Plant Diversity 41 (2019) 153e165
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Plant Diversity
journal homepage: http://www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/plant-diversity/
http://journal.kib.ac.cn
Plant diversity of the Kangchenjunga Landscape, Eastern Himalayas
Pratikshya Kandel a, Nakul Chettri a, *, Ram P. Chaudhary b, Hemant Kumar Badola c, 1,
Kailash S. Gaira c, Sonam Wangchuk d, Namgay Bidha d, Yadav Uprety b, Eklabya Sharma a
a
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal
Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Kathmandu, Nepal
c
G B Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment and Sustainable Development (GBPNIHESD), Sikkim, India
d
Nature Conservation Division, Department of Forest and Park Services, Thimphu, Bhutan
b
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 8 January 2018
Received in revised form
21 April 2019
Accepted 23 April 2019
Available online 26 April 2019
The Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL) in the Eastern Himalayas is a transboundary complex shared by
Bhutan, India, and Nepal. It forms a part of the ‘Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot’ and is one of the biologically richest landscapes in the Eastern Himalayas. In this paper, we use secondary information to
review and consolidate the knowledge on the flora of the KL. We reviewed 215 journal articles, analysed
the history of publications on the flora of the KL, their publication pattern in terms of temporal and
spatial distribution and key research areas. Our review shows that the landscape has a long history of
botanical research that dates back to the 1840s and progressed remarkably after the 1980s. Most of the
studies have been carried out in India, followed by Nepal and Bhutan. The majority of these have been
vegetation surveys, followed by research on ethnobotanical aspects and Non-Timber Forest Products
(NTFPs). This paper describes the forest types and characteristic species of the KL and details the species
richness, diversity and dominant families of seed plants. A total of 5198 species of seed plants belonging
to 1548 genera and 216 families have been recorded from the landscape, including 3860 dicots, 1315
monocots and 23 gymnosperms. Among families, Orchidaceae is the most diversely represented family
in terms of species richness. This paper also draws attention to the threatened and endemic flora of the
KL, including 44 species that are threatened at national and global level and 182 species that are
endemic. Finally, the paper reviews the major challenges facing the KL, the conservation efforts and
practices that are currently in place and recommends systematic and comprehensive floral surveys,
particularly long-term data collection and monitoring and transboundary collaboration, to address the
existing knowledge gaps on floral diversity of the KL.
Copyright © 2019 Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Publishing services by
Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BYNC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
(Editors: Zhekun Zhou and Xuefei Yang)
Keywords:
Floral diversity
Transboundary landscape
Nepal
India
Bhutan
Biodiversity
1. Introduction
Plant diversity plays a key role in balancing ecosystems, protecting watersheds, regulating climate, providing habitats to animals
and supporting livelihoods by providing food, fibre, medicines, and
raw materials for many industries (Díaz et al., 2018). Plant species
inventories are vast resources that provide an essential basis for
designing conservation interventions at various scales: local,
* Corresponding author. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, GPO Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal.
E-mail address: Nakul.Chettri@icimod.org (N. Chettri).
Peer review under responsibility of Editorial Office of Plant Diversity.
1
Present address: Chief Minister's Office, Government of Sikkim, Gangtok, Sikkim, India.
regional, and global (Brooks et al., 2006; Chettri et al., 2001; Basnet
and Badola, 2012). Species listings or check lists, which contain primary and/or secondary species data, are critical to obtain information about the baseline condition, understand richness and
distribution of species and analyse the pattern and changes in distribution, composition, and diversity. Such data have been used to
study the taxonomy and biogeography of species for hundreds of
years (Chapman, 2005). Lack of data restricts resource managers and
decision makers from making accurate evaluations for interventions
for the state of biodiversity of a targeted region or taking scientifically based conservation decisions (Proença et al., 2016). From a
biodiversity conservation perspective, the importance of secondary
data must not be underestimated, as acquiring new data is costly and
time consuming. Using secondary data from the available literature
facilitates comparison among and between different studies to reveal
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pld.2019.04.006
2468-2659/Copyright © 2019 Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This
is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
154
P. Kandel et al. / Plant Diversity 41 (2019) 153e165
landscape-level changes in distribution and population trends. In
this context, the importance of plant diversity data for the Kangchenjunga Landscape (KL) - one of the biologically richest landscapes
in the Eastern Himalayas - cannot be overemphasized.
The Eastern Himalayas, located at the juncture of the IndoMalayan, Palearctic and Sino-Japanese realms, stand out as being
one of the biologically richest areas on Earth (CEPF, 2005). The
considerable climatic variability associated with the topographic
complexity and elevational gradient, makes it a repository of wide
diversity of flora and fauna. Phytogeographically, the region represents a part of the Eastern Himalayan Province, which appears to be
one of the youngest in the Eastern Asiatic Region and contains a
number of endemic genera and species (Takhtajan, 1986). The Eastern
Himalayas are a part of two biodiversity hotspots e Indo-Burma and
Himalayan. Comprising 25 terrestrial ecoregions, the Eastern Himalayas are also known as the ‘cradle of flowering plants’ and is well
known for its rich floral diversity, which includes both high species
richness and endemism (Takhtajan, 1969; Olson et al., 2001).
The KL, situated between 26 21040.4900 to 28 70 51.2500 N latitudes
and 87 300 30.6700 to 90 240 31.1800 E longitudes and with an elevational range of 40 to 8586 m above sea level, is a transboundary
landscape in the Eastern Himalayas that is shared by Bhutan, India
and Nepal (Yonzon et al., 2000; Chettri et al., 2008; Kandel et al.,
2016). Designated through a consultative process and approved
by the governments of Bhutan, India and Nepal, the landscape includes an area of over 25,000 km2 around and to the south of
Mount Kangchenjunga, also known as Khangchendzonga in Sikkim,
the third highest mountain of the world. Of the total landscape
area, the Bhutan portion covers 5834 km2 (23%), the Indian portion
covers 14,062 km2 (56%) and the Nepal portion covers 5190 km2
(21%). The KL is one of 36 ‘Global Biodiversity Hotspots’
(Mittermeier et al., 2004). With 22 Important Bird and Biodiversity
Areas (IBAs), 19 protected areas (nine of which are transboundary in
nature), one UNESCO World Heritage Site (Khangchendzonga
Biosphere Reserve) and one Ramsar site (Mai Pokhari Ramsar site in
Ilam, Nepal), the KL is recognized as one of the priority areas for
biodiversity conservation in the Himalayan region (CEPF, 2005;
ICIMOD et al., 2017; Kandel et al., 2016). Furthermore, the landscape exhibits great cultural diversity with approximately 7.2
million people representing various ethnic and social groups. Some
of the ethnic groups that reside in the KL are found nowhere else in
the world. They include the Lepcha community of Sikkim and
Darjeeling in KLeIndia, eastern Nepal, and southwestern parts of
KLeBhutan; the Lhop (Doya) community of the Amo Chhu Valley in
KLeBhutan; and the Walungpas of Olangchung Gola of Taplejung
district in KLeNepal (ICIMOD et al., 2017).
The landscape is bestowed with lush vegetation and is a repository
of globally significant plant species. It is home to several highelevation species which are endemic to the region (Manish et al.,
2017). Approximately 5200 species of plants, including orchids, rhododendrons, wild edible plants, non-timber forest products (NTFPs),
and medicinal plants of high value are recorded from the region. Of
particular significance is the occurrence of more than 40 species of
rhododendron, which are native to the Eastern Himalayas (ICIMOD
et al., 2017). The flora of the KL has been the subject of ecological
investigations since the 1840s. Sir J.D. Hooker initiated the botanical
exploration of the KL in Eastern Nepal in 1848. Other pioneering
contributions have been made by Jacot-Guillarmod in the Yalung
Glacier near Kangchenjunga in 1905; W. Griffith, a plant collector in
Sikkim, and Smith and Cave who detailed the floral world of the highelevation zone of KLeIndia in 1911; M.L. Banerji, between 1948 and
1957 from Koshi Basin, and Darjeeling via Ilam, Taplejung, Topkegola;
Hara in 1963; Numata during 1963e1982; and, Grew-Wilson in 1973
and 1981 in Taplejung and adjoining areas (Rajbhandari, 2016). Over
the past two decades, many surveys on flora of the KL (e.g., Badola and
Pradhan, 2010; Chettri et al., 2009; Kholia, 2011; Manish and Pandit,
2018; Pala et al., 2019; Pradhan and Badola, 2008; Rai and Sharma,
1995; Saurav and Das, 2014; Shankar, 2001; Singh et al., 2003;
Singh and Sundriyal, 2005; Sundriyal and Rai, 1996; Uprety et al.,
2016) have been published. These publications have broadened our
knowledge on species distribution, composition, abundance, biogeography and traditional knowledge for utilization and conservation of
flora of the KL, and the field of botany in the Himalayas in general. The
primary objective of many publications, except those pertaining to
ecological research (Carpenter, 2005; Ohsawa et al., 1986; Tambe and
Rawat, 2010; Pradhan and Badola, 2015; Manish and Pandit, 2018)
and new records (Das and Verbeken, 2012; Sharma and Pandit, 2009;
Thapa and Lama, 2015), included listing the floral species occurring in
some parts of the landscape. However, except for scattered information often severely limited to certain parts of the landscape, no
attempt has been made to provide cumulative data on the flora of the
entire landscape. For instance, even the basic checklist of species for
some areas, including protected areas (e.g., Mahananda Wildlife
Sanctuary), are scanty, whereas some areas (e.g., Sikkim and Kanchenjunga Conservation Area) are intensively studied. Furthermore,
often this information is not easily accessible because it is either
unpublished or archived at various sources such as libraries or private
collections. Thus, this paper is an attempt to consolidate the knowledge on flora reported and documented from the landscape, understand research trends and distribution, identify focused research
areas, and document conservation and management challenges. The
goal is to serve the needs of a range of stakeholders, including students, researchers, conservation institutions as well as the policy- and
decision-makers and to provide valuable information on the flora of
the KL that may strengthen conservation and development in an
important transboundary landscape in the future.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
The Kangchenjunga Landscape encompasses eastern Nepal
(parts of Taplejung, Panchthar, Ilam and Jhapa districts), Sikkim and
North Bengal (Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri, and recently formed Alipurduar and Kalimpong districts) in India, and western Bhutan
(portions of Haa, Chukha, Samtse, Dagana and Paro districts). Its
elevational range extends from 40 m a.s.l. in Jalthal forest of Nepal
to 8586 m a.s.l., the height of Mount Kangchenjunga. Given its
extreme elevational variation, it is endowed with varied climatic
conditions, complex topography and diverse vegetation. The
vegetation of the KL is broadly divisible into the following groups:
(1) tropical; (2) subtropical; (3) warm temperate; (4) cool
temperate; (5) subalpine; and (6) alpine zones (Chaudhary et al.,
2015; Kandel et al., 2016; Uprety et al., 2016). The varied forest
types and rich habitat diversity of the KL support many threatened
plant and animal species. It provides habitat to many charismatic
mammals, including the snow leopard (Panthera uncia), Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), red panda
(Ailurus fulgens), and takin (Budorcas taxicolor) (Chettri et al., 2008;
Kandel et al., 2016). The landscape is home to many threatened
species of Himalayan birds such as tragopans (e.g. Tragopan satyra)
and hornbills (e.g. Aceros nipalensis). Similarly, the landscape is
equally rich in flowering plants, including orchids and rhododendrons (Kandel et al., 2016). Several threatened and endangered
plant species are recorded from the landscape, including Chiraito
(Swertia chirayita, Roxb. ex Fleming, Karsten), Himalayan Yew
(Taxus wallichiana Zucc.), Kutki (Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora,
Hook. F. (Prain)), Marsh Orchid (Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo)
and Himalayan Mayapple (Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (Royle)
T.S.Ying) (Uprety et al., 2016; O'Neill et al., 2017).
