Professional Documents
Culture Documents
POLITICAL TRANSITIONS
Amnesty laws are political tools used since ancient times by states wish-
ing to quell dissent, introduce reforms or achieve peaceful relationships
with their enemies. In recent years, they have become contentious due to
a perception that they violate international law, particularly the rights of
victims, and contribute to further violence. This view is disputed by polit-
ical negotiators who often argue that amnesty is a necessary price to pay
in order to achieve a stable, peaceful and equitable system of government.
This book aims to investigate whether an amnesty necessarily entails a
violation of a states international obligations, or whether an amnesty,
accompanied by alternative justice mechanisms, can in fact contribute pos-
itively to both peace and justice.
This study began by constructing an extensive Amnesty Law Database
that contains information on 506 amnesty processes in 130 countries intro-
duced since the Second World War. The database and chapter structure
were designed to correspond with the key aspects of an amnesty: why it
was introduced, who beneted from its protection, which crimes it cov-
ered, and whether it was conditional. In assessing conditional amnesties,
related transitional justice processes such as selective prosecutions, truth
commissions, community-based justice mechanisms, lustration and repa-
rations programmes were considered. Subsequently, the jurisprudence
relating to amnesty from national courts, international tribunals, and
courts in third states was addressed.
The information gathered revealed considerable disparity in state prac-
tice relating to amnesties, with some aiming to provide victims with a rem-
edy, and others seeking to create complete impunity for perpetrators. To
date, few legal trends relating to amnesty laws are emerging, although it
appears that amnesties offering blanket, unconditional immunity for state
agents have declined. Overall, amnesties have increased in popularity
since the 1990s and consequently, rather than trying to dissuade states
from using this tool of transitional justice, this book argues that inter-
national actors should instead work to limit the more negative forms of
amnesty by encouraging states to make them conditional and to introduce
complementary programmes to repair the harm and prevent a repetition
of the crimes.
Studies in International Law: Volume 21
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page i
Studies in International Law
Volume 1: Between Light and Shadow: The World Bank, the International
Monetary Fund and International Human Rights Law
Mac Darrow
Volume 2: Toxics and Transnational Law: International and European Regulation
of Toxic Substances as Legal Symbolism
Marc Pallemaerts
Volume 3: The Chapter VII Powers of the United Nations Security Council
Erika de Wet
Volume 4: Enforcing International Law Norms Against Terrorism
Edited by Andrea Bianchi
Volume 5: The Permanent International Criminal Court
Edited by Dominic McGoldrick, Peter Rowe and Eric Donnelly.
Volume 6: Regional Organisations and the Development of Collective Security
Ademola Abass
Volume 7: Islamic State Practices, International Law and the Threat from
Terrorism: A Critique of the Clash of Civilizations in the New World Order
Javaid Rehman
Volume 8: Predictablity and Flexibility in the Law of Maritime Delimitation
Yoshifumi Tanaka
Volume 9: Biotechnology and International Law
Edited by Francesco Francioni and Tullio Scovazzi
Volume 10: The Development of Human Rights Law by the Judges of the
International Court of Justice
Shiv Bedi
Volume 11: The Environmental Accountability of the World Bank to Third Party
Non-State Actors
Alix Gowlland-Gualtieri
Volume 12: Transnational Corporations and Human Rights
Edited by Olivier De Schutter
Volume 13: Biotechnologies and International Human Rights
Edited by Francesco Francioni
Volume 14: Human Security and International Law: Prospects and Problems
Barbara Von Tigerstrom
Volume 15: The Arms Trade and International Law
Zeray Yihdego
Volume 16: Africa: Mapping New Boundaries in International Law
Edited by Jeremy Levitt
Volume 17: Forced Migration, Human Rights and Security
Edited by Jane McAdam
Volume 18: The Use of Nuclear Weapons and the Protection of the Environment
during International Armed Conict
Erik Koppe
Volume 19: The Shifting Allocation of Authority in International Law
Edited by Tomer Broude and Yuval Shany
Volume 20: Counterterrorism
Edited by Andrea Bianchi and Alexis Keller
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page ii
Amnesty,
Human Rights and
Political Transitions
Bridging the Peace and
Justice Divide
Louise Mallinder
OXFORD AND PORTLAND, OREGON
2008
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page iii
Published in North America (US and Canada) by
Hart Publishing
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Louise Mallinder 2008
Louise Mallinder has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988, to be identied as the author of this work.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page iv
Acknowledgments
The origins of this book go back to my doctoral thesis, which I completed
at Queens University Belfast in December 2006. Whilst researching this
thesis, I had two fantastic supervisors, Prof Tom Hadden and Prof Kieran
McEvoy. Throughout the ups and downs of this research both Kieran and
Tom patiently provided me with encouragement, support and inspiration
and for that I am truly grateful. I would also like to acknowledge the valu-
able contribution made by my examiners Prof Jeremy Sarkin and Prof
Colin Harvey, whose positive comments on the thesis spurred me on to
write this book. In addition, I would like to thank my colleagues at the
Law School at Queens University Belfast, particularly Prof Brice Dickson
and Dr Jean Allain, for commenting on sections of the book manuscript. I
would also like to acknowledge the Law School for providing me with
nancial support to attend training courses and conferences, which have
all enriched this book. During my doctoral research, I was also very grate-
ful to have received funding from the Department for Employment and
Learning in Northern Ireland.
During the process of preparing this book, I have been very fortunate
to work with Hart Publishing Ltd. In particular, I would like to thank
Richard Hart for his enthusiasm for this project and for the clarity he has
provided me with on what seemed to me at times a daunting process. I
would also like to thank Rachel Turner at Hart. Thanks should go also to
the reviewers of my book proposal, Prof Diane Orentlicher and Prof
David Dyzenhaus, for their interest in my work and for their helpful com-
ments.
I further feel indebted to those individuals who kindly gave their time
to read the earlier drafts and provide me with comments, even though
they may not have agreed with all my arguments. Firstly, I want to thank
Mark Freeman who has been a star, in not just reading the whole manu-
script, but also being willing to exchange ideas and texts of amnesty laws.
I would also like to thank Dr Leslie Vinjamuri for her comments and
encouragement. Finally, I am grateful to Christopher Hall at Amnesty
International for providing me with his views on the legal issues.
During the years in which I was researching this project and creating the
Amnesty Law Database, I have also received help from many individuals,
particularly librarians and NGO workers, who kindly responded to my
pleas for information on the harder to nd amnesties. I would also like
thank those individuals, such as Prof Ron Slye, who kindly shared unpub-
lished work with me.
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page v
Finally, I would like to give my sincere and heartfelt thanks to all my
friends and family, who have listened sympathetically when I was nding
the research difcult and have celebrated with me during the high points.
Particular thanks should go to my parents and my sister Leanne, and also
to the Hayes family. I would particularly like to thank my PhD girls,
Dr Anna Eriksson and Dr Vicky Conway for all those evenings we spent
drinking wine and making sense of our theses, and also Prof George
Pavlakos and Estelle Zinsstag. Most especially, however, I want to thank
my darling Richard for always believing in me and supporting me
through this process.
vi Acknowledgements
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page vi
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements v
List of Case Studies xiii
Table of Cases xv
International Cases xv
Municipal Cases xvii
Table of Municipal Legislation xxiii
Table of Ofcial International Documents xxxv
Treaties xxxv
Other Documents xxxviii
List of Figures xliii
Abbreviations xlv
Introduction 1
Dening Amnesty 3
Controversial Nature of Amnesty Laws 7
Amnesties, International Law and Legal Claims-making 7
Amnesties and the Views of Victims 10
Amnesties and Pragmatic Peacemaking 12
Amnesties and Dealing with the Past 13
Amnesty and Reconciliation 16
Trends in the Introduction of Amnesty Laws 18
Creating the Amnesty Law Database 22
Structure and Purpose of the Book 24
Part I Amnesties and Peacemaking: Context and Content 27
1 Enacting Amnesties 29
Introduction 29
How are Amnesty Laws Introduced? 30
Exercises of Executive Discretion 31
Negotiated Peace Agreements 32
Statutes 33
Public Consultation 34
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 37
Amnesty as a Reaction to Internal Unrest and Domestic Pressure 41
Amnesty as a Tool for Peace and Reconciliation 46
Amnesty as a Response to International Pressure 61
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page vii
Amnesty as a Cultural or Religious Tradition 63
Amnesty as Reparation 64
Amnesty as a Shield for State Agents 66
Repeated and Rolling Amnesties 68
Conclusion 71
2 Whom do Amnesties Protect? The Personal Jurisdiction of
Amnesty Laws 75
Introduction 75
Amnesties, Equality and the Myth of Equivalency 76
How have States Distinguished between Offenders with
Different Allegiances? 82
State Agents 85
Opponents of the State 87
Non-Violent Political Prisoners 88
Exiles and Refugees 89
Foreign Nationals 91
Can an Offenders Reasons for Committing a Crime Justify an
Amnesty? 92
Ideology and Political Offenders 93
Duress 96
Self Protection and Personal Gain 97
VictimPerpetrator Axis 98
Importance of Rank: Should States distinguish different Levels of
Responsibility 100
Amnesty for Subordinates? 100
Amnesty for Superiors? 102
Individual v Blanket Amnesties 110
Can Amnesties Prevent Individuals from Proving their
Innocence? 111
Conclusion 113
3 Granting Immunity? The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws 117
Introduction 117
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 118
Amnestying Atrocities? Can States Amnesty Crimes under
International Law? 123
Should Amnesties Treat Political Crimes Differently? 135
Impinging on Individual Rights: Amnesties for Crimes Against
Civilians and Combatants who are Hors de Combat 144
Do States Amnesty Economic Crimes? 145
Restricting Amnesties and the Scope of the Duty to Prosecute 148
Conclusion 150
viii Contents
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4 Towards Greater Accountability: The Role of Conditional
Amnesties 153
Introduction 153
Which Conditions are Attached to Amnesties? 154
Amnesty for Surrender and Disarmament 156
Application Deadlines for Amnesties 159
Amnesty and Repentance 160
Amnesty and the Search for Truth 163
Amnesty and Repairing the Harm 171
Amnesty and Restorative Approaches to Justice 184
Lustration and Vetting Procedures and Amnesty 189
Enforcing Conditions and the Potential of Temporary Amnesties 192
Conclusion 197
Part II Approach of Courts to Amnesties 201
5 Implementing the Amnesty: The Approach of National Courts 203
Introduction 203
Trends in the Responses of National Courts to Amnesty Laws 204
How have National Courts explained their Approach to
Amnesty Laws? 209
Legality of Amnesty Processes Under Municipal Law 210
Legality of Amnesty Processes Under International Law 218
Adhering to the Separation of Powers Doctrine 232
Learning from Experiences Elsewhere 236
Promoting Peace and Reconciliation 239
Disclosing or Concealing the Truth 241
Conclusion 244
6 International Courts and National Amnesty Laws 247
Introduction 247
Whom do International Courts Hold Accountable? 248
Who has Standing? 252
When do International Courts have Jurisdiction to Rule on
National Amnesties? 253
Potential to Create Change: How the Rulings of International
Courts Can Affect National Amnesties? 261
Amnesties and Victims Rights: The Verdicts of the International
Courts 262
Right to a Remedy 263
Duty to Investigate 266
Duty to Prosecute and Punish 270
Right to Reparations 277
Contents ix
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page ix
Potential Approach of the International Criminal Court 279
Security Council Deferral (Article 16) 282
Complementarity (Article 17) 282
Non bis in idem (Article 20) 285
Prosecutorial Discretion (Article 53) 286
Conclusion 291
7 Beyond Territoriality: Transnational Prosecutions and Amnesties 293
Introduction 293
Jurisdiction of Courts in Third States to Rule on Amnesties
Introduced Elsewhere 294
Treaty Law 295
Customary International Law 299
Domestic Law 302
Scope of Universal Jurisdiction within Third States 304
Role of Subsidiarity 304
Executive Discretion 308
Nexus Requirement and In Absentia Prosecutions 309
Selectivity 311
Ripple Effect: The Impact of Investigations in Third States on
National Amnesties 311
Conclusion 314
Part III Views of Stakeholder Groups 317
8 Legal Obligations v Self-interest: The Contradictory Approach of
International Actors to Amnesty 319
Introduction 319
What Motivates International Actors Decisions on Involvement in
Domestic Amnesty Processes? 321
Attitudes of International Actors towards Amnesties 327
Diplomatic Pressure 331
Economic Pressure 340
Legal Pressure 342
Military Pressure 350
Conclusion 351
9 Prioritising Needs: Amnesties and the Views of Victims 355
Introduction 355
Research on Victims 356
Identifying Victims and their Needs 358
How do Amnesty Laws Affect Victims? 365
x Contents
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How can Amnesty Laws Be Made More Responsive to the
Needs of Victims? 373
Conclusion 376
10 Promoting Participation: Making Amnesties Attractive to the
Targeted Groups 379
Introduction 379
Combatants, Perpetrators, Victims or Freedom Fighters?
The Complex Terminology for Amnesty Beneciaries 380
Amnesty and Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration 381
Methods to Encourage Participation 384
Publicising Amnesties 385
Sensitising Communities 387
Providing Financial Incentives 390
Establishing Training and Employment Programmes 393
Integrating Former Combatants into the Armed Forces 394
Establishing Power-sharing Governments 396
Impact of Truth commissions on Potential Amnesty Applicants 398
Conclusion 400
Conclusions 403
Appendix 1: List of Amnesty Processes 415
Appendix 2: International Court System 423
Appendix 3: Provisions of the Universal Jurisdiction Legislation in
Third States 429
Bibliography 433
Index 569
Contents xi
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xi
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xii
List of Case Studies
Case Study 1: Reparative v blanket amnesty: the Uruguayan experience
Case Study 2: The changing scope of the Ugandan amnesty
Case Study 3: Post-Franco Amnesties in Spain
Case Study 4: The Algerian experience of rolling amnesties
Case Study 5: Pinochets amnesty: self-amnesty in Chile
Case Study 6: Limited amnesties in Bosnia-Herzegovina
Case Study 7: UNTAETs approach to divergent levels of responsibility in
Timor-Leste
Case Study 8: Rwanda, gacaca and international justice
Case Study 9: Amnesty in exchange for truth in South Africa
Case Study 10: Sequencing amnesty and truth in El Salvador
Case Study 11: Colombias Justice and Peace Law (Law 975) 2005
Case Study 12: Amnesty for Haitis military junta
Case Study 13: Divergence in UN attitudes: the experience of amnesty in
Sierra Leone
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xiii
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xiv
Table of Cases
International Cases
Abdlsamet Yaman v Turkey (App No 32446/96), ECHR (2004) ..........264
Aksoy v Turkey, ECHR, judgment of 18 December 1996,
Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1996-VI ........................263, 268, 273
Alfonso Ren Chanfeau Orayce et al v Chile, Cases 11.505, 11.532,
11.541, 11.546, 11.549, 11.569, 11.572, 11.573, 11.583, 11.585, 11.595,
11.652, 11.657, 11.675, and 11.705, Inter-Am CHR, Report 28/98,
OEA/SerL/V/II.98 (1998).................................................................255, 266
Alicia Consuelo Herrara et al v Argentina, Cases 10.147, 10.181,
10.240, 10.262, 10.309 and 10.311, Inter-Am CHR, Report 28/92,
OEA/Ser/L/V/II.83 (1992) ......................................................2656, 2734
Almonacid-Arellano et al v Chile, Inter-Am Ct HR (ser C)
no 154 (2006) ........................................................................255, 257, 269, 272
Aloeboetoe et al v Suriname, Inter-Am. Ct HR (ser C) No 11
(1991) ............................................................................................................171
Angel Escobar Jurado v Peru, Case 10.521, Inter-Am CHR,
Report 42/97, OEA/SerL/V/II.98 (1998) ...............................................275
Arrest Warrant case (Democratic Republic of Congo v Belgium)
2002 ICJ 3 (14 Feb 2002)..............................................................................300
Barber, Messegu and Jabardo v Spain, App No 10590/83,
ECHR 19 (1988) ...........................................................................................266
Barrios Altos Case (Chumbipuma Aguirre et al v Peru),
Inter-Am Ct HR (ser C) No 74 (2001)...............................211, 221, 271, 278
Basilio Laureano Atachahua v Peru, Comm No 540/1993,
UNHRC, UN Doc CCPR/C/56/D/540/1993 (1996)....................264, 269
Carmelo Soria Espinoza et al v Chile, Case 11.725, Inter-Am
CHR, Report 133/99, OEA/SerL/V/II.106 (1999).............2567, 269, 278
Case of the Rochela Massacre v Colombia Inter-Am Ct HR
(ser C), No 163 (2007) .................................................................................272
Castillo Pez v Peru, Inter-Am Ct HR (ser C) No 34
(1997) ....................................................................................263, 267, 269, 277
Chumbipuma Aguirre et al v Peru see International Cases,
Barrios Altos Case
Commission Nationale des Droits de lHomme et des Liberts v
Chad, Comm No 74/92, Afr CHR (1995) ................................................268
Democratic Republic of Congo v Belgium see International Cases,
Arrest Warrant case
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xv
Estiles Ruz Dvila v Peru, Case No 10.491, Inter-Am CHR,
Report 41/97, OEA/SerL/V/II.98 (1998) .......................................269, 275
Garay Hermosilla et al v Chile, Case 10.843, Inter-Am CHR,
Report 36/96, OEA/SerL/V/II/95 [1996] ....31, 215, 255, 263, 2667, 274
Godnez Cruz v HondurasCompensatory Damages Inter-Am
Ct HR (ser C) No 8 (1989) ..........................................................................267
Gustavo Carranza v Argentina, Case 10.087, Inter-Am CHR,
Report 30/97, OEA/ SerL/V/II.95 (1997) ..............................................254
Hugo Bustios Saavedra v Peru, Case No 10.548, Inter-Am CHR,
Report 38/97, OEA/SerL/V/II.98 (1998) ...............................................275
Hugo Leonardo de los Santos Mendoza et al v Uruguay,
Cases 10.029, 10.036, 10.145, 10.305, 10.372, 10.373, 10.374
and 10.375, Inter-Am CHR, Report 29/92,
OEA/Ser/L/V/II.83 (1992) ..............................................254, 256, 265, 274
Ignacio Ellacura, SJ et al v El Salvador, Case 10.488, Inter-Am
CHR, Report 136/99, OEA/SerL/V/II.106 (1999).........................268, 275
Ireland v the United Kingdom, ECHR, judgment of
18 January 1978, Series A no 25 ............................................................2723
Irma Flaquer v Guatemala, Case 11.766, Report 67/03, Inter-Am
CHR, OEA/Ser.L/V/II.118 Doc. 70 rev. 2......................................252, 278
Joaquin Herrara Rubio v Colombia, Comm No 161/1983, UNHRC,
UN Doc CCPR/C/31/D/161/1983 (1987) .............................................267
Jordan v United Kingdom (App No 24746/94), Eur Ct Hum Rts,
ECHR 2001-III .........................................................................................1645
Jos Antonio Coronel et al v Colombia, Comm No 778/1997,
UNHRC, UN Doc CCPR/C/76/D/778/1997 (2002)............................264
Jos Vicente et al v Colombia, Comm No 612/1995, UNHRC,
UN Doc CCPR/C/60/D/612/1995 (1997) .............................................264
Juan Aniceto Meneses Reyes et al v Chile, Cases 11.228, 11.229,
11.231 and 11.182, Inter-Am CHR, Report 34/96,
OEA/SerL/V/II/95 (1996) ...........................................................255, 2745
Loayza Tamayo v PeruReparations, Inter-Am Ct HR.
(ser C) No 42 (1998) ....................................................................................255
Lom Accord Amnesty in Prosecutor v Morris Kallon, Brima
Bazzy Kamara, SCSL-2004-15-PT-060-I, SCSL-2004-15-PT-060-II,
Appeal (13 Mar 2004) .....................................................................249, 3034
Lucio Parada Cea et al v El Salvador, Case 10.480, Inter-Am CHR,
Report 1/99, OEA/SerL/V/II.102 (1999) ...................................253, 2667
Manuel Meneses Sotacuro and Flix Inga Cuya v Peru, Case 10.904,
Inter-Am CHR, Report 46/00, OEA/SerL/V/II.106 (2000) .................265
Martn Javier Roca Casas v Peru, Case 11.233, Inter-Am CHR,
Report 39/97, OEA/SerL/V/II.98 (1998) ...............................................267
Masacre Las Hojas v El Salvador, Case 10.287, Inter-Am CHR,
Report 26/92, OEA/Ser./L/V/II.83 (1992) ............................................273
xvi Table of Cases
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xvi
Monsignor Oscar Arnulfo Romero and Galdmez et al v
El Salvador, Case 11.481, Inter-Am CHR, Report 37/00,
OEA/SerL/V/II.106 (2000).......................................................254, 267, 275
Mouvement Burkinab des Droits de lHomme et des Peuples v
Burkina Faso, Comm No 204/97, Afr CHR (2001) ................................266
Mrs W v United Kingdom, application on admissibility,
32 Collection of Decisions 190, 200 (28 February 1983).........................273
Myrna Mack Chang v Guatemala, Inter-Am Ct HR (ser C)
No 101 (2003) .......................................................................................272, 278
Nydia Erika Bautista de Arellana v Colombia, Comm No 563/1993,
UNHRC, UN Doc CCPR/C/55/D/563/1993 (1995)....................264, 276
Pastor Juscamaita Laura v Peru, Case 10.542, Inter-Am CHR,
Report 19/99, OEA/SerL/V/II.102 (1999) .............................................275
Prosecutor v Allieu Kondewa, SCSL-04-14-T-128-7347
(25 May 2004) ......................................................................................192, 259
Prosecutor v Anto Furundzija, Case No IT-95-17/1-T,
Judgment (10 Dec 1998), ....................................................................249, 260
RD Stalla Costa v Uruguay, Comm No 198/1985, UNHRC,
UN Doc CCPR/C/30/D/ 198/1985 (1987) ............................................253
Rodolfo Robles Espinoza and Sons, Case 11.317, Inter-Am CHR,
Report 20/99, OEA/SerL/V/II.95 (1999) .......................................263, 268
Samuel Alfonso Cataln Lincoleo v Chile, Case 11.771, Inter-Am
CHR, Report 61/01, OEA/Ser/L/V/II.111 (2001) ................................257
Seluk and Asker v Turkey, ECHR, judgment of 24 April 1998,
Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1998-II..........................................268
Velsquez Rodrguez v Honduras Inter-Am Ct HR (ser C)
No 4 (1988) .....................................................................238, 26771, 273, 277
Velsquez Rodrguez v HondurasPreliminary Objections,
Inter-Am Ct HR (ser C) No 1 (1987).........................................................263
Municipal Cases
Argentina
Cmara en lo Criminal y Correccional Federal, Sala II, Buenos
Aires, 14/10/97, Privaciones Illegales de Libertad en el centro
clandestine de detencin Club Athltico ...........................2289, 2423
Corte Suprema de Justicia [CSJN], 22/6/1987, General
Ramn J Camps, incoada en virtud del Decreto
No 280/84 del Poder Ejecutivo Nacional.............21011, 219, 233, 2401
Corte Suprema de Justicia [CSJN], 28/4/1988, Raffo, Jos
Antonio y otros s/tormentos R 453. XXI................................................221
Corte Suprema de Justicia [CSJN], 13/8/1998, Aguiar de Lapac
Carmen s/ recurso extraordinario (causa n 450) Surez MasonSuarez
Table of Cases xvii
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xvii
Mason, Carlos Guillermo s/ homicidio, privacin ilegal de
la libertad, etc .............................................................................................243
Juez Federal de Primera Instancia de Resistencia, Dr. Carlos
Skidelsky, 7/03/03, Causa Margarita Beln.................................217, 224
Juzgado Nacional en lo Criminal y Correccional Federal No 4
Buenos Aires, 6/03/01, Resolucin del Juez Federal Gabriel
R Cavallo declarando la inconstitucionalidad y la nulidad
insanable de los arts 1 de la Ley de Punto Final y 1, 3 y 4 de
la Ley de Obediencia Debida (Simn Julio) (No 17.768),
No 4, Sec No 7, Reg 19.193 ........................................................................212
Juzgado Nacional en lo Criminal y Correccional Federal No 11
de Buenos Aires, 12/09/02, Scagliusi, Claudio Gustavo y otros
s/privacin ilegal de la libertad, No 6869/98, causa No 6.859/98 ....224
Juzgado Nacional en lo Criminal y Correccional Federal No 4
Buenos Aires, 6/03/01, Resolucin del Juez Federal Gabriel
R Cavallo declarando la inconstitucionalidad y la nulidad
insanable de los arts 1 de la Ley de Punto Final y 1, 3 y 4 de
la Ley de Obediencia Debida (Simn Julio) (No 17.768),
No 4, Sec No 7, Reg 19.193 ........................................................................229
Juzgado Nacional en lo Criminal y Correccional Federal No 11
de Buenos Aires, 12/09/02, Scagliusi, Claudio Gustavo y otros
s/privacin ilegal de la libertad, No 6869/98, causa No 6.859/98 ....241
Juzgado Nacional en lo Criminal y Correccional Federal No 4 Buenos
Aires [Juzg Fed], April 1995, Mnica Mara Candelaria Mignone....242
Resolucin del Juez Federal Gabriel R Cavallo (n 20), Cmara
Nacional de Apelaciones en lo Criminal y Correccional
Federal de Buenos Aires, 9/11/01, Del Cerro, JAs/ queja,
Causa n 17.890, N 4, Sec. N 7 ................................................212, 223, 229
Bosnia & Herzegovina
Municipal Court II of Sarajevo, 11/12/99 Ruling No Kv-745/99
(K-682/96), Constitutional Court, 29/09/01, TK from Sarajevo
(No 24/01)....................................................................................................220
Burundi
Constitutional Court, 10/03/96, Niyingaba and Company ..................217
Chile
Corte de Apelaciones de Santiago, 18/05/04, Diana Frida Aron
Svigilsky......................................................................................................230
Corte de Apelaciones de Santiago, 17/11/04, Miguel ngel Sandoval
Rodrguez ...................................................................................................230
Corte de Apelaciones de Santiago, 03/10/94, Brbara Uribe Tamblay
and Edwin van Yurick Altamirano, Rol 38-683-94, Boletn, Comisin
xviii Table of Cases
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xviii
Andina de Juristas, 43, 1994, pp 4355 and Revista Estudios
(edited by the Sociedad Chilena de Derecho Internacional),
1995, pp 17991; Gaceta Jurdica Magazine, 1994, No 171,
pp 12636 .................................................................................221, 2256, 239
Corte de Apelaciones de Santiago, 26/09/94, Lumi Videla Moya,
No 13.597-94, Corte Suprema, 30/01/96, Lumi Videla Moya
Rol 5.476-94 (Recurso de queja); Revista Estudios (edited by the
Sociedad Chilena de Derecho Internacional), 1995, pp 198201;
Revista Fallos del Mes, No 446, pp 20637 (decision No 1) ....226, 234, 238
Corte Suprema, 13/03/07, Sentencia (Rol No 3125-04) (2007)
(Pinto Prez case)........................................................................................215
Corte Suprema, 28/09/90, Decisin sobre recurso de aclaracin
del 28 de septiembre de 1990 (Rol No 53378) (1990) Revista
de Derecho y Jurisprudencia y Gaceta de los Tribunales,
pt 2 4 (Insunza Bascun case) ......................................................215, 225
Corte Suprema, 12/11/92, Alfonso Ren Chanfeau Orayce..................225
Corte Suprema, 09/09/98, Pedro Enrique Poblete Crdova,
Rol 469-98, Revista Fallos del Mes, No 478, pp 17609
(decision No 3) (1998).................................................222, 225, 227, 229, 243
Corte Suprema, September 1998, General Sergio Arellano Stark,
Marcel Moren Brito and Armando Fernndez Larios (La
Caravana de la Muerte) ....................................................................22930
Colombia
Corte Supreme de Justicia, 07/02/99, Alonso de Jesus Posada
Espinosa and Martin Alonso Velasquez Zapata ...................................231
El Salvador
Corte Suprema de Justicia, 05/10/00, Ruling on the Constitutionality
of the 1993 Amnesty Law .........................................................................214
Corte Suprema de Justicia, 20/05/93, Resolucin de la Demanda
de Inconstitucionalidad presentada por Joaqun Antonio
Cceres Hernndez, No 10-93..............................................227, 2334, 239
Corte Suprema de Justicia, 16/08/95, Guevara
Portillo .................................................................................214, 224, 227, 239
France
Cass, Affaire Boudarel (1993) 1992 Bull Crim, No 143, 351....................231
Cass, General Aussaresses (2003) Bull Crim 122, 465469 .....................231
Cour dassises de Paris, 16/03/90, Alfredo Astiz (Arrt
No 1893/89) Judgment ..............................................................................310
Tribunal de Grande Instance de Montpellier, 25/05/01, Ely Ould
Dah, Ordonnance (No. du Parquet 99/14445, No. Instruction
4/99/48), Cour dassises de Nmes, 08/07/02...............................297, 310
Table of Cases xix
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Guatemala
Corte Suprema de Justicia, 01/09/01, El Aguacate Massacre ...............231
Sala Quinta de la Corte de Apelaciones, Jalapa, 22/01/96, Lacn
Chacln case ...............................................................................................235
Honduras
Corte Suprema de Justicia, 27/06/00, Petition for Declaration of
Unconstitutionality (No 20-99) ................................................................211
Israel
HCJ 428/86 Barzilai v Government of Israel (Shin Bet Affair)
[1986] IsrSC 40(3) ....................................................................21314, 23840
Mexico
Expediente de extradicin 5/2000, Juez Sexto de distrito de
Procesos Penales en el Distrito Federal, Resolution 5/2000,
11 Jan. 2001, Decision on the Extradition of Ricardo Miguel
Cavallo, Suprema Court de Justicia, 10 Jun 2003,
42 ILM 888................................................................................2989, 301, 303
Peru
16 Juzgado Especializado en lo Penal, Lima, 16/06/95,
Caso Salazar Monroe y otros, Dcima Primera Sala Penal
de la Corte Superior de Lima, 14/07/95, Caso Salazar
Monroe 999 UNTS 171, 6 International Legal Materials
368.........................................................................211, 2201, 2278, 234, 238
Barrios Altos case see 16 Juzgado Especializado en lo Penal,
Lima, 16/06/95, Caso Salazar Monroe y otros, Dcima Primera
Sala Penal de la Corte Superior de Lima, 14/07/95, Caso
Salazar Monroe 999 UNTS 171, 6 International Legal Materials 368
Sierra Leone see International Cases, Prosecutor v Allieu Kondewa
South Africa
Azanian Peoples Organization (AZAPO) v the President of the
Republic of South Africa (CCT 17/96) (8) BCLR 1015
(CC).........................................15, 126, 216, 219, 227, 234, 2378, 240, 2434
Spain
Audiencia Nacional, 5 Mar 1997, Orden de prisin provisional
incondicional de Leopoldo Fortunato Galtieri por delitos de
asesinato, desaparicin forzosa y genocidio .........................................296
Audiencia Nacional, 4 Nov 1998, Anto de la Sala de lo Penal de la
Audiencia Nacional conrmado la jurisdiccin de Espaa para conocer
de los crimenes de genocidio y terrorismo comtedidos durante la
xx Table of Cases
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dictadura argentina (Appeal 84/98, Criminal Investigation
19/97) ...............................................................................................297, 3023
Audiencia Nacional, 5 Nov 1998, Anto de la Sala de lo Penal de
la Audiencia Nacional conrmado la jurisdiccin de Espaa
para conocer de los crimenes de genocidio y terrorismo
comtedidos durante la dictadura chilena (Appeal 173/98,
Criminal Investigation 1/98) ............................................................297, 305
Auto del Juzgado Central de Instruccin No 1 con relacin al
Caso Guatemala por genocidio, diligencias nmero 331/99,
27 Mar 2000Audiencia Nacional, Asiento: 162.2000, Rollo
Apelacin No 115/2000, Causa: D Previas 331/99, 13 Dec 2000,
Sentencia No 327/2003, Recurso de Casacion No 803/2001,
25 Feb 2003, Appeal................................................................................3067
TC, Sentencia del Tribunal Constitucional espaol reconociendo el
principio de jurisdiccin penal universal en los casos de crmenes
contra la humanidad (STC 237/2005) 28 Sep 2005, Appeal ............3078
Timor-Leste
Court of Appeal, Case No 02/ACC/2007 (16 August 2007)..............14950
United Kingdom
R v Bartle and the Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis
and Others ex p Pinochet (No 3) (1999) 1 AC 147 (HL) ........................300
R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate and Others,
ex p Pinochet Ugarte (No 2) (1999) 1 AC 119 (HL) ................................300
R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate and Others,
ex p Pinochet Ugarte (1998) 1 AC 61 (HL) ..........................................3001
Uruguay
Criminal Court of Montevideo, 15/04/97, Zanahoria case ...........228, 234
First Instance Civil Court in Montevideo, 10/05/00, Almeida
de Quinteros, Mara del Carmen c/Poder Ejecutivo (Ministerio
de Defensa Nacional), Amparo (Sentencia No 28) Ficha 216/99,
Appellate Court of Montevideo, 31/05/00, Almeida de Quinteros,
Mara del Carmen c/Poder Ejecutivo (Ministerio de Defensa
Nacional) (No 98).......................................................................228, 243, 276
Tribunal en lo Penal de 6 Turno, 02/03/02, Jos Nino Gavazzo.........228
Table of Cases xxi
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Table of Municipal Legislation
Albania
Decree No 7338, 1989
Preamble ....................................................................................................412
art 1(1)...........................................................................................................147
Law No 7660, 1993............................................................................................65
Law On the Innocence and Amnesty of those formerly Convicted
and Political Persecuted, No 7516, 1991
art 3 ...............................................................................................................142
Law on the Status of Politically Ex-Convicted and Prosecuted People
by the Communist Regime, Law No 7748, amended by the law
No 7771, 1993...........................................................................................104
art 9 amended..............................................................................................176
art 12 .............................................................................................................183
Penal Code
arts 61-68 and 101-102................................................................................147
Algeria
Loi relative au rtablissement de la Concorde civile,
Loi No 98-08, 1999 ......................................................................6970, 134
art 30 .............................................................................................................157
art 39 .............................................................................................................189
Ordonnance no 06-01 du 27 feb 2006 portant mise en oeuvre de
la Charte pour la paix et la rconciliation nationale, 2005......701, 189
arts 44-45 ........................................................................................................66
Presidential Decree No 200003, 2000 ...................................................69, 189
Angola
Bicesse Accords, 1991
Ann I .........................................................................................................3901
Lei No 24/91, 1991..........................................................................................149
Lei No 11/96, 1996..........................................................................................331
Lei No 7/00, 2000..............................................................................................45
Lei No 4/02, 2002............................................................................................175
Lusaka Protocol, 1994.......................................................................................56
Ann 4 ............................................................................................................391
Ann 6, s I, art 4(c) ........................................................................................397
Ann 6, s I, art 5 ............................................................................................139
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xxiii
Argentina
Constitution.................................................................................................2401
art 16 .............................................................................................................216
art 118 ...........................................................................................................223
Decree No 280/84, 1984...........................................................................21011
Due Obedience Law, 1987...........6, 43, 97, 1012, 21011, 216, 221, 233, 302
Full Stop Law, 1986 ..............................................................................43, 302
Law of National Pacication, Law No 22.924, 1993.....................................31
Presidential Decree of Pardon, No 1002/89 (6 October 1989)..................104
Presidential Decree of Pardon, No 2741/90 (29 December 1990)............104
Bangladesh
Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Treaty, 1997
art 16(f) .........................................................................................................390
Indemnity Ordinance Act, 1975
art 2(a)...........................................................................................................138
Benin
Decret No 91/95 du 27 mai 1991..................................................................181
Loi No 90/028 du 9 octobre 1990 portant amnistie des faits autres
que des faits de droit commun commis du 26 octobre 1972
jusqu la date de promulgation de la prsente loi, 1990............59, 397
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Amnesty Law of the Republika Srpska, Ofcial Gazette of Republika
Srpska, No. 13/96 (4 July 1996) ......................................................................90
Constitution
art I.2.............................................................................................................220
art II.1............................................................................................................220
Criminal Law
art 148 ...........................................................................................................220
Dayton Peace Agreement (1995) ..............................................................8990
art 1
(1) ..........................................................................................................182
Law on Amnesty of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Ofcial Gazette of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
No. 9/96 (30 June 1996)............................................................................90
Law on Amnesty, Ofcial Gazette of the Federation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, No. 48/99 (3 December 1999).........................................90
Law on Amnesty, Ofcial Gazette of the Republic of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, No. 6/96 (23 February 1996) ..........................................90
Law on Changes and Amendments to the Law on Amnesty (1999)
(Republika Srpska) .................................................................................346
xxiv Table of Municipal Legislation
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Brazil
Lei Concede anistia e d outras providncias, 1979..................................174
Bulgaria
Law on Amnesty and Restoration of Conscated Property and
Implementing Regulations, 1991....................................................65, 175
art 5 ...............................................................................................................183
Burundi
Law relating to the judicial proceedings for provisional immunity of
political leaders returning from exile, 2003 ...............................194, 217
Cambodia
Law to amend The Law on the Establishment of the Extraordinary
Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia for the Prosecution of
Crimes Committed During the Period of Democratic
Kampuchea (2004) ..................................................................................258
Loi Relative la mise hors-la-loi de la clique du Kampucha
Dmocratique, Loi No 064 (1994) .........................................................258
Chad
Agreement Between Government of Chad and the National
Resistance Army, 2003 ...........................................................................397
Chile
Constitution
art 5 ...................................................................................................215, 2212
art 19 .............................................................................................................215
Decreto Ley 2,191 (Ley de Amnista) 1978...........................79, 215, 225, 230,
2567, 272, 303, 332
art 3 ...............................................................................................................146
Preamble ........................................................................................................47
Colombia
Decreto 128 de 2003....................................................................................1778
Ley 35, Diario Ofcial No 36133 bis, p 529 por la cual se decreta
una amnista y se dictan normas tendientes al restablecimiento
y preservacin de la paz, 19 November 1982 ....................................120
Table of Municipal Legislation xxv
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Ley 37 de 1981 por la cual se declara una amnista conditional,
Diario Ofcial No 35760, 14 May 1981 ........................................120, 161
Ley 77 de 1989 .................................................................................................347
Ley 782 de 2002
art 21 .............................................................................................................348
Ley 975 de 2005 de Justicia y Paz ...............................................86, 1778, 272
Cte dIvoire
Linas-Marcoussis Accord 2003 .....................................................................325
Loi portant amnistie, 2003 ...............................................................................92
art 1 ...............................................................................................................148
Croatia
Law on General Amnesty, No 80/96, 1996.................................................148
Czechoslovakia
Law concerning the legality of actions related to the ght for
renewed freedom of the Czechs and Slovaks and the exemption
of certain crimes from the statute of limitations, 1946 .....138, 333, 339
Denmark
Penal Code
s 8(4-6) ..........................................................................................................431
DRC
Decret-Loi portant amnistie pour faits de guerre, infractions
politiques et dopinion (2003) .........................................................58, 194
Loi portant amnistie des personnes responsables de faits de guerre,
des infractions politiques et de dlits dopinion (2005) ....................194
Lusaka Ceasere Agreement (1999).............................................................133
Ann 1, art 9.2 ...............................................................................................351
East Germany
Resolution of the Council of State of the German Democratic
Republic on a general amnesty on 17th July 1987, on the
occasion of the 38th anniversary of the founding of the German
Democratic Republic 1987....................................................................179
xxvi Table of Municipal Legislation
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El Salvador
Acuerdos de Chapultepec 1992
art 2 ...............................................................................................................166
chs 1 & 6 .......................................................................................................182
Constitution.................................................................................................2334
art 2 ...............................................................................................................215
art 144 ...........................................................................................................224
art 244 ...........................................................................................................214
Ley de Amnista General para la Consolidacin de la Paz,
Decreto No 486 (20 March 1993).............................166, 21415, 227, 349
Ley de Amnista para el Logro de la Reconciliacin Nacional,
Decreto No 805, Diario Ocial No 199 1987 .................................65, 341
art 2 ...............................................................................................................139
art 3 ...............................................................................................................146
Ley de Reconciliacin Nacional, Decreto Legislativo no 147 de
23 de enero de 1992, publicado en el Diario Ofcial del 23 de
enero de 1992...................................................................................166, 348
Fiji
Immunity Decree, 2000
s 2 ..................................................................................................................139
Maunikau Accord, 2000.................................................................................158
France
Loi No 46-729 du 16 avril 1946 Loi Portant Amnistie .........................87, 147
art 2 ...............................................................................................................143
Loi No 47-1504 portant amnistie, 1947 ..........................................................86
Loi No 51-18 portant amnistie, instituant un rgime de libration
anticipe, limitant les effets de la dgradation nationale et
rprimant les activits antinationales, 1951......................................867
art 19 .............................................................................................................112
Loi No 53-112 portant amnistie en faveur des Franais
incorpors de force dans les formations militaires
ennemies, 1953 ......................................................................49, 86, 97, 130
Loi No 53-681 portant amnistie, 1953 ................................................867, 148
Loi No 66-396 de 17 juin 1966 portant amnistie dinfractions
contre la sret de lEtat ou commises en relation avec
les vnements dAlgrie.........................................................................53
art 1 .......................................................................................................139, 149
Loi No 68- 697 du 31 juillet 1968 portant amnistie, Journal
Ofciel, 2 Aug 1968 ..................................................................87, 231, 390
Loi No 81-736 Loi Portant Amnistie, 1981 ....................................................53
Loi No 88-1028 du 9 novembre 1988 portant dispositions statutaires
et prparatoires lautodtermination de la Nouvelle-
Caldonie en 1998
art 80 ...............................................................................................................43
Table of Municipal Legislation xxvii
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Loi No 89-473 du 10 janvier 1990 portant amnistie dinfractions
commises loccasion dvnements survenues en Nouvelle-
