STATUS REPORT ON RARE AND ENDEMIC SPECIES AND OTHER MARINE FAUNA OF CONSERVATION CONCERN IN THE NORTHERN RIVERS CMA REGION, NEW SOUTH WALES Part 1: Marine Invertebrates Janine L. Baker J.L. Baker, Marine Ecologist, Hove, SA 5048. Email: jannebaker@bigpond.com Photo (c) N. Coleman Report for Northern Rivers Catchment Management Authority, New South Wales June 2013 Acknowledgments Thanks to the Northern Rivers Catchment Management Authority (NR CMA) for providing funding support for this review to be written. Particular thanks go to Bronwyn Scott, Catchment Officer at Northern River CMA, for ongoing contract support and advice. Thanks to Des Beechey for the generous use of his high quality images of gastropods. Thanks also to the marine photographers who provided images for this report. In alphabetical order, they include: Phil Buckland, Lynda Clarke, Neville Coleman, David Muirhead, Denis Riek, and Roger Smisek. A number of images from public domain web sites have also been used - thanks go to N. Holmes (at AIMS Corals of the World http://coral.aims.gov.au), T. Viglas (at Creative Commons), R. Ling (www.rling.com), and C. Ordelheide and S. Shebs (both at Wikimedia Commons). An image by B. Rudman, from the Australian Museum web site, has also been used in this report. Thanks to B othe Ma k O Loughli fo p o idi g ad i e about the identity of various echinoderm photographs. I thank Denis Riek (http://www.roboastra.com/) for sharing with me some of his formidable knowledge of the opisthobranch fauna of northern New South Wales. I am grateful to Dr Graham Edgar, University of Tasmania, who provided part funding for a long term literature review that I undertook, enabling the background information contained in some of this report to be collected from 2007 to 2010. This report forms one of the smaller, regional-level components of a southern Australian review of threatened marine species upon which I have been working intermittently with Graham Edgar since 2007. Dedication This report is dedicated to the late Neville Coleman OAM - marine explorer, environmental photographer, photo-journalist, marine educator, conservationist, philosopher, publisher and poet. Neville was recognised as one of the most accomplished marine natural history authors in the world. Neville dived around Australia and the Indo-Pacific for many years, and numerous species that he first recorded, were later described by taxonomists. His species collections have greatly assisted marine research throughout Australia and the Pacific. Neville was a research associate with the Australian Museum, and a consultant at Queensland Museum. This report has been enhanced by the contribution of Ne ille s photographs from Lord Howe Island. 2 STATUS REPORT ON RARE AND ENDEMIC SPECIES AND OTHER MARINE FAUNA OF CONSERVATION CONCERN IN THE NORTHERN RIVERS CMA REGION, NEW SOUTH WALES Part 1: Marine Invertebrates SUMMARY Marine management plans and strategies within New South Wales need to consider the conservation of threatened marine species, including invertebrates, as part of N“W s long-term commitment to biodiversity protection. Evaluating which species may qualify as rare and/or potentially threatened is a key step in the process. This review provides species-specific information from one catchment management region in NSW (Northern Rivers CMA region) which can assist threatened species evaluation processes at a larger, State-wide scale in future. The review is based on a detailed search for information over several years, regarding the current taxonomy, distribution, habitat, depth range, relative abundance and apparent conservation status (according to IUCN criteria) of marine invertebrates from 16 major taxonomic groups. This report describes the apparently rare species and endemic species, and other marine invertebrates of conservation concern in the NR CMA region, and outlines their currently known distribution in the region. The species are also tabled according to any of 35 characteristics that determine vulnerability of marine species to decline. A potential category of threat is proposed, at a State level, following IUCN criteria where possible. Potential threatening processes are also discussed, and recommendations are made for threat abatement, and for conservation of habitats, species and populations for marine invertebrates in the NR CMA, over the long term. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 5 Threatened Species Legislation and Definitions............................................................................ 7 Characteristics that Determine Vulnerability of Marine Species................................................ 11 Methods........................................................................................................................................ 12 Results - Species Accounts............................................................................................................ 15 Anthozoa (Anemones and Corals)................................................................................................. 15 Ascidiacea (Sea Squirts)................................................................................................................. 21 Asteroidea (Sea Stars).................................................................................................................... 25 Bivalvia (Bivalve Shells).................................................................................................................. 26 Brachiopoda (Lamp Shells)............................................................................................................. 34 Cephalopoda (Squids, Cuttlefishes and Octopus).......................................................................... 35 Crinoidea (Feather Stars)............................................................................................................... 35 Decapoda (Shrimps, Prawns, Crabs).............................................................................................. 36 Echinoidea (Sea Urchins and Sand Dollars).................................................................................... 38 Holothuroidea (Sea Cucumbers).................................................................................................... 39 Ophiuroidea (Brittlestars).............................................................................................................. 41 Opisthobranchs / Heterobranchia (Sea Slugs / Nudibranchs)....................................................... 42 Polyplacophora (Chitons)................................................................................................................49 Prosobranchs (Sea Snails, Gastropod Shells)................................................................................. 51 Pycnogonida (Sea Spiders)............................................................................................................. 78 Stomatopoda (Mantis Shrimps)..................................................................................................... 79 Threatening Processes.................................................................................................................. 80 Fishing and Collecting.................................................................................................................... 80 Trawling......................................................................................................................................... 83 Introduced Species........................................................................................................................ 84 Estuarine and Nearshore Habitat Modification and Pollution....................................................... 90 Coastal Development..................................................................................................................... 93 Climate Change.............................................................................................................................. 94 Recommended IUCN Listings........................................................................................................ 96 Summary of Recommendations................................................................................................. 125 References................................................................................................................................... 127 4 1. Introduction To date, no formal and Statewide evaluation of potentially threatened marine invertebrates in New South Wales has occurred. This report makes one contribution to that process, by evaluating the apparently rare/uncommon, endemic and other potentially threatened marine invertebrates in the Northern Rivers Catchment Management Authority (NR CMA region). It is hoped that such information can eventually form part of a more co-o di ated “tate ide assess e t of N“W s are, endemic and other potentially threatened marine invertebrates. In the State of New South Wales, marine species of conservation concern may be listed under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995, or the Fisheries Management (General) Regulation 2002, under the Fisheries Management Act 1994. There are currently 2 listed invertebrate species in NSW that are presumed extinct (one worm, and one amphipod crustacean), plus one marine slug listed as Critically Endangered, and a fairy shrimp that is listed as Vulnerable. Only 4 of the 35 listed marine threatened species in NSW are invertebrates. At a national scale, Ponder (Senior Fellow at Australian Museum), Hutchings and Chapman produced an overview of the conservation of marine invertebrates in Australia, in 2002. That report discussed the state of k o ledge of Aust alia s a i e i e te ate fau a, i pedi e ts to i p o ed k o ledge, threatening processes, an overview of State legislation and policies for marine species and habitat protection, and recommendations for conservation, policy, research, management, education and community involvement. The Ponder et al. report included a detailed overview of the characteristics that can be used to determine whether a species is potentially vulnerable, and many of these are discussed in later sections of this report. The Ponder et al. report did not include an assessment or listings of potentially threatened marine invertebrate species at a national level, nor for each State, but provided one or a few examples for nine phyla. Prior to the 2002 national overview, Ponder and Grayson produced a report in 1998 on the commercial marine molluscs of potential conservation concern, based on their distribution, commonness or rarity and value for trade, and a number of species discussed in that report are also relevant here, due to their occurrence in the NR CMA region, as discussed below. The Ponder and Grayson report used a rating s ste of A ost th eate ed to E least th eate ed fo shells i the o e ial trade, based on a summation of scores from 1 to 5, for the following criteria:     Distribution: a gi g f o e est i ted = fou d o l i a s all a ea ithi a “tate o Te ito and not elsewhere unless near a border (and the species has a very restricted distribution on the other side of the border), to sp ead = idesp ead i the “tate o te ito ; Development: a gi g f o di e t e thi eggs, ofte i u ated, a d e thi ju e iles to pla ktot ophi la al stage that feeds o pla kto ); Accessibility: a gi g f o i te tidal e access, other than by deep sea trawling); Market value: a gi g f o mo e tha $ eadil a essi le to ve deep ate pe spe i e to less tha $ e diffi ult to per specimen. Additional criteria used in the Ponder and Grayson (1998) assessment that were not ranked from 1 to 5 included fecundity (listed as low, medium or high, where known), and relative abundance / size of local populations (where known). The final categories that were assigned following summation of criteria e e A s o es of less tha 8 ; B > 8, to 9.5); C > 9.5 to 11.5 ; D > 11.5 to 13.5 a d E > . . In various sections of this report, the A to E categories used by Ponder and Grayson are included in the discussion for particular taxa found in NR CMA region. 5 At a State level, a number of threatened species assessments for marine invertebrates have been undertaken in south-eastern Australia, and the work from Victoria and Tasmania are of particular note. O Ha a a d Ba a d O Ha a reported on the molluscs, echinoderms and decapod crustaceans of conservation concern in Victoria, particularly species known from very few locations, even after extensive searches. Norman and Sant (1995) also discussed conservation issues for a number of marine invertebrates in Victorian waters. In Tasmania, Edgar and Samson (2004) and Edgar et al. (2005) reported on the apparent decline in the species diversity of marine molluscs in that State over the 20 th century. Compared with work on rare and threatened bony fishes and sharks (e.g. Pollard et al. 1998; Otway and Parker 2000; Purcell et al. 2010, 2011, Smith et al. 2010), there has been a paucity of targetted studies to determine the distribution and abundance of rare and endemic marine invertebrate species in NSW, including the NR CMA region. Assessments are also lacking to determine which marine invertebrate species may qualify as being considered rare or threatened. Most of the work in NSW relating to marine invertebrates has been experimental and mensurative studies by scientists on the distribution and ecology of common rocky shore invertebrates (e.g. Fairweather 1985; Underwood 1990, Jeffery 2000, Underwood et al. 2006, Hidas et al. 2010, and many others), and marine pollution studies (e.g. Smith 1996). In recent years, a number of invertebrate studies have been undertaken at various marine parks in New South Wales, such as the Solitary Islands in the NR CMA region. Examples from Solitary Islands include studies focussed on reef molluscs (Harrison et al. 2006); macro-invertebrates within estuaries (e.g. Hastie 2006); corals (Harriot et al. 1995; Harriot and Banks 1995; SURG 2009) and various other groups (NSW Marine Parks Authority 2010). At various zones in the Cape Byron Marine Park, a study has been undertaken on the diversity and abundance of soft-bottom epifauna and infauna (research by D. Butcher, cited by NSW Marine Parks Authority 2007). Of relevance to assessment of marine invertebrate status in NSW is the comprehensive and regularly updated resource on the prosobranch gastropods of New South Wales, compiled by D. Beechey, Senior Fellow of the Australian Museum (http://www.seashellsofnsw.org.au/). A relative assessment of rarity or commonness is provided for each species, based on distribution and known records. Additionally, during the past decade, some useful projects have been undertaken by snorkellers, divers / dive groups and marine photographers in New South Wales, to document place records for various invertebrate taxa, including some rare and endemic species. Examples include:  photographs of gastropod species recorded by D. Riek in the Cape Byron and Brunswick River area and surrounds (http://www.roboastra.com/brunslist.html);  photographs of invertebrate species recorded by divers at Julian Rocks (www.julianrocks.net), and  photographs of molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms in the Solitary Islands Marine Park, but the Solitary Islands Underwater Research Group (SURG) http://www.surg.org.au/show_family.php) 6 2. Threatened Species Legislation and Definitions The following summary of threatened species legislation and definitions of relevance to invertebrate conservation status assessment in NR CMA region, is provided from the report by Baker (2011). Threatened species legislation is designed to prevent the decline (and eventual extinction) of rare or endangered species, by preventing over-exploitation, and/or by protecting critical habitats. Recovery programs are often formulated for listed threatened species. Marine threatened species listings in most States of Australia mainly include marine mammals and birds. A small number of marine invertebrates a e listed u de the Co o ealth s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) as threatened species, and these include the Derwent River Seastar Marginaster littoralis from Tasmania (listed as Critically Endangered), and the Tasmanian Live-bearing Seastar Patiriella (= Parvulastra) vivipara (listed as Vulnerable). Under the provisions of the EPBC Act, conservation advice and recovery plans are developed for listed species, and for listed ecological communities. Key threatening processes are also recognised, and threat abatement plans are developed to try to reduce the impacts of threatening processes. Most States in Australia have specific legislation under which marine invertebrate species can be listed as threatened (Table 1). However, in New South Wales and South Australia, marine invertebrates can be listed as threatened under existing fisheries legislation. In NSW, there is a Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995. Table 1: Species listed under threatened species Acts or other relevant legislation in southern Australian States. Categories for listing are as follows (alphabetical order): CEn = Critically Endangered; E = Endangered; PEx = Presumed Extinct; R = Rare; T = Threatened; Vu = Vulnerable. State NSW Marine Threatened or Protected Species Legislation Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 Fisheries Management Act 1994 Victoria Fisheries Management (General) Regulation 2002 Wildlife Act 1975 Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 Marine Invertebrates Listed Metaprotella haswelliana Haswells caprellid (PEx) Hadrachaeta aspeta marine worm (PEx) % of all Marine Species and Species Population Listings that are Invertebrates 11% (= 4 of 35 species and species populations) Smeagol hilaris a marine slug (CEn) Branchinella buchananensis Buchanans fairy shrimp (Vu) Amphiura triscacantha a brittle star (T) Apsolidium densum and A. handrecki seacucumbers (both T) Athanopsis australis Southern Hooded Shrimp (T) Bassethullia glypta a chiton (T) Eucalliax tooradin a ghost shrimp (T) Michelea microphylla a ghost shrimp (T) Ophiocomina australis a brittle star (T) Pentocnus bursatus a sea-cucumber (T) Platydoris galbana a marine opisthobranch (T) Ralpharia coccinea a stalked hydroid (T) Rhodope sp. a marine opisthobranch (T) Thyone nigra a sea-cucumber (T) Trochodota shepherdi a sea-cucumber (T) 7 35% (14 of 40 species, including marine birds) Table 1 (cont.) State Tasmania Marine Threatened or Protected Species Legislation Marine Invertebrates Listed Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 Patiriella (= Parvulastra) vivipara LiveBearing Seastar (Vu) % of all Marine Species and Species Population Listings that are Invertebrates 14% (= 4 of 29 species, including marine birds) Marginaster littoralis a seastar (En) Gazameda gunnii Gunn's Screw Shell (Vu) Smilasterias tasmaniae a seastar (R) South Australia Western Australia National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 Fisheries Management Act 2007 Wildlife Conservation (Specially Protected Fauna) Notice 2010, under the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 (no marine invertebrates listed under threatened species legislation) 0% (0 of 36 species, excluding Schedule 3 Migratory birds protected under an international agreement) In Victoria, species listed under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 as threatened, have Action Statements prepared. These statements detail the species description, distribution, habitat, life history, ecology, and conservation status at national and Victorian scales. Threats are also listed, with past management actions and future management objectives to ameliorate threats. In Victoria, in addition to the current listings under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 (Table 1), there is also an Advisory List (DSE 2009) with further recommendations for formal listing under the Act. At a glo al s ale, the atego ies of the IUCN s ‘ed List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2001) no longer i ludes a atego of a e , ut so e spe ies hi h a ualif as a e due to e s all o est i ted population (with evidence of fluctuation or decline), or very restricted geographic range, may instead be listed as critically endangered, endangered or vulnerable, depending on specific numeric criteria. For example, according to IUCN criteria, if a species is known from 5 or fewer locations, it may satisfy criteria for listing as vulnerable. Many other criteria, including those relating to extent of occurrence and area of occupancy are also used to assess status, as shown in Table 2 below. 8 Table 2: Summary of the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee 2011). 9 Ideally, species assessments using the criteria listed in Table 2 above should only be undertaken using all known data on the range, and number of records. Also, even if a species qualifies for listing using any of the categories or criteria listed in Table 2, the accuracy of the assessment is time-specific, and may be revised in future as better information becomes available regarding distribution and relative abundance. This is particularly true for many marine invertebrate species, which are known from very few, opportunistically collected records, and the true distribution may be much broader (and abundance may be considerably higher), than is considered from the currently available records. For many of the apparently uncommon marine invertebrate species in New South Wales, targetted searches of records have not been undertaken, and for some species, the few examples known were incidental, recorded during general dredging or trawl surveys, or surveys undertaken for some other purpose. Although not included as an IUCN category, an invertebrate spe ies a e o side ed a e a o di g to geographic range (often narrow, in the case of rare species); narrow habitat range / specificity, and small local population size (Davey 1993). Species which satisfy all three criteria are intrinsically ul e a le to de li e Po de et al. . Ma spe ies a e atu all a e , due to lo populatio numbers (local abundances) at any one location across the range, but may not be considered threatened due to their broad geographical distribution and relatively high overall abundance (Jones and Kaly 1995). The o ept of a e diffe s a o di g to the appli atio , a d a loosel efe to spe ies that a e ot commonly recorded in surveys, but may not be truly rare in the biogeographic sense. Some authors have provided a ranking scale for rarity. As one example, Beechey (2012) defined rarity as according to likelihood of encountering a particular species when an experienced collector searches a suitable habitat, to collect living shells intertidally, or when sifting through beach wash-up.      Abundant: You can't help seeing them when you look in the right place . Common: A 10 minute search in the right place will find a few Moderately common: A 10 minute search in the right place will probably find one Uncommon: You will probably find one with an hours searching Rare: You might never find one (Classification from Beechey 2012 http://seashellsofnsw.org.au/General/Pages/introduction.htm) One of the most important metrics to estimate rarity (and threatened status) refers to the area of occupancy. In the marine environment, however, area of occupancy and extent of occurrence can be difficult to apply in terms of square kilometres, due to the three dimensional nature of the sea. In this case, depth range should also be considered rather than a linear distance along a coast (hence volume instead of area is often the preferred spatial unit). However, the choice of spatial scale can vary according to which species is under study, and the nature of the benthos (e.g. with or without extreme changes in depth such as sand plains versus canyons). Also, some invertebrate species have microscopic life stages which spend weeks or months at sea, and others have adult stages which are so small and cryptic (e.g. pycnogonids) that their full distribution would be impossible to determine without an unfeasibly large survey effort. Consequently, many species which may not genuinely be uncommon or rare are known from very few records. Moreover, a number of species which may qualify as rare may not necessarily be vulnerable (if there are no threatening processes occurring) and a number of species may not qualify for listing as rare, but could be considered threatened if threatening processes are widespread and continuous. Other than for commercial species, there is a distinct lack of baseline population data for marine species, particularly invertebrates, and this hinders attempts to propose species for listing under State threatened species legislation (Baker 2011). 10 3. Characteristics that Determine Vulnerability of Marine Species There are numerous recognised life history and population characteristics that can render marine species vulnerable to decline, and eventually to extinction. Table 3 below lists many of these characteristics. Table 3: Characteristics that render marine species vulnerable to population decline and eventual extinction (adapted from Jones and Kaly 1995; Roberts and Hawkins 1999 and Ponder et al. 2002, with additions) Characteristic Population turnover Reproduction Capacity for Recovery Range & Distribution (related to Rarity) Trophic Level Other Ecological Factors Commercial & Social Value Miscellaneous Features shared by potentially vulnerable species 1. Long life span 2. Slow growth rate 3. Low natural mortality 4. Low production biomass 5. Low reproductive effort 6. Low fecundity 7. Highly variable reproductive output / prolonged periods of recruitment failure 8. Semelparous reproduction (i.e. reproduces once in a lifetime) 9. Large size at maturity and/or old age at maturity (i.e. long time to maturity) 10. Large difference in size between sexes 11. Sex change (particularly protandry: male stage followed by a female stage) 12. Forms spawning aggregations at predictable locations 13. Live bearing /or direct development of young from benthic eggs (compared with planktonic eggs) 14. Strong Allee effects in reproduction (i.e. when a reduction in population density has significant impacts on the ability of the organism to reproduce) 15. Brooding of young 16. Poorly dispersed benthic larvae (compared with widely dispersed planktonic larvae) 17. Regeneration from fragments does not occur 18. Short distance dispersal / limited dispersal ability 19. Poor competitive ability 20. Poor colonizing ability 21. Low adult mobility 22. Irregular recruitment by larval settlement and/or low level of larval settlement 23. Strong Allee effects at settlement 24. Horizontal distribution restricted to nearshore area (compared with offshore) 25. Narrow depth range (= narrow vertical distribution) 26. Small geographic range / restricted distribution 27. High patchiness / fragmentation of population within range (i.e. composed of few small, highly fragmented populations) 28. High habitat specificity / specialisation 29. High vulnerability to habitat destruction by people 30. High trophic level 31. Close association with threatened habitat, or threatened taxa (as parasites or commensals, food source etc.) 32. Value as food (promotes exploitation by commercial &/or recreational fishing / collecting) 33. Value in trade for collections / ornaments etc (promotes exploitation). 34: High visibility (due to large size, bright colour / patterning, and/or presence in intertidal habitats) 35: Adults live in aggregations, or form feeding aggregations 36: Subject to large scale mass mortality events 11 Many of these characteristics are found in various groups of invertebrates, but others are specific to fishes (discussed in Volume 2 of this report). In addition to the characteristics detailed above in Table 3, other factors that can increase the vulnerability of marine invertebrate species to decline (particularly from over-exploitation) include a readily accessible habitat (e.g. if collected for food or trade); high visibility (i.e. large size and/or bright colours and patterns, as are some shells), and high value (especially specimen shells, highly valued food species, or some aquarium fishes) (Ponder et al. 2002). Many marine species may qualify as potentially vulnerable due to restricted range (particularly apparent endemism within New South Wales or Lord Howe Island), apparent rarity (known from very few records), and small populations. Other characteristics, especially those associated with reproduction (mode, fecundity, frequency of spawning, total reproductive output, and survivorship of larvae and juveniles) are not known for many of these marine species, particularly the invertebrates. Inferences can be made from similar taxa (e.g. within the same family, or the same genus) that exhibit vulnerable population characteristics. For example, some gastropod molluscs (such as the volutes and the temperate cowries) brood the young, or otherwise produce young via direct development, rather than having widely dispersed planktonic larvae. This reproductive characteristic is often also associated with low fecundity and narrow geographic range of specific breeding populations, and these characteristics render such molluscs at greater risk of extinction. However, for species with unknown modes of reproduction, whilst inferences can be made by comparison with what is known of closely related taxa, such inference cannot always be reliable, because some taxa show considerable variation, even within genera or within a species (Ponder et al. 2002). 4. Methods A detailed search for information on marine species from major taxonomic groups was undertaken over a three year period between March 2008 and March 2011. In 2012, this information was updated where needed, and expanded to provide more regionally-specific information pertaining to species in the NR CMA region. In alphabetical order, the groups for which data were collated and reviewed are as follows:        Anthozoa (corals and anemones) Ascidiacea (sea squirts) Asteroidea (sea stars) Bivalvia (bivalve shells) Brachiopoda (lamp shells) Cephalopoda (squids, cuttlefishes, octopus)  Crinoidea (feather stars)  Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars)    Decapoda (shrimps, prawns, crabs) Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers) Ophiuroidea (brittlestars)  Opisthobranchs / Heterobranchia (sea slugs)  Prosobranchs (sea snails, gastropod shells)   Polyplacophora (chitons) Pycnogonida (sea spiders) Stomatopoda (mantis shrimps) 12 For members of these groups that occur in Northern Rivers CMA region, information regarding the current taxonomy, distribution, habitat, depth range, relative abundance and apparent conservation status (using IUCN criteria) was collated. Members of these groups have representatives in Northern Rivers CMA region (Map 1) that may be considered of conservation concern, based on criteria outlined below. The Region extends from the Queensland border, south to the Crowdy Head / Camden Haven River area, and inland to the eastern slopes of the New England Tablelands, as well as seawards three nautical miles. The NR CMA Region includes Lord Howe Island, 600 kilometres east of Port Macquarie (NR CMA web site, November 2012). Map 1: Northern Rivers CMA Region 13 Information collated during the literature review phase of this project included:  Taxonomy: current nomenclature checked against the most reliable taxonomic sources for each major group  Common Name  Distribution: currently known geographic range, including number of States, and distribution within State(s)  Maximum Size  Type Locality  Example Locations (other than Type Locality)  Habitat  Known Depth Range  Other Information (e.g. existing conservation status listings; trade information; discrepancies in nomenclature)  Major References References included museum records and databases, taxonomic and other related databases, taxonomic monographs, field survey reports, scientific papers, fisheries and trade data, amongst other references. Based on the results of the literature searches, an IUCN category of threat was proposed, using the criteria outlined in section 3, and considering known distribution (including apparent endemism), number of records, depth range (e.g. narrowness); mode of reproduction (e.g. benthic larvae and brooding of young are both characteristics which can increase vulnerability); apparent degree of threat (e.g. habitat degradation, or indications of over-exploitation, in the case of commercially and/or recreationally harvested species). 14 5. Results - Species Accounts The following sections discuss marine invertebrate species of conservation concern in the NR CMA region, from each of the 16 major groups studied. Results are presented in alphabetical order of major group. Anthozoa (Anemones and Corals) The class Anthozoa includes the sea anemones and stinging sea anemones, tube anemones, jewel anemones, zoanthid anemones, soft corals, gorgonian corals, hard corals, and sea pens. Members of the Class Anthozoa occur as polyps or colonies of polyps, most of which can reproduce either sexually (by releasing sperm and eggs into the water, which fuse to become a mobile larva which disperses), or asexually, by budding off tiny new individuals from the body wall (Edgar 2008; Gowlett-Holmes 2008). The taxonomy of anthozoans in south-eastern and southern Australia is poorly known. For example, more than 6 of the gorgonian coral species in New South Wales are known only from a few broken specimens, mainly from the type locality (e.g. Alderslade 1998). There are also several undescribed anemones and sea fans, and some of the named species may require taxonomic revision. Much of the previous anthozoan identification work was based largely on museum specimens, which bear little resemblance to live specimens. A number of named species may really be the same species, and conversely, a single named species may contain several species that have not yet been correctly identified. Field guides have been known to depict the same species under different names, or use the same name for different species. In some cases, species attributed to a particular genus (e.g. Epiactis) might actually not belong to a single genus, but have been assigned to it because they seem to belong nowhere else (D. Fautin, Professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, and Curator of Natural History Museum and Biodiversity Research Centre, University of Kansas, pers. comm. 2009). Establishing an Aust alia spe ies i e to , a d also dete i i g spe ies dist i utio s, and the relationship (and overlap) between species of anemone in Australia, New Zealand and other regions, would involve measuring nematocysts of animals from these regions, and comparing morphology and histology. Despite recent studies, much remains to be done, and the taxonomy of anemones is still very poorly known (D. Fautin, University of Kansas, pers. comm. 2009, 2011). A revision of the Actiniaria (anemones) is currently being undertaken by D. Fautin and C. Wallace and associates, and the taxonomy of a number of groups in eastern and southern Australia is also being revised (M. Mitchell, pers. comm. 2012). Some species known from one locality are likely to occur much more widely, but records are scant, because collecting efforts have been opportunistic over the decades, and not systematic. The existence of cryptic species further complicates determination of distribution. Table 4 provides some examples of apparently limited range species of anthozoan found in the NRCMA region, and some of these are still undescribed. This is not an exhaustive list. For example, a number of deeper water species collected from trawls have been named in recent years, and it is likely that other unnamed and previously uncollected species exist. There are at least 3 anemone species of apparently narrow range in NSW (Table 4), and all of these might occur in the NR CMA region. The first of these, the Striped Tube Anemone Pachycerianthus longistriatus (or longistriatis) (Figure 1) is common in shallow subtidal sandy mud in Sydney Harbour, and also known from Shellharbour. It is long-lived species, with one aquarium specimen at Taronga on display for 21 years, in which time it reproduced only once (Carter 1995). The closely related species Ba ded o Del s Tu e Anemone P. delwynae is also known from sandy and muddy sediments in Sydney Harbour, often with overlying banks of mussel shell (Mytilus sp.) detritus or among parchment worm (Diopatra dentata) colonies (Carter 1995). Several specimens have been collected with large numbers of the commensal worm, Phoronis australis, living in the tube walls, and a commensal shrimp and a crab may also associate with Pachycerianthus delwynae (Carter 1995). P. delwynae occurs at least as far north as Port Stephens (photo by D. Harasti, 2008), and possibly occurs in the NR CMA region. 15 The third anemone is the unnamed species in Actiniidae, commonly known as the Speckled Seawhip Anemone (in Edgar, 2008). This species is occasionally seen by divers on deeper reefs. It uses sea whips as a perch for filter feeding. The full depth range is not known, and is currently based on the limit of dive records. The less commonly recorded species of anemone are difficult to identify from photographs, and some remain undescribed. Identification beyond family is a specialist undertaking that requires, in many instances, information about the nematocysts or fertility (D. Fautin, Professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, pers. comm. 2011). The zoanthid anemones are not discussed here due to the uncertain nature of current taxonomy. The taxonomy and distribution of zoanthids is complicated by the fact the visually similar specimens may be sympatric species rather than a single species (as indicated in recent work on the golden zoanthids, by Philipp and Fautin 2009). There are three soft (leathery) corals in NSW for which little information exists. The first is Lohowia koosi, known from Lord Howe Island (Alderslade 2003). This is a low, massive, encrusting coral, and there are examples of at least 1.5m across in size (photograph by N. Coleman, in Alderslade 2003). Dendronephthya species, the Red Lord Howe Octocoral, also occurs commonly on reef drop-offs at LHI (Edgar 2008), and this species might also occur in New South Wales, but published records are lacking. It is noted that two Dendronephthya species were recorded during a survey of Norfolk Ridge and Lord Howe Rise (Clark et al. 2004). The third species, Capnella watsonae, is an almost black, multi-lobed soft coral known from Green Cape south of Eden, near the Victorian border. No recent information could be found for this species, which is listed in Verseveldt (1977), and Verseveldt, in Shepherd and Thomas (1982). Growth of soft corals in the Alcyoniidae is slow (e.g. Fabricius 1995; Wakeford et al. 2008). A B Figure 1A: Pachycerianthus longistriatus (= longistriatis), a long-lived anemone that is apparently endemic within NSW, and common in the Sydney area. Figure 1B: Pachycerianthus delwynae, which often occurs in the same habitats and locations as P. longistriatus, but there are also records from further north in NSW. Photos (c) R. Ling www.rling.com Of interest is the comparatively large number (12) of gorgonian coral species in the family Isididae (bamboo corals) known from few locations in NSW, and 7 of these species were named recently (Alderslade 1998). Most of these gorgonians have been recorded at very few sites north and/or south of Sydney, on sand and mud habitats of the continental shelf. One is known only from the type specimen collected off Botany Bay. They are known from very few specimens. Most have been recorded in trawls, or on surfaces of a submarine cable, between 60 and 150m deep. Some of these gorgonians are known only from a few broken fragments. The full distribution and depth range of these species is not known. It is possible that some of these gorgonian species also occur in the NR CMA region, but have not been recorded to date due to their depth (below normal diving limits) and habitats (sand and mud), which are usually only sampled by trawls, and specimens caught in commercial trawls are likely to be usually discarded, rather than preserved and sent to museums for identification. 16 Bamboo corals in the Isididae can live for many hundreds to several thousands of years (NOAA 2009; Hill et al. 2011). A more common gorgonian (sea fan) in NSW is Mopsella sp., the Eastern Red Sea Fan, found on exposed reef, particularly in southern NSW. This species is closely related to the widespread species Mopsella klunzingeri, but the sclerite shape differs slightly, as do the colour of the colony and the polyps. There are diver records of Mopsella sp. from the central coast of NSW, and it is likely that this species also occurs in the NR CMA region. Table 4: Anthozoan species in NSW that are uncommonly recorded or known from few locations, and which might occur in the NR CMA region. LHI = Lord Howe Island; N = north; NSW = New South Wales; S = south; VIC = Victoria. Compiled from: Alderslade (1998, 2003); Cairns (2004, 2009); Cairns & Parker (1992); Carter (1995); Clark et al. (2004); Edgar (2008); Fautin (2008); Jordan et al. (2010); Shepherd & Veron (1982); Verseveldt (1977, 1982). Note that maximum size is not known for all species, particularly gorgonians known from broken specimens, and in some cases has been estimated from size of holotype (see Alderslade 1998). Family, Genus, Species & Authority Actiniidae Actiniid sp. 2 (in Edgar 2008) Possible Maximum Size (mm) 30 Cerianthidae Pachycerianthus longistriatus / longistriatis Carter 1995 220 Cerianthidae Pachycerianthus delwynae Carter 1995 240 Alcyoniidae Lohowia koosi Alderslade 2003 Nephtheidae Dendronephthya sp. (in Edgar 2008) Nephtheidae Capnella watsonae Verseveldt, 1977 Isididae Acanthoisis flabellum Wright & Studer, 1889 Isididae Florectisis rosetta Alderslade, 1998 Isididae Jasminisis candelabra Alderslade, 1998 Isididae Jasminisis deceptrix Alderslade, 1998 250 112 130 58 225 Known Distribution, Type Locality, Other Known Records (to 2012), and Habitat Notes NSW: known from the south-central coast Jervis Bay Recorded to date from 20 – 30m deep, on exposed reef, on sea whips. NSW: known from the central coast Port Jackson; Sydney Harbour (e.g. Chowder Bay; Taylors Bay; Dawes Point; Watsons Bay); Shellharbour Found on sheltered sand, and sandy mud, with records to date between 4m and 12m deep. NSW: known from the central coast Port Jackson; Sydney Harbour (Chowder Bay; Bottle & Glass Rocks; Manly Pool; Bare I.); Batemans Bay; Port Stephens Found on sheltered sand, and sandy mud, with records to date from 3m to more than 15m deep. LHI No Name Rock, LHI; Roach I. (1km NE of Lord Howe I.) Holotype collected from 13m deep. LHI Recorded on exposed reef, including offshore reef drop-offs, between 8 and 35m. Might be the same as an unnamed species which occurs in NSW. Also, it is noted that two Dendronephthya species were recorded on NORFANZ voyage to Norfolk Ridge & Lord Howe Rise (Clark et al. 2004). NSW (but might be more widespread) Green Cape One record from 16m deep. No recent information available. NSW: known N and S of Sydney Port Jackson; also 6 miles offshore in Newcastle Bight; 6-8 miles off Bulgo. Recorded to date on grey sand, mud, and shellgrit, from 42-115m deep. NSW: known to date from off Botany Bay. Known from type specimen, collected at 90m deep on submarine cable. Original colony may have been broader (130mm) than high. NSW: known from Sydney area, and a site N of Sydney. Broughton I. and Port Jackson. Known from 23 colonies, from 2 locations. NSW: known from a few sites N & S of Sydney. Off Wollongong; Broughton I.; off Port Jackson. Known from a few specimens collected on sand, mud, rock. Main collection from 102m deep. 17 Table 4 (cont): Family, Genus, Species & Authority Isididae Jasminisis zebra Alderslade, 1998 Isididae Mopsea triaknema Alderslade 1998 Isididae Pangolinisis cia Alderslade, 1998 Isididae Plexipomisis elegans (Thompson & Mackinnon,1911) Possible Maximum Size (mm) 215 180 at least 145 at least 190mm Isididae Plexipomisis thetis Alderslade 1998 Isididae Sphaerokodisis australis (Thompson & Mackinnon, 1911) 150 Isididae Sphaerokodisis flabellum (Thompson & Mackinnon, 1911) 245 Melithaeidae Mopsella sp. (in Edgar 2008) 500 Antipathidae Antipathes sp. (in Edgar 2008 and Coleman 2008) 1500 Turbinoliidae Platytrochus compressus (Tenison-Woods, 1878) Known Distribution, Type Locality, Other Known Records (to 2012), and Habitat Notes NSW: known from S NSW, possibly also occurs in VIC. NW of Montague I.; Port Jackson. Known from few specimens, collected over a very narrow depth range (6466m). Previously confused with Mopsea dichotoma. NSW: known from sites near Sydney 6-8 miles off Bulgo; 2.5-3.5 miles off Port Jackson; 11 miles E of Broken Bay. Known from very few specimens, collected from 66 to 115m deep, on sand and mud. NSW: known to date from Sydney area (off Botany Bay) and Shellharbour. Type colony found growing on submarine cable, at 91m deep. Known from broken type specimens, with main fragment 145mm high. NSW 6-8.5 miles off Bulgo; 6 miles SE of Brush Head I. (= Brush I.?). Specimens collected between 71 and 142m deep. Known from few (and broken) specimens, longest fragment 190mm. NSW: known from few sites S of Sydney Between Port Jackson and Wollongong; 6-8 miles off Bulgo. Known from few (and broken) specimens, recorded on mud between 71 and 142m deep. NSW: between Cape Byron (Edgar 2008) and Ulladulla, possibly further south. Uncertain; possibly E of Broken Bay; 15 miles N & 35 degree E of Saddle Hill; Broughton I.; Cronulla & Boat Harbour near Sydney. Most specimens (broken), collected between 24 and 153m deep. Considered to be relatively common in deeper water of NSW (Edgar 2008), and recorded by divers in some areas (e.g. Jervis Bay, and Ulladulla). NSW: known from sites around & S of Sydney. Lectotype from 5-6 miles off Coogee; 2.5-3.5 miles off Port Jackson; off Botany Bay; off Shellharbour. Known from very few specimens collected on fine sand and mud, between 66 and 91m deep. NSW Ulladulla Found on exposed reef, including offshore reef drop-offs. Records to date from 12m to ~ 30m. Very common along NSW coast. LHI & NSW Also NSW (e.g. Solitary Is. and Julian Rocks). May be more than one species in NSW. Found on exposed reefs with good current flow, including reef drop-offs. Records to date from 10m to ~ 35m. NSW off Port Stephens Recorded to date from 64 to 130m deep. Listed in Shepherd & Veron (1982) as occurring in SA, but that would have referred to Platytrochus laevigatus (from SA and WA) 18 Of note are unnamed black corals in the order Antipatharia and genus Antipathes. One of these, Antipathes sp. (Lord Howe Island Black Coral – see Edgar 2008) may be the same or closely related to Antipathes sp. the White Black Coral recorded in New South Wales (including the NR CMA region). The brittlestar Astrobrachion constrictum often occurs entwined in branches of Antipathes sp. Another similar (named) species of Antipathes in New Zealand houses same commensal brittlestar. A little known scleractinian (stony) coral in NSW is Platytrochus compressus, recorded to date from 64 to 130m deep (Cairns and Parker 1992; Cairns 2004; Fautin 2008). This species was listed in Shepherd and Veron (1982) as occurring in South Australia, but that would have referred to Platytrochus laevigatus (from SA and WA). This species has been recorded only in NSW (Cairns and Parker 1992), and there are no new records (Cairns 2004). There are various hard coral species known in northern New South Wales. Some have a broad IndoPacific distribution, and others are known from south-eastern and southern Australia. Some examples of species for which distribution extends southwards include:  Culicia tenella tenella Dana 1846, a small coral found across southern Australia (at least as far north as the Solitary Islands in NSW), and common on cave walls and other shaded reef surfaces;  Scolymia australis (Milne Edwards & Haime 1849), mainly solitary in form, found on tropical and temperate Australian reefs from about 0m - 20m deep. It is bright green, and contains symbiotic zooxanthellae algae, from which it derives nutrition. Also feeds nocturnally on plankton, by extending it polyps;  Coscinaraea mcneilli Well 1962 (Figure 2), a colonial coral that ranges across the southern half of Australia (at least as far north as Byron Bay in NSW). It forms plates on rock walls and reefs on moderately exposed to open coasts, from 1m to about 30m.  