility of
climatic extremes such as irregular monsoon patterns, droughts and floods (Malla, 2008).
The projection of temperature and precipitation changes using various Global Climate Model
analyses revealed that there is a significant and consistent predicted increase in temperatures
for the years 2030, 2050 and 2100 in Nepal (Table 3). Increases in temperatures are
somewhat larger for the winter months (December to February) than the summer months. The
models also project an overall increase in annual precipitation with more rainfall during
summer monsoon months (June to August). Thus, based on these analyses there is a
reasonably high probability that the warming trend already observed in recent decades will
continue through the 21st century. There is also a moderate probability that the summer
monsoons might intensify, thereby increasing the risk of flooding and landslides with
subsequent impacts on agriculture and livelihoods.
Table 3. Projection of temperature and precipitation changes for Nepal (2030-2100)
Year
2030
2050
2100
Temperature (°C )
Annual
Dec – Feb Jun – Aug
1.2
1.3
1.1
1.7
1.8
1.6
3.2
3.2
2.9
Precipitation (%)
Annual
Dec – Feb Jun – Aug
5.0
0.8
9.1
7.3
1.2
13.1
12.6
2.1
22.9
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
131
Insect pests of forest trees: A review
Insect pests are one of the major ecological components of forest ecosystems. A large number
of forest pests are reported to damage both natural and plantation forests in Nepal. Although
some published and unpublished literatures exist, most of the studies are concentrated on the
incidental outbreaks of forest pest epidemics and listing of insect pests associated with
affected trees. Regular monitoring or surveillance efforts have not been employed in any type
of forest programme. Insect pest incidence are sometime reported from government
plantations but no information for private forests exists. Though some information on the
biology and ecology of insect pests are provided. especially in extension materials, these
findings are based on secondary information and review work. The management practices
suggested in these materials are based on technology developed against the insect pests of
cultivated crops.
The foremost published report on the occurrence of insect pests of forest plants in Nepal was
made by Jackson (1987) who reported different forest pests and insects of plantation trees.
Sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.), is one of the most commonly planted trees in Nepal but has
suffered from a serious die-back problem A number of species of insects and other pests
have been listed in association with these trees . Tuladhar (1996a), mentioned three major
insect pests namely pinhole insect borers as xylem feeders, heartwood borer destroying the
xylem system and termite feeding upon the bark of stems and roots. The other insect pests of
Sissoo reported by various authors and reviewed by Tuladhar (1996a) gave an account of
thirty six insect pests. Among them the most common were a defoliator, Plecoptera reflexa
Guenee (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae); leaf binder, Dichomeris eridantis; grasshopper,
Brachytrypes portentosus Lichtenstein (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) and termite, Odontotermes
parvidens Holmgren & Holmgren (Isoptera: Termitidae). Some of these pests were reported
earlier by White (1988) where he mentioned eight major insect pests of Sissoo in the Terai
region. These were Dasychira sp. (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), Euproctic sp. (Lepidoptera:
Lymantriidae), P. reflexa, D. eridantis, Lithocollectidae sp. (Lepidoptera: Lithocollectidae),
Aspidiotes orientalis Newstead (Homoptera: Coccidae), Perissus dalburgiae (Coleoptera:
Cerambycidae) and Cyclotermes obesus (Rambur) (Isoptera: Termitidae). Similarly, a longhorn beetle, Aristobia horridula Hope (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae as a severe pest infesting
and killing young Sissoo trees.
A loss assessment study performed by Karki et al. (2000) of the die-back problem in Sissoo
in almost all Terai districts showed the highest proportion of dying trees was 26.4% (Bara
district), with an estimated total loss of about 5000 million NRs nationwide. Likewise, KC
(2007) reported a massive loss of plantations (up to 30-50%) caused by dieback in Sissoo. He
observed ten species of insects, with the most common and destructive insect pests being P.
reflexa and Apoderus sissoo Marshal (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).
The occurrence of leucaena psyllid, Heteropsylla cubana Crawford (Homoptera:
Pauropsyllidae), a destructive insect pest of ipil ipil, Leucaena spp. in Nepal was first
accounted by Joshi (1992). This pest was first observed during mid-June of 1989 in eastern
Nepal, but has since been reported from various parts of Nepal.
Several insect pests of Teak in Nepal has been reported. White teak, Gmelina arborea Roxb.,
is native to Nepal and is consistently affected by carpenter worm Prionoxystus sp. which bores
into stems of saplings (Dhakal, 2008). The other insects damaging teak is canker grub,
Dihammus cervinus Hope (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), which bores longitudinal galleries
into the cambial layer of saplings, and the larvae of Calopepla leayana (Latreille)
(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and Glenea indiana (Thomson) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae).
Another damaging insect of white teak is the ozola minor (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), a small
moth whose larvae feeds on the leaves. Dhakal (2008), observed attack of some insects in
another species of teak, Tectona grandis Linn., which is non-native to Nepal. Insect pests,
132 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
like the defoliator Hyblaea puera Cramer (Lepidoptera: Hyblaeidae); leaf feeding Eutectona
machaeralis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae); stem boring Sahyadrassus malabaricus
(Moore) (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae); mealy bugs (Hemiptera); leaf feeding Planococcus sp.
(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae); stem boring Zeuzera coffeae Neitner (Lepidoptera: Cossidae)
and leaf/terminal shoot feeding Helicoverpa armigera Hubner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) has
been reported by the author. Among these insect pests, H. puera, E. machaeralis and S.
malabaricus were identified as major pests, while Z. coffeae and H. armigera were regarded
as recently recorded emerging problems. The incidence of teak defoliator, H. puera in Nepal
as a major pest is also mentioned in the FAO global review of forest pests (FAO, 2009).
Neupane (1992) reported six insect pests from Paraserianthes spp. Of them, two species,
namely, B. portentosus and Oxycarenus sp. (Homoptera: Membracidae), were serious in the
nursery and grown-up plants respectively. He also found B. portentosus as an important pest
in the nurseries of china berry, Melia azedarach and Acacia auriculiformis. Many scarabaeid
beetles were also reported from these multipurpose trees. Dhakal (2008), reported
Arthroschista hilalaris attacking Kadam, Anthocephalus chinensis Lam. Other insect pests
reported from Kadam were larvae of the polyphagous scarabid beetles Euchlora viridis Fab.;
Holotrichia constricta Burmeister, Holotrichia helleri Brenske, Lepidiota stigma Fab. and
Leucopholis rorida Fab. They also found nematodes (Meloidogyne javanica,
Hemicriconemoides, Tylenchorhynchus and Hoplolaimus) associated with the roots and a
fungus, Scytalidium lignicola with the branches. The same author in his observations on the
exotic plantation tree, Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Reported polyphagous pests like
termites, aphids and rodents damaging the plants. Likewise, a bagworm (Lepidoptera:
Psychidae) was reported by Tuladhar (1996b) in Pinus roxburgbii plantations. Sal trees,
Shorea robusta Roth. are affected by the Sal heartwood borer, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis
Newman (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) (Bist 2011).
Climate change impact on forest insect pests
Limited studies and lack of research data are the major constraints on addressing climate
change issues on forest ecosystems in Nepal. Several studies confirm that Nepal is among
the highly vulnerable countries to the climate change issues, but due to the lack of reliable
information, it is very difficult to identify key climatic risk and vulnerable areas for necessary
mitigation and adaptation programs. Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002) has identified five
ecosystems in Nepal, which is variously affected by climate change. This is probably related to
higher temperatures in lower altitudes, upward shifting of vegetation, encroachment of
invasive species and thereby colonization, and increased prevalence of insect pests and
disease along with other natural calamities.
It is difficult to predict the impacts of climate change on forest insect pests because of the
complexity of the interactions between insects and forest ecosystems. This overall response is
dependent on the impacts of climate change on the insect–tree host–natural enemy
relationship. However, some generalized predictions can be made, based on current pest
distributions and the severity of insect outbreaks in different regions. Lives of insects are
highly dependent on climatic components such as temperature, precipitation and relative
humidity. A simple change in any of these parameters can subsequently alter the insect
behavior and ultimately their population. Research findings have suggested that temperature
has broad effects on the physiology and behavior of all insects and their developmental
stages. Temperature influences metabolic rate, flight activity, reproduction capacity,
nutrition, development and survival rate of the insect pests. All these parameters will result
in increased insect populations as well as more generations per year. In brief, most of the
studies so far conducted, have agreed that the expected climatic changes are going to promote
the life cycle, growth and development of the majority of forest insect pests.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
133
Although climate change impacts on forest insects has not been studied in Nepal, one of the
most pronounced impacts might be their upward movement towards the high altitude forest
habitats. The presence of scarabaeid beetles in Utis (Alnus nepalensis) plantations at higher
altitudes has already been reported. Similarly, the spread of insect borne diseases such as
malaria, Japanese encephalitis and Kalazar (transmitted by sand fly bite) to the sub-tropical
and foot-hill regions of Nepal has also been documented. The effect of climate change will
not only result in the shift of present distributional ranges, but also the increased probability
of the establishment of exotic species The chances of pest introductions through global trade
are very likely in Nepal where the quarantine system is very poor.
Several non-native tree species are grown in Nepal. These include Eucaplytus and Leucaena
species from Australia, Cryptomeria species from Japan and many more from India including
Tectona grandis, Dalbergia sissoo, and Acacia catechu. Many insect species are already
reported to damage these plantations, such as recent epidemics of the gall chalcid, Leptocybe
invasa in nurseries and plantations of E. camaldulensis. Similarly, cosmopolitan and
polyphagous defoliating insect pests such as Spodoptera spp., Helicoverpa spp., scarabaeid
beetles, hairy caterpillar, semi-looper, grasshoppers and many more has been reported to
damage different forest trees. Similarly in cultivated crops, aphid, mealy bug, white fly and
mite has intensified (References). Some of these pests are also reported to damage tree in
forest nurseries. Likewise, an outbreak of the secondary insect pest, the leaf miner fly,
Liriomyza huidobrensis (Blanchard) in potato was observed recently, and all these reports are
related with climatic variations (References).
Measures to protect forests from insect pests and diseases are an integral part of sustainable
forest management. The development of effective pest management practices, however,
requires accurate information on the different aspects of pests,pathogens and forest ecosystems. Regular monitoring of insect pests, studies on their ecology, biology, host and
distribution patterns, their impacts on forest ecosystems and interaction with natural enemies
needs to be carried out on a regular basis. The practice of using chemical pesticides,
especially in forest nurseries should be replaced with more eco-friendly management
methods. Although some qualitative information exists at local level, reliable quantitative
information is still lacking in Nepal. It is impossible to generate mitigation and adaptation
programs without this information. So, it is necessary to develop an effective research and
development plan to deal with climate change issues in the future.
Conclusion
Climate change is not only of international or regional concern, but is gradually becoming a
national problem in Nepal. The existing forest types, farm-forestry cultivation practices and
high dependency of rural people in forest resources has made Nepal one of the most
vulnerable countries to climate change. Many reports have shown people living in rural areas
have already experienced unexpected changes in weather, water supply, upward shifting of
plant species and increased incidence of insect pests, disease and forest fires. Despite the
damage caused by insect pests in plantations and forests, no attention has been given to better
understanding the ecology and biology of these organisms in Nepal. A simple, regular insect
pest monitoring and surveillance system in different forest ecologies should be established to
address this lack of information. This will help in the formation of sustainable insect pest
research and management options inside the country. The co-ordination and co-operation
from all concerned sectors in Nepal to resist against climate change issues is an utmost
necessary.
134 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
References
BIST, H.R. 2011. Heart wood borer: a potential threat to Sal forest in Nepal. Forestry Nepal,
http://www.forestrynepal.org.
DHAKAL, A. 2008. Silviculture and productivity of five economically important timber
species of central Terai of Nepal. International Tropical Timber Organization, Yokohama,
Japan and Nepal Agroforestry Foundation, Kathmandu, Nepal. p. viii+96.
DoF. 2009. Records of the Department of Forest. Department of Forest, Babar Mahal,
Kathmandu, Nepal.
FAO. 2009. Global review of forest pests and diseases. FAO Forestry Paper 156. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. p. ix+222.
GAIRE, D., M. SUVEDI AND J. AMATYa. 2008. Impact assessment and climate change
adaptation strategies in Makawanpur district, Nepal. Action Aid, Nepal; Department of
International Development, UK; Women and Children Development Forum, Kathmandu,
Nepal. p. 33.
JACKSON, J.K. 1987. Manual of afforestation in Nepal. Nepal-UK Forestry Research
Project, Kathmandu, Nepal. p. 1-824.
JOSHI, L. 1992. The leucaena psyllid arrives in Nepal. Banko Jankari, 2 (3), p. 229-32.
KARKI, D., H.B. THAPA; G.B. JUWA; J.R. TULADHAR; G. MANANDHAR AND A.N.
DAS. 2000. Sissoo dieback: its cause and effect on plantation management. Banko Jankari,
10 (2), p. 43-52.
KC, R. 2007. Insects, pests and diseases of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Forestry Nepal,
http://www.forestrynepal.org.
MALLA, G. 2008. Climate change and its impact on Nepalese agriculture. The Journal of
Agriculture and Environment, 9, p. 62-71.
MoEnv. 2010. National adaptation program of action (NAPA). Ministry of Environment,
Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal.
MoEnv. 2012. Mountain environment and climate change in Nepal. National report prepared
for the international conference of mountain countries on climate change, 5-6 April 2012,
Kathmandu, Nepal. Ministry of Environment, Government of Nepal. p. xvi+38.
MoFSC. 2009. Nepal fourth national report to the convention on biological diversity.
Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Government of Nepal, Singha Durbar,
Kathmandu, Nepal. p. vi+88.
MoFSC. 2011. Role of forest on climate change adaptation. Ministry of Forest and Soil
Conservation, Government of Nepal, Singha Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal. p. iv+58.
NEUPANE, F.P. 1992. Insect pests associated with some fuel wood and multipurpose tree
species in Nepal. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 5 (1), p. 1-7.
POKHAREL, B.K. AND S. BYRNE. 2009. Climate change mitigation and adaptation
strategies in Nepal’s forest sector: how can rural communities benefit? NSCFP Discussion
Paper No. 7. Nepal Swiss Community Forestry Project, Ekantakuna, Lalitpur, Nepal. p.
iv+43.
RIJAL, A. 2010. Climate change mitigation in the forestry sector of Nepal. UNDP. p. iv+30.
Tuladhar, J.R. 1996 a. Insect pests of Dalbergia sissoo. FORESC Monograph 2/996, Forest
Research and Survey Center, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Government of
Nepal, Singha Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal. p. v+50.
TULADHAR, J.R. 1996 b. A preliminary observation on psychidae damaging Pinus
roxburghii plantations in Kathmandu valley. Banko Jankari, 6 (2), p. 87.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
135
INTEGRATED FOREST HEALTH MANAGEMENT WILL ASSIST IN ADAPTING
TO A CHANGING CLIMATE
Simon Taka Nuhamara and Haryono Semangun
Magister Biology Study Program Satya Wacana Christian University
Jl. Diponegoro 52-60 Salatiga 50711
Corresponding author: nuhamarataka@gmail.com
Abstract
This concept of disease decline is explored and proposed as being better able to represent the
possible changes in forest health status under a changing climate. Forest health management
is complex and requires consideration of silvicultural practices, environmental factors
especially soil and tree genetics. Integrated forest health management (IFHM) is discussed as
an approach to forest health management.
Key words: climate change, etiology, decline disease, integrated forest health management
Introduction
Forest stakeholders no longer consider only the silvicultural determinants of productivity, but
are also very cognizant of the influence that forest health has on productivity. We are urged
to reformulate or redefine our needs in a changing future (Meadows et al 1972; Schumacher,
1973). Climate change will have a dramatic influence on both the status and the way that we
manage forest health.
Climate change and forest health
Recent extensive tree death events in North America have been associated with climate
change (Kurz et al. 2008; and van Mantgen et al. 2009). Many authors discuss the influence
of climate change on forest health e.g. Boland et al. 2004; Desprez-Loustau et al. 2007;
Sturrock, 2007; La Porta et al. 2008; Moore and Allard, 2008; Dukes et al. 2009; Kliejunas et
al. 2009; Tuby and Weber, 2010. Predictions about the impact of climate change on forest
health are similar and summarised in Sturrock et al. 2011;
1. Most plant diseases are strongly influenced by environmental conditions, climate change
will affect the pathogen, the host and the interaction between them, resulting in changes in
disease impact,
2. Abiotic factors such as temperature and moisture affect host susceptibility to pathogens
and pathogen growth, reproduction and infection, changes in interactions between biotic
diseases and abiotic stressors may represent the most substantial drivers of disease
outbreaks,
3. The distribution of hosts and diseases will change. Increases in temperature and changes in
precipitation may allow the ranges of some species to expand, perhaps whilst contracting
elsewhere, but models frequently predict a reduction in potential geographic distribution
of tree species as a result of climate change.
4. Pathogens that typically affect water-stressed hosts are likely to have an increased impact
on forests in regions where precipitation is reduced,
5. The roles of pathogens as disturbance agents will probably increase, as their ability to
adapt to new climatic conditions will be greater than that of their long-lived hosts,
136 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
6.
Most pathogens will be able to migrate to locations where climate is suitable for their
survival and reproduction at a faster rate than tree species, and
7. Climate change will affect the life cycles and biological synchronicity of many forest
trees and pathogens, resulting in changes in the distribution and phenology of events
such as bud break in tree hosts, spore release by pathogens, and activities of insects
that serve as vectors of pathogens; this may significantly alter disease incidence and
severity.
Concepts of the disease triangle versus decline and responding to climate change
What lessons can we learn from those seven predictions summarized by Sturrock et al. 2011?
Francl 2001 states that one of the educational paradigms in plant pathology is the disease
triangle i.e. the existence of a disease caused by a biotic agent absolutely requires the
interaction of a susceptible host, a virulent pathogen, and an environment favorable for
disease development. Sturrock’s seven points however clearly demonstrate that the
complexity of interactions between biotic and abiotic factors operate in such a way that the
simplistic disease triangle concept does not hold (Semangun 1996).
Decline disease suggested by Manion in 1981 is probably more appropriate to shifts in forest
health status under changing climatic conditions. Manion defines a decline disease as caused
by the interaction of a number of interchangeable, specifically ordered abiotic and biotic
factors to produce a gradual general deterioration, often ending with the death of trees
(Manion 1981).
A decline disease has the following characteristics (Manion 1991):
1. a usually slow, progressive deterioration in health and vigor
2. primarily affects a mature cohort of trees
3. decreased growth and increased twig and branch dieback (applies more to hardwoods
than to conifers)
4. the etiology is complex and may involve important contributions from abiotic and biotic
factors.
The hierarchy of interactions between abiotic and biotic factors can be considered as follows:
Predisposing factors: These are long term and associated with climate, site, age, and the
genetic predisposition of the host. These long term factors make trees more susceptible to
inciting factors.
Inciting factors: These are short term triggers such as defoliation, frost damage, and drought.
If not for these short term predisposing factors, trees would recover quickly, but predisposed
tree go into decline and are vulnerable to contributing factors.
Contributing factors: Opportunistic fungi and insects like bark beetles, and root rot disease.
These factors administer the “coup de grace” but would not necessarily have this impact if
the trees were not in decline.
The strength of this decline disease concept is that the key words underlying the concept are
“interactions between abiotic and biotic factors” which promotes a clearer understanding of
etiology (causation). With such an understanding in mind, especially with the pressure of
climate change, there will be an improvement in the planning, organizing, and carrying out of
forest health management. Strategies for improving forest health must be integrated into
every stage of forest production.
Forest health management may need to be different if a plantation is established for pulp and
paper or for solid wood if the silvicultural regimes are not the same. Tree species should be
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
137
matched to sites i.e. trees should be genetically and physiological adapted to the soils and
environment. The most appropriate silvicultural regime for the tree species, site and endproduct should be adopted. This approach is known as integrated forest health management
(IFHM), a refinement of integrated pest management (IPM).
Examples from Indonesia where IFHM is required - especially under a changing
climate
In Indonesia, over the last two to three decades, forest companies have developed
large areas of forest plantations for pulp and paper production. The major forest
species planted are exotic fast growing species of eucalypt and acacia. An integrated
forest health management approach should consider the long term effect on forest
health of multiple and short rotations of plantation trees i.e. will there be irrevocable
soil degradation? While disease tolerant clones have been developed, this resistance is
not always expressed e.g. the fungal pathogen Kiramyces destructans can cause
severe damage. A changing climate may significant impact disease the expression of
resistance especially if there are climate induced shifts in land preparation and
planting times.
Low water retention, boron and copper deficiency are common in sandy soils and, if
the dry season is longer than usual, predispose certain eucalypt clones to bud damage
and shoot dieback. Botryosphaeria canker contributes to damage during a prolonged
dry season. Not all clones recover in the rainy season. The incorrect use of herbicides
and fertilisers inhibit the symbiotic benefits of mycorrhizal associations making
recovery more difficult.
Species of Ganoderma are serious root-rot pathogens of hardwood plantation trees,
especially Acacia mangium. The particular host species and type of soil may
predispose the trees to root-rot disease which will be triggered by the presence of
inoculum from stumps and favourable environmental conditions.
Many forest companies are propagating plantation eucalypts by cuttings. Trees
developed from cuttings are reported to develop poor root systems. A poor root
system, especially in sub-optimal soil conditions will make trees more susceptible to
the negative impact of unfavourable climatic conditions and more likely to be
attacked by fungal pathogens such as Ganoderma.
Recommendations for IFHM
1. Develop genotypes for forest tree crops that are specifically adapted to known climatic
and soil conditions and which are vigorous and pest/disease tolerant.
2. Evaluate site-species suitability.
3. Reduce as much as possible the unnecessary use of both inorganic fertilisers and
herbicides.
4. Improve nursery propagation techniques to ensure good rooting in the field.
5. Increase the number of trained staff who can adopt an IFHM approach.
138 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
References
BOLAND, GJ, MELZER, MS, HOPKIN A, HIGGINS V, NASSUTH A. 2004. Climate
change and plant diseases in Ontario. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 26: 335–50.
Desprez-Loustau, M-L, Robin C, Reynaud G. 2007. Simulating the effects of a climatechange scenario on the geographical range and activity of forest pathogenic fungi. Canadian
Journal of Plant Pathology 29: 101–20.
DUKES, JS, PONTIUS J, ORWIG D et al., 2009. Responses of insect pests, pathogens, and
invasive plant species to climate change in Responses of insect pests, pathogens, and invasive
plant species to climate change in the forest of northeastern North America: What can we
predict? Canadian Journal of Forest Research 39: 231-248.
KLIEJUNAS, JT, GEILS BW, GLAESER JM et al. 2009. Review of Literature on Climate
Change and Forest Diseases of Western North America. Albany, CA, USA: US Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station: General Technical Report
PSW-GTR-225.
LA PORTA, N, CAPRETTI P, THOMSEN IM, KASANEN R, HIETALA AM,
VONWEISSENBERG K. 2008. Forest pathogens with higher damage potential due to
climate change in Europe. Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology 30: 177–95.
MANION, P.D. 1981. Tree Disease Concepts, 1st edn. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: PrenticeHall.
MANION, P.D. 1991. Tree Disease Concepts, 2nd edn. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA:
Prentice-Hall.
MEADOWS, D.H, DENNIS L. MEADOWS, JORGEN RANDERS AND WILLIAM W.
BEHRENS III, (1972) Limits to Growth, New York: New American Library.
MOORE B, ALLARD G. 2008. Climate Change Impacts on Forest Health. Rome, Italy:
Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Working
Paper FBS ⁄ 34E.
SCHUMACHER, F.E. 1973. Small is Beautiful. Economics as If People Mattered London:
Blond & Briggs
SEMANGUN, H. 1996. Pengantar ilmu penyakit tumbuhan. Gajah Mada University Press.
STURROCK, R.N, 2007. Climate change effects on forest diseases: an overview. In: Jackson
MB, ed. Proceedings of the 54th Annual Western International Forest Disease Work
Conference. Missoula, MT, USA: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest
Health Protection, 51–5.
STURROCK, R.N., S. J. FRANKEL, A. V. BROWN, P. E. HENNON, J. T. KLIEJUNAS†,
K. J. LEWISE, J. J. WORRALL, AND A. J. WOODS. 2011. Climate change and forest
diseases. Plant Pathology 60: 133-149.
TUBBY, KV, WEBBER J.F. 2010. Pests and diseases threatening urban trees under a
changing climate. Forestry 83: 451–9.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
139
FOREST PEST DETECTION SYSTEMS IN FIJI
Binesh Dayal & Sanjana Lal
Fiji Forestry Department, Silviculture Research & Resource Development Division,
P. O. Box 2218, Government Buildings, Suva, Fiji Islands
Corresponding author: bineshdayal@yahoo.com
Abstract
The overall objectives of the program “Forest Pest Detection Systems in Fiji” include the
identification of suitable static traps for target pest groups at high hazard sites, appropriate
species for sentinel plantings to be deployed near high hazard sites, training of staff in
trapping techniques, sentinel plant surveys, collection and identification of major insect
orders and efficient communications within the region and between relevant national and
international agencies.
The impacts of the program have been multi-fold in that the forest protection section of the
Fiji Forestry Department has been upgraded with skills, capacity, equipment and confidence.
This upgrading process has formed a platform from which staff can continue with the
development of activities as part of their business plan and budgeted from our research
operational funds. Forest Health can now deliver better and more sustainable outcomes for
Fiji.
Introduction
Fiji is geographically located in the southern Pacific Ocean, northeast of Australia and about
1500 kilometers directly north of New Zealand. Some 110 of the country's 332 islands are
inhabited. The two largest islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, account for more than 85% of
the country's 18,270 square kilometers of land area. Fiji being located in the hub of the
Pacific and a transit point, has a huge risk of pests and diseases entering the country if proper
monitoring and surveillance programs are not in place.
Fiji’s natural forests and plantations are often affected by extreme climatic conditions
(approximately four cyclones pass through the country’s maritime zones each year
particularly during the wet season, November to April).
Fiji’s total forest cover is approximately 1,014,000 hectares in relation to the total landmass
of 18,376 km2. About 1,014,000 ha or 55.5% of Fiji is forested. Of this 17.5% (177,000 ha)
is classified as primary forest, the most bio-diverse and carbon-dense form of forest. Fiji had
177,000 ha of planted forest e.g. mahogany and Caribbean pine.
Fiji Forest Policy clearly stipulates the need for strengthening forest health protection due to
increased levels of threats from invasive alien species and the impacts it will have on the
forest resources and forest plantations thus affecting the country’s economy and trade. Forest
pests and diseases are common in indigenous forests and plantations, however extensive
research studies have not being undertaken, unlike for food crop plants in agricultural land as
the Agriculture sector is one of the major sector’s contributing to the country’s economy.
Literature by the Research Staff of Fiji Forestry Department on certain pests and diseases has
not been published for reference nationally or internationally. Fiji experienced a serious
incident in 2010 when there was an outbreak of the Asian subterranean termite Coptotermes
gestroi damaging wooden built structures and stressing standing trees in natural forests and
plantations. The introduction of this species was only detected at the time it began to cause
140 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
obvious damage. The outbreak of Asian subterranean termite Coptotermes gestroi in 2010
caused severe damage to wooden built structures in the western parts of the two main large
islands of the group. Hundreds of households and schools buildings were severely affected
by this termite. Government funds needed to be sourced for the amount of FJ$500,000
(US$279,330) that was used for the control and containment exercise and for the restoring
households and school buildings severely affected.
The “Forest Pest Detection Systems in Fiji” program was introduced in 2006 with assistance
from the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Australia.
Program Objectives
Develop forest health surveillance in Fiji and consider management options
Improve forest health surveillance techniques in Fiji
Develop capacity in taxonomic expertise, and specimen handling, curating and housing
Establish a web-based mechanism for data sharing and access to other information
resources
Compile a priority list of damaging pests and diseases in Fiji.
Program Outcomes
Improved pest detection systems
In-country visits by ACIAR staff were important in providing training on timber and insect
Quarantine entomology, and how to curate a forest insect collection especially under tropical
conditions. An insect laboratory now houses a great diversity of insects (mostly identified up
to family level) and rearing facilities are established in the insect lab. Insect identifications
are carried out locally by staff or visiting entomologists and may be sent to Australia for
authentication.
Traps have been established in forest plantations and their use is on-going. A major
component of the program was the testing of different lure/trap combinations to better suit
use in tropical/subtropical climates. Other findings are that trap placement, site effects and
the type of vegetation have a strong influence on catches of wood-boring insects. Trap
silhouette influences the catch even in the absence of lures/attractants. The type of lure used
is significant in the catch of individual species. This research with traps and lures is still in
progress.
Poor preservation of specimens in the traps has remained an issue due to heavy and intense
rainfall diluting preservation fluid. In addition, in Fiji, electricity outages due to severe
weather conditions resulted in partial decomposition of samples stored in the freezer. Many
samples contained only fragmented insects which could not be identified. Despite this, in Fiji
the surveys have yielded 43 target group species that have been positively identified, with
about 10 species awaiting identification.
Insect trap surveys have yielded records of two new species in Fiji. One is Xylosandrus
crassisculus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) which has been recorded for the first
time in Fiji and Sinoxylon sp. (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) which was collected in a trap set up
in Viti Levu, Fiji. The status of the genus in Fiji is not clear, Sinoxylon is not included in the
Bishop Museum list 'Checklist of the Coleoptera of Fiji' (Evenhuis 2008); however several
specimens of S. anale collected in the early 1980's were found recently in Fiji. It is not clear
if they were from a quarantine intercept. Significantly, Erythrina gall wasp, Quadrastichus
erythrinae (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), one of the target insects identified at the inception of
the program in 2006, was discovered in Fiji in September 2008. The insects caught in static
traps from 2009-2011 are shown in Table 1.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
141
Table 1. Insects caught in static traps from 2009-2011
No. of Insect Collected (Year) & No. of
Assessments
Static Insect Traps
Placement
Insect species
2009
2010
2011
(locations/sites)
182
80
40
assessments assessments assessments
Nurseries, forest
Ambrosia Beetle
8,224
1,223
650
plantations of Pine,
Ants – 37
37
3
Mahogany, Teak &
Bostrichid
26
8
Agar wood,
Bugs – 5
5
1
Sandalwood trial
Butterfly
1
plots, Pine seed
Carabidae
10
2
stands, Sandalwood
Cerambycidae
4
1
1
clonal seed orchard,
Chrysomelidae
9
9
forest park, container
Cicada
1
1
depot, logged and
Cicindelidae
4
1
unlogged mahogany
Cleridae
1
forest plantations and Click beetle
1
major ports of entry
Cockroaches
1
(wharf)
Crickets
1
Curculionidae
82
48
Elateridae
17
2
Flies
33
8
Grasshoppers
1
Hemiptera
2
Homoptera
1
Ladybirds
4
2
Laminae
3
Mantids
1
Mosquitoes
5
Moth
5
2
Platypus
28
9
Ratelida
8
Scarabaeidae
18
Scarab beetle
2
Scolytid
26
Spiders
2
Staphylinidae
3
1
Tenebrionidae
4
Termites
13
8
10
Tree Fog
1
Wasps
2
3
Water Beetle
4
Weevil
22
Xylothrips religious
47
Total
8,606
1,301
745
Source: Silviculture Research Insect Collection Data 2009 to 2011
142 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Improved forest health surveys
The Silviculture Research & Resource Development Division is involved with surveys of
pests (and diseases) in second rotation mahogany plantations, exotic and indigenous species
trials, pine plantations, mahogany plantations, teak plantations, agar wood plantations and
nurseries. The results of surveys in mahogany, sandalwood and teak from 2009-2011 are
show in Table 2.
Table 2. Surveys in mahogany, sandalwood and teak from 2009-2011
Number
Type of stands
Tree species
of
Year
Results of survey
surveyed
assessments
Santalum yasi,
Defoliation, algae stains on
Sandalwood Trial
Santalum album
2006
3
foliage & discoloration of
Plots.
& Swietinia
foliage
macrophylla.
Defoliation, algae stains on
foliage, discolouration of
Santalum yasi,
foliage, termite infestation,
Sandalwood Trial
Santalum album
2007
5
fungal attack (Armillaria &
Plot
& Eleocarpus
Phellinus), severe chewing of
grandis.
foliage and presence of beetle
species on foliage.
Defoliation, algal stains on
Sandalwood Trial
foliage, discolouration of
Plots &
Santalum yasi
foliage, termite infestation ,
2008 Sandalwood in-situ & Santalum
6
fungal attack (Armillaria &
gene conservation
album.
Phellinus) and chewing of
stands.
foliage.
Sandalwood Trial
Santalum yasi,
Plots &
Santalum album
Discolouration and chewing
2009
1
Sandalwood Seed
& hybrid
of foliage
Production Areas
sandalwood
Mahogany
Swietinia
plantation,
Infestation by Ambrosia
macrophylla,
Sandalwood
beetles, fungal attack
2010
Santalum yasi
4
research plots,
(Phellinus), chlorosis and
and Pinus
Sandalwood SPA
chewing of foliage
caribea
and Pine trial plots.
Sandalwood trial
Santalum yasi,
plots, Sandalwood
Swietinia
Foliage defoliation, white
ex-situ gene
2011
macrophylla
2
flies and foliage
conservation plot,
and Tectona
discoloration.
Mahogany and
grandis
Teak plantations
Two major insect pests have been detected in the natural forests and mahogany plantations in
Fiji (see Table 2). The ambrosia beetles of the family Platypodidae and Scolytidae are nonselective beetles with regard to plant families. These have been recorded from 69 tree species
belonging to 42 plant families in natural forest, mahogany plantations as young as 8 years,
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
143
and in 2 year old potted mahogany seedlings in the nursery. At present, 5 species of
platypodids and 104 species of scolytids have been identified.
Evidence of fresh attack by ambrosia beetles is always associated with interference or actual
destruction of the vegetation matrix; more common on marginal trees of the compartment and
nearly always related to some forest logging, thinning, pruning or clearing. Hurricanes and
cyclones in Fiji also leave behind large quantities of materials suitable for breeding.
Occurrences are within 1 to 3 weeks after disturbance and evident for up to 5 months.
Saplings in the nursery were found to be highly susceptible when stressed physiologically,
dying or diseased.
As can been seen from Table 2 termites are common in forest plantations. Three species of
termites of the genus Neotermes (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) have been identified attacking
mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) in Fiji – Neotermes spp, Neotermes papua Desneux
and Neotermus samoanus Holmgren. The mean percent incidence was 7.7 and loss in wood
volume, and consequently the economic value, was 8.0% of the total volume/value. No
correlation was observed between the sites and the nature and rate of spread of infestation
and virtually nothing is known on the diversity, distribution, abundance, mode of entry and
colonization in the trees and relationship between attack and site or tree condition.
Occasionally, infestation occurred in combination with heart-rot caused by the fungi
Armillaria spp (mellea complex) or Phellinus noxius (Table 2).
These termites are highly unselective and responsible for damage to economically important
native trees as well. A total of 23 indigenous tree species belonging to 17 botanical families
were found termite positive out of 48 species in 25 families. Although mean percent
incidence was found to be 7%, 7 obligatory tree species were found to be more prone to
severe damage: Cleistocalyx spp/Syzygium spp (Myrtaceae), Callophyllum vitiense
(Clusiaceae), Terminalia luteola (Cconbretaceae), Palaquium hornei (Sapotaceae),
Dysoxylum richii (Meliaceae) and Myristica castaneifolia (Myristicaceae).
Thirteen species of termites are reported from Fiji, six of which are considered as forestry
pests: Coptotermes acinaciformis, Prorhinotermes inopinatus, Crytotermes spp, Crytotermes
domestticus, Glyptotermes taveuniensis, Incisitermes repandus, Neotermes spp, Neotermes
papua, Neoptermes samoanus, Procryptotermes spp., Nasutitermes olidus and Nasutitermes
spp.
