Kuroshio Science 8-1, 71-84, 2014 Sarawak Coastal Biodiversity: A Current Status Shabdin Mohd. Long* Aquatic Science Department Faculty of Resource Science and Technology Universiti Malaysia Sarawak 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, MALAYSIA Abstract Sarawak lies within the Indo-Malay-Philippine archipelago, which is part of the Indo-West Pacific region. The Sarawak coastline is about 1035 kilometers long, with its coastal marine habitats consisting of sandy beaches, mudflats and rocky shores. Sarawak is one of the megadiversity regions in the world. The main objectives of this review are to report on the recorded species diversity of flora and fauna in the Sarawak coastal waters and to identify the threats to management of the coastal biodiversity. Mangrove forest is dominant along the coastal region of Sarawak. The mangrove forests occupy approximately 60% of the total coastline. Sarawak reefs can be divided into those of northeast and southwest Sarawak regions. The northeast region reefs support rich assemblages of marine life while the southwest region reefs are sparse and undeveloped, lying in heavily silted waters. The most comprehensive species diversity studies are available for phytoplankton, seaweeds, seagrasses, nematodes, marine fish, reptiles and marine mammal communities. Detailed study on other organisms along Sarawak coastal waters is still lacking, especially for meio-and macroinvertebrates. Major threats to Sarawak coastal biodiversity are the clearing of the coastal mangrove forest for developmental purposes, the overexploitation of marine resources, anthropogenic pollution, habitat destruction and habitat loss. The effort to manage Sarawak’s biodiversity is reflected in the formation of several acts and policies by the Malaysian government. The formation of universities and research centers to educate people on the importance of biodiversity conservation is the proper strategy for tackling the issues of sustainable management of marine coastal resources in Sarawak. Key words: Sarawak, flora, fauna, threats, management. 1. Introduction Sandy beaches, mudflast and rocky shores Malaysia, in particular Sarawak, is one of the megadiversity regions of the world. Carpenter and Niem (1998) noted that marine tropical shore fauna diversity centered in South-East Asia is ‘greater than any on earth’. Fiftythree percent of the world’s coral reefs are found in this region. Sarawak lies within the Indo-Malay-Philippine archipelago, which is part of the Indo-West Pacific region. Sarawak is located at latitude 0° 50´ and 5° N and longitude 109° 36´ and 115° 40´ E (Fig. 1). The Sarawak coastline is about 1035 km long. It contains an extensive continental shelf area, areas of high biological productivity, a high marine coastal biodiversity and a dense human population along the coast. Sandy beaches and mudflats occur along the coastal area of Sarawak. Sandy beaches are usually exposed directly to wave action whereas mudflats are located close to river mouths, are sheltered and receive less wave action. The organisms inhabiting both habitats are exposed to high temperature and desiccation. Both habitats contain fauna that can adapt to the wave action and instability of the area. Most of the fauna such as burrowing polychaetes, oligochaetes, sipunculans, bivalves and echinoderms are living at the middle and lower zones of the beach. Some middle and lower zone areas harbor a seagrass bed, for example, Sampadi Island and Engriting beach, Lawas. The seagrass bed is believed to serve as a habitat and nursery for a variety of invertebrates and fish, and also provides food for turtles and dugongs. Sandy beaches at islands such as Satang Besar and Talang- 2. ‌General Overview of Sarawak Coastal Marine Habitats *Corresponding author: Tel: +6082 583022 / Fax: +6082 583160 / e-mail lshabdin@frst.unimas.my 71 Sarawak Coastal Biodiversity SARAWAK Fig. 1: Map shows the location of Sarawak, Malaysia (Source: Google) talang Islands are recorded as areas for marine turtle nests. Rocky shores can be seen along the Sarawak coastal waters. Boulder formations and smaller rocky outcrops are common along the Sarawak coast. The horizontal distribution (zonation) of organisms on rocky shores is based on three major tide levels: high-tide, mid-tide and low-tide. Each tide level is characterized by certain organisms such as gastropods (high-tide level), barnacles (mid-tide levels) and algae (low-tide level). Most of the organisms are found at the low tide level where the environment is less extreme. Rock pools on Sarawak’s rocky shore support minimal flora and fauna due to a high fluctuation of water parameters such as salinity, temperature and dissolved oxygen. Mangrove forests Mangrove is dominant in the environment along the Sarawak coastline. The mangrove forests of Sarawak occupy about 60% of the 1035 km long coastline (Chai 1982; Pang 1989; Rahim 2000) and cover about 1.4% 72 of the total land area (Chai 1982). The total mangrove forest areas in Sarawak are estimated at 127,736 hectares (Say 1999). The mangrove ecosystem is located in the