Plesiastrea versipora La a k , a olo ial o al that fo s plates a d o ie shapes i temperate waters, but is also widespread in the tropical to warm temperate Indo-Pacific, where it can form reefs. Like Scolymia, it contains symbiotic zooxanthellae algae, from which it derives nutrition, but also feeds on plankton; and  Turbinaria reniformis Bernard 1896, a tropical Indo-Pacific species that forms horizontal colonies to about 2m width (Figure 3). Figure 2: The stony coral Coscinaraea mcneilli. Photo (c): N. Holmes, at AIMS Corals of the World on-line resource: http://coral.aims.gov.au/speciesPages/species_metadata/0119/image 19 These corals are widespread and not uncommon, and the species which also occur in southern Australia are not considered to be currently threatened on a global scale (e.g. DeVantier et al. 2008; Sheppard et al. 2008; Turak et al. 2008). However, there may be localised threats for particular populations, particularly of shallow water species, such as sedimentation of nearshore reefs; nutrient enrichment of coastal waters (e.g. from dredging, coastal developments or discharges), and dredging. Hard corals such as Plesiastrea are very slow growing in temperate areas, with rates of less than 1cm per year (Burgess et al. 2009). For example, the base of a 24 cm Plesiastrea core that has been analysed from Spencer Gulf in South Australia was dated at 151 years (Burgess et al. 2004). Burgess et al. (2009) studied 6 colonies of Plesiastrea in the South Australian gulfs, and coral age estimates ranged from 90 to 320 years (from counting density bands in X-radiographs), or from 105 to 381 years (using a mass spectrometer). For tropical species which also occur in New South Wales (e.g. Turbinaria reniformis), there are additional threats on a global scale, such as coral bleaching (Ulstrup et al. 2006), increased incidence of coral disease, and other impacts associated with global warming (Hoeksema et al. 2008). A number of tropical hard coral species are considered to be under threat at various locations within the NR CMA region. Studies have been undertaken within the marine parks at Solitary Islands, Cape Byron and Lord Howe Island, to investigate and monitor the extent of physical damage to corals, coral bleaching, and coral disease. Some of the contributing factors to coral stress are considered to be water temperature (LHI Marine Park), freshwater runoff, storms, grazing, and impacts from recreational SCUBA diving (the latter at Cape Byron Marine Park). Examples of species which have been affected include the brain coral Goniastrea australensis, the branching corals Acropora solitaryensis and Pocillopora damicornis, two species in Turbinaria, and a species in Stylophora. Existing and potential threats to hard coral colonies in New South Wales are discussed in the section of this report on Threatening Processes. Figure 3: The stony coral Turbinaria reniformis. Photo (c): S. Shebs, at Wikimedia Commons. 20 Ascidiacea (Sea Squirts) The Ascidiacea is a large class of sessile invertebrates commonly known as sea squirts. Ascidians can be solitary or colonial, and are usually attached by adhesive secretions of their body, to reef surfaces, rubble / stones, macroalgae or shell particles. Characteristic features include a muscular, incurrent siphon which opens into a cavity where food (e.g. bacteria, phytoplankton and organic detritus) and oxygen are extracted from the water, which then exits from an excurrent siphon. Ascidians are very efficient at filtering water. All ascidians are hermaphrodites and contain both male and female gonads, but the gonads usually mature at different times to avoid self-fertilisation (Kott 1997; Gowlett-Holmes 2008). Colonial ascidians can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Also, some colonial species are broadcast spawners, with long range dispersal of larvae, and others are philopatric, with brooded larvae settling close to the parent colony. Table 5 lists the uncommon and little known species of ascidians that have been recorded in the NR CMA region. Table 6 lists ascidian species of limited known range found to date in New South Wales, and which may be present in the NR CMA region, but records in that region are currently lacking. Some of these species have been recorded so far only from the type locality, and the full distribution and depth range are therefore not known, due to lack of targeted surveys, as discussed below. Information in Tables 5 and 6 was compiled mainly using the taxonomic references of Kott (1972, 1975, 1985, 1990, 1992, 1997, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005a, 2005c in ABRS 2009, 2006), supplemented by other references as specified below. Recent name changes to the species described by Kott in earlier monographs (e.g. 1970s to 1990s) have been included. Examples of apparently limited range ascidian species in the NR CMA region include Cole a s “ea “ ui t / Cole a s As idia Polyandrocarpa colemani Kott 1992 (Figure 4), which is known from a number of locations in northern NSW, particularly near the Queensland – New South Wales border (Table 5). It is reported to be one of the largest growing compound ascidians in the Indo-Pacific. Colonies may be 2m long, 60cm high and 30cm thick at the base (Coleman 2008). The habitat has been described as the "top of ridges where subjected to maximum current" (Kott, 2005c). Other examples of little known and limited range ascidian species that occur in NR CMA region are listed in Table 5. Some of these species have been collected opportunistically from jetty piles (one one of these, Polyclinum nudum, may not be native); others were collected during SCUBA dives; and one from dredging on the continental shelf. The full geographic range and depth distribution are not known for these species, and there are also few details about habitat. Figure 4: Polyandrocarpa colemani, a large compound ascidian known from southern Queensland and northern New South Wales. Photo (c) L. Clarke www.julianrocks.net 21 Table 5: Ascidian species of limited known range, found to date in the NR CMA region. Compiled from: Kott (1963, 1985, 1990, 1992, 1997, 2001, 2003, 2004a, 2004b, 2005a, 2005b, 2006), Kott 2005c (in ABRS 2012), Rowe and Marshall 1979, Coleman 2008. T = type locality. NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland. Family Genus & Species Authority Known Records (to 2012) and Other Information Didemnidae Didemnum nambucciensis Kott, 2004 Known to date from Nambucca Heads (T) at 13m. Reported in Kott (2005c) to be known only from type locality (not verified). Didemnidae Didemnum spumosum Kott, 2004 Known to date from Coffs Harbour (T) on jetty piles between 0 and 5m. Reported in Kott (2005c) to be known only from type locality (not verified). Perophoridae Ecteinascidia maxima Kott, 1985 Euherdmaniidae Euherdmania dentatosiphonis (Millar, 1975) Didemnidae Leptoclinides placidus Kott, 2001 Styelidae Polyandrocarpa colemani Kott, 1992 Styelidae Polyandrocarpa sparsa Kott, 1985 Known from Lord Howe Island, and a few locations in northern NSW, such as Coffs Harbour. Holotype collected on reef at 17m deep. Occurs in sand gutters near rock walls and bommies. Reported by Kott (2005c) to be known only from the type locality in Tasman Sea off NSW coast (30º00'S 154º34'E i.e. between Yamba and Coffs Harbour). Type collected from coral on reef at 100m deep. Reportedly known only from southern QLD and northern NSW. Examples include Smiths Reef in Moreton Bay (T); Hervey Bay; Noosa Heads; Byron Bay, and Solitary Islands. Type from 15m. Full depth range not known. Closely resembles several other species in the genus. Known from southern QLD and northern NSW (i.e. central E coast of Australia). Kott (2005b) reported species as known from 9-12m in restricted geographic area from northern NSW to just over the NSW – QLD border. Examples include Cook I., off QLD border (T); Palm Beach, Tweed Heads; Arrawarra; Coffs Harbour and Julian Rocks (near Byron Bay). Known from North Solitary Island (T) at 6m deep. Reported in Kott (2005c) to be known only from type locality (not verified). Polyclinidae Polyclinum nudum Kott, 1992 Known from Coffs Harbour (T) (Kott, 2005c) and Lake Macquarie (Barnes 2009). Holotype collected at 0.5m deep, on old jetty piles. Uncertain if native to Australia. Reported in India (Lambert and Lambert 2009) and also as an introduction to Palau (Golbuu et al. 2008). 22 Table 6: Ascidian species of limited known range found to date in New South Wales, and which may be present in the NR CMA region, but records in that region are currently lacking. Compiled from Kott (1963, 1985, 1990, 1992, 1997, 2001, 2003, 2004a, 2004b, 2005a, 2005b), Kott 2005c (in ABRS 2012), Rowe and Marshall 1979. T = type locality. Family, Genus & Species Pseudodistomidae Anadistoma attenuatum Authority Known Records (to 2012) and Other Information Kott, 1992 Montague South, near Eden (T). Type collected from 94m. Polyclinidae Aplidium jacksoni Kott, 1963 Port Jackson (T) Styelidae Chorizocarpa guttata Michaelsen, 1904 Port Jackson (T). Depth a ge epo ted as ei g to , but might be based only on type specimen. Listed in Kott (2005c) as being known only from type locality (unverified). Polycitoridae Eudistoma bulbatum Kott, 1990 Known to date from a location off Cronulla (T) at 140m deep. Reported in Kott (2005c) to be known only from type locality (not verified). Polycitoridae Polycitor protectans (Herdman, 1899) Known from Port Jackson (T). Reported in Kott (2005c) to be known only from type locality (not verified). Polycitoridae Polycitor subarborensis Didemnidae Polysyncraton jugosum Kott, 1957 Known from Brush I., off Ulladulla (T) at 90m deep. Reported in Kott (2005c) to be known only from type locality (not verified). Coogee; Port Jackson; Botany Bay; and a site off Cape Three Points (syntypes). Museum specimens were collected from 30 to 90m deep. Holozoidae Sigillina nigra (Herdman, 1899) (Herdman & Riddell, 1913) Vaucluse, Port Jackson Three species apparently known so far only from Lord Howe Island are:    The didemnid Lissoclinum spongium Kott 2001 (Figure 5), apparently known from the type locality, on Lord Howe Island (Kott 2001, Kott 2005c). According to Coleman (2008, and pers. comm. 2012), this species has been recorded on reef from the intertidal down to more than 20m (e.g. examples from 40m). Example locations include off Roach Island near Lord Howe Island, and in Lord Howe Island lagoon. This species is pink in the shallows, and bright green when growing in deeper water, and there are also examples of both colours in the one colony. Small colonies of the ascidian can merge into a sheet measuring 2m across. The didemnid Trididemnum nebula Kott 2007, recorded so far from the type locality, Lagoon Beach on Lord Howe Island. The type specimen was collected on sandy bottom, at 1 – 2m deep; and The styelid ascidian Stolonica vermiculata Kott 2005, known from the type specimen taken at 13m, at a Lord Howe Island site (Kott 2005b; Kott 2005c, in ABRS 2012). The full geographic distribution and depth range of these species are not known, because targetted surveys for ascidian collection have not been undertaken along the entire New South Wales coast. 23 (c) N. Coleman Figure 5: Lissoclinum spongium, a compound ascidian recorded in Lord Howe Island lagoon. Photo (c) N. Coleman Many of the uncommonly recorded ascidian species listed above in Tables 5 and 6 are poorly known, with few details about habitat, depth range or geographic range. The full range, as well as the distribution within NSW is not known for many species. Detailed surveys of the ascidian fauna in New South Wales have been undertaken at very few locations. A number of type specimens have come from the Port Jackson and Botany Bay areas of Sydney (e.g. Millar 1963; Kott 1972; Rowe and Marshall 1979), and much of the opportunistic collecting of ascidians from NSW over the past century has occurred in accessible locations such as these. However, in recent years survey work has been undertaken at various other locations around NSW, in which ascidian species composition has been investigated. Examples include (i) the Port Stephens and Great Lakes area, to study the ascidian species assemblages on subtidal rock reefs in the area (Newton et al. 2007), and (ii) coastal lakes and lagoons of New South Wales, where ascidian ecology has been studied, and the uncommonly known ascidian Polyclinum nudum was recorded (Barnes 2009). It is noted that P. nudum was previously considered to be endemic within NSW, but there are records from India (Lambert and Lambert 2009) and it has also been listed as an introduction to Palau (Golbuu et al. 2008), hence its native status in NSW is uncertain. Approximately half of the species that are known to date only from NSW, or from northern NSW and southern Queensland, been recorded only from the type locality, due to opportunistic and sporadic nature of collecting efforts over time. Many ascidians are found in micro-habitats that are difficult to access, such as in caves and under ledges, and are unlikely to be recorded unless specific collections are made in these cryptic habitats, which rarely occurs. An additional issue which reduces knowledge of the true distribution of ascidian species is the fact that accurate identification is a difficult task requiring specialist expertise, and such taxonomic expertise in this group was limited for several decades to one prolific worker (P. Kott), who, since the 1950s, described the majority of the southern Australian species, but is recently deceased. 24 Asteroidea (Sea Stars) The asteroids, or sea stars, are echinoderms composed of calcium carbonate plates. Between the plates on the dorsal surface are thin-walled sacs called papulae, used for respiration. Asteroids have a central disc, with five or more radially-arranged arms. Along the underside of each arm, are tube feet in grooves, and these are used for locomotion, and to manipulate prey. The tube feet are pointed in species which burrow in sand, and suckered in species which inhabit rocky bottom. The mouth is on the underside of the central disc, and many sea stars are predators or scavengers. Some are herbivorous, and a few are detritivores. Although all sea stars can reproduce by spawning, some (e.g. Allostichaster polyplax) can also reproduce asexually, by splitting in two and regrowing the other half, or by dropping parts of arms, which grow into new sea stars (Zeidler and Shepherd 1982; Gowlett-Holmes 2008). Apparently limited range species in the northern New South Wales region include the following in Table 7. Table 7: Asteroid species of potential conservation concern found to date in New South Wales and/or Lord Howe Island. Compiled from Clark , ; Ro e a d Marsh, ; Ro e ; Ro e a d Gates a d O’Hara 2001, in ABRS 2012, also citing Livingstone 1936 and Rowe 1981; O'Loughlin and Waters 2004. LHI = Lord Howe Island; QLD = Queensland Family, Genus, Species & Authority Ophidiasteridae Oneria tasmanensis Rowe, 1981 Goniasteridae Calliaster erucaradiatus Livingstone, 1936 Asterinidae Tegulaster alba (H.L. Clark, 1938) Asterinidae Pseudonepanthia (previously Nepanthia) nigrobrunnea (Rowe & Marsh, 1982) Type Locality off Ball's Pyramid (31º46´S 159º16´E), near LHI Other Known Records (to 2012) Lord Howe Rise; Lord Howe Island off Crowdy Head, NSW Neds Beach at LHI Groper Island at Coffs Harbour site near Mt Lidgbird (Lord Howe Island); Goat Island Double Island Point (Rainbow Beach) and Moreton Bay in QLD; Julian Rocks; Coffs Harbour; N Solitary Island Oneria tasmanensis is the single known member within the genus, and has been recorded off Lord Howe Island and Lord Howe Rise, between 100 and 180m deep. Another seastar, Calliaster erucaradiatus, has been recorded off Crowdy Head at 90m deep (type specimen). The full distribution and depth range are not known. There is very little information about this species, and the paper in which the species is described (Livingstone 1936) is out of print, according to Australian Museum. A third species, the small (7mm) White Sea Star Tegulaster (previously Asterina) alba is known from Lord Howe Rise (Lord Howe Island) and Norfolk Island Ridge (Norfolk Island), a d the e a e di e s records from the New South Wales coast, which is not part of the published range. Examples include Goat Island, and Julian Rocks photo J. Natoli, spe ies o fi ed M. O Loughli , pe s. o . . It is apparently a shallow water species, known to date from the intertidal to about 20m (Rowe and Gates 1995, in ABRS, 2012). The holotype was collected from under the surface of rock fragment, and most specimens are known from reef flats. This species may be of lower conservation concern than more limited range asteroids, due to its established presence over a broader geographical area. The Black and Brown Seastar Pseudonepanthia nigrobrunnea (Figure 6) is known from southern Queensland to northern New South Wales, on rocky reefs. The recorded depth range to date is about 8m to 30m. This species, which grows to about 9cm wide, feeds on algae, ascidians and sponges. 25 Figure 6: Pseudonepanthia nigrobrunnea. Photo (c): L. Clarke. www.julianrocks.net Bivalvia (Bivalve Shells) Bivalvia is a large class of shells whose representatives have two valves joined at the margin, by an elastic hinge ligament and hinge teeth (Edgar 2008). The elasticity of the ligament opens the values, and they close by contraction of muscles that connect the two halves of the shell. Bivalves are filter feeders, and most are adapted for living in soft sediments. A few species attach to reefs, others bore into soft rocks, and some are free-swimming (aided by jet propulsion of water). Table 8 details species of bivalve shell of apparently narrow geographic range, found to date in the NR CMA region (including one from Lord Howe Island). Some of these bivalves also occur in southern Queensland. Most of these bivalves are small, and known from very few records. However, some apparently have a broad depth range, as indicated by dredge records. Examples include Talabrica (or Crassatina) discus, Limopsis (Pectunculina) solator, and Philobrya squamea. Despite the apparent endemism of some of these bivalve species within New South Wales, and likely presence in NR CMA region, they are of lower conservation concern than some other groups of invertebrates, due to their broad depth distribution and/or relatively broad geographic range along the NSW coast. Additionally, no targetted searches have been made, and most live in habitats that are difficult to systematically sample (e.g. beach sand, or subtidal sand or mud), hence their relative abundance and full distribution are not known, but are likely to be greater than indicated by existing records. 26 Table 8: Bivalve species of apparently narrow geographic range found to date in New South Wales (and one from Lord Howe Island), which are known to occur in the NR CMA region, or are likely to occur there, based on distribution in adjacent areas. LHI = Lord Howe Island; NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland. Compiled from Iredale & McMichael (1962); Darragh (1986); Lamprell & Whitehead (1992); Lamprell & Healy (1998); Academy of Natural Sciences (2006); OZCAM (2012), and shell sale web sites. Nomenclature has been updated to 2012, because a number of original binomials are now considered junior synonyms. Family, Genus, Species & Authority Crassatellidae Talabrica / Crassatina discus (Hedley, 1907) Crassatellidae Talabrica / Crassatina scabrilirata (Hedley, 1902) Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) 22mls E of Narrabeen 12.5ml E of Cape Byron; NE of Port Macquarie; off Cronulla in Sydney; 16ml E of Wollongong Port Stephens 5.5-7.5mls NE of Cape Three Points; 5mls E of Sydney Heads Known Distribution to Date, Habitat Notes, and Other Information NSW Broad depth range (shallow subtidal to > 200m) A 7mm cockle recorded down to about 200m. Holotype collected at 74 - 91m (41 - 50 fathoms). Cuspidariidae Cuspidaria (Cuspidaria) truncata Hedley, 1905 12.5 miles E of Cape Byron NSW Reported to occur on shelf to 131m (Lamprell & Healy 1998). There is a record from Europe of a Cuspidaria truncata (Jeffreys 1882), which is a different species with the same Latin binomial. Cyamiidae Cyamiomactra distorta Laseron, 1953 Port Stephens Narooma, upstream from bridge A small (3mm) bivalve, recorded so far in sand and shelly sand, from intertidal to about 64m deep. Galeommatidae Borniola lepida (Hedley, 1906) Watsons Bay or Manly Narrabeen, Collaroy & Cronulla in Sydney; 0.5km E Long Bay; Broken Bay; Port Kembla; Port Stephens A 6mm bivalve, found in shell sand on beaches. Galeommatidae Cicatella indenta Laseron, 1956 Port Stephens Harbord, Middle Harbour & North Head near Sydney; SW Arm of Port Hacking; Broken Bay Gunnamatta Bay, Port Hacking near Hawks Nest, Port Stephens A small (4mm) species recorded in shell debris, shelly sand and sand Twofold Bay Port Stephens; Botany Bay, Nielson Park, North Head, North Harbour & Middle Harbour in Sydney; A small (4mm) bivalve recorded from sandy mud Port Stephens A 5mm shell, known from shell sand on beaches Galeommatidae Fronsella adipata Laseron, 1956 Galeommatidae Montacuta vitreus (Hedley, 1907) Galeommatidae or Erycinidae Myllita (Myllita)calva Laseron, 1956 27 A bivalve of about 8mm long. Holotype was dredged. Table 8 (cont): Family, Genus, Species & Authority Galeommatidae Vermitexta garrardi Laseron, 1956 Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) Twofold Bay Port Stephens; Botany Bay, Nielson Park, North Head, North Harbour & Middle Harbour in Sydney Known Distribution to Date, Habitat Notes, and Other Information A small (4mm) species recorded in sandy mud Galeommatidae / Lasaeidae Mysella anomala Angas, 1877 Shark Island, Port Jackson Limopsidae Limopsis (Pectunculina) solator (Iredale, 1931) Mactromyidae Bathycorbis despecta (Hedley, 1904) 12.5 miles E of Cape Byron NSW Lower depth limit at least 222m. 16 miles east of Wollongong 12.5ml E of Cape Byron; NE of Port Macquarie; 22mls E of Narrabeen, N of Sydney NSW Holotype dredged at 100 fathoms (182m). Little information on depth range. Mytilidae Musculus (Musculus) varicosus / varicosa (Gould, 1861) Sydney Lower Wallamba River; Forster; Solitary Is.; Sydney area (Cronulla, Pittwater, Middle Hbr, Dee Why, Nth Head & Pt Jackson); Jervis Bay NSW Recorded on beaches and subtidal sand. Reported depth range 0 – 10m. Neoleptonidae Neolepton / Micropolia concentrica (Laseron, 1953) North Harbour, Port Jackson North Harbour, Middle Harbour, Shark I. and Port Hacking in Sydney Harbour; Port Stephens A small (2mm) species found in the intertidal and shallow subtidal, in mussel beds. Nuculidae Pronucula / Nucula decorosa Hedley, 1902 5-8 miles off Port Kembla Port Stephens; Gerringong; off Cronulla; 32km (20ml) SE of Twofold Bay A small (3mm) nut cockle found in sand, from the shallow subtidal down to at least 137m. Philobryidae Cosa stephensensis / stephenensis Laseron, 1953 Port Stephens Werri Beach, Gerringong; Batemans Bay; Little Manly Beach & Malabar in Sydney A small (3mm) bivalve known from sand and shelly sand. Philobryidae Cosa / Philobrya parellelogramma (Hedley, 1906) Manly Beach off Moreton Bay; NE of Pt Macquarie; Broken Bay; Middle Harbour in Sydney; Montague I. / off Narooma Southern QLD and NSW. Recorded on shelly sand. Ballina; Sydney area (Narrabeen Lake, Nielson Park, Middle Harbour, North Head, Manly, Port Hacking) NSW Common in some NSW estuaries. Recorded from the intertidal to about 64m deep. Holotype was dredged. Decorated Nut Shell Not the same species as Pronucula decorosa (= Pronucula mayi) illustrated by May (1916). 28 Table 8 (cont.): Family, Genus, Species & Authority Philobryidae Cratis progressa Hedley, 1915 Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) NE of Port Macquarie 12.5ml E of Cape Byron; off Ballina; S of Port Macquarie; 30km E of Little Bay Malabar Known Distribution to Date, Habitat Notes, and Other Information NSW Depth range uncertain: Lamprell and Healy reported 55m as lower depth limit, but holotype was reportedly collected at 100 fathoms (182m). Philobryidae Philobrya inornata (Hedley, 1904) 16 miles E of Wollongong Cape Moreton; off Crowdy Head; Sydney area (e.g. Malabar, Botany Bay, S of Pt Hacking); off Montague I. southern QLD and NSW Found on intertidal and subtidal sand. Reported depth range 0m – 55m. Philobryidae Philobrya squamea (Hedley, 1905) 12.5 miles E of Cape Byron ESE of Noosa Heads, and Cape Moreton in QLD off Forster; NE of Pt Macquarie; Sydney area; E of Brush I. off Ball's Pyramid, Lord Howe Island southern QLD and NSW Recorded on sand, from shallow subtidal to about 210m deep (holotype was from 111 fathoms). Pteriidae Pteria howensis Lamprell & Healy 1997 Tellinidae Semelangulus / Tellina brazieri (Sowerby, 1869) Port Jackson Port Hacking; Port Stephens Thraciidae Sow-and-Pigs Reef, Port Jackson off Montague I. Narooma; Sydney Harbour; Twofold Bay; Port Stephens Thracia (Thracia) angasiana Smith, 1876 Thraciidae Thracia (Thracia) ovalis Stutchbury, 1830 Trigoniidae Neotrigonia lamarckii (Gray, 1838) Trigoniidae Neotrigonia strangei (A. Adams, 1854) Port Jackson Cape Byron (Byron Bay); Port Jackson in Sydney Harbour; Twofold Bay possibly Port Jackson Tin Can bay in QLD; Wollongong in NSW (plus others) Sydney Harbour ?Cape Moreton in QLD Montague I., Sans Souci, Collaroy Beach in Sydney area; Bass Pt & Shellharbour 29 LHI T pe spe i e as fou d atta hed to hip o als . ssus A 20mm bivalve recorded on sand in the intertidal. Note that there is a species with same name (Tellina brazieri), but different author (Tate, 1886) and different distribution (South Australia) A clam species of about 23mm long, recorded from the intertidal to about 30m deep. Southern QLD and NSW. NSW (might also occur in S QLD). Recorded to date on sand, from shallow subtidal to 72m deep. NB There are some records in the Natural History Museum Rotterdam and Australian Museum, from Pt Headland in N WA, well away from published distribution. For several little known species included in the table above, Port Stephens (200km south of the southern edge of NR CMA region) is the type locality, and these bivalves might also occur in the NR CMA region. Examples include the small cockle Talabrica (or Crassatina) scabrilirata, and four other bivalve species found in shelly sand, each of less than 1cm long (Myllita calva, Cicatella indenta, Cyamiomactra distorta, and Cosa stephensensis). Table 9 lists apparently endemic bivalve species of known from New South Wales, and which might occur in the NR CMA region, but site-specific records are lacking, and there are no published records to date from that area. Most of these are small shells, less than 1cm long, and known from sand / shelly sand habitat in few locations around Sydney and associated ports. One small (15mm) bivalve species, Borniola filosa, has been recorded attached to annelid worm tubes. For two species from mud habitats (Mysella cretacea and the dog cockle Limopsis brazieri), there is very little information on distribution, other than the type locality. Most have been recorded from the intertidal and/or shallow subtidal water, but some species extend to the mid continental shelf. One dog cockle, Limopsis erecta, extends down to the continental slope, and a few others are known over a broad depth range across the shelf, despite the paucity of records. All could be considered of unknown conservation status, despite their apparent endemic nature in New South Wales. The full geographic distribution and depth range of these species is not known, and no systematic searches in suitable habitats have ever been undertaken. Table 9: Bivalve species apparently endemic within NSW, based on currently known distribution. These species might occur in the NR CMA, but site-specific records within that region are lacking. Species are listed alphabetically by family. Compiled from Hedley (1900); May (1915); Iredale & McMichael (1962); Lamprell & Whitehead (1992), Lamprell & Healy (1998); Middelfart (2002); Academy of Natural Sciences (2006). Nomenclature has been updated to 2012, because a number of the original binomials are now considered junior synonyms. NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland Family, Genus, Species & Authority Carditidae Carditellopsis / Choniocardia infans E.A. Smith, 1885 Condylocardiidae Cuna cuneata (Laseron, 1953) Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) Notes A small (3mm) cockle, known the shallow subtidal down to 51m deep. off Long Reef, Collaroy Manly & Middle Harbour in Sydney; Botany Bay A small (3mm) species, recorded to date from 4m to 26m deep. Holotype was dredged. Original name was Particondyla cuneata Laseron, 1953 Crassatellidae Talabrica / Crassatina securiformis (Hedley, 1902) Cyamiidae Cyamiomactra carina Laseron, 1953 Cyamiidae Cyamiomactra (or Cyamium) symmetrica Laseron, 1953 Galeommatidae Borniola filosa (Hedley, 1902) 5 - 8 miles off Port Kembla A 7mm cockle recorded down to about 150m. Manly Beach in Sydney site off Sydney A small (3mm) bivalve known from sand and shelly sand off Sydney A small (2mm) bivalve recorded from the intertidal down to at least 64m deep. Middle Harbour in Sydney A 15mm bivalve, found attached to annelid tubes. Galeommatidae Virmysella spernax Iredale, 1930 Manly, Sydney Known specimens about 14mm. Habitat unknown (specimens washed up on beaches) and very little information available. (Misspelt as V. "spermax" in Lamprell & Healy 1998.) 30 Table 9 (cont.) Family, Genus, Species & Authority Galeommatidae Fronsella reversa Laseron, 1956 Galeommatidae Montacuta jervisensis Laseron, 1956 Galeommatidae Parvikellia depressa Laseron, 1956 Galeommatidae Pileatona compressa Laseron, 1956 Galeommatidae / Lasaeidae Kellia tumida (Laseron, 1956) Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) North Harbour, Port Jackson Broken Bay, Pittwater; North Harbour & Middle Harbour in Sydney Jervis Bay Jervis Bay Notes A small (7mm) bivalve known to date from the intertidal to more than 11m. A small (7mm) bivalve known to date from the intertidal to about 27m, in sand habitats. A small (6mm) bivalve known from the intertidal and shallow subtidal. Twofold Bay A small (4mm) bivalve recorded to date from subtidal to 91m. Shark Island, Port Jackson A 13mm bivalve recorded in mussel beds. Similar species to Kellia rotunda, found in shallow subtidal in QLD & NSW. Galeommatidae / Lasaeidae Mysella cretacea Laseron, 1956 Crookhaven A 7mm bivalve, recorded in mud, from the intertidal to about 3m deep. Very little information available. Limopsidae Port Jackson, Sydney Harbour A 5mm dog cockle found in mud and sand. Depth range not recorded. Holotype was dredged. Limopsidae Lissarca elliptica (Laseron, 1953) off Crookhaven A 3mm dog cockle. Limopsidae Limopsis (Pectunculina) erecta / erectus 23 miles E of South Head, Sydney Limopsis (Pectunculina) brazieri Angas, 1871 off Korogoro Point Hedley & Petterd, 1906 Limopsidae Limopsis (Pectunculina) paradoxa (Iredale, 1931) off Wollongong 5.5-7.5mls NE of Cape Three Points; 1.5mls off Sussex Inlet, Wreck Bay; 16ml E of Wollongong Lucinidae Narrabeen Lower depth to 20m, according to Lamprell & Healy, yet type was collected at 55-64m (30-35 fathoms) (Iredale & McMichael 1962) A dog cockle that grows to about 15mm, which occurs in shelf and slope waters. Lower depth limit reported to be 500m deep. A dog cockle recorded from the subtidal down to about 200m Lucinidae Epicodakia gunnamatta Iredale, 1930 Port Hacking A 25mm cockle which might be conspecific with Epicodakia consettiana (Glover & Taylor 2007). Holotype was worn beach specimen. A 22mm cockle found in intertidal sand. Lyonsiellidae Lyonsiella quadrata off Narrabeen off Sydney; off Wollongong A 4mm bivalve known from the holotype (collected at 100 fathoms = 182m deep). Ctena (Talocodakia) kennethi (Iredale, 1936) Hedley, 1907 31 Table 9 (cont.): Family, Genus, Species & Authority Myochamidae Myochama strangei Adams, 1852 Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) Port Jackson Middle Harbour in Sydney Harbour; Twofold Bay Notes A 25mm bivalve found attached by right valve to rocks or other shells. Port Jackson Narooma; Crookhaven; Wreck Bay; Middle Harbour and Cronulla, Sydney; Broughton I.; Wollongong; Twofold Bay Twofold Bay A 13mm bivalve recorded from the intertidal to about 18m deep. Long Reef, Collaroy Cape Banks, Botany Bay; Shellharbour A 7mm mussel, known to date between the intertidal and 28m deep. Neoleptonidae Neolepton / Micropolia jacksonensis (Laseron, 1953) Sow & Pigs Reef, Port Jackson Neoleptonidae Sow & Pigs Reef, Port Jackson Neolepton / Micropolia depressa (Laseron, 1953) Sydney Harbour A small (2mm) species, known from intertidal down to about 17m. This species has the same type locality and reported depth range as Neolepton / Micropolia depressa A small (3mm) species, known from intertidal down to about 17m. This species has the same type locality and reported depth range as Neolepton / Micropolia jacksonensis Neoleptonidae Neolepton / Micropolia typica (Laseron, 1953) off Crookhaven A small (2mm) bivalve which occurs to at least 64m deep. Neoleptonidae Neolepton / Micropolia profundis (Laseron, 1953) off Crookhaven A small (3mm) bivalve which occurs to at least 64m deep. Nuculanidae Jupiteria / Nuculana oculata (Iredale, 1925) 15 miles off Narrabeen off Botany Bay A beaked cockle of about 17mm long, recorded to date from the subtidal down to about 180m. Myochamidae Myodora crassa Stutchbury, 1830 Mytilidae Solamen rex Iredale, 1924 Mytilidae Septifer (Septifer) australis Laseron, 1956 Nuculidae Nucula praetenta Iredale 1924 Sydney Harbour off Sydney off Nowra; off Wollongong A 29mm mussel, known from the continental shelf to about 110m deep. Very little information available. NB Type collected at 80-100 fathoms (146182m), but Lamprell & Healy reported depth range to only 44m. A 3mm nut cockle. Also known as Nucula umbonata Smith, 1891. Dredged on continental shelf, and upper slope to 225m (Lamprell & Healy 1998), but there is also a Museum of Victoria record from 1100m. 32 Table 9 (cont.): Family, Genus, Species & Authority Nucula revei Bergmans, 1978 Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) Narrabeen Middle Harbour & North Head in Sydney Philobryidae Narrabeen A very small (1mm) bivalve recorded on shelly sand Off Wollongong A small (3mm) bivalve recorded in intertidal and subtidal sand. Lamprell & Healy reported the lower depth limit to be 19m, but the holotype was reportedly collected at 100 fathoms (182m) (cited in Academy of Natural Sciences 2006) A small (3mm) bivalve recorded in intertidal and subtidal sand. Nuculidae Cratis delicata Bergmans, 1970 Philobryidae Cosa auriculata Laseron, 1953 Philobryidae 16ml E of Wollongong Cosa sagana Iredale, 1931 Tellinidae Punipagia / Tellin hypelliptica Salisbury, 1934 Thraciidae Port Jackson Port Hacking; Middle Harbour & North Harbour Sow-and-Pigs Reef, Port Jackson Thracia (Thracia) jacksonensis Smith, 1876 Thyasiridae 5-8 miles off Port Kembla Thyasira (Thyasira) peroniana (Iredale, 1930) 5.5-7.5mls NE of Cape Three Points (near Woy Woy) Ungulinidae Cycladicama (Toralimysia) excentrica (Iredale, 1936) Sydney Harbour Port Jackson; ~ 20km W of Danger I. Notes A very small (1mm) nut cockle recorded on sand, from the intertidal to about 15m deep. Lamprell & Healy reported the lower depth limit to be 55m, but the holotype was reportedly collected at 100 fathoms (182m) (cited in Academy of Natural Sciences 2006) A 10mm bivalve recorded from sand habitat in the intertidal, to about 6m deep. A clam species of about 21mm long, recorded from the intertidal to about 30m deep. A small (5mm) species recorded down to 137m. A related subspecies occurs in New Zealand. Mud-living Diplodont, which grows to about 23mm. Found from the intertidal to at least 8m deep. One bivalve species of particular concern in NSW is neither endemic nor uncommon, but is threatened by over-exploitation and possibly other threats. The pipi Donax (Plebidonax) deltoides occurs in the intertidal and shallow subtidal along high energy coasts. The shells typically inhabit the swash zone and shallow subtidal, filtering surf diatoms from the water column. The pipis can emerge from sand and migrate up and down the surf beach over the tidal cycles. They also migrate along the beach in storm surges, and seasonally. Adult pipis (which can live for several years) are usually found lower down the beach than juveniles, and are very resilient to high wave energy and erosional forces. Pipis can use their muscular foot to rapidly rebury themselves after disturbance. Predation of this species is high. Natural predators include various coastal bird species, such as oystercatchers and gulls; sand crabs; giant beach worms, rays, and octopus. Wind patterns (affecting larvae), and freshwater outflows may both be important factors in maintaining pipi populations (King 1976, cited by Murray-Jones and Johnson 2003). 33 In NSW, this species is exploited commercially (in the Estuary General Fishery, although pipis do not occur in estuaries) and recreationally in NSW. Commercial landings declined from a high of 500t per annum during the mid 2000s, down to about 50t in 2008/09, despite high demand for the product. Catch per unit effort has also declined during the past decade, despite no decline in effort. The recreational catch may be between 20t and 50t per annum (Industry and Investment NSW 2010). There is a recreational bag limit (of 50 cockles, mussels and pipis), but it is possible that some recreational fishers exceed the limit, as occurs in other parts of Australia, where pipis are a popular choice as fish bait. Research effort is needed to determine the likely cause (or causes) of apparent decline in numbers in NSW, to assist impact management strategies in future. Currently, this species is classified as being of u e tai exploitation status (Industry and Investment NSW 2010). In additional to over-exploitation by commercial and recreational collecting, this species is also periodically subject to mass mortality events. Brachiopoda (Lamp Shells) Brachiopoda, or lamp shells, are solitary, benthic marine animals that superficially resemble bivalve shells, but the body plan is different to that of bivalves (Middelfart and Reid 2001, in ABRS 2012). Some species are attached to the substrate by a stalk (pedicle) or are cemented there; a few species anchor their pedicle in sand or mud, and others lie freely on the surface. Most of the species in Australia are found on soft sediments of the continental shelf and can move freely in response to changes in levels of sediment (Richardson 1997). Brachiopods range in size from 1mm to almost 10cm, and members of the phylum collectively encompass a very broad depth range (from intertidal to the abyssal depths). Brachiopods can be relatively long lived (e.g. to 30 years). The phylum Brachiopoda is an ancient one, dating back at least 600 million years. Worldwide, there may be about 12,000 described fossil species, but only 335 described Recent species (i.e. Holocene species: younger than 11,000 years). Excluding brachiopods from Antarctica, there are at least 43 named species in Australian waters, plus 6 others awaiting description (CSIRO 2012). The Australian brachiopod fauna is particularly diverse (Richardson 1997). There are two apparently limited range species in New South Wales, both known only from this State. These are:  Aldingia willemoesi (Davidson, 1878), the type of which came from Twofold Bay at 120 fathoms (219m) (Middelfart and Reid, in ABRS 2012, citing Hedley 1918, and Davidson 1887). The species was originally described as Megerlia willemoesi (Davidson 1878). According to Hiller et al. (2007), this species would be more appropriately placed in the genus Campages Hedley.  Frenulina pulchella (Sowerby, 1844), known from the Sydney Harbour area, but the type may be missing (Whitelegge, 1889; Hedley 1918; Middelfart and Reid, in ABRS, 2012). Originally described in Sowerby (1844) as Terebratula pulchella, there is very little information about this species. The brachiopod fauna of New South Wales is poorly known. It is not known if the two aforementioned species, which are possibly endemic within New South Wales, occur in the NR CMA region. 