Improved border security
For border security against invasive and trans-boundary pest and diseases, port survey at the
two major ports of Fiji, the Timber Utilization Division of the Forest Department has Timber
Inspectors who are involved in inspections of timber and timber products imports and exports
at the wharf. Timber Inspectors also inspects sawmills and hardware facilities when they
raise concerns regarding their products, especially imported timber or timber products having
insect or fungal damage. An important outcome of the training component on timber pests, in
addition to the training itself, was the establishment of an improved working relationship
between Fiji Quarantine and Forestry Department staff in regard to early detection of forest
invasive species. Quarantine are now aware of the excellent forest insect reference collection
held with Forestry Department at its facility with the Silviculture Research & Resource
Development Division and with the help of Forestry utilize this resource for identification of
potential pest species.
144 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Challenges to ongoing forest health surveillance and pest detection
A major constraint in carrying out systematic surveillance throughout forests and
plantations is the lack expertise, specifically a forest entomologist and trained field
personnel (caused by the promotion of trained staff to other positions). Most insect pests
and diseases encountered are referred for identification to an agricultural entomologist
The cost required and the availability of resources (such as vehicles) to undertake the
activities
Determining which pest is attacking a particular tree species and the level of damage it is
causing
Prolonged wet weather severely affects the quality of the insects trapped in static traps.
Institutional commitment and long term strategies
The Forestry Department is committed to conservation and the sustainable management of
Fiji’s natural resources and the development of its plantation. Biosecurity pest traps
established at trade borders and plantations allow detection and monitoring of pests and
diseases. Forest health and surveillance for pest and diseases remains an integral to the
development of forest plantations. Strategic plans are in place to continue and improve
border security against invasive and trans-boundary pests and diseases, setting up insect traps
in natural and plantation forests both in logged out and un-logged areas to monitor insect
populations and developing appropriate measures for forest protection and forest health
surveys in forest plantations.
The program initiated in 2006 has enabled the Department to understand and comprehend
that early detection systems at borders as well as regular forest health surveillance is an
essential component of forestry for the long term protection of the forest resources and the
ease of trade of commercial species from a country fortunate in having only small numbers of
timber pests. Through this program, the Forest Protection component of the Forestry
Department in Fiji has been enhanced in capacity and technical expertise, such that forest
health and border surveillance has been incorporated in the corporate and business plans of
the Ministry with funding provided from the research divisions operation budget for future
work.
The government will take all efforts to protect natural and plantation forests and their biodiversity from forest fires, pests, natural disasters and invasive species. It will also ensure
that commercialized forest entities take all reasonable steps to reduce the occurrence of
unplanned fire in plantations and minimize damage from wildfire. Resource owners and cane
farmers will be encouraged to use fire safely. Furthermore the government will ensure that
commercialized forest entities take all reasonable steps to plan for mitigation of impacts of
natural disasters such as cyclones and outbreaks of disease, pest or invasive species.
Recommendations
The program greatly benefited the Fiji Forestry Department; in particular it assisted Forest
Health staff with establishing effective insect trapping methods, sorting, classification and
identification of insects. In addition, the technical expertise and advice provided by the two
ACIAR projects which were part of the program built the skill and knowledge of the Forest
Health staff. The continuation of such a program would allow the detection and monitoring
of pests and diseases affecting our forest resources and establish a proper system to ensure
that our environment is preserved and protected and our timber trade enhanced due to pest
free status to some extent.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
145
Our recommendation is to establish a network with relevant agencies such as CSIRO,
ACIAR, the Secretariat of Pacific Communities, Biosecurity Authority Fiji, and the
University of the South Pacific. More capacity should be built through workshops. In
addition, the development and implementation of strategic action plans is crucial for
controlling and containment of pests and diseases in the country. It would be ideal now to
have a project which would add value to and enhance the outcomes of the “Forest Pest
Detection Systems in Fiji” program. Training is needed on how to carry out Pest Risk
Analysis (PRAs). Training is also needed in the rapid control or containment of invasive
pests and pathogens, should one be intercepted at ports of entry (Biosecurity Authority Fiji
has in place the above strategic plans but geared more towards agricultural pests and
diseases).
Climate change can affect forests by altering the frequency, intensity duration, and timing of
fire, drought, hurricanes, storms, landslides, introduced species, insect pests and pathogen
outbreaks. Climate change is high on Fiji’s agenda and requires vigorous awareness and
capacity building to ensure that possible impacts on forest pests and diseases can be reduced.
Climate variability and change may affect a pest species in a particular environment and
involve the migration of a pest species population to more suitable environments for their
survival. There is an urgent need therefore to consider how climatic fluctuations will
influence forest health status in Fiji. The reduction of forest degradation, afforestation,
conservation and maintaining biodiversity, increasing forest cover would be an excellent way
forward to mitigate the impacts of climate change on forest pests and diseases.
146 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
OCCURRENCE, CHARACTERIZATION AND SPECIFIC DETECTION OF
BROWN ROOT DISEASE PATHOGEN IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA FOREST
PLANTATIONS USING INTERNAL TRANSCRIBED SPACER (ITS) SPECIFIC
PRIMERS
1)
Mohd Farid A.1), Maziah Z.3), Lee S.S.1) and Mohd Rosli H.2)
Pathology Laboratory, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia; 2)
Genetic Laboratory, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia; 3) School
of Biological Sciences Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) 18000 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
Corresponding author: mohdfarid@frim.gov.my
Abstract
Brown root disease (BRD) caused by Phellinus noxius is lethal due to its capacity to kill trees
irrespective of species, health status, age and locality. There is very little information on its
incidence in Malaysian forest plantations due to lack of disease surveys. Therefore, surveys
were conducted in selected forest plantations to assess incidence and severity of BRD. The
pathogen was identified and described morphologically and species-specific primers were
also used to detect the fungus present. In general, occurrence of BRD in forest plantations
was relatively low (<5%). All fungal isolates obtained from the plantations were similar
culturally and morphologically. Primer PNOX02 paired with ITS4 was sensitive in detecting
the pathogen in pure culture, from fruiting bodies and from diseased tissues.
Keywords: Brown root disease, forest plantation, morphology and specific primer
Introduction
Brown root disease caused by Phellinus noxius is well known as one of the most destructive
root diseases in the tropics together with red root rot and white root rot caused by Ganoderma
philippii and Rigidoporus microporus, respectively. Brown root rot is often reported to cause
mortality in agricultural crops such as Hevea brasiliensis, tea, cocoa, jackfruit as well as in
forest species either in plantations or in natural habitats (Holiday 1980; Hodges & Tenorio
1984; Wood & Lars 1985; Nandris et al. 1987; Old et al. 2000; Ann. et al. 2002). The disease
was also documented to kill trees of all ages (Ann et al. 2002) starting as early as 1- 2 years
old (Browne 1986). Usually, trees affected by the disease exhibit rapid disease development
starting from yellowing of leaves followed by wilting and finally defoliation (Ann et al.
1999). In the field, affected trees are often recognized by the presence of a characteristic
brown mycelial mat or black mycelial crust on the surface of infected roots and a collar-like
layer around the base of the stem. At present, control of the disease is difficult and
application of fungicides is often ineffective, especially in the field.
In Peninsular Malaysia, brown root disease incidence is also reported to occur on forest
plantation species, especially Acacia mangium (Old et al. 2000). However, there is little
information about the incidence and severity of the disease on other forest tree species in the
country. Even though planted forest species such as Azadirachta excelsa, Tectona grandis
and the timber latex clone (H. brasiliensis) have been reported to be very susceptible to the
disease (Mohd Farid et al. 2006), the disease severity remains unclear due to lack of
systematic disease surveys.
In most cases, identification of the brown root disease pathogen is based on morphological
characteristics of cultures (Stalpers 1978) and fruiting bodies (Nunez & Ryvarden 2001).
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
147
However, due to the recent upsurge in DNA technology, identification of fungal pathogens
can be done more rapidly and accurately up to species levels, especially by polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) using species-specific primers. This approach has been reported to
successfully detect the presence of mycorrhizal fungi in roots (Christoph et al. 2003), soil
borne pathogens, Macrophomina phaseolina (Bandamaravuri et al. 2007) and Microbotryum
violaceum anther-smut disease (Akhter & Antonovics 1999). Thus, we believe that
development of species-specific primers can also be used to rapidly detect the presence of
brown root disease. In this study, the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of ribosomal DNA was
used as a target region for taxonomic studies due to its high polymorphism within species
(Chillali et al. 1998). These regions have proven to be useful for generating primers for a
species-specific detection of pathogenic fungi in naturally infected plant tissue (Lovic et al.
1995).
In the present study, surveys for brown root disease incidence in forest plantations of
Peninsular Malaysia were carried-out to determine the severity of root disease infection, to
characterize the causal organism and to evaluate a species-specific primer developed for rapid
and accurate identification of the pathogen.
Materials and Methods
Disease surveys
Disease assessment
Surveys for brown root disease were carried out between 1998 and 2004 in 33 forest
plantations in Peninsular Malaysia (Figure 1).
Legend:
I
M
T
A
= A. excelsa x H. brasiliensis plantation
= A. mangium plantation
= T. grandis plantation
= A. excelsa plantation
Figure 1. Map of surveyed forest plantations in Peninsular Malaysia: A: Azadirachta excels;
M: Acacia mangium; T: Tectona grandis; I: Hevea brasiliensis.
These included A. excelsa (sentang), T. grandis (Teak), K. ivorensis (Khaya) and A. mangium
as well as interplanted plantations of T. grandis with rubber and A. excelsa with rubber.
These species were selected because they are among the major forest tree species
recommended for plantation in the country. Two types of disease assessment, random
sampling conducted on blocks of 20 × 20 trees established in large-scale plantations (>0.4 ha)
with 3 replications and complete sampling conducted in small scale plantations (<0.4 ha),
148 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
were made. Previous history of the plantations, techniques of plantation establishment and
year of planting were documented.
In the field, diseased trees were diagnosed based on above- and below-ground symptoms.
Above-ground symptoms were yellowing and wilting of leaves, dieback, sparse foliage,
defoliation, death of trees in patches and the presence of fruiting bodies. For below-ground
symptoms, roots of diseased trees were excavated and symptoms and signs such as rusty
brown encrustations of fungal mycelia intermingled with sand and soil particles on the root
surface and the presence of a golden brown honeycomb-like pattern in the root recorded.
Isolation of fungi from diseased roots
Isolation of the suspected fungal pathogens was conducted on Ganoderma Selective Media
(GSM) (Ariffin & Idris 1992). Prior to isolation, tools for excising diseased tissues were
surface sterilized with 75% alcohol and flamed for approximately 30 s. Root tissues
measuring approximately 5 mm × 5 mm bearing disease symptoms were excised at the
border between the healthy and infected zones and then plated directly onto the agar media.
The plates were transported to FRIM and incubated at room temperature (28°C ± 2oC) for 3 4 days. After incubation, fungal mycelia growing out of the tissues were transferred into new
plates containing PDA which were incubated at room temperature for the fungi to grow.
Fungal isolates
All fungal isolates obtained were identified morphologically. Isolate 591 obtained by R.A.
Fox, in 1956 from Field 49, Malaysia Rubber Board (MRB), Sg. Buluh from a stump of
Pasania lucida left during land clearing for the establishment of rubber plantations and
identified as P. noxius by K.P. John of RRIM, was used as a reference.
Morphological characterization of P. noxius isolates
Characteristics of cultures and fruiting bodies
Characterization of brown root disease fungal isolates was based on examination of
macroscopic and microscopic features according to Stalpers (1978). Fruiting bodies
artificially induced in the laboratory according to the technique described by Lee and Noraini
Sikin (1999) were described according to Nunez and Ryvarden (2000). All the identified
isolates were then allocated a FRIM reference number for further study.
Detection of P. noxius using species specific primer
DNA was extracted from mycelia and affected tissues of collected specimens (Table 1). For
species specific primer test using the fungal mycelia, Phellinus lamaensis, P. periculitatus, P.
cf. gilvus and Phellinus sp. were used for comparison. For species specific primer test using
diseased tissues, P. noxius isolates obtained from disease surveys and culture collections were
artificially inoculated onto rubber wood blocks (Lee & Noraini Sikin 1999). DNA extracted
from the infected wood blocks was then tested. Clean uninfected rubber wood tissues were
used as negative control and a fruiting body of isolate 591 was used as positive control.
DNA extraction and specific primer test
Genomic DNA from mycelia, fruiting body and wood tissues was extracted using
DNeasy®plant Mini Kit (Qiagen, GmbH, Germany- 69104). In total, 200 µl of genomic
DNA were collected and then stored at – 20oC until used.
For the primer test, a total of 37 Phellinus specimens, 10 in mycelial form, 13 fruiting bodies
and 14 rubber wood blocks infected by the fungus, were used. Detection of P. noxius using
specific primer PNOX02 (5’-AGT-GGT-TTA-TTC-GTT-TAT-TC-3’) developed by Mohd
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
149
Farid et al. (2006) was undertaken using 50 μl of PCR reaction mixture containing 200 ng
fungal genomic DNA templates, 0.5 pmol ITS4 universal primer, 0.5 pmol designed primer,
0.2mM dNTP and 0.5 unit Taq DNA Polymerase. The reactions were incubated in a thermal
cycler programmed at 94oC: 30 s denaturing, 59.2oC: 30 s annealing and 72oC: 1min
extension with 30 cycles. The PCR products were analyzed by 1% agarose gel
electrophoresis and visualized by ethidium bromide staining.
Results
Disease surveys and assessment
The majority of the 33 plantations surveyed (Figure 1) were small-scale and belonged to low
income planters. In contrast, large scale plantations were mostly owned by private companies
and state forestry departments (Appendix 1).
Table 1. Specimen collections of Phellinus used in this study for primer design and/or
testing using selective amplification of ribosomal DNA ITS regions.
No.
Specimen
Species
Host
Locality
1
FRIM 25 DW
P. noxius
A. mangium
Batu Arang, Selangor
2
FRIM 46 DW
P. noxius
A. mangium
Rawang, Selangor
3
FRIM 100 DW
P. noxius
A. mangium
4
FRIM 112 DW
P. noxius
A. mangium
5
FRIM144M,
P. noxius
A. excelsa
Forestry Head Quarter,
Kuala Lumpur
Meuro Bengkal,
Kalimantan, Indonesia
Lendu, Melaka
6
FRIM147M,
P. noxius
A. excelsa
Kuala Kangsar, Perak
7
FRIM154M,
P. noxius
A. mangium
Ulu Sedili, Johor
8
FRIM556M,
P. noxius
A. mangium
Kemasul, Pahang
9
FRIM557M,
P. noxius
A. mangium
Gemas, N. Sembilan
10
FRIM613M,
P. noxius
T. grandis
Sabak Bernam, Selangor
11
FRIM614M,
P. noxius
T. grandis
Sabak Bernam, Selangor
12
FRIM618M,
P. noxius
T. grandis
Sabak Bernam, Selangor
13
FRIM638M,
P. noxius
A. excelsa
Sik, Kedah
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
591M, DW
42B
55B
2113B
24N-4B
1877B
1933B
P. noxius
P. noxius
P. noxius
P. noxius
P. lamaensis
P. lamaensis
P. lamaensis
H. brasiliensis
Unidentified
Unidentified
Unidentified
Unidentified
Unidentified
Unidentified
Sg. Buluh, Selangor
Rawang, Selangor
Sentul, N. Sembilan
Pasoh, N. Sembilan
Pasoh, N. Sembilan
Pasoh, N. Sembilan
Pasoh, N. Sembilan
DW
DW
DW
DW
DW
DW
DW
DW
DW
150 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
21 2049B
P. lamaensis
Unidentified
Pasoh, N. Sembilan
B
22 6D-10
P. periculitatus
Unidentified
Pasoh, N. Sembilan
23 2005B
P. periculitatus
Unidentified
Pasoh, N. Sembilan
B
24 4D-4
P. cf. gilvus
Unidentified
Pasoh, N. Sembilan
25 2079B
Phellinus sp.
Unidentified
Pasoh, N. Sembilan
26 615B
Phellinus sp.
Unidentified
Sabak Bernam, Selangor
B
27 18273
Phellinus sp.
Unidentified
Pasoh, N. Sembilan
M
=DNA extracted from mycelia; B= DNA extracted from fruiting body; DW=DNA
extracted from diseased wood block
Four types of root disease were found namely white root disease (WRD), brown root disease
(BRD), red root disease (RRD) and black root rot caused by Rigidoporus microporus, P.
noxius, Ganoderma sp. and R. vinctus respectively. BRD was found in 8 plantations (24.2%)
in monoculture A. excelsa plantations at Lendu, Melaka and Sik, Kedah (P1), monoculture T.
grandis plantations at Sabak Bernam, Selangor (P1 & P2) and Kuala Kangsar, Perak and
monoculture A. mangium plantations at Ulu Sedili, Johor, Gemas, Negeri Sembilan and
Kemasul, Pahang. In general, the severity of the disease was considered low; BRD was
highest (4.37%) in T. grandis at Sabak Bernam (P2) and lowest (0.25%) in A. excelsa at Sik,
Kedah (P1). Symptomatic trees were observed to occur solitarily or in patches and trees as
young as 1 year-old could be killed. Poor land clearing and a previous history of brown root
disease in these plantations were often associated with disease incidence in the current
plantations.
In the field, above-ground symptoms were similar on the different species and manifested as
yellowing and wilting of leaves and dieback, except in T. grandis where crown symptoms
were less evident but bark depression, especially at the base of the main stem, and a rotted
root collar were observed. Below ground, affected roots were covered by a dark brown
surface mycelial crust intermingled with soil particles. In the wood, irregular golden brown
pockets sometimes could be seen, especially on trees in very advanced stages of infection.
Morphological characteristics of fungal isolate
Cultures of the isolates that had morphological characteristics representative of P. noxius are in
Appendix 2 (Stalpers 1978, Lee & Noraini Sikin 1999).
Morphology of fruiting bodies
Characteristics of P. noxius fruiting bodies obtained from diseased roots are shown in
Appendix 3. In the present study, 9 fruiting bodies artificially induced in the laboratory from
isolates FRIM144, FRIM147, FRIM154, FRIM556, FRIM557, 591, FRIM613, FRIM618 and
FRIM638 were of resupinate form. The surface of all the fruiting bodies was undulating,
hard, crusted, resinous when sectioned and finely velvety. The colour was pale ferruginous to
umber in the older regions, and brown towards the margin. Tubes of the fruiting body were
single layered and the context layer was brown in colour. The pores were round to angular
with 9─14 pores per mm2 measuring 90-130 µm × 100-120 µm in diameter. They were small
and invisible to the naked eye. White mycelial strands oriented radially were often observed
inside the pores. Setal hyphae were abundant in all fruiting bodies, thick-walled, dark brown
to ferruginous with obtuse to blunt ends measuring 100 × 7.5-13 μm and projecting into the
hymenium. The basidiospores were globose to subglobose, hyaline, smooth and thin walled,
3.8 × 3.1 μm. Basidiospores of fruiting bodies of isolate 591 appeared to be the smallest
compared to the other isolates.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
151
Detection of P. noxius using species specific primer
Results of PCR amplification revealed that primer combination PNOX02/ITS4 was sensitive
and successfully detected the presence of P. noxius isolates only (Figure 2). All fungal
specimens previously identified as P. noxius namely, 2113 (B), FRIM144 (E), FRIM147 (F),
FRIM154 (G), FRIM556 (H), FRIM557 (I), FRIM613 (J), FRIM614 (K), FRIM618 (L), 591
(M), FRIM638 (P), 42 (R) and 55 (S) were detected in the present study. In contrast, the
primer combination failed to amplify ITS region of the fungal specimens 24N-4, 1877, 1933
and 2049 (all P. lamaensis), 2005 and 6D-10 (both P. periculitatus), 4D-4 (P. cf gilvus) and
18273, 615 and 2079 (all Phellinus spp.). The study also revealed that the primer
combination was equally sensitive in amplifying ITS regions of the fungus even though the
isolates were obtained from various hosts and localities. It was also effective in detecting P.
noxius from dried samples which had been kept for several years in the herbarium.
Figure 2. DNA fragments of amplified ITS region in agarose gel indicating PNOX02/ITS4 primer
combination is sensitive in discriminating P. noxius from P. lamaensis, P.
periculitatus, P. cf gilvus, and Phellinus sp. A, O= 100 bp marker, B= 2113 (P.
noxius), C= 625 (Phellinus sp.), D= 18273 (Phellinus sp.), E= FRIM144 (P. noxius),
F= FRIM147 (P. noxius), G= FRIM154 (P. noxius), H= FRIM556 (P. noxius), I=
FRIM557 (P. noxius), J= FRIM613 (P. noxius), K= FRIM614 (P. noxius), L=
FRIM618 (P. noxius), P= FRIM638 (P. noxius), Q=24N-4 (P. lamaensis), R= 42 (P.
noxius), S= 55 (P. noxius), T=1877 (P. lamaensis), U= 6D-10 (P. periculitatus),
V=4D-4 (P. cf gilvus), W= 2079 (Phellinus sp.), X= 1933 (P. lamaensis), Y= 2049 (P.
lamaensis), Z=2005 (P. periculitatus), M, a= Positive control (591), N, b= Negative
control (H2O).
The specific primer pair, PNOX02/ITS4 also successfully amplified DNA of all wood
blocks inoculated with P. noxius (Figure 3). The primer pair was also sensitive in
detecting the presence of P. noxius DNA from culture (isolate 591 (A), positive control).
The primer combination failed to amplify DNA of healthy rubber wood (negative
control, B).
Discussion
There is little information about the occurrence of brown root disease (BRD) in Peninsular
Malaysian forest plantations and data is only available for surveys conducted by Lee (2000)
in A. mangium plantations at Kemasul, Pahang. This study revealed that BRD occurred in 8
out of 33 plantations only, and in A. excelsa, T. grandis and A. mangium of different ages and
health status. Trees as young as 1 year-old were killed. Disease severity varied with site and
ranged from 0.25-4.37%. Although mortality rates were low, BRD could still be
economically important if mortality increases with time and control measures are not taken.
152 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
It is also very difficult to eliminate the pathogen once present as it can survive in the soil for a
long time as a saprophyte.
Figure 3. DNA fragments of amplified ITS region in agarose gel indicating PNOX02/ITS4
primer combination is sensitive in detecting P. noxius from affected wood samples.
A= 591 (Positive control), B= DNA of healthy wood (Negative control), C=
FRIM638, D=FRIM618, E= FRIM614, F= FRIM613, G= FRIM557, H=
FRIM556, I= FRIM154, J=FRIM147, K=FRIM144, L= FRIM112, M=FRIM100,
N=FRIM46, O=FRIM25 and P=591
Occurrence of BRD was apparent in plantations that had poor land preparation and a previous
history of root disease, especially in monocultures of A. excelsa, T. grandis and mixed A.
excelsa × rubber and T. grandis × rubber. The majority had previously been planted with
crops also known to be susceptible to BRD, such as cocoa, rubber, oil palm and coconut
(Nandris et al. 1987; Wood & Lars 1985, Pegler, 1968). It is suggested that BRD in the
present plantations could have originated from infected root remnants of former crops.
BRD incidence in A. excelsa plantations in Lendu and Sik and a T. grandis plantation in
Kuala Kangsar was lower than in T. grandis plantations in Sabak Bernam, possibly due to a
lower incidence of disease in the previous crops as reported by local farmers. The more
severe incidence in Sabak Bernam, especially P2 was most likely due to the presence of a
higher inoculum load in the soil due to poor land clearing. Previous agricultural crops on the
site of these present plantations were often killed by BRD and left untreated until conversion
into a forest plantation. As a result, the pathogen may have remained as a saprophyte,
becoming a parasite when susceptible trees such as T. grandis were planted.
Disease spread was most likely via contact between infected woody debris and healthy roots
or between roots of diseased and healthy neighboring trees, similar to that reported in H.
brasiliensis (Nandris et al. 1987) and A. mangium (Lee 1996) plantations affected by root
disease. Trees in the Sabak Bernam teak plantations were older, uniform and bigger with well
developed root systems compared to the younger and smaller trees in the Lendu, Sik and
Kuala Kangsar plantations. The chances of tree roots reaching buried inoculum in the soil are
therefore lower in the younger plantations. These results match those of Lee (2000) on the
incidence of root disease in A. mangium plantations where disease spread was probably
dependent on the presence, abundance and distribution of disease inocula.
Incidence of BRD in A. mangium plantations was low with 1.7 – 2.5% severity and confirms
that it is not a major threat to this species compared to red root disease (Arentz 1986; Lee
1996). Previous surveys (Mohd Farid et al. 2006) also revealed that red root disease was
more destructive in A. mangium plantations than BRD. It is suggested that the source of
inocula in these sites was low, probably due to good land clearing.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
153
All P. noxius isolates had similar cultural appearances to those described by Nandris et al.
(1987), Ann et al. (1999), Lee and Noraini Sikin (1999), Chang (2002), Supriadi et al. (2004)
and Mohd Farid et al. (2006) obtained from different host plants and countries.
The species specific tests revealed that primer pair PNOX02/ ITS4 was highly sensitive in
detecting P. noxius. The primer designed from sequence of DNA ITS regions in P. noxius
(isolate 591) confirmed that the rDNA repeat units were highly conserved and thus useful in
producing a characteristic DNA fragment (Bachmann 1994; White et al. 1990). Similarly, the
non-coding internal ITS was often successfully used in identifying species and detecting
intraspecific fungal variation (Henrion et al. 1992; Erland et al. 1994; Ward et al. 1994;
Morton et al. 1995). During PCR amplification, the primer paired with ITS4 successfully
amplified genomic DNA of isolates identified as P. noxius obtained from various host plants
and locations, and confirmed that all morphologically identified material was indeed P.
noxius. Based on DNA fragments present in agarose gel, the specific primer was also found
to be equally sensitive in amplifying DNA of the pathogen extracted from cultured mycelial
and dried fruiting bodies. Likewise, the primer pair was also sensitive in detecting the
presence of P. noxius in affected wood. Sicoli et al. (2003) showed that this approach could
rapidly detect the presence of Armillaria species in diseased plant tissues.
Although a previous molecular study reported that identification of Phellinus species at
species-level is complicated due to the presence of intraspecific DNA sequence variations
among isolates from difference provenances (Fisher & Binder 2004), the present study
proved that the designed primer was sensitive and species specific only to the target
pathogen. Thus, this primer offers an alternative approach for identification of the pathogen
up to species level more rapidly compared to the time consuming morphological
identification. In addition, it also can be used in discriminating co-existing pathogens in the
diseased tissues (Kikuchi et al. 2000).
Conclusion
In Peninsular Malaysia, occurrence of BRD in forest plantations was relatively low, occurred
in only 8 of 33 plantations, and <5% of trees were affected. Trees associated with the fungal
infection exhibited yellowing and wilting of leaves, defoliation and finally death. All P.
noxius isolates obtained were similar culturally and morphologically irrespective of host plant
and locality. Species specific primer, PNOX02 developed from regions of variable ITS
sequence confirmed that all isolates were of P. noxius.
Acknowledgement
We thank the Director General, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) for permission to
publish this paper. We acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Zakaria Yusoff, Mrs. Anida
Zakaria, Mr. Fakaruddin Baharuddin and Ruszaida Yahya in collecting samples and carrying
out field surveys. Financial support by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation
(MOSTI) through IRPA grant No. 01-04-01-1—13-EA001 is gratefully acknowledged.
References
AKHTER, S. AND ANTONOVICS, J. 1999. The use of internal transcribed spacer primers
and fungicide treatments to study the anther-smut disease, Microbotryum violacea (Ustilago
violacea) of white campion Silene alba (Silene latifolia). International Journal of Plant
Science 160(6): 1171-1176
154 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
ANN, P.J., LEE, H.L. AND HUANG, T.C. 1999. Brown root rot of 10 species of fruit trees
caused by Phellinus noxius in Taiwan. Plant Disease. 83(8):746─750
ANN, P.J., CHANG, T.T. AND KO, W.H. 2002. Phellinus noxius brown rot of fruit and
ornamental trees in Taiwan. Plant Disease 86(8):820─826
ARENTZ, F. 1986. Forest pathology lecture notes. Papua New Guinea Forestry College.
Bulolo.
ARIFFIN, D. AND IDRIS, A.S. 1992. The Ganoderma selective medium (GSM). Porim
Information Series. Pp. 1─2
BACHMANN, K. 1994. Molecular markers in plant ecology. New Phytologist. 126: 403-418
BAKSHI, B.K., SEHGAL, H.S. AND SINGH, B. 1969. Cultural diagnosis of Indian
Polyporaceae. 1. Genus Polyporus. Indian Forest Records (new series), Forest Pathology
2(9): 205–244
BANDAMARAVURI, K. B., ANIL, K. S., ALOK, K. S. AND DILIP K. A. 2007.
Identification and detection of Macrophomina phaseolina by using species specific
oligonucleotide primers and probe. Mycologia 99(6):797–803.
BROWNE, F.G. 1986. Pest and disease of forest plantation trees. An annotated list of the
principle species occurring in the British Commonwealth. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Pp. 1330
CHANG, T.T. 2002. The Biology, ecology and pathology of Phellinus noxius. In Watling et
al. (eds.), Tropical mycology, Volume 1, Macromycetes. CABI Publishing, U.K. Pp. 87─99
CHILLALI, M., IDDER-IGHILI, H., GUILLAUMIN, J.J., MOHAMMED, C.,
ESCARMANT, B.L. AND BOTTON, B. 1998. Variation in the ITS and IGS regions of
ribosomal DNA among the biological species of European Armillaria. Mycological Research
102 (5):533─540
CHRISTOPH, K., SEAK-JIN, K, SANG-SUN, L. AND CARSTEN, H. 2003. A reliable
“direct from field” PCR method for identification of mycorrhizal fungi from associated roots.
Mycobiology 31(4): 196-199
ERLAND, S., HENRION, B., MARTIN, F., GLOVER, L.A. AND ALEXANDER, I.J.1994.
Identification of ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete Tylospora fibrillose Donk by RFLP analysis of the
PCR amplified ITS and IGS regions of ribosomal DNA. New Phytologist 126: 525-532
Fischer, M. and Binder, M. 2004. Species recognition, geographic distribution and histpathogen relationships: a case study in a group of lignicolous basidiomycetes, Phellinus s.l.
Mycologia 96(4):799─811
HENRION, B., CHEVALIER, G. AND MARTIN, F.1992. Typing truffle species by PCR
amplification of the ribosomal DNA spacers. Mycological Research 98: 37-43
HODGES, C.S. AND TENEIRO, J.A. 1984. Root rot of Delonix regia and associated tree
species in the Mariana Islands caused by Phellinus noxius. Plant Disease 68:334─345
HOLLIDAY, P. 1980. Fungus diseases of Tropical crops. Cambridge University Press, UK.
Pp. 607
KIKUCHI, K., MATSUSHITA, N., GUERIN-LAGUETTE, A., OHTA, A AND SUZUKI,
K. 2000. Detection of Tricholoma matsutake by specific ITS primers. Mycological Research
104(12): 1427-1430
LEE, S.S. 1996. Diseases of some tropical plantation Acacias in Peninsular Malaysia. In Old,
K.M., LEE, S.S & SHARMA, J.K. 1997 (eds.) Proceeding of an International Workshop on
Diseases of Tropical Acacias held at Subanjeriji (South Sumatra) 28 April─3 May 1996.
CIFOR Special Publication, Indonesia. Pp.53─69
LEE, S.S. 2000. The current status of root diseases of Acacia mangium Willd. In Flood et al.
(eds.) Ganoderma diseases of perennial crops. CABI Publishing, UK. Pp.71─79
LEE, S.S. AND NORAINI SIKIN, Y. 1999. Fungi associated with heart rot of Acacia
mangium trees in Peninsular Malaysia and East Kalimantan. Journal of Tropical Forest
Science 11(1):240─254
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
155
LOVIC, B.R., MARTYN, R.D. AND MILLER R.E. 1995. Sequence analysis of the ITS
regions of rDNA in Monosporascus spp. to evaluate its potential for PCR mediated detection.
Phytopathology 85: 655 –661.
MOHD FARID, A. LEE, S. S. MAZIAH, Z. ROSLI H. AND NORWATI M. 2006. Root rot
in tree species other than A. mangium. In Potter, K. et al. (eds.) Heart Rot and Root Rot in
Tropical Acacia Plantations. ACIAR Proceedings No.124, Australia. Pp.60─66
MORTON, A., CARDER, J.H. AND BARBARA, D.J. 1995. Sequences of the internal
transcribed spacers of the ribosomal RNA genes and relationships between isolates of
Verticillium alboatrum and V. dahlia. Plant Pathology 44: 183- 190
NUNEZ, M. AND RYVARDEN, L. 2001. East Asian Polypores. Vol. 2. Polyporaceae s.
lato. Synopsis Fungorum 14. Fungiflora. Pp. 522
NUNEZ, M. AND RYVARDEN, L. 2000. East-asian polypores. Vol. 1. Ganodermataceae
and Hymenochaetaceae. Synopsis Fungorum 13. Fungiflora. Olso, Norway. Pp.168
NANDRIS, D., NICOLE, M. AND GEIGER, J.P. 1987. Root rot diseases of rubber tree.
Plant Disease. 71:298─306
OLD, K.M., LEE, S.S., SHARMA, J.K. AND YUAN, Z.Q. 2000. A manual of diseases of
Tropical Acacias in Australia, South-East Asia and India. CIFOR, Jakarta, Indonesia. Pp.
104.
Pegler, D. N., and Waterston, J. M. 1968. Phellinus noxius. No. 195 in: Descriptions of
Pathogenic Fungi and Bacteria. Commonw. Mycol. Inst., Kew, England.
SICOLI. G., FATEHI, J. AND STENLID, J. 2003. Development of species-specific PCR
primers on rDNA for the identification of European Armillaria species. Forest Pathology 33:
287–297
STALPERS, J.A. 1978. Identification of wood-inhibiting Aphyllophorales in pure culture.
Studies in Mycology, Baarn, Germany. 16:1─248
SUPRIADI, S., ADHI, E.M., WAHYUNO, D., RAHAYUNINGSIH, S., KARYANI, N.
AND DAHSYAT, M. 2004. Brown root rot disease of cashew in West Nusa Tenggara:
Distribution and its causal organism. Indonesian Journal of Agricultural Science. 5(1):32─36
VAN DER PAS, J.B. AND HOOD, I.A. (1983). The effect of site preparation on the
incidence of Armillaria root rot in Pinus radiata four years after conversion from indigenous
forest in Omatoroa Forest, New Zealand. In Kile, G.A. (ed.) 6th Proceeding International
Conference on Root Rot and Butt Rots of Forest Trees. August 25─31, 1983. Melbourne,
Victoria and Queensland, Australia. Pp. 387─399
WARD, E., ADAMS, M.J., MUTASA, E.S., COLLIER, C.R. AND ASHER, M.J.C.1994.
Characterization of Polymyxa species by restriction analysis of PCR-amplified ribosomal
DNA. Plant Pathology 43: 872-877.
WHITE, T.J., BRUNS, T., LEE, S. AND TAYLOR, J. 1990. Amplification and direct
sequencing of fungal ribosomal RNA genes for phylogenetic. In: Innis MA, Gelfand D.H.,
Sninsky, J.J. and White, T.J. (Eds.). PCR protocols: a Guide to Methods and Applications.
New York, Academic Press. 315-322
WOOD, G. A. R. AND LASS, R.A. 1985. Cacoa. Longman, New York. Pp.556
156 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
IDENTIFICATION OF SEVERAL Ganoderma SPECIES CAUSING ROOT ROT IN
Acacia mangium PLANTATION IN INDONESIA
D. Puspitasari 1), V. Yuskianti1), A. Rimbawanto1), C. Beadle2), M. Glen3) and C. Mohammed3)
1)
Centre for Forest Biotechnology and Tree Improvement, Jalan Palagan Tentara Pelajar KM. 15
Purwobinangun Pakem Sleman Yogyakarta 55582, Indonesia; 2)CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences, Private Bag 12,
Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia; 3)Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania,
Private Bag 98, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia.
Corresponding author: diesy_puspita19@yahoo.com
Abstract
Several species of Ganoderma are known to be associated with root-rot disease, especially in
Acacia mangium. The purpose of the study was to identify Ganoderma species collected in 5
different plantations of A. mangium in Sumatra and Kalimantan, Indonesia and from
Eucalyptus pellita plantations in Sumatra. Root samples were collected from permanent
monitoring plots set up in these plantations and from a survey of eucalypt plantations.
