—Kurmanji Kurdish— A Reference Grammar with Selected Readings W. M. Thackston ii CONTENTS PHONOLOGY Alphabet and sounds ......................................................................................1 The aspirated and unaspirated stops ...............................................................3 Stress ..............................................................................................................4 Orthographic variants .....................................................................................4 Doubled consonants .......................................................................................4 The furtive i....................................................................................................4 SUBSTANTIVES § 1. The Noun .................................................................................................7 § 1.1. Gender ..................................................................................................7 § 1.2. Inflection ..............................................................................................7 § 2. Demonstrative Adjectives and Her ‘Every’ ............................................9 § 3. The Indefinite State ...............................................................................10 § 4. The Primary Construct Case .................................................................11 § 4.1 The Adjectival Construct ....................................................................12 § 5. The Secondary Construct: The Construct Extender ..............................14 § 6. Synopsis of Noun States of Cases .........................................................16 § 7. Personal Pronouns .................................................................................17 § 7.1 The Reflexive Pronoun Xwe ................................................................19 § 8. Prepositions, Postpositions, Circumpositions .......................................19 § 8.1. Contracted Prepositions .....................................................................21 § 9. Numbers ................................................................................................21 § 9.1. Ordinal Numbers ................................................................................24 § 9.2. Months of the Year and Days of the Week ........................................25 § 9.3. Telling Time .......................................................................................26 § 10. Comparative and Superlative Adjectives ............................................26 iii THE VERB § 11. Present Copulas ...................................................................................29 § 12. ‘To Have’ and the Existential Verb Hebûn .........................................30 § 13. The Infinitive .......................................................................................31 § 14. The Present Tense ...............................................................................32 § 15. Compound Verbs ................................................................................34 § 16. The Formation of the Present Subjunctive ..........................................35 § 16.1 Uses of the Present Subjunctive ........................................................37 § 16.2. The Future Tense..............................................................................40 § 16.2. Xwestin ‘To Want’ ...........................................................................41 § 16.3. Karîn ‘To Be Able’ ..........................................................................41 § 17. The Imperative ....................................................................................42 § 17.1. The Vocative ....................................................................................43 § 18. The Simple Past (Intransitive) .............................................................43 § 18.1. The Past Habitual/Progressive (Intransitive) ...................................44 § 18.2 The Simple Past (Transitive): The Ergative ......................................45 § 18.3 Number Agreement in Extended Ergative Verbs..............................48 § 18.4 The Past Tense of Xwestin ................................................................49 § 18.5. Loss of Ergativity .............................................................................49 § 19. The Past Participle...............................................................................49 § 20. The Present Perfect Tense (Intransitive) .............................................50 § 20.1. The Present Perfect Tense (Transitive/Ergative) .............................50 § 21. The Past Perfect Tense (Intransitive) ..................................................52 § 21.1. The Past Perfect Tense (Transitive/Ergative) ..................................53 § 21.2. The Past Perfect Tense of Karîn and Zanîn .....................................57 § 22. The Past Subjunctive ...........................................................................55 § 23. The Future Perfect Tense ....................................................................56 § 24. The Modal of Karîn ............................................................................57 § 25. The Irrealis Mood ................................................................................57 § 25.1. The Past Conditional ........................................................................58 iv § 25.2. The Past Perfect Conditionals ..........................................................59 § 26. The Passive Voice ...............................................................................62 § 27. Postposed Verbal Complements .........................................................63 § 28. Factitive Verbs ....................................................................................64 § 28.1. The Periphrastic Factitive Construction ...........................................65 OTHER SYNTACTICAL FEATURES § 29. Subordinate Clauses and Subordinating Conjunctions .......................66 § 30. Relative Clauses ..................................................................................67 § 31. The Emphatic Jî ..................................................................................70 § 32. Expressions of Temporal Duration .....................................................71 § 33. Sequence of Tenses after Past Verbs of Perception ............................71 § 34. Questions with Ma ..............................................................................72 Synopsis of Verb Tenses and Moods ...........................................................74 Common Verbs with Irregular Present Stems ..............................................79 Conversion Table for Arabic and Cyrillic ....................................................81 Grammatical and Orthographic Differences between “Standard” Kurmanji and Ex-Soviet Kurmanji .......................................................................83 READINGS Qedrîcan, “Rojên Derbasbûyî ...............................................................86 Osman Sebrî, “Çar Leheng: Leheng I: Ferzende Beg” .........................91 Kurdo Husên, “Başoke” ........................................................................94 Şahînê B. Soreklî, “Vegera Mal” ........................................................101 “Cumhûriyeta Kurdî ya Mehabadê” ...................................................107 Firat Cewerî, “Kêzika Bênav” ............................................................111 __________, “Li Mala Rewşen Bedir-Xan” .......................................116 __________, “Sedsaliya Celadet Alî Bedir-Xan”...............................120 Nûredîn Zaza, “Xurşîd” ......................................................................130 __________, “Gulê” ...........................................................................133 Zeynelabîdîn Zinar, “Bavê Nazê” .......................................................138 v Mahmut Baksî, “Çar Aliyê Me Agir E” ..............................................145 Hesenê Metê, Labîrenta Cinan ...........................................................152 Reading Selections in Cyrillic-Script Kurmanji „Зәрдәшт П’ехәмбәр‟ ........................................................................157 „К’ӧрд у К’ӧрдстан‟ ..........................................................................158 „Автономиа Културие у Щие Хәбате‟ ............................................162 Аветис Аһаронйан: „Р’зго-Сеп’о‟ ....................................................165 К’т’ебед Тә’зә: „К’ӧрдстана Башур Иро‟ .......................................173 Reading Selections in Arabic-Script Kurmanji Celadet Ali Bedir-Xan, “‫ﺎن‬-.‫ﺎﭬﻰ ﺑﻴﺎﻧ‬, ‫ﺮدﺳ(ﺘﺎن‬# ‫ﺮد و‬#/Kurd û Kurdistan Bi Çavê Biyaniyan” .........................................................................175 __________, “‫ﺷ(ﻴﺦ ﻋﭭﺪ رﺣﲈﱏ ﮔﺎرﳻ ﭼﻮ رﲪﱴ‬/Şêx Evdirehmanê Garisî Çû Rehmetê” ...................................................................................180 Perwîz Cihanî, “‫ﮔﻮرێ ﺗﻪﰷﻧﻪ‬/Gurê Tekane” ...........................................187 Kurdish–English Vocabulary .....................................................................196 Ex-Soviet Kurdish–English Vocabulary ....................................................245 General Index .............................................................................................264 vi PREFACE KURDISH BELONGS to the Western Iranian group of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. The two principal branches of modern literary Kurdish are (1) Kurmanji, the language of the vast majority of Kurds in Turkey, Syria, Armenia, and Azerbaijan, and of a few in Iraq and Iran, the area designated by Kurdish nationalists as “North Kurdistan” (Kurdistana Bakûr),1 with an estimated fifteen to seventeen million speakers, and (2) Sorani, the language of most Kurds in Iraq (four to six million speakers) and Iran (five to six million speakers), the area designated as “South Kurdistan” (Kurdistana Başûr). Although the two languages are closely related, Kurmanji and Sorani are not mutually intelligible and differ at the basic structural level as well as in vocabulary and idiom. Since all varieties of Kurdish are not only closely related to Persian but have also been mas- 1 The line dividing Kurmanji from Sorani runs roughly diagonally from northeast to southwest. The extreme northwest of Iran and the northernmost tip of Iraq fall into the Kurmanji-speaking area. An article in Hawar (No. 2 [1932], p. 9) explains the geographical distribution as follows: “La langue Kurde se divise en trois dialectes principaux: 1- Le dialecte du Nord, 2- Le dialecte du Sud, 3- Le dialecte du Nord-Ouest. (1) Le dialecte du nord est parlé par tous les Kurdes du Kurdistan occupé par les turcs, par les Kurdes de la Caucasie jusqu’à Kere-Bax [Qarabagh], par ceux de la république d’Erivan, par les Kurdes de la Syrie, par une partie des Kurdes de l’Irak habitant le Mont Sindjar et la contrée située au nord d’une ligne partant du sud du Sindjar par Mosil, et atteignant à l’est la ville de Rewandiz, ensuite par les Kurdes de la Perse habitant le nord et l’ouest du lac de Urmî, par les Kurdes du Khorasan, au nord-est de la Perse…. (2) Le dialecte du sud est parlé par les Kurdes de l’Irak et de la Perse à partir du sud de la ligne Mosil–Rewandiz et du lac de Urmî vers le sud et sud-est, jusqu’aux limites méridionales des Kurdes Bextiyarî. (3) Le dialecte Nord-ouest est le dialecte des Kurdes Dumilî. Du Dumilî on ne peut pas tracer une limite fixe quelconque, parce que trop melangé avec les Kurdes Qurdmanc parlant le dialecte du Nord le Qurdmancî. Tout de même les points de condensation de ce dialecte sont: Dêrsîm, Palo, Genc, Çepekçûr, Maden, Pîran, Egil, Sîwereq, Pêçar, Çermiq.” vii KURMANJI KURDISH sively influenced by Persian, the dominant literary and cultural language of the area for the last millennium, Kurdish is best approached with a knowledge of Persian, and for that reason reference to Persian syntax has been freely made throughout the presentation of the grammar. Sorani has been the second official language of Iraq since the creation of that country after World War I and has many decades of literary activity behind it. Kurmanji, which was given its present written form by Jeladet Ali Bedir-Khan in the early 1930’s, is still far from being a unified, normalized, or standardized language. For historical and political reasons it has not been a written means of communication in the largest area in which it is spoken, and only recently has publication in Kurmanji begun in earnest—and that mostly among émigré communities in Europe, Sweden in particular. With the abundance of regional dialects, it is not possible to give a description of all the variants that may be encountered, although every effort has been made to describe the main ones that occur in the written language. There are, for example, regions in which the umlauted ü of Turkish is a regular feature of the spoken language, but it is not indicated in the writing system. There are areas in which Kurdish has become so inextricably entangled with Turkish and/or Arabic and/or Persian that the grammatical structure of the language has been affected, while the Kurmanji of former Soviet areas like Azerbaijan and Armenia, which has been written in Cyrillic letters since the late 1930’s, has been influenced by Russian.1 The language described herein is, to the extent possible, what has been adopted as a norm by the majority of writers. The readings, chosen to give samples of a broad range of prose writing, are provided with running vocabulary glosses beneath the texts, and the glosses in the readings are also contained in the Kurdish–English vocabulary at the end of the book. Words considered to be absolutely basic vocabulary are not glossed in the notes, since it is assumed that these words either are known already or will be actively acquired by looking them up in the 1 Like most regional and ethnic languages of the early Soviet Union that did not have a traditional alphabet and a long history of literature, Kurmanji was given a Latin-based alphabet in 1929, but it, like the others, was Cyrillicized by Stalin’s decree in 1937. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijan has switched to a modified Latin alphabet, and it is assumed that the little Kurdish written in Azerbaijan has followed suit. Kurdish produced in Armenia is now written in both Cyrillic and a slightly modified form of the normal Latin Kurmanji letters (see the conversion table for Arabic and Cyrillic on p. 80). viii PREFACE vocabulary in the back. Generally words are not glossed more than once in the notes because any word encountered a second time should be learned actively. Words are glossed after the first instance only if they are rare enough to warrant being ignored for acquisition. The Kurdish–English vocabulary contains over 3,000 words, which should represent a good basic working vocabulary for the language. Kurmanji has been and is written in a variety of alphabets. Foremost today is the Kurmanji used in Turkey and Europe, which is written in a modified Turkish Latin alphabet. In Armenia and Azerbaijan,1 Kurmanji is written in Cyrillic letters, and enough readings in Cyrillic Kurmanji have been given, together with a brief analysis of the main differences between Turkey Kurmanji and ex-Soviet Kurmanji, to enable the student to develop a facility in reading that medium. There were once Kurdish-speaking Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, and they wrote Kurmanji in the Armenian alphabet. With the exception of Syria, Kurmanji is not widely spoken in countries that use the Arabic alphabet, and since Syrian Kurds use the Latin script when they write Kurdish, the Arabic script is little used for modern Kurmanji. In the early days of literary Kurdish, however, when the Arabic alphabet was still widely known in Turkey and Latin-script Kurdish was new in Syria, Arabic was used in tandem with the Latin. Two articles by Jeladet Ali Bedir-Khan from early issues of the journal Hawar, when it was published in both alphabets, are given as examples. Some Iranian Kurdish journals include a few pages of Arabic-script Kurmanji for the Kurmanjispeaking Kurds who live in Iran, and a specimen of this type, a story by Perwîz Cîhanî, is given at the end of the reading selections both in the Sorani-based Arabic script in which it was printed in the Iranian Kurdish journal ‫ ﴎوﻩ‬Sirwe in 1990 and in the Latin Kurmanji in which it was reprinted in Alole (pp. 23–27), a collection of his stories published by Doz Yayınları in Istanbul in 2005. There are some minor differences between the two versions, and they are signaled by asterisks in the Latin text. The readings, chosen to give a fair sample of the range of prose writing 1 The major concentrations of Kurdish population in the former Soviet Union are in Armenia and Azerbaijan. From 1923 to 1929 there was an autonomous Kurdish region in Azerbaijan called Kurdistana Sor (Red Kurdistan). There are a few Kurds in Georgia, and there is a Kurmanji-speaking Kurdish population of more than half a million people in northeastern Iran and Turkmenistan, to which they were exiled in the seventeenth century. ix KURMANJI KURDISH today, are provided with running glosses beneath the texts, and the glosses in the readings are also contained in the Kurdish–English vocabulary at the end of the book. Words considered to be absolutely basic vocabulary are not glossed in the notes, since it is assumed that these words either are known already or will be actively acquired as they occur. Generally words are not glossed more than once in the notes because any word encountered a second time should be learned actively. Words are glossed after the first instance only if they are considered rare enough to warrant being ignored for acquisition. The readings and biographical sketches of authors have been taken mainly from Mehmet Uzun, Antolojiya Edebiyata Kurdî, 2 vols. (Istanbul: Tümzamanlar Yayıncılık, 1995), which may be consulted for further reading. The readings in Cyrillic Kurmanji, which have not been glossed but have a separate vocabulary at the end of the book, have been taken from R’ya T’eze, a Kurdish newspaper published in Armenia. For dictionaries of Kurmanji, the following may be consulted: Chyet, Michael L. Kurdish–English Dictionary. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003. Галлиямов, Салават. Кордско–Башкордско–Англо– Русский Словарь. Ufa, 2000. İzoli, D. Ferheng Kurdi–Tırki Türkçe–Kürtçe. Istanbul: Deng Yayınları, 1992. A comprehensive dictionary for those who know Turkish. Unfortunately the gender of Kurdish nouns is not indicated. Курдоев, К. К. Курдско-Русский Словарь. Moscow, 1960. Rizgar, Baran. Kurdish–English English–Kurdish Dictionary. London: M. F. Onen, 1993. With around 25,000 Kurdish words and phrases, this is a useful dictionary for reading. Saadallah, Salah. Saladin’s English–Kurdish Dictionary. Istanbul: Avesta, 2000. Contains around 80,000 entries. Цаболов, Руслан Лазарович. Этимологический Словарь Курдсково Языка. Moscow: Восточная Литература, 2001. For on-line and downloadable dictionaries and word lists for Kurdish and a variety of languages, see www.ferheng.org. x The Phonology of Kurmanji Kurdish Alphabet and sounds. The Kurdish alphabet is based on the Turkish adaptation of the Latin alphabet, and for the most part words are written as they are pronounced, although there are several important features that are not indicated in the writing system. These are noted below. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) equivalents are given in square brackets. Vowels: î i ê e û u o a î is like the ‘ee’ in ‘beet,’ IPA [i], as in nîv [niv] ‘half.’ i is like the ‘i’ in ‘bit,’ IPA [I] as in dil [dIl] ‘heart’; in closed syllables ending in m, i is often pronounced as a close central unrounded vowel [ˆ], i.e. very close to the Turkish ı, as in vedixwim [»vQdIxwˆm] ‘I drink.’ ê is like the ‘ai’ in ‘bait,’ IPA [e], without the y-offglide of English, as in hêz [hez] ‘power.’ e is like the ‘a’ in ‘bat,’ IPA [Q],1 as in berhem [bQR»hQm] ‘product,’ except (1) in the sequence ew, where it is pronounced [´] as in ew [´w] ‘that’ and dewlet [d´w»lQt] ‘state,’ (2) when it is followed by y but not in the same syllable, in which case it is pronounced like the ‘e’ in ‘bet’ [E], as in odeya [o»dEyA] ‘room,’ and (3) in post-stress positions, particularly word-finally, where it is pronounced [E], as in miróvek [mI»ro- 1 The [Q] pronunciation of this vowel is taken as standard; for many speakers, however, it is closer to [E], the vowel of English ‘bet,’ in all environments. 1 KURMANJI KURDISH vEk] ‘a man’ and díçe [»dItSE] ‘he goes.’ û is like the ‘oo’ in ‘boot,’ IPA [u], as in bûn [bun] ‘to be.’ u is like the ‘u’ in ‘put’ and ‘bull,’ IPA [U], as in du [dU] ‘two’; the sequences gu and ku are pronounced by some as [gµE] and [kµE], particularly in closed syllables like gur ‘wolf,’ pronounced either [gµER] or [gUR]. o is like the ‘oa’ in ‘boat,’ IPA [o], without the w-offglide of English, as in nod [nod] ‘ninety.’ a is like the ‘a’ in ‘father’ and ‘balm,’ IPA [A], as in bav [bAv] ‘father.’ Consonants: bilabial labiodental dental/alveolar plosive k, k b d g f s x h, h v z x ‘ m approximate w b c ç ç d f g h uvular glotto-pharyngeal t, t nasal lateral velar p, p fricative flap, trill palatal ş ç, ç j c q n y r, r l is the ‘b’ of English [b] is pronounced like the ‘j’ in ‘judge’ [dZ] is the aspirated ‘ch’ like the ‘ch’ in ‘church’ [tSH] (see below) is the unaspirated ‘ch’ of English ‘eschew’ plus pharyngealization [tS÷] (see below) is like the ‘d’ of English [d] is like the ‘f’ of English [f] is the hard ‘g’ of English, as in ‘go’ [g] is like the ‘h’ of English [h] 2 PHONOLOGY is pronounced, in areas in which it occurs, like the ‫ ح‬of Arabic (a voiceless pharyngeal fricative, [ħ]); in areas where it is not so pronounced, it is not differentiated from h j is the ‘j’ of French, the English ‘g’ in ‘beige’ [Z] k is the aspirated ‘k’ of English ‘key’ [kH] (see below) k is the unaspirated ‘k’ of English ‘sky’ plus pharyngealization [k÷] (see below) l is a liquid ‘l’ as in Persian, like the l in ‘lee’ [l] m is the ‘m’ of English [m] n is the ‘n’ of English [n] p is the aspirated ‘p’ of English ‘pie’ [pH] (see below) p is the unaspirated ‘p’ of English ‘spy’ plus pharyngealization [p÷] (see below) q is a voiceless uvular stop, like the Arabic ‫[ ق‬q]; it is pronounced like ‘k’ but farther back in the throat r is a flap as in Persian and Italian [R]; does not occur word-initially r is a trill, like the ‘rr’ of Spanish [r]; all initial r’s are trilled; the trilled r is only sporadically indicated in the orthography by rr (e.g. pir ‘very,’ which is sometimes written pirr), otherwise it is not indicated in the writing system s is the ‘s’ of English [s] ş is pronounced like the ‘sh’ in ‘ship’ [S] t is the aspirated ‘t’ of English ‘tie’ [tH] (see below) t is the unaspirated ‘t’ of English ‘sty’ plus pharyngealization [t÷] (see below) v is the ‘v’ of English [v] w is the ‘w’ of English ‘we’ [w] except before i, î, and ê, when it is a close back unrounded semivowel [µ], like the ‘u’ in French cuire and huit x is pronounced like the ‘ch’ in German ‘Bach’ and the Arabic ‫خ‬, a voiceless uvular fricative [x] x is a voiced uvular fricative [ƒ], the ghayn (‫ )غ‬of Arabic; it is the voiced counterpart to x h 3 KURMANJI KURDISH y z ‘ is the ‘y’ of English ‘yes’ [j]; also indicates the diphthongs ay and ey is the ‘z’ of English [z] is not part of the orthographic system, but it is given in the vocabulary to indicate the Arabic ‘ayn (‫)ع‬. In parts of the Kurmanji-speaking area, particularly those closer to Arabic-speaking areas, the ‘ayn is pronounced as in Arabic (a voiced pharyngeal fricative, [¿]). Vowels pronounced with a preceding ‘ayn are marked with an underscore (e = ‘e, as in ereb ‘Arab’) The aspirated and unaspirated stops. p, t, k, and ç are aspirated stops, as in English ‘pie,’ ‘tie,’ ‘key,’ and ‘chew’ p, t, k, and ç are unaspirated stops, as in English ‘spy,’ ‘sty,’ and ‘ski,’ and ‘eschew,’ and are accompanied by slight pharyngealization. They are not indicated in the writing system, and they are not universally observed by all speakers, but where they occur they contrast on the phonemic level. They are indicated in the this book by an underscore: cf. pêlav [pHelAv] ‘wave’ and pêlav [p÷elAv] ‘shoes,’ kal [kHAl] ‘unripe’ and kal [k÷Al] ‘old man,’ tîn [tHin] ‘thirst and tîn [t÷in] ‘heat,’ çal [tSHAl] ‘speckled’ and çal [tS÷Al] ‘pit, well’ Stress. All nouns and adjectives are lightly stressed on the final syllable. Most grammatical elements added to nouns (-ek, -ê, -a) are enclitic and thus unstressed (miróv > miróvek, gúnd > gúndê, odé > odéya), with the exception of the plural suffixes -ên and -an, which are stressed (kúrd > kurdê´n, kurdán). The hierarchy of stress in verbs is as follows: (1) The negative prefixes na- and ne-, as in náçim [»nAtSˆm] ‘I don’t go’ and néçû [»nQtSu] ‘he didn’t go.’ (2) Preverbs like ve-, hil-, da-, and wer-, as in védixwim [»vQdIxwˆm] ‘I drink,’ híldidin [»hIldIdIn] ‘they lift,’ dáqurtand [»dAqURt÷And] ‘swallowed it,’ and wérgerand [»wQRgQrAnd] ‘translated it.’ (3) The modal prefixes di- and bi-, as in díaxiftim [»dIAxIftˆm] ‘I was speaking,’ and bíaxive [»bIAxIvE] ‘let him speak.’ 4 PHONOLOGY (4) When there are no prefixes on finite verbal forms, the final syllable of the verb stem is stressed, as in axíftine [A»xIftInE] ‘they have spoken.’ (5) The infinitive is stressed on the final syllable, as in axiftín [AxIf»tIn] ‘to speak.’ Orthographic variants. Some writers prefer to use the Turkish undotted ‘ı’ for ‘i’ and the dotted ‘i’ for ‘î.’ They write dizanim as dızanım and zanîn as zanin. Doubled consonants. Doubled consonants are quite rare in Kurdish, and almost all the doubled consonants of Arabic and Persian loanwords are reduced to a single consonant, e.g. ‫ ﻣـــﺪت‬muddat > mudet, ‫ ﻣـــﻼ‬mullâ > mele, ‫ﺳﺴـﻪ‬ ‫ ﻣـﺆ ـ‬mu’assasa > muesese, and ‫ ﺷـﺪت‬shiddat > şidet. The few double consonants that survive are in learned borrowings like ummet ‘religious community,’ welle ‘by God,’ seff ‘class,’ and muswedde ‘draft copy.’ The furtive i. Kurdish does not tolerate all final consonant clusters. When an intolerable final consonant cluster appears, it is broken by the vowel i, called the ‘furtive i,’ which disappears when a vowel-initial enclitic or suffix is added to the word. Words like aql ‘mind, intelligence,’ esl ‘origin,’ emr ‘age,’ and emr ‘order’ are aqil, esil, emir, and emir1 when by themselves or when followed by a consonant-initial suffix (aqil ‘mind,’ kêmaqil ‘foolish,’ ew kêmaqil bû ‘he was foolish,’ and aqilmend ‘intelligent’). When followed by a vowel-initial enclitic or suffix the i is dropped, as in aqlê te ‘your mind,’ ew kêmaql e ‘he is foolish,’ kêmaqlî ‘foolishness,’ bi eslê xwe ‘in one’s origin, originally,’ emrê min ‘my age’ and emra serdar ‘commander’s order.’ The furtive i is indicated in the vocabulary by an italicized i, e.g. aqil, esil, emir, fêhim. Kurdish writers are not in agreement on the Aqil ‘mind’ (with furtive i), from the Arabic ‫ﻋـــﻘـــﻞ‬, is to be distinguished from the homograph aqil that means ‘intelligent, reasonable’ (from the Arabic ‫ـﺎﻗـﻞ‬S). The latter is stable as aqil even in compounds (aqilane ‘intelligently’). There are two words spelled emir, emir (a variant of umr ‫‘ )ﲻـﺮ‬age’ and emir (from the Arabic ‫‘ )اﻣـﺮ‬order’; they both contain furtives i’s. 1 5 KURMANJI KURDISH writing of the furtive i, and many omit it, particularly when it is unstressed, i.e. some write ez fêhim dikim ‘I understand’ while others write ez fêhm dikim. For practicing Kurdish pronunciation, there are stories with printed text and audio available on the internet at www.dibistanakurdi.com. For the stories, select “Çîrok” in the “Hilbijartî” list. The words in the stories are included in the vocabulary at the end of the book. 6 THE GRAMMAR OF KURMANJI KURDISH SUBSTANTIVES § 1. The Noun. A Kurdish noun in the absolute state, i.e. without any ending of any kind, gives (1) the generic sense of the noun and (2) the definite sense. It is also the “lexical” form of the noun, i.e. the form in which a noun is given in a vocabulary list or dictionary. Thus, a noun like kitêb ‘book’ may, depending upon the context, mean ‘books (in general)’ or ‘the book’ (the one that has already been introduced). There are no articles of any kind in Kurdish. § 1.1. Gender. All Kurmanji nouns are either masculine or feminine. Each and every word must be learned along with its gender, and there is little helpful that can be said concerning determining gender, as grammatical gender appears to be randomly assigned. Beings that are male or female by nature are assigned to the corresponding grammatical gender class, and as a rule, the names of towns, cities, and countries are feminine; all abstract nouns ending in -î are feminine; all infinitives used as nouns are feminine; and nouns ending in vowels tend to be feminine. Words borrowed from Arabic, which has gender, do not necessarily correspond to the gender assignment in Arabic. Kitêb ‘book’ is feminine in Kurdish; the Arabic word from which it is derived, ‫ﺎب‬$‫ﻛﺘ‬ $ kitāb, is masculine. Words borrowed from Persian and Turkish, neither of which has gender, are randomly assigned gender. § 1.2. Inflection. Nouns are inflected in four cases, nominative, oblique, construct, and vocative. The construct case will be treated in §4 below, and the vocative will be treated in §17.1. There are no particular endings for the nominative, and the nominative 7 KURMANJI KURDISH plural is identical to the nominative singular. Nouns are actually masculine or feminine only in the singular; the plural is common, and there is no gender differentiation of plural nouns. In the oblique case, feminine singular nouns add unstressed -ê (or -yê if the noun ends in a vowel; feminine nouns that end in e either add -yê or change the e to ê), unmodified masculine singular nouns do not change,1 and all plural nouns add stressed -an (or -yan if the noun ends in a vowel). Words that end in -î change the î to -iy- before adding any endings. An example of a masculine noun is mirov ‘man,’ and examples of feminine nouns are jin ‘woman’ and ode ‘room’: NOMINATIVE OBLIQUE MASC. SING. miróv +— miróv FEM. SING. jín +ê jínê + yê odéyê odé PLURAL or e > ê odê´ mirov + án mirován jín + án jinán odé + yán odeyán gundî´ î > iyán gundiyán The nominative case is used for (1) unmodified subjects and predicates of equational sentences (see §11) Ode paqij e. The room is clean. Ev mekteb e. This is the school. (2) subjects of all intransitive verbs (see §14) Gundî di mêvanxana Reşo de rûniştîbûn û daxaftin. The villagers were sitting and talking in Resho’s reception room. and (3) the patients of all past-tense transitive verbs (see §18.2). 1 When a masculine singular noun is modified by a demonstrative (see §2) or indefinite (see §3), it does change. 8 SUBSTANTIVES The oblique case is used for (1) direct objects of present-tense verbs: Ez miróv dibînim. I see the man. Ez mirován dibînim. I see the men. Ez jínê dibînim. I see the woman. Ez jinán dibînim. I see the women. (2) complements of prepositions: ji miróv from the man ji mirován from the men ji jínê from the woman ji jinán from the women di odéyê de di odê´ de in the room (3) the second member of a construct chain (see below §4): gundên kurdan villages of Kurds (4) agents of past-tense transitive verbs (see below §18.2). In the case of nouns coordinated by the conjunction û ‘and,’ only the last member of a series shows a case ending if there is one. Tu kitêb û kovaran dibînî? Do you see the books and journals? Ji bo rojên bê, ez plan û bernaman çêdikim. I’m making plans and programs for the coming days. There are a few nouns that contain the vowel a, usually in the final syllable, like ba ‘wind,’ bajar ‘city,’ ziman ‘language,’ mar ‘snake,’ welat ‘country,’ and agir ‘fire,’ that may show an internal change of the a to ê for the oblique case, i.e. bê, bajêr, zimên, mêr, welêt, and êgir. The use of the internal oblique is optional. § 2. Demonstrative Adjectives and Her ‘Every.’ When functioning as attributive adjectives, the nominative demonstratives are ev ‘this, these’ and ew ‘that, those.’ They modify both singular and plural nouns and show no differentiation between masculine and feminine. In the oblique, however, ev 9 KURMANJI KURDISH and ew become vî and wî respectively with masculine nouns, and the noun echoes the ending by adding -î; with feminine nouns ev becomes vê, and ew becomes wê, and the noun echoes the ending by adding -ê; in the plural ev becomes van and ew becomes wan, and the plural nouns echo them by adding -an. When modified by her ‘every,’ masculine singular nouns, which are not distinguished in the oblique case when they are unmodified, take the oblique ending -î and feminine nouns add the regular oblique ending -ê. MASC. FEM. ⎜ ⎜ ⎜ ⎜ ⎜ ⎨ ⎜ ⎜ ⎜ ⎜ ⎜ ⎩ ⎧ ⎜ ⎜ ⎜ ⎨ ⎜ ⎜ ⎜ ⎩ NOM. SING. & PL. OBL. SING. OBL. PL. ev … vî …´î van …án ew … wî …´î wan …án her … her …´î — ev … vê …´ê van …án ew … wê …´ê wan …án her … her …´ê — ev miróv this man, these men (masc. nom. sing. & pl.) ji vî miróvî from this man (masc. obl. sing.) ji her miróvî from every man ji van mirován from these men (obl. pl.) Ez wî miróvî dibînim. I see that man. Ez wan mirován dibînim. I see those men. ew odé that room, those rooms (fem. nom. sing. & pl.) ji wê odéyê from that room (fem. obl. sing.) ji her odéyê from every room ji wan odeyán from those rooms (obl. pl.) § 3. The Indefinite State. The sign of the indefinite singular (‘a, any, some’) is an unstressed enclitic -ek (-yek for words ending in vowels) added to the end of the absolute singular noun. Both masculine and femi10 SUBSTANTIVES nine indefinite nouns have an oblique case, the endings of which echo the oblique demonstrative endings (-î for masc. and -ê for fem.). NOMINATIVE OBLIQUE MASC. ´-(y)ek ´-(y)ekî FEM. ´-(y)ek ´-(y)ekê mirov > miróvek the man > a man Miróvek hat. A man came. Ez miróvekî dibînim. I see a man. kitêb > kitê´bek the book > a book Li ser masê kitêbek heye. There’s a book on the table. Ez kitêbekê dibînim. I see a book. derî > deríyek the door > a door Ez deríyekî vedikim. I’ll open a door. The relatively little-used indefinite plural is formed by adding -(n)in to the absolute singular for the nominative and -(n)inan for the oblique. kur > kúrin some boys derî > derî´nin some doors îstgah > îstgáhin some stations § 4. The Primary Construct Case. The construct links (1) two nouns in a limiting or possessive relationship and (2) an attributive adjective to the noun it modifies. The first noun in a construct string, the one that is limited, is in the construct case, the endings for which are as follows for all nouns ending in consonants: DEF. SING. INDEF. SING. PLURAL MASC. -ê -ekî -ên FEM. -a -eke -ên These endings are exemplified by the nouns mirov ‘man’ (masc.) and jin 11 KURMANJI KURDISH ‘woman’ (fem.): MASC. mirovê mirovekî mirovên FEM. jina jineke jinên Nouns ending in e have the following endings and alternative forms exemplified by perçe m ‘piece’ and ode f ‘room’: MASC. FEM. ⎧ ⎨ ⎩ ⎧ ⎨ ⎩ perçeyê perçê perçeyên perçeyekî odeya odeyeke oda odake perçên odeyên Nouns ending in î (like xanî m ‘house’ and piranî f ‘majority’) change the î to iy and then add the endings: MASC. xaniyê xaniyekî xaniyên FEM. piraniya piraniyeke piraniyên There are very few nouns that end in u and û, but for the few that exist the following endings may take the place of the u or û: MASC. iwê iwekî iwên FEM. iwa iweke iwên A noun or pronoun in the second part of a construct, the limiter, is in the oblique case, as in the following: ⎧ miróvê wî welátî ⎜ ⎨ miróvekî wî welátî ⎜ ⎩ mirovê´n wî welátî the man of that country a man of that country the men of that country ⎧ hejmára kovárê ⎜ ⎨ hejmáreke kovárê ⎜ ⎩ hejmarê´n kovárê the issue of the journal an issue of the journal the issues of the journal ⎧ odéya (or oda) rûnîştínê ⎜ ⎨ odéyeke (or odáke) rûnîştínê ⎜ ⎩ odeyê´n rûnîştínê the sitting room a sitting room the sitting rooms 12 SUBSTANTIVES ⎧ xaníyê wî miróvî ⎜ ⎨ xaníyeke wî miróvî ⎜ ⎩ xaniyê´n wan mirován the house of that man a house of that man the houses of those men Theoretically constructs of successive nouns can be extended without limit; in practice they are limited to three or four successive nouns. In all construct strings the construct case takes precedence over the oblique case, i.e. only the last noun in a string is in the oblique case, and the others are in the construct case. For example, in the phrase di gundan de in the villages the word gundan is oblique plural governed by the circumposition di … de ‘in.’ In the construct phrase gundên kurdan the villages of the Kurds gundên is in the construct plural followed by kurdan in the oblique plural as second member of the construct. When such a construct phrase is the complement of a preposition, gundên remains in the construct case, i.e. di {gundên kurdan} de in the villages of the Kurds and the string can be extended as follows: di {gundên kurdên Kurdistana Tirkiyeyê} de in the villages of the Kurds of Turkey’s Kurdistan Other examples of construct strings are as follows: kitêbên kurê wî mirovî that man’s son’s books kitêbên keça mirov the man’s daughter’s books behsa girîngiya wê rojê discussion of the importance of that day § 4.1. The Adjectival Construct. Attributive adjectives follow the nouns they modify. Nouns so modified by adjectives are in the construct case, but adjectives are indeclinable and show no case. 13 KURMANJI KURDISH ⎧ ⎜ ⎨ ⎜ ⎩ ⎧ ⎜ ⎨ ⎜ ⎩ mirovê mezin the big man mirovekî mezin a big man mirovên mezin the big men kitêba nû the new book kitêbeke nû a new book kitêbên nû the new books ⎧ xaniyê biçûk ⎜ ⎨ xaniyekî biçûk ⎜ ⎩ xaniyên biçûk the little house a little house the little houses As in noun-noun constructs, the construct case ending takes precedence over the oblique case. As an example, in the string behsa girîngiya wê rojê discussion of the importance of that day wê rojê, as the third noun and last element in the string, is in the oblique case, but in the string behsa girîngiya wê roja pîroz discussion of the importance of that celebrated day wê roja is in the construct case because it is modified by a following adjective. Only the last noun in a construct string can be modified by an adjective, i.e. in the phrase in the example above it is grammatically impossible to modify either behsa or girîngiya with an adjective inside the string (see §5). Syntactically related prepositional and circumpositional phrases (see §8 below) modify nouns in Kurmanji and are linked to them by the construct exactly as though they were adjectives. mirovê di xanî de the man in the house (vs. the man outside the house) ev pirtûka di destê we de this book in your hand di hevpeyvîneke bi wî mirovî re in a conversation with that man rojnameyeke bi kurdî a newspaper in Kurdish şagirtê li tenişta min the student next to me 14 SUBSTANTIVES In a series coordinated by the conjunction û, only the last noun shows the construct ending. gelek serok û birêvebirên partiyên siyasî many heads and leaders of political parties şexsiyet û rewşenbîrên kurdan personalities and intellectuals of the Kurds § 5. The Secondary Construct: The Construct Extender. The primary construct is used, as has been seen, to connect noun to noun (to noun, indefinitely) or noun to a single attributive adjective. These two categories cannot be mixed: the first noun in a noun-noun construct cannot be modified by an adjective, and a noun cannot be modified by more than one adjective with the construct. In cases other than these two, the secondary construct with a “construct extender” is used. The extenders are as follows: MASC. SING. FEM. SING. COMMON PLURAL yê ya yên The extenders are used (1) to add a modifying noun to a noun-adjective construct, (2) to link an adjective modifying the first noun in a noun-noun construct, and (3) to add an additional adjective to a noun-adjective construct. As examples, (1) a phrase like hejmareke nû ‘a new issue’ is a normal noun-adjective construct, but since this type of construct is closed, in order to modify the construct further in any way, such as ‘a new issue of the journal,’ the construct extender is used: hejmareke nû ya kovarê, where the feminine extender ya agrees with the feminine head noun in the construct, hejmarek. destê rastê yê Cengî Jengi’s right hand Cumhûriyeta Kurdî ya Mehabadê The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad navên din yên vê ekolê other names of this school (2) In a noun-noun construct string like navê wî mirovî ‘that man’s name,’ the extender is used to modify the first noun in the string: navê wî mirovî yê rastîn ‘that man’s real name.’ 15 KURMANJI KURDISH zimanekî min yê taybetî a special language of mine dîroka Kurdistanê ya nêzîk the recent history of Kurdistan xebat û fedekariyên xwe yên şexsî his own personal struggles and sacrifices (3) In a noun-adjective string like rojnameyeke kurdî ‘a Kurdish newspaper’ the extender is used to modify the noun with another adjective, as in rojnameyeke kurdî ya rojane ‘a daily Kurdish newspaper.’ Other examples are as follows: helbestvanê Ferensî yê ji sedsala nozdehan the French poet of the nineteenth century rojnameyeke rojane ya bi kurdî a daily newspaper in Kurdish darbeyeke mezin ya ekonomîk a great economic blow keç û jinên Ewrupî yên porzer û çav şîn blonde and blue-eyed European girls and women In some dialects the extenders are ê, a, and ên (without the initial y), and they are used particularly when the preceding word ends in a vowel. dilê wî ê pola his heart of steel mala birê min ê mezin my big brother’s house kulma zêbit a guvaştî the officer’s clenched fist şeva me a dawî our last night zendên xwe ên xurt his strong arms zarokên gund ên belengaz the poor children of the village An optional—and fairly rare—alternative masc. sing. construct extender uses the same ending as the indefinite, î. nivîskarekî din î zîrek another clever writer şaîrekî kurd î bijarte a recognized Kurdish poet bi wî dengê xwe î bilind in that loud voice of his § 6. Synopsis of Noun States and Cases. 16 SUBSTANTIVES SINGULAR PLURAL MASCULINE ABSOLUTE/DEFINITE NOM. CONSTR. OBL. DEMONS. OBL. – -ê – -î mirov mirovê mirov wî mirovî – -ên -an -an mirov mirovên mirovan wan mirovan -ek -ekî -ekî mirovek mirovekî mirovekî -in -ine -inan mirovin mirovine mirovinan – -a -ê -ê jin jina jinê wê jinê – -ên -an -an jin jinên jinan wan jinan -ek -eke -ekê jinek jineke jinekê -in -ine -inan jinin jinine jininan MASCULINE INDEFINITE NOM. CONST. OBL. FEMININE ABSOLUTE/DEFINITE NOM. CONSTR. OBL. DEMONS. OBL. FEMININE INDEFINITE NOM. CONSTR. OBL. The syntactical hierarchy of noun forms is: (1) the coordinating conjunction û, which supersedes all case endings; (2) the construct; (3) the oblique. That is, the oblique case is superseded by the construct, so a noun that should syntactically be in the oblique case but which is also the first member of a construct is in the construct case rather than the oblique. In turn, both the construct and the oblique cases are superseded by the coordinating conjunction, so only the last noun in a coordinated series in either case shows its case ending. ji heval û hogirên (const.) wî mirovî from that man’s friends and companions ji heval û hogiran (obl.) from friends and companions 17 KURMANJI KURDISH § 7. Personal Pronouns. The personal pronouns in the nominative and oblique cases are as follows. There are no enclitic pronouns in Kurmanji. NOM. ez tu ew ev SINGULAR OBL. min te ⎧ wî (m) ⎨ ⎩ wê (f) ⎧ vî (m) ⎨ ⎩ vê (f) PLURAL OBL. NOM. I you (sing.) he/it/that she/it/that he/it/this she/it/this em hun1 me we we you (pl.) ew wan they/those ev van they/these There are no third-person pronouns other than the demonstratives. The ew set is the third-person pronoun of default; the ev set is used to direct attention to a nearby third person. Note that both ew and ev distinguish gender only in the oblique singular. Subject pronouns are necessarily expressed, as in English, except in impersonal constructions where English uses ‘it’ (as in “it’s raining”) and occasionally in connected prose where the referent of a third-person pronoun has already been introduced and is obvious from context. The nominative pronouns are used as subjects of equational sentences, present-tense verbs, and past-tense intransitive verbs Ez kurd im. I’m a Kurd. Ew wî mirovî dibîne. He sees that man. Em rûniştin. We sat down. and (2) as patients of past-tense transitive verbs (see §18.2). Min tu dîtî. I saw you. Wî em dîtin. He saw us. The oblique pronouns are used as (1) possessors in a construct kitêba min, kitêbên min my book, my books kitêbeke min a book of mine 1 In some dialects hun is hûn. 18 SUBSTANTIVES kitêbeke nû ya min a new book of mine xaniyê me our house (2) direct objects of all present-tense verbs (and all verbs formed from the present stem of the verb) Tu min dibînî? Do you see me? Ez te dibînim. I see you. Ew me dibîne. He sees us. Em nikarin wan bibînin. We cannot see them. (3) complements of prepositions and circumpositions ji min from me ji wî from him ji wê from her bi wan re with them (4) agents of all past transitive verbs (see §18.2 below) Te ez dîtim. You saw me. Min ew dîtin. I saw them. § 7.1 The Reflexive Pronoun Xwe. The reflexive pronoun xwe has, in and of itself, no person or number but takes its person and number from the subject of the verb in the clause in which it occurs. It can thus mean, as a possessive, ‘my own, ‘your own,’ ‘his/her own,’ ‘our own,’ or ‘their own’ as well as the objective ‘myself,’ ‘yourself,’ ‘him/herself,’ ‘ourselves,’ ‘yourselves,’ or ‘themselves.’ Xwe must be used as both possessive pronoun and object pronoun to refer to the subject of the verb, i.e. the personal pronouns cannot be so used. Constructions like kitêba min ‘my book’ and hevalên min ‘my friends’ are viable in any clause in which ‘I’ is not the subject of the verb, but not in sentences like “I see my book” and “I went with my friends,” where kitêba xwe and hevalên xwe must be used. Dêlikek teva du cewrên xwe li ser riya A bitch used to appear on my route with min xuya dibûn. her two pups. 19 KURMANJI KURDISH Li dora xwe dinêrim. I look around myself. Ferzende di ranê xwe da birîn bû. Ferzende was wounded in his thigh. With past transitive verbs (see §18.2), xwe takes its person and number from the logical subject (= agent). Ezê vegeriyama Şamê, minê hevalên xwe ên li wir bidîtana. I would have returned to Damascus; I would have seen my friends there. Te xwe ji bîr dikir û te çemê bajarê xwe tanî bîra xwe. You forgot yourself, and you remembered the river of your town. § 8. Prepositions, Postpositions, Circumpositions. Certain prepositions, particularly bi, di, ji, and li, occur as circumpositions that envelop the complement, that is, the preposition itself marks the beginning of the prepositional phrase, and the end of the complement is marked by one of the postpositions, ve, de, or re (or the variants, va, da, and ra). The postpositional element does not always, in and of itself, add anything substantial to the meaning of the prepositional phrase, and most prepositions occur without the postpositional element without any significant distinction in meaning. Others need the postpositional element to define the signification of the preposition, as di … de ‘in’ vs. di … re ‘with’ and ji … ve ‘from’ vs. ji … re ‘to, for, with.’ Generally the postpositions have the following significations: de indicates stationary position in or at; re indicates accompaniment; and ve indicates motion away from. Common prepositions and circumpositions: ba to, towards di … re by, via, with ber in front of, toward di … ve through bêî (bêyî, bêy) without di bareya …de about, concerning berî before digel with bi with, by means of (see below) di nav … de among, amidst, bi … re with, along with inside of bi tenê except for di navbera … de between bi xêra due to, thanks to heta until, as far as derveyî outside of ji from, of (partitive) di … de in ji … re to, for, with 20 SUBSTANTIVES ji … ve from; as of, since ji bilî other than, aside from ji bo for, for the sake of ji nava from amongst ji xeynî other than, aside from li (… de) in, at, to li cem together with li ber in front of, before li dijî against li dora around ligel together with li gora according to li pey after, behind li pêş in front of li rex beside li ser on, above, about mîna like piştî after ser on, to ta until, up to tevî along with wek(e) like As a rule, prepositions are followed by nouns and pronouns in the oblique case. The exception is the preposition bi: when it is used to create an adverb (like bi şermdarî ‘modestly’) or a compound adjective (like bi quwet ‘powerful’), the complement is in the nominative case. Pêlên bayê hênik bi şermdarî derbasî hundirê oda te dibûn. Waves of cool breeze were passing modestly into your room. Û bi rastî tu mîna gula ji lûla tufingê derkeve, tu ji malê derketî And truly you went out of the house like a bullet shot from the barrel of a rifle. yek ji şaîr û nivîskarên herî bi quwet one of the most powerful poets and writers Since a circumposition envelopes the whole of its complement, it may extend through a relative clause (for which see §30), as in the following: Gelo mirov kane ji {berhemên ku bi I wonder if one can speak of works that zimanên din têne nivîsandin} re bibê- are written in other languages as Kurdje berhemên kurdî an jî edebiyata ish works or Kurdish literature. kurdî? Ew ê bixwaze bi {yekî ku nêrîna wî nêzîkî nêrîna wê ye} re bizewice. He would like to get married to someone whose outlook is close to his own. § 8.1. Contracted Prepositions. Four prepositions have contracted forms 21 KURMANJI KURDISH with third-person singular complements: bi + wî/wê > pê ji + wî/wê > jê di + wî/wê > tê li + wî/wê > lê If there is a postposition, it appears along with the contracted form of the preposition (jê re, tê de, etc.). Kesê ku heval, hogir û şagirtê wî bû û The person who was his friend, compê re dimeşiya… panion, and pupil and who walked with him… Mêrik odaya min û nivînê ku ezê tê de The man showed me my room and the razêm, nîşanî min da. bed in which I would be sleeping. Mizgînî digihîje Emîn Alî Bedir-Xan, ku jê re lawikek çêbûye. The news reaches Emin Ali Bedir-Khan that a son has been born to him. Mela lê nêrî û got… The mulla looked at him and said… Te lê vegerand. You replied to him. § 9. Cardinal Numbers. The cardinal numbers are as follows: 1 yek 17 hivdeh 102 sed û du, &c. 2 du, didu 18 hijdeh 200 dused 3 sê, sisê 19 nozdeh 300 sêsed 4 çar 20 bîst 400 çarsed 5 pênc 21 bîst û yek 500 pêncsed 6 şeş 22 bîst û du 600 şeşsed 7 heft 23 bîst û sê, &c. 700 heftsed 8 heşt 30 sî (sih) 800 heştsed 9 neh 40 çil 900 nehsed 10 deh 50 pêncî 1,000 (yek) hezar 11 ya(n)zdeh 60 şêst 2,000 du hezar 12 dwanzdeh 70 heftê 3,000 sê hezar 13 sêzdeh 80 heştê 4,000 çar hezar 14 çardeh 90 nod 5,000 pênj hezar 15 panzdeh 100 sed 6,000 şeş hezar 16 şanzdeh 101 sed û yek 7,000 heft hezar 22 SUBSTANTIVES 8,000 heşt hezar 9,000 neh hezar 10,000 deh hezar &c. Compound numbers are formed with the conjunction û, as in çil û yek forty-one pêncî û heft fifty-seven The number yek and all subsequent compound numbers ending in yek are ordinarily declined as feminine singular with construct in -a and oblique in -ê. di 91’ê de di nod û yekê de in ’91 Lê ew yeka han wî bêhêvî nake. But that one (thing just mentioned) does not make him despair. Ev yeka han ji tradisyona Celadet Bedir-Xan û bi xêra kovara wî Hawarê dibe. This one (thing just mentioned) is from the tradition of Jeladet Bedir-Khan and is thanks to his journal Hawar. When yek is used as a pronoun referring to a person, however, it takes the appropriate gender. ew yekê wan that one (masc.) of them ew yeke wan that one (fem.) of them The numbers du through neh, and all subsequent compounds ending in 2 through 9, as well as the thousands, are inflected as plurals with a regular oblique in -an. di sala 1984’an de di sala hezar û nehsed û heştê û çaran de in the year 1984 li 4’a aprîla 1946’an de li çara aprîla hezar û nehsed û çil û şeşan de on April 4, 1946 All numbers ending in zero (except the thousands) are declined as masculine with construct ending in -ên, but the oblique ends in -(y)î. di salên 1300’î de di salên hezar û sêsedî de in the 1300s 23 KURMANJI KURDISH di navbera 1968–70’yî de di navbera hezar û nehsad û şest û heşt û heftêyî de between 1968 and 1970 Oidupusa Sofokles bi kê- Oidupusa Sofokles bi manî berî niha bi 2450 kêmanî berî niha bi du salî hatiye nivîsandin. hezar û çarsed û pêncî salî hatiye nivîsandin. Sophocles’ Oedipus was written at least 2450 years ago. Numbers that modify nouns are indeclinable and are followed immediately by the noun counted, and the noun is plural—of course this will show only in the oblique and construct cases. The numbers ‘2’ and ‘3’ by themselves are didu and sisê; when they modify nouns and when they are part of a compound number they are du and sê, and nouns following them are construed as plural, as are the nouns after all numbers. Apê min û du kes çûn nava şikeftê. My uncle and the two men went inside the cave. piştê du rojên din after two more days Her du çavên wê sor, wek du pizotên êgir bûn. Its two eyes were red, like two brands of fire. Sê hefte û çar roj mabûn. Three weeks and four days remained. piştî şeş meh û 14 (çardeh) rojan after six months and fourteen days Temporal expressions of duration of time (“for X amount of time”) and instance (“X number of times”) are in the oblique case. Sê roj û sê şevan di wî cihî da ma. He stayed in that place for three days and three nights. Ez heşt caran hatim girtin. I was arrested eight times. Pênc, heşt, deh caran ew lat bilind dibûn berî ku giranbûna wan wan bikişîne binê golê. Five, eight, ten times those stones skipped before their weight pulled them to the bottom of the lake. § 9.1. Ordinal Numbers. With the exception of ‘1st,’ ordinal numbers are 24 SUBSTANTIVES formed from the cardinal numbers plus the suffix -(y)an, as in the following: 1st ewel(î) 7th heftan 2nd diduyan, duduyan 8th heştan 3rd sisiyan 9th nehan 4th çaran 10th dehan 5th pêncan 11th yanzdehan 6th şeşan 12th dwanzdehan &c. The ordinals are construed as normal adjectives. Bi hatina cunta faşîst a diduyan re ez jê hatim avêtin. With the coming of the second Fascist junta I was thrown out of there. di hejmara Hawarê ya 4’an [çaran] de in the fourth issue of Hawar Roja sisiyan laşê kurê xwe da pişta xwe û bir mal. On the third day he put his son’s body on his back and carried him home. Xeyn ji dengê segekî tu dengên din ne Aside from the sound of a dog no other dihatin guhan, lê dirêj ne kir, dema sounds could be heard, but it wasn’t dengê segekî bû yê duduyan û sisiyan long before there was the sound of a û çaran. second, third, and fourth dog. There is an alternative set of ordinals formed in the Persian manner with the suffixes -em and -emîn, as follows: 1st yekem(în) 7th heftem(în) 2nd duyem(în) 8th heştem(în) 3rd sêyem(în) 9th nehem(în) 4th çarem(în) 10th dehem(în) 5th pêncem(în) 11th yanzdehem(în) 6th şeşem(în) 12th dwanzdehem(în) &c. These ordinals tend to be used in set phrases like şerê cîhanê yê yekemîn ‘the First World War’ and cara yekem ‘the first time.’ § 9.2. Months of the Year and Days of the Week. There are several nomenclature systems in use for the months. The names of the first set are borrowed from French, and they are as follows: janvîye/januar January fevrîye February 25 KURMANJI KURDISH mars March ût August aprîl April september September mê May oktober October jûen June november November jûîya July desember December The names of the second set either correspond to or were borrowed directly from the Arabic versions of the ancient Semitic month names that were adjusted to fit the Julian calendar months of the Roman Empire. May and July have fallen out of use in this set. The names are given with their Arabic equivalents in parentheses: çileya paşîn January (‫)ﰷﻧﻮن اﻟﺜﺎﱏ‬ ab August (‫)آب‬ sibat February (‫)ﺷ(ﺒﺎط‬ eylûl September (‫)اﯾﻠﻮل‬ adar March (‫)ادار‬ çiriya pêşîn October (‫ول‬e ‫ﴩ[ﻦ‬d) nîsan April (‫ﺴﺎن‬.‫)ﻧ‬ hezîran June (‫)ﺣﺰ[ﺮان‬ çiriya paşîn November (‫ﴩ[ﻦ‬d ‫)اﻟﺜﺎﱏ‬ avdar March gelawêj August gulan May îlon September çileya pêşîn December (‫ول‬e ‫)ﰷﻧﻮن‬ The third set consists of traditional Kurdish names for a few months: reşeme February tîrmeh July Dates are written and read as follows: 31’ê adara 1947’an sî û yekê adara hezar û nehsed û çil û heftan March 31, 1947 di 26’ê nîsana 1893’an de di bîst û şeşê nîsana on the 26th of April 1893 hezar û heştsed û nod û sisiyan de di 25.07.1974’an de di bîst û pêncê tîrmeha on 25 July 1974 hezar û nehsed û heftê û çaran de The days of the week (all feminine) are as follows. The b of şemb is normally deleted in the nominative case and restored in the oblique and con26 SUBSTANTIVES struct cases, as in şem (nom.) but roja şembê (obl.): şem(b) Saturday çarşem(b) Wednesday yekşem(b) Sunday pêncşem(b) Thursday duşem(b) Monday în Friday sêşem(b) Tuesday § 9.3. Telling Time. In all expressions for telling time, the basis of the expression is saet (or the variant seet) ‘hour.’ Saet çi ye? What time is it? Saet deh e. It’s ten o’clock. Saet nêzîkî dudiyê piştî nîvroje (nîro) bû. It was nearly two o’clock in the afternoon. saet sisê sibehê/şevê three o’clock in the morning/at night § 10. Comparative and Superlative Adjectives. The comparative degree of the adjective is made by suffixing -tir. There are only a few irregularly formed comparatives, viz. pir ‘much’ > bêtir ‘more,’ baş ‘good’ > çêtir ‘better,’ and mezin ‘big’ > meztir (as well as the regularly formed mezintir) ‘bigger, older.’ Adjectives ending in t drop the t before the addition of -tir (pêwist > pêwistir, not *pêwisttir, and xurt > xurtir, not *xurttir). The preposition of comparison is ji, as in the following examples. Min ji her tiştî bêtir ji wan hez dikir. I liked them more than anything. Hin ji wan, bi balefiran, ya jî bi gemiyên mezin dûrtir çûbû. Some of them had gone further in planes or large ships. Ew pêwist e ku nivîskarên me li ser jiyana gundî û axayan biaxivin, lê pêwistir e ku ew ji bîr nekin ku kurd li şehran jî dijîn. It is important that our writers speak of the life of villagers and lords, but it is more important that they not forget that Kurds live in cities too. Ez tenê şeş salan ji te mezintir im. I’m only six years older than you. Erebiya min ji kurdî û turkiya min çêtir bû û çêtir e jî. My Arabic was and still is better than my Kurdish and Turkish. Tu her roj xurtir dibî. You get stronger every day. 27 KURMANJI KURDISH ‘More than’ followed by a number is expressed by bêtirî (or pirrtirî) + the number: Hûn bêtirî pêncî mitrî di binê zemîna You were more than fifty meters beneath Parîsê de bûn. the ground of Paris. Pirrtirî dused û pêncî kuştî ji leşkerên tirkan hebû. There were more than two hundred fifty slain among the soldiers of the Turks. The superlative is indicated by context, not by a special form. The first example in this section could just as well be translated as “I liked them the most of anything.” A comparative adjective followed by a construct usually gives the superlative sense, and a following construct is the equivalent of the English “in.” Xurşîd dewlementirê gund bû. Khurshid was the richest (person) in the village. Wî li kurê xwe dinêrî û xwe bextyartirê He used to look at his son and consider dinê dizanî. himself the luckiest (person) in the world. A true superlative adjective is made by adding -tirîn to the adjective, and such superlatives precede the nouns they modify: Mezintirîn nav ku bi ziman û edebiyata kurdî ya klasîk re bûye yek, Ehmedê Xanî ye. The greatest name that has occurred in the classical Kurdish language and literature is Ahmad Khani. A second type of superlative is made with herî preceding the adjective. Like -issimo in Italian, herî gives a superlative sense of “really,” e.g. herî girîng means “most important” in the sense of “really important.” Superlatives of compound adjectives like bi quwet ‘powerful’ and past participles used adjectivally like lipaşmayî ‘backward,’ where the addition of -tir would be awkward or impossible, are signaled by herî. Ew yek ji şaîr û nivîskarên herî bi quwet ê mekteba “Hawar”ê bû. He was one of the most powerful poets and writers of the Hawar school. Nêçirvanekî herî dilêr jî newirî bû bi roj di nav re derbas bibûya. Even a really intrepid hunter would not have dared to pass through in the daytime. 28 SUBSTANTIVES Cumhûriyeta Mehabadê di dîroka Kurdistanê ya nêzîk de yek ji bûyerên herî girîng e. The Republic of Mahabad is one of the most important events in the recent history of Kurdistan. Kurdistan herêma Tirkiyeyê ya herî lipaşmayî ye; Mêrdînê bajarê Tirkiyeyê yê herî lipaşmayî ye; Nisêbînê qeza Mêrdînê ya herî bi derd e; Stilîlê nehiya Nisêbînê ya herî belengaz e; Zivingê gundê Stilîlê yê herî lipaşmayî ye. Li gorê nifûsa min ez li şikefta jimar dido ya vî gundî hatime dinyayê. Kurdistan is the most backward part of Turkey; Mardin is the most backward city in Turkey; Nusaybin is the most wretched district of Mardin; Stilîl is the most destitute part of Nusaybin; Ziving is the most backward village in Stilîl. According to my identity card, I was born in cave number two of this village. 29 THE VERB § 11. Present Copulas. The present-tense copulas (‘am, is, are’) are enclitics, i.e. unstressed, but they are usually written as separate words. POSTCONSONANTAL POSTVOCALIC im in me ne î in yî ne e in ye ne Examples of postconsonantal copulas: ez kurd im ‘I am Kurdish’ em kurd in ‘we are Kurdish’ tu kurd î ‘you are Kurdish” hun kurd in ‘you are Kurdish’ ew kurd e ‘s/he is Kurdish’ ew kurd in ‘they are Kurdish’ Examples of postvocalic copulas: ez bi wî re me ‘I’m with him’ em bi wî re ne ‘we are with him’ tu bi wî re yî ‘you’re with him’ hun bi wî re ne ‘you are with him’ ew bi wî re ye ‘s/he’s with him’ ew bi wî re ne ‘they are with him’ The negative ne (stressed) is positioned before the complement (or whatever is negated, but not before the copula). Examples of copulas with negatives: ez ne kurd im ‘I’m not Kurdish’ em ne kurd in ‘we aren’t Kurdish’ tu ne kurd î ‘you aren’t Kurdish’ hun ne kurd in ‘you aren’t Kurdish’ ew ne kurd e ‘s/he isn’t Kurdish’ ew ne kurd in ‘they aren’t Kurdish’ Other examples are as follows: Tu xwêndekár î. You are a student. Tu xwêndekárekî báş î. You are a good student. Tu né xwêndekárekî báş î. You are not a good student. Báş e. It is good. 30 THE VERB Né báş e. It is not good. Ev xaníyek e. This is a house. Ev xanî´ ne. These are houses. Ev né xaníyek e. This is not a house. Ez ne ji eşîra we me, ez ne çiyayî û ne jî deştî me; ez bajarî me. Lê beriya hertiştî, ez jî merivek im. I am not from your tribe; I am not a mountaineer or from the plains either; I am an urbanite, but before anything else I am a person. The combination of an oblique plural ending in -an and the first-person singular enclitic im usually becomes -a me instead of -an im. Ez yek ji wan nivîskara me. I am one of those writers. Ez jî yek ji wan kurda me ku … I too am one of those Kurds who … Ez bi xwe yek ji wan kesa me ku … I myself am one of those people who… § 12. ‘To Have’ and the Existential Verb Hebûn. The existential verb ‘to exist’ is hebûn, the present and past conjugations of which are as follows: PRESENT PAST ez héme em héne ez hébûm em hébûn tu héyî hun héne tu hébûyî hun hébûn ew héye ew héne ew hébû ew hébûn The third-persons singular and plural are used for ‘there is’ and ‘there are’ respectively. Gotineke pêşiyên me heye. There is a saying of our ancestors. Ger xwendevanên kurdî tunebin sedemê wê hene. If there are no readers of Kurdish, there are reasons for it. Pir kes li dora min hebûn ku ji şiîran hez dikir û şiîr dinivîsandin. There were many people around me who enjoyed poetry and wrote poems. Di çavên wî da ronahiyeke dijwar hebû. There was a hard light in his eyes. The negative of heye is tune ‘there is not any…, there is no…,’ and the 31 KURMANJI KURDISH negative of hebû is tunebû ‘there was not any…, there was no….’ Madem ku zimannivîs tune, ev dewlet- As long as there are no writers, what’s çêkirin çi ye? the use of creating this state? Di vî warî da otorîteyeke resmî tune. In this regard there is no official authority. Divabû ku ew kêzik wê şevê bihata kuştin an na xew li min tunebû. That bug would have to be killed that night or else there would be no sleep for me. There is no verb in Kurdish equivalent to the English verb ‘to have.’ Kurdish expresses possession by the possessive construct followed by the appropriate third person of the existential verb—heye ‘there is,’ hene ‘there are,’ hebû ‘there was,’ or hebûn ‘there were.’ Pirsiyareke min heye. I have a question. Pirsiyareke min hebû. I had a question. Pênc zarokên wî hene. He has five children. Cihekî bajarê Mehabadê yê taybetî di The city of Mahabad has a special place dilê me de heye. in our hearts. § 13. The Infinitive. Kurdish infinitives end in -in, -în, -an, or -ûn, are stressed on the final syllable (dîtín ‘to see,’ meşiyán ‘to walk,’ tirsî´n ‘to fear’), and are construed as feminine nouns. The use of the infinitive as a noun occasionally coincides with English usage, but it is more often used where the English gerund (“-ing”) is used. Axaftin, xwendin û nivîsîna bi zimanê zikmakî, ji her mirovî re pêwîstiyek e. To speak, to read, and to write in one’s native language is a requirement for every person. piştî weşandina kovara xwe bi salekê û a year after publishing his journal and piştî avakirina Cumhûriyeta Tirkiyê ten years after the founding of the Rebi deh salan public of Turkey An unmodified direct object of an infinitive precedes the infinitive and forms a generic compound with it. Thus, qehwe vexwarin ‘to drink coffee,’ 32 THE VERB rojname xwendin ‘to read newspapers,’ kovar weşandin ‘to publish journals,’ and hotêl çûyîn ‘to frequent hotels’ are generic compounds. A modified direct object of an infinitive is linked to the infinitive by an objective genitive construct. So, vexwarina qehweya xwe ‘to drink one’s coffee,’ xwendina rojnameya xwe ya bi kurdî ‘to read one’s newspaper in Kurdish,’ weşandina kovara xwe ‘to publish one’s journal,’ and çûyîna min ya hotêlê ‘my going to the hotel,’ where the objects and complements are definite, indefinite, or modified (i.e. not generic), become construct phrases. Ez dixwazim her sibeh bi vexwarina I want to read my newspaper in Kurdish qehweya xwe re rojnameya xwe ya bi every morning while drinking my cofkurdî jî bixwînim. fee. Bi çûyîna min ya hotêlê dilê xwe girtin. They were offended by my going to the hotel. The infinitive is also used with the preposition ji bo to express purpose: Ji bo dîtina wan ez çûme Sûriyê. I went to Syria in order to see them. Min bihîst ku li welatên Rohelat çil sal I have heard that in the countries of the xebat divêt ji bo çêkirina şerbikekî Orient forty years of labor are needed in ferfûrî. order to produce a porcelain vase. § 14. The Present Tense. The present tense corresponds to the English present used for habitual action (“I work”) and to the present progressive (“I’m working”). It is formed from the present stem of the verb. The present stems of a few very common verbs are totally irregular and must be learned as a principal part of the verb (e.g. dîtin ‘to see’ > bîn-, xwestin ‘to want’ > xwaz-). With few exceptions, verbs with infinitives ending in -an, -iyan, -în, and -ûn are regular and form the present stem by dropping those endings. Verbs that end in -andin (for which type see §28 below) form their present stems by changing the -andin ending to -în- (e.g. mirandin ‘to cause to die’ > mirîn-). To form the present tense, the stressed progressive/habitual modal marker dí is prefixed to the present stem, and the following suffixed personal endings are added to the stem. 33 KURMANJI KURDISH CONSONANT STEMS VOWEL STEMS -im -in -m -n -î -in -yî -n -e -in — -n Examples of conjugation are as follows. In Kurmanji, pronominal subjects are not optional and must be expressed. ÇÛN/-Ç- ‘GO’ (CONSONANT STEM) ŞUSTIN/-ŞO- ‘WASH’ (VOWEL STEM) ez díçim em díçin ez díşom em díşon tu díçî hun díçin tu díşoyî hun díşon ew díçe ew díçin ew díşo ew díşon In the negative, the modal marker di is replaced by stressed ná-. ez náçim em náçin ez náşom em náşon tu náçî hun náçin tu náşoyî hun náşon ew náçe ew náçin ew náşo ew náşon If the present stem begins with a- or ê-, the prefix di- may drop its vowel and becomes d-, as in axaftin/axiv- ‘speak’ and êşandin/êşîn- ‘to hurt,’ the present tenses of which are either daxivim or diaxivim ‘I speak’ and either dêşînim or diêşînim ‘I hurt.’ There are two verbs with irregular conjugations in the present tense, hatin ‘to come’ and anîn ‘to bring.’ In both these verbs the dí- modal marker has assimilated to the present stem and appears as t-. Their present conjugations, affirmative and negative, are as follows: HATIN ANÎN ez têm em tên ez tînim em tînin tu teyî hun tên tu tînî hun tînin ew tê ew tên ew tîne ew tînin ez nayêm em nayên ez naynim em naynin tu nayeyî hun nayên tu naynî hun naynin ew nayê ew nayên ew nayne ew naynin 34 THE VERB There are also two verbs, zanîn ‘to know’ and karîn ‘to be able,’ that are irregular in the negative. They form the negative with ní instead of na. ZANÎN KARÎN ez nizanim em nizanin ez nikarim em nikarin tu nizanî hun nizanin tu nikarî hun nikarin ew nizane ew nizanin ew nikare ew nikarin The present tense is used for (1) present habitual action (“I go”) and (2) present progressive action (“I’m going”), and context usually makes it clear which tense should be used in English. Normal word order in Kurdish is subject, object, verb.1 Complements of verbs of motion (where one comes, goes, brings, etc.) tend to follow the verb in the oblique case, as in the first example below. Ez naçim doktor. Ez derman venaxwim. Derziyê jî naxwazim. I’m not going to the doctor. I’m not taking medicine. I don’t want stiches either. Xelkên Mehabadê wê roja han mîna karnevalekê pîroz dikin, dehol û zurnevanên bajêr lêdixin, Mehabadî jî bi destên hev digirin û direqisin. The people of Mahabad celebrate that day like a carnival, they play the city drums and clarions, and Mahabadis join hands and dance. Du jinên gundî nêzîktir dibin, heta ber derê lojmanê tên, Mamoste Kevanot çav li wan dikeve û bi matmayîn dibêje… Two village women get closer. They come up to the door of the lodging. Master Kevanot looks at them and says with astonishment… § 15. Compound Verbs. Compound verbs, which do not differ significantly from their counterparts in Persian and Sorani, consist of a nonverbal element (preverb or complement) and a verb. In Kurmanji some compound verbs are consistently written as one word, like hildan ‘to lift,’ which consists of the preverb hil and the verb dan ‘to give’ (present stem d-), vekirin 1 Full normal word order is: (1) temporal expression, (2) subject, (3) direct object, (4) miscellaneous prepositional phrases, (5) verb, (6) directional complement. Many other orders are possible, but when any element is moved from its normal position it is highlighted or emphasized in some way. 35 KURMANJI KURDISH ‘to open,’ which consists of the preverb ve and the verb kirin ‘to do’ (present stem k-), and rûniştin ‘to sit down,’ which consists of the preverb rû and the verb niştin (present stem nê-); others are written as two separate words, like behs kirin ‘to discuss’ and alîkarî kirin ‘to help.’ The di- prefix is added to the verbal part of the compound, i.e. after the nonverbal part. Stress in the affirmative is on the preverb. ez védikim em védikin ez béhs dikim em béhs dikin tu védikî hun védikin tu béhs dikî hun béhs dikin ew védike ew védikin ew béhs dike ew béhs dikin ez híldidim em híldidin ez rûdinêm em rûdinên tu híldidî hun híldidin tu rûdinêyî hun rûdinên ew híldide ew híldidin ew rûdinê ew rûdinên In the negative the stressed prefix ná- takes the place of di- in compound verbs: ez venákim em venákin ez behs nákim em behs nákin tu venákî hun venákin tu behs nákî hun behs nákin ew venáke ew venákin ew behs náke ew behs nákin ez hilnádim em hilnádin ez rûnánêm em rûnánên tu hilnádî hun hilnádin tu rûnánêyî hun rûnánên ew hilnáde ew hilnádin ew rûnánê ew rûnánên Depending upon the semantics of a given compound, many compound verbs can be extended to include any and all matter that complements the nonverbal part of the compound. For instance, compound verbs like alîkarî kirin ‘to help’ and behs kirin ‘to discuss’ can be extended through a construct (or multiple constructs) as in the following examples. In extended constructs the construct takes care of modifications and relationships that are expressed by various means in English, usually with prepositions. Ew jî alîkariya kovara Enstîtuya kurdî ya Parîsê dike. He also helps out on the journal of the Paris Kurdish Institute. 