Caldonie ...................................................................................................43
Loi No 90-33 du 10 janvier 1990 portant amnistie dinfractions
commises loccasion dvnements survenues en Nouvelle-
Caldonie ...................................................................................................43
FYR Macedonia
Law on Amnesty, 2002...........................................................................332, 340
Germany
see also East Germany
Code of Crimes ...............................................................................................432
Gesetz ber den Erla von Strafen und Geldbuen und die
Niederschlagung von Strafverfahren and Bugeldverfahren
(17.7.1954) ........................................................................................102, 333
Gesetz ber die Gewhrung von Straffreiheit: Law Granting
Exemption from Punishment (31.12.1949) ....................................50, 333
Greece
Varkiza Agreement, 1945 ........................................................................61, 142
Guatemala
Decreto Ley 27-83 (15 Mar 1983)
art 2 ...............................................................................................................386
Decreto Ley 33-82 se concede amnista por los delitos polticos y
comunes conexos en los cuales hubiesen participado miembros
de las facciones subversivas 1982...........................................................66
Ley de Reconciliacin Nacional, 1996
art 2 ...............................................................................................................137
art 5 ...............................................................................................................137
art 8 ...............................................................................................................137
Haiti
Executive Decree of 3 October 1993.............................................................323
Governors Island Agreement 1993 .............................................................351
art 6 .......................................................................................................323, 334
Law on amnesty of October 1994 .................................................................323
xxviii Table of Municipal Legislation
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xxviii
Indonesia
Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the
Republic of Indonesia and the Free Aceh Movement, 2005
s 3.2.5 ....................................................................................................175, 390
Israel
Basic Law
s 11
(b)............................................................................................................213
Italy
Decreto Presidenziale 22 giugno 1946, n 4. Amnistia e indulto
per reati comuni, politici e militari (known as Amnistia
Togliatti) 1946...........................................................................95, 104, 139
Lebanon
Loi damnistie gnrale No 84/91 (1991)
art 2 ...............................................................................................................161
Liberia
Cotonou Accord, 1993
s B, art 14......................................................................................................397
s H, art 9(3)...................................................................................................388
Mexico
Ley de Amnista, 1994....................................................................................148
Nicaragua
Ley de amnista general y reconciliacin nacional, No 81, La Gaceta,
No 53, 1990
Preamble ........................................................................................................85
Ley de Amnista para Detenidos por Violacin de la Ley de
Mantenimiento del Orden y Seguridad Pblica, 1987
art 2 ...............................................................................................................130
Table of Municipal Legislation xxix
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Papua NG
Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea
(Consolidated to Amendment No 22), 15 August 1975
176(3) ............................................................................................................213
179.................................................................................................................213
Peru
Constitution
art 55 .............................................................................................................221
Ley conceden amnista general a personal militar, political y civil
para diversos casos, 1995...............................................................271, 349
art 1 ...............................................................................................................138
Ley No 23216, 1980...........................................................................................64
Philippines
Amnesty Proclamation 1948 ...........................................................................86
Presidential Decree No 1754, 1980
Preamble ........................................................................................................50
Russia
Decree, On Declaring an Amnesty in Connection With the Adoption
of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, 1994..........................112
Rwanda
Loi no. 60/91, Amnistie gnrale et voie de solution au problme
des rfugis (JO 1991, p 1930) 1991
art 3 ...............................................................................................................112
Loi Organique portant organisation, comptence et fonctionnement
des Juridictions Gacaca charges des poursuites et du jugement
des infractions constitutives du crime de gnocide et dautres
crimes contre lhumanit commis entre le 1er octobre 1990 et le
31 dcembre 1994 2004
art 51 .............................................................................................................108
Organic Law No 08/1996 of 30/8/1996 Organization of Prosecutions
for Offenses Constituting the Crime of Genocide or Crimes
against Humanity Committed since 1 October 1990
ch III ..........................................................................................................1612
Senegal
Amnesty Law, 2004 ........................................................................................111
xxx Table of Municipal Legislation
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xxx
Sierra Leone
Abidjan Accord, 1996.........................................................................3347, 382
Peace Agreement between the Government of Sierra Leone and
the Revolutionary United Front of Sierra Leone (Lom
Accord) 1999............................................56, 120, 122, 167, 192, 249, 257,
259, 261, 303, 330, 3347, 3445, 405
South Africa
Constitution.....................................................................................................244
ss 35(1) and 321(3).......................................................................................217
Indemnity Act No 35 1990, as amended by Indemnity Amendment
Act, No 124 1992 .............................................................................111, 140
Interim Constitution 1994
Postamble.......................................................................................................16
National Prosecuting Guidelines 2005 ..........................................................15
Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act, 1995.............130, 240
s 20.3 .........................................................................................................1401
Spain
Constitution.....................................................................................................307
Decreto 2940/1975 de 25 de noviembre, por el que se concede
indulto general con motivo de la proclamacin de Su Majestad
Don Juan Carlos de Borbn como Rey de Espaa...............................51
Ley 46/1977, de 15 de octubre (BOE No 248, de 17 de octubre),
de Amnista, 1977 ...........................................................................512, 78
Ley 52/2007, de 26 de diciembre, por la que se reconocen y
amplan derechos y se establecen medidas en favor de quienes
padecieron persecucin o violencia durante la guerra civil y la
dictadura (Ley de Memoria Histrica)................................................52
Ley Orgnica 6/1985, de 1 de julio, del Poder Judicial.............................298
art 23(2)(c) ....................................................................................................303
Real Decreto-Ley 10/1976 de 30 de Julio, sobre amnista...........................52
Sri Lanka
Commissions of Inquiry Act 1948................................................................134
Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act, No 48 1979.........136
art 1 ...............................................................................................................134
Special Presidential Commissions of Inquiry Law, No 7 of 1978............134
Tajikistan
Law On Amnesty for Participants in the Political and Military
Confrontation in the Republic of Tajikistan, 1997 ..............................91
art 4 ...............................................................................................................147
Table of Municipal Legislation xxxi
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Timor-Leste
Law on Truth and Measures of Clemency for Diverse Offences,
2007...........................................................................................................106
Regulation No 2000/15 on the Establishment of Panels with
Exclusive Jurisdiction over Serious Criminal Offences, 2000
art 1.3 ............................................................................................................105
Regulation No 2001/10 on the Establishment of a Commission
for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor 2001
s 1 ..........................................................................................................105, 162
s 27
1 and 7....................................................................................................105
Togo
Amnesty Law, 1994 ........................................................................................339
Uganda
Agreement on Accountability and Reconciliation (29 June 2007) ...........281
Amnesty Act 2000.....................................................389, 160, 280, 2889, 332
art 9 ...............................................................................................................383
Amnesty Amendment Act 2006 .............................................................38, 281
Amnesty Statute, 1987....................................................................................134
United Kingdom
Northern Ireland (Sentences) Act 1998
s 16 ............................................................................................................1578
United States
Foreign Assistance Act 1961..........................................................................350
Presidential Proclamation No 4313, 39 Fed.Reg. 33293 (16 September
1974)............................................................................................................31
Presidential Proclamation No 4483, 42 Fed Reg 4391 [1977]......................31
Uruguay
Ley de Caducidad de la Pretensin Punitiva del Estado,
Ley No 15.848, 1986....................................................43, 69, 228, 256, 349
art 4 .....................................................................................................................36
Ley de Pacicacin Nacional, Ley No 15.737, 1985 .............................69, 138
art 2 ...............................................................................................................138
Ley No 16.724, Desaparicin Forzada de Personas , 1995
art 4 ...............................................................................................................243
xxxii Table of Municipal Legislation
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Yugoslavia
Amnesty Law (2 March 2001) .........................................................................87
Zimbabwe
Clemency Order No 1 of 1995.........................................................................86
Clemency Order No 1 of 2000 (General Amnesty for Politically-
Motivated Crimes), General Notice 457A.............................................86
Table of Municipal Legislation xxxiii
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(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xxxiv
Table of Ofcial
International Documents
Multilateral treaties are presented rst, followed by bilateral treaties and
agreements, then all other documents.
Multilateral treaties
African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights, 1981 .........................4248
art 19(1).........................................................................................................163
art 25 .............................................................................................................171
American Convention on Human Rights
(ACHR) ..................................................81, 222, 225, 229, 253, 272, 4248
art 1(1)...........................................................................................................271
art 2 .......................................................................................................254, 257
art 3 ...............................................................................................................265
art 4(6)...........................................................................................................228
art 8(1)...........................................................................................................265
arts 41 and 42...............................................................................................253
American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man,
1948...........................................................................................229, 253, 424
Charter of the United Nations, 1945
art 2(7)...........................................................................................................326
Ch VII ...........................................................................................195, 326, 424
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment (CAT), 1984...............................129, 134, 225, 229
art 4 ...............................................................................................................127
art 5(2) and (3) .............................................................................................296
art 6(2)...........................................................................................................127
art 7(1)...................................................................................................127, 296
Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced
Disappearance, 2006...............................................................................128
art 4 ...............................................................................................................128
art 7(2)...........................................................................................................128
art 11 .............................................................................................................128
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, 1948 ........................................................................................307
art 2 ...............................................................................................................127
art 5 ...............................................................................................................126
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xxxv
art 6 .......................................................................................................126, 296
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951
arts 1 and 33.................................................................................................136
European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human
Rights), 1950 ........................................................................................4248
art 13 .............................................................................................................171
art 26 .............................................................................................................252
Protocol No 11.............................................................................................171
Geneva Conventions (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force
21 October 1950)..............................................................135, 222, 227, 257
Additional Protocol I of 1977 ....................................................................124
arts 85-8 ....................................................................................................295
Additional Protocol II of 1977...........................................126, 135, 227, 239
art 1 ...........................................................................................................125
art 6(5).......................................................................................125, 227, 240
art 148 .......................................................................................................226
art 49 (Geneva I)..........................................................................................295
arts 146-7 (Geneva IV)................................................................................226
common art 2...............................................................................................225
common art 3.............................................................77, 125, 144, 2257, 229
common art 49 (Geneva I) .........................................................................124
common art 50 (Geneva II)........................................................................124
common art 129 (Geneva III).....................................................................124
common art 146 (Geneva IV) ....................................................................124
Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the
Event of Armed Conict, 1954..............................................................257
Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of
Persons, 1994 ...........................................................................................228
art 1 .......................................................................................................128, 230
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR), 1966 ..............................................................222, 225, 229, 4248
art 2 ...............................................................................................................171
(3) ..........................................................................................................263
(3)(c)......................................................................................................264
art 6(4)...........................................................................................................227
art 9 ...............................................................................................................113
art 14 .............................................................................................................113
(1) ..................................................................................................78, 190
art 15 .............................................................................................................113
arts 18, 19, 21 and 22...................................................................................112
art 26 .......................................................................................................78, 190
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR), 1966
xxxvi Table of Ofcial International Documents
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xxxvi
art 6(1)...........................................................................................................190
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on
the involvement of children in armed conict, 2000
art 4(1) and (2) ...............................................................................................77
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court,
1998.........................................................12930, 248, 279, 299, 4248, 431
Preamble ......................................................................................................279
art 8
(2)(c)......................................................................................................126
art 12
(3).........................................................................................................247
art 16 .....................................................................................................195, 282
art 17 .........................................................................................................2825
(1)(a) ....................................................................................................283
(1)(b)................................................................................................2834
(2).........................................................................................................283
(3).........................................................................................................285
art 20 .........................................................................................................2856
(3).........................................................................................................283
art 28 .............................................................................................................102
(1).........................................................................................................103
art 33 .............................................................................................................100
art 53 .......................................................................................................28691
(1)(c) ....................................................................................................286
art 75 .............................................................................................................171
Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former
Yugoslavia 1993 (as amended 28 February 2006), 1993
Preamble ......................................................................................................251
art 5 ...............................................................................................................251
art 6 ...............................................................................................................249
art 17 .............................................................................................................251
Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR), 1948
art 7 .............................................................................................................778
art 8 ...............................................................................................................171
art 10 .......................................................................................................78, 113
art 11 .............................................................................................................113
arts 18-20 ......................................................................................................112
Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961...................................257
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), 1969
art 18 .............................................................................................................230
art 27 .............................................................................................................223
art 28 .....................................................................................................222, 225
arts 53 and 64...............................................................................................259
Table of Ofcial International Documents xxxvii
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xxxvii
Bilateral treaties/agreements
Declarations Drawn up in Common Agreement at Evian,
18 March 1962, by the Delegations of the Government
of the French Republic and the Algerian National Liberation
Front ...........................................................................................................32
Final Act of Congress of Vienna 1815
arts 11-12 ..........................................................................................................5
Indo-Sri Lanka Accord 1987
2.11................................................................................................................136
ann 7 .............................................................................................................156
Nijmeguen Peace Treaty 1678
art 3 ...................................................................................................................5
Paris Peace Treaty 1763
art 2 ...................................................................................................................5
Prague Peace Treaty 1866
art 10 .................................................................................................................5
Simla Agreement on Bilateral Relations between India and
Pakistan 1972...........................................................................................130
Statute of the Special Court of Sierra Leone, annexed to Agreement
between the United Nations and the Government of Sierra
Leone on the Establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone,
pursuant to UNSC res 1315 (2000) (16 January 2002)....................4248
art 1 ...............................................................................................................250
art 5 ...............................................................................................................257
art 10 .........................................................................................................2578
arts 2-4 ......................................................................................................2578
Tilsit Peace Treaty 1807
art 10 .................................................................................................................5
Treaties of Westphalia 1648...........................................................................45
Treaty of Constantinople 1879
art 9 ...................................................................................................................5
Utrecht Peace Treaty 1713
art 2 ...................................................................................................................5
Other documents
ECOSOC
Study on Amnesty Laws and their role in the safeguard and
protection of human rights (21 June 1985) UN Doc.
E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/16................................................................4, 37, 82
xxxviii Table of Ofcial International Documents
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xxxviii
ICC
Eleventh Diplomatic Brieng of the International Criminal Court
(ICC, The Hague, 10 October 2007)........................................................12
Ofce of the Prosecutor, Policy Paper on the Interests of Justice
(ICC, the Hague September 2007) ..................................................28790
Ofce of the Prosecutor,Paper on Some Policy Issues Before the
Ofce of the Prosecutor (ICC, The Hague September 2003) 7 ........251
Press release: Statement by the Chief Prosecutor Luis Moreno-
Ocampo (6 July 2006) ICC-OTP-20060706-146-En..............................38
Press release: Statement by the Chief Prosecutor Luis Moreno-
Ocampo (6 July 2006) ............................................................................281
The President of Uganda refers the Situation Concerning the
Lords Resistance Army (LRA) to the International Criminal
Court (29 January 2004) pids.001.2004-EN (29 January 2004).........280
ICTY
Rules of Procedure and Evidence, 6 October 1995
r 47.............................................................................................................250
Rules of Procedure and Evidence 29 March 2006................................171
Rules of Procedure and Evidence 13 September 2006
r 28(A).......................................................................................................250
Inter-Am CHR
Annual Report 19856: Chapter V Areas in which Steps need
to be taken towards full Observance of the Human Rights set
forth in the American Declaration of Human Rights and Duties
of Man and the American Convention of Human Rights,
OEA/SerL/V/II 68 (26 September 1986) ....................................164, 347
Annual Report 1996: Guatemala (14 March 1997) OEA/SerL/
V/II95 Doc 7 rev .....................................................................................137
Annual Report 2001Chapter V(d) Peru (16 April 2002)
OEA/Ser/L/V/II 114 doc 5 Review...................................................348
Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human
Rights 1994: El Salvador (17 February 1995) OEA/Ser L/V
88 doc 9 Review......................................................................................348
Certain Attributes of the Inter-Am CHR, Advisory Opinion
OC-13/93 .................................................................................................255
Report on Demobilization in Colombia (13 December 2004)
OEA/Ser L/V/II.120..............................................................................348
Report on the Situation of Human Rights in El Salvador
(11 February 1994) OEA/Ser.L/V.85 doc. 28 rev.........................53, 348
Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Haiti 1995
(9 February 1995) OEA/Ser.L/V/II.88 Doc. 10 rev...........................324
Second Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Colombia
(14 October 1993) OEA/Ser L/V/II.84................................................348
Table of Ofcial International Documents xxxix
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xxxix
OHCHR
Rule of Law Policy Tool on Amnesties, September 2007 ...............3389
SCSL
Rules of Procedure and Evidence
r 72(E) .......................................................................................................258
UN
Guidelines for United Nations Representatives on Certain
Aspects of Negotiations for Conict Resolution...............................338
UN Committee Against Torture
Compte Rendu Analytique de la premire partie de la 493e sance:
Benin (26 November 2001) UN Doc CAT/C/SR 493.......................339
UN Development Programme
UNDP and the Reintegration of Demobilized Soldiers
(September 1997).....................................................................................402
UN Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and
Protection of Minorities
The Administration of Justice and the Human Rights of Detainees:
Question of Impunity of Perpetrators of Human Rights Violations
(Civil and Political) (2 October 1997) UN Doc E/CN 4/Sub
2/1997/20/Rev 1....................................................................................298
UNCHR
Impunity (25 April 2002) Res 2002/79 ..............................................3434
Report by Mr BW Ndiaye, Special Rapporteur, on his mission to
Rwanda from 8 to 17 April 1993 (11 August 1993) UN Doc E/
CN 4/1994/7/Add 1................................................................................13
Updated Set of principles for the protection and promotion of
human rights through action to combat impunity (8 February
2005) UN Doc E/CN 4/2005/102/Add 1...........................................344
Denitions....................................................................................................3
Preamble ..............................................................................................17, 48
Princ 2.......................................................................................................164
Princ 9.......................................................................................................170
Princ 24...............................................................................................11213
UNGA
Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and
Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International
Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International
Humanitarian Law UNGA Res 60/147 (16 December 2005) ..........410
Princ 11.............................................................................................171, 263
Princ 15.....................................................................................................172
Princ 19.....................................................................................172, 174, 182
Princ 20.........................................................................................172, 1756
Princ 21.............................................................................................172, 179
Princ 22.......................................................................................172, 17980
xl Table of Ofcial International Documents
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xl
Princ 22(a) ................................................................................................180
Princ 22(b) ................................................................................................164
Princ 23.............................................................................................172, 182
Princ 24.....................................................................................................164
Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime
and Abuse of Power (29 November 1985) Res 40/34.......................171
UNHRC
Concluding Observations of the Fourth Periodic Report: Peru
(1 November 2000) UN Doc CCPR/CO/70/PER .............................349
Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee:
El Salvador (18 April 1994) UN Doc CCPR/C/79/Add 34;
A/49/40 ...................................................................................................349
Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee:
El Salvador (22 July 2003) UN Doc CCPR/CO/78/SLV.................349
Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee:
Haiti (3 October 1995) UN Doc CCPR/C/79/Add.49; A/50/40...324
Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: Peru
(25 July 1996) UN Doc CCPR/C/79/Add 67; A/51/40...................349
Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee:
Senegal (28 December 1992) UN Doc CCPR/C/79/Add 10 ..........349
Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee:
Togo (28 November 2002) UN Doc CCPR/CO/76/TGO...............339
Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee:
Uruguay (5 May 1993) UN Doc CCPR/C/79/Add.19....................349
Consideration of Reports submitted by States Parties under
Article 40 of the Covenant: Interim Report: Benin, UN Doc
CCPR/C/BEN/2004/1, 16 February 2004 .........................................181
General Comment 20: Replaces general comment 7 concerning
punishment of torture and cruel treatment or punishment
(10 March 1992) UN Doc CCPR General Comment 20 .....................343
General Comment 31: Nature of General Legal Obligation
imposed on States Parties to the Covenant (26 May 2004)
UN Doc CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13 .................................................343
Summary Record of the 1521st meeting: Peru (23 October 1996)
UN Doc CCPR/C/SR 152 .....................................................................176
UNSC
In Presidential statement, Security Council reafrms vital
importance of United Nations role in post-conict
reconciliation (27 January 2004) Press release SC/7990...................340
Report of the Secretary-General on the Role of United Nations
Peacekeeping in Disarmament, Demobilization and
Reintegration (11 February 2000) UN Doc S/2000/101.......157, 3812
Res 827 (25 May 1993) UN Doc S/RES/827 ...........................................249
Res 940 (31 July 1994) UN Doc S/RES/940 ............................................351
Table of Ofcial International Documents xli
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xli
Res 1272 (25 October 1999) UN Doc S/RES/1272 .................................105
Res 1315 (14 August 2000) UN Doc S/RES/1315 ..........................250, 345
Res 1674 (28 April 2006) UN Doc S/RES/1674......................................327
Secretary-Generals remarks to the Ministerial Meeting of the
Security Council on Justice and the Rule of Law: The United
Nations Role (24 September 2003).......................................................353
Security Council Expands Role Of United Nations In Sierra
Leone; More Military Personnel To Join Strengthened Observer
Mission (20 August 1999) UN Doc SC/6714 .....................................335
Seventh Report of the Secretary General on the United Nations
Observer Mission in Sierra Leone (30 July 1999) UN Doc
S/1999/836 ..............................................................................................335
xlii Table of Ofcial International Documents
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xlii
List of Figures
Figure 1: Amnesties by time
Figure 2: Amnesties by region
Figure 3: Amnesties by type of government
Figure 4: Amnesties and their enactment processes
Figure 5: Amnesty motivations
Figure 6: Amnesties by group of beneciaries
Figure 7: Treatment of categories of crimes in amnesty laws
Figure 8: Relationship of amnesties to crimes under international law
Jan 1980Dec 2005
Figure 9: Distribution of conditions attached to amnesty laws
Figure 10: Truth commissions coinciding with amnesties between 1980
and 2005
Figure 11: Amnesties and reparations programmes
Figure 12: Results of national cases
Figure 13: National cases results by time
Figure 14: Results of cases in according to the treatment of crimes under
international law within the amnesty
Figure 15: Outcomes of judicial review cases
Figure 16: International attitudes towards amnesty laws
Figure 17: Attitudes by type of international actor
Figure 18: Attitudes of international actors towards amnesties for crimes
under international law
Figure 19: Maslows hierarchy of needs
Figure 20: Methods to encourage participation in amnesty processes
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xliii
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xliv
Abbreviations
AU African Union, formerly Organization of African Unity
(OAU)
CAVR Comisso de Acolhimento, Verdade e Reconciliaco de Timor
Leste (Commission for Reception, Truth and
Reconciliation)
CAT Convention Against Torture
CONADEP Comisin Nacional Sobre la Desaparicin de Personas
(National Commission on Disappeared Persons, Sabato
Commission)
DDR Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration
DINA Direccin Nacional de Inteligencia (Directorate of
National Intelligence)
DRC Democratic Republic of Congo
ECHR European Court of Human Rights
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States
ESMA Escuela de mecnica de la armada (Naval School of
Mechanics)a notorious torture centre in Buenos Aires
during the Argentine military dictatorship
EU European Union
FMLN Frente Farabundo Mart para la Liberacin Nacional
FYR Former Yugoslav Republic of
ICC International Criminal Court
ICJ International Court of Justice
ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross
ICTJ International Center for Transitional Justice
ICTR International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
ICTY International Criminal Tribunal for the Former
Yugoslavia
ILO International Labour Organization
Inter-Am CHR Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
Inter-Am Ct HR Inter-American Court of Human Rights
JSMP Judicial System Monitoring Programme (an East
Timorese NGO)
LRA Lords Resistance Army
MIR Movimiento de la Izquierda Revolucionaria (Movement of
the Revolutionary Left)
NGO Non-governmental organisation
OAS Organization of American States
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xlv
PCIJ Permanent Court of International Justice
RUF Revolutionary United Front
SADF South African Defence Force
SCSL Special Court of Sierra Leone
TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission
UN United Nations
UNGA United Nations General Assembly
UNHCR UN High Commission for Refugees
UNHRC UN Human Rights Committee
VCLT Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
xlvi Abbreviations
(A) Mallinder Prelims 26/8/08 11:08 Page xlvi
Introduction
When I heard about the [amnesty] law I was lled with a sense of indignation
and powerlessness. They werent only mocking my brother but all the many
others whose families and stories we have been learning about . . . When a
brother or son disappears, your life comes to a halt. From that moment on, it
only serves to search for your loved ones . . . but this government has no mercy.
It doesnt want to let us rest.
1
F
OR MANY VICTIMS of violence, human rights advocates and
others, amnesties represent the basest of pragmatic accommoda-
tions with former despots, murderers and torturers.
2
For such indi-
viduals or organisations, amnesties are a byword for lawlessness, the
tolerance of impunity and the triumph of political expediency.
3
They are a
crude barometer for the blunt exercise of military and political power, as
dictatorial regimes or bloodied insurgents do their utmost to ensure that
those who ordered or carried out the most unspeakable of atrocities are
never held accountable. In return for dubious promises to desist from such
activities in the future, victims and societies are asked to forget the past
actions of such individuals and organisations and to move on for the sake
of the broader common good. In this conception, amnesties represent
1
Words of Gisella Ortz upon learning that the military ofcials sentenced in February
1994 for killing her brother, eight other students and a professor from La Cantuta University
in July 1992 had been released under Perus amnesty law. Cited in Amnesty International,
Peru: Human Rights in a Time of Impunity (February 1996) AMR 46/01/96.
2
See, eg, Nkosinathi Biko, Amnesty and Denial in Charles Villa-Vicencio and Wilhelm
Verwoerd (eds), Looking Back, Reaching Forward: Reections on the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission of South Africa (Zed Books, London 2000); Human Rights Watch, Uprooted and
Forgotten: Impunity and Human Rights Abuses in Northern Uganda (20 September 2005)
Vol 17, No 12(A).
3
During the January 2008 public hearings of the Consultative Group on the Past, an inde-
pendent body mandated to explore ways of addressing the legacy of the Troubles in
Northern Ireland, the possibility of an amnesty being introduced was strongly condemned
by some victims. For example, a man whose father was kidnapped and tortured by the Irish
Republican Army (IRA) in 1972 said that amnesty should be ruled out because my father
never got any chance of an amnestyhow can terrorists be entitled to it now? Similarly,
Raymond McCord whose son was murdered by the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) in 1997
said, Letting out prisoners was bad enough, but to absolve them of all their crimes is beyond
the pale . . . It beggars belief that they can even contemplate it. Im totally opposed to it. I
would like to know why they are suggesting to have a different law for killers in Northern
Ireland than they have in the rest of Great Britain, and the Republic. See Sam McBride,
Victims Anger at Amnesty for Terrorists News Letter (Belfast 9 January 2008).
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 1
Faustian pacts with the devil in the form of torturers and murderers,
where rights such as truth and justice are sacriced for political stability.
This concept of a Faustian pact is reected in much of the transitional
justice literature, which focuses on the supposedly contradictory goals of
peace and justice faced by transitional regimes responding to periods of
mass violence. In this peace v justice debate,
4
the choice for transitional
governments addressing past crimes is often framed in a false dichotomy
between the extremes of entirely forgiving and forgetting the past through
blanket amnesty laws for the sake of reconciliation, or pursuing retribu-
tive justice against every perpetrator of human rights violations at the risk
of destabilising delicate political transitions. In this approach to transi-
tional justice, amnesties are equated with amnesia.
This book will argue that such a perspective largely fails to recognise
either the diversity of amnesty laws, particularly in the different types of
crimes that they cover,
5
or the frequency with which they are used to
respond to political crises. Drawing upon an Amnesty Law Database cre-
ated by the author that contains information on over 500 amnesty laws
introduced in all parts of the globe since the end of the Second World War,
this book sets out to present a more nuanced account of the role of
amnesties in political transitions. The book outlines and then examines
developments that have seen a move away from amnesties that offer
blanket impunity to large groups of offenders towards amnesties that are
conditional, individualised and that offer bespoke solutions to local con-
ditions. The book also argues that, rather than amnesties being indicative
of an absence of law in the process of conict transformation, rather, they
increasingly speak to efforts to impose a legal framework upon an area
that has historically been viewed as being a largely unfettered domain of
state sovereignty. Thus, for example, in many recent cases, amnesties are
2 Introduction
4
For discussions of this debate see I William Zartman and Viktor Kremenyuk (eds), Peace
Versus Justice: Negotiating Forward- and Backward-Looking Outcomes (Rowman & Littleeld,
Lanham, MD 2005); Chandra Lekha Sriram, Confronting Past Human Rights Violations: Justice
vs. Peace in Times of Transition (The Cass Series on Peacekeeping, Frank Cass, New York 2004);
Nigel Biggar (ed), Burying the Past: Making Peace and Doing Justice after Civil Conict
(Georgetown University Press, Washington, DC 2003); Sterling Johnson, Peace Without
Justice: Hegemonic Instability or International Criminal Law? (Ashgate, Aldershot 2003);
Madeline H Morris, Lacking a Leviathan: The Quandaries of Peace and Accountability in
M Cherif Bassiouni (ed), Post-Conict Justice (International and Comparative Law Series,
Transnational Publishers, Ardsley, NY 2002); Michael P Scharf, Justice Versus Peace in
Sarah B Sewall and Carl Kaysen (eds), The United States and the International Criminal Court:
National Security and International Law (Rowman & Littleeld, Boston 2000); Donna
Pankhurst, Issues of Justice and Reconciliation in Complex Political Emergencies:
Conceptualising Reconciliation, Justice and Peace (1999) 20 Third World Quarterly 239;
M Cherif Bassiouni, Searching for Peace and Achieving Justice: The Need for Accountability
(1996) 59 Law and Contemporary Problems 9.
5
Chapter 3 discusses the distinction between political crimes, ordinary crimes and crimes
under international law. It argues that each of the crimes is different and their commission
transgresses different values and harms different targets. Therefore, amnesties for each
involve different considerations.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 2
combined with other transitional justice mechanisms, including prosecu-
tions, truth commissions, vetting programmes and reparations measures.
The book makes the case that, given the preponderance of amnesties in
peacemaking efforts and the developments in the international standards
which regulate what may or may not be included in such measures, a
more balanced approach to the amnesty issue is required in order to
bridge more effectively the peace and justice divide. This analysis will
begin by exploring how amnesty can be dened, before looking at
why differing conceptions of amnesty are controversial among victims,
human rights non-governmental organisations (NGOs), diplomats and
politicians.
DEFINING AMNESTY
As is outlined below, amnesty laws are typically characterised as a form of
providing impunity, meaning
the impossibility, de jure or de facto, of bringing the perpetrators of violations
to accountwhether in criminal, civil, administrative or disciplinary proceed-
ingssince they are not subject to any inquiry that might lead to their being
accused, arrested, tried and, if found guilty, sentenced to appropriate penalties,
and to making reparations to their victims.