sheltered areas along the Sarawak coast within the major bays of Rajang River Delta, Limbang, Kuching and Sri Aman divisions (Chai 1982, Say 1999). Forty species of mangrove area plants including trees, shrubs, palms, ferns and epiphytes are reported in Sarawak (Chai 1972, 1975a, 1975b, 1982; Othman 1981, 1999; Murofushi et al. 1999; Rahim 2000); Ashton and Macintosh 2002). The mangrove forest in Sarawak has suffered from human expansion and human activities such as reclamation for housing and industrial estates, conversion for agriculture land and aquaculture ponds and pollution through industrialization and urbanization. Coral reefs Sarawak’s reefs can be divided into those in northeast and southwest Sarawak regions (Pilcher and Cabanban 2000). Coral reefs in Southwest Sarawak are located around three small islands (Satang, TalangTalang Besar, Talang-Talang kecil) and Tanjung Datu. In Shabdin ML the northeast, the reefs are located at Luconia shoals off Bintulu and off the coast of Miri (Pilcher and Cabanban 2000). The northeast region’s reefs support a rich assemblage of marine life that includes fish, mollusks and crustaceans (Pilcher and Cabanban 2000; Ferner 2013). The southwest region’s reefs are sparse and undeveloped, lying in the heavily silted waters that flow from big rivers such as the Batang Lupar, Batang Sadong, Batang Kayan, and Sarawak rivers and several other smaller rivers such as the Sematan, Samunsam, and Sibu Laut. The major causes of concern in regard to destruction of Sarawak’s reefs are sedimentation and sand mining activities. Increased sediment loads from runoff in upstream areas of many rivers in Sarawak have increased sediment output by several orders of magnitude over the last three decades (Pilcher and Cabanban 2000). The anthropogenic pollution and sediments from the rivers could be threatening the nearshore reefs. 3. Previous studies Studies on Sarawak coastal biodiversity were initiated by British scientists during Rajah James Brook’s time when Alfred Russel Wallace collected thousands of biological specimens ranging from invertebrates to Orangutans. Wallace visited Sarawak from November 1854 to January 1856 and did his sampling along the Sarawak River valley from the foothills of Mount Santubong to the peat swamps of Simunjan (Tuen and Das 2005). This collecting was then followed by other studies on various organisms. Table 1 shows the number of species recorded in Sarawak coastal waters together with their sources. The phytoplankton and nematode groups in Sarawak appear to have a high number of recorded species when compared with Peninsular Malaysia but are still far below the number of known species in the world (phytoplankton: 5400; nematode: 5000) (Mazlan et al. 2005). There are still many groups of organisms that need to be studied, in particular the small invertebrates such as meio- and macroinvertebrates. The meio- and macroinvertebrates contain huge number of animals and further research should be done to inventory the species in Sarawak’s coastal waters. However, the lack of taxonomists working on various invertebrates’ taxa is the major drawback to achieving these objectives. Up until the present day, the majority of comprehensive species diversity studies in Sarawak were for phytoplankton (Boonyapiwat 1998), seaweeds (Phang 2007; Anon 2013), seagrasses (Japar Sidek and Muta Harah 2011), nematodes (Shabdin et al. 2013), marine fishes (Vidthayanon 1998), reptiles (De Rooij 1915; Musters 1983; Leh 1985; Stuebing 1991; Das and Charles 1993; Denzer 1996; Tisen and Bali 2002; Das 2004, 2006; Jensen and Das 2006; Das et al. 2013) and marine mammals (Beasley and Jefferson 1997). Detailed study on other organisms along the Sarawak coastal waters are still lacking especially in regard to the meio- and macroinvertebrates. Table 1. Sarawak coastal biodiversity checklist. Species recorded in Sarawak and estimated species in Malaysia (in parenthesis). Organism Phytoplankton Seaweeds Seagrasses Mangroves species number 291 (100) * 104 (209) * 8 (14) * 40 (104) * Hard coral Mollusc: Gastropods Mollusc: Bivalves Crustacea – Decapods 203 (480) *** 78 (300) * 31 (100) * 54 (1100) * Crustacea - Copepods Nematodes Marine fish Sea horses Reptiles 18 (100) * 111 (20) * 518 (1500) * 4 (50) ** 19 (40) * Migratory birds Marine mammals 29(41) # 15 (29) * * Sources Boonyapiwat (1998) Phang (2007); Anon (2013) Japar Sidek and Muta Harah (2011) Chai, (1972, 1975a,1975b, 1982); Othman (1989,1991); Murofushi et al. (1999); Rahim (2000); Ashton and Macintosh (2002). Ferner (2013). Ashton et al. (2003), Shabdin and Rosniza (2010); Hamli et al. (2013) Ashton et al. (2003), Shabdin and Rosniza (2010); Hamli et al. (2012) Bejie (1985); Ashton et al. (2003), Ashton and Macintoch (2002); Ikhwanuddin et al. (2011). Agatha (2005). Shabdin et al. (2013). Vidthayanon (1998) Kuang and Chark (2004) De Rooij (1915), Musters (1983), Leh (1985), Stuebing (1991), Das and Charles (1993), Denzer (1996), Tisen and Bali (2002), Das (2004, 2006), Jensen and Das (2006), Tisen and Ahmad (2010), Das et al. (2013). Mizutani et al., (2006); Edward and Parish (1986). Beasley and Jefferson (1997), Minton et al. (2011) Mazlan et al. (2005). ** Lim et al. (2011). *** Affendi and Faedzul (2011). # Bamford et al. 2008. 