34 Cephalopoda (Squids, Cuttlefishes and Octopus) The class Cephalopoda includes soft-bodied animals such as squid, cuttlefish and octopus, which have a head that is partly or fully fused with the foot, and 8 or 10 arms covered with suction discs. Cephalopods have complex sensory systems, enabling rapid movements and responses, sudden colour changes, visual acuity, and well developed behaviour patterns, including learning ability. Of the 11 uncommonly recorded and/or limited range cephalopods in southern Australia (Baker and Edgar, in prep.), three occur in New South Wales coastal waters, but the species status is uncertain for two of these. The first of these is the Loligo Squid Loligo australis Gray, 1849 (Lu and Phillips 1985; Lu 2001, in ABRS 2012). The depth range has not been recorded, but this squid is reported to be a coastal species. The holotype, from Newcastle in NSW, is in the British Museum of Natural History, and although Lu and Phillips (1985) considered the Loligo Squid to be a doubtful species, it is still listed as a current taxon in the Australian Fau al Di e to AB‘“ a d i C“I‘O s CAAB data ase . Presence of this species in NR CMA is unknown. A cuttlefish species of conservation concern along the eastern seaboard is Sepia limata (Iredale, 1926) the Pygmy Cuttlefish, which is found from southern Queensland to New South Wales (approximately 26°36'S 153°35'E to 34°40'S 150°51'E) (Museum of Victoria records; Lu 1998; Reid 2000; Reid et al. 2005). This is a small species, with a maximum mantle length of about 42mm for females, slightly larger than males. Total length records are as high as 101mm (Most records are from southern Queensland and northern New South Wales, but this species has been recorded as far south at Kiama. There is a discrepancy in the published depth range (43-146m, according to Lu 2001 in ABRS 2012; or 17-183m, according to Reid et al. 2005). Pygmy Cuttlefish is a bycatch species in ocean trawl fisheries in both Queensland and New South Wales, and this is discussed further in the section on Trawling. This species is also part of the bycatch in the Sydney inshore trawl-whiting fishery (Graham et al. 2008). A more broadly distributed cephalopod of uncertain status in New South Wales is Octopus duplex Hoyle, 1885, known from Tasmania, Victoria and southern NSW (Robson 1929; Stranks et al. 1998; Lu, in ABRS 2012). The type locality is off Twofold Bay in NSW (36º59'S 150º20'E). The depth range is not recorded, but the type was collected at 150 fathoms (Hoyle 1885). Stranks et al. (1998) considered this to be an invalid junior synonym of O. superciliosus, yet it is noted that O. duplex is included in both C“I‘O s CAAB database of Australian aquatic species (2012), and the Australian Faunal Directory. Another species of cephalopod of uncertain taxonomy is known from Lord Howe Island. Sepia baxteri (Iredale, 1940) has apparently been recorded only from the type locality (Australian Museum data, 1926 and 1994; Adam and Rees 1966; Lu and Phillips 1985; Reid et al. 2005). This species is known only from cuttlebones, measuring a maximum of 7.4cm. The depth range has not been recorded. Sepia baxteri might be a junior synonym of the tropical Indo-Pacific species Sepia bandensis Adam 1939 (Reid et al. 2005). Crinoidea (Feather Stars) Crinoidea is a small class of echinoderms which are characterised by having a small central disc, and feathered arms that are used to catch and transport drifting food particles down to the mouth in the disc. On the underside of the body are slender, jointed calcareous appendages called cirri, which assist in locomotion, and in anchoring the feather star to the substrate. Compared with the tropics, there are few species in temperate Australian waters. The largest and one of the most common species in southern Australia is Cenolia trichoptera (Müller 1846), the Orange Feather Star, which ranges from approximately Fremantle in WA through to Byron Bay in northern NSW. 35 Within New South Wales, there are 3 species of crinoid that either occur over a relatively narrow geographic range, and/or are known from very few records. The first of these, Decametra zebra (H.L. Clark, 1916) is a crinoid apparently known only from the type locality off the mouth of the Clarence River in the NR CMA region. The type specimen of this species, previously called Oligometra zebra was dredged between 1909 and 1914, at about 65m deep (35-36 fathoms) (Clark 1947; Rowe and Gates, in ABRS 20012). The species is apparently known from a single 7cm specimen, and the full distribution is not known. Other records could not be found for this report. Just south of the NR CMA southern border is the reported northern limit of the small (2cm) crinoid Aporometra paedophora (H.L. Clark, 1909), known from off the Manning River in NSW through to eastern Bass Strait in Victoria (Clark and Clark 1967; T. O'Hara, pers. comm., cited by Rowe and Gates, in ABRS, 2012). The type locality was 6.5-10.5km off Manning River, where 23 specimens were collected. Other records include 82 km SW of Cape Liptrap, and 38 km SW of Cape Paterson in Central Bass Strait. The reported habitat is fine grey sand, and specimens have been recorded to date from 40m - 70m deep. Helgen and Rouse (2006) reported that taxonomic status of this crinoid is unresolved. Aporometra paedophora was listed by O'Hara and Barmby (2000) and O'Hara (2002) as a species of conservation concern in Victoria due to its uncommonness, and reliance on habitat of the East Shelf, which is trawled. The last of the three, Antedon detonna McKnight 1977 has been recorded at Norfolk Island Ridge, off Norfolk Island, over a narrow depth range of 15m to 24m (NIWA IOBIS data; O'Hara 2008; Rowe and Gates, in ABRS 2012). It is apparently known to date from only 2 locations on Norfolk Ridge, and has not been reported since the type description (O'Hara 2008). More research is required to determine the full distribution, and it is not known if this species occurs north of the type area, in the NR CMA region. Decapoda (Shrimps, Prawns, Crabs) The Decapoda is a large order of crustaceans that includes the shrimps, prawns, lobsters, crabs and hermit crabs. Decapods have five pairs of rear limbs, used for walking, and three pairs of modified limbs that are used for feeding. They are also characterised by an exoskeleton, and the carapace part of this covers the cephalothorax (fused head and thorax), and is calcified to varying degrees according to major group. The carapace is particularly well developed in lobsters and crabs. Decapods have extensive branched gills, enabling them to grow to a large size compared with other crustaceans (Poore 2004; Edgar 2008). Many decapods in southern Australia are widespread and common. One decapod species known to date only from the type locality at Lord Howe Island is the small (7mm) spider crab Acanthophrys costatus (Griffin and Tranter 1986; Davie 2001, 2002). This species has been e o ded et ee Co ets Hole a d a o k eef, a o gst ed a d o a oalgae a d so e corals, at 2-3m depth. Eight decapod species are known to date only or mainly from New South Wales. These are mainly crabs and shrimps, but only those three which might occur in the NR CMA region are detailed in Table 10. Two of the NSW species are black-fingered crabs in Xanthidae. Lybia australiensis is a very small species (7mm), found in the shallow subtidal, on rocky reef amongst bryozoans. This species is reported to carry anemones in its claws. It is known from the type, collected At Port Jackson in 1928 (Poore 2004), and there are questionable records from the Red Sea (Davie 2001, in ABRS 2012). The small (2cm) xanthid crab Megametope punctata / punctatus is known from shallow subtidal habitats in Sydney Harbour (e.g. Coogee, Kurnell, Port Jackson), Narabeen and the Parramatta River area (Poore 2004). Very little information exists about either of these species, and their presence in the NR CMA region is uncertain. 36 The very small (12mm) sponge crab Austrodromidia (or Cryptodromia) incisa (Henderson, 1888) is reported to be known only from type locality at Twofold Bay, but it is noted that there are unverified records from Japan (Yokoya 1933, also cited by Guinot and Tavares 2003). This species was reported from 200m deep in southern NSW, and the type specimens were covered with ascidians. Its presence in NR CMA region is unknown. Another small crab known so far only from southern NSW is the pebble crab Ebalia ramsayi (Haswell, 1879), previously known as Phlyxia ramsayi. This species has been recorded from various locations around Sydney. Two small hairy crabs (Pilumnidae family) reported by Davie (2001) to be known from the type locality of Port Jackson, are Ceratoplax inermis (which may be synonymous with Ceratoplax luteus – see Poore 2004), and Mertonia integra (previously named Pilumnus integer). According to Poore (2004), only one specimen of M. integra was ever collected, and it was redescribed by McNeill (1929). Very little information about these two species is available. Ceratoplax luteus ranges from southern Queensland to southern NSW, and has been recorded over a narrow depth range to date (e.g. most records from 6m 9m), on soft bottom (Griffin and Campbell 1969, cited by Poore 2004). Table 10: Uncommon decapods of apparently narrow distribution, which might occur in NR CMA region. NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland; SA = South Australia. Information from: Haswell 1882; Jones et al. 1986; Jones 1987; Davie 2001; Davie 2002, in ABRS 2012; Ahyong 2003; Poore 2004; Sakai 2006. Family, Genus, Species & Authority Ceratoplax luteus / lutea (McNeill 1929) Gnathophyllidae Gnathophyllum taylori Ahyong, 2003 Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2011) Port Stephens Moreton Bay in QLD; Sydney area, Newcastle area in NSW Elizabeth Reef (-29.96S 159.04E or 29º57.7´S 159º02.8´E) Common Name (a hairy crab) Tiger Bumblebee Shrimp / (a carid shrimp) Port Jackson and Clifton Gardens (Sydney); Long Reef (-33.7S 151.3E); Malabar (33°58´S 151°15´E); Port Stephens / Nelson Bay (32º42´S 152º06´E) (photo by D. Harasti); Collaroy; Seal Rocks (near Forster: photo by R. Kuiter); Julian Rocks (photo by R. Smisek). Upogebiidae Upogebia neglecta de Man, 1927 Port Stephens Hawkesbury (unconfirmed) (a slow prawn) The Tiger Bumblebee Shrimp Gnathophyllum taylori Ahyong, 2003 is a carid shrimp known from northern to southern New South Wales, and also Elizabeth Reef, an outer reef ~ 600km E of Coffs Harbour (Ahyong 2003; Poore 2004). This striking shrimp species (Figure 8) has been recorded on shallow subtidal reef, associated with the echinoid Centrostephanus rogersi. It has also been found in the vicinity of macroalgae, coral heads and boulders. 37 Figure 8: The Tiger Bumblebee Shrimp Gnathophyllum taylori. Photo (c) R. Smisek www.julianrocks.net Another apparently limited range decapod in the area is the small (15mm) slow prawn Upogebia neglecta, a benthic, burrowing species, reported from the type locality of Port Stephens (Poore 2004). There are also unconfirmed records from Hawkesbury estuary (e.g. Jones et al., 1986; Jones 1987). Sakai (2006) considered U. neglecta to be a valid species. The carid shrimp Bresilia plumifera has an uncertain distribution. The type was collected from off Taupo Seamount (~ 400km off NSW coast), possibly at 133m deep. Apparently there is only one specimen known, and that is damaged and incomplete (Bruce 1990, 2005; Poore 2004). It is not known whether or not this species occurs in the NR CMA region. The carid shrimp Periclimenes carinidactylus has a disjunct distribution, being known to date from central to southern coast of New South Wales, and South Australia, including the gulfs region and Kangaroo Island (Bruce 1969, 1980, 1983; Davie 2002, in ABRS 2012; Poore 2004). This small species (e.g. 16mm) is known mainly from reef. Most records to date come from between a narrow depth range of 6 to 10m. A specimen recorded at Kangaroo Island in SA was found on the crinoid Comanthus trichoptera, and this species is known to be commensal on crinoids (Poore 2004). It is noted that there are unconfirmed specimens of P. carinidactylus in abundance from Narabeen Lagoon in NSW (The Ecology Lab 2008), from a habitat type (seagrass bed) and depth (1m) that differ from the published information for this species. Echinoidea (Sea Urchins and Sand Dollars) The Class Echinoidea is divided into two groups of urchins: regular (which have a spherical body covered with radiating spines, and the irregular (including heart urchins, and the flattened sand dollars). The body of sea urchins is known as the test, and is composed of interlocking calcareous plates. Echinoids move with the aid of tube feet, which extend through the test. They are active grazers, using five, sharp, beak-like teeth, and when urchins occur in large numbers on reefs, can cause significant damage to beds of macroalgae. The sea urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii, whose distribution extends as far north as Byron Bay, is a well known species in eastern Australia, and is harvested for rose in some areas. It is considered to play a key role in determining the composition and abundance of macroalgae in areas where it occurs in sufficient numbers to over-g aze a oalgae a d thus eate u hi a e s Hill et al. 2003). 38 Several uncommon species of limited known range occur in New South Wales, but there are no published records to date from the NR CMA region. The first of these is a green sea urchin, Hapalosoma pulchrum Rowe 1989, known to date only from type locality, No folk Isla d ‘idge º ´ ˜“ º ´E (Rowe 1989; Rowe and Gates, in ABRS 2012). The species is found on both the continental shelf and slope, and records range from 130m to 301m deep. There is very little information about H. pulchrum, but it is listed as a valid species (Kroh 2010). The sand dollar Echinocyamus apicatus (Mortensen 1948), is known from off Port Hacking to Wattamolla (Clark 1946; Ceranka 2007; Mortensen 1948, cited by Rowe and Gates, in ABRS 2012). Kroh (2011) reported that this species has now been referred to the genus Mortonia, but it is still listed in the Aust alia Fau al Di e to a d C“I‘O s CAAB data ase u de Echinocyamus. There are records from 100m deep, but no information about the full depth range. There is a discrepancy in the published range. Rowe and Gates (in ABRS 2012) stated that this species is known only from the mid and south coast of New South Wales, yet is listed as a Miocene fossil species (from Poland) in Ceranka (2007). A third uncommon echinoid species in NSW is the heart urchin Schizaster (Ova) portjacksonensis, known from the type locality at Port Jackson and few other locations in Sydney Harbour (McNamara and Philip, 1980; Miskelly 1998; Rowe and Gates, in ABRS 2012). There are records from about 13 to 18m deep, on muddy bottoms. Miskelly (1998) reported this species as being rare, and found in fine mud from 15-18m in Sydney Harbour. There is no information about the distribution of this species, as records so far have only been found in Sydney Harbour. Holothuroidea (Sea Cucumbers) Sea cucumbers, or holothurians, are slug-like echinoderms with microscopic, calcified spicules called ossicles in the body wall. The ossicles may be variously shaped (e.g. perforated plates, wheels, stars or anchor shapes). These animals range in size from a few millimetres to half a metre long. Holothurians have modified tube feet that form feeding tentacles which extend out through the mouth. The body wall is composed of a type of collagen which can be loosened and tightened at will (e.g. Yamada et al. 2010). For example, this enables sea cucumbers to squeeze their body into small spaces such as reef crevices, and then make the body firm again (by hooking up the collagen fibres). One of the most common species that occurs in New South Wales is the Sticky Sea Cucumber (Stimpson, 1855) Leptosynapta dolabrifera, which occurs over a broad depth range (0m – 200m) in exposed reef and sand habitats (Edgar 2008). Numerous sea cucumber species are small and cryptic, living under rocks or in sand, with just the tentacles extended (Gowlett-Holmes 2008). There are 2 uncommon sea cucumber species of limited range in New South Wales, and one known from Lord Howe Island (Table 11), and these are discussed below. A fourth species has been recorded off Norfolk Island, and is not discussed here. Neocucumis cauda is known from two locations, one off the Woy Woy area in New South Wales and the other off Lakes Entrance in Victoria. The New South Wales record is listed as 1898 (collected by Waite), but the specimen was taxonomically identified in 1992. It might be more widespread but the habitat is not commonly or systematically sampled. Records to date have reportedly come from between 28m and 93m (O'Loughlin and O'Hara 1992, Rowe and Gates in ABRS, 2012). This species is considered vulnerable in Victoria due to its apparent uncommonness, and its reliance on East Shelf habitat, which is a trawled area (O'Hara and Barmby 2000). The habitat is presumed to be soft bottom offshore. It is not known how far north in NSW the distribution extends, and although there are no published records yet from the NR CMA region, this species might occur here. Members of the family in which N. cauda is placed commonly brood eggs (e.g. Materia et al. 1991), hence dispersal may be limited. 39 Rynkatorpa hickmani is another sea cucumber that is considered vulnerable in Victoria due to reliance on the trawled habitat of the East Shelf (O'Hara and Barmby, 2000), but its status in New South Wales is unknown. R. hickmani apparently has a broader distribution than N. cauda, and is known from few records ranging from south-eastern Tasmania, through Bass Strait and Victoria, to Malabar (Sydney area) in NSW. It is known over a relatively broad depth range on the shelf, from intertidal down to 95m (Rowe and Pawson 1967; Dartnall 1980; Rowe 1982; DPIW Tasmania 2005; Rowe and Gates 1995, in ABRS 2012). Some species in the family in which R. hickmani is placed commonly brood eggs (e.g. Lawrence and Herrera 2000), hence dispersal may be limited. The very small (1cm) sea cucumber Psolidium minutus (= P. minutum, in Mackenzie and Whitfield 2011) (Figure 9) has been recorded from Lord Howe Island and Middleton Reef. This species is white, with yellowish tentacles. It is known from under rocks near sandy rubble, on reef fronts, and on sand near reefs, between 1m and 10m deep (Clark 1946; Coleman 2002; O'Loughlin and Maric 2008; Rowe and Gates 1995, in ABRS 2012). It was originally described as Psolus minutus (in Clark 1938). It is known from few locations in the Tasman Sea (O'Loughlin and Maric 2008), and it is not known if the distribution of this species extends to the New South Wales coast. Brooding of eggs is common in members of the Psolidae family (e.g. McEuen and Chia 1991), to which P. minutus belongs. (c) N. Coleman Figure 9: Psolidium minutus. Photo (c): N. Coleman 40 Table 11: Sea cucumber species of potential conservation concern found in New South Wales and/or Lord Howe Island. LHI = Lord Howe Island; NSW = New South Wales; NI = Norfolk Island; SE = south-east; TAS = Tasmania; VIC = Victoria. Information from: Clark 1946; Rowe and Pawson 1967; Dartnall 1980; Rowe 1982, 1989; O'Loughlin and O'Hara 1992; O'Loughlin and Maric 2008; Rowe and Gates 1995, in ABRS 2012. Family, Genus, Species & Authority Cucumariidae Neocucumis cauda O'Loughlin & O'Hara, 1992 Synaptidae Rynkatorpa hickmani Rowe & Pawson, 1967 Psolidae Psolidium minutus / minutum (H.L. Clark, 1938) Distribution, type locality (T) and examples of other known records (to 2012) Cape Three Points in NSW to south of Lakes Entrance in Victoria. S of Lakes Entrance (38º04´S 148º00´E) (T). 9-12 km off Cape Three Points (Woy Woy area) in NSW Malabar in NSW to SE TAS. Derwent Estuary, Tasmania (T). South east of Malabar in NSW; Port Phillip Bay and Cape Howe in VIC; Norfolk Bay in TAS. Lord Howe Rise (Middleton Reef and LHI); Neds Beach, LHI (T). Middleton Reef Ophiuroidea (Brittlestars) Brittlestars are echinoderms which have a central disc and five slender arms, which are usually long and sinuous. When the arms are branched, the animals are known as basketstars. Some brittlestars bury in mud or sand, but most live under rocks, or among macroalgae, or in association with sponges, hard corals and bryozoans (Baker 1982). Ophiuroids can readily regenerate lost arms or arm segments unless all arms are lost. A number of species brood developing young in the bursae (cilia-lined sacs used for gas exchange and excretion), but reproduction in the uncommon southern Australian species requires more research. Brittlestars and basketstars of limited known distribution and few records in northern New South Wales are listed in Table 12. There are two brittlestars known to date only from Lord Howe Island. The first is Macrophiothrix or Ophiothrix (Placophiothrix) albolineata, which occurs in the intertidal and shallow subtidal. The other is Ophioteichus parvispinum, reportedly known only from type locality (Neds Beach) at Lord Howe Island, and possibly not recorded since the type was collected in 1932. Several species are known over a broader range. For example, the 3cm basketstar Astrosierra densus is known from southern Queensland and northern New South Wales. It has been recorded mainly over a narrow depth range (e.g. 70m – 95m), but there are records from shallower (25m) and deeper waters + , a o di g to O Ha a The brittlestar Macrophiothrix lampra is also known from southern Queensland to New South Wales, over a broader geographic range than A. densus (i.e. most of the NSW coast). M. lampra has been recorded at more than 5 locations, including the Solitary Islands Marine Park. A number of species known from few records in southern New South Wales and Victoria, and others from Norfolk Island, are not discussed here because there are no records to date from northern NSW. 41 Table 12: Brittlestars and basketstar species of potential conservation concern, found in New South Wales and/or Lord Howe Island. ENE = east north east; LHI = Lord Howe Island; NE = north east; NSW = New South Wales; NI = Norfolk Island; SE = south east; TAS = Tasmania; VIC = Victoria. Information from: Clark 1938, 1946; Downey 1969; Baker 1979, 1980; Hoggett 1991; Rowe and Gates 1995, and also in ABRS 2012; O’Hara a d also in ABRS, 2012; O'Hara and Barmby 2000; Ferns and Hough 2000; Rule et al. 2007; O’Hara ; Stöhr 2010. Family, Genus, Species & Authority Ophiotrichidae Macrophiothrix or Ophiothrix (Placophiothrix) albolineata (H.L. Clark, 1938) Distribution, type locality (T) and examples of other known records (to 2012) LHI Neds Beach, Lord Howe I. (T) Ophiuridae Ophioteichus parvispinum H.L. Clark, 1938 LHI Neds Beach, Lord Howe I. (T) Gorgonocephalidae Astrosierra densus Baker, 1980 Fraser I. in QLD to S of Forster, NSW south of Fraser Is., QLD, 25º48´S 153º46´E (T) off Moreton Bay; Stradbroke I; NE of Tweed Heads; SE of Ballina; N of Yamba; NE of Sugarloaf Pt / Seal Rocks Ophiotrichidae Macrophiothrix lampra H.L. Clark, 1938 Tweed River Heads near QLD border, to Burrewarra Point / Batemans Bay Bottle and Glass Rocks, Port Jackson (T) Tweed Heads; Byron Bay; Minnie Waters; Coffs Harbour; Collaroy; Pt Hacking; Batemans Bay Opisthobranchs / Heterobranchia (Sea Slugs / Nudibranchs) Opisthobranchs are sea slug gast opods ith ea a d gills. Most e e s of this la ge g oup la k a shell, or have a reduced internal shell. Some have a fragile external shell. The body (mantle) of shell-less nudibranchs is often brightly coloured and patterned, and some nudibranchs evolved bizarre body shapes. In most sea slugs, the head bears two pairs of sensory tentacles: a pair of tactile oral tentacles, and a dorsal pair of rhinophores (chemo-sensory organs), which may be ornamented to increase their surface area (Burn 1989). Opisthobranchs are hermaphrodites, and can function as male and female at the same time. Eggs are usually laid in a gelatinous mass. Most species have planktonic larvae, but some hatch as crawling miniatures which resemble the adults (Gowlett-Holmes 2008). Some of the common groups of opisthobranchs with representatives in eastern Australia include:  the dorid nudibranchs (flattened species that are often cryptic, and feed on sponges);  chromodorid nudibranchs (which includes some of the most brightly coloured and/or patterned Pacific nudibranchs, such as Chromodoris elisabethina, C. kuiteri, Ceratosoma flavicostatum, Glossodoris averni, Hypselodoris zephyra, and many others);  facelinid nudibranchs, which often have an elongate body, and the protrusions from the mantle (cerata) are usually arranged in rows, clumps or whirls; and  polycerid nudibranchs, which often have large gills, brightly coloured mantles, and many species in the family feed on bryozoans. Many sea slugs have a specialised diet, and their distribution thus reflects the presence of their preferred food type. For example, the green Oxynoe viridis sea slug from the Indo-Pacific and around Australia, feeds on green Caulerpa macroalgae. Some of the larger sea slugs are predatory, feeding on polychaete worms, colonial ascidians, or even on other sea slugs. Some opisthobranchs are seasonal in occurrence, and others may be locally abundant in some years, and absent from the same area in other years. A number of the species discussed in this report eat preferred species of sponge, and others eat bryozoans. 42 At least 24 species of opisthobranch are recorded uncommonly in northern New South Wales, and 15 of those have not yet been described to species level (Table 13). A number of the uncommonly recorded sea slugs are known to date only from northern NSW, such as the small, unnamed species in Aglajidae (in Rudman 2005a); the unnamed Marionia recorded on soft coral at Angourie (Rudman 1998d); the Alluring Chromidoris Chromodoris sp. (in Coleman 2008), and the chromodorid Chromodoris buchananae (see below). Other species known from northern NSW also occur in southern Queensland, such as Cyerce sp. 4 (Figure 10); the Wait-a-While Favorinus Favorinus sp. (in Coleman 2008); and the Bright Herviella Herviella claror (Figure 11). Figure 10: Cyerce sp. 4. Photo (c): D. Riek http://www.roboastra.com/ There have been few sightings of these small species (many of which are camouflaged on reef surfaces or on their preferred food source) and it is not known if the full distribution is broader than that recorded to date. Some of the species known from northern NSW and southern Queensland may also occur in areas of the tropical Pacific, but others may have a more restricted range, and targetted searches would be required to better determine whether distribution is broad or narrow. Figure 11: Herviella claror. Photos (c): D. Riek http://www.roboastra.com/ 43 Table 13: Opisthobranch species known to date solely or mainly from northern New South Wales (some also from southern NSW; or southern Queensland; and one also from Lord Howe Island). Information from: Brandley 1984; Burn (1966, 1967, 1989); Carlson & Hoff (2003); Coleman (2001, 2008); Debelius & Kuiter (2007); Gosliner & Behrens (2000); McDonald (2006); Pola et al. (2008); Rudman (1983, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1998d, 1999a, 1999b, 1999c, 1999d, 2000a, 2000b, 2000c, 2000d, 2001a, 2003a, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c, 2004d, 2005a, 2005b, 2005c, 2006a, 2007a, 2008a, 2008b); SURG (2009); photographs by D. and L. Atkinson, and by W. Ellis; nudibranch web sites (www.roboastra.com; www.julianrocks.net; www.nudibranch.com.au). LHI = Lord Howe Island; NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland; SE = south-east Family, Genus, Species, Authority, Common Name Aglajidae "Aglajid" sp. 5 (in Rudman 2005a) Caliphyllidae Cyerce sp. 4 (in Rudman 2008b) Max. Size (mm) Type Locality, Other Known Records (to 2012), Habitat, and Relevant Notes 5 Chromodorididae Chromodoris buchananae Gosliner & Behrens, 2000 Buchanan's Chromodoris 50 or 60 Known from northern NSW (e.g. Brunswick Reef), on reef / rock walls. One specimen photographed at 2m deep. Known from southern QLD (e.g. Mooloolaba) & northern NSW (e.g. Hastings Point & possibly also Coffs Harbour). Recorded on rocky reef in the shallow subtidal, to about 15m. Uncertain if Coffs Harbour photo (in Coleman 2008, as Cyerce cf. pavonica) is same as sp. 4. Possibly also at Pt Cartwright in SE QLD (http://slugsite.tierranet.com/news/anews) S. Solitary I. near Coffs Harbour Known from northern NSW (e.g. Solitary Is.) on reef. Rudman (2006f) reported that it may be an albino form of C. kuiteri. Holotype collected at 14m or 15m. Example in Coleman (2001c) from 20m on reef. Debelius & Kuiter (2007) reported maximum size of 60mm (cf Gosliner & Behrens = 50mm). Known from single specimen. Known from northern NSW (Jervis Bay). One example in Coleman (2001, 2008) from 40m on reef. Reported by Coleman (2008) not to have been recorded since the first specimen in 1970. 40 Chromodorididae Chromodoris sp. (in Coleman 2001, 2008) Alluring Chromodoris Chromodorididae Chromodoris loringi (Angas, 1864) Loring's Chromodoris 20 Chromodorididae Chromodoris woodwardae Rudman, 1983 Woodward's Chromodoris Chromodorididae Chromodoris hunterae Rudman, 1983 Hunter's Chromodoris Chromodorididae Noumea sp. 3. (in Rudman 2000d) Dendrodorididae Dendrodoris? sp. 1 (in Rudman 1998c & Coleman 2001, 2008) Globed Dendrodoris 20 25 Known from NSW (e.g. Solitary Is.; Pt Stephens; Sydney area [Botany Bay, La Perouse, Clovelly, Nth Avalon]; Pt Hacking; Eden). Found on reef, including reef with sand & sponges. Members of the family eat sponges. Photographed and/or collected examples range from about 10 to 25m deep. Related to Chromodoris hunterae. Known from NSW (e.g. Coffs Harbour; Jervis Bay; Nelson Bay; Terrigal; Sydney [e.g. Bare I.; NW Little I., Botany Bay]). Members of the family eat sponges. Recorded on reef with sponges, macroalgae & sand. Most specimens found below 10m. 30 Known from NSW (e.g. Port Stephens; Sydney area [Nelson Bay; La Perouse]; Eden; Twofold Bay). Recorded on reef. Members of the family eat sponges. There is also an unverified photograph from South Africa (www.nudipixel.net/species/chromodoris_hunterae/) 10 Known from NSW (e.g. Split Solitary I. near Coffs Harbour; Curphy Reef, near Crowdy Head; Bateman's Bay). Some specimens recorded at 18-21m. Associated with sponge. 30 Known from central NSW coast (e.g. Port Stephens). One specimen recorded at 8m depth, on reef. Very little information. No other examples could be found in literature search. 44 Table 13 (cont.): Family, Genus, Species, Authority, Common Name Discodorididae Jorunna sp. (in Coleman 2008) Mauve Jorunna Dorididae Aphelodoris varia (Abraham, 1877) Variable Aphelodoris Max. Size (mm) Dorididae Discodoris sp. (in Coleman 2001) Spongy Discodoris / Southern Discodoris 25 Dorididae Doris? sp. 8 (in Rudman 2000c) Atkinson's Doris Elysiidae / Plakobranchidae Elysia (cf. furvacauda) (in Rudman 1999c) 40 Facelinidae Favorinus sp. (in Coleman 2008) Wait-a-While Favorinus Glaucidae Herviella claror Burn, 1963 Bright Herviella 11 Goniodorididae Goniodoris sp. / sp. 1 / sp. 3 / sp. 4 (in Rudman 1998a, Rudman 2003a; & Debelius & Kuiter 2007) 12 Goniodorididae Okenia vena Rudman, 2004a Veiny Okenia Goniodorididae Okenia mellita Rudman, 2004a Honey-coloured Okenia 10 Type Locality, Other Known Records (to 2012), Habitat, and Relevant Notes 20 Known from NSW (e.g. Byron Bay; Nelson Bay; Port Stephens; Clovelly). Found under rocks, on reef. Feeds on sponge Callyspongia (Coleman 2008). Examples of specimens range from 5m to 20m; might have broader depth range. 70 Known from northern to southern NSW (e.g. Hastings Point; Coffs Harbour; Forster; Jervis Bay; Pt Macquarie; Botany Bay; Pt Stephens; Twofold Bay). Occurs in some marine parks (e.g. Solitary Islands). Found to date on reef with sponges, from 0m to 25m deep. Members of the family eat sponges. Common in NSW and possibly endemic within that region (Rudman 2000d). Known from NSW (e.g. Clovelly, Port Stephens & Catherine Hill Bay). Possibly same species found in southern QLD (e.g. Sunshine Coast). One example was recorded at 10-12m. Eats sponge (Coleman 2001, 2008). Lays orange eggs near food sponge. First record by N. Coleman, in 1977. Known from northern & central NSW coast (e.g. Byron Bay / Julian Rocks; Halifax Park / Nelson Bay / Port Stephens), but might be more widespread. One example was found at 8m depth, on a food sponge. 15 12 30 Known from southern QLD (e.g. Alexandra Headland & Woody Point near Point Mooloolaba), & NSW (e.g. Coffs Harbour & Botany Bay). Found on rocky reef with macroalgae. Feeds on red epiphytic macroalgae & green macroalgae (e.g. Caulerpa), & changes diet seasonally. Uses plant plastids to photosynthesise. Known from southern Qld (e.g. Clown Reef & Mooloolaba on Sunshine Coast) & northern NSW (e.g. Julian Rocks). One example in Coleman (2008) is from 14m, on reef. Woody Head in NSW Known from southern QLD (e.g. Alexandra Headland & Kings Beach, Sunshine Coast) & northern NSW (e.g. Yamba area; Clarence River & Hastings Point). Recorded under rocks & in rock pools, in intertidal & shallow subtidal reefs. May be a colour variant of the Japanese species H. affinis (Rudman 2005b). NB There is a published record from Guam (Carlson & Hoff 2003) Known from NSW (Fly Point at Port Stephens; Sydney area [e.g. Botany Bay; Clovelly, & Shelly Beach at Manly]), with records to date from 5m to 20m deep. Identity & distribution uncertain - might also occur in Japan. Related to Hopkinsia and Okenia and also probably feeds on bryozoans (Rudman 1998a). Probably same species or close relative of white Goniodoris sp 3 and sp 4 in Debelius & Kuiter (2007), and Violet Goniodoris in Coleman (2008). Known from northern NSW (e.g. Julian Rocks; Split Solitary I. & Pig I. near Coffs Harbour, at least as far south as Port Stephens (e.g. Halifax Sponge Gardens). Some specimens collected at 20-22m. Known from northern to southern NSW (e.g. Julian Rocks; Coffs Harbour; Jervis Bay; Montague I.; Pt Stephens; Shoalhaven; Ulladulla). Found on rocky reefs with bryozoans, with records to date from 20-40m. Uncertain if same as a species from central WA coast. Usually found in waters more than 20m deep (Debelius & Kuiter 2007). One example in Coleman (2008) from 27m deep. 45 Table 13 (cont.): Family, Genus, Species, Authority, Common Name Nembrothinae Nembrotha rosannulata Pola, Cervera & Gosliner, 2008 Donut Nembrotha / Roseringed Nembrotha Max. Size (mm) Type Locality, Other Known Records (to 2012), Habitat, and Relevant Notes 120 Polyceridae Tambja sp. 11 (in Rudman 2007a & Coleman 2008) Black-striped Tambja Tergipedidae Cuthona sp. 3 / Trinchesia sp. (in Rudman 1999a) Tritoniidae Marionia sp. (in Rudman 1998d) 60 Known from southern QLD (e.g. southern GBR), central NSW coast (Nelson Bay & Cabbage Tree I., E of Port Stephens) and unverified records from further south in NSW. NB: There is an unverified record from New Caledonia. Most records to date are from a geographically small area of central NSW coast. Found on (and feeds on) the dark bluish-black ascidian Sigillina cyanea, in sand, seagrass, macroalgae habitat. Some specimens recorded at 12-14m depth. Known from LHI (e.g. North Gutters) & southern QLD (e.g. Caloundra; Mooloolaba; Currimundi) Found on coral reef and rocky reef. LHI specimen or specimens known from 14 - 20m depth. Known in Debelius & Kuiter 2007 as Tambja sp. 1. Feeds on bryozoan Bugula dentata. May be a colour form of a more widespread Tambja species. 15 Known from NSW (Port Stephens). Very little information. Labelled as Cuthona sp. 3 in Rudman (1999a). Species in Cuthona now commonly (but possibly incorrectly) referred to as being in genus Trinchesia. Known from northern NSW (Angourie), but might be more widespread. Recorded on (& associated with) an alcyonarian soft coral, possibly species of Telesto. No other examples could be found in search of literature and web photos of Marionia species by nudibranch photographers in NSW. Of the various species in Chromodorididae that occur in NSW, several are known from a narrow geographic range, and others from very few specimens. Chromodoris buchananae (Gosliner & Behrens 2000) has been recorded at the Solitary Islands near Coffs Harbour, and is apparently known from a single collection at that locality. Rudman (2006f) reported that it may be an albino form of the related species C. kuiteri, which has a broader distribution. Chromodoris sp. (in Coleman 2001, 2008) has been recorded at Jervis Bay in NSW, and, according to Coleman (2001, 2008) has not been recorded since the first specimen was reported on reef at 40m deep, in 1970. More widespread species of Chromodoris hi h a e epo ted to e e de i ithi N“W i lude the losel elated spe ies Lo i g s Chromodoris Chromodoris loringi (Angas, 1864) a d Hu te s Ch o odo is C. hunterae (Figure 12A), both of which range from northern to southern NSW (Table 13), and have been recorded on reef. Woodward's Chromodoris C. woodwardae (Figure 12B) also has a broad distribution within NSW, ranging from Coffs Harbour to at least Botany Bay. This species feeds on species of sponge in the genera Callyspongia sp. & Chalinopsilla, and reproduces by direct development. A number of chromodorids in the Thorunna genus are not included in Table 13, even though they are known to date only from northern NSW and southern Queensland. These species might also occur in the tropical Pacific, but the full distribution is not yet known. Examples of locations in vicinity of the NR CMA region in which unnamed Thorunna species have been recorded include Julian Rocks / Byron Bay area, and Port Stephens, just south of the NR CMA southern boundary. A number of chromodorid species in NSW are endemic, but very common and widespread within the State. Examples include Glossodoris angasi, known from at least Tweed Heads down to Eden, at many locations. Another species, Glossodoris sp. 9 (in Debelius and Kuiter 2007), also called Glossodoris sp. Coleman s Glossodoris (in Coleman 2008), is found in southern Queensland, northern NSW, and Lord Howe Island. 46 Figure 12A: Chromodoris loringi (top) and C. hunterae (bottom). Photo (c): B. Rudman, Australian Museum. Figure 12B: Chromodoris woodwardae. Photo (c): T. Viglas, Creative Commons Some species of sea slug have very specific habitat and food requirements. For example, Nembrotha rosannulata (known as the Rose-ringed Nembrotha, or the Donut Nembrotha: Figure 13) is found in current and swell-prone channels, living and feeding on the dark bluish-black, sand-dwelling ascidian Sigillina cyanea. Although N. rosannulata also occurs in southern Queensland and there are also unpublished records from south-central NSW, most records are from a single location on the central New South Wales coast (Nelson Bay / Cabbage Tree Island area, near Port Stephens), and the species is considered to be rare due to its specific habitat requirements. There is an unverified record from New Caledonia, but published accounts report this species to be an eastern Australian endemic (e.g. Coleman 2008). Figure 13: Nembrotha rosannulata. Photo (c): C. Ordelheide, Wikimedia Commons 47 The Variable Aphelodoris Aphelodoris varia (Figure 14) is considered to be endemic within New South Wales (Rudman 2000d), and is common at various locations right along the coast, from northern to southern NSW. This species eats sponges, and forms large mating aggregations (Coleman 2001). As indicated by its common name, the Variable Aphelodoris has a variety of base colours and markings on the mantle, with various northern and southern forms known. A B Figure 14: Aphelodoris varia. Photo A (c): L. Clarke http://www.julianrocks.net Photo B: (c) R. Ling, Wikimedia Commons There are several species of small sea slugs in the genus Okenia in New South Wales. One of these, Okenia vena (Veiny Okenia - Figure 15) is known mainly from the NR CMA region (Table 13), but occurs at least as far south as Port Stephens. This species feeds on the bryozoan Amathia tortuosa (Coleman 2008), and is sometimes found together with a closely related species O. purpurata, eating the same bryozoan. A related species, O. mellita, which feeds on red bryozoa, ranges from northern to southern NSW. Most records of Okenia species come from waters at least 20m deep. Figure 15: Okenia vena Photo (c): R. Smisek http://www.julianrocks.net 48 There are numerous species in the genus Trinchesia (or Cuthona) in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland (e.g. http://www.nudibranch.com.au/specieslist.html). Most of the unnamed species are small (1-2cm) and well camouflaged. For most of these, the full distribution is not known. Some may be endemic within the region, and others may have an Indo-Pacific tropical distribution. The full distribution of an unnamed Trinchesia species from Lord Howe Island (Pretty Trinchesia, discovered by N. Coleman) is also unknown. Various Trinchesia species are found on seagrasses, or on reefs, and usually feed on hydroids (Coleman 2008). Although most sea slugs are brightly coloured and conspicuous, and therefore easily recorded, the full distribution of many species is still unknown, because the majority of records come from popular diving locations. In the NR CMA region and surrounds, this includes areas such as Byron Bay, the Solitary islands, and Port Stephens. Also, a number of sea slug species are small and cryptic, and well camouflaged on macroalgae or seagrass. These are not easily seen or collected, unless destructive techniques are used. Many of these smaller, less colourful species are usually not seen or photographed, so distribution records are biased. However, in recent years, the popularity amongst the diving community of searching for and photographing nudibranchs has lead to the discovery of numerous previously unrecorded, undescribed species. For example, around 200km south of the southern boundary of the NRCMA region, undescribed nudibranch species in the genera Atagema, Discodoris, Eubranchus, Flabellina, Onchidoris, Phidiana, Phyllodesmium, Polycera, and Sclerodoris (amongst others) have been recorded (e.g. Harasti, undated B). Polyplacophora (Chitons) The chitons are a large group of marine molluscs which live on wave-exposed rock surfaces, or under rocks or in crevices. Chitons have eight overlapping shell valves (plates) with a tough flexible girdle on the top side; and a head, mouth, gills and large fleshy foot on the underside. This group is very well represented in Australia, which contains at least 150 (more than 20%) of the o ld s k o spe ies (Gowlett-Holmes 2008; CSIRO 2012). There are several species of limited range and/or few records known to date only from NSW and which might occur in NR CMA; three known only from Lord Howe Island (LHI) and surrounding reefs, and one from both LHI and Norfolk Island (Table 14). Several species known only from southern NSW, and one species known only from Norfolk Island, are not discussed here. Onithochiton discrepans is known from Lord Howe Island, in the interstices of water-worn coral rock fragments, and around the edges of rock pools at low tide. This small (2cm) buff-coloured species with orange, brown and green patte i g is o side ed to e ot ple tiful i its ha itat of holes i sto es (Hedley and Hull 1912). There are records in the Australian Museum (1907, 1928 and 2003), and in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University (1928). The Zoological Catalogue of Australia (Lamprell and Scheltema 2001) considered this species to be endemic within Lord Howe Island. A pale yellow and brown-flamed species from similar habitat, Acanthochitona approximans, is found at both Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, and is considered rare at both localities (Hedley and Hull 1912). A second species which occurs at both Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, Rhyssoplax funerea (formerly Chiton funereus) is not discussed here, because it has been commonly recorded at both islands in the past (Hedley and Hull 1912) and might have a wider distribution, including New Zealand islands. 49 Table 14: Chiton species known to date solely or mainly from New South Wales or Lord Howe Island. Information from: Hedley and Hull 1912; Kaas & Van Belle 1998; Lamprell and Scheltema 2001; Rule et al. 2007; GowlettHolmes 1999, in ABRS, 2012; South Australian Museum records and Australian Museum records, in OZCAM 2012. NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland. Family, Genus, Species & Authority Acanthochitonidae Acanthochitona thackwayi (Ashby, 1924) Cryptoplacidae Cryptoplax royana Iredale & Hull, 1925 Type Locality and Other Known Records (to 2012) Fly Point, Port Stephens Shellharbour Acanthochitonidae Notoplax leuconota (prev. Acanthochites leuconotus) (Hedley & Hull, 1912) Chitonidae Onithochiton discrepans Hedley & Hull, 1912 Acanthochitonidae Acanthochitona approximans (Hedley & Hull, 1912) Cryptoplacidae Cryptoplax mystica Iredale & Hull, 1925 Lord Howe Island Middle Beach on Lord Howe I.; Elizabeth Reef; Middleton Reef Ischnochitonidae Ischnochiton (Ischnochiton) examinandus Hull, 1923 Chitonidae Rhyssoplax vauclusensis (Hedley & Hull, 1909) Lord Howe Island Lord Howe Rise; Lord Howe Shelf; Middleton Reef Habitat Details, and Other Notes On and under rocks in sand, in intertidal and shallow subtidal. Found in crevices in coral rock. Examples of depths collected include 12m and 15m (Middleton Reef), 26m, 31m, 35m, 39m, 44m, and 65m. Under stones in the intertidal and shallow subtidal. Full depth range not recorded. Examples of specimen depths include 7m, 10m, 15m - 20m. Lord Howe Island Middle Beach on Lord Howe I. Rocky reef in the shallow subtidal. Lord Howe Island or Norfolk Island (type locality uncertain, but occurs at both islands) Found on underside of stones, or in crevices of coral slabs, in pools at low tide. Depth range not recorded. Port Jackson Collaroy; Angourie Point; Pt Jackson; Pittwater; Arrawarra; Merewether; Broughton I.; Narooma; Minnie Waters; Ballina; Yamba; Hastings Point; Solitary Islands; Lord Howe Island Under stones, and in worm holes and crevices in soft rocks. Examples of depths in which specimens were collected include 3m, 5m, 6m, and 15m. Bottle and Glass Reef, Vaucluse, Port Jackson, NSW Found in southern QLD and NSW. Examples: Point Cartwright and Caloundra in QLD; Port Jackson, Inner N Head, Quarantine Bay & Sydney Harbour in NSW Point, Vaucluse, Port Jackson, NSW Also found in southern QLD Under stones in the intertidal and shallow subtidal. Examples of depths in which specimens were collected are 7m, 9m and 15m. There are numerous records from all along the NSW coast, up to the QLD border. Found on rocky reef in the shallow subtidal. Little information on distribution within the range, and depth. One of the Australian Museum records was collected from 1.5m. Chitonidae Rhyssoplax coxi (Pilsbry, 1894) Port Jackson Shellharbour; Pt Stephens; Port Hacking; Cape Banks; Port Jackson; Sydney; Collaroy in NSW Caloundra in QLD 50 Found under stones on subtidal rocky reef. Little information on distribution within the range, and depth. One of the Australian Museum records was collected from 20m. Prosobranchs (Sea Snails, Gastropod Shells) The Prosobranchia was for many decades considered one of three large subclasses of gastropod shells, along with Pulmonata and Opisthobranchia. A substantial revision of this classification (e.g. Ponder and Lindberg 1997, cited by Ponder et al. 2002; Bouchet et al. 2005) now recognises the following groups:      Patellogastropoda (true limpets); Vetigastropoda (top shells, abalones, turban shells, keyhole limpets, slit shells etc.); Neritopsina or Neritimorpha (nerites); Caenogastropoda (many of the marine snails, including periwinkles, whelks, cowries, cones, moon snails, balers, etc.) and Heterobranchia or Euthyneura (land snails and slugs, sea slugs etc.). Most prosobranchs have external shells that can completely contain and protect the soft animal within, but a few species have reduced internal shells. Another characteristic of prosobranchs is the presence of gills in a mantle cavity under the edge of the shell. There is often a horny or shelly operculum on the back of the foot, which is used to block the aperture of the shell when the animal retreats inside (GowlettHolmes 2008). Many hundreds of prosobranch gastropod species occur in New South Wales (e.g. Beechey 2012). A number of species in the NR CMA region are discussed below, from groups whose members have potentially vulnerable population characteristics, such as direct development; narrow geographic distribution; narrow depth range, and/or high value for trade. The Volutidae is a major group of commercially valuable molluscs with representatives in NR CMA region. The shells of volutes are spiral shaped, and distinctively patterned. Volutes are active predators, and often live buried in sand. They emerge at night to feed on prey, which includes other molluscs. Volutes lay benthic egg capsules, which may be elaborate in shape (e.g. the spiralled cylinder of Amoria undulata - Smith et al. 1989). A study on the South American volute Odontocymbiola magellanica showed that males and females of this species mature at 7 to 8 years of age, and females aggregate at spawning time (Bigatti et al. 2008). Like the temperate cowries, in many species of volute the eggs hatch directly as small crawling snails, with no free-swimming veliger stage (e.g. Smith et al. 1989). The localised reproduction and limited dispersal of young often gives rise to distinct colour forms of volute shells over relatively small spatial scales. There are at least 11 volute shells of potential conservation concern in the NR CMA region (Table 15), based on existing records. Some of these are considered rare in NSW, such as Lyreneta (or Lyria) laseroni, Nannamoria amicula and Livonia roadnightae, the latter of which is uncommon in southern Australia (Beechey 2012). 