THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES RESEARCH REPORT TITLE: KENNETH KAUNDA AND THE UNIP GOVERNMENT USE OF SPORTS: A CASE STUDY ON ZAMBIA’S PARTICIPATION AND PERFORMANCE AT THE 1988 OLYMPIC GAMES IN SEOUL, SOUTH KOREA. FINAL YEAR HISTORICAL RESEARCH REPORT BY: JAMES KALEFYA NYIRENDA 14TH DECEMBER, 2018. THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA (2017-18) A HISTORY OF KENNETH KAUNDA AND THE UNITED NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE PARTY (UNIP) GOVERNMENT USED SPORTS TO ENHANCE TOGETHERNESS AND UNITY IN ZAMBIA: A CASE STUDY ON ZAMBIA’S PARTICIPATION AND PERFORMANCE AT THE 1988 OLYMPIC GAMES IN SEOUL, SOUTH KOREA. BY: JAMES KALEFYA NYIRENDA (2018). COMPUTER NUMBER: 14004704 SUPERVISED BY: DR. H.D CHIPANDE A FINAL YEAR HISTORICAL RESEARCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE IN BACHELOR OF ARTS WITH EDUCATION (BA. ED). THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA LUSAKA © 2018 AUTHOR’S DECLARATION I, James Kalefya Nyirenda, do hereby solemnly declare that this historical research report represents my own work, except where otherwise acknowledged, and that it has never been previously submitted for a degree at the University of Zambia or any other university. Signed ……………………………………… Date………………………………………… COPYRIGHT DECLARATION All rights reserved. No part of this research report may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise without the prior written permission of the author or the University of Zambia. © James K. Nyirenda, 2018. APPROVAL This historical research report of James Kalefya Nyirenda is hereby approved as fulfilling the partial requirements for the award of a degree in Bachelor of Arts with Education (B.A Ed.) by the University of Zambia. Signed ………………………………………… Date ……………………………………… TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Dedication……………………………………………………………………………I Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………. II Abstract………………………………………………………………………………IV Abbreviations and Acronyms………………………………………………………. V CHAPTER ONE Introduction and historical background……………………………………………….1 Conceptual framework………………………………………………………………...5 Statement of the problem………………………………………………………………7 Purpose of the study……………………………………………………………………8 Objectives of the study…………………………………………………………………8 Significance of the study……………………………………………………………….8 Literature review……………………………………………………………………….9 Research methodology…………………………………………………………………13 Organisation of the Chapters…………………………………………………………...15 CHAPTER TWO Zambia’s participation and performance at the 1988 Olympic Games………………...16 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...21 CHAPTER THREE The people of fan’s reaction to Zambia’s participation and performance at the 1988 Olympic Games………………………………………………………………………22 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….26 CHAPTER FOUR Kenneth Kaunda and the UNIP government’s use of sports to enhance togetherness and unity and at the same time propagate their own political aspirations and ideologies……………………………………………………………………………….28 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...33 CHAPTER FIVE Summary and conclusion………………………………………………………………35 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………39 DEDICATION To my mother, Priscilla Mukuka Mbewe and my grandparents, Boniface Noah Mbewe and Mary Bernadette Mwela Mbewe who have put in a lot of effort, hard work and sacrificed so much for my education; and to the loving memory of my late father, James Kalefya Nyirenda (MHSRIEP) who despite spending very few years with me, he laid a solid foundation of the person whom I have become. To my young brother, Mbamwawi Alison Noah Nyirenda for his encouragement and motivation. Page | I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This historical research report would not have seen the light of day without the help, inspiration, encouragement and moral support which I received from several individuals and institutions. Unfortunately, due to limited space on this paper, I will not be able to mention everyone who contributed to the successful completion of this work, for that I sincerely apologise. Nonetheless, your priceless contribution did not go unnoticed. Firstly, special thanks go to my supervisor Dr. H.D Chipande for his professional and scholarly criticism which positively shaped the outcome of this historical research report. Not only was he a supervisor but even played the role of an academic guardian and a moral giver. I also owe thanks to Professor B.J Phiri for imparting the research skills in me through the Historical Research Methods and Historiography course. I also show my gratitude to all the lecturers and tutors from the Department of Historical and Archaeological Studies at the University of Zambia who have taught me history since my first year in 2014. Furthermore, my oral sources would not have been a success without holding interviews with the following people; Mr Ponga Liwewe, Mr Benedict Tembo, Mr Boniface Mbewe, Mr Daniel Kaoma and Mr Manfred Chabinga. I am so much grateful and indebted to you all for sharing your football experiences and memories with me. I came to find out that there is still a lot which I do not know about Zambian football. I also owe my gratitude to my colleagues; Lenity Mwiza Lubobya and Clive Milandu Simpungwe who were always a source of encouragement and comfort not only during the course of this research but even throughout all the academic years we spent together as undergraduate students. I humbly owe my sincere and heartfelt gratitude to my uncle Mr Charles Nonde and my aunt Mrs Winfridah Mulenga Mwela Nonde who provided food and shelter for me in Lusaka prior to reporting for school for the whole duration of my studies at the UNZA. Words only Page | II cannot express how indebted I am as they also played the role of my parents/guardians when I was a thousand miles away from home. May God add more years to your lives. I will be committing an unforgivable crime if I don’t acknowledge the efforts of my long time dear friend Elizabeth Anne Tasila Munthali for the love and care she showed me not only during the course of this research but even from the very first day we met and knew each other. Thank you so much Liz for always pushing me hard so that I accomplish this work. I also owe my appreciation to my all-season friend since our years at Chassa Secondary School, Charles Daka Chinzi and as destined turned out to be, he was my roommate for the whole duration of my studies at UNZA. Thank you very much Malume for your support and motivation. Additionally, I will not forget the input of my good friend from the south, Frank Mudenda who like me was also working on his final year research report under the School of Engineering. Bo Mudenda, we spent a lot of nights awake whilst working our respective research reports and all those sleepless nights turned out to be worth in the end. Thank you very much for your support and motivation. Lastly but not the least, I also wish to extend my gratitude to the National Archives of Zambia (NAZ) Staff and the University of Zambia (UNZA) Library Special Collections Division Staff for their priceless advice on what materials to look for concerning my research topic. To my family, friends and classmates, thank you very much for your encouragements, emotional and material support. May God bless you all! Last of all and most importantly, I thank God for spreading His love, care and blessings upon me which have made it possible to receive all the help from different individuals and institutions which supported me until to the final completion of this work. Page | III ABSTRACT Generally, not so much has been written on the relationship between sports and politics in Zambia. Nonetheless, the available literature has attempted to explain how politicians use sport as a tool of propagating their political ideologies. For example, Zambia’s triumph over Cote d’Ivoire in the final of the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations (AFCON) was arguably used as a political tool by Michael Sata’s Patriotic Front (PF) government to symbolise good things to come where football is concerned in Zambia because the PF government had only been in power for five months. Henceforth, this study has attempted to examine and analyse how the United National Independence Party (UNIP) government under Kenneth Kaunda used sports to enhance togetherness and unity in Zambia with the main focus being on the 1988 Olympic Games held in Seoul, South Korea. The report explores a brief background on Zambia’s qualification, run up to the Olympics Games, participation, performance and how the people or the fans reacted to the country’s performance at the Games. This report contains the introduction and historical background, the objectives and significance of the study as well as the statement of the problem. Additionally, it contains the review of the literature available on the research topic and the research methodology. This historical research report has been based on a qualitative approach and it has used both primary sources and secondary sources. Page | IV ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AD Anno Domini AFCON Africa Cup of Nations BC Before Christ BP British Petroleum CAF Confederation of African Football DRC Democratic Republic of Congo FAZ Football Association of Zambia FIFA Federation Internationale de Football Association IOC International Olympic Committee KK11 Kenneth Kaunda Eleven NAZ National Archives of Zambia NOCs National Olympic Committees NOCZ National Olympic Committee of Zambia NSAC National Sports Advisory Council NSCZ National Sports Council of Zambia PF Patriotic Front UNIP United National Independence Party UNZA University of Zambia UPP United Progressive Party ZCCM Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines ZIMCO Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation ZNOC Zambia National Olympic Committee ZSIC Zambia State Insurance Corporation Page | V CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The birth of the Olympic Games has a very interesting background. In ancient times in the valley of Olympia in south-western Greece, the games were held every four years. From 776 BC it took more than 1100 years until Emperor Theodosius of Rome considered them to be pagan and decided to forbid the games in AD 393. Nonetheless, Baron Pierre de Coubertin proposed a revival of the games in 1892.1 He succeeded in his initiative and since 1896 the modern games have been organised and have come to be known as the Olympic Games named after the valley of Olympia from where they were first held. Despite wars and boycotts the games have survived political struggles and are generally considered to be the top sports event around the globe. During the very first editions of the Olympic Games, the competition was not fierce in most of the events because participating was more important than winning. Especially the richer countries which were sometimes represented by wealthy athletes participated and collected medals. Gradually, winning became more important and competition increased. In 1936, the Olympic Games were even politicised by Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler because it was not the individual performance but the national performance which was the focal point of attention. After the Second World War, the Olympic Games were even subjected to the Cold War politics. But the most important change of the games is the globalisation of participation and competition through improvement of economic conditions around the world.2 In addition to that, Karl Nyquist articulates that the first Olympic Games in Greece 1896, are often referred to as the birth of modern international sports interaction. For the founders of the G. Kuper and E. Sterken, Olympic Participation and Performance Since 1896, Paper Presentation, University of Groningen, Netherlands, (2001). p. 2. 