155
P. Kandel et al. / Plant Diversity 41 (2019) 153e165
We carried out a systematic review of accessible literature
relating to the flora of the KL. We used ‘Google Scholar’ for the
web based searches, using specific search terms ‘Darjeeling,’
‘Sikkim,’ ‘Jalpaiguri,’ ‘Kalimpong,’ ‘Eastern Nepal,’ ‘Western
Bhutan,’ ‘Eastern Himalaya,’ ‘Kangchenjunga Landscape,’ and
‘Flora,’ ‘Plants,’ ‘Vegetation,’ ‘Ethnobotany,’ ‘NTFPs.’ For those
publications that did not appear with these search terms, we
made additional searches using the name of the protected areas in
the landscape. Altogether 314 publications were retrieved, which
also included grey literature. However, to increase the practicality
and reliability of our survey, we considered only 215 peerreviewed English language journal articles for analyses. Because
the literature searches were done in 2017, our list of publications
included literature published until 2016. The list of publications
on flora from the KL is provided as a supporting document (S1).
Once collected, the peer-reviewed articles were chronologically
listed in a Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet. The analyses included a
review of publications for the following subcategories: study sites,
including the name of countries and districts, publication year and
subject focus of the publication.
In addition, for species richness and diversity, we transcribed
species data into a working database from various published
works (Chaudhary et al., 2015; ICIMOD et al., 2017; Lucksom,
2007; Maiti and Maiti, 2007; Pradhan and Lachungpa, 1990;
Uprety et al., 2016; WCD, 2014). After examining the taxonomic
information and records, an exhaustive checklist of seed plants
(dicots, monocots and gymnosperms) was prepared and verified
according to recent nomenclature. We used Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) IV for the classification and analyses of the seed
plants (APG IV, 2016). The data were analysed to look into the
taxonomic coverage of the floral species, including family, genera
and species of the flowering plants, as well as endemic and
threatened plants of the KL. The list of species is available on
ICIMOD's Regional Database System (http://rds.icimod.org/Home/
Data?group¼9&&page¼2).
3. Results
3.1. Pattern of publications
Our review included 215 publications related to flora from the
KL. It revealed that the earliest studies on flora from the KL were
published during the 1840s when the East India Company's
regime was expanding across the Indian Subcontinent (Hooker,
1849). The first documented study in the KL is about the traditional knowledge of the Lepchas of Sikkim on plant species, which
was authored by Sir Archibald Campbell, the first British army
officer to Sikkim and Darjeeling (Campbell, 1840). In 1854, Sir
Joseph Dalton Hooker, a notable British naturalist, published an
account of his botanical expeditions in the Kangchenjunga region
in two volumes entitled Himalayan Journals. Along these lines,
much of the early publications from the KL are the records of
naturalists during their travel and expeditions around Sikkim and
Darjeeling. These include studies by Hooker (1849), Hooker
(1852), and King and Pantling (1889). The mid-20th century
witnessed a few generalist yet notable surveys, including preliminary exploration and surveys of forest vegetation, pteridophytic flora and wild edible plants of Bhutan, Sikkim,
Darjeeling and eastern Nepal (Grierson and Long, 1983; Hajra and
Chakraborty, 1981; Mehra and Bir, 1964; Numata, 1966; Yoda,
1967). There is a dearth of publications on the flora of the KL for
140 years after the first recorded publication by Campbell in 1840.
Approximately 15% of the floristic studies from the KL were
published between 1840 and 1990. During the late 20th century,
there was an exponential increase in the number of studies across
KL, with 85% of the total studies published between 1990 and
2016 (Fig. 1).
3.2. Spatial distribution of publications
Based on country-specific documentation, India received the
highest survey records (81%), followed by Nepal (13%) and Bhutan
(6%) (Fig. 2). Location and state-specific analysis revealed that the
majority of studies from India were carried out in the state of Sikkim (55%) followed by Darjeeling, including Kalimpong (33%), and
Jalpaiguri (including Alipurduar) district (12%). Of the total studies,
14% were carried out in the protected areas of the KL.
3.3. Subject-wise distribution of publications
The majority of the 215 publications on flora from the KL
focused on vegetation surveys (43%), followed by ethnobotanical
studies (32%), and documentation of NTFPs (25%) (Fig. 3a). Among
the vegetation surveys, 53% were related to diversity and distribution of flora, 40% were related to ecological research and 7% were
about new records of floral species. Of the total vegetation surveys,
only 16% were related to specific species found in the KL, e.g.,
rhododendrons and orchids (Fig. 3b).
Among ethnobotanical studies, 70% were focused on ethnomedicine, of which the majority (71%) was related to use of
particular species for specific ailments. Of the studies on traditional
knowledge, 16% were related to bioresource utilization, 9% to the
90
Number of studies
80
70
Number of publicaƟon
2.2. Data collection and analysis
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Year
Fig. 1. Temporal pattern of publications on flora of the Kangchenjunga Landscape.
6%
13%
Bhutan
Nepal
India
81%
Fig. 2. Country specific distribution of publications in the Kangchenjunga Landscape.
156
P. Kandel et al. / Plant Diversity 41 (2019) 153e165
Kinabalu Mountain of Malaysia, viz. 5000 (Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment, 2014). However, overexploitation of
the forest resources for fuelwood, fodder and timber has impacted
forest structure, composition, species regeneration, and woody
biomass productivity (Chettri et al., 2002; Sundriyal and Sharma,
1996; Sundriyal et al., 1994).
a
100
90
80
70
60
3.5. Species diversity and richness
50
40
30
20
10
0
VegetaƟon survey
Ethnobotany
NTFPs
b
60
50
40
30
20
10
VegetaƟon survey
Ethnobotany
New record
Trade
Ecological research
UƟlizaƟon
Diversity and distribuƟon
Biodiversity conservaƟon
Wild edible plants
Bioresource uƟlizaƟon
Ethnomedicine
New record
Ecological research
Diversity and distribution
0
NTFPs
Fig. 3. Subject focus of publications in the Kangchenjunga landscape, with major
thematic areas (a) and sub-thematic areas (b).
The systematic review of literature for the detailed inventory of
seed plants of the KL revealed the presence of 5198 species (dicotyledons, monocotyledons and gymnosperms) belonging to 1548
genera and 216 families (Table 2). Among the documented species,
3860 are dicots, 1315 monocots and 23 gymnosperms. The ratio of
monocots to dicots in respect to families, genera, and species is
1:5.7, 1:3.2 and 1:2.9, respectively. The most diverse families in the
KL in terms of species richness include Orchidaceae (704 species in
152 genera), followed by Fabaceae (308 species in 105 genera),
Asteraceae (255 species in 100 genera), Poaceae (233 species in 96
genera), and Rubiaceae (147 species in 50 genera). The ten dominant families of flowering plants in the KL are listed in Fig. 4. Our
analysis shows that 42% of the total flowering plant species found in
the KL belong to these ten major families. Among gymnosperms, six
families are recorded in the KL, of which Pinaceae (10 species) and
Cupressaceae (9 species) emerged as dominant. The Cycadaceae,
Ephedraceae, Podocarpaceae and Taxaceae families are represented
by one species each.