51 Table 15: Volute shells of potential conservation concern, found to date in New South Wales, which occur in NR CMA region, or are likely to occur there, based on known distribution. E = east; LHI = Lord Howe Island; NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland; S = south; SA = South Australia; TAS = Tasmania; WA = Western Australia; VIC = Victoria. For these species, specific location records in NSW are intentionally not included here, in the interests of volute population conservation. Compiled from: Iredale (1929); Poppe and Goto (1992); Bail and Limpus (1998); Bail et al. (2001); Wilson et al. (1994); Ponder & Grayson (1998); Academy of Natural Sciences (2006); Edgar (2008); Beechey (2012); Grove (2011); Ponder and Middelfart (2005, in ABRS 2012). Genus, Species, Authority & Common Name Amoria undulata (Lamarck, 1804) Wavy Volute / Undulate Volute Type Locality Maria Island, TAS Distribution, and Notes QLD, NSW, TAS, VIC, SA, WA (QLD through to northern WA, including TAS, but with gaps in distribution (see Bail et al. 2001) A volute that grows to about 121mm, found in sand and shelly sand. Very broad depth range (0m to 500m). Cymbiola pulchra complexa (Iredale, 1924) Broken Bay and Port Jackson in NSW Depth range of NSW records is approximately 46m – 135m, plus a few beachwashed specimens (Beechey 2012). Reproductive isolation of C. pulchra populations results in the several different forms, considered by Bail and Limpus (1998) to be subspecies. Cymbiola pulchra moretonensis Bail & Limpus, 1998 Fraser Island in QLD to Bulli in NSW Cape Moreton Rarely as large as 110mm (often 60mm). Cape Moreton in QLD to Sydney in NSW A volute which grows to about 62mm. Found in sand, between 20m and 180+m deep. Cymbiola pulchra provocationis (McMichael, 1961) off Ulladulla A volute which grows to about 45mm. Recorded to date over a narrow depth range, between approximately 120m and 200m deep. Also called Pseudocymbiola provocationis. Might be a species or subspecies (Bail & Limpus 1998), but some consider it a southern form of C. pulchra (Wilson et al. 1994). Ericusa sowerbyi (Kiener, 1839) NSW: Coffs Harbour to Ulladulla Tasmania QLD, NSW, VIC, TAS, SA Grows to about 285mm long 52 Table 15 (cont.): Genus, Species, Authority & Common Name Type Locality Distribution, and Notes Ericusa papillosa (Swainson, 1822) Original type locality in error. Later type given as Port Lincoln, SA 15 ml ENE of Nelson Bay, 5 ml E of Broughton I. QLD, NSW, VIC, TAS, SA, WA Grows to about 152 mm long, but more commonly known between 90-120mm. Ericusa sericata Thornley, 1951 Silky Volute / Silk-like Volute Livonia mammilla (Sowerby, 1844) Wide Bay in southern QLD to Wollongong in NSW Grows to about 125mm. Great Australian Bight, 90mls W of Eucla Southern QLD to WA (NSW, VIC, TAS, SA, WA) False Melon Shell / False Baler Shell Livonia roadnightae (McCoy, 1881) Roadnight's Volute Ninety Mile Beach at Lakes Entrance, or Bass Strait (two holotypes) Lyreneta / Lyria laseroni Iredale, 1937 Halliday s Point, near Forster. Laseron's Lyre Shell / Laseron's Lyria Wooli Wooli, Clarence River (as Voluta brazieri) Nannamoria amicula Iredale, 1929 off Montague Island A large (300mm) volute found in sand, between approx. 3m and 460m. NSW, VIC, TAS, SA, WA Crowdy Head in NSW through to Rottnest I. In WA Northern and central NSW; possibly also LHI A 30mm lyre shell, known from few localities. Habitat not recorded, but known from the shallow subtidal to about 40m deep. NSW: Tuncurry to Disaster Bay A small (20 - 35mm) volute found on the continental shelf, with records to date from about 66m to 220m. Lyreneta (or Lyria) laseroni Iredale, 1937 (Laseron's Lyre Shell or Laseron's Lyria - Figure 16) has been found in northern and central NSW. This species is considered rare, and most known shells are deadcollected and beach worn (Wilson et al. 1994; Beechey 2012). Thornley (1951) reported beach-wash specimens from deeper water to be quite common at Halliday s Point / Black Head, north of Foster. Previously, this species was considered highly vulnerable to over-exploitation due to the perception that it has a very restricted range (i.e. ranked as atego A vulnerability in NSW and nationally, according to Ponder and Grayson 1998). However, Bail and Poppe (1994, cited by Beechey 2012) and Hardy (2012) reported this species from deeper water off Lord Howe Island, as well as off the northern New South Wales coast. The broader distribution would reduce the threat ranking for this species. If the Lord Howe Island records are incorrect, then this species may currently be known from a very limited geographic distribution, comprising about 300km of coast (approximately Wooli to Halliday s Point), with an unknown depth range. Rule et al. (2007) reported Lase o s L e “hell from the Solitary Islands Marine Park. L. laseroni is occasionally traded in the shell market, as a rare species. There is a shell trade record of a trawl-caught specimen from 40-60m deep, in the Woolgoolga area. 53 Figure 16: Lyreneta (or Lyria) laseroni. Photo (c) D. Beechey http://seashellsofnsw.org.au Amoria undulata (Lamarck 1804), the Wavy Volute or Undulate Volute (Figure 17) has a broad distribution, from Queensland through to northern WA, including Tasmania, but there are gaps in the distribution. There are various records from NSW, including the Port Stephens area and the Sydney area. The Wavy Volute is found in sand (including shelly sand), over a very broad depth range, from the intertidal to about 500m deep. It is common in the shallows in SA and Victoria. In SA, this species migrates in the spring from deep water to shallow water sandbanks to breed (Smith et al. 1989). The egg mass consists of layers of capsules in a cylindrical spiral, and only one embryo per capsule develops and hatches as a well developed, crawling juvenile. The Wavy Volute is trawled in some areas (e.g. Bass Strait), and hand collected by divers in other areas. In NSW, it is a bycatch in the Ocean Fish Trawl fishery (shelf sector) in southern NSW, and the ocean prawn trawl shelf sector in northern NSW (New South Wales DPI 2004). A bycatch survey showed that this species was present in 6% of trawl shots taken in the southern region of the Ocean Fish Trawl fishery (New South Wales DPI 2004). It is also a bycatch in the Bass Strait scallop fishery, in tens to hundreds per annum (e.g. survey data in Haddon and Semmens 2002, 2003). This species has low value in the shell market. Figure 17: Amoria undulata. Photo (c) D. Muirhead 54 Nannamoria amicula Iredale, 1929 (Figure 18) is one of the species in Nannamoria that may be endemic within New South Wales. Other Nannamoria species occurring in NSW (e.g. N. parabola Garrard, 1960) also occur in tropical waters in Queensland. The apparently rare N. amicula is a small volute (about 3cm) and is known mainly from the mid continental shelf (Table 16). Most records are from southern NSW, but there are examples from the vicinity of the NR CMA region (e.g. Tuncurry area, south of the NR CMA border). This species has been considered vulnerable to overexploitation in New South Wales (category C i Po de a d G a so . Figure 18: Nannamoria amicula. Photo (c) D. Beechey http://seashellsofnsw.org.au There are two sub-species of the volute Cymbiola pulchra in NR CMA region, plus another that might belong in a different genus (Pseudocymbiola). Cymbiola pulchra complexa and C. pulchra moretonensis are both found along the central Queensland coast, to as far south as approximately Sydney. These two species are found on the continental shelf, and have low to medium value in the shell market. C. pulchra moretonensis has been trawled in shallow waters in Queensland, but may also occur at a deeper maximum depth than C. pulchra complexa (Table 15). C. pulchra has been listed by Devantier et al. (2010) are very rare spatially, but always present temporally on the Sunshine Coast in QLD. The third sub-species Cymbiola pulchra provocationis, which is also known as Pseudocymbiola provocationis by some authors, is known to date only from New South Wales, and from very few specimens. It is also trawled, and traded in the shell market. The widely distributed Ericusa papillosa (Figure 19A) is known from southern Queensland through to WA. It is considered uncommon, but has a broad depth range on the continental shelf and slope. Specimens have been collected from a very broad depth range (between 15m and 732m) (Beechey 2012). Shell width and patterning varies across the range, with shells from NSW and deeper water having more ribs, and less patterning. This species is of low to moderate value in the commercial shell market. E. papillosa is one of the bycatch species in the Ocean Prawn Trawl fishery (deepwater sector > 91m deep) in NSW (New South Wales DPI 2004). 55 Also of interest in northern NSW is the Silky Volute Ericusa sericata Thornley, 1951, found in mud and sand, with records to date between about 55 and 201m deep. Most records are from 65m to 180m deep. This species has been trawled along outer part of continental shelf (Thornley 1951; Wilson et al. 1994), and also caught in lobster pots (Thornley 1951). It is considered uncommon (Thornley 1951; Beechey 2012), and is traded in shell market, as a low to moderate value species. Ericusa sowerbyi (Figure 19B) is a common species that ranges from Queensland through to South Australia, including Tasmania. It is recorded on the continental shelf and upper slope, to about 500m deep. The species is highly variable in colour, pattern and size across the range. There may be sexual dimorphism, indicated by the smaller and larger shells that occur together in trawls off Sydney (Beechey 2012). E. sowerbyi is one of the bycatch species in the Ocean Fish Trawl fishery (shelf sector) along the NSW coast (New South Wales DPI 2004). A bycatch survey showed that this species was present in 14% of trawl shots taken in the Wreck Bay and Tathra grounds (southern NSW) of the Ocean Fish Trawl sector (New South Wales DPI 2004). B A A Figure 19: Ericusa papillosa (A) and Ericusa sowerbyi (B). Photos (c) D. Beechey http://seashellsofnsw.org.au There are two volute species in Livonia that occur in the NR CMA region (L. mammilla and L. roadnightae), and a third shell type described as Livonia quisqualis Iredale, 1957 appears to be a hybrid between the other two (R. Willan, pers. comm., cited by Beechey 2004). The False Melon Shell Livonia mammilla (Sowerby 1844) has a broad distribution, from southern Queensland through to Western Australia. It is considered to be moderately common in New South Wales (Beechey 2012). Although there are numerous records from WA (Cervantes, Rottnest I., Esperance, Binningup Beach), it is noted that some references (e.g. Academy of Natural Sciences 2006; Beechey 2012) exclude WA from the distribution. This species occurs on sand, over a broad depth range (3m to about 460m). Livonia mammilla (Figure 20A) is taken by trawlers off eastern and southern Australia (Sutton 1973), including low numbers in shark fishery bycatch (e.g. Walker et al. 2002). The second Livonia species in NSW, L. roadnightae, Roadnight's Volute (Figure 20B), has a broad distribution from approximately Crowdy Head in NSW to Rottnest Island in WA. It is considered rare in NSW, and uncommon in southern Australia (Beechey 2012). This species ranges in depth from about 18m to 370m, in sand and mud habitats. It is trawled in some parts of range, including the Great Australian Bight, and traded in the shell market (moderate value). L. roadnightae is possibly vulnerable to overexploitation in some areas. It has previously been listed u de lo atego ies of th eat D a d E in Ponder and Grayson (1998). 56 Figure 20: Livonia mammilla (A) and Livonia roadnightae (B). Photos (c) D. Beechey http://seashellsofnsw.org.au Another shell group of conservation interest is the cowries (Cypraeidae), many species of which have beautiful shells that are highly sought after by collectors. Temperate Australian cowries are not closely related to the tropical counterparts, due to the fact that they brood eggs, which hatch as crawling snails (Wilson 1985), and therefore have no dispersive larval stage. Temperate cowries camouflage their ornamented shells with folds of the mantle cavity; are often nocturnal in habit, and eat sponges. Table 16 below lists the species of cowries that may be of conservation concern in the NR CMA region. Widespread tropical (Indo-Pacific) species of cowries that extend south-wards into NSW are not discussed here. Several other small and common south-eastern Australian species that may also occur in NR CMA region also are not included in the table, but are discussed briefly below. Cribrarula (or Cypraea) gravida Moretzsohn 2002 is a 3.5cm cowry that occurs in the southern Queensland and northern NSW (including the NR CMA region) and is known from few records. The species is related to the more common Western Australian species C. cribraria, and was described from a single shell (F. Lorenz, conchologist, pers. comm. 2012). C“I‘O s Codes fo Aust alia Aquatic Biota (2012) and the Australian Faunal Directory (2012) both accept C. gravida as a valid species, rather than a form of C. cribraria. The holotype was collected from 18m deep. Approximate depth range to date is about 8m to 100m, based on published examples. This species is of moderate value in the shell trade. Shells listed as Cypraea cribraria in the Queensland specimen shell fishery (Weis et al. 2004) are likely to be C. gravida. A cowry species in the genus Umbilia also occurs in the NR CMA region (e.g. Coffs Harbour area). Undecided Cowry or Wonder Cowry U. hesitata (Iredale 1916) occurs in south-eastern and eastern Australia, from Fraser I. in Queensland to Cape Jaffa in South Australia, and there are two forms over the range (Wilson et al. 1993; Debelius 1996; Darragh 2002). This species, which grows to about 13-14cm long, is found on muddy sand and sandy mud, with filamentous algae, and also among ascidians on rock. It has a broad depth range, from about 10m to 200m. Undecided Cowry is collected by divers (e.g. in SA and WA), and is also recorded on beaches, in fish trawls, and in scallop dredges. It has moderate value in the shell market. U. hesitata was previously considered to be frequent in Bass Strait (Schilder 1966). It is considered locally common in parts of NSW (Beechey 2000, in Beechey 2012). It has been classified as moderately vulnerable to over-e ploitatio atego C i Po de a d G a so . 57 Table 16: Cowry shells (Cypraeidae) of potential conservation concern, found to date in New South Wales, and which occur in NR CMA region, or are likely to occur there, based on known distribution. Note that several small SE Australian cowry species discussed in the text, are not included in this table, due to their commonness. E = east; N = northern; NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland; S = south or southern; SA = South Australia; TAS = Tasmania; WA = Western Australia; VIC = Victoria. For these species, specific location records in NSW are intentionally not included here, in the interests of cowry population conservation. Compiled from: Wilson et al. (1993); Debelius (1996); Moretzsohn (2002); Ponder and Middelfart (2005, in ABRS 2012); Darragh (2002); Wilson and Clarkson (2004); Academy of Natural Sciences (2006); Lorenz (2010); Grove (2011). Genus, Species, Authority & Common Name Cribrarula (or Cypraea) gravida Moretzsohn, 2002 Umbilia hesitata (Iredale, 1916) (= Cypraea hesitata) Undecided Cowry / Wonder Cowry Type Locality, Distribution, and Notes S side of Fish Rock, 2 km SE of Smoky Cape Central and S QLD and N NSW Type locality uncertain SE Australia: Fraser I. in QLD to Cape Jaffa in SA, including TAS The egg cowries or allied cowries (family Ovulidae), are related to the true cowries, in that the animal can enclose the shell with retractable flaps of the mantle. Egg cowries differ from the true cowries by not having teeth on the inner edge of the aperture (Beechey 2012). They can vary considerably in shape, ranging from the typical globular cowry shape, to lo g, sle de spi dle shaped shells. Egg o ies a e small and carnivorous, and live mainly in tropical waters. Members of the Ovulidae are associated with corals, particularly gorgonians, and there is often a high degree of host specificity. Many species of egg cowries have white shells, but some are pink or reddish, and most have brightly coloured or decorated mantles, which cover the shell in life. The mantle is often the same colour as the host coral, thus providing effective camouflage (Lorenz and Fehse 2009). Egg cowries feed mainly on the polyps and tissues of soft corals and sea fans, and they are usually anchored to the host Anthozoan by a long and narrow foot. Egg cowries lay their eggs on the host coral (Knudsen 1997). The eggs hatch into miniature snails, close to the parent. One egg cowry species of note that occurs in the NR CMA region is the small (9mm) Prionovolva (Galeravolva) manifesta (Iredale, 1936), which is also known as Habruprionovolva manifesta (in ABRS 2012), Testudovolva manifesta (in CSIRO 2012), and several other binomials. This rare species is known from only 2 specimens, collected from the shelf off Port Stephens and Sydney (Iredale 1936; Cate 1973; Wilson et al. 1993; Academy of Natural Sciences 2006; Beechey 2012). This species is known to date from dredge samples between 55m and 100m deep, and is considered rare (Beechey 2012). Like the volutes and the cowries, the Conidae (cone shells) contains members that are highly sought after by shell collectors. This family contains over 300 species, most of which occur in the tropics. Cones are carnivorous, and eat other molluscs, worms, or small fish. They are highly specialised feeders, which utilise a hollow harpoon and a poison gland i the p o os is, to spea a d immobilise prey and draw it into the mouth (Beechey 2012). The widespread tropical species for which NSW is the southern edge of the range are not discussed here. Table 17 below lists 7 species of cone that are known from deeper waters in southern Queensland a d o the Ne “outh Wales. T o othe s i this g oups of ta o es (Conus angasi and Conus howelli) have a broader distribution down to southern New South Wales. 58 One of the largest cone species in NSW is Scullet's Cone Conus sculletti Marsh 1962 (Figure 21), which grows to 6cm. There are several records from within shelf waters off northern NR CMA, plus sites further north in southern Queensland. Most records come from trawling between 125m and 220m deep. It is noted that OBIS (2006) listed the depth range as 20m - 160m, which conflicts with trawl records. This o e has ee des i ed as ha i g a emarkably restricted distribution", with most specimens taken between Moreton Bay and Tweed Heads (Wilson et al. 1994; OZCAM 2012). DeVantier et al. (2010) des i ed its spatial a u da e as o asio al i southe Quee sla d, a d te po al abundance as al a s p ese t i the “u shi e Coast a ea. It is traded in shell market, and is of moderate value. Figure 21: Conus sculletti. Photo (C) D. Beechey http://seashellsofnsw.org.au Another of the larger cones in NSW is Conus rufimaculosus Macpherson 1959, the Red-spotted Cone / Red-stained Cone, which grows to almost 6cm long. This species has been recorded at a number of locations in southern Queensland and northern NSW (including several sites in the NR CMA region), and the range is likely to be quite restricted (Wilson et al. 1993). The reported depth range is from 18m to 84m, but most records come from about 50 - 60m deep, via trawl. The Red-spotted Cone has been trawled on the shelf in eastern Australia, including some areas closed to netting now. This species is considered to be uncommon in NSW (Beechey 2012). DeVantier et al. (2010) described its spatial a u da e as f e ue t i southe Quee sla d, a d te po al abundance as al a s p ese t i the Sunshine Coast area. It is traded in shell market, for low to moderate value. In a national assessment, Ponder and Grayson (1998), considered this species potentially vulnerable to over-exploitation in Queensland and NSW (category E). Another of the larger cones, the 5cm Ocean Cone or Wallangra Cone Conus wallangra (Garrard, 1961) has a broader range than the aforementioned, and extends to south of Sydney. The depth range may be 40m to 200m, and the Ocean Cone is reported to be very uncommon (Beechey 2012). It is known mostly from the bycatch in trawls (mainly dead, some live taken), and is traded in the shell market for moderate value. This species is potentially vulnerable to over-exploitation (category C in Queensland and E in NSW, according to Ponder and Grayson 1998). 59 The Illawarra Cone or Cox's Cone Conus cyanostomus / cyanostoma Adams, 1854 is a small (3cm species) known from at least one location in NR CMA, and around Sydney. Reported depth range is 10m to 250m deep. This species is considered to be very uncommon in NSW (Beechey 2012). DeVantier et al. (2010) des i ed its spatial a u da e as f e ue t i southe Quee sland, and temporal abundance as al a s p ese t i the “u shi e Coast a ea. It has been reported as a potentially vulnerable species (category E in Queensland and NSW: Ponder and Grayson 1998). Minnamurra Cone Conus minnamurra (Garrard, 1961), which grows to about 4cm long, has a broad geographic range along eastern Australia, and depth records range from about 73m to 220m deep. There are records from the northern edge of the NR CMA region, but for conservation reasons, locations will not be specified here. It occurs in trawled areas on the shelf (some of which are now closed), and most shells are known from prawn fishing trawls (Singleton 2007; Limpus 2008). This species is considered e u o o Bee he . Mi a u a Co e is t aded i the shell market, and is of low to moderate value. In a national assessment, Ponder and Grayson (1998), considered this species potentially vulnerable to overexploitation (category D). Conus sydneyensis Sowerby 1887 is a small (3.5cm) cone apparently endemic within NSW, and known mainly from trawl records, between 55m and 170+ deep. Most specimens of Conus sydneyensis were landed in the mid to late 20th century by prawn trawlers, and this species rarely recorded now due to change in trawling practices (Singleton 2009). Conus / Rhizoconus advertex (Garrard, 1961) has a broader distribution (from Cape Moreton in Queensland to the Sydney area in NSW), and is known mainly from trawl records from sandy habitats between 100m and 200m deep. This species was commonly trawled during 1960s and 1970s but there were few live specimens, and it has been trawled more recently in the Cape Moreton area (Limpus 2008). It is traded for in the shell market (low value). Table 17: Some cone shells of potential conservation concern that occur from central or southern Queensland coast through to New South Wales. LHI = Lord Howe Island; NI = Norfolk Island; NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland; S = southern; SW = south west; VIC = Victoria. For these species, specific location records in NSW are intentionally not included here, in the interests of cone population conservation. Compiled from: Moolenbeek (1988); Wilson et al. (1994); Röckel et al. (1995); Barnes (1999); Anonymous (2002); Ponder and Middelfart (2005, in ABRS 2012); Limpus (2008); Burke MNHC (undated); Academy of Natural Sciences (2006); Tarrant (2002); Singleton (2007, 2009); Beechey (2012). Genus, Species, Authority & Common Name Conus cyanostomus / cyanostoma Adams, 1854 Illawarra Cone / Cox's Cone Conus sydneyensis Sowerby, 1887 Type Locality Distribution, and Notes E of Stanwell Park, or Port Stephens Keppel Bay (central QLD coast) to Sydney in NSW Port Jackson NSW: Ballina to Stanwell Park C. illawarra is a junior synonym (Moolenbeek 1988; Singleton 2009) A 35mm cone shell known mainly from trawl records between 55m and 170+ deep. Conus minnamurra (Garrard, 1961) Minnamurra Cone off Botany Bay Conus rufimaculosus Macpherson, 1959 Red-spotted Cone / Red-stained Cone Tweed Heads Swains Reef (off Yeppoon) in QLD to Tathra in S NSW Fraser I. in QLD to Evans Head in NSW 60 Table 17 (cont.): Genus, Species, Authority & Common Name Conus / Rhizoconus advertex (Garrard, 1961) So eti es alled the ‘eference Cone Considered by Academy of Natural Sciences (2006) to be synonym of Conus angasi (Sunshine coast in QLD to southern NSW) Type Locality Distribution, and Notes NNE of Cape Byron, or off Moreton Island Fraser Island in QLD to Port Hacking or Sydney in NSW Conus howelli Iredale, 1929 Montague I., NSW Conus sculletti Marsh, 1962 Scullet's Cone Conus wallangra (Garrard, 1961) Ocean Cone / Wallangra Cone off Cape Moreton QLD (unconfirmed), NSW, LHI, NI, NZ and surrounds Deeper water species (records from 64-228m) Fraser I. in QLD to SW Rocks / Pt Macquarie area in NSW east of Stanwell Park (near Sydney) Caloundra in QLD to Stanwell Park (south of Sydney) in NSW Two more widely distributed species of cone shell compared with those in Table 17 are Conus anemone (Lamarck, 1810) and Conus rutilus Menke 1843. Conus anemone has a broad range from southern Queensland across southern Australia (including Tasmania) to Port Gregory in WA, but is uncommon in NSW (Beechey 2012). This cone forms spawning aggregations seasonally (Kohn 2003). Female cone shells lay clusters of egg capsules which hatch into crawling miniature cone shells (i.e. no free-swimming larval stage). There are reports from Victoria of unusual regional forms (e.g. pure white, and a spiral form) that have been over- olle ted O Ha a a d Barmby 2000). Conus anemone is traded in the shell market, and is of low value. Conus rutilus is a small species of cone (up to 18mm, commonly 8 - 12mm), and ranges from New South Wales through to south-western WA, including Tasmania. Conus rutilus is considered to be uncommon in NSW (Beechey 2012), more common in Victoria and SA. Examples of locations in NSW where C. rutilus has been recorded include Clarence River, Angourie, and Botany Bay. Most specimens are taken as beach shells, and C. rutilus is rarely collected alive (Beechey 2012). Conus howelli Iredale 1929 is a more widely distributed cone, known from northern NSW or southern Queensland, to southern NSW, and also Lord Howe Island, New Zealand, and sea mounts between the latter regions (Beechey 2012). C. howelli grows to about 5cm long, and has been recorded in waters from 64m to about 228m deep. There are few records from Australia, and it is reported to be rare (Beechey 2012). A specimen was dredged from the Coffs Harbour area in 2001, and that was reported to be the first Australian specimen since 1972. Most of the Australian shells have come from southern New South Wales (e.g. off Eden) (Tarrant 2002). There are features of this species that resemble those of C. sculletti and C. wallangra (Beechey 2012). The Muricidae (murex shells) is another prosobranch gastropod family containing members which are valued in the shell trade, often due to the spines or fronds that ornament the shells, and in some cases due to the apparent rarity of the shells. In contrast, some of the commonest intertidal species on reefs across southern Australia are also in the Muricidae (e.g. mulberry shells, cartrut shells). Murex shells lay benthic egg capsules (Smith et al. 1989). Table 18 lists 5 members of the Muricidae that are known from New South Wales, and four of these also occur in southern Queensland. Another species has been recorded only off Lord Howe Island. 61 One species known from Queensland (e.g. Gold Coast - Devantier et al. 2010) and northern New South Wales, the Tweed Murex Haustellum tweedianus / tweedianum, is commonly trawled. In 2000/01, 143 specimens were caught in the Queensland specimen shell fishery (Weis et al. 2004). Details of numbers taken per annum are not available in more recent status reports on the specimen shell fishery (e.g. DPIF Queensland 2007; DEEDI 2009). This species is also part of the bycatch in Deepwater (>91m) Eastern King Prawn Fishery in Queensland. One bycatch study reported a 0.5% occurrence in 201 trawl shots (Courtney et al. 2007). Tweed Murex is the largest of the narrow range murex shells occurring in NSW (Table 18). Examples of locations in northern NSW where this species has been recorded include Tweed Heads, Byron Bay, Ballina, Yamba and Solitary Islands Marine Park (Rule et al. 2007). This species is of low to medium value in the shell market. It has previously been considered possibly vulnerable to overexploitation (category D) in Queensland and New South Wales (Ponder and Grayson 1998). Table 18: Murex shells of apparent narrow distribution, found mainly in New South Wales and southern Queensland, plus one from Lord Howe Island. LHI = Lord Howe Island; NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland. Compiled from: Radwin & D'Attilio (1976); Wilson et al. (1994); Ponder & Vokes (1988); Barnes & Barnes (2002); Dean (2002); Ponder & Middelfart (2005), in ABRS (2012); Academy of Natural Sciences (2006); Beechey (2012); Queen Victoria Museum & Art Gallery data; Museum of Victoria data. Genus, Species, & Authority Favartia (Murexiella) iredalei Ponder, 1972 Also known as Murexiella iredalei (Ponder, 1972) Apixystus (or Gemixystus) stimuleus (Hedley, 1907) Also known as Gemixystus stimuleus (Hedley, 1907), or as Trophonopsis (Apixystus) stimuleus (Hedley, 1907) Previously known as Trophon stimuleus Hedley, 1907 Mipus arbutum (Woolacott, 1954) Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) Lord Howe Island Distribution, and Notes LHI A small species (7mm). 22 miles E of Narrabeen, N of Sydney Central QLD to Sydney in NSW Capricorn Channel, E of Lady Musgrave I. in QLD; N of Sydney in NSW A small (4mm) murex that is considered rare (Beechey 2012). Found on the shelf, between about 30m and 150m. Angourie, 3.5 miles south of Clarence River Heads Strawberry Coral Shell Clarence River; Arrawarra; Woolgoolga; Coffs Harbour; Wooli; Sydney (e.g. Manly; Kurnell; Pt Jackson); Coalcliff N of Wollongong 62 NSW: Iluka to Bulli (Wollongong) A 20mm murex. Found in crevices and on rock surfaces under algae, in the intertidal zone. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012), but there are examples of this crevice-dwelling species from at least 10 locations in NSW. Table 18 (cont.): Genus, Species, & Authority Ponderia abies Houart, 1986 Also known as Pterynotus (Ponderia) abies. Muricopsis / Murexul purpurispina / purpurispinus Ponder, 1972 Purple Spined Murex Haustellum tweedianus / tweedianum (Macpherson, 1959) Tweed Murex Type Locality Distribution, and Notes & Other Known Records (to 2012) Taupo Seamount, 400km E of NSW Newcastle A 20mm murex shell, known to date from the type locality, off the Taupo Seamount, between 154 and 164m deep. Holotype was dredged. Might also occur off New Zealand. Full distribution & depth range not known. Minnie Waters; Cape Byron (two QLD & NSW: Moreton Bay to Sydney type localities) An 18mm murex. Holotype collected in fish trap, at 36m deep. Considered uncommon, and found to date as beach shells, & down to 137m Tweed Heads Keppel Bay; Southport; Cape Moreton; Tin Can Bay; Brisbane area; NNE of Cape Byron; Coffs Harbour Southern QLD to central NSW coast, possibly as far south as Broken Bay. An 80mm murex shell, that is considered common (Beechey 2012). Occurs between about 10m and 200m deep. Another group of prosobranch gastropods with representatives that are rarely recorded in NSW is the Turridae. This family is a very large one, with more than 4,000 species described globally. The taxonomy of turrid shells has been revised a number of times during the past two decades, and there may still be no globally accepted classification of the sub-families in this large group. Turrid shells show a diversity of shell shapes, but are usually slender and elongated. One common feature of all turrids is a sinus - an indentation or slit at the upper end of the outer lip, which accommodates the exhalent canal (Beechey 2003). Turrids are carnivorous, mainly predatory, and polychaete worms are the major prey of the species for which the diet has been studied. Female turrids lay benthic egg capsules, and the eggs develop through trochophore and early veliger stages before hatching as free-swimming veligers, which may remain in the water for weeks or months before settling (Shimek 1983, 2008). Many southern Australian turrids have a broad distribution, but there are four turrid shells known to date only from NSW (possibly 5, if the species Epidirona molleri that occurs in Victoria and Tasmania is not a synonym of the NSW species Epidirona carinata). Two of these - Tomopleura or Maoritomella foliacea, and Gemmula hawleyi - are not known from the NR CMA region, and will not be discussed further here. Several others are known mainly from NSW, but also extend south into eastern Victoria, or north into southern Queensland (Table 19). One of these species, Austroturris steira, a small turrid which is found down to at least 100m deep, is considered vulnerable to over-exploitation in Victoria due to its presence in the East Shelf region, which is trawled (O'Hara and Barmby 2000). 63 Table 19: Turrid shells of found to date mainly in New South Wales, which either occur in NR CMA region, or are likely to occur there. Several of these species also occur in southern Queensland, and two also in Victoria. NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland; TAS = Tasmania; VIC = Victoria. Compiled from: Powell 1967; Wilson et al. (1994); O'Hara & Barmby (2000); O’Hara ; Academy of Natural Sciences (2006); Beechey (2012) Genus, Species & Authority Austroturris steira (Hedley, 1922) Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) 5.5-7.5mls NE off Cape Three Points 12.5ml E of Cape Byron; 2-2.5mls off Botany Bay; 3.5-4mls off Wattamolla (Gerringong); off Port Stephens Epidirona tuberculata (Laseron, 1954) off Port Stephens off Port Hacking; off Manning River Epidirona carinata Laseron, 1954 off Manning River Crowdy Head; 4.5km E of Cape Banks; Green Cape; b/w Pt Kembla & Shoalhaven R.; Batemans Bay; Eden Beechey (2012) considered Epidirona molleri Laseron, 1954 to be a form of E. carinata. If so, distribution may include TAS & VIC. Broader range form called "Epidirona carinata molleri" in www.gastropods.com. Splendrillia spadicina Hedley, 1922 Distribution, and Notes NSW; might also occur in easternmost VIC (e.g. Gabo I.) A small (6mm) turrid shell which occurs to at least 100m deep (based on type specimens & OBIS database, referencing Powell 1967). Cape Moreton in QLD to Sydney in NSW. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2009). Known from dredged specimens, between 50m and 150m deep. Manning River to Twofold Bay in NSW (also VIC & TAS if E. molleri is a synonym) Recorded to date between 15m and 150m deep. Beechey (2012) considered this to be rare. Catherine Hill Bay, S of Newcastle Clarence R. mouth; Angourie; Culburra; Woolgoolga; Trial Bay; Collaroy Beach N of Sydney NSW: mainly known from Clarence River mouth (Yamba) to Sydney Lives in shallow water. Known from dead beach specimens. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). Tomopleura (Maoritomella) thola Laseron, 1954 off Manning River NE of Cape Moreton in S Qld; off Port Hacking & off Port Jackson in NSW or Maoritomella thola (Laseron, 1954) 64 Southern QLD to central NSW coast. A small (10mm) turrid, found on continental shelf. Very little information. Listed in Academy of Natural Sciences (2006) as a valid species, but not listed in Beechey's (2012) guide to NSW seashells. Table 19 (cont.): Genus, Species & Authority Tomopleura (Maoritomella) carrota Laseron, 1954 Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) Port Stephens Previously in genus Drillia. NSW A small (15mm) turrid shell for which there is very little information. or Maoritomella carrota (Laseron, 1954) Vexitomina metcalfei (Angas, 1867) Distribution, and Notes Port Jackson Hastings Point; Port Stephens; Nelson Bay; Botany Bay / Sydney (e.g. North & Middle harbours; Neilson Park; Narrabeen); Jervis Bay Listed in Academy of Natural Sciences (2006) as a valid species, not listed in Beechey's (2010) guide to NSW seashells. Central QLD to south-central NSW. A small (20mm) turrid shell, most commonly found as dead beach shells, but lives down to 20m. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). The Turbinidae (turban shells, pheasant shells) is another family which contains several uncommon species in NSW. There are eighteen species in Turbinidae that occur in NSW, including three large Turbo shell species which occur in exposed rocky shores (Beechey 2005). Some species in Turbinidae are collected as a food in various parts of southern Australia. Two uncommon species in NSW are as follows (from Wilson et al. 1993; Keats 1998; Academy of Natural Sciences 2006; Beechey 2012):  Austroliotia saxa (Laseron, 1954), a small (7mm) liotine shell, known mainly from the dredged holotype taken from Long Reef (Dee Why area) at 26m deep; and  Turbo (Carswellena) exquisitus Angas 1877, the Exquisite Turban shell (Figure 22), which grows to about 24mm. This species has been collected from various locations across New South Wales (at least as far south as Batemans Bay), and there is also a record from Cape Moreton in Queensland. It is known mainly from beach specimens, but there is also 1 live specimen from 5.5m and groups of empty shells dredged between 10m and 110m (Beechey 2012). The Exquisite Turban occurs in coarse shell grit / sand, or under rocks. It is considered rare in collections Wilso a d very uncommon" (Beechey 2012) on a Statewide scale, but has been collected in quantity from locations in Sydney Harbour (e.g. Keats 1998). It has also been recorded from bays south of Sydney, such as Botany Bay and Port Hacking. 65 Figure 22: Turbo (Carswellena) exquisitus. Photo (C) D. Beechey http://seashellsofnsw.org.au Table 20 lists members of the Trochidae (top shells) that are known to date only from New South Wales. Two of these, the intertidal and shallow subtidal species Charisma (Cavostella) radians, and Charisma (Cavotera) simplex, are tiny (1-2mm) and very little is known about them. A related species, Charisma compacta (Figure 23) is known from only two collections, and reported to be rare (Beechey, 2012). Figure 23: Charisma compacta. Photo (C) Australian Museum. Photo from Beechey (20012): http://seashellsofnsw.org.au 66 In addition to those top shells shown in Table 20, there are two species in Clanculus known mainly from NSW, which are common under rocks and stones in the intertidal and shallow subtidal (C. clangulus and C. floridus), and C. floridus also occurs in shell grit (Beechey 2012). There are many records of C. floridus, from all along the NSW coast, and records range from the intertidal to about 64m deep. C. clangulus, which ranges from the intertidal to about 20m deep, is traded in the shell market (low value). A third species in Clanculus, C. undatoides, is found in NSW and Victoria, but is considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). It may be conspecific with two other species discussed above. Table 20: Top shells (Trochidae) of apparent narrow distribution, found mainly in New South Wales and southern Queensland, plus one from Lord Howe Island. LHI = Lord Howe Island; NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland; SA = South Australia; VIC = Victoria. Compiled from: Laseron (1954); Iredale & McMichael (1962); Wilson et al. (1993); Jansen (1995); Ponder and Middelfart (2005), in ABRS (2012); Academy of Natural Sciences (2006); Chapman et al. (2009); Beechey (2012). Genus, Species, & Authority Charisma (Cavostella) radians (Laseron, 1954) Charisma (Cavotera) simplex (Laseron, 1954) Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) Port Stephens (as Cavostella radians) Sydney; Nelson Bay / Hawks Nest area Port Stephens (as Cavotera simplex) Charisma (Charisma) compacta Hedley, 1915 NE of Port Macquarie Sydney Minolia / Minolops gertruda Iredale, 1936 Cape Hawke (near Forster) Spectamen / Solariella (Solariella) epithecus Iredale, 1929 Distribution, and Notes NSW A small (2mm) top shell known from intertidal and shallow subtidal sand / shelly sand, down to about 16m. NSW A tiny (1mm) top shell known from intertidal sand / shelly sand NSW A 3mm top shell, known from two collections spanning 25m to 183m deep, in sand / shelly sand. Type collection from 100 fathoms (183m). NSW A 9mm top shell, known only from the holotype, collected at 86m deep. Similar in sculpture and colouration to Minolia arata, but width much greater than height (holotype width 10mm, height 6.5 mm) (Beechey 2012). NSW (central and southern) A small (10mm) top shell, for which there is very little information. Holotype from 25 fathoms (46m deep). Twofold Bay Three closely related families of shells - the tulip and spindle shells (Fasciolariidae), the carnivorous buccinid whelks (Buccinidae) and the smaller dog whelks (Nassariidae) - all have apparently endemic representatives in NSW (Table 21). All of these groups lay benthic egg masses (Smith et al. 1989), and thus dispersal is limited. One of the rarely recorded spindle shells, Dolicholatirus thesaurus (Garrard, 1963), is illustrated below (Figure 24). Various trawled specimens are traded in the shell market (Table 21). 67 Another apparently endemic species within NSW, Fusinus consetti (Figure 25A), is considered rare (Beechey 2012), and most specimens are beach-collected (Wilson et al. 1994). The large, apparently endemic dog whelk Cyllene lactea (Figure 25B) is also known mainly from dead beach shells, and is considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). Members of the dog whelk family have direct development of young (juveniles emerge from eggs as crawling miniatures) (Smith et al. 1989). Table 21: Spindle Shells (Fasciolariidae), Whelks (Buccinidae) and Dog Whelks (Nassariidae) which are considered uncommon and/or of apparent narrow distribution (e.g. found mainly in New South Wales and southern Queensland). LHI = Lord Howe Island; NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland; VIC = Victoria. Compiled from: Wilson et al. (1994); Anonymous (2002); Ponder and Middelfart (2005), in ABRS (2012); Academy of Natural Sciences (2006); Barnes (1999); Beechey (2012). Genus, Species, & Authority Engina resta (Iredale, 1940) Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) Lord Howe Island South Reef; Neds Beach; Middle Beach; Signal Point; Old Settlement Beach & Dawson Point Distribution, and Notes LHI A small (12mm) whelk. Depth range and habitat unspecified, but members of the genus often live on shallow reefs. Traded in the shell market (low value). Fusus adjunctus (Iredale, 1929) Fusus brazieri (Angas, 1869) Might be same species as Colubraria brazieri Angas, 1869, which occurs from Caloundra in QLD to Botany Bay in NSW, and is o side ed to e e u o o Bee he ,i Beechey 2012). Found to 100m deep, but known mainly from beach shells. off Montague Island 22ml E Narrabeen; Crowdy Head; Broken Bay; Malabar; Newcastle; Wollongong; Jervis Bay; Twofold Bay Botany Bay Moreton Bay; Broughton I.; near Tuggerah Lake; Kurnell; Cronulla; Botany Heads; Glass & Bottle Rocks / Sydney Harbour; Woolgoolga; Angourie 68 Very little information, other than in two references from the 1970s (Ponder 1972; Cernohorsky 1975). Port Macquarie in NSW to Gabo Island in VIC A 19mm whelk, known to date from 70 to 400m. Trawled on the outer continental shelf (Wilson et al. 1994). Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). Moreton Bay in southern QLD to central coast of NSW A 70mm whelk, known from 10 to 200m deep. Dredged on continental shelf (Wilson et al. 1994). Traded in shell market (low value). Table 21 (cont.) Genus, Species, & Authority Pisania (Jeannea) gracilis (Sowerby, 1859) N.B. Species status uncertain: Pisania unicolor may be a synonym (Beechey, 2012). Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) Sydney Catherine Hill Bay; Kurnell; Collaroy; Nielson Pk, Port Jackson; Mosman Bay; Cape Banks; Clarence R.; Woolgoolga Distribution, and Notes Cape Moreton in QLD to Ulladulla in NSW An 11mm whelk, known mainly from beach shells. A few specimens collected to 143m. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). Low value in the shell market. Fusinus (Fusinus) consetti Iredale, 1929 Bulli Point Halliday s Poi t (near Forster); Shellharbour; Gerringong; E of North Head outfall; Crookhaven Bight Fractolatirus / Dolicholatirus normalis Iredale, 1936 Sydney Harbour, possibly Nielson Park Collaroy; Bottle & Glass Rocks; Kurnell; Bare I.; La Perouse; Batemans Bay; Gerringong; Cape St. George; Crookhaven Heads Normal Latirus A different species with same name occurs in tropics (e.g. Gerlach & Gerlach 2004). NSW (Woolgoolga to Jervis Bay) A 50mm spindle shell, recorded to date from 1m to more than 66m. Known mainly from NSW (Sydney to Batemans Bay) but 2 specimens reportedly from QLD (Academy of Natural Sciences 2006) A 26mm spindle shell, known from rocky reefs from the shallow subtidal to about 25m deep. Mostly known from beach shells (Beechey 2012) but some live specimens also taken. Dolicholatirus (cf spiceri) (Tenison-Woods, 1876) Considered rare (Beechey 2012). Traded in shell market. NSW: Clarence River to Halliday s Point / Black Head Split Solitary Island A small (17mm) spindle shell, known to date from 5-20m, on rocky reefs. Rarely recorded (Beechey 2012). Specimens taken live from reefs. May be a form of Dolicholatirus spiceri (Tenison-Woods, 1876) known from eastern Victoria to south-western WA (Beechey 2012). 69 Table 21 (cont.) Genus, Species, & Authority Dolicholatirus thesaurus (Garrard, 1963) Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) E of Port Hacking NE of Cape Moreton; Swains Reef Distribution, and Notes Cape Morton in QLD to Sydney in NSW A 42mm spindle shell, rarely recorded to date (Beechey 2012), from 70 to 130m deep. Has low to moderate value in the shell market, including trawled specimens. Cyllene lactea Adams & Angas, 1864 Cyllene royana (Iredale, 1924) from Sydney to Twofold Bay might be synonymous (Beechey 2012). Port Stephens Sydney Harbour; Botany Bay; Newcastle Bight; Catherine Hill Bay; Woolgoolga; Richmond River area Some authors have placed this species in the Buccinidae family (e.g. Wilson et al. 1994). NSW: Yamba to Sydney A large (15cm) dog whelk, with a reported depth range of 7m to 50m. Considered uncommon, and known mainly from dead beach shells (Beechey 2012). Figure 24: Dolicholatirus thesaurus Photos (c) D. Beechey http://seashellsofnsw.org.au 70 A B Figure 25: Fusinus consetti (A); Cyllene lactea (B). Photos (c) D. Beechey http://seashellsofnsw.org.au Four members of the Epitoniidae (wentletrap shells) that occur in New South Wales are known from very few records. Information about these species is available in the following references: Wilson et al. (1993); Ponder and Middelfart (2005, in ABRS 2012); Beechey (2012), and Academy of Natural Sciences (2006, and references therein). Two of these four are species in Epitonium, known mainly from dredge samples. E. parspeciosum (Figure 26) is known from 19th century Triton dredge records from Sydney Harbour area (e.g. Middle Harbour, and Port Jackson), and from beach shells at Port Hacking. This species may be based on a fossil shell of a tropical species, possibly Epitonium pallasi neglectum (Beechey 2012). The other Epitonium, E. bellicosum, is also known as Mazescala thrasys, and has been recorded in both NSW and eastern Victoria, over a broad depth range on the continental shelf and slope). The presence of both Epitonium species in NR CMA region is uncertain, due to few existing records and lack of targetted searches. The small wentletrap Problitora moerchi (Adams & Angas, 1864), from southern Queensland and NSW, grow to about 11mm long, and lives in intertidal and shallow subtidal mud, and possibly also sand substrates. Examples of locations in NR CMA where this species has been recorded include Ballina and Yamba. It is also known from Moreton Bay and Brunswick River in Queensland, and from various locations around Sydney Harbour. The 7mm Opalia (Nodiscala) apostolorum (Iredale, 1936) is known from the dredged holotype and paratype from sites around Sydney Harbour. Opalia (Nodiscala) subcrassa (Cotton & Godfrey 1938) from South Australia may be the same species. Wentletraps generally live as ecto-parasites, and are closely associated with sea anemones, scleractinian corals, or zoanthids (Gittenberger and Hoeksema 2006). 71 Figure 26: Epitonium parspeciosum. Photo (c) D. Beechey http://seashellsofnsw.org.au Another family of shells that contains uncommon species in New South Wales is the Cancellariidae (nutmeg shells) (Table 22). Nutmeg shells, also known as basket shells, are highly sculptured, carnivorous or parasitic species which have a long proboscis (Beechey 2012). Members of this family lay benthic eggs, with the young hatching at crawling juveniles (Smith et al. 1989). The largest species of nutmeg shell that occurs in New South Wales (Cancellaria undulata) is moderately common, and is also found across southeastern and southern Australia. One of the most geographically limited may be Trigonostoma tessella (or tessellum) Garrard 1975 (Figure 27), which is known only from southern Queensland and northern NSW. There are various records from within the NR CMA region (Table 22). Figure 27: Trigonostoma tessella (or tessellum). Photo (c) D. Beechey http://seashellsofnsw.org.au 72 Table 22: Nutmeg Shells (Cancellariidae) that occur in New South Wales and are considered uncommon and/or of apparent narrow distribution. LHI = Lord Howe Island; NE = north east; NSW = New South Wales; S = southern; QLD = Queensland; VIC = Victoria. Compiled from: Garrard (1975); Wilson et al. (1994); Ponder and Middelfart (2005), in ABRS (2012); Academy of Natural Sciences (2006); Grove (2011); Beechey (2012); OZCAM (2012). Genus, Species, Authority and Common Name Tritonoharpa ponderi Beu & Maxwell, 1987 Trigonostoma laseroni (Iredale, 1936) Laseron's Nutmeg Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) off S end Fraser I. in QLD Shellharbour Halliday s Poi t; Broulee; Batemans Bay; Gerringong; Laurieton; 5.9km E of South Head in Sydney Distribution, and Notes southern QLD to northern (or central) NSW An 18mm nutmeg shell, known from dredge samples between 73 and 77m deep. Full depth distribution not recorded. Moreton Bay in S QLD to Bermagui in NSW Known from dredge samples. Considered very uncommon (Beechey 2012). Trigonostoma tessella / tessellum Garrard, 1975 Tritonoharpa coxi (Brazier, 1872) Scalptia / Trigonostoma vinnulum (Iredale, 1925) Trigonaphera interlaevis Laseron, 1955 is a synonym (Beechey 2012) NE of Cape Moreton in QLD Jumpin Pin Bar; Stradbroke I.; off Tweed Heads; off Ballina; Yamba; off Iluka; off N Solitary I. Bellinger River Woolgoolga; Shelly Beach S of Yamba; Wooli SE of Grafton; Angourie; Middle Hbr, Sydney; Pt Stephens off Twofold Bay Hastings Point; Port Stephens; Cronulla, Yarra Bay, Nora Head & Pt Jackson in Sydney area; Redhead (19km S of Newcastle); Twofold Bay 73 A 23mm nutmeg shell known from the subtidal, to about 66m deep. Cape Moreton in S QLD to Coffs Harbour in NSW A 23mm nutmeg shell known mainly from dredge samples between 50120m deep. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). NSW: Yamba to Nowra A 25mm nutmeg shell that is considered rare, and known from beach specimens (Beechey 2012) NSW: Tweed Heads to Twofold Bay Broad geographic range (from QLD/ NSW border to N of NSW/VIC border). An 18mm nutmeg shell, considered uncommon (Beechey 2012), and known from subtidal (e.g. 10+m) and dredge samples (to 91m) and rarely as beach shells (Garrard 1975; Beechey 2012). There are two auger shells (Terebridae) of potential conservation concern in New South Wales. These are the 35mm Terebra ballina (Hedley, 1915), known from southern Queensland to central New South Wales. The holotype was collected in Trial Bay, and there are other records (collectively from the intertidal to 36m deep) from Southport, Alexandra Head, Caloundra and Yeppoon in southern Queensland, and from Angourie, Ballina, Lennox Head, and Sydney in New South Wales. Terebra ballina is considered uncommon (Beechey 2012), despite its broad range across southern Queensland and NSW coast. It has previously been considered potentially threatened in both States, but in a low category of th eat atego E , i Po de a d G a so 1998). The second species, the 30mm Terebra russetae (Garrard, 1976) is apparently known only from the type locality, 8 km east of Port Jackson, at 220m deep. There are no published records from the NR CMA region, but the species might occur here. Terebra russetae has previously been considered vulnerable to overexploitation in NSW ( atego C i Po de and Grayson 1998). Further information about these two species is available in the following references: Bratcher and Cernohorsky (1987); Wilson et al. (1994); Academy of Natural Sciences (2006), Beechey (2012) and OZCAM (2012). Within the olive shell family Olividae, there are several shells of limited distribution that occur in the NSW, including NR CMA (e.g. Table 23). For several of these - Alocospira (or Amalda) lanceolata, Alocospira (or Amalda) fasciata, and Amalda (Exiquaspira) festiva or Exiquaspira festiva - the species status is dubious, and based on minor characters (Wilson et al. 1994; Beechey 2012). However, these three shells are recognised by in the Codes for Australian Aquatic Biota as being valid species (CSIRO 2012). A. fasciata is apparently known only from the worn, broken holotype specimen (Beechey 2012). Amalda (Exiquaspira) festiva, has been taken by dredge, and most records are known from the range 27m - 200. It is considered uncommon, but may be a deep water form of the widespread Australian species A. oblonga (Beechey 2012). A fourth olive shell species in NR CMA region, Belloliva exquisita (Angas, 1871), occurs subtidally, but is known mainly from empty shells on beaches, and was reported by Beechey (2012) to be uncommon. The olive shell Belloliva triticea (Duclos, 1835) is not included here, due to its broader distribution (Clarence River in northern NSW through to Portland in Victoria). Table 23: Olive / Ancilla shells (Olividae) that occur in New South Wales and are considered uncommon and/or of apparent narrow distribution. LHI = Lord Howe Island; NE = north east; NSW = New South Wales; S = southern; QLD = Queensland; VIC = Victoria. Compiled from: Wilson et al. (1994); Ponder and Middelfart (2005), in ABRS (2012); Academy of Natural Sciences (2006); Beechey (2012); OZCAM (2012). Genus, Species, & Authority Type Locality & Other Known Records (to 2012) Distribution, and Notes Alocospira / Amalda fasciata (Ninomiya, 1990) Clarence River NSW Amalda (Exiquaspira) / Exiquaspira festiva (Ninomiya, 1991) off Tweed Heads E of Port Jackson; Danger Point; Port Kembla; Newcastle Bight; off Broken Bay; SE of Newcastle southern QLD and NSW: Fraser I. to Port Kembla Table 24 lists the remaining prosobranch gastropods (from a variety of families) that are (i) known from few records across the range; and/or (ii) known only from New South Wales (and thus might be endemic), and/or (iii) known from a very narrow depth range. One of these, Iravadia (Pseudonoba) subquadrata (Laseron, 1950) was assessed for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2011, and reported as Data Deficient (Clark 2011). Although not specified in the Red List account, there are Australian Museum records of this mainly estuarine species reported from as deep as 64m. 74 Many of the existing records come from the Sydney are (e.g. Little Coogee Bay, Botany Bay, Middle Harbour, Port Jackson, Collaroy, Manly), but there are also records from south (Gerringong) and north of that area (Port Stephens - where the syntype was collected, and Solitary Islands Marine Park - Rule et al. 2007). This species is reported to feed on detritus (Ponder 1984; Academy of Natural Sciences 2006). Clark (2011) reported that only dead shells are known, and that although the habitat is unknown, it is likely to include estuaries with Zostera seagrass beds. The small (18mm) Sand Triton Sassia pumilio (Hedley, 1903) occurs in southern Queensland and northern NSW, reportedly as far as the Solitary Islands. It is known mainly from dredge samples over a narrow depth range (40-65+). The full depth distribution is not known, and this species has been considered rare (Beechey 2000, in Beechey 2012). A more commonly recorded species with apparently geographically limited distribution is the periwinkle Bembicium flavescens (Philippi, 1851), known from Lord Howe Island and Norfolk Island. This species is found on rocky intertidal reef / rock platforms, and on cobbles / stones and mud in the intertidal and shallow subtidal, and in estuaries (Academy of Natural Sciences 2006, and references therein). It is reported to be common on Lord Howe Island, in the upper-mid shore area (NSW Marine Parks Authority 2010). It has also been recorded as one of several reef habitat mollluscs that were abundant in an archaeological trench dug at Emily Bay (Campbell and Schmidt 2001). Aquenal (2008) reported that on intertidal reefs of Lord Howe Island, this species declined from 16% total macro-invertebrate abundance in 2006 to less than 2% in 2008, which indicates significant variability in population numbers over short time scales. Johnson and Black (2006) reported direct development of young in Bembicium flavescens. Table 24: Miscellaneous prosobranch gastropods of potential conservation concern found in NR CMA region, in alphabetical order of family. LHI = Lord Howe Island; NI = Norfolk Island; NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland; SA = South Australia; VIC = Victoria; WA = Western Australia. Compiled from: Angas 1869; Laseron 1954; Iredale and McMichael 1962; Ponder and Yoo 1977; Ponder 1984; Wilson et al. 1993, 1994; Geiger 1998; Campbell and Schmidt 2001; Miskelly 2001; Academy of Natural Sciences 2006; Marine Parks Authority 2010; Ponder and Middelfart 2005, in ABRS 2012; Hardy 2012; CSIRO Marine Research 2012; OZCAM database records from Australian museums; Museum Victoria data. Family / shell group Genus, Species, Authority Common Name (where known) Cerithiopsidae cerithiopsid / creeper Binda tasmantis Laseron, 1951 Cerithiopsidae cerithiopsid / creeper Ataxocerithium scruposum Iredale, 1936 75 Type Locality, Distribution, and Notes Crookhaven Known from NSW (if not synonymous with Euseila pileata from SA and WA). Reported range of 55-64m is based only on small number of dredge samples. Full distribution and depth range not known. Marshall (1978) considered this species to be a junior synonym of the wider ranging Euseila pileata Cotton 1951 (from the continental shelf and slope in SA and WA). Green Cape NSW, VIC Records from 20m to 130+m, but full depth range not known. Considered at risk in Victoria because it is trawled in eastern Australian shelf habitat (O'Hara and Barby 2000; O'Hara 2002). Table 24 (cont.): Family / shell group Eatoniellidae eatoniellid shell Genus, Species, Authority Common Name (where known) Eatoniella (Eatoniella) howensis Ponder and Yoo, 1977 Eulimidae parasitic eulima / eulimid Hebeulima tumere Laseron, 1955 Eulimidae parasitic eulima / eulimid Hebeulima crassiceps Laseron, 1955 Eulimidae parasitic eulima / eulimid Hebeulima inusta (Hedley, 1906) Fissurellidae shield limpet Scutus (Nannoscutus) forsythi (Iredale, 1937) 76 Type Locality, Distribution, and Notes W of Erscotts Passage, Lord Howe Island LHI Holotype from reef with steeply sloping bottom, 18-24m deep. Found on brown algae on coral, and on rock faces. Full depth range not recorded, but specimens known to date from intertidal down to about 24m deep. Port Stephens NSW From a family whose members have a parasitic relationship with echinoderms. Eulimidae shells lay stalked, balloon-like egg capsules which hatch as crawling juveniles. Previously called Oceanida tumere off Point Halliday = Hallida s Poi t NSW From a family whose members have a parasitic relationship with echinoderms. Eulimidae shells lay stalked, balloon-like egg capsules which hatch as crawling juveniles. Holotype from 8-10 fathoms (14-18m) Manly NSW From a family whose members have a parasitic relationship with echinoderms. Eulimidae shells lay stalked, balloon-like egg capsules which hatch as crawling juveniles. Also called Oceanida graduata de Folin 1871 and 4 other names (according to CAAB 2012) Lord Howe Island LHI, NI Might also occur in Queensland (unverified) Table 24 (cont.): Family / shell group Genus, Species, Authority Common Name (where known) Fissurellidae slit limpet Macroschisma hiatula Swainson, 1840 Haliotidae abalone Haliotis brazieri Angas, 1869 Brazier's Abalone Iravadiidae iravadiid shell Iravadia (Pseudonoba) subquadrata (Laseron, 1950) Littorinidae littorinid / periwinkle Marginellidae a marginella shell Bembicium flavescens (Philippi, 1851) Mesoginella sinapi (Laseron, 1948) Nacellidae a limpet Cellana howensis Iredale, 1940 Nacellidae a limpet Cellana analogia Iredale, 1940 Type Locality, Distribution, and Notes Lord Howe Island LHI A form in northern Australia fits the description of M. hiatula, but more study needed to determine relationships (Wilson, 1993) Lake Macquarie? (listed in Angas 1869) QLD and NSW: Caloundra to Green Cape. Found on sheltered subtidal reef, often under small rocks, or under coral and rocky rubble in areas of coralline algae (SURG 2009). Approximate depth range is 10m to 40m. Reported to be uncommon (Beechey 2012) and rare in collections (Wilson et al. 1993). Miskelly (2001) reported it to occur only deeper than 13m. Haliotis hargravesi is probably conspecific (CSIRO Marine Research 2012, Beechey 2012). Traded in shell market (low to medium value). Port Stephens NSW (not known for this report) LHI and NI Ocean Beach at Manly NSW A small (3mm) shell, previously known as Marginella parsobrina Laseron, 1948. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). There are various museum specimens from central to southern NSW coast, from the intertidal down to about 15m. Ned's Beach, Lord Howe Island LHI Known from the intertidal, and recorded in low density during reef surveys in 2006 (Aquenal 2006). Traded in shell market for low value (e.g. $12 for small, gem condition specimen in 2010) Roach (or the Admiralty) Islands, Lord Howe Island LHI Ranellidae a sand triton Sassia pumilio (Hedley, 1903) off Manning River in NSW southern QLD to northern NSW For the prosobranch gastropods discussed above, a proposed category of threat is provided in section 7. 77 Pycnogonida (Sea Spiders) Pycnogonids or sea spiders are related to terrestrial spiders, mites and scorpions, being members of the subphylum Chelicerata. Most species have four narrow body segments (a few species have five or six), each bearing a pair of walking legs. The body is much reduced, and looks like a narrow connector between each pair of legs. Sea spiders use a proboscis to suck nutrients from soft-bodied invertebrates (e.g. hydroids, worms, sea anemones, bryozoans), and part of the digestive tract of sea spiders extends into their legs. Respiration is by means of diffusion. The sexes are normally separate, and males care for the laid eggs, and often also the first moult stage (which is legless). At least four types of pycnogonid larvae have been described (Bain 2003): (i) Typical protonymphon larva: a free-living larva that gradually turns into an adult; (ii) Encysted larva: a parasite that hatches from the egg and finds a host (e.g. polyp colony) where it burrows into and turns into a cyst, and will not leave the host before it has turned into a young juvenile; (iii) Atypical protonymphon larva: adults are free-living but larvae and the juveniles live on or inside temporary hosts such as polychaetes and clams; (iv) Attaching larva: hatches in an immature state and attaches itself to the legs of the father, where it stays until it has turned into a small and young juvenile with two or three pairs of walking legs ready for a free-living existence. Table 24 lists 9 uncommonly recorded species of pycnogonid known from New South Wales. Three of these also occur in southern Queensland, and another two are also known from Victoria. Several have been recorded so far only from the type locality. Sea spiders are found in a variety of habitats, including mud, rubble, or amongst macroalgae or sessile invertebrates. All of the species listed in Table 24 are small, and difficult to detect. Pycnogonid records are usually opportunistic, and targetted searches have not been undertaken. It is likely that the distribution of most pycnogonid species is more widespread than the few records indicate. Table 24: Uncommonly recorded sea spiders and/or sea spiders of apparently narrow distribution, which occur in New South Wales. Those for which there are confirmed specimen records from the NR CMA region are marked in grey. NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland; SA = South Australia; VIC = Victoria; TAS = Tasmania. Information from: Clark 1963, 1970, 1977; Müller 1993; Staples 1997, 2002; Bain 2002, in ABRS 2012; Rule and Smith 2005, 2007; Bamber and El Nagar 2012. Family, Genus, Species & Authority Distribution, type locality (T), Examples of other known records (to 2012), and habitat information Callipallenidae Pycnogonum (Retroviger) clarki Staples 2002 NSW Arrawarra Headland (30°17´S, 153°15´E) (T) Known from the type locality, between 0-3m deep. Ammotheidae Tanystylum hooperi Clark, 1977 southern QLD and NSW Arrawarra Headland, N of Coffs Harbour (T) Solitary Islands. Found on macroalgae such as Sargassum. Specimens to date range from 0-3m deep. Callipallenidae Anoropallene valida (Haswell, 1884) NSW Port Stephens (T) Port Jackson. Few records and full distribution not known. Holotype was dredged. 78 Ammotheidae Ammothella stocki Clark, 1963 NSW grain jetty at Darling Harbour, Port Jackson (T) Type was found amongst marine growth on Oregon test piece of timber (Clark 1963). Known to date from the intertidal. Ammotheidae Ammothella thetidis Clark, 1963 NSW New South Wales (T) Known from the continental shelf, between 40 and 115m deep. Phoxicilidiidae Anoplodactylus minusculus Clark, 1970 southern QLD and northern NSW Brisbane River (T) Found in estuaries and tidal reaches Ammotheidae Nymphopsis acinacispinatus acinacispinatus (subspecies) Williams, 1933 southern QLD and NSW Port Curtis, Queensland (T) Found in Sargassum macroalgae, and also amongst broken shells, in the intertidal and shallow subtidal. Nymphonidae Nymphon bunyipi Clark, 1963 NSW, VIC, northern TAS off Cape Everard, Victoria (T) Port Jackson in NSW Holot pe olle ted at app o . deep, fou d i te i gled ith hydrozoa and polyzoa" (Clark 1963). Known to date from the continental shelf, between 81 and 144m deep. Callipallenidae Oropallene minor Clark, 1963 NSW, VIC (possibly also northern TAS) off Cape Everard, Victoria (T) Lakes Entrance in Victoria; Port Hacking in NSW Fou d to date o ud a d f o o glo e ate oulde o the continental shelf, between 39 and 144m. Stomatopoda (Mantis Shrimps) The Stomatopoda is an order of crustaceans whose members have large, inward-folding claws that are spiny (for spearing prey), or hammer-like (for stunning and smashing prey). Mantis shrimps also have large eyes. They live in burrows in soft sediments, and are rarely seen out of their burrows (GowlettHolmes 2008). There are more than 140 species of mantis shrimp in Australia (CSIRO 2012), and most of these occur in the tropics. There are few stomatopods of limited distribution in southern Australia, and some are quite common, even though they are rarely seen. Two species of note in New South Wales are the following (from Ahyong 2001; Poore 2004; Davie 2001, in ABRS 2012:  Austrosquilla melanocauda (Kunze, 1981), which is reportedly known only from the type specimen collected in Botany Bay, from the gut of the flounder Pseudorhombus arsius. This species, which is known from a specimen 47mm long, probably burrows in intertidal or shallow subtidal sand flats. There are no published records from the NR CMA region, but the species is likely to occur there;  Oratosquillina berentsae Ahyong, 2001, known from northern New South Wales. This species, about 10cm long, is known from few specimens, collected on muddy sand substrates at 15-20m and 4951m deep. Examples of locations where O. berentsae it has been recorded include SE of Evans Head (29°24-25'S 153°29-28'E, the type locality), and Port Jackson. 79 6. Threatening Processes A number of processes that potentially threaten marine invertebrate populations in the NR CMA region currently and/or in future are discussed below, in no particular order. Fishing and Collecting Some of the families of shells in Australia are considered to be at greater risk of over-exploitation from collecting than others, particularly those which lay benthic eggs, or groups in which the young develop directly, with no planktonic larval stage. Examples include the members of the Cypraeidae (cowries) and Volutidae (volutes, including the baler shells) (Ponder et al. 2002). Because commercial shell collecting is a relatively low value industry in terms of fisheries revenue, there are few government resources devoted to quantifying the take, or managing the shell fisheries around Australia (Ponder et al. 2002). Stock assessments are rarely undertaken, and management plans are uncommon, except in Queensland, SA and WA. There is no commercial fishery for collecting specimen shells In NSW, but various species are caught as trawl by-product. Under current legislation, any shell caught in a trawl net (excluding live abalone) may be retained as by-product and sold, or discarded as bycatch (D. Hale, Industry and Investment NSW, pers. comm. 2013). Various species of shells that are taken in the bycatch of prawn and fish trawls in the Ocean Trawl Fishery in NSW are listed in Table 25 below. Some fishers in the Ocean Trawl Fishery retain and sell Volutidae shells (know in the industry as aler shells whereas others discard them (D. Hale, Industry and Investment NSW, pers. comm. 2013). Most of the bycatch and by-product species are common, and many are widespread in range, but exceptions include:    Cassis nana: a Queensland species that has been found to date over a geographic range of about 1,800 km along the coast, to northern NSW, and considered by Beechey (2012) to be uncommon. Amoria hunteri Cy iolista hu teri ): a species known from southern Queensland through to southern NSW, including some isolated populations. Known to date from the depth range 25m 225m, plus rarely as a beach shell. Commonly taken in trawls off Sydney, at about 100m deep (Beechey 2012) A oria ze ra )e ra oria ze ra : Although considered common (Beechey 2012), this species is restricted in geographic range from central Queensland coast through to Sydney in NSW, and is known from the intertidal down to about 55m Three volute species that are widespread and relatively common, but potentially subject to population impacts from over-exploitation, are also part of the bycatch in the NSW trawl fisheries. These three species, Amoria undulata, Ericusa papillosa, and Ericusa sowerbyi, are discussed in this report (see section on Prosobranchs). A risk assessment in NSW ocean trawl fisheries reported Amoria undulata and Ericusa sowerbyi to be at high risk of populations impacts from operation of the fishery, due to low survival afte ha dli g, lo esilie e, a d high fishe i pa t p ofile Ne south Wales DPI 2004) 80 Table 25: Molluscs that are part of the bycatch in fish and/or prawn trawls, in the New South Wales Ocean Trawl fishery, in alphabetical order of family. Data from New South Wales Department of Primary Industries (2004). Some of these are sold, as by-product. Bivalves Prosobranchs Glycimeridae Glycymeris flammeus (also known as G. grayana), Glycymeris holsericus Buccinidae Fusinus novaehollandiae, Fusinus undulatus, Penion mandarinus, Penion maximus Mactridae Mactra contraria Cassidae Cassis nana, Semicassis bisulcatum, Semicassis thomsoni, Semicassis pyrum Cymatiidae Cymatium vespaceum, ‘a ella australasia Maye a australasia Pectinidae Annachlamys flabellata, Pseudamussium challengeri (= Chlamys challengeri or Veprichlamys challengeri), Mesopeplum fenestratum Pinnidae Atrina tasmanica Trigoniidae Neotrigonia lamarckii Veneridae Callista diemenensis, Placamen placidum Fasciolariidae Fusinus annae, Pleuroploca australasia Ficidae Ficus subintermedia Mitridae Mitra solida Olividae Ancillista velesiana Ovulidae Volva volva Ranellidae Charonia lampas rubicunda, Fusitriton magellanicus retiolus (= Fusitrito retiolus ) Strombidae “tro us ittatus (possibly refers to Strombus campbelli, if recorded in NSW) Trochidae Astele speciosum, Calliotropis glyptus Turbinellidae Columbarium pagodoides Volutidae Amoria undulata, A oria hu teri Cy iolista hu teri ), A oria ze ra )e ra oria ze ra , Ericusa papillosa, Ericusa sowerbyi Xenophoridae Xenophora indica , Xenophora peroniana There have been calls for the ban of sale of shell bycatch obtained from fishing trawlers. Ponder and Grayson (1998) and Ponder et al. (2002) argued that by banning bycatch (by-product) shell sales, the legal source of most of the shelf species of shell will disappear from the market, and this could drive the prices up and the market underground, and promote illegal collecting. 81 There is a need for more information on the species composition and quantities of shells taken from New South Wales (as fishery by-product) for the specimen shell market, and further risk assessment. The most recent risk assessment of species in the trawl fishery was in 2004. There is a commercial fishery for shells in Queensland, and a number of the species that are taken also occur in NSW. In Queensland, 1,058 shells (comprising about 98 species) were reported to have been caught in the commercial specimen shell fishery in 2002 - 2003 (Weis et al. 2004). Almost all of these species were not uncommon or limited range taxa that occur in New South Wales, other than 2 specimens of Cypraea cribraria , hi h likel efe to Cribrarula (= Cypraea) gravida, which is discussed in this report as a species of conservation concern. Recreational fishing for shells falls into two categories: (i) the incidental take of a shell because it is considered attractive, or whilst diving for other species, such as abalone, rock lobster or scallops; (ii) dedicated collecting by hobbyists who seek to find and exchange shells with other collectors. Subtidal populatio s of spe i e shells i so e a eas a e p o ided ith de fa to efuge f o e eatio al collecting, due to their location in deeper, less accessible waters. Recreational fishers are allowed to collect shells in most NSW waters except in Aquatic Reserves, Intertidal Protected Areas and Marine Parks, and other waters closed to all methods of fishing (G. Mannah, NSW Department of Primary Industries, pers. comm. 2012). Recreational shell collecting is much harder to quantify than commercial, and it is important that codes of ethics are followed, as developed by the Malacological Society of Australasia, and its State branches. In addition to the code of conduct, there have been suggestions over the years to licence collectors, and also to impose bag limits should on species targeted by collectors as specimen shells or for food. This is particularly important for less common species, and those with vulnerable life history characteristics (such as live-bearing mode of reproduction). Not all States have the same regulations regarding collection shells, whether they are dead beach shells or live specimens from reef, seagrass or sand. Ponder and Grayson (1998) considered that there is little justification in preventing or limiting the collection of empty shells from beaches. Of the species identified in this report as being of conservation concern, a number of specimen shells may be considered potentially at risk, from a combination of illegal and legal collecting. The late P. Clarkson, a southern Australian shell expert, reported (pers. comm. February 2011) that most commercial operators take only the best shells and leave the majority of specimens (which are flawed or juvenile or laying eggs) in situ to sustain populations, and that experienced recreational collectors would abide by the same code. In WA, the Department of Fisheries assumes adequate stock of commercially alua le o ies, ased o fishe s epo ts that o l high uality specimens are taken, and others are left on the bottom to perpetuate the stock. The act of searching for species perfection is therefore a passive means of controlling commercial over-collecting of some species, and therefore aids stock sustainability. However, it is uncertain whether this fo of self- egulatio is ade uate fo the a est spe ies of shells, for which there may be very few individuals in the population, regardless of shell quality. “elfegulatio may work to conserve populations in small commercial shell industries (as occur in southern Australia), but in NSW where there is no specific fishery for specimens shells, the combined take from trawl by-product, and from recreational collecting, remains unregulated. In New South Wales, the illegal sale or exchange of shells should be quantified, given the possibility of over-collecting at specific locations, and the possibility that some shells taken recreational collectors are being sold (e.g. over the internet). 82 Given the vulnerability of populations of specimen shells to depletion in accessible areas, bag limits and/or possession limits are also warranted for various specimen shells in New South Wales. Intertidal collecting of molluscs is another potentially threatening process, as is trampling of invertebrates on shore platforms, but there has been little quantification of the impact of such activities in regional areas, compared with studies on reefs adjacent to major cities, such as Sydney and Adelaide. Although impacts are most likely on localised populations of common species, rather than rare species, collectors and reef walkers would be unlikely to discriminate, and in terms of invertebrate species conservation, it is important that a code of o du t fo lo i pa t eef a ti ity is adhered to, by visitors to all intertidal reef areas in northern NSW. Other than specimen shells, most of the invertebrates discussed in this report are not sought by fishers and collectors. Trawling Bottom trawling can damage benthic cover - including seagrass, reef, sponge and sand - and all of these are important habitat for various marine invertebrate species, including those discussed in this report. Hard bottom fauna, such as bryozoans, corals, and various mollusc beds (e.g. oysters, scallops), may be particularly adversely affected (e.g. Tanner 2003, 2005). Sponge assemblages are also damaged by trawling. For example, in South Australia, the biomass, abundance and species richness of sponges were all inversely correlated with prawn trawling effort along the length of a gulf, suggesting that prawn trawling over several decades has had a negative impact on the composition and diversity of sponges in that gulf (Sorokin and Currie 2009). Apart from the physical damage to the sea floor cover caused by trawl gear, bycatch is an ongoing issue. Prior to the introduction of bycatch reduction devices (BRDs) in the NSW prawn trawl fisheries, studies by Kennelly et. al. (1998) showed very high levels of bycatch from the fisheries operating off northern NSW, at ports including Ballina, Clarence River and Coffs Harbour. For example, Kennelly et al. (1998) estimated that for a prawn catch of 166 tonnes at Ballina, the bycatch was 2,667 tonnes, of which 2,371 tonnes (89%) was discarded. Several million bony fishes were estimated to have been discarded from a prawn catch of that size, including: 214,400 cuttlefish, 288,500 Smooth Bug, 223,900 Balmain bug, 30,200 Three-spot C a , , o al a , , B u e s Bug. Esti ated dis a ds f o Cla e e ‘i e included 3.9 million Cuttlefish, 1.7 million Smooth Bugs; 281,300 Balmain Bugs, 357,000 three-spot Crabs, 175,200 Slender Squid (and 436,000 retained), and 78,000 Blue Swimmer Crabs (with 57,000 retained), amongst other invertebrate discards. Although BRDs have been introduced since that time, more work is required to determine the effectiveness of the devices under normal commercial trawling conditions, and greater levels of onboard monitoring of bycatch levels are required (New South Wales DPI 2004; Graham 2007). In both shelf and slope fisheries, current bycatch is irregularly quantified, and for many marine invertebrate species, population sizes and full distributions are not known; hence it is difficult to determine the potential impact of trawl-based mortality. The Pygmy Cuttlefish Sepia limata, which is found in southern Queensland and NSW, is one of the invertebrate species within the NR CMA whose populations may be adversely affected by trawling. However, there are no data on population sizes; hence bycatch records cannot be placed into context. Fisheries that catch this species include NSW ocean trawl fishery, and the Sydney inshore trawl-whiting fishery (Graham et al. 2008), amongst others. For example, during surveys of mollusc bycatch in trawls from inshore (<100 m) and shelf (100-200 m) waters off NSW, between 1993 and 1997, Sepia limata comprised 15% of the total mollusc catch from 179 trawls in both northern and central inshore waters. This equated to 0.25% of 16,235 mollusc specimens (= 40 cuttlefish) in the bycatch from northern inshore waters, and 1.17% of 12,007 molluscs (= 140 cuttlefish) in the bycatch from central inshore waters (Tzioumis and Keable 2007). 83 One study (cited by Tzioumis and Keable 2007) showed that in the inshore waters of the northern zone of the NSW ocean trawl fishery, S. limata comprised 7% of the total bycatch of molluscs. Data by Courtney et al. (2007, cited in Tzioumis and Keable 2007) indicated that in the Queensland trawl fishery grounds, an average of 0.1 S. limata specimens per hectare are caught in the inshore grounds, and 0.2 per hectare in shelf waters. The Pygmy Cuttlefish is considered to be a high risk species in the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery (O'Neill et al. 2004). Some species of limited geographic range in the crinoid and sea cucumber groups, are considered potentially vulnerable to population decline, due to their occurrence in trawled habitat in Victoria (e.g. O'Hara and Barmby, 2000). As discussed in previous sections of this report, the northern geographic extent of such species is not known, and their status in New South Wales is not clear. A number of trawl-caught specimens of species of potential conservation concern enter the shell trade on occasion. Examples include Lyreneta (or Lyria) laseroni, Cymbiola pulchra moretonensis, and Cymbiola pulchra provocationis, Dolicholatirus thesaurus, Ericusa papillosa, Ericusa sericata, Ericusa sowerbyi, Fusus adjunctus, Fusus brazieri, Livonia mammilla, Umbilia hesitata, Conus sculletti, Conus rufimaculosus, Conus wallangra, Conus cyanostomus, Conus minnamurra, Conus sydneyensis, Conus / Rhizoconus advertex, and Haustellum tweedianus. For many of these species, population sizes are not known. Some have vulnerable life history traits, such as relatively long life span (for an invertebrate), possible delayed age at maturity, aggregation and shallow water migration at spawning time, direct development of young, low dispersal of young, and low adult mobility. Hard corals are another group of marine invertebrates whose populations may be impacted by trawling. A number of the gorgonian coral species in the family Isididae (bamboo corals) are known from few locations in NSW, mostly in the southern part of the State, from very few sites north and/or south of Sydney, on sand and mud habitats of the continental shelf. Most have been recorded in trawls, or on surfaces of a submarine cable, between 60 and 150m deep. Some of these gorgonians are known only from a few broken fragments. The full distribution and depth range of these species is not known. Specimens caught in commercial trawls are likely to be usually discarded, rather than preserved and sent to museums for identification. Bamboo corals are brittle, and can break off easily when they are contacted by trawls. Bamboo corals in the Isididae can live for many hundreds to several thousands of years (NOAA 2009; Hill et al. 2011). Therefore, replacement of trawl-damaged populations is unlikely in the foreseeable future, which highlights the importance of preventing trawling in areas where these species are known to occur. Introduced Species Invertebrate species have been introduced to New South Wales waters in several main ways. Two of the most common ways are accidentally by vessels (e.g. hull fouling, ballast water and sea chests / holds), and by deliberate introduction (e.g. Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas). The marine aquarium trade also presents another possible source of introductions. Table 26 below indicates the presence of at 37 species in the New South Wales that have been introduced, and another 13 species that are cryptogenic (of uncertain origin). This is the minimum number of introduced and cryptogenic species occurring in the region, because many sites in the State have not been surveyed regularly (including some of the ports, boat ramps, and harbours and marinas), and therefore additional species may be present. In addition to exotic invertebrate introductions, macro- and micro-algal introductions may also have detrimental impacts on native invertebrate populations. Examples include the green macroalga Caulerpa taxifolia, which can invade benthic environments and compete with native species for space; and also several dinoflagellate microalgae which have been recorded in NSW, such as: 84 (i) Alexandrium catenella (which can produce toxins that can accumulate in native molluscs, crustaceans, polychaetes and some echinoderms); (ii) A. minutum (which produces toxins that are bioaccumulated in zooplankton such as copepods, shellfish and crabs), and can lead to fish fills, and poisoning on consumers of affected invertebrates, and (iii) Gymnodinium catenatum, which produces toxins that can accumulate in shellfish (oysters, mussels and scallops (NIMPIS 2012). Table 26: Introduced or cryptogenic invertebrate species in New South Wales, according to CSIRO Marine Research (2006); the National Introduced Marine Pest Information System (NIMPIS 2012), and the Atlas of Living Australia (2012). C = cryptogenic; I = introduced; N = No; U = uncertain / unknown for this report; Y = Yes. Additional References: Jones et al. (1990); Saben (2002); Lowry (2003); Ahyong (2005); Hayes et al. (2005); Riek (2005); Wells and Jones (2005); Rudman (1998); Aquenal (2008); Walker (2009); Rudman (2010). * = Recorded both north and south of NR CMA. Latin Name Common Name Confirmed Records in NR CMA (Y/N/U) N Sabella spallanzanii (I) European Fan Worm Carcinus maenas (I) European Shore Crab / European Green Crab N Crassostrea gigas (I) Theora lubrica (I) Varicorbula gibba (I) Cordylophora caspia (C) Halecium delicatulum (C) Obelia dichotoma (C) Sarsia eximia (C) Tubularia crocea (I) Plumularia setacea (C) Barentsia benedeni (I) Anteaeolidiella indica (C) Okenia (Hopkinsia) plana (C) Polycera capensis (I) Polycera hedgpethi (I) Thecacera pennigera (I) Pacific Oyster East Asian bivalve European Clam a hydroid a hydroid a hydroid a hydroid a hydroid Little Seabristle / a hydroid a nodding head / kamptozoan Japanese Aeolid / a nudibranch / sea slug a nudibranch / sea slug a nudibranch / sea slug Hedgpeth s Dorid / a nudibranch / sea slug Winged Thecacera / a nudibranch / sea slug Y N Alitta succinea (I) Hydroides elegans (C) Euchone limnicola (I) Polydora ciliata (I) Pseudopolydora paucibranchiata (I) a pileworm a serpulid tube worm a fanworm / sabellid worm English Polydorid / a bristleworm Japanese Polydorid / a spionid polychaete worm Teredo navalis (I) Maoricolpus roseus (I) Laticorophium baconi (I) Naval Shipworm New Zealand Screw Shell North American Pacific Corophiid / a corophiid amphipod crustacean Mediterranean Corophiid / a corophiid amphipod crustacean Mediterranean Corophiid / a corophiid amphipod crustacean N U* U* U* N N U* N Y Y U N U (known from Pt Stephens) U Y U U U (known from N and S of NRCMA) Apocorophium acutum (I) Monocorophium acherusicum (I) Monocorophium insidiosum (I) Monocorophium sextonae (C) Cirolana harfordi (I) English Corophiid / a corophiid amphipod crustacean a corophiid amphipod crustacean Speckled Pill Bug / an isopod 85 Y N N N U (recorded as occurring along central E coast) N N N Table 26: (cont.) Latin Name Eurylana arcuata (C) Paracerceis sculpta (I) Common Name a cirolanid isopod Sponge Isopod Confirmed Records in NR CMA (Y/N/U) N U (has been recorded N & S of NR CMA) Paradella dianae (I) a sphaeromatid isopod crustacean U (has been recorded N of NR CMA) Sphaeroma walkeri (I) a sphaeromatid isopod crustacean U (has been recorded N & S of NR CMA) Pyromaia tuberculata (I) Fire Crab / Tuberculate Pear Crab U (has been recorded on central NSW coast e.g. Newcastle) Eriocheir sinensis (I) Metacarcinus novaezelandiae (I) Megabalanus rosa (I) Megabalanus tintinnabulum (I) Chinese Mitten Crab Pie-crust Crab an acorn barnacle an acorn barnacle N N N U (has been recorded on central NSW coast, and also NE Australia) Amathia distans (C) Bugula flabellata (I) Bugula neritina (I) a bryozoan a bryozoan a bryozoan U U U (has been recorded N & S of NR CMA region) Cryptosula pallasiana (I) Schizoporella unicornis (I) Bugula neritina (I) a bryozoan a bryozoan a bryozoan Y U U (has been recorded N & S of NR CMA) Watersipora arcuata (I) Ciona intestinalis (I) Styela plicata (I) a bryozoan / lace coral a solitary ascidian a solitary ascidian U N U (has been recorded N & S of NR CMA region) Botrylloides leachi (C) a colonial ascidian U (has been recorded N & S of NR CMA region) Botryllus schlosseri (C) Star Ascidian / a colonial ascidian U (has been recorded N & S of NR CMA region) The species marked in grey in Table 26 were previously o side ed to e t igge spe ies , ega ded as marine pests of particular concern, as listed in the Australian Marine Pest Monitoring Manual, produced by the National System for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pest Incursions (Commonwealth of Australia 2010). National control plans have been developed for most of the trigger species. An updated trigger list is being developed, with known invasive species being assessed against new national significance criteria (NIMPIS 2012). Several of the most serious marine pest incursions in south-eastern Australia are unlikely to become established in northern NSW because the region is above the normal temperature tolerances of such species. 