6
Others forms of impunity include immunity for states and state ofcials,
statutes of limitations, indemnity laws,
7
or de facto immunity where
prosecutions are simply not pursued. The book will focus, however, on
amnesty laws, rather than impunity in general, as perceptions of amnesty
laws traditional associations with forgetting raise specic issues for
accountability and often give rise to the greatest controversy,
8
as will be
discussed below. Furthermore, as will be argued throughout this book, in
recent years, increasingly innovative forms of amnesty, coupled with
other transitional justice mechanisms, reveal that not all amnesties entail
impunity, but rather some may offer alternative means of fullling the
obligations of states under international law, where widespread prosecu-
tions are not possible.
9
Dening Amnesty 3
6
UNCHR, Updated Set of principles for the protection and promotion of human rights
through action to combat impunity (8 February 2005) UN Doc E/CN 4/2005/102/Add 1
(prepared by Diane Orentlicher), Denitions.
7
Using the denition in the Websters Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913), indemnity laws
in this sense typically describe an act or law passed in order to relieve persons, especially
in an ofcial station, from some penalty to which they are liable in consequence of acting
illegally, or, in case of ministers, in consequence of exceeding the limits of their strict consti-
tutional powers.
8
William Bourdon, Amnesty in Roy Gutman and David Rieff (eds), Crimes of War Book
(John Wiley and Sons Limited, Chichester 1999).
9
See ch 4 for a detailed discussion of these trends.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 3
Amnesty laws are often distinguished from other forms of impunity,
due to the political context in which they are introduced: during conicts
to end the violence; as part of peace agreements to promote reconciliation;
by dictatorial regimes trying to undermine opposition movements; or
even by newly democratic regimes to release political prisoners.
10
Due to
this variety of catalysts, amnesties can have a range of characteristics, and
it is therefore necessary to explore what is meant by the term amnesty.
11
This word, like amnesia comes from the Greek word amnstia, meaning
forgetfulness or oblivion.
12
It denotes acts of political forgiveness,
which have been used since ancient times. Parker claims that for as long
as there have been written laws there has been an institutionalised power
of mercy, pardon and amnesty.
13
He points to laws such as the Code of
Hammurabi (c 1700 BCE), which provided that the king could pardon
adulterers.
14
Amnesties were also used in ancient Greece: in 404 BCE,
Thrasybulus, an Athenian general, forbade any punishment of Athenian
citizens for political acts committed before the expulsion of the tyrants.
15
Similarly, in the Byzantine Empire general amnesties were granted to all
offenders (except sorcerers, murders, and adulterers) on religious occa-
sions such as Easter.
16
In his study on amnesty laws, Joinet explained,
Amnesty is an outgrowth of the right to pardon, an act of individual clemency
of theocratic origin. The divine nature of pardon was related to the sacred char-
acter of the King, whether the latter was himself a god or an intermediary
between the gods and men.
17
He argued that collective pardon developed at the same time as individ-
ual pardons.
18
Although this form of regal pardon was available for any
crime, amnesties gradually became a means of assuring social peace . . .
and even political peace.
19
Following the signing of the 1648 peace treaties
of Westphalia, which marked the birth of the modern nation state,
amnesties were frequently used as a component in international peace
4 Introduction
10
For a discussion of the motives for amnesty laws, see ch 1.
11
The denition can differ substantially between jurisdictions, but for the purposes of this
book, an overarching denition has been developed from the academic literature.
12
Ben Chigara, Amnesty in International Law: The Legality under International Law of National
Amnesty Laws (Longman, Harlow, UK 2002) 8.
13
Robert Parker, Fighting the Sirens Song: The Problem of Amnesty in Historical and
Contemporary Perspective (2001) 42 Acta Juridica Hungaria 69, 76.
14
For a discussion of the history of amnesties from their ancient origins, see Andreas
OShea, Amnesty for Crime in International Law and Practice (Kluwer Law International, Hague
2002) 521.
15
Norman Weisman, A History and Discussion of Amnesty (1972) 4 Columbia Human
Rights Law Review 520, 530.
16
Parker (n 13) 76.
17
ECOSOC, Study on Amnesty Laws and their role in the safeguard and protection of
human rights (21 June 1985) UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/16 (prepared by Louis Joinet) [9].
18
Ibid [10].
19
Ibid [12].
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 4
agreements.
20
This use of amnesties has continued to the present day.
However, it has adapted with the changes in modern warfare as today
amnesties are more often introduced in response to internal conicts
rather than international wars, particularly where no party to the conict
could achieve outright military victory. The original idea of amnesties as
a prerogative of the state remains, however, and many amnesties are still
enacted in keeping with this tradition, particularly those releasing non-
violent political prisoners.
21
Amnesty has traditionally been understood in a legal sense to denote
efforts by governments to eliminate any record of crimes occurring, by
barring criminal prosecutions and/or civil suits.
22
In extinguishing liabil-
ity for a crime, amnesty assumes that a crime has been committed.
23
In this
way, amnesties are retroactive, applying only to acts committed before the
laws were passed.
24
Furthermore, amnesties are always exceptional, and
can be limited in a variety of ways: they could exclude certain categories
of crimes, such as serious human rights violations, or certain individuals,
such as the leaders and intellectual authors of the policies of oppression
and violence. In addition, an amnesty process could be conditional, requir-
ing applicants to perform tasks such as surrendering weapons, providing
information on former comrades, admitting the truth about their actions,
or showing remorse in order to benet from amnesty. These conditional
amnesties could be individualised, so that applicants can only benet
from an amnesty upon successful compliance with its conditions. Where
the amnesty is linked to truth-recovery mechanisms, particularly by grant-
ing amnesty in exchange for truth,
25
it differs from the traditional under-
standings of the term, as, rather than casting the crime into oblivion, it is
investigated and the events are publicised in public hearings and ofcial
reports.
Dening Amnesty 5
20
See, eg: Nijmeguen Peace Treaty 1678, art 3, which ended the Dutch War; Utrecht Peace
Treaty 1713, art 2 between France and England, concluded at the end of the Spanish
Succession War; Paris Peace Treaty 1763, art 2; Tilsit Peace Treaty 1807, art 10; and Final Act
of Congress of Vienna 1815, arts 1112; Prague Peace Treaty1866, art 10; and Treaty of
Constantinople 1879, art 9; and the treaties that followed World War One. For a full discus-
sion, see Fania Domb, Treatment of War Crimes in Peace SettlementsProsecution or
Amnesty? in Yoram Dinstein and Mala Tabory (eds), War Crimes in International Law
(Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Hague 1996).
21
This category of amnesty beneciaries will be explored in more detail in ch 2.
22
Carolyn Bull, Amnesty November 2001 (Prepared by Carolyn Bull for Interim Ofce,
Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor).
23
OShea (n 14) 2.
24
Bourdon (n 8).
25
As will be discussed in ch 4, the model of exchanging amnesty for truth originated in
South Africa and, although it has not been exactly replicated, it has inuenced the mandates
of truth commissions in Liberia, Aceh, Timor-Leste and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
In addition to truth commissions, amnesties can be linked to other truth recovery processes
such as civil proceedings or commissions of inquiry. For example, testimony given to the
Bloody Sunday Inquiry in Northern Ireland cannot be used in criminal proceedings.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 5
The differences in the scope of amnesties have led to the development
of terms such as blanket amnesty, which means amnesties that apply
across the board without requiring any application on the part of the beneciary
or even an initial inquiry into the facts to determine if they t the laws scope of
application.
26
This term is often used in contrast to more limited or conditional
amnesties, such as the amnesty in exchange for truth model used in South
Africa.
27
Related to blanket amnesties are self amnesties, which des-
cribes laws or decrees which are passed unilaterally by a government to
shield its agents from prosecution. As will be argued in chapter 1, self-
amnesties are distinct from amnesties emanating from peace negotiations
involving representatives from different stakeholder groups. There can
also be pseudo-amnesties meaning
statutes designed to have the same effect as amnesty laws, or something very
close to it, while avoiding the damaging name of amnesty.
28
Several examples of pseudo-amnesties have been included in the Amnesty
Law Database, such as the Argentine Due Obedience Law.
29
In theory, amnesty applies only to individuals who have not yet been
prosecuted and sentenced. This differs from pardons, which are used to
release convicted individuals from serving their punishment. In reality,
amnesty is frequently combined with pardons, which can blur the distinc-
tion between the two practices, and in fact, some academics have begun to
use the term amnesty in an all-encompassing manner to describe both
practices.
30
Further distinctions can be found among the beneciaries of
amnesties and pardons, as pardons are generally given to individuals,
whereas amnesty may be collective.
31
Confusion can also arise regarding
amnesties for non-violent political prisoners who have been imprisoned.
Where they have simply been interned, but not convicted, describing their
release as an amnesty is unproblematic. However, where they have been
convicted and are then released through an amnesty, such amnesties
resemble pardons. A distinction remains, however, as many amnesties for
prisoners of conscience, particularly those following the collapse of an
oppressive regime, aim to rehabilitate the prisoners and declare their
innocence, rather than simply remove the punishment. It is due to this dis-
tinction that such amnesties are included in this study. However, as will
6 Introduction
26
Garth Meintjes and Juan E Mndez, Reconciling Amnesties with Universal Jurisdiction
(2000) 2 International Law FORUM du droit international 76, 85.
27
For an overview of the South African amnesty process, see case study 9.
28
Meintjes and Mndez (n 26) 85.
29
Ley de Obedencia Debida 1987 (Arg.). For more information on the Due Obedience Law,
see ch 2.
30
Domb (n 20) 305.
31
Bull (n 22).
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 6
be argued throughout this book, amnesties for non-violent political
prisoners are of course of a different nature from amnesties that cover
individuals responsible for unlawful criminal acts. This book will further
consider prisoner releases for individuals who have been convicted,
where they complement a wider programme of amnesties. For example, in
negotiated peace agreements in addition to amnesty for combatants, con-
victed members of insurgent organisations are often released under the
terms of the agreement.
32
During this research, I was concerned that this book might become a use-
ful source for states seeking to evade their international obligations and
avoid prosecuting perpetrators of crimes under international law. While
some residual unease is perhaps inevitable, these concerns have been
somewhat assuaged: by the fact that all of the information used in this
research was already in the public domain; by the fact that there is an ever-
burgeoning literature, in particular on how the International Criminal
Court (ICC) might approach amnesty laws; by the fact that the ICC
Prosecutor has himself appealed for researchers to develop strategies for
the Court in this area;
33
and, nally, by the advice from senior colleagues
that governments with malevolent intent have rarely required the
assistance of academic lawyers to get their way. However, despite these
circumstances, any discussion of amnesty laws is likely to be controversial.
CONTROVERSIAL NATURE OF AMNESTY LAWS
Within the international human rights community in particular, some
very prominent organisations make strong arguments that amnesties are
unacceptable for a number of reasons, including legal, moral and political
concerns.
Amnesties, International Law and Legal Claims-making
Anti-impunity campaigners argue that any form of amnesty for serious
violations of international law would violate states obligations to ensure
victims rights to truth, justice and reparations.
34
For example, in 2005, in
a joint statement condemning the proposal to enact an amnesty in Algeria,
Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, the International Center for
Controversial Nature of Amnesty Laws 7
32
Leslie Vinjamuri and Aaron P Boesenecker, Accountability and Peace Agreements:
Mapping Trends from 1980 to 2006 (Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, Geneva 2007).
33
Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Integrating the Work of the ICC into Local Justice Initiatives
(2006) 21 American University International Law Review 497. This issue will be discussed in
more detail in ch 5.
34
For a detailed discussion of the nature of these rights, see ch 4.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 7
Transitional Justice, the International Commission of Jurists, and the
International Federation for Human Rights proclaimed:
Amnesties, pardons and similar national measures that lead to impunity for
crimes against humanity and other serious human rights abuses, such as tor-
ture, extrajudicial executions and disappearances, contravene fundamental
principles of international law.
35
These organisations, together with some academics and victims groups,
base their assertion that principles of international law now exist to
prohibit amnesties for crimes under international law on the growth of
international criminal justice mechanisms and instruments to repress these
crimes at the national and international levels.
36
As will be explored in
chapter 3, it is certainly true that an increasingly extensive international
legal regime has been developed to prohibit and punish war crimes, geno-
cide, torture and disappearances. Furthermore, international and hybrid
courts have been established by the international community to provide for
the punishment of individuals who are responsible for serious violations of
international human rights and humanitarian law. In their depiction of the
legal principles, human rights NGOs distinguish between the abstract legal
nature of states obligations under international law and wider political
concerns which may affect the decisions of transitional governments, to
argue that the principles of international law that they have identied
should not be diluted to political concerns. In so doing, they suggest a
degree of clarity with regard to the law which arguably does not exist.
37
8 Introduction
35
Human Rights Watch, Algeria: Amnesty Law Risks Legalizing Impunity for Crimes
Against Humanity (14 April 2005). This intervention was ultimately unsuccessful as the
amnesty enacted. For a discussion experience of amnesty in Algeria, see case study 4.
36
Naomi Roht-Arriaza (ed), Impunity and Human Rights in International Law and Practice
(Oxford University Press, Oxford 1995); John Borneman, Settling Accounts: Violence, Justice,
and Accountability in Postsocialist Europe (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ 1997);
Christopher C Joyner and M Cherif Bassiouni, Reining in Impunity for International Crimes
and Serious Violations of Fundamental Human Rights: Proceedings of the Siracusa
Conference, 1721 September 1998, Nouvelles Etudes Penales (Association internationale de droit
penal: Eres, 1998); M Cherif Bassiouni, International Crimes: Jus Cogens and Obligatio Erga
Omnes (1996) 59 Law and Contemporary Problems 63; Diane F Orentlicher, Settling Accounts:
The Duty to Prosecute Human Rights Violations of a Prior Regime (1991) 100 Yale Law
Journal 2537.
37
However, the existing legal ambiguities are often apparent in their choice of language.
For example, the reference to other serious human rights abuses in the above statement sug-
gests something of an obfuscation as to precisely which crimes trigger a duty to prosecute
under international law. The intentions behind this tactic are commendable, as it reects a
desire to be as inclusive as possible when dealing with serious human rights violations.
However, there is a risk in adopting such broad and general language that the boundaries of
international law will become so stretched as to no longer reect the lived realities in many
conicts, but rather collapses into pacicism. Where this occurs, McEvoy argues that it
could lose its lustre as an epistemological and political tool and, consequently, its ability to
inuence the behaviour of non-state combatant actors. See Kieran McEvoy, Beyond the
Metaphor: Political Violence, Human Rights and New Peacemaking Criminology (2003) 7
Theoretical Criminology 319, 324 and 335.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 8
With regard to the putative clarity of international law relating to
amnesties, while such an assertive position is entirely understandable
from organisations who have campaigned tirelessly to overcome cultures
of impunity amongst human rights abusers, this book will respectfully
suggest that it is too early to say that an absolute prohibition on amnesties
for crimes under customary international law exists: it is lex ferenda. As
states continue to introduce amnesties for all types of crimes, including
crimes under international law, such a position is surely questionable. As
will be illustrated below,
38
amnesties have increased in frequency during
the decades since the end of the Second World War. This trend towards
introducing amnesty laws as a form of state practice, rather than simply
accommodating de facto impunity (wherein individuals will never in
practice be prosecuted) could be seen as indicative of the boundaries of
customary international law incorporating certain types of amnesty.
39
The
argument advanced in more detail below is that amnesties per se, even for
serious human rights violations, are not necessarily automatically a breach
of international law. Instead, certain types of amnesty that incorporate
various aspects of a developing legal regulatory framework, such as exclu-
sions of the most responsible,
40
or the establishment of alternative tran-
sitional justice mechanisms
41
may in fact be deemed lawful.
By presenting this view of the status of amnesty laws under inter-
national law, my intention is in no way to denigrate the work of human
rights NGOs. Rather it is simply to recognise that the objective of these
organisations is to persuade governments, political bodies and inter-
governmental organisations to change their policies and practices and to
end human rights abuses.
42
And that to achieve these objectives, human
rights organisations engage in a process of legal claims-making,
43
whereby they assert a clear position recognising the emergence of inter-
national legal rules, in the hope that such rules will gradually become
established and reected in state practice. However, such legal claims-
making, regardless of the vigour with which it is expressed, does not mean
Controversial Nature of Amnesty Laws 9
38
For a discussion of overarching trends in the introduction of amnesty laws, see the sec-
tion on trends below and for an exploration of the increase in the number of amnesties for
crimes under international law, see ch 3.
39
It should be noted of course that state practice is only one form of opinio juris; the
complexities of establishing state practice from this study will be discussed further
below.
40
For a discussion of the legal principles relating to the prosecution of those who are most
responsible, see ch 2 and for an overview of the jurisprudence of international courts on this
issue, see ch 6.
41
The analysis of how amnesties can complement measures to ensure the victims rights
to truth, justice and reparation will ow through this book, but see particularly ch 4.
42
This description of the objectives of Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch is
based on the mission statements on their websites.
43
For a discussion of claims-making see Joel Best, Rhetoric in Claims-Making:
Constructing the Missing Children Problem (1987) 34 Social Problems 101; McEvoy (n 37).
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 9
that interpretation of the law remains uncontested, nor that state practice
of opinio juris necessarily agrees with such claims.
The extent to which legal claims-making reects the existence of inter-
national legal rules regarding amnesties is highly signicant for transi-
tional contexts, particularly since the emphasis on the legal rules has
coincided with a trend towards what McEvoy has labelled the dominance
of legalism.
44
Whilst law has a valuable role to play in political transitions,
McEvoy argues its dominance inhibits
a more honest acknowledgement of the limitations of legalism and a greater
willingness to give space to other actors and forms of knowledge.
45
Human rights discourse, what Michael Ignatieff has referred to as the
human rights as trumps style of analysis,
46
lends itself in particular to an
obfuscation of the fundamentally political questions which transitional
jurisdictions must inevitably face.
47
Treating law as an abstract universal
entity that should be enforced independent of the political conditions
within transitional states is to overlook the very political role that law can
have. Furthermore, as will be discussed in chapters 1 and 8, various polit-
ical motivations inuence transitional governments and international
actors to support prosecutions or amnesties. In addition, legalism, by
focusing on top-down formal legal processes, inhibits the exibility for
transitional states to tailor their transitional justice processes to suit the
needs of the populace and to incorporate non-legal tools such as distribu-
tive justice programmes, which could be more responsive to the needs of
society and individual victims.
Amnesties and the Views of Victims
Where amnesties deny victims their rights to truth, justice and repara-
tions, they can potentially aggravate the victims suffering in a number of
ways. For example, the shroud of impunity cast by a blanket amnesty for
serious human rights violations will often mean that the crimes that the
victim endured will be denied by the state, causing them to feel continu-
ally alienated from society, and to be unable to discover what has hap-
pened to their loved ones. Furthermore, where victims are denied
recognition of their suffering, they may nd it difcult to access medical
and psychological services, or to obtain nancial compensation for the
10 Introduction
44
Kieran McEvoy, Beyond Legalism: Towards a Thicker Understanding of Transitional
Justice (2007) 34 Journal of Law and Society 411, 412
45
Ibid, 413.
46
Michael Ignatieff, Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry (Amy Gutman, ed, Princeton
University Press, Princeton 2001) 21.
47
David Kennedy, The International Human Rights Movement: Part of the Problem?
(2002) 15 Harvard Human Rights Journal 101, 117.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 10
harm they endured.
48
This could occur, for example, following a state pol-
icy of disappearances where the state refuses to acknowledge its responsi-
bility for the crimes, instead lying that those who disappeared must have
chosen to go into exile or have been killed while ghting with a guerrilla
organisation. The policy of denial, coupled with a failure to investigate,
could result in the victims relatives being denied access to rehabilitation
services or to civil remedies.
Another practical reality that arises with regard to amnesties is the prox-
imity to amnestied lower-level offenders in which victims might nd
themselves living. This can occur when, following an amnesty, offenders
are encouraged to reintegrate into their former communities. Such prox-
imity could mean that during their daily life, victims are confronted by the
individuals who caused their suffering, which could cause them harm and
even lead them to engage in vigilantism.
49
Despite these potentially damaging consequences of amnesty laws for
victims and the frequent condemnation of amnesties as a denial of victims
rights, as will be explored in chapter 9, there is often a diversity of views
on amnesty among victims within transitional states. Victims needs and
wishes may be affected by many factors, including the continued risk of
physical violence, their economic well-being, the cultural traditions within
their community, and their political views. Although many victims
groups do strongly oppose amnesties, there are examples from countries
such as Uganda
50
and Brazil
51
of civil society groups lobbying in favour of
amnesty. Furthermore, amnesties have received majority support in refer-
enda in Uruguay and Algeria, which would have inevitably included
victims among the voters. Although, as will be explored in chapter 1,
referenda can be problematic. For example, the Uruguayan referendum is
often characterised as having taken place within a climate of military pres-
sure.
52
Furthermore, there were some allegations of vote rigging in
Algeria,
53
although it seems that the result has not been disputed. The
Controversial Nature of Amnesty Laws 11
48
For a discussion of the impact of amnesty laws on victims, see ch 9.
49
Ronald C Slye, The Cambodian Amnesties: Beneciaries and the Temporal Reach of
Amnesties for Gross Violation of Human Rights (2004) 22 Wisconsin International Law Journal
99, 108; and Alex Boraine, Alternatives and Adjuncts to Criminal Prosecutions (Presentation
at the conference: Justice in Cataclysm: Criminal Tribunals in the Wake of Mass Violence in
Brussels, 2021 July 1996).
50
Lucy Hovil and Joanna R Quinn, Peace First, Justice Later: Traditional Justice in
Northern Uganda (2005) Working Paper No 17 (Refugee Law Project, Faculty of Law,
Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda; International Criminal Court, Press Release: Joint
Statement by ICC Chief Prosecutor and the visiting Delegation of Lango, Acholi, Iteso and
Madi Community Leaders from Northern Uganda (16 April 2005) No: ICC-OTP-20050416.
047-EN; William Tayeebwa, Dont Prosecute Kony New Vision (Kampala 1 August 2004).
51
Lawrence Weschler, A Miracle, A Universe: Settling Accounts with Torturers (University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill 1998).
52
Weschler (n 50); Americas Watch, Challenging Impunity: The Ley de Caducidad and
the Referendum in Uruguay (Report) (1 March 1989).
53
, Algerians back Civil War Amnesty Al Jazeera (1 October 2005).
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 11
referenda seem to indicate that in certain contexts, victims and societies
may be willing to prioritise concerns such as peace, stability and recon-
struction over measures to prosecute those responsible for past crimes.
Victims views towards issues of amnesty, peace and justice are not sta-
tic, however; instead, it is common for victims views to change over time,
as their priorities alter. As will be explored in chapter 9, in the immediate
aftermath of mass violence, victims may prioritise physical security and
access to food and medical supplies. However, as time passes and the
political climate becomes more secure, their needs may change to concerns
about their place in society. In different contexts this can be manifest in
different ways, ranging from support for prosecutions, to a preference for
more restorative approaches, to truth-recovery. As will be argued,
amnesty laws can be designed to complement other transitional justice
mechanisms.
Amnesties and Pragmatic Peacemaking
Where victims groups have been supportive of amnesty laws, they have
generally expressed the view that such laws were necessary to achieve
peace. This justication for amnesty is also common in the rhetoric of
national governments, who argue that amnesties are necessary to end the
violence. However, where combatants demand amnesty as a prerequisite
for a ceasere, the ICC Prosecutor has labelled this blackmail.
54
Furthermore, the granting of an amnesty does meant that peace will be
achieved, as ghting often continues after an amnesty has been offered.
However, in such cases, the failure of amnesty to end the violence may not
be attributable to the amnesty itself, but rather to the wider political con-
text in which it was introduced. For example, offering amnesty during a
conict may cause the state to appear weak. If such weakness is apparent
to insurgents, it may encourage them to think that victory is close and
inspire them to continue ghting, rather than surrender. In such cases, the
amnesty becomes ineffective and possibly counter-productive. In this
way, the potential of an amnesty to contribute to peacebuilding may be
dependent upon the relative strengths of the parties to the conict.
The potential for an amnesty to contribute to a reduction in violence
may also be dependent upon its timing and means of enactment. For
example, amnesties that are unilaterally introduced by states appear to
have less chance of reducing conict than amnesties that result from a
12 Introduction
54
The 4 criminals threatened to resume violence if the arrest warrants are not withdrawn;
they are setting conditions; it is blackmail . . .. See Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Eleventh
Diplomatic Brieng of the International Criminal Court (ICC, The Hague, 10 October 2007).
See also Address by Mr Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Prosecutor of the International Criminal
Court at Building a Future on Peace and Justice conference (Nuremberg, 24 June 2007).
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 12
negotiated settlement. Indeed, it appears that in a few cases, in offering
unilateral amnesties, the states intention may not be to end the violence,
but rather to merely pause it in order to gain time to re-arm.
Within peace processes, amnesty also play a symbolic role by speaking
directly to contested meanings of violence, or as McGarry and OLeary
described it, the conict about the conict.
55
As McEvoy et al have
argued, the treatment of combatants or prisoners is perhaps the key theme
around which larger political or ideological struggles coalesce.
56
Thus, for
example, the granting of an amnesty arguably denotes that the actions of
non-state actors were political rather than criminal acts. By granting such
recognition, states are arguably affording the activities of criminals or
terrorists an unwarranted political status and hence a greater legitimacy.
Slye has argued that such an approach can be risky, as
the privilege afforded political violence under the amnesty process sets a
dangerous precedent for future political advocacy, and a dangerous signal to a
society that is trying to establish popular legitimacy based on the rule of law.
57
However, this need not always be the case. Instead, recognition that
something was political does not equate to greater legitimacy with regard
to acts of violence. Rather it is a view of more clearly seeing the causes,
context and consequences of violence. From this perspective, amnesties
represent part of a broader process of stripping away the ction of denial
that often characterises state propaganda.
58
Amnesties and Dealing with the Past
Another controversy surrounding amnesties is that many of the amnesties
studied in this book were justied as necessary to close the door on the
past. However, rather than being a denitive end to discussions of
past crimes, as will be demonstrated in chapter 1, amnesties are often
introduced repeatedly to address the same problems.
59
In other cases,
Controversial Nature of Amnesty Laws 13
55
John McGarry and Brendan OLeary, Explaining Northern Ireland (Blackwell Publishing,
Oxford 1995) 355.
56
Kieran McEvoy, Kirsten McConnachie and Ruth Jamieson, Political Imprisonment and
the War on Terror in Yvonne Jewkes (ed), Handbook on Prisons (Willan Publishing,
Cullompton, Devon 2007).
57
Ronald C Slye, Justice and Amnesty in Charles Villa-Vicencio and Wilhelm Verwoerd
(eds), Looking Back, Reaching Forward: Reections on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of
South Africa (Zed Books, London 2000) 182.
58
For a discussion of ofcial cultures of denial, see Stanley Cohen, States of Denial: Knowing
about Atrocities and Suffering (Polity Press, Cambridge 2001).
59
Where these amnesty laws provide blanket impunity, they have been argued to con-
tribute to repeated cycles of violence. See, eg, UNCHR, Report by Mr BW Ndiaye, Special
Rapporteur, on his mission to Rwanda from 8 to 17 April 1993 (11 August 1993) UN Doc
E/CN 4/1994/7/Add 1.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 13
amnesties which were intended to permanently prevent investigations of
the past are gradually being overturned as political conditions become
more stable. Furthermore, as discussed above, the traditional conception
of amnesty as amnesia is becoming increasingly outdated. Instead, states
are nding innovative ways to address past crimes without burying the
truth or enforcing widespread prosecutions. As will be explored in detail
in this book, this can include accompanying amnesties with truth com-
missions, restorative justice programmes or even selective prosecutions.
In these cases, amnesties can be favourably contrasted with prosecutions,
as trials do not always meet the needs of transitional societies.
Just as the potential impact of amnesties on reconciliation is subject to
dispute in the literature, it is also uncertain whether pursuing prosecu-
tions will automatically have a benecial impact within transitional states.
For example, for justice to be effective, it is required that the proceedings
be fair and the rights of the accused respected.
60
However, often following
periods of mass violence where tactics such as disappearances were used
to give the perpetrators maximum deniability at the time and after-
ward,
61
prosecutions could be inhibited by a lack of evidence. Other
difculties in post-conict situations include the legal infrastructure being
in a state of collapse, with a lack of nancial resources and trained and
impartial personnel. Clearly, the rebuilding of this infrastructure should
be a high priority for the new regime, but this can be a lengthy process.
Furthermore, where the transition is characterised by an ongoing culture
of violence, once functioning, the legal infrastructure will have to balance
investigating and prosecuting both past and current criminality. These
problems worsen where there are large numbers of perpetrators, making
it impossible to fairly prosecute and imprison every individual respon-
sible for serious human rights violations.
62
Faced with the difculty, or
even impossibility, of obtaining convictions in the aftermath of conict,
amnesty could be used to bring positive outcomes to a society by encour-
aging combatants to surrender their weapons and admit the truth about
their actions.
It has been argued that blanket amnesties create a risk that the lies and
denials that frequently characterise periods of mass violence will become
institutionalised,
63
will corrupt processes of institutional reform, and will
reinforce suspicions between the different parties to the transition. On the
14 Introduction
60
For a detailed discussion of procedural fairness, see Mark Freeman, Truth Commissions
and Procedural Fairness (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2006).
61
Stanley Cohen, State Crimes of Previous Regimes: Knowledge, Accountability, and the
Policing of the Past (1995) 20 Law and Social Inquiry 7, 14.
62
There are suggestions by some human rights organisations that, in such situations, there
can be a policy of investigating and prosecuting the crimes over the long-term, of perhaps
1015 years. However, as has been seen in Rwanda, this raises its own problems for the penal
infrastructure, particularly where suspects are detained for years without trial.
63
Boraine (n 49).
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 14
other hand, it has also been suggested that trials are unable to produce a
reliable and comprehensive truth,
64
as it is likely the accused will be
reluctant to inculpate themselves. In contrast, a process where amnesty is
offered in exchange for truth could encourage perpetrators to reveal their
actions. This view was expressed by the South African Constitutional
Court in the AZAPO judgment:
That truth, which the victims of repression seek so desperately to know is, in the
circumstances, much more likely to be forthcoming if those responsible for such
monstrous misdeeds are encouraged to disclose the whole truth with the incen-
tive that they will not receive the punishment which they undoubtedly deserve
if they do. Without that incentive there is nothing to encourage such persons to
make the disclosures and to reveal the truth which persons in the positions of
the applicants so desperately desire. With that incentive, what might unfold are
objectives fundamental to the ethos of a new constitutional order. The families
of those unlawfully tortured, maimed or traumatized become more empowered
to discover the truth, the perpetrators become exposed to opportunities to
obtain relief from the burden of a guilt or an anxiety they might be living with
for many long years, the country begins the long and necessary process of
healing the wounds of the past, transforming anger and grief into a mature
understanding and creating the emotional and structural climate essential for
the reconciliation and reconstruction which informs the very difcult and
sometimes painful objectives of the amnesty articulated in the epilogue.
65
The experience of South Africa also highlights, however, that, in addition
to the carrot of the amnesty, the stick of prosecutions is arguably neces-
sary, as without the genuine threat of legal proceedings the higher level
offenders are unlikely to apply for amnesty, which will inhibit the degree
to which the truth is uncovered.
66
For example, among the 7,116 applica-
tions for amnesty to the South African TRC, only 88 came from individu-
als with permanent commanding functions and 29 from leaders at the
top structures of organised hierarchy.
67
Pedain argues that this could
result from inter alia the difculty in proving the complicity of leadership
gures in the perpetration of serious crimes, and hence, their perception
Controversial Nature of Amnesty Laws 15
64
Erin Daly, Transformative Justice: Charting a path to Reconciliation (2001) International
Legal Perspectives 73.
65
Azanian Peoples Organization (AZAPO) v the President of the Republic of South Africa (CCT
17/96) (8) BCLR 1015 (CC) [17]. For further discussion of this judgment and the right to truth,
see ch 5.
66
For a discussion of South Africas amnesty process and the impact of the 2005 National
Prosecuting Guidelines on the bargain that amnesty is offered in exchange for truth, see case
study 9.
67
Pedains study of the applications to the Amnesty Committee also reveals other inter-
esting data: for example, between 4,000 to 5,000 applications came from common criminals
(and were therefore ineligible for amnesty), and 857 applications came from ANC and ANC-
related organisations, whereas only 289 came from state security forces and 85 from mem-
bers of the Inkatha Freedom Party. See Antje Pedain, Was Amnesty a Lottery? An Empirical
Study of the Decisions of the Truth and Reconciliation Commissions Committee on
Amnesty (2004) 121 South African Law Journal 785.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 15
that they were unlikely to be held criminally or civilly liable for their
actions.
68
Amnesty and Reconciliation
The impact of amnesties on long-term reconciliation is often subject to
debate. Amnesty is frequently justied by politicians as a means of pro-
moting reconciliation.
69
This view has support amongst some academics,
who reason that if, after a war, the victors impose conditions that involve
crushing the dignity of the vanquished the peace will not last, as was
shown to be the case with the onerous conditions imposed on Germany
after the First World War.
70
Furthermore, Hadden contends that
strict punishment of all violators may serve to maintain rather than reconcile the
differing recollections and attitudes of the various communal or political groups
from which the conict arose.
71
The position is even more delicate where there is no clear victor in a con-
ict, and consequently any political settlement has to be a compromise
between the different parties, as an attempt by one side to punish their
opponents could reignite the violence.
72
Instead, it has been suggested
that, where there is a delicate balance of power, it is better to quell the
need for vengeance among various combatant groups through policies of
compromise and forgiveness.
73
On this view, where mercy is shown to
former enemies and an attempt made to address the root causes of the con-
ict (for example through other transitional justice mechanisms and insti-
tutional reform), the justication for further violence will diminish and the
conditions for reconciliation and lasting peace could develop. Such a rec-
onciliatory approach to amnesty was the justication for the South African
amnesty process, as expressed in the 1994 Interim Constitution:
there is a need for understanding but not for vengeance, a need for reparation
but not for retaliation, a need for ubuntu but not for victimization.
74
16 Introduction
68
Ibid 813.
69
This rationale for amnesty will be explored in ch 1.
70
OShea (n 14) 25. Here, although the dignity of the vanquished was more affected by the
reparations burden and the sense of collective guilt imposed on Germany than by wide-
spread prosecutions (although some did take place), the point remains that, where there are
clear victors in a transition, if they attempt to punish their opponents rather than restore
relationships, they could be creating conditions for ongoing violence.
71
Tom Hadden, Punishment, Amnesty and Truth: Legal and Political Approaches in
Adrian Guelke (ed), Democracy and Ethnic Conict: Advancing Peace in Deeply Divided Societies
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2004).
72
Jeremy Sarkin, Carrots and Sticks: The TRC and the South African Amnesty Process
(Intersentia, Antwerp 2004) 323.
73
OShea (n 14) 245.
74
Interim Constitution of South Africa 1994, Postamble.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 16
In contrast, human rights commentators often contend that there can be
no just and lasting reconciliation unless the need for justice is effectively
satised.
75
Furthermore, Daly has argued that amnesties could be dan-
gerous for society, as new transitional governments that choose to dis-
regard the needs of victims may appear unsympathetic,
76
which could
encourage cynicism about the rule of law and distrust toward the
political system.
77
This could cause individuals to lose condence in the
government.
78
Scharf argues that trials of former leaders are needed to
assert the supremacy of democratic values and norms and to encourage
the public to believe in them.
79
However, these potential positive benets
of trials will only be achieved where the necessary evidence and resources
are available to put individuals on trial, and where the prosecutions do not
reignite the violence.
A further issue on which trials and amnesties are often compared is
their perceived potential to have an impact on deterrence.
80
Amnesties are
often criticised as undermining specic deterrence by enabling individu-
als who are capable of inicting horrendous acts of pain, and who may be
prone to further violence, to mingle freely in society. Furthermore, it is
argued that amnesties impact on general deterrence by sending a message
that, if a violent political campaign creates enough disruption, it might be
possible to obtain an amnesty as part of the peace negotiations.
81
In con-
trast, Mndez argues that
the threat of prosecution can be a clear disincentive for actors in an armed con-
ict to give up their resort to violence.
82
However, as will be discussed in chapter 2, the extent to which deterrence
operates in the context of political violence is uncertain.