3.6. Threatened taxa
utilization of various wild edible plants, and 6% to traditional approaches of biodiversity conservation. Approximately 35% of the
total ethnobotanical studies were focused on traditional knowledge
of specific ethnic communities, e.g., Lepcha, Rabha, Satar, Limbu,
Meche, Rajbanshi and Dhimal communities.
Of the studies on NTFPs in the KL, 35% were related to diversity
and distribution, 31% to utilization, 20% to ecological research, 8% to
trade, and 6% to new records of NTFP use in the KL.
The KL hosts at least 44 plant species that are threatened at the
global or national level. Of these, one species is considered globally
threatened under IUCN Red list status, viz. T. wallichiana
(Endangered, IUCN, 2019). There are two species categorized as
‘Near Threatened’: Abies spectabilis and Juglans regia L. (Table 3).
Additionally, the conservation policies of three countries in the KL
have provided protection to a number of floral species (Sikkim
Biodiversity Action Plan, 2012; ICIMOD et al., 2017). Among nationally threatened plant species of Bhutan, 14 species are found in
the KL. Similarly, 20 plant species that are considered threatened by
the Government of India and 25 species that are nationally
threatened in Nepal are found in the KL.
3.4. Forest types and characteristic species
3.7. Endemic flowering plants of the Kangchenjunga Landscape
The types of forests in the KL are broadly divisible into the
following groups based on the elevational range in which they occur:
(i) tropical (below 1000 m) characterized by tropical moist and dry
forests comprising Shorea, Bombax and Cycas species; (ii) subtropical
(1000e2000 m a.s.l.) with various broadleaved species such as
Schima and Castanopsis; (iii) warm temperate (2000e2500 m a.s.l.)
dominated by broadleaved forests of Castanopsis, Quercus, Schima
and Ilex; (iv) cool temperate (2500e3000 m a.s.l.) mostly dominated
by Rhododendron, Abies and Acer species; (v) subalpine
(3000e4000 m a.s.l.) dominated mostly by dwarf conifers, dwarf
species of rhododendrons, Tsuga and Juniperus species; and (vi)
alpine (>4000 m a.s.l.) with sparse vegetation but mostly dominated
by Juniperus, Rosa and Rhododendron species (Table 1). Scrutiny of the
literature revealed that the forests in the KL have high species diversity (Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996; Sundriyal et al., 1994; Singh and
Sundriyal, 2005). Although the KL consists of only a small fraction of
the total area of the Himalayas, it contains half of the 10,000 floral
species of the Himalayas (Xu et al., 2019). Similarly, the number is
close to the total flora of Nepal, viz. 6653 (Kunwar et al., 2010), that of
Arunachal Pradesh of India, viz. 4117 (Arya and Sunny, 2016) and
Based on our review of literature, the KL has 178 species and 4
subspecies of endemic flowering plants (Annex 1). These 182 species, including 4 subspecies, are from 105 genera and 38 families.
Altogether, 8 families have one species each, and 6 families have 2
species each. Asteraceae had the highest number of endemic species, with 34 species from 18 genera (Fig. 5).
4. Discussion
Preliminary assessment of the landscape through literature review (Majumdar et al., 1984; Shrestha and Ghimire, 1996; Maiti and
Maiti, 2007; O'Neill et al., 2017) and analyses indicate that the KL
harbours more than 5100 species of flora, which includes
700 þ orchid species, 40 þ rhododendron species and
700 þ medicinal and aromatic plants. A substantial number of
these plants are either endemic to the region or threatened nationally and globally.
Despite being an area of interest to botanists since the 19th
Century, many parts of the KL still remain inadequately explored.
Biological surveys are extremely difficult in many remote and
157
P. Kandel et al. / Plant Diversity 41 (2019) 153e165
Table 1
Major forest types found in the Kangchenjunga Landscape.
Elevational Zone
Forest type
Characteristic species
Tropical (<1000 m)
-
Shorea robusta Gaertn, Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb., Bombax ceiba L.,
Cycas pectinata Buch.- Ham., Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.
Subtropical (1000e2000 m)
Warm temperate (2000e2500 m)
Cool temperate (2500e3000 m)
Subalpine (3000e4000 m)
Alpine (>4000 m)
Tropical riverine evergreen/deciduous forest
Tropical moist evergreen/deciduous forest
Tropical moist mixed forest
Tropical dry evergreen/deciduous forest
Subtropical riverine evergreen/deciduous forest
Subtropical moist evergreen/deciduous forest
Subtropical moist mixed forest
Subtropical dry evergreen/deciduous forest
Warm temperate riverine evergreen/deciduous forest
Warm temperate moist evergreen/deciduous forest
Warm temperate moist mixed forest
Warm temperate dry evergreen/deciduous forest
Cool temperate riverine deciduous forest
Cool temperate moist evergreen forest
Cool temperate moist mixed forest
Cool temperate dry evergreen forest
Subalpine riverine evergreen forest
Subalpine deciduous forest
Subalpine moist evergreen forest
Subalpine moist deciduous forest
Subalpine dry evergreen forest
Alpine riverine
Alpine meadow
Alpine scrub
Schima wallichi (DC.) Korth, Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm.) A. DC.,
Macaranga pustulata King ex Hook. F., Machilus odoratissima Nees
Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm.) A. DC., Ilex dipyrena Wall., Quercus lamellosa
Sm., Quercus semecarpifolia Sm., Lithocarpus pachyphylla (Kurz) Rehder
Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirbel, Betula utilis D.Don, Rhododendron
arboreum Sm., Acer Campbellii Hook. f. & Thomson.
Abies spectabilis (D.Don) Mirbel, Tsuga dumosa D.Don, Betula utilis D.Don,
Acer sp., Larix griffithiana Carriere, Rhododendron barbatum Wall. ex G.
Don, Juniperus indica Bertol.
Rhododendron niveum Hook. f., Rosa spp, Juniperus indica Bertol.
Adapted from: Kandel et al. (2016).
(Rajbhandari, 2016). Also, significant contributions to research in
the KL-India have been expedited by the presence of two state level
universities, i.e., North Bengal University and Sikkim University,
and research institutes such as the Botanical Survey of India and the
Govin Ballabh Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment
and Sustainable Development (Kandel et al., 2016). However, only
14% of the publications are from protected areas of the KL. Although
protected areas cover 30% of the total landscape, comprehensive
documentation of the flora of these protected areas is scarce.
Indeed, many protected areas lack even basic information such as
species checklists. Moreover, in cases in which documentation is
available, access to that information is limited.
Our analyses also reveal that the majority of publications are
focused on vegetation survey followed by ethonobotanical studies
and documentation of NTFPs. Among the vegetation surveys, the
majority are related to diversity and distribution of floral species.
This could be credited to the exploratory studies carried out in
Sikkim and Darjeeling that are basically the checklists of flora
prepared during excursions in the state's hills (For instance, Hooker,
1849; King and Pantling, 1889; Matthew, 1971; Mehra and Bir,
Species
Genera
Rosaceae
Brassicaceae
Lamiaceae
Apocynaceae
Family
inaccessible mountainous parts of the landscape. Thus, many floral
taxa are inadequately studied and the degree of their richness is
underestimated. Species richness in the KL is likely to increase with a
systematic biodiversity inventory and scientific research on distribution patterns, especially in the remote and less explored areas. For
instance, in the KLeNepal, in the Kangchenjunga-Singhalila ridge
bordering India, a preliminary survey of vascular plants recorded 598
species of flowering plants, of which 12 species were reported as
being new to Nepal, and two species of Begonia (Begonia dolichoptera
S. Rajbhandary & K.K. Shrestha, and Begonia panchtharensis S. Rajbhandary) were reported as being new to science (Shrestha et al.,
2008). Similarly, in Sikkim alone in the KLeIndia, flowering plants
are represented by about 4500 species belonging to 1371 genera of
197 families (Bhutia et al., 2002; Subba, 2002; Badola and Subba,
2012). The Darjeeling hills also have high floral diversity, representing an estimated one-seventh of the flora of India with about
4000 species of flowering plants under 160 families (Bhujel, 1996).
Similarly, out of 736 recorded plant species in the KLeBhutan, there
are 427 species of flora under 115 families in the Jigme Khesar Strict
Nature Reserve alone (Rai et al., 2008). This further underscores the
importance of the KL in terms of biodiversity.
Our analysis indicates that most survey efforts have been in the
KLeIndia. This could be attributed to the fact that the largest part of
the KL is covered by the KLeIndia as compared to Nepal and Bhutan
and also because 17 of the 19 protected areas of the KL are located
in the KLeIndia, where, during the colonial period, a fairly substantial number of surveys were carried out. Furthermore, in Nepal
botanical explorations have been slowed because foreigners were
not allowed to travel outside of Kathmandu until after 1949
Euphorbiaceae
Rubiaceae
Poaceae
Asteraceae
Table 2
Detailed analysis of seed plants of the Kangchenjunga Landscape.
Fabaceae
Orchidaceae
Plant groups
Family
Genus
Species
Dicotyledons
Monocotyledons
Gymnosperms
Total
179
31
6
216
1175
357
16
1548
3860
1315
23
5198
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Number of genera and species
Fig. 4. Dominant families of seed pants with number of genera and species in the
Kangchenjunga Landscape.