73 Sarawak Coastal Biodiversity Phytoplankton Ulvaceae Boonyapiwat (1998) reported 291 phytoplankton species in her study from the South China Sea area II which includes the state of Sarawak. Out of 310 species, 2 species of blue green algae, 139 species of diatoms and 150 species of dinopflagellates were recorded (Table 2). The frequently predominant species found on the surface layer of the South China Sea were Ocillatoria erythraea, Thalassionema frauenfeldii and Pseudosolenia calcaravis. Valoniaceae Boodleaceae Bryopsidaceae Caulerpaceae Table 2. Summary of the coastal phytoplankton reported by Boonyapiwat (1998). Phylum Cyanophyceae Bacillariophyceae Dinophyceae Common name Blue Green Algae Diatom Dinoflagellate TOTAL Udoteaceae Species number 2 139 150 291 Seaweeds Sarawak has a variety of ecosystems such as rocky shores, sandy bays, mudflats, mangroves and coral reefs. All these provide habitats for the variety of seaweed species found in Sarawak coastal waters. Phang (2007) reported twenty-six species of seaweed that only exist in Sarawak coastal waters. A comprehensive study was carried out by the Fisheries Research Institute, Sarawak Branch, from 1996 to 1998 along Sarawak coastal waters (Anon 2013). This study recorded 36, 27, and 41 species of seaweeds from Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta Division respectively (Table 3). One hundred and four species of seaweed were identified and kept in herbariums of the Fisheries Research Institute, Sarawak Branch, Bintawa, Kuching (Anon 2013). Table 3. Seaweed species in Sarawak coastal waters (Anon, 2013). Division Family CHLOROPHYTA Acetabulariaceae Dasycladaceae Anadyomenaceae Cladophoraceae 74 Species Acetabularia major Acetabularia sp. Bornetella sp. Neomeris annulaia Anadyomene plicata Anadyomene stellata Chaetomorpha minima Chaetomorpha linum Cladophora fascicularis Cladophora patentiramea PHAEOPHYTA Dictyotaceae Sargassaceae Scytosiphonaceae Enteromorpha intestinalis Enteromorpha tubulosa Valonia utricularis Cladophoropsis membranaceae Bryopsis hypnoides Bryopsis pennata Caulerpa lentillifera C. microphysa C. peltata C. serrulata C. sertularioides C. taxifolia C. verticillata Avrainvillea erecta Avrainvillea sp. Halimeda discoidea Halimeda opuntia var minor Halimeda tuna Halimeda macroloba Halimeda simulan Halimeda sp. Halimeda sp. 1 Halimeda sp. 2 Udotea flabellum Udotea javensis Udotea sp. Dictyopteris delicatula Dictyota dichotoma Dictyota friabilis Dictyota mertensii Dictyota sp. Lobophora variegata Padina australis Padina boryana Padina minor Padina sp. Padina sp. 1 Padina sp. 2 Padina sp. 3 Padina sp. 4 Padina tenuis Padina tetrastromatica Zonaria sp. Sargassum crassifolium Sargassum ilicifolium Sargassum polycystum Sargassum siliquosum Sargassum spathulaefolium Sargassum sp. Spatoglossum sp. Spatoglossum sp. 1 Rosenvingea orientalis Colpomenia sinuosa Shabdin ML RHODOPHYTA Chaetangiaceae Delesseriaceae Gelidiaceae Rhodomelaceae Corallinaceae Halymeniaceae Caulacanthaceae Gracilariaceae Hypneaceae Caulacanthaceae Gracilariaceae Hypneaceae Squamariaceae / Rhizophyllidaceae Rhodymeniaceae Solieriaceae Ceramiaceae Rhodomelaceae Galaxaura oblongata Scinaia boergesenni Scinaia sp. Martensia sp. Gelidiella acerosa Bostrychia binderi Amphiroa anceps Amphiroa foliacea Amphiroa fragilissima Jania capillacea Jania decussatodichotoma Jania sp. Corallina sp. Halymenia dilatata Halymenia maculata Halymenia sp. Catenella nipae Gracilaria changii G. coronopifolia G. blodgettii G. edulis G. salicornia G. arcuata Gracilaria sp. Gracilaria sp. 1 Gracilaria sp. 2 Halymenia dilatata Halymenia maculata Halymenia sp. Catenella nipae Gracilaria changii G. coronopifolia G. blodgettii G. edulis G. salicornia G. arcuata Gracilaria sp. Gracilaria sp. 1 Gracilaria sp. 2 Hypnea esperi Hypnea spinella Hypnea sp. Hypnea sp. 1 Peyssonelia rubra Chrysymenia sp. Solieria sp. Spyridia filamentosa Acanthophora spicifera Laurencia lageniformis Laurencia majuscula Laurencia obtusa Laurencia papillosa Laurencia perforata Laurencia cartilaginea Seagrass Japar Sidek and Muta Harah (2011) listed 8 species of seagrasses found in Sarawak coastal waters (Table 4). The number of species found in Sarawak represent 57 percent of the total species recorded from Sabah and Peninsular Malaysia. The seagrass species in Sarawak were collected from the Bintulu River, the Simalajau estuary, Talang-Talang Island and Punang-Sari, Lawas. Seven species were recorded in Punang-Sari, Lawas, and and it is the place that harbors the highest species number of seagrassess in Sarawak (Japar Sidek and Muta Harah 2011). Recent study has recorded one species, Halodule pinifolia, in the intertidal to 5 meter depth which forms seagrass meadows and covers almost 50 ha on the west part at Sampadi Island (Jaaman et al. 2011). Table 4. Summary of coastal seagrass species reported by Japar Sidek and Muta Harah (2011). Family Hydrocharitaceae Cymodoceaceae Species Enhalus