Identification of Ganoderma species was based on 2 methods i.e. morphological
identification of cultures and sporocarps and by DNA analysis. Over 4000 basidiomycete
cultures were isolated including duplicates. Out of 573 Ganoderma isolates from a single tree
or sporocarp, 537 were confirmed as G. philippii. Other species of Ganoderma found were G.
mastoporum 6 isolates, G. australe 16 isolates, G. subresinosum 7 isolates, and Ganoderma
sp. 7 isolates. The cultural characteristics of these isolates are described for the first time.
Keywords: morphological traits, Ganoderma species, DNA identification
Introduction
Root-rot disease caused by Ganoderma species has become a major threat to plantation
Acacia mangium. The percentage of mortality is high, between 3 and 28% in A. mangium
aged 3-to 5-years old (Irianto et al. 2006) and the disease significantly reduces both the
quantity of harvestable wood for pulp (Old et al. 2000; Barry et al. 2004; Irianto et al. 2006;
Glen et al. 2009).
Ganoderma species are frequently associated with root-rot disease in tree and crop plantations
in the tropics and sub-tropics (Old et al. 2000; Lee 2002; Glen et al. 2006). Ganoderma
philippii is the causal agent of a root-rot disease that is characterized by a red rhizomorphic
skin visible on the root surface. This type of root rot is frequently observed in of A. mangium
(Glen et al. 2006, Glen et al. 2009) but it has become increasingly clear that they are other
Ganoderma species in both A. mangium and Eucalyptus pellita that have similar root
symptoms than can be mistaken for G. philippii (Glen at al. 2009, Agustini 2010). Sporocarps
of the different Ganoderma species, to a non-taxonomist, are difficult to differentiate and are
variable in morphology (Glen et al. 2009).
Identification of a fungus causing root-rot requires knowledge of the symptoms of infected
roots as well as the morphological characteristics of sporocarp(s) that may be associated with
the infected tree or its environs. A tree may be infected by more than one species of
Ganoderma and a sporocarp that appears on a tree may have different characteristics with an
isolate obtained from the infected roots of the same tree. In this case, isolations must be
carried out on both the infected roots and sporocarps.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
157
Roots affected by Ganoderma species may be covered by a reddish-brown rhizomorphic skin
that is visible after the roots are washed clean of associated soil (Mohammed et al. 2006).
Taxonomic identification of fungal cultures by their cultural morphologies is important to a
screening process when there is a large number of isolates (such as in this study) to passage
through to verification by DNA analyses. Contaminant cultures can be excluded, and when
there is confidence in the identification of a culture by its morphology, the number of DNA
verifications can be reduced to minimum, only carrying out random checks to ensure integrity
of the identifications. In this paper we examine isolates of the different Ganoderma species
associated with root-rot to establish a set of reference cultures.
Materials and Methods
Trial 1: At each of five different A. mangium plantations in Sumatra and Kalimantan, five
semi-permanent plots, 30 x 30 m (100 trees) were set-up and monitored every 6 months. Plots
were established in areas infected by root-rot disease. Monitoring plots included assessments
of above ground factors [dead or alive tree, crown condition, diameter at breast height (DBH)]
and below ground factors (root condition, presence of root-rot, type of rhizomorph). Below
ground assessments were conducted by carefully removing the soil from the roots to a
distance of approximately 1 m away from the stem. Roots were covered after sampling to
protect until the next visit. Root samples and any sporocarps found taken back to the
laboratory.
Trial 2: This study investigated the fungi associated with root rot disease in Eucalypts pellita
during a one-off survey of root-rot disease at 12 sites in a plantation (Agustini 2010). Infected
root samples and sporocarps collected from both acacia and eucalypts were isolated onto malt
extract agar (MEA) 1% medium (10gr/L) containing streptomycin (50 ppm), penicillin (50
ppm), polymyxin (25 ppm) and thiabendazole (230 ppm). Material for isolation was taken
from the mycelium under the bark of a root, or rhizomorphs, or infected wood inside of root
with mycelium, or the context of fruit bodies, or the pores of the sporocarps. After isolation,
cultures were incubated at room temperature (25 °C) on Himedia malt extract agar (MEA) 2%
medium (20gr/L) without antibiotic. The target fungi of interest (wood-rotting fungi) produce
enzymes (laccase and tyrosinase) capable of degrading lignin. An initial screening was carried
out with cultures obtained from isolations. Sporulating contaminants and isolates that tested
negative for laccase and/or tyrosinase were discarded.
About 4000 isolates of putative basidiomycetes were obtained (including duplicate isolations).
Cultures were grouped according to their morphology using characteristics as set out by
Stalpers (1978) for wood-inhabiting fungi in culture. The isolates were then identified using
molecular analyses. The first step was a screening process using species-specific primers
developed for Ganoderma philippii and G. mastoporum (Yuskianti et al., unpublished) and
the second step was sequencing for all fungi remaining unidentified from the first analysis
using specific primers (Glen et al., unpublished).
Results and Discussion
Seo and Kirk (2000) described cultures of Ganoderma species as producing various hyphal
structures, such as generative hyphae with clamp connection, fibre or skeletal hyphae, staghorn hyphae, cuticular cells and vesicles and hyphal rosettes. Out of the 4000 isolates,
eliminating duplicates, 537 were confirmed by molecular analyses as G. philippii; 6 as
G. mastoporum, 16 as G. australe, 7 as G. subresinosum, and 7 as unknown Ganoderma sp.
All cultures of Ganoderma species have the same type of mycelial colony, white to pale
158 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
yellow but do have sufficient variation to recognize in culture. It must be emphasized that this
is the morphology on malt extract agar and with culture incubated at 25°C. Culture
morphology varies according to the medium and temperature of incubation.
Ganoderma philippii
In the early stages of growth, the mycelium grows out in fans out in a straight hyphal pattern,
is very white, grows close to the media and becomes granulose on the surface (Fig. 1.1). As
the culture ages it becomes coppery on the surface (1.3), a discriminative feature of this
species. The colour of the mycelial mat changes from yellowish to brown; light brown to
grayish brown at the centre and the surface becomes crustose (Fig. 1.2). Clamp connections
typical of Basidiomycetes are found (Fig. 1.4).
(1.1)
(1.2)
(1.3)
(1.4)
Figure 1. Ganoderma philippii cultures: 1) young culture after 21 days on MEA 20% at 25
°C; 2) old culture after 126 days on MEA 20% at 25 °C; 3) coppery on the surface,
seen under microscope (Olympus SZX12; 07-90 magnification); 4) clamp
connection.
Ganoderma mastoporum
Cultures of G. mastoporum are more cottony compared to those of G. philippi (Fig. 2). The
mycelium is white to pale yellow, crust formation is rare. The mycelium is sometimes
slightly flat and dense in the centre, yellowish to brown on the edge of the culture. The culture
becomes leathery and difficult to subculture as it becomes older. It does not become as grainy
as G. philippi on the surface.
Ganoderma australe
Colony culture is pale white with straight radiating hyphae. The surface is very fluffy and
becomes very cottony (cottony “balls”) as it ages, very characteristic of this species (Figure
3). Crust formation is rare.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
159
(2.1)
(2.2)
(2.1)
(2.3)
(2.2)
(2.3)
Figure 2. Ganoderma mastoporum cultures: 1) young culture after 7 days on MEA 20% at 25 °C; 2)
old culture after 33 days on MEA 20% at 25 °C; 3) cottony mycelium seen under
microscopemastoporum
(Olympus SZX12;
magnification).
Figure 2. Ganoderma
cultures: 07-90
1) young
culture after 7 days on MEA 20% at 25 °C; 2)
old culture after 33 days on MEA 20% at 25 °C; 3) cottony mycelium seen under
(3.1)
(3.3)
microscope
(Olympus SZX12; 07-90(3.2)
magnification).
(3.1)
(3.2)
(3.3)
Figure 3. Ganoderma australe cultures: 1) young culture after 7 days on MEA 20% at 25 °C; 2) old
culture after 33 days on MEA 20% at 25 °C; 3) cottony ‘balls’ seen under microscope
Figure 3. Ganoderma australe cultures: 1) young culture after 7 days on MEA 20% at 25 °C; 2) old
(Olympus
magnification).
culture
afterSZX12;
33 days07-90
on MEA
20% at 25 °C; 3) cottony ‘balls’ seen under microscope
(Olympus SZX12; 07-90 magnification).
Ganoderma subresinosum
The
mycelium
is pale white and yellowish, with aerial fluffy mycelium. In the early stages of
Ganoderma
subresinosum
The mycelium
is pale white
and yellowish,
with aerial
fluffy
mycelium.
In the
earlyofstages
growth,
the mycelium
is similar
to other species
except
that
it has wide
centre
whiteofopaque
growth,
the
mycelium
is
similar
to
other
species
except
that
it
has
wide
centre
of
white
opaque
and flat mycelium. The mycelium to the edge of the colony is flat, transparent and
immersed
mycelium.
to the
of the colony
flat, grows
transparent
inandtheflatmedium.
AsThe
the mycelium
colony ages
theedge
mycelium
at the isedge
backand
on immersed
itself, becomes
in the medium.
the colony
agesand
thesometimes
mycelium at
the edge
growsaback
on itself,
becomes (Fig.
orangey
yellow,As
crustose
brown
appears
to form
sporocarp
primordium
orangey
yellow,
crustose
brown
and
sometimes
appears
to
form
a
sporocarp
primordium
(Fig.
4).
4).
(4.1)
(4.1)
(4.2)
(4.3)
(4.2)
(4.3)
(4.4) (4.4)
Figure 4.
4. Cultures
Cultures of
1) early
stagestage
of mycelium
growth
after 7after
days 7ondays on
Figure
ofGanoderma
Ganodermasubresinosum:
subresinosum:
1) early
of mycelium
growth
MEA 20% at 25 °C; 2) old culture after 33 days on MEA 20% at 25 °C; 3) crustose brown
MEA 20% at 25 °C; 2) old culture after 33 days on MEA 20% at 25 °C; 3) crustose brown
in the middle; 4) crustose brown appears to form sporocarp primordium (seen under
in the middle;
4) crustose
appears to form sporocarp primordium (seen under
microscope
- Olympus
SZX12; brown
07-90 magnification).
microscope - Olympus SZX12; 07-90 magnification).
Conclusion
Conclusion
This paper describes for the first time the cultural morphology of four species commonly
This
paperwith
describes
the in
first
timeandthe
cultural
morphology
of four species commonly
associated
root-rotfor
disease
acacia
eucalypt
plantations
in Indonesia.
associated with root-rot disease in acacia and eucalypt plantations in Indonesia.
160 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Acknowledgement
This research was funded by the Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research
project FST. 2003/048, a collaboration between Centre of Forest Biotechnology and Tree
Improvement, University of Tasmania and CSIRO – Australia. We would to thank our
industry partner PT. Riau Andalan Pulp and Paper (RAPP), PT. Musi Hutan Persada (MHP)
and PT. Arara Abadi. Appreciation also goes to Drs. Anthony Francis, Ragil Irianto, Nur
Hidayati and Luciasih Agustini.
References
AGUSTINI L. 2010. Signs and symptoms of root rot in Eucalyptus pellita plantations in
Indonesia. MSc thesis University of Tasmania.
BARRY, K.M., IRIANTO, R.S.B., SANTOSO, E., TURJAMAN, M., WIDYATI, E.,
SITEPU, I., MOHAMMED, C.L. 2004 Incidence of heartrot in harvest-age Acacia mangium
in Indonesia, using a rapid survey method. Forest Ecology and Management. 190: 273-280.
GLEN, M., POTTER, K., SULISTYAWATI, P., RIMBAWANTO, A. 2006 Molecular
identification of organisms associated with root and heart rot in Acacia mangium. In ‘ACIAR
Proceedings No. 124. Heart rot and root rot in tropical Acacia plantations: a synthesis of
research progress, 7-9 February, Yogyakarta, Indonesia’. (Eds K Potter, A Rimbawanto, C
Beadle). 55-59p.
GLEN, M., BOUGHER, N.L., FRANCIS, A., NIGG, S.Q., LEE, S.S., IRIANTO, R.S.B.,
BARRY, K.M., BEADLE, C.L., MOHAMMED, C.L. 2009. Ganoderma and Amauroderma
species associated with root-rot disease of Acacia mangium plantation trees in Indonesia and
Malaysia. Australian Plant Pathology. 38: 345-356.
IRIANTO, R.S.B., BARRY, K.M., HIDAYATI, N., ITO, S., FIANI, A., RIMBAWANTO,
A., MOHAMMED, C.L. 2006. Incidence, spatial analysis and genetic trial of root rot of
Acacia mangium in Indonesia. Journal of Tropical Forest Science. 18: 157-165.
LEE, S.S. 2002. Overview of the heartrot problem in Acacia-gap analysis and research
opportunities. In ‘Heartrots in plantation hardwoods in Indonesia and Australia. ACIAR
Technical Report 51E’. (Eds KM Barry). 26-34p.
MOHAMMED, C.L., BARRY, K.M., IRIANTO, R.S.B. 2006. Heart rot and root rot in
Acacia mangium: identification and assessment. In ‘ACIAR Proceedings No. 124. Heart rot
and root rot in tropical Acacia plantations: a synthesis of research progress, 7-9 February,
Yogyakarta, Indonesia’. (Eds K Potter, A Rimbawanto, C Beadle). 26-33p.
OLD, K., LEE, S.S., SHARMA, J.K. AND YUAN, Z.Q. 2000. A manual of diseases of
tropical acacias in Australia, SE Asia and India. Bogor, Indonesia. Centre for International
Forestry Research. 104p.
SEO, G.S. AND KIRK, P.M. 2000. Ganodermataceae: nomenclature and classification. In
‘Ganoderma disease of perennial crops’. (Eds J Flood, PD Bridge, M Holderness) 3-22p.
(CABI Publishing: Wallingford, UK).
STALPERS, G.A. 1978. Identification of wood-inhabiting fungi in pure culture. Studies in
mycology. Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures. 248 pp.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
161
RESPONDS OF YOUNG Falcataria moluccana TO GALL RUST
1)
L. Baskorowati1), A. Rohandi2), and Gunawan2)
Forest Biotechnology and Tree Improvement Research Centre, Yogyakarta, Indonesia; 2) Agroforestry
Research Centre, Ciamis West Java, Indonesia
Abstract
The fast growing tree species Falcataria moluccana is widely planted in tropical regions.
Widespread incidence of gall rust in Falcataria moluccana plantations was reported in 2003
in Indonesia. In Indonesia, particularly in Java during 2003-2009, large areas of plantations
with F. moluccana were severely attacked by gall rust. In order to reduce the impact of gall
rust different provenances of F. moluccana should be screened for resistance to this
pathogen. This study shows that the susceptibility of F. moluccana to gall rust varies
significantly among the different provenances.
Keywords: Variation, susceptibility, Falcataria moluccana, gall rust, resistance trial
Introduction
Falcataria moluccana in Indonesia (commonly called sengon) is widely planted in tropical
regions. Its natural distribution ranges from 0 to 1,200 m above sea level in regions with a
mean annual temperature and rainfall of 22 to 29° C and 2000 to 4000 mm, respectively
(Hidayat et al., 2003). Sengon is a major forest resource in Indonesia especially in Java with
over 1,200,000 ha of plantations established in 2005 (RLPS, 2005). In addition to forest
plantations, it is commonly planted in agro-forestry systems and has shown potential in alley
farming. The number of plantations has increased every year as this species is one of the most
valuable multipurpose species that can be used to replace native tropical timber species in
Indonesian pulp and plywood industries.
Falcataria moluccana in Indonesia has become widely infected by gall rust especially in Java
(Rahayu, 2008). In East Java, the initial outbreak was reported in 2003 but unfortunately little
serious attention was given to solving this problem by the responsible department or nongovernment institutions and industries (Rahayu, 2010). By 2005 the gall rust had spread to
the major areas of sengon plantation including Banyuwangi, Bondowoso, Pasuruan, Malang,
Probolinggo, Jember and Kediri. It was found in Central Java (Temanggung, Wonosobo) in
the early 2006 and in West Java (Ciamis) in 2008. Based on the level of impact and
conditions of the worst-affected plantations Rahayu, 2008 suggested that gall rust must have
been present for several years to cause such damage.
Uromycladium tepperianum (Sacc.) McAlp. has been identified as the cause of gall rust
disease in F. moluccana (Brown, 1993 in Rahayu, 2008; Braza, 1997; Old and Cristovao,
2003; PROSEA, 2003; Rahayu et al., 2005; Rahayu dan Lee, 2008). Gall rust causes the
formation of galls on foliage, branches and stem. The pathogen attacks all above-ground parts
of susceptible hosts; however damage is most severe when shoots and stems are affected, as
stems are girdled by the rust and then insects and saprophytes invade and live in the galls. As
shoots become partially girdled, massive defoliation occurs and, eventually, large trees can be
killed. Moreover, infected stems will easily fall over when there is severe wind. Various
silvicultural techniques have been attempted to reduce the gall rust in Java, Indonesia
(Anggraeni, 2008; Rahayu, 2008) but this disease is difficult to eliminate. Based on
162 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
observations from several studies of rust diseases in trees (Western gall rust of radiata pine
caused by Endocronartium harknessii and phyllode rust of acacias caused by Atelocauda
digitata) it has been suggested that genes for the rust resistance exist in the host trees and
their presence is a major factor in determining disease impact (Old et al., 1986; Old et al.,
1999).
A previous study of F. moluccana seedlings from 6 different seed sources revealed that
seedlings from Wamena, Papua exhibited the highest degree of gall rust resistance (Rahayu et
al., 2009). Another study of 3 year old open pollinated F. moluccana at Kediri, East Java also
showed that Papuan seed sources exhibit the greatest degree of resistance to gall rust
(Baskorowati et al., 2012). This paper reports the variation in gall rust resistance observed in
a rust resistance trial of provenances of F. moluccana.
Materials and methods
Location and experimental design
Gall rust disease severity and tree growth parameters were assessed in February 2012 in F.
moluccana trial planted in February 2011 at Panjalu, Ciamis, West Java in an area of private
forest with severe gall rust disease. This open pollinated provenance trial was a collaborative
research project between BPTA (Agroforestry Research Centre) Ciamis, West Java and
B2PBPTH (Centre for Forest Biotechnology and Tree Improvement) Yogyakarta. This trial
was arranged in a square plot design, and comprised of 12 provenances (seed sources) from
Papua, 25 seedlots (5 x 5), and 4 blocks as replications. The 12 provenances originating from
different seed sources are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. List of Papuan seed sources of F. moluccana resistance trial at Ciamis, West Java
Seed source
Hobikosi
Waga-waga, Kuluru
Holima
Elagaima, Hobikosi
Pyramid, Muai*
Mualiama Bawah*
Wadapi Menawi
Nifasi
Worbag
Maidi
Meagama
Siba, Kuluru
Altitude
1700
1500
1669
1702
n/a
n/a
167
6
21
18
1679
1720
Longitude
Latitude
139º.10'E
138º.10'E
138º 52.439"
138º 49.814"
n/a
n/a
1360 20’ 45. 1”
135º 39'07,3"
135º 41'52,6"
135º 45'10.5"
138º 52.421"
138º 49'814"
4º 10's
4º 50's
04º 03.745''
03º 53.926"
n/a
n/a
010 51’ 53. 3”
03º 10.04,5"
03º 09.13,3"
03º 10.07,6"
04º 03.734''
03º 53.926"
* seeds were collected in 1996 and no data is available
Assessments of growth, disease incidence and severity
Assessments of traits were conducted on all individual trees in the trial. Several parameters
were measured i.e., survival rate, height, diameter at breast height, stem-form and crown
density. The number of galls on twigs, branches and stems were assessed at different time
intervals when the trees were 3, 6, 9 and 12 months old.
Height (Ht) referred to the total tree height was measured to the nearest 0.1 m. Diameter
(DBH) was defined as the stem diameter taken at 1.3 m from ground level and was measured
to the nearest 0.1 cm. Number of stem-galls (GStem) refers to the total number of gall on a
stem per tree (Rahayu, 2010).
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
163
Qualitative scoring techniques were applied to characteristics which could not be measured
quantitatively (Pinyopusarerk et al., 2004). Three qualitative characteristics were assessed;
stem form (Sf), number of branch-galls per tree (Gbranch) and number of twig-galls per tree
(Gtwig). Those characters were scored as follows:
Stem form (Cf): 1 = straight form, 2 = medium bent form, 3 = very bent form
Number of branch-galls per tree (Gbranch): 1 = there are no galls on a branch, 2 = ≤ 50% of
a branch is galled, 3 = > 50% of a branch is galled
Number of twig-galls per tree (Gtwig): 1 = there are no galls on a twig, 2 = ≤ 50% of a twig is
galled, 3 = > 50% of a twig is galled
Based on stem-gall, branch-gall and twig-gall data, gall rust disease on individual trees was
then classed into six classes:
1 = healthy trees without galls
2 = galls on ≤ 50% of twigs
3 = galls on ≤ 50% of twigs and branches
4 = galls on > 50% of twigs and branches
5 = galls exists on stem but not on twigs and branches
6 = trees killed by gall rust
According to Rahayu (2008), disease incidence (DI) and disease severity (DS) are essential
data for describing and understanding the dynamics of the disease as well as for evaluating
the effectiveness of control treatments. Therefore, gall rust incidence (DI) and severity (DS)
for each plot were calculated based on formulas as described by Rahayu et al., (2009).
`
Where:
n
n1, n2, n3, nx
z1,z2,z3,zx
N
Z
= number of infected trees
= number of trees with index score 1,2,3,,, x
= index score of gall rust presence 1,2,3,,,,x
= total number of trees in one plot
= the highest score
Gall rust disease incidence (DI) and severity (DS) values are categorized as rare to
widespread and nil to very severe respectively (Table 2).
Table 2. Incidence and severity of gall rust based on DI and DS values for Falcataria
moluccana
Value of Disease
Value of Disease
Incidence
Severity
Incidence
Severity
<10%
10 - <25%
25 - <50%
50 - <75%
>75%
Rare
Occasional
Common
Very common
Widespread
0%
<25%
25 - <50%
50 - <75%
75 – 100%
Nil
Low
Medium
Severe
Very severe
164 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Statistical Analysis
Data were analyzed using ANOVA (Genstat Version 5.3.2, Payne et al., 1987). Analyses
were based on the following linear model described for a nested randomized block design as
follows
Yijk = + Ri + Pj + F k(j) + eijk
Where:
= the overall mean;
Ri
= the effect of the ith replicate
Pj
= the effect of the jth provenance
F k(j) = the effect of the kth family within jth provenance
eijk
= the residual error with a mean of zero.
Yijk
= the plot mean of the jth provenance, kthfamily within jth provenance, the
i th replicate
Results and Discussion
Survival rate and growth
The survival rate of trees in this trial was high (> 85%) (Table 3) meaning that the different
seed sources were well adapted to conditions at this site. There were no significant
differences between provenances in terms of growth (height and diameter) possibly because
of the young age of the trees (12 months) and that differences in growth traits will not be
expressed until trees are older (Hadiyan, 2010). Analyses also revealed that there were no
significant differences between provenances in terms of stem form. Falcataria moluccana
trees often have slightly bent stems due to environmental influences such strong wind and
shading from other trees.
Table 3. Average survival rate and growth of provenances of 12 month old Falcataria
moluccana in a resistance trial at Ciamis, West Java
Growth
Survival
No.
Provenance
rate
District
Diameter
Height
(m)
(%)
(cm)
Wamena
1. Hobikosi
97
1.72
1.83
Wamena
2. Waga-waga, Kuluru
91
1.84
2.04
Wamena
3. Holima
96
2.16
2.11
Wamena
4. Elagaima, Hobikosi
87
1.74
1.77
Wamena
5. Pyramid, Muai
89
1.63
1.75
Wamena
6. Mualiama bawah
94
1.90
2.06
Serui
7. Wadapi Menawi
88
2.25
2.27
Nabire
8. Nifasi
96
2.26
2.35
Nabire
9. Worbag
92
2.29
2.58
Nabire
10. Maidi
86
2.57
2.84
Wamena
11. Meagama
96
1.80
1.69
Wamena
12. Siba, Kuluru
91
1.67
1.95
Disease incidence and disease severity
Disease incidence and severity in the trial varied between the times of observation. Although
all values for both disease severity and disease incidence were very low for all assessments
during 2011, DS and DI were slightly greater during March compared to values in June,
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
165
September and December (Figure 1). This observation may possibly be attributed to higher
rainfall in March and December compared to June and September. Previous studies indicate
that high relative humidity and slower wind speeds are favourable for the development of gall
rust (Rahayu, 2010).
Figure 1. Average of disease incidence and severity of Falcataria moluccana trees in a
resistance trial at Ciamis, West Java. Trees were observed at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months
old.
Figure 2. Average disease incidence (galls) on different provenances of 12 month old
Falcataria moluccana trees in a resistance trial at Ciamis, West Java.
The average number of galls was low for all provenances (Figure 2) and was not significantly
different between provenances. However even if not statistically different trees originating
from Wamena (provenances 1 to 6, 11 and 12) had the lowest incidence of galls compared to
trees originating from Serui (provenance 7) and Nabire (provenances 8, 9, and 10). These
results are confirmed by previous studies (Rahayu et al. 2009, Baskorowati and Nurrohmah,
2011). A gall rust resistance trial is currently planted at Kediri, East Java with provenances
originating from Kediri (East Java), Lombok (Nusa Tenggara), Papua and Candiroto (Central
Java). This trial, in which the trees are 3 years old, also supports the finding that trees grown
from Wamena seed sources exhibit a high degree of resistance to the gall rust disease
(Baskorowati et al. in press). The trees in the trial at Ciamis are probably too young to clearly
show differences in resistance.
Gall rust risk is strongly influenced by environmental conditions, such as relative humidity,
sunlight intensity, temperature, elevation and the presence of fog. Table 1 shows that
provenances 7, 8, 9, 10 originate from several districts with low altitude (8 m to 167 m above
sea level) compared to provenances from Wamena districts with altitudes of 1500 m above
sea level. Trees at high altitudes such as Wamena have conceivably become adapted to foggy
conditions which favour gall rust disease. They are thus are more tolerant to gall rust than
166 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
provenances originating at lower altitudes and which have not evolved under foggy
conditions (Rahayu et al., 2011). According to Rahayu et al., (2011), adaption to foggy
conditions may have resulted in anatomical and morphological characteristics such as
impermeable cuticles and intracellular modification which also confer tolerance to gall rust
infections.
References
ANGGRAENI, I. 2008. Pengendalian Karat Tumor pada Sengon. Workshop Penyakit Karat
Tumor pada Sengon, Balai Besar Penelitian Bioteknologi dan Pemuliaan Tanaman Hutan
Yogyakarta, 19 Nopember 2008. 18 pp.
BASKOROWATI, L. & NURROHMAH S.H. 2011. Variasi ketahanan terhadap penyakit
karat tumor pada sengon tingkat semai. Jurnal Pemuliaan Tanaman Hutan Vo. 5, No 3, p:
129-138.
BASKOROWATI, L., SUSANTO M. & CHAROMAENI. (publishing proceed). Genetic
variability in resistance of Falcataria moluccana (Miq.) Barneby & J. W. Grimes to gall rust
disease. Journal of Forestry Research.
BRAZA, R.D. 1997. Karat tumor disease of Paraserianthes falcataria in the Philippines.
Forest, Farm, and Community Tree Research Reports 1997. Vol. 2. p: 61-62.
HIDAYAT, J., IRIANTO D. & OCHSNER P. 2003. Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielsen.
Seed Leaflet No. 81 Indonesia Forest Seed Project. 15 pp.
HADIYAN, Y. 2010. Evaluasi Pertumbuhan Awal Kebun Benih Semai Uji Keturunan
Sengon (Falcataria maluccana synonim : Paraserianthes falcataria) Umur 4 Bulan di
Cikampek Jawa Barat. Jurnal Pemuliaan Tanaman Hutan Vo. 4, No 2, p: 101-108.
OLD, K.M. & CRISTOVAO C.D.S. 2003. A rust epidemic of the coffee shade tree
(Paraserianthes falcataria) in East Timor. In: Agriculture: New Directions for New Nation –
East Timor (Timor-Leste). Eds. H. Costa., C. Piggin., C. J. Cruz. And J. J. Fox. ACIAR
Proceedings No. 113, Canberra, Australia. p: 139-145.
OLD, K.M., LIBBY W. J., RUSSELL J.H. & ELDRIDGE K.G. 1986. Genetic variability in
susceptibility of Pinus radiata to western gall rust. Silvae Genetica. Vol. 35. p: 145-149.
OLD, K.M., BUTCHER P.A., HARWOOD C.E. & IVORY M.H. 1999. Atelocauda digitata,
a rust disease of tropical plantation acacias. Proceedings of the 12th Biennial Conference of
the Australasian Plant Pathology Society, 27–30 September 1999. 249 pp.
PAYNE, R.W., LANE P.W., AINSLEY A.E., BICKNELL K.E., DIGBY P.G.N., HARDING
S.A., LEECH P.K., SIMPSON H.R., TOOD A.D., VERRIER P.J., WHITE R.P., GOWER
J.C. & TUNNICLIFFE-WILCON G. 1987. Genstat 5 Refference Manual. Oxford University
Press, New York. 749 pp.
PINYOPUSARERK, K., KALINGANIRE A., WILLIAMS E.R. & AKEN K.M. 2004.
Evaluation of International Provenance Trials of Casuarina sequisetifolia. ACIAR Technical
Reports No. 58. 46 pp.
PROSEA (Plant Resourches of South-East Asia) 5. 2003. Paraserianthes I.C. Nielsen. In :
Soerianegara, I and Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (eds.).(1) Timber trees: Major commercial timbers.
Bogor. Indonesia. 625 pp.
RAHAYU, S., LEE S.S., & NOR AINI A.S. 2005. Gall rust disease in Falcataria moluccana
(Miq.) Barneby & Grimes at Brumas, Tawau-Sabah. Pages 288-289. In: Sahibin, A.R.,
RAMLAN, O., KEE A.A.A. AND NG Y. F. eds Proceeding of second regional symposium
on environment and natural resources, 22-23 March 2005. UKM and Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environmental, Malaysia.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
167
RAHAYU, S. 2008. Penyakit Karat Tumor pada Sengon (Falcataria moluccana (Miq.)
Barneby & J.W. Grimes). Workshop Penyakit Karat Tumor pada Sengon, Balai Besar
Penelitian Bioteknologi dan Pemuliaan Tanaman Hutan Yogyakarta, 19 Nopember 2008. p:
1-6.
RAHAYU, S. 2010. Pelatian Penyakit Karat Tumor pada Sengon dan Pengelolaannya.
Fakultas Kehutanan UGM, Yogyakarta. 21 pp.
RAHAYU, S. & LEE S.S. 2008. Environmental conditions and gall rust disease development
on Falcataria moluccana in South East Asia. Case study in Sabah Malaysia and Java
Indonesia. Asia and the Pacific Forest Health Workshop – Forest health in a changing world.
IUFRO-APFISN. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1-3 December 2008. 133 pp.
RAHAYU, S., NOR AINI A.S., LEE S.S., & G. SALEH. 2009. Responses of Falcataria
moluccana seedlings of different seed sources to inoculation with Uromycladium
tepperianum. Silvae Genetica. Vol. 58. p: 62 – 68.
RAHAYU, S., LEE S.S., & NOR AINI A.S. 2011. Gall Rust Disease of Falcataria
moluccana: Characterization of the pathogen, Environmental condition supported, Genetic
Relationship and Screening for Resistance. LAP Lambert Publishing House, Germany. 208
pp.
RLPS. 2005. Data Potensi Hutan Rakyat. Internet document:
http://www.dephut.go.id/INFORMASI/RRI/RLPS/htnrkyt.htm. Accessed on October 25th,
2009.
168 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
SUSCEPTIBILITY OF URBAN TREES Polyalthia longifolia AND Pterocarpus indicus
TO ROOT ROT FUNGUS Ganoderma SP.
Widyastuti,S.M., I. Riastiwi and Harjono,
Faculty of Forestry Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Corresponding author: smwidyastuti@ugm.ac.id
Abstract
Urban trees on the Gadjah Mada University (UGM) area play an important role in increasing
environmental qualities as well as in supporting the teaching and learning processes.
However, red root rot disease caused by Basidiomycete Ganoderma sp. has severely infected
some existing urban trees.
This experiment was aimed to know the susceptibility of Polyalthia longifolia (glodokan) and
Pterocarpus indicus (angsana) to infection with Ganoderma sp. Identification of infected
trees was performed in UGM area. Further steps were carried out to achieve those objectives,
i.e.: (1) isolation of Ganoderma spp. and testing of Koch's postulate, and (3) examination of
the susceptibility of P. longifolia and P. indicus to infection of Ganoderma sp.
The susceptibility test of P. longifolia and P. indicus to Ganoderma sp. indicated that P.
longifolia was more resistant to fungal pathogen infection than that of P. indicus. Based on
this experiment, it can be concluded that P. longifolia is a species that is more suitable than P.
indicus. Polyalthia longifolia, should be planted on the areas that have been previously
infested with inoculums of Ganoderma sp.
Keywords: Ganoderma, Polyalthia longifolia, Pterocarpus indicus, plant resistance
Introduction
The urban forest is a cluster of trees plantedin urban area to create a micro climate and
consists of various shade trees. This forest generally acts as the container and absorber of lead
particles, noise reducer, wind breaker, acid rain reducer, oxygen, CO, and CO2 producer, and
aesthetic enhancer (Dahlan, 1992). Several types of shade trees which are frequently used
include Pterocarpus indicus (New Guinea Rosewood), Polyalthia longifolia (Mast Tree),
Dalbergia latifolia (Indian Rosewood), Delonix regia (Flamboyant), dan Acacia spp.
(Acacia).
The shade trees planted within Universitas Gadjah Mada campus, particularly the Acacia spp.,
are dying due to infection of the red root rot disease caused by Ganoderma spp. The trees
deteriorate slowly at different rates and this occurs over an extended period of time. This
indicates that the red root rot disease has existed for quite a long time in the area. The
differing time of fatality is caused by the slow and latent characteristics of pathogen infection
(Widyastuti et al., 1998b).
The death of shade trees causes a great loss. The falling trees cause damages on public
facilities such as the telephone lines, fences (Fig. 1), and can cause human casualty. On the
other hand, the health aspect of shade trees in urban forest still lacks attention. Therefore, a
research is needed to determine the level of tolerance of shade trees according to their type.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
169
Figure 1. Destruction of Pterocarpus indicus due to Ganoderma sp. at Gadjah Mada
University campus. Yellow circle and insert: Fruiting bodies of Ganoderma sp.
Some of Ganoderma infested areas in UGM campus areas have been replanted with P.
longifolia and P. indicus. However, information on the susceptibility of this plants towards
Ganoderma infection is not available. In this paper, we described the causal agent of root rot
disease and the susceptibility of P. longifolia and P. indicus in the glass house experiment.
The result hopefully will give a better insight on recommending either P. longifolia or P.
indicus as shade trees in areas that have previously been infested with Ganoderma sp.
Materials and Methods
Isolation of Ganoderma sp. and fungal pathogenicity test
The fruiting bodies of Ganoderma sp. were collected from affected trees at UGM campus.
The location was previously planted with Acacia oraria (Widyastuti et al., 1998), and due to
Ganoderma sp. infestation the plants was replaced with Polyalthia longifolia and
Pterocarpus indicus. Isolation was performed from fruiting bodies in sterile conditions.
Isolates were stored and multiplied in tilted potato dextrose agar (PDA). The Koch’s
Postulates were carried out to determine whether the fungal culture obtained was the causal
agent of symptom. In this test, Clotalaria sp. was used as the indicator plant. Ganoderma sp.
which was previously grown on an A. mangium root pieces were inoculated on the root
collar of Clotalaria sp. Prior fungal inoculation, root collar was wounded to shorten the
infection process. In the control treatment, Crotalaria sp. Was wounded without fungal
inoculation. Reisolation of suspected pathogen inoculum was conducted by isolating
pathogens from the base of Clotalaria sp. that shows signs and symptoms of infection
(Widyastuti et al., 1998). Subsequently, one of the tested Ganoderma sp. isolate (GD TP2)
was used for susceptibility test of Polyalthia longifolia and Pterocarpus indicus
170 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Susceptibility test of Polyalthia longifolia and Pterocarpus indicus against Ganoderma sp.