158
P. Kandel et al. / Plant Diversity 41 (2019) 153e165
1964). More recently, ecological research is gaining momentum in
the KL. Some representative ecological research on the flora of the
KL include those by Acharya et al. (2010), Chettri et al. (2002), Dey
et al. (2015), Moktan et al. (2009), Singh and Sundriyal (2005),
Subba et al. (2015), Pradhan and Badola (2015), Tambe and Rawat
(2010). A small number of studies are related to new records of
floral species (for instance, Chettri et al., 2012; Chettri et al., 2012;
Chowdhury et al., 2013; Thapa and Lama, 2015) and exploration of
newer populations of rare rhododendrons (Badola and Pradhan,
2010a, b) and micro-habitat diversity and conservation aspects of
threatened species (Pradhan and Badola, 2015). This indicates the
high biodiversity value of the KL in terms of species richness, which
may increase with more intensive and systematic exploration in the
less explored areas. A substantial number of studies have focused
on ethnobotanical aspects (Pradhan and Badola, 2008; Uprety et al.,
2016; O'Neill et al., 2017), which indicates that the KL is rich in
traditional knowledge and local people are not only aware of the
valuable attributes of these species but also the community ecology
and life histories of diverse floral species.
The substantial number of surveys on NTFPs indicates that they
are particularly important in the KL because they contribute greatly
to the livelihood and economy of a large proportion of rural communities (Badola and Pradhan, 2013; O'Neil et al., 2017; Uprety et al.,
2016). Most commonly used NTFPs include medicinal plants and
wild edibles (Chettri et al., 2005). Publications indicate that the domestic as well as cross-border trade of NTFPs is prevalent in the
region since the historical times and trades are both legal and illegal
(Chaudhary et al., 2015; Choudhary, 2008). Medicinal plants are the
most traded NTFPs, followed by some wild edible plants and fibreyielding plants. As previously alluded to, a substantial number of
floral species in the KL are endemic and threatened nationally and
globally. The number of endemic species from the region has been
widely cited and reported (Myers, 1988; CEPF, 2005, 2007; Chettri
et al., 2010). The list prepared for this review exceeds the number
recorded for the Eastern Himalayas by Behera et al. (2002). Myers
(1988) has already reported that about 60% of the flora from Sikkim are endemic. Likewise, Bhutan and Nepal as expected to have
15% and 8% endemics, respectively (Anonymous, 1992). The high
Table 3
Threatened plant species in the Kangchenjunga Landscape.
Family
Species
Cycadaceae
Pinaceae
Pinaceae
Pinaceae
Taxaceae
Magnoliaceae
Magnoliaceae
Magnoliaceae
Magnoliaceae
Magnoliaceae
Lauraceae
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscoreaceae
Melanthiaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Berberidaceae
Saxifragaceae
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculaceae
Trochodendraceae
Fagaceae
Juglandaceae
Anacardiaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapindaceae
Polygonaceae
Ericaceae
Ericaceae
Gentianaceae
Apocynaceae
Apocynaceae
Boraginaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Asteraceae
Caprifoliaceae
Araliaceae
Apiaceae
Apiaceae
Cycas pectinata Buch.- Ham.
Abies spectabilis (D. Don) Mirb.
Larix griffithii Hook. f.
Pinus roxburghii Sarg.
Taxus wallichiana Zucc.
Magnolia campbelli Hook.f. & Thomson
Magnolia globosa Hook.f. & Thomson
Magnolia kisopa (Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) Figlar
Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre
Magnolia lanuginosa (Wall.) Figlar & Noot.
Cinnamomum glaucescens (Nees) Hand.-Mazz.
Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb.
Dioscorea prazeri Prain & Burkill
Paris polyphylla Sm.
Cymbidium eburneum Lindl.
Cymbidium hookerianum Rchb.f.
Cymbidium whiteae King & Pantl.
Tipularia cunninghamii (King & Prain) S.C.Chen, S.W.Gale & P.J.Cribb
Paphiopedilum venustum (Wall. ex Sims) Pfitzer
Zeuxine pulchra King & Pantl.
Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (Royle) T.S.Ying
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.
Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser.
Aconitum napellus L.
Tetracentron sinense Oliv.
Lithocarpus fenestratus (Roxb.) Rehder
Juglans regia L.
Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B.L.Burtt & A.W.Hill
Acer calcaratum Gagnep.
Calamus nambariensis Becc.
Rheum nobile Hook. f. & Thomson
Rhododendron barbatum Wall. ex G. Don
Rhododendron niveum Hook. f.
Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex C.B.Clarke
Ceropegia hookerii C.B.Clarke ex Hook.f.
Ceropegia lucida Wall.
Maharanga emodi (Wall.) A. DC.
Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle
Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D.Y.Hong
Tibetoseris depressa (Hook.f. & Thomson) Sennikov
Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC.
Panax pseudoginseng Wall.
Pimpinella tongloensis P.K. Mukherjee
Pimpinella wallichiana (Miq.) Gandhi
IUCNa
CITES
Threatened statusb
KLeBhutan
a
IUCN Categories: E ¼ Endangered; V ¼ Vulnerable; NT ¼ Near Threatened; LC ¼ Least Concern.
National categories: E ¼ Endangered; V ¼ Vulnerable; T ¼ Threatened; R ¼ Rare.
Source: Chaudhary et al. (2015); DPR (2012); ICIMOD et al. (2017).
b
KLeIndia
KLeNepal
√ (V)
NT
LC
LC
E
LC
√
II
II
II
II
II
√
√
II
II
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
(E)
(T)
(T; GoN-II)
(T)
(T)
(V)
√ (V)
√ (T)
√ (E)
√
√
√
√
√
III
√
√
NT
(GoN-II)
(R, T)
(T)
(V, GoN-II)
(T)
(T)
(V)
(V)
(E)
(E)
(V)
(E)
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
(T)
(T)
(T)
(GoN-I, III)
(V)
√ (E)
√ (E)
√
√
√ (T)
√ (V)
√ (V)
√
√ (T)
√ (E)
II
√ (V)
√ (T)
√ (T)
√
√ (V)
√ (V, GoN-I)
II
II
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
(E)
(V)
(E)
(E)
(E)
√ (V)
159
P. Kandel et al. / Plant Diversity 41 (2019) 153e165
Number of species
Plantaginaceae
Acanthaceae
Hydrangeaceae
Geraniaceae
Vitaceae
Juncaceae
Arecaceae
Annonaceae
Violaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Crassulaceae
Cyperaceae
Alliaceae
Cupressaceae
Begoniaceae
Salicaceae
Eriocaulaceae
Orchidaceae
Caprifoliaceae
Lamiaceae
GenƟanaceae
Primulaceae
Brassicaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Boraginaceae
Polygonaceae
Papaveraceae
Apiaceae
Campanulaceae
Fabaceae
Berberidaceae
Ranunculaceae
Ericaceae
Orobanchaceae
Rosaceae
Saxifragaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Asteraceae
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Fig. 5. Number of endemic genera and species per family in the Kangchenjunga Landscape.
floristic diversity of the KL is attributed to contributions from the
surrounding floristic regions such as Chinese, Malayan and Siberian
elements (Hooker, 1904).
Like many biodiversity-rich landscapes in the world, the KL is also
faced with numerous local and transboundary challenges, both natural and anthropogenic, which threaten its rich biological diversity.
The evaluation of threats being faced by the biodiversity of the KL
shows that rapid population growth has led to widespread logging,
habitat fragmentation and extensive clearing of forests, and grasslands for cultivation and large scale infrastructural development,
including construction of highways and large dams (Gurung, 2006;
Grumbine and Pandit, 2013; Krishna et al., 2002; Pandit and
Grumbine, 2012). Only one study in the KL assessed the disturbance
indices of threatened herbs in Sikkim, which highlighted human
movement and NTFP collection as top conservation threats (Pradhan
and Badola, 2015). The geospatial analyses of land cover in the KL
reveals the conversion of forests and rangeland to other land uses,
particularly transformation of pristine habitats into extensive
monocultures of tea and cardamom, which may greatly reduce the
species richness of the landscape. Additional major threats to floral
diversity throughout the KL include invasive species, livestock overgrazing, erosions and landslides caused by deforestation of extremely
steep slopes, and unsustainable and/or illegal extraction and utilization of economically important species (Chaudhary et al., 2015;
ICIMOD et al., 2017; Pradhan and Badola, 2015; Uprety et al., 2016;
O'Neill et al., 2017).
In order to address various conservation and development opportunities and challenges that lie within this landscape, several
conservation efforts are being made at the national and transboundary levels. The governments of Bhutan, India and Nepal have
jointly initiated the Kangchenjunga Landscape Conservation and
Development Initiative (KLCDI) which adopts transboundary
ecosystem management approaches to ensure biodiversity conservation and sustainable development in the region (ICIMOD et al.,
2017). Nine out of 19 protected areas in the KL are transboundary in
nature (see Kandel et al., 2016 for details of the protected areas).
Except for two protected areas (one in the KLeBhutan and the other
in the KLeNepal), all other protected areas are located in KLeIndia.
These protected areas are inhabited by many charismatic floral
species. The Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve has recently
been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its
outstanding natural/biodiversity and cultural values, becoming the
first ‘Mixed Heritage’ site in India. There is only one Ramsar site, the
Mai Pokhari in the KL, which was established on 28 October 2008.
With the catchment area of around 12 ha, it is situated at an
elevation of 2100 m a.s.l. in Ilam District, Nepal. It is located in the
center of the Kangchenjunga-Singhalila Biodiversity Landscape
Complex, a biological corridor that forms a part of the Himalayan
160
P. Kandel et al. / Plant Diversity 41 (2019) 153e165
biodiversity hotspot, which is also recognized as an endemic bird
area and a center for plant species dispersal and diversity (CEPF,
2005). The dominant vegetation of this site is cloud forest and
East-Himalayan oak-laurel forest. A total of 231 plant species
belonging to 185 genera and 78 families has been recorded in this
area. Of the recorded species, 62 are medicinal and aromatic plants,
17 are orchids, five rhododendrons and three magnolias. Among
these, 22 species of flowering plants are globally threatened and are
listed in the IUCN Red List and/or in CITES appendix (DFO, 2012).
