Management Plan for the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius (Falco peregrinus anatum/tundrius) in Canada 2017

• Table of contents
• Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Executive summary
• 1 COSEWIC^* species assessment information
• 2 Species status information
• 3 Species information
  • 3.1 Species description
  • 3.2 Species population and distribution
  • 3.3 Needs of the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius
• 4 Threats
  • 4.1 Threat assessment
  • 4.2 Description of threats
• 5 Management objective
• 6 Broad strategies and conservation measures
  • 6.1 Actions already completed or currently underway
  • 6.2 Broad strategies
  • 6.3 Conservation measures
• 7 Measuring progress
• 8 References
• Appendix A. Effects on the environment and other species

• Figure 1. Breeding range of the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius in North America (map: © modified from White et al. 2002; Chikoski and Nyman 2011; Tremblay et al. 2012; Government of the Northwest Territories 2014; R. Mulder, pers. comm. 2014).

• Table 1. NatureServe rankings and Peregrine Falcon designations in each province and territory²(NatureServe 2015)
• Table 2. Threat assessment table
• Table 3. Conservation measures and implementation schedule
  • Table 3a. General strategy: Reduce threats and assess their impacts
  • Table 3b. General strategy: Conserve and, if possible, legally protect the species’ nesting sites
  • Table 3c. General strategy: Improve knowledge regarding northern populations of the species in Canada
  • Table 3d. General strategy: Encourage participation of northern communities (Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal) in conservation activities carried out in northern areas
  • Table 3e. General strategy: Regularly assess the trend of the species’ Canadian population and its productivity

For copies of the management plan, or for additional information on species at risk, including COSEWIC status reports, residence descriptions, action plans, and other related recovery documents, please visit the Species at Risk (SAR) Public Registry.

© Raymond Ladurantaye

Également disponible en français sous le titre
« Plan de gestion du Faucon pèlerin anatum/tundrius (Falco peregrinus anatum/tundrius) au Canada »

Content (excluding illustrations) may be used without permission, with appropriate credit to the source.

The federal, provincial, and territorial government signatories under the Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk agreed to establish complementary legislation and programs that provide for effective protection of species at risk throughout Canada. Under the Species at Risk Act (S.C. 2002, c. 29) (SARA), the federal competent ministers are responsible for the preparation of management plans for listed species of special concern and are required to report on progress five years after the publication of the final document on the SAR Public Registry.

The Minister of Environment and Climate Change and Minister responsible for the Parks Canada Agency is the competent minister under SARA for the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius, and has prepared this management plan as per section 65 of SARA. To the extent possible, it has been prepared in cooperation with the governments of British Columbia, Alberta, Northwest Territories, Yukon, Nunavut, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland and Labrador, the Sahtu, Gwich'in and Wek’èezhìı renewable resources boards, the Tłı̨chǫ Government, the Wildlife Management Advisory Council (NWT), the Ehdiitat Renewable Resource Council, the Wildlife Management Advisory Council (North Slope), the Nunavut Wildlife Management Board, and the Hunting, Fishing and Trapping Coordinating Committee.

Success in the conservation of this species depends on the commitment and cooperation of the many different constituencies that will be involved in implementing the directions set out in this plan and will not be achieved by Environment and Climate Change Canada, Parks Canada Agency, or any other jurisdiction alone. All Canadians are invited to join in supporting and implementing this plan for the benefit of the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius and Canadian society as a whole.

Implementation of this management plan is subject to appropriations, priorities, and budgetary constraints of the participating jurisdictions and organizations.