36 THE VERB Em behsa beşê kurdên Kurdistana Tirkiyeyê dikin. We are discussing the role of the Kurds in Turkey’s Kurdistan. Close compound verbs of the hildan ‘to raise’ and vekirin ‘to open’ type do not admit extension through a construct. They take normal direct objects before the verb. Ji peyayên gundî hinek ji dûr ve silavê A few of the village men raise a greeting li wî hildidin. to him from afar. Soviyetî pirtûkên dersan yên bi kurdî The Soviets print schoolbooks in Kurdçap dikin û dibistanên kurdî vedikin. ish and open Kurdish schools. § 16. The Formation of the Present Subjunctive. Like the present indicative, the present subjunctive is formed from the present stem of the verb and the personal suffixes. The modal marker for the subjunctive is bí-. Unlike the dí prefix, bí does not usually drop its vowel in favor of an initial a in the stem, but in some dialects it may do so (i.e. baxivim for biaxivim). ez bíçim em bíçin ez bíaxivim em bíaxivin tu bíçî hun bíçin tu bíaxivî hun bíaxivin ew bíçe ew bíçin ew bíaxive ew bíaxivin In compound verbs, the bí- prefix is optional, and it is usually omitted with close compounds (generally speaking, those that are written together as one word and, by and large, verbs compounded with kirin unless there is an extended complement). When the bí- prefix is omitted, the absence of a modal prefix identifies the verb as subjunctive, as in ve-xwarin (ve-xw-) ‘to drink’ and hil-dan (hil-d-) ‘to lift’: ez véxwim em véxwin ez híldim em híldin tu véxwî hun véxwin tu híldî hun híldin ew véxwe ew véxwin ew hílde ew híldin The negative prefix for the subjunctive is né-, which replaces bí- where it occurs. Where there is no bi- prefix, the negative is attached to the verbal part of compounds. 37 KURMANJI KURDISH ez néçim em néçin ez hilnédim em hilnédin tu néçî hun néçin tu hilnédî hun hilnédin ew néçe ew néçin ew hilnéde ew hilnédin There are two present subjunctives of the verb bûn ‘to be, become,’ with and without the subjunctive marker bi-. The conjugation without the marker is used when the verb means ‘be’; the conjugation with the marker is used when the verb means ‘become’ and when it is part of a compound verb. ‘BE’ ‘BECOME’ ez bim em bin ez bíbim em bíbin tu bî hun bin tu bíbî hun bíbin ew be ew bin ew bíbe ew bíbin In the negative the distinction between ‘be’ and ‘become’ is lost, and there is only one negative present subjunctive. ez nébim em nébin tu nébî hun nébin ew nébe ew nébin There are two present subjunctives of hatin ‘to come.’ One is regularly conjugated based on the stem wer- without the bi- prefix; the other is regularly conjugated based on the stem bê-, a contraction of bi- and yê-, the present stem of hatin. WER- STEM YÊ- STEM ez werim em werin ez bêm em bên tu werî hun werin tu bêyî hun bên ew were ew werin ew bê ew bên The negative present subjunctive of these two variants is as follows: ez néwerim em néwerin ez néyêm em néyên tu néwerî hun néwerin tu néyêyî hun néyên ew néwere ew néwerin ew néyê ew néyên There are also two present subjunctives of çûn ‘to go.’ One is regularly 38 THE VERB congujated based on the stem ç- with the bí- subjunctive marker; the other is regularly conjugated based on the stem her- without the subjunctive marker. Ç- STEM HER- STEM ez biçim em biçin ez herim em herin tu biçî hun biçin tu herî hun herin ew biçe ew biçin ew here ew herin Negatives are predictably formed: ez néçim em néçin ez néherim em néherin tu néçî hun néçin tu néherî hun néherin ew néçe ew néçin ew néhere ew néherin § 16.1 Uses of the present subjunctive. The present subjunctive is used in the following instances: (1) independently—i.e. not dependent upon a preceding construction—as a deliberative (English ‘should’). Ez îro bêm? Should I come today? Îcar em çi bikin? Now what should we do? (2) in the first persons singular and plural as a cohortative (‘let me, let’s’) and in the 3rd persons as a hortatory (‘let him…, may he …’). The hortatory is often preceded by bila ‘let.’ Peşî ez bibêjim ku … First let me say that … Ew derî veke. Let him open the door. Em herin! Let’s go! Bi siyasetê bila ew mijûl bibin. Let them get involved in politics. (3) as complement to all verbs and constructions of desire and wanting (see §16.2), ability (see §16.3), necessity, deciding, ordering, etc. Lazim e tu Kurmancî biaxivî. It’s necessary that you speak Kurmanji. 39 KURMANJI KURDISH Di vê babetê de ez naxwazim tiştekî bibêjim. I don’t want to say anything in this regard. Tu dikarî hinekî behsa xwe û jiyana xwe bikî? Can you speak a bit about yourself and your life? Em kurd in û kurd gereke berî hemû zimanan, bi zimanê xwe biaxivin, bixwînin û binivîsin. We are Kurds, and Kurds ought to speak, read, and write in their own language before all other languages. Berî her tiştî gereke ez nîşan bidim ku Before anything else, it is necessary for ji mefhûma “kovara îslamî” ez çi tiştî me to indicate what I understand by the fehim dikim. concept of an “Islamic journal.” Gereke kovar xwe zencîr nekin. It is necessary that journals not fetter themselves. Wî pirr caran biryar dabû ku êdî li xurînî cixarê nekişîne. Many times he had decided not to smoke cigarettes any more on an empty stomach. Doktor divê rêyekî nîşanî me bide û derman binivîsine. The doctor must show us a way and write a [prescription for a] remedy. (4) after a number of conjunctions like berî ku ‘before’ (which is usually followed by the subjunctive), çaxê ku ‘when’ (which is followed by the subjunctive when it refers to the future), and mîna ku ‘as though.’ See §30. Berî ku ez derkevim derveyê welêt, min Before I went outside the country, I had soranî nebihîstibû. not heard Sorani. Çaxê ku firseta min çêbibe, ez ê bi şev û rojan bo ziman û edebiyata kurdî bişixulim. When I get the opportunity, I will work day and night for Kurdish language and literature. Mîna ku di berê de naxoşiyek di navîna wan de hebe… As though there was some unpleasantness between them before… (5) in the protasis (the “if” clause) of a possible conditional with reference to the present or the future: Ger ev rast be, … If this is true, … Ger ew bibin yek, ew dikarin her tiştî bikin. If they unite, they can do anything. 40 THE VERB (6) in all purpose clauses, usually introduced by ji bo ku ‘in order that’: Ez diçim xwendegehê ji bo ku ez bixwînim. I go to school in order to study. Ez dixwînim ji bo ku bibim mamoste. I’m studying in order to become a teacher. Ji bo ku tu ji nexweşiyê bifilitî, divê doktor li te binêre û bi nexweşiya te bizanîbe. In order for you to get rid of your illness, it is necessary for the doctor to have a look at you and diagnose your illness. (7) in clauses complementary to adjectives, where English usually has a complementary infinitive:1 Gelê me, gotin û kelîmeyên ku dizane jî ne amede ye ku ji sembol û herfan bixwîne. Our society is not ready to read even words it knows from symbols and letters. (8) In relative clauses introduced by indefinite relative pronouns like herkesê ku ‘anybody who’ &c.: Herkesê ku bi kurdî binivîse, di destpêkê de û heta demeke dirêj, ê pergî zehmetiyên mezin were. Anybody who writes in Kurdish will encounter major difficulties at the beginning and for a long time. (9) In relative and result clauses after negative expressions: Tiştek ne dihat xuya kirin ku mirov Nothing could be made out that one bibêje ev ê bikaribe bibe sedema ewte might say it could be the reason for the ewta kûçikên gund. barking of the dogs of the village. Salên min ne ewqas zêde ne ku ez bibêjim, ez pir jiyame û min gelek dîtiye. My years are not so many that I could say I have lived a lot and seen much. 1 But not in clauses dependent upon adjectives that describe situations or actions that actually pertain or have taken place, which are in the indicative mood, as: Ez xwe bextiyar dibînim ku mamostetiya gundeki weha bûye para min. I count myself lucky that a teaching job in such a village has been my lot. 41 KURMANJI KURDISH (10) In relative clauses with indefinite antecedents, often preceded by wek or mîna ‘like.’ See §22 (3). Mîna gula ji lûla tufingê derkeve, tu ji malê derketî. You lit out of the house like a bullet shot from the barrel of a rifle. Dîtina wî bû mîna kêra ku tu di birînê Seeing him was like a knife you twist in de bigerînî. a wound. Two verbs, karîn ‘to be able’ and zanîn ‘to know,’ do not form their present subjunctives as other verbs do but use the form of the past subjunctive (see § 22 below) instead. § 16.2. The Future Tense. The future tense is formed by adding -ê or dê to the personal pronouns followed by the present subjunctive conjugation. Tu + ê is often contracted to tê (tû ê and tiwê also exist), and ew + ê may be contracted to wê, although the contraction is not mandatory. The conjugation of the future tense of çûn (affirmative and negative) is: ezê (ez dê) biçim emê (em dê) biçin tê (tu dê) biçî ezê (ez dê) neçim emê (em dê) neçin hunê (hun dê) biçin tê (tu dê) neçî ewê (ew dê) biçe ewê (ew dê) biçin hunê (hun dê) neçin ewê (ew dê) neçe ewê (ew dê) neçin When the subject of a future-tense verb is a noun, wê, ê, or dê comes after the noun. All the future markers are reflexes of the present stem (‫ وێ‬wê) of the verb ‫ـــﺴـــﱳ‬f‫ و‬wîstin ‘to want,’ which still exists in Sorani Kurdish and which has produced this synthetic tense much like the English future compounded with ‘will.’ Dema em dê bighêjin Ewropa,1 keçên When we get to Europe, the blonde girls porzer li Ferensa û li Swêdê wê li ser in France and Sweden will go crazy for porê me dîn bibin. our hair. Ew dibêje ku ewê bi siyasetê ve mijûl nebe. He says he won’t get involved in politics. 1 Kurdish, like French (quand nous arriverons en Europe), uses the future after ‘when’ when it has a future implication. 42 THE VERB Ya meriv ê israr bike û bi kurdî bini- Either a person will insist and write in vîse, yan jî meriv ê zimanekî din ku ji Kurdish, or a person will prefer another kurdî gelekî pêşketîtir e, tercîh bike. language that is much more advanced than Kurdish. “Ya rebî, ezê çi bikim?” min di dilê xwe de got. “O Lord, what will I do?” I said to myself. § 16.2. Xwestin, ‘To Want.’ The Kurmanji verb for “to want” is xwestin (present stem xwaz-). Verbal complements are in the present subjective. A full inflection of the present tense of ‘to want to go’ is as follows: ez dixwazim biçim em dixwazin biçin tu dixwazî biçî hun dixwazin biçin ew dixwaze biçe ew dixwazin biçin When the subject of xwestin and the subject of the following subjunctive complement are the same, the subjunctive follows in the same person, as in the following examples. Ez naxwazim vê behsê dirêj bikim. I don’t want to prolong this discussion. Ew dixwaze ji avakirina Cumhûriyetê He wants to become a supporter and re bibe piştgir û alîkar. helper in the founding of the republic. When the subjects are different, however, the conjunction ku usually intervenes, and the subject of the subjunctive verb must be expressed. Bavê wî dixwaze ku ew bixwîne. His father wants him to study. Bavê min dixwaze ku ez bixwînim. My father wants me to study. See note on the past tense of xwestin at §18.3 below. § 16.3. Karîn, ‘To Be Able.’ The verb ‘to be able’ is karîn (present stem kar-). Karîn is regularly conjugated in the present, often without the diprefix, and it is followed by a subjunctive complement. The negative present is formed with ni- instead of na-. Below is given the full present conjugation, affirmative and negative, of ‘I can go/I can’t go’: 43 KURMANJI KURDISH ez dikarim biçim em dikarin biçin ez nikarim biçim em nikarin biçin tu dikarî biçî hun dikarin biçin tu nikarî biçî hun nikarin biçin ew dikare biçe ew dikarin biçin ew nikare biçe ew nikarin biçin Hevalê hêja, tu karî xwe bi me bidî nasandin? Dear friend, can you introduce yourself to us? Tu dikarî, ji kerema xwe re, hinekî behsa xwe û jiyana xwe bikî? Can you please talk a bit about yourself and your life? Meriv nikare di hengamekê de li çend A person cannot be in several places at cihan be. once. Karîn does not form its present subjunctive in the normal manner. For it, see §22 below. For the past tense of karîn see §21.1 and note 3 on p. 54. A dialectal variant of this verb, kanîn, is used by some writers. § 17. The Imperative. The singular imperative of verb stems ending in vowels is formed from bí- + the present stem. To present stems that end in consonants is also suffixed an unstressed -e. The plural imperative is identical to the 2nd-person plural subjunctive. As is the case in the subjunctive of close compound verbs, the bí- prefix is usually omitted; in open compounds it is generally found but may be omitted. INFINITIVE PRESENT STEM SING. IMPT. PL. IMPT. bûn ‘be’ b- bíbe bíbin -bûn ‘become’ -b- -be -bin çûn ç- bíçe bíçin girtin gir- bígire bígirin hildan hil-d- hílde híldin kirin k- bíke bíkin rûniştin rû-nê- rûnê rûnên şustin şo- bíşo bíşon vekirin ve-k- véke vékin Hatin and çûn form imperatives on their second present stems, wer- and 44 THE VERB her- respectively. hatin wer- were werin çûn her- here herin The negative imperative prefix is né-. bûn b- nébe nébin çûn ç- néçe néçin girtin gir- négire négirin hildan hil-d- hilnéde hilnédin kirin k- néke nékin rûniştin rû-nê- rûnénê rûnénên şustin şo- néşo néşon vekirin ve-k- venéke venékin § 17.1. The Vocative. In the vocative the stress shifts to the first syllable of the noun and the following endings are added: MASC. SING. FEM. SING. PLURAL -o -ê -ên/-no Hiş be, kúro! Be quiet, boy! Were, kéçê! Come here, girl! Kárkerên, yekgirin! Workers, unite! Zû bin, hevalno! Be quick, friends! The difference between the -ên ending and the -no ending for the plural is dialectal. § 18. The Simple Past (Intransitive). The simple past (preterite) of intransitive verbs is formed by adding unstressed personal suffixes to the past stem of the verb. The past stem is derived by deleting the -(i)n ending of the infinitive; this will leave a past stem in a consonant, û, î, or a. AFTER CONSONANTS AFTER VOWELS 45 KURMANJI KURDISH -im -in -m -n -î -in -yî -n — -in — -n Examples of the simple past inflection are from hatin ‘to come,’ bûn ‘to be,’ tirsîn ‘to fear,’ and man ‘to remain.’ HATIN BÛN ez hatim em hatin ez bûm em bûn tu hatî hun hatin tu bûyî hun bûn ew hat ew hatin ew bû ew bûn TIRSÎN MAN ez tirsîm em tirsîn ez mam em man tu tirsiyî hun tirsîn tu mayî hun man ew tirsî ew tirsîn ew ma ew man The negative is formed by prefixing né-: ez néhatim em néhatin ez nébûm em nébûn tu néhatî hun néhatin tu nébûyî hun nébûn ew néhat ew néhatin ew nébû ew nébûn ez nétirsîm em nétirsîn ez némam em néman tu nétirsiyî hun nétirsîn tu némayî hun néman ew nétirsî ew nétirsîn ew néma ew néman The Kurdish simple past tense usually corresponds closely to the English past tense. Tu bi pelikan çûyî jor. You went down the stairs. Demekê jî midûrê dibistanê bûm. For a time I was a school principal. Hemû man bêdeng. They all remained silent. However, since the Kurdish simple past tense indicates anything that took place or has taken place in the past, it sometimes corresponds to the English present perfect tense. In journalistic and advertising usage, the simple past tense is used in headlines and story titles, where English normally uses the 46 THE VERB present, as in the following: Kaset û cd derket li hemû mûzîk marketan. The cassette and CD have come to (are available in) all music stores. Konferansa Tevgera Jinên Azad bi dawî bû. The conference of the Liberated Women’s Movement has ended. Li başûrê Kurdistanê di 10 salên dawî 2,733 people have died and 4,913 people de 2733 kes mirin, 4913 kes jî have been wounded over the last ten birîndar bûn. years in the south of Kurdistan. A distinction between the two meanings of the verb bûn, ‘to be’ and ‘to become,’ is shown in the past tense by the placement of the verb. When it means ‘to be’ it follows the predicate, but when it means ‘to become’ the verb comes between the subject and the predicate, as in the following: Ew zabitekî jîr û jêhatî bû. He was a talented and worthy officer. Ew bû zabitekî jîr û jêhatî. He became a talented and worthy officer. § 18.1. The Past Habitual/Progressive (Intransitive). The past habitual (‘I used to go’) and progressive (‘I was going’) is formed by adding the habitual/progressive prefix dí- to the simple past. ez díhatim em díhatin ez díçûm em díçûn tu díhatî hun díhatin tu díçûyî hun díçûn ew díhat ew díhatin ew díçû ew díçûn Gava diçûm dibistanê û vedigeriyam, When I was going to school and coming dêlikek teva du cewrên xwe li ser riya back, a dog and her two pups used to min xuya dibûn û bi min da direyan. appear in front of me and bark at me. Leşkerên tirk wek pelkên daran di ser Turkish soldiers were coming down pişta hespan de dihatin xarê. from the backs of horses like leaves of trees. For past habituals in di-, the negative is regularly formed by prefixing néto the affirmative (and not, as in the present tense, by combining the negative prefix with di-): 47 KURMANJI KURDISH ez nedihatim em nedihatin ez nediçûm em nediçûn tu nedihatî hun nedihatin tu nediçûyî hun nediçûn ew nedihat ew nedihatin ew nediçû ew nediçûn Xweş tê bîra min xew nediket çavên I remember well that sleep used not to min, heya diya min çîrokek ji min re come to my eyes until my mother had negota. told me a story. Rojek derbas nedibû, bê ku ew û mirinê li çavên hev ne nihêrin. Not a day used to go by that he and death did not look each other in the eye. § 18.2. The Simple Past (Transitive): The Ergative. The simple past tense of transitive verbs exhibits a phenomenon called ergativity, whereby (1) the agent is marked, (2) the patient is unmarked, and (3) the verb agrees with the patient. The tense is formed from the past stem of the verb, and to it are added the personal endings of the intransitive past, but these endings agree in person and number with the patient (what we call the direct object). The agent (our subject) is in the oblique case, and the patient is in the nominative—i.e. just the reverse of the present tense. AGENT OBL. CASE PATIENT NOM. CASE min ew I him wî ez he me wê jinê tu that woman you te ew you them VERB AGREES WITH PATIENT ← dît saw-him ← dîtim saw-me ← dîtî saw-you ← dîtin saw-them The first conjugation below reflects changing agents, and even if the 3rdperson singular patient ew were not expressed, it would still be inextricably 48 THE VERB built into dît. The second conjugation reflects changing patients. DIFFERENT AGENTS; STABLE PATIENT min ew dît I saw him me ew dît we saw him te ew dît you saw him we ew dît you saw him wî ew dît he saw him wan ew dît they saw him STABLE AGENT; DIFFERENT PATIENTS wî ez dîtim he saw me wî em dîtin he saw us wî tu dîtî he saw you wî hun dîtin he saw you wî ew dît he saw him wî ew dîtin he saw them Negatives are formed by prefixing né- to the affirmative. wî ez nedîtim he didn’t see me wî em nedîtin wî tu nedîtî he didn’t see you wî hun nedîtin he didn’t see you wî ew nedît he didn’t see him wî ew nedîtin he didn’t see us he didn’t see them The past habitual/progressive is regularly formed by adding the dí- prefix to the verb and nédi- for the negative. min ew didît I used to see him wî ez nedidîtim he didn’t use to see me Pronouns in the oblique case are the clearest indicators of agency. Noun agents are also in the oblique case; however, masculine singular nouns are not marked for the oblique. Alfred Nobel piştî mirina xwe, serweteke mezin li dû xwe hişt. Alfred Nobel left behind a large fortune after his death. Mêrik bi kenekî ne ji dil got… The fellow said with a smile not from the heart… Feminines, of course, are marked in the oblique, as are masculines modified by a demonstrative and all plurals. Jinikekê çaya me anî. A woman brought our tea. Wî mirovî çay anî. That man brought tea. Gundiyan tiştek negot. The villagers didn’t say anything. 