In addition, eleven Important Plant Areas (IPAs) for medicinal
plants have been identified in the KL (Hamilton and Radford, 2007;
GWB, 2010) e 2 in KLeBhutan, 7 in KLeIndia, and 18 in KLeNepal. In
KLeBhutan, the IPAs are Chele La (2500e4000 m a.s.l.) and Toorsa
(1600e3000 m a.s.l.). In KLeIndia, the IPAs are Dzongri-PhedangSandakphu (3600e4000 m a.s.l.); Lachen and Lachung
(2750e3000 m a.s.l.); North Rajabhatkhawa in Buxa Tiger Reserve,
Jalpaiguri; Sursuti in Jalpaiguri; and Dhotrey, North Sevoke and
Tonglu in Darjeeling. In KLeNepal, the IPAs are Yamphudin-Hellok,
Gyapla-Ghunsa, Ghunsa-Khangbachen, SarjuPokhari- Olangchung
Gola, Dorangdin-Ramje, and Chairam-Yalung in Taplejung District;
Timbung Pokhari, Lam Pokhari- Suke Pokhari-Ose, Bhaise Pokhari,
Mejartham-Chiwabhanjyang, and Tinsimana-Gorkhepani-Fokte in
Panchthar District; Hangetham, Kala Pokhari, Chintapu, Sandakphu,
and Dhupi-Guranse in Ilam District; and Ghorwa-Sanischare, Gauriganj-Kathgara, and Jalthal Forest in Jhapa District (ICIMOD et al.,
2017). A rich diversity of floral species, many of which are of high
botanical value, thrive in these natural and semi-natural sites.
5. Conclusion
The Kangchenjunga Landscape has been an area of interest to
botanists since the mid-19th century and since then it has continued
to gain attention from researchers around the world. One of the
richest biodiversity repositories in the Eastern Himalayas, the landscape is home to many charismatic floral species of high botanical
value. Our review shows that there are many species that are
threatened at national and global levels and are endemic to the
landscape. Furthermore, the unique ethnic and social groups residing
in the landscape have rich traditional knowledge regarding utilization and conservation of these valuable species. Yet, conservation of
biodiversity in the Kangchenjunga landscape faces many threats and
challenges. In this regard, the KLCDI, which was established by India,
Nepal, and Bhutan to conserve and sustainably develop the Kangchenjunga Landscape, is very timely and progressive.
Based on our findings, we recommend scientific and comprehensive floral surveys, particularly in the less explored areas. For
instance, some protected areas (e.g., Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary)
and western Bhutan e excluding Jigme Khesar Strict Nature Reserve
e have been inadequately studied. Although numerous scattered and
one-time studies of the Kangchenjunga landscape exist, long-term
data and monitoring are needed, especially to understand how
natural and anthropogenic drivers cause changes in the landscape
that affect abundance, phenology, and distribution of species.
Comprehensive and systematic studies in the protected areas of the
Kangchenjunga Landscape would provide important insights into
the rich floral diversity of the region. Proper management of
Important Plant Areas could provide a safety net for many threatened
floral species in the landscape. We recommend that current policies
and sustainable conservation interventions adopt transboundary
landscape conservation programmes and joint activities that involve
long-term regional cooperation, knowledge, and data sharing.
Importantly, to bridge the existing gaps in our knowledge regarding
biodiversity in the Kangchenjunga Landscape, conservation and
development organizations, government agencies, academic institutions, and the private sector must join their efforts.
Conflict of interest
All the authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Dr David
Molden, Director General of ICIMOD, for his inspiration and
support. The authors would like to acknowledge the support
provided by Mr Kabir Uddin, GIS and Remote Sensing Specialist,
ICIMOD for providing the map used in the article. The continuous support and commitment from ICIMOD's eight regional
member countries is also acknowledged, as is the support of the
Austrian Development Agency (ADA) and the German Federal
Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development through its
German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ), which made
this publication possible. The authors would also like to thank
Thomas Samuel Moloppomannil, Senior Editor, ICIMOD and
Raymond Porter for English language editorial inputs. We are
highly indebted to the two anonymous reviewers for their critical review and constructive suggestions to bring the paper in
the present form. The views and interpretations in this publication are those of the authors and are not necessarily attributable to the affiliated organizations.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pld.2019.04.006.
Annex 1
Endemic flowering plants of the Kangchenjunga Landscape.
Family
Species
Cupressaceae
Cupressaceae
Annonaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Orchidaceae
Amaryllidaceae
Amaryllidaceae
Arecaceae
Eriocaulaceae
Eriocaulaceae
Eriocaulaceae
Juncaceae
Juniperus indica Bertol
Juniperus recurva Ham.
Uvaria lurida var. sikkimensis
Ponerorchis chusua (D. Don) Soo.
Bhutanthera himalayana Renz
Coelogyne treutleri Hook. F.
Allium macranthum Baker.
Allium sikkimense Baker
Calamus inermis T. Anderson
Eriocaulon exsertum Satake, in H. Hara, Fl. E. Himal. 2: 156, f. 9 (1971).
Eriocaulon obclavatum Satake
Eriocaulon trisectoides Satake
Juncus sikkimensis Hook. F.
KL-Bhutan
KL-India
KL-Nepal
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
161
P. Kandel et al. / Plant Diversity 41 (2019) 153e165
Annex 1 (continued )
Family
Species
Cyperaceae
Cyperaceae
Papaveraceae
Papaveraceae
Papaveraceae
Papaveraceae
Papaveraceae
Berberidaceae
Berberidaceae
Berberidaceae
Berberidaceae
Berberidaceae
Berberidaceae
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculaceae
Ranunculaceae
Saxifragaceae
Saxifragaceae
Saxifragaceae
Saxifragaceae
Saxifragaceae
Saxifragaceae
Saxifragaceae
Saxifragaceae
Saxifragaceae
Crassulaceae
Crassulaceae
Vitaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Begoniaceae
Begoniaceae
Begoniaceae
Violaceae
Violaceae
Salicaceae
Salicaeae
Salicaeae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Geraniaceae
Brassicaceae
Brassicaceae
Brassicaceae
Brassicaceae
Polygonaceae
Polygonaceae
Polygonaceae
Polygonaceae
Polygonaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Carex kingiana Levl. & Vant.
Rhynchospora rugosa subsp. browni (Roem. & Schult.) T.Koyama
Corydalis staintonii Ludlow
Corydalis cashmeriana Royle.
Meconopsis horridula Hook. f. & Thomson
Meconopsis simplicifolia Walp.
Meconopsis superba King ex Prain
Berberis angulosa Wall.
Berberis concinna Hook. f. & Thomson
Berberis mucrifolia Ahrendt, J. RHS. 81: 135 (1956).
Berberis sikkimensis (C.K.Schneid.) Ahrendt 1942
Mahonia sikkimensis Takeda
Podophyllum sikkimensis Chatterjee & Mukharjee
Anemone demissa Hook. f. & Thomson
Caltha scaposa Hook.f.
Delphinium caeruleum Jacq.
Delphinium glaciale Hook.f.
Thalictrum alpinum Linn.
Aconitum staintonii Lauener
Ranunculus sikkimensis Hand.-Mazz.
Saxifraga aristulata Hook. f. & Thomson
Saxifraga flagellaris Willd.
Saxifraga hemisphaerica Hook. f. & Thomson
Saxifraga hirculus Linn.
Saxifraga jacquemontiana Dene.
Saxifraga lychinits aff.
Saxifraga pallida Wall.
Saxifraga ramulosa Wall.
Saxifraga saginoides J. D. Hooker & Thomson
Rhodiola bupleuroides Wallich ex Hook.f. & Thomson
Sedum fischeri R.Hamet.
Cissus spectabilis Planch.
Astragalus zemuensis W.W. Sm.
Caragana spinifera Kom.
Astragalus confertus Benth
Hedysarum sikkimense Benth.
Stracheya tibetica Benth.
Oxytropis tartarica Jacq.
Cotoneaster microphylla Wall.
Fragaria daltoniana J. Gay
Potentilla fruticose L.
Potentilla microphylla D. Don
Potentilla sinonivea Hult,n
Sibbaldia purpurea Hook.f.
Cotoneaster staintonii Klotz
Cotoneaster simonsi Hort. ex Baker
Potentilla monanthes var. alata Sojak
Begonia dolichoptera S. Rajbhandary & KK Shrestha
Begonia leptoptera H. Hara
Begonia panchtharensis S Rajbhandary
Viola biflora Linn.
Viola bhutanica Hara
Salix plectilis Kimura
Salix calyculata Hook.f.
Salix lindlyeana Wall.
Euphorbia stracheyi Boiss
Glochidion metanubigenum Hurus. & Ya. Tanaka
Geranium collinum M.Bieb.
Erysimum deflexum Hook. f. & Thomson
Lepidium capitatum Hook.f.&Thomson
Microgynaecium tibeticum Hook.f.
Thlaspi alpestre Linn.
Aconogonon hookeri
Polygonum sibiricum Laxm.
Rheum nobile Hook.f. & Thomson
Rheum spiciforme Royle
Bistorta diopetes H. Ohba & S. Akiyama
Arenaria ciliolata Edgew.
Arenaria densissima Wall.
Arenaria glanduligera Edgew
Arenaria monticola
Arenaria melandroyoides Edgew.
Arenaria musciformis Wall.