2 Kuper and Sterken, Olympic Participation and Performance Since 1896, Paper Presentation, University of Groningen, Netherlands, (2001). p. 2. 1 Page | 1 Olympic movement, among them the French Baron Pierre de Coubertin as aforementioned, the Olympic movement or olympism was meant to include more than just competition between athletes. Sports should be used as a tool to turn men away from egoism, politics, chauvinism and war. The modern Olympic movement was inspired by both international peace movement developing from the late 19th century and from the political aspects of the ancient Olympic Games. Nations competing in sports could be considered as a part of the broader international peace movement developing from the late 1800s. Today, sports influence billions of people across the world independent of nationality, race, class and gender. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) states in the Olympic Charter that their mission is to oppose any political or commercial abuse of sport and athletes.3 Sports, football in particular had been used by most African leaders when their countries attained independence from their respective colonial masters in the 1960s and early 1970s as a tool for enhancing togetherness and unity. According to William Baker and James Mangan, most of the newly independent nations faced the problem of integrating local people of diverse ethnic backgrounds and political interests to work together for their new states.4 However, this did not stop the political leaders from using sports both as tool for propagating their political ideologies as well as a unifying factor in the countries. For example, the formation of the Confederation of Africa Football (CAF) in 1957 coincided with the colonial territory of Gold Coast becoming a newly independent state as Ghana under the leadership of Kwame Nkrumah.5 It was not only Nkrumah who sought to use sports as a tool for togetherness and unity, other political leaders included Paul Biya of Cameroon , Felix Houphet-Boigny of Cote Karl, H.J Nyquist, “Sports, Politics and Human Rights; The Greek Junta and the participation debate in front of the 1969 European Athletic Championship,” Master’s Thesis, University of Oslo, (2016). p. 18. 4 William, J. Baker and James, A. Mangan, Sport in Africa: Essays in Social History. (New York: Africana Pub. Co., 1987), p. 272. 5 Peter, Alegi, African Soccerscapes: How a Continent Changed the World’s Game. (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010), pg. 54. 3 Page | 2 D’Ivoire , Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire which is present-day Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia. 6 The National Olympic Committee of Zambia (NOCZ) was formed in 1951 and it was recognised by the IOC in 1963. Zambia first took part in the Olympic Games in 1964 which were held in Tokyo, Japan under the colonial name of Northern Rhodesia.7 However, it took part in the 1968 Olympics held in Mexico under the independent name of Zambia derived from the country’s biggest river, the Zambezi. Since then, Zambia has participated in the Olympic Games with the only exception of the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal, Canada where most of the African countries boycotted as a way of demonstrating when the IOC denied their request to ban New Zealand, whose national rugby team had toured South Africa. This was so because the tour of the New Zealand rugby team affectionally known as the All Blacks showed support of the white minority regime which was practicing the apartheid policy.8 Apartheid was a type of governance which racially segregated the whites and the blacks in South Africa. Political problems threatened to return to centre stage at the 1988 Olympic Games. Violent student riots took place in Seoul in the months leading up to the competition. For example, North Korea, still technically at war with South Korea, complained bitterly that it should have co-hosted the Games with South Korea. The IOC made some concessions to North Korea, but North Korea did not find them satisfactory and boycotted along with several other countries, notably Cuba and Ethiopia who stayed away from Seoul in solidarity with North Korea. The boycott did not have the effect of previous ones, and the Seoul Olympic Games proved to be extremely competitive. Nearly 8,500 athletes from 159 countries participated. The Olympic Alegi, African Soccerscapes: How a Continent Changed the World’s Game. (2010), p. 55. The Organization, Official website of the Olympic Movement, Olympic.org, http://www.olympic .org/aboutioc-institution, accessed 21st July, 2018. 8 Dean, E., McHenry, Jr., “The Use of Sports in Policy Implementation: The Case of Tanzania,” The Journal of Modern African Studies, 18, 2 (1980), p. 245. 6 7 Page | 3 Games rule requiring participants to be amateurs was overturned in 1986, and decisions on professional participation were left to the governing bodies of particular sports. 9 Football competitions were staged at six different sites in five cities, from 17th September to 2nd October, 1988. Football was the only Olympic sport which was staged in different cities, and which offered only one gold medal, as it was played by men only. In view of the wide popularity which football enjoys in almost every country on the globe, the host countries of past Olympic Games staged football matches in many different cities in an attempt to create a cheerful Olympic mood. The football matches of the Olympic Games were played in Seoul and four provincial cities of Pusan, Kwangju, Taejon and Taegu. The host nation South Korea and the fifteen countries which passed through the regional eliminations and qualifying rounds competed in the football matches involving 314 players and 103 officials.10 Zambia alongside Tunisia and Nigeria were the only African countries which qualified to the Olympic Games in the football category as they made it through the preliminary rounds and the final qualifying round. Zambia affectionately known as the Kenneth Kaunda Eleven (KK11) walloped The Zebras of Botswana with an aggregate of 7-0 and The Cranes of Uganda 7-1 in the preliminary matches. Nonetheless, the deciding matches were against the highly rated Black Stars of Ghana. In the first leg, Zambia faced off Ghana at Independence Stadium in Lusaka on 17th January, 1988 and a 2-0 victory was enough to hand the KK11 an important win which would eventually secure their ticket to the Olympic Games. In the second leg played in Ghana, Zambia narrowly lost 1-0, but qualified for the Olympic Games through a 2-1 aggregate score.11 D.K.N., Johnson and A., Ali, Coming to Play or Coming to Win: Participation and Success at the Olympic Games. (Wellesly College: Mimeo, 2000), p. 67. 10 D., Wallechinsky, The Complete Book of the Olympics. (Boston: Little Brown and Company, 2000), p. 44. 11 Hikabwa, D., Chipande, “Chipolopolo: A Political and Social History of Football (Soccer) in Zambia, 1940s1994.” PhD Dissertation, Michigan State University, (2015), pg. 179. 9 Page | 4 The sixteen football teams at the Olympic Games were divided into four groups of four teams each for the preliminaries. Zambia was placed in group B alongside Italy, Iraq and Guatemala.12 In the first group match, Zambia played a 2-all draw against Iraq who were the Asian Cup Champions. The main highlight of the Olympic Games was witnessed during Zambia’s second group match when Zambia overpowered European football giants Italy 4-0 with the eventual 1988 African Footballer of the year Kalusha Bwalya netting an unforgettable 3 goals (hat-trick) and the KK11 finished the group on a high by beating one of South American representatives Guatemala 4-0. This meant that Zambia finished top of group B and were meant to face West Germany in the quarterfinals who came second in their group A. Despite possessing enough talent, Zambia could not withstand the Jurgen Klinsmann-led West Germany and hence were eliminated in the quarterfinals by a 4-0 score line.13 Despite the meltdown of the economy in Zambia in the 1980s, the Kenneth Kaunda-led UNIP government managed to source funds in order to make preparations and arrangements to send the team to travel to South Korea for the Olympic Games. The public funds spent on the 1988 Olympic team amidst a catastrophic economic crisis revealed the extent to which the country’s leadership and population were willing to sacrifice for the chance of sporting success on the global stage.14 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Sports are common pastime activities in our society and henceforth should be considered entertaining, enjoyable and peacefully passionate. Thus, it should not be overlooked by scholars because sports have become an instrument of identity to such point that some Wallechinsky, The Complete Book of the Olympics, (2000), p. 44. “Gallant squad deserves heroes’ welcome despite quarterfinal humiliation by West Germany - Fans,” Times of Zambia, 27th September, 1988, p. 10; Interview with Ponga Liwewe, Lusaka, 17th September, 2018; Interview with Daniel Kaoma, Lusaka, 1st November, 2018. 14 Chipande, “Chipolopolo: A Political and Social History of Football (Soccer) in Zambia, 1940s-1994,” 2015, p. 180. 