This test was performed on on three month-old P. longifolia and P. indicus seedlings by
inoculating Ganoderma sp. on the root collar of both plants. Fungal inoculation on both plants
was performed using GD TP2 according to fungal pathogenicity test as previously described.
Observation were performed weekly to detect symptoms and signs development, such as
yellowing and falling leaves, as well as presence of GD TP2 mycelium in the root collar.
Results and Discussion
Ganoderma sp. was the causal agent of root rot disease
In the sixth week after Crotalaria sp. were inoculated with fungal isolate, rhizomorph
develops on the root base and the root system and the tested plants also started to show signs
of dying (Fig. 2b and 2c). Rhizomorf on root system at six weeks after inoculation. In
comparison, non-inoculated plant was healthy and it did not developed any symptom (Fig.
2a). Reisolation of rhizomorph from the root base of Crotalaria sp. showed colony
morphology similar with GD TP2 pure isolate that has been inoculated to the Crotalaria sp.
This result was a conclusive indication that Ganodema sp. isolate GD TP2 was the causal
agent of root rot disease.
Figure 2. Pathogenicity test of Ganoderma sp. isolate GD TP2 on Crotalaria sp. as indicator
plant: (a) control treatment; (b) plant inoculated with Ganoderma sp.; (c)
Rhizomorf on root system at six weeks after inoculation.
Tolerance responses of Polyalthia longifolia and Pterocarpus indicus against Ganoderma
sp.
Seedlings of P. indicus inoculated with Ganoderma sp. did not develop any symptoms at two
months after inoculation, however the fungal pathogen has formed rhizomorph on the root
base and root system (Fig. 3a). Tissue damage was not yet oberved on the root’s cross section.
Cross section of the root of control plants showed similar result.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
171
Figure 3. Tolerance responses of Pterocarpus indicus seedlings against Ganoderma sp.
isolates GD TP2 two months after inoculation a) rhizomorph; b) cross section and
control treatment; c). rhizomorph; d). cross section.
Polyalthia longifolia seedlings inoculated with GD TP2 did not show any symptoms at twelve
month after inoculation, but rhizomorph were found at the root collar (Figure 4a and 4b).
Polyalthia longifolia was suspected to have a high tolerance against GD TP2, eventhough the
plant was infeted infected, no symptoms were observed and it grew normally similar to the
plant in control treatment.
Figure 4. Tolerance responses of Polyalthia longifolia seedlings against Ganoderma sp.
isolate GD TP2 twelve months after inoculation a) rhizomorph, b) cross section
and control treatment c) rhizomorph, d) cross section. Blue lines indicate phenolic
compounds
172 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
On the cross section of the root, a color change took place from white to blackish brown at
80% of the total surface of the root’s cross section (Fig. 4b). This phenomenon was suspected
as phenolic compounds accumulation at infetion sites as a response agains GD TP2 infection.
The color change on the control plants was marked with black color caused by artificial
wounding. Response of the seedling against wounding appears on 20% of the total surface of
the root’s cross section although there was no pathogen infection (Fig. 4d).
Pathogen infection induces the plant to express self defense mechanism. Most plants produce
phenolic compound and its toxic derivatives to inhibit the growth of pathogen. (Lattanzio et
al., 2006). The compound which is naturally present within a plant will multiply in amount
whenever there is a stimulation in the form of pathogen infection. There are many enzymes
which act as catalist in the biosynthesis of phenolic compound, among which are phenolases,
phenoloxidases, polyphenoloxidases, which oxidize phenolic compounds. Later kinon
undergoes polymerization to form blackish brown pygment on the plant tissues (Pandey,
2006). From the explanation above, we suspected that the brown color was a phenolic
compound as the plant response against GD TP2. In twelve months of incubation, there was
only a little amount of rhizomorph found at the root base. It indiated that GD TP2 has not
penetrated the P. longifolia root tissues.
The tolerance level of P. longifolia against fungal pathogen was better compared to that of
and P. indicus. This was evident from the fact that within two months P. indicus root collar
was colonized by the fungal pathogen, while it took twelve months for P. longifolia for the
pathogen to colonize the root collar at a lower degree (Table 1). Pterocarpus indicus was
suspected to be a possible host of Ganoderma sp. Hennesy and Daly (2007) stated that P.
indicus was susceptible to the red root rot disease. However, in authors’ knowledge so far
there is no report of Ganoderma sp. infection on P. indicus in Indonesia.
Table. 1. The presence of mycelia on the root collar (weeks after inoculation)
Plant Type
Length of inoculation (week)
6
8
10
Crotalaria sp
+++
+++
Dead
Pterocarpus indicus
Polyalthia longifolia
Note : - = mycelia not present
+ = mycelia present
+++
-
+++
-
48
++++
+
The root rot disease caused by Ganoderma sp. occurs in various intensities on Acacia spp.
within UGM campus area. The intensity of infection on A. auriculiformis, A. mangium, A.
oraria, and A. Crassicarpa, respectively, was as follows: 38.59%, 22.22%, 28.95%, and
66.67% (Widyastuti et al., 1998b). The presence of Ganoderma sp. in UGM campus causes
concern that there will be an increase of the source of inoculum, which means an increase of
the damage potential. The later stage of red root rot infection causes the falling of the host tree
since the root can no longer support the bark.
The sites where Polyalthia longifolia and Pterocarpus indicus are planted and observed in
this experiment was once occupied by A. oraria. Root rot disease on A. oraria has been
observed in in this area (Widyastuti et al, 1998b). This proves that Ganoderma sp. inoculum
still exists underground as well as on dead tree stumps. Ganoderma sp. always poses a threat
of infecting the shade tree which is planted to replace A. oraria. The location is feared to
undergo accumulation of Ganoderma sp. inoculum source, as time goes by the potential of
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
173
mold infection gets higher. This means that the next planting rotation will be disturbed, and
the life of the plants will get shorter.
Based on the result of this experiment, P. longifolia is more resistant against GD TP2
infection than P. indicus. It means that P. longifolia is more suitable to be used as the
recommended shade tree for urban forest with record of previous Ganoderma sp. infestation,
particularly within UGM campus environment. One of the qualifications needed to choose
plants for urban forest is that it must be resistant disease (Fandeli et al., 2004; Zoer'aini,
2005).
Conclusion and Recommendation
Polyalthia longifolia is more resistant against Ganoderma spp. Isolate GD TP2 than P.
indicus. Therefore P. longifolia is recommended as the alternative shade tree to be planted in
areas previously infected by Ganoderma sp. inoculum, instead of P. Indicus.
Acknowledgement
We thank the Tanoto Foundation for providing the research funding for the first author. This
research is part of the graduating paper prepared by the second author.
References
DAHLAN, E.N. 1992. Hutan Kota: Untuk Pengelolaan dan Peningkatan Kualitas Lingkungan
Hidup Asosiasi Pengusaha Hutan Indonesia. (APHI). Jakarta.
FANDELI, C., KAHARUDIN AND MUKHLISON. 2004. Perhutanan Kota. Gadjah Mada
University Press. Yogyakarta.
HENNESY, C. AND DALY A. 2007. Ganoderma Diseases. http:// www.nt.gov.u/dpifm.
Diakses : 1 Februari 2010.
LATTANZIO, V., LATTANZIO V.M.T. AND CARDINALI A. 2006. Role of Phenolics in
the Resistance Mechanisms of Plants Against Fungal Pathogens and Insects. Phytochemistry:
23-67. parameters in Ganoderma lucidum. Micologia Aplicada International 17: 5-8.
PANDEY, B.P. 2006. Plant Pathology (Pathogen and Plant Diseases). S. Chand & Company
Ltd. New Delhi.
WIDYASTUTI, S.M., SUMARDI, SULTHONI A. AND HARJONO. 1998b. Pengendalian
Hayati Penyakit Akar Merah pada Akasia dengan Trichoderma. Jurnal Perlindungan
Tanaman Indonesia 4: 65-72.
ZOER'AINI, D.I. 2005. Tantangan Lingkungan dan Lansekap Hutan Kota. PT. Bumi Aksara.
Jakarta.
174 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
INVITED PAPER
BIOLOGY, SPREAD AND MANAGEMENT OF ROOT ROT IN
Acacia Mangium PLANTATIONS IN INDONESIA
Chris Beadle1), Morag Glen2), Luciasih Agustini3), Vivi Yuskianti4), Anthony Francis2), Anto
Rimbawanto4) and Caroline Mohammed2)
1)
CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences, Private Bag 12, Hobart 7001, Australia; 2)Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture,
University of Tasmania, Private Bag 98, Hobart 7001, Australia; 3)R & D Centre for Forest Conservation and
Rehabilitation of FORDA of Indonesian Ministry of Forestry Jl. Gunung Batu No. 5, Bogor 16610, Indonesia;
4)
R & D Centre for Forest Biotechnology and Tree Improvement of FORDA of Indonesian Ministry of Forestry
Jl. Palagan Tentara Pelajar Km 15, Purwobinangun, Pakem, Sleman,Yogyakarta 55582, Indonesia
Corresponding author: chris.beadle@csiro.au
Abstract
Of the problems confronted by commercial forestry in western Indonesia, root-rot diseases of
exotic plantation Acacia mangium and, more recently plantation Eucalyptus pellita, are the
most intractable and damaging for the industrial pulpwood industry. For both acacias and
eucalypts, identification of the main causal agent of red root-rot as Ganoderma philippii was
assisted by species-specific PCR tests for G. philippii and G. mastoporum. Phellinus noxius
was also found to be pathogenic on both. Extensive monitoring has shown that mortality
increases more or less linearly with time at an average rate of about 3% per month. Average
time from first observed infection to tree death was conservatively estimated at 10-11
months. Several options are potentially available for disease control, but as yet no reliable
system has materialised. Seeking ways of managing inoculum load currently offers the only
way forward for containing red root-rot until reliable biocontrols are developed.
Keywords: Tropical acacias, tropical eucalypts, fungal diagnostics, tree mortality
Introduction
Within 20 years of its first introduction in 1979, Acacia mangium became a very successful
and the most widely planted species grown for industrial pulpwood in Indonesia (Arisman
and Hardyanto, 2006). The next ten or so years, however, has seen a big reversal of its
fortunes. Irianto et al. (2006) noted up to 26% of tree death in second-rotation plantations; by
the third rotation, some sites have been found to be no longer capable of providing a
commercial yield at harvest (E. Wirawan, pers. comm.). The reason of course was root rot,
one of the most intractable diseases confronted by the forest industry worldwide (e.g.
Woodward et al. 1998). What do we now know about this disease and its dynamics in
Indonesia and are we any nearer to being able to arrest or even reverse the hold it currently
has on the fortunes of the forest industry.
Root diseases of plantations in tropical south and south-east Asia are caused by several
species of basidiomycetes (see Potter et al. 2006) and the most frequent pathogens have been
found to be Ganoderma species (Lee 1997). By the 1990s, that root-rot organisms were
widespread in Indonesia had been recognised (Rahayu, 1999). In Indonesia, several
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
175
Ganoderma species may produce sporocarps in plantations affected by root rot, but many of
these are not pathogenic and sporocarps of the root pathogens may be absent even after the
deaths of a high percentage of trees (Glen et al. 2009). DNA analysis can be used to
overcome the difficulty of correctly identifying species infecting roots, at the same time
offering a fast and efficient identification system. While several molecular techniques are
available, species-specific PCR is particularly efficient for rapid identification of imperfect
life-stages where large numbers are to be processed and one or very few species are likely to
constitute the majority of the samples (Glen et al. 2007).
A tell-tale sign that root rot has arrived is the appearance of concentrically expanding patches
of dead trees or “disease gaps” (Lee, 2000). In seeking to detect disease presence before this
happens, two options are available. The easier is to find out whether above-ground surveys
have any useful role as indicators of disease presence and for longer-term disease monitoring.
As root-to-root contact is considered the more likely means of disease spread (Lee, 2000), the
second though more time-consuming option of potential value is root excavation.
The results presented here are from a large cooperative study between Indonesia and
Australia that commenced in 2006. There are two main foci, disease identification and
monitoring of disease spread. Where we are at and where we are going with root-rot disease
management is discussed.
Materials And Methods
Fungal identification
Sporocarps of G. philippii (red root-rot) and G.mastoporum were collected from A. mangium
plantations in Indonesia. DNA was extracted from sporocarps and fresh mycelium (Raeder
and Broda 1985). PCR amplification was carried out and the rDNA ITS regions amplified
using primers ITS1-F and ITS4 (Gardes and Bruns, 1992; White et al., 1990); purification of
PCR products and DNA sequencing was carried out by Macrogen Korea.
Several combinations of primers were tested using DNA from herbarium sporocarps of
known Ganoderma species. Further optimisation was conducted using a larger set of DNA
samples from isolates originating from sporocarps and diseased roots of a broader range of
Ganoderma and other species from Indonesia. Specificity was verified throughout the project
by sequencing the rDNA ITS of all isolates that gave negative PCR results and also 3% of the
isolates that had been identified as G. philippii.
Disease monitoring
Acacia mangium plantations at a total of five locations in Riau (two sites), South Sumatra
(two sites) and East Kalimantan (one site) were used to establish three or four replicated plots
for disease monitoring. The sites represented 1st, 2nd and 3rd rotations and their age at plot
establishment varied between 1- and 5-year-old. Each plot contained approximately 10 × 10
= 100 trees at the start of the monitoring period. The tree at the centre of each plot was
visually confirmed as having red root-rot while few if any of the other trees in the plot were
affected at this time. Trees were monitored at approximately six-month intervals on up to
four subsequent occasions. Above-ground variables measured were whether alive or dead,
crown density and colour, and stem diameter; below-ground variables were presence of root
rot and proportion of affected roots to a depth of 10 cm and 50cm radius around the tree.
Analysis of Variance and Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference post-hoc tests were used to
test the significance of crown colour, crown density, and tree size on presence of root rot.
176 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Results and Discussion
Primer design, testing, optimisation and verification
Potential primers were first selected so that inter-specific variation was near the 3’ end of the
primer. Potential species-specific primers for Ganoderma mastoporum, G. philippii, and G.
steyaertanum were then selected for further testing. An initial test run with DNA from a set
of identified sporocarps gave promising results with two primer sets each for G. philippii and
G. mastoporum. After testing a larger range of non-target species, raising the annealing
temperature from 60°to 62°C resulted in the desired specificity for the PCR tests (Table 1).
The specific PCRs were used as an initial screening test to assist in the identification of 1229
root isolates; 60% tested positive to G. philippii and <2% to G. mastoporum. Isolates that
gave a negative PCR test result were identified by sequencing of the rDNA ITS and BLAST
searches of private and public DNA databases. While some isolates represented other root-rot
pathogens such as Phellinus noxius, Ganoderma steyaertanum and Tinctoporellus
epimiltinus, most were non-pathogenic woodrotters.
The PCR tests described facilitated the rapid identification of more than 1000 fungal isolates.
This rapid and reliable system of identification has clearly shown that the major pathogen
associated with red root-rot in A. mangium is G. philippii (Table 2). It also assisted in
selection of isolates for pathogenicity and somatic compatibility tests. A variety of fungal
species has been implicated in root rot of A. mangium (Lee, 1997; 1999), and other
pathogens, including P. noxius from both A. mangium and E. pellita, were isolated in this
study, albeit at much lower frequency than G. philippii. Another potential use of the PCR
tests is to identify the pathogen directly from infected roots without first isolating the fungus.
This may prove useful in circumventing the reduction in isolation success caused by the
presence of secondary invading fungi.
Table 1. Fungal species and isolates used to test the specificity of the Ganoderma philippii
and G. mastoporum species-specific primers. + indicates PCR amplification, indicates no amplification.
Species/group
Ganoderma
philippii
Ganoderma
mastoporum
Other Ganoderma
species
Other
basidiomycete
species
Ascomycete
species
No. of species
No. of isolates/
collections
G. phil PCR
G. mast. PCR
1
37
+
-
1
15
-
+
7
29
-
-
44
145
-
-
5
7
-
-
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
177
Table 2. The mean number of trees in sampling plots of A. mangium (3-4 plots of
approximately 100 trees at each site) from which Ganoderma philippii was
isolated from roots and identity confirmed by species-specific PCR.
Site
Mean number of trees/plot from which Ganoderma
philippii was isolated
Deras
Langgam
Logas South
Selibing
Sebulu
Rasau Kuning*
12
9
13
5
22
5
*in Riau and planted with E. pellita
Disease spread
Trees with yellow crowns, which were always low in number, and low crown density were
generally associated with root rot. Otherwise crown colour (green, green-yellow or yellow)
and density were not good indicators of either presence or absence of root rot. Mean DBH of
trees with root rot was significantly greater than those without root rot, though for individual
sites this difference was not significant. Thus tree size and vigour are no protection against
root rot.
To assess the “lag” time which it took for the pathogen to kill its host, three classes of trees
were identified (Table 3). These are of course estimates because of the approximately sixmonth interval between monitoring times. For a tree that was last found alive without root rot
and the monitoring it was first found dead with root rot, the average lag time was 8.5 months
(Class 1). For a tree that was first found to have root rot and the monitoring it was found
dead, the average lag time was 10.5 months (Class 2). For a tree that was found to have root
rot but was not dead at the final monitoring, the average lag time was 15.4 months (Class 3).
Table 3. The average time (months) between 1) the monitoring the tree was last found alive
without root rot and the monitoring it was first found dead with root rot; 2) the
monitoring the tree was found to have root rot and the monitoring it was found
dead for infected trees; and 3) the monitoring the tree was found to have root rot
and the final monitoring for infected trees still living at the last monitoring.
1) Infected &
2) Infected before
3) Infected, not
Site average
D/M* same
D/M*
dead at T(last)
time
7.5
10.8
17.4
Logas South
7.9
12.8
20.3
Selibing
7.3
9.1
15.7
Langgam
8.0
11.3
13.7
Sebulu
8.0
9.0
10.6
Deras
8.5
10.5
15.4
Average for all sites
*D/M = dead or missing and infected by root rot
The percentage of trees dead or missing when monitoring commenced varied between 5 and
30%; on the last monitoring, this had increased to between 30 and 70% (Fig. 1). The
mortality rate increased more or less linearly at all sites with monitoring occasion. The
exception was Langgam which experienced a rapid increase in mortality between T1 and T2.
178 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Percentage of trees dead or missing
When this relationship was examined against time since planting, the average monthly
increase in tree mortality was about 3%.
As >90% of trees that died during the monitoring period were recorded as having been killed
by root rot, these findings suggest that rates of tree death to G. philipii are generally unrelated
to either the age or average size of the trees. They also confirm that at least in the context of
short-rotation pulpwood forestry, root-rot disease caused mainly by this pathogen shows no
indication that it has run its course by the time of harvest at around age 5 years.
Other research in this ACIAR project has demonstrated that most trees appear killed by
existing below-ground inoculum. This study confirms that inoculum load simply builds up
during a rotation and is carried forward to the next rotation. To date, no genetic, chemical,
80%
70%
60%
50%
Logas South
40%
Selibing
30%
Langgam
20%
Sebulu
Deras
10%
0%
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
Monitoring occasion
Figure1. Cumulative average percentages of trees recorded as dead or
missing against monitoring occasion for the five sites
investigated.
silvicultural or biological means for containing root rot in A. mangium plantations has been
developed (Eyles et al., 2008) although there is some promise that new biological control
agents may be available for field testing in the near future (Agustini et al., this proceedings).
The Agustini et al. paper also confirms that E. pellita, currently planted as a replacement
species for A. mangium, is also susceptible to red root-rot. Assuming there is no progress in
other areas, the only option available in the meantime is to reduce inoculum load. Fire is one
option that removes at least contaminated surface litter and has been successful against root
rot in other contexts (Filip amd Yangerve, 1997). However slash loads following harvesting
of A. mangium are unlikely to generate enough heat to affect inoculum carried in roots or
stumps below the mineral soil surface. Stump removal is a second option, but is expensive as
well as causing extensive disruption to the upper soil horizon. Is there a third option? What
remains unknown is the rate of decline of inoculum load in the presence of a tree crop that is
apparently not susceptible to root rot e.g. Alstonia scholaris. Given the current lack of
choices, the potential benefits that might follow from planting such species warrant
investigation, if only to find out whether this offers a means of at least containing the disease
at acceptable levels.
Conclusion
This study has provided a definition of how above- and below-ground variables can be used
to interpret disease presence and disease progression across a number of commercial
plantations which represented those affected to some degree by root-rot disease at the
commencement of the study. As differences between site were confounded with age and
rotation, it is not possible to draw conclusions about site differences, but it is clear that once
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
179
present, red root-rot is persistent and that rates of spread are such that a time comes when A.
mangium is no longer commercially viable for pulpwood production.
While other plant pathogens were present, the red root-rot G. philippii was dominant. The
availability of a rapid PCR diagnostic test with potential for direct detection in host tissue
may reduce the need for fungal isolation and culturing in future studies into disease control
measures in A. mangium and other crops.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
Project FST/2003/048. We would like to thank many individuals from the affiliated
organisations, PT. Arara Abadi – Sinar Mas Forestry, PT Musi Hutan Persada and PT Riau
Andalan Pulp and Paper for their assistance in the field and laboratory.
References
AGUSTINI, L., GLEN, M., INDRAYADI, H., WAHYUNO, D., SAGITARIANTO, F.,
ALHUSAERI, B. Root rot in Eucalyptus pellita plantations and its possible biocontrol. In:
RAHAYU et al. (eds.) The impacts of climate change to forest pests and diseases in the tropics
(this proceedings)
ARISMAN, H., HARDYANTO, E.B. 2006. In POTTER, K. et al., (eds.) Heart rot and root
rot in tropical Acacia plantations. ACIAR, p. 11-15.
EYLES, A., BEADLE, C., BARRY, K., FRANCIS, A., GLEN, M. & MOHAMMED, C. 2008.
Management of fungal root-rot pathogens in tropical acacia plantations. For. Path. 38, p. 332355.
Ryvarden, L., Johansen, I. 1980. A preliminary polypore flora of East Africa, Oslo, Norway,
Fungiflora.
FILIP, G.M., YANGERVE, L. 1997. Effects of prescribed burning on the viability of Armillaria
ostoyae in mixed-conifer forest soils in the Blue Mountains of Oregon. Northwest Sci. 71, p. 137-144.
GARDES, M., BRUNS, T.D. 1992. ITS primers with enhanced specificity for
basidiomycetes-application to the identification of mycorrhizae and rusts. Molec. Ecol. 2, p.
113-118. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-294X.1993.tb00005.x.
GLEN, M., BOUGHER, N. L., FRANCIS, A. A. et al. 2009. Ganoderma and Amauroderma
species associated with root-rot disease of Acacia mangium plantation trees in Indonesia and
Malaysia. Australasian Plant Pathology, 38, p. 1-12.
GLEN, M., SMITH, A. H., LANGRELL, S. R. H., Mohammed, C. L. 2007. Development of
nested Polymerase Chain Reaction detection of Mycosphaerella spp. and its application to the
study of leaf disease in Eucalyptus plantations. Phytopath. 97, p. 132-144.
IRIANTO, R.S.B., BARRY, K.M., HIDAYAH, I. et al. 2006. Incidence, spatial analysis and
genetic variation of root rot of Acacia mangium in Indonesia. J. Trop. For. Sci. 18, p. 87-95.
LEE, S.S. 1997. Diseases of some tropical plantation Acacia in Peninsular Malaysia. In OLD,
K.M. et al., (eds.) Diseases of tropical acacias. CIFOR Special Publication, Jakarta,
Indonesia, pp. 53-60.
LEE, S.S. 1999. Forest health in plantation forests in South-East Asia. Austral. Plant Path. 28, p.
283-291.
POTTER, K., RIMBAWANTO, A., BEADLE, C. 2006. In POTTER, K. et al., (eds.) Heart
rot and root rot in tropical Acacia plantations. ACIAR, 92 pp.
RAEDER, U., BRODA, P. 1985. Rapid preparation of DNA from filamentous fungi. Lett.
Appl. Microbiol. 1, p. 17-20.
RAHAYU, S. 1999. Penyakit tanaman hutan di Indonesia. Gejala, penyebab dan teknik
pengendaliannya. Kanisius. Yogyakarta, Indonesia. 138 pp.
180 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
WHITE, T. J., BRUNS, T., Lee, S., TAYLOR, J. 1990. Amplification and direct sequencing
of fungal ribosomal RNA genes for phylogenetics. In INNIS, M.A. et al. (eds.) PCR
protocols: a guide to methods and applications. Academic Press, pp. 315-322.
WOODWARD, S., STENLID, J., KARJALAINEN, R., & HUTTERMANN, A. 1998.
"Heterobasidion annosum Biology, Ecology, Impact and Control," CAB International,
Oxford.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
181
PREVENTIVE SPRAYS FOR Ceratocystis acaciivora INFECTION CONTROL
FOLLOWING SINGLING PRACTICES OF Acacia mangium
Marthin Tarigan, Budi Tjahjono And Abdul Gafur
RGE Fiber Research and Development, Town Site I, PT RAPP Complex, Pangkalan Kerinci 28300, Indonesia
Corresponding author: marthin_tarigan@aprilasia.com
Abstract
Singling is often done in commercial Acacia plantations to improve tree form, restore apical
dominance and to increase tree strength thus reducing stem and branch breakage. Singling
also reduces the number of co-leader shoots so that optimum tree growth can be achieved.
The quality of singling wounds affects disease development. Improper singling creates
wounds that provide infection sites for wound pathogens such as Ceratocystis acaciivora
which cause premature tree mortality. The incidence of C. acaciivora infection due to
improper singling is increasing; thus, singling practices have to be implemented properly and
carefully. However, to avoid new C. acaciivora infection due to unwanted improper
singling, application of insecticides and fungicides on wound surfaces is an option that
require evaluation and study in order to seek practical and economical control measures.
Careful singling reduced C. acaciivora infection by 50% compared to rough singling. In the
careful singling plot, reductions again control for contact and systemic pesticides were 25%
and 38% respectively. In the rough singling plot, reductions again control for contact and
systemic pesticides were -53% and 32% respectively.
Keywords: Acacia mangium plantation, Ceratocystis acaciivora infection, singling, contact and
systemic insecticide and fungicide.
Introduction
Since the initiation of Intensively Managed Planted Forest (IMPF) by Indonesian Government in the
1980s, plantations of both Acacia mangium and A. crassicarpa have been expanded rapidly in
Indonesia, specifically to provide raw material for Indonesian pulp and paper industries (Barr 2001).
These Acacia species, however, tend to have poor stem form, with multiple stems and branches (Lee
and Arentz, 1997). In order to improve stem form and strength, reducing stem or branch breakage,
particularly after strong winds, singling is a common silvicultural practice in commercial Acacia
plantations (Beadle et al., 2007).
The wounds resulting from singling are susceptible to infection by pathogens (Lee et al. 1988, Barry
et al., 2005). C. acaciivora has been shown recently to be important pathogens of
A.mangium in
Indonesia, where it is commonly associated with wounds on trees (Tarigan et al., 2011a, Tarigan et
al., 2011b). Ceratocystis spp. are well adapted to being vectored by insects such as nitidulid beetles
(Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) and flies (Diptera) (Moller and DeVay 1968, Kirisits 2004). These insect
attracted to fresh wounds and visited wounds and carried along with them Ceratocystis which has
sticky masses of spores that stick easily to insect bodies.
Recent studies showed that the quality of singling wounds on disease development is very important
(Tarigan et al., 2011b). Fungal infection is much higher when singling resulted in tearing of the bark.
Singling practices have to be implemented properly and carefully with proper technique and
equipment to avoid unnessary wounds. Technician awareness and good supervision are required to
make sure singling is carried out properly. However, considering that singling operation is done in
huge plantation areas by many technicians, it is noticed that the incidence of C. acaciivora infection
due to improper singling practice is increasing. Thus in order to avoid new C. acaciivora infection
182 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
due to unwanted improper singling, application of insecticides and fungicides on wound surface needs
to be evaluated in order to search for practical and economical control measures.
Materials and Methods
Six-month-old A. mangium trees in Riau province, Indonesia, were singled using a handsaw, similar
to that used in routine singling activities in Indonesia. Two singling methods were used. In the first
method, branches were pruned above the branch collar taking care not to tear the bark, called as
careful singling (Figure 1). In the second method, branches were pruned on the branch collar and the
bark was torn to create a flap, called as rough singling (Figure 2).
Figure 1. Careful Singling
Figure 2. Rough Singling
Insecticide application followed by fungicide application was carried out after singling using a hand
sprayer in the treatment plot based on the treatments list presented in Table 1.
Table 1. List of treatments
Code
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
Singling Type
Careful
Rough
Careful
Rough
Careful
Rough
Insecticide
None
None
Contact
Contact
Systemic
Systemic
Fungicide
None
None
Contact
Contact
Systemic
Systemic
Note:
Pesticide 1 = contact insecticide (deltametrin at 0.04% concentration) was applied initially followed
by contact fungicide application (propineb at 0.2% concentration).
Pesticide 2 = systemic insecticide (imidacloprid at 0.04% concentration) was applied initially
followed by systemic fungicide application (carbendazim 0.2% concentration).
The six treatments were established in Completely Randomized Block (CRB) of 4 replicates. Each
plot contained 100 trees (10 x 10) at 3 x 2 m spacing, for a total of 2400 trees. Ceratocystis acaciivora
incidence was recorded at 1, 2, 3, and 6 months after establishment. Acacia mangium trees infected by
C. acaciivora infection typically display foliar wilt and, at the point where a lesion appears to
originate from a singling wound, stem canker symptoms. The bark and the wood surrounding the
cankers are discolored and have a black appearance due to the exudation of gum (Figure 3). Data
obtained were analyzed with analysis of variance (ANOVA) using Genstat statistical software 14 th
edition.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
183
Results and Discussion
Both careful and rough singling produced lesions on the singling wound within one month and
numbers of infected trees increased over time (Table 2). However, all treatments using the rough
singling method (T2, T4 and T6), produced higher disease incidence (P = 0.023) than those associated
with careful singling (T1, T3, T5). The effect was most apparent at 3 and 6 months after
establishment, although some of the treatments are not different statistically, except for treatment T4.
Figure 3. Ceratocystis symptoms on a singling wound
The number of infected trees for careful singling treatments (T1, T3, T5) at six months was 8%, 6%
and 5% respectively (Figure 4) while the number of infected trees in the rough singling treatments
(T2, T4, T6) at six months (Figure 4) was 11.8%, 18% and 8% respectively. In the careful singling
plot, reductions again control for contact and systemic pesticides were 25% and 38% respectively. In
the rough singling plot, reductions again control for contact and systemic pesticides were -53% and
32% respectively. Systemic pesticide application provided better control in both careful and rough
singling applications over the untreated (no chemical application) and contact pesticide plots.
30
18.0
Ceratocystis incidence (%)
25
20
15
11.8
8.0
8.0
6.0
10
5.0
5
a
a
T1 = Control
T3 = Contact
Pesticides
0
Careful Singling
a
T5 = Systemic
Pesticides
ab
b
a
T2 = Control
T4 = Contact
Pesticides
T6 = Systemic
Pesticides
Rough Singling
Figure 4. Ceratocystis incidence at 6 months after treatment application
184 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Similar to a previous study by Tarigan et al. (2011b) results of this study show clearly that the quality
of singling has a significant effect on the infection of A. mangium by
C. acaciivora that is
associated with disease development from singling wounds. On Average the incidences of
Ceratocystis associated with careful singling and with rough singling were 6% and 13% respectively.
It means that careful pruning can reduce the incidence of stem disease caused by C. acaciivora in
Acacia plantations by 50%.
Conclusion
This study has shown that careful pruning can reduce the incidence of stem disease caused by C.
acaciivora in Acacia plantations by 50%. Excessive pruning and rough pruning practices should be
avoided. Systemic pesticide application provided better control in both careful and rough singling
applications over the untreated (no chemical application) and contact pesticide plots. Reduction of
Ceratocystis incidence on systemic pesticide against control in careful singling practice and rough
singling practices were 38% and 32% respectively.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge with thanks the support and assistance provided by both the Teso East Estate
Management and our R&D staffs to carry out this study. We also thank RAPP Management for
supporting this work and granting their permission to present this paper.
References
BARR, C. 2001. Banking on sustainability: structural adjustment and forestry reform in post-Suharto
Indonesia. Bogor, Center for International Forestry Research and WWF Macroeconomics for
Sustainable Development Program Office.
BARRY, K. M., HALL, M. F., MOHAMMED, C. L. 2005. The effect of time and site on incidence
and spread of pruning-related decay in plantation-grown Eucalyptus nitens. Canadian Journal of
Forestry Research, 35, p.495–502.
BEADLE, C., BARRY, K., HARDIYANTO, E., IRIANTO, R. J., MOHAMMED, C.,
RIMBAWANTO, A. 2007. Effect of pruning Acacia mangium on growth, form and heart rot. Forest
Ecology and Management, 238, p.261–267.
KIRISITS, T. 2004. Taxonomy and systematics of bark and ambrosia beetles. In F. LIEUTIER, F.,
DAY, K. R., BATISTTISTI, A., GRE’GOIRE, J. C., EVANS, H. F. (ed.): Bark and woodboring
insects in living trees in Europe, a synthesis. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The
Netherlands, p.181-235.
LEE, S. S., ARENTZ, F. 1997. A possible link between rainfall and heart rot incidence in Acacia
mangium? Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 9, p.441–448.
LEE, S. S., TENG, S. Y., LIM, M. T., KADER, R. A. 1988. Discolouration and heartrot of Acacia
mangium Willd. - some preliminary results. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 1, p.170–177.
MOLLER, W. J., DeVay, J. E. 1968. Insect transmission of Ceratocystis fimbriata in deciduous fruit
orchards. Phytopathy, 58, p.1499-1507.
TARIGAN, M., ROUX, J., VAN WYK, M., TJAHJONO, B., WINGFIELD, M. J. 2011a. A new wilt
and die-back disease of Acacia mangium associated with Ceratocystis manginecans and C. acaciivora
sp. nov. in Indonesia. South African Journal of Botany, 77(2), p.292-304.
TARIGAN, M., WINGFIELD, M. J., VAN WYK, M., TJAHJONO, B., ROUX, J. 2011b. Pruning
quality affects infection of Acacia mangium and A. crassicarpa by Ceratocystis acaciivora and
Lasiodiplodia theobromae. Southern Forests, 73(3&4), p.187-191.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
185
DEVELOPMENT OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS
TO PROTECT PLANTATION FORESTS IN SUMATRA, INDONESIA
Abdul Gafur, Aswardi Nasution, Marthin Tarigan and Budi Tjahjono
RGE Fiber Research and Development, Town Site I, PT RAPP Complex, Pangkalan Kerinci 28300, Indonesia;
Corresponding author: abdul_gafur@aprilasia.com
Abstract
Productivity of plantation forests in Indonesia, especially in the humid tropic area, is always
challenged by pests and diseases. With the introduction of new plant species, especially
acacias and eucalypts, for the development of industrial forest plantations in Sumatra, new
pests and diseases are becoming emerging threats. As a component of integrated pest
management, some biocontrol agents have been developed to manage pests and diseases in
Sumatra plantation forests. A number public institutions and private sectors are very keen to
develop biological control programs. For example, Trichoderma and white rot fungi have
been developed to control Ganoderma root rot in Acacia plantations. To manage insect pests
such as caterpillars and Helopeltis, an insect predator (Sycanus sp.) is routinely released into
acacia and eucalypt compartments with high pest infestation. Nuclear Polyhidrosis Virus
(NPV) has already been applied in nurseries to control armyworm (Spodoptera litura). A
possibility of employing other biocontrol agents such as entomopathogenic fungi (for
instance Beauveria and Metharhizium) is also explored. Results of some biocontrol trials are
elaborated in this paper. Based on our works on the use of Trichoderma and Gliocladium to
manage Ganoderma, future works on antagonistic microbes should focus more on continuous
isolation of locally more adapted and stable isolates to increase their efficacy. Introduction of
endophytic microbes into the scenario should be encouraged.