Arenaria polytrichoides Edgew
KL-Bhutan
KL-India
KL-Nepal
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
(continued on next page)
162
P. Kandel et al. / Plant Diversity 41 (2019) 153e165
Annex 1 (continued )
Family
Species
Caryophyllaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Hydrangeaceae
Primulaceae
Primulaceae
Primulaceae
Primulaceae
Ericaceae
Ericaceae
Ericaceae
Ericaceae
Ericaceae
Ericaceae
Ericaceae
Ericaceae
Gentianaceae
Gentianaceae
Gentianaceae
Gentianaceae
Boraginaceae
Boraginaceae
Boraginaceae
Boraginaceae
Boraginaceae
Plantaginaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Acanthaceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Lamiaceae
Orobanchaceae
Orobanchaceae
Orobanchaceae
Orobanchaceae
Orobanchaceae
Orobanchaceae
Orobanchaceae
Orobanchaceae
Campanulaceae
Campanulaceae
Campanulaceae
Campanulaceae
Campanulaceae
Campanulaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Arenaria thangoensis W.W. Sm.
Silene apetala Willd.
Silene caespitella F. N. Williams
Silene nigrescens (Edgeworth) Majumdar
Stellaria decumbens Edgew.
Ribes luridum Hook. f. & Thomson
Androsace selago Klatt.
Primula sikkimensis Hook.f.
Primula tibetica Watt
Bryocarpum himalaicum Hook. f. &Thomson
Cassiope fastigata (Wallich).D.Don.
Cassiope selaginoides Hook. f. &Thomson
Gaultheria trichophylla Royle.
Rhododendron nivale Hook.f.
Rhdododendron sikkimense Pradhan & Lachungpa
Rhododendron campanulatum subsp. aeruginosum (Hook.f.) Chamb.
Rhododendron dalhousiae subsp. tashi Pradhan & Lachungpa
Rhododendron niveum Hook.f.
Gentiana detonsa Fries
Gentiana ornata (G.Don).Griesb
Gentiana robusta King.
Swertia multicaulis Don.
Eritrichium pustulosum C. B. Clarke
Eritrichium pygmaeum Clarke
Microula pustulosa (C. B. Clarke) Duthie
Onosoma hookeri Clarke
Maharanga verruculosa (I. M. Johnst.) I. M. Johnst
Lagotis glauca Gaertn.
Euphrasia officinalis Linn.
Lancea tibetica Hook. f. & Thomson
Oreosolen wattii Hook.f.
Parnassia nubicola Wall.
Justicia tukuchensis V. A. W. Graham
Dracocephalum heterophyllum Benth
Elsholtzia eriostachya Benth.
Nepeta discolor Royle. ex Bentham
Phlomis rotata Bentham ex J.D. Hooker
Pedicularis integrifolia Hook.f.
Pedicularis lachnoglossa Hook.f.
Pedicularis longifolia Rudolph
Pedicularis roylei Maxim.
Pedicularis trichoglossa Hook. f.
Pedicularis anserantha T. Yamaz.
Pedicularis ingentoides T. Yamaz.
Pedicularis terrenoflora T. Yamaz.
Campanula aristata Wall.
Campanula immodesta Hook. f. & Thomson
Codonopsis foetens Hook. f. & Thomson
Codonopsis thalictrifolia Wall.
Cyananthus incanus Hook. f. & Thomson
Codonopsis affinis Hook. f. & Thomson
Anaphalis xylorhiza Schultz-Bip
Artemisia biennis Willd.
Artemisia campbelli Hook. f. & Thomson
Artemsia salsoloides Willd.
Aster diplostephoides Benth.
Chionocharis hookeri (C. B. Clarke) I. M. Johnston
Cremanthodium decaisnei Clarke
Cremanthodium oblongatum Clarke
Cremanthodium reniforme Benth
Hippolytia gossypina Hook. f. & Thomson
Leontopodium haastioides Hand.-Mazz
Saussurea gossypiphora Don.
Saussurea heiracioides Hook.f
Saussurea katochaete
Saussurea leontodontoides (DC.)
Saussurea stella Maxim.
Saussurea tridactyla Clarke
Saussurea uniflora Wall.
Saussurea werneroides Hook.f.
Soroseris glomerata (Decne.) Stebb
Waldheimia tridactylites
Youngia depressa Hook. f. & Thomson
Youngia gracilipes Hook.f.
Anaphalis cavei Chatterjee
KL-Bhutan
KL-India
KL-Nepal
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
163
P. Kandel et al. / Plant Diversity 41 (2019) 153e165
Annex 1 (continued )
Family
Species
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Caprifoliaceae
Caprifoliaceae
Caprifoliaceae
Caprifoliaceae
Apiaceae
Apiaceae
Apiaceae
Apiaceae
Apiaceae
Apiaceae
Anaphalis hookeri C.B. Clarke
Cacalia chola W. W. Sm.
Cremanthodium palmatum subsp. benthamii
Crepis atropappa Babcock
Jurinea cooperi J. Anthony
Ligularia kingiana (W. W. Smith) R. Mathur
Ligularia yakla (C. B. Clarke) V. Singh & P. Singh
Saussurea topkegolensis H. Ohba & S. Akiyama
Senecio brunneo-villosus Kitam.
Senecio topkegolensis Kitam.
Lonicera hispida Poll.
Pterocephalus hookeri (C. B. Clarke) Diels
Morina nepalensis D. Don.
Nardostachys jatamansi (D. Don) DC.
Chamaesium novem-jugum
Cortia hookeri Clarke
Cortiella lamondiana Fullarton & M.F. Watson
Acronema pseudotenera P.K. Mukh.
Angelica harae Pimenov
Angelica nubigena P.K. Mukh.
KL-Bhutan
KL-India
KL-Nepal
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
Sources: Rajbhandari and Adhikari (2009), Rajbhandari and Dhungana (2010, 2011), Rajbhandary et al. (2010), Telwala et al. (2013), GBPNIHESD (2015), NCD (2015), ICIMOD
et al. (2017), ENVIS Centre Sikkim (2019).
References
Acharya, J., Acharya, J., Mukharjee, A., 2010. A contribution to the study of the
Caprifoliaceae jussieu in West Bengal and Sikkim, India. Pleione 4 (1),
42e47.
Anonymous, 1992. World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Global Biodiversity.
Chapman and Hall, London.
Arya, S.C., Sunny, N., 2016. Assessment of tree diversity and resource use pattern in
bath Putu forest, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh. Int. J. Environ. Sci. 5 (3), 166e172.
APG, 2016. An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the
orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV. Bot. J. Linnean Soc. 181, 1e20.
https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12385.
Badola, H.K., Pradhan, B.K., 2010a. Population exploration of Rhododendron maddenii in Sikkim, bordering Khangchendzonga biosphere reserve - questioning
rarity and endangerment. NeBIO 1, 1e9.
Badola, H.K., Pradhan, B.K., 2010b. Discovery of new populations of a rare species
Rhododendron niveum in Khangchendzonga National Park, Sikkim. Rhododendron 50, 41e49.
Badola, H.K., Pradhan, B.K., 2013. Plants used in healthcare practices by Limboo tribe
in south ewest of Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, Sikkim, India. Indian J.
Trad. Knowl. 12 (3), 355e369.
Badola, H.K., Subba, J.B., 2012. Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve (Sikkim). Pp.
133e142. In: Palni, L.M.S., Rawal, R.S., Rai, R.K., Reddy, S.V. (Eds.), Compendium
on Indian Biosphere Reserves: Progression during Two Decades of Conservation, GBPIHED, Kosi-Almora and Ministry of Environment & Forests (Govt of
India).
Basnet, K., Badola, H.K., 2012. Birds of Fambonglho Wildlife Sanctuary, Sikkim, India: a baseline survey for conservation and area management. NeBIO 3 (2),
1e12.
Behera, M.D., Kushwaha, S.P.S., Roy, P.S., 2002. High plant endemism in an Indian
hotspoteeastern Himalaya. Biodivers. Conserv. 11 (4), 669e682.
Bhujel, R.B., 1996. Studies on the Dicotyledonous Flora of Darjeeling District (PhD
Thesis). North Bengal University, Darjeeling.
Bhutia, C., Chettri, N., Tambe, S., 2002. Khangchendzonga, the Sacred Mountain: A
Biodiversity Handbook. Khangchendzonga Conservation Committee, Yuksam,
Sikkim.
Brooks, T.M., Mittermeier, R.A., da Fonseca, G.A., Gerlach, J., Hoffmann, M.,
Lamoreux, J.F., Mittermeier, C.G., Pilgrim, J.D., Rodrigues, A.S., 2006. Global
biodiversity conservation priorities. Science 313 (5783), 58e61.
Campbell, A., 1840. Note on the Lepchas of Sikkim, with a vocabulary of their language. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 9, 379e393.
Carpenter, C., 2005. The environmental control of plant species density on a Himalayan elevation gradient. J. Biogeogr. 32, 999e1018.
CEPF, 2005. Ecosystem Profile: Indo- Burman Hotspot, Eastern Himalayan Region.
WWF, US-Asian Programme/Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, Kathmandu.
CFPF, 2007. Ecosystem Profile: Indo-Burma Hotspot, Indo-China Region. WWF USAsian Program.
Chapman, A.D., 2005. Uses of Primary Species-Occurrence Data Version 1.0. Report
for the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, Copenhagen. Available at:
http://www.niobioinformatics.in/books/Uses%20of%20Primary%20Data.pdf.
Accessed on 12 May 2008.