12 13 Page | 5 newspapers make headlines with sports events.15 Sports and politics are on countless occasions mixed together for the reason of state to serve either a good or bad cause.16 In addition to that , globalisation and the mass media accelerate this influence of sports in such a way that the competitive nature of sport is, of course, best demonstrated by the Olympic Games, an institution without parallel in kind and the games have since been transformed into a deeply politicised arena where countries compete with one another through the medium of sport.17 Furthermore, most of the newly independent African countries in the 1960s and 1970s used sports as a medium of propagating their political ideologies. Nonetheless this strategy is evident even now in the 21st century as Arnaud and Riordan (1998) state that countries have perfectly used sports to create propaganda for their leadership.18 According to The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations, propaganda is a medium to persuade people into a certain desired direction.19 Consequently, most of the countries with the help of the media use sports to unify a country and to help them forget small internal disagreements as politicians have to support a team or a sport in order to be recognised as being closer to their citizens. In addition to that , Arnaud and Riordan defined sport as an institutionalized competitive activity that involves vigorous physical exertion or the use of relatively complex physical skills by individuals whose participation is motivated by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic factors.20 On the other side, a definition of politics is also given as an activity that arises out of disagreement, and it is concerned with the use of government to resolve conflict in the direction of change or in the prevention of change. Therefore, comparing these definitions, sport and politics share some common characteristics as they involve competitions and struggles so they J., MacClancy., Sport, Identity and Ethnicity. (London: Berg, 1996), p. 12. P., Arnaud and J., Riordan, Sport and International Politics. (London: E & F Spon, 1998), p. 112. 17 MacClancy, Sport, Identity and Ethnicity, (1996), p. 12. 18 Arnaud and Riordan, Sport and International Politics, (1998), p. 190. 19 G., Evans and J., Newnham, The Penguin Dictionary of International Relations. (London: Penguin Books, 1998), p. 451. 20 Arnaud and Riordan, Sport and International Politics, (1998), p. 67. 15 16 Page | 6 normally produce winners and losers. Furthermore, Arnaud elaborated a political definition of sport as an organised and ordered pastime, and consequently part of a consumer culture, evolved in the same way as industrialisation, education and the ever-growing involvement of an increasingly large number of citizens in politics and economics. 21 Nonetheless, just like the organizational structure of state institutions, there are over a hundred international sport organizations which are in charge and control of different sports disciplines. Some of the prominent international ruling federations are the IOC, the Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) and many National Olympic Committees (NOCs). The IOC is the supreme authority of the modern Olympic movement, and it is a unique platform which governments can use to make a political stand.22 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Zambia’s football image as a dominant force on the continental scene arose in 1974 when it contested for the 1974 AFCON final against Zaire (present-day DRC) held in Cairo, Egypt. Despite the success of reaching the final, Zambia lost the replay 2-0 after the first contest ended in a 2-all draw. Interesting enough, penalties had not been introduced then to decide the winner when there was tie after the final whistle of regulation time. Nonetheless, most of Zambia’s football triumphs and victories of the past years have not been well recorded and documented or due to poor record keeping those documents have ended up missing hence this study will attempt to examine and analyse how football was used as unifying factor by Kenneth Kaunda and the UNIP government with the main focus being on the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul, South Korea. Aung Ko Min, “Sport as A Tool of Politics: A Study on Myanmar’s Southeast Asian Games 2013,” Master’s Thesis, Victoria University of Wellington, (2015), p. 16. 22 Ko Min, “Sport as A Tool of Politics: A Study on Myanmar’s Southeast Asian Games 2013,” 2015, p. 19. 21 Page | 7 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The purpose of this study is to examine and analyse how Kenneth Kaunda and the UNIP government used football to enhance togetherness and unity in Zambia. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The main objective of the study is to examine how Kenneth Kaunda and the UNIP government used sports to enhance togetherness and unity in Zambia after the country’s participation and performance at the 1988 Olympics Games in Seoul, South Korea. The study seeks to; i. Examine Zambia’s participation and performance at the 1988 Olympic Games ii. Investigate how the people or the fans reacted to Zambia’s participation and performance at the 1988 Olympic Games. iii. Analyse how Kenneth Kaunda and the UNIP government used sports to enhance togetherness and unity and at the same time propagate their own political aspirations and ideologies. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This study is significant as it will contribute to the political and social history of Zambia. The relevant information that the research will bring out will be useful to the history scholars as they will be aware of how Kenneth Kaunda used sports to enhance togetherness and unity in Zambia. Furthermore, the study will provide additional information for future research on the inter-relations of sports and politics and how most political leaders use sports to propagate their political ideologies. Page | 8 LITERATURE REVIEW The scholarly works of a notable number of scholars who have written on sports and politics in Africa and the world at large have been useful to this study. For example, Peter Alegi alludes to the fact that the popularity of sports attracted the attention of some political leaders who saw it as an opportunity to bolster their political ideologies and power. 23 Kaunda and other postcolonial African leaders saw it fit to use sports as way of propagating their political agendas and consolidating their grip on the governance of the country. This is evident as most of the newly independent countries used their national football teams’ triumphs to show the successes of their governments. Furthermore, Hikabwa Chipande and Davies Banda highlights that the successful performances of African countries in international sports created a sense of nationhood among the newly independent countries. This is also evident as Zaire became the first African country to take part in the 1974 World Cup and Mobutu Sese Seko even nicknamed the national team as The Leopards after his leopard-like insignia. Despite Zaire losing all the group games and conceding 14 goals, they had done Africa proud by qualifying for the World Cup. Chipande and Banda further indicate that in line with Pan-Africanism, the victories of African athletes on the global sports events were seen as victories for the whole continent.24 In addition to that, Baker and Mangan’s works also become important in this study as they state that most of the postcolonial African political leaders adopted sports as a unifying factor that could bring people of different ethnic backgrounds together to create and have sense of recognition of independence and their own local solidarity.25 This was so because despite attaining independence some fraction of the freedom fighters who could not make it into the Alegi, African Soccerscapes: How a Continent Changed the World’s Game. (2010), p. 59. Hikabwa, D., Chipande and Davies, Banda, “Sports and Politics in Postcolonial Africa,” in M.S Shanguhyia and T. Falola (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of African Colonial and Postcolonial History, (2018), p. 1267. 25 Baker and Mangan, Sport in Africa: Essays in Social History, (1987), p. 272 23 24 Page | 9 governments as leaders became a source of opposition. Other than that, some who were already in governments were dissatisfied with the leadership and sought all means of opposing. For example, in Zambia, Simon Mwansa Kapwepwe became unhappy with Kaunda’s leadership and he resigned as Vice President of UNIP as well as of the country and formed his own political party called United Progressive Party (UPP) in 1971.26 Kaunda skilfully silenced this opposition, first ; by declaring Zambia a one-party state in 1972 and second ; by the introduction of the Humanism ideology which would eventually bring people together mostly through sports by attending football matches and listening to football commentary on radio.27 Furthermore, Mangan states that the introduction of sport by the colonial masters was just a way of civilising, disciplining and controlling Africans to realise and maintain order but Africans utilised this opportunity when they became independent in order to celebrate their newly acquired freedom and used it as unifying factor for togetherness and unity after being under the colonial rule.28 According to Chipande, the popularity of the game as a national sport made it attractive to national politicians and political parties. For example, the UNIP structures prioritised sport because it was understood to be an important vehicle for party propaganda.29 Banda further states that the UNIP’s Central Committee that was “the party’s supreme policy making body for both the party and government had a Sub-Committee for Youth and Sport responsible for all sport policy related matters.” All government sports officials were answerable to the SubCommittee on Youth and Sport, which had the mandate and power to hire and fire them. 30 Interview with Boniface Mbewe, Lusaka, 19th October, 2018. Interview with Ponga Liwewe, Lusaka, 17th September, 2018. 28 James, A., Mangan., The Games Ethic and Imperialism: Aspects of the Diffusion of an Ideal. (Harmondsworth: Viking, 1986), p. 191. 29 Chipande, “Chipolopolo: A Political and Social History of Football (Soccer) in Zambia, 1940s1994.” (2015), p. 117. 30 Davies, Banda, “Zambia: Government’s role in colonial and modern times,” International Journal of Sport Policy, 2 (2010), p. 242. 26 27 Page | 10 Alegi states that football a discourse deployed by the colonial powers to protect their hegemony and win consensual rule of the majority Africans, ended up as an alternative public sphere that provided for counter-hegemonic forces against colonial rule.31 For example , the miners on the Copperbelt in Zambia played football during the off work hours not only for leisure and exercise but also as a way of trying to show and make it known to the colonisers that they are equal and must be treated as such. In addition to that, Darby argues that due to political and economic conditions, which remained oppressive in colonial Africa, the established sports clubs and soccer teams originally envisaged as a mechanism of social control and soon became the focus for political confrontation.32 The relationship between football and political authority went on to reproduce itself in post-colonial Africa. For instance, it has been argued that former Ghanaian President Kwame Nkrumah used the country’s national football team, The Black Stars, as a vehicle through which to spread nationalistic and Pan Africanist ideologies worldwide. 