acoroides (L.f.) Royle Thalassia hemprichii (Ehrenb.) Aschers. Halophila beccarii Aschers. Halophila decipiens Ostenfeld Halophila ovalis (R.Br.) Hook.f. Cymodocea rotundata Ehrenb. & Hempr. Ex Aschers. Halodule pinifolia (Miki) den Hartog Halodule uninervis (Forssk.) Aschers. Coral reefs Ferner (2013) reported 203 coral species and 66 genera of hard corals recorded from the Miri area (Northeast, Sarawak). Ferner (2013) noted that the high number of coral species indicates that the Miri reefs, Sarawak, are on the edge of the ‘Coral Triangle’s area of highest diversity of coral and this is consistent with its geographic position near the Philippines and Indonesia, which are known to be in the ‘Coral Triangle’. The genera Acropora, Montipora, Fungia, Leptoseris and Pavona were recorded as having the highest number of species in Miri reef (Table 5)(Ferner 2013). Coral in the Miri reefs appeared healthy, although sedimentation of some of the reefs closest to shore appears to periodically heavy (Ferner 2013). Coral reefs closest to river mouths are likely to be near the limits of their tolerance for water turbidity and die-off due to the high sedimentation rate in the reef area (Ferner 2013). The southwest reefs are sparse and undeveloped, lying in the heavily silted waters that flow from big and small rivers that are located along the southwest coast of Sarawak (Pilcher and Cabanban 75 Sarawak Coastal Biodiversity 2000). Table 5. Summary of corals genera with the greatest number of species from Miri, Sarawak (Ferner, 2013). Genus Acropora Montipora Fungia Leptoseris Porites Pavona Acanthastrea Euphyllia Favia Lobophyllia Psammocora Species Number 21 14 9 8 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 Free-living Nematode One hundred and eleven species of free-living nematodes representing forty seven (47) genera and twenty (20) families are reported from estuarine and marine habitats along the Sarawak coastal waters (Table 6)(Shabdin et al. 2013). Though the number of species recorded in Sarawak waters is higher than reported in Malaysia as a whole, it is far below the total number of species in the world (5000 species). Very few studies have been conducted in Sarawak on marine and estuarine free-living nematode species. Considering Sarawak is located in a centre of biodiversity, more efforts should be made in recording the nematode species in Sarawak waters. Table 6. Summary of free-living nematodes from Sarawak coastal waters as reported by Shabdin et al. (2013). Order Enoplida Family Anoplostomatidae Enchelididae Ironidae Oncholaimidae 76 Species Anoplostoma viviparum Chaetonema canellatum Chaetonema cf. longisetum Belbolla assuplementata Belbolla teissieri Calyptronema maxweberi Calyptronema cf. pulchrum Polygastrophora heptabulba Thalassironus jungi Trissonchulus cf. obtusus Oncholaimus oxyuris Viscosia cf. antarctica Viscosia coomansi Viscosia erasmi Viscosia separabilis Viscosia stenolaima Viscosia cf. tumidula Oxystomina alpha Oxystominidae Oxystomina elongata Oxystomina pulchella Thoracostomopsidae Enoplolaimus cf. denticulatus Oxyonchus australis Trileptium otti Trileptium cf. parisetum Bathylaimus capacosus Tripyloididae Euchromadora arctica Chromadorida Chromadoridae Neochromadora appiana Neochromadora bilineata Neochromadora cf. munita Parapinnanema harveyi Spilophorella papillata Spilophorella paradoxa Steineridora adriatica Hopperia australis Comesomatidae Paracomesoma dubium Pierrickia aequalis Sabatieria cf. alata Sabatieria celtica Sabatieria cf. granifer Sabatieria pulchra Sabatieria cf. splendens Setosabatieria hilarula Paracanthonchus spec Cyatholaimidae Paracanthonchus cf. multitubifer Pomponema ammophilum Pomponema astrodes Pomponema compactum Pomponema coomansi Pomponema cyatholaimoides Pomponema elegans Pomponema polydonta Pomponema syltense Gammanema cf. polySelachinematidae donta Halichoanolaimus cf. consimilis Halichoanolaimus macrophallus Halichoanolaimus cf. ovalis Synonchiella riemanni Metachromadora Desmodoridae chandleri Metachromadora clavata Shabdin ML Monoposthiidae Aegialoalaimidae Ceramonematidae Desmoscolecidae Monhysterida Xyalidae Sphaerolaimidae Axonolaimidae Metachromadora pneumatica Metachromadora cf. vivipara Metachromadora vulgaris Onyx perfectus Onyx rugata Perspiria cf. papillata Pseudochromadora quadripapillata Spirinia gerlachi Spirinia megamphida Spirinia cf. parasitifera Spirinia septentrionalis Nudora nuda Nudora omercooperi Nudora steineri Southernia zosterae Dasynemoides cf. riemanni Desmoscolex longisetosus Quadricoma cf. suecica Cobbia dentata Cobbia truncata Daptonema articulatum Daptonema buelkiensis Daptonema cf. dentatum Daptonema exutum Daptonema fimbriatus Daptonema hirsutum Daptonema laxum Daptonema normandicum Daptonema polaris Daptonema tenuispiculum Daptonema cf. trabeculosum Daptonema vicinum Metadesmolaimus aduncus Rhynchonema cf. brevituba Rhynchonema impar Rhynchonema cf. ornatum Sphaerolaimus balticus Sphaerolaimus cf. islandicus Sphaerolaimus lodosus Sphaerolaimus macrocirculus Sphaerolaimus cf. megamphis Sphaerolaimus cf. pacificus Parodontophora brevamphida