83
Controversial Nature of Amnesty Laws 17
75
UNCHR (n 6) Preamble. This quote refers to justice in the sense of Western retributive
justice, but as will be discussed in ch 4, restorative justice process may coexist with amnesty
laws.
76
Daly (n 64).
77
Michael P Scharf and Nigel Rodley, International Law Principles on Accountability in
M Cherif Bassiouni (ed), Post-Conict Justice (International and Comparative Criminal Law
Series, Transnational Publishers, Ardsley, NY 2002) 90.
78
Boraine (n 49).
79
Scharf and Rodley (n 77) 91.
80
For a discussion of deterrence in relation to political offenders, see ch 2, Ideology and
Political Offenders.
81
Slye (n 49) 109.
82
Juan E Mndez, Accountability for Past Abuses (1997) 19 Human Rights Quarterly 255,
273. For a more detailed discussion of the role of deterrence, see David Wippman, Atrocities,
Deterrence, and the Limits of International Justice (1999) 23 Fordham International Law Journal
473; Martha Minow, Between Vengeance and Forgiveness: Facing History after Genocide and Mass
Violence (Beacon Press, Boston 1998); Jeremy Sarkin and Erin Daly, Too Many Questions, Too
Few Answers: Reconciliation in Transitional Societies (2004) 35 Columbia Human Rights Law
Review 661.
83
Wippman (n 82) 477. See discussion of Ideology and Political Offenders in ch 2.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 17
Furthermore, the rigorous pursuit of justice is often not a realistic
response for transitional societies, where distinctions between victims and
perpetrators can become blurred. For example, in Uganda, the majority of
the combatants of the Lords Resistance Army (LRA) are child soldiers (or
former child soldiers who grew into adulthood whilst with the LRA).
84
The children will have been drugged, brutalised and sexually abused, and
therefore although they may have committed serious crimes, they can also
be viewed as victims. Such blurring can make it difcult to distinguish
those who should be punished for their actions from those who became
involved in violent acts due to duress or psychological trauma. In such cir-
cumstances, there are risks that prosecutions will create scapegoats and
false innocents
85
through a failure to investigate all perpetrators or
acquittals of known offenders due to a lack of evidence.
The alleged risks that amnesties pose to reconciliation have been con-
tradicted by Cobban, who argues that, although Rwanda pursued prose-
cutions, it is still not free, whereas amnesties in Mozambique and South
Africa led to states with improved adherence to the rule of law.
86
These
examples, and experiences elsewhere, illustrate that amnesties may not
automatically inhibit reconciliation within states, and as will be argued in
chapter 1, they could in fact impact positively upon reconciliation at indi-
vidual, communal and national levels, provided that they are introduced
in good faith and are accompanied by other transitional justice mecha-
nisms and institutional reforms.
TRENDS IN THE INTRODUCTION OF AMNESTY LAWS
Since the Second World War, there have been considerable global efforts to
combat impunity, through the elaboration of international human rights
and humanitarian law treaties, and the creation of courts to try perpetra-
tors of crimes under international law. Such efforts have led some com-
mentators to suggest that a justice cascade is now in existence, whereby
democratizing states throughout the world are beginning to hold individuals,
including heads of state, accountable for past human rights violations, espe-
cially though the use of trials.
87
18 Introduction
84
International Crisis Group, North Uganda Peace Process: The Need to Maintain
Momentum, Africa Brieng No 46 (14 September 2007) 7.
85
Heinz Steinert, Fin de Sicle Criminology (1997) 1 Theoretical Criminology 119.
86
Helena Cobban, Think Again: International Courts Foreign Policy (March/April 2006).
87
Kathryn Sikkink and Carrie Booth Walling, Errors about Trials: The Emergence and
Impact of the Justice Cascade (Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American
Political Science Association, Marriott Wardman Park, Omni Shoreham, Washington Hilton,
Washington, DC, September 2005), see also Ellen L Lutz and Kathryn Sikkink, The Justice
Cascade: The Evolution and Impact of Foreign Human Rights Trials in Latin America (2001)
2 Chicago Journal of International Law 1.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 18
Despite all these efforts, however, amnesty laws for crimes under inter-
national law, political crimes and ordinary crimes, continue to be intro-
duced by states. Indeed, by analysing the records in the Amnesty Law
Database over time, it is possible to see that amnesties have in fact
increased in frequency since the Second World War. Their distribution is
shown in Figure 1 above.
88
Whilst recognising that these results may be
slightly skewed, due to the difculty of obtaining information for the ear-
lier periods, the trend towards an increased reliance on amnesty laws is
unmistakable.
89
A number of factors contributing towards this trend can
be identied. For example, since the end of the Second War World the
number of states within the world has increased, due to the decline of colo-
nialisation. Furthermore, the end of the Cold War caused many former
communist states, or dictatorial regimes that had previously been sup-
ported by the superpowers, to move towards democracy. Furthermore,
some newly independent states spiralled into civil war, as ethnic tensions
that had previously been suppressed under authoritarian rule came to the
Trends in the Introduction of Amnesty Laws 19
88
This graph corresponds to data on 401 amnesty processes. Reparative amnesty laws,
which applied to non-violent political offenders or draft dodgers and deserters, were
excluded from this graph, as it is intended to contrast the frequency of trials with amnesty
laws. Between January 2005 and December 2007 a further 24 (non-reparative) amnesty laws
were introduced. For a list of the amnesty processes in the Amnesty Law Database see App
1. Also, see Figure 9 for the relationship of amnesties to crimes under international law
between January 1980 and December 2007.
89
This trend has also been identied in the work of other authors, see Vinjamuri and
Boesenecker (n 32); Andrew Reiter, Tricia Olsen and Leigh Payne, Behind the Justice
Cascade: Sequencing Transitional Justice in New Democracies (on le with the author).
70
30
50
60
40
20
10
0
1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
N
o
o
f
a
m
n
e
s
t
i
e
s
Year
Figure 1: Amnesties by time
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 19
fore, causing amnesties to be relied upon to reduce the violence. It is also
possible that changes in the motivations for introducing amnesties have
fuelled their continued use. For example, during the 1980s, several
amnesties were introduced within dictatorial regimes, to diffuse dissent
and encourage exiles to return, whereas during the 1990s, these motiva-
tions were outnumbered by amnesty laws that aimed to end the violence
in a civil war or to promote national reconciliation following the end of a
conict.
90
The transition from international to internal wars has perhaps
created a desire for amnesties to enable all the parties to a civil conict to
live together within the state, rather than the belligerent parties to an inter-
national war simply retreating behind their respective borders.
As was noted above, the rise in the number of amnesties may also illus-
trate a move away from dictatorial regimes characterised by lawlessness to
contexts where even repressive governments attempt to demonstrate
respect for the rule of law by enacting legislation to authorise their oppres-
sive policies and shelter their agents from prosecution. Such changes could
be a response to the increasing salience of human rights law. Slye claims
that the rise in the number of amnesties demonstrates, not increased laxity
on the part of states towards crimes under international law, but rather the
growing force of the international human rights movement,
91
which has
made governments feel that it is necessary to introduce amnesty laws to
protect themselves from prosecution for acts for which they would previ-
ously have enjoyed de facto impunity. Although such laws may not result
in justice for victims of human rights violations, they could represent a
move in that direction, according to the idea articulated by Snyder and
Vinjamuri that justice does not lead; it follows.
92
In this way, an amnesty
could create the political space for the establishment of robust administra-
tive institutions that can predictably enforce the law.
93
Furthermore, as will
be argued in chapter 4, where amnesties are accompanied by reparations
and individuals are required to adhere to conditions such as telling the truth
about their actions in order to benet from an amnesty, the amnesty can ful-
l many of the goals of human rights law. Due to this process, it is likely that
governments will become increasingly innovative in trying to describe their
amnesty laws using the rhetoric of human rights.
Secondly, the Amnesty Law Database suggests that amnesty laws are
not relied upon solely in certain parts of the world, but in fact occur across
the globe. Figure 2 below shows the distribution of amnesty laws for each
20 Introduction
90
This will be explored at length in ch 1.
91
Ronald C Slye, The Legitimacy of Amnesties Under International Law and General
Principles of Anglo-American Law: Is a Legitimate Amnesty Possible? (2002) 43 Virginia
Journal of International Law 173, 175.
92
Jack Snyder and Leslie Vinjamuri, Trials and Errors: Principle and Pragmatism in
Strategies of International Justice (2003/4) 28 International Security 6.
93
Ibid 6.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 20
region since the Second World War.
94
Whilst it is perhaps unsurprising
that Sub-Saharan Africa scores highly in this chart, due to the large
number of states within the continent and its high incidence of conict, it
is interesting to see that it is closely followed by Europe and Central Asia.
This is particularly remarkable since Europe is frequently viewed as hav-
ing the most advanced regional system for the protection of human rights.
The result can be partially explained by the Second World War, the fall of
communism in Eastern Europe, and the wars in the Balkans during the
1990s, which each resulted in a series of amnesty laws occurring in differ-
ent countries, and by amnesties that have followed wars of independence
between former colonies and their metropolis.
Thirdly, the types of government that most commonly introduce
amnesty laws can be examined. Using the annual Freedom House Survey
of Freedom,
95
the governments that introduced the amnesties in the data-
base were categorised into the rather unwieldy and imprecise categories of
free, partially free and not free, according to the political rights and civil
liberties within each country. Although this survey is the most detailed
Trends in the Introduction of Amnesty Laws 21
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Americas Asia (including
Australasia)
Europe and
Central Asia
Middle East and
North Africa
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Region
N
o
o
f
a
m
n
e
s
t
i
e
s
94
Based on data for 506 amnesty processes (including reparative amnesties).
95
Freedom House, Freedom in the World Comparative Rankings 19722006, available on the
Freedom House website at <http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/w/FIWAllScores.xls>
accessed 21 January 2008; and Freedom in the World 2008 Survey: Tables and Graphs, available
on Freedom House website at <http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/w08launch/
FIW08Tables.pdf> accessed 21 January 2008. Freedom House is a research institute, primarily
government-funded and headquartered in Washington, DC, focused on promoting liberal
democracy in the world. Its annual reports are frequently quoted by academics, particularly
political scientists, and by the media. However, its methodology is disputed by some human
rights organisations, which argue that its ndings are not credible.
Figure 2: Amnesties by region
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 21
report of its kind, at times some of the classications applied appear (at the
very least) open to argument, for example, for much of the period from
197494, South Africa was classied as partially free, a classication
which would clearly elicit divergent views from different groups within
South African society. These caveats aside, the survey is still useful for
broadly illustrative purposes. According to Freedom House, the total num-
ber of countries falling within each category has altered over time, as
shown by Table 1 below.
96
This suggests that since 1977 the number of
countries labelled as free has grown from a quarter of all countries to
almost half, whereas countries perceived as not free have declined by a
similar proportion. When the countries introducing amnesty laws are clas-
sied according to their type of government, the results are shown in
Figure 3 below.
97
From this, it is clear that fewer amnesty laws are intro-
duced in states that are deemed free and, considering that free states
grew from a quarter to almost half of all states during the period under dis-
cussion, they seem to be under-represented among the states introducing
amnesty laws. Furthermore, similar numbers of amnesty laws are intro-
duced in states described as partially free or not free. Of these partially
free states, several were in transition from oppressive rule, whereas others
had introduced amnesty laws in response to civil wars or military coups.
CREATING THE AMNESTY LAW DATABASE
In researching this book, the approaches of states to amnesties were inves-
tigated using extensive primary and secondary sources.
98
These materials
22 Introduction
Table 1: Type of government over time
Year Type of government
Free Partially Not free
free
1977 43 (28%) 48 (31%) 64 (41%)
1987 58 (35%) 58 (34%) 51 (30%)
1997 81 (42%) 57 (30%) 53 (28%)
2007 90 (47%) 60 (31%) 43 (22%)
96
This table is taken from Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2008 Survey: Tables and
Graphs, available on Freedom House website at <http://www.freedomhouse.org/uploads/
w08launch/FIW08Tables.pdf> accessed 21 January 2008.
97
Excludes amnesty laws which date from before 1972 or amnesty laws that occurred
during 2008. It also excludes amnesties introduced simultaneously by multiple states, for
example, as the result of a bilateral treaty.
98
These sources have included domestic legislation, academic writing, jurisprudence
from national and international courts, international treaties, opinions given by treaty-
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 22
were used to create the Amnesty Law Database, which forms the basis of
this research. To the best of the authors knowledge, this database repre-
sents the most comprehensive study of amnesty laws to date.
99
The scope
of this database covers amnesties in all parts of the world that have
occurred since the Second World War, relating to societies enduring inter-
national or internal conict or authoritarian government, or making a
transition to democracy. This study, rather than sampling, includes any
amnesty law that was identied and found to meet these criteria. At the
time of writing, the database contains information on 506 amnesty
processes in 130 countries, covering amnesties for crimes under inter-
national law, political crimes and ordinary crimes that occur during con-
icts or dictatorial regimes. Many of these are amnesty processes that
appear to have been overlooked in the academic and policy literature. It
seems likely, however, that many more amnesties have been introduced
during the post-war period than have been identied to date, as the
process of researching amnesty laws was constrained somewhat by lin-
guistic difculties and a lack of published information on historical
amnesties or amnesties within smaller states.
Creating the Amnesty Law Database 23
Free
Partially Free
Not Free
monitoring bodies, statements by intergovernmental organisations, reports by states and
NGOs, and newspaper articles. These sources have predominately been in English, but
where appropriate, materials in Spanish and French were also analysed. Furthermore, where
possible, efforts were made to contact individuals working in countries that have introduced
amnesties, including civil servants, academics and NGO workers to obtain information.
99
The Amnesty Law Database is currently in the process of being made publicly available
online.
Figure 3: Amnesties by type of government
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 23
Compiling the data within the database enabled the analysis of trends
in the introduction of amnesties that have occurred over time and between
regions; it also permitted comparison between the behaviour of states and
their duties under international human rights and humanitarian law.
100
These trends are explored throughout the book, using the case studies
from the database to investigate what motivated a states decision and
what implications each decision could have on a political transition. This
investigation made it possible to identify key factors which international
actors and judicial institutions should consider when deciding whether to
recognise an amnesty process which will be outlined in the conclusion.
STRUCTURE AND PURPOSE OF THE BOOK
The structure of the database complements the divisions of the topic in this
book. First, the data on the nature of amnesty laws is used in Part I to
explore the motives and characteristics of amnesty laws and reveal how
amnesties can be tailored to suit different contexts. This Part will also
explore how amnesties can co-exist with other transitional justice mechan-
isms. Then, in Part II, the implications of each adaptation on the amnesties
validity domestically and under international law will be assessed, using
the case law from national and international courts. Finally, in Part III, the
responses of key stakeholder groups within political transitions to
amnesty laws will be investigated to determine whether amnesties can be
reconciled with the needs of each group.
This book was inspired by the controversies outlined above, as they
reveal the need to have a clearer view of how states approach amnesties in
order to avoid basing crucial efforts to rebuild transitional states on
untested assumptions. Based on the controversies, this book has several
objectives. First, it aims to explore a realistic approach to the problems
faced by states emerging from periods of mass violence involving large
proportions of the population where widespread prosecutions may be
impractical and potentially dangerous. It will explore the motives and
characteristics of amnesties to reveal how they can be tailored to suit dif-
24 Introduction
100
There are some limitations to this approach, however, as each amnesty law is gener-
ated by the unique circumstances within the country of its introduction, and by classifying
them there is a risk that they will become decontextualised. The classication process can
also pose problems where there is limited data available on the transition as this could lead
to subjective classications. For example, where there is limited information relating to an
internal conict in which many non-state actors are parties, insurgents groups may be cate-
gorised as opponents of the state, whereas in fact they are paramilitary groups that act as
proxies for the government. These difculties are further accentuated when sources relating
to the conict are biased. Therefore, during this research, efforts were made to obtain data
from as wide a range of sources as possible.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 24
ferent contexts. In doing so, it will recognise the uniqueness of each transi-
tion and the resulting limitations of a one-size-ts-all approach to human
rights violations. It will also investigate to what extent competing demands
for peace and justice can be reconciled by individualised, conditional
amnesties in conjunction with other transitional justice mechanisms.
Secondly, this book will explore the different facets of amnesty laws and
their relationship to international human rights and humanitarian law in
more detail than has been done previously. The scope of amnesty laws, in
comparison to the provisions of international treaty law, the case law of
international courts and treaty-monitoring bodies and international legal
principles will be analysed, and the implications of the trends identied in
the behaviour of states for customary international law will be explored.
However, as will be highlighted in chapter 1, any decisions taken by states
on amnesty can be inuenced by a number of political, economic, legal
and social factors. Similarly, chapter 8 will illustrate how non-legal
concerns may inuence the attitudes of international actors, such as a
belief that an amnesty is necessary to achieve peace. The impact of non-
legal issues on decisions to introduce and respond to amnesties for crimes
under international law inhibits the identication of state practice in a
technical legal sense, as, for a recognised state practice to constitute con-
vincing evidence of a rule of customary international law, there must be:
(1) the actual behaviour by states; and (2) a belief that such behaviour is
law.
101
The inuence of non-legal concerns within decision-making of
states makes it difcult to identify such a belief. However, as this research
intended to provide the most comprehensive study of amnesty laws to
date, it was felt that simply restricting the case studies to amnesties where
such a belief could be identied would have inhibited the work, by sub-
stantially restricting the number of amnesties eligible for inclusion in the
study. Nonetheless, the breadth of this study does provide many useful
illustrations of trends in the behaviour of states, which can benet the
analysis of the existence of a customary duty to prosecute.
Thirdly, this book will explore whether the needs of victims can be rec-
onciled with amnesty laws. In addressing this issue, the book will consider
the ways in which amnesties can be designed to co-exist with transitional
justice mechanisms, such as truth commissions, community-based justice
initiatives, reparations and lustration programmes, and even prosecu-
tions, in order to full victims rights under international law. The book
will also assess the limited information available to date on the attitudes
of victims to amnesty processes.
Fourthly, this book aims to encourage international actors, including
international courts, to work to limit the more negative forms of amnesty,
Structure and Purpose of the Book 25
101
For a discussion of the nature of state practice, see David J Harris, Cases and Materials
on International Law (5th edn Sweet & Maxwell, London 1998) 2344; Malcolm N Shaw,
International Law (5th edn Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2003) 7784.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 25
by encouraging states to make them conditional and to introduce comple-
mentary programmes to repair the harm and prevent a repetition of
crimes. Consequently, it analyses the behaviours of international actors in
relation to amnesties, and will explore how international actors can co-
ordinate their interventions with the domestic efforts in order to comple-
ment and strengthen the domestic processes.
Finally, this book aims to move beyond a purely legal analysis of
amnesties, by considering them within the wider political context in which
they are introduced.
102
Consequently, it takes an interdisciplinary
approach to the literature and analysis covering disciplines such as
criminology, political science, conict resolution, international relations
and psychology. This approach has enabled the impact of socio-economic
conditions on the decisions inuencing the scope of amnesty and its
implementation to be considered throughout the book, using case studies
from the database.
This book argues that, where full criminal prosecutions for all offenders
are not possible, amnesties can be designed to promote stability whilst
responding to the needs of victims and society to know the truth, and to
establish accountable forms of government, rather than simply permitting
blanket impunity. It asserts that international law currently permits states
to pursue a exible approach to amnesty, provided the amnesty is
introduced in good faith to promote peace and reconciliation. Whilst it is
recognised that determining which amnesties represent good-faith efforts
to end violence can be a complicated and subjective endeavour, the book
will progressively work through the aspects of amnesty laws and the
responses they elicit from different stakeholder groups, before suggesting
factors that can be used to evaluate the legitimacy and efcacy of an
amnesty law and that, consequently, should be considered by both
national and international actors when evaluating national amnesties.
26 Introduction
102
For a discussion of the merits of moving beyond purely legal approaches to transitional
justice, see Kieran McEvoy, Beyond Legalism: Towards a Thicker Understanding of
Transitional Justice (2008) 34 Journal of Law and Society 411.
(B) Mallinder Intro 20/8/08 13:16 Page 26
Part I
Amnesties and Peacemaking:
Context and Content
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 27
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 28
1
Enacting Amnesties
INTRODUCTION
T
HE INTRODUCTION TO this book argued that states are con-
tinuing to rely on amnesties when confronted by conict or author-
itarianism, despite the growth of the human rights movement
and international criminal justice. The reasons why states continue to
implement amnesties are the focus of this chapter. The analysis will begin
by discussing the methods by which states introduce amnesty laws,
including executive decrees, negotiated peace agreements, parliamentary
legislation and referenda. It will argue that the method employed can sub-
stantially affect the legitimacy of the amnesty process and its potential to
contribute to peace and reconciliation. However, a states ability to decide
whether or how to introduce an amnesty law may be constrained by the
provisions of the domestic legal system regulating acts of clemency and by
the political circumstances within and outside the state. The trends appar-
ent in states motivations in introducing amnesty laws will then be
analysed before each motive is explored in detail. For the purposes of this
analysis, the motivations of states have been grouped into the following
categories: alleviating internal unrest and domestic pressure; promoting
peace and reconciliation; responding to international pressure; adhering
to cultural or religious traditions; providing reparations; and protecting
state agents from prosecution. These categories correspond either to the
political conditions within the state or to the groups that are specically
targeted by the amnesty. Clearly, there is overlap between these categor-
ies, as political conditions may dictate which groups are targeted. In
exploring these categories, this chapter will address the key concepts
within transitional justice of forgiveness and reconciliation. This chapter
will argue that although there are many possible motivations for intro-
ducing amnesty laws, the most commonly expressed motivation is to pro-
mote reconciliation following internal unrest or conict. It will also show
that many amnesty laws are introduced for multiple reasons, with differ-
ent political stakeholders supporting an amnesty due to their groups
objectives.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 29
HOW ARE AMNESTY LAWS INTRODUCED?
Depending on the nature of the transition, there are four methods by
which a formal amnesty process can be introduced: (i) exercise of execu-
tive discretion; (ii) negotiated peace agreements; (iii) promulgated
amnesty laws; and (iv) referenda. These methods are not mutually exclu-
sive and amnesties can fall within more than one category. For example,
amnesties in negotiated peace agreements are often subsequently ratied
by a countrys parliament. Similarly, amnesties that are approved by a ref-
erendum are usually enacted by the legislature. Based on the information
obtained for 372
1
amnesty processes, the occurrence of the different
methods is shown in Figure 4 below. From this, it is clear that the most
popular ways of introducing amnesty laws are through executive decrees
and legislation. In contrast, few amnesties have resulted from public con-
sultation. These differences are signicant, as each of these different
methods can affect the legitimacy and efcacy of the amnesty.
30 Enacting Amnesties
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
N
o
o
f
A
m
n
e
s
t
i
e
s
Executive discretion Negotiated peace
agreements
Statutes Referenda and
consultations
Method of Enactment
1
It has not been possible to obtain clear data on the enactment processes for all amnesties
in the Amnesty Law Database, due to the paucity of information on some amnesty processes,
particularly those introduced during the earlier years under consideration or by a dictatorial
regime.
Figure 4: Amnesties and their enactment processes
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 30
Exercises of Executive Discretion
Exercises of executive discretion refers to amnesties that are introduced
by presidential decrees or proclamations. For many amnesty processes,
these decrees emanate from undemocratic rulers, such as military juntas.
For example, the 1983 amnesty in Argentina was introduced by the mili-
tary regime that had seized power in 1976 and presided over a period of
massive human rights abuses.
2
Such amnesties as authoritarian exercises
of power have limited legitimacy, as the law is not approved by represen-
tatives of the people.
3
However, according to the constitutions of some
democratic states, the president has the power to declare any amnesties or
pardons.
4
For example, in the United States, Presidents Ford and Carter
were able to issue amnesties for draft dodgers and deserters from the
Vietnam War.
5
Where this occurs, the amnesty can have more legitimacy
than those of dictators, as the ruler declaring it has been democratically
elected. Furthermore, the president can receive counsel from different
bodies. For example, when an amnesty was introduced in Northern
Ireland in 1969 to release those who had been imprisoned during the vio-
lent unrest accompanying the civil rights movement, the Northern Irish
Prime Minister, Chichester Clarke, consulted his cabinet and the Attorney
General.
6
Similarly, before issuing the 1994 amnesty in the Philippines,
President Fidel Ramos consulted a specially-appointed commission.
7
Executive decrees also include amnesties that are promulgated by transi-
tional administrations before the establishment of a parliament, or by
How Are Amnesty Laws Introduced? 31
2
Law of National Pacication, Law No 22.924, published in Legislacin Argentina, 1983-B,
pp 1681 ff.
3
This is the view that has been taken by the Inter-American Commission, see Garay
Hermosilla et al v Chile, Case 10.843, Inter-Am CHR, Report 36/96, OEA/Ser L/V/II/95 [1996]
[30].
4
For more information on the presidential power to pardon, see Leslie Sebba, The
Pardoning PowerA World Survey (1977) 68 Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 83.
5
Presidential Proclamation No 4313, 39 Fed.Reg. 33293 (16 September 1974), reprinted in
50 USCA App Section 462 (1978) and Proclamation No 4483, 42 Fed Reg 4391 [1977]. For
analysis see , Pardon for Draft Evaders: Carters First Act Touches off a Storm US News
and World Report (31 January 1977) 22; Alfonso J Damico, Democracy and the Case for Amnesty
(University of Florida Monographs, University Presses of Florida, Gainesville 1989); Edward
F Dolan, Amnesty: An American Puzzle (Franklin Watts, New York 1976).
6
Christine Bell, Dealing with the Past in Northern Ireland (2003) 26 Fordham International
Law Journal 1095; J Bowyer Bell, The Irish Troubles: A Generation of Violence, 19671992 (Gill and
Macmillan, Dublin 1993); Fergal F Davies, Applying the Principles of Restorative Justice to a
Post-Conict Situation in Northern Ireland in Anonymous (ed), Centre for Criminal Justice
Studies, Eleventh Annual Report 19981999 (University Print Service, University of Leeds 2000).
7
US Department of State, Human Rights Practices 1994: Philippines (Report)
(February 1995); US Delegation to Preparatory Commission, State Practice Regarding
Amnesties and Pardons (Report) (August 1997) <http://www.iccnow.org/documents/
USDraftonAmnestiesPardons.pdf> accessed 25 October 2007. For a detailed overview of
amnesty laws in the Philippines, see Alberto T Muyot, Amnesty in the Philippines: The
Legal Concept as a Political Tool (1994) 69 Philippines Law Journal 51.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 31
occupying powers. For example, following the Second World War the
Allied forces in Germany introduced and sanctioned several amnesties.
8
More recently, in 2003 the Afghani transitional government offered an
amnesty to regular Taliban ghters who surrendered.
9
Executive decrees can be introduced unilaterally or as a result of nego-
tiations. They are used as reparative amnesties to release individuals who
have been detained for their religious or political beliefs, as a tactic to
reduce armed opposition and initiate peace negotiations, or as a means of
protecting those who are loyal to the regime. They are relied upon in cer-
tain instances as they can be introduced more rapidly than other forms of
amnesty. They have disadvantages, however, as OShea highlights that
executive amnesty decrees risk being arbitrary exercises of presidential
discretion, and suggests that properly introduced laws are preferable,
10
as they provide a greater opportunity for the terms of the law to be
debated and negotiated, where the process of debate could strengthen the
rule of law.
Negotiated Peace Agreements
Negotiated peace agreements can be either international or national
depending on the nature of the conict. But as warfare has changed since
the Second World War, there are far fewer international peace treaties
today than in earlier times, and many of those that have occurred resulted
from decolonisation conicts, rather than wars that were fought solely
between sovereign states. For example, the 1962 Evian Accords, signed
between France and Algeria to grant Algerias independence following
the conict, offered amnesty to combatants from both parties.
11
Today,
however, the vast majority of amnesties emanating from peace agree-
ments are the result of internal conicts, although representatives of the
international community mediate many of the agreements.
32 Enacting Amnesties
8
Clemens Vollnhals, Denazication in the Western Zones: The Failed Experiment in
Stein Ugelvik Larsen and Bernt Hagtvet (eds), Modern Europe after Fascism (New York, Social
Science Monographs, Columbia University Press, 1998); Jon Elster, Closing the Books:
Transitional Justice in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004);
Norbert Frei, Adenauers Germany and the Nazi Past: The Politics of Amnesty and Integration
(Columbia University Press, New York 2002).
9
Jonathan Fowler, New anti-terror operation launched in Afghanistan as government
loyalists seek more help against Taliban Associated Press (Kabul, 10 November 2003); Barnett
R Rubin, Transitional Justice and Human Rights in Afghanistan (2003) 79 International
Affairs 567.
10
Andreas OShea, Amnesty for Crime in International Law and Practice (Kluwer Law
International, The Hague 2002), 22.
11
Declarations Drawn up in Common Agreement at Evian, 18 March 1962, by the
Delegations of the Government of the French Republic and the Algerian National Liberation
Front, reprinted in (1962) 1 International Legal Materials 214, ch I(k).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 32
Peace agreements can grant amnesty in response to demands from
insurgents who require safeguards from prosecution before surrendering
their weapons. To award amnesty in these circumstances is commonplace
but it can be problematic where the insurgents have committed atrocities
during the armed conict, as acquiescing to their demands could be
viewed as allowing them to amnesty themselves. Furthermore, awarding
them amnesty could be perceived as legitimising their armed struggle and
their tactics.
12
Alternatively, amnesty can be included in peace agreements when the
leaders of both state and non-state actors wish to immunise themselves
from prosecution, particularly where all sides in a conict have a history
they wish to hide. Such bargains may be popular among the beneciaries,
but where the leaders responsible for human rights violations are able to
retain or gain political power; the bargains could breed scepticism among
the civilian population of the state and impair the amnestys potential to
contribute to reconciliation. This risk could be mitigated, however, by
including provisions for other forms of transitional justice in the peace
agreement, such as truth commissions and lustration programmes, so that
former perpetrators do not benet from their crimes.
Negotiated peace agreements can potentially be more democratically
legitimate than presidential decrees as they involve representatives of the
parties to the conict or transition process and international observers.
The representatives of the new transitional regime, especially if democra-
tically elected, should always participate, in order to enhance the legiti-
macy of the agreement.
13
If none of the representatives of any of the
parties is elected, however, the democratic legitimacy can be reduced, as,
although the spokespersons of all the main communities can participate, it
may be unclear whether those individuals have a legitimate right to speak
on behalf of others.
Statutes
Amnesties frequently take the form of statutes, which can be introduced
to ratify the provisions of negotiated peace agreements or to respond to
demands from civil society or the executive. Within a peaceful, democra-
tic society, amnesties passed by democratically-elected legislatures would
normally be perceived as legitimate due to their approval by the chosen
How Are Amnesty Laws Introduced? 33
12
Ronald C Slye, Justice and Amnesty in Charles Villa-Vicencio and Wilhelm Verwoerd
(eds), Looking Back, Reaching Forward: Reections on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of
South Africa (Zed Books, London 2000) 182.
13
Thomas Hethe Clark, Note, The Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court,
Amnesties, and the Interests of Justice: Striking a Delicate Balance (2005) 4 Washington
University Global Studies Law Review 389, 40910.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 33
representatives of the people. This legitimacy would be reduced, however,
for those who do not support the regime, when the politicians are not
elected, or have achieved their positions following rigged elections, or
where the executive dominates parliament to such an extent that opposi-
tion opinions are disregarded, particularly where opposition parties rep-
resent oppressed minorities. Similarly, the legitimacy of an amnesty could
be undermined where it is approved by a bare majority in a divided legis-
lature. In such cases, the author believes that consultation is desirable and
that attempts should be made to address the concerns of those who are
against the amnesty, perhaps by applying conditions to the grant of
amnesty, such as penalties for recidivism, and by ensuring that the mech-
anisms for granting amnesty are independent of government control.
Public Consultation
Some amnesty processes are enacted following direct public involvement,
which can take various forms. First, amnesties could follow orchestrated
consultation programmes, such as the consultation that occurred in South
Africa before the enactment of the Promotion of National Unity and
Reconciliation Act 1995.
14
Secondly, election campaign promises could
allow voters the opportunity to express their views on amnesty. Such
promises were made in Greece in 1973, where the political party offering
an amnesty for coup plotters and legal professionals who co-operated with
the military junta received the support of the electorate. Thirdly, amnesties
could be voted on in a referendum, either specically on the amnesty law
or on a new constitution that contains amnesty provisions. The complex
question of the timing and methods of consultation will clearly depend
on the conditions within each transitional state, including the quality
of the communication infrastructure and the extent of security concerns,
particularly where public involvement during delicate negotiations could
destabilise the process by undermining the mandate of the negotiators.
However, consultations should in principle be as full and inclusive as cir-
cumstances permit.
Consultations are not unproblematic, however, as even where an
amnesty law is approved by a referendum, difculties could arise. For
example, simple majority support would not be appropriate where minor-
ity groups were the victims of the oppression.
15
Furthermore, after a
34 Enacting Amnesties
14
Alex Boraine, A Country Unmasked: Inside South Africas Truth and Reconciliation
Commission (Oxford University Press, Cape Town 2000); Jeremy Sarkin, Carrots and Sticks: The
TRC and the South African Amnesty Process (Intersentia, Antwerp 2004) 441. For an overview
of the South African amnesty in exchange for truth model, see case study 9.
15
Jeremy Sarkin and Erin Daly, Too Many Questions, Too Few Answers: Reconciliation
in Transitional Societies (2004) 35 Columbia Human Rights Law Review 661, 703.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 34
referendum, it may be unclear whether the result truly reects the will of
the populace. These difculties were illustrated in the 1989 Uruguayan
referendum:
Case Study 1: Reparative v blanket amnesty: the Uruguayan experience
How Are Amnesty Laws Introduced? 35
Uruguay provides an interesting case study, as during its transition it had two
contrasting but co-existing amnesty processes.
The rst amnesty in March 1985, introduced soon after the transitional gov-
ernment assumed power from the military junta, aimed to provide repara-
tions to political prisoners by releasing them from prison and restoring
property and funds that had been conscated. State agents were excluded
from its terms.
Following this amnesty, the courts were ooded with complaints against the
military of torture and disappearances. The number of cases was apparently
completely unexpected. The still-powerful armed forces responded by refus-
ing to comply with subpoenas and threatening severe unrest, particularly
since it appears that in 1984, during the Naval Club Pact negotiations on the
handover of power, the future civilian president had assured the military
leader that the army would not be held to account.
The tension culminated in the adoption of a second amnesty in December
1986, which shielded state agents from criminal prosecutions for crimes com-
mitted for political reasons or under orders. This included serious human
rights violations such as torture, extra-judicial killings and disappearances. In
this way, the second amnesty was a political compromise between a still-
powerful military and a cautious civilian administration. However, the
amnesty did exclude crimes committed for personal economic gain or to
benet a third party, and Article 4 of the amnesty required the executive to
investigate all disappearances and inform the victims families of results of
the investigations.
Nonetheless, the second amnesty provoked considerable opposition from
human rights activists, who managed to force a referendum on the amnesty
law. They were unsuccessful in their challenge, however, as in 1989 the
amnesty was approved by 57 per cent of voters. This referendum is often
lauded as an example of democratic approval; but it has been contended that
the democratic politicians were intimidated by the still-powerful army and
that the Supreme Court disqualied many signatures from the petition that
led to the referendum, and there were allegations of intimidation of voters by
the police.
Despite continued campaigning, the amnesty remained intact until the elec-
tion in 2000 of President Jorge Batlle, at which point amnesia began to give
way to memorialisation, as a Commission for Peace was established to clarify
the fate of Uruguayans who had disappeared between 1973 and 1985.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 35
If the allegations about the Uruguayan referendum are true, they would
undermine the extent of true democratic approval which the amnesty law
received. This does not devalue the referendum process entirely, however,
as referenda, by inspiring public debate on an amnesty law, can help it to
foster reconciliation.
The above discussion of the methods for enacting amnesties has argued
that the extent to which an amnesty can be viewed as democratically legit-
imate within the state where it has been introduced may depend upon
whether it was approved directly by the populace or by their elected rep-
resentatives. Where amnesty is introduced unilaterally by an oppressive
regime, or where the views of oppressed populations are overlooked, it
seems likely that the amnesty will have less legitimacy, and consequently
its potential to contribute to peace and reconciliation could be under-
mined, as rather than the amnesty contributing to trust building between
stakeholder groups within society, it could be viewed as merely a reward
for those who perpetrated human rights abuses.