49 KURMANJI KURDISH If any one in a series of co-ordinated verbs in the past tense is transitive, the ergative construction takes precedence and the agent is marked. Rewşen Xanimê demekê bêdeng ma, kûr kûr fikirî û cigarek vêxist. Mme Rewshen remained silent for a moment, lost in her thoughts, and lit a cigarette. In the example above, neither ma nor fikirî is transitive, but since the final verb in the series, vêxist, is transitive and therefore ergative, the agent, Rewşen Xanimê, is in the oblique case. The ergative verb agrees in person and number with its patient (logical object), but since the patient is in the nominative case and unmodified plural nouns do not have an external plurality, the number is indicated only by the verb, as in the following examples. Compare: Wê kaxiz ji dest wî girt. She took the page from his hand. Wê kaxiz ji dest wî girtin. She took the pages from his hand. In the second example only the plural verb girtin indicates the plurality of the patient kaxiz. Me ew helbest xwend. We read that poem. Me ew helbest xwendin. We read those poems. Here only the plural verb xwendin indicates the plurality of the patient ew helbest. Just as in a series of co-ordinated nouns only the last noun shows case, in a series of co-ordinated past transitive verbs with a plural patient, only the last in the series shows the plural. In the following example, the patient, destên xwe ‘their hands,’ is plural, but only the second of the two verbs, anîn, shows the plurality. Havalan destên xwe bi hustiwên hev re bir û anîn. The friends reached out and put their hands on each other’s necks. § 18.3. Number Agreement in Extended Ergative Verbs. In the past tenses of compound verbs whose complements can be extended through the construct (like behs kirin ‘to discuss,’ which can be extended as behsa … 50 THE VERB kirin ‘to discuss something,’ and bal kişandin ‘to attract attention,’ which can be extended as bala … kişandin ‘to attract the attention of someone’), the verb agrees in number (singular or plural) with with the last element (not necessarily the last word) in the extension, i.e. if the last element in the extension is plural, it attracts a plural verb, as in the following: Wî ji min re behsa serpêhatiyên xwe kirin. He discussed his adventures with me. Here the extended patient is behsa serpêhatiyên xwe ‘discussion of his adventures,’ and the past verb kirin agrees in the plural with the last element in the sequence, serpêhatiyên xwe ‘his adventures.’ Wêneyên min bala rojname û hunermendan kişandin. My pictures attracted the attention of newspapers and artists. In this example the extended patient is bala rojname û hunermendan ‘the attention of newspapers and artists,’ and the plural verb kişandin agrees with the last element in the sequence, the plural hunermendan ‘artists.’ Kemalîstên tirk fermana bi dardakirina Emîn Elî Bedirxan û hersê kurên wî jî derxistin. The Turkish Kemalists issued an order to hang Emin Ali Bedirkhan and all three of his sons. In this example the extended patient is fermana bi dardakirina Emîn Elî Bedirxan û hersê kurên wî ‘an order to hang Emin Ali Bedirkhan and all three of his sons,’ and the plural verb derxistin agrees with the last element in the extended patient, hersê kurên wî ‘all three of his sons.’ § 18.4. The Past Tense of Xwestin. The past tense of a transitive verb like xwestin is ergative, but the following subjunctive complement is not. Therefore, even when the subject of the two verbs is the same, the two pronouns—one oblique for the ergative and the other nominative for the subjunctive—must be expressed, and optionally ku may intervene between the two verbs. An example is the conjugation of the phrase “I wanted to say”: min xwest (ku) ez bibêjim me xwest (ku) em bibêjin te xwest (ku) tu bibêjî we xwest (ku) hun bibêjin wî xwest (ku) ew bibêje wan xwest (ku) ew bibêjin 51 KURMANJI KURDISH Min xwest ku ez ji gund derkevim û ji xwe re berî berî çem bimeşim. I wanted to get out of the village and walk by myself along the river. Ew tiştê ku di ser û dilê min de bû û min dixwest ez bidim, pêk nehat. The thing that was in my heart and mind, and which I wanted to give, didn’t come to be. § 18.5. Loss of Ergativity. For stylistic reasons ergativity may be lost in past transitive verbs. Normally this happens only in expressions like “I saw that…” and “I said that…” when the verb is followed by a subordinate clause as its complement: Min gotim ku… I said that… (not min got) Min dîtim ku… I saw that… (not min dît) Otherwise all tenses and moods constructed on the past stem of transitive verbs are normally ergative. In some eastern dialects, however, ergativity is sporadically lost. The criteria for this loss have not been determined. Di hundurê kûlê da sosreteke reş û giran dîtin. Inside the hut/hole ??? they saw something unusual, black and heavy. § 19. The Past Participle. The past participle is formed by adding -î to the past stem of verbs whose stems end in consonants. With past stems that end in -a and -û the participle is formed by adding -yî to the past stem. With past stems that end in -î, the past participle is identical to the past stem. CONSONANT STEMS VOWEL STEMS hatin > hat > hatî ‘come’ man > ma > mayî ‘remained’ şustin > şust > şustî ‘washed’ çûn > çû > çûyî ‘gone’ kirin > kir > kirî ‘done’ kirîn > kirî > kirî ‘bought’ In meaning the past participle corresponds fairly closely to the English past participle: hatî ‘come,’ vekirî ‘opened,’ şustî ‘washed’ as in cilên şustî washed clothes welatekî pêşketî an advanced country 52 THE VERB welatekî lipaşmayî a backward country kitêbeke çapkirî a published book Negative participles are formed by prefixing ne-, as in kitêbên neçapkirî unpublished books cilên neşustî unwashed clothes benên nexuyayî unseen bonds tiştên negotî unsaid things § 20. The Present Perfect Tense (Intransitive). The present perfect tense of intransitive verbs is formed from the past stem with the following endings: STEMS ENDING IN CONSONANTS STEMS ENDING IN VOWELS ´-ime ´-ine ´-me ´-ne ´-iye ´-ine ´-ye ´-ne ´-iye ´-ine ´-ye ´-ne Note that the second and third persons singular are identical. Examples from hatin ‘to come’ and çûn ‘to go’ are: ez hatime em hatine ez çûme em çûne tu hatiye hun hatine tu çûye hun çûne ew hatiye ew hatine ew çûye ew çûne The negative is formed by prefixing néez nehatime em nehatine ez neçûme em neçûne tu nehatiye hun nehatine tu neçûye hun neçûne ew nehatiye ew nehatine ew neçûye ew neçûne § 20.1. The Present Perfect Tense (Transitive/Ergative). The present perfect tense of transitive verbs is made from the agent pronouns plus the endings given above, but the construction is ergative, as in the simple past. 53 KURMANJI KURDISH Examples reflect changing agents (‘I, you, &c. have seen him/her/it’) and changing patients (‘he has seen me, you, &c.’). The negative is formed by prefixing né- to the verb. DIFFERENT AGENTS; 3rd-PERSON SINGULAR PATIENT 3rd-PERSON SINGULAR AGENT; DIFFERENT PATIENTS min ew dîtiye me ew dîtiye wî ez dîtime wî em dîtine te ew dîtiye we ew dîtiye wî tu dîtiye wî hun dîtine wî ew dîtiye wan ew dîtiye wî ew dîtiye wî ew dîtine min ew nedîtiye me ew nedîtiye wî ez nedîtime wî em nedîtine te ew nedîtiye we ew nedîtiye wî tu nedîtiye wî hun nedîtine wî ew nedîtiye wan ew nedîtiye wî ew nedîtiye wî ew nedîtine Generally, the present perfect tense of Kurdish corresponds fairly closely to the English present perfect (“I have come”). Min heta niha çar kitêb çap kirine. Until now I have published four books. Gelo ew jî wek min winda bûye. I wonder if he too, like me, has become lost. But the Kurdish present perfect is in all respects the exact equivalent of the Persian past narrative (hatime = ‫آﻣــﺪﻩام‬, maye = ‫)ﻣــﺎﻧــﺪﻩ اﺳــﺖ‬. In Kurdish, as in Persian, the present perfect tense is used for anything that happened in the past, the effects or results of which are felt to be relevant to the present or to the topic at hand. Compare, for instance, the following two examples with their literal translations: Wî tu caran tiştekî wilo negot. “He never said any such thing.” Wî tu caran tiştekî wilo negotiye. “He has never said any such thing.” The first example in Kurdish is a simple statement of fact, as in English. The second example can only be said in English if the person about whom it is said is still alive; if he is dead, we have to say, “He never said any such thing.” In Kurdish, however, the present state of the person is irrelevant; what pertains is whether his not having said any such thing is or is not felt to be relevant to the present—i.e., is it still true and relevant to the topic at 54 THE VERB hand that he never said such a thing? If so, present perfect; if not, simple past. Other examples of usage are as follows: Jiyana min gelekî bi şequdeq bihuriya. Tenê dê bi kurtî bibêjim: Ez di Sibata 1953’an de, li Hedhedkê hatime dinê. Pêşî, min xwendina olî li cem bavê xwe xwendiye. Îcar piştre ez derketime feqîtiyê û li hin medreseyên Kurdistanê geriyame. My life has been spent mostly in misery and hardship. I will only say in brief: I was born in February 1953 in Hedhedik. First I had religious instruction with my father. Then I became a religious student and made the rounds of some schools in Kurdistan. In this example, the writer’s first verb, bihuriya, is in the simple past tense as a statement of fact, while English demands the present perfect. Thereafter, that the writer was born in 1953, studied with his father, became a religious student, etc. are all relevant to his having had a miserable life, which is the topic at hand. Therefore he uses the present perfect tense. Diya min li wir bûye û meriyên wê îroj My mother was from there, and today li her du hêlên xeta hesin bi cîh dibin. her people live on both sides of the “Iron Line.”1 In this example the writer says literally, “my mother has been from there” because the fact that his mother was from there explains why he has relatives on both sides of the border. § 21. The Past Perfect Tense (Intransitive). For intransitive verbs with past stems ending in a consonant, the past perfect tense, which is functionally equivalent to the English past perfect (‘I had come, you had gone’), is formed from the past stem + i + the past tense of bûn ‘to be.’ Verbs with past stems ending in a vowel form the past perfect tense from the simple stem + the past tense of bûn. Some writers shorten a final î in the stem to i (i.e. ez tersibûm ‘I had feared’ for ez tersîbûm). Examples of conjugation are from hatin and çûn. ez hatibûm em hatibûn ez çûbûm 1 em çûbûn The “Iron Line,” coined on the model of the “Iron Curtain,” is Turkey’s border with Syria and Iraq, which divides Kurdistan. 55 KURMANJI KURDISH tu hatibûyî hun hatibûn tu çûbûyî hun çûbûn ew hatibû ew hatibûn ew çûbû ew çûbûn The negative is formed by prefixing né- to the verb: ez nehatibûm em nehatibûn ez neçûbûm em neçûbûn tu nehatibûyî hun nehatibûn tu neçûbûyî hun neçûbûn ew nehatibû ew nehatibûn ew neçûbû ew neçûbûn Tu caran neketibû bîra min ku ezê rojekê ji hîvê jî nefret bikim. Never had it occurred to my mind that one day I would hate the moon. Pirraniya mirovên bajêr çûbûn havîna Most of the people of the city had gone xwe li ber lêvên derî û dengizên to spend their summers on the shores of başûr derbas kin. the seas in the south. Heta demek pir dirêj bi heval û dostên He hadn’t spoken to his friends and budxwe re jî nepeyivîbû. dies for a very long time. § 21.1. The Past Perfect Tense (Transitive/Ergative). The past perfect tense of transitive verbs is formed, like that of intransitive verbs, from the past stem + -i- + the past tense of bûn on the ergative model. Past stems that end in vowels add bû directly without the -i-. min dîtibû I had seen (it) me dîtibû te dîtibû you had seen (it) hun dîtibû you had seen (it) wî dîtibû he had seen (it) wan dîtibû they had seen (it) wî ez dîtibûm he had seen me wî em dîtibûn he had seen us wî tu dîtibûyî he had seen you wî hun dîtibûn he had seen you wî ew dîtibû he had seen him wî ew dîtibûn he had seen them we had seen (it) Îngilîzan zimanê hindiyan qedexe nekiribûn.1 The English had not banned the Indians’ language. Wî pirr caran biryar dabû ku… Many times he had decided that… 1 For the reason for the plural verb, see §18.3. 56 THE VERB Wê rojê, germa havînê tu gêj kiribûyî. On that day the heat of summer had made you dizzy. Bi fikira ku belkî mêrik li hemberî polîsan rabe û tiştekî bi kar bîne, polîsekî demanca xwe jî kişandibû. Thinking that the man might resist the police and use something [as a weapon], a policeman had drawn his pistol. As in Persian, the past perfect tense in Kurmanji is not necessarily tied to a temporal reference as it is in English. It is often used independently for a past tense with a somewhat more remote signification where English would have a simple past, particularly in narratives. Gava min di hevpeyvîneke bi Osman Sebrî re, pirsa ku wî “kengî dest bi nivîsandinê kiriye” kiribû, wî gotibû ku … When, during a conversation with Osman Sebrî, I asked (not “had asked”) when he had started writing, he said (not “had said”) that …1 Tu heta niha li ku bûî? —Ez bîskê Where have you been till now? —I went çûbûm mala Ehmed. Ji wir jî em çûn to Ahmad’s house for a bit. From there komelê. we went to the society.2 § 21.2. The Past Perfect Tense of Karîn and Zanîn. The past perfect form of the verbs karîn ‘to be able’ and zanîn ‘to know’ is used as the normal past tense. Thus ez/min dikaribûm means ‘I was able, I could,’ and min dizanibû means ‘I knew.’ As in the present tense, the negatives of these verbs are formed with ni-, as in ez/min nikaribûm ‘I wasn’t able, I couldn’t’ and min nizanibû ‘I didn’t know.’ Negatives with di- (past perfect progressive) are nedi-. Complements of the past perfect of karîn are either in the present subjunctive or in the past conditional (see §25.1 below). For sequence of tenses in clauses following the past perfect of zanîn, 1 In this example, both Persian and Turkish might very well have the past perfect tense in both positions (‫ﻮدم‬$‫ﺪه ﺑ‬$‫ﺳﻴ‬ $ ‫ﺮ‬$‫ﭘ‬, sormuştum and ‫ﻮد‬$‫ﻪ ﺑ‬$‫ﮔﻔﺘ‬ $ $ , demişti) to imply that significant time has passed since the exchange occurred. Since the example is without a secondary time reference, English would not use the past perfect. 