This management plan was written by Mark Dionne and François Shaffer of the Canadian Wildlife Service of Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) in the Quebec Region. The plan was improved by technical input, advice and comments from Andrea Norris, Pam Sinclair, Ian Parnell (ECCC-CWS, Pacific and Yukon Region), Randi Mulder (Yukon Conservation Data Centre), Geraldine Pope (Kluane First Nation), David Trotter (Ministry of Agriculture, Government of British Columbia), Michael J. Chutter (Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, Government of British Columbia), Todd Powell (Environment Yukon, Government of Yukon), John Elliott (ECCC-Science and Technology, Pacific and Yukon Region), Deborah Simmons and Catarina Owen (Sahtu Renewable Resources Board), Natalka Melnycky (Gwich'in Renewable Resources Board), Boyan Tracz and Jody Snortland Pellissey (Wek’èezhìı Renewable Resources Board), Ryan Fisher, Mark Wayland, James Duncan, Donna Bigelow, Lisa Pirie and Samuel Haché (ECCC-CWS, Prairie and Northern Region), Diane Casimir (Parks Canada Agency), Joanna Wilson and Suzanne Carrière (Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Government of Northwest Territories), Gordon Court (Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Resource Development, Government of Alberta), Ken De Smet (Department of Conservation and Water Stewardship, Government of Manitoba), Robert Bellizzi and Rachel McDonald (Department of National Defence, National Capital Region), Kevin Hannah, Mike Cadman and Élizabeth Rezek (ECCC-CWS, Ontario Region), Jay Fitzsimmons (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, Government of Ontario), Marie-José Ribeyron, Manon Dubé and Charles Clavet (ECCC-CWS, Quebec Region), François Fournier and Junior Tremblay (ECCC-Science and Technology, Quebec Region), Martin Chiasson and Élizabeth Boivin (The Jacques Cartier and Champlain Bridges Incorporated, Quebec Region), Pierre Bérubé, Jean Lapointe and Antoine Saint-Louis (Department of Forests, Wildlife and Parks, Government of Quebec), Christine Zachary-Deom (Mohawk Council of Kahnawake), the members of the Species at Risk Sub-committee of the Hunting, Fishing and Trapping Coordinating Committee, Maureen Toner (New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources), Jessica Humber (Department of Environment and Conservation, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador), Mark Elderkin (Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources, Government of Nova Scotia), Peter Thomas and Jen Rock (ECCC-CWS, Atlantic Region).

The contribution of residents, non-governmental organizations, Aboriginal groups, scientists and various interest groups, in the form of views, comments and recommendations made during the consultation processes to improve this management plan, is also acknowledged.

The Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius is a medium-to-large falcon that breeds in Greenland and throughout continental North America as far south as northern Mexico. In Canada, this falcon breeds in all Canadian provinces and territories except Prince Edward Island. The species winters from southern Canada, throughout the United States and as far as South America. Its population in Canada has been increasing since 1970. The Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius was listed as Special Concern in Schedule 1 of the Species at Risk Act (SARA) (S.C. 2002, c. 29) in 2012.

The main threats to the species are the use of organochlorine pesticides and toxic chemicals.

The objective of this management plan is to maintain a self-sustaining ^Footnote1 population of the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius throughout its Canadian range for the next 10 years.

The broad strategies and conservation measures required to achieve the management objective are presented in Section 6. In addition to supporting existing measures, this management plan proposes a number of conservation measures aimed at reducing threats and evaluating their impacts, the conservation and, if possible, legal protection of nesting sites, improving knowledge of Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius populations, with an emphasis on populations located in northern regions, and participation of northern communities (Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal) in activities related to conservation of the species.

^* COSEWIC - Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada

Over 60% of the North American breeding range of the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius is in Canada (Figure 1). The species was listed as a species of Special Concern on Schedule 1 of the Species at Risk Act (SARA) (S.C. 2002, c. 29) in 2012. The species is a member of the family Falconidae, which is not included in Article I of the Migratory Birds Convention. It is protected under all existing provincial and territorial wildlife legislation, but the scope of protection varies across the country. Table 1 presents the status of the species in those provinces and territories where the status is defined. Table 1 also provides the status rankings by NatureServe at the subnational level. These rankings range from S1B (Critically Imperiled) to S3B (Vulnerable) (NatureServe 2015).

Globally, the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius, both species and subspecies, is ranked G4T4 (Apparently Secure). The species is ranked N3N4B in Canada, meaning that it is ranked between Apparently Secure and Vulnerable (NatureServe 2015).

^a S1 - Critically Imperiled; S2 - Imperiled; S3 - Vulnerable; S3S4 - Vulnerable to Apparently Secure; S4 - Apparently Secure; S5 - Secure; SU - Unrankable; SNR - Unranked; SNA - Not applicable; B - Breeding population; N - Non-breeding populations; M - Migrant transient population; ? - Uncertain.

^b A species is assigned to the Red List or Blue List based on the conservation status provincial rank (SRank), which is determined by the provincial conservation data centre. These lists can be used to designate official statuses under British Columbia’s Wildlife Act (RSBC 1996, c. 488).

^c Subspecies not specified.