86 One of the introduced invertebrate species of concern in NSW is the European Fan Worm Sabella spallanzanii (Figure 35), which was first recorded in southern NSW (Twofold Bay, Eden) in 1996. To date, it has not been recorded in northern NSW (New South Wales DPI 2012). This large sabellid worm (which can grow to 40cm long), survives in environments over a broad temperature range (2oC to 29oC). It forms dense colonies, grows quickly (15mm per month: NIMPIS 2012), and can significantly modify local water currents and rates of sediment deposition (Ponder et al. 2002). There is concern that this species may compete with native suspension-feeding species for food and space, and interfere with their recruitment. Dense Sabella aggregations can influence larval abundance and recruitment. Sabella aggregations may also provide preferred conditions for other (mobile) species to proliferate, which utilise the dense aggregations for breeding, feeding and/or for shelter from predators. Therefore, European Fan Worm invasions may have ecological impacts (see literature review in Aquenal 2008). S. spallanzanii colonies also alter the structure of benthic habitat, by forming a canopy of filamentous feeding structures suspended above the substrate, on slender tubes (Holloway and Keough 2002). Distribution records across southern Australia indicate that this species can proliferate in shallow, sheltered, nutrient-rich waters (New South Wales DPI 2012), and it may also have a preference artificial substrates (Boxall and Westphalen 2003, cited by Westphalen 2010). The European Fan Worm may seasonally vary in abundance, even in areas where it occurs at high densities, and a a pet ha d structures and sea bottom. Experimental work at Outer Harbour in South Australia, and at St Kilda in Victoria, has indicated that over a short time scale (e.g. approx. 2 months), abundance of other benthic species can be altered by the presence of S. spallanzanii, but over a longer scale (e.g. 6 months), the impacts of this fan worm on assemblage structure may be lessened, particularly in areas where native benthic assemblages are well established. Results of the aforementioned experimental work on cleared and fan worm-covered plates on jetty piles has also indicated that there may be significant effects of the S. spallanzanii canopy on survival and growth rates of epifaunal taxa, and that there may be temporal variability in the processes that cause such changes (Holloway and Keough 2002). Effects over time frames longer than 6 months were not determined in the aforementioned study. Regular boat hull cleaning and maintenance; increased awareness amongst boat owners of their role in accidentally spreading the pest; and manual removal of new infestations, may be three of the most effective strategies for controlling the spread of the European Fan Worm. Figure 35: Sabella spallanzanii Photo: (c) CSIRO, cited in New South Wales DPI (2012): http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/pests-diseases/marine-pests/nsw/european-fan-worm 87 The European Shore Crab Carcinus maenas is another of the introduced invertebrate species that has been of concern in NSW, but so far, it has been confined to the southern part of the State, in the numerous estuaries of coastal rivers and coastal lakes (e.g. New South Wales DPI 2012). This crab has been described as one of the 10 most potentially damaging species introductions in Australia, in terms of human, economic and environmental impacts (Hayes et al. 2005). In other parts of Australia, a number of studies have shown that C. maenas can have a significant impact on native species such as mud cockles and other bivalves (Mackinnon 1997; Walton 1997). For example, Mackinnon (1997) showed that a large po tio of the Eu opea “ho e C a s diet i Tas a ia o sists of i al es su h as ud o kles, a d small mussels of two species. The study also reported that the crab is capable of consuming vast quantities of the juveniles of various bivalve species over short time periods, and that the European Shore Crab has the ability to drastically reduce numbers of smaller sized mussels and clams (cockles), and alter bivalve assemblages. Over the long term, this crab may be of continuing concern in southern Australia, because its distribution has moved southwards over time, and increasing ocean warming in southern Australia may be beneficial for survival and expansion of shore crab populations (Hobday et al. 2006). There is a possibility that populations of this species may spread to northern New South Wales in future (data by Scott et al., cited by Rule et al. 2007). The third t igge list i e te ate from Table 26 above, the aquaculture species Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas, occurs in numerous locations in New South Wales. Pacific Oysters are a declared Noxious Species in all NSW waters except at Port Stephens, where they have been grown commercially since the 1990s. In NSW, Pacific Oysters cause problems for oyster farmers who culture native Sydney rock oysters (Saccostrea glomerata). As the two species live and spawn in the same locations, Pacific oysters can settle on and (due to their faster growth rate) smother farmed Sydney Rock Oysters (New South Wales DPI 2012). Surveys have shown that Pacific Oysters do not generally occur north of the Macleay River in the NR CMA region, but have been found in small numbers at Hastings River, Camden Haven River, and Manning River to the south (New South Wales DPI 2012). Larger quantities have been recorded at Wallis Lake near Forster, north of Port Stephens, the main commercial growing area for Pacific Oyster in New South Wales. There have been isolated records of Pacific Oysters in northern NSW estuaries, all reportedly associated with stock from Port Stephens (Rule et al. 2007). At the Tweed River at the northern end of the NR CMA region, isolated individuals have been recorded (e.g. 3 specimens were found and killed during a survey in the Tweed River area, and the individuals were thought to be associated with stock arriving on trays from another estuary (New South Wales DPI 2012). Once introduced into an environmentally favourable area, Pacific Oysters can develop high density populations within the intertidal zone, and greatly expand their range via planktonic eggs and larvae. This leads to competition between Pacific Oysters and other species (including native oysters) for food and space, and even smothering of some species. Other invertebrate species can be displaced by C. gigas, and thus the infested habitat can be adversely affected over time due to the change in species composition and abundance (New South Wales DPI 2011). Water temperature data by Scott et al. (cited by Rule et al. 2007) suggest that in addition to the species discussed above, other pest species which have the highest potential to establish in the NR CMA region include: Asian green mussel (Perna viridis), Black striped mussel (Mytilopsis sallei) and Asian Mussel (Musculista senhousia). To date, none of these species has established populations in New South Wales (NSW Department for Primary Industries 2012). The New Zealand Screw Shell Maoricolpus roseus, which grows to around 9cm long, also occurs in sand, mud or gravel substrates in some southern parts of NSW, such as Twofold Bay, and the continental shelf off Merimbula and Bermagui (New South Wales DPI 2012). This species can form a dense covering on the sea floor (with live and dead shells at depths up to 100m), and competes with native shellfish for food. Dense aggregations of this species can affect growth of scallops, and displace native shellfish species. 88 The European Clam Varicobula gibba also occurs in southern NSW (NIMPIS 2012). It is a fast growing species that has wide habitat tolerances, and can easily be spread by ballast water (Aquenal 2008). This species can dominate and out-compete native species. Data from Port Phillip Bay in Victoria indicate that the clam can reach very high densities in some years, and cause changes to benthic community st u tu e. I othe ea s, the populatio s ash , a d the e is so e o se ue t recovery of native invertebrate populations from pre-disturbance conditions (see review in Aquenal 2008). According to data by Scott et al. (cited by Rule et al. 2007), this species is unlikely to become established in northern NSW due to intolerance of the temperatures which characterise this region. The solitary ascidian Ciona intestinalis (Figure 36) has also been recorded in NSW (NIMPIS 2012), in locations such as Sydney, Port Kembla (Wollongong), and Eden. This northern Atlantic species has been known in Australia since the late 19th century (Hayes et al. 2005). Ciona intestinalis can attach to many kinds of substrate (e.g. o k platfo eef, oulde s, o ete, ships hulls, wood, shells, seagrass), and can form dense aggregations. Ciona has a broad salinity tolerance (18 to 34 ppt), and can occur over a broad depth range, from the shallow subtidal down to about 500m (NIMPIS 2012). This species is easily spread by shipping in both ballast water and on hulls, and has been described as one of the 10 most potentially damaging species introductions in Australian waters (Hayes et al. 2005). This ascidian feeds on phytoplankton, zooplankton and organic materials, and large numbers of C. intestinalis can reduce food availability in shallow waters, and out-compete native species for food and space (Cohen et al. 2001, cited by Hayes et al. 2005; NIMPIS 2012). Figure 36: Ciona intestinalis. Photo: (c) V. Billings. Photo courtesy of Reef Watch, South Australia: http://www.reefwatch.asn.au/feralInPeril.html In New South Wales, populations of several relatively large and invasive invertebrates that have been recently introduced from other countries are obvious where they exist, but there are many other species of cosmopolitan distribution whose locations in NSW and potential impacts remain unknown. The atu al state i te s of spe ies o positio a d a u da e of i e te ates p io to idesp ead introduction of exotic species is not known, because many such introductions may have occurred even prior to the 19th century (Carlton 1999, cited by Ponder et al. 2002) when the marine invertebrate fauna in New South Wales first became a topic for research. Additionally, for some marine groups such as bryozoa and colonial ascidians, it is usually difficult to distinguish between native and introduced species, particularly in the field. 89 Also of note here is the aquarium species of green macroalgae, Caulerpa taxifolia. The invasive aquarium strain of this native tropical Australian species has been recorded in central and southern New South Wales (Creese and al., 2004; Southern Cross University and Northern Rivers CMA, undated) and other parts of eastern and southern Australia. Various strains are of major concern in areas where they are not native (such as temperate waters), due to the ability of C. taxifolia to (i) spread rapidly, either vegetatively by growth of the stolons, or by regeneration from broken-off fragments as small as 1 square centimetre, with growth up to a centimetre or more per day, and (ii) cover large areas of substrate: the invasive aquarium strain is able to occupy up to 100% of the available substrate (NIMPIS 2012). Caulerpa taxifolia can live as individual plants or grow to form dense blankets covering large areas of substrate. The alga is large (with stems up to 2.8 metres long, but this is exceptional) and dense (e.g. more than 200 fronds may grow off the stems). Typically, a plant produces up to six ramifications and reaches a length of 1-1.5m in autumn (NIMPIS 2012). In areas of dense infestation, native seagrasses, macroalgae and benthic invertebrates can be displaced. Such habitat change may also have flow-on negative impacts, including degradation of feeding areas and nursery habitats, and potential reduction in species richness and diversity. Caulerpa taxifolia contains a toxin that makes it distasteful, hence few animals eat it. This species is difficult to eradicate once established. In NSW Australia, there are programs to monitor the locations and spread of introduced pest invertebrate species, and in recent years, there has been some research into the impacts that these species may have on marine species, including native invertebrates. It is notable that some introduced pests may carry with them both internal and external parasites that may not be host- specific, and also could impact on native species (I. Whittington pers. comm., cited by Ponder et al. 2002). To date, there is limited evidence that introduced invertebrates have degraded natural systems in NSW s marine environment, or have had a negative impact on species richness and abundance. However, vigilance and pro-active management must be exercised in all cases where fast-growing and invasive marine pest species exist. This is particularly important in the coming decades as warmer water temperatures are predicted in the Southern Ocean. Additionally, increased international trade by shipping, and the proliferation of marinas for recreational vessels (and associated waterfront housing estates) are further likely to increase the number of invasive marine species in NSW waters, and the relatively warm shallow waters of some parts of northern NSW would provide ideal conditions for some exotics to establish, particularly tropical species. Estuarine and Nearshore Habitat Modification and Pollution Intertidal and subtidal reefs, estuarine and nearshore seagrass beds, areas of shell bottom and areas of soft bottom (sand / mud), all provide habitat for marine invertebrates, including rare and endemic species, and other species of conservation concern. There are many interacting processes that impact upon the nearshore habitats of the NR CMA region, and the invertebrate populations they support. Geoscience Australia (2012) listed 39 coastal lakes, rivers and estuaries in the NR CMA region, and of these, 9 have been categorised i a atio al estua i e assess e t as e te si el modified , and 11 as odified (Table 27). Some of the biophysical indicators used to classify estuaries in Australia include:  water quality (Chlorophyll a, CO2 partial pressure, dissolved oxygen, marine pathogens, metal contaminants, pH, salinity, turbidity, water column nutrients, water temperature)  sediment quality (benthic CO2 flux, denitrification efficiency, organic matter and nutrients, sediment P/R ratio, sedimentation rates, sediment TOC: TS ratios, toxicants)  Habitat extent and quality (e.g. beach and dune indicators, changes in area of mangroves and salt marsh areas, changes in seagrass areas, changes in wetland coverage, Index of habitat variability, and several others);  Biotic indicators (intertidal and benthic invertebrates, diatom species composition, fish assemblages, hermit crabs, macroalgal indicators, seagrass species and others). 90 Table 27: Estuaries, oastal lakes a d ri ers i NR CMA regio hi h ha e ee ategorised as e te si ely odified or odified . List is i alphabetical order. Adapted from: Geoscience Australia (2012). Classified as E te si el Modified Clarence River Coffs Harbour Creek Cudgen Lake Macleay River Manning River Nambucca River Richmond River Ballina South West Rocks Creek Woolgoolga Lake Classified as Modified Bellinger River Belongil Creek (Cape Byron) Camden Haven River Evans River Killick Creek Lake Ainsworth Lake Cathie/Innes Mooball Creek Saltwater Lagoon Tallow Creek Tweed River As an example, one of the extensively modified river systems in the NR CMA region is the Clarence River. Current quantities of suspended sediments in the river are estimated to be about 682.60 kilotonnes/year (compared with 12.8 kilotonnes/ year prior to European settlement); the fine sediment phosphorus load is estimated to be 532.00 tonnes/year (compared with 93 tonnes/yr in unmodified conditions), and the fine sediment nitrogen load 2926.50 tonnes/year (compared with 94 tonnes/year) (Geoscience Australia 2012). Some of the activities in the upper Clarence River catchment which are considered by industry and community (i.e. Ocean Watch Australia) to impact upon water quantity and quality downstream include forestry, farming, water extraction, mining, septic sewage treatment and infrastructure development. Within the lower catchment, some of the factors that affect water quality and the estuarine ecosystem include loss of wetlands and riparian (river edge) vegetation, flood mitigation and drainage works, dredging, pollution and associated eutrophication, urban development, commercial and recreational fishing, waste disposal and the exposure of acid sulfate soils. Some of the many sources of increased liquid wastes directly into the Clarence River include aquaculture (prawn farms), sewage treatment works and timber mills. Sewage effluent contains nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus; and also bacteria and suspended solids. In general, the effects of nutrient enrichment in shallow seagrass and reef ecosystems include water turbidity, light reduction, elevated nutrient levels in naturally low-nutrient systems, photosynthetic and respiratory stress for seagrasses, and smothering by nutrient-induced epiphytes and particulate matter (e.g. see Shepherd et al. 1989; New South Wales DPI 2012). Increased nutrient loads (especially nitrogen) from coastal rivers can result in blooms of the nuisance brown macroalga Hincksia in coastal waters (e.g. Campbell 2001; Phillips 2006; Lovelock et al. 2008), and wind patterns may also exacerbate the blooms (Schlacher et al. 2010). Experimental work on algal growth has shown that loads of epiphytes such as Hincksia respond positively to increases in both nutrients and light (Collings et al. 2006). In south-eastern Australia, blooms are most pronounced in the autumn and winter period when nutrients inputs are higher. Sedimentation may be naturally high in some parts of the NR CMA region, due to the influence of current patterns and tides on substrates. In some areas, estuary modification, coastal runoff from industry, and coastal housing developments may increase both the nutrient load (see section above) and the sediment load into coastal marine environments. Runoff is exacerbated by the increased cover of impervious surfaces (such as paving and concrete) that results from the construction of coastal marinas, housing estates and associated facilities. 91 Dredging is another significant cause of sedimentation in the nearshore area. Dredging occurs to maintain shipping and boating channels, and also occur periodically when associated with coastal developments (such as marinas and coastal housing estates) and jetty maintenance. When dredging is used to maintain boating access channels, or to otherwise modify the coastal configuration, significant areas of vegetation, including saltmarshes, mangroves and seagrasses, are sometimes removed. Such dredging mobilises silts into suspension, as well as particulate metals and other contaminants in sediment, which can accumulate in channel areas. Sedimentation from dredging increases the load of metals and chemical pollutants that are biologically available in the system. Physical destruction of habitat, sedimentation, and increased turbidity from suspended sediments are all issues in some of the coastal areas of northern New South Wales, particularly adjacent to highly modified estuaries. Dumping of dredge spoil is another impact upon marine benthic environments that is associated with dredging. Dumped dredge spoil material from harbour dredging sites often contains toxic substances, especially heavy metals and chlorinated hydrocarbons. In general, major impacts of dredging and dumping include short-term increased water turbidity (and reduction in light penetration), increased sedimentation (e.g. causing smothering of benthic fauna and flora, and contamination with metals and other pollutants), and reduction in dissolved oxygen. Nutrients from effluent and industry discharges, coupled with sediments from multiple sources, can be two of the main causes of seagrass loss in estuarine areas. In the lower part of the Clarence River catchment, seagrass loss has been significant. Burchmore (1993) reported that in the Clarence River there were 356ha of seagrasses in 1942 and only 158ha in 1981 - a 56% decrease (Shepherd et al. 1989), and that by 1990 there had been an 80% decrease on the 1942 figure. Over 90% of the wetlands of the Hunter, Clarence and Macleay River floodplains have been affected by drainage and flood mitigation schemes (Burchmore 1993). South of the NR CMA, Posidonia australis seagrass populations in parts of southern New South Wales (e.g. Port Hacking, Botany Bay, Sydney Harbour, Pittwater, Brisbane Waters and Lake Macquarie) have been listed as endangered (New South Wales DPI 2012). Some of the many contributing factors to the decline of such seagrass beds included physical disturbance (e.g. from dredging and reclamation activities, and also due to damage from anchors, boat propellers and boat moorings; sediments entering the system from rivers and creeks (which can smother seagrass and block the light available for photosynthesis); eutrophication (nutrient increase, especially of nitrogen and phosphorus, resulting in an increase in epiphytes growing on seagrass leaves, which reduces the capacity of the seagrass to photosynthesise); and indirect disturbance from altered tidal and wave regimes (associated with major dredging and foreshore reclamation) (New South Wales DPI 2012). Other contributing factors include stormwater discharges; construction of foreshore structures (which shaded seagrasses), and potential impacts from invasive species (New South Wales DPI 2012). With the increasing rate of coastal population growth in parts of northern New South Wales, many of the aforementioned factors are likely to increase in importance as agents of nearshore habitat decline (including seagrasses) in the NR CMA in the forthcoming decades. Excess nutrients and sedimentation can also cause declines in canopy-forming large brown macroalgae in the nearshore area, and increased cover of sediment-trapping, turf-forming algae can occur (Turner 2005, Turner and Kildea 2006, Turner et al. 2007, Gorman 2009). Once turfs become established in the place of canopy flora, they can trap sediment and further inhibit the re-establishment of canopy-forming species (Gorman 2009). Loss of canopy macroalgae has flow-on impacts to other species that occupy that habitat, including invertebrates that live on the blades, or the holdfast, as well as benthic invertebrates that utilise the shelter provided by canopies of macroalgae. When cover of large macroalgae declines, opportunistic species can proliferate in the spaces formerly occupied by macroalgae, and create conditions that limit further recruitment of macroalgae. 92 When seagrass beds and macroalgae on nearshore reefs decline in cover, the populations of invertebrate species associated with those habitats also decline, particularly if the association of the invertebrates with the plants is an obligate one. Other potential impacts on marine invertebrate populations are caused by heavy metal and chemical pollutants. These will not be discussed in detail here due to the low level of coastal heavy industry in the NR CMA region, but it is noted that the boat anti-foulant tributyl tin (TBT), has been recorded in some marine invertebrates in the NR CMA region. TBT is released from ships and boats, and from slipways during ship and boat maintenance. TBT accumulates in marine food chains, and can concentrate in molluscs at levels hundreds or thousands of times higher than surrounding sediment or seawater. The toxic effects of TBT in marine organisms include, amongst others, immuno-suppression, physical deformities, reduced growth rate, reproductive abnormalities in molluscs (including sex change, known as i pose ; death of eggs a d la ae i ollus s; edu tio i populatio u e s of ollus s; a d inhibition of body organ function in some higher animals (Nias et al. 1993; AMCS and EPA 1999). During the 1990s, more restrictions on the use of TBT as an anti-foulant occurred across Australia. However, in the South West Rocks area, Gibson and Wilson (2003) recorded approximately 50% frequency of occurrence of imposex in the whelk Thais orbita in 1999, compared with only 7% in 1990, and considered that this might possibly have related to contamination from a period of intense boating and cleaning activity, when a nearby oil terminal (at Trial Bay) was decommissioned in 1992. It is also noted here that in WA, imposex has been recorded in cone shells, such as Conus anemone (Kohn et al. 1999, cited by 2003), a species which also occurs in the NR CMA. Within the NR CMA region, the Northern Rivers Catchment Action Plan 2013 - 2023 (Northern Rivers CMA 2012) has devised a number of strategies to be carried out by the NR CMA, local councils, and the Offi e fo E i o e t a d He itage, to add ess e isti g a d e e gi g th eats to the ‘egio s estua i e, coastal and marine systems, and the fauna therein. Two of the important strategies that will benefit nearshore marine environment in the region if implemented, are: (i) address diffuse and point sources of pollution (e.g. litter, nutrients, acid soils and turbidity); and (ii) minimise the impacts of land degradation, such as soil loss, salinity and acid discharge into adjoining environments, including marine systems. Coastal Development The NR CMA region is an increasingly popular place to live, with an estimated population growth rate of over 2% per year (NR CMA web site, November 2012). Over the past decade, there has been population growth in northern New South Wales towns such as Tweed Heads and Coffs Harbour. In 2012, the population in Coffs Harbour was about 72,000 (Coffs Harbour city council web site, October 2012), and an annual average rate of increase of 1.4% is predicted over the next two decades, higher than the estimated rate of population increase for most other parts of New South Wales. By 2031, the population is expected to have increased by 41%, compared with the 2006 census figure (ID Consulting 2012). The increasing numbers of new residents over time will consequently result in an increased number of coastal dwellings, as many new residents are attracted to beachside living (Coffs Harbour City Council web site, 2012). At Tweed Heads, population growth during the past decade, and increasing interest in waterfront lifestyles has resulted in a marina proposal at Boyds Bay. Coastal and waterfront housing developments and marina / boat harbour construction and maintenance can impact beaches, intertidal and subtidal reefs, seagrass beds and sand bottoms in the NR CMA region, and therefore adversely affect invertebrate populations associated with each of these habitats. Although some marinas in New South Wales (including Coffs Ha ou ha e a editatio u de the Aust alia s Clea Ma i a program, it is noted that in general, marinas and waterfront housing and coastal housing developments have a number of common impacts, including the following: 93 • hydrocarbon pollution of water, sediments and benthos from bilge and ballast waters, and fuel spills; • contamination of sediments and biota with metals and other pollutants from hull cleaning, painting and antifouling agents associated with increased recreational and commercial boating; • physical damage to supratidal, intertidal and shallow subtidal habitats from dredging and construction;  damage to benthos and reduction of benthic habitat quality - including destruction of saltmarsh, wetlands, mangroves, dune systems, seagrass, macroalgae and benthic fauna - from channel dredging and maintenance, waterfront housing construction, anchor damage, and boat hull scouring; • increased turbidity and/or sedimentation from channel dredging and maintenance; • nutrient contamination from increased effluent loads (which can lead to blooms of nuisance algae), and • exotic species introductions, from boat hulls, ballast water and other vectors. Housing developments on the coast, including residential subdivisions and holiday housing developments, can result in (i) nearshore pollution from stormwater, effluent discharge and runoff from hard surfaces such as concrete (see section above on Siltation, Eutrophication, and other Pollution), and (ii) coastal erosion issues. Contaminants in residential stormwater runoff (such as fertilisers and other garden supplements) may result in increased nutrient levels in the nearshore area, and also, freshwater runoff may have a detrimental effect on some nearshore habitats, by changing the water quality (e.g. reducing salinity). Also, land clearing and coastal soil disturbance that is associated with coastal development (including holiday housing sub-divisions) contributes to sedimentation in the near-shore area. When stormwater runoff occurs from urbanised and rural areas, particularly areas undergoing building site clearance, a large amount of sediment from coastal developments ends up in coastal waters, which can smother marine invertebrates, amongst other impacts. In areas where the coastal configuration has been extensively modified, impacts on local intertidal and shallow subtidal invertebrate fauna can occur, but such impacts are rarely assessed or monitored. One example of highly modified nearshore system is the Tweed River entrance near the New South Wales Queensland border, where an on-going sand bypassing project occurs, and involves period sand pumping, and dredging (e.g. Acworth and Lawson 2012). Climate Change Climate change has been listed as a key threatening process in New South Wales (Port Stephens Fisheries Institute 2010). Some of the anticipated consequences of climate change generally include the following (McInnes et al. 2003; Hobday and Matear 2005, Hobday et al. 2006, Suppiah et al. 2006; IPCC 2007):           sea level rise, and increased episodes of inundation from coastal flooding, coastal erosion, sedimentation, habitat change and damage. Effects of sea level rise could be more pronounced in northern, low lying areas with extensive intertidal and supratidal area; increasing sea surface temperature, and also greater warming of water around 500m depth; ocean acidification from increased levels of carbon dioxide (i.e. a change in seawater chemistry, including a marked decline in pH); changes to UV radiation and light penetration; an increase in surface winds resulting in extreme wind events; greater stratification and a shallowing of the mixed layer, causing a reduction in nutrient inputs from deeper waters; slowing down of the thermohaline circulation; changes to salinity, associated with changing rainfall patterns; changes to tidal and current patterns, including a general decline in surface currents; and change in species composition in marine habitats due to warmer ocean waters. 94 The list above is not exhaustive, and there are numerous other potential impacts that may only become apparent over longer time frames. A number of examples that are relevant within NSW are discussed in the determination by the NSW Fisheries Scientific Committee (Port Stephens Fisheries Institute 2010). Of particular concern is the likely impact of climate change on invertebrate species with calcareous shells, because decreased calcification rates have been shown to occur in response to increased CO2 (Feely et al. 2004; Harley et al. 2006; Fabry et al. 2008; Ross et al. 2011). Although groups with shells of aragonite (e.g. pteropod molluscs) are likely to be worse affected than those with shells of calcite (due to the higher stability and lower solubility of the latter form of calcium carbonate), the potential impacts on all calcareous organisms should not be under-estimated (e.g. review of Hobday et al. 2006). Increased acidification due to CO2, and lowered pH as a consequence, may also increase physiological stress on marine animals. Metabolic efficiency and growth rates of bivalves, mussels and other molluscs may be impaired (e.g. Michaelidis et al. 2005; Berge et al. 2006, cited by Hobday et al. 2006). Experiments have also shown that under lowered pH conditions, fertilisation rate of the eggs of intertidal echinoderms declined, and larvae were severely malformed (Kurihara et al. 2004, cited by Hobday et al. 2006). Ocean acidification may also impact upon primary and secondary production, due to reduction in the number of planktonic organisms with calcareous shells (as a result of increased ocean acidification and therefore reduced ability for organisms to produce calcareous shells). This may in turn affect populations of invertebrates that feed on such organisms. Impacts on shell-producing organism may also affect soft sediment biota because the two are often tightly coupled in terms of food transfer (Hobday et al. 2006). In addition to direct impacts on the biota, changes in pH will also change the composition and nature of sea floor sediment (which in some areas is largely composed of calcareous grains and fragments), thereby modifying the habitat and causing indirect impacts to the soft sediment biota. In areas where calcareous macroalgae are a significant part of the benthic cover, increasing acidification (and therefore reduction in calcareous cover) may have serious consequences. Coralline macroalgae has an important functional role as a micro-habitat on which a variety of molluscan larvae settles and feeds (Shepherd, in prep.), so demise of this habitat can have serious flow-on effects in temperate ecosystems. Some of the other ways in which global warming may impact marine invertebrates include:  changes to recruitment due to increasing water temperatures, and changing ocean circulation patterns;  interruption to larval settlement in the shallow subtidal (e.g. due to increased levels of inundation, and/or changing tide lines over time;  reduction in the cover of seagrass meadows, with consequent impacts on calcareous organisms which live in seagrass; and  increased potential for marine pest species to flourish, due to nutrient changes (particularly from nearshore contamination with rising sea levels), increased CO2 levels, and ecosystem disturbance. Increased temperatures and changes over time to current patterns and tidal regimes may have a detrimental effect on seagrass cover in NSW, with consequences for the attached invertebrate fauna and other seagrass-associated invertebrates. It is not possible to protect some groups of organisms (such as calcareous plankton) from changes in sea chemistry and other deleterious impacts of climate change, but efforts are required to protect the populations and habitats of larger calcareous biota - such as molluscs, echinoderms, some types of bryozoans, and the crustacean groups which have calcified shells - from additional anthropogenic stresses such as physical damage (e.g. from dredging etc), sediment smothering, and nutrient enrichment. Such protection may help calcareous organisms to persist longer in the face of ongoing stresses which are harder to control, such as ocean acidification from climate change. 95 Corals, including those in NR CMA region, may be threatened during this century by global warming, with examples of damaging processes including sea level rise, increased UV exposure, bleaching, increased disease susceptibility, increased severity of El Nino–Southern Oscillation events and storms, and increasing ocean acidification (Wilkinson 2004; Carpenter et al. 2008; DeVantier et al. 2008, in IUCN 2012). Within the NR CMA region, research has been undertaken to determine the extent of coral bleaching and disease at the Lord Howe Island Marine Park (LHIMP), Solitary Islands Marine Park, and Cape Byron Marine Park. During the mid 2000s, a study found that coral disease (white syndrome) and bleaching were present at all seven sites at LHI that were studied (Dalton and Godwin 2005, cited by NSW Marine Parks Authority 2010). In that study, stress from disease and bleaching tended to affect the dominant hard coral species from the families Acroporidae, Pocilloporidae, Poritidae and Faviidae. Disease was observed at shallow and deeper reefs within the lagoon and at exposed sites, and the level of disease found (1.3% of all observed colonies) was similar to that seen in areas of the Great Barrier Reef. The level of coral bleaching was higher than previously noted, with 4.7–6.9% of corals bleached at all sites. Predation upon corals (by gastropod molluscs) was low, but the study findings considered that the synergistic effect of coral stressors such as predation, disease and bleaching may eventually result in a decline in coral cover in the Lord Howe Island Marine Park (Dalton and Godwin 2005, cited by NSW Marine Parks Authority 2010). In a more recent study at LHIMP, significant coral bleaching (particularly in Pocilloporidae and Poritidae corals) occurred in January and February 2010, coinciding with abnormally warm sea and air temperatures, light winds, cloudless days and low swell. At some lagoon sites, bleaching ranged from 57% to 95% of coral cover, and at other sites, bleaching was observed as deep as 18m (Harrison et al. 2010, cited by NSW Marine Parks Authority 2010). Similarly, at Solitary Islands Marine Park, where hard corals dominate the benthic community structure at some sites, coral disease has been observed and monitored. Research by Dalton and colleagues (cited by NSW Marine Parks Authority, undated) indicated that coral stress, and the rate of spread of coral disease, may be greater during periods of warmer seawater temperature. At these marine parks in NSW, research is being conducted to quantify the extent of coral bleaching and coral disease; the recovery over time; and the adaptive and acclimation mechanisms displayed by sub-tropical corals. 7. Recommended IUCN Listings The e sio of IUCN ‘ed List s atego ies a d ite ia e og ises se e al atego ies of th eat, a d a summary of these categories and criteria is shown in Table 2 above. The main category of relevance to this assessment is Vulnerable (VU). A species is Vulnerable when it is not Critically Endangered or Endangered (see Table 2, and IUCN 1994) but is facing a high risk of extinction in the wild in the mediumterm future, as defined by any of the criteria (A to E). Also of importance is the category of Lower Risk (LR). A species is Lower Risk when it has been evaluated, does not satisfy the criteria for any of the categories Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable. Taxa included in the Lower Risk category can be separated into three subcategories: Conservation Dependent (CD), Near Threatened (NT) and Least Concern (LC). None of the species discussed in this report may qualify for listing as Conservation Dependent (CD). This category applies to species which are the focus of a continuing species-specific or habitat-specific conservation programme targeted towards the species in question, the cessation of which would result in the species qualifying for one of the threatened categories (E,N, VU or LR) within a period of five years. Near Threatened (NT), refers to species which do not qualify for Conservation Dependent, but which are close to qualifying for Vulnerable. Least Concern (LC) is a category that can be applied to species which do not qualify as Conservation Dependent or Near Threatened (IUCN 1994). 96 Of significance to the assessment of rare, endemic and other potentially threatened invertebrates in NR CMA region is the category of Data Deficient (DD). According to IUCN (1994), a species is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. A species in this category may be well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are lacking. Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat or Lower Risk. Listing of species in this category indicates that more information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show that threatened classification is appropriate (IUCN 1994). The category Rare (R), which is no longer used by IUCN, is also included here, due to its presence as a category in the threatened species legislation in some States. Application of the Rare category is discussed above in section 2. An assessment of the characteristics that render marine invertebrates vulnerable to population decline (Table 3) against each species discussed in this report (Table 29), and the requirements of each IUCN category (Table 2), provides the following summary statistics for proposed category of threat (Table 28). Note that in some cases, it is uncertain whether the species would better qualify as DD or a category of threat, and therefore both options are suggested. A small number of species which are Data Deficient may qualify as Rare and/or Vulnerable, depending on the interpretation of available data, and the results of further research on those species. For example, based on the current small number of records, a species may qualify in theory for listing as VU D2, but there have been no targetted searches. This is particularly so for small, cryptic species. The species may be more abundant and widely distributed than records indicate; hence DD may be a more appropriate category until more is known of the distribution and relative abundance. Table 28: Summary of proposed IUCN categories for species discussed in this report, according to assessments detailed in Table 29. Proposed Category (modified from IUCN) Data Deficient (DD) Data Deficient (DD) or Rare (R) Data Deficient (DD) or Lower Risk (LR) Data Deficient (DD) or Near Threatened (NT) Number of Species in NR CMA region discussed in this report, that may qualify 125 21 20 37 Of the species categorised in the table above, the majority (125) are considered to be Data Deficient; at least 21 may be considered Rare, and at least 37 may be considered Near Threatened, based on existing knowledge and current threatening processes. 