Keywords: Acacia, biological control, disease, eucalypt, pest, plantation forest.
Introduction
The ever increasing global demand for wood is anticipated by the Indonesian Government
through reforestation programs. The Department of Forestry has targeted a development of
plantation forests, both industrial and community-based plantation forests. Consequently,
since mid 1980s the area of plantation forests in Indonesia has increased dramatically
(Gintings et al. 1996), especially in Riau and some other provinces in Sumatra. The effort is
aimed at sustaining the supply of forest products while conserving the natural forests, thus
maintaining not only their economic importance, but also environmental and social roles
(Natadiwirya 1998). In line with the policy, industrial plantation forests of fast-growing
species, especially acacias and eucalypts, are being established on a large scale to meet the
goal. From pest and disease point of view, this can potentially increase the risks. As it is
common with most of the planted species, some pests and diseases are observed associated
with plantation forests. A number of pests and pathogens have indeed been recorded since
early establishment of the plantation forests. They ignite various damages such as retardation,
defoliation, root rot, heart rot, stem cankers, foliar diseases, etc.
186 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Common pests and diseases
As mentioned earlier, plantation forests of fast-growing species, especially acacias and
eucalypts, are being established on a large scale basis in Sumatera. One challenge has been to
maintain high survival and productivity of the trees. Pests and diseases are considered as
limiting factors to plantation forest production. Common pests include termite Coptotermes
sp. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), Helopeltis sp. (Heteroptera: Miridae), caterpillars, especially
leaf roller Strepsicrates sp. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), armyworm Spodoptera litura
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and bag worm Pteroma sp. (Lepidoptera: Psychidae), and
vertebrate pests. Major pathogens are Ganoderma spp., P. Karsten (red root rot), Phellinus
noxious (Corner), G. Cunn. (heart rot), Ceratocystis spp. (stem canker), Atelocauda digitata
(G. Wint.) Cummins (phyllode rust), Passalora perplexa (Passalora leaf and shoot blight
disease), Cylindrocladium sp. (Cylindrocladium leaf blight), Xanthomonas sp. (Xanthomonas
leaf blight in nurseries), and Ralstonia solanacearum (bacterial wilt). Research and
application of biological control agents to manage pests and diseases in plantation forests
have for some time been initiated but are yet to get more serious attention. This paper will
focus on the potentials of Trichoderma and white rot fungi as biocontrol agents of root rot
diseases. Utilization of Sycanus, Nuclear Polyhidrosis Virus (NPV), and some
entomopathogenic fungi to manage insect pests is briefly discussed.
Trichoderma as biological control agents against G. philippii
Root rot is considered a major disease of acacias (Gafur et al. 2007; Lee 2000; Wingfield et
al. 2010). Ganoderma philippii Karst. has been found to be the fungal species most
commonly associated with the disease in Acacia mangium plantations in Indonesia (Coetzee
et al. 2011; Glen et al. 2009). Although presently occurs in lower frequencies, the disease is
also found on different species of eucalypts (Coetzee et al. 2011; Francis et al. 2008; Gafur et
al. 2010). Acacia trees infected by the disease usually show a rapid decline, evidenced by
off-color and sparse foliage, wilting, and death (Figure 1 top). Recently infected roots are
covered with a red-colored rhizomorphs and white mycelium (Figure 1 bottom, left). Fruiting
bodies are occasionally observed at the bases of dead trees (Figure 1 bottom, right). In the
case of eucalypts, roots have identical signs of infection including red rhizomorphs and the
typical mottled pattern of mycelial growth below the bark. The current level of damage and
incidence of this disease requires that effective management be developed to secure
sustainable production of fiber plantations. This is, however, not easy. Field management is
complicated by the fact that its pathogen survives on the woody debris between rotations.
Use of the cost-effective and environmentally sound management of the biological control
measure employing consortium of different functional groups of synergistic microorganisms
is therefore seen as an important management of root rot disease in plantation forests (Gafur
et al. 2011a; 2011b).
Trichoderma is one of the most common fungi used as biocontrol agents. A large number of
free living isolates collected from different origins and localities have been screened in vitro
for their efficacy against Ganoderma. Some of the collections are able to reduce root rot
incidence in the field (Gafur et al. 2011a; 2011b). Free living isolates of the fungus have long
been used predominantly as biocontrol agents. One problem with the free living isolates is
their consistency in the field. Isolates with excellent inhibitory effects in laboratory tests
(Figure 2), may not be a good performer in the field. In addition, one particular isolate which
is effective in certain environmental conditions is not necessarily equally good in other
conditions. To illustrate, two trials were established in two different locations in Riau, i.e.
Baserah and Logas. Results of the trials showed that Trichoderma Baserah isolate performed
best by reducing Ganoderma incidence by 7.0 % in the Baserah trial. Similarly, Logas isolate
of Gliocladium was the most effective in the Logas site, decreasing Ganoderma incidence by
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
187
10.0 % (Gafur et al. 2011a; 2011b). This indicates that local isolates tend to be more effective
than the introduced ones in reducing Ganoderma incidence.
Figure 1. Symptoms and signs of Ganoderma root rot on Acacia mangium. Young trees
showing yellowing and wilting of leaves (top, left), dead trees (top, right), roots
covered with red-colored rhizomorphs and white mycelium (bottom, left), and
fruiting bodies of Ganoderma philippii (bottom, right).
In search of more stable and consistent biocontrol agents, scientists have started to investigate
endophytic microbes. Recently explored endophytic isolates of Trichoderma is considered as
a good option. Endophytic Trichoderma is able to enhance both plant health and plant vigor
(Hill 2012). They also persist in the root through the rotation, providing hope for future
disease management. As endophytic Trichoderma is considered as one of those biocontrol
agents with great potentials, we have also isolated and screened a great number of putative
endophytic isolates. Some of the isolates are able to promote seedling growth in the nursery
screening (Figure 3), an early indication of their ability to live endophytically with plants.
Field trials are now going on to test performance of these isolates in the field, both in
reducing root rot incidence and in promoting plant growth.
G
T
G
Figure 2. Ganoderma (G) in pure culture (left) and Trichoderma (T) is overgrowing
Ganoderma (G) in dual culture (right)
188 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Figure 3. Nursery screening of endophytic isolates of Trichoderma. Acacia mangium
seedling height is increased by more than 20 %.
White Rot Fungi as Biological Control Agents against G. philippii
In our effort to control the Ganoderma root rot disease, we isolated and screened white rot
fungi as biological control agents. We collected 107 samples from different localities in Riau.
The fungi were isolated from rotten woods including trunks and twigs, and from fruiting
bodies. Out of the 107 samples, 79 samples (28 from rotten woods and 51 from fruiting
bodies) were successfully isolated. Screening of the isolated fungi was done on wood block,
wood disc, and wood powder containing agar. Eleven isolates showed fast growth on wood
block; subsequent second screening in dual culture on wood disc resulted in three isolates
showing fast growth and capability of overgrowing G. philippii. The third screening was to
examine quantitative growth rate of the selected fungal isolates on potato dextrose agar wood
powder (PDA-WP). Two isolates were selected. These two isolates have shown potentials as
biological control agents of the root-rot pathogen, G. philippii. The isolation and screening
methods are described by Sitompul et al. (2011).
The growth rate of the 79 isolates on A. mangium wood block is shown in Table 1. As seen in
the table, 11 isolates express fast growth. The 11 fastest growing isolates selected from the
first screening were subjected to the second screening for interference ability in dual culture
technique on A. mangium wood disc. Two isolates (WFA033 and WFA068) were
considerably good in suppressing the growth of G. philippii (Figure 4). The growth rate of the
three selected isolates was then quantitatively determined on MEA-WP. Isolates WFA033
and WFA068 grew fast and suppressed the growth of G. philippii, whereas isolate WFA064
grew slower compared to WFA033 and WFA068 (Figure 5). Growth suppression of G.
philippii by isolates WFA033 and WFA068 can also be observed in dual culture test on
MEA-WP (Figure 6).
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
189
Table 1. Growth rate of the newly isolated fungi on Acacia mangium wood block
(Sitompul et al. 2011)
Number of strains
Growth rate*
11
++++
29
+++
15
++
24
+
* ++++
+++
++
+
: very fast growth rate (0-15 days covered wood block)
: fast growth rate (16-30 days covered wood block)
: moderate growth rate (31-45 days covered wood block)
: slow growth rate (> 45 days covered wood block)
Figure 4. Dual culture of WFA033 (left) and WFA068 (right) with Ganoderma philippii on
Acacia mangium wood disc. Both isolates overgrew and inhibited growth of G.
philippii (Sitompul et al. 2011).
Growth rate (mm/day)
100
80
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Incubation (days)
Ganoderma
WFA033
WFA064
WFA068
Figure 5. Growth rate of WFA033, WFA064, WFA068, and Ganoderma philippii on MEAWP (Sitompul et al. 2011)
Biological control of root rot fungi using non- or weak-pathogenic fungi can be considered.
These biological control agents could break down wood debris faster than the pathogen,
occupy the same resource as the pathogen, compete for nutrients, produce inhibitory
190 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
secondary metabolites, and are able to mycoparasitize the pathogen (Eyles et al. 2008;
Peterson 2006). These characters are found in WFA033 and WFA068, which were able to
compete and inhibit growth of G. philippii during the screening on three different types of
media. These two isolates have shown potential as biological control agents of the root-rot
pathogen, G. philippii.
Figure 6. Growth inhibition by WFA033 and WFA068 of Ganoderma philippii on MEA-WP
(Sitompul et al. 2011).
Other Biocontrol Programs
Plantation forests are also prone to pest infestation. Although the magnitude of pest damages
is currently less than that of disease losses, there are cases when they are detrimental. Some
of these common pests include Helopeltis spp., leaf roller on eucalypts, and army worm.
Anticipating unexpected situation, we are also developing other biocontrol agents to manage
these insects. The insect predator Sycanus sp., SlNPV, and entomopathogenic fungi are some
of these (Figure). While entomopathogenic fungi are being tested at the laboratory scale,
Sycanus and SlNPV have been applied in the filed, both in plantations and nurseries.
Figure 7. Other biocontrol agents developed include Sycanus sp., SlNPV, and
entomopathogenic fungi.
Conclusion
Plantation forest, especially of fast growing species, in Sumatra is still expanding. Planting
of non-native trees in new environments has a number of consequences including those
related to pests and diseases. Pests and diseases are likely to challenge plantation forest in
the future but there are also outstanding opportunities for management using biocontrol
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
191
agents. Based on our works on Trichoderma and Gliocladium, future research on
antagonistic microbes should focus more on continuous isolation of locally more adapted and
stable isolates to increase their efficacy. Introduction of endophytic microbes into the
scenario should be encouraged.
References
COETZEE, M.P.A, GOLANI G.D., TJAHJONO B., GAFUR A., WINGFIELD B.D., &
WINGFIELD M.J. 2011. A single dominant Ganoderma species is responsible for root rot of
Acacia mangium and Eucalyptus in Sumatra. Southern Forests 73: 175–180.
EYLES, A., BEADLE C., BARRY K., FRANCIS A., GLEN M., & MOHAMMED C. 2008.
Management of fungal root-rot pathogens in tropical Acacia mangium plantations. For. Path.
38:332-355.
FRANCIS, A.A., BEADLE C., MARDAI, INDRAYADI H., TJAHJONO B., GAFUR A.,
GLEN M., WIDYATMOKO A., HARDYANTO E., JUNARTO, IRIANTO R.S.B.,
PUSPITASARI D., HIDAYATI N., RIMBAWANTO A., & MOHAMMED C.L. 2008.
Basidiomycete root rots of paper-pulp tree species in Indonesia – identity, biology and
control. Presented at the 9th International Congress of Plant Pathology, Turin, Italy, August
24 – 29, 2008.
GAFUR, A., TJAHJONO B., & GOLANI G.D. 2007. Fungal species associated with acacia
plantations in Riau, Indonesia. Presented at the 2007 Asian Mycological Congress, Penang,
Malaysia, December 02 – 06, 2007.
GAFUR, A., TJAHJONO B, & GOLANI G.D. 2010. Pests and Diseases of Low Elevation
Eucalyptus: Diagnose and Control. Pangkalan Kerinci, Indonesia. APRIL Forestry R&D, PT
RAPP. 40 p.
GAFUR, A., TJAHJONO B., & GOLANI G.D. 2011a. Options for field management of
Ganoderma root rot in Acacia mangium plantation forests. Presented at the 2011 IUFRO
Forest Protection Joint Meeting, Colonia del Sacramento, Uruguay, November 8 – 11, 2011.
GAFUR, A., TJAHJONO B., & GOLANI G.D. 2011b. Silvicultural options for field
management of Ganoderma root rot in Acacia mangium plantation. Presented at the 4th Asian
Conference on Plant Pathology and the 18th Australasian Plant Pathology Conference,
Darwin, Australia, April 26 – 29, 2011.
GINTINGS, N.A., DARYONO, H. & SIREGAR, C.A. 1996. Ecological aspects of forest
plantation. In Otsamo, A., Kuusipalo, J. and Jaskari, H. (eds). Proceed Workshop on
Reforestation: Meeting the Future Industrial Wood Demand, April 30 – May 1, 1996. Jakarta.
Enso forest Development Oy Ltd.
GLEN, M., BOUGHER N.L., FRANCIS A., NIGGA S.Q., LEE S.S., IRIANTO R., BARRY
K.M., MOHAMMED C.L. 2009. Molecular differentiation of Ganoderma and Amouroderma
species associated with root rot disease of Acacia mangium plantations in Indonesia and
Malaysia. Ausralas. Plant Pathol. J. 38:345-356.
HILL, R. 2012. Trichoderma root endophytes enhance plant health and vigour. Presented at
the 12th International Trichoderma and Gliocladium Workshop, Christchurch, New Zealand,
August 27 – 30, 2012.
LEE S.S. 2000. The current status of root diseases of Acacia mangium Wild. In: Flood J,
Bridge PD, Holderness M, editors. Ganoderma diseases of perennial crops. Wallingford,
UK: CABI Publishing. pp. 71-79.
NATADIWIRYA, M. 1998. Plantation forest in Indonesia: Basic resource issues and national
goals. In Nambiar, E.K.S., Gintings, A.N., Ruhiyat, D., Natadiwirya, M., Harwood, C.E. and
Booth, T.H. (eds). Sustained Productivity of Short and Medium Rotation Plantation Forests
192 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
NATADIWIRYA, M. 1998. Plantation forest in Indonesia: Basic resource issues and national
goals. In Nambiar, E.K.S., Gintings, A.N., Ruhiyat, D., Natadiwirya, M., Harwood, C.E. and
Booth, T.H. (eds). Sustained Productivity of Short and Medium Rotation Plantation Forests
for Commercial and Community Benefit in Indonesia: An Analysis of Research Priorities.
CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, p. 13-16.
PETERSON, R.R.M. 2006. Fungi and fungal toxin as weapon. Mycol. Res. 110:1003-1010.
Sitompul A, Nasution A, Gafur A, Tjahjono B. 2011. Screening of white rot fungi as
biological control agents against Ganoderma philippii. Presented at the International Seminar
and 12th National Congress of the Indonesian Phypathological Society, Solo, Indonesia,
December 03 – 05, 2011.
WINGFIELD, M.J., SLIPPERS B., ROUX J., WINGFIELD B.D. 2010. Novel associations
between pathogens, insects and tree species threaten world forests. New Zealand Journal of
Forest Science 40 suppl.:S95-S103.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
193
BIOFERTILIZER APPLICATIONS FOR MAINTAINING HEALTH AND
PRODUCTIVITY IN OIL PALM PLANTATIONS UNDER A CHANGING
CLIMATE
Mucharromah, Teguh Adi Prasetyo, Hidayat, Sigit Nugroho,
Merakati Handajaningsih
Agriculture College, Bengkulu University, Jl. WR Supratman, Bengkulu 3837, Indonesia
Corresponding author: mucharro@yahoo.com
Abstract
Large areas of oil palm plantations have a high dependency on chemical fertilizers which
stimulate N2O emissions, can negatively impact soil properties, are costly in terms of fossil
fuel energy and money and maybe in short supply. Dependency on chemical fertilizers has
led to unproductive and neglected plantations where fertiliser has not been applied because of
its price, unavailability or that it not seen to be effective. This research tested the effect of a
microbial biofertilizer (added to the soil below the canopy edges of oil palm plants) on leaf
yellowing and no-fruitbunch symptoms. The results of this study showed that biofertilizer
application at 50 kg/plant increased the number of healthy plants by over 50% and more than
doubled increased productivity within three months, as well as reducing chemical fertilizer
inputs. This research shows the benefit of managing organic waste to improve plant nutrition,
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and provide increased vigour to withstand the vagaries of a
changing climate.
Keywords: biofertilizer, climate change, microbia, plant health, oil palm
Introduction
Palm oil of Elaeis guineensis Jacq. had became the priority commodity of Indonesia.
Nowadays, Indonesia is the biggest producer and exporter of the world crude palm oil (CPO),
with productivity of 23 million tons/year (Arifin, 2011). The oil palm production centres are
mainly in North Sumatra (39.9%), Riau (21%), West Kalimantan (6.1%), Aceh (6.1%) and
West Sumatra (5.4%) (Arifin, 2011). The remaining centres include Bengkulu Province
which had been developing oil palm plantation particularly in Muko-Muko, North Bengkulu,
Central Bengkulu, Seluma, South Bengkulu and more recently in Kaur (BPS, 2011).
Oil palm production in Indonesia is regarded as environmentally unsound, partly because of
its heavy reliance on chemical fertilizer, which is a main source of N2O emissions (Suharto,
2011; Supriatna et al., 2011). In addition to the long-term sustainability issues involved in
using chemical fertilizer, it is often in short supply and difficult to obtain especially in remote
areas. In addition plantations have been suffering from dry weather possibly associated with
increasing climate variability. Consequently, there are many neglected oil palm plantation
which will require considerable effort to restore.
Organic amendments have been successful through-out the world in reducing chemical
fertilizer use while maintaining or even improving crop production (Abbasi, et.al., 2002;
Aggarwal, et.al., 1997; Aseri, et.al., 2008; Batisda, et.al., 2008). Recycling programs reduce
hazards from the agriculture waste, livestock manure and sewage (Arkhipchenko, et al.,
2005). All of this recycling is based on the action of microbes (Chadwick, et.al., 2011),
particularly those able to degrade organic materials into simple compounds which can be
194 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
utilized by other microbes or organisms, as well as plants. The application of organic
composts is becoming more popular, along with an increase in organic farming and
restrictions on the use of certain pesticides. The use of beneficial microorganisms in
agriculture had long been reported, but mostly in relation to relatively direct interactions with
the plant, e.g. mychorrizae, biocontrol agents, growth stimulators, and inducers of plant
resistance (Singh, et.al., 2011). The use of microbes which do not have specific associations
with the crop, such as organic matter decomposers used in the biofertilizers have not been
widely reported.
BIOM3G is a biofertilizer developed using multi-types and multi-functional groups of
microbia incubated in enriched cow-dung based media. This paper reports the results of
BIOM3G application to improve oil palm health and productivity, particularly its role in oil
palm survival through a very dry season.
Materials and Methods
The research was conducted at an oil palm plantation at Desa Jumat, Kecamatan Talang
Empat Kabupaten (District) of Bengkulu Tengah, Bengkulu Province, and the Protection
Laboratory, Agriculture College, Bengkulu University, from May to August 2012. The oil
palm plantation used was 6-7 years old, and the BIOM3G biofertilizer had been developed as
part of other research (Mucharromah, et al., 2012).
Biofertilizer application was done by digging three trenches 20 cm deep and wide, 2 m away
from the basal stem, equal in length and in total occupying about half the length of the palm
drip line below the canopy edges. The BIOM3G was then placed inside at a rate of 50
kg/plant, covered back with the soil and pressed lightly. For the control treatment, chemical
fertilizer at standard recommended doses were applied by mixing and spreading them on the
area around the basal stem to out below the canopy edge. Since the application was done
during very dry conditions (early June 2012), the control plants were watered prior to
fertilizer application to avoid toxicity.
The 6 plants per treatment were selected for uniform size and appearance, and were clustered
per treatment. The number of leaves, fruit bunches formed and harvested, the weight of fruit
bunches harvested per plant, the pH of soil around root tips were assessed every two weeks.
The soil around the plants and at the sites of the BIOM3G application was sampled for each
plant and bulk analysed for each treatment at the beginning and end of the experimental
period.
Results and Discussion
Based on Figure 1 below, the number of fruit bunches observed per plant and the number of
harvested fruit bunches from the BIOM3G treated plants were similar to those observed with
chemically fertilizer (SOP). Untreated plants did not form any fruit bunches. Leaf yellowing
was reduced and new leaves produced in both BIOM3G treated plants (Figures 1 and 2) and
the chemically fertilized plants, but there was no change in the leaf yellowing of the untreated
control plants. Leaf chlorophyll analysis is still in progress.
Oil palm is known to be a crop reliant on a high level of nutrition and lack of the correct
nutritional levels and limits fruit production. This study clearly showed over a short period of
time the association between good nutrition and fruit bunch formation. This study was carried
out in a neglected oil palm plantation on red yellow podsols, known to be very acid and low
in organic matter and nutrients. Unfortunately, this is the type of soil is common in Indonesia,
particularly in Sumatra and Kalimantan thus explaining the dependency of oil palm
production on chemical fertilizers.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
195
Figure 1. BIOM3G treated plant with many fruitbunches (left) and a control plant (right), two
months after treatment. A greater number of leaves was produced by BIOM3G
treated plants but are not see in the photo as they were cut during harvest.
SOP
60
40
4446
45
36
4143
20
4545
2
5556
4850
45
39
3
2
0
4
NL (4)
2
52
48
4649
5
NLG (leaf)
6
-8
1
-20
-6
2
NL (1)
3
NL (4)
4
4243
4
3
1
0
-20
NL (1)
60
20
2
0
1
54
46
5153
40
9
2
BIOM3G
5
1
6
NLG (leaf)
Figure 2. Total number of leaves per plant before treatment (NL 1) and 2 months after
treatment (NL 4) for chemically fertilized (SOP) and BIOM3G treated plants
(untreated plants lost leaves and did not form new leaves).
Up to 10 bunches per plant were produced within the two months observation period (Figure
3) each of which grew to harvestable size. Increased productivity was accompanied by
improved health and a greater number of leaves produced. Although Figure 4 shows a high
level of variation between plants, the data of total number of fruit bunches (FB Total) per
plant and the total fruit bunch weight (FBW Total) per plant for the BIOM3G and chemical
fertilizer treated oil palms were comparable and obviously superior to the control treatment
which did not fruit.
The results of soil analyses support the improvement of soil by the addition of biofertilizer
BIOM3G (data not shown).
196 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
SOP
BIOM3G
10
15
3
5
0
2
4
4
3
1
1
2
3
1
3
6
3
4
5
FB/Plant
6
3
10
5
0
6
5
6
1
1
2
2
5
2
4
2
3
4
FB Harvested
FB/Plant
4
6
1
3
5
6
FB Harvested
Figure 3. Number of fruit bunches observed per plant and the number harvested from the
intensively fertilized chemically oil palms (SOP) and the BIOM3G treated oil palm
2 months after treatment (untreated plants did not form any fruit bunches).
SOP
60
51
48.4
30.8
40
20
BIOM3G
3
30
4
3
1
0
1
2
3
FB Total
11.1
4
2
100
80
50
14
6
24
6
2
0
5
6
1
FBW Total
42
33
5
2
FB Total
2
3
18
4
4
1
5
13
6
FBW Total
Figure 4. Total number of fruit bunches harvested per plant and the total weight (kg) of
harvested fruit bunches from the intensively fertilized chemically (SOP) oil palms
and the BIOM3G treated oil palms 2 months after treatment (untreated plants did
not form any fruit bunches).
Conclusions
An application of 50 kg/plant of the biofertilizer BIOM3G increases oil palm health, growth,
fruit bunch formation and overall productivity within three months. This effect is as good as
that provided by the recommended dose of chemical fertilizer. Untreated plants failed to
thrive and produce fruit in comparison to chemical fertilizer and BIOM3G. Therefore,
BIOM3G shows significant promise for environmentally sound sustainable palm oil
production, recycling available waste into high quality but low cost fertilizer and will assist
the oil palm industry in facing current problems and those posed by a changing climate.
Acknowledgements
The paper submitted on June 20th, 2012 to Working Party Conference IUFRO 7.02.07
International Diseases and Insects of Tropical Forest Trees, for The International Conference
entitled “The Impact of Climate Change to Forest Pest and Diseases in the Tropics”, to be
held on October 8th-10th, 2012 at UGM Yogyakarta, Indonesia is part of the MP3EI data
funded by Dikti under Contract Number 0541/023_04.1.01/00/2012 dated December 9th,
2011 under Agreement Number 236/SP2H/PL/Dit. lLitabmas V/2012, dated May 9th, 2012.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
197
References
ABBASI, P.A., AL-DAHMANI, J., SAHIN, F., HOITINK, H.A.J., MILLER, S.A. 2002.
Effect of compost amendments on disease severity and yield of tomato in conventional and
organic production systems. Plant Disease 86, 156–161.
AGGARWAL, R.K., P. KUMAR, J.F. POWER. 1997. Use of crop residue and manure to
conserve water and enhance nutrient availability and pearl millet yields in an arid tropical
region. Soil and Tillage Research (41): 43-51.
ARIFIN, B. 2011. Sustainable Oil Palm Development: Challenges for Food Security.
Presentation of The 7th Indonesian Palm Oil Conference and 2012 Price Outlook:
“Sustainable Palm Oil Drivers of Change”, Bali, November 30th - December 2nd, 2011.
ARKHIPCHENKO, I.A., M.S. SALKINOJA-SALONEN, J.N. KARYAKINA, I. TSITKO.
2005. Study of three fertilizers produced from farm waste. Applied Soil Ecology 30 (2005)
126–132.
ASERI, G.K., N. JAIN, J. PANWAR, A.V. RAO, P.R. MEGHWAL. 2008. Biofertilizers
improve plant growth, fruit yield, nutrition, metabolism and rhizosphere enzyme activities of
Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) in Indian Thar Desert. Scientia Horticulturae 117 (2008)
130–135.
CHADWICK, D., S. SOMMER, R. THORMAN, D. FANGUEIRO, L. CARDENAS, B.
AMON, T. MISSELBROOK. 2011. Manure management: Implications for greenhouse gas
emissions. Animal Feed Science and Technology 166– 167: 514– 531.
MUCHARROMAH, T. ADIPRASETYO, M. HANDAJANINGSIH, HIDAYAT. 2012.
Perbaikan karakteristik fisik, kimia dan biologi tanah paska aplikasi biofertilizer BIOM3G.
Proceeding of The National Seminar Towards Agriculture Sovereighnity. Agriculture College
Bengkulu University, PERHEPI and PFI Komda Bengkulu, Bengkulu, September 12th, 2012.
SINGH, J.S., V.C. PANDEY, D.P. SINGH. 2011. Efficient soil microorganisms: A new
dimension for sustainable agriculture and environmental development. Agriculture,
Ecosystems and Environment 140: 339–353.
SUHARTO, R. 2011. Indonesian Sustainable Palm oil as an Alternative Scheme.
Presentation of The 7th Indonesian Palm Oil Conference and 2012 Price Outlook:
“Sustainable Palm Oil Drivers of Change”, Bali, November 30th - December 2nd, 2011.
SUPRIATNA, J., H. SUMANTRI, C. MARGULES. 2011. Sustainable agriculture in the
climate change era: case studi of Papua. Presentation of The 7th Indonesian Palm Oil
Conference and 2012 Price Outlook: “Sustainable Palm Oil Drivers of Change”, Bali,
November 30th - December 2nd, 2011.
198 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
FORMULATION OF A METARHIZIUM BASED MYCOINSECTICIDE AND FIELD
TRIALS AGAINST DEFOLIATOR PESTS OF
Tectona grandis AND Ailanthus excelsa
1)
T.O Sasidharan 1), Remadevi O.K2), Sapna Bai N1) and M Balachander 2)
Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Royal Enclave, Srirampura, Jakkur P.O.,
Bengaluru-560064, India; 2)Institute of Wood Science and Technology, 18th Cross,
Malleswaram, Bengaluru-560003, India
Corresponding author: tosasi@atree.org or sasito52@gmail.com
Abstract
Insect pests regularly inflict severe damage to several commercially valuable timber species
grown in plantations, considerably affecting the quality and quantity of wood produced.
These damages are caused by insects from different genera which have fairly distinct host
preferences. In nature, most of these pests are susceptible to various microbial diseases
among which entomopathogenic fungi are known to produce considerable impact on the
populations of many such pest species. We isolated several native strains of the
entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae and studied their efficacy against selected
pests of certain important tree species with the objective of developing a biopesticide for
application in forestry. Twenty five isolates of the entomopathogenic fungus, Metarhizium
anisopliae, were collected from various sources and the three most virulent isolates, viz.,
MA2, MA7 and MA13 were identified for development of the mycoinsecticide. A detailed
protocol for multiplication, mass production and formulation of the bio-pesticide was
developed incorporating certain specific ingredients to augment the efficacy of the
formulation. Among the various formulations assessed, conidia formulated with Kaolinite
maintained higher viability (>86% germination) even after 5 months of storage at 4ºC. Low
concentrations of Pongamia pinnata seed oil in liquid culture did not affect biomass and
sporulation. Synergism between the isolates was also studied in detail with the objective of
improving the efficacy and also to target multiple pests with a single formulation. The studies
showed that the isolates Ma2 and Ma7 were compatible with each other when formulated
together followed by Ma7 and Ma13. Insecticide, deltamethrin was used to augment the
efficacy of formulation in the field as deltamethrin at 0.8 ppm was found to be compatible
with the isolates tested. The mycoinsecticide product named as PESTSTAT is formulated in
two forms, as dust and liquid formulation. Evaluation of the liquid formulations against the
teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera in the field showed reduction in infestation by 60.75%. Field
trials against Ailanthus defoliators, Eligma narcissus and Atteva fabriciella exhibited 66.09%
and 71.80% reduction in infestation respectively.
Key words: Metarhizium, formulation, field trial, Hyblaea puera, Atteva fabriciella, Eligma
narcissus
Introduction
Pest management in forestry remains a continuing challenge for both forest research and
development agencies and planters. It is especially relevant in the area of commercial forestry
where productivity is frequently affected by outbreaks of pests and diseases. Insects are
perhaps the most destructive agents affecting forest and shade trees (Douce et al., 2002).
High value wood requires healthy actively growing trees that are free from stem defects and
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
199
produce wood rapidly. Insects that affect these qualities are therefore of primary concern to
timber producers (De Groot et al., 2003). Control of insect pests through eco-friendly
approaches such as biological control is considered the best alternative to chemical
pesticides. In this area there is growing interest in the use of entomopathogens since they are
naturally occurring and environmentally safe. Many of them are remarkably virulent,
replicate inside the insect body and perpetuate through the population quite effectively by
horizontal transmission. This self replicating ability and the capacity to rapidly cause
appreciable levels of mortality in the hosts with minimal environmental impact are strong
positives for their development as bio-pesticides. Among the entomopathogens, fungi have
long been known for their ability to cause large scale epizootics in insect populations in field.
They are perhaps the most explored and exploited organisms in insect biocontrol. Use of
fungi in augmentative or inundative biocontrol programmes of insect pests has been reported
and reviewed by several workers (Ferron, 1978; Agarwal and Rajak, 1985; Zimmermann,
1998; Rath, 2000). Metarhizium, a hyphomycete, is one of the most preferred fungal groups
for insect pest management. Several Metarhizium species/strains have been developed into
commercial products in many countries for use in pest control programmes. While products
with this fungus have found considerable use in the agricultural sector, they have not been
employed as much in the forestry sector.
In the study reported here, twenty five strains of the entomopathogenic fungus,
Metarhizium anisopliae isolated from infected/dead insects and also from soil were tested in
the laboratory for their efficacy against the larvae of the teak defoliator (Hyblaea puera),
and two foliage pests (Eligma narcissus and Atteva fabriciella) of Ailanthus excelsa. Three
virulent isolates, viz., MA2, MA7 and MA13 were identified for formulation and
development as a mycoinsecticide.
Materials and Methods
Isolation of fungal strains
Sixteen Metarhizium isolates were recovered from infected/dead insects and also from other
sources, mainly soil. Galleria bait method was used to isolate the fungus from soil samples.
The infected insect larvae were surface washed, plated on PDA medium and incubated at
28±1 °C under high humidity conditions. Slant cultures were prepared from a single colony
and stored at -20 °C until used. In addition, five isolates were obtained from ARSEF (USDA
Agriculture Research Services Entomopathogenic Fungi Culture Collection, Ithaca, New
York), two from NBAII (National Bureau of Agriculturally important Insects, ICAR, Govt.
of India), one from IARI (Indian Agricultural Research Institute, ICAR, Govt. of India) and
one from MTCC (Microbial Type Culture Collection Centre, Chandigarh, India) which were
used for comparison with the field collected isolates. In all, 25 isolates (MA1 to MA25) of
Metarhizium anisopliae were maintained in the laboratory.
Bioassay of the isolates was carried out against the teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera, and two
foliage pests (Eligma narcissus and Atteva fabriciella) of Ailanthus excelsa. Inoculum
concentrations used ranged from 103−108 conidia ml-1 to determine the dose-mortality (LC50)
response and, the three most virulent isolates, viz., MA2, MA7 and MA13 were selected for
developing the biocontrol formulations.
Multiplication, Mass Production and Formulation
Multiplication of the three isolates in the laboratory was done in culture flasks in YPDB
medium (Yeast Extract Potato Dextrose Broth). Different grains, agro-wastes and few other
solid substrates were evaluated for mass production of the isolates by standard procedures.
Incorporation of dry silkworm pupa powder, yeast extract and mannose was also done to
200 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
evaluate their potential in augmenting the efficacy of the spores produced. The potential of
the different substrates for mass production was evaluated by assessing the number of spores
produced per known quantity of substrate. Different formulations, viz., dust, oil, adjuvant
mixed and desiccant mixed, were also made and their suitability assessed based on
germination of conidia from the formulations.
Compatibility between isolates
Compatibility between the three isolates was tested on PDAY medium by a ‘dual culture
technique’ (Royse and Ries, 1978). Three combinations of the isolates, viz., MA2+MA7,
MA2+MA13, MA7+MA13 were tested, each combination with three replicates. The growth
of the isolates was measured daily up to 7 days in both dual culture and control plates.
Synergism between the isolates was calculated using the formula: S= T 1- T2/C1-C2 x 100
where, S=Synergistic activity, C1& C2= colony diameter in control and T1 & T2= Colony
diameter in treatment. The two most compatible isolates were combined in a single
formulation for field evaluation.
Field Evaluation
Based on the laboratory efficacy tests, the dual combination of isolates MA2 and MA7 was
selected for preparing formulations for field evaluation against H. puera and MA7 and MA13
for evaluation against A. fabriciella and E. narcissus. Three liquid formulations were
prepared in 0.08% Tween 80 as follows:
Formulation 1 MA2+MA7 alone (1014 conidia/ml) – tested against H. puera
MA7+MA13 alone (1014 conidia/ml) – tested against A. fabriciella,
E. narcissus
Formulation 2 MA2+MA7+0.5% Pongamia pinnata seed oil
MA7+MA13+0.5% P. pinnata seed oil
Formulation 3 MA2+MA7 +0.5% P. pinnata seed oil + 0.8 ppm Deltamethrin
MA7+MA13 +0.5% P. pinnata seed oil + 0.8 ppm Deltamethrin
Control
0.08% Tween 80
Evaluation of the formulations against H. puera was done in three year old teak plantations at
two locations in the Kannavam forest range of Kannur district in Kerala, India. The field
layout was a randomized block design, each plot with a fixed number of plants and each
treatment replicated four times. The number of larvae on the leaves of six randomly selected
tagged plants in each plot was recorded before treatment. Spraying was done uniformly using
a motorized sprayer. Post treatment observations on the number of surviving larvae were
recorded seven days after the spray.
Field evaluation against Atteva fabriciella and Eligma narcissus was done in four year old
plantations in the Odagathur forest division of Vellore district of Tamil Nadu, India.