33 The triumph of the team at the 1963 and 1965 AFCON finals was linked to Nkrumah’s presence and support, while its dismal performances afterwards were attributed by some to the coup that deposed him in 1966.34 This situation in Ghana can be attributed closer to home here in Zambia during the national team’s run up to the quarterfinals of the 1988 Olympic Games. The Kaunda-led UNIP government took credit for the team’s performance as they had a direct hand in the running of the football affairs in the country.35 It can also be argued that football stadiums remain crucial sites for African politics. Stadiums are not limited to hosting football matches only; they also provide an arena in which Alegi, African Soccerscapes: How a Continent Changed the World’s Game. (2010), p. 63. P., Darby, Africa, Football and FIFA: Politics, Colonialism and Resistance. (London: Frank Cass, 2002), p. 17. 33 Lyton, Ncube, “Bhora Mugedhi vs. Bhora Musango: The interface between Football Discourse and Zimbabwean Politics,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport, (20th January 2014), p. 4. 34 Ncube, “Bhora Mugedhi vs. Bhora Musango: The interface between Football Discourse and Zimbabwean Politics,” (20th January 2014), p. 4. 35 Interview with Boniface Mbewe, Lusaka, 19th October, 2018. 31 32 Page | 11 political contests can take place. Alegi argues that, most African governments and politicians usually use football stadiums to hold political rallies and for celebrating other key events in the nation.36 Houlihan points out that many of these African new states were faced with the acute problem of establishing a sense of national identity after Africa’s decolonisation in the 1950s and 1960s. Most of the former colonies the unity of the immediate pre-independence period was built around a common colonial enemy and when that enemy withdrew or was expelled, previously incorporated divisions ethnic groups commonly surfaced. These divisions had either to be allowed an expression that did not challenge the state’s delicate stability or incorporated under a stronger loyalty to the new state and sport was seen as a potential contributor to both approaches.37 In addition to that, Maguire argues that sport could form one of the most significant arenas by which nations become more tangible and particular sports come to symbolize the nation, football in this case became a symbol for most of the postcolonial African countries.38 Football had been used as a two-way street for most of the postcolonial African political leaders. Despite being a tool for enhancing togetherness and unity, football was used a medium of propagating political ideologies and agendas. This meant that people were being indirectly controlled and manipulated into believing government policies and ideologies. The main motive for government involvement in sport and one of the most common is the belief that sport instils the populace with the right type of values and norms of obedience, self-discipline, team-work, therefore, participation in sport will facilitate social integration and thus further achieve social control.39 Alegi, African Soccerscapes: How a Continent Changed the World’s Game. (2010), p. 55. B., Houlihan., The Government and Politics of Sport. (London: Routledge, 1991), p. 11. 38 J., Maguire, “Sport, Identity Politics and Globalisation: Diminishing Contrasts and Increasing Varieties,” Sociology of Sport Journal, Vol. 11, (1994), p. 409. 39 Houlihan, The Government and Politics of Sport, (1991), p. 13. 36 37 Page | 12 Therefore, this study has attempted to explore on the availability of recorded and documented sources on the topic in question because there is literally little which has been recorded and documented about Zambia’s participation and performance at the 1988 Olympic Games and not only that, even the little data that has been recorded and document has either been poorly recorded and documented or has gotten lost due to poor record and document keeping. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This historical research report has been based on a qualitative approach and it has used both primary sources and secondary sources. Polley (2007), states that historical sources include every kind of evidence that involves human beings and their past activities.40 Data was collected from primary and secondary sources as primary evidence is the foundation of all historical research. A primary source is a first-hand source or the actual evidence of a historical account.41 In addition to that, primary sources can also be defined as the original materials which are directly associated with the topic that is being studied.42 In this study, primary sources used were newspaper articles and feature stories and oral interviews. The National Archives of Zambia (NAZ) was a disappointment for me because I only managed to take a look at one newspaper which is the Sunday Times of Zambia because it was the only newspaper available for the year 1988. Nonetheless, it contributed a great deal towards the accomplishment of this study. Apart from that, the University of Zambia (UNZA) main library in the Special Collections Division was a safe haven because a lot of newspapers from 1988 were available. Namely; the Zambia Daily Mail, Times of Zambia and Sunday Times of Zambia. I spent almost most of my time researching in the Special Collections and I M., Polley., Sport History. A Practical History. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007). N., Struna., “Historical Research in Physical Activity,” In T. Terry and N. Jack (Eds), Research Methods in Physical Activity, 3rd Ed. (Champaign: Human Kinetics, 2005), p. 255. 42 K.D., Wiggins and S.D., Mason, “Social-Historical Process in Sports Studies,” in L.A David, S.M Daniel and L.S Michael (Eds.), Qualitative Methods in Sports Studies. (New York: Berg, 2006), p. 49. 40 41 Page | 13 was able to go through each and every edition from 1st January 1988 to 31st December 1988. I also had the chance to refer to the Zambia Daily Mail newspaper of 8th December 1987 feature story on sports because of the newspapers I came across had a build-up story from the 1987 newspaper. The oral interviews carried were semi-structured in nature in such a way that, the questions were building up as the conversations were going on. The durations were not constant as they depended on the interviewee and how they articulated their responses. Since the funding of the research report was not due on time I only managed to meet the first two of my interviewees who happened to be Mr Ponga Liwewe and Mr Benedict Tembo whilst I was able and successful in securing three phone call interviews with Mr Boniface Mbewe, Mr Daniel Kaoma and Mr Manfred Chabinga. Nonetheless, they all yielded great results towards this historical research report. I took notes during the interviews and recorded the conversations on my cell phone. The practical data from the interviews were interpreted and summarised in line with the main themes and objectives of this research report. Secondary sources are distinguished from primary sources in that they usually comprise of books or articles which were written by people who were not directly associated with the event when it unfolded.43 There is not much information that has been written in form of secondary sources on football generally in Zambia and that was my main challenge in the UNZA main library Special Collections Division. Nonetheless, I found and downloaded a great deal of journal articles, dissertations and theses online relating to sports and politics in Africa and the world at large. Primary sources and secondary sources were critically cross-examined and analysed so as the data collected is helpful and beneficial towards this study. 43 Struna, “Historical Research in Physical Activity,” (2005), p. 258. Page | 14 Organisation of the Chapters The study consists of five chapters. Chapter one is the introduction and historical background. Chapter two examines Zambia’s participation and performance at the 1988 Olympic Games. Chapter three investigates how the people or the fans reacted to Zambia’s participation and performance at the 1988 Olympic Games while chapter four analyses how Kenneth Kaunda and the UNIP government used sports to enhance togetherness and unity and at the same time propagate their own political aspirations and ideologies. The fifth chapter is the summary and conclusion of the whole the study. Page | 15 CHAPTER TWO ZAMBIA’S PARTICIPATION AND PERFORMANCE AT THE 1988 OLYMPICS Sport in general, and football in particular, has enjoyed an intimate relationship with politics seemingly since time in memorial. Crucially, it has been argued that if ever there was a perfect combination, it would be hard to find a more compatible pair than sport and politics.44 Sport is one of the main instruments of power and that governments all over the world are able to subdue the minds of the citizens through the use of popular sports. Today, in an even more direct and overt fashion in many countries, sport is used as a form of political propaganda to gain prestige and support for the regime in power and its particular social system.45 Ncube argues that from this interpretation of the sport, football is seen as an instrument of controlling the masses by those in authority and power.46 In an interview with Ponga Liwewe, the former Football Association of Zambia (FAZ) Secretary General, he stressed that popularity of the football in Zambia can be traced as back as the 1920s and 1930s when people from all over Zambia, Northern Rhodesia at the time moved to the Copperbelt to work on the mines. Most of these who were young and energetic men used sports as way of entertainment and for leisure whilst he mine owners used football as a way of keeping the workers disciplined and morally upright.47 On 9th January 1988, the IOC confirmed that Zambia will take part in the Olympics Games slated for 17th September to 2nd October 1988 in Seoul, South Korea.48 Despite the economy deteriorating from the start of the late 1970s and the whole lot of the 1980s due to the fall of C.Y., Lin, P.C., Ping Lee and H.F., Nai, “Theorising the role of sport in state politics,” International Journal of Sport and Exercise Science, Vol. 1, No. 1, (2008), p. 23. 