^d Alberta Wildlife Act (R.S.A. 2000, c. W-10).

^e Manitoba Endangered Species and Ecosystems Act (C.C.S.M. c. E111).

^f Ontario Endangered Species Act, 2007 (S.O. 2007, c. 6).

^g Quebec Act respecting threatened or vulnerable species (R.S.Q., c. E-12.01)

^h Newfoundland and Labrador Endangered Species Act (S.N.L. 2001, c. E-10.1).

ⁱ New Brunswick Species at Risk Act (S.N.B. 2012, c. 6, 2013-38 & 39).

^j Nova Scotia Endangered Species Act (S.N.S. 1998, c. 11).

In Canada, the species is not protected under the Migratory Birds Convention Act, 1994 (S.C. 1994, c. 22). In the United States, the anatum (USFWS 1999) and tundrius (USFWS 1994) subspecies were removed from the federal endangered species list. The species is protected under the U.S Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 (16 U.S.C. 703-712).

The Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius is protected under the Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act (WAPPRIITA) (S.C. 1992, c. 52). The purpose of WAPPRIITA is to protect Canadian and international wildlife species threatened by overexploitation for illegal trade. It accomplishes its objectives by regulating international trade and interprovincial transportation of certain wild plants and animals, or their parts or derived products. This act is a product of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The Peregrine Falcon is listed in Appendix I of CITES, which means that international trade in Peregrine Falcons taken from the wild is permitted only in exceptional circumstances. CITES Permits are required for international exports and imports.

The Peregrine Falcon is a medium-to-large falcon (comparable in size to a crow) with long, pointed wings. Adults have bluish-grey or darker upperparts, a variable-width blackish wedge extending down from the eyes, and whitish, greyish, or buff-coloured underparts, with variable amounts of blackish spotting and barring. The sexes are distinguished by size, with females being 15-20% larger and 40-50% heavier than males (White 1968; White et al.2002). Juveniles resemble the adults but have light brown to slate brown or chocolate brown upperparts and blackish-barred buff underparts.

The Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius breeds in Greenland and across continental North America south to northern Mexico (White et al. 2002). In Canada, the species breeds in all provinces and territories except Prince Edward Island (COSEWIC 2007). It has a disjunct distribution, and its boundaries have yet to be described (COSEWIC 2007). The species winters from southern Canada and the United States (White et al. 2002) to South America.

National surveys of Peregrine Falcon breeding populations have been carried out every five years in Canada since 1970 (Holroyd and Banasch 2012). These surveys indicate that the number of sites occupied by the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius has increased, ^Footnote3 surpassing the size of the known historical population in some regions (COSEWIC 2007; Holroyd and Banasch 2012). In 2005, the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius population occupied 556 sites, whereas in 2010 it occupied approximately 610 sites (Holroyd and Banasch 2012; A. Franke, pers. comm. 2013). Because the national surveys are primarily carried out at known breeding sites, the upward trend does not necessarily reflect the total Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius population in Canada (Holroyd and Banasch 2012). At a local scale, the trend may be different than that detected in national surveys, as in the case of inland Labrador (Brazil 2005). These population estimates are lower than the true population size since the breeding area extends over a vast northern landscape that is mostly unsurveyed, where there could be several thousand falcons (COSEWIC 2007; USFWS 2008a). These individuals likely constitute the majority of the Canadian population. In 1969, Fyfe (1969) estimated the population in northern Canada at 7,500 breeding pairs. Based on a recent analysis using mark-recapture data for banded Peregrine Falcons in northern North America and Greenland between 1970 and 2010, the northern breeding population has been estimated at more than 15,000 breeding pairs (Franke 2016). In addition, there could be up to 30,000 non-breeding adults(Franke 2016).

The upward trend observed in national surveys between 1970 and 2010 is supported by data from migratory bird observatories in North America, which also show an increase in the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius population from 1970 to the early 2000s (Farmer et al. 2008).

The Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius breeds in a wide range of habitats, from Arctic tundra to coastal islands, and major urban centres (Cade 1982). Peregrine Falcons generally nest on cliff ledges or in crevices. Cliffs ranging from 50 to 200 m high are preferred (Cade 1960; White and Cade 1971). The species is highly adaptable in nest site selection. It can nest on top of pingos ^Footnote4 on the tundra, on escarpments, in quarries, in trees and on various human-made structures (e.g., transmission towers, skyscrapers, churches, bridges, open-pit mines, industrial stacks) (COSEWIC 2007; Buchanan et al. 2014). It also successfully breeds in nest boxes installed in these habitats to create conditions conducive to nesting (Cade et al. 1996).

The Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius breeds in habitats with access to sufficient prey (White et al. 2002). Given that it feeds primarily on birds captured in the air, it prefers sites located near seabird colonies, shorebird and waterfowl staging or nesting areas, or sites with large numbers of pigeons or songbirds. It also feeds occasionally on mammals (White et al. 2002). At the landscape level, suitable nest sites are patchily distributed, but can be common locally (COSEWIC 2007).

Peregrine Falcons are solitary breeders and highly territorial. Although the number of breeding pairs may be high in some locations (COSEWIC 2007), local density may be limited by the species’ territorial behaviour. The species also demonstrates a high degree of breeding site fidelity (Beebe 1974; Ambrose and Riddle 1988).

Predation is not known to be a significant limiting factor for the Peregrine Falcon. Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) and Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) are the main avian predators (COSEWIC 2007). The Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) is also a known predator (Rowell 2002). Mammals can also have an impact on the food resources of the Peregrine Falcon. For example, the introduction of Norway Rats (Rattus norvegicus) to an island in British Columbia resulted in a reduction in the size of seabird colonies, on which the Peregrine Falcon feeds (Taylor et al. 2000).

^k Level of concern: signifies that managing the threat is of (high, medium or low) concern for the conservation of the species, consistent with the management objectives. This criterion considers the assessment of all the information in the table.

^l Severity: reflects the population-level effect (high: very large population-level effect, moderate, low, unknown).

^m Causal certainty: reflects the degree of evidence that is known for the threat (high: available evidence strongly links the threat to stresses on population viability; medium: there is a correlation between the threat and population viability, e.g., expert opinion; low: the threat is assumed or plausible).

ⁿ Given that the characteristics of this threat have changed considerably over recent decades, its assessment includes its historical characteristics followed by its current characteristics.

Threats are presented in descending order of concern. The threats do not affect the entire Canadian Peregrine Falcon population uniformly. Birds that nest in the southern part of the breeding range are more likely to be affected by avicide use, recreational activities, construction and maintenance of infrastructure, and collisions with infrastructure or means of transportation.

The use of organochlorine pesticides, most notably 1,1,1-trichloro-2-2 bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDT), from the late 1940s to the 1970s, with subsequent bioaccumulation ^Footnote5 within the food chain, was the primary factor causing the collapse of Peregrine Falcon populations (White et al. 2002). DDT was banned in Canada and the United States in the early 1970s (COSEWIC 2007), but it is still allowed in some countries within the species’ winter range, such as Venezuela (White et al. 2002; Van den Berg 2009; Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 2014).

The current impact of residual organochlorine pesticides (which are present throughout the species’s range) on Canadian Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius populations is not well known. In British Columbia’s Okanagan Valley, a region where DDT was heavily used from the 1950s to the 1970s, residual concentrations remain high and could affect the reproductive capacity of the Peregrine Falcon (Elliott et al. 2005). In Alberta, DDT residues measured in Peregrine Falcon eggs show a downward trend (Alberta Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team 2005). Pressures to once again allow the use of DDT to control malaria and other insect-borne diseases (Raloff 2000; Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 2014) make it a threat to the Peregrine Falcon and its prey that winters in South America and therefore will have to be monitored.

The discovery of the assimilation of significant quantities of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) ^Footnote6 by Peregrine Falcons and other raptors in the early 2000s raised concerns about the possibility of a new crisis similar to that created by dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) (Lindbergh et al. 2004; Guerra et al. 2012). Legislative measures designed to limit the impacts of these chemical compounds have since been adopted by the Government of Canada (Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers Regulations, SOR/2008-218). In the United States, restrictions vary by state. Future research will make it possible to determine whether the implementation of these measures will lead to a reduction in PBDE concentrations in Peregrine Falcons.

With new chemical compounds and substances being developed and used across the range of the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius, it is possible that Peregrine Falcons may be affected by bioaccumulation or biomagnification ^Footnote7 of other contaminants. The toxicity of the products that will eventually be used to replace PBDEs will have to be monitored. There are also concerns about neonicotinoids, ^Footnote8 neurotoxic insecticides known to have the potential to cause behavioural effects in birds (Hallmann et al. 2014).