2 Here the first verb is in the past perfect because the speaker wants to convey that he had gone to Ahmad’s house before he and the others went somewhere else. 57 KURMANJI KURDISH see §33. Çavên Nazê nedikaribûn êdî hêstiran paş ve vegerînin. Nazê’s eyes couldn’t keep back the tears any longer. Wî baş dizanibû ku wê rê şaş ne kiriye. He well knew that he hadn’t made a mistake. A rastî me nizanibû em bi ku da diçin. We really didn’t know where we were going. Although, strictly speaking, karîn is intransitive, in the past tenses the choice of nominative or oblique subject pronoun is generally dictated by the complementary verb. When the complementary verb is intransitive, the nominative pronoun is used and karîn is conjugated as an intransitive, as in the following: Ez êdî nikarîbûm li ser lingan rawesti- I was still not able to get up on my legs. yama. Ez nikarîbûm jê re bibûma alîkar. I wasn’t able to be helpful to him. When the complementary verb is transitive, the oblique pronoun is used and karîn is conjugated as an ergative, as in the following: Te nikaribû awirên xwe ji destê çakêtê You couldn’t take your eyes off the vala dûr bikî. empty sleeve of the jacket. Qederê mehekê min nikarîbû dora xwe For a month I wasn’t able to see my surbidîta. roundings.. § 22. The Past Subjunctive. The past subjunctive is formed like the past perfect, but instead of the past tense of bûn, the present subjunctive of bûn is added, and to the whole is added the bí- subjunctive prefix (which may be omitted for stylisic reasons) or né- for the negative. As with all past tenses, the past subjunctive is nonergative with intransitives and ergative with transitives. INTRANSITIVE TRANSITIVE/ERGATIVE ez bihatibim em bihatibin min bidîtibe me bidîtibe tu bihatibî hun bihatibin te bidîtibe we bidîtibe 58 THE VERB ew bihatibe ew bihatibin wî bidîtibe wan bidîtibe ez nehatibim em nehatibin min nedîtibe me nedîtibe tu nehatibî hun nehatibin te nedîtibe we nedîtibe ew nehatibe ew nehatibin wî nedîtibe wan nedîtibe The past subjunctive is used (1) after all constructions that take subjunctive complements (see §16.1) when the complement is in the past. It must have rained.1 Gereke baran barîbe. Ger car caran di hin cihan de çirûskin If occasionally in some places some pêketibin jî, dewlet bi xurtî çûye ser sparks have caught fire, the state has wan, bi girtin, lêdan û îşkencê dengê attacked them forcefully and silenced wan birîne. them through arrest, beating, and torture. (2) In past relative clauses with indefinite antecedents and in past clauses introduced by indefinite relatives like ‘whoever,’ ‘whatever,’ ‘no matter who,’ ‘no matter what,’ ‘however much,’ &c. Kurdên ku navên Salih û Celadet Bedir-Xan nebihîstibin pir kêm in. Kurds who haven’t heard the names of Salih and Jeladet Ali Bedir-Khan are very few. Herçiqas me berhemên van nivîskaran However much we haven’t read the baş nexwendibin jî … works of these writers well… Te îşev çi kiribe divê tu ji min re bibêjî. Whatever you’ve done tonight, you have to tell me. Kê bi çi awayî nerazîbûna xwe ya li dijî dewletê anîbe ziman, kî bi çi awayî li dijî dewletê derketibe, kê bi çi awayî ji bo bidestxistina mafên gelê kurd têkoşîn dabe, dewlet heta niha bi eynî metodên nemirovane çûye ser wan. Whoever has expressed by any means whatsoever his discontentment with the state, whoever has combatted the state by any means whatsoever, whoever has made an effort by any means whatsoever to attain the goals of Kurds, until now the state has attacked them with the same base methods. (3) after weke ku ‘as though’ in the past for hypothetical situations and in 1 Compare this with the present subjunctive: gereke baran bibare ‘it must rain.’ 59 KURMANJI KURDISH relative clauses with an antecedent preceded by wek or mîna ‘like.’ wek peza ku ço li serî ketibe like a sheep on whose head a stick has landed (4) The past subjunctive form of two verbs, karîn ‘to be able’ and zanîn ‘to know,’ is normally used as the present subjunctive. Însan naxwazin ku kesên din bizanibin People don’t want others to know that ew tiştên weha dixwîne. they read such things. Em dixwazin bizanibin. We want to know. Ev girîng e ku mirov bizanibe … It’s important that one know that… Ez ne bawer im ku tu kes bikaribe bibêje ku rewşa ziman û edebiyata kurdî baş e. I don’t believe that anybody could say that the style of Kurdish language and literature is good. Kêm berhemên gel û miletên din yên There are few works belonging to other evqasî kevin hene ku mirov bêî alîsuch ancient groups and nations that kariya ferhengan bikaribe jê têbigihê. one could understand without the help of a dictionary. Ji bo ku bikaribim razêm, min di serê xwe de plana ku ezê çawa û bi çi awayî bikaribim wî benderuhî bikujim, çêdikir. In order that I be able to sleep, I was formulating a plan in my head how and by what means I would be able to kill that creature. § 23. The Future Perfect Tense. The future perfect is formed, like the future, by adding ê to pronominal subjects or wê to nominal subjects, and the verb is in the past subjunctive. Effectively only two verbs, zanîn and karîn, occur in this tense, and they are used for a past modal of ‘know’ and ‘can,’ like the English modal ‘would know’ and ‘would be able’ (and not like the English future perfect ‘I will have known’), as in the following conjugations: zanîn karîn ezê bizanîbim emê bizanîbin ezê bikarîbim emê bikarîbin tê bizanîbî hunê bizanîbin tê bikarîbî hunê bikarîbin 60 THE VERB ewê bizanîbe ewê bizanîbin Êdî her kes wê bizanîbe ku karê me çiqas bi zehmet e. ewê bikarîbe ewê bikarîbin Now everybody would realize how difficult our work was. Tiştek ne dihat xuya kirin ku mirov Nothing could be made out that one bibêje ev ê bikaribe bibe sedema ewte might say it could be the reason for the ewta kûçikên gund. barking of the village dogs. § 24. The Modal of Karîn. The verb karîn ‘to be able’ in the past subjunctive and future perfect corresponds to the English modal ‘could’ or ‘would be able.’ When the modal indicates present or future time it is followed by the present subjunctive, as in the following examples: Gava mirov pirsek wilo ji te bike, tu ê When someone asks you such a quesnavê kîjan romana xwe bidî? —Mition, which novel of yours would you xabin, ez ê nikaribim bersiva vê name? —Unfortunately I wouldn’t be bidim. able to give him an answer. Ji bo ku ew bikaribe alfabeya xwe di nava kurdan de belav bike, ew biryara derxistina kovarekê dide. So that he could spread his alphabet among the Kurds he decided (hist. pres.) to bring out a journal. Asûrî, ereb, ermen, û faris cîranên me Assyrians, Arabs, Armenians, and ne û yên herî kevin in, lê mixabin di Persians are our neighbors, and very bareya edebiyata wan de tiştekî anciently so, but unfortunately I don’t nizanim ku bikaribim ya me û yên know anything about their literatures wan bidim ber hev. that I could compare ours with theirs. § 25. The Irrealis Mood. Kurmanji Kurdish is particularly rich in irrealis— or contrafactual—modals. There are two modal tenses devoted to the irrealis, a past conditional and a past perfect conditional, of which there are two varieties. § 25.1. The Past Conditional. The past conditional is made by prefixing bíand adding the following endings to the past stem. In close compound verbs the bí- prefix may be omitted. 61 KURMANJI KURDISH CONSONANT-FINAL STEM VOWEL-FINAL STEM bí- stem -ama bí- stem -ana bí- stem -ma bí- stem -na bí- stem -ayî bí- stem -ana bí- stem -ya bí- stem -na bí- stem -a bí- stem -ana bí- stem -ya bí- stem -na The past conditional of intransitives is intransitive and non-ergative; the past conditional of transitives is ergative. INTRANSITIVE ERGATIVE ez bihatama tu bihatayî ew bihata em bihatana hun bihatana ew bihatana wî bidîtama wî bidîtayî wî bidîta wî bidîtana wî bidîtana wî bidîtana ez nehatama em nehatana wî nedîtama wî nedîtana The past conditional of bûn does not normally have the bi- prefix when it means ‘be.’ Its conjugation is as follows: ez bûma em bûna tu bûya hun bûna ew bûya ew bûna In compound verbs and when it means ‘become,’ the past conditional of bûn does have the bi- prefix. Nêçirvanekî herî dilêr jî newirî bû bi roj di nav re derbas bibûya. Even a really intrepid hunter would not have dared to pass through in the daytime. Wê ferqiyeta herdu zaravayên kurdî The difference between the two large yên mezin hêdî hêdî hindiktir bibûya. Kurdish dialects would gradually have decreased. The past conditional is used (1) as the complement to the past perfect tense of karîn, which is, as has been stated, the normal equivalent to the English past tense of ‘be able.’ While the present tense of karîn is followed by the present subjunctive, in some dialects the past perfect is followed by the past conditional. See the following examples. 62 THE VERB Wek berê îdî nikaribû barê giran hilgirta. He wasn’t able to carry heavy loads any more like before. Heta destpêka salên 1930’î jî, Celadet Until the beginning of the 1930s Jeladet Ali Bedir-Xan nikaribû nameyek bi Ali Bedir-Khan couldn’t write a letter kurdî binivîsanda. in Kurdish. Her miletî di hundurê sînorên împeretoriyê de dikaribû hunera xwe bi pêş bixista, edebiyata xwe biafiranda, bi zimanê xwe perwerdeya xwe bikira. Every nationality within the borders of the empire could advance its own art, create its own literature, and carry out its education in its own language. (2) It is similarly used as the complement to the past tense of diviya or diva bû, the past and past perfect tenses of divê ‘must, have to,’ and in some dialects as the complement to the past tense of xwestin ‘to want.’ Mîr Zoro nedixwast navê sultan bibihîsta. Mir Zoro did not want to hear the sultan’s name. Di vê dersê de her şagirtekî diva bû li In that class every student had to speak ser serpêhatiyek xwe bipeyiviya yan jî about an adventure or to tell a story he çîrokek ji çîrokên ku bihîstibû bigota. had heard. Li gorî peymana Îngilîz û Sovyetiyan In accordance with the Anglo-Soviet û li gorî biryara Yekîtiya Neteweyan, pact and in accordance with the decidiviyabû Sovyet di demeke kurt de ji sion of the League of Nations, the Îranê derketa. Soviets were supposed to withdraw from Iran in a short time. (3) It is used for the verb bûn ‘to be’ in both parts of a past contrafactual conditional (see §25.2). § 25.2 The Past Perfect Conditionals. There are two past perfect conditionals in use, but they seem to be mutually exclusive, i.e. depending on dialect a given speaker will use either one or the other. (1) The first past conditional is formed by prefixing the subjunctive prefix bí- for the affirmative or né- for the negative and suffixing -(y)a to the past perfect: INTRANSITIVE ez bíhatibûma em bíhâtibûna ERGATIVE min bídîtibûya 63 me bídîtibûya KURMANJI KURDISH tu bíhatibûya ew bíhatibûya hun bíhatibûna ew bíhatibûna te bídîtibûya wî bídîtibûya ez néhatibûma tu néhatibûya ew néhatibûya em néhatibûna min nédîtibûya hun néhatibûna te nédîtibûya ew néhatibûna wî nédîtibûya we bídîtibûya wan bídîtibûya me nédîtibûya we nédîtibûya wan nédîtibûya (2) The second past conditional is formed by prefixing the subjunctive bíor né- and substituting ba- in place of bû in the past perfect. INTRANSITIVE ERGATIVE ez bíhatibam tu bíhatibayî ew bíhatiba em bíhatiban hun bíhatiban ew bíhatiban min bídîtiba te bídîtiba wî bídîtiba me bídîtiba we bídîtiba wan bídîtiba ez néhatibam tu néhatibayî ew néhatiba em néhatiban hun néhatiban ew néhatiban min nédîtiba te nédîtiba wî nédîtiba me nédîtiba we nédîtiba wan nédîtiba The past conditional mood is used in the following instances: (1) In past contrafactual conditional sentences, the verb of the protasis (the “if” clause) is in the past perfect conditional mood (with or without bi-), and the verb of the apodosis (the result clause) is in either the past perfect conditional or the future perfect conditional. When either part of a past contrafactual conditional contains the verb bûn, it is in the past conditional, not the past perfect conditional. When the apodosis contains the verb karîn, it is usually in the future perfect conditional. Ma eger Aristo ne yunanî, lê çînî bûya, If Aristotle had been not Greek but wê bikaribûya felsefa xwe pêk bîne? Chinese, would he have been able to put his philosophy together? Mewlana eger ne parsî, lê meselen bi If Mevlana had written not in Persian tirkî nivîsandibûya, ma wê bikarîbûya but, for instance, in Turkish, he Mesnewî biafirîne? wouldn’t have been able to create the Masnavi, would he? Ger ez neçûbûma Dêrikê, min Girê Tûrcelê nedîtiba. If I hadn’t gone to Dêrik, I wouldn’t have seen Turjel Hill. 64 THE VERB Ez bawer im ger ez ne kurd bûma jî, min ê dîsa li ser kurdan binivîsanda. I believe that, even if I weren’t a Kurd, I would have written about Kurds anyway. Ger wilo dom bikira ew ê şerpeze û dîn If it had continued like that, he would bibûya. have gone crazy. Ger wî destê xwe ji siyasetê bikişanda, If he had given up politics, he would not wî ê hewcedariya ku ew nameyeke have considered it necessary to send a dirêj ji Mustefa Kemal Atatürk re long letter to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. bişîne, nedîta. The phrase ne ji … bûya ‘were it not for …’ is a past conditional construction. Ne ji Celadet Beg bûya, me nizanîbû ku zimanê kurdî zimanê nivîsandinê ye an na. Were it not for Jeladet Beg, we wouldn’t have known whether Kurdish was a language for writing or not. (2) as a past or modal complement of past constructions that demand a subjunctive, like lazim in the first example and complement to an indefinite antecedent in the second:1 Lêbelê lazim bû ku me ji derekê ve dest bi vî karî bikira û me kir. On the other hand, it was necessary that we begin this labor somewhere, and so we did. Rîskeke mezin hebû ku wan ez tewqif There was a great risk that they would bikirama. arrest me. Diviyabû Sovyet di demeke kurt de ji Îranê derketa. The Soviet [Union] was supposed to have withdrawn from Iran in a short time. Xelkê wê çaxê newêrîbûn xwe nêzîkê kesên sosyalîst bikirana. People at that time didn’t dare to get close to socialist persons. 1 Some writers follow the Persian model and use the present subjunctive after these expressions, but the past conditional is much more commonly used. 65 KURMANJI KURDISH Te dixwest jinek porzer û laş spî û dagirtî bi te re baya. You wanted there to be a blond-haired, white-skinned, well-built woman with you. Some writers use it after berî ku ‘before’ with reference to past time:1 Aw nivîsarên ku ji Hawarê re dihatin Did anyone review the writings that şandin, berî ku bihatana weşandin were sent to Hawar before they were kesî ew di ber çav re derbas dikirin? published? (3) Following a past perfect or modal of karîn ‘to be able’ for an unfulfilled, unfulfillable, or unrealized situation, i.e. what one couldn’t do, couldn’t have done, could have done but didn’t, or should or shouldn’t have done. Di mehên destpêkê de ez nikaribûm jê In the initial months I wasn’t able to be re bibûma alîkar. helpful to him. Ew dikaribû bibûya yek ji şaîrên dema He could have become one of the most xwe yê herî navdar. famous poets of his age. Meriv dikaribû ew bi her tiştî bi nav bikirina, lê ne … One could call them anything but not … Îmkanên min ku ez bikaribûma vegeri- There were no possibilities for me that I yama Batmanê, Sêrtê an jî Diyarbecould return to Batman, Siirt, or even kirê bimama, bijiyama, tune bû. Diyarbekir and remain and live there. Kesên ku bikaribana binivîsiyana jî gelekî kêm bûn. Persons who could write were very few. With the addition of ê/wê/dê to the past conditional, a future conditional modal (‘would, should’) is produced. Berî min, kesin din ev şixul bi ser xistibûn. Çima min ê nekira? Others before me had put this business in their heads. Why shouldn’t I do it? Lê wî biryara xwe dabû, wî ê bixwenda. But he had made his decision: he would study. 1 Other writers prefer the present subjunctive exclusively after berî ku. 66 THE VERB Ez pê bawer bûm ku meriv ê bikaribûya, bi zimanê kurdî, romanek ava bikira. I believed that one should be able to produce a novel in Kurdish. Ji rûniştevanên wê, mirov dê bigotaya To judge by the inhabitants of it, one Kurdistan e. would say it was Kurdistan. Ew ê gelek nebaş bibûya. It would have been very bad. (4) After xwezî ‘would that, I wish’ or the verb xwiziyan ‘to wish’ for unfulfillable wishes in the past, often without the bi- prefix. Ax, xwezî wî zanîbûya ez çiqasî bi vê peyvê diêşiyam. Oh, would that he had known how pained I was by those words. Xwiziya wî satila Nazî jî bi xwe re anî ba bo tijî av bike. He wished he had brought Nazi’s bucket too to fill it with water. § 26. The Passive Voice. The passive voice is constructed from the verb hatin (conjugated in all persons, moods, and tenses) plus the infinitive. Examples of the passive are the following conjugations of hatin dîtin ‘to be seen.’ For any other passive verb, simply substitute the infinitive for dîtin. PRESENT INDICATIVE PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE ‘I am seen, &c.’ ‘that I be seen, &c.’ ez têm dîtin em tên dîtin ez bêm dîtin em bên dîtin tu têyî dîtin hun tên dîtin tu bêyî dîtin hun bên dîtin ew tê dîtin ew tên dîtin ew bê dîtin ew bên dîtin FUTURE SIMPLE PAST ‘I will be seen, &c.’ ‘I was seen, &c.’ ezê bêm dîtin emê bên dîtin ez hatim dîtin em hatin dîtin tê bêyî dîtin hunê bên dîtin tu hatî dîtin hun hatin dîtin ewê bê dîtin ewê bên dîtin ew hat dîtin ew hatin dîtin PRESENT PERFECT PAST PERFECT ‘I have been seen, &c.’ ‘I had been seen, &c.’ ez hatime dîtin em hatine dîtin ez hatibûm dîtin 67 em hatibûn dîtin KURMANJI KURDISH tu hatiye dîtin hun hatine dîtin tu hatibûyî dîtin hun hatibûn dîtin ew hatiye dîtin ew hatine dîtin ew hatibû dîtin ew hatibûn dîtin PAST SUBJUNCTIVE PAST CONDITIONAL ‘that I have been seen, &c.’ ‘had I been seen, &c.’ ez hatibim dîtin em hatibin dîtin ez bihatama dîtin em bihatana dîtin tu hatibî dîtin hun hatibin dîtin tu bihatayî dîtin hun bihatana dîtin ew hatibe dîtin ew hatibin dîtin ew bihata dîtin ew bihatana dîtin PAST PERFECT CONDITIONAL I PAST PERFECT CONDITIONAL II ‘I would have been seen, &c.’ ‘I would have been seen, &c.’ ez bíhatibûma dîtin em bíhâtibûna dîtin tu bíhatibûya dîtin hun bíhatibûna dîtin tu bíhatibayî dîtin ez bíhatibam dîtin hun bíhatiban dîtin ew bíhatibûya dîtin ew bíhatibûna dîtin ew bíhatiban dîtin ew bíhatiba dîtin em bíhatiban dîtin In the present and present subjunctive of hatin, the third-person singular forms are sometimes tête and bête (cf. Sorani ‫ـــﻪ‬ jk‫ ﺑ‬betà) instead of tê and bê, as in the first two examples below. The agent of a passive verb is expressed by the circumposition ji aliyê … ve. Em hêvîdar in ew ê jî di nêzîk de bête çap kirin. We are hopeful it will soon be published. Her ziman û edebiyat bi hin nav û kesan ve tête nasîn. Every language and literature is known by a few names and persons. Ji xwe ez ji welatê xwe hatibûm dûrxistin. I had been exiled from my country by my own self. Bi salan bi vî navî ve hatiye naskirin. He has been known for years by this name. Ew di nava kurdên her çar perçeyên welêt de tê naskirin û hezkirin. It is known and loved among Kurds of all four parts of the country. lê carekê hatibû vêxistin û divabû ku were kişandin. but once it had been lit it would have to be smoked. Gavên wî bi lez pêş ve dihatin avêtin. His steps were being taken quickly. 68 THE VERB Sê rê hebûn; an ez dê bihatama girtin, di girtîgehê de biriziyama, an ez ê ji aliyê MÎTê ve bihatma kuştin, an jî min ê welatê xwe terk bikira. There were three alternatives: I would be caught there and thrown into prison, or I would be killed by the MIT,1 or I would leave my country. Stranên ku heta niha nehatine gotin, zimanê ku nehatiye vejandin, edebiyata ku nehatiye nivîsandin, klasîkên ku nehatine çapkirin û belavkirin, kultura ku nehatiye nasandin û gelek tiştên din… Songs that haven’t been sung yet, a language that hasn’t been revived, literature that hasn’t been written, classics that haven’t been printed or published, a culture that hasn’t been recognized, and a lot of other things… § 27. Postposed Verbal Complements. Directional complements often follow the verb directly and are in the oblique case without a preposition. Min pêşniyaza xwe şand Swîsreyê. I sent my proposal to Switzerland. ew çend libên ku digihîştin wan welatan jî even those few copies that reached those countries Ew ji welatê xwe dengbêj û stranbêjên He brings singers from his country to tîne Stenbolê. Istanbul. The postposed complement is sporadically indicated by the addition of e to the verb, but this is not so regular a feature of Kurmanji as it is in Sorani (see Sorani §44). The addition of the directional -e to most forms of the past tense makes most resulting verbs indistinguishable from the present perfect tense, although the third-person singulars are different (pres. perf. hatiye ‘has come’ vs. directional hate ‘came to’). Context usually makes the tense clear. Ez çûme Sûriyê. I went to Syria. Me ji gund barkire Nisêbînê. We moved from the village to Nusaybin. Dengê xişxişekê hate min. A scratching sound came to me (= reached my ears). A postposed third-person pronominal complement is indicated by the ad1 MIT, Millî İstihbarat Teşkilatı, National Intelligence Organization, the Turkish secret police. 