Parodontophora breviseta Parodontophora danka Linhomoeidae Parodontophora pacifica Parodontophora polita Parodontophora quadristicha Parodontophora xenotricha Pseudolella cf. bangalensis Pseudolella cf. granulifera Terschellingia longicaudata Coastal Marine fishes A comprehensive survey on marine fishes of the coastal area of Sarawak was reported by Vidthayanon (1998). A total of 518 species from 24 orders and 111 families were recorded through research cruise and market surveys from various coastal towns in Sarawak (Table 7). Order Perciformes is dominant as compared to the other orders. The study also reported 103 and 106 economic species noted in both trawling and market surveys, respectively. Table 7. Summary of marine fish species reported by Vidthayanon (1998). Order Orectolobiformes Carcharhiniformes Rhinobatiformes Torpediniformes Rajiformes Myliobatiformes Anguilliformes Clupeiformes Aulopiformes Ophiiformes Siluriformes Osmeriformes Zeiformes Myctophiformes Gadiformes Beloniformes Atheriniformes Beryciformes Gasterosteiformes Lophiiformes Scorpaeniformes Perciformes Pleuronectiformes Tetraodontiformes TOTAL Family number 1 3 1 1 1 5 4 3 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 3 1 2 5 4 4 50 7 6 111 Species number 2 12 1 2 2 10 11 20 7 4 9 1 1 1 2 8 1 3 9 9 25 309 27 42 518 77 Sarawak Coastal Biodiversity Coastal reptiles Twenty one species of reptiles are found in Sarawak coastal waters. Out of that sixteen are species recorded in mangrove ecosystem such as crocodiles, terrapins, lizards, geckos, skinks, monitors and snakes (De Rooij 1915; Musters 1983; Stuebing 1991; Das and Charles 1993; Denzer 1996; Das 2004; 2006; Jensen and Das 2006; Das et al. 2013) (Table 8). Five species of turtles are recorded along the Sarawak coast (Leh 1985). Leh (1985) noted that only three species are commonly found in Sarawak waters, namely Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata and Caretta caretta. Leh (1985) noted that Dermochelys coriacea (Leatherback turtle) is seldom seen in Sarawak waters. However, lately Dermochelys coriacea is also reported in Sarawak waters and are included in the conservation program held by the Sarawak Forestry Corporation (Tisen and Bali 2002). Turtle are reported to lay their eggs on Talang-Talang and Satang Islands, Sarawak. Table 8. Reptiles found in Sarawak mangrove forests and adjacent waters. Species Crocodylus porosus Batagur borneoensis Draco cornutus Gekko smithii Hemiphyllodactylus typus Apterygodon vittatum Emoia atrocostata Varanus salvator Boiga dendrophila Cerberus rynchops Gerarda prevostiana Fordonia leucobalia Acrochordus granulatus Xenelaphis hexagonotus Enhydrina schistosa Ophiophagus hannah Chelonia mydas Eretmochelys imbricata Caretta caretta Dermochelys coriacea Lepidochelys olivacea Common name Estuarine crocodile * Painted terrapin ** Flying lizard *** Smith’s (green-eyed) gecko # Indopacific tree gecko # Borneo skink ## Mangrove skink ### Common water monitor @ Mangrove snake @@ Dog-faced water snake @@ Gerard’s water snake @@@ Crab-eating water snake @@ Little filesnake @@ Malaysian brown snake @@ Beaked sea snake @@ King cobra + Green turtle ++ Hawksbill turtle ++ Loggerhead turtle ++ Leatherback turtle +++ Olive Ridley turtle +++ Tisen, and Ahmad (2010), ** Jensen and Das (2006), *** Musters (1983), Das and Charles (1993), ## Denzer (1996), ### Das (2004), @ De Rooij (1915), @@ Stuebing (1991), @@@ Das et al. (2013),+ Das (2006), ++ Leh (1985), +++ Tisen and Bali (2002). * # Marine mammals Studies on marine mammals in Sarawak coastal waters were started in 1901 when Lydekker (1901) pub78 lished his work ‘Notice of an apparently new estuarine dolphin from Borneo’. In later years, several historical records were put together by scientists on the marine mammals of Sarawak coastal waters (Gibson-Hill 1950; Beasly and Jefferson 1997). More recent studies focus on the distribution of cetaceans in Sarawak coastal waters (Jaaman 2006; Bali et al. 2008; Minton et al. 2011). Fourteen species were reported by Beasly and Jefferson (1997) and one species (Tursiops aduncus) was recorded by Minton et al. (2011) in Sarawak coastal waters (Table 9). Three species of dolphins are common in Sarawak waters, namely Tursiops aduncus, Sousa chinensis and Orcaella brevirostris (Minton et al. 2011). Dugong dugon (sea cow) was first reported present in Cape Datu, Lawas and Limbang, Sarawak (Jaaman et al. 2011) and was also reported in Teluk Serabang, near Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary, Sarawak prior to the 1960s (Jaaman et al. 2000). Fourteen individuals of Dugong dugon were reported seen in Limbang Division Sarawak and Brunei Bay, Sabah during a 2007 aerial survey (Jaaman et al. 2011). Dugong dugon is an endangered species due to hunting and habitat destruction (seagrass). Previous studies on marine mammals were focused on the taxonomies of the groups. A recent study by Minton et al. (2011) deals with the distribution and populations of small cetaceans. A more comprehensive study should be carried out to see the relationship of the marine mammals and their interaction