45 Lin, Ping Lee and Nai, “Theorising the role of sport in state politics,” (2008), p. 24. 46 Ncube, “Bhora Mugedhi vs. Bhora Musango: The interface between Football Discourse and Zimbabwean Politics,” (20th January 2014), p. 4. 47 Interview with Ponga Liwewe. 48 “Zambia to take part in the Olympics – IOC,” Times of Zambia, 9th January 1988, p. 8. 44 Page | 16 the copper prices on the world market, Zambia confirmed its participation at the 1988 Olympics Games provided they fulfil their final qualifying two-legged games against Ghana.49 Zambia was on the harsh receiving end of this economic turmoil because copper was the country’s major export and source of foreign revenue. Henceforth, to fulfil the Ghana fixtures and other expenses, the government needed resources to pump into the squad. Nonetheless, the Zambia National Olympic Committee (ZNOC) stated that the final say of the performance lies in the hands of the government and the firm acceptance of the international community because of the North and South Korea conflict.50 Football competitions were staged at six different sites in five cities, from September 17th to October 2nd, 1988. Football was the only Olympic sport which was staged in different cities, and which offered only one gold medal, as it was played by men only. In view of the broad popularity football enjoys in almost every country, the host countries of past Olympic Games staged football matches in many different cities in an attempt to create a festive Olympic mood. The football matches of the Olympic Games were played in Seoul and four provincial cities of Pusan, Kwangju, Taejon and Taegu. The host nation South Korea and the fifteen countries which passed through the regional eliminations and qualifying rounds competed in the football matches involving 314 players and 103 officials.51 Zambia alongside Tunisia and Nigeria were the only African countries which qualified to the Olympic Games in the football category as they made it through the preliminary rounds and the final qualifying round. In the first round of the qualifiers, Zambia affectionately known as the KK11 saw off The Zebras of Botswana with an aggregate of 7-0. In the first leg played in Botswana on 13th June 1987 at Botswana National Stadium in Gaborone, the KK11 humbled the Zebras by 4 goals to nil in their own backyard with goals coming from Fighton Simukonda, “Zambia confirm Olympic participation,” Zambia Daily Mail, 16th January 1988, p. 8. “Olympic final say lies with government – ZNOC,” Zambia Daily Mail, December 1988, p. 8. 51 Wallechinsky, The Complete Book of the Olympics, (2000), p. 44. 49 50 Page | 17 Golden Kazika, Lucky Msiska and Derby Mankinka. Eight days later on the 21st of June 1987, an Ashios Melu’s brace (2 goals) and solo strike from Stone Nyirenda were enough to hand Zambia a convincing 3-0 victory played at Independence Stadium in Lusaka. In the second round of the qualifiers, Zambia had been pitted against Uganda also known the Cranes in football circles. Similar to the first round, the first contest was played away in Uganda on 3rd October 1987 at Nakivubo Stadium in Kampala. Zambia narrowly lost the game 2-1. Ashios Melu scored the consolation goal for Zambia late in the game. On 15th November 1987, Uganda had a day to forget as the KK11 ran rampant and fired on all cylinders at Independence Stadium in Lusaka. The goal floodgates were opened through a Ugandan own goal. Later on, Richard Siame and Stone Nyirenda grabbed 2 goals (braces) apiece and Uganda lost the game 5-0. Zambia qualified to the third and last round of the qualifiers via a 7-1 aggregate score.52 Zambia faced the highly rated Black Stars of Ghana in the last qualifier of the Olympic Games. In the first leg played at Independence Stadium in Lusaka on 17th January, 1988, a 2-0 victory with goals scored by Wisdom Chansa and Kalusha Bwalya were enough to hand Zambia an important win which would eventually prove crucial and secure their ticket to the Olympic Games. Two weeks later, Ghana hosted Zambia at Ohene Djan Stadium in Accra and Zambia narrowly lost 1-0 through a Tony Yeboah 17th minute goal but qualified for the Olympic Games with a 2-1 aggregate score.53 Many football fans never believed or expected Zambia to pull through in Accra because among all their decorated professionals plying their trade in Europe, only Johnstone Bwalya of FC Sion in Switzerland had made it for the squad that travelled to Ghana for the return leg. In an interview with Ponga Liwewe, he stated that Zambia was on the receiving end of tireless Ghana attacks who tried to search for a second goal as they had earlier scored and it took Zambia’s goalkeeper Efford Chabala’s heroics in goal to save the day as he 52 53 Interview with Mbewe, 19th October, 2018; Interview with Daniel Kaoma, Lusaka, 1st November, 2018. Chipande., “Chipolopolo: A Political and Social History of Football (Soccer) in Zambia, 1940s-1994.” (2015), p. 179. Page | 18 neutralised every Ghana’s attempt on goal.54 Kalusha Bwalya of PSV Eindhoven in the Netherlands, Charles Musonda of Anderlecht in Belgium and Lucky Msiska of SK Roeselare did not take part as their clubs could not allow them because they had crucial league games. This was so because at the time it was the task of the country’s football associations to formally ask the clubs to release the players for international duty.55 Luckily, things changed when FIFA made it a mandate that football clubs have to release the player(s) if called upon by the FIFA affiliated country for any FIFA recognised football matches be it in competitions or qualifiers.56 The sixteen teams football teams at the Olympic Games were divided into four groups of four teams each for the preliminaries. Zambia was placed in group B alongside Italy, Iraq and Guatemala. In the first group game played on 18th September 1988, Zambia played to a 2-all draw against Iraq who were the Asian Cup champions at the time. The Zambian goals came from Stone Nyirenda to make it 1-1 and Kalusha Bwalya to make it 2-1 in favour of Zambia in the 44th minute and 66th minute respectively.57 Minister of Youth and Sports at the time Frederick Hapunda praised the team for their outstanding performance because Iraq were no push overs. President Kenneth Kaunda described the draw against Iraq as a good beginning and he passed on the comment after the main news bulletin on Radio Zambia after the game of golf.58 The main highlight of the whole tournament came during the second group when Zambia humiliated the European football giants Italy 4-0, the game was played 20th September 1988. It was an embarrassing defeat for Italy because prior to the Olympics their star-studded team had reached the semi-finals of Euro tournament of the same year. The 1988 African Footballer of the year Kalusha Bwalya had a day to remember as he netted 3 goals (hat trick) with Interview with Liwewe, 17th September, 2018. Interview with Benedict Tembo, Lusaka, 21st September, 2018. 56 Interview with Tembo, 21st September, 2018. 57 “Zambia 2-2 Iraq,” Sunday Times of Zambia, 18th September 1988, p. 10. 58 Sunday Times of Zambia, 18th September 1988, p. 10. 54 55 Page | 19 Johnstone Bwalya adding one of the goals to the tally as well. Zambia led at halftime through a Kalusha Bwalya 40th minute left footed strike.59 The KK11 came firing on all cylinders in the second half as Kalusha Bwalya added his second and Zambia’s second in the 55th minute through a trademark free kick curling over the Italian wall. Johnstone Bwalya had share of the spoils as his long range deflected shot beat the Italian goalkeeper Stefano Tacconi to make it 3-0 in favour of Zambia in the 63rd minute. Kalusha Bwalya added salt to Italy’s wounds by scoring his third and Zambia’s fourth in the 90th minute. This result sent shockwaves across the football community as it was now clear that Zambia had what it takes to be one of the best in the world where football was concerned. When President Kaunda received the news whilst in Ndola at the official opening national rehabilitation centre, he said, “I will sleep well tonight for many reasons.” 60 The KK11 as the Zambia national football team was affectionately known then finished the final group game on a high by demolishing one of South American representatives Guatemala on 22nd September 1988. Guatemala were on the receiving end of 4-0 defeat as Kalusha Bwalya and Derby Mankinka grabbed 2 goals apiece making Kalusha Bwalya the top scorer at the tournament with 6 goals. All the goals came in the second half as Derby Mankinka opened the scoring in the 53rd minute. Kalusha Bwalya grabbed Zambia’s second goal in the 79th minute to make it 2-0 and added his tournament tally to 5 goals. Three minutes later, he netted Zambia’s third to make it 3-0 and took his tournament’s tally to 6 goals. Derby Mankinka rounded off the score by scoring his second goal which proved to be the winner in 85th minute and Zambia won the game 4-0.61 Despite possessing enough talent and their heroics in the group games, Zambia could not withstand the Jurgen Klinsmann-led West Germany and hence were eliminated in the “Zambia humiliate Italy 4-0,” Times of Zambia, 20th September 1988, p. 10. Times of Zambia, 20th September 1988, p. 10. 61 “Zambia beat Guatemala 4-0,” Times of Zambia, 22nd September 1988, p. 12. 59 60 Page | 20 quarterfinals 4-0. Klinsmann netted 3 goals against the inexperienced and the Zambian defence which lacked technical knowledge on how to stop the German attacks. Zambia bowed out of the Olympics in a humiliating defeat by West Germany but that did not stop people from admiring how they fared at the tournament especially after the team’s heroic 4-0 defeat of Italy. Conclusion Zambia was greatly praised for its participation and performance at the Olympic Games. The Minister of Youth and Sports at the time Frederick Hapunda mentioned that on behalf of the government of Zambia through his Ministry, the team had fared well despite having three quarters of the team playing in the local Zambian Super League. The wins over countries from other continents proved that if Zambia was to take part in the 1990 FIFA World Cup to be held in Italy, it would give headaches to giant football teams.62 Hapunda further stated that the KK11 had lost to West Germany in the quarterfinals of the Olympics not because it was superior but because the Zambian team lacked experience with such a very young squad compromising of mainly local players.63 62 63 “Zambia fared well – Hapunda,” Sunday Times of Zambia, 16th October 1988, p. 8. Sunday Times of Zambia, 16th October 1988, p. 8. Page | 21 CHAPTER THREE THE PEOPLE OR FAN’S REACTION TO ZAMBIA’S PARTICIPATION AND PERFORMANCE AT THE 1988 OLYMPICS Sport is an activity which aims at bringing people from all walks of life together for fun and enjoyment. Football has been a metaphor for African development since decolonisation in the 1950s and 1960s. A lot of African leaders have had adapted football to their political ends, countering democratization and socio-economic progress with concentrated authority and power in their governance.64 All of the properties of conservatism, conflict, unification, and identity instil sport with power. Ben-Porat argues that, political leaders understand that even the one who only cheers the national team becomes a symbol of his nation himself. 