69 KURMANJI KURDISH dition of -(y)ê to the verb. Min gotê. I said to him/her. Bavê wî dest avêtê, lê ne gihayê. His father stretched out his hand to him, but it didn’t reach him. § 28. Factitive Verbs. The factitive infinitive, by which an intransitive verb is rendered transitive, is formed from the present stem of the base verb + -andin. The present stem of all such verbs is in -în-. INFINITIVE PRES.STEM FACTITIVE mirin ‘to die’ > mir- > mirandin mirîn- ‘to make die, kill’ şewitan ‘to burn’ > şewit- > şewitandin şewitîn- ‘to make burn, set fire to’ tirsîn ‘to be afraid’ > tirs- > ⎧ Mala wî şewita. ⎨ ⎩ Wan mala wî şewitand. ⎧ Ez pirr ditirsim. ⎨ ⎩ Çi wan ditirsîne? tirsandin tirsîn- ‘to scare’ His house burned down. They burned his house down. I’m very afraid. What is scaring them? Exceptional are the verbs nivîsîn and nivîsandin, both of which mean ‘to write’ without any apparent difference in meaning. § 28.1. The Periphrastic Factitive Construction. “To have something done” or “to make something be done” is commonly achieved by the verb dan ‘to give’ plus the infinitive, as naskirin ‘to know (a person)’ > dan naskirin ‘to introduce,’ zanîn ‘to know (a fact)’ > dan zanîn ‘to cause to know,’ and xuya kirin ‘to be clear’ > dan xuya kirin ‘to make clear.’ Ew xwe dide naskirin. He introduces himself. Wî derd û kulên gundiyan bi eskeran didane zanîn. He used to communicate the villagers’ troubles and sorrows to the soldiers. Gelo tu ê bikaribî xwe bidî naskirin? I wonder if you could introduce yourself. 70 THE VERB Ew di wir de dide xuya kirin, ku kurd There he makes it clear that Kurds are ne tirk in. not Turks. 71 OTHER SYNTACTICAL FEATURES § 29. Subordinate Clauses and Subordinating Conjunctions. Subordinating conjunctions in Kurdish consist generally of prepositions + ku. A short list of common subordinating conjunctions follows: berî (or beriya) ku (+ pres. subj.) ji ber ku because, on account of before the fact that bê(î) ku (+ pres. subj.) without ji bo ku (+ pres. subj.) in order çaxê ku when that da ku (+ pres. subj.) in order that jibona (ku) (+ pres. subj.) in digel ku although order that dema (ku) when ku (+ pres. subj.) in order that gava (ku) when madem ku as long as gelo whether mîna ku as though gorî ku as paşê ku after hema ku as soon as (+ past or piştî ku after pres. subj.) ta ku as long as herwekî ku just as weke (ku) as heta (ku) (+ pres. subj.) in order wexta (ku) when that; (+ past) until Conjunctions that mean ‘after’ (paşê ku, piştî ku) are followed by an indicative verb, present or past according to sense. Paşê ku min pîsîtiya wan dît, ez ji wan After I saw how bad they were, I avoided bi dûr ketim. them. Piştî ku vî merovî çend gotinên xwe peyivî, şagirt rûniştin. After this man spoke his few words, the pupils sat down. Conjunctions that mean ‘before’ are normally followed by a present subjunctive verb. The correct tense for English translation is gained from context. Berî ku ewrekî reş yê şînê bi ser vî bajarî de bigire, ji pişt çiyan rojeke bêhawe xweş bilind dibe. Before a black cloud of mourning covers this city, an extraordinarily nice day breaks from behind the mountains. 72 OTHER SYNTACTICAL FEATURES Beriya ku em dest bi dersên xwe bikin, Before we start our lessons, I want to dixwazim ji we re çêlî tiştekî bikim. discuss something with you. Berî ku ez bersiva vê pirsa te bidim, ez Before I answer this question of yours, tiştekî biçûk li ser gotina we bêjim. let me say a little something about what you all have said. Berî ku ez derkevim derveyî welêt, min Before I wound up outside the homeland, soranî nebihîstibû. I hadn’t heard Sorani. Berî ku leşker li ber xwe binêrin, Ferzende ajote ser wan Before the soldiers looked in front of themselves, Ferzende attacked them. Conjunctions that mean ‘when’—dema (ku), gava (ku), çaxê (ku), wexta (ku)—are normally followed by an indicative verb (past, present, or future according to sense). Gava ku mirov ji derve li avahiya hotêlê dinihêrî, hotel gelekî xweş û luks xuya dikir. When one was looking at the hotel building from the outside, it looked very nice and deluxe. Pirr nivîskar, dema dixwazin li ser kurdan binivîsin, jiyana kurdî di pencerek teng de dibînin. Many writers, when they want to write about Kurds, see Kurdish life through a narrow window. Dema em dê bighêjin Ewropa keçên porzer li Ferensa û li Swêdê wê li ser porê me dîn bibin. When we get to Europe, blonde girls in France and Sweden will go crazy over our hair. Dibe ku anuha pir neyêşe, lê wexta ku It shouldn’t hurt much anymore, but êşiya, tu bibêje, em derman bidine te. when it hurts, you tell us so that we may give you some medicine. All conjunctions that mean ‘in order that’ are followed by a present subjunctive verb (except karîn and zanîn, which use the past subjunctive form for the present subjunctive). Ji bo ku bê tirs û fikarê bikaribim razêm, min di serê xwe de pîlana ku ezê çawan bikaribim wî benderuhî bikujim, çêdikir. In order that I might be able to sleep without fear or worry, I was formulating a plan in my head how I could kill that creature. 73 KURMANJI KURDISH Divê tu herî bajêr, ji bo ku tu têkevî mektebê. You have to go to town in order that you attend to school. Serdar Îhsan Nûrî, Ferzende digel şêst Commander Ihsan Nuri, sent Ferzende siwarî şande nav eşîrên serhedan da with sixty cavalrymen among the tribes ku sedek hesp peyda bike. of the borders in order to find a hundred horses. Em radipelikîn penceran da ku em çîrokan bibihîzin. We used to creep up to the windows in order to hear the stories. Conjunctions like weke ku ‘as,’ which do not necessarily take a following subjunctive, may do so when doubt is implied. Weke ku hun zanin… As you may know… Compare the above example with the following, where no doubt is implied: Weke ku hun dizanin… As you know… The conjunction her ku has a variety of meanings for translation, but the basic meanings are “the more…the more” when there is a comparative involved (or implied) and “every time” for temporals. Her ku roj bilind dibe, Mehabadî dikevin tevgerê. The higher the sun rises, the more the Mahabadis fall into activity. Her ku ber bi dibistanê tê û nêzîktir dibe, bêtir jî diyar dibe ku kalekî salmezin e. As he approaches the school, the closer he comes, the more it becomes apparent that he is an old man of great age. Her ku hejmareke nû ya kovarê derdiket, ew mîna zarokekî dilşa dibû. Every time a new issue of the journal would come out, he used to be as happy as a child. Her ku with a 3rd-person singular form of çûn in an appropriate tense is used for the constant increase of something (“to keep getting…”). Dengê ji ezmên herku diçû bêtir dibû. The noise from the sky kept getting louder. Her ku diçe dunya piçûk dibe. The world keeps getting smaller. 74 OTHER SYNTACTICAL FEATURES Tirs herku çû bêtir bû û tamarên Şerko sist kirin. The fear kept getting more and weakening Sherko’s nerves. § 30. Relative Clauses. Relative clauses in Kurdish are introduced by the relative pronoun ku (or the variant ko) ‘who, which, that.’ Unmodified antecedents of the relative are in the construct case (tiştê ku ‘the thing that,’ sala ku ‘the year which,’ welatekî ku ‘a country that,’ tiştekî ku ‘a thing which,’ tiştên ku ‘things that,’ çîrokên ku ‘stories which’). Modified antecedents have the construct extender (zimanê me yê ku ‘our language, which,’ dayka xwe ya ku ‘his mother, who,’ tiştên din yên ku ‘other things which’). When relative clauses are embedded within the main clause, there is no distinction between restrictive and nonrestrictive relative clauses. Min meqaleyên ku bi zimanê kurdî hatibûne nivîsandin dîtin. I saw articles that had been written in the Kurdish language. Ji dengê zarokên ku li der û dor dilîstin There was no sound from the children pêştir deng tunebû. who had been playing in the vicinity before. Digel ku gelek salên dirêj di ser re Although many long years have passed, derbas bûne, ew alfabe û rêzimana the alphabet and grammar that were ku ji aliyê Celadet Bedir-Xan ve hatiye established by Jeladet Bedir-Khan and danîn û di kovarên wî de hatiye bikar- were used in his journals satisfy the anîn, îro jî bersiva hewcedariya needs of the Kurdish language even zimanê kurdî dide. today. Ew wî zimanê ku li ber mirinê ye jîndar dike. He is revivifying this language, which is on the verge of dying. When relative clauses follow the main clause they are introduced by yê ku, ya ku, and yên ku and are nonrestrictive. Dengê segên gund Şerko dîsa hişyar kir, yê ku ji kêfxweşiyê hema hindik mabû bifire. The sound of the village dogs once again awoke Sherko, who was almost flying from happiness. Li ser milek wî jî tûrek mezin hebû, yê ku di hindirê xwe de şekir û tiştên din yên ku ji qaçaxçiyan hatibûn kirîn, dihewandin. Over one of his shoulders there was a large sack, which contained sugar and other things that had been bought from smugglers. 75 KURMANJI KURDISH With the exception of temporal expressions (‘the year in which,’ ‘the days during which,’ etc), in relative clauses in which the antecedent is other than the subject or object of the verb in the relative clause (i.e. types like ‘the thing of which I was afraid,’ ‘the man with whom I went’), the syntax of the relative is indicated by a referent pronoun (literally “the thing which I was afraid of it,” “the man who I went with him”). Tiştê ku Celadet Bedir-Xan jê ditirsiya, bi serê kurdên Tirkiyeyê ve hatiye. The thing of which Jeladet Bedir-Khan was afraid has happened to the Kurds of Turkey. Gelo tu çima naçî wî welatê ku tu li wir I wonder why you don’t go to that counji dayikê bûyî û evqasî jê hez dikî? try, where you were born and which you like so much. Mêrik odeya min û nivînê ku ezê tê de The fellow showed me my room and the razêm, nîşanî min da. bed in which I would sleep. Temporal expressions do not normally have a referent pronoun, and the relative ku after temporal expressions is usually best translated as ‘when.’ Piştî sala 1972 ku derketim Ewrûpê… After the year 1972, when I went off to Europe… Piştî 12ê Êlûna 1980, ku cunta sisiyan After September 12, 1980, when the a faşîst li Tirkiyê hate ser hikim… third fascist junta came to power in Turkey… Relatives without noun antecedents use yê ku ‘he who,’ ya ku ‘she who,’ and yên ku ‘those who’ or kesê ku ‘one who,’ kesa ku ‘one (f) who,’ and kesên ku ‘persons who.’ Ya ku ji min re derî vekir berdestka wê The one (fem.) who opened the door for bû. me was her servant. Îro di nava kurdên me yên Sûriyê de yên ku kurdî bi alfabeya erebî dinivîsînin, çi bigire tune ye. Today among our Kurds in Syria, those who write Kurdish in the Arabic alphabet are practically nil. Ew kesên ku dixwazin huner û edebiyat bikevin bin bandora polîtîkaya rojê… Those persons who want art and literature to come under the influence of the politics of the day… 76 OTHER SYNTACTICAL FEATURES As in English, there is an occasional elipsis of the relative ku when the relative is the object of the verb in the relative clause. Min fahm kir ku tiştên min nivisîbûn, ne şiîr bûn. I understood that the things I had written were not poetry. Te xwest bibî başoke, ew teyrê te pirr jê You wanted to become a falcon, that hez dikir. bird you liked so much. § 31. The Emphatic Jî. The Kurmanji enclitic jî, equivalent to the Sorani enclitic ‫ـــﺶ‬f -îsh, the Persian ‫ﱒ‬, and the Turkish de/da, emphasizes the word that precedes it. Its meanings range from ‘even’ to ‘also,’ but it is often untranslatable since the function it serves is taken care of in English by voice inflection and intonation (italicization or underscore in writing). It is often helpful to think of jî as a spoken underscore. Bêguman ew ne Xweda ye. Kêmasî û şaşiyên wî jî hene. Of course, he isn’t God. He too has weaknesses and faults. Min mamostetiya zimanê erebî dikir û I used to teach the Arabic language, and ez demekê jî midûrê dibistanê bûm. also for a time I was a school principal. Di gelek waran de ew hê jî mamostayiya me dike. In many respects he is still teaching us. § 32. Expressions of Temporal Duration. There are two constructions for temporal duration, the first of which is the more commonly used. (1) The formula for present expressions of temporal duration (“I’ve been here for two hours”) is as follows: (bi) length of time + e (or in) + (optional ku) + present-tense affirmative verb or present-perfect negative verb. Du saet e ku ez li vir im. I’ve been here for two hours. …zimanekî mîna kurdî ku bi sedsalan …a language like Kurdish, which has e nebûye zimanê nivîsandinê not been a language of writing for centuries Ji kengê ve ye ku tu bi kurdî dinivîsî? Since when have you been writing in Kurdish? 77 KURMANJI KURDISH Hefteyek e ku min ew nedîtime. I haven’t seen him for a week. Bîst û yek sal e ku ez neçûme welêt. I haven’t gone to the homeland for twenty-one years. Ev heftê sal in ku gelê kurd ji derdê vê The Kurdish nation has been complainnexweşiya han dinale. ing of the pain of that very sickness for these seventy years. In past expressions of temporal duration (“I had been here for two hours when…”), the formula is: length of time + bû + (ku) + past-tense affirmative verb or past-perfect negative verb. Du saet bû ku ez li vir bûm. I had been here for two hours. Bîst û yek sal bû ku ez neçûbûm welêt. I hadn’t been to the homeland for twenty-one years. (2) The second construction literally means “this is my (X amount of time) that I am (doing something),” as in the following: Ev panzdeh salên min in ez têgihîştime, ku welatekî bê ziman ne tu welat e. For fifteen years now I’ve understood that a country without a language is no country (lit. “these are my fifteen years I have understood that…”). Ev 55 salên min in ku ez di nava vê xebatê de me. I’ve been in the midst of this struggle for 55 years now (lit. “these are my 55 years that…”). Deh salên te li şehri Parîsê derbas bûbûn. You had been in the city of Paris for ten years (lit. “your ten years had passed”). § 33. Sequence of Tenses After Past Verbs of Perception. While presenttense verbs of perception (seeing, hearing, thinking, realizing, feeling, guessing, &c.) do not pose any particular problem for English-speakers, past-tense verbs of perception are followed, as in Persian, by the tense of the verb that would have been used by the speaker at the time of the perception. In English all such verbs are thrown back by one tense. 78 OTHER SYNTACTICAL FEATURES Wî hîs kir ku tenê ye. He felt he was alone. Ez têgihîştim ku zimane- I came to the realization kî min yê taybetî heye. that I had a special language. (i.e., at the time, he would have verbalized his feelings as “I am alone”) (i.e. what I said to myself at the moment of realization was, “I have a special language”) Min dîtim ku mamoste ne tê ye. I saw that the teacher was (i.e. what I would have not there. said to myself at that moment was, “The teacher is not here”) Em difikirîn ku ev roj ê neyê. We used to think that this day wouldn’t come. Mîna ku dizanibû wê As though he knew the polîs destê wî kelemçe police were going to bikin, herdu destên xwe handcuff him, he exdirêjî polîs kirin. tended both his hands toward the policemen. (i.e. what we used to think was, “That day will not come”) (i.e., at the time, he would have said to himself, “the policemen are going to handcuff me”) Min zanîbû wê saetê ava I realized that at that hour (i.e., at the time, I would germ peyda nabe. there was no hot water to have said to myself, be found. “there is no hot water”) § 34. Questions with Ma. The particle ma, which is the equivalent of the Persian ‫ ـﻣﮕـﺮ‬, introduces an affirmative question to which a negative answer is expected (English, “you don’t know, do you?”). Ma rast e? That’s not right, is it? Ma ez ê karibim careke din rûyê dinyê I won’t ever be able to see the face of the bibînim? earth again, will I? Ma ji bo me tu derên bê tehlîke, bê tirs hene? For us there aren’t any places without danger, without fear, are there? It also introduces a negative question to which an affimative answer is expected (English, “it rained last night, didn’t it?”). Ma em jî eynî tişt nakin? We do the same thing, don’t we? 79 KURMANJI KURDISH Ma tu ne herdem di odakê de yî? You are always in a room, aren’t you? The reply to such a question need not be in the affirmative, but an affirmative expectation is implied by the asking of such a question, as in the following exchange: Gava mêrik bêdeng ma, jinikê dîsa got, —Erê, ma ne wilo ye? —Na, ne wilo ye! mêrik bi hêrs got. When the husband remained silent, the wife said once again, “Yes, that’s how it is, isn’t it?” “No,” the husband said irritatedly, “it’s not like that!” Ma also has the contradictory force of ‘but,’ particularly in questions that also contain an interrogative (‘who,’ ‘where,’ ‘why’) or gelo, which introduces a “wondering” querry and can be implied. Çavên te girtî bûn û germa dijwar laşê te sist kiribû, te gêj kiribû. Ma hişê te li ku bû dema telefona li ber te, li ser masa te, lê xist? Your eyes were closed, and the oppressive heat had weakened your body, had made you dizzy. But where was your mind when the telephone in front of you on your desk rang? Erê, ez im, ma tu kî yî? Yes, it’s me, but who are you? Min xwe dît di Xoşnav de… ma gelo ewê xwe di hinekên din de bibîne? I saw myself in Khoshnav, but I wondered if he would ever see himself in others. Ma saet çand e? I wonder what time it is. 80