within and between ecosystems (Mazlan et al. 2005). Table 9. Summary of marine mammals reported by Beasly and Jefferson (1997). Species name Balaenoptera musculus Balaenoptera physalus Balaenoptera edeni Megaptera novaeangliae Physeter macrocephalus Kogia breviceps Orcinus orca Globicephala macrorhynchus Grampus griseus Tursiops aduncus Lagenodelphis hosei Sousa chinensis Orcaella brevirostris Neophocaena phocaenoides Dugong dugon * Common name Blue whale Fin whale Bryde’s whale Humpback whale Sperm whale Pygmy sperm whale Killer whale Short-finned pilot whale Risso’s dolphin Bottlenose dolphin * Fraser’s dolphin Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin Irrawaddy dolphin Finless porpoise Dugong Species recorded by Minton et al. (2011). Shabdin ML 4. ‌Threats to Sarawak Coastal Biodiversity Resources Mangrove ecosystem Development of the coastal mangrove forest is a major threat to mangrove ecosystems in Sarawak. These include the conversions of mangrove ecosystems into aquaculture pond and eco-tourism industries, reclamation of mangrove forest into housing estates, and industrial complex and commercial ports which lead to habitat losses. The reclamation and conversions of mangrove forest will cause habitat degradation along the Sarawak coastal waters and deprived them of the functions performed by the mangrove ecosystem in coastal protection and serving as a nursery ground for aquatic fauna. Commercial fisheries An increase of the population density will lead to continuing pressures on the Sarawak coastal marine ecosystems. An increase in the demand for commercially important fishes will lead to over exploitation of the marine fish resources due to uncontrolled use of trawling gears. The continuing exploitation of fishery resources above the levels of maximum sustainable yield will result in the disruption of species composition through the increase in trash fish landing (by catch yield) and recruitment failure of the commercially important marine species (Mazlan et al. 2011). Invasiveness of introduced species in the natural environment is another important issue to be addressed in protecting the Sarawak coastal marine species. Tilapia mosambica is a freshwater species in its native country but can adapt well tp the brackish water habitat and its presence will affect the survival of the local resident species. Coral reefs ecosystem The coral reefs ecosystem in Sarawak has long been under threat due to natural hazards and anthropogenic pollution in the coastal waters. The coral reefs near Miri and Simalajau are suffering coral bleaching due to environmental and human factors (The Star 2010). Coral death is also caused by the corallivores species such as Acanthaster planci. However, this mortality is relatively minor assuming there is no population outbreak of the crown-of-thorns starfish. The major threats to coral reefs in Sarawak are anthropogenic pollution such as sedimentation and sand mining (Pilcher and Cabanban 2000). The increase in sediment load due to runoff in upstream areas of many rivers in Sarawak could be a threat to the nearshore reefs. Most of the reefs in Miri lie within 8-9 km of the Miri and Baram River mouths (Pilcher and Cabanban 2000). The primary threat to the reefs of Talang-Talang Islands comes from sediment loading in the water which originated from the Kayan and Sematan Rivers (Pilcher and Cabanban 2000), whereas sedimentation at Satang Island reefs is transported by currents from Sibu Laut, Rambungan and Sampadi Rivers. High sediment loads in many rivers of Sarawak are related to forest removal and land development. Most of the dead corals in those islands are covered with sediment and macroalgae (Pilcher and Cabanban 2000). Reptiles The clearing and reclamation of mangrove forest in the coastal areas will lead to habitat loss for many reptiles species found in Sarawak. Conservation efforts by government agencies such as the Sarawak Forestry Corporation are focusing on the sea turtles rather than on other reptile species in the mangrove forests. Sea turtles in Sarawak are highly endangered species due to their slow reproduction rate and habitat destruction (Anon 2009). The major threats to turtles in Sarawak waters are incidental capture by fishermen’s fishing gear, over harvesting for meat and eggs, and natural predators of the newly hatched turtles. All turtle species in Sarawak are fully protected species and included in the state’s conservation program. Marine mammals Marine mammals such as Dugong dugon are currently facing threats due to seagrass degradation and habitat loss. Seagrass degradation is due to sedimentation and pollution from coastal development and palm oil plantations (Jaaman et al. 2011). Though seagrass is known as hardy and robustly pioneering, it cannot tolerate highly silty and turbid water. The murky water along the Sarawak coast is possibly due to the high human population and intensive coastal development activities. The immediate impact from sedimentation and water pollution (untreated waste disposal) may have severely degraded seagrass meadows along the Sarawak coast and consequently directly impacts the dugong feeding grounds. Further threats to dugongs are incidental catches by fishermen, hunting for dugongs as food and unsupervised tourism (Jaaman et al. 2011). The other 79 Sarawak Coastal Biodiversity marine mammals such as dolphins, porpoises and whales are not under critical threat due to the nature of their swimming habits. 