The pesticides used to control species considered pests (e.g., pigeons, starlings, rodents) also pose a threat to the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius. The ingestion of prey contaminated with pesticides such as 4-amino-pyridine (Avitrol®), strychnine or fenthion) may result in shock and death of adult birds and juveniles (Mineau et al. 1999; Campbell 2006).

Although legislation governing the use of pesticides exists, there are no specific regulations to reduce the risk to Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius. However, the Government of Ontario (Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry and Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change) distributes a memorandum to pest control companies requesting that they avoid the use of chemical bird control methods within areas identified as supporting a Peregrine Falcon territory (OMOE and OMNR 2008).

Heavy metals can also pose a threat to the Peregrine Falcon, particularly mercury, which can adversely affect the nervous and reproductive systems (Wolfe et al. 1998; Bennett et al. 2009).

The harvesting of Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius for falconry is currently banned across Canada, except in Saskatchewan, ^Footnote9 which has allowed a small harvest of passing juvenile migrants since 2001 (Rowell 2002). The recent de-listing of the anatum subspecies in the United States has resulted in the lifting of the ban on the harvesting of falcons in some parts of the country ^Footnote10 (USFWS 2008a). An unknown number of falcons are also harvested for falconry in Mexico (G.L. Holroyd, pers. comm. 2009). Harvesting of Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius for falconry is prohibited in Greenland (K. Burnham, pers. comm. 2013).

Although the COSEWIC status report (2007) identifies the harvest for falconry as a threat, according to Millsap and Allen (2006) the level of harvesting in North America is below the threshold that would be detrimental to the species. Population modelling results indicate that the allowed take in the United States does not have a significant impact on the size of the population and that available estimates of vital rates permit the harvest of a certain number of juvenile Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius (Millsap and Allen 2006). It is recommended that the model be validated to ensure that this harvest does not compromise the species’ recovery. More recently, based on the USFWS harvest guidelines and the annualized estimate of hatch-year falcons, Franke (2016) concluded that a small harvest could take place without a negative impact on the breeding population.

The Peregrine Falcon may be the target of illegal poaching of eggs and chicks (COSEWIC 2007). It is difficult to assess the overall significance of this threat. A case reported in 2003 in northern Quebec suggests that this threat persists (A. Saint-Louis, pers. comm. 2014). The illegal shooting of Peregrine Falcons is a practice that still exists. For example, 9.1% (n=99) of Peregrine Falcons brought in to the Clinique des oiseaux de proie at the Université de Montréal’s Faculty of Veterinary Medicine had been killed or injured by bullets (Desmarchelier et al. 2010).

All Peregrine Falcons, including anatum/tundrius, can be affected by disturbances caused by certain recreational activities, particularly rock climbing and, to a lesser degree, hiking, bird watching and all-terrain vehicle use. The effect of disturbance depends on its timing relative to the reproduction cycle and the proximity and frequency of its occurrence. The most critical periods for the reproductive success of Peregrine Falcons are those when they are establishing territory and immediately before egg-laying (Fyfe and Olendorff 1976). During incubation and chick rearing, disturbances can have an impact by forcing adult falcons away from the nest for prolonged periods, resulting in undesirable cooling or heating of the eggs or chicks, and in a reduction in the amount of time adults can spend foraging and feeding their young (Ontario Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team 2010). The impact of recreational activities is mostly localized in inhabited areas.

Some area managers have developed guidelines aimed at reducing the impact of recreational activities at certain sites where the risk of disturbing the species during nesting periods is high (Cade et al. 1996; Richardson and Miller 1997; Manning, Cooper and Associates 2003; Buissière 2010; Ministry of Environment 2013). Those measures include prohibiting certain recreational activities or imposing a minimum distance from nests (COSEWIC 2007; Ontario Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team 2010).

The exploration and development of natural resources (e.g., mining, forestry, wind energy development) could have negative impacts by disturbing Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius during nesting, destroying nests or discouraging the species from nesting in a particular area (Fyfe and Olendorff 1976; COSEWIC 2007). The conservation of Peregrine Falcon nesting sites must remain a high priority given the species’ nest-site fidelity (Cade et al. 1996).

Peregrine Falcons that nest in areas where there is little human activity tend to be more sensitive to disturbances (Pyke 1997; White et al. 2002). The expansion and intensification of natural resource exploration and development in northern regions could therefore become a significant threat to the species, particularly given that the majority of the Canadian population of Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius may nest in these regions.