Furthermore, in April 2003, President Batlle announced that he would pay
reparations to the families of individuals who had died whilst in state deten-
tion.
More recently, President Tabar Ramn Vsquez Rosas, who was elected in
October 2004, promised to implement Article 4 of the 1986 amnesty law. The
article had never been enforced. Furthermore, the courts are beginning to seek
ways around the amnesty process. For example, the former civilian president
Juan Mara Bordaberry is currently on trial on charges of aggravated homi-
cide for the murder of two Uruguayan congressmen in Argentina. The pros-
ecutors are asserting that the 1986 amnesty law applies neither to civilian
defendants, nor to crimes committed outside Uruguayan territory.
These are only limited steps, however, as disappearances represent only a
small proportion of the violations that occurred in Uruguay. It is possible that
other crimes will be investigated in the future if the campaign to force a
second referendum amnesty law, which began to collect signatures on
4 September 2007, is successful.
Sources: Lawrence Weschler, A Miracle, A Universe: Settling Accounts with
Torturers (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1998); Americas Watch (Human
Rights Watch), Challenging Impunity: The Ley de Caducidad and the Referendum
in Uruguay (1 March 1989); Alexandra Barahona de Brito, Truth and Justice in the
Consolidation of Democracy in Chile and Uruguay (1993) 46 Parliamentary Affairs
579.
36 Enacting Amnesties
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 36
WHY DO STATES INTRODUCE AMNESTY?
The political triggers of amnesty laws in each state are unique and there-
fore the goals that amnesties are designed to achieve can be wide ranging.
As OShea highlights:
They have been used to express public grace and forgiveness, and to further
government corruption and oppression. They have been used to bring law into
compliance with an accepted reality, and to exempt a contested reality from
public scrutiny and moral and legal accountability. They have been granted at
times of great social stability and at times of great social unrest; at the start of
and during wars for the purpose of recruiting troops, and at the end of wars to
foster peace and reconciliation.
16
The motives of states introducing amnesties can be diverse, but during the
process of designing the Amnesty Law Database, these motivations were
allocated to the following categories: alleviating internal unrest and
domestic pressure; promoting peace and reconciliation; responding to
international pressure; adhering to cultural or religious traditions; pro-
viding reparations; and protecting state agents from prosecution. Some of
these categories, such as adhering to cultural or religious traditions, were
based on the motivations outlined by Joinet in his 1985 paper.
17
The
remaining categories were extrapolated from accounts by academics and
journalists of why amnesty was introduced in individual countries. This
process has enabled the factors leading to the introduction of amnesty
laws in many countries to be identied and the implications of the deci-
sions to be analysed.
The categorisation process has been problematic in some cases,
however, as states often have multiple objectives for introducing an
amnesty law. These objectives may be inter-related, such as demobilising
combatants, encouraging the surrender of weapons, obtaining a ceasere,
and creating conditions for economic development. They could also be
disparate particularly where the state is responding to both exogenous
and endogenous pressures. For example, a state by releasing its political
opponents from prison may simultaneously be trying to appear benevo-
lent before the international community and to undermine its domestic
opponents. Furthermore, an amnesty can be introduced to satisfy both
short-term and long-term goals, such as ending the violence, and building
a climate of trust that could provide a basis for reconciliation.
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 37
16
Ronald C Slye, The Legitimacy of Amnesties Under International Law and General
Principles of Anglo-American Law: Is a Legitimate Amnesty Possible? (2002) 43 Virginia
Journal of International Law 173, 174.
17
ECOSOC, Study on Amnesty Laws and their role in the safeguard and protection of
human rights (21 June 1985) UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/16 (prepared by Louis Joinet).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 37
Governments may also alter the terms of their amnesties in response to
changing political circumstances. This can be illustrated by the experience
in Uganda:
Case Study 2: The changing scope of the Ugandan amnesty
38 Enacting Amnesties
The Amnesty Act 2000
18
in Uganda is a political compromise that aims to end
the violence that has been ravaging Uganda for two decades, and it has wide-
spread support among the population in the north of the country. In fact, the
government only decided to formalise the pre-existing de facto amnesties
following lobbying from Acholi community and religious leaders.
The scope of the amnesty is fairly wide as it covers all crimes that have been
committed during the conicts. The amnesty has, however, been limited in its
effect, as it covers only criminal, not civil proceedings. Furthermore, applicants
must individually surrender, disarm and renounce their involvement in rebel-
lion in order to receive an amnesty certicate from the Amnesty Commission.
The amnesty covers current and former insurgents from a variety of non-state
forces, including those based outside Uganda. However, it does not apply to
state actors. In its original form the amnesty included the leaders of the insur-
gent groups. However, following the amnestys enactment, the Ugandan gov-
ernment expressed its intention to pursue accountability for those deemed
most responsible for the violations committed by the Lords Resistance
Army (LRA), by referring the situation in the north of Uganda to the
International Criminal Court (ICC); and on 20 April 2006 the Ugandan par-
liament passed the Amnesty Amendment Act 2006, which gave the Minister
of Internal Affairs the power to disqualify named individuals from being eli-
gible for amnesty under the Act. This amendment was targeted at LRA chief
Joseph Kony and his top commanders, Vincent Otti,
19
Okot Odhiambo,
Dominic Ongwen and Raska Lukwiya,
20
but it has not yet been implemented.
Despite the legislative change, and the issuing by the ICC in July 2005 of war-
rants for the arrest of the the LRA leaders, the fate of the leaders of the LRA
seems uncertain: since the peace negotiations restarted it has remained
unclear whether any governments in the region would be willing to appre-
hend the accused, who are mostly operating from outside Ugandas territory.
Furthermore, the Ugandan president publicly stated that Kony himself would
benet from amnesty if he surrendered.
21
However, the president has not yet
asked for the arrest warrants to be withdrawn and the ICC has stated its inten-
tion to continue the investigation.
22
18
Amnesty Act 2000 (Uganda).
19
At the time of writing, it was widely believed that Vincent Otti had been killed by mem-
bers of the LRA, but this had not yet been substantiated.
20
Raska Lukwiya was killed on 12 August 2006 during ghting with the Ugandan
Peoples Defence Force.
21
, Amnesty for Uganda rebel chief, BBC News (4 July 2006).
22
ICC, Press release: Statement by the Chief Prosecutor Luis Moreno-Ocampo (6 July
2006) ICC-OTP-20060706-146-En.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 38
The Ugandan example shows how domestic politicians can be willing to
use both amnesties and the threat of prosecutions tactically in order to end
violence and encourage insurgents to surrender.
24
Identifying the motivations leading to an amnesty can become more
problematic where states deliberately obscure their motives for intro-
ducing amnesties, with their true intentions sometimes only becoming
apparent through implementation.
25
For example, a government may
publicly pronounce certain reasons, usually to promote reconciliation,
which may even be highlighted in the name it chooses to give the law.
26
But these public reasons may not have been its sole motives, as the gov-
ernment may also have thought the law would help it to, for example,
obtain foreign aid by fullling the demands of the international commu-
nity to lessen political repression. In more extreme cases, the government
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 39
23
For an overview of these mechanisms, see ch 4.
24
For a detailed discussion of the politics surrounding the ICC intervention into the situ-
ation in northern Uganda, see Adam Branch, Ugandas Civil War and the Politics of ICC
Intervention (2007) 21 Ethics and International Affairs 179.
25
Sarkin & Daly (n 15) 689.
26
Amnesty laws are frequently given titles involving words such as peace, reconcilia-
tion and harmony.
Although the Amnesty Act makes no provision for reparations or truth com-
missions, its supporters claim that the needs of victims and communities are
addressed through traditional community-based justice mechanisms which
complement the amnesty.
23
It seems likely that this amnesty will be sig-
nicantly altered under the framework of the Agreement on Reconciliation
and Accountability signed by the parties to the Juba peace talks on 29 June
2007.
Sources: Tim Allen, Trial Justice: The International Criminal Court and the Lords
Resistance Army (London, Zen Books, 2006); Payam Akhavan, Developments at the
International Criminal Court: The Lords Resistance Army Case: Ugandas
Submission of the First State Referral to the International Criminal Court (2005) 99
American Journal of International Law 403; Kasaija Phillip Apuuli, Amnesty and
International Law: The Case of the Lords Resistance Army Insurgents in Northern
Uganda (2005) 5 African Journal of Conict Resolution 33; Lucy Hovil and Zachary
Lomo, Whose Justice? Perceptions of Ugandas Amnesty Act 2000: The Potential for
Conict Resolution and Long-Term Reconciliation (Kampala, Refugee Law Project,
2005); Phuong Pham et al, Forgotten Voices: A Population-Based Survey of Attitudes
about Peace and Justice in Northern Uganda (Berkeley, International Center for
Transitional Justice, University of California, 2005); Manisuli Ssenyonjo, The
International Criminal Court and the Lords Resistance Army Leaders: Prosecution or
Amnesty? (2007) 54 Netherlands International Law Review 51; Erin Baines, The
Haunting of Alice: Local Approaches to Justice and Reconciliation in Northern
Uganda (2007) 1 International Journal of Transitional Justice 97.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 39
may even try to obscure the fact that it is introducing an amnesty by
describing the legislation in other terms, such as the Due Obedience law in
Argentina.
27
Complications can also arise where several stakeholder groups are
involved in the enactment process. For example, if an amnesty results
from a negotiated peace settlement, the motives of the insurgents demand-
ing amnesty can differ from those of the state granting it. Similarly, in elab-
orating domestic legislation, political parties may view the same piece of
legislation differently, according to their political goals. This potential
diversity of views may encourage states to tailor their explanations of
amnesties according to their target audience. Furthermore, a government
could tactically include measures in an amnesty law to satisfy some stake-
holder groups as a means to gain their acquiescence for the governments
overall objectives. For example, a government might introduce an
amnesty law that provided for the release of political prisoners as a means
of obtaining amnesty for state agents, where it would not be possible to
achieve this in isolation. The various pressures faced by governments and
the multiplicity of demands from different stakeholder groups in society
can therefore mean that differing motivations may all co-exist within a
state that is introducing an amnesty process.
Using the categorisation scheme, information has been compiled on the
motivations in 464 amnesty processes,
28
and their distribution can be seen
in Figure 5 below. As discussed previously, each amnesty process may fall
within one or several of these categories. From this graph, it is clear that
amnesties resulting from internal pressure are, perhaps unsurprisingly,
the most common, but overall amnesties are introduced for a diverse array
of reasons. Each of these motivations has been inuential throughout the
period since the Second World War. Furthermore, every motivation has
been present in some amnesty laws that have been introduced in each
region of the world. These motivations will be explored below using case
studies from the Amnesty Law Database.
40 Enacting Amnesties
27
For more information on Argentina, see ch 2.
28
Motivations could not be clearly identied for all the amnesties in the Amnesty Law
Database. This could be due to the problems discussed above, such as a lack of transparency
in governmental decision-making.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 40
Amnesty as a Reaction to Internal Unrest and Domestic Pressure
When governments introduce amnesties to alleviate internal unrest, their
motives are often strategic rather than principled. In this way, the amnesty,
rather than resulting from a genuine desire to forgive the alleged crimes, is
instead introduced to strengthen a governments other strategic aims, such
as securing its own hold on power. Internal unrest can prompt an amnesty
in several ways, ranging from desires to bolster support within an already
comparatively stable (although not necessarily democratic) society, to
attempts to end violent conicts or implement peace agreements. Across
this continuum, from peace to conict, the motivations inuencing deci-
sions to introduce amnesty can have different characteristics.
Amnesty to Consolidate Power
In relatively stable societies, governments usually have a monopoly over
political, economic and military power, and consequently might choose to
introduce an amnesty as a show of strength, to demonstrate clearly that any
opposition does not pose a threat to its rule. This idea was often vocalised
in the amnesty laws of the former communist bloc countries, for example,
in its 1989 amnesty decree, the Albanian government proclaimed amnesty:
taking into consideration the constant consolidation of our socialist order, the
sound moral and political state of the country, the steel-like unity of the people
around the party . . .
29
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 41
29
Decree No 7338, 1989 (Alb), Preamble.
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
N
o
o
f
A
m
n
e
s
t
i
e
s
Internal
unrest
Peace and
reconciliation
International
pressure
Cultural and
religious
transitions
Reparative
amnesty
Self-amnesty
Motivations for introducing amnesties
Figure 5: Amnesty motivations
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 41
This law clearly articulates the governments desire to demonstrate that its
decision to amnesty individuals, who were alleged to be fugitives or to
have distributed anti-government propaganda, was an act of benevolence
on behalf of the state, rather than one of simply pandering to the wishes of
the opposition. Despite the governments attempt to portray itself as pow-
erful, yet benevolent, it remains clear that the amnesty was introduced at
a time of great political upheaval in Eastern Europe, and the government
might have hoped that releasing political opponents would prevent chal-
lenges to its rule. In other cases, however, governments might choose to
implement amnesties to undermine support for the opposition by appear-
ing benevolent whilst eliminating the oppositions ability to rely on the
detention of political prisoners as a rallying cry. For example, in 1977 the
Romanian president, Nicolae Ceaucescu, amnestied dissenters and those
who had tried to leave the country illegally as part of efforts to undermine
the domestic human rights movement.
30
Amnesties have also been used to mitigate the effects of unpopular poli-
cies. For example, in 1997 the Azerbaijani government chose to amnesty
military crimes, such as desertion, a move that had popular support, in
conjunction with agreeing to an unpopular Organisation for Security and
Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) proposal for solving the dispute over
Nagorno-Karabakh.
31
In addition, governments are occasionally forced to
issue amnesties to strengthen national unity in the face of severe economic
crises or climatic events that threaten the well-being of the populace. For
example, the 1993 amnesty for political offenders in Malawi marking the
start of a transition from a one-party state was prompted by the damaging
effects of a drought on the national economy.
32
Similarly, the devastation
in Aceh caused by the tsunami was followed in January 2005 by an
amnesty for the Acehnese insurgents,
33
and then later by the formal peace
agreement.
Amnesty to Pacify Serious Unrest
Amnesty may be introduced following severe political unrest, such as
widespread rioting, minor armed incursions across a border or serious
unrest focused solely on one small region of the country. For example, in
42 Enacting Amnesties
30
, Romania Grants Amnesty The Washington Post (Bucharest 9 May 1977) A10;
Rumania: Clemency Blockbuster, Economist (14 May 1977).
31
, Parliament Adopts Amnesty Law BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (18 October
1997).
32
Qiu Xiaoyi, Malawi on Process of Political Transition Xinhua News Agency, (Lusaka
28 December 1993); , President Banda Decrees General Amnesty: Correction and
Amplication, BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (Blantyre 5 January 1994).
33
Andrew Tait, Jakarta offers Acehnese Rebels Partial Amnesty International Relations
and Security Network (12 January 2005); Irwan Firdaus, Indonesia Offers Rebels Autonomy,
Amnesty Associated Press (Banda Aceh 28 January 2005).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 42
Albania in 1997, following the collapse of fraudulent pyramid schemes,
which resulted in mass rioting with over 2,000 deaths, the government
introduced an amnesty for the rioters.
34
Similarly, amnesties could be
introduced to pre-empt threatened military coups where a new regime has
taken ofce but the military remains powerful. This was apparently the
justication for introducing the Punto Final and Obedencia Debida laws in
Argentina
35
and the 1986 Uruguayan amnesty law. The Uruguayan
amnesty was justied in this way by the then Uruguayan President, Julio
Mara Sanguinetti:
Trials for the military ofcers were incompatible with the climate of institutional
stability and tranquillity . . . if the military challenged the judiciary, we were faced
with the [possibility] of a very dangerous institutional weakening [degredacin]
that, in the medium term, was going to result in institutional breakdown.
36
Amnesties can also be introduced in the wake of failed military coups to
pacify the military, encourage their cooperation with the government, and
stabilise the regime. For example, following the 1987 coup in Fiji, the
Governor General granted amnesty to all participants in the coup plot,
claiming that no useful plan would be served by vindictiveness.
37
Violence emanating from small-scale or short-lived terrorist campaigns
or due to pre-election intimidation has also led to amnesty on occasion.
For example, following separatist violence on the island of New Caledonia
causing the deaths of 40 people between 1984 and 1988, the French gov-
ernment issued two amnesties to cover those believed to be responsible for
the violence. The rst amnesty in 1988 was approved by a referendum on
the island.
38
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 43
34
, Albanian Parliament Approves Law on Amnesty Albanian Telegraphic Agency
(11 March 1997); , Albania Offers Amnesty in Bid to End Rebellion The Toronto Star
(7 March 1997); US Department of State, Country Report on Human Rights Practices 1997:
Albania (30 January 1998).
35
See eg Ral Alfonsn, Never Again in Argentina (1993) 4 Journal of Democracy 15; Carlos
Santiago Nino, The Duty to Punish Past Abuses of Human Rights Put Into Context: The Case
of Argentina (1991) 100 Yale Law Journal 2619.
36
Brian Loveman, Protected Democracies and Military Guardianship: Political
Transitions in Latin America, 19781993 (1994) 36 Journal of Interamerican Studies and World
Affairs 105, 116.
37
Steward Slavin, Amnesty for Coup Leader and a Caretaker Government United Press
International, (Suva 22 May 1987); Keith B Richburg, Fijis Leaders Negotiate as Coup
Appears to Unravel; Governor General Announces Dissolution of Parliament, Amnesty for
Chiefs of Uprising The Washington Post (Suva 19 May 1987) A21; Tom Lansner, Fiji Face-to-
Face with Apartheid after Army Coup The Toronto Star (Suva 31 May 1987) H5.
38
Loi No 88-1028 du 9 novembre 1988 portant dispositions statutaires et prparatoires
lautodtermination de la Nouvelle-Caldonie en 1998 (art 80); Loi No 89-473, Loi No 90-33 du 10
janvier 1990 portant amnistie dinfractions commises loccasion dvnements survenues en
Nouvelle-Caldonie; Jeffrey Ulbrich, French, In Record Low Turnout, Approve New
Caledonia Plan Associated Press (Paris 6 November 1988).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 43
Amnesty to End Violent Conict
The most common form of internal pressure that can inspire amnesty is a
desire to end violent conicts, either national or international. Amnesties
can potentially contribute to reducing human rights violations when a
conict is ongoing by creating conditions to enable peace negotiations to
occur, particularly where some of the interlocutors would be at risk of
prosecution.
39
In this context, amnesty is often considered
the realistic price one has to pay for ending a destructive war or removing a gov-
ernment that has committed gross violations of human rights in the past,
40
and that without it, the human rights violations would continue. Slye
describes this scenario as a
trade-off . . . not between victims of past abuses and accountability for perpe-
trators, but between victims of past abuses and yet to be identied victims of
future abuses.
41
The utility of amnesty in this context was recognised by the Sierra Leonean
Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which described the amnesty pro-
visions of the Lom Peace Accord as necessary in the circumstances that
prevailed at the time.
42
In a later passage, the commission asserted:
Those who argue that peace cannot be bartered in exchange for justice, under
any circumstances, must be prepared to justify the likely prolongation of armed
conict. Amnesties may be undesirable in many cases. . . . However, amnesties
should not be excluded entirely from the mechanisms available to those
attempting to negotiate a cessation of hostilities after periods of brutal armed
conict. Disallowing amnesty in all cases would be to deny the reality of violent
conict and the urgent need to bring such strife and suffering to an end.
43
Often amnesties introduced during violent conicts are unilateral and
occur without any substantial negotiations between the government and
its opponents. They may even be used to formalise pre-existing de facto
amnesties for surrendering combatants. For example, the 2000 Angolan
amnesty formalised a process that already had been occurring for months.
President Dos Santos had extended an olive branch to the rebel group,
Unio Nacional para a Independncia Total de Angola (UNITA) in many
public statements, offering amnesty for those who laid down their
44 Enacting Amnesties
39
Tom Hadden, Punishment, Amnesty and Truth: Legal and Political Approaches in
Adrian Guelke (ed), Democracy and Ethnic Conict: Advancing Peace in Deeply Divided Societies
(Palgrave Macmillan, 2004).
40
Slye (n 16) 198.
41
Ibid 198.
42
Sierra Leonean TRC, Vol. 2, Ch 2: Findings in Truth and Reconciliation Commission of
Sierra Leone, The Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Sierra Leone
(5 October 2004) <http://www.trcsierraleone.org/drwebsite/publish/index.shtml>, accessed
28 March 2006 [559].
43
Vol 3b, Ch 6: The TRC and the Special Court for Sierra Leone in ibid [11].
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 44
weapons before formalising it in legislation on the 25th anniversary of
Angolan independence.
44
Such amnesties may form part of a carrot and
stick approach, whereby amnesties are designed to entice the surrender
of insurgents and the military campaign is used to apply pressure to those
who do not come forward. Alternatively, amnesties could represent the
fact that the military campaign has been fought to a stalemate and the gov-
ernment has realised that it is not in a position to achieve outright victory
solely through military tactics. For example, the Nepalese government
offered amnesty in March 2006 in response to an upsurge in violence in the
previous months, which the armed forces had been unable to contain, and
to threats that the Maoists were planning to blockade main roads and hold
a general strike.
45
Amnesty could also be used tactically to isolate the hard-line insurgents
from the communities that support them ideologically, nancially, or
logistically. This appears to have been the rationale behind the 2004
amnesty in Saudi Arabia, which the government described as an amnesty
to bring lower-level sympathisers of al-Qaeda back into the fold before
they committed acts of violence.
46
The expectation of such amnesties is
that those who are more ideologically fervent will ignore the amnesty, but
will be denied logistical support or new recruits, thereby weakening their
organisation.
This section has argued that amnesties can be introduced in response to
a variety of domestic challenges, which can range in severity from peaceful
political protests to violent military conicts. Often amnesties will be intro-
duced to complement a governments other policy objectives, such as
strengthening its own hold on power, mitigating the effect of unpopular
policies or changing strategy after a failed military campaign. Furthermore,
amnesty is rarely introduced in isolation and can coincide with wider
reform packages, or even renewed military activity, as part of a carrot and
stick approach to insurgents. Where amnesty is introduced in good faith
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 45
44
Lei No 7/00 (2000). For description of the law, see the Embassy of Angola, Parliament
Passes Amnesty Law (2000) 7 O Pensador 1; , Angolan Parliament Passes Amnesty
Law BBC Worldwide Monitoring (29 November 2000); , Angolan Rebels Reject
Government Amnesty BBC News (1 December 2000).
45
Shirish B Pradhan, Nepal Offers Rs One Mn Reward to Senior Maoists who Surrender
Press Trust of India (14 March 2006); Binaj Gurubacharya, Nepal Offers Amnesty, Cash, Land
to Surrendering Rebels ahead of Planned Blockade Associated Press (Kathmandu 13 March
2006); , Nepal Government Offers Surrender bait as Maoists Start Blockade Indo-Asian
News Service (14 March 2006); , Nepal govt offers Amnesty to Surrendering Maoists Sify
(14 March 2006).
46
Megan K Stack, Saudis offer 1-Month Amnesty to Insurgents Los Angeles Times (23 June
2004); Bouchaib Silm, Countering terror with an amnesty: Why it makes sense The Straits
Times (Singapore 15 September 2004); James Martone, Analysts: Saudi Amnesty Offer a
Good Start Voice of America News (24 June 2004); Neil MacFarquhar, Saudis Offer Limited
Amnesty to Rebels New York Times (Jidda 24 June 2004) 12; Roula Khalaf, Saudi prince offers
amnesty to militants Financial Times (London 24 June 2004) 11; Heba Kandil, Saudi Arabia
Offers Militants Chance to Surrender Reuters (23 June 2004).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 45
in order to end the violence in ongoing civil unrest or conict, it can play a
valuable role in reducing the number of human rights violations that can
occur and creating stability so that negotiations can proceed. Whilst these
are clearly short-term goals, the following section will argue that amnesties
can also be designed with longer-term objectives to promote reconciliation.
Amnesty as a Tool for Peace and Reconciliation
Many amnesties have been, or are at least claimed by governments to have
been, introduced to promote reconciliation, as either the sole objective or,
more usually, in conjunction with other considerations such as an unsuc-
cessful military campaign. These governments proclaim that amnesties are
needed to create a climate of dtente, condence and assurance
47
in which
all parties can come together in an atmosphere of acceptance and tolerance
to establish democracy. However, in common with other transitional jus-
tice mechanisms, it is difcult for activists, academics or civil servants to
measure the contribution of amnesty to reconciliation. This difculty can
arise for many reasons. First, as will be discussed below, the term recon-
ciliation is complex and often engenders divergent understandings, which
can affect the design and efcacy of an amnesty. Secondly, it can be dif-
cult to distinguish the impact of an amnesty from the effects of overarching
transitional justice and development programmes, particularly where an
amnesty was integrated into other transitional justice mechanisms, such
as the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC).
Furthermore, the ability of amnesties to contribute to promoting reconcili-
ation will often depend on the conditions within the state in which they are
introduced. Amnesties are only one measure within often complex transi-
tional arrangements and their contribution could be undermined by a fail-
ure to improve the standard of living of those individuals who were
previously oppressed; by a failure to implement measures to integrate for-
mer combatants causing them to return to armed conict or criminality; by
an insincere government effort to introduce real reform; or by the failure of
a peace agreement between elites to trickle down and stem grassroots vio-
lence.
As described previously, assessing the success of an amnesty can also
be complicated where it is difcult to ascertain the clear motivations
behind an amnesty process, as the expressed motives are not always sin-
cere, or at least not the main motives. Indeed, states often borrow the lan-
guage of reconciliation to conceal their more nefarious intentions. For
46 Enacting Amnesties
47
Wording is taken from the 1989 announcement of amnesty by the Beninese government,
see , Benin Political Bureau announces amnesty measure BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (31 August 1989).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 46
example, states may claim that they are offering a mutual amnesty to
promote reconciliation, but their true intention is that the amnesty only
benets their own supporters. This was the case in Chile,
48
where the mil-
itary government claimed it was granting amnesty
to strengthen the ties that bind Chile as a nation, leaving behind all the hatred
that has no meaning today, and fostering all measures that consolidate the re-
unication of all Chileans.
49
On paper, this law did not distinguish between those acting on state
authority and those acting against the state. But, in practice, the majority
of government opponents could not benet from this law as they had
already been killed, disappeared, or [were] in exile.
50
Furthermore, news-
papers noted that most of the prisoners affected by the amnesty were
already free on parole in Chile.
51
Similarly, some governments have intro-
duced amnesties in the name of reconciliation only to use them as a tool to
disarm and weaken their opponents. For example, the Varkiza Agreement
1945 in Greece stipulated that all beneciaries of amnesty must surrender
their weapons; but after the resistance movement laid down its arms, the
Ministry of Justice, the security apparatus and vigilante bands of anti-
communists unleashed a period known as the White Terror in which
former resistance ghters were executed and imprisoned.
52
In such
cases, where the governments motives for introducing an amnesty are
duplicitous, it seems likely that the amnesty will have a negative impact
on reconciliation.
While such duplicitous amnesties clearly do not aim to promote recon-
ciliation, others may have sought to contribute to a genuine and lasting
political settlement. This section will explore the relationship between
amnesties and reconciliation by rst exploring the concept of reconcilia-
tion, then analysing the understandings of reconciliation that have been
used to justify specic amnesty laws, before nally exploring the potential
impact of amnesties on reconciliation.
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 47
48
For a discussion of the Chilean amnesty, see case study 5.
49
Decreto Ley de Amnista, 1978 (Chile), Preamble.
50
Robert J Quinn, Will the Rule of Law End? Challenging Grants of Amnesty for the
Human Rights Violations of a Prior Regime: Chiles New Model (1994) 62 Fordham Law
Review 905, 918.
51
, Amnesty Decreed Facts on File (12 May 1978) 351.
52
For more information see Mark Mazower (ed), After the War Was Over: Reconstructing the
Family, Nation, and State in Greece, 19431960 (Princeton University Press, Princeton 2000);
Georg Paschos and Zissis Papadimitrio, Collaboration Without Nemesis: On the Restoration
of Political Continuity in Greece After World War II in Stein Ugelvik Larsen and Bernt
Hagtvet (eds), Modern Europe after Fascism (Social Science Monographs, Columbia University
Press, New York 1998).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 47
Dening Reconciliation
The term reconciliation is highly disputed,
53
with different stakeholder
groups, or individuals, holding differing interpretations on its meaning,
how it can be achieved, or even its objectives. For example, is the goal of
reconciliation programmes to uncover the truth about past crimes and
bring those responsible to justice, or it is to encourage trust-building mea-
sures and interaction between members of different communities? Indeed,
the term can even be appropriated to justify competing political goals. For
example, calls for retribution through widespread prosecutions for past
crimes are often based on arguments that without justice there can be no
reconciliation,
54
whereas advocates of blanket impunity can also describe
their goal as to reconcile society by looking towards the future, rather than
reliving the pain and suffering of the past. Often, it seems, such contradic-
tory goals cannot be achieved by the same programmes. Further compli-
cations arise from the often diverse views of the different stakeholder
groups on the form reconciliation should take. For example, former com-
batants may view reconciliation in a more forgiving, restorative manner,
than their victims.
In describing the objectives of reconciliation, Crocker has suggested that
understandings can range from thinner conceptions that aim at ending the
violence and establishing simple co-existence between previously war-
ring factions (as discussed above), to thicker conceptions where former
enemies must not only live together non-violently but also respect each
other as fellow citizens. This could entail encouraging individuals to
engage in processes of forgiveness and mercy, such as truth commissions
or community-based justice initiatives.
55
Adopting a thicker conception of
reconciliation entails recognising that reconciliation can occur at different
levels within society. Daly and Sarkin have broken down these levels as
follows: (1) individual; (2) inter-personal; (3) communal; (4) national; and
(5) international.
56
They further highlight that the emphasis placed by
48 Enacting Amnesties
53
For discussion of the meaning of reconciliation, see Erin Daly and Jeremy Sarkin,
Reconciliation in Divided Societies: Finding Common Ground (Pennsylvania Studies in Human
Rights, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 2007); Sarkin & Daly (n 15); Lyn S
Graybill and Kimberly Lanegran, Truth, Justice, and Reconciliation in Africa: Issues and
Cases (2004) 8 African Studies Quarterly 1; Laurel E Fletcher and Harvey M Weinstein,
Violence and Social Repair: Rethinking the Contribution of Justice to Reconciliation (2002)
24 Human Rights Quarterly 573; Erin Daly, Transformative Justice: Charting a Path to
Reconciliation (2001) 12 International Legal Perspectives 73; Donna Pankhurst, Issues of
Justice and Reconciliation in Complex Political Emergencies: Conceptualising Reconciliation,
Justice and Peace (1999) 20 Third World Quarterly 239.
54
UNCHR, Updated Set of principles for the protection and promotion of human rights
through action to combat impunity (8 February 2005) UN Doc E/CN 4/2005/102/Add 1
(prepared by Diane Orentlicher), Preamble.
55
David A Crocker, Reckoning with Past Wrongs: A Normative Framework (1999) 13
Ethics and International Affairs 43.
56
Sarkin & Daly (n 53) 412.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 48
individual governments on each level of reconciliation may be inuenced
by the nature of the human rights violations, particularly whether they
were predominantly committed by state agents. The relationship of
amnesty laws to each of these levels of reconciliation will be explored
below, but rst we will consider how national governments use reconcili-
ation to justify their amnesty processes.
Reconciliation as National Unity
National unity has been an expressed motivation for many amnesty
processes. For example, during the parliamentary debates on the 1953
amnesty law in France,
57
which offered protection to French citizens who
had been incorporated by force into the German army during the Second
World War, the president of the Assemble Nationale, Edouard Herriot,
asserted that the country is a mother. She cannot let her children tear each
other apart on her breast.
58
Following the end of the Second World War,
national unity was also the justication for amnesties of former collabora-
tors or members of fascist organisations in France, Germany, Italy, Japan
and the Philippines.
59
Often, the calls for national unity recognised that
the individuals concerned acted in response to social pressure, resulting in
the view that there was a need to close denitively the le.
National unity has also been used as a justication for amnesty during
or after civil wars. For example, before the 1982 amnesty in Colombia for
insurgents, President Betancur explained this amnesty we proclaim
opens doors wider so all Colombians can gather together without excep-
tion towards peace.
60
More recently, during the 2004 election campaign in
Algeria in which President Bouteika promised further amnesties, his
campaign manager explained the governments view that
reconciliation doesnt mean investigations and commissions. . . . It means the
great pardon among Algerians. To accept one another as we are. To ght
extremism on both sides. To accept our history and accept our personality. Is it
worth it to open the whole le? If it risks dividing the people again, its not
worth it.
61
It has also been expressed in the need to forgive citizens who have been
misled by false propaganda into committing crimes against the state. For
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 49
57
Loi No 53-112 portant amnistie en faveur des Franais incorpors de force dans les formations
militaires ennemies, 1953 (Fr).
58
Cited in Sarah Farmer, Postwar Justice in France: Bordeaux 1953 in Istvn Dek, Jan
Tomasz Gross and Tony Judt (eds), The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and its
Aftermath (Princeton University Press, Princeton 2000) 204.
59
For a more detailed discussion of amnesties for collaborators, see ch 2.
60
Raymundo Perez, United International Press (Bogot 29 November 1982).
61
Megan K Stack, A Healing Torturous as War Los Angeles Times (Ouled Slama, Algeria
1 June 2004) A.1.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 49
example, the 1979 amnesty issued in Afghanistan by the Soviet-backed
revolutionary government proclaimed that the amnesty was a humani-
tarian act and
a manifestation of the revolutionary regimes concern for the Afghan citizens
who were misled by the imperialist and reactionary forces which would like to
turn them into a blind tool for the struggle against their own country and their
own people.
62
Clearly, this proclamation is itself propaganda, and given the context in
which it was introduced, it appears likely that the government chose to the
issue the amnesty in response to the sustained military attacks it was suf-
fering, rather than a genuine desire to reintegrate those who had fought
against the communist government. Where governments introduce
amnesties to promote national unity, it is sometimes argued that achiev-
ing such unity is contingent upon closing the books on the past and for-
getting the violations that occurred, rather than reinforcing grievances
and raising tensions by investigating past crimes.
Reconciliation as Forgetting
Calls for reconciliation have often merged with demands for a drawing of
a veil over the past. Such demands have arisen in many amnesty
processes. For example, Presidential Decree 1754 in the Philippines pro-
claimed that amnesty was necessary
to heal and bind the nations wounds and prevent such from becoming perma-
nent and festering afictions upon the Filipino nations unity and harmony, and
thereby establishing a clean, fresh and unscarred start for all Filipinos, united in
one sustained effort to rebuild their nation, all thoughts of recrimination should
be laid to rest.
63
Forgetting the crimes of the past was also the justication used for the 1949
German amnesty
64
when Konrad Adenauer expressed the apparently
widely held opinion that in view of the confused times behind us, a gen-
eral tabula rasa is called for.
65
This argument was also relied upon by
Spanish politicians who, during the parliamentary debates on the 1977
50 Enacting Amnesties
62
Megan K Stack, Pravda on Situation in Afghanistan BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (14 June 1979).
63
Presidential Decree No 1754, 1980 (Phil), Preamble. This decree is designed to impose
conditions on an already proclaimed amnesty. The language used here adopts an organic
model of the state and uses metaphors of illness and health. For a discussion of such lan-
guage to describe states, see Richard A Wilson, Anthropological Studies of National
Reconciliation Processes (2003) 3 Anthropological Theory 367, 3701.
64
Bundesgesetzblatt (BGBl) 1949 p 37f; Gesetz ber die Gewhrung von Straffreiheit: Law
Granting Exemption from Punishment (31 December 1949).
65
Norbert Frei, Adenauers Germany and the Nazi Past: The Politics of Amnesty and Integration
(Columbia University Press, New York 2002) 67.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 50
amnesty law,
66
praised the law because it was intended to close the past,
forget, and start a new phase. The leader of the Basque Nationalist Party
(PNV), Xavier Arzalluz, described the law as an amnesty . . . from every-
body to everybody, a forgetting from everybody for everybody as both
sides [had] committed blood crimes.