Chaudhary, R.P., Uprety, Y., Joshi, S.P., Basnet, K., Basnet, G., Shrestha, K.R.,
Bhatta, K.P., Acharya, K.P., Chettri, N., 2015. Kangchenjunga Landscape Nepal:
from Conservation and Development Perspectives. Kathmandu: Ministry of
Forests and Soil Conservation (MoFSC). Government of Nepal; Research Centre
for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST), Tribhuvan University; and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD).
Chettri, A., Barik, S.K., Lyngdoh, M.K., Pandey, H.N., 2009. Notes on geographic
distribution. Plantae, magnoliophyta, gentianales, apocynaceae, asclepiadoideae, Ceropegia hookeri: distribution and rediscovery in eastern Himalayas,
Sikkim, India. Check List. 5 (3), 695e698.
Chettri, A., Barik, S.K., Singh, B., Adhikari, D., Lyngdoh, M.K., 2012. Cornus kousa F.
Buerger ex Hance subsp. Kousa (Cornaceae): a new record from India. Taiwania
57 (1), 77e81.
Chettri, N., Sharma, E., Shakya, B., Thapa, R., Bajracharya, B., Uddin, K., Oli, K.P.,
Choudhary, D., 2010. Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalayas: Status, Trends and
Vulnerability to Climate Change. ICIMOD, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Chettri, N., Shakya, B., Sharma, E., 2008. Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape. ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
Chettri, N., Sharma, E., Deb, D.C., 2001. Bird community structure along a trekking
corridor of Sikkim Himalaya: a conservation perspective. Biol. Conserv. 102
(1), 1e16.
Chettri, N., Sharma, E., Deb, D.C., Sundriyal, R.C., 2002. Effect of firewood extraction
on tree structure, regeneration, and woody biomass productivity in a trekking
corridor of the Sikkim Himalaya. Mt. Res. Dev. 22 (2), 150e158.
Chettri, N., Sharma, E., Lama, S.D., 2005. Non-timber forest produces utilization, distribution and status in a trekking corridor of Sikkim, India. Lyonia 8 (1), 89e101.
Choudhary, D., 2008. Potential micro-enterprises and income generating activities
in the Kangchenjunga Landscape. In: Chettri, N., Shakya, B., Sharma, E. (Eds.),
Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape. ICIMOD, Kathmandu, pp. 133e140.
Chowdhury, A., Chowdhury, M., Choudhury, D., Das, A.P., 2013. Ludwigia peruviana
(Linnaeus) H. Hara [Onagraceae]: a new record for West Bengal, India. Pleione 7
(1), 286e289.
pez, B., Watson, R.T., Moln
Díaz, S., Pascual, U., Stenseke, M., Martín-Lo
ar, Z., et al.,
2018. Assessing nature's contributions to people. Science 359 (6373), 270e272.
Das, K., Verbeken, A., 2012. New species of Lactarius Subg. Plinthogalus and new
records of Lactifluus Subg. Gerardii (Russulaceae) from Sikkim, India. Taiwania
57 (1), 37e48.
Dey, S.B., Ghosh, R., Shekhar, M., Mukherjee, B., Bera, S., 2015. What drives elevational pattern of phytolith diversity in Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.) O. Ktze? A
study from the Darjeeling Himalayas. Flora (JENA) 211, 51e61.
DFO, 2012. Management Plan of Mai Pokhari Ramsar Site, Ilam, Nepal. District
Forest Office, Ilam, Nepal.
DPR, 2012. Plants of Nepal: Fact Sheet. Kathmandu. Department of Plant Resources,
Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal.
ENVIS Centre Sikkim, 2019. Endemic Plants. Forest, Environment and Wildlife
Management Department, Government of Sikkim, Gangtok, India. Downloaded
from: http://sikenvis.nic.in/WriteReadData/UserFiles/file/List%20of%20Endemic
%20Plant%202015.pdf. Accessed on: 20 January 2019.
GBPNIHESD, 2015. Feasibility Assessment Report- Kangchenjunga Landscape- India.
G B Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environmental and Sustainable
development, Sikkim.
Grierson, A.J., Long, D.G., 1983. Flora of Bhutan, Including a Record of Plants from
Sikkim, vol. 1. Royal Botanic Gardens Edinburgh, United Kingdom parts 1 and 2.
Grumbine, R.E., Pandit, M.K., 2013. Threats from India's Himalaya dams. Science 339
(6115), 36e37.
Gurung, G.S., 2006. Reconciling Biodiversity Conservation Priorities with Livelihood
Needs in Kangchenjunga Conservation Area. Human Geography Series. University of Zurich, Switzerland.
164
P. Kandel et al. / Plant Diversity 41 (2019) 153e165
GWB, 2010. State Report on National Programme on Promoting Medicinal Plants
Conservation and Traditional Knowledge for Enhancing Health and Livelihood
Security for West Bengal (UNDP-CCF-II Project No. 13047). Research Circle,
Directorate of Forests, Government of West Bengal, Kolkata. http://www.
westbengalforest.gov.in/publication_pdf/UNDP%20CCF%20II%20Report%
20WBengal.pdf. Accessed on 17 May 2015.
Hajra, P.K., Chakraborty, P., 1981. A survey of wild plants sold in the Lal market of
Gangtok. Ind. J. For. 4 (3), 217e220.
Hamilton, A.C., Radford, E.A., 2007. Identification and Conservation of Important
Plant Areas for Medicinal Plants in the Himalaya. Salisbury: Plantlife International and Kathmandu. Ethnobotanical Society of Nepal.
Hooker, J.D., 1852. On the climate and vegetation of the temperate and cool regions
of East Nepal and the Sikkim Himalayan mountains. J. Hort. Soc. Lond. 7,
69e131.
Hooker, S.J.D., 1849. Notes Chiefly Botanical, Made during an Excursion from
Darjeeling to Tonglo: A Lofty Mountain on the Confines of Sikkim and Nepal. J.
Thomas at the Baptist Mission Press.
Hooker, J.D., 1904. A Sketch of the Flora of British India. Oxford.
ICIMOD, WCD, GBPNIHESD, RECAST, 2017. Kangchenjunga Landscape Conservation
and Development Initiative Feasibility Assessment Report e Regional Synthesis.
ICIMOD Working Paper 2017/9. ICIMOD, Kathmandu.
IUCN, 2019. IUCN red list. Downloaded from. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/
46171879/9730085 on 15 January 2019.
Kandel, P., Gurung, J., Chettri, N., Ning, W., Sharma, E., 2016. Biodiversity research
trends and gap analysis from a transboundary landscape, Eastern Himalayas.
J. Asia Pac. Biodiv. 9 (1), 1e10.
Kholia, B.S., 2011. Pteridophytic wealth of Sikkim Himalaya, pp43-65. In:
Arrawatia, M.L., Tambe, S. (Eds.), Biodiversity of Sikkim Exploring and Conserving
a Global Hotspot. Information and Public Relations Department, Gangtok.
King, G., Pantling, R., 1889. The orchids of the Sikkim Himalaya. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard.
Calcutta 8 (2-4), 1e448.
Krishna, A.P., Chhetri, S., Singh, K.K., 2002. Human dimensions of conservation in
the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve: the need for conflict prevention. Mt.
Res. Dev. 22 (4), 328e331.
Kunwar, R.M., Shrestha, K., Dhungana, S.K., 2010. Floral biodiversity of Nepal: an
update. J. Nat. Hist. Mus. 25, 295e311.
Lucksom, S.Z., 2007. The Orchids of Sikkim and North East Himalaya: Development
Area. Jiwan Thing Marg, Gangtok, East Sikkim, p. 984.
Maiti, D., Maiti, G.G., 2007. Diversity of vascular plants of Kanchenjunga Biosphere
Reserve, Sikkim, and its conservation. Ind. For. 1416e1436.
Majumdar, N.C., Krishna, B., Biswas, M.C., 1984. Vegetation of Neora valley and
adjacent regions in Kalimpong forest division, West Bengal. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot.
5 (5), 1013e1025.
Manish, K., Pandit, M.K., 2018. Phylogenetic diversity, structure and diversification
patterns of endemic plants along the elevational gradient in the Eastern
Himalaya. Plant Ecol. Divers. 11 (4), 501e513.
Manish, K., Pandit, M.K., Telwala, Y., Nautiyal, D.C., Koh, L.P., Tiwari, S., 2017. Elevational plant species richness patterns and their drivers across non-endemics,
endemics and growth forms in the Eastern Himalaya. J. Plant Res. 130 (5),
829e844.
Matthew, K.M., 1971. The pteridophytes of the Darjeeling district. Bull. Bot. Soc.
Bengal 25, 97e102.
Mehra, P.N., Bir, S.S., 1964. Pteridophytic flora of Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas.
Resour. Bull Punjab Univ. 15 (1e2), 69e181.
Mittermeier, R.A., Gils, P.R., Hoffman, M., Pilgrim, J., Brooks, T., Mittermeier, C.G.,
et al., 2004. Hotspots Eevisited. Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endan n Sierra Madre, Mexico City.
gered Terrestrial Ecoregions. CEMEX/Agrupacio
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2014. Fifth National Report to the
Convention on Biological Diversity, Malaysia. https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/
my/my-nr-05-en.pdf. (Accessed 13 February 2019).
Moktan, M.R., Gratzer, G., Richards, W.H., Rai, T.B., Dukpa, D., 2009. Regeneration
and structure of mixed conifer forests under single-tree harvest management in
the western Bhutan Himalayas. For. Ecol. Manag. 258 (3), 243e255.
Myers, N., 1988. Threatened biotas: ‘hotspots’ in tropical forestry. Environmentalist
8, 1e20.