Various natural resources exploration and particularly development activities are subject to an environmental screening or environmental assessment before they can proceed. In many cases, it is thus possible to avoid-or where not possible minimize-adverse effects on the species. Several provinces have adopted legal or administrative measures to protect the nests or habitat of the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius.Other jurisdictions encourage industry to follow best practice guidelines to minimize impacts on Peregrine Falcons and their nests.

Construction, renovation and maintenance of infrastructure (e.g., bridges or buildings) can have negative impacts by disturbing Peregrine Falcons during nesting or by destroying nests (COSEWIC 2007). The effects of disturbances are comparable to those identified for recreational activities. The impact of infrastructure maintenance activities is mostly located within inhabited areas or areas near them. In contrast, the construction of tall structures (buildings, pylons, communication towers) or the presence of quarries can benefit the species by providing suitable nesting sites.

Some managers of infrastructure on which the species nests regularly have developed management plans in order to minimize the negative impacts related to maintenance (e.g., installation of artificial nest boxes in the immediate vicinity, harvestings of eggs to hatch them in captivity and then release the young). By law, some construction, renovation and maintenance activities must undergo an environmental assessment under the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, 2012 or provincial or territorial legislation before they are carried out. In many cases, this process forces the proponent to avoid adverse effects on the species and, when this is not possible, to minimize the effects.

Peregrine Falcons are sometimes injured or killed when they strike human-made structures, such as building windows or wires. They can also collide with aircraft (Sherrod 1983; Stepnisky 1996; White et al. 2002). According to a study conducted in northeastern North America based on 160 documented cases, collisions with buildings, vehicles, aircraft and transmission lines account for 36%, 9%, 8% and 8% of the observed cases, respectively (Gahbauer et al. 2015a).

Adult Peregrine Falcons anatum/tundrius present in the Arctic are vulnerable to weather-related environmental conditions encountered during fall migration (Franke et al. 2011). According to a study conducted using two climatic indices, the North Atlantic Oscillation and the Southern Oscillation, ^Footnote11 the prevailing conditions in October and November were positively correlated with apparent adult survival and explained 14% of the variation in apparent adult survival. Conditions for the same months in the previous year were negatively associated with apparent adult survival and explained 11% of the variation. However, combined the effects of these indices explained 35% of the temporal variation in apparent survival (Franke et al. 2011). The chicks are also affected by weather conditions, as evidenced by the fact that between 2008 and 2010, over one-third of nestling mortality in the Rankin Inlet (Nunavut) study area was caused by rainfall. The increase in the frequency of heavy rain is an important factor in explaining the decline in productivity of that population (Anctil et al. 2013). This threat could become even more significant in the future since extreme weather events, such as heavy rainfall, are expected to increase with climate change (Min et al. 2011).

The species could also be indirectly affected by the effects of climate change on food availability or by natural changes in climatic conditions such as El Niño, if there is an increase in their frequency or intensity. Large-scale climate phenomena, such as El Niño and the North Atlantic Oscillation, can affect the survival and productivity of seabirds and shorebirds (Sandvik et al. 2012; Galbraith et al. 2014) on which the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius preys.

Northern regions are likely to sustain the most significant impacts associated with climate change (Screen and Simmonds 2010). Given that a significant proportion of Canada’s Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius population breeds in these northern regions, the effects on the species could become of greater concern.

Conversely, this species may also benefit from climate change. The warming observed in the Arctic could allow the Peregrine Falcon to expand its range. Over the last 20 to 25 years, the Peregrine Falcon has expanded its breeding range in northern Greenland as a result of more favourable weather conditions (Burnham et al. 2012). It also shows an ability to adapt by breeding earlier in the season in the Northwest Territories (Carrière and Matthews 2013).

The objective of this management plan is to maintain a self-sustaining ^Footnote1 population of the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius throughout its Canadian range for the next 10 years.

In general, Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius populations have made a remarkable recovery in the last two decades because of the ban on DDT and the success of reintroduction programs (Kiff 1988; Enderson et al. 1995; Millsap et al. 1998; Holroyd and Bird 2012). Although the observed increases can be partly explained by increased monitoring activity, the population appears to have reached and, in some cases, surpassed the historical pre-collapse numbers (COSEWIC 2007; Gahbauer et al. 2015b).