67
The context in which this law was
introduced is explained in Case Study 3:
Case Study 3: Post-Franco Amnesties in Spain
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 51
From 1936 to 1939 Spain was devastated by a civil war between the
Nationalists and the Republicans in which abuses against civilians were
widespread. In 1939, General Francisco Franco, the leader of the Nationalists,
emerged victorious and established a right-wing dictatorship that endured
until his death in 1975. The early years of authoritarian rule were charac-
terised by harsh repression, with many disappearances and executions, and
large numbers of political prisoners. The repression of political, linguistic and
religious freedoms continued for the duration of Francos rule.
From the early 1970s, when Francos death seemed imminent, opposition par-
ties formed a broad coalition to demand a clean break with the old system,
political reform and a complete political amnesty. These calls for an amnesty
from those who had opposed Franco were based on desires to end discrimi-
nation against those who had supported the Republicans and fears that the
wounds caused by the civil war could be reopened by prosecutions causing
violence to reignite.
Following Francos death, the rst amnesty was introduced to mark King
Juan Carloss accession to the throne in 1975.
68
It proclaimed that it aimed to
signify a reafrmation of the goals of solidarity and peaceful coexistence
among Spaniards. It was, however, limited as it excluded persons convicted
of committing or abetting terrorist acts, members of illegal organisations cited
in an August 1975 anti-terrorism decree, which included most of the political
opposition, and persons accused of monetary crimes.
Consequently, most of the opposition and civil rights movement were disap-
pointed and responded with popular protests and industrial conicts, which
were violently repressed. During this period there was also right-wing terrorism
and a fear that, if liberalisation went too far, the army would stage a coup (which
it attempted in 1982). Due to the severe threats to the stability of the state, a con-
sensus emerged among the elites of all parties that institutional changes should
be kept to a minimum and that the crimes of the past should be forgotten.
66
La Ley 46/1977, de 15 de octubre (BOE No 248, de 17 de octubre), de Amnista, 1977 (Spain).
67
Paloma Aguilar Fernndez, Justice, Politics and Memory in the Spanish Transition in
Alexandra Barahona de Brito, Carmen Gonzlez Enrquez and Paloma Aguilar Fernndez
(eds), The Politics of Memory: Transitional Justice in Democratizing Societies (Oxford Studies in
Democratization, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2001) 103.
68
Decreto 2940/1975 de 25 de noviembre, por el que se concede indulto general con motivo de la
proclamacin de Su Majestad Don Juan Carlos de Borbn como Rey de Espaa (Spain).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 51
This consensus led to a further amnesty in July 1976
69
for persons sentenced
or awaiting trial for political offences or offences of opinion, those accused of
military rebellion and sedition, military absentees or deserters, conscientious
objectors and persons who had escaped from prison while serving sentences
for offences covered by the amnesty. This amnesty covered crimes committed
by both the government supporters and the opposition. It was restricted,
however, to exclude those accused of killing or endangering the lives of
others, and those accused of economic crimes.
This amnesty was further extended in October 1977 to cover those who had
engaged all acts of political intent, regardless of their outcome, committed
before 15 December 1976
70
and those who had committed similar acts
between 15 December 1976 and 15 June 1977 with the aim of restoring civil lib-
erties or claiming independence for the peoples of Spain. This was intended
to apply to Basque separatists. However, this amnesty again excluded crimes
of killing or endangering the life of others.
This legacy has remained untouched until the present day, as there have been
no efforts to bring legal cases against any individuals or any discussion of
repealing the amnesty. However, there are signs that calls for truth are grow-
ing. First, volunteers have begun to excavate the mass graves of Republican
supporters. These efforts received the backing of the Spanish Ombudsman
who criticised the governments lack of response to these volunteers.
Secondly, the government has proposed renaming public sites that celebrate
Francos regime. Finally, victims groups are beginning to bring legal cases to
clear the names of those who were persecuted by the dictatorship. These
efforts resulted on 10 September 2004 in a Royal Decree, approved by the
Council of Ministers, which created an Inter-Ministerial Commission to inves-
tigation the moral and legal rehabilitation of thousands who were victims of
the civil war and Franco regime. The commission began its work in
November 2004 and in November 2007, the Law of Historical Memory that it
proposed, became law. This legislation declares the repression of the Franco
era to be illegitimate and requires the government to remove all statues,
plaques and symbols of the dictatorship from public buildings.
71
Sources: P. Aguilar, Collective Memory of the Spanish Civil War: The Case of the
Political Amnesty in the Spanish Transition to Democracy (1997) 4 Democratization
88; P. Aguilar Justice, Politics and Memory in the Spanish Transition in A. Barahona
De Brito, C. Gonzlez-Enrquez and P. Aguilar (eds), The Politics of Memory:
Transitional Justice in Democratizing Societies (Oxford, Oxford University Press
2001); A. Rigby, Amnesty and Amnesia in Spain (2000) 12 Peace Review 73;
M. Davis, Is Spain Recovering its Memory? Breaking the Pacto del Olvido (2005) 27
Human Rights Quarterly 858; C.L. Sriram, Confronting Past Human Rights
52 Enacting Amnesties
69
Real Decreto-Ley 10/1976 de 30 de Julio, sobre amnista (Spain).
70
Ley 46/1977, de 15 de octubre, de amnista (Spain).
71
Ley 52/2007, de 26 de diciembre, por la que se reconocen y amplan derechos y se establecen medi-
das en favor de quienes padecieron persecucin o violencia durante la guerra civil y la dictadura (Ley
de Memoria Histrica) (Spain).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 52
The issue of forgetting was also prevalent in France in 1981, when the
Secretary of State in charge of Repatriates, Raymond Courrire, described
the need for a new amnesty law
72
(despite several pre-existing amnesty
laws) by saying the war in Algeria is nished, one must wipe it out once
and for all.
73
Subsequently, in El Salvador in 1993, President Alfredo
Cristiani argued that to move forwards and build a better future for our
country, it was necessary to erase, eliminate and forget everything in the
past.
74
The idea of a clean break from the past within a programme of national
reconciliation
75
can be attractive to governments either as a means of hid-
ing their own crimes or as a symbol that the period of violence is over.
Alternatively, governments may justify choosing to forget the crimes of
the past by highlighting the demands for amnesty from insurgents who
threaten further violence if faced with investigations and prosecutions.
Institutional policies of collectively forgetting past crimes have been
argued by the proponents of the theory of collective memory to be prob-
lematic.
76
However, Shaw has suggested that the value of the culture of
memory is a relatively recent phenomenon and that in fact
72
Loi No 81-736 Loi Portant Amnistie, 1981 (Fr).
73
, United Press International (Paris 12 June 1981). See also Loi portant amnistie dinfrac-
tions contre la sret de lEtat ou commises en relation avec les vnements dAlgrie, 1966 (France);
Loi No 81-736 Loi Portant Amnistie, 1981 (France); Loi No 81-736 Loi Portant Amnistie 1981. For
an overview of amnesty laws in France, see Ren Lvy, Pardons and Amnesties as Policy
Instruments in Contemporary France (2007) 36 Crime and Justice 551.
74
Inter-Am CHR, Report on the Situation of Human Rights in El Salvador (11 February
1994) OEA/Ser.L/V.85 doc. 28 rev., ch 4. For an overview of the amnesty process in El
Salvador, see case study 10.
75
The impact of such programmes on individual reconciliation can be very different from
their impact on national reconciliation. See ch 9 for a greater discussion of the impact of
amnesties on victims.
76
Judy Barsalou, Trauma and Transitional Justice in Divided Societies (United States
Institute for Peace, Washington DC 2005) 1; Madeleine Davis, Is Spain Recovering its
Memory? Breaking the Pacto del Olvido (2005) 27 Human Rights Quarterly 858; Dani W
Nabudere, Ubuntu Philosophy: Memory and Reconciliation (Rseau Grands Lacs Africains,
Geneva, 1 March 2005); Christina Morino, Instructed Silence, Constructed Memory: The
SED and the Return of German Prisoners of War as War Criminals from the Soviet Union
to East Germany, 19501956 (2004) 13 Contemporary European History 323; Heribet Adam and
Kanya Adam, The Politics of Memory in Divided Societies in Wilmot Godfrey James and
Linda van de Vijver (eds), After the TRC: Reections on Truth and Reconciliation (Ohio
University Press, Athens, OH 2001); Paloma Aguilar Fernndez, Justice, Politics and
Memory in the Spanish Transition in Alexandra Barahona de Brito, Carmen Gonzlez
Enrquez and Paloma Aguilar Fernndez (eds), The Politics of Memory: Transitional Justice in
Democratizing Societies (Oxford Studies in Democratization, Oxford University Press, Oxford
Violations: Justice vs. Peace in Times of Transition (New York, Frank Cass Publishers,
2004); Equipo Nizkor, The Question of Impunity in Spain and Crimes under Franco,
(14 April 2004).
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 53
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 53
alternative and incommensurable understandings of the healing powers of for-
getting have long coexisted in North America and Europe, crystallised in the
expression forgive and forget.
77
She continues that in other parts of the world, these forms of memory
practices are preferred and the notion of verbally recounting memories of
violence is rejected.
78
As will be explored later in this book, such a desire
to avoid reliving the pain of the past, due to cultural practices or fear of the
reactions of the perpetrators or even members of the victims own com-
munity may also inuence individual victims in their decision whether to
publicly forget their suffering (although of course it will be remembered
privately) or whether to participate in or campaign for truth-seeking and
memorialisation programmes.
Reconciliation as Forgiveness
Philosophical and religious debates on forgiveness have produced a rich
and detailed literature on who is required to forgive and on the form that
forgiveness should take. The literature has predominantly focused on dis-
putes between individuals, with all the worlds major religions advocating
forgiveness as a virtuous action.
79
For example, Christianity requires
54 Enacting Amnesties
2001); Alexandra Barahona de Brito, Truth, Justice, Memory and Democratization in the
South Cone in Alexandra Barahona de Brito, Carmen Gonzlez Enrquez and Paloma
Aguilar Fernndez (eds), The Politics of Memory: Transitional Justice in Democratizing Societies
(Oxford University Press, Oxford 2001); Brandon Hamber and Richard A Wilson, Symbolic
Closure Through Memory, Reparation and Revenge in Post-Conict Societies (2002) 1
Journal of Human Rights 35; Paloma Aguilar, Collective Memory of the Spanish Civil War:
The Case of the Political Amnesty in the Spanish Transition to Democracy (1997) 4
Democratization 88.
77
Rosalind Shaw, Rethinking Truth and Reconciliation Commissions: Lessons from
Sierra Leone (United States Institute for Peace, Washington DC 2005) 7. This approach to for-
getting was also discussed in relation to Sierra Leone in Tim Kelsall, Truth, Lies, Ritual:
Preliminary Reections on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in Sierra Leone (2005)
27 Human Rights Quarterly 361.
78
Shaw (n 77) 7.
79
For discussion of the role of forgiveness in amnesty processes, see Roman David and
Susanne YP Choi, Forgiveness and Transitional Justice in the Czech Republic (2006) 50
Journal of Conict Resolution 339; Erik Doxtader, Works of Faith, Faith of WorksA
Reection on the Truth and Justication of Forgiveness (2002) XVI Quest 50; Claudio
Santorum and Antonio Maldonado, Political Reconciliation or Forgiveness for Murder
Amnesty and its Application in Selected Cases (1995) 2 Human Rights Brief; Lyn S Graybill,
South Africas Truth and Reconciliation Commission: Ethical and Theological Perspectives
(1998) 12 Ethics and International Affairs 43; Desmond Tutu, No Future without Forgiveness
(Rider, London 1999); Martha Minow, Between Vengeance and Forgiveness: Facing History after
Genocide and Mass Violence (Beacon Press, Boston 1998); Donald W Shriver Jr, An Ethic for
Enemies: Forgiveness in Politics (Oxford University Press, New York 1995); Jean Bethke
Elshtain, Politics and Forgiveness in Nigel Biggar (ed), Burying the Past: Making Peace and
Doing Justice after Civil Conict (Georgetown University Press, Washington DC 2003); Jeffrie
G Murphy et al, Ninth Annual Stein Center Symposium: The Role of Forgiveness in the Law,
27 Ninth Annual Stein Center Symposium: The Role of Forgiveness in the Law (Fordham
University School of Law 2000) 13471445.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 54
Christians to remember, rst, that all human beings are fallible and
awed, and therefore in need of forgiveness; secondly, that they are all
created in the likeness of their God and are thus precious; and thirdly, that
it is up to god to punish wrongdoers. Therefore, Christians are encouraged
to forgive those who trespass against them, regardless of whether those
responsible show any remorse.
80
However, Christians who sin are
expected to repent if they wish to have their Gods forgiveness. This is sim-
ilar to Judaism, although the latter places less emphasis on forgiveness,
focusing more on the concept of atonement, which requires the offenders
to make amends to their victims before they can be forgiven.
81
Forgiveness
is also a requirement for Muslims and Sikhs and it is encouraged for
Buddhists and Hindus as a way of achieving karma.
82
Furthermore,
OShea argues that in African religions which encompass ancestor rituals,
illness is a form of punishment and therefore
There is . . . some convergence of doctrine between the healing of a sick sinner,
re-establishing harmony across the secular and spiritual world, and the healing
of a nation often referred to the context of the truth and reconciliation process.
83
In addition to religious beliefs, the South African amnesty process
emphasised communal values by relying on the African principle of
ubuntu. This principle was explained by South African TRC Chairperson
and former archbishop Desmond Tutu in 1996 as:
Ubuntu says I am human only because you are human . . . You must do what you
can to maintain this great harmony, which is perpetually undermined by resent-
ment, anger, desire for vengeance. Thats why African jurisprudence is restora-
tive rather than retributive.
84
The value of the concept of ubuntu was articulated by Constitutional Court
judge, Yvonne Mokgoro, who argued it could promote harmony between
societys members rather than the desire for retribution, embodied in the
adversarial approach in litigation.
85
Within philosophy, the concept of forgiveness was addressed by
Hannah Arendt who argued that
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 55
80
Minow (n 79) 18.
81
OShea (n 10) 27.
82
Amy Colleen Finnegan, A Memorable Process in a Forgotten War: Forgiveness within
Northern Uganda (MA in Law and Diplomacy book, The Fletcher School, Tufts University
2005) 1415.
83
OShea (n 10) 28.
84
Cited in Richard A Wilson, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa:
Legitimizing the Post-apartheid State (Cambridge Studies in Law and Society, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge 2001) 9.
85
Lyn S Graybill, Pardon, Punishment and Amnesia: Three African Post-conict
Methods (2004) 25 Third World Quarterly 1117, 1119.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 55
forgiveness is the exact opposite of vengeance, which acts in the form of re-
acting against an original trespassing, whereby far from putting an end to the
consequences of the rst misdeed, everybody remains bound to the process.
86
In this way, vengeance can lead to further violence. In contrast, Clark
argues that
forgiveness, which entails foregoing feelings of resentment and a desire for per-
sonal, direct retribution, is necessary to start afresh and to allow people to deal
with memories of the past in a more constructive manner.
87
He continues, however, that this understanding of forgiveness is distinct
from reconciliation, as the latter entails restoring relationships whereas a
victim may justiably forgive the transgressor and still refuse to engage
with him or her again, perhaps for fear of repeat offences.
88
Despite these
limitations of the impact of forgiveness on reconciliation, it is frequently
used as a justication for amnesty, particularly through the idea of
forgetting past crimes, either in terms of the state forgiving those who
committed crimes against it, or by encouraging the citizens to forgive one
another.
Forgiveness has been cited as a reason for amnesty in several transi-
tions. For example, in Annex 6 of the Lusaka Protocol 1994, all Angolans
were called upon in the spirit of national reconciliation to forgive and
forget offences resulting from the Angolan conict and face the future
with tolerance and condence.
89
Politicians in Guatemala also pro-
claimed the need for forgiveness when justifying the 1996 amnesty law:
We do want to live in peace. We have to learn how to forgive.
90
Perhaps
most contentiously, the issue was raised in Sierra Leone by Foday Sankoh,
then leader of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), when discussing the
1999 Lom Accord, when he declared
Let us try to forgive. We are asking for forgiveness. We need the support of
everyone, especially our brother the president.
91
A government choosing to forgive crimes against the state is not
particularly problematic as the state has standing to do so. But a state
encouraging individuals to forgive one another is contentious, as argued
by Minow:
56 Enacting Amnesties
86
Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1958) 241.
87
Phil Clark, Recreating Tradition: Assessing Community-Based Transitional Justice in
Northern Uganda in Tim Allen and Koen Vlassenroot (eds), The Lords Resistance Army: War,
Peace and Reconciliation (James Currey, Oxford 2008).
88
Ibid.
89
Lusaka Protocol, 1994 (Angl).
90
Alfonso Anzueto, War Crimes Amnesty Approved, One of the Last Obstacles to Peace
Associated Press (Guatemala City 18 December 1996).
91
Amba Dadson, Sierra Leone Grants Amnesty, Rebels Sign Peace Deal Associated Press
(Lom, Togo 8 July 1999).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 56
Forgiveness is a power held by the victimised, not a right to be claimed. The abil-
ity to dispense, but also to withhold, forgiveness is an ennobling capacity and
part of the dignity to be reclaimed by those who survive the wrongdoing. Even
an individual survivor who chooses to forgive cannot, properly, forgive in the
name of other victims. To expect survivors to forgive is to heap yet another
burden on them.
92
Consequently, applying pressure on victims to forgive their perpetrators,
particularly where the perpetrators are not required to atone or apologise
for their crimes, could cause signicant psychological trauma for the vic-
tims. However, where religion is a factor in the debate on amnesty such
pressure can arise. For example, the selection of Archbishop Tutu as the
Chairperson for the South African TRC contributed to the emphasis
placed on religion and forgiveness during the commissions hearings.
93
This emphasis conveyed an image that granting amnesty to former human
rights abusers was a virtuous action that complemented the religious and
cultural practices among large proportions of the South African popula-
tion. The problematic consequences of this approach are highlighted in
Wilsons account of the South African TRC which describes how during
the rst six months of the Human Rights Violations hearings around the coun-
try, Commissioners specically pressed some victims to forgive perpetrators
there and then.
94
He claims that although some victims, more religiously-inclined individ-
uals, were prepared to forgive, many victims saw this approach as outra-
geous, and it was occasionally met with such a hostile response that it
eventually had to be abandoned.
95
Therefore, where forgiveness is used to
justify amnesty, the conceptions of this term should be limited to national
reconciliation where the state forgives offenders through suspending
legal penalties, rather than forcing victims to engage in individual acts of
forgiveness. Indeed, in many transitional contexts, where the balance of
power between previously antagonistic groups is shaky, state acts of for-
giveness may be a prerequisite for the establishment of stable democracy.
Reconciliation through the Establishment of Democracy
For thicker forms of reconciliation to be achieved, the transitional state
must establish democratic structures for resolving disputes peacefully.
Amnesties can contribute to this process as part of a wide-ranging pack-
age of reforms that address the root causes of the violence by increasing
access to decision-making and resources. For example, the 1997
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 57
92
Minow (n 79) 17.
93
See eg Boraine (n 14) 2658.
94
Wilson (n 84) 119.
95
Ibid 119.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 57
Bangladeshi amnesty was part of a peace process to encourage insurgents
to stop ghting. It was accompanied by other measures to ensure greater
autonomy for the peoples of the Chittagong Hill Tracts.
96
The relationship
between amnesty and other measures within a peace process can be
sequenced to permit the amnesty to act as the starting point to enable other
aspects of the agreement to occur, such as demobilisation, integration of
combatants into the armed forces, or the transformation of insurgent
groups into political parties that could perhaps participate in governments
of national unity. For example, the 2003 amnesty in the Democratic
Republic of Congo was part of an overall peace settlement and was
designed inter alia to encourage rebel participation in the future unity
government.
97
In these instances, the amnesty could be a tool for building
trust between the parties and creating a climate in which the leaders can
focus on the redevelopment of the country.
Amnesties can also contribute to rebuilding transitional societies by
enabling collaborators, such as bureaucrats from the former regimes, to
participate in the reconstruction, as they are often the only people with the
necessary knowledge and experience.
98
It has been argued that, without
the certainty of an amnesty, these individuals, even when they keep their
jobs, may resort to corruption to supplement their income, due to the pre-
cariousness of their employment.
99
This could contribute to undermining
support for the new regime by making it appear as tainted as its prede-
cessor. A programme to allow members of the former regime to continue
in public ofce should in principle, however, be co-ordinated with indi-
vidualised measures to remove those responsible for serious human rights
violations from ofce,
100
as a failure to do so will cause disillusionment
among victims groups.
101
The creation of such democracy has been the expressed goal of some
amnesty programmes. For example, the Haitian interim government in
1991 claimed the amnesty was necessary to create a climate favourable for
the blooming of democracy in Haiti.
102
Furthermore, some governments
58 Enacting Amnesties
96
Wilson (n 84), Peace Pact Signed between Bangladesh Govt, Rebels Japan
Economic Newswire (Dhaka 2 December 1997); Farid Hossain, Government Announces
Amnesty for Rebels Associated Press (Dhaka 6 February 1998); Amnesty International,
Bangladesh: Human Rights in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (Report) (February 2000) ASA
13/01/00.
97
Decret-Loi portant amnistie pour faits de guerre, infractions politiques et dopinion, 2003
(DRC); , Amnesty Granted to Warring Parties in DRC Voice of America News (17 April
2003).
98
Adam & Adam (n 76) 34.
99
Charles T Call and William Stanley, Protecting the People: Public Security Choices
after Civil Wars (2001) 7 Global Governance 151.
100
For a discussion of such measures and their relationship to amnesty, see the lustration
and vetting and section in ch 4.
101
See ch 9.
102
, Haitis Government to give Amnesty to January Putschists, Agence France Press
(Port-au-Prince 25 December 1991).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 58
have proclaimed that their amnesties are part of internal reform pro-
grammes. This seems to have been the case in Benin in 1990, where, fol-
lowing a wave of internal political protests, the president amnestied all his
political opponents in exile and convened a national conference to discuss
establishing democratic rule.
103
This section has argued that amnesty is frequently justied by national
governments as a tool to promote reconciliation and has looked at the var-
ious ways in which states can use the language of reconciliation to justify
amnesty laws, often with very different outcomes. In many of these cases,
the state justications focus on national reconciliation, but, as discussed
above, reconciliation can and should also occur at individual and commu-
nal levels. The following section will investigate how amnesties could be
designed to promote reconciliation at each of these levels.
Can Amnesty contribute to Reconciliation?
Where amnesty laws are introduced in good faith to promote reconcilia-
tion, the divergent conceptions of what reconciliation requires or looks
like, discussed above, together with the political and economic conditions
within the transitional state and the types of crimes that have occurred,
can affect the design of the amnesty laws. This can impact on their ability
to contribute to ending violence and establishing harmonious societies
through achieving reconciliation at different levels within society.
Within the different levels, individual reconciliation is perhaps the
hardest for an amnesty to address, as national policies can often do little to
heal the physical and psychological wounds of trauma.
104
However,
where an amnesty contributes to reducing or ending the violence, plus
saving the expense of costly prosecutions for large numbers of offenders,
this could help to create conditions where investment can go into the
health infrastructure to provide services for those who have been physi-
cally or psychologically injured. The end of the violence would also
enhance the physical security of the population, which is a necessary pre-
requisite for healing to occur. The potential for amnesty to contribute to
individual reconciliation is, however, clearly constrained by the diversity
of needs and responses among victims groups.
105
Furthermore, as argued
above, individual reconciliation should in principle be left for individual
victims to pursue or reject.
Amnesty could be argued to contribute to communal reconciliation
where it is accompanied by alternative transitional justice programmes,
particularly grassroots initiatives which aim to resolve neighbourhood
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 59
103
Loi No 90/028 du 9 octobre 1990 portant amnistie des faits autres que des faits de droit com-
mun commis du 26 octobre 1972 jusqu la date de promulgation de la prsente loi, 1990 (Benin).
104
Daly & Sarkin (n 53) 45.
105
Ibid 45.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 59
disputes, which can often be more meaningful for long-lasting reconcilia-
tion than measures relating solely to those who are most responsible.
106
For bilateral reconciliation between individual victims and perpetrators,
amnesty programmes which are combined with victimperpetrator
mediation could encourage remorse from the perpetrators and lead some
victims to offer forgiveness.
107
Furthermore, individualised, conditional
amnesties offered in exchange for truth telling could help foster communal
reconciliation through the truth that they uncover, particularly by illus-
trating that all sides suffered during the period of violence. In addition,
where thicker conceptions of reconciliation entail long-term processes to
encourage individuals to interact with one another culturally, commer-
cially and socially, such interactions can be incentivised by public policy,
as governments, in addition to the high-level politics of (re-)establishing
representative political and legal institutions, can work in collaboration
with all sections of civil society, both national and international, to: (i) facil-
itate public participation in the life of the state; (ii) develop mechanisms to
strengthen civil society organisations;
108
and (iii) promote community
sensitisation programmes, perhaps falling within the auspices of a
Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) programme.
Community reconciliation cannot, however, be forced,
109
as to do so would
be unrealistic and could cause further harm to individual victims who are
trying to regain control of their lives and their place in society.
Finally, amnesty could help to foster national reconciliation
110
where
the policies of forgiveness contribute to the establishment of a common
identity and where truth-recovery mechanisms facilitate the development
of a common history. An amnesty could also strengthen transitional
power-sharing arrangements by reducing the fears of combatants that
they will be punished if they surrender, enabling them to participate in the
transitional government. Where an amnesty contributes to the end of vio-
lent conict, it could also help to promote national reconciliation by con-
tributing to stability, which enables economic growth and development,
and the improvement of the living conditions of the population. For any
amnesty programme to contribute effectively to national reconciliation, it
is desirable that it be implemented following widespread consultation.
The above discussion has shown that amnesties can be designed to com-
plement different approaches to reconciliation by combining them with
top-down, elite-driven programmes to establish a common identity within
60 Enacting Amnesties
106
For a discussion of the relationship between amnesty and other alternative transitional
justice programmes, see ch 4.
107
For an analysis of the views of victims towards amnesty laws, see ch 9.
108
Daly & Sarkin (n 53) 120.
109
Ibid 186.
110
The nal category of international reconciliation has been excluded here, as there are
very few international amnesties in modern times.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 60
the state and functioning institutions, and bottom-up, grassroots mea-
sures to encourage individual and communal reconciliation by tackling
neighbourhood disputes that are often overlooked in centrally organised
programmes such as truth commissions. The appropriate balance between
top-down and bottom-up initiatives will depend on the conditions within
the transitional state, particularly the forms of violence that occurred, the
ethnic divisions, and the stability of the state institutions. In many cases,
the decision to introduce an amnesty may also be inuenced by external
conditions imposed directly or indirectly by international actors.
Amnesty as a Response to International Pressure
For many amnesty laws, the role of international actors is signicant.
Actors from more than one state are clearly involved in amnesties follow-
ing international conicts, and even in the majority of internal conicts
there are often international mediators, either from states or international
organisations. As will be explored in chapter 8, their involvement is often
based on political motives, such as advocating amnesty to increase the
strength of their chosen allies. For example, following the Second World
War, Britain decided that Greece was within its sphere of inuence and,
consequently, it wanted to reduce the political strength of the mainly left-
wing resistance movement. Therefore, it intervened to prevent the prose-
cution of right-wing traitors and collaborators.
111
International pressure
for an amnesty law was also a key factor in the Haitian transition, where
the United States, eager to reinstall democratic government in Haiti,
applied pressure to a reluctant President Aristide to amnesty the military
personnel responsible for the coup dtat and the ensuing human rights vio-
lations.
112
In other cases, international actors have become involved to
encourage a negotiated settlement to a conict. For example, the 1996 and
1999 peace agreements in Sierra Leone, which contained blanket
amnesties for all combatants in the countrys brutal civil war, were bro-
kered by a range of international actors including the UN, OAU, ECOWAS
and individual nation states such as Britain, the United States and
Nigeria.
113
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 61
111
Varkiza Agreement, 1945 (Greece). See also Mazower (n 52); Paschos & Papadimitrio
(n 52).
112
For an overview of the negotiations see Michael P Scharf, Swapping Amnesty for
Peace: Was There A Duty to Prosecute International Crimes in Haiti? (1996) 31 Texas
International Law Journal 1.
113
, ECOWAS Ofcials Defends Amnesty granted to Sierra Leone Rebels BBC
Worldwide Monitoring (15 July 1999); William A Schabas, Amnesty, the Sierra Leone Truth
and Reconciliation Commission and the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2004) 11 UC Davis
Journal of International Law and Policy 145; Corinna Schuler, Sierra LeoneA Wrenching
Peace: Sierra Leones See No Evil Pact Christian Science Monitor (Freetown 15 September
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 61
In addition to direct mediation, international actors can inuence deci-
sions on amnesty laws indirectly by contributing to the conditions that
make amnesty necessary, for example, by imposing sanctions that require
the release of prisoners of conscience. This occurred in 1995, when Iraq
released all Iraqis charged with political crimes, in order to meet the con-
ditions imposed by the UN Security Council before it would consider lift-
ing trade sanctions.
114
Alternatively, international actors can provide
military support to a party to the conict, with a view to bringing about a
particular political settlement. For example, in 1987, the nancial and mil-
itary support provided by the United States to the Contra guerrilla move-
ment resulted in the Nicaraguan government, under the terms of the Arias
Peace Plan, using an amnesty of political prisoners to try to prevent the
United States funding the guerrillas.
115
In other instances, amnesties to
release prisoners of conscience, or to protect minorities and enable exiles
to return were conditional on economic aid or military support.
International actors have also occasionally played a role in encouraging
states to introduce amnesty laws without a deliberate policy to intervene
in the transition. This could result from what Jones and Newburn term
policy transfer.
116
For example, the experience of the South African TRC
has sparked considerable interest in other states, with delegations often
travelling to and from South Africa to exchange experiences. More indi-
rectly, Cavallaro and Abluja have argued that national transitional justice
policies may be inuenced by international practice through a process of
acculturation, where
state behaviour is highly inuenced by the surrounding environment, which
leads relevant actors to follow the behaviour of others through mimicry, identi-
cation, and status maximisation.
117
62 Enacting Amnesties
1999); Carsten Stahn, United Nations Peace-building, Amnesties and Alternative Forms of
Justice: A Change in Practice? (2002) 84 International Review of the Red Cross 191; Karl Vick,
Sierra Leones Unjust Peace: At Sobering Stop, Albright Defends Amnesty for Rebels The
Washington Post (Freetown 19 October 1999) A12.
114
, Iraqs Hussein Issues Amnesty in Apparent Bid to Lift Sanctions Associated Press
(Nicosia 23 July 1995) 48; , Iraq Grants Political Crime Amnesty United Press
International (Beirut 31 July 1995).
115
For a discussion of the implications of this strategy see John J Moore Jr, Note, Problems
with Forgiveness: Granting Amnesty under the Arias Plan in Nicaragua and El Salvador
(1991) 43 Stanford Law Review 733.
116
Trevor Jones and Tim Newburn, Comparative Criminal Justice Policy-Making in the
United States and the United Kingdom: The Case of Private Prisons (2005) 45 British Journal
of Criminology 58, 74. The authors use the term policy transfer to describe the convergence
in penal policies between Britain and the United States in both initial ideas and the substan-
tive manifestations of policy.
117
James Cavallaro and Sebastin Albuja, The Lost Agenda: Economic Crimes and Truth
Commissions in Latin America and Beyond in Kieran McEvoy and Lorna McGregor (eds),
Transitional Justice from Below (Hart Publishing, Oxford 2008).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 62
They further argue that
There is good reason to believe that the forces leading to acculturation and
adoption of world society norms are present or perhaps intensied in situations
of transition, in which states and their agents are particularly concerned, and
their attention particularly focused on the international community and its
standards of legitimacy.
118
This process seems to have occurred among certain states in South
America, which appear to have been inuenced by their neighbours expe-
riences when they were introducing amnesties. Furthermore, it is argued
that on occasion, external events, such as the fall of the Berlin Wall, can
contribute to pressure for reform in other countries, including the release
of political prisoners. In addition, certain amnesties are clearly a response
to international criticism of human rights violations and, consequently,
represent an attempt on behalf of the state to improve its international
prestige. For example, the 1977 Czechoslovak amnesty was timed to coin-
cide with the Belgrade Conference to review compliance with the Helsinki
Accord.
119
Whilst such international inuences may be positive if they
encourage states to introduce more accountability mechanisms than
would have occurred previously, commentators in the eld of transitional
justice generally argue that it may not be sensible for states to borrow an
approach from elsewhere as all transitions are unique.
Amnesty as a Cultural or Religious Tradition
In certain countries, there are well-established traditions of the sovereign
granting amnesty to individuals on national or religious holidays. Under
normal circumstances, these amnesties would usually apply to certain
categories of offenders, such as minor criminals, veterans, elderly or
unhealthy prisoners, rst-time offenders, or female prisoners. However,
in many dictatorial regimes they are used as occasions to appear bene-
volent by releasing opponents of the state. For example, in Russia there
was a long-standing tradition of releasing prisoners on public holidays or
to celebrate military victories, which has been argued to have contributed
to Stalins decision to release inmates of Gulags following the end of the
Second World War.
120
The occasions employed will differ depending on
the country. For example, in many Arab countries it is usual to introduce
amnesties on religious holidays, whereas in former Soviet bloc countries,
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 63
118
Ibid.
119
, Czechs Announce Amnesty for All who Left in 1968 The Washington Post
(Prague 1 July 1977) A20.
120
Golfo Alexopoulos, Amnesty 1945: The Revolving Door of Stalins Gulag (2005) 64
Slavic Review 274.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 63
amnesties are introduced to celebrate national holidays, such as the anni-
versary of the founding of the country.
Amnesty as Reparation
In many political transitions, amnesties are introduced to repair the harm
inicted upon those who are deemed to be opponents of the state due to
their ethnicity, or supposed religious or political views. These amnesties
can cover those who were interned, imprisoned or forced into exile. They
can also cover those who lost their jobs, pensions, property or political
rights due to their opposition to the regime. For example, a 1980 Peruvian
amnesty
instructed the Executive to reinstate or give indemnity to public servants red
during the previous regime, in violation of the Constitution or the law.
121
Although, as discussed earlier, such amnesties can be granted by oppres-
sive regimes to reduce domestic tensions or gain foreign aid, as shown by
the amnesties used by the Polish communist government in 1983 and
1984,
122
they are more commonly introduced following the fall of a dicta-
torial regime. For example, amnesty laws introduced in Albania, Bulgaria
and Romania after the fall of communism in those countries were
designed to negate the crimes of which certain individuals had been
accused or had committed in their opposition to their oppressive govern-
ments. Such amnesties can proclaim the innocence of former political
prisoners. For example, the 1993 Albanian amnesty covered individuals
who suffered from
any act or failure to act between 8 November 1941 and 22 March 1993 on the part
of any armed formation or individual of the National Liberation Army, the state
security service, the police, the army, or a local government organ on the basis
of an order or decree of the party, military, state or judicial organs of the
Albanian communists, when this act or failure to act led to loss of life, freedom,
of civil rights or classication as kulak or declassed person, as well as any other
debarment of the individual from political, economic and social life because of
his political or religious convictions or attitudes.
64 Enacting Amnesties
121
Law No 23216, 1980 (Peru). See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights,
Annual Report 19791980: Peru (Report) (2 October 1980) OEA/SerL/V/II.50 doc 13 rev 1.
122
Walter Wisniewski, Poland Frees Dozens of Political Prisoners United Press International
(Warsaw 22 July 1983); Bogdan Turek, Ofcials say Amnesty aimed at Restoring Balance in
Poland United Press International (Warsaw 29 July 1983); Bradley Graham, Warsaw Abolishes
Martial Law; Amnesty Decreed; New Rules Limit Dissident Activities The Washington Post
(Warsaw 22 July 1983) A1; Poland; Amnesty for Some, But not for All, The Economist
(30 July 1983); , US Holds Fire on Lifting Sanctions on Poland / Political Prisoners Amnesty
Welcomed by US The Guardian (24 July 1984); Eric Bourne, Poland Awaits Wests Reaction to
Amnesty for Political Prisoners Christian Science Monitor (23 July 1984) 7; Michael T Kaufman,
Poland Criticizes US Response to Amnesty New York Times (Warsaw 25 July 1984) 11.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 64
This amnesty then proclaimed
All those who have been sentenced for political crimes, those who have died in
the investigation process, those executed without trials, and those killed while
crossing the border are considered innocent.