Evaluation was carried out by selecting two locations for each pest based on the
predominance of each pest species. The treatments were imposed as described above and the
numbers of surviving larvae were recorded fifteen days after spraying. Observations from the
two locations were pooled in each case and the percent reduction of larvae was calculated
using Henderson and Tilton equation (Henderson and Tilton, 1955).
Results
Pathogenicity of the isolates to H. puera, A. fabriciella and E. narcissus
From our earlier studies (Remadevi et al., 2010), the isolates MA2 and MA7 were found to
be most pathogenic to the teak defoliator, H. puera with the lowest LC50 values, 0.65 x 105
and 1.67 x 105 respectively. Isolates MA13 and MA7 were found to be most pathogenic to
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
201
A. fabriciella with the lowest LC50 values, 3.16 x 105 and 15.14 x 105 respectively. Isolates
MA13 and MA7 were also most pathogenic to E. narcissus with lowest LC50 values of 6.46 x
105 and 14.48 x 105 respectively.
Multiplication and mass production of isolates
Multiplication and sporulation of the three isolates was better in YPDB medium which was
further improved when the media was supplemented with dry silkworm pupa powder (in
press). Among the different grains tested, the yield of conidia was significantly higher in rice
(19.02 to 19.87 x 108 conidia/g) for all the three isolates, followed by pearl millet (17.61 to
17.81 x 108 conidia/g). Among two agro-wastes tested, higher spore yield was obtained on
groundnut cake compared to coconut cake.
Table 1 Mass production on grains
Isolates
Ma2
Ma7
Ma13
grains
days
gxd
Mean No. of spores/g substrate after different
Grains
days of incubation (x 108) *
5D
7D
12D
16D
20D
Rice
11.52
15.34
17.82
18.89
19.87
Pearl millet
10.24
12.56
14.32
16.43
17.81
Rice
10.42
13.46
17.59
18.76
19.02
Pearl millet
9.64
11.66
13.31
16.16
17.61
Rice
11.17
14.44
17.61
18.88
19.62
Pearl millet
10.22
11.87
14.11
16.14
17.72
SED
CD (P0.05) CD (P0.01)
g
0.09860
0.19573
0.2591
d
0.09860
0.19573
0.25913
gd
0.22048
0.43766
0.57944
* Values are means of four replications
Formulation of mycoinsecticide
Conidia formulations with different carrier materials retained higher viability than
unformulated conidia. Among them conidia formulated with kaolinite maintained higher
viability (>86% germination) even after 5 months of storage at 4ºC.
Table2. Effect of Kaolinite as carrier material on germination
Isolates
Formulations
Mean % germination at 4ºC*
2 months
5 months
MA2
Kaolinite (continental clay)
94.4
94.4
Control - Dry spore (unformulated)
80.0
75.6
MA7
Kaolinite (continental clay)
89.4
86.0
Control Dry spore (unformulated)
78.8
77.0
MA13
Kaolinite (continental clay)
90.4
89.2
Control - Dry spore (unformulated)
79.8
76.0
SED
CD (0.05)
CD (0.01)
i-isolates
i
1.27606
2.54153
3.37146
f-formulations
f
2.01763
4.01851
5.33075
m-month
m
1.27606
2.54153
3.37146
* Values are means of four replications
202 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Effect of oils on growth and sporulation of isolates in liquid formulation
Fungal culture with 0.5% P. pinnata seed oil did not affect biomass and sporulation
compared to neem oil suggesting the usefulness of P. pinnata oil as an oil protectant for
formulating these isolates.
Compatibility of isolates
The compatibility of the isolates tested (dual culture method) showed that, isolates Ma2 and
Ma7 were highly compatible (100%) followed by Ma7 and Ma13 (80%). Ma2 and Ma13
were less compatible (45%). This was done with the intention of using two isolates in a single
formulation to augment the efficacy and to target multiple pests with a single formulation.
Augmentation of efficacy of formulation by addition of Deltamethrin
Addition of Deltamethrin up to 0.8 ppm showed sporulation on par with the control.
Sporulation decreased at higher concentrations of Deltamethrin. Therefore, Deltamethrin at
0.80 could be used for augmentation of efficacy of the formulations.
Table 3. Effect of Deltamethrin on sporulation in the formulations
Formulation
Ma2 + Ma7
Ma7 + Ma13
t-treatments
i-insecticides
c-concentration
Insecticide
Con.
(ppm)
0.20
Deltamethrin
0.40
0.80
Control
0.20
Deltamethrin
0.40
0.80
Control
SED
t
0.00882
i
0.00882
c
0.01528
Mean
Sporulation (x 108/ml)*
9.62
9.61
9.58
9.68
8.25
8.19
8.10
8.34
CD (0.05)
CD (0.01)
0.01760
0.02337
0.01760
0.02337
0.03048
0.04048
Field Evaluation Trials
Evaluation against Hyblaea puera
Formulation T3 was most effective against Hyblaea puera in the field, producing about 61%
reduction in the number of larvae after 7 days of application, which suggested that
augmenting the formulation with P. pinnata seed oil and Deltamethrin has a distinct
advantage.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
203
Table 4. Reduction of H. puera infestation on teak
Treatments
Average number of larvae/Plant
Location-I
Location-II
Location Mean
%
Reduction
1 DBT
7 DBT
1 DBT
7 DBT
DBT
DAT
T1
7.30
4.07
7.02
3.63
7.16
3.85
51.60
T2
7.19
3.70
6.97
3.22
7.08
3.46
56.26
T3
7.26
2.94
7.02
2.66
7.14
2.80
60.75
T4
7.10
8.04
7.00
7.68
7.05
7.86
SED
CD (0.05) CD (0.01)
l-location
0.02266
0.04608
0.06184
t-treatment
0.02776
0.05644
0.07574
d-days
0.02776
0.05644
0.07574
DBT – Days before treatment; DAT – Days after treatment
T1 = MA2+MA7; T2 = MA2+MA7+ 0.5% P. pinnata oil
T3 = MA2+MA7+0.5% P. pinnata oil + 0.8 ppm Deltamethrin; T4 = 0.08% Tween 80
(Control)
Field evaluation against Ailanthus defoliators
Evaluation against both Atteva fabriciella and Eligma narcissus also gave similar results for
treatment T3 and resulted in a 72 and 66% reduction respectively for each pest after 15 days
of application.
Table 5. Reduction of A. fabriciella infestation on A. excelsa
Treatments
T1
T2
T3
T4
l-location
t-treatment
d-days
Location-I
1 DBT 15 DAT
15.73
6.25
15.45
5.75
16.10
5.22
16.01
16.64
SED
0.05156
0.06314
0.06314
Average number of larvae/Plant
Location-II
Location Mean
1 DBT 15DAT
DBT
DAT
19.01
7.41
17.37
6.83
18.97
5.97
17.21
5.86
18.74
4.60
17.42
4.91
19.27
19.06
17.64
17.85
CD (0.05) CD (0.01)
0.10482
0.14067
0.12838
0.17228
0.12838
0.17228
%
Reduction
61.15
66.36
71.80
-
DBT – Days before treatment; DAT – Days after treatment
T1 = MA7+MA13; T2 = MA7+MA13+0.5% P. pinnata oil
T3 = MA7+MA13+0.5% P. pinnata oil+0.8 ppm Deltamethrin; T4 = 0.08% Tween 80
(Control)
204 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Table 6. Reduction of E. narcissus infestation on A. excelsa
Treatments
1 DBT
T1
T2
T3
T4
Average number of larvae/Plant
Location-II
Location
Mean
15 DAT 1 DBT
15
1 DBT
15
DBT
DAT
6.22
13.99
6.90
13.53
6.56
5.57
14.18
6.01
14.02
5.79
5.20
15.06
4.84
14.82
5.02
14.25
14.27
15.47
14.20
14.86
SED
CD (0.05)
CD (0.01)
0.02270
0.04615
0.06193
0.02780
0.05652
0.07585
0.02780
0.05652
0.07585
Location-I
13.07
13.86
14.58
14.13
%
Reductio
n
53.76
60.53
66.09
-
l-location
t-treatment
d-days
DBT – Days before treatment; DAT – Days after treatment
T1 = MA7+MA13; T2 = MA7+MA13+0.5% P. pinnata oil
T3 = MA7+MA13+0.5% P. pinnata +0.8 ppm Deltamethrin; T4 = 0.08% Tween 80
(Control)
Discussion
The different isolates of M. anisopliae exhibited considerable variation in virulence. The
virulence variation between different species or isolates and situations were discussed by
Shah et al. (2005). Mass production of entomopathogenic fungi and testing of virulence are
important steps in successful utilization of entomopathogenic fungi. Solid substrates provide
support for development of the dry aerial conidia (Karanja et al., 2010). Latch and Fallon
(1976) suggested using of grains for mass production of entomogenous fungi. We observed
rice to be the most promising substrate for conidial production of M. anisopliae isolates
followed by pearl millet. Our observations are in conformity with reports of Mendonca
(1992) and Milner et al. (1993). Pandey and Kanujia (2008) reported enhanced conidia
production after addition of sucrose to the grain media.
Formulation is a key factor in improving performance and for the successful utilization of
biological pesticides. There is a need for careful assessment of compatibility of formulation
components with conidia prior to their use in formulations (Jackson et al., 2010). Therefore,
one of the first steps in developing a mycoinsecticide formulation is to evaluate the effect of
its components on conidial viability to select products compatible with fungal conidia (Alves
et al., 2002). Daoust et al. (1983) evaluated various formulation components on the viability
of M. anisopliae conidia and suggested that dry formulations retained high conidial viabilities
than liquid formulations.
In the present investigation, we have found that isolates MIS2 and MIS7 were compatible in
dual cultures as were also MIS7 and MIS13. There is little information about the performance
of mixed entomopathogenic fungi against insects. Theoretically, the combined application of
different species of insect isolates can increase the efficacy of pest control. The effect of
interaction among Beauveria bassiana, M. anisopilae and Lecanicillium lecanii was tested by
Mahmoud (2009). These authors reported synergistic interaction between some strains and
antagonistic interactions between some others.
There has been no significant work on the use of fungal pathogens, especially Metarhizium
against H. puera. A few laboratory studies by Sandhu et al. (1993) revealed the ability of B.
bassiana, M. anisopliae, Nomuraea rileyi, Aspergillus fumigatus, Fusarium moniliformae
and Paecilomyces sp.to infect H. puera larvae. Studies on the susceptibility of H. puera to B.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
205
bassiana showed optimum infection and host death at 20-30° C (Rajak et al. 1993). The
present study is perhaps one of the very few studies attempted against H. puera in the field
involving a fungal formulation. Interestingly we observed that the formulation containing
very low concentration of P. pinnata seed oil and Deltamethrin showed significantly greater
efficacy against H. puera in the field. Association of deltamethrin and Metarhizium was also
reported to cause higher mortality in the tick, Boophilus microplus (Bahiense, et al., 2006).
There are numerous examples where applications of insecticides have enhanced the
efficiency of entomopathogenic fungi against insect pests (Asi et al., 2010). Pongamia
pinnata oil at the concentration used did not show any adverse effect on conidia viability. It is
also known for its insecticidal properties and should, as any other oil, also help prevent
desiccation.
Field studies using Metarhizium formulations for the management of Ailanthus pests,
A. fabriciella or E. narcissus have not been previously attempted in India. The fungus
Paceliomyces farinosus was reported to be pathogenic to A. fabriciella (Mohanan and Varma,
1988) but most biocontrol methods for this pest have been based on bacterial pathogens, plant
extracts and insecticides.
Chatterjee et al. (1969) reported the ability of entomopathogenic fungi, Beauveria bassiana
to cause white muscardine disease in the pest E. narcissus. Paecilomyces fumosoroseus was
recognized to be effective in controlling larvae and pupae of E. narcissus (David and
Ananthakrishnan, 2004). Inoculation of A. fabriciella larvae with M. anisopliae caused
mortality within 48–72 h of incubation. Augmenting the formulation with P. pinnata oil and
Deltamethrin further reduced the infestation of both pests of Ailanthus similar to the
influence of these additives observed with the teak defoliator.
In summary our field studies indicate that M. anisopliae formulations are effective against
defoliating pests in teak and Ailanthus and could be good candidates for the fungal biocontrol
of these pests.
References
AGARWAL, G.P AND RAJAK, R.C. (1985). A list of entomopathogenic fungi of insect pests
of crop and forest nurseries of Jabalpur. (M.P.). Biol. Bull. India, 7: 67-69.
ALVES, R.T., BATEMAN, R.P., GUNN, J., PRIOR, C. AND LEATHER, S.R. 2002. Effects of
different formulations on viability and medium term storage of Metarhizium anisopliae
conidia. Neotropical entomology, 31(1): 91-99.
ASI, M.R., BASHIR, M.H., AFZAL, M., ASHFAQ, M. AND SAHI, S.T. (2010). Compatibility of
entomopathogenic fungi, Metarhzium anisopliae and Paecilomyces fumosoroseus with
selective insecticides. Pak. Journal of Botany, 46(2): 4207-4214.
BAHIENSE, T.C., FERNANDES E.K. AND BITTENCOURT, V.R. (2006). Compatibility of the
fungus Metarhizium anisopliae and deltamethrin to control a resistant strain of Boophilus
microplus tick. Vet. Parasitology, 141(3-4): 319-324.
CHATTERJEE, P.N., SINGH, P. AND MISRA, R.N. (1969). Studies on the biology, ecology,
life cycle and parasite complex of Ailanthus defoliator, Eligma narcissus Cramer (Noctuidae:
Lepidoptera), together with morphology of adult and immature stages. Indian Forester, 95:
541-550.
DAVID, B.V. AND ANANTHAKRISHNAN T. N. (2004). General and Applied Entomology.
Tata Mc Graw - Hill publishing company Limited, New Delhi. 1184 pp.
DOUCE, G.K., MOORHEAD, D.J., AND BARGERON, C.T. (2002). Forest Pest Control. Special
Bulletin 16, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia.
206 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
DAOUST, R.A. AND D.W. ROBERTS. 1983. Studies on the prolonged storage of Metarhizium
anisopliae conidia: effect of growth substrate on conidial survival and virulence against
mosquitoes. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 41:161-170.
FERRON, P. (1978). Biological control of insect pests by entomogenous fungi. Annual
Review of Entomology, 23: 409-442.
HENDERSON, C.F. AND TILTON, E. W. (1955). Tests with acaricides against the brow wheat
mite. Journal of Economic Entomology, 48:157-161.
JACKSON, M.A., DUNLAP, C. A. AND JARONSKI, S.T. 2010. Ecological considerations in
producing and formulating fungal entomopathogens for use in insect biocontrol. Biocontrol,
55: 129-145.
KARANJA, L.W., PHIRI, N. A., ODUOR, G. I., 2010. Effect of different solid substrates on
mass production of Entomopathogens, Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae. 12th
KARI Biennial Scientific Conference, 8–12 November 2010, Nairobi, Kenya.
LATCH, G.C. AND FALLON R.F. 1976. Studies on the use of Metarhizium anisopliae to
control Oryctes rhinoceros. Entomophaga, 21: 39-48.
MENDONCA, A.F. 1992. Mass production, application and formulation of Metarhizium
anisopliae for control of sugarcane froghopper, Mahanarva posticata, in Brazil. In:
Biological control of locusts and grasshoppers, C.J. Lomer and C. Prior (ed). pp. 239-244.
CAB International. Wallingford, UK.
MAHMOUD, M. F.
(2009). Pathogenicity of Three Commercial Products of
Entomopathogenic Fungi, Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizum anisopilae and Lecanicillium
lecanii against Adults of Olive Fly, Bactrocera oleae (Gmelin) (Diptera: Tephritidae) in the
laboratory. Plant Protection Science, 45(3): 98–102.
MILNER, R.J., ROGERS, D.J., MCRAE, C.M., HUPPATZ, R.J. AND BRIER, H. 1993.
Preliminary evaluation of the use of Metarhizium anisopliae as a mycopesticide for control of
peanut scarabs. In: Pest control in sustainable agriculture. Melbourne, Australia. 253-255 pp.
MOHANAN, C. AND VARMA, R.V. (1988). Paecilomyces farinosus, a potential biocontrol
agent of some lepidopterous tree pests in India. Transactions of the British Mycological
Society, 90(1):119PANDEY, A.K. AND KANAUJIA, K.R. 2008. Effect of different grains as solid substrates on
sporulation, viability and pathogenicity of Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin.
Journal of biological control, 22(2): 369-374.
RAJAK, R.C., AGARWAL, G.P., KHAN, A.R. AND SANDHU, S.S. (1993). Susceptibility of
teak defoliator (Hyblaea puera Cramer) and teak skeletonizer (Eutectona machaeralis
walker) to Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 31: 8082.
RATH, A.C. (2000). The use of entomopathogenic fungi for control of termites. Biocontrol
Science and Technology, 10: 563-581.
REMADEVI, O.K., SASIDHARAN, T.O., BALACHANDER, M. AND SAPNA BAI, N. (2010).
Metarhizium based mycoinsecticides for forest pest management. Journal of Biopesticides,
3(2): 470-473.
ROYSE, D. J., AND RIES, S. M. 1978. The influence of fungi isolated from peach twigs on the
pathogenicity of Cytospora cincta. Phytopathology, 68:603–607.
SANDHU, S., RAJAK, R.C. AND AGARWAL, G.P., (1993). Microbial control agents of forest
pests of Jabalpur. Annals of Forestry, 1 (2): 136-140.
ZIMMERMAN, G. (1998). Suggestions for a standardised method for reisolation of
entomopathogenic fungi from soil using the bait method. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin, Insect
pathogens and insect parasitic nematodes. 21: 289.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
207
TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT FOR PROTECTING SENGON
FROM GANODERMA INFECTION
Elis Nina Herliyana 1) Darmono Taniwiryono 2),Ratna Jamilah1), Benyamin Dendang1), Hayati
Minarsih 2), Muhammad Alam Firmansyah1), Permana Jenal, Ai Rosah Aisyah1)
1)
Departemen Silvikultura, Fakultas Kehutanan, Institut Pertanian Bogor, Bogor, Indonesia; 2)Balai Penelitian
Bioteknologi Perkebunan Indonesia, Bogor, Indonesia
Corresponding author: elisherliana@yahoo.com or elishe@ipb.ac.id
Abstract
Sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielsen) is a major forest tree species that is widely
planted by smallholders in Indonesia. Ganoderma infection as red root-rot or basal stem rot is
becoming a more prevalent disease causing significant tree death. This research investigates the
potential of biological control agents to protect Sengon seedlings from Ganoderma attacks. In
vitro tests for antagonism between two Trichoderma spp (DT38 and DT39) and five fungal
isolates of Ganoderma on PDA were undertaken. Four treatments were applied to sengon
seedlings: 1) without Trichoderma + without organic materials (A0B0); 2) without
Trichoderma + organic materials (A0B1); 3) with Trichoderma + without organic materials
(A1B0); 4) with Trichoderma + organic materials (A1B1). Seedling height and the number of
leaves was recorded.
The in vitro tests showed that the Trichoderma spp. inhibited the five fungi isolates of
Ganoderma between 11,7 – 48,8%. The average height of sengon seedlings six weeks after
planting (WAP) were 12.3 cm (A0B1), 8.9 cm (A1B1), 8.0 cm (A0B0) and 6.0 cm (A1B0).
Fourteen WAP, seedling height was greatest in A1B1 and least in A1B0. The height
difference was caused by the availability of plant nutrients in the media.
Key words: Sengon, Ganoderma, Trichoderma, organic materials
Introduction
Conversion of forest to agriculture or plantations can pose environmental problems.
Agroforestry is a land management system that can address this issue. In the upper Way
Besai, the remaining forest cover accounts for only 12% of the total land area. However, in
the past 15 years, plantation monocultures have been gradually turned into mixed plantations
with shade trees (Verbist et al. 2004). A popular choice of shade tree by cocoa farmers is
sengon. These trees also provide long-term income as well as conserving water and
preventing erosion.
Central and West Java account for 60% of the total number of sengon trees planted in
Indonesia (Krisnawati et al. 2010). The total area of sengon in Java is nearly 400,000 acres
and is capable of supplying approximately 895,000 m3 of wood per year, equivalent to 10%
of Java’s wood supply. The average productivity of forests on Java is 2.29 m3 ha-1 year-1
(Arupa 2008).
Sengon is a pioneer species with a natural distribution in Maluku, Papua New Guinea,
Solomon Islands and Bismark (Hidayat 2002). It grows in lowland rain forest or secondary
forest between altitudes of 0-1600 m asl and is adapted to humid monsoonal climates with
rainfall between 2000-2700 mm/yr, dry seasons up to four months and low fertility. Sengon is
208 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
fast-growing but intolerant of water-logging. As sengon is symbiotic with arbuscular
mycorrhiza, it is excellent for improving soil fertility (Nusantara 2002).
A major obstacle to the cultivation of forest trees is red root-rot disease caused by
Ganoderma spp. (Solomon et al. 1993; Lee 2000; Old et al., 2000; Basset and Peters, 2003;
Sankaran et al., 2005, Wingfield et al., 2010; Widyastuti 2007; Widyastuti 2010, Gafur et al.
2011, Herliyana et al. 2012). The most serious disease in Acacia mangium and Eucalyptus sp.
plantations in Sumatra is red root disease caused by Ganoderma philippii (Gafur et al. 2011).
In second rotation plantations of A. mangium aged 3-to-5 years in Sumatra and Kalimantan,
the incidence of Ganoderma attack was between 3-28% (Irianto et al. 2006). Similar levels of
Ganoderma attack can occur in sengon during the second rotation in Java (Widyastuti 2008,
personal communication). Roots newly infected by Ganoderma spp. are covered by red
rhizomorph and white mycelium. Above-ground symptoms include a rapid decline in vigour,
leaf discoloration, withering and defoliation, and tree death. Fungal fruiting bodies sometimes
form at the base of the dead stem, but may be absent (Bassett and Peters 2003). Conversely,
fruiting bodies of Ganoderma spp can be found at the base of the trunk of healthy trees.
Gafur et al. 2011 showed that Ganoderma attack on Eucalyptus tree has similar symptoms.
Ganoderma in West and East Java can appear as a facultative saprophyte on both the stumps
of sengon that has died and as a pathogen on trees that are still alive. The close genetic
similarity between G. lucidum originating on both sengon and cocoa might be expected to
enhance disease transmission as they might act as alternate hosts (Herliyana et al. 2012).
Biological control is one way to control Ganoderma. One option, Trichoderma spp. have
been thoroughly investigated by Widiyastuti (2011) but this is limited to laboratory testing.
Thus its effectiveness to control the Ganoderma in the field needs to be tested. In this study,
the use of Trichoderma spp. to protect sengon in the nursery and improve seedling growth is
investigated. The experiments tested (i) the virulence of in vitro biological control agents and
(ii) the ability of biological agents to protect seedlings from Ganoderma attack and improve
seedling growth. The objectives were to determine the potential of biological contol agents as
antagonists and to develop biological control technology to protect sengon from Ganoderma
lucidum.
Materials And Methods
In vitro antagonism test for Trichoderma spp.
Isolates of Ganoderma spp. (Lampung L12, L6, L3, and Kalimantan K2 and K1) and
Trichoderma spp. (T. harzianum isolates (DT38), and T. pseudoconingii isolates (DT39) from
Dr Darmono Taniwiryono’s collection) were propagated in 9-cm diameter Petri dishes.
Colony diameter growth was observed daily until it covered the entire surface. The
experiment included control treatments and four replications per treatment. Isolates
Ganoderma spp. Were first incubated for 3 to 5 days to isolate Ganoderma spp. And when
large enough, the isolates of Trichoderma spp. were placed 5 cm distance away (Figure 1).
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
209
P
Description:
P = the pathogen inoculum (red)
A = antagonist inoculum (green)
t = midpoint of a petri dish
r1 = radius 1 Growth of isolates P
r2 = radius 2 Growth of isolates A
A
r1
r2
r
1
r
1
r
r
Figure 1. Configuration of Ganoderma sp. and Trichoderma sp. Isolates on plates
The radius of the colony of both isolates was measured every 24 hours until the fifth day after
2
2
the two isolates came together. The zone and per cent of inhibition was then assessed. Zone
of inhibition is the length of the region in the confrontation zone where the isolates are
mutually antagonistic. Measurements were made by measuring the length of the empty zone.
The percentage of inhibition was measured as:
Where P = percentage of inhibition, r1 = radius one of the P isolate, and r2 = radius 2 of
the P isolate
Ability Test of Biological agents
A mixture of T harzianum isolates (DT38) and T pseudoconingii isolates (DT39) was tested.
Seedlings sengon were grown in polybags containing organic matter.
Seed Treatment
Before sowing, seed was immersed in boiling water for 1.5 hours and then drained. Cold
water immersion included treatments with and without benomil fungicide for 15 minutes.
Seeds were sown in a polytray simultaneously with the application of 10 g of solids per hole
of Trichoderma. The seed was covered with a 10-cm layer of sterilised soil. Maintenance
included appropriate watering, humidity control and pest control until the seedlings were two
weeks of age.
Transplanting
This included soil attached to the roots to ensure Trichoderma presence and inoculation. The
medium used consisted of soil mixed with commercial compost (2:1). For B1 treaments, half
the compost was substituted with an organic fertilizer. The media was inserted into a poly bag
measuring 15 × 20 cm. One unit of treatment consisted of 30 plants with three replications,
and a total of 360 seedlings (Table 1). The treatments are listed in Table 1.
210 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Table 1. The research plan treatments on sengon seedlings
Without trichoderma
Added trichoderma
Treatments
1
2
3
1
2
3
Without organic
30
30
30
30
30
30
matter
Added
organic
30
30
30
30
30
30
matter
Randomization :
1
A0BO
4
A0B1
7
10
A1B1
A0B1
2
5
8
11
A0B1
A1BO
A1B1
A0BO
3
6
9
12
A1BO
A1BO
A0BO
A1B1
Description:
A0B0 = without Trichoderma + without organic
matter
A0B1 = without Trichoderma + organic matter
A1B0 = Trichoderma + without organic matter
A1B1 = Trichoderma + organic matter
Seedling height and the number of leaves were measured. The numbers of plants showing
symptoms of disease were recorded. The biomass of the plant above and below the surface of
the plant was also measured. Total plant height was measured at the time of transplanting,
and then every two weeks until age six months. Plant weight was divided into root and stem
weights, both fresh and dry weight after 48 hours in an oven at 60 oC. Root length was also
measured.
Results and Discussion
In vitro tests for antagonism between Trichoderma spp. and Ganoderma isolates
The two Trichoderma spp. Inhibited the growth of the five fungi isolates of Ganoderma
between 11,7 – 48,8%. Trichoderma T38 inhibited the growth of Ganoderma L12, L6, L3,
K2 and K1 by an average of 27.3, 37.2, 34.9, 28.7 and 13.2% respectively (Figure 2).
Trichoderma T39 inhibited the growth of Ganoderma L12, L6, L3, K2 and K1 by an average
of 48.8, 42.3, 34.8, 22.4 and 11.7% respectively (Figure 3). No inhibition zones were formed
on PDA media.
Figure 2. Inhibition of in vitro growth of five isolates of Ganoderma by
Trichoderma T38 and T39 on PDA.
Colony growth rates of the Trichoderma isolates were more rapid than those of the
Ganoderma on PDA media (Figure 3). The growth of Ganoderma isolates from the most
rapid to the slowest was K2, L12, K1, L3 and L6 (Figure 3).
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
211
Figure 3. Growth in diameter of colonies of Trichoderma and Ganoderma isolates on PDA.
Wells (1988 in Achmad et al. 2009) suggested that Trichoderma is a potential antagonist. The
results support the view that Trichoderma T38 and T39 can inhibit fungal pathogens on PDA
and are potential biological control agents against Ganoderma root disease. Of the two
Trichoderma T39 was more effective against Ganoderma isolates L12, L6 and L3 whereas
T38 was more effective against Ganoderma isolates K2 and K1.
There are three mechanisms of antagonism between organisms, namely antibiosis,
competition, and mikoparasitism (Baker and Cook, 1974 in Achmad et al. 2009). Inhibition
zone formation on solid media is an indication of antibiosis and the suppression of the growth
of pathogenic fungi. This study found no inhibition zone, possibly because the media used
was PDA. A neutralisation of the influence of metabolites inhibiting the growth of pathogens
on PDA was reported by Achmad (1991 and Ahmad et al. 2009).
According to Wells (1988 in Achmad et al. 2009), antibiosis may involve toxic metabolites
(toxins) or extracellular enzymes produced by fungal antagonists. It is argued that
Trichorderma sp. produce the toxin trikhor dermin which is a sesquiterpene compound,
single-service dermadin acid which is active against a broad range of fungi and bacteria
including gram-positive and gram-negative, and two peptide compounds that are antifungal
and anti-bacterial.
The degree of suppression of the growth of pathogenic fungi shows the mechanism of
competition in antagonism, the more competitive antagonist utilizing more growing space
and nutrients. This leads to its more rapid growth than the fungal pathogen on the same
medium. Trichoderma is abundant in agricultural soils worldwide and this is the best
evidence that these fungi are very good competitors for nutrients (Wells, 1988 in Achmad et
al. 2009).
Mikoparasitism is shown by microscopic observation of the mycelia of T. harzianum and R.
solani at the meeting between the colonies which shows penetration of R. solani by T.
harzianum (Achmad et al. 2009). Benhamou and Chet (1993 in Achmad et al. 2009)
proposed a process ikomiparasitisme between T. harzianum and R. solani where they come
into contact. In this the hyphae of T. harzianum surround the R. solani which leads to its
destruction.
Elad et al. (1983 in Achmad et al. 2009) studied mikoparasitisme of T. harzianum and T.
hamate against R. solani and Sclerotium rolfsii. They argued that the hyphae of T. harzianum
212 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
penetrate R. solani through a hole made by the host hyphae. The antagonist T. harzianum
secretes β-1,3-glucanase.
Ability test of biological agents
The growth of seedlings two weeks after planting (WAP) was not significantly different
because nutrients in the medium used were still available. Four WAP, the best growth was in
A1B1. This was probably due to the influence of fertilizers (organic material) applied to this
treatment. The smallest values in A1B0 and A0B0 were probably caused by the lack of
available nutrients. Numbers of leaves were distributed more evenly.
Six WAP growth in height was A0B1 > A1B1 > A0B0 > A1B0, respectively. At 14 WAP,
the greatest height was in treatment A1B1 and smallest in A1B0 (Figure 4). Plant height
differences are mainly caused by nutrient availability. Treatment A1B0 showed symptoms of
nutrient deficiency, especially of N, visible by green leaves changing color from yellowishgreen to yellow. The leaf tissue dies causing the leaves to become dry and brownish red.
60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
A0B0
10.00
A0B1
number of leaves
high (cm)
number of leaves
high (cm)
number of leaves
high (cm)
number of leaves
high(cm)
number of leaves
high (cm)
0.00
A1B0
A1B1
Figure2 weeks
4 Growth
and leaf
number
seedlings
after in4height
weeks after
6 weeks
afterof 10
weeks after 14 weeks after
planting
planting
planting
planting
planting
Figure 4. Growth in height and leaf number of seedlings
Exploration of the use of biological agents, especially Trichoderma spp., for the control of
Ganoderma on forestry crops is still limited to laboratory testing. Its effectiveness for
controlling Ganoderma has now been shown for protecting plants in the nursery and
improving plant growth to up to 14 weeks of age. However, the results obtained also showed
that organic materials can also support the growth of sengon seedlings to a similar age that
have been treated with Trichoderma spp.
The height of sengon seedlings at six WAP were A0B1 (average 12,3 cm), A1B1 (average
8.9 cm), A0B0 (average 8.0 cm) and A1B0 treatment (average 6.0 cm) respectively. The
growth of sengon seedlings at eight weeks WAP was highest in the A0B1 treatment and
smallest in the A1B0 treatment. The height difference was probably caused by the availability
of plant nutrients in the media.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
213
Conclusion
Trichoderma T38 and T39 inhibited the growth of Ganoderma. Growth of sengon seedlings
at 14 WAP sengon was highest in A0B1 and least in A1B0. Treatment A1B0 showed
symptoms of nutrient deficiency, especially N.
In order to manage Ganoderma attack, information about its genetic diversity as a cause of
root rot disease on plantation crops is essential. The exploration of the use of biological
agents, especially Trichoderma spp., remains limited to laboratory testing but their
effectiveness in protecting plants in the nursery and improving plant growth is indicated.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the program leader KKP3T Research Agency Ministry of
Agriculture. The research was made possible with the support of funding from the State
Budget Agency Secretariat of Research and Development, Ministry of Agriculture in 2010.
We would thank the students in the research team that helped carry out this study.
References
ACHMAD, S. HADI, S. HARRAN, E. GUMBIRA SA’ID, B. SATIAWIHARDJA, M.
KOSIM KARDIN. 2009. Pengendalian Hayati Penyakit Lodoh Pada Semai Pinus Merkusii :
Potensi Antagonistik In-vitro Trichoderma harzianum DAN Trichoderma pseudokoningii.
Jurnal Litbang Tanaman. Bardakci F. 2001. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
markers. Turk J Biol 25: 185-196.
ARUPA. 2008. Hutan Rakyat Wonosobo. http://www.arupa.or.id/index2.php?option=
comcontent&do_pdf=1&id=39 [16 November 2010].
BASSET K, PETERS RN. 2003. Ganoderma: A Significant Root Pathogen. Arborilogical
Services Inc. Publication. http://www.arborilogical.com/articles/ganoderma.htm. [6 Februari
2010]
FIRST-NATURE.
2011.
Bracket and Crust Fungi Gallery.
http://www.firstnature.com/fungi/~brackets.php [20 November 2011].
GAFUR, A., TJAHJONO B., GOLANI G. D. 2011. Patogen dan Opsi Pengendalian
Penyakit Busuk Akar Ganoderma di Hutan Tanaman Industri. Simposium Nasional dan
Lokakarya Ganoderma: Sebagai Patogen Penyakit Tanaman dan Bahan Baku Obat
Tradisional, Bogor, 2-3 November 2011. Bogor: Balai Penelitian Bioteknologi Perkebunan
Indonesia.
Herliyana EN, Taniwiryono D, Minarsih, Hayati. 2012. Root diseases Ganoderma sp. on the
Sengon in West and East Java. Journal of Tropical Forest Management 18 (2):94-99.
DOI:10.7226/jtfm.18.2.94.
HIDAYAT, J. 2002. Informasi Singkat Benih. Bandung: Direktorat Perbenihan Tanaman
Hutan dan Indonesia Forest Seed Project.
IRIANTO, R. S. B., BARRY K., HIDAYATI N., ITO S., FIANI A., RIMBAWANTO A.,
MOHAMMED C. 2006. Incidence and Spatial Analysis of Root Rot of Acacia mangium In
Indonesia. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 18(3): 157–165.
KRISNAWATI, H., VARIS E., KALLIO M., KANNINEN M. 2010. Panduan bertajuk,
“Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) Nielsen.: Ekologi, Silvikultur dan Produktivitas”. Bogor:
Cifor.
214 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
LEE, S.S. 2000. The Current Status of Root Diseases of Acacia mangium Wild. In: Flood J,
Bridge PD, Holderness M, editors. Ganoderma Diseases of Perennial Crops. Wallingford,
UK: CABI Publishing. Hlm 71–79.
MINARSIH, H., LINGGA D. N. P, TANIWIRYONO D., HERLIYANA E.N. 2011. Analisis
Keragaman Genetik Ganoderma spp. yang Berasosiasi dengan Tanaman Kakao dan Tanaman
Pelindungnya Menggunakan Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Jurnal Menara
Perkebunan (MP) 79(1): 6-14.
NUSANTARA, A. D. 2002. Tanggap Semai Sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria (L) Nielsen)
Terhadap Inolukasi Ganda Cendawan Mikoriza Arbuskular dan Rhizobium sp. Jurnal IlmuIlmu Pertanian Indonesia 4(4): 62-70.
OLD, K. M., LEE S.S., SHARMA J. K., YUAN Z.Q., editors. 2000. A Manual of Diseases
of Tropical Acasias in Australia, South-East Asia and India. Jakarta, Indonesia: Center for
International Forestry Research. 104 p.