5. ‌Sarawak Biodiversity Conservation and Management Program Malaysian commitment to biodiversity is reflected in the formation of several policies, centres and directorates related to environment and biodiversity. Among the policies are the Fisheries Act of 1985, the National Policy on Biological Diversity 1998, and the National Biotechnology Policy 2005. The establishment of centres and directorate to manage the biodiversity such as the National Biodiversity Centre 2012 and the National Oceanography Directorate under the Ministry of Science Technology and Innovation (MOSTI) are spearheading biodiversity management in Malaysia. The National Biodiversity Centre is focusing on the inventory of biodiversity such as flora, fauna and marine biodiversity. In Sarawak, the commitment of the state government to manage the biodiversity is reflected in several ordinances and acts such as the Sarawak Biodiversity Ordinance 1997 and the Sarawak National Parks and Nature Reserves Ordinance 1998 (Chapter 27). Sarawak has several laws and other legislation related to biodiversity and conservation. These include the following: the Sarawak Forestry Corporation Ordinance of 1995, the Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1998, the National Parks and Nature Reserves Ordinance 1998, the Wildlife Protection Rules 1998 and the National Parks and Nature Reserves Rules 1999. Continuous efforts have been made by several state government agencies and universities to discover and gather the latest information on the state of biodiversity in the Sarawak coastal waters. These include scientific expeditions, independent research, seminars and conferences. The Sarawak government through various agencies has taken active responses in addressing various environmental issues. Various policies are formed to tackle different threats posed to the environment and its biodiversity with the specific aims of balancing human demands on biodiversity resources. Following the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), which was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992, the Sarawak State Government enacted the Natural Resources and Environment (Amendment) Ordinance, 1993; the Natural Resources and Environmental Board (NREB) was established on 1st February 1994. The formation of the NREB of Sarawak under the Ministry of Resource Planning and Environment was purposely to tackle environmental issues. The NREB’s main objective is to pro80 tect and enhance the environmental quality in Sarawak. The NREB had imposed an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and a Natural Resource Environmental Audit on all development projects in Sarawak coastal waters. The requirement of an EIA for a prescribed coastal development activity in Sarawak is mandatory for all coastal development projects. In Sarawak the management of forests including an inventory of flora is under the jurisdiction of the Sarawak Forestry Department (SFD) while bio-prospecting of natural products is controlled by the Sarawak Biodiversity Centre (SBC). All National Parks (NP) including two marine National Parks (Talang-Satang NP and Miri-Sibuti Coral Reefs NP) are managed by the Sarawak Forestry Corporation (SFC). Sarawak has enough rules and regulations to safeguard its biodiversity and natural resources. However, the enforcement of these rules and regulations can be further improved in the future. The Sarawak Forestry Corporation (SFC) embarked on a reef ball project in order to protect the inter-nesting habitats and migratory routes of turtles from the traps posed by the trawlers’ nets. The formation of Sarawak Reef Balls Working Group (SRBWG) has had tremendous impact on turtle conservation efforts. The use of reef balls as a tool for turtle conservation in Sarawak is the first in Asia. Enforcement against illegal trawlers is not effective because the trawlers can always spot the patrol boat first and flee immediately. Its sharp and rough surface along with its two tonnes weight made the reef ball a suitable tool for ripping the trawler nets that entangled it. This will keep trawlers away from the sea turtle inter-nesting habitats (Tisen and Bali 1999). Reef balls were deployed randomly in areas that were identified as the inter-nesting swimming grounds for turtles during their nesting season through a radio and ultrasonic telemetry study (Tisen and Bali 1999). Since 1998, a total of 2284 reef ball units have been deployed by the Sarawak Reef Balls Working Group (SRBWG) along the Sarawak coast. Prior to 1998, around 70 to 100 dead turtles suspected of having originally been caught in trawler nets were found annually in the area stretching from Sematan to Telaga Air beaches (Tisen and Bali 1999). Following the