123
For the purposes of this research, reparative amnesties for non-violent
political prisoners are distinguished from amnesty for those who have
engaged in armed opposition to the state, as those involved in violence
committed criminal actions, whereas non-violent political prisoners more
commonly are imprisoned either under unjust laws that breach inter-
national human rights standards or for crimes that they did not commit.
This is not to deny that combatants can also be victims of human rights
violations, as will be discussed further in chapter 2, but rather to highlight
that amnesties often apply to civilians who took no part in armed cam-
paigns, and were instead punished unjustly.
Often when political prisoners are amnestied, they have already been
convicted. Such amnesties resemble pardons where there has been a con-
viction and merely the punishment is withdrawn. A distinction remains,
however, as many amnesties for political prisoners, particularly those
following the collapse of an oppressive regime, aim to rehabilitate the pris-
oners and declare their innocence, thereby eliminating the conviction from
their record. Such amnesties can imply that the criminal proceedings by
which the accused was sentenced were unfair. This was the justication
for the release of many political prisoners in the 1987 Salvadorean
amnesty.
124
Where individuals were convicted for committing actions that
were illegal under the repressive laws of the dictatorship, amnesties can
declare that those laws themselves were unjust. For example, the 1991
Bulgarian amnesty provides
Now that a democratic order is being established in Bulgaria, it is necessary to
amnesty acts declared to be crimes but which actually were an expression of the
struggle against an oppressive regime.
125
Similarly, referring to a 1987 amnesty for political prisoners in the USSR, a
government ofcial made the rather understated comment that because
of glasnost . . . some of the crimes now look rather different.
126
In certain
instances, this logic has been stretched to groups such as resistance ght-
ers during the Second World War, even where these individuals had
committed serious crimes, due to a belief that their offences are either
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 65
123
Law No 7660, 1993 (Alb).
124
Ley de Amnista para el Logro de la Reconciliacin Nacional, Decreto No 805, Diario Ocial No
199 1987 (El Sal).
125
Law on Amnesty and Restoration of Conscated Property and Implementing
Regulations, 1991 (Bulgaria).
126
Martin Walker, Soviet Union to Free Dissidents in Amnesty: Releases Extended to
Mark Anniversary of Revolution The Guardian (London 25 June 1987).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 65
unworthy of punishment or not properly an offence at all.
127
Such
amnesties can be seen as validation of the justness of their cause and recog-
nition of the sacrices made by the ghters. However, such groups are
excluded from this classication in this research, and would fall instead
within amnesties for reconciliation, particularly national unity.
Amnesty as a Shield for State Agents
Whereas amnesties in response to internal pressure often benet oppo-
nents of the state, some amnesties are introduced specically to benet
state agents.
128
Governments may introduce such laws when they wish to
reward the military for its role in establishing the governments power or
eliminating political threats. This motivation is occasionally expressed in
the law by declaring that the state agents, when they committed crimes,
were performing their duty. For example, the 1982 Guatemalan amnesty
law includes immunity for members of the state security forces that, in
carrying out their duties, have participated in actions against subver-
sion.
129
More problematically, there have even been occasions where the
role of the military has been lauded in an amnesty. For example, in
announcing the 1993 amnesty in Malawi, the president proclaimed, we
remember and understand that certain actions were taken to safeguard the
security of the country.
130
More recently, in Algeria, the 2006 amnesty to
enact the 2005 Charter on Peace and Reconciliation praised the armed
forces in their ght against the Islamic extremists, denied state responsi-
bility for disappearances, and declared that any wrongful acts committed
by state agents had already been punished.
131
It is unclear why, when a
political transition is not imminent, a dictatorial regime would feel the
need to protect its own agents from prosecution as it is unlikely that any
cases could be successfully prosecuted against them. Perhaps an amnesty
at these times is an attempt to make the state agents feel that their actions,
rather than being reprehensible, are actually contributing positively to the
state.
On occasion, amnesty laws for state agents have been justied as a
means of ensuring national security. For example, the 1986 Israeli amnesty
was introduced to protect members of Shin Bet, Israels counter-
66 Enacting Amnesties
127
Robert Parker, Fighting the Sirens Song: The Problem of Amnesty in Historical and
Contemporary Perspective (2001) 42 Acta Juridica Hungaria 69, 83.
128
For a discussion of who is a state agent, see ch 2.
129
Decreto Ley 33-82 se concede amnista por los delitos polticos y comunes conexos en los cuales
hubiesen participado miembros de las facciones subversivas 1982 (Guat).
130
, President Banda decrees general amnesty BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
(Blantyre 5 January 1994).
131
Ordonnance no 06-01 du 27 feb 2006 portant mise en oeuvre de la Charte pour la paix et la
rconciliation nationale 2006 (Alg) arts 4445.
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intelligence agency, and possibly Israeli politicians, from an investigation
into the deaths of two Palestinian bus hijackers in 1984. The government
justied the amnesty by arguing that any investigation could risk reveal-
ing information crucial to state security.
132
Amnesties for supporters of the state are also often issued at the end of
a conict, including conicts that occurred abroad, in order to protect the
soldiers who participated. For example, France has issued a succession of
amnesty laws for the actions of its military in Indochina and Algeria.
133
Following the end of a conict, amnesties for collaborators can also be
enacted due to sympathy within the government for the crimes commit-
ted by the collaborators or a pragmatic view that the involvement of such
individuals is necessary for rebuilding the state.
Amnesty could also be a response to a particular event in which the state
is implicated and for which it wants to avoid any investigations. This
motivation can be illustrated by several case studies. For example, the
Slovak government introduced an amnesty in 1998 to pre-empt opposition
demands for investigations into high-prole crimes in which the govern-
ment was allegedly involved.
134
Similarly, the 2002 Kyrgyz amnesty was
introduced following clashes in the Aksy district on 1718 March 2002
between supporters of leading opposition deputy Azimbek Beknazarov
and the police in which ve people were killed and 90 injured, sparking a
wave of protests which destabilised the country for months. The amnesty
was designed to protect the police ofcers responsible for killing civilians
and maybe higher-ranking police and politicians who were named in the
18 May 2002 inquiry into the events.
135
A self-amnesty could also be introduced by an outgoing dictatorial
regime wishing to protect itself from future prosecutions. This form of
amnesty was common in South American transitions during the 1980s. In
these cases, democratically-elected politicians sometimes acquiesced in
the amnesty in order to entice the dictators to relinquish power. An exam-
ple of this process is provided above in Case Study 2, describing the
Uruguayan amnesty laws.
Why Do States Introduce Amnesty? 67
132
, 7 From Security Force Seek Israeli Amnesty New York Times (Jerusalem
12 August 1986) 6; Glenn Frankel, Israelis Pardon 7 in Slaying; Security Agents Cleared in
Deaths of 2 Arab Hijackers The Washington Post (Jerusalem 25 August 1986) A1; Glenn
Frankel, Pardon of 4 Upheld in Israeli Bus Deaths; Court Rules 2-1 for Secret Service Ofcial
The Washington Post (Jerusalem 7 August 1986) A25; Ian Murray, Israeli Shin Bet leader
resigns / Avrahom Shalom granted presidential pardon over 1984 hijacker killings The Times
( Jerusalem 26 June 1986).
133
See n 74.
134
, Slovak Premier Orders to Halt Criminal Proceedings over Referendum BBC
Worldwide Monitoring (8 July 1998); , Meciar Precises Amnesty linked to Abduction of
Kovac, Plebiscite CTK National News Wire (Bratislava 8 July 1998); , Controversial
Amnesty Designed to Reconcile SocietySlovak Premier BBC Worldwide Monitoring
(6 March 1998).
135
, Kyrgyz Parliament passes Amnesty Bill to Acquit those Involved in Aksy
Events, BBC Worldwide Monitoring (27 June 2002).
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From the above, it seems that governments can introduce self-amnesties
at various points during their time in ofce, ranging from their initial days
in power following a military coup to their nal days before a political
transition. Between these points, governments may introduce amnesties to
prevent investigations which could incriminate them or threaten state
security. Furthermore, amnesties could be introduced whilst waging an
armed campaign against a political opposition in order to protect the
armed forces from prosecution. Finally, following the assent to power of a
democratically-elected government, amnesty may still be introduced for
state agents to reduce the threats to the stability of the new government.
Although such amnesties may be the result of blackmail by still-powerful
armed forces, they could nevertheless be viewed as legitimate if accompa-
nied by measures to investigate the past and provide reparations for the
victims, as will be argued later in this book. In contrast, blanket, uncondi-
tional amnesties bestowed by dictatorial regimes to their own supporters
with the aim of preventing investigations are unlikely to be viewed as
legitimate.
REPEATED AND ROLLING AMNESTIES
A surprising characteristic of amnesty processes is that in many situations,
rather than representing a denitive closing of the past, they are introduced
repeatedly. For example, during the 1980s Guatemala had six amnesty
processes relating to the civil war. Similarly, Angola introduced nine
amnesty laws between 1989 and 2003 as part of attempts to end its conict.
There could be several reasons why states might follow this pattern.
First, the government may introduce the amnesty for political expedi-
ency in response to a short-term goal, such as a forthcoming general
election, and consequently fail to implement the policy fully or consider its
implications. Similarly, in some transitional contexts events may overtake
an amnesty process causing it to become obsolete, only for it to be reintro-
duced later. For example, following the 1996 Abidjan Accord for the con-
ict in Sierra Leone, the government, in spite of the peace agreement,
continued to pursue a military strategy to defeat the RUF, resulting in the
collapse of the peace process and its amnesty provisions.
136
These provi-
sions were reintroduced, however, when a second peace accord was
agreed in 1999.
Secondly, the initial amnesty may have been limited in terms of whom
it covered or its period of application, only to be expanded by subsequent
legislation. For example, as described in Case Study 2, the 1985 amnesty
68 Enacting Amnesties
136
David J Francis, Torturous Path to Peace: The Lom Agreement and Postwar
Peacebuilding in Sierra Leone (2000) 31 Security Dialogue 357, 360.
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 68
law in Uruguay
137
was introduced immediately after the establishment of
democratic rule and applied only to political prisoners. In the next year,
however, following pressure from the military, the amnesty was extended
by a second law, which provided immunity for members of the armed
forces for serious human rights violations.
138
Such limited amnesties could mean that the government was con-
strained in its ability to grant amnesty, or it could be a strategic choice. For
example, in conicts where there are many combatant non-state actors,
governments may choose to implement rolling amnesty programmes
that initially apply to only one group of non-state actors who have
been involved in negotiations or have signed a ceasere agreement. The
governments objective in such cases would be to use the amnesty and
the other terms of the peace process to entice more insurgents to come for-
ward. Often in conict situations, there is a great deal of mistrust between
the parties, but if more moderate groups accept the amnesty, and the gov-
ernment honours its commitments to those who surrender, more hard-line
groups may then consider participating. This occurred in Algeria, where
the 1999 amnesty law
139
covered only members of certain armed Islamist
groups and excluded others who had not supported Bouteika before his
election. However, in 2000 some of the excluded organisations decided
that they too wished to participate in the peace process and were conse-
quently rewarded with an amnesty.
140
Case Study 4: Amnesties in Algeria
Repeated and Rolling Amnesties 69
In 1989, Algeria adopted a new constitution which permitted the establish-
ment of opposition political parties. Subsequently, there were multi-party
local elections in June 1991 in which the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) won 55
per cent of the vote. It then won 188 seats in the rst round of the December
1991 general election and seemed likely to gain an absolute majority in the
second until this was cancelled by the government in response to military
pressure. The military, which was bitterly opposed to the Islamic political
parties gaining power, also pressured the government to dissolve parliament
and forced the president to resign. These events, combined with economic
problems, caused the FIS to respond violently, and Algeria descended into a
civil war in which an estimated 100,000150,000 people were killed.
The conict raged during the 1990s. However, before the elections scheduled
for 1999, some Islamist groups offered to support to Abdelaziz Bouteika on
condition that serious negotiations were instigated following his election.
Subsequently, on 27 April 1999, Bouteika was elected by default (the other
137
Ley de Pacicacin Nacional, Ley No 15.737, 1985 (Uru).
138
Ley de Caducidad de la Pretensin Punitiva del Estado, No 15.848, 1986 (Uru).
139
Loi relative au rtablissement de la Concorde civile, Loi No 98-08, 1999 (Alg).
140
Presidential Decree No 200003, 2000 (Alg).
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 69
70 Enacting Amnesties
six candidates having withdrawn following allegations of corruption). He
immediately focused on restoring security and stability to the country.
This resulted in the enactment of the 1999 Civil Harmony Law, which was
endorsed by 98.6 per cent of the population in a referendum in September
1999 (with an 85 per cent participation rate). This law offered amnesty to
members of armed Islamic groups who surrendered voluntarily within six
months. The amnesty covered crimes committed during the conict, with the
exception of serious crimes, such as death or permanent disabling of a person,
rape, or the use of explosives in public places. The perpetrators of such crimes
would, however, receive reduced sentences. Applicants were required to pro-
claim that they had ceased all their violent activities and appear before a
Probation Committee who would determine whether they were eligible for
the amnesty. The functioning of these committees has been criticised by
human rights groups for being too secretive and lenient.
In 2000, President Bouteika introduced a further presidential decree to
amnesty members of groups who decided to end their violent campaigns after
the six month deadline of the 1999 Law expired. Consequently, the Islamic
Salvation Army (AIS) formally announced its dissolution on 11 January 2000,
followed by the Islamic League for Preaching and Holy War on 13 January 2000.
Following the 1999 Civil Harmony Law, the security situation in Algeria sta-
bilised, although disparate groups of Islamic ghters continued to engage in
violent acts. These groups were allegedly the targets of the 2005 Charter for
Peace and Reconciliation, which hoped to encourage them to engage in peace
negotiations. Critics of President Bouteika have suggested that the amnesty
was instead to benet the army generals who had supported the president
and to strengthen the presidents grip on power.
The 2005 Charter was approved by 97.36 per cent of Algerian voters (partici-
pation level of 79.76 per cent) on 29 September 2005, although there were alle-
gations that the voting was rigged at some polling stations.
The amnesty provided in the charter was enacted in Ordinance No 06-01 on
27 February 2006. This law amnesties Islamic ghters for engaging in the
insurgency, but excludes those involved in massacres, rapes, and using explo-
sives in public places. Similar to the 1999 Law, applicants are required to sur-
render and declare an end to their violent activities. They must also:
present an individual application when they surrender, containing the
facts of the crimes that they have committed or for which they were an
accomplice or instigator; and
surrender any arms, munitions or explosives in their possession.
The competent authorities are public prosecutors, prosecutors of the
Republic, national security services, national police services, ofcers of the
judicial police or the Ministry of Justice. These authorities will decide whether
to accept the application or to refer the applicant to the Public Prosecutor for
appropriate legal action.
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Rolling amnesties may also be required where the initial amnesty failed to
gain the support of the individuals whom it targeted. Their reluctance could
be because they felt that amnesty was not accompanied by sufcient reform
measures and that they would benet more from continuing their armed
struggle. In other circumstances, amnesties have been turned down because
they have had onerous conditions attached. For example, in the 1974 United
States presidential pardon for draft dodgers from the Vietnam War, there
was a requirement that all amnestied individuals must earn their amnesty
by completing a period of alternate service under the auspices of the
Director of Selective Service. This caused many potential beneciaries to
reject the amnesty as they felt it implied a degree of guilt rather than con-
scientious objection to the unpopular war in Vietnam.
141
Their
failure to participate meant a more lenient amnesty was introduced in 1977.
CONCLUSION
This chapter has explored how and why states continue to introduce
amnesty laws, despite the growth of the international criminal justice. It
has argued that the methods states employ to implement amnesty laws
can affect the laws legitimacy and potential to achieve their objectives. For
example, where amnesties to promote peace and reconciliation have
greater popular involvement either through consultation processes,
referenda, or even simply through dialogue between representatives of
141
, Pardon for Draft Evaders: Carters First Act Touches off a Storm US News and
World Report (31 January 1977) 22.
The 2005 Charter also denies state responsibility for disappearances and
declares that any wrongful acts committed by state agents have already been
punished.
Despite the legal implications of the amnesties, efforts have been made to
investigate disappearances in Algeria through the establishment of the Ad
Hoc Committee on Disappearances in September 2003, which heard victim
testimonies. The impact of this commission is limited, as its report (submitted
to the president in March 2005) has yet to be made public. However, the 2005
Charter does have provision for the payment of reparations to victims and
their families.
Sources: Amnesty International, Algeria: Truth and Justice Obscured by the
Shadow of Impunity AI Index MDE 28/11/00 (2000); International Crisis Group,
La Concorde Civile: Une Initiative de Paix Manque, ICG Report Africa Number 31
(2001); Human Rights Watch, Truth and Justice on Hold: The New State
Commission on Disappearances (2003)
Conclusion 71
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 71
the different stakeholder groups, they enjoy a greater chance of achieving
their aims than amnesties that are introduced unilaterally by states.
This chapter has further argued that amnesty laws can be introduced to
respond to a wide range of situations including not just ongoing conicts,
but also military coups, civil unrest, international pressure, religious and
cultural traditions, and economic and environmental crises. Often the
stimuli causing the amnesty will inuence the method by which the grant
of clemency is introduced. For example, amnesties that aim to end con-
icts will often be introduced within the context of peace negotiations,
whereas amnesties that aim to quell internal unrest may be introduced by
executive decrees, as they can be implemented rapidly.
Investigating the context that gives rise to amnesty laws is crucial to any
attempt to assess the impact of amnesties in transitional states, as the con-
text can indicate the motivations of governments that choose to introduce
amnesty laws. As this chapter has demonstrated, these motivations are
diverse and can range from positive goals such as attempts to repair the
suffering inicted on opponents of the former regimes, to negative objec-
tives such as providing impunity for state agents. This means that not all
amnesty laws are introduced in good faith to end violence or promote rec-
onciliation, and can instead have quite contradictory goals.
Furthermore, identifying the motivations behind an amnesty can be a
complicated process, as amnesties can often result from multiple, com-
plementary objectives. For example, during a civil war, amnesty may be
used to end the violence, demobilise combatants, establish an alternative
policy to a failed military campaign and secure foreign aid for develop-
ment. In addition, the motivations behind an amnesty are often hidden
by governments, particularly where the state is eager to conceal its
own weakness or responsibility for violations. These difculties mean
that the categories used in this chapter are designed to illustrate the wide
range of motivations of states, but not to provide exact typologies of
behaviour.
Nonetheless, it is essential to recognise this diversity of objectives
behind amnesty laws when trying to develop methods and indicators to
measure their impact within transitional states, and such indicators need
to be tailored to the specic context. For example, when confronted by
amnesties introduced in bad faith, the lessons drawn from the failure of
the amnesties to stem campaigns of mass violence need to recognise the
objectives of the amnesties themselves and also assess the behaviour of
the states within the wider transitional frameworks. Similarly, where
amnesties that aim to promote reconciliation are unsuccessful, as few
combatants apply or the peace process collapses, the impact of the
amnesty needs to be considered in relation to other factors, such as the
views of the combatants and how far the other measures of the peace
process were implemented.
72 Enacting Amnesties
(C) Mallinder Ch1 20/8/08 13:15 Page 72
From the patterns that are emerging in the Amnesty Law Database, it
seems likely that as amnesty laws become more contentious on the inter-
national stage, states will move away from relying on amnesty for the
purely nefarious goals of shielding their own agents or entrapping their
opponents to disarm and become weak. Instead, as this chapter has
argued, many states already use reconciliation to justify introducing
amnesty, and the author contends that this rationale will become more
sincere in the forthcoming years.
Conclusion 73
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2
Whom Do Amnesties Protect?
The Personal Jurisdiction of
Amnesty Laws
INTRODUCTION
O
NCE STATES DECIDE to introduce amnesties, they must then
determine their scope, depending on the objectives of the state
and the dynamics of the conict or transition. First, states must
decide whom to amnesty. As shown in the previous chapter, amnesty laws
can be introduced for a variety of reasons. It follows that these laws can be
designed to target different groups of people, according to the purpose of
each law. Slye claims that a state has a continuum of choices, which range
from amnesty for all individuals for every possible crime with no time lim-
its in which those crimes must have occurred, to amnesties that are
granted to an individual or small number of people for a specic event.
1
Between these two alternatives, states can tailor amnesties by restricting
them to members of certain organisations (such as state institutions or
insurgency movements) or members of certain ranks, individuals who
perpetrated specic crimes, or individuals who committed crimes relating
to specic events. A state can also enforce further restrictions by imposing
conditions that individual applicants must full in order to obtain
amnesty.
2
Amnesties frequently cover individuals who have yet to be
investigated, those who are detained pending trial, and those who have
already been convicted.
3
In addition, national amnesty laws can apply to
both citizens inside and outside of the country and even to non-nationals
who committed crimes within the territory. Each of these decisions can
affect the efcacy of the law and its perceived legitimacy.
1
This occurs very rarely and examples could include the 1996 Cambodian amnesty for
Ieng Sary, a former minister in the Khmer Rouge government, or 1986 Israeli amnesty for
senior Shin Bet ofcials implicated in the deaths of two Palestinian bus hijackers.
2
Ronald C Slye, The Cambodian Amnesties: Beneciaries and the Temporal Reach of
Amnesties for Gross Violation of Human Rights (2004) 22 Wisconsin International Law Journal
99, 1045.
3
See introduction for discussion of the relationship between amnesties and pardons.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 75
In considering whom states have chosen to amnesty, the recipients have
been allocated to the following categories: state agents; opponents of the
state; political prisoners; exiles; and foreign nationals. The chapter will
begin by contrasting the theoretical arguments that everyone should enjoy
equal status before the law with the idea that amnesties should be as lim-
ited as possible and can be targeted towards certain groups to achieve
political objectives. Then, the categorisation process and the frequency
with which each group received amnesty will be explained, before using
the case studies from the database to describe how amnesties relate to each
group. Subsequently, the motives of offenders will be examined to deter-
mine whether all offenders should be viewed as equally culpable, or
whether offenders who committed crimes under duress or according to a
pervasive ideology could be entitled to amnesty. For limited amnesties,
the question of how to decide who should receive protection will involve
consideration of whether the amnesty should apply only to the foot sol-
diers or whether it should extend to those who are most responsible. In
so doing, the chapter will discuss the relevant principles of international
law in respect of superior orders and command responsibility. This dis-
cussion will further consider whether amnesty laws should apply to indi-
viduals or groups. Finally, there will be a brief discussion of whether
individuals are entitled to refuse amnesty, and instead go to court to prove
their innocence. This chapter will attempt to show that states are increas-
ingly moving away from self-amnesties for dictatorial regimes and relying
more on mutual amnesties that apply to both agents of the state and their
opponents, with prosecutions remaining possible for those who are
deemed most responsible.
AMNESTIES, EQUALITY AND THE MYTH OF EQUIVALENCY
Before considering how states have distinguished between different cat-
egories of offenders, it must rst be recognised that within most conict or
transitional contexts, there are inherent inequalities between state and
non-state actors. Clearly, there are often imbalances between the resources
available to state agents and insurgents, which can inuence their tactics
during the conict. Indeed, many non-state actors assert that their resort
to armed campaigns resulted from suffering oppression and discrimina-
tion at the hands of the state, and therefore that their actions are legitimate
or in self-defence. Furthermore, state- and non-state actors are treated dif-
ferently under domestic and international law. Under domestic laws,
members of the armed forces are treated as having a legitimate monopoly
on the use of force, whereas armed opposition groups are usually prohib-
ited under national law and are regarded by the state as criminals to be
held accountable. This contrasts with state forces, which are often granted
76 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 76
immunity from prosecution through measures such as indemnity laws.
This means that similar actions may be treated differently according to an
individuals status.
The legal position of state agents and non-state combatants can also be
distinguished under international law. International humanitarian law is
viewed as applying to both state and non-state actors as participants in a
conict,
4
but international human rights law has traditionally been
viewed as having only vertical application. This means that, in order to
protect citizens from abuses of power by their government, international
human rights law restricts the actions of states,
5
and that historically, non-
state actors have not been viewed as committing human rights violations.
Clearly, in modern warfare, non-state actors commit atrocities against
civilians. This has led to calls for human rights law to be applied horizon-
tally to actions committed by private actors (ie armed opposition groups)
against private actors (ie civilians). Some human rights treaty-monitoring
bodies have begun to condemn acts of armed opposition groups as
harming human rights without considering their acts to be breaches of
human rights law.
6
More progress has been made under international
criminal law, where individual members of opposition groups, but not the
organisations themselves, can be held accountable for their actions.
7
Furthermore, recent treaties have placed obligations on armed opposition
groups. For example, the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the
Rights of the Child on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conict
requires armed groups, including rebel forces, to prevent children from
participating in armed conict and prohibits the recruitment of children
into armed groups.
8
The efcacy of this provision is as yet unclear, as
non-state actors cannot become parties to the Optional Protocol, and
responsibility for the provisions enforcement seems to rest with the state
party.
9
Therefore, it appears that to date, in contrast to domestic legal sys-
tems, international law imposes greater restrictions on state agents than
insurgents.
If a government chooses to treat state and non-state actors differently
under an amnesty, it risks undermining the principle of equality. The idea
that each individual should benet from equal protection before the law
and before the courts has long been enshrined in law. The Universal
Amnesties, Equality and the Myth of Equivalency 77
4
Geneva Conventions (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950),
Common art 3.
5
Liesbeth Zegveld, Accountability of Armed Opposition Groups in International Law
(Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge 2002) 38.
6
Ibid 39.
7
Ibid 44.
8
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the involvement of
children in armed conict, 2000 art 4(1).
9
Ibid art 4(2).
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 77
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) proclaims that [a]ll are equal
before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal pro-
tection of the law
10
and that
[e]veryone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an
independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and oblig-
ations and of any criminal charge against him.
11
The principle of equality can relate to amnesty in a variety of ways, and
amnesty can be argued to both promote and undermine equality.
First, it can be argued that amnesty laws designed for political motives,
to benet only one group that perpetrates certain crimes whilst leaving
another group of perpetrators of the same crimes without protection,
would undermine the principle of equality, particularly since amnesty
laws are introduced after the crimes have taken place, and thus when they
occurred the perpetrators theoretically faced identical fates. However, this
position fails to take into account the disparity that frequently exists
between state agents and opponents of the state during conict situations.
As the opponents of the state have an inherently weaker position, amnesty
laws that benet this group can, in some instances be seen not as creating
inequality before the law, but rather as redressing the pre-existing imbal-
ance. For example, according to Aguilar, the 1977 Spanish amnesty law
12
was introduced to symbolically put the victors and vanquished in the
Civil War on an equal footing.
13
It was felt that this was needed as, after
that war had ended in 1939 with the Nationalist victory, those
who had supported the new regime were amnestied, even where they had
committed acts of bloodshed, whereas the Republicans were not.
Furthermore, even where such amnesties are applied unequally, if they
are introduced in good faith, they can potentially contribute to ending
violence. In contrast, self-amnesties that only protect state agents can be
seen as reinforcing situations of inequality, by providing the already
advantaged state agents with greater protections whilst comparatively
worsening the position of non-state actors. Furthermore, such self-
amnesties run a greater risk of violating the states obligations under inter-
national human rights law.
Secondly, states could introduce amnesty laws that profess to grant
equal protection to state agents and opponents of the state. Whilst this
appears to treat all groups equally, it can be problematic as such policies
risk creating a myth of equivalency where the actions of all parties are
78 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
10
UDHR art 7.
11
Ibid art 10. These rights were subsequently reiterated in arts 26 and 14(1) respectively of
the ICCPR.
12
La Ley 46/1977, de 15 de octubre (BOE No 248, de 17 de octubre), de Amnista 1977 (Spain).
See case study 3.
13
Paloma Aguilar, Collective Memory of the Spanish Civil War: The Case of the Political
Amnesty in the Spanish Transition to Democracy (1997) 4 Democratization 88.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 78
seen as equally justied.
14
This is particularly delicate where the oppo-
nents of the state only committed a small proportion of the crimes, or had
only resorted to violence in response to severe repression. This was the
case in Chile as illustrated in Case Study 5.
Case Study 5: Pinochets amnesty: Self-amnesty in Chile
Amnesties, Equality and the Myth of Equivalency 79
On 11 September 1973, following a period of political violence and economic
crisis in Chile, the armed forces, led by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte,
staged a violent coup to seize power from a democratically-elected left-wing
government. Despite the lack of effective armed opposition to the coup, its
aftermath was marked by the brutal repression of anyone whom the military
considered a threat. By the end of 1973, the military, particularly its intelli-
gence wing DINA, had killed or disappeared 1,200 individuals, including
foreign nationals, and there were widespread detentions and torture during
interrogations. The disappearances continued until 1977, when DINA was
disbanded following the assassination of Orlando Letelier in Washington DC.
However, torture and assassinations continued until the transition to democ-
ratic rule in 1990.
During this period of widespread human rights abuses by state forces,
Pinochet introduced an amnesty law
15
in 1978, which was incorporated into
the Chilean constitution by the pro-Pinochet legislature and provided for:
All persons who, as principals or accessories, have committed criminal
offences during the period of the state of siege, between 11 September 1973
and 10 March 1978.
The amnesty was justied by the military regime as a mutual amnesty
designed to further national unity by forgiving the crimes of both the military
and insurgents; however, in practice it amounted to a self-amnesty for gov-
ernment agents, as, by the time the amnesty was enacted, many members of
the opposition were already dead or in exile. In addition, the amnesty was
unconditional and very broad, excluding only some common crimes such as
infanticide, armed robbery (plunder), drug trafcking, arson, rape, incest,
fraud, embezzlement, dishonesty, smuggling and drunk driving (article 3).
Pinochets government remained in power until the transition to democracy,
which was triggered by a 1988 plebiscite to determine whether Pinochet could
continue as president until 1997. The election was conducted freely, and
14
McEvoy asserts that in the Northern Irish context, some former members of the secur-
ity forces bridle at any reference to themselves and former paramilitaries as former combat-
ants since, from their perspective, this creates a myth of equivalency. For many such actors
in Northern Ireland and elsewhere, state security forces were upholding law and order
while non-state actors were terrorists. For further discussion, see Kieran McEvoy, Truth,
Transition and Reconciliation: Dealing with the Past in Northern Ireland (Willan Publishing,
Cullompton 2008).
15
Decreto Ley 2,191 (Ley de Amnista) 1978 (Chile).
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 79
resulted in a resounding defeat for Pinochet and the holding of elections in
which Patricio Aylwin was elected president and inaugurated in March 1990.
President Aylwin pledged to repeal the 1978 amnesty following his inaugu-
ration. However, he was unable to do so, because of strong opposition from
the still-powerful armed forces, of which Pinochet continued to be comman-
der-in-chief, and because he only had a minority in the Senate. Consequently,
Aylwin decided to establish the National Commission on Truth and
Reconciliation, to clarify in a comprehensive manner the truth about the most
serious human rights violations suffered during the military dictatorship.
He stated the goal of the commission was justicia en lo posible, translated as
justice inasmuch as was possible. The commission only investigated cases
resulting in death. However, of the cases it investigated, it found that only
four per cent of the human rights violations it documented were committed
by subversives.
16
This further underlines the fallacy behind the 1978
mutual amnesty. The Commission recommended reparations for the rela-
tives of the victims.
In 1998, the British hearings on whether Pinochet could be extradited to face
human rights charges in Spain triggered renewed efforts for prosecutions in
Chile.
17
This progress was strengthened by the 1999 decision of the Chilean
Supreme Court that disappearances are continuing crimes and hence cannot
be subject to the amnesty.
18
More recently, in August 2003, then president Lagos announced new propos-
als for addressing past crimes: possible immunity from prosecution for
people currently not charged or on trial who present themselves before courts
to supply information on the whereabouts of victims or the circumstances of
their disappearance or death; possible immunity from prosecution for milit-
ary personnel who argued that they were acting under orders; the transfer of
all cases of human rights violations committed during the military govern-
ment currently under trial in military courts to civilian courts; and the
establishment of a commission to examine cases of torture. The National
Commission on Political Imprisonment and Torture was established in
August 2003 in response to a campaign by civil society groups. It released its
report in November 2004, identifying 27,000 torture victims and recommend-
ing that they be paid reparations. However, a subsequent law has prevented
the courts from accessing the victim testimonies for 50 years, although indi-
vidual victims are free to make their testimonies public or submit them to the
courts if they wish to do so.
The Lagos plans did not include annulling the 1978 amnesty; instead, they
allowed the courts to continue to decide on the amnestys application. In
January 2005, the Chilean Supreme Court issued a resolution which allowed
judges only six months to conclude their investigations into abuses commit-
80 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
16
Jon Elster, Closing the Books: Transitional Justice in Historical Perspective (Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge 2004) 121.
17
For a discussion of the Pinochet affair and its impact in Chile, see ch 7.
18
For a discussion of the case law of Chilean courts, see ch 6.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 80
From this it is clear that in practice the Chilean amnesty law amounted to
a self-amnesty, and therefore did not contribute to equality. Sarkin argues
that moral equivalency was also a contentious issue before the South
African TRC, where the commissions ndings on the ANCs culpability
for human rights violations caused protest from the ANC, as the libera-
tion movement objected to the label perpetrators and argued that
ghting for and against apartheid were not equivalent.
19
The issue of equality can also arise when amnesties are individualised.
For example, an individualised, conditional amnesty can result in perpetra-
tors of similar crimes being treated differently depending on how they
comply or are deemed to comply with the conditions. The risk of inequality
ted by Chiles military dictatorship. Justifying the instructions to close the
cases, the court cited international norms that establish the right of the
accused to a trial within a reasonable period of time.
Despite these efforts, moves to annul the Chilean amnesty have gained pace
in recent years, particularly since the 2006 judgment of the Inter-American
Court of Human Rights in the Almonacid-Arellano case. In this decision, the
court argued that the self-amnesty of the Chilean military junta violated the
American Convention on Human Rights by granting impunity for crimes
under international law, and that consequently the Chilean authorities had to
annul the legislation that contravenes the Convention. It now seems possible
that the Chile will follow its neighbour Argentina and annul the amnesty.
Sources: Naomi Roht Arriaza (ed), Impunity and Human Rights in International
Law and Practice (Oxford University Press, Oxford 1995); Alexandra Barahona de
Brito, Truth, Justice, Memory and Democratization in the South Cone in Alexandra
Barahona de Brito, Carmen Gonzlez Enrquez, Carmen and Paloma Aguilar
Fernndez (eds), The Politics of Memory: Transitional Justice in Democratizing
Societies (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2001); Jorge Correa Sutil, No
Victorious Army has ever been Prosecuted . . .. The Unsettled Story of Transitional
Justice in Chile in A James McAdams (ed), Transitional Justice and the Rule of Law
in New Democracies (University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame IN 1997);
Edward C Snyder, The Dirty Legal War: Human Rights and the Rule of Law in Chile
19731995 (1995) 2 Tulsa Journal of Comparative and International Law 253;
Robert J Quinn, Will the Rule of Law End? Challenging Grants of Amnesty for the
Human Rights Violations of a Prior Regime: Chiles New Model (1994) 62 Fordham
Law Review 905; Mark Ensalaco, Truth Commissions for Chile and El SalvadorA
Report and Assessment (1994) 16 Human Rights Quarterly 656; Jorge Correa Sutil,
Dealing with Past Human Rights Violations: The Chilean Case after Dictatorship
(1992) 67 Notre Dame Law Review 1455.
19
Jeremy Sarkin, Carrots and Sticks: The TRC and the South African Amnesty Process
(Intersentia, Antwerp 2004) 111.
Amnesties, Equality and the Myth of Equivalency 81
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 81
can be lessened if the same conditions are applied uniformly to all individ-
uals applications, regardless of their former status as insurgents or state
agents. However, the conditions for applying amnesty laws are often sub-
jective and can result in perpetrators of similar crimes being treated incon-
sistently,
20
which could have a negative impact on the perceived legitimacy
of the process.
21
This problem is aggravated where there are differences in
what constitutes a crime for state and non-state forces.
HOW HAVE STATES DISTINGUISHED BETWEEN OFFENDERS
WITH DIFFERENT ALLEGIANCES?