97 Table 29: Recommended IUCN categories for species of conservation concern in the NR CMA region, based on summary of characteristics that render marine invertebrates vulnerable to population decline and eventual extinction. Species which might occur in the region are also included, based on existing records in adjacent regions (e.g. Port Stephens, south of the NR CMA border). Codes i the olu Vul era le Chara teristi s are listed in Table 3 above. LHI = Lord Howe Island; N = north; NI = Norfolk Island; NSW = New South Wales; QLD = Queensland; S = south; SA = South Australia; SE = south-east; TAS = Tasmania; VIC = Victoria; WA = Western Australia. I IUCN Categor a d Criteria olu : DD = Data Defi ie t; NT = Near Threatened; LR = Lower Risk (a category no longer used by IUCN Red List); R = Rare; VU = Vulnerable. Criteria for VU category are outlined in Table 2 above. Species known only from collections in the Sydney area are not included. Genus & Species (Alphabetical Order) Vulnerable Characteristics (Codes from Table 3) IUCN Category & Criteria Rationale possibly 16, 17, possibly 18, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 possibly 16, 17, possibly 18, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 DD A chiton found on LHI and NI. Found on underside of stones, or in crevices of coral slabs, in pools at low tide. Depth range not recorded. DD A chiton known mainly from central NSW (at least as far south as Shellharbour). Occurs on and under rocks in sand, in intertidal and shallow subtidal. Acanthoisis flabellum Wright & Studer, 1889 1, 2, possibly 3, 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 29 (if occurring in trawled area) DD, possibly NT Acanthophrys costatus 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, 26, possibly 27 DD A bamboo coral, known from N and S of Sydney, at least as far north as Newcastle Bight. Grows to at least 11cm long. Recorded to date on grey sand, mud, and shellgrit, from 42-115m deep. Bamboo corals are very long lived species, and colonies can easily be damaged by trawling. Corals are also subject to multiple stressors over regional and local scales. A small (7mm) spider crab known to date only from the type locality at LHI. Has been recorded et ee Co ets Hole a d a o k eef, amongst red and brown macroalgae and some corals, at 2-3m depth. Acropora solitaryensis possibly 1, possibly 2, 3, 21, possibly 27, 29, 34 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 13, 16, 18, 17, 21, possibly 26 DD, possibly NT Possibly 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27, 28 Possibly 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Acanthochitona approximans (Hedley & Hull, 1912) Acanthochitona thackwayi (Ashby, 1924) Aglajid sp. 5 (in Rudman 2005a) Alocospira / Amalda fasciata (Ninomiya, 1990) Ammothella stocki Clark, 1963 Ammothella thetidis Clark, 1963 DD DD DD A tropical hard coral, subject to stress and mortality from bleaching, coral disease and other impacts. A small (5mm) nudibranch known from northern NSW, on reef / rock walls. One specimen photographed at 2m deep. An olive shell known from NSW, including NR CMA. Apparently known only from the holotype. Very little information. A sea spider, known to date from the intertidal in southern NSW. Type was recorded amongst marine growth on a piece of marine timber. A sea spider known from the continental shelf in NSW, between 40 and 115m deep. Full distribution not known (most records from Sydney area). 98 Amoria undulata (Lamarck, 1804) possibly 9, possibly 12, 13, possibly 14 (due to aggregation), 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29, 33, 34 DD or NT Anoplodactylus minusculus Clark, 1970 Possibly 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 Possibly 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 DD Anoropallene valida (Haswell, 1884) Antedon detonna McKnight 1977 DD The Wavy Volute / Undulate Volute, a large (to 12cm) volute shell with a broad southern Australian distribution, from Queensland through to northern WA, but there are gaps in the distribution. Found in sand / shelly sand, over a very broad depth range, from intertidal to about 500m deep. Aggregates to reproduce. The egg mass consists of layers of capsules in a cylindrical spiral, and only one embryo per capsule develops and hatches as a well developed, crawling juvenile. The Wavy Volute is trawled in some areas (e.g. Bass Strait), and hand collected by divers in other areas. In NSW, it is a bycatch in the Ocean Fish Trawl fishery (shelf sector) in southern NSW, and the ocean prawn trawl shelf sector in northern NSW (New South Wales DPI 2004). It is also a bycatch in the Bass Strait scallop fishery, in tens to hundreds per annum (e.g. survey data in Haddon and Semmens 2002, 2003). Low value in the shell market. Potentially vulnerable to overexploitation due to commercial value, and life history traits (possible delayed age at maturity, aggregation and shallow water migration at spawning time, direct development of young, low dispersal of young and low adult mobility). However, common over a broad geographic and depth range, which reduces species vulnerability to decline. A sea spider found in southern QLD and northern NSW, in estuaries and tidal reaches. A sea spider known from few records in central and southern NSW. Full distribution not known. Holotype was dredged. A crinoid recorded at Norfolk Island Ridge, off Norfolk Island, over a narrow depth range of 15m to 24m. Apparently known to date from only 2 locations on Norfolk Ridge, and has not been reported since the type description (O'Hara 2008). More research is required to determine the full distribution, and it is not known if this species occurs north of the type area, in the NR CMA region. DD 99 Antipathes sp. (in Edgar 2008 and Coleman 2008) possibly 1, possibly 2, possibly 3, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27, possibly 29 (in trawled areas), 34 DD, possibly NT Aphelodoris varia (Abraham, 1877) 17, 21, possibly 27, possibly 28 (feeds on specific sponges), 34, 35 DD, possibly LR Apixystus (or Gemixystus) stimuleus (Hedley, 1907) 13, 16, 17, 21, possibly 27 DD, possibly R Ataxocerithium scruposum Iredale, 1936 17, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29 DD Aporometra paedophora (H.L. Clark, 1909), 21, possibly 25, possibly 27, possibly 29 (in trawled areas) DD (possibly more than one species) Also known as Gemixystus stimuleus (Hedley, 1907), or as Trophonopsis (Apixystus) stimuleus (Hedley, 1907) Corals from NSW and LHI. At least one of these unnamed species grows to 150cm, and is found on exposed reefs with good current flow, including reef drop-offs. Records to date from 10m to ~ 35m. There are unnamed black corals in the order Antipatharia and genus Antipathes. One of these, Antipathes sp. (Lord Howe Island Black Coral – see Edgar 2008) may be the same or closely related to another Antipathes species - the White Black Coral recorded in NSW (including the NR CMA region). In general, corals are subject to multiple stressors at regional and national scales (such as coral bleaching, increased incidence of coral disease, and other impacts associated with global warming) and local scales (such as sedimentation of nearshore reefs, and nutrient enrichment of coastal waters from dredging, coastal developments or discharges etc). Variable Aphelodoris, a large (7cm) nudibranch known from northern to southern NSW. Occurs in some marine parks. Found to date on reef with sponges, from 0m to 25m deep. Common along the NSW coast and possibly endemic within that region (Rudman 2000d). Eats sponges, and forms large mating aggregations (Coleman 2001). A small (4mm) murex known from central QLD to Sydney in NSW. Considered rare (Beechey 2012). Found on the shelf, between about 30m and 150m. Previously known as Trophon stimuleus Hedley, 1907 A cerithiopsid / creeper shell, known from NSW and VIC. Records from 20m to 130+m, but full depth range not known. Considered at risk in Victoria because it is trawled in eastern Australian shelf habitat (O'Hara and Barby 2000; O'Hara 2002). A 2cm crinoid known from off the Manning River in NSW through to eastern Bass Strait in VIC. Northern limit is just south of NR CMA southern border. Type locality was 6.5-10.5km off Manning River, where 23 specimens were collected. Reported habitat is fine grey sand. Specimens have been recorded to date from 40m - 70m deep. Helgen and Rouse (2006) reported that taxonomic status of this crinoid is unresolved. Listed by O'Hara and Barmby (2000) and O'Hara (2002) as a species of conservation concern in VIC due to its uncommonness, and reliance on habitat of the East Shelf, which is trawled. 100 Astrosierra densus Baker, 1980 21, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Austroliotia saxa (Laseron, 1954), 17, 21, possibly 27 DD Austrosquilla melanocauda (Kunze, 1981) 17, 21, possibly 24, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, 28 DD Austroturris steira (Hedley, 1922) 17, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29 (in some areas) DD, possibly LR Bathycorbis despecta (Hedley, 1904) 17, 21, possibly 27 DD Bembicium flavescens (Philippi, 1851), possibly 14, 17, 18, 21, possibly 22, 24, possibly 25, possibly 31 DD, possibly but unlikely NT Binda tasmantis Laseron, 1951 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Borniola lepida (Hedley, 1906) Calliaster erucaradiatus Livingstone, 1936 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 21, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD DD 101 A 3cm basketstar known from southern QLD and northern NSW. It has been recorded mainly over a narrow depth range (e.g. 70m – 95m), but there are records from shallower (25m) and deeper ate s + , a o di g to O Ha a . A small (7mm) liotine shell (turban family), known mainly from the dredged holotype taken from Long Reef (Dee Why) at 26m deep. A mantis shrimp, reportedly known only from the type specimen collected in Botany Bay, from the gut of the flounder Pseudorhombus arsius. This species probably burrows in intertidal or shallow subtidal sand flats. There are no published records from the NR CMA region, but the species is likely to occur there. A small (6mm) turrid shell which occurs from northern to southern NSW; might also occur in easternmost VIC (e.g. Gabo I.) Found to at least 100m deep. Considered vulnerable to overexploitation in Victoria due to its presence in the East Shelf region, which is trawled (O'Hara and Barmby 2000). A bivalve known from northern to southern NSW. Holotype dredged at 100 fathoms (182m). Little information on depth range. A littorinid snail / periwinkle, known from LHI and NI. Reported to be common on Lord Howe Island, in the upper-mid shore area, and also recorded as previously common in archaeological remains on that island (see section above on Prosobranchs). Aquenal (2008) reported that on intertidal reefs of LHI, this species declined from 16% total macro-invertebrate abundance in 2006 to less than 2% in 2008, which indicates significant variability in population numbers over short time scales. Johnson and Black (2006) reported direct development of young in Bembicium flavescens. A cerithiopsid / creeper shell, known from NSW (if not synonymous with Euseila pileata from SA and WA). Reported range of 55-64m is based only on small number of dredge samples. Full distribution and depth range not known. Marshall (1978) considered this species to be a junior synonym of the wider ranging Euseila pileata Cotton 1951 (from the continental shelf and slope in SA and WA) A 6mm bivalve, known from central to southern NSW. Found in shell sand on beaches. A seastar, known from the type specimen off Crowdy Head at 90m deep. Full distribution and depth range not known. Very little information about this species Cellana analogia Iredale, 1940 17, 21, possibly 22, 24, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 17, 21, possibly 22, 24, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 33 DD A limpet, known from Roach (or the Admiralty) Islands, and LHI. Little information available. DD, possibly NT due to restricted distribution Ceratoplax luteus / lutea (McNeill 1929) 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25 DD Charisma (Charisma) compacta Hedley, 1915 17, 21, possibly 27 DD Charisma (Cavostella) radians (Laseron, 1954). 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 DD Charisma (Cavotera) simplex (Laseron, 1954) 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Chromodoris buchananae Gosliner & Behrens, 2000 possibly 13, 17, 21, possibly 26, possibly 27, 28 (eats specific sponges) DD, possibly R (if distinct species) Chromodoris hunterae Rudman, 1983 possibly 13, 17, 21, possibly 27, 28 (eats specific sponges) DD Chromodoris loringi (Angas, 1864) possibly 13, 17, 21, possibly 27, 28 (eats specific sponges) DD Chromodoris woodwardae Rudman, 1983 possibly 13, 17, 21, possibly 27, 28 (eats specific sponges) DD A limpet known from the intertidal on LHI, and recorded in low density during reef surveys in 2006 (Aquenal 2006). Traded in shell market for low value (e.g. $12 for small, gem condition specimen in 2010) A hairy crab known from southern QLD to southern NSW, and has been recorded over a narrow depth range to date (e.g. most records from 6m - 9m), on soft bottom. A small (3mm) top shell, with records from northern NSW, and Sydney area. Known from two collections spanning 25m to 183m deep, in sand / shelly sand. Type collection from 100 fathoms (183m). Reported to be rare (Beechey, 2012). A small (2mm) top shell known from central and southern NSW. Found in intertidal and shallow subtidal sand / shelly sand, down to about 16m. Very little information (probably due to small size and lack of targetted searches). A tiny (1mm) top shell known from few locations in NSW (e.g. Port Stephens). Found in intertidal sand / shelly sand. Very little information (probably due to small size and lack of targetted searches). Buchanan's Chromodoris, a large (5 - 6cm) nudibranch known from northern NSW (i.e. Solitary Is.) on reef. Rudman (2006f) reported that it may be an albino form of C. kuiteri. Members of the family eat sponges. Holotype collected at 14m or 15m. Example in Coleman (2001c) from 20m on reef. Apparently known from a single specimen. Hunter's Chromodoris, known from northern to southern NSW. Recorded on reef. Members of the family eat sponges. There is also an unverified photograph from South Africa (www.nudipixel.net/species/chromodoris_hunter ae/) Loring's Chromodoris, a nudibranch known from northern to southern NSW. Found on reef, including reef with sand & sponges. Members of the family eat sponges Photographed and/or collected examples range from about 10 to 25m deep. Related to Chromodoris hunterae. Woodward's Chromodoris, a nudibranch known from northern to southern NSW. Recorded on reef with sponges, macroalgae & sand. Feeds on species of sponge in the genera Callyspongia sp. & Chalinopsilla. Most specimens found below 10m. Cellana howensis Iredale, 1940 102 Chromodoris sp. (in Coleman 2001, 2008) possibly 13, 17, 21, possibly 26, possibly 27, 28 (feeds on specific sponges) DD, possibly R Cicatella indenta Laseron, 1956 17, 21, possibly 27 DD Conus / Rhizoconus advertex (Garrard, 1961) possibly 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29, 33, possibly 34 DD, possibly NT Conus anemone 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, 33, 34 DD Conus cyanostomus / cyanostoma Adams, 1854 possibly 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, 33, 34 DD Conus howelli Iredale, 1929 possibly 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21,possibly 29, 33, 34 DD, possibly R (Conus angasi Tryon, 1883 also included here) 103 Alluring Chromodoris, a small (2cm) nudibranch known from northern NSW (Jervis Bay). One example in Coleman (2001, 2008) from 40m on reef. Reported by Coleman (2008) not to have been recorded since the first specimen in 1970. A small (4mm) bivalve known from central and southern NSW coast. Recorded in shell debris, shelly sand and sand. Sometimes called the Reference Cone. Found from Fraser Island in QLD to Sydney area in NSW. Considered by Academy of Natural Sciences (2006) to be synonym of Conus angasi, which ranges from the Sunshine Coast in QLD through to southern NSW. Known mainly from trawl records from sandy habitats between 100m and 200m deep. Commonly trawled during 1960s and 1970s but there were few live specimens, and it has been trawled more recently in the Cape Moreton area (Limpus 2008). It is traded for in the shell market (low value). Conus species lay benthic eggs which hatch in situ and have no larval stage, hence low dispersal ability. Broad distribution (southern Australia, including TAS) and depth range (0 to 100m), but uncommon in NSW. Forms spawning aggregations (e.g. Kohn 2003). High visibility and therefore easily collected when found. Some reports of over-collecting of specific forms in Victoria. Traded in the shell market (low value). Conus species lay benthic eggs which hatch in situ and have no larval stage, hence low dispersal ability. The Illawarra Cone or Cox's Cone is a small (3cm) species known from few locations between Keppel Bay in QLD and Sydney in NSW. Reported depth range is 10m to 250m deep. This species is considered to be very uncommon in NSW (Beechey 2012). DeVantier et al. (2010) described its spatial a u da e as f e ue t i southe Quee sla d, and temporal abundance as al a s p ese t i the Sunshine Coast area. It has been reported as a potentially vulnerable species (category E in Queensland and NSW: Ponder and Grayson 1998). Conus species lay benthic eggs which hatch in situ and have no larval stage, hence low dispersal ability. A broadly distributed cone species (NSW, LHI, NI, NZ and surrounds, and possibly QLD), known from deeper water (records from 64-228m). There are few records from Australia. Reported to be rare (Beechey 2012). A specimen was dredged from the Coffs Harbour area in 2001, and that was reported to be the first Australian specimen since 1972. Most of the Australian shells have come from southern NSW. Conus species Lay benthic eggs which hatch in situ and have no larval stage, hence low dispersal ability. Conus minnamurra (Garrard, 1961) possibly 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29, 33, possibly 34 DD, possibly NT Conus rufimaculosus Macpherson, 1959 possibly 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, 26, possibly 27, possibly 29, 33, 34 DD, possibly NT due to narrow range and potentially threatening processes. Conus rutilus possibly 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29, possibly 33 DD Conus sculletti Marsh, 1962 possibly 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, 26, possibly 27, possibly 29, 33, 34 DD, possibly NT 104 Minnamurra Cone, a 4cm cone shell known from Swains Reef in QLD to Tathra in southern NSW. Has a broad geographic range along eastern Australia, and depth records range from about 73m to 220m deep. Occurs in trawled areas on the shelf (some of which are now closed), and most shells are known from prawn fishing trawls (Singleton 2007; Limpus 2008). This species is o side ed e u o o (Beechey 2012). Minnamurra Cone is traded in the shell market, and is of low to moderate value. In a national assessment, Ponder and Grayson (1998), considered this species potentially vulnerable to overexploitation (category D). Conus species lay benthic eggs which hatch in situ and have no larval stage, hence low dispersal ability. Red-spotted Cone / Red-stained Cone, a cone shell which grows to about 6cm long. Known from Fraser I. in QLD to Evans Head in northern NSW, with frequent occurrence at some QLD locations. The geographic range is likely to be quite restricted (Wilson et al. 1993). Depth range from 18m to 84m at least, but most records come from about 50 - 60m deep, via trawl. Has been trawled on the shelf in eastern Australia, including some areas closed to netting now. Considered to be uncommon in NSW (Beechey 2012). Traded in shell market, for low to moderate value. In a national assessment, Ponder and Grayson (1998), considered this species potentially vulnerable to overexploitation in Queensland and NSW (category E). Conus species lay benthic eggs which hatch in situ and have no larval stage, hence low dispersal ability. Conus rutilus is a small species of cone (up to 18mm, commonly 8 - 12mm), and ranges from New South Wales through to south-western WA, including Tasmania. Conus rutilus is considered to be uncommon in NSW (Beechey 2012), more common in Victoria and SA. Most specimens are taken as beach shells, and C. rutilus is rarely collected alive (Beechey 2012). Conus species lay benthic eggs which hatch in situ and have no larval stage, hence low dispersal ability. Scullet's Cone, a cone shell to 6cm long, known from Fraser I. in QLD to SW Rocks / Pt Macquarie area in northern NSW. There are several records from within shelf waters off northern NR CMA, plus sites further north in southern QLD. Most records come from trawling between 125m and 220m deep. This cone has ee des i ed as ha i g a e a ka l est i ted distribution", with most specimens taken between Moreton Bay and Tweed Heads (Wilson et al. 1994; OZCAM 2012). It is traded in shell market, and is of moderate value. Conus species lay benthic eggs which hatch in situ and have no larval stage, hence low dispersal ability. Conus sydneyensis Sowerby, 1887 C. illawarra is a junior synonym (Moolenbeek 1988; Singleton 2009) possibly 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29, 33, possibly 34 DD Conus wallangra (Garrard, 1961) Ocean Cone / Wallangra Cone possibly 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29, 33, 34 DD, possibly NT Cosa / Philobrya parellelogramma (Hedley, 1906) Cosa stephensensis / stephenensis Laseron, 1953 Coscinaraea mcneilli Well 1962 17, 21, possibly 27 DD 17, 21, possibly 27 DD A small (3mm) bivalve known from central to southern NSW. Recorded from sand and shelly sand. 1, 2, possibly 3, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29 (if occurs in trawled areas), 34 DD, possibly NT A colonial scleractinian (hard) coral that ranges across the southern half of Australia (at least as far north as Byron Bay in NSW). It forms plates on rock walls and reefs on moderately exposed to open coasts, from 1m to about 30m. In general, corals are subject to multiple stressors (see section on Threatening Processes), but this species has a broad geographic range. Cratis progressa Hedley, 1915 17, 21, possibly 27 DD Cribrarula (or Cypraea) gravida Moretzsohn, 2002 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 28 (due to sponge diet), possibly 29, 33, 34 DD, possibly NT due to narrow range & potentially threatening processes Cryptoplax royana Iredale & Hull, 1925 possibly 16, 17, possibly 18, 21, possibly 27 possibly 16, 17, possibly 18, 21, possibly 25 DD A bivalve found from northern to southern NSW. Depth range uncertain: Lamprell and Healy reported 55m as lower depth limit, but holotype was reportedly collected at 100 fathoms (182m). A 3.5cm cowry shell that occurs in the southern QLD and northern NSW, and known from few records. The species is related to the more common Western Australian species C. cribraria, and was described from a single shell (F. Lorenz, conchologist, pers. comm. 2012). Approximate depth range to date is about 8m to 100m, based on published examples. This species is of moderate value in the shell trade. Shells listed as Cypraea cribraria in the Queensland specimen shell fishery (Weis et al. 2004) are likely to be C. gravida. A chiton known from LHI, Lord Howe Rise; Lord Howe Shelf, and Middleton Reef. Found in crevices in coral rock. Examples collected from 12m to 65m deep. A chiton known from NSW, with numerous records from all along the NSW coast, up to the QLD border. Found under stones and in worm holes and crevices in soft rocks. Specimens have been collected at least within the depth range 3m to 15. Cryptoplax mystica Iredale & Hull, 1925 DD 105 A 35mm cone shell known from Ballina in northern NSW to Stanwell Park south of Sydney. Mainly known from trawl records between 55m and 170+ deep. Most specimens of Conus sydneyensis were landed in the mid to late 20th century by prawn trawlers, and this species rarely recorded now due to change in trawling practices (Singleton 2009). Ocean Cone or Wallangra Cone, a cone shell to 5cm, known from southern QLD to south of Sydney area in NSW. Depth range may be 40m to 200m. Reported to be very uncommon (Beechey 2012). Known mostly from bycatch in trawls (mainly dead, some live taken), and is traded in the shell market for moderate value. This species is potentially vulnerable to overexploitation (category C in Queensland and E in NSW, according to Ponder and Grayson 1998). Conus species lay benthic eggs which hatch in situ and have no larval stage, hence low dispersal ability. A bivalve found from southern QLD to southern NSW. Recorded on shelly sand. Culicia tenella tenella Dana 1846 1, 2, possibly 3, 21, possibly 27, 34 DD, possibly NT Cuthona sp. 3 / Trinchesia sp. (in Rudman 1999a) 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 28 (Trinchesia species eat hydroids) DD Cuspidaria (Cuspidaria) truncata Hedley, 1905 17, 21, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Cyamiomactra distorta Laseron, 1953 17, 21, possibly 27 DD Cyerce sp. 4 (in Rudman 2008b) 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 25, 34 DD possibly 9, possibly 12, 13, possibly 14 (due to aggregation), 16, 17, 18, 21, 33, 34 DD, possibly NT Species in Cuthona now commonly (but possibly incorrectly) referred to as being in genus Trinchesia. Cyllene lactea Adams & Angas, 1864 Cymbiola pulchra complexa (Iredale, 1924) A small hard coral found across southern Australia (at least as far north as the Solitary Islands in NSW), and common on cave walls and other shaded reef surfaces. In general, corals are subject to multiple stressors at regional and national scales (see section on Threatening Processes), but this species has a broad geographic range. A small (1.5cm) nudibranch known from NSW (Port Stephens). Very little information. Labelled as Cuthona sp. 3 in Rudman (1999a). A bivalve of uncertain distribution, with records from northern NSW. Reported to occur on shelf to 131m (Lamprell & Healy 1998). A small (3mm) bivalve, known from northern to southern NSW. Recorded in sand and shelly sand, from intertidal to about 64m deep. A 4cm sea slug known from southern QLD and northern NSW. Recorded on rocky reef in the shallow subtidal, to about 15m. A large (15cm) dog whelk, known from northern to southern NSW. Reported depth range is 7m to 50m. Considered uncommon, and known mainly from dead beach shells (Beechey 2012). DD 106 A large volute (to 11cm, but more often 6cm) which ranges from southern QLD to south-central NSW coast (e.g. Bulli). Reproductive isolation of C. pulchra populations results in the several different forms, considered by Bail and Limpus (1998) to be subspecies. Depth range of NSW records is approximately 46m – 135m, plus a few beach washed specimens (Beechey 2012). Low to medium value in the shell market. Cymbiola species are potentially vulnerable to over-exploitation due to commercial value, incidental capture in trawls, and life history traits (possible delayed age at maturity, possible aggregation and shallow water migration at spawning time, direct development of young from benthic eggs, low dispersal of young and low adult mobility). Cymbiola pulchra moretonensis Bail & Limpus, 1998 possibly 9, possibly 12, 13, possibly 14 (due to aggregation), 16, 17, 18, 21, 33, 34 DD, possibly NT Cymbiola pulchra provocationis (McMichael, 1961) possibly 9, possibly 12, 13, possibly 14 (due to aggregation), 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 25, 33, 34 DD, possibly NT, possibly R 21, possibly 24 and 25, possible 26, possibly 27 DD Didemnum nambucciensis Kott, 2004 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Didemnum spumosum Kott, 2004 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Dendrodoris? sp. 1 (in Rudman 1998c & Coleman 2001, 2008) 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 28 (feeds on sponges) DD Also called Pseudocymbiola provocationis Might be a species or subspecies (Bail & Limpus 1998), but some consider it a southern form of C. pulchra (Wilson et al. 1994). Decametra zebra (H.L. Clark, 1916) A volute to 6cm long, which ranges from southern QLD to Sydney in NSW. Found in sand, between 20m and 180+m deep. Low to medium value in the shell market. Has been trawled in shallow waters in QLD. Cymbiola species are potentially vulnerable to overexploitation due to commercial value, incidental capture in trawls, and life history traits (possible delayed age at maturity, possible aggregation and shallow water migration at spawning time, direct development of young from benthic eggs, low dispersal of young and low adult mobility). A volute to 4 or 5cm long, which ranges from northern to southern in NSW. Recorded to date over a narrow depth range, between approximately 120m and 200m deep. Known from very few specimens. Trawled, and traded in the shell market. Cymbiola species are potentially vulnerable to over-exploitation due to commercial value, incidental capture in trawls, and life history traits (possible delayed age at maturity, possible aggregation and shallow water migration at spawning time, direct development of young from benthic eggs, low dispersal of young and low adult mobility). A 7cm crinoid apparently known only from the type locality off the mouth of the Clarence River in the NR CMA region. The type specimen was dredged between 1909 and 1914, at about 65m deep (35-36 fathoms). The species is apparently known from a single specimen, and the full distribution is not known. Other records could not be found for this report. An ascidian known to date from Nambucca Heads at 13m. Reported in Kott (2005c) to be known only from type locality (not verified). Previously called Oligometra zebra An ascidian known to date from Coffs Harbour on jetty piles between 0 and 5m. Reported in Kott (2005c) to be known only from type locality (not verified). Globed Dendrodoris, a 3cm nudibranch known from central NSW coast (e.g. Port Stephens). One specimen recorded at 8m depth, on reef. Very little information. No other examples could be found in literature search. 107 Dendronephthya sp. (in Edgar 2008) possibly 1, possibly 2, possibly 3, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27, possibly 29 DD, possibly NT Discodoris sp. (in Coleman 2001) 17, 21, possibly 24, possibly 27, 28 (feeds on specific sponges), possibly 35 (if habits are similar to other Discodoris spp.) DD Diversidoris? sp. (in Rudman 2000a) possibly 13, 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, 28 (feeds on specific sponges) DD Dolicholatirus thesaurus (Garrard, 1963). 13, 16, 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27, possibly 29 DD, possibly R Dolicholatirus (cf spiceri) (Tenison-Woods, 1876) 13, 16, 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, 26, possibly 27, possibly 29 DD, possibly R (if separate species) Donax (Plebidonax) deltoides 7, 21, 22, 24, 25, 28,29, 32, 35, 36 DD, possibly NT Doris? sp. 8 (in Rudman 2000c) 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27, possibly 28 (feeds on specific sponges) 17, 21, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Eatoniella (Eatoniella) howensis Ponder and Yoo, 1977 DD 108 Red Lord Howe Octocoral, known from LHI. Might grow to about 25cm. Recorded on exposed reef, including offshore reef drop-offs, between 8 and 35m. Might be the same as an unnamed species which occurs in NSW. Also, it is noted that two Dendronephthya species were recorded on NORFANZ voyage to Norfolk Ridge & Lord Howe Rise (Clark et al. 2004). In general, corals are subject to multiple stressors at regional and national scales (such as coral bleaching, increased incidence of coral disease, and other impacts associated with global warming) and local scales (such as sedimentation of nearshore reefs, and nutrient enrichment of coastal waters from dredging, coastal developments or discharges etc). Spongy Discodoris / Southern Discodoris Known to date from several locations in NSW. Possibly the same species is found in southern QLD. One example was recorded at 10-12m. Eats sponge (Coleman 2001, 2008). Lays orange eggs near food sponge. First record by N. Coleman, in 1977. A sea slug known from central NSW coast, including Port Stephens. Both yellow and pink colour forms are known. Looks a lot like Noumea laboutei but apparently is not that species. One specimen recorded at 20m depth. Might be in Diversidoris, or a new genus (Rudman 2000a). Species in the family eat sponges. A spindle shell known from southern QLD through to Sydney area in NSW. Rarely recorded to date (Beechey 2012). Specimens known to date from 70 to 130m deep. Has low to moderate value in the shell market, including trawled specimens. A small spindle shell, known to date only from northe N“W Cla e e ‘i e to Hallida s Poi t / Black Head). Records to date from 5-20m, on rocky reefs. Rarely recorded (Beechey 2012). May be a form of Dolicholatirus spiceri (Tenison-Woods, 1876) known from eastern Victoria to south-western WA (Beechey 2012). A bivalve which is commercially and recreationally fished in NSW. Commercial catches are an order of magnitude lower than during the mid 2000s (despite high demand for the product), and catch rates (an indicator of abundance) have declined even though effort levels have not. Also subject to mass mortality events. Atkinson's Doris, a 4cm nudibranch known from northern and central NSW coast, but might be more widespread. One example was found at 8m depth, on a food sponge. An eatoniellid shell known from LHI. Found on brown algae on coral, and on rock faces. Full depth range not recorded, but specimens known to date from intertidal down to about 24m deep. Ecteinascidia maxima Kott, 1985 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Elysia (cf. furvacauda) (in Rudman 1999c) 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27, possibly 28 (feeds on specific marine plants) DD Engina resta (Iredale, 1940) 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 33 DD Epidirona tuberculata (Laseron, 1954) 17, 21, possibly 27 DD, possibly LR Epidirona carinata Laseron, 1954 17, 21, possibly 27 DD, possibly LR Ericusa papillosa (Swainson, 1822) possibly 9, possibly 12, 13, possibly 14 (due to aggregation), 16, 17, 18, 21, 33, 34 DD, possibly NT 109 Known from Lord Howe Island, and a few locations in northern NSW, such as Coffs Harbour. Holotype collected on reef at 17m deep. Occurs in sand gutters near rock walls and bommies. A small (1 - 2cm) nudibranch known from southern QLD and NSW. Found on rocky reef with macroalgae. Feeds on red epiphytic macroalgae & green macroalgae (e.g. Caulerpa), & changes diet seasonally. Uses plant plastids to photosynthesise. A small whelk known from LHI. Depth range and habitat unspecified, but members of the genus often live on shallow reefs. Traded in the shell market (low value). Very little information, other than in two references from the 1970s (Ponder 1972; Cernohorsky 1975). A turrid shell, known from southern QLD to Sydney in NSW. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2009). Known from dredged specimens, between 50m and 150m deep. A turrid shell known from northern to southern NSW (also VIC & TAS if E. molleri is a synonym). Recorded to date between 15m and 150m deep. Beechey (2012) considered this to be rare. A large volute (to 15cm, but more commonly known between 9 and 12cm), widely distributed from southern QLD through to WA (including TAS). Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012), but has a broad depth range on the continental shelf and slope (15m to 732m). Shell width and patterning varies across the range, with shells from NSW and deeper water having more ribs, and less patterning. Some Ericusa species are known to occur in deeper water seasonally, and move to shallower water to lay eggs. Fished commercially, and of low to moderate value in the shell market. One of the bycatch species in the Ocean Prawn Trawl fishery (deepwater sector > 91m deep) in NSW (New South Wales DPI 2004). Ericusa species are potentially vulnerable to over-exploitation due to commercial value, incidental capture in trawls, and life history traits (possible delayed age at maturity, aggregation and shallow water migration at spawning time, direct development of young from benthic eggs, low dispersal of young and low adult mobility). Ericusa sericata Thornley, 1951 possibly 9, possibly 12, 13, possibly 14 (due to aggregation), 16, 17, 18, 21, 33, 34 DD, possibly NT Silky Volute / Silk-like Volute, known from southern QLD to Wollongong in NSW. Grows to about 125mm. Found in mud and sand, with records to date between about 55 and 201m deep. Most records are from 65m to 180m deep. Some Ericusa species are known to occur in deeper water seasonally, and move to shallower water to lay eggs. Has been trawled along outer part of continental shelf, and also caught in lobster pots. It is considered uncommon (Thornley 1951; Beechey 2012), and is traded in shell market, as a low to moderate value species. Ericusa species are potentially vulnerable to over-exploitation due to commercial value, incidental capture in trawls, and life history traits (possible delayed age at maturity, aggregation and shallow water migration at spawning time, direct development of young from benthic eggs, low dispersal of young and low adult mobility). Ericusa sowerbyi (Kiener, 1839) possibly 9, possibly 12, 13, possibly 14 (due to aggregation), 16, 17, 18, 21, 33, 34 DD, possibly NT Euherdmania dentatosiphonis (Millar, 1975) 21, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 28 DD Favartia (Murexiella) iredalei Ponder, 1972 13, 16, 17, 21, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD A large (to ~ 28cm) and common volute that ranges from QLD through to SA, including TAS. Recorded on the continental shelf and upper slope, to about 500m deep. Highly variable in colour, pattern and size across the range. Some Ericusa species are known to occur in deeper water seasonally, and move to shallower water to lay eggs. There may be sexual dimorphism, indicated by the smaller and larger shells that occur together in trawls off Sydney (Beechey 2012). E. sowerbyi is one of the bycatch species in the Ocean Fish Trawl fishery (shelf sector) along the NSW coast (New South Wales DPI 2004). Ericusa species are potentially vulnerable to over-exploitation due to commercial value, incidental capture in trawls, and life history traits (possible delayed age at maturity, aggregation and shallow water migration at spawning time, direct development of young from benthic eggs, low dispersal of young and low adult mobility). Reported by Kott (2005c) to be known only from the type locality in Tasman Sea off NSW coast (30º00'S 154º34'E i.e. between Yamba and Coffs Harbour). Type collected from coral on reef at 100m deep. A small (7mm) murex shell, known from LHI. Also known as Murexiella iredalei (Ponder, 1972) Favorinus sp. (in Coleman 2008) 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD 13, 16, 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27, 33 DD Fractolatirus / Dolicholatirus normalis Iredale, 1936 Wait-a-While Favorinus, a small (1cm) known from southern QLD and northern NSW. One example in Coleman (2008) is from 14m, on reef. Normal Latirus, a 2 to 3cm spindle shell, known mainly from NSW (Sydney to Batemans Bay) but 2 specimens reportedly from QLD. Known from rocky reefs from the shallow subtidal to about 25m deep. Mostly known from beach shells (Beechey 2012) but some live specimens also taken. Considered rare (Beechey 2012). Traded in shell market. 110 Fronsella adipata Laseron, 1956 17, 21, possibly 27 DD A bivalve of about 8mm long, known from central to southern NSW. Holotype was dredged. Fusinus (Fusinus) consetti Iredale, 1929 13, 16, 17, 21, possibly 27 DD Fusus adjunctus (Iredale, 1929) 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29 DD Fusus brazieri (Angas, 1869) 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29 DD, possibly R Gnathophyllum taylori Ahyong, 2003 17, 21, possibly 24, possibly 25, possibly 27, 28 (due to commensal relationship) DD, possibly LR Goniastrea (> 1 species) possibly 1, possibly 2, 3, 21, possibly 27, 29, 34 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27, possibly 28 (feeds on specific bryozoans) DD, possibly NT 17, 21, 24, possibly 25, possibly 27, 33 DD A 5cm spindle shell, known from northern to southern NSW. Records to date from 1m to more than 66m. Considered rare (Beechey 2012). Most specimens are beach-collected (Wilson et al. 1994). A small whelk, known from northern NSW to southern VIC. Known from trawl records, 70 to 400m. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). A 7cm whelk, known from southern QLD to central NSW, from 10m to about 200m deep. Known from trawl records on the shelf. Traded in shell market (low value). Might be same species as Colubraria brazieri Angas, 1869, which occurs from northern to southern NSW, a d is o side ed to e e u o o Bee he , i Bee he . Tiger Bumblebee Shrimp, a carid shrimp known from northern to southern NSW, and also Elizabeth Reef, an outer reef ~ 600km E of Coffs Harbour (Ahyong 2003; Poore 2004). Has been recorded on shallow subtidal reef, associated with the echinoid Centrostephanus rogersi. It has also been found in the vicinity of macroalgae, coral heads and boulders. A group of tropical hard corals, subject to stress and mortality from bleaching, coral disease and other impacts. A small (1 - 2cm) nudibranch known from central and southern NSW, with records to date from 5m to 20m deep. Identity and distribution uncertain - might also occur in Japan. Related to Hopkinsia and Okenia and also probably feeds on bryozoans (Rudman 1998a). Probably same species or close relative of white Goniodoris sp 3 and sp 4 in Debelius & Kuiter (2007), and Violet Goniodoris in Coleman (2008). Brazier's Abalone, found in southern QLD and NSW, on sheltered subtidal reef, often under small rocks, or under coral and rocky rubble, in areas of coralline algae (SURG 2009). Relatively narrow depth range (~ 10m to 40m). Reported to be uncommon (Beechey 2012) and rare in collections (Wilson et al. 1993). Miskelly (2001) reported it to occur only deeper than 13m. Haliotis hargravesi is probably conspecific (CSIRO Marine Research 2012, Beechey 2012). Traded in shell market (low to medium value). ‘easo a l o o in Solitary Islands Marine Park (SURG 2009). Goniodoris sp. / sp. 1 / sp. 3 / sp. 4 (in Rudman 1998a, Rudman 2003a; & Debelius & Kuiter 2007) Haliotis brazieri Angas, 1869 DD 111 Haustellum tweedianus / tweedianum (Macpherson, 1959) 13, 17, 21, possibly 27, 29 (in trawled areas) 33, 34 DD, possibly NT Hebeulima tumere Laseron, 1955 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, 28 DD Hebeulima crassiceps Laseron, 1955 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, 28 DD Hebeulima inusta (Hedley, 1906) 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, 28 DD Herviella claror Burn, 1963 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27 DD, possibly LR Ischnochiton (Ischnochiton) examinandus Hull, 1923 possibly 16, 17, possibly 18, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27 DD, possibly LR Iravadia (Pseudonoba) subquadrata (Laseron, 1950) 17, 21, possibly 31 DD, possibly LR due to broad geographic range 112 Tweed Murex, known from southern QLD to central NSW coast, possibly as far south as Broken Bay. Grows to about 8cm, and is the largest of the narrow range murex shells occurring in NSW. Occurs between about 10m and 200m deep, and is considered common (Beechey 2012). Commonly trawled in the Queensland specimen shell fishery (Weis et al. 2004). Also part of the bycatch in Deepwater (>91m) Eastern King Prawn Fishery in QLD. One bycatch study reported a 0.5% occurrence in 201 trawl shots (Courtney et al. 2007). Low to medium value in the shell market. Previously been considered possibly vulnerable to overexploitation (category D) in QLD and NSW (Ponder and Grayson 1998). A parasitic eulima / eulimid shell from NSW. In a family whose members have a parasitic relationship with echinoderms. Eulimidae shells lay stalked, balloon-like egg capsules which hatch as crawling juveniles. Previously called Oceanida tumere. A parasitic eulima / eulimid from NSW, including records from NR CMA. In a family whose members have a parasitic relationship with echinoderms. Eulimidae shells lay stalked, balloon-like egg capsules which hatch as crawling juveniles. A parasitic eulima / eulimid. In a family whose members have a parasitic relationship with echinoderms. Eulimidae shells lay stalked, balloonlike egg capsules which hatch as crawling juveniles. Bright Herviella, a small (1 - 2cm) nudibranch known from southern QLD & northern NSW. Recorded under rocks & in rock pools, in intertidal & shallow subtidal reefs. May be a colour variant of the Japanese species H. affinis (Rudman 2005b). NB There is a published record from Guam (Carlson & Hoff 2003) A chiton found from southern QLD to southern NSW, under stones in the intertidal and shallow subtidal. Examples of depths in which specimens were collected are 7m, 9m and 15m. An iravadiid shell known from numerous parts of NSW, and likely to be associated with estuarine seagrasses. Assessed for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2011, and reported as Data Deficient (Clark 2011). Although not specified in the Red List account, there are Australian Museum records of this mainly estuarine species reported from as deep as 64m. Many of the existing records come from the Sydney area , but there are also records from south and north of that area. Jasminisis candelabra Alderslade, 1998 1, 2, possibly 3, 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 29 (if occurring in trawled area). DD, possibly NT A bamboo coral, known from Sydney area, and from Broughton Island, south of Forster. Known to date from 23 colonies, from 2 locations. Largest example recorded to date is 6cm. Bamboo corals are very long lived species, and colonies can easily be damaged by trawling. Corals are also subject to multiple stressors over regional and local scales. Jasminisis deceptrix Alderslade, 1998 1, 2, possibly 3, 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 29 (if occurring in trawled area). DD, possibly NT A bamboo coral known from a few sites N and S of Sydney, at least as far north as Broughton Island. Largest example recorded to date was nearly 23cm long. Known from a few specimens collected on sand, mud, rock. Main collection from 102m deep. Bamboo corals are very long lived species, and colonies can easily be damaged by trawling. Corals are also subject to multiple stressors over regional and local scales. Jorunna sp. (in Coleman 2008) 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27, possibly 28 (feeds on specific sponges) DD Leptoclinides placidus Kott, 2001 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Limopsis (Pectunculina) solator (Iredale, 1931) Lissoclinum spongium Kott 2001 17, 21, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Mauve Jorunna, a small (2cm) nudibranch known from northern to southern NSW. Found under rocks, on reef. Feeds on sponge Callyspongia (Coleman 2008). Examples of specimens range from 5m to 20m; might have broader depth range. An ascidian known from southern QLD and northern NSW. Type from 15m. Full depth range not known. Closely resembles several other species in the genus. A bivalve known from northern NSW. Lower depth limit at least 222m deep. 