65 In postcolonial Africa, there was a widely shared belief among African political leaders in the effectiveness of sport in enhancing national togetherness and unity. The potential value of sport in the development of national togetherness and unity became accepted in the newly independent African states as a crucial approach for the integration of different ethnic groups and as a means of diminishing tribalism.66 Sport, football in particular was used as national activity serving as an important image in self-representation of many newly independent nations in Africa and that including Zambia. It was not only the football fans but the rest of the people who were happy and excited with Zambia’s participation and performance because it was the first ever major sporting competition in which it participated as an independent country and to compete with other Richard, J., Peltz, The Development Sportswriter: Covering African Football, 31 Ecquid Novi: African Journalism Studies, (2010), p. 149. 65 A., Ben-Porat, “Split loyalty: Football-cum-nationality in Israel,” in K. Bandyopadhyay & S. Mallick (Eds.), Fringe Nations in World Soccer. (New York, N.Y., U.S.A.: Routledge, 2008), p. 112. 66 Titus, Tenga, Globalisation and Olympic Sport in Tanzania, Doctoral Dissertation. Oslo: The Norwegian University of Sport, (2000), p. 90. 64 Page | 22 countries from different parts of the world.67 In addition to that, in separate interviews and on different days, Manfred Chabinga, assistant coach at Nkana Football Club and Benedict Tembo, Zambia Daily Mail sports reporter and journalist, both alluded to the fact that Zambia’s participation at the Olympics in Seoul bright joy and happiness even to the ordinary Zambians who did not love nor watch football.68 This was so because Zambia had not qualified for the World Cup for example. Chabinga further stressed that because of the economy not doing so well, President Kaunda urged the parastatal companies such as the Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM), Zambia Industrial and Mining Corporation (ZIMCO), Zambia State Insurance Corporation (ZSIC), British Petroleum (BP) Zambia and many others to come on board and give a helping hand wherever possible so as to make the Olympic team travel to South Korea.69 While Kaunda probably had a genuine love for sports, clearly, he sought to capitalize on the fans’ passion and interest in the game for political reasons. Football played a role in seeking nationalism and national identity among the Zambian people. In this context, nationalism has been described as a condition of mind among members of a nationality, in which loyalty to the ideal or to the fact of one’s national state is exhibited in the fundamental excellence and in the mission of one’s national state.70 For example, Kaoma argues that generally Zambians have love for football and President Kaunda and his Cabinet pledged full support towards the sport because it was an activity which would bring all the people together.71 Arnaud and Riordan, argue that sport is more than a leisure activity and exercise routine because the athletes or players are the ambassadors or the official representatives of a national culture when they go out there to compete with other nations.72 There is an implicit unity and Interview with Liwewe, 17th September, 2018. Interview with Chabinga, 2nd November, 2018; Interview with Tembo, 21st September, 2018. 69 Interview with Chabinga, 2nd November, 2018. 70 L., Snyder, Encyclopaedia of Nationalism. (New York: Paragon House, 1990), p. 246. 71 Interview with Daniel Kaoma, Lusaka, 1st November, 2018. 72 Arnaud and Riordan, Sport and International Politics, (1998), p. 6. 67 68 Page | 23 solidarity between the people and their national sportsmen or women. This unity creates a symbolic picture to the population itself in the eyes of other nations populations in terms of its influence, status and strength. In this case, the government of a nation can use sports through its sportsmen or women to influence and encourage national unity, develop and elaborate their external status. This was evident in most of the postcolonial African countries. 73 In addition to that, it was a tradition for President Kaunda to honour the national team by inviting and hosting them for official lunch or dinner at State House in Lusaka prior to the team going out for competitions and when they come back regardless of the results. This was so because he believed that, they had not only gone out there just to play football and compete but they had also gone out to represent the country as ambassadors.74 On their return from Seoul on 1st October 1988, the Olympic football team was honoured by President Kaunda. He mentioned that, he was proud of the team and he joined every score of the Zambian football fans and citizens in welcoming the squad.75 Furthermore, other people also added voices to Zambia’s participation and performance. Marco Panella, for example, who was an Italian politician and leader of the Radical Party and member of the European tournament donated £2,400 to the national team for beating Italy.76 Panella further stated that Zambia’s victory over Italy had uplifted the spirit of the sport showed the development of African football which will be at par with other great footballing nations in the world.77 Furthermore, Argentina football icon Diego Maradona who was playing for Napoli in Italy at the time, also aired his views about Zambia’s performance at the Olympics. “Zambia national football team has shown the capability of performing on the global stage. Their Arnaud and Riordan, Sport and International Politics, (1998), p. 6. Interview with Mbewe, 19th October, 2018. 75 “Seoul team honoured,” Times of Zambia, 1st October 1988, p. 1. 76 “Zambia victory over Italy uplifted spirit of sport – Panella,” Times of Zambia, 29th September 1988, p. 14. 77 Times of Zambia, 29th September 1988, p. 14 73 74 Page | 24 performance denotes that football has evolved and it was evident in the manner in which the team played.” 78 Football is an image of social relation someone can feel all the human feelings, happiness and admiration and all these feelings, happiness and admiration can change easily and suddenly; this explains why people love the sport so much. For example, in an interview with Chabinga he mentioned that the Zambian people have always been passionate about sports and football in particular. He further argues that prior to the Olympics when Zambia had qualified after beating Ghana, the fans were very happy and the atmosphere was very fantastic in the country. Some people had to stopped going to work as they would get glued to radio cassettes for radio commentaries whilst others went as far as being on leave from work.79 Bainvel argues that football has the power of symbolising the idealisation of the society, with sports men and women fighting to become known and have a legitimate recognition for their commitment towards the nation.80 The success belongs to each player who develops their own individualism, but the team spirit, the solidarity among players are shared among the football fans and the country at large. For example, some of the players had developed a love story with the fans because of their special abilities on the pitch. These include Ashios Melu who was outstanding for his long range hard shots and goals, Kalusha Bwalya for his lethal left foot when it came to freekicks, Efford Chabala for being a nuisance of not allowing the ball to bypass him in goal and only to mention a few. Nonetheless, each member of the KK11 team had a special quality really specific to the position he was good at.81 Sport is not an essential actor but it plays a big role in people’s consciousness and decision. Politicians and many different actors of the civil society have been using sport to promote their “Zambia capable of global stage performance – Maradona,” Times of Zambia, 27th September 1988, p. 10. Interview with Chabinga, 2nd November, 2018. 80 Serge, Bainvel, Sport and Politics: A study of the relationship between International Politics and Football. Linköpings Universitet MSc Programme in International and European Relations, Master Thesis, (January 2005), p. 55. 81 Interview with Mbewe, 19th October, 2018. 78 79 Page | 25 political propaganda and ideas. Sport was used for many different reasons because it is really influential on people. For example, President Kaunda stated that the Seoul Olympic Games in South Korea had proved that Zambia had the talent in sports to match the world’s elite and that his UNIP government would do anything in their power to re-plan the development of sports in the country.82 However, sport can be used not only as means for political awareness but also as means for redirecting the severe political or economic circumstances from the political scene to the football pitch, where the political objections are turned into sport prowess among the country’s national football teams. For example, Zambia had a severe economy nosedive in the 1980s and due unpopular belief and opinion but President Kaunda and his UNIP government wanted to deviate the people from the economic troubles by making them believe that sports can be used to unify them despite the problems the country was facing. Nonetheless, Liwewe stated that President Kaunda and his UNIP government were successful to an extent of using football as a unifying factor but there came a time when the people became fed up with the President Kaunda’s regime and that was the beginning of the fall of the UNIP government. 83 Conclusion Despite Zambia not going further into the semi-finals or the final, they had created a love story with the rest of the footballing world because of the team’s performance. For example, the rest of the nation treated them to a heroes’ welcome when coming back from South Korea. Kaoma stated that football fans and people from all walks of life in Seoul and other parts of the world reportedly started looking for world map atlases in bookshops so as to locate the map of Zambia especially after beating Italy 4-0.84 In addition to that, Liwewe mentioned that some football Times of Zambia, 1st October 1988, p. 1 Interview with Liwewe, 17th September, 2018. 