Natural nesting habitat is still available, and the species also has human-made structures for nesting that it already uses or that it may use in the future. It is therefore reasonable to believe that the population is self-sustaining and that Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius numbers could be maintained or even increased through existing and new conservation measures as well as through threat monitoring. Given that the last five-year Peregrine Falcon survey in Canada was conducted in 2010, it is used as a reference to assess achievement of the objectives. The 2010 surveys showed that at least 610 sites were occupied by the Peregrine Falcon. That number is more representative of the population that breeds in southern Canada, as few surveys are conducted in northern Canada. However, because the five-year survey is the only one conducted regularly and the only one that covers such a large territory, it is a valuable source of data for measuring progress toward achievement of the objectives. The results of bird counts performed by the raptor observatories in Canada and the United States can also assist in monitoring the status of the population.

The assessment of the Peregrine Falcon as a species at risk in Canada dates back to 1978 (Martin 1978). Since that time, many recovery activities have been carried out in all provinces and territories. The following list is not exhaustive, but is intended to illustrate the main areas in which work has been or is being done.

• Evaluation of the species’ status in Canada by COSEWIC in 1978 (anatum and tundrius separately), 1992 (tundrius only), 1999 and 2000 (anatum only), and 2007 (anatum/tundrius) (COSEWIC 2007).
• Status reports produced by Quebec (Bird 1997), Alberta (Rowell and Stepnisky 1997) and British Columbia (Cooper and Beauchesne 2004).
• A national five-year Peregrine Falcon survey (1970-2010) of population trends and productivity (Rowell et al. 2003; Chikoski and Nyman 2011; Holroyd and Banasch 2012; Carrière and Matthews 2013; unpublished data from some provincial and territorial governments).
• In addition to the national five-year survey, a number of provinces, territories and protected areas carry out their own surveys in selected regions (COSEWIC 2007).

• DDT use gradually phased out in Canada in about the mid-1970s. Withdrawal of registration of all DDT uses in Canada in 1985. Today, the sale or use of DDT in Canada is an offence under the Pest Control Products Act (Environment Canada 2014).
• From 1975 to 1996, captive breeding and release of over 1,500 Peregrine Falcons at various locations in Canada (Holroyd and Bird 2012).
• Development and application of provincial recovery plans, including Quebec (Comité de rétablissement du Faucon pèlerin au Québec 2002), Ontario (Ontario Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team 2010), Alberta (Alberta Peregrine Falcon Recovery Team 2005) and Manitoba (Wheeldon 2003).
• Best practices guides developed in British Columbia (Manning, Cooper and Associates 2003; Ministry of Environment 2005, 2013), the Northwest Territories (Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada 2011), Alberta (Government of Alberta 2011) and Yukon (Energy Mines & Resources 2014), including minimum setback distances for raptor nests.
• Restrictions or a ban on rock climbing near known nesting sites, particularly in Quebec and British Columbia (EROP 2009; Del Degan, Massé et associés inc. 2010; M. Chutter, pers. comm. 2014).
• Administrative agreement on the protection of nesting sites located on public lands, particularly in Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Quebec (FAPAQ and MRN 2002; K. De Smet, pers. comm. 2014).
• Recommendations by the Ontario government on the required setbacks from nests during the use of avicides to control pest birds (OMOE and OMNR 2008).
• Development of standardized guidelines for petroleum industry activities (Scobie and Faminow 2000).
• Involvement of a private company in the mitigation of the loss of a nest following the destruction of a human-made structure used as a nesting site. The company funded the captive rearing of young Peregrine falcons, followed by release to the wild and the creation of alternative nesting sites (G. Court, pers comm. 2014).

To meet the management objective, the conservation measures will be organized according to the following five general strategies:

• Reduce threats and assess their relative impacts.
• Conserve and, if possible, provide legal protection of the species’ nesting sites.
• Improve the state of knowledge on northern populations of the species in Canada.
• Encourage the participation of northern communities (Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal) in conservation activities carried out in northern areas.
• Regularly assess the Canadian population trend and its productivity.

The reduction of threats to the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius is key to achieving the management objective, along with the assessment of impacts of significant or lesser-known threats.

To ensure successful reproduction of the Peregrine Falcon, the implementation of conservation and stewardship measures at the various nesting sites must be promoted. Such measures can be implemented by various stakeholders (governments, land use managers, non-governmental organizations, citizens). In some cases, the competent authorities could consider legal protection measures.