NCD, 2015. Feasibility Assessment Report- Kangchenjunga Landscape- Bhutan. Nature
Conservation Division, Department of Forest and Park Services, Thimphu.
Numata, M., 1966. Vegetation and conservation in eastern Nepal. J. Coll. Arts Sci.
Chiba Univ. Nat. Sci. 4, 559e569.
O'Neill, A.R., Badola, H.K., Dhyani, P.P., Rana, S.K., 2017. Integrating ethnobiological
knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas. J. Ethnobiol.
Ethnomed. 13 (1), 21.
Ohsawa, M., Shakya, P.R., Numata, M., 1986. Distribution and succession of west
Himalayan forest types in the eastern part of the Nepal Himalaya. Mt. Res. Dev.
143e157.
Olson, M., Dinerstein, E., Wikramanayake, E.D., Burgess, N.D., Powell, G.V.N.,
Underwood, E.C., D'Amico, J.A., Itoua, I., Strand, H.E., Morrison, J.C., Loucks, C.J.,
Allnutt, T.F., Ricketts, T.H., Kura, Y., Lamoreux, J.F., Wettengel, W.W., Hedao, P.,
Kassem, K., 2001. Terrestrial ecoregions of the world: a new map of life on
earth. Biol. Sci. 51 (11), 933e938.
Pala, N.A., Sarkar, B.C., Shukla, G., Chettri, N., Deb, S., Bhat, J.A., Chakravarty, S., 2019.
Floristic composition and utilization of ethnomedicinal plant species in home
gardens of the Eastern Himalaya. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 15 (1), 14.
Pandit, M.K., Grumbine, R.E., 2012. Potential effects of ongoing and proposed hydropower development on terrestrial biological diversity in the Indian Himalaya. Conserv. Biol. 26 (6), 1061e1071.
Pradhan, B.K., Badola, H.K., 2015. Swertia chirayta, a threatened high-value medicinal herb: Microhabitats and conservation challenges in Sikkim Himalaya, India.
Mt. Res. Dev. 35.4, 374e381.
Pradhan, B.K., Badola, H.K., 2008. Ethnomedicinal plant use by Lepcha tribe of
Dzongu valley bordering Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, in North Sikkim, India. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 4, 22.
Pradhan, K.C., Lachungpa, S.T., 1990. Sikkim Himalayan Rhododendrons. Primulaceae Books, Kalimpong.
€ hm, M.,
Proença, V., Martin, L.J., Pereira, H.M., Fernandez, M., McRae, L., Belnap, J., Bo
Brummitt, N., García-Moreno, J., Gregory, R.D., Honrado, J.P., 2016. Global
biodiversity monitoring: from data sources to essential biodiversity variables.
Biol. Conserv. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016.07.014.
Rai, D.S., Tshering, K., Gyeltshen, K., Norbu, N., Sherub, Ngawang, R., Wangchuk, S.,
2008. Biodiversity of Toorsa Strict nature Reserve e Jigme Dorji national Park
proposed conservation corridor, western Bhutan. In: Chettri, N., Shakya, B.,
Sharma, E. (Eds.), Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape.
ICIMOD, Kathmandu, pp. 39e56.
Rai, L.K., Sharma, E., 1995. Medicinal Plants of Sikkim Himalaya: Status, Uses and
Potential. Bishen Singh, Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, India.
Rajbhandari, K.R., 2016. History of botanical exploration in Nepal: 1802e2015. In:
Jha, P.K., Siwakoti, M., Rajbhandari, S. (Eds.), Frontiers of Botany. Central
Department of Botany, Tribuvan University, Kirtipur, pp. 1e99.
Rajbhandari, K.R., Dhungana, S.K., 2010. Endemic Flowering Plants of Nepal Part 2.
Department of Plant Resources Bulletin-Special Publication No. 2. Department
of Plant Resources, Kathmandu.
Rajbhandari, K.R., Dhungana, S.K., 2011. Endemic Flowering Plants of Nepal Part 3.
Department of Plant Resources Bulletin-Special Publication No. 3. Department
of Plant Resources, Kathmandu.
Rajbhandari, K.R., Adhikari, M.K., 2009. Endemic Flowering Plants of Nepal Part I.
Department of Plant Resources Bulletin-Special Publication No. 1. Department
of Plant Resources, Kathmandu.
Rajbhandary, S., Hughes, M., Shrestha, K.K., 2010. Three new species of Begonia Sect.
Platycentrum from Nepal. Gard. Bull. (Singap.) 62 (1), 151e162.
Saurav, M., Das, A.P., 2014. Plant species richness and phytosociological attributes of
the vegetation in the cold temperate zone of Darjiling Himalaya, India. Int. Res.
J. Environ. Sci. 3 (10), 14e19.
Shankar, U., 2001. A case of high tree diversity in a sal (Shorea robusta)-dominated
lowland forest of Eastern Himalaya: floristic composition, regeneration and
conservation. Curr. Sci. 81 (7), 776e786.
Sharma, S.K., Pandit, M.K., 2009. A new species of Panax L. (Araliaceae) from Sikkim
Himalaya, India. Syst. Bot. 34 (2), 434e438.
Shrestha, K.K., Ghimire, S.K., 1996. Plant Diversity Inventory of the Proposed
Kangchenjunga Conservation Area (Ghunsa and Simbua Khola Valleys). WWF
Nepal, Kathmandu.
Shrestha, K.K., Kunwar, R.M., Dhamala, M.K., Humagain, K., Pandey, J., Khatri, N.B.,
2008. Conservation of plant resources in Kangchenjungha- Singhalila ridge,
eastern Nepal. J. Plant Sci. 2, 62e68.
Sikkim Biodiversity Action Plan, 2012. Sikkim Biodiversity Action Plan. Published by
Sikkim Biodiversity Conservation and Forest Management Project. FEWMD,
Government of Sikkim, Printer at Concept, India, p. 44.
Singh, K.K., Kumar, S., Rai, L.K., Krishna, A.P., 2003. Rhododendron conservation in
Sikkim Himalayas. Curr. Sci. 85 (5), 602e606.
Singh, H.B., Sundriyal, S.C., 2005. Composition, economic use, and nutrient contents
of alpine vegetation in the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, Sikkim
Himalaya, India. Arctic Antarct. Alpine Res. 37, 591e601.
Subba, J.R., 2002. Biodiversity of Sikkim Himalayas. Ambica Printers, New Delhi, India.
Subba, S.J., Lachungpa, D., Subba, S., Nepal, S., 2015. Analysis of vegetation in a
representative temperate plant community in Lachung range of the Sikkim
Himalaya. Int. J. Environ. Biodiv. 6 (3), 18e24.
Sundriyal, M., Rai, L.K., 1996. Wild edible plants of Sikkim Himalaya. J. Hill Res. 9,
267e278.
Sundriyal, R.C., Sharma, E., Rai, L.K., Rai, S.C., 1994. Tree structure, regeneration and
woody biomass removal in a sub-tropical forest of Mamlay watershed in the
Sikkim Himalaya. Plant Ecol. 113 (1), 53e63.
Sundriyal, R.C., Sharma, D., 1996. Anthropogenic pressure on tree structure and
biomass in the temperate forest of Mamlay watershed in Sikkim. For. Ecol.
Manag. 81 (1), 113e134.
Takhtajan, A.L., 1986. Floristic Regions of the World. University of California Press,
USA.
Takhtajan, A., 1969. Flowering Plants: Origin and Dispersal. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh and London.
Tambe, S., Rawat, G.S., 2010. The alpine vegetation of the Khangchendzonga landscape, Sikkim Himalaya: community characteristics, diversity, and aspects of
ecology. Mt. Res. Dev. 30 (3), 266e274.
Telwala, Y., Brook, B.W., Manish, K., Pandit, M.K., 2013. Climate-induced elevational
range shifts and increase in plant species richness in a Himalayan biodiversity
epicentre. PLoS One 8 (2), e57103.
Thapa, N., Lama, D., 2015. Occurrence of Pteris austrosinica (ching) ching [Pterideaceae] in Darjiling hills: a new record of endemic Chinese element in Indian
sub-continent. Researcher 7 (5), 36e38.
P. Kandel et al. / Plant Diversity 41 (2019) 153e165
Uprety, Y., Poudel, R.C., Gurung, J., Chettri, N., Chaudhary, R.P., 2016. Traditional use
and management of NTFPs in Kangchenjunga Landscape: Implications for
conservation and livelihoods. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 12 (1), 1e59.
WCD, 2014. Feasibility assessment report. Wildlife Conservation Division, Department of Forests and Park Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests. Royal
Government of Bhutan, KL-Bhutan.
Xu, J., Badola, R., Chettri, N., Chaudhary, R.P., Zomer, R., Pokhrel, B., Hussain, S.A.,
Pradhan, S., Pradhan, R., 2019. Sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem Services in
the Hindu Kush Himalaya. Chapter 5. In: Wester, P., Mishra, A., Mukherji, A.,
Shrestha, A.B. (Eds.), The Hindu Kush Himalaya AssessmentdMountains,
165
Climate Change, Sustainability and People. Springer Nature Switzerland, AG,
Cham.
Yoda, K., 1967. A preliminary survey of the forest vegetation of eastern Nepal. II.
General description, structure and floristic composition of sample plots chosen
from different vegetation zones. J. Coll. Arts Sci. Chiba Univ. Natl. Sci. Ser. 5,
99e140.
Yonzon, P.B., Pradhan, S., Bhujel, R., Khaling, S., Lachungpa, U., Lachungpa, C., 2000.
Kangchenjunga Mountain Complex: Biodiversity Assessment and Conservation
Planning. WWF Nepal, Kathmandu.