84 Interview with Kaoma, 1st November, 2018. 82 83 Page | 26 reporters and journalists even travelled to Zambia to see for themselves and believe if the country actually existed.85 85 Interview with Liwewe, 17th September, 2018. Page | 27 CHAPTER FOUR KENNETH KAUNDA AND THE UNIP GOVERNMENT’S USE OF SPORTS TO ENHANCE TOGETHERNESS AND UNITY AND AT THE SAME TIME PROPAGATE THEIR OWN POLITICAL ASPIRATIONS AND IDEOLOGIES. In the modern history of sport, governments use sport as part of their internal and external policies. Sport is not only a medium for cross-border interactions, it can also be an instrument of a government’s policy.86 From time in memorial, the 1950s and 1960s witnessed a number of African colonial territories becoming independent from their colonial masters. When President Kaunda took over from British rule, his government chose an ideology called the Zambian humanism. The Zambian Humanism ideology was some form of African Socialism, which combined traditional African values with Western socialist and Christian values.87 The choice of this ideology was based on the fact that Africa had always contained much indigenous socialism which the colonialists had tried to destroy, and so the Zambian humanism was an attempt to rescue pre-colonial values and traditions and to use these as the basis on which to build the newly independent state. Just like every other form of humanism, Zambian Humanism set out to create a society that places the human person at the centre of all activity, social, economic and political.88 Just like many other leaders of newly independent African states that adopted African Socialism, Kaunda adopted Zambian humanism as the national political philosophy and officially introduced it on 19th April 1968. At a luncheon honouring the country’s sports associations in 1976, Kaunda declared that, “the philosophy of Humanism will remain Ko Min, “Sport as A Tool of Politics: A Study on Myanmar’s Southeast Asian Games 2013,” 2015, p. 20. Ikechukwu, Anthony, Kanu, “Kenneth Kaunda and the Quest for an African Humanist Philosophy,” International Journal of Scientific Research, Vol. 3, No. 8, (August 2014), p. 376. 88 Ikechukwu, Anthony, Kanu, “Kenneth Kaunda and the Quest for an African Humanist Philosophy,” Vol. 3, No. 8, (August 2014), p. 376. 86 87 Page | 28 incomplete without Zambia making her mark in the field of sport.” Kaunda stressed that the country’s biggest achievement in the field of sport was in soccer. 89 Macola argued that the introduction of the one-party rule in 1972 brought gradual reduction of toleration for internal dissent and general contraction of civil rights. This step clearly facilitated President Kaunda’s move towards autocratic leadership; it encouraged concentration of political power in his hands and in those of a few UNIP top leaders who made decisions on almost all sectors of the society, including football.90 The popularity of the game as a national sport made it attractive to national politicians and political parties. This was particularly true of the ruling UNIP. During the Second Republic under Kaunda (1973 to 1991), the UNIP was essentially synonymous with the nation and its structures prioritized sport because it was understood to be an important vehicle for party propaganda.91 For example, the UNIP wanted to make the success of the national soccer team to be seen as a direct result and an indication of their good policies and fitness to rule. The naming of the national team as the KK11 in the 1980s after President Kenneth Kaunda initials symbolized the game’s intimate connections to the UNIP and the country’s political leadership. Nonetheless, the Zambia National football team was renamed the Copper Bullets after the fall of the UNIP regime which led to the reintroduction of the multiparty politics in 1991.92 As the outcome of this politicization of football, the party and the government were much less willing to tolerate any losses or failures in international matches. This led President Kaunda and the UNIP attachment to the game to lobby and persuade the parastatal companies like ZCCM, ZIMCO, ZSIC and BP to support the game in a number of ways in which they can.93 Zambia Daily Mail, 8th December 1976, p. 8. Giacomo, Macola, One Zambia, Many Histories towards a History of Post-Colonial Zambia. (Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2008), p. 17 91 Chipande, “Chipolopolo: A Political and Social History of Football (Soccer) in Zambia, 1940s-1994,” 2015, p. 117. 92 “History of Zambian National Team" Football Association of Zambia. Retrieved 29th August, 2018. 93 Interview with Chabinga, 2nd November, 2018. 89 90 Page | 29 Similar centralization of power was evident in the governance of sport. They were attempts in the early years aftr independence to create a Department of Youth Development and Sport in government, and both a National Sports Advisory Council (NSAC) which later came to be known as the National Sports Council of Zambia (NSCZ) and NOCZ were established.94 However, upon the introduction of the one-party state, the UNIP Central Committee became the party’s, and thus the government’s, supreme policy-making body. Under the Central Committee, the Youth and Sport Sub-Committee comprised political appointees who wielded their power to inflence all sport policy-related matters. Government offcials were answerable to the Sub-Committee, which had the mandate to appoint or dismiss board members of statutory bodies such as the aforementioned NSAC.95 Sport being used as a political propaganda by a regime comes into being whereby sports victories by a national team contribute to reinforcing the image of respect and strength and even the legitimacy of a political regime of the country. 96 In postcolonial Africa, the political leaders had a number of reasons as in why they used sports as tool for propagating their political aspirations and ideologies. Nonetheless, Bainvel argues that there are a number of reasons in why political leaders used sports a tool for propagating their political aspirations and ideologies and some of these include reason is to promote the status of the nation. 97 Many postcolonial African political leaders understood the power and the status of not only winning the medals at a major sporting event but just the honour which comes with participation at that respective sporting event. In an interview with Chabinga he stated that, the UNIP government persuaded the parastatal companies like ZCCM, ZIMCO, ZSIC and BP to sponsor the Olympic team for the Seoul Games. This was so because it would have painted a Banda, “Zambia: Government’s role in colonial and modern times”, (2010), pg. 241. Banda, “Zambia: Government’s role in colonial and modern times”, (2010), pg. 242. 96 Arnaud and Riordan., Sport and International Politics. (1998), p. 11. 97 Bainvel, Sport and Politics: A study of the relationship between International Politics and Football. (January 2005) p. 44. 94 95 Page | 30 bad picture not only for Zambia but the whole southern African region and the African continent at large if Zambia had failed to send the team because of lack resources.98 In addition to that, African postcolonial leaders sought to promote a sense of identity, belonging and unity by having control of sporting activities in the country. The 1950s and 1960s was the period of decolonisation of African and the newly independent African nations sought to form their own identity away from their colonial masters. Togetherness and unity had been created during sport events, making the different members of the society closer. For example, it was a common scenario for the Zambia national team to travel and play against select sides in all the provinces of the country.99 During these games, people shared an emotional togetherness and unity and the common values were used to unify the provinces rather than promote cultural diversity of the country’s population. Furthermore, the postcolonial African governments saw it fit to develop some standards within a certain dominant political ideology, for example in the case of Zambia we see the introduction of the Humanism as aforementioned. In an interview with Tembo he mentioned that, football was sponsored by the government with the help of the private sector in order to develop the standard of togetherness and unity especially when economic and political acts were not going so well in the country under President Kaunda’s regime.100 Sport was being used to increase the citizens support of political leaders and government itself in such a way it created support and associated politicians to victory. The political leaders interest in sport sough to seek an intimate relation with the people they were leading. Football is not only a simple leisure that you practise in your spare time; it also has a social, political, cultural, economic and diplomatic interest all over the world. Interview with Chabinga, 2nd November, 2018. Interview with Chabinga, 2nd November, 2018. 100 Interview with Tembo, 21st September, 2018. 98 99 Page | 31 Bainvel states that in nearly all the third-world countries especially Africa, football is a path of national unity. The union is obtained by the football national team even if it can be opposed sometimes by political or ethnical enemies with violence inside the country. 101 Even people, who don’t like football go to the stadiums to meet up with other people and speak about a lot of issues which affects them. He further argues that, football is a social direction which maintained direct links among the people. With the end of the colonialism, football was the only hobby that Africans could be proud of. The political leaders of the newly independent African nations used football to build the national identity, to assert people’s dignity, the cultural blooming of the youth and unifying all the people.102 In addition to that, Chipande argues that President Kenneth Kaunda and his ruling UNIP government, declared a one-party state. Fearing that people would direct their anger and discontent over the team’s poor performance towards the ruling authorities, the Minister of Labour and Social Services Dingiswayo Banda assured the nation that government was going to take drastic measures to reorganise soccer administration to improve the national team’s performance in future international competitions.103 President Kaunda had passion for football, supported its development and also attempted to use it as a tool for propagating his political ideologies.104 Big sporting events always have been subjected to explicit political involvement and the Olympics for example have not been spared. Even an idealist such as the founder of the modern Olympic Games, the French Baron Pierre de Coubertin, argued that sport should be linked to national interests, when he stated that the Olympics should embrace traditional virtues of Bainvel, Sport and Politics: A study of the relationship between International Politics and Football. (January 2005), p. 60. 