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, 34 possibly R Livonia mammilla (Sowerby, 1844) possibly 9, possibly 12, 13, possibly 14 (due to aggregation), 16, 17, 18, 21, 33, 34 DD 113 A didemnid ascidian, apparently known from the type locality, on LHI (Kott 2001, Kott 2005c). According to N. Coleman (2008, and pers. comm. 2012), this species has been recorded on reef from the intertidal down to more than 20m (e.g. examples from 40m). This species is pink in the shallows, and bright green when growing in deeper water, and there are also examples of both colours in the one colony. Small colonies of the ascidian can merge into a sheet measuring 2m across. False Melon Shell / False Baler Shell is a large volute (to 30cm) with a broad distribution, from southern Queensland through to WA. Occurs on sand, over a broad depth range (3m to about 460m). Taken by trawlers off eastern and southern Australia, including low numbers in shark fishery bycatch. It is considered to be moderately common in NSW (Beechey 2012), but more information required on distribution, relative abundance and depth range in this State, and commercial and recreational collecting effort. Taken by trawlers off eastern and southern Australia (Sutton 1973), including low numbers in shark fishery bycatch (e.g. Walker et al. 2002). Potentially vulnerable to overexploitation due to commercial value, and life history traits (possible delayed age at maturity, possibly aggregation at spawning time, direct development of young, low dispersal of young and low adult mobility). Livonia roadnightae (McCoy, 1881) possibly 9, possibly 12, 13, possibly 14 (if aggregation occurs), 16, 17, 18, 21, 33, 34 DD, possibly R Lohowia koosi Alderslade 2003 possibly 1, 2, possibly 3, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, 34 DD, possibly R Lyreneta / Lyria laseroni Iredale, 1937 possibly 12, 13, possibly 14 (if aggregation occurs), 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, 33 DD, possibly LR 114 A large volute with a broad distribution, from Crowdy Head in NSW through to Rottnest Island in WA, and including TAS. Uncommon in southern Australia, and considered rare in NSW (Beechey 2012). Ranges in depth from about 18m to 370m, in sand and mud habitats. Trawled in some parts of range, and of moderate value in the shell market. In an assessment of molluscs in the shell trade that are vulnerable to over-exploitation, Ponder and Grayson (1998) classified this species in low categories of threat (i.e. D a d E ). More information required on distribution, relative abundance and depth range in NSW, and commercial and recreational collecting effort. Potentially vulnerable to over-exploitation due to commercial value, uncommonness, and life history traits (possible delayed age at maturity and possible aggregation at spawning time as occurs in related species, direct development of young, low dispersal of young and low adult mobility). A low, encrusting leathery coral known from LHI. Colonies grow to at least 1.5m across. Holotype collected from 13m deep. In general, corals are subject to multiple stressors at regional and national scales (such as coral bleaching, increased incidence of coral disease, and other impacts associated with global warming) and local scales (such as sedimentation of nearshore reefs, and nutrient enrichment of coastal waters from dredging, coastal developments or discharges etc). Laseron's Lyre Shell or Laseron's Lyria has been found in northern and central NSW, and possibly also occurs on LHI. This 3cm lyre shell is considered rare; known from few localities, and most known shells are deadcollected and beach worn (Wilson et al. 1994; Beechey 2012). Habitat is not recorded, but shells are known from the shallow subtidal to about 40m deep. Thornley (1951) reported beach-wash specimens f o deepe ate to e uite o o at Hallida s Point / Black Head, north of Foster. Previously, this species was considered highly vulnerable to overexploitation due to the perception that it has a very restricted a ge i.e. a ked as atego A vulnerability in NSW and nationally, according to Ponder and Grayson 1998). However, Bail and Poppe (1994, cited by Beechey 2012) and Hardy (2012) reported this species from deeper water off LHI, as well as off the northern NSW coast. The broader distribution would reduce the threat ranking for this species. If the LHI records are incorrect, then this species may currently be known from a very limited geographic distribution, comprising about 300km of coast (approximatel Wooli to Hallida s Poi t , ith an unknown depth range. Rule et al. (2007) reported Lase o s L e “hell f o the Solitary Islands Marine Park. Occasionally traded in the shell market, as a rare species. There is a shell trade record of a trawlcaught specimen from 40-60m deep, in the Woolgoolga area. Macrophiothrix or Ophiothrix (Placophiothrix) albolineata (H.L. Clark, 1938)LHI possibly 15, possibly 16, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD A brittlestar known from LHI, from the intertidal and shallow subtidal. A number of temperate brittlestars brood the young, but reproductive mode in this species requires research. Macrophiothrix lampra H.L. Clark, 1938 possibly 15, possibly 16, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 DD A brittlestar known from southern QLD to southern NSW. A number of temperate brittlestars brood the young, but reproductive mode in this species requires research. Macroschisma hiatula Swainson, 1840 17, 21, possibly 24, possibly 26 (if taxonomically separate from northern Australian form), possibly 27 DD A slit limpet known from LHI. Very little information. A form in northern Australia fits the description of M. hiatula, but more study needed to determine relationships (Wilson, 1993). Marionia sp. (in Rudman 1998d) 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 28 (feeds on specific soft corals) DD, possibly R A nudibranch known from northern NSW (Angourie), but might be more widespread. Recorded on (& associated with) an alcyonarian soft coral, possibly species of Telesto. No other examples could be found in search of literature and web photos of Marionia species by nudibranch photographers in NSW. Mesoginella sinapi (Laseron, 1948) 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 DD Minolia / Minolops gertruda Iredale, 1936 17, 21, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Mipus arbutum (Woolacott, 1954) 13, 16, 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 DD, possibly LR A small (3mm) marginella shell, previously known as Marginella parsobrina Laseron, 1948. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). There are various museum specimens from central to southern NSW coast, from the intertidal down to about 15m. A 9mm top shell, apparently known only from the holotype, collected at 86m deep, at Cape Hawke, near Foster. Similar in sculpture and colouration to Minolia arata, but width much greater than height (Beechey 2012). Strawberry Coral Shell, a small (20mm) murex shell known from northern to southern NSW. Found in crevices and on rock surfaces under algae, in the intertidal zone. Montacuta vitreus (Hedley, 1907) 17, 21, possibly 27 DD Muricopsis / Murexul purpurispina / purpurispinus Ponder, 1972 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, possibly 33 DD Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012), but there are examples of this crevice-dwelling species from at least 10 locations in NSW. A small (4mm) bivalve known from central to southern NSW. Recorded from sandy mud. Purple Spined Murex, known from southern QLD to Sydney in NSW. Holotype collected in fish trap, at 36m deep. Considered uncommon, and found to date as beach shells, and down to 137m. 115 Mopsella sp. (in Edgar 2008) possibly 1, possibly 2, possibly 3, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27, possibly 29 (if occurring in trawled area), 34. DD, possibly LR Eastern Red Sea Fan, a gorgonian coral (sea fan) known from NSW. Found on exposed reef, including offshore reef drop-offs, particularly in southern NSW. Records to date from 12m to about 30m deep. May grow to 50cm. Closely related to the widespread species Mopsella klunzingeri. There are diver records of Mopsella sp. from the central coast of NSW, and it is likely that this species also occurs in the NR CMA region. Considered to be very common along NSW coast. Musculus (Musculus) varicosus / varicosa (Gould, 1861) Myllita (Myllita) calva Laseron, 1956 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 DD 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 DD A mussel known from northern to southern NSW. Recorded on beaches and subtidal sand. Reported depth range 0 – 10m. 5mm bivalve, known from central NSW coast (e.g. Port Stephens). Found in shell sand on beaches. Mysella anomala Angas, 1877 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27, possibly 31 (associated with estuaries) possibly 9, possibly 12, 13, possibly 14 (due to aggregation), 16, 17, 18, 21, 33 DD Neocucumis cauda O'Loughlin & O'Hara, 1992 possibly 15 and 16, 17, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29 DD Neolepton / Micropolia concentrica (Laseron, 1953) 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27, possibly 29 DD A small (2mm) bivalve known from central and southern NSW. Found in intertidal and shallow subtidal, in mussel beds. Neotrigonia lamarckii (Gray, 1838) Notoplax leuconota (prev. Acanthochites leuconotus) (Hedley & Hull, 1912) 17, 21, possibly 27 DD possibly 16, 17, possibly 18, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27 DD A bivalve known from southern QLD to southern NSW. A chiton known from LHI, Elizabeth Reef and Middleton Reef. Found under stones in the intertidal and shallow subtidal. Full depth range not recorded, but records from 7m to 20m. Nannamoria amicula Iredale, 1929 DD, possibly R 116 A bivalve known from northern NSW to Sydney area. Common in some NSW estuaries. Recorded from intertidal to about 64m deep. Holotype was dredged. A small (20 - 35mm) and apparently rare volute known from the Forster area (NR CMA border) to southern NSW. Records to date from about 66m to 220m. Most records are from southern NSW. This species has been considered vulnerable to o e e ploitatio i Ne “outh Wales atego C i Ponder and Grayson 1998). A sea cucumber known from two locations, one an old record from off the Woy Woy area (near Sydney) and the other off Lakes Entrance in VIC. Records to date have reportedly come from between 28m and 93m (O'Loughlin and O'Hara 1992, Rowe and Gates in ABRS, 2012). This species is considered vulnerable in Victoria due to its apparent uncommonness, and its reliance on East Shelf habitat, which is a trawled area (O'Hara and Barmby 2000). The habitat is presumed to be soft bottom offshore. It is not known how far north in NSW the distribution extends, and although there are no published records yet from the NR CMA region, this species might occur here. Members of the family in which N. cauda is placed commonly brood eggs (e.g. Materia et al. 1991), hence dispersal may be limited. Nembrotha rosannulata Pola, Cervera & Gosliner, 2008 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, 28 (feeds on a specific ascidian), 34 DD, possibly R and NT Noumea sp. 3. (in Rudman 2000d) 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27 DD Nymphon bunyipi Clark, 1963 Possibly 13, possibly 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, 28 DD, possibly LR Nymphopsis acinacispinatus acinacispinatus (subspecies) Williams, 1933 Possibly 13, possibly 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27, possibly 28 DD Oneria tasmanensis Rowe, 1981 21, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Okenia mellita Rudman, 2004a 17, 21, possibly 27, 28 (feeds on specific bryozoa) DD Okenia vena Rudman, 2004a 17, 21, possibly 27, 28 (feeds on specific bryozoa) DD Onithochiton discrepans Hedley & Hull, 1912 Possibly 16, 17, possibly 18, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 possibly 15, possibly 16, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD, possibly R 17, 21, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Possibly 13 and 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, possibly 28 DD, possibly LR Ophioteichus parvispinum H.L. Clark, 1938 Oratosquillina berentsae Ahyong, 2001 Oropallene minor Clark, 1963 DD, possibly R (if still a valid species) 117 The Donut Nembrotha / Rose-ringed Nembrotha, a very large (to 12cm) nudibranch known from few locations in a geographically small area of central NSW coast, and southern QLD (NB: There is an unverified record from New Caledonia). Found on (and feeds on) the dark bluish-black ascidian Sigillina cyanea, in sand, seagrass, macroalgae habitat. Some specimens recorded at 12-14m depth. Considered to be rare due to its narrow geographic range in eastern Australia, and specific habitat requirements. A small (1cm) nudibranch known from northern to southern NSW. Some specimens recorded at 18-21m. Associated with sponge. A sea spider, known to date from the continental shelf, between 81 and 144m deep, in NSW, VIC and TAS. O u s i ha itats ith h d ozoa a d pol zoa" Cla k 1963). A sea spider, known to date from southern QLD and NSW. Found in Sargassum macroalgae, and also amongst broken shells, in the intertidal and shallow subtidal. A seastar, the single known member within the genus, recorded off LHI and Lord Howe Rise, between 100 and 180m deep. Honey-coloured Okenia, known from northern to southern NSW. Found on rocky reefs with bryozoans, with records to date from 20-40m. Uncertain if same as a species from central WA coast. Usually found in waters more than 20m deep (Debelius & Kuiter 2007). One example in Coleman (2008) from 27m deep. Feeds on red bryozoa. Veiny Okenia, a small (1cm) nudibranch known from northern NSW, at least as far south as Port Stephens. Some specimens collected at 20-22m. Feeds on the bryozoan Amathia tortuosa (Coleman 2008), and is sometimes found together with a closely related species O. purpurata, eating the same bryozoan. A chiton known from LHI. Found on reef in the shallow subtidal, in the interstices of water-worn coral rock fragments, and around the edges of rock pools at low tide. A brittlestar reportedly known only from type locality (Neds Beach) at LHI, and possibly not recorded since the type was collected in 1932. A number of temperate brittlestars brood the young, but reproductive mode in this species requires research. A mantis shrimp known from northern NSW. Known from few specimens, collected on muddy sand substrates at 15-20m and 49-51m deep. A sea spider known to date from habitat such as mud, and conglomerate boulder on the continental shelf, between 39 and 144m. Occurs in NSW & VIC (possibly also northern TAS). Pachycerianthus delwynae Carter 1995 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27, 34 DD Ba ded o Del s Tu e A e o e, a la ge a e o e (to about 24cm) known from sheltered, sandy and muddy sediments, with records to date from 3m to more than 15m deep. Most records from Sydney Harbour, but occurs at least as far north as Port Stephens (photo by D. Harasti, 2008), and possibly occurs in the NR CMA region. Periclimenes carinidactylus 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27, 28 (due to commensal relationship) DD Philobrya inornata (Hedley, 1904) 17, 21, possibly 27 DD, possibly LR A small (e.g. 16mm) shrimp species with an apparent disjunct distribution. Known to date from central to southern coast of NSW, and SA (Bruce 1969, 1980, 1983; Davie 2002, in ABRS 2012; Poore 2004). Most records to date from narrow depth range of 6 to 10m. Lives on reefs, commensally on the crinoid Comanthus trichoptera, and is known from few confirmed specimens. It is noted that there are unconfirmed specimens of P. carinidactylus in abundance from Narabeen Lagoon in NSW (The Ecology Lab 2008), from a habitat type (seagrass bed) and depth (1m) that differ from the published information for this species. A bivalve shell known from southern QLD and NSW. Found on intertidal and subtidal sand. Reported depth range 0m – 55m. Philobrya squamea (Hedley, 1905) 17, 21, possibly 27 DD, possibly LR Pisania (Jeannea) gracilis (Sowerby, 1859) 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, possibly 33 DD 1, 2, possibly 3, 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 29 (if occurs in trawled areas) DD, possibly R and possibly NT 1, 2, possibly 3, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29 (in trawled areas), 34 DD, possibly NT N.B. Species status uncertain: Pisania unicolor may be a synonym (Beechey, 2012). Platytrochus compressus (Tenison-Woods, 1878) Plesiastrea versipora (Lamarck 1816) 118 A bivalve shell known from southern QLD and NSW. Recorded on sand, from shallow subtidal to about 210m deep (holotype was from 111 fathoms). A small whelk, known from southern QLD to southern NSW. Known mainly from beach shells, but a few specimens collected to 143m. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). Low value in the shell market. A scleractinian (stony) coral known from NSW, recorded to date from 64 to 130m deep. This species has been recorded only in NSW (Cairns and Parker 1992), and there are no new records (Cairns 2004). In general, corals are subject to multiple stressors at regional and national scales (such as coral bleaching, increased incidence of coral disease, and other impacts associated with global warming) and local scales (such as sedimentation of nearshore reefs, and nutrient enrichment of coastal waters from dredging, coastal developments or discharges etc). A colonial scleractinian (stony) coral that forms plates a d o ie shapes i te pe ate ate s, ut is also widespread in the tropical to warm temperate IndoPacific, where it can form reefs. Like Scolymia, it contains symbiotic zooxanthellae algae, from which it derives nutrition, but also feeds on plankton. In general, corals are subject to multiple stressors at regional and national scales (see section on Threatening Processes), but this species has a broad geographic range. Pocillopora damicornis Polyandrocarpa colemani Kott, 1992 possibly 1, possibly 2, 3, 21, possibly 27, 29, 34 21, possibly 24, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, 34 DD, possibly NT DD or NT (due to narrow geographic and depth range, and possibly specialised habitat). Polyandrocarpa sparsa Kott, 1985 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD DD, possibly LR (if introduced) Polyclinum nudum Kott, 1992 A tropical hard coral, subject to stress and mortality from bleaching, coral disease and other impacts. Cole a s “ea “ ui t / Cole a s As idia , k o from a number of locations in northern NSW, particularly near the QLD - NSW border. Reported to be one of the largest growing compound ascidians in the Indo-Pacific. Colonies may be 2m long, 60cm high and 30cm thick at the base (Coleman 2008). The habitat has been described as the "top of ridges where subjected to maximum current" (Kott, 2005c). Kott (2005b) reported this species as known from 912m in restricted geographic area. Known from North Solitary Island (T) at 6m deep. Reported in Kott (2005c) to be known only from type locality (not verified). An ascidian known from Coffs Harbour and Lake Macquarie. Holotype collected at 0.5m deep, on old jetty piles. Uncertain if native to Australia. Reported in India (Lambert and Lambert 2009) and also as an introduction to Palau (Golbuu et al. 2008). A 20mm murex shell, known to date from the type locality, off the Taupo Seamount, between 154 and 164m deep. Holotype was dredged. Might also occur off New Zealand. Full distribution & depth range not known. 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27 DD 13, possibly 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, 28, 31, 33 DD or NT, R Egg cowries are associated with corals, particularly gorgonians, and there is often a high degree of host specificity. Egg cowries lay their eggs on the host coral (Knudsen 1997). Prionovolva manifesta is known from only 2 specimens, collected from the shelf off Port Stephens and Sydney. This species of egg cowry is known to date from dredge samples between 55m and 100m deep, and is considered rare (Beechey 2012). 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27, 28 DD Pronucula / Nucula decorosa Hedley, 1902 Not the same species as Pronucula decorosa (= Pronucula mayi) illustrated by May (1916). 17, 21, possibly 27 DD A small wentletrap shell from southern QLD and NSW. Lives in intertidal and shallow subtidal mud, and possibly also sand substrates. Wentletraps generally live as ecto-parasites, and are closely associated with sea anemones, scleractinian corals, or zoanthids (Gittenberger and Hoeksema 2006). Decorated Nut Shell. A small (3mm) nut cockle known from central to southern NSW. Found in sand, from the shallow subtidal down to at least 137m. Pseudonepanthia (previously Nepanthia) nigrobrunnea (Rowe & Marsh, 1982) 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, 34 DD Ponderia abies Houart, 1986 Also known as Pterynotus (Ponderia) abies Prionovolva (Galeravolva) manifesta (Iredale, 1936) = Habruprionovolva manifesta = Testudovolva manifesta Problitora moerchi (Adams & Angas, 1864), The Black and Brown Seastar Pseudonepanthia nigrobrunnea, known from southern QLD to northern NSW, on rocky reefs. The recorded depth range to date is about 8m to 30m. Grows to about 9cm wide, and feeds on algae, ascidians and sponges. 119 Psolidium minutus / minutum (H.L. Clark, 1938) Possibly 15 and 16, 17, 21, probably 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD A very small (1cm) sea cucumber known from LHI and Middleton Reef. Occurs under rocks near sandy rubble, on reef fronts, and on sand near reefs, between 1m and 10m deep. Known from few locations, and it is not known if the distribution of this species extends to the NSW coast. Many species in the family are egg brooders (e.g. McEuen and Chia 1991), hence dispersal is limited. Pteria howensis Lamprell & Healy 1997 17, 21, possibly 27, possibly 28 (associated with whip corals). DD A bivalve known form LHI. Type specimen was found atta hed ssus to hip o als . Pycnogonum (Retroviger) clarki Staples 2002 DD, possibly R A sea spider known from the type locality (Arrawarra Headland, 30°17´S, 153°15´E, between 0-3m deep. Rhyssoplax coxi (Pilsbry, 1894) possibly 13 and 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 28 possibly 16, 17, possibly 18, 21, possibly 27 DD Rhyssoplax vauclusensis (Hedley & Hull, 1909) possibly 16, 17, possibly 18, 21 possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 DD Rynkatorpa hickmani Rowe & Pawson Possibly 15 and 16, 17, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29 DD Sassia pumilio (Hedley, 1903) 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, possibly 28 DD Scutus (Nannoscutus) forsythi (Iredale, 1937 Possibly 16, 17, possibly 18, 21, possibly 27 DD A chiton known from southern QLD to southern NSW. Found under stones on subtidal rocky reef. Little information on distribution within the range, and depth. One of the Australian Museum records was collected from 20m. A chiton, known from southern QLD to southern NSW. Found on rocky reef in the shallow subtidal. Little information on distribution within the range, and depth. One of the Australian Museum records was collected from 1.5m. A sea cucumber which has a broad distribution in eastern Australia (NSW, VIC and TAS), but is known from few records. Considered vulnerable in Victoria due to reliance on the trawled habitat of the East Shelf (O'Hara and Barmby, 2000), but its status in NSW is unknown. Known over a relatively broad depth range on the shelf, from intertidal down to 95m. Some members of the family brood eggs (Lawrence and Herrera 2000), hence dispersal may be limited. A sand triton, known from southern QLD to northern NSW (Solitary Is.). Considered to be rare (Beechey 2000). A small nutmeg shell, with a broad geographic range (from QLD/ NSW border to N of NSW/VIC border). Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012), and known from subtidal (e.g. 10+m) and dredge samples (to 91m) and rarely as beach shells (Garrard 1975; Beechey 2012). Lord Howe Island A shield limpet, known from LHI and NI. Might also occur in Queensland (unverified) Scolymia australis (Milne Edwards & Haime 1849 1, 2, possibly 3, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27, possibly 29 (if occurs in trawled areas), 34 DD, possibly NT Scalptia / Trigonostoma vinnulum (Iredale, 1925) DD 120 A stony coral, mainly solitary in form, found on tropical and temperate Australian reefs from about 0m - 20m deep. In general, corals are subject to multiple stressors (see section on Threatening Processes), but this species has a broad geographic range. Semelangulus / Tellina brazieri (Sowerby, 1869) 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 DD A 20mm bivalve known from central to southern NSW. Recorded on sand in the intertidal. Note that there is a species with same name (Tellina brazieri), but different author (Tate, 1886) and different distribution (SA) Sepia baxteri (Iredale, 1940) possibly 8, possibly 12, possibly 16, 17 DD (and possibly not a distinct species) Sepia limata (Iredale, 1926) possibly 8, possibly 12, possibly 16, 17, 29, DD, possibly NT Spectamen / Solariella (Solariella) epithecus Iredale, 1929 Sphaerokodisis australis (Thompson & Mackinnon, 1911) 17, 21, possibly 27 DD 1, 2, possibly 3, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29 (if occurring in trawled area), 34 DD, possibly NT Splendrillia spadicina Hedley, 1922 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 DD Stolonica vermiculata Kott 2005 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD A cuttlefish, apparently recorded so far only from the type locality on LHI. Known only from cuttlebones, measuring a maximum of 7.4cm. The depth range has not been recorded. Sepia baxteri might be a junior synonym of the tropical Indo-Pacific species Sepia bandensis Adam 1939 (Reid et al. 2005). Although reproduction in this species is unstudied, cephalopods normally reproduce only once per lifetime. Pygmy Cuttlefish, a small (10cm) cuttlefish found from southern QLD to southern NSW, with most records from southern QLD and northern NSW. Discrepancy in published depth range (43-146m, according to Lu 2001 in ABRS 2012; or 17-183m, according to Reid et al. 2005). Although reproduction in this species is unstudied, cephalopods normally reproduce only once per lifetime. Bycatch species in ocean trawl fisheries in both QLD (considered high risk) and NSW, and this is discussed further in the section on Trawling. Also part of the bycatch in the Sydney inshore trawl-whiting fishery. A small (10mm) top shell known from southern (and possibly central) NSW. Very little information, and presence in NR CMA uncertain. Holotype from 25 fathoms (46m deep). A bamboo coral, known from NSW, between Cape Byron (Edgar 2008) and Ulladulla, possibly further south. Most specimens (broken), collected between 24 and 153m deep. Might grow to around 15cm high. Considered to be relatively common in deeper water of NSW (Edgar 2008), and recorded by divers in some areas (e.g. Jervis Bay, and Ulladulla). Bamboo corals are very long lived species, and colonies can easily be damaged by trawling. Corals are also subject to multiple stressors over regional and local scales. A turrid shell from NSW, known mainly from Clarence River mouth (Yamba) to Sydney. Lives in shallow water. Known from dead beach specimens. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). A styelid ascidian known, from the type specimen taken at 13m, at a Lord Howe Island site. 121 Stylophora (> 1 species) possibly 1, possibly 2, 3, 21, possibly 27, 29, 34 DD, possibly NT Talabrica / Crassatina discus (Hedley, 1907 Talabrica / Crassatina scabrilirata (Hedley, 1902) Tambja sp. 11 (in Rudman 2007a & Coleman 2008) 17, 21, possibly 27 DD, possibly LR 17, 21, possibly 27 DD 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27, 28 (feeds on a specific bryozoan), possibly 34 DD Tanystylum hooperi Clark, 1977 Possibly 13 and 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 21, possibly 25, possibly 27 DD Terebra ballina (Hedley, 1915) 17, 21, possibly 27 DD Thracia (Thracia) angasiana Smith, 1876 17, 21, possibly 27 DD Thracia (Thracia) ovalis Stutchbury, 1830 17, 21, possibly 27 DD, possibly LR A clam species known from northern to southern NSW. Trididemnum nebula Kott 2007 21, possibly 24 and 245, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD Tomopleura (Maoritomella) carrota Laseron, 1954 or Maoritomella carrota (Laseron, 1954) 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 26, possibly 27 DD A didemnid ascidian, recorded so far from the type locality on Lord Howe Island. Type specimen collected on sandy bottom, at 1 – 2m deep. A small (15mm) turrid shell known from the central NSW coast. Very little information. Uncertainty as to the validity of this species. Tegulaster alba (H.L. Clark, 1938) DD, possibly LR (previously Asterina alba) 122 A group of tropical hard corals, subject to stress and mortality from bleaching, coral disease and other impacts. A cockle known from northern to southern NSW. Recorded down to about 200m. Broad depth range (shallow subtidal to > 200m). A 7mm cockle known from central to southern NSW. Recorded down to about 200m. Holotype collected at 74 - 91m (41 - 50 fathoms). Black-striped Tambja, a 6cm sea slug known from LHI & southern QLD. Found on coral reef and rocky reef. LHI specimen or specimens known from 14 - 20m depth. Known in Debelius & Kuiter (2007) as Tambja sp. 1. Feeds on bryozoan Bugula dentata. May be a colour form of a more widespread Tambja species. A sea spider found in southern QLD and northern NSW, on macroalgae such as Sargassum. Specimens to date known from 0-3m deep. White Sea Star, a small (7mm) seastar known from Lord Howe Rise (LHI) and Norfolk Island Ridge (NI), a d the e a e di e s e o ds f o the N“W oast, which is not part of the published range. Known to date from the intertidal to about 20m. The holotype was collected from under the surface of a rock fragment, and most specimens are known from reef flats. May be of lower conservation concern than more limited range asteroids, due to its established presence over a broader geographical area. An auger shell known from southern QLD to central NSW. There are various records from the intertidal to 36m deep. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012), despite its broad range. It has previously been considered potentially threatened in both States, but i a lo atego of th eat atego E , i Po de and Grayson 1998). A clam species of about 23mm long, known from central to southern NSW. Recorded from the intertidal to about 30m deep. Tomopleura (Maoritomella) thola Laseron, 1954 or Maoritomella thola (Laseron, 1954) 17, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27 DD A small (10mm) turrid, from continental shelf waters in southern QLD to central NSW coast. Very little information. Uncertainty as to the validity of this species. Trigonostoma laseroni (Iredale, 1936) 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 27, possibly 28 DD Trigonostoma tessella / tessellum Garrard, 1975 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 28 DD Laseron's Nutmeg shell, known from Moreton Bay in S QLD to southern NSW. Known from dredge samples (to about 66m deep), and considered very uncommon (Beechey 2012). Nutmeg shells are specialised feeders (carnivorous or parasitic). A nutmeg shell known from various locations in southern QLD and northernmost NSW (to approx. Coffs Harbour). Known mainly from dredge samples between 50-120m deep, and considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). Nutmeg shells are specialised feeders (carnivorous or parasitic). Tritonoharpa coxi (Brazier, 1872) 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27, possibly 28 DD Tritonoharpa ponderi Beu & Maxwell, 1987 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 28 DD Turbinaria reniformis Bernard 1896 1, 2, possibly 3, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29 (in trawled areas), 34 DD, possibly NT Turbinaria (several species) possibly 1, possibly 2, 3, 21, possibly 27, 29, 34 DD, possibly NT Turbo (Carswellena) exquisitus Angas 1877 17, 21, possibly 27, possibly 29, possibly 33 DD 123 A small nutmeg shell that ranges from northern to southern NSW. Considered rare, and known from beach specimens (Beechey 2012). Nutmeg shells are specialised feeders (carnivorous or parasitic). A small nutmeg shell known from southern QLD to northern (or central) NSW. Known from dredge samples between 73 and 77m deep. Full depth distribution not recorded. Nutmeg shells are specialised feeders (carnivorous or parasitic). A tropical Indo-Pacific species of scleractinian (hard) coral that occurs in NSW. Forms horizontal colonies to about 2m width. In general, corals are subject to multiple stressors (see section on Threatening Processes), but this species has a broad geographic range. A group of tropical hard corals, subject to stress and mortality from bleaching, coral disease and other impacts. Exquisite Turban shell, ranging from southern QLD to southern NSW. Queensland. Known mainly from beach specimens, but there is also 1 live specimen from 5.5m and groups of empty shells dredged between 10m and 110m (Beechey 2012). Considered a e i olle tio s Wilso a d e uncommon" (Beechey 2012) on a Statewide scale, but has been collected in quantity from locations in Sydney Harbour (e.g. Keats 1998). Umbilia hesitata (Iredale, 1916) (= Cypraea hesitata) 13, 16, 17, 18, 21, possibly 26, possibly 27, possibly 28 (due to sponge diet), possibly 29, 33, 34 DD, possibly LR Upogebia neglecta de Man, 1927 17, possibly 18, 21, possibly 24 and 25, possibly 27, possibly 29 (estuarine environment) DD Vermitexta garrardi Laseron, 1956 17, 21, possibly 27 DD Vexitomina metcalfei (Angas, 1867) 17, 21, possibly 25, possibly 27 DD The Undecided Cowry / Wonder Cowry, a large (1314cm) cowry, which ranges from Fraser I. in QLD to Cape Jaffa in SA, including TAS. Found on muddy sand and sandy mud, with filamentous algae, and also among ascidians on rock. It has a broad depth range, from about 10m to 200m. Undecided Cowry is collected by divers (e.g. in SA and WA), and is also recorded on beaches, in fish trawls, and in scallop dredges. It has moderate value in the shell market. U. hesitata is locally common in parts of NSW (Beechey 2000, in Beechey 2012). It has been classified as moderately vulnerable to overe ploitatio atego C i Po de a d G a so 1998). A small (15mm) slow prawn. This benthic, burrowing species is reported from the type locality of Port Stephens (Poore 2004), and there are also unconfirmed records from Hawkesbury estuary. Sakai (2006) considered U. neglecta to be a valid species. A small (4mm) bivalve known from central to southern NSW. Recorded in sandy mud A small (20mm) turrid shell, known from central QLD to south-central NSW. Most commonly found as dead beach shells, but recorded down to 20m. Considered uncommon (Beechey 2012). Previously in genus Drillia. As shown in this report, little is known of the current distribution and local abundance of many apparently uncommon or rare marine invertebrates, including a number of endemic species within NSW, because (i) few areas have been comprehensively surveyed (and previous surveys were not targetted towards finding rare or endemic species) hence there are substantial gaps in survey and collecting effort for numerous areas; (ii) the i a ilit to o pa e like ith like , because records are an amalgamation of data using different sampling techniques, variable survey or collecting intensity per area, and different time scales (ranging from the present back to more than 100 years); (iii) the majority of such species are known from few specimen records, some of which date back to the early or mid 20th century; (iv) many possibly rare and/or endemic invertebrate species live in cryptic and under-surveyed habitats, such as the underside of boulders. For other species, such as various specimen shells, published location data are scarce and often confidential, to discourage illegal collecting. For many parts of the NR CMA region, little is known of the rare and endemic invertebrate fauna. Many invertebrate species may be considered Data Deficient, based on the paucity of records, and although some of these may appear to be rare, a currently unquantifiable number of such species are likely to be more widespread but have not yet been sampled due to their small size and/or cryptic habits. Without su sta tial su e a d olle ti g effo t, it is ot possi le to dete i e t ue a it o e a spatial scale, or to produce reliable systematic maps of the range of various invertebrate species, such as those discussed in this report. 124 This report has provided some indication of the locations of currently known rare, endemic and other potentially threatened species in the NR CMA region, based on a variety of sources, including historical records from early collections; available survey data (e.g. biological survey records; impact monitoring records); SCUBA diver records; national and international databases; personal communication with researchers, and trade data for commercially valuable species. Many gaps in terms of species distributions and adequate sampling across the region are evident. More field research is required, based on careful observation, collection and macro-photography. Additionally, further conservation status assessment (including a Statewide assessment in NSW) is required. A comprehensive description of the true biodiversity, biogeography and value of marine invertebrates in northern New South Wales cannot be undertaken without considering the rare, endemic and other potentially threatened invertebrates. These species deserve more emphasis, because invertebrate studies to date have focussed on the common intertidal and shallow subtidal invertebrates, and commercially valuable species used as food or specimen collections. 8. Summary of Recommendations • Target studies to determine the current distribution and relative abundance of species known only from very few records (particularly old records from the late 19th and early 20th century). In some cases only a single specimen has ever been collected. Many of these species are small and inconspicuous, and require trained taxonomists for their precise identification. • Undertake surveys to better determine the composition, distribution and abundance of rare and endemic species from key invertebrate groups, particularly in and adjacent to marine parks; also in data-poor areas, and in boat harbours and bays adjacent to towns and other settlements, and in port areas south of the NR CMA border (and other highly modified areas where threatening processes exist). This process can also provide baseline data to assist in detecting change over time due to local and global stressors. • Specialised training of marine scientific officers in government, and volunteer divers, to identify rare, endemic and other invertebrates of conservation concern, at sites across the NR CMA region (see examples in point above). Training should also include improved sample preparation techniques so that, once collected, specimens are properly preserved for expert taxonomic analysis. • Protect calcareous invertebrates that currently exists in and around NR CMA region, from additional anthropogenic stresses such as physical damage (e.g. from boats, anchors, dredging etc), sediment smothering, and nutrient enrichment. Such protection may help calcareous organisms to persist longer in the face of ongoing stresses which are harder to control, such as ocean acidification from climate change. • Further assessment of the conservation status of marine invertebrates in New South Wales is recommended, particularly a Statewide assessment. • Following a Statewide assessment (see above), consideration of listings under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995, or the Fisheries Management (General) Regulation 2002 of the Fisheries Management Act 1994. Complimentary to listing would be the development of regional and local conservation strategies. Recovery plans may also be required in future - for example, in the case of some exploited species such as specimen shells. 125 • There is a need for more information on the species composition and quantities of shells taken from New South Wales and sold (as fishery by-product) in the specimen shell market. More detailed risk assessment of populations is required. The most recent risk assessment of species in the trawl fishery was in 2004. • In New South Wales, the illegal sale or exchange of shells should be quantified, given the possibility of over-collecting at specific locations, and the possibility that some shells taken recreational collectors are being sold (e.g. over the internet). • Given the vulnerability of populations of specimen shells to depletion in accessible areas, bag limits and/or possession limits are also warranted for various specimen shells in New South Wales. • Establish a d p o ote a ode of o du t fo lo i pa t eef a ti it reef areas in NR CMA region. • Ongoing support for marine pest research and eradication programs in NSW. • Regular boat hull cleaning and maintenance, and ongoing measures to increase awareness amongst recreational boat owners of their ability to inadvertently spread marine pest species. • Removal of Sabella spallanzanii infestations in ports, marinas and other boat harbours, to help control spread in New South Wales. • Where possible, increased level of treatment and recycling of nutrient-rich effluent from wastewater treatment plants, in all towns in NR CMA region, and reduction (with the eventual aim of elimination) of discharges of nutrient-rich effluent into nearshore waters. • Better effluent management (including control of septic tank overflow) in small towns and shack settlements, and also in new coastal housing estates and marina developments. • Address diffuse and point sources of pollution (e.g. litter, nutrients, acid soils and turbidity); and (ii) minimise the impacts of land degradation, such as soil loss, salinity and acid discharge into adjoining environments, including marine systems (Northern Rivers CMA 2012) • Containment of dredge spoil, and use of best environmental practices during dredging programs, to reduce sedimentation in adjacent nearshore marine areas. • Ongoing investigation into the extent and causes of coral stress and mortality, both within and outside of marine parks in the NR CMA region, and development of measures to manage impacts, where possible. • Rigorous, independent assessment of the environmental impacts of proposed marina and coastal housing developments in NR CMA region, and, for future developments, adherence to best environmental practices in the design, construction and operation (including waste management) of such facilities. 126 isito s to all intertidal References Academy of Natural Sciences (2006) OBIS: Indo-Pacific Molluscan Database. Current to 17th May, 2006. http://clade.ansp.org/obis/ Acworth, C. and Lawson, S. (2012) The Tweed River Entrance Sand Bypassing Project: ten years of managing th operations in a highly variable coastal system. Technical paper presented at the 20 New South Wales Coastal conference. Adam, W. and Rees, W.J. (1966) A review of the cephalopod family Sepiidae. Sci. Rep. John Murray Exped. 19331944 11: 1-165. Ahyong, S.T. (2001) Revision of the Australian Stomatopod Crustacea. Rec. Aust. Mus. (Suppl.) 26: 1-326. Ahyong, S.T. (2003) Gnathophyllum taylori, a new species of caridean shrimp from south-eastern Australia (Crustacea: Decapoda: Gnathophyllidae). Memoirs of Museum Victoria 60(2): 237-242. Ahyong, S.T. (2005) Range extension of two invasive crab species in eastern Australia: Carcinus maenas (Linnaeus) and Pyromaia tuberculata (Lockington). Mar. Pollut. Bull. 50(4): 460-2. Alderslade, P. 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