deployment of reef balls, there has been a marked reduction in the number of dead turtles with only about 20 turtles found each year (Tisen and Bali 1999). The SFC is also involved in the conservation projects for marine mammals, especially dolphins and dugongs. Aerial and boat surveys of Irrawaddy dolphins were carried out by the SFC in collaboration with Shabdin ML Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS) offshore and along the Sarawak’s coastal waters. The dolphin population survey also covered four big rivers in Sarawak, namely the Saribas, Lupar, Lassa and Rajang rivers. In recent collaborations between SFC, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (Unimas) and Sarawak Shell Berhad, Irrawaddy dolphin studies were conducted in the Kuching, Bintulu and Miri coastal areas, which recorded 15 species including one new species, Tursiops truncates, along the waters of the Sarawak coast (Bali and Tisen 2013). The SFC also monitors the dugong population and its feeding habitats in seagrass meadows at Kuala Lawas, Sarawak. The strategies of dolphin and dugong conservation projects are to create public awareness to local people and fishermen on the importance of these animals through national and local media. The expected outcome of these conservation projects is the involvement of the local community in conserving the coastal marine resources of Sarawak. The conservation of coral reefs and seagrasses is another project led by the SFC in collaboration with local universities. Coral reefs in northeast Sarawak include Miri-Sibuti National Park and Simalajau National Park whereas Talang-Satang National Park and Tanjung Datu National Park are located in the southwest of Sarawak. Several coral management activities were conducted in the National Park such as annual reef cleaning with volunteers and other government agencies, reef health monitoring and research collaboration with local universities. Seagrass monitoring is also regularly conducted in Kuala Lawas, Talang-Satang NP, Serabang Bay, Sematan and Sampadi Island, Kuching, Sarawak. Among the activities done were monitoring the seasonal changes in species composition, species density, species distribution and water quality in the seagrass area. An expedition with local universities to explore new seagrass areas was also conducted in the coastal waters. The final aim of all these projects is to create awareness among the local communities and hope that participation from them will materialise in the future. Education is an effective tool for helping to generate public awareness on the importance of biodiversity to natural resources in Sarawak. In order to tackle the higher education issues, the Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) was established on 24 December 1992 after the declaration of vision 2020 by Malaysian government. The Faculty of Resource Science and Technology (FRST) was established in July 1993 and become one of the pioneer faculties in UNIMAS with offered academic programmes focusing on science, management, and sustainable utilization of natural resources in Sarawak. Students can specialise in science and management of flora and fauna, aquatic biology, biotechnology, and resource chemistry. In order to enhance the education process in biodiversity, the Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation (IBEC) was launched by UNIMAS in 1994. The IBEC objectives are to promote an understanding of the ecological principles and the benefits of biodiversity resources to mankind, and to promote the wise management and use of the Sarawak biotic wealth in ways that do not adversely affect the environment. IBEC program are focussing on research at post-graduate level that will promote the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge in environmental science and technology. The overall programmes in FRST and IBEC focus on biodiversity towards establishing highly educated, skilled and dedicated natural resource managers, biological conservationists, environmental educators and teachers capable of contributing and providing leadership for the sustainable development of Sarawak’s biotic wealth (Abdullah et al. 2005). The Malaysian government is also in the process of developing a draft of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) in order to address problems of pollution, biological diversity, and deterioration and exploitation of fisheries resources. A pledge to develop an Integrated Coastal Zone Management policy is suggested in order to resolve the conflicting uses and ensure sustainability of coastal resources. Though the suggested ICZM policy is still at a drafting stage, pilot projects have been carried out in Pulau Pinang, Sabah and Sarawak from year 1996 to 2000 (CZMU 1996). Therefore it appears that the ICZM is a priority area for policy development in the near future. 6. Conclusion Considering Sarawak as a mega-biodiversity state, more extensive studies of flora and fauna in the coastal waters should be done to explore the unreported species present in the area. 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