102 Bainvel, Sport and Politics: A study of the relationship between International Politics and Football. (January 2005), p. 60. 103 Hikabwa D., Chipande, “Challenge for the Ball: Elites, Fans and the Control of Football in Zambia’s OneParty State, 1973–1991,” Journal of Southern African Studies, (08 November 2018), p. 2. 104 Chipande, “Challenge for the Ball: Elites, Fans and the Control of Football in Zambia’s OneParty State, 1973–1991,” Journal of Southern African Studies, (08 November 2018), p. 3. 101 Page | 32 sportsmanship, such as fair play, the beauty of the fight and national representation. 105 The focus on national representation when it comes to sporting competitions has not been reduced over time as more and more countries participate in these games. Government intervention in sport has been evidenced in many countries throughout history. Today, sport and politics are still inseparably intertwined and often work to demonstrate social, economic, or political supremacy in the country. The relationship between sport and politics is one of the most enduring and universal examples of society’s influence on sport. 106 Whilst there may still be some people who consider sport and politics to be completely separate entities, evidence suggests that it is no longer possible for any serious social critic to suggest a separation between the worlds of sport and politics. For example, Horne et al. state that sport involves rules and regulations which are derived in some way from the world because sport could be used to promote nation-building and international image-making. 107 In addition to that Allison in argues that there is very little current evidence to support the view that sport and politics exist independently and the interpretation that the idea of sport prevailing either below or above politics is not justifiable at all.108 Conclusion Sport has always been a target for political interest of various kinds. Ever since the dawn of modern sport, political leaders have seen the potential of making sport political and they are not to blame. The citizens cannot even hold the political leaders responsible for using sport for their own purposes, not least when the people consider that the sport movements never have D.W., Ball, “Olympic Games Competition: Structural Correlates of National Success,” International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 15, (1972), p. 186. 106 Lin, Ping Lee and Nai, “Theorising the role of sport in state politics,” p. 23. 107 J., Horne, A., Tomlinson, and G., Whannel, Understanding Sport: An Introduction to the Sociological and Cultural Analysis of Sport. (London: E & FN Spon, 1999), p. 11. 108 L., Allison, (ed.), The Changing Politics of Sport. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), p. 23. 105 Page | 33 been shy to invite political actors into the sporting arena. This is so because at times they have had mutual interests to continue working together in order for them to coexist. The relationship between sport and politics has always been there and the sport organizations all over the world such as CAF, FIFA, IOC and others always have been preparing for a political invasion of sport. Page | 34 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Zambia was still far from being one state at independence in 1964. The regional divisions were deeply rooted in history and by no means narrowly conceived ethnic divisions.109 Lack of unity in the country was itself reflected within the ruling party. UNIP had been formed as a platform for the campaign to end colonial rule. It thus attracted Zambians with diverse interests however it became difficult to keep these different interest groups together. As a result, the party began to experience intense intra-party competition such Simon Mwansa Kapwepwe, the close associate of President Kaunda and a former Vice President of UNIP and Zambia, broke away from UNIP in 1971 and became leader of a new party called the United Progressive Party (UPP) dominated by the Bembas from Northern Province.110 The popularity of football led the UNIP to attempts of using it as a tool to propagating the political party’s agendas, particularly to youths. During Kaunda’s regime, the UNIP government had to deal with sensitive postcolonial issues such as socio-economic challenges such as its dependence on foreign expertise, despite demands for local job creation. 111 Apart from that, it had to find ways and means of consolidating its grip on authority and power. The French Baron Pierre de Coubertin had envisioned the Olympics to bring peace and unity among the nations in the world without political means or involvement, but the situation changed rapidly everything and government policies were really influenced by sports. Not only totalitarian states used sport for their propaganda but also democratic ones to promote national strength.112 Sport is not an essential actor but it plays a big role in people’s consciousness and Howard, Simson, Zambia: A Country Study. (Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, 1985), p. 15. 110 Simson, Zambia: A Country Study. (1985), p. 16. 111 Chipande, “Challenge for the Ball: Elites, Fans and the Control of Football in Zambia’s OneParty State, 1973–1991,” Journal of Southern African Studies, (08 November 2018), p. 13. 112 R., Holt, Interwar Sport and Interwar Relations: Some Conclusions in Arnaud, P. and Riordan J., Sport and 109 Page | 35 decision. Politicians and many different actors of the civil society are using sport to promote their ideas. Furthermore, xenophobic ideas of nationalism are too often demonstrated and ‘sporting nationalism’ or pacific nationalism should be more important. Ben-Porat argues that all of the properties of conservatism, conflict, unification, and identity infuse sport with power. Political leaders understand that “even the one who only cheers” the national team “becomes a symbol of his nation himself.113 Sport has been used for many different reasons because it is really influential on people. Sport can transform people’s lives in so many ways by improving personal health, building teamwork and even turning the most disaffected of young people into disciplined athletes. Today, modern sport represents a major political, economic, social and cultural force in the world.114 Sport has always been a unifier in Zambia because it brings all the people together despite their different political, social, economic and religious divides.115 For example, President Kaunda strategically appointed Ministers of Youth and Sports as those people who loved sports and not just football; for example, the likes of Ben Kakoma, Kebby Musokotwane, Kebby Hachipuka, Frederick Hapunda, General Kingsley Chinkuli and so forth. Kaoma further stressed that the latter is arguably the most sporting Minister Zambia has ever had because at some point despite being the Sports Minister he was also the club patron for the Zambia Army sponsored football club, Green Buffaloes.116 In addition to that, football in should not just be treated as a form of recreation or leisure but as a place where power and political struggles are fought. As supported by findings of this study, prior, during and after the 1988 Olympic Games, President Kaunda’ regime used the games as a platform for propagating their own political aspirations and ideologies such as the International Politics, (London: E & FN Spon, 1998), Chapter 12, p. 214; Pierre de Coubertin, Olympism; Selected Writings, Norbert Müller (ed.). (Lausanne: International Olympic Committee, 2000), p. 542. 113 Ben-Porat, A., “Split loyalty: Football-cum-nationality in Israel,” (2008), p. 106. 114 Ko Min, “Sport as A Tool of Politics: A Study on Myanmar’s Southeast Asian Games 2013,” (2015), p. 64. 115 Interview with Tembo, 21st September, 2018. 116 Interview with Kaoma, 1st November, 2018. Page | 36 Zambian Humanism in which in an interview with Chabinga he mentioned that during President Kaunda’s rule there was “Ubuntu” which was a philosophy of helping out your neighbours when they are in need and not being selfish.117 Furthermore, during the course of this study I came to think of a theme which I shared with the people I interviewed and I was honoured to hear their side of the story. Football had been introduced by the missionaries and the colonial administrators both as a leisure activity and an activity to monitor the Africans. So, if football was not a popular sport what would the postcolonial African used as tool for togetherness and unity? In an interview with Tembo he argued that during the late 1970s and the 1980s, Zambia had also been put on the map through the sport of boxing. He further stresses that at the time it was the popular sport as well if not second to football.118 Kaoma agreed with Tembo’s assessment by stating that, even if boxing would not draw thousands and thousands of people to the stadium as football did, but the UNIP government was passionate about the sport as they were about football. For example, during Lottie Mwale’s fights who arguably is the best boxer Zambia has ever produced, the Independence Stadium would get filled up and at times it would seem as if it is a football match being played but people are actually watching a boxing match.119 Interesting enough, Chabinga had a different opinion on what President Kaunda and his UNIP government would have used instead of football. He argues that common ethnic group dances such the Kalela dance which was common on the Copperbelt. Dancing competitions would bring the people from all walks of life together and through that the dances would have been used a tool to unify the people.120 This study has examined Zambia’s participation and performance at the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul, South Korea with the main headline and shock of the tournament being Zambia Interview with Chabinga, 2nd November, 2018. Interview with Tembo, 21st September, 2018. 119 Interview with Kaoma, 1st November, 2018. 120 Interview with Chabinga 117 118 Page | 37 humiliating Italy by 4-0. It has also examined the prior preparations and qualifying in which Zambia, Tunisia and Nigeria were the only African teams to send the football teams to the Olympics. In addition to that, it has also investigated the people or the fans reactions to Zambia’s participation and performance because despite being a dominant football powerhouse in southern Africa and the rest of the continent, Zambia were treated as underdogs on global stage. 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