Special attention should be given to northern regions, where some threats (e.g., climate change) give rise to concern, particularly as the majority of the Canadian population nests in these regions. Gaps in knowledge regarding northern populations, such as their distribution, abundance and productivity, as well as the relative importance of the threats affecting population dynamics, will also have to be filled.

The participation of northern communities (Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal) will have to be encouraged in order to benefit from their traditional knowledge of the environment and the species. Their involvement, both in monitoring activities and in the other planned conservation measures, will be a definite asset for the conservation of northern populations of the species.

Finally, regular monitoring of the Canadian population of the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius is critical, particularly for assessing the effectiveness of the measures implemented and the progress made in achieving the management objective. Monitoring based on a rigorous and joint protocol should be carried out in as many regions of Canada as possible.

Proposed conservation measures and a schedule for implementing the recommended general strategies are presented in Table 3a, Table 3b, Table 3c, Table 3d and Table 3e. This table also includes a number of conservation measures for which implementation is already in progress.

^o “Priority” reflects the degree to which the measure contributes directly to the conservation of the species or is an essential precursor to a measure that contributes to the conservation of the species. High priority measures are considered those most likely to have an immediate and/or direct influence on attaining the management objective for the species. Medium priority measures may have a less immediate or less direct influence on reaching the management objective, but are still important for the management of the population. Low priority conservation measures will likely have an indirect or gradual influence on reaching the management objectives, but are considered important contributions to the knowledge base and/or public involvement and acceptance of the species.

^p A valued ecosystem component is an environmental element of an ecosystem that is identified as having scientific, ecological, social, cultural, economic, historical, archaeological or aesthetic importance. Valued ecosystem components that have the potential to interact with project components should be included in the assessment of environmental effects.

The performance indicators presented below propose an approach for defining and measuring progress towards the achievement of the management objective. Success in implementing this management plan will be evaluated every five years on the basis of the following performance indicators:

• By 2026, the entire Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius population remains self-sustaining and has maintained or exceeded the population level reached in 2010.
• By 2026, the entire Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius population in Canada has maintained or increased its Canadian range as identified in 2010.
• By 2026, the number of young Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius produced annually in Canada is sufficient to maintain or increase the population throughout its Canadian range.

The population will be measured using the results of national surveys carried out every five years as well as the results from bird counts performed by raptor observatories in Canada and the United States.

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A strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is conducted on all SARA recovery planning documents, in accordance with the Cabinet Directive on the Environmental Assessment of Policy, Plan and Program Proposals. The purpose of a SEA is to incorporate environmental considerations into the development of public policies, plans and program proposals to support environmentally sound decision-making and to evaluate whether the outcomes of a recovery planning document could affect any component of the environment or any of the Federal Sustainable Development Strategy’s (FSDS) goals and targets.

Conservation planning is intended to benefit species at risk and biodiversity in general. However, it is recognized that implementation of management plans may inadvertently lead to environmental effects beyond the intended benefits. The planning process based on national guidelines directly incorporates consideration of all environmental effects, with a particular focus on possible impacts upon non-target species or habitats. The results of the SEA are incorporated directly into the management plan itself, but are also summarized below in this statement.

While this management plan promotes the conservation of the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius, it will clearly benefit the environment. The Peregrine Falcon is a symbol of species at risk conservation, and its gradual recovery is an oft-cited example of the feasibility of species-at-risk recovery. The information gathered and the conservation measures implemented could also be used to conserve other birds of prey. As well, since the Peregrine Falcon is a top predator, it could also act as an indicator of the effects of pollution. Information collected on the impacts of climate change in northern regions on the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius could also benefit other species in these regions. Lastly, the Peregrine Falcon could contribute to the control of overabundant birds in urban areas. An increase in the Peregrine Falcon population could have a local adverse effect on its prey populations, including songbirds, colonial seabirds, shorebirds and small mammals (MacKinnon et al. 2008). An increase in the population could also have an adverse effect on other raptor species, such as the Prairie Falcon, with which it competes for nesting sites. Given that the Peregrine Falcon anatum/tundrius is a generalist species that feeds on a wide range of prey, predation pressure should be spread among all available prey. In addition, the local impact of an increase in predation by this species is limited, in part, by the availability of nesting sites and its territorial behaviour during the breeding period.