SANKARAN, K. V., BRIDGE P.D., GOKULAPALAN C. 2005. Ganoderma Diseases of
Perennial Crops in India-an Overview. Journal Mycopathologia 159: 143-152. doi
10.1007/s11046-004-4437-1
SOLOMON, J.D., LEININGER T.D., WILSON A.D., ANDERSON R.L., THOMPSON
L.C., MCCRACKEN, F.I. 1993. Ash Pests: A Guide to Major Insect, Diseases, Air Pollution
Injury and Chemical Injury. Gen. Tech. Rep. SO-96. New Orleans, LA: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service ,Southern Forest Experiment Station. 45p.
VERBIST B., VAN NOORDWJIK M., AGUS F., SUPRAYOGO D., HAIRIAH K., PASYA
G., FARIDA. 2004. Peranan Agroforestri dalam Mempertahankan Fungsi Hidrologi Daerah
Aliran Sungai (DAS). Jurnal Agrivita 26(1): 1-8.
WIDYASTUTI, S. M. 1998. Pengendalian Hayati Penyakit Akar Merah pada Akasia dengan
Trichoderma. Jurnal Perlindungan Tanaman Indonesia 4(2):65-72.
WIDYASTUTI, S. M. 2007. Peran Trichoderma spp. Dalam Revitalisasi Kehutanan di
Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Gajah Mada University Press, 255p.
WIDYASTUTI, S. M. 2010. Laporan Akhir program Tanoto Professorship Award.
Penelitian Metode Pengendalian Ganoderma sp. Pada Tanaman Perkebunan dan Kehutanan.
Fakultas Kehutanan Universitas Gadjah Mada - Yogyakarta.
WINGFIELD, M. J, SLIPPERS B., ROUX J., WINGFIELD B.D. 2010. Novel Associations
Between Pathogens, Insects and Tree Species Threaten World Forest. New Zealand Journal
of Forest Science 40 suppl.:S95-S103.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
215
216 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
posters paper
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
217
218 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
SOME NOTES ON INSECTS ASSOCIATED WITH Jatropha curcas IN SABAH
Arthur Y. C. Chung, Chia Fui Ree & Richard Majapun
P. O. Box 1407, Forest Research Centre, Sabah Forestry Department, 90715 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
Corresponding author: Arthur.Chung@sabah.gov.my
Abstract
Jatropha curcas is a perennial plant with tremendous potential for biodiesel, an alternative
for fossil fuel. Since the last few years, it has been planted on a trial basis under the Sabah
Forestry Department and was proposed as an agroforestry crop to alleviate poverty among the
local communities in Sabah. Hence, some research on the insects causing damage to J. curcas
was conducted. Among the insects documented were Stomphastis sp. (Lepidoptera:
Gracillariidae), Hypomeces squamosus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Cheromettia sp.
(Lepidoptera: Limacodidae), Epilachna sp. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), unidentified wasp,
bagworm and beetle larvae. Apart from insects, snails and slugs were also causing damage to
the germinating seedlings at the nursery. The overall damage by insects, however, was minor
and did not require any control measure to be taken.
Introduction
Jatropha curcas of the family Euphorbiaceae is a small tree or shrub with smooth gray bark,
which exudes a whitish colored, watery, latex when cut. Normally, it grows between three
and five meters in height, but can attain a height of up to eight or ten meters under favourable
conditions. It can thrive on the poorest stony soil, including gravel, sand and saline soils. It
can grow even in the crevices of rock, can survive in low rainfall conditions (200 mm) and in
hot climatic conditions. This indicates that J. curcas can adapt to adverse conditions and can
grow in all kinds of areas, including degraded forest and marginal land (Chia et al. 2007).
In Sabah, J. curcas or locally known as “sougi” was recorded in the interior part, such as
Ranau, Tambunan, Tenom and Kinabatangan (J.B. Sugau, pers. comm.). It is planted merely
for fencing by the local people. In view of the potential of this plant for biodiesel, some
research was conducted to explore planting of J. curcas as an agroforestry crop to alleviate
the livelihood of the local communities in Sabah. Insects causing damage to J. curcas were
documented as part of the study because there is little information on insects associated with
this plant in Sabah.
Study Area and Methodology
Surveys were carried out at various plots in Sabah (Figure 1) from 2007 until 2010. Insects
that were found damaging the plant were collected manually. Pictures of the attacked area
and the specimens were taken and the extent of the damage was recorded. In many cases, the
damage was caused by larvae of insects, and thus the larvae were collected and were bred in
plastic containers to monitor their life cycle. When the adult emerged, it was dry-mounted for
identification, based on reference materials at the Forest Research Centre, Sepilok.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
219
U
%
KUDAT
MAP OF SABAH
CLASS II (COMMERCIAL FOREST RESERVE)
Malsa / Kolapis A Research Station
Segaliud Lokan
Forest Reserve
(KTS
Plantations
Sdn. Bhd.)
Forest Research Centre, Sepilok
U
KOTA KINABALU%
SANDAKAN
Segaliud Lokan
Research Station
U
%
LAHAD DATU
U
%
N
TAWAU
U
%
30
0
30
60 Kilometers
Figure 1: Sabah map showing Jatropha curcas plots surveyed in this study.
Results and Discussion
Insects and other invertebrates that were recorded causing damage to Jatropha curcas are
listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Damage on Jatropha curcas.
No. Insect / invertebrate
Stomphastis sp.
1.
(Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)
Hypomeces squamosus
2.
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Cheromettia sp.
3.
(Lepidoptera: Limacodidae)
Epilachna sp.
4.
(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)
Wasp (Unidentified)
5.
(Hymenoptera)
Bagworm (Unidentified)
6.
(Lepidoptera: Psychidae)
Beetle larva (Unidentified)
7.
(Coleoptera: ?Cerambycidae)
Snail / Slug
8.
(Mollusca: Gastropoda)
Damage
Stage
Occurrence
Leaf
Nursery & field
High
Leaf
Field
Moderate
Leaf
Field
Low
Leaf
Field
Low
Stem
Nursery
Low
Leaf
Field
Low
Stem
Field
Low
Germinating
seedling
Nursery
Moderate
Stomphastis sp. (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)
The occurrence of this leaf miner at the Sepilok Forest Research Centre’s nursery was
reported by Chia et al. (2007). The tiny yellowish light green larva, measuring 5-6 mm, fed
on the greenish leaf tissues, leaving the whitish paper-thin epidermal layer which eventually
220 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
turned yellowish brown and withered. The larva, as well as the pupa was covered with a layer
of almost translucent and firm silky web. The life cycle was short, within a week and the
adult emerged about 2 days after pupation. Known also as the blister miner, S. thraustica has
caused noticeable damage in India (Shanker & Dhyani 2006).
Cheromettia sp. (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae)
The larvae of this insect were defoliating J. curcas at the Malsa / Kolapis plot. This unique
candy-like larva was about 15 mm. Although the larva was similar to that of Cheromettia
sumatrensis Heylaerts (Holloway 1986), it could not be confirmed because all of them were
parasitized earlier by an endo-parasitoid Spinaria sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) that
emerged in captivity.
Hypomeces squamosus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
Known as the gold dust weevil, it is a very common pest attacking a wide range of plants,
with 42 different host-plants recorded in Malaysia alone (Hill & Abang 2005). The mode of
leaf damage is usually from the leaf edge inwards, forming a semi circle. No control measure
was needed as the damage did not significantly affect the tree health. If occur in high
abundance, the weevils can be collected manually.
Epilachna sp. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)
The larva of this ladybird beetle was seen feeding on the foliage of J. curcas at the Malsa /
Kolapis plot. Measuring 9 mm in length, it was yellow in colour and spiky. The pupation was
rather short, about 9 days and the emerged adult was reddish orange with black spots.
Other insects / invertebrates
Other insects recorded causing damage to J. curcas are an unidentified wasp (Hymenoptera),
bagworm (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) and beetle larvae (Coleoptera). Apart from insects, snails
and slugs were feeding on the young tissue of the germinating seedlings at the nursery.
Conclusion
The overall damage by insects, however, was minor and did not require any control measure
except for the leaf miner, Stomphastis sp. When the infestation by the leaf miner is severe at
the nursery, chemical spraying is effective in controlling the pest.
References
CHIA, F.R., PANG, K.K.N. & CHUNG, A.Y.C. 2007. Some notes on Jatropha curcas (a
potential biodiesel tree for agroforestry plantations) at the nursery stage. Sepilok Bulletin 7:45-55.
HILL, D. S. & FATIMAH ABANG, 2005. The insects of Borneo. Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.
435 pp.
SHANKER, C. & DHYANI, S.K. 2006. Insect pests of Jathropa curcas L. and the potential for
their management. Current Science 91(2): 162-163.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
221
INFESTATION OF Achaea janata LINNAEUS (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE:
CATOCALINAE) IN THE MANGROVES OF SANDAKAN, SABAH
1)
Arthur Y. C. Chung1), Joseph Tangah1) & Fadzil Yahya2)
P. O. Box 1407, Forest Research Centre, Sabah Forestry Department, 90715 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia;
2)
Sandakan District Forestry Office, P. O. Box 212, 90702 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
Corresponding author: Arthur.Chung@sabah.gov.my
Abstract
A few thousand caterpillars of Achaea janata Linnaeus were found infesting quite an
extensive part of the mangroves in Sandakan, Sabah in December, 2010. Many of the
mangrove trees of the species Excoecaria agallocha (Euphorbiaceae) or locally known as
‘Buta-buta’ were completely defoliated. The high abundance of the looper-like caterpillars
was threatening because many invaded the adjacent villages, moving in to the house
compounds, defoliating some of the garden plants and agricultural crops, and some even
foraged into the houses. This is the first record of such attack in Malaysia. Nevertheless, it
has been reported that this species has caused near total defoliation of E. agallocha over a
stretch of 500-1,000 ha of a mangrove forest in Sumatra. Besides E. agallocha, the caterpillar
was also found on Ceriops decandra (Tengar), Glochidion littorale (Saka-saka), Lumnitzera
littorea (Geriting Merah), Sonneratia alba (Pedada), Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea (Landinglanding) and Derris trifoliata (Tuba Laut). Many of these plants were partially defoliated by
the caterpillars but not severe. The pest is a widespread species, occurring in the IndoAustralian tropics and subtropics, extending south to New Zealand and east through the
Pacific archipelagoes. It is highly polyphagous, feeding on a diverse array of host plants from
about 30 families, including forest and fruit trees, ornamentals and vegetables. From
observation, complete defoliation did not kill the trees, and new shoots and leaves sprouted
quite fast, most likely due to the raining season. It was difficult to control the pest in the
mangroves. However, as the caterpillars moved towards the landward margins of the
mangroves, contact poison was applied through mist-blowing. Some of the pupae were
parasitized by flies and wasps, or attacked by fungi. The many birds seen during the
inspection could have fed on the larvae and pupae, thus reducing the pest population. Details
of the infestation in Sandakan, biology of the pest and some recommendations on control
measures are provided in this paper.
Introduction
A complaint was lodged by the villagers to the Agriculture Department that thousands of
caterpillars were infesting the mangroves adjacent to Kampung Sg. Kayu, Sandakan in late
December, 2010. The high abundance of the caterpillars was threatening because many
invaded the house compound, defoliating some of the garden plants and agricultural crops,
and some even foraged into the house. Subsequently, their concern was brought to the
attention of the Sandakan District Forestry Officer, who is overseeing the adjacent Sibyte
Mangrove Forest Reserve.
Site inspection
A site inspection was conducted on the vegetation adjacent to Kampung Sg. Kayu (N 5⁰54’
29.4”; E 118⁰ 03’ 51.7”) on 6 January 2011, and some of the villagers were interviewed.
222 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Almost all the mangrove trees of the species Excoecaria agallocha (Euphorbiaceae) or
locally known as ‘Buta-buta’ were completely defoliated (Figures 1-3). However, no
caterpillars were found as the larval stage was over but some pupae were sampled. None
pupated on the completely defoliated trees but they were found on the adjacent trees, still
with green leaves. The pupa, measuring about 22 mm, was reddish brown with white
powdery substance, covered in loose web between the leaves, forming the cocoon (Figures 4
& 5). It was found on Ceriops decandra (Tengar), Glochidion littorale (Saka-saka),
Lumnitzera littorea (Geriting Merah), Sonneratia alba (Pedada), Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea
(Landing-landing) and Derris sp. Many of these plants were partially defoliated by the
caterpillars but not severe.
According to the villagers, this was the first time that they have seen such a severe
infestation. Their concern was over, as the caterpillars were no longer seen. Many of the
affected Excoecaria agallocha are flushing on new leaves. From observation, some of the
pupae were parasitized or attacked by fungi. The many birds seen during the inspection could
have fed on the larvae and pupae, thus reducing the pest population. The natural biological
control is likely to minimize a second infestation. However, what triggered the prevalence of
the pest population remains unknown, at least for the time being.
Insect pest identification & description
Some pupae were taken and monitored in captivity. A few adults have emerged and it is a
moth species, identified as Achaea janata Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae: Catocalinae), as
shown in Figure 7, based on Holloway (2005). While in captivity, some tiny flies, measuring
about 1.5 mm, emerged from the some of the pupae. They could be parasitic flies from the
dipteran family Hybotidae. A parasitoid, Xanthopimpla sp. (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae)
also emerged from one of the pupae (Figure 6).
The pest a widespread species, occurring in the Indo-Australian tropics and subtropics,
extending south to New Zealand and east through the Pacific archipelagoes. It is highly
polyphagous, feeding on a diverse array of host plants from about 30 families, including
forest and fruit trees, ornamentals and vegetables. Interestingly, Nair (2007) reported that this
species has caused near total defoliation of E. agallocha over a stretch of 500-1,000 ha of a
mangrove forest in Sumatra. The affected area at the mangroves of Sg. Kayu was quite
extensive, and conservatively it could be easily more than a few hectares (< 10 hectares). The
pest also attacked many of the ‘Buta-buta’ trees at the Labuk Bay Proboscis Monkey
Sanctuary in Sandakan (N 05056’03.6” E 117048’32.3”) in late December, 2010.
Recommendations on possible re-occurrence of the infestation
From observation, complete defoliation did not kill the trees and new shoots and leaves
sprouted quite fast, most likely due to the raining season. It is also difficult to control the pest
in the mangroves. Nevertheless, control measures can be taken if the caterpillars attack the
agricultural crops of the villagers. Contact poison (e.g. cypermethrin) can be applied through
knapsack spraying if the caterpillars occur in high abundance and cannot be terminated
manually.
It is advised that direct contact with this caterpillar should be avoided because it feeds on E.
agallocha which has a poisonous white sap. The milky sap of this tree can cause temporary
blindness if it enters the eyes, hence its common name in Malay and English as well (‘blindyour-eye’ and river poison tree). The sap can also cause skin blisters and irritation. Some
local people use the sap to stun and kill fish. Thus, the caterpillar may be poisonous.
Similarly, this caterpillar feeds on the castor oil plant, Ricimus communis (Euphorbiaceae)
which is among the most poisonous plants in the world.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
223
If the caterpillar moves into the house compound, it can be sprayed with aerosol insecticide
or removed manually using forceps. Some additional information of this pest species is
provided in Appendix I.
Figure 1. The defoliated Excoecaria
agallocha beside the road.
Figure 2. Quite an extensive area was
completely defoliated.
Figure 3. Sonneratia alba was partially
defoliated.
Figure 4. Close up of the pupa in loose
web that formed the cocoon.
Figure 5. An exposed pupa with white
powdery substance.
Figure 6. A parasitoid, Xanthopimpla
sp. that emerged from one of
the pupae.
224 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Figure 7. A newly emerged adult moth of Achaea janata.
Figure 7. A newly emerged adult moth of Achaea janata.
References
References
HOLLOWAY, J.D. 2005. The moths of Borneo: family Noctuidae, subfamily Catocalinae.
Malayan NatureJ.D.
Journal
(1-4):
1-529.
HOLLOWAY,
2005.58The
moths
of Borneo: family Noctuidae, subfamily Catocalinae.
MAU,
R.F.L.,
KESSING,
J.L.M.
&
DIEZ, J.M. 2007. Achaea janata (Linnaeus)
Malayan Nature Journal 58 (1-4): 1-529.
http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/Type/achaea.htm#MANAGEMENT
MAU,
R.F.L., KESSING, J.L.M. & DIEZ, J.M. 2007. Achaea janata (Linnaeus)
NAIR,
K.S.S. 2007. Tropical forest insect pests: ecology, impact and management.
http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/crop/Type/achaea.htm#MANAGEMENT
Cambridge
University
404 pp.
NAIR,
K.S.S.
2007. Press.
Tropical
forest insect pests: ecology, impact and management.
HERBISON-EVANS,
D.
&
CROSSLEY,
S. 2010. Achaea janata (Linnaeus, 1758).
Cambridge University Press. 404
pp.
http://lepidoptera.butterflyhouse.com.au/cato/janata.html
HERBISON-EVANS, D. & CROSSLEY, S. 2010. Achaea janata (Linnaeus, 1758).
http://lepidoptera.butterflyhouse.com.au/cato/janata.html
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
225
INSECTS IN TEAK (Tectona Grandis L. F) IN THE FOREST AREA OF PASSO
VILLAGE CITY OF AMBON MALUKU PROVINCE INDONESIA
1)
Fransina, Latumahina1) and Illa Anggraeini2)
2)
Agriculture Faculty, Pattimura University Ambon, Maluku, Indonesia; Forestry Research and Development
Center Bogor, Indonesia
Corresponding author: fransina.latumahina@yahoo.com
Abstract
Teak is the forest species with the highest economic value in Indonesia. It is especially
important to many villages in Maluku Province. In order to manage for maximum
profitability we need to first understand the pest species attacking this valuable tree species
and to determine how much damage is caused. Pest species were identified, and the intensity
of pest attack determined. We identified two species acting as major pests; the lady bug
(Coccinella magnifica) and the snout beetle (Orchidophilus aterrimus). The snout beetle and
the lady bug were associated with severe damage on 64% and 56% respectively of the trees
sampled although the intensity of damage was low to medium.
Keywords: Teak (Tectona grandis), lady bug (Coccinella magnifica), snout beetle
(Orchidophilus aterrimus)
Introduction
Teak (Tectona grandis Linn. F) is a tree with high economic value in Indonesia but pests
cause a significant decrease in both the quality and quantity of the wood. Some of the
common pests found attacking teak (Tectona grandis Linn. F) are Xyleborus destruens
Blandford (scolytid borer), Hiblaea puera (Cramer) (teak defoliator), Pyraustista
machaeralis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), (teak leaf skeletoniser) Neotermes tectonae
(Dammerman) (termite) and Captotermes curviquanthus (termite). The research in this paper
provides information about the major type of pests causing damage to teak trees planted in
the Passo Village forest area. We also describe the intensity of damage.
Methods
Sites
The pest damage surveys were carried out in the Passo Village forest plantation area, Ambon
city from July 2009 until August 2009. Pests were identified at the Basic Biology Laboratory
FKIP Pattimura University Ambon during September 2009 using pest manuals by Borror et
al. (1992) and Achmad Sultoni and Kalsoven (1981).
Sampling and calculation of pest intensity
The survey area was 1 hectare in which five 25m x 25m plots were established. Samples
were collected and pest damage assessed across diagonal transects in each plot (14 teak trees
per plot and a total of 70 trees from all plots). The percentage of trees attacked by a pest was
calculated and allocated to a category describing the extent of damage (Table 1).
226 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Table 1. Extent of damage (Source: Natawigena, 1982)
Score (=% of trees attacked)
Description of extent of damage in plantation
0
0 to 25
25 to 50
50 to 75
75
Normal
Light
Average
Heavy
Very heavy
To calculate the intensity of pest damage we used the formula established by Natawigena,
1982 and cited in Sugiharso, 1988.
P
nxv x 100%
ZxN
Where :
P = damage intensity
n = leaf area per tree in score (v)
v = score (Table 2)
Z = highest score
N = total leaf area observed
Table 2. Scores for damage intensity
Score
% leaf area damaged
Description of damage
0
1
2
3
4
0
0 to 25
25 to 50
50 to 75
75
Normal
Light
Medium
Heavy
Very Heavy
Results and Discussion
Major pest species identified
Pests common to the forest plantations of Passo Village Ambon city were the lady bug or
ladybird (Cocinella magnifica) Coleoptera: Coccinellidae and the snout beetle
(Orchidophilus aterrimus) Coleoptera: Curculionidae.
Adult C. magnifica have wide oval to round bodies, are brightly coloured (yellow, orange, or
red) with black or black yellow even reddish spots. The larvae are dark, with yellow reddish
spots and forked thorns. It takes about 1 to 2 weeks from egg to larvae to adult and many
generations can be produced in a short time. Adult ladybirds are usually predators but it is
their larvae that attack leaves.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
227
Borror et al. (1992) and Kalsoven (1981) describe the snout beetle as being hugely variable in
size, body shape, snout shape with a dark, black brown or black colour. The larvae has a
white, strong head, and is arched. Snout beetles are leaf skeletonisers.
Extent of damage
The extent of damage in the teak plantation sruveyed was heavy with 64% of the trees being
attacked by the snout beetle and 56% of the trees attacked by the lady bug (Table 3).
Table 3. Extent of damage; % of trees attacked by each pest
Number of trees
% of trees
Pest
Not
attacked
Observed
Attacked
attacked
Category
(see
Table 1)
Snout beetle
125
80
45
64
Heavy
Lady bug
125
70
55
56
Heavy
Damage intensity
The snout beetle caused a greater intensity of leaf damage in all plots than the lady bug.
Although more than half the trees were attacked by pests the damage intensity did not go
above 40% and the average was 29.4 for the snout beetle and 17.2 for the lady bug.
Table 4. Damage Intensity
Sample Plot
1
2
3
4
5
Average
Pest
Snout beetle
37.7
32.4
27.1
26.1
23.7
29.4
Lady bug
16.9
21.0
18.0
15.5
14.7
17.2
In summary a high number of teak trees were infested with the two defoliating species but the
intensity of damage was low to medium.
The presence of damaging insects in forest area is influenced by many factors; climate, insect
food supply (Graham, 1952), competition between insects, and silvicultural practices.
Temperatures within the forest ranged between 21.8 °C and 26.6 °C at the time the research
was carried out. Relative humidity was 81% and during the surveys rain fell heavily. Sunjay
(1970) states that the presence of certain types of pests over others is defined by topography
and climate (temperature, humidity, and speeding also rain fall). The major pests found by
our studies reproduce well at between 23 °C and 27 °C with relative humidity between 73 and
100% and therefore conditions were ideal for these pests.
In addition to favoruable conditions the teak trees at Passo Village were not well maintained
with no weeding, fertilisation or pest control. Such trees will be less vigorous and more prone
to pest attack. Soemartono (1980) and Untung (1993) both recommend that pest control can
be obtained by good silvicultural practices.
228 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Conclusions
1. The two major defoliating pests attacking teak plantations inside the forest conservation
area in Passo Village Ambon City Maluku Indonesia were the snout beetle
(Orchidophilus aterrimus) and lady bug (Coccinella magnifica).
2. These two pests were widely present on a large number of trees and were causing low to
medium levels of damage.
3. Environmental conditions in the forest were inducive to pests especially as the trees are
not well maintained.
References
ANONYMOUS. 1976. Vademecum Kehutanan Indonesia. Departemen Pertanian, Direktorat
Jenderal Kehutanan. Jakarta
ANONYMOUS. 1990. Teknik Pembuatan Tanaman. Departemen Kehutanan Direktorat
Jenderal Reboisasi dan Rehabilitasi Lahan. Direktorat Hutan Tanaman Industri.
ANONYMOUS. 1994. Ensiklopedia Indonesia Jilid III. Penerbit Ichtiar Baru Van Houve .
Jakarta
BORROR, TRIPLEHORN JOHNSON. 1992. Pengenalan Pelajaran Serangga Edisi Keenam.
Gadjah Mada University Press.
HASAN, T. 1996. Rayap dan Pemberantasa. CV. Yasa Guna Jakarta.
Jumar. 1997. Etomologi Pertanian, PT. RINEKA CIPTA Jakarta.
GRAHAM, S.A. 1952. Enetomologi kehutanan. Edisi ketiga. McGram-Hill Book Company,
Inc New York-Toronto-London.
KALSHOVEN, L.G.E. 1981. Pests of Crops in Indonesia.PT. Ichtiar Baru-Van Hoeve.
Jakarta.
NATAWIGANA. 1982. Pestisida dan Kegunaanya. Jurusan Proteksi Tanaman. Fakultas
pertanian Unpad. Bandung.
NATAWIGANA, H. Etimologi Pertanian ( Orbas Akti Bandung ).
OHOIWUTUN, H. 1997. Peranan Pelapuk Serasah daun (Paraserianthes) dan Nak (Acacia
mangium), sebagai penyuplai makanan (unsur N, P, K) dalam Memperbaiki Kesuburan
Tanah pada Hutan Gunung Geser, Kota Ambo, Skripsi Faperta. (Tidak dipublikasikan).
RUKMAN, S.S. 1997. Hama Tanaman Dan Teknik Pengendalian, Penerbit Kanisius,
Yogyakarta.
SUNJAY, P.I. 1970. Dasar-Dasar Ekologi Serangga. Bagian Ilmu Hama Tanaman Pertanian.
IPB. Bogor.
SURATMO, F.G. 1976. Ilmu Perlindungan Hutan. Proyek Peningkatan Mutu Perguruan
Tinggi Institut Pertanian Bogor.
SOEWARTONO, S. 1980. Materi Kursus Singkat Pengelolaan Hama Terpadu. Universitas
Sam Ratulangi, Manado.
SUGIHARSO, S. 1988. Dasar perlindungan Tanaman.Departemen Perlindungan Ilmu Hama
dan Penyakit Tumbuhan, Faperta Bogor.
UNTUNG, K. 1993. Pengantar Pengelolaan Hama Terpadu. Gajah Mada University Press,
Yogyakarta.
YANA SUMARNA. 2001. Budidaya Jati, Jakarta.
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
229
EFFECT OF ROOT EXUDATES OF SENGON (Paraserianthes falcataria L. Nielsen)
INOCULATED WITH THE FUNGAL ENDOPHYTE Nigrospora sp. ON CONTROL
OF THE ROOT-KNOT NEMATODE Meloidogyne spp.
Nur Amin
Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Sulawesi Selatan,
90245, Indonesia
Corresponding author: nuramin_62@yahoo.com
Abstract
Endophytic fungi live in a mutulistic relationship within their host plant tissues without
causing any symptoms on the host. The host provides substrate and space for the endophytes
to grow while the endophytes promote plant growth and protect the hosts from pests and
diseases. This research determined the effect of different concentrations of root exudates of
sengon (Paraserianthes falcataria) that had been inoculated with the fungal endophyte
(Nigrospora sp.) to control the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.). The study was
conducted using the sand block test method. Block I was the area of application of the
nematodes; Block II was the area between application of the nematodes and the root; and
Block III was the root zone. All treatments in Block III, except 12.5 and 6.25% of root
exudates, had significantly lower populations of root-knot nematode than the untreated
control. In Block III, the 100% root-exudate treatment suppressed the nematode population
to 20% of that in the control.
Keywords: Root Exudate, Fungal Endophyte, Root Knot, Nigrospora sp, Meloidogyne spp.
Introduction
Plant parasitic nematodes are responsible for >$100B in economic losses worldwide to a
variety of crops. Root-knot nematodes are the most economically important group of plant
parasitic nematodes worldwide and are known to parasitize nearly every crop grown,
reducing both yield and quality (Sasser and Freckman, 1987).
Sedentary endoparasitic root-knot nematodes are among the most successful parasites in
nature. They parasitize over 2000 plants species and have a highly specialized and complex
feeding relationship with their host (Hussey and Janssen, 2002). Plant roots injured by
nematodes are, in addition, susceptible to soil borne pathogens. This interaction results in
increased crop losses due to the resulting synergistic disease complexes (Sikora and Carter,
1987). Four species of the genus Meloidogyne viz. M. incognita, M. javanica, M. arenaria
and M. hapla, account for 95% of all root-knot nematode infestations in agriculture.
Chemical nematicides are one of the primary means of control for plant-parasitic nematodes.
However, potential negative impacts on the environment, high human toxicity and the loss of
effectiveness after prolonged use due to biodegradation have led to either their banning,
removal from the market, or restricted use on many crops. There is an urgent need for new,
safe and effective means of nematode management (Zuckerman and Esnard, 1994). Several
ecologically sustainable management options are currently being assessed around the world
for controlling nematode damage to plants. One of them is fungal endophytes.
The term endophyte was coined by the German scientist Heinrich Anton De Bary in 1884
(Wilson, 1995) and refers to fungi or bacteria occurring inside plant tissues of their host
without causing any apparent symptoms in the host (Petrini, 1991; Wilson, 1995). Fungal
230 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
endophytes have been detected in hundreds of plants, including many important agricultural
crops such as wheat (Larran et al., 2002a), bananas (Pocasange et al., 2000; Cao et al., 2002),
soybeans (Larran et al., 2002b), and tomatoes (Hallman and Sikora 1994a; Larran et al.,
2001). Extensive research has been conducted on the use of mutualistic endophytes for the
biological control of plant-parasitic nematodes (Hallmann and Sikora, 1994a, b; Dababat and
Sikora, 2007a, b; Sikora et al., 2008).
A wide range of plant-parasitic nematodes has been targeted for biological control with
endophytes. Examples are the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita, the reniform
nematode Rotylenchulus reniformis, the cyst nematode Globodera pallida and the burrowing
nematode Radopholus similes (Sikora et al., 2008). The mechanisms of action responsible for
biocontrol by endophytes include antibiosis, predation, pathogenesis, competition, repellence
and induced resistance (Stirling, 199; Schuster et al., 1995; Hallmann and Sikora, 1996;
Hallmann et al., 2001; Clay and Schardl, 2002; VU, 2005; Sikora et al., 2007).
Plant root exudates contain simple carbon substrates, including primary metabolites like
sugars, amino acids, and organic acids, in addition to a diverse array of secondary metabolites
that are released into the rhizosphere and surrounding soil (Jones et al., 2004).
This study investigates the effectiveness of root exudates from the fungal endophyte
Nigrospora sp. in controlling the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne spp. on sengon
(Paraserianthes falcataria).
Materials and Methods
Isolation of Fungal endophytes
Endophytic fungi were isolated according to modified protocols of PETRINI (1986). The
roots of sengon were washed twice in distilled water and then surface sterilized by immersion
for 1 min in 70% (v/v) ethanol, 5 min in sodium hypochlorite (2.5 % (v/v) available chlorine)
and 30 s in 70% (v/v) ethanol and then washed three times for 1 min each in sterilized
distilled water. After surface sterilization, the samples were cut into 5-7 mm pieces and
aseptically transferred to plates containing potato dextrose agar (PDA, pH 6.8, containing
(g/l): potato 200; dextrose 20; agar 15) which had been autoclaved for 15 min at 121ºC and
then aseptically supplemented with 100 mg/ml chloramphenicol (Pfizer) to suppress bacterial
growth. Aliquots from the third wash were plated onto PDA to check that surface sterilization
had been effective. The plates were incubated at 28ºC and any fungi present were isolated,
purified and then maintained at 4ºC on PDA slopes for further identification. Fungi that had
grown after 5 days incubation were identified after reference to Barnet & Hunter (1998);
Dugan (2006).
Preparation of Fungal endophyte Nigrospora sp. in Form of Powder
The fungal endophyte Nigrospora sp. was propagated on rice medium. Rice that has been
soaked for 3 h was put into 50 g bottles and autoclaved at 120C for 30 min. Five pieces of
endophytic fungi Nigrospora sp. were inoculated into the rice medium using a 5-mm
diameter corkborer. Once the fungal endophyte started growing, the bottles were shaken to
assure even growth. The bottles were then incubated at 300C for 48 h, and the contents then
blended to a powder prior to application.
Preparation of Meloidogyne spp.
Tomato plants from the field were uprooted and nematode eggs were extracted from galled
roots using 1.5% NaOCl solution (Hussey and Barker, 1973). Roots were gently washed with
tap water, cut into 1-2 cm pieces and macerated two times for 10 s each time in a Waring
blender with tap water. Each 500 ml of the macerated solution was mixed with 258 ml of 4%
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
231
NaOCl (AppliChem) and manually shaken for 3 min. This suspension was poured over four
nested sieves; 250 μm on the top, followed by 100 μm, 45 μm and 25 μm aperture sieve. Eggs
remaining in the 25 μm sieve were rinsed with tap water, collected in a beaker and aerated in
tap water for 10-12 days at room temperature in the dark using an aquarium pump to facilitate
hatching. Freshly hatched second stage juveniles (J2) were collected by a modified Bearmann
technique. The juveniles in tap water suspension were used as inoculum.
Preparation of Root Exudates of Fungal Endophyte Nigrospora sp.
Provision of root exudates was implemented by the method De Waele and Elsie De Waele
(1988). Thirty-day old sengon plants that had been applied with the powdered form of the
fungal endophyte were removed carefully so as not to damage their root structure. Soil
particles were removed with sterile water, and the plants placed in incubator with a 12 h:12 h
ratio of dark and light each day for 12 days.
Investigation of Concentration of Root Exudates containing Fungal Endophyte
Nigrospora sp. against Root-Knot Nematode Meloidogyne spp. on Sengon Plant
This was determined using the "Sand Block Test Method". Sifted and moistened sterile sand
was placed into a sand block (7 × 3 × 2 cm). In Block I the exudate extract was applied 2.3
cm from 1500 individuals of second instar Meloidogyne spp. Block III is 6 cm from the tip of
seedlings of planted sengon whose roots had previously been soaked in their respective
treatment for 30 min (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Sand Block Test MethodBlock I: Zone of Application of Root-Knot Nematode
Meloidogyne spp.; Block II: Zone between Application of Root-Knot Nematode
Meloidogyne spp. and root zone; Block III: Zone of Roots
A completely randomized design was used in this study consisting of 7 treatments with 5
replications. The treatments were: AS0: Control (Sterile Water); AS1: Control (Root Exudate
without fungal endophyte); AS2: 100 % Root Exudate with Fungal endophyte; AS3: 50 %
Root Exudate with Fungal endophyte; AS4: 25 % Root Exudate with Fungal endophyte; AS5
12.5 % Root Exudate with Fungal endophyte; AS6: 6.25 % Root Exudate with Fungal
endophyte.
Results and Discussion
The number of nematodes in block III in treatment AS2 (100% Root exudate with Fungal
endophyte) was eight times less in treatment AS0 (sterile water control). Treatments AS 3
and AS4 (50% and 25% Root exudate with Fungal endophyte, respectively) also had
significantly less nematodes than the control (Table 1). This finding indicates that root
exudates containing endophytic fungi can inhibit the movement of nematodes Meloidogyne
spp. towards plant roots as previously found by Sill (1982).
232 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
Table 1. Average number of larvae instars II Meloidogyne spp. in "Sand Block Test" 7 days
after application of fungal endophyte Nigrospora sp. in root exudates
Treatment Average Number of Larvae Instar II
Meloidogyne spp.
Block I
Block II
Block III
AS0
255
363
454
AS1
236
273
509
AS2
636
345
91
AS3
509
345
218
AS4
454
327
218
AS5
146
218
618
AS6
109
363
509
In treatments AS5 and AS6 (12.5% and 6.25% Root exudate with fungal endophyte), the
number of nematodes in block III was more than double that in AS0. There were no
significant differences between treatments in the number of nematodes in block II. This
finding illustrates that the administration of fungal endophytes in root exudates below the
recommended dose can induce higher activity of the root-knot nematode. A similar
phenomenon has been reported previously by Nur Amin (1994) who showed that there were
more nematodes of Radopholus similis in infected roots of banana plants with an applied
culture filtrate of the endophytic fungus Fusarium oxysporum A1 at a concentration of 6.25%
then in the untreated control.
Acknowledgement
We would like to thank the Minister of National Education and Culture, Republic of
Indonesia for the financial support provided for this study.
References
BARNETT, H. L. and B. B. HUNTER. 1998. Illustrated genera of imperfect fungi. 4th ed.
APS Press. St. Paul. Minnesota. pp. 218.
CAO, L.X., YOU, J.L., ZHOU, S.N., 2002. Endophytic fungi from Musa acuminata leaves
and roots in South China. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 18: 169-171.
DABABAT, A.A. 2006. Importance of the mutualistic endophyte Fusarium oxysporum 162
for enhancement of tomato transplants and the biological control of the root-knot nematode
Meloidogyne incognita, with particular reference to mode-of-action. Ph.D. Thesis, University
of Bonn, Germany.
DABABAT, A.A. AND SIKORA, R.A. 2007a. Influence of the mutualistic endophyte
Fusarium oxysporum 162 on Meloidogyne incognita attraction and invasion. Nematology
9:771-776.
DABABAT, A.A. AND SIKORA, R.A. 2007b. Importance of application time and inoculum
density of Fusarium oxysporum 162 for biological control of Meloidogyne incognita on
tomato. Nematropica, 37:267-276.
DUGAN, F.M. 2006. The Identification of Fungi: An Illustrated Introduction With key,
Glossary and Guide to Literature.The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul.
Minnesota. pp. 184.
HALLMANN, J. and SIKORA, R.A. 1994a. Occurrence of plant parasitic nematode and
nonpathogenic species of Fusarium in tomato plant in Kenia and their role as mutualistic
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
233
synergists for biological control of root nematodes. International Journal of Pest
Management 40: 321-325.
HALLMANN, J. and SIKORA, R.A., 1994b. Influence of Fusarium oxysporum a mutualistic
fungal endophytic on Meloidogyne incognita of tomato. Journal of plant diseases and
protection 101 (5): 475-481.
HUSSEY, R.S. and JANSSEN, G.J.W. 2002. Root-knot nematodes: Meloidogyne species. In:
Starr J.L., Cook R. and Bridge J. (Eds). Plant resistance to parasitic nematodes. CABI
Publishing, Wallingford, UK. pp 43-70.
JONES, D. L., A. HODGE, and Y. KUZYAKOV. 2004. Plant and mycorrhizal regulation of
rhizodeposition. New Phytol. 163:459-480.
LARRAN, S., PERELLO, A., SIMON, M.R. and MORENO, V. 2002a. Isolation and
analysis of endophytic microorganisms in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) leaves. World
Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 18: 683-686.
LARRAN, S., ROLLAN, C., BRUNO ANGELES, H., ALIPPI, H.E., URRUTIA, M.I.,
2002b. Endophytic fungi in healthy soybean leaves. Investigación Agraria: Producción y
Protección de Vegetales 17: 173-177.
NUR AMIN. 1994. Untersuchungen uber die Bedeutung endophytischer Pilze fur die
biologische Bekampfung des wandernden Endoparasiten Radopholus similis (Cobb) Thirne
an Bananen. PhD-Thesis, 112 p. Bonn University.
PETRINI, O. 1986. Taxonomy of endophytic fungi of aerial plant tissues. In: Fokkema, N. J.;
Heuvel, J. Van Den (Eds.). Microbiology of the Phyllosphere. Cambridge: University Press,
pp. 175-87.
PETRINI, O., 1991. Fungal endophytes of tree leaves. In: Andrews J.H., Hirano S.S. (Eds.),
Microbial Ecology of Leaves. Springer-Verlag, NY, pp. 179-187.
POCASANGRE L. 2000. Biological enhancement of banana tissue culture plantlets with
endophytic fungi for the control of the burrowing nematode Radopholus similis and the
Panama disease (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense). Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bonn,
Germany.
SASSER, J.N. and FRAECKMAN, D.W. 1987. A world perspective of nematology: the role
of the society. In: Veech J.A. and Dickson D.W. (Eds). Vista on nematology. Society of
nematologists, Hyatsville, Maryland, pp 7-14.
SIKORA, R.A. and CARTER, W.W. 1987. Nematode interactions with fungal and bacterial
plant pathogens-fact or fantasy. In: Vistas on Nematology. Veech J.A and Dickson D.W.
(Eds.). Society of Nematologists. Hyattsville, Maryland, pp. 307-312.
SIKORA, R.A., SCHAFER, K. and DABABAT, A.A. 2007. Modes of action associated with
microbially induce in planta suppression of plant-parasitic nematodes. Aust Plant Pathol 36:
124-134.
STIRLING, G.R. 1991. Biological control of plant parasitic nematodes. CAB International,
Wallingford, UK, p 282.
WILSON, D. 1995. Fungal endophytes which invade insect galls: insect pathogens, benign
saprophytes, or fungal inquiUnes? Oecologia 103:255-260.
234 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
OCCURRENCE OF LAC SCALES, Tachardina aurantiaca, IN PENINSULAR
MALAYSIA
1)
Ong, S.P.1), Neumann, G.2) , Che Salmah, M.R.3), Khairun, Y.3&4) & Kirton, L.G.1)
Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia; 2)La Trobe University,
Department of Zoology, School of Life Science, Faculty of Science, Technology and Engineering, Victoria
3086 Australia; 3)School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia;
4)
Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies (CEMACS), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
Corresponding author: ongsuping@frim.gov.my
Abstract
Tachardina aurantiaca or commonly known as orange lac scale belongs to the family
Kerriidae. These small sap-sucking lac insects are protected by a hard cover made of
resinous compound. They can be found attached on branches and stems of trees and may
cause branch dieback in heavy infestations. Adult females measure about 3 mm in
diameter, globular and colour varies from bright yellow or orange to red. The males are
elongated, measuring about 1.5 mm in length and orange to red in colour. The young of
the lac scale, called crawlers, are elongate-oval and bright red, measuring about 0.5 mm
in length. Field surveys in Selangor and Penang showed that T. aurantiaca usually occurs
on planted trees such as Acacia auriculiformis or wild growing shrubs in disturbed areas.
The honeydew produced by the lac scales attracts a number of tending ants including the
aggressive and territorial weaver ants, Oecophylla smaragdina and the yellow crazy ant,
Anoplolepis gracilipes. This lac scale is native to Malaysia, but is considered an invasive
species in Christmas Island where, coupled with the yellow crazy ant as a mutualistic
partner, it triggered an “ecosystem meltdown” endangering the entire ecosystem of the
island.
Keywords: Tachardina aurantiaca, Kerriidae, crawlers, disturbed areas, tending ants
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
235
236 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
Abdul Gafur
RGE Fiber Research and
Development, Town Site I, PT
RAPP Complex, Pangkalan
KerinciGafur
28300, Indonesia
Abdul
abdul_gafur@aprilasia.com
RGE Fiber Research and
Development, Town Site I, PT
Achmad
Maulana
RAPP
Complex,
Pangkalan Kerinci
Faculty
of
Forestry,
28300, Indonesia
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
abdul_gafur@aprilasia.com
Indonesia
Anto Rimbawanto
Budi Tjahjono
LISTForest
OFBiotechnology
PARTICIPANTS
and Tree
RGE Fiber Research and
Achmad Maulana
Ade Darian Perdana
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Faculty of Forestry,
Gadjah
Mada,
Indonesia
Universitas
Gadjah
Mada,
Indonesia
Ade Darian Perdana
Faculty
of Forestry,
Universitas
Ade Mulyawan
Researcher
Gadjah
Mada, Indonesia
Plant Protection
Unit, RnD
Sinarmas Forestry Region
Ade
Mulyawan
Jambi
Researcher
Plant Protection Unit,
d_mlywn@yahoo.com
RnD Sinarmas Forestry Region Jambi
d_mlywn@yahoo.com
Adiin Kusuma Wardani
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas
Gadjah
Mada,
Adiin
Kusuma
Wardani
Indonesia
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
Agus Dwi Prasetia Putra
Faculty
of Prasetia
Forestry, Putra
Agus
Dwi
Universitas
Gadjah Mada,
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas
Indonesia
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
Agustian Virgi
Virgi Ikhziana
Ikhziana
Agustian
Graduate Student, from Faculty
Graduate Student, from Faculty of
of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah
Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Mada, Indonesia
Indonesia
Improvement Research Centre,
Forestry Research and
Development
Agency
Ardiyan
Maulana
(FORDA)Yogyakarta,
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Indonesia
Gadjah
Mada, Indonesia
lbaskorowati@yahoo.com
Arthur Y. C. Chung
Ardiyan
Maulana
Forest
Research
Centre, Sabah
Faculty of Forestry,
Forestry Department, 90715
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
Indonesia
arthur.chung@sabah.gov.my
Arthur Y. C. Chung
Asti
Anjelita
Kartikasari
Forest
Research
Centre, Sabah
Faculty
of
Forestry,
Universitas
Forestry Department,
90715
Gadjah
Mada,Sabah,
Indonesia
Sandakan,
Malaysia
arthur.chung@sabah.gov.my
Audrey Epeh Okang
Grand
SDN
BHd
AstiPerfect
Anjelita
Kartikasari
odri_peh@yahoo.com
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Aulia
L.P. Aruan
Indonesia
RGE Fiber Research and
Audrey Epeh
Okang
Development,
Town
Site I, PT
Grand
Perfect SDN
BHd Kerinci
RAPP
Complex,
Pangkalan
odri_peh@yahoo.com
28300, Indonesia
aulia_aruan@aprilasia.com
Aulia L.P. Aruan
RGE
Fiber Research
Bayo
Alhusaeri
Siregarand
Development,
Town Research
Site I, PTand
Plant Protection Dept.,
RAPP
Complex,
Pangkalan
Development, Sinarmas Forestry,
Kerinci 28300, Indonesia
Indonesia
aulia_aruan@aprilasia.com
bayo.alhusaeri@yahoo.com
Bayo Alhusaeri Siregar
Binesh Dayal
Plant Protection Dept.,
Forestry
Department
Silviculture
Research
and Development,
Aji Hari Pratama
Aji
Hari
Pratama
Research
&
Resource
Development
Faculty of Forestry,
Sinarmas Forestry, Indonesia
Faculty
of
Forestry,
Universitas
Division
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
bayo.alhusaeri@yahoo.com
Gadjah
Mada, Indonesia
P. O. Box 2218 Government
Indonesia
Buildings
Binesh Suva,
DayalFiji Islands
Anis
bineshdayal@yahoo.com
Forestry Department
Anis Fauzi
Fauzi
Forest
Forest Biotechnology
Biotechnology and Tree
Tree
Silviculture Research &
Improvement
Budi
Tjahjono
Improvement Research Centre,
Centre,
Resource
Development
Forestry
Fiber Research and
Forestry Research
Research and Development RGE
Division
Agency
(FORDA)Yogyakarta
Development,
Town
Site I, PT
Development
Agency
P. O. Box 2218
Government
(FORDA)Yogyakarta
Buildings
Suva,
Fiji Islands
Indonesia
RAPP
Complex,
Pangkalan
Kerinci
Indonesia
bineshdayal@yahoo.com
28300,
Indonesia
Anto Rimbawanto
budi_tjahjono@aprilasia.com
Forest Biotechnology and Tree
Improvement Research Centre,
Caroline Mohammed
Forestry Research and Development Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture,
Agency (FORDA)Yogyakarta,
University of Tasmania, Tasmania
Indonesia
Australia
lbaskorowati@yahoo.com
caro.mohammed@utas.edu.au
Development, Town Site I, PT
RAPP Complex, Pangkalan
ChrisKerinci
Beadle28300, Indonesia
budi_tjahjono@aprilasia.com
The Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organization
(CSIRO), Australia
Caroline Mohammed
chris.beadle@csiro.au
Tasmanian Institute of
Agriculture, University of
Dedisoni Rahmanto
Tasmania, Tasmania
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Australia
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
caro.mohammed@utas.edu.au
Denri
Nugroho
Chris
Beadle
PT. Surya
Hutani Jaya, Indonesia
The Commonwealth
Scientific
denri.nugroho@gmail.com
and Industrial Research
Organization (CSIRO),
DesyAustralia
Puspitasari
Centre
for Forest Biotechnology
chris.beadle@csiro.au
and Tree Improvement, Jalan
Palagan
TentaraRahmanto
Pelajar KM. 15
Dedisoni
Purwobinangun
Pakem Sleman
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas
Gadjah
Mada,
Yogyakarta
55582
Indonesia
Indonesia
diesy_puspita19@yahoo.com
Nugroho
DiptaDenri
Sumeru
R.
PT.
Surya
Hutani
Jaya,
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas
Indonesia
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
denri.nugroho@gmail.com
sumerudipta@yahoo.com
Puspitasari
Dwi Desy
Rahayu
Pujiastuti
Centre
for Forest
PT. Sinar Hutani
Jaya (Sinarmas
Biotechnology and Tree
Group), Jln. Camar RT 55 No. 95,
Improvement, Jalan Palagan
Kel. Pelita, Samarinda, 75117,
Tentara Pelajar KM. 15
Indonesia
Purwobinangun Pakem Sleman
dwirahayu.p2@gmail.com
Yogyakarta 55582 Indonesia
diesy_puspita19@yahoo.com
Dwi T. Adriyanti
Faculty
of Forestry,
Dipta
Sumeru Universitas
R.
Gadjah
Mada,ofIndonesia
Faculty
Forestry,
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Edmund
Gan
Indonesia
Sabah
Forest Industries SDN BHd
sumerudipta@yahoo.com
edmundgan@sfisb.com.my
Dwi Rahayu Pujiastuti
PT.Herliana
Sinar Hutani Jaya
Elis N.
(Sinarmas
Group), Jln. Faculty
Camar
Department
of Silviculture,
RT
55
No.
95,
Kel.
Pelita,
of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural
Samarinda,
75117,
Indonesia
University,
Bogor,
Indonesia
dwirahayu.p2@gmail.com
elisherliana@yahoo.com or elishe@
ipb.ac.id
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
237
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
AbdulWirhadini
Gafur
Eliya
C.
RGE
Fiber
ResearchUniversitas
and
Faculty of Forestry,
Development, Town Site I, PT
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
RAPP Complex, Pangkalan
Kerinci 28300, Indonesia
Ema Mucharromah
abdul_gafur@aprilasia.com
Agriculture College, Bengkulu
University,
Jl. WR Supratman,
Achmad Maulana
Bengkulu,
38371,
Indonesia
Faculty of Forestry,
mucharro@yahoo.com
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Indonesia
Endah Yulia
Plant
Pest andPerdana
Disease Sciences,
Ade Darian
Universitas
Padjadjaran, Jln. Peta
Faculty of Forestry,
Gg.
Sukamulya
I No.53
Bandung,
Universitas
Gadjah
Mada,
40233,
Indonesia
Indonesia
endah.yulia@unpad.ac.id
Ade Mulyawan Researcher
Plant Protection
Unit, RnD
Enggar
Apriyanto
SinarmasDepartment,
Forestry Region
Forestry
Bengkulu
Jambi
University
d_mlywn@yahoo.com
enggavan@yahoo.com
Anto
Rimbawanto
Heru
Indrayadi
Forest
Biotechnology
and Treeand
Plant Protection
Dept., Research
Improvement Research Centre,
Development, Sinarmas Forestry,
Forestry Research and
Indonesia
Development Agency
(FORDA)Yogyakarta,
Indira
Riastiwi
Indonesia
Graduate
Student, Faculty of
lbaskorowati@yahoo.com
Forestry, Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Indonesia
Ardiyan Maulana
indira_5805@yahoo.co.id
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
IkaIndonesia
Putri Amianti
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Gadjah
Mada,
Indonesia
Arthur
Y. C.
Chung
Forest Research Centre, Sabah
Forestry Department,
Kavileveettil
Sankaran90715
Sandakan,
Malaysia
Kerala
ForestSabah,
Research
Institute,
arthur.chung@sabah.gov.my
Peechi
- 680 653, Kerala, India
sankarankv@gmail.com
Asti Anjelita Kartikasari
Faculty
of Forestry,
Kavita
Gupta
Universitas
Gadjah
Mada,
National Bureau
of Plant
Genetic
Indonesia
Adiin
Kusuma
Wardani
Fadjar Sagitarianto
Resources, Pusa Campus, New
Faculty
of Forestry,
Plant
Protection
Dept., Research and Delhi – 110 012, India
Universitas
Gadjah
Mada,
Audrey Epeh Okang
Development,
Sinarmas
Forestry,
kavita@nbpgr.ernet.in
or
Indonesia
Grand Perfect SDN BHd
Indonesia
kavita6468@gmail.com
odri_peh@yahoo.com
Agus Dwi Prasetia Putra
Faozan Indresputra
Laxmi Syifa Arifah
Faculty of Forestry,
Aulia L.P. Aruan
Faculty
of
Forestry,
Universitas
Faculty
Forestry,
Universitas
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
RGE of
Fiber
Research
and
Gadjah
Mada,
Indonesia
Gadjah
Mada,
Indonesia
Indonesia
Development, Town Site I, PT
scavengers.fao@gmail.com
RAPP Complex, Pangkalan
Lee
Su See28300, Indonesia
Kerinci
Agustian Virgi Ikhziana
Fauzan
Nugraha
P
Forest
Research Institute Malaysia,
Graduate Student, from Faculty
aulia_aruan@aprilasia.com
Faculty
of Forestry,
Universitas
52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia
of Forestry,
Universitas
Gadjah
Gadjah
Mada, Indonesia
leess@frim.gov.my
Mada, Indonesia
Bayo Alhusaeri Siregar
Fauzi Abdillah
Plant Protection Dept.,
Faculty
Forestry, Universitas
Liliana
Baskorowati
Research
and Development,
Aji HariofPratama
Gadjah
Indonesia
Forest
Biotechnology
and Tree
FacultyMada,
of Forestry,
Sinarmas
Forestry, Indonesia
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
bayo.alhusaeri@yahoo.com
Improvement
Research Centre,
Indonesia Curassavica Arfenda
Ferrieren
Forestry Research and Development
Binesh
Dayal
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Agency
(FORDA)Yogyakarta,
Forestry Department
Anis Fauzi
Gadjah
Mada, Indonesia
Indonesia
Forest Biotechnology and Tree
Silviculture Research &
lbaskorowati@yahoo.com
Improvement
Research
Centre,
Resource Development
Fransina S. Latumahina
Forestry
Research
and
Phd Student At Faculty of Forestry, M.Division
Al-Amin
Development
Agency
P. O. Box
2218 Government
Universitas
Gajah
Mada, Indonesia Institute
of Forestry
and
(FORDA)Yogyakarta
Buildings
Suva,
Fiji Islands
fransina.latumahina@yahoo.com
Environmental Sciences,
Chittagong
Indonesia
bineshdayal@yahoo.com
University,
Chittagong-4331,
Goh Aik Saeh
Bangladesh
Sabah Softwoods Berhad
prof.alamin@yahoo.com
Hapsari Sekar Hamumpuni
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
hapsarisekarh@gmial.com
M. Rahman
Researcher Plant Protection Unit,
RnD Sinarmas Forestry Region
Jambi
Budi
Tjahjono
M.Arif
Widyasmoko
RGE
Fiber
Research
and
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas
Development, Town Site I, PT
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
RAPP Complex, Pangkalan
Kerinci 28300, Indonesia
Malihatun Nufus
budi_tjahjono@aprilasia.com
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
Caroline Mohammed
Mardai
S. P. Institute of
Tasmanian
PlantAgriculture,
Protection Dept.,
Research
University
of and
Development,
Tasmania,Sinarmas
TasmaniaForestry,
Indonesia
Australia
caro.mohammed@utas.edu.au
Marthin Tarigan
RGEChris
Fiber Beadle
Research and
The Commonwealth
Development,
Town Site I,Scientific
PT
and
Industrial
ResearchKerinci
RAPP
Complex,
Pangkalan
Organization
28300,
Indonesia (CSIRO),
Australia
marthin_tarigan@aprilasia.com
chris.beadle@csiro.au
Meilania Nugraheni
Dedisoni
Rahmanto
Faculty
of Forestry,
Universitas
Faculty
of
Forestry,
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Indonesia
Mohd
Farid A.
Pathology Laboratory, Forest
Denri Nugroho
Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM)
PT. Surya Hutani Jaya,
52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia
Indonesia
mohdfarid@frim.gov.my
denri.nugroho@gmail.com
Muhamad
Ikhsan Tri Haryanto
Desy Puspitasari
Faculty
of
Forestry,
Universitas
Centre for Forest
Gadjah
Mada,
Indonesia
Biotechnology and Tree
Improvement, Jalan Palagan
Musyafa
Tentara Pelajar KM. 15
Faculty
of Forestry, Universitas
Purwobinangun
Pakem Sleman
Gadjah
Mada, Indonesia
Yogyakarta
55582 Indonesia
mus_afa@yahoo.com
diesy_puspita19@yahoo.com
Dipta
Sumeru R.
Naoto
Kamata
Faculty of Forestry,
The University
of Tokyo Chichibu
Universitas
GadjahofMada,
Forest,
The University
Tokyo,
Indonesia
1-1-49 Hinoda-machi, Chichibu,
sumerudipta@yahoo.com
Saitama
368-0034, Japan
kamatan@uf.a.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Dwi Rahayu Pujiastuti
PT.
Sinar Hutani Jaya
Naval
Pradika
(Sinarmas
Group),
Jln. Camar
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas
RT 55 No. 95, Kel. Pelita,
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
Samarinda, 75117, Indonesia
dwirahayu.p2@gmail.com
Neo Endra Lelana
Centre for Forest Productivity
Improvement Research and
Development,
Jl. Gunung Batu No. 5 Bogor 16610,
238 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
Abdul Gafur
Indonesia
RGE Fiber Research and
neo_3L@yahoo.com
Development, Town Site I, PT
RAPP Complex, Pangkalan
Nirma Yunita Sari
Kerinci 28300, Indonesia
Faculty
of Forestry, Universitas
abdul_gafur@aprilasia.com
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
Achmad Maulana
Nur
Amin
Faculty
of Forestry,
Department
of PlantMada,
Protection,
Universitas Gadjah
Faculty
of
Agriculture,
Hasanuddin
Indonesia
University, Makassar, South
Sulawesi,
90245,
Indonesia
Ade Darian
Perdana
nuramin_62@yahoo.com
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Nur
Azizurohman
Indonesia
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Ade Mulyawan
Researcher
Gadjah
Mada, Indonesia
Plant Protection Unit, RnD
Sinarmas
Forestry
Nur
Cahyono
Adi Region
Sugiyanto
Jambi
Graduate Student, Faculty of
d_mlywn@yahoo.com
Forestry,
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Indonesia
Adiin Kusuma Wardani
Faculty Yuanita
of Forestry,
Nurina
Sari
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Indonesia
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
AntoQuang
Rimbawanto
Pham
Thu
Forest
Biotechnology
and
Tree
Forest Science
Institute of
Vietnam,
Improvement Research Centre,
Hanoi, Vietnam
Forestry Research and
phamquangthu@fpt.vn
Development Agency
(FORDA)Yogyakarta,
Priyono
Indonesia
PT.lbaskorowati@yahoo.com
Serayu Makmur Kayuindo,
Jl. Raya Kalibenda KM. 4 Kec.
Sigaluh,
Kabupaten
Banjarnegara
Ardiyan
Maulana
53481
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Puji
Lestari
Indonesia
Graduate Student, Faculty of
Forestry,
Gadjah Mada,
ArthurUniversitas
Y. C. Chung
Indonesia
Forest Research Centre, Sabah
Forestry Department, 90715
Sandakan,
Sabah, Malaysia
Pujo
Sumantoro
arthur.chung@sabah.gov.my
Center
of Research and
Development, Perum Perhutani,
Asti Anjelita
Wonosari
Street, Kartikasari
Batokan, Tromol
Faculty
Forestry,
Pos 6 Cepuof58302,
East Java,
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Indonesia
Indonesia
alascepu@gmail.com
Agustian Virgi Ikhziana
Ong
Su Ping
Graduate
Student, from Faculty
Forest
Research
InstituteGadjah
Malaysia
of Forestry,
Universitas
(FRIM),
52109 Kepong, Selangor,
Mada, Indonesia
Malaysia
ongsuping@frim.gov.my
Aji Hari Pratama
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas
Othman
BinGadjah
Deris Mada,
Indonesia of Forest, Operational
Conservator
and Enforcement Unit, Perak State
Anis Fauzi
Forestry
Department,
Forest Malaysia
Biotechnology and Tree
Perak,
Improvement Research Centre,
othman@forestry.gov.my
Forestry Research and
Development
Pandu
YudhaAgency
A.P.W
(FORDA)Yogyakarta
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Indonesia
Gadjah
Mada, Indonesia
Audrey Epeh Sundararaj
Okang
Ramachandran
Grand Perfect SDN BHd
Wood Biodegradation Division,
odri_peh@yahoo.com
Institute of Wood Science &
Technology,
Aulia L.P. Aruan
18th
Cross
Malleswaram,
RGE
Fiber
Research andBangalore
560Development,
003, India Town Site I, PT
rsundariwst@gmail.com
or
RAPP Complex, Pangkalan
rusndararaj@icfre.org
Kerinci 28300, Indonesia
aulia_aruan@aprilasia.com
Richard R.P. Napitupulu
Graduate
Student, Faculty
Bayo Alhusaeri
Siregarof
Forestry,
Universitas
Gadjah Mada,
Plant Protection
Dept.,
Indonesia
Research and Development,
Sinarmas Forestry, Indonesia
bayo.alhusaeri@yahoo.com
Ricko
Leowildi
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Binesh
Dayal
Gadjah
Mada,
Indonesia
Forestry Department
Silviculture
Research &
Ridla
Arifriana
Resource
Development
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Division
Gadjah
Mada, Indonesia
P. O. Box 2218 Government
Buildings
Suva, Fiji Islands
Risa
Ardhi Andari
bineshdayal@yahoo.com
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Paul A. Barber
Arbor Carbon Pty Ltd, PO Box 1065
Willagee Central, WA, Australia,
6163
enquiries@arborcarbon.com.au
Risky Hening Dwi Astuti
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
riskyhening@gmail.com
Agus Dwi Prasetia Putra
Oka
Karyanto
Faculty
of Forestry,
Faculty
of Forestry,
Universitas
Universitas
Gadjah Mada,
Gadjah
Mada,
Indonesia
Indonesia
okakaryanto@yahoo.com.au
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
Budi
Tjahjono
Roma
Dian
Andiyani
RGE
Fiber
Research
and
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas
Development, Town Site I, PT
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
RAPP Complex, Pangkalan
Kerinci 28300, Indonesia
S.M. Widyastuti
budi_tjahjono@aprilasia.com
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
smwidyastuti@yahoo.com
Caroline Mohammed
Tasmanian Institute of
Sapto
Indrioko University of
Agriculture,
Faculty
of Forestry,
Universitas
Tasmania,
Tasmania
Gadjah
Mada, Indonesia
Australia
sindrioko@ugm.ac.id
caro.mohammed@utas.edu.au
Sanjaya
Bista
Chris
Beadle
The Commonwealth
Scientific
Entomology
Division, Nepal
and Industrial
Research
Agricultural
Research
Council,
Organization
(CSIRO),
Khumaltar,
Lalitpur,
Nepal
Australia
ento@narc.gov.np
chris.beadle@csiro.au
Selvi Chelya Susanty
Dedisoni
Department
of Rahmanto
Silviculture, Faculty
Faculty
of Forestry,
of Forestry, Bogor
Agricultural
Universitas
Gadjah
Mada,Bogor
University,
Darmaga
Campus,
Indonesia
chelya_moeslim@yahoo.id
Denri Nugroho
Septiana Jaya Mustika
PT. Surya Hutani Jaya,
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Indonesia
Gadjah
Mada, Indonesia
denri.nugroho@gmail.com
Simon
Taka
Nuhamara
Desy
Puspitasari
Magister
Biology
Programe Study,
Centre for Forest
SatyaBiotechnology
Wacana Christiian
University
and Tree
Jl. Diponegoro
52-60
Salatiga
50711
Improvement,
Jalan
Palagan
nuhamarataka@gmail.com
Tentara Pelajar KM. 15
Purwobinangun Pakem Sleman
Sinom
Sinung Probo
Yogyakarta
55582Hapsoro
Indonesia
Faculty
of Forestry, Universitas
diesy_puspita19@yahoo.com
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
Dipta Sumeru R.
FacultyNurrohmah
of Forestry,
Siti Husna
Universitas
Gadjah
Forest
Biotechnology
andMada,
Tree
Indonesia
Improvement Research Centre,
sumerudipta@yahoo.com
Forestry
Research and Development
Agency (FORDA)Yogyakarta
Dwi Rahayu Pujiastuti
Indonesia
PT. Sinar Hutani Jaya
Group), Jln. Camar
Siwi (Sinarmas
Purwaningsih
RT 55 No. 95, Kel. Pelita,
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Samarinda, 75117, Indonesia
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
dwirahayu.p2@gmail.com
Sri Rahayu
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
tatarahayu@yahoo.com
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
239
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
Abdul Gafur
Suyadi Siswowiyono
RGE Fiber Research and
Jatropha
Oil Indonesia
Development,
Town Site I, PT
Monfor
Nusantara,
Jln. Raya
RAPP Complex, Pangkalan
Jampang
Karihkil
KM.
4, Desa
Kerinci 28300, Indonesia
Tegal
Kemang,
Parung,
Bogor,
abdul_gafur@aprilasia.com
Indonesia
suyadi.siswowiyono@gmail.com
Achmad Maulana
Faculty of Forestry,
Syaiful
Amri
Saragih
Universitas
Gadjah
Mada,
The
University of Tokyo, Graduate
Indonesia
School of Agricultural and Life
Ade Darian
Perdana
Sciences,
Yayoi
1-1-1, Bunkyo-Ku,
FacultyJapan
of Forestry,
Tokyo,
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
syaiful_amri_s@uf.a.u-tokyo.ac.jp
Indonesia
T. A. Suresh
Ade Mulyawan
Researcher
Kerala
Forest Research
Institute,
Plant
Protection
Unit,
RnD
Peechi - 680 653, Kerala,
India
Sinarmas Forestry Region
Jambi
T.
T. Trang
d_mlywn@yahoo.com
Vietnamese
Academy of Forest
Sciences, Hanoi, Vietnam
Adiin Kusuma Wardani
trangfsiv@gmail.com
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
T.O.
Sasidharan
Indonesia
Ashoka Trust for Research in
Ecology
and
the Environment
Agus Dwi
Prasetia
Putra
(ATREE),
Bengaluru,
Faculty of Forestry, Wood
Biodegradation
Division,
Universitas Gadjah
Mada,Institute of
Wood
Science and Technology,18th
Indonesia
cross, Malleswaram, Bangalore-560
003,
Karnataka,
Agustian
Virgi India
Ikhziana
tosasi@atree.org
Graduate Student, from Faculty
of Forestry, Universitas Gadjah
Mada, Indonesia
Tectona
Grandis Abimanyu
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Aji Hari
Pratama
Gadjah
Mada,
Indonesia
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas
Gadjah Mada,
Tjoa
Tju San
Indonesia
PT. Serayu Makmur Kayuindo,
Jl. Raya Kalibenda KM. 4 Kec.
Anis Fauzi
Sigaluh,
Kabupaten Banjarnegara
Forest Biotechnology and Tree
53481
Improvement Research Centre,
Forestry Research and
Tuan Marina Binti Tuan Ibrahim
Development Agency
Forest Economis Section, Forest
(FORDA)Yogyakarta
Planning and Economics Division,
Indonesia
Jalan Sultan Saluddin, Wilayah
Persekutuan Kuala Lumpur,
Forestry Department Peninsular
Malaysia
marina@forestry.gov.my
Anto Rimbawanto
Ujang Wawan Darmawan
Forest Biotechnology and Tree
Center
For ForestResearch
Productivity
Improvement
Centre,
Research
and
Development
Forestry Research and
Jl. Development
Gunung Batu Agency
No. 5, PO Box 331,
Bogor
16610,
Indonesia
(FORDA)Yogyakarta,
ujdarmawan@ymail.com
Indonesia
lbaskorowati@yahoo.com
Utami Sanityasa
Faculty
of Forestry,
Universitas
Ardiyan
Maulana
Gadjah
Mada,
Indonesia
Faculty
of Forestry,
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
IndonesiaSangwanit
Uthaiwan
Department of Forest Biology,
Arthur
Y. C. Chung
Faculty
of Forestry,
Kasetsart
Forest Research
Centre,
Sabah
University,
Lardyaow,
Chatuchak,
Forestry
Department,
90715
Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
fforuws@ku.ac.th
arthur.chung@sabah.gov.my
W. W. Winarni
Asti Anjelita
Kartikasari
Faculty
of Forestry,
Universitas
Faculty
of
Forestry,
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Indonesia
Wahyu Prabawa
Faculty of Forestry, Universitas
Audrey Epeh Okang
Gadjah
Indonesia
GrandMada,
Perfect
SDN BHd
odri_peh@yahoo.com
Warsun Jayari
Faculty
Forestry,
AuliaofL.P.
AruanUniversitas
Gadjah
Mada,
Indonesiaand
RGE Fiber Research
Development, Town Site I, PT
Wida
Darwiati
RAPP
Complex, Pangkalan
Center
for 28300,
Forest Productivity
Kerinci
Indonesia
Research
and Development, Bogor,
aulia_aruan@aprilasia.com
Indonesia
Bayo Alhusaeri Siregar
wdarwiati@yahoo.com
Plant Protection Dept.,
Research
Development,
Woro
Setyoand
Sejati
Sinarmas
Forestry,Universitas
Indonesia
Faculty
of Forestry,
bayo.alhusaeri@yahoo.com
Gadjah Mada, Indonesia
Binesh
Dayal
Wulan
Rochmah
Forestry
Department
Dinas Kehutanan
Provinsi Jawa
Silviculture
Research &
Tengah Indonesia
Resource Development
wulan_rohma@yahoo.co.id
Division
P. O. Box 2218 Government
Yani Japarudin
Buildings Suva, Fiji Islands
Sabah Softwoods Berhad
bineshdayal@yahoo.com
yanijaparudin@yahoo.com
Zailani Bin Man
Conservator of Forest,Silviculture and
Protection Unit, Perak State Forestry
Department, Perak, Malaysia
zailani@forestry.gov.my
Budi Tjahjono
Zanuar Ajang S
RGE Fiber Research and
Faculty
of Forestry,Town
Universitas
Development,
Site I, PT
Gadjah
Mada,
Indonesia
RAPP Complex, Pangkalan
Kerinci 28300, Indonesia
Zulnaidah
Binti Manan
budi_tjahjono@aprilasia.com
Forest Economis Section, Forest
Planning and Economics Division,
99Jalan
Sultan Mohammed
Saluddin, Wilayah
Caroline
Persekutuan
Kuala
Lumpur,
Tasmanian
Institute
of
Forestry
Department
Peninsular
Agriculture,
University
of
Malaysia
Tasmania, Tasmania
Australia
zulnaidah@forestry.gov.my
caro.mohammed@utas.edu.au
Chris Beadle
The Commonwealth Scientific
and Industrial Research
Organization (CSIRO),
Australia
chris.beadle@csiro.au
Dedisoni Rahmanto
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Indonesia
Denri Nugroho
PT. Surya Hutani Jaya,
Indonesia
denri.nugroho@gmail.com
Desy Puspitasari
Centre for Forest
Biotechnology and Tree
Improvement, Jalan Palagan
Tentara Pelajar KM. 15
Purwobinangun Pakem Sleman
Yogyakarta 55582 Indonesia
diesy_puspita19@yahoo.com
Dipta Sumeru R.
Faculty of Forestry,
Universitas Gadjah Mada,
Indonesia
sumerudipta@yahoo.com
Dwi Rahayu Pujiastuti
PT. Sinar Hutani Jaya
(Sinarmas Group), Jln. Camar
RT 55 No. 95, Kel. Pelita,
Samarinda, 75117, Indonesia
dwirahayu.p2@gmail.com
240 | Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I-MHERE UGM
Asia-Pacific Forest
Invasive Species
Network
Riau Andalan Pulp
and Paper
Perusahaan Hutan
Negara Indonesia
(Indonesian state
forestry company)
Asia Pasific
Australian Centre for
Association of
International Agricultural
Forestry Institutions
Research
Serayu Makmur
Kayuindo
Dharma Satya Nusantara
Proceeding of International Conference on The Impacts of Climate Change to Forest Pests and Diseases in The Tropics |
View publication stats
241