In analysing the recipients of amnesty laws, the following categorisations
were developed in the Amnesty Law Database: state agents, opponents of
the state, political prisoners, exiles and refugees; and foreign nationals.
The categories of state agents and opponents of the state were further sub-
divided to isolate provisions for those who are most responsible for the
policies of violence and repression. These categorisations were identied
using the academic literature on amnesties, which focuses predominantly
on the distinction between state and non-state actors,
22
and Joinets 1985
report on amnesties.
23
Each amnesty law can apply to either one or several
of these categorisations, and these categorisations can overlap. For exam-
ple, opponents of a dictatorial regime may have gone into exile to escape
political repression, and hence an amnesty to encourage them to return
would be categorised as both for opponents and for exiles.
Categorising beneciaries of amnesty laws can be problematic for sev-
eral reasons. First, an amnesty may be implemented differently to its
82 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
20
For a discussion of the difculties at the South African TRC in determining whether a
crime was political, see Ronald C Slye, Justice and Amnesty in Charles Villa-Vicencio and
Wilhelm Verwoerd (eds), Looking Back, Reaching Forward: Reections on the Truth and
Reconciliation Commission of South Africa (Zed Books, London 2000) 1812.
21
For a discussion of the difculty of applying amnesty procedures consistently, see
Sarkin (n 19).
22
See eg Ronald C Slye, The Legitimacy of Amnesties Under International Law and
General Principles of Anglo-American Law: Is a Legitimate Amnesty Possible? (2002) 43
Virginia Journal of International Law173; Gwen K Young, Amnesty and Accountability (2002)
35 UC Davis Law Review 427; Gwen K Young, All the Truth and as Much Justice as Possible
(2003) 9 UC Davis Journal of International Law and Policy 209; William W Burke-White,
Reframing Impunity: Applying Liberal International Law Theory to an Analysis of Amnesty
Legislation (2001) 42 Harvard International Law Journal 467; William W Burke-White,
Protecting the Minority: A Place for Impunity? An Illustrated Survey of Amnesty
Legislation, Its Conformity with International Legal Obligations, and Its Potential as a Tool
for Minority-Majority Reconciliation (2000) Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in
Europe; Kristin Henrard, The Viability of National Amnesties in View of the Increasing
Recognition of Individual Criminal Responsibility at International Law (1999) 8 MSU-DCL
Journal of International Law 595.
23
ECOSOC, Study on Amnesty Laws and their role in the safeguard and protection of
human rights (21 June 1985) UN Doc E/CN4/Sub2/1985/16 (prepared by Louis Joinet).
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 82
stated objectives, for example, by claiming to be mutual amnesty but in
fact only beneting state agents. In these instances, the categorisation used
has relied on the provisions outlined in the law itself, although additional
data has been added to the database to describe the laws implementation.
Secondly, if insurgents or resistance ghters committed crimes during
their campaign to overthrow a government and, subsequently, upon suc-
cessful completion of their campaign and their transformation into a gov-
ernment, chose to amnesty their own actions, should this be classied as
amnesty for state agents or opponents of the state? In other words, should
individuals be classied according to their status at the time they commit-
ted their crimes or their status when the amnesty law was introduced? The
approach taken for this study is to classify the beneciaries according to
their status at the time they committed the relevant actions.
It can also be problematic to determine whether state agents who act
against their government should be considered opponents of the state. For
example, if members of the military attempted unsuccessfully to stage a
coup dtat, and subsequently were awarded amnesty and reforms to meet
their demands, should they be considered opponents of the state? In these
situations, the government itself may have been divided and the military
may have acted with the backing of elements of the political establish-
ment, rather than independently. In most situations, it would be impossi-
ble to determine denitively whether an attempted military coup had the
support of some state ofcials. Therefore, this book will take the approach
that military coups are actions against the government, and therefore at
the moment the crimes were committed the members of the armed forces
involved were opponents of the state.
A nal dilemma in classifying the beneciaries of amnesty laws comes
in determining who can fall within the political prisoner category. Within
this category, problems can arise in distinguishing between political pris-
oners and common criminals,
24
and between individuals who have peace-
fully protested against an oppressive government and those who have
used more aggressive tactics.
25
Furthermore, a state may change its own
classication of individuals and their crimes as time progresses. As shown
in the previous chapter, many actions can be regarded as anti-state crimes
during periods of political oppression and consequently those responsible
can be labelled as criminals, only for attitudes within states towards the
crimes to change due to political liberalisation and for the same individu-
als to then be viewed as political prisoners. In this book, all individuals
who are imprisoned for activities such as attending political meetings or
Distinguish between Offenders with Different Allegiances 83
24
Common criminals whose crimes are unrelated to a context of conict or oppression are
exempt from the scope of this study.
25
Kieran McEvoy, Kirsten McConnachie and Ruth Jamieson, Political Imprisonment and
the War on Terror in Yvonne Jewkes (ed), Handbook on Prisons (Willan Publishing,
Cullompton 2007).
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 83
distributing literature will be treated as political prisoners and opponents
of the state, but those who committed violent actions within a context of
war or oppression will just be considered as opponents.
26
Based on the information gained for 501
27
amnesties, the distribution of
the protection received by each group is shown in Figure 6 below. It
should be noted that one amnesty could contain recipients from several
categories. This shows quite clearly that the most common beneciaries of
amnesty laws are opponents of the state, with protection explicitly
granted to this group in three times the number of amnesty laws as for
state agents. This scale of this result is interesting, as it is perhaps surpris-
ing that states are more willing amnesty their opponents than their own
agents, particularly since much of the literature on amnesties focuses on
the injustice of governments awarding amnesties to their own agents. The
pattern can perhaps be explained, rst, by considering the wide concep-
tion of opponents of the state that has been adopted in this research, as
explained below; and secondly, by recognising that, as outlined in chapter
1, amnestying opponents can be attractive to a state for several reasons
that may not be applicable to amnesties for state agents. Furthermore,
whereas state agents are often included in amnesties that also cover oppo-
nents of the state (ie mutual amnesties), many amnesties for opponents of
the state exclude state agents either explicitly or by omitting to mention
them. This exclusion could result from amnesties that aim to repair the
84 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
Figure 6: Amnesties by group of beneciaries
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
N
o
o
f
A
m
n
e
s
t
i
e
s
0
State agents Opponents of
the state
Non-violent
political
prisoners
Exiles Foreign
nationals
26
For a discussion of categories of crimes, see ch 3.
27
Recipients could not be clearly ascribed to a category for ve amnesties of the 506 in the
database, due to a paucity of data on the amnesty processes concerned.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 84
harm inicted on non-violent political prisoners, or it could illustrate that,
as discussed above, state agents operate in a different legal regime than
opponents of the state and consequently may not always require amnesty
in the same way.
The pattern is common to each region under consideration, although the
ratio between the groups of recipients does vary. The regions that most
frequently granted mutual amnesties for both state agents and opponents
of the state were Europe and Central Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa which
together granted 60 per cent of the total number of mutual amnesties iden-
tied (30 per cent in each region). The number of amnesties granted to
state agents reached its highest point during the 1990s, although there
have been 48 amnesties that have protected this group between January
2000 and December 2007. The amnesties granted to opponents of the state
have been increasing throughout the period since the Second World War
and there have been 110 since 2000. In addition, it is interesting to note that
in almost half the amnesty laws studied, there were provisions for par-
doning individuals who had already been convicted.
State Agents
The category of state agents comprises a broad group covering those who
actually worked for the state in an ofcial capacity when they committed
their crimes, such as the military, police, prison services, intelligence agen-
cies, civil service, and politicians. It can also cover retired personnel. For
this study, these individuals continue to be regarded as state agents even
when the amnesty law is introduced by a successor regime that has
removed them from their positions of power.
State agents are most often included in amnesty laws where the laws
grant immunity to all combatants in a war or all participants in civil unrest.
For example, the 1990 Nicaraguan amnesty which was introduced to pro-
mote peace and stability and encourage disarmament and demobilisation
was proclaimed as, a general amnesty and unconditional Amnesty Law
for all Nicaraguans, with no distinctions made for any particular class.
28
However, there are certain amnesty laws that are designed to grant
immunity solely to state agents of all ranks. These amnesties tend to occur
where the state claims it is ghting a serious threat to the nation. As dis-
cussed previously, the idea of governments amnestying themselves is of
course troubling, particularly where the amnesty is used to reinforce exist-
ing propaganda by applauding the actions of the armed forces.
Distinguish between Offenders with Different Allegiances 85
28
Ley de amnista general y reconciliacin nacional, No 81, La Gaceta, No 53, pp 429430, 1990
(Nicaragua), Preamble.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 85
States can also introduce amnesty for individuals who acted on their
behalf without ofcially being state agents, such as pro-government mili-
tias or paramilitary organisations that are armed, trained and supported by
the state. These non-state actors commit crimes according to state policy,
but the government does not ofcially recognise any links to the organisa-
tions.
29
Such groups have been amnestied in several contexts: for example,
the Zimbabwean amnesty laws in 1995 and 2000 granted impunity to those
involved in pro-government violence before elections,
30
and the recent
Colombian Justice and Peace Law protects paramilitaries belonging to
United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC), an organisation which is
allegedly closely linked to the state.
31
In such cases, the government may
claim that the amnesty is to promote peace and reconciliation. But this
seems disingenuous where there are long-standing and close links
between the security forces and paramilitaries, and where
the raison dtre of paramilitarism is the defence of the . . . state and the status quo
against real or perceived threats.
32
Finally, this study also regards collaborators as state agents when their
criminal activities were perpetrated in support of the de facto regime. This
group can include business people who traded with the enemy or occu-
pying force, or individuals who enlisted in a foreign army, where the
enemy exercised de facto control over their territory, even though there
may have been a recognised government in exile. Following the Second
World War, there were many amnesties for collaborators: for example, in
France, a series of amnesty laws granted immunity from criminal punish-
ment or nes for individuals accused of increasingly serious crimes.
33
Similarly, the 1948 Filipino amnesty law
34
offered protection to those who
86 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
29
Ruth Jamieson and Kieran McEvoy, State Crime by Proxy and Juridical Othering
(2005) 45 British Journal of Criminology 504. Jamieson and McEvoy outline four strategies
through which states seek to other the actors who carry out state actors: perdy, special
forces, collusion and privatization. Perdy refers to the concealment of the afliation of
state forces to gain a tactical advantage. Special forces refers to the establishment of dedi-
cated counter-insurgency units who receive special training and are usually subject to less
oversight than other units of the security forces. Collusion refers to ignoring or even co-
operating with non-state forces to achieve a political objective. Finally, privatization refers
to the increased reliance by states on private military companies.
30
Clemency Order No 1 of 1995; Clemency Order No 1 of 2000 (General Amnesty for
Politically-Motivated Crimes), General Notice 457A.
31
Ley de Justicia y Paz, 2005 (Colom). For an overview, see Jos E Arvelo, Note,
International Law and Conict Resolution in Colombia: Balancing Peace and Justice in the
Paramilitary Demobilization Process (2006) 37 Georgetown Journal of International Law 411,
41925 and case study 11.
32
Amnesty International, Colombia: The Paramilitaries of Medelln: Demobilization or
Legalization? (Report) (September 2005) AI-Index AMR 23/019/2005, 11.
33
Loi No 47-1504 portant amnistie, 1947 (Fr); Loi No 51-18 portant amnistie, instituant un
rgime de libration anticipe, limitant les effets de la dgradation nationale et rprimant les activits
antinationales, 1951 (Fr); Loi No 53-681 portant amnistie, 1953 (Fr); Loi No 53-112 portant amnistie
en faveur des Franais incorpors de force dans les formations militaires ennemies, 1953 (Fr).
34
Amnesty Proclamation 1948 (Phil).
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 86
worked with the Japanese during their occupation of the Philippines.
Many of the beneciaries were ordinary citizens, but it has been acknow-
ledged that many Filipino civil servants and politicians also collaborated
to an extent.
35
As will be seen below, where collaborators acted for per-
sonal gain, it can be difcult to justify amnestying their crimes.
Opponents of the State
Opponents of the state applies to those who, at the time of the commis-
sion of their (supposed) crimes, were acting in opposition to the state, or
whom the state had chosen to label as opponents. This category can range
from armed insurgents who are ghting to overthrow a central govern-
ment, to non-political individuals who are interned by repressive regimes.
Between these two extremes, groups such as resistance ghters, opposi-
tion political parties and even members of the military who participated in
coups dtat can be situated. It can also cover those who initially cam-
paigned against a regime before, following a transition, forming a new
government and then introducing an amnesty to cover their previous
actions. For example, after the Allied forces ended the Nazi occupation of
France, subsequent amnesty laws beneted inter alia those who had
fought with the French resistance.
36
The scope of this category therefore ranges from amnesties introduced in
the midst of a civil war to end the violence to amnesties used as tool to reha-
bilitate those who were oppressed by the former regime. When amnesties
are introduced, they can provide either impunity solely for anti-state
forces,
37
or a mutual amnesty for both supporters and opponents of the
state.
38
It is most common for mutual amnesties to occur in the context of
peace negotiations where all parties to the conict have committed crimes.
The end of a conict could also be a stimulus for amnesties for draft
dodgers and deserters. For example, the 2001 Yugoslav amnesty covered
thousands of young Serbs and Montenegrins who evaded military service
from 27 April 1992 to 7 October 2000.
39
These amnesties often provoke
highly charged political debates around ideas of patriotism or religious
Distinguish between Offenders with Different Allegiances 87
35
Gabriel Kolko, Confronting the Third World: United States Foreign Policy, 19451980
(Pantheon Books, New York 1988).
36
Loi No 46-729 du 16 avril 1946 Loi Portant Amnistie; Loi No 51-18 portant amnistie, institu-
ant un rgime de libration anticipe, limitant les effets de la dgradation nationale et rprimant les
activits antinationales, 1951 (France); Loi No 53-681 portant amnistie, 1953 (France); Loi No 68-
697 du 31 juillet 1968 portant amnistie, Journal Ofciel, 2 Aug 1968, at 77521.
37
There have been 343 amnesties solely for opponents of the state.
38
There have been 120 mutual amnesties.
39
Amnesty Law (2 March 2001) (Yugo). For a description of this law, see Stefan Racin,
Amnesty Law Arouses Controversy United Press International (Belgrade 26 February 2001);
, Yugoslav Parliament Amnesties Draft Dodgers BBC News (8 February 2001).
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 87
freedom, as they are seen to undermine the sacrices made by those who
served within the military, whilst possibly weakening the communitys
strength at a time when political stability has yet to be achieved.
Furthermore, where individuals avoided military service in order to join
an insurgent organisation, granting them amnesty could be viewed as
legitimising their actions.
The label of opponents of the state is not meant to be any reection of
the legitimacy or otherwise of the actions of these individuals. Within this
category, there is a great disparity between warlords ghting a central
government who commit heinous abuses against civilians, and peaceful
protesters who are interned for campaigning for their civil liberties.
Non-Violent Political Prisoners
During a period of transition, amnesties for political prisoners are fre-
quently a highly contentious issue with members of the former regime
being reluctant to recognise the political motivations behind the actions of
individuals they regard as criminal. McEvoy and others have proposed
ve broad and sometimes overlapping categories of political prisoners.
These are (a) prisoners of war; (b) prisoners of conscience; (c) conscien-
tious objectors; (d) radicalised ordinary prisoners; and (e) politically-
motivated prisoners.
40
These categorisations include those individuals
who have committed violent crimes. For this book, however, individuals
who actively engaged in armed struggle have been excluded from the cat-
egory of political prisoners, falling instead in the opponents category,
whereas, political prisoners are viewed as non-violent individuals who
are imprisoned for expressing their religious or political beliefs through
non-violent means.
41
Often such individuals are imprisoned under repres-
sive laws that would be regarded as unjust within liberal societies.
Similarly, conscientious objectors who are interned for refusing to par-
ticipate in the armed forces due to their ideological or religious beliefs are
treated as political prisoners.
42
As discussed in chapter 1, this narrow
approach to political prisoners was adopted for the database in order to
facilitate the isolation of reparative amnesties.
88 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
40
McEvoy, McConnachie & Jamieson (n 25).
41
Ibid.
42
According to the Amnesty Law Database, 54 amnesties have granted immunity to draft
dodgers and deserters, either as the sole target group of the amnesty or in conjunction with
other groups.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 88
Exiles and Refugees
Many reparative amnesties for political prisoners are combined with
amnesties for exiles. It is common practice to encourage refugees to return
home after a conict and this is encouraged by the international commu-
nity. For example, refugees who ed the ghting in Bosnia were granted
amnesty in the 1995 Dayton Peace Accords.
Case Study 6: Limited amnesties in Bosnia-Herzegovina
Distinguish between Offenders with Different Allegiances 89
As part of the wider wars affecting former Yugoslavia during the 1990s,
Bosnia-Herzegovina endured a brutal conict between 19925, which left
over 100,000 people dead and almost two million displaced. This conict was
characterised by some of the most brutal atrocities of the Balkan wars, includ-
ing the genocide at Srebrenica.
Following NATO involvement in 1995, the war ended with the signing of the
1995 Dayton Peace Accords. These accords divided Bosnia-Herzegovina into
two ethnic entities, the Bosnian Federation and Republika Srpska, and
required the governments of each entity to cooperate with the International
Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY). The accords also made
provision for a limited amnesty in Article VI of Annex 7. This annex aimed to
create conditions where all refugees and internally displaced persons felt
secure to return to their pre-war homes. The amnesty provided is offered to
any returning refugee or displaced person charged with a crime, other than a
serious violation of international humanitarian law . . . This provides for a wide
amnesty that covers political crimes, such as draft dodging and desertion,
whilst adhering to the requirement to cooperate with the ICTY.
Following the initialling of the Dayton Peace Accords on 12 November 1995,
the requirement to enact domestic amnesty laws in the two entities that com-
prise the edgling state soon provoked unrest. These disputes focused on
interpreting the exclusion of war criminals from the amnesties. This was par-
ticularly a concern for Bosnian Serbs living in the suburbs of Sarajevo, many
of whom during the war would have been snipers who red upon civilians in
Sarajevo. Under the terms of the peace accords, these suburbs were due to
revert to the control of the Bosnian Federation, which would have placed the
former snipers under the jurisdiction of courts that they felt were biased
against them.
The Bosnian Federation government was eager to pursue justice for the
crimes committed during the conict in Bosnia, and therefore was reluctant to
enact the amnesty legislation. However, Western ofcials were eager for an
amnesty, to encourage the Bosnian refugees seeking shelter within their bor-
ders to return home, to prevent an exodus of Bosnian Serbs from Sarajevos
suburbs and to ensure that violence did not erupt in these suburbs, which
were due to come under NATO control in December 1995. Consequently,
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 89
However, amnesties to encourage dissidents to return, if introduced by
the dictatorial regime from which they ed can be an effort to bolster its
political support by introducing a populist policy. For example, former
Soviet bloc countries, such as Bulgaria and the Czech Republic, repeatedly
granted amnesties for political exiles who had ed their country after the
communists had assumed power.
As discussed in the previous section, political beliefs can inspire indi-
viduals to become conscientious objectors. Where these individuals ee
across borders to evade military service, they too may subsequently
become the subject of an amnesty. For example, the United States 1974
and 1977 pardons for draft dodgers included those who had ed to
Canada and elsewhere to evade military service.
Finally, the leaders of opposition groups that organise or have facilities
outside the borders of their state are often amnestied when a transition is
90 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
43
Law on Amnesty (Bosnian Federation) (23 February 1996). This law purported to cover
the whole territory of Bosnia-Herzegovina and, as such, was unconstitutional, as the
Federation parliament could not enact laws for Republika Srpska. Consequently, a revised
amnesty law was enacted by the Bosnian Federation in June 1996. This law was replaced by
a further amnesty law in 1999.
these ofcials applied strong pressure on the Federation government, which
responded in February 1996 by introducing a broad amnesty for all criminal
acts related to the conict, except crimes within the jurisdiction of the ICTY.
43
Under the Dayton Peace Accords, the Republika Srpska government was also
required to enact amnesty legislation, which it did in June 1996. This law was
similar to the law enacted in the Federation entity, except that it excluded
draft dodgers and deserters. This was viewed as too restrictive as it prevented
many refugees from returning home. Consequently, following international
pressure, the Bosnian Serb government amended the amnesty law in 1999.
Sources: UNHCR, Amnesty Laws in Bosnia and Herzegovina (UNHCR, Sarajevo
1998); UNHCR, UNHCRs Position on Categories of Persons from Bosnia and
Herzegovina who are in Continued Need of International Protection (UNHCR
1999); UNHCR, Update of UNHCRs Position on Categories of Persons from
Bosnia and Herzegovina in need of International Protection (UNHCR 2000);
William W Burke-White, Protecting the Minority: A Place for Impunity? An
Illustrated Survey of Amnesty Legislation, Its Conformity with International Legal
Obligations, and Its Potential as a Tool for Minority-Majority Reconciliation (2000)
Journal of Ethnopolitics and Minority Issues in Europe; Christine Bell, Peace
Agreements and Human Rights (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2000); UNHCR,
UNHCRs Position on Categories of Persons from Bosnia and Herzegovina in
Continued Need of International Protection (UNHCR 2001); William W Burke-
White, Reframing Impunity: Applying Liberal International Law Theory to an
Analysis of Amnesty Legislation (2001) 42 Harvard International Law Journal 467.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 90
occurring, to enable them to participate in negotiations on new constitu-
tional arrangements. For example, the 1997 Tajik amnesty allowed exiled
opposition leaders to return in order to participate in negotiations.
44
Similarly, the 1990 Beninese amnesty encouraged exiled political leaders
to return to participate in the National Conference,
45
and the 1991
Togolese amnesty permitted the return of hundreds of opponents of
President Eyadema, who then participated in the National Reconciliation
Congress.
46
Alternatively, where they are launching their military strikes
against the government from across a border, insurgents may be offered
amnesty to encourage them to surrender and end their armed campaign.
For example, the 1983 Angolan amnesty offered immunity to UNITA and
FNLA members who had ed to Zambia in 1975.
47
Foreign Nationals
In many transitional contexts, granting amnesty to foreign nationals is
not considered, as very few participated in the conict. However, in other
contexts, large numbers of foreign nationals may become involved as mer-
cenaries or ideological supporters, who often share an ethnic or religious
identity with one of the belligerent groups. When granting amnesty, states
have taken a variety of approaches to foreign nationals within their bor-
ders. In some cases, the amnesty is granted for foreign ghters, to encour-
age them to leave the country. For example, the 2004 Pakistani amnesty
targeted foreign nationals ghting with al-Qaeda, and pledged to repatri-
ate those who surrendered to Pakistani forces to their homelands, rather
than extraditing them to the US.
48
In contrast, many amnesties frequently
exclude foreigners from their provisions. For example, the 2003 amnesty
Distinguish between Offenders with Different Allegiances 91
44
Law on amnesty to the participants of the political and military confrontation in the
republic of Tajikistan (July 1997). For a description, see Chen Ming, Peace Accord Signed to
end 5-year war in Tajikistan Xinhua News Agency (Tehran 28 May 1997); Umed Babakhanov,
Tajik Parliament Approves Amnesty after 5 Years of War Associated Press (Dushanbe 1
August 1997); , Tajik Parliament Adopts Amnesty Law Covering Civil War Period
Agence France Presse (Dushanbe 1 August 1997).
45
ACCPUF, Etudes et Doctrine: NigerLe statut des partis politiques dans les Etats de lAfrique
de lOuest francophone <http://www.accpuf.org/themes/nig_conclusion_annexes.htm>
accessed 20 July 2004.
46
, Togolese President Grants Exiles Amnesty BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (14
January 1991).
47
, UNITAs Reaction to Angolan Amnesty Offer BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
(20 July 1983).
48
, Sherpao offers amnesty to foreign militants in case of surrender, registration
PakTribune (Pakistan 14 September 2004); , Pakistani Governor Offers Amnesty to
Foreign Fighters Agence France Presse (Peshawar, Pakistan 1 April 2004); Pamela
Constable, Pakistans Uneasy Role in Terror War; Conciliatory Approach to Tribal and
Foreign Fighters Leaves US Ofcials Frustrated The Washington Post (Islamabad 8 May 2004)
A08.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 91
in Cte dIvoire excluded mercenaries and other foreigners who fought in
the unofcial militia groups that were used by both sides during the con-
ict.
49
It can be argued that some foreign nationals who become involved in a
conict as ideological supporters should bear greater responsibility than
the local ghters, as, rather than ghting to improve or protect their way
of life, they are exploiting the conict for their own ends. Examples of this
situation could be the involvement of Wahhabi Arab ghters in the
Chechen conicts
50
and the foreign presence in the Iraqi insurgency. For
both these cases, the authorities chose specically to exclude foreigners
when introducing amnesties.
This section has argued that amnesties can be introduced to cover a
diverse array of individuals. These individuals can work for the state or
against it. Even among amnesty recipients of a similar classication, there
can be substantial heterogeneity in the status of the amnesty beneciaries
and the states motivations for amnestying them. Furthermore, selecting
amnesty beneciaries can have implications for a states domestic and
international legal obligations. For example, among amnesties for oppo-
nents of the state, amnesties for political prisoners may not be contentious
and, possibly, may even be required to correct previous legal injustices,
whereas amnesties for those who violently opposed the state may inspire
considerable debate, and may expose the state to domestic and inter-
national legal challenges. Diversity among amnesty recipients can result
from the individual reasons for their actions, and recognition of the diver-
gent reasons has been used to justify amnesty laws in some contexts as will
be discussed below.
CAN AN OFFENDERS REASONS FOR COMMITTING
A CRIME JUSTIFY AN AMNESTY?
Individual criminal responsibility is a central tenet of international crimi-
nal justice and entails that each person can be held accountable for any
breach of criminal rules
51
for which he or she is responsible. However, in
legal proceedings, the intentions of the accused are frequently relied upon
to excuse the punishment, for example, where a killing was committed in
self-defence, or to mitigate the sentence, for example, where the offender
acted under duress. Similarly, the individual reasons and the political con-
ditions that caused offenders to commit violations have often inuenced
the decisions of governments on whether to introduce amnesties.
92 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
49
Loi portant amnistie, 2003 (Cte dIvoire).
50
CW Blandy, Chechnya: Normalisation (Defence Academy of the United Kingdom,
June 2003) P40, 25.
51
Antonio Cassese, International Criminal Law (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2003) 137.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 92
The complexity of human motivation is much analysed in a range of lit-
eratures including psychology, social psychology, and sociology, much of
which is beyond the remit of this book. Therefore, simplifying for the sake
of brevity, three overlapping causes of behaviour will be considered:
(1) ideology; (2) duress; and (3) expected personal gain. These reasons
for criminal behaviour are not mutually exclusive. For example, some per-
petrators may be ideological supporters of a regime and willing to engage
in combat to further their goals, but may nonetheless recoil if forced to
commit certain acts, such as sexual violence or harming children, and will
only commit such actions when they feel under some form of duress.
Similarly, some leaders of dictatorial states may be ideologically commit-
ted to the regimes that they have established, but willing nonetheless to
use their power for personal enrichment.
Individual perpetrators can also overlap certain categories due to their
attempts to ght oppressive regimes. For example, individuals could ini-
tially support a particular ideology, only to become disillusioned as the
organisation becomes more violent and prejudiced against other groups in
society, leading them to turn their attention to combating their former
comrades. This occurred in Europe preceding and during the Second
World War, where some individuals, who initially were sympathetic to
the extreme right-wing parties established in many states, subsequently
switched allegiances and joined the resistance. This change of allegiance
was often taken into account during post-war purges.
52
Similarly, there
were individuals, such as SS ofcer Kurt Gerstein,
53
who claimed that they
only remained part of a repressive system to act as a saboteur and prevent
worse crimes being committed. In many instances, any determination of
who was right and moral in their actions may depend on perspective or
the outcome of the conict. Each category of reasons that may inuence an
individuals decision to act will be discussed below.
Ideology and Political Offenders
In cases of ideological support for regimes or insurgency movements, indi-
viduals may be positively convinced that they are doing the right thing, or
they may simply have no doubts about morality of their behaviour,
particularly when they are only acting as accomplices.
54
This does not
mean, however, that all ideological supporters of an insurgency or state
necessarily believe every aspect of the propaganda, and instead, are likely
Can Offenders Reasons Justify an Amnesty? 93
52
Elster (n 16).
53
For a discussion of the life of Kurt Gerstein, see Valerie Hbert, Disguised Resistance?
The Story of Kurt Gerstein (2006) 20 Holocaust and Genocide Studies 1.
54
Elster (n 16) 137.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 93
to focus only on the parts that are relevant for them. For example, many
French collaborators during the Second World War were willing to work
with the Nazis, not because they were anti-Semitic, but rather because they
were virulently anti-communist.
55
In most cases of ideological devotion to a cause, those involved are not
acting for personal gain, and may even be willing to risk their lives or pos-
sessions for their beliefs. Such a strong attachment to their organisation or
government may be the result of propaganda that aims to indoctrinate its
target audience in the validity or even morality of violent acts by empha-
sising the (perceived) threat to the group or nation.
56
McEvoy explains
how in the Northern Irish prison service many prison guards were willing
to
internalise, adapt and reshape the public perception of what it is they are meant
to be doing, even when the origins of that perception is a product of the public
relations department or was originally envisaged as straightforwardly propa-
gandist.
57
Such transformations enable wrongdoers to embrace and justify their
actions and even believe that they are the lesser evil in comparison to the
threat posed to their people.
In such cases, if perpetrators genuinely, albeit misguidedly, believe that
they are acting for the general good, should their actions be severely
penalised? Although serious human rights violations must be investi-
gated and victims must receive reparations, imposing severe penal sanc-
tions on the perpetrators could risk further entrenching their beliefs,
rather than helping to re-educate and reintegrate them as productive
members of society. This approach could be particularly dangerous where
the propaganda also focused on dehumanising the opponent, in order to
desensitise the combatants to the violence they were committing. In such
cases, the resulting prejudices and mistrust could potentially undermine
any attempts to establish a new democratic government, and therefore
must be one of the key areas of concern for any transitional state.
As discussed in chapter 1, there have been several amnesties where a
government has asserted that it is being merciful in order to rehabilitate
misguided members of society who had taken up arms against the
government after being seduced by opposition propaganda. For example,
the 1979 amnesty in Afghanistan applied to Muslim rebels, army deserters
94 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
55
Ibid 141.
56
For examples where perpetrators have justied their behaviour by focusing on the
greater threat posed to their nation, see Alex Boraine, A Country Unmasked: Inside South
Africas Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Oxford University Press, Cape Town 2000) 129.
57
Kieran McEvoy, Paramilitary Imprisonment in Northern Ireland: Resistance, Management,
and Release (Clarendon Studies in Criminology, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2001) 240.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 94
and exiles who had succumbed to enemy propaganda.
58
Here, words
such as misguided are used to highlight the wrongness of their actions.
The role of propaganda can become even more insidious where there
are long-standing periods of oppression. In these instances, it is argued
that the concept of what is manifestly illegal is undermined, as ever
greater segments of the population are drawn into the oppressive system.
This was a justication provided for the 1946 Italian amnesty,
59
where
Justice Minister Togliatti argued that as every free voice of criticism of the
tyrannical government was forbidden under the Fascist regime, it
became very difcult, above all for the younger generation, to distinguish
between right and wrong.
60
In certain cases, amnesty for individuals who commit crimes due to
ideological belief has been justied by arguing that such individuals are
less in need of punishment than ordinary criminals are, as the former
are more easily rehabilitated and less of a societal threat, especially in the con-
text of a society that has undergone or is undergoing fundamental political
change.
61
Slye explains that
[t]he assumption is that such individuals are driven to commit violent acts
because of their political ideology and sense of justice (or injustice), and that
now that the reason for their decision to commit violent acts is gone they will
revert to being productive and respectful members of society.
62
Similarly, Holbrook asserts that those who commit crimes during a polit-
ical conict rarely pose a threat to society in peacetime as their crimes are
context specic and therefore, the need to punish them and deter them
from future crimes, is rarely present when the circumstances that caused
the conict have abated.
63
Furthermore, OShea argues that
the rationale for punishment is different for political crimes, as the motivations
that inspire their commission can be viewed as seless, altruistic and in
accordance with some perceived higher law, rather than being unremittingly
bad or evil.
64
Can Offenders Reasons Justify an Amnesty? 95
58
, Amins Address to Constitution Drafting Commission BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (Kabul 17 October 1979).
59
Decreto Presidenziale 22 giugno 1946, n 4. Amnistia e indulto per reati comuni, politici e mil-
itari (known as Amnistia Togliatti) 1946 (Italy).
60
Cited in Elster (n 16) 160.
61
Slye (n 20) 181. For a discussion of how ordinary people can be transformed into
human rights violators, see Martha Knisely Huggins, Mika Haritos-Fatouros and Philip G
Zimbardo, Violence Workers: Police Torturers and Murderers Reconstruct Brazilian Atrocities
(University of California Press, Berkeley 2002).
62
Slye (n 20) 1812.
63
Jon Holbrook, War Crimes: Prosecute at any Cost? (2000) Spiked Liberties
<http://www.spiked-online.com/Articles/0000000053B1.htm> accessed 7 November 2005.
64
Andreas OShea, Amnesty for Crime in International Law and Practice (Kluwer Law
International, The Hague 2002) 76.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 95
He further opines that deterrence is unlikely to be effective for political
crimes, as
the political offender possesses a certain amount of courage in confronting the
government that he perceives as unjust or incorrect and is less likely to bend to
the fear of punishment than an offender without such motives.
65
This justication for amnesty need not be accepted unreservedly in all
cases, however, as some individuals who commit crimes for political
motives may also commit further acts of violence, and indeed, may have
always been, or now may have become, comfortable with violence as a
means of social interaction.
66
This may particularly be the case where for
particularly cruel and aberrant acts, where it becomes difcult for the
motivations to provide legitimacy for the means employed. In addition,
Slye uses the ndings of the South African TRC to highlight that certain
political organisations may have deliberately sought individuals who had
committed non-political crimes in the past to further the organisations
political struggle.
67
Furthermore, groups, such as al-Qaeda, that ght for
indenite objectives are likely to continue to be a threat even if some of
their key grievances are addressed. It is possible, however, that the
propensity of the majority of perpetrators to commit further violent crime
after the transition could be reduced by rehabilitation and re-education
programmes, enabling them to be reintegrated into society.
68
Duress
In many conicts or dictatorial regimes, extreme forms of pressure can be
applied to individuals to join organisations or commit certain actions. For
example, individuals may be forcibly conscripted into either state or insur-
gent forces and made to commit violent acts. Such actions may be
imposed as a duty and anyone who refuses to obey them could them-
selves be criminalised or punished.
69
Alternatively, in conicts such as
Rwanda or the former Yugoslavia, duress has been used to force civilians
to commit crimes against each other, even against family members, on
pain of death or serious physical injury. Consequently, those individuals
may view any actions they commit under duress as not criminal, but
96 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
65
Andreas OShea, Amnesty for Crime in International Law and Practice (Kluwer Law
International, The Hague 2002) 77.
66
Slye (n 20) 1812.
67
Ibid 1812.
68
For further discussion of programmes to rehabilitate and reintegrate former perpetra-
tors, see ch 10.
69
Ruth Jamieson, Towards a Criminology of War in Europe in Vincenzo Ruggiero, Nigel
South and Ian Taylor (eds), The New European Criminology: Crime and Social Order in Europe
(Routledge, London 1998) 493.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 96
rather may see themselves as victims. The potential for overlap between
victims and perpetrators will be further discussed below.
The recognition that perpetrators have committed crimes under duress
has been used to justify several amnesty laws: for example, the 1953
French amnesty
70
beneted inhabitants of the Alsace region of France,
who were forced to join the German army during the Second World War
and then participate in the Oradour-sur-Glane massacre, and who were
argued to have been acting under duress.
71
Similarly, the pressure felt by
combatants to follow the orders of their superiors was the justication for
the Argentine Due Obedience law, which will be discussed in greater
detail when considering superior orders.
Self Protection and Personal Gain
In addition to extreme forms of duress, individuals may decide to con-
tinue to work in public sector employment and carry out the policies of a
repressive government, despite being aware that their actions are wrong,
as they wish to insulate themselves from hardship, such as losing their
jobs. These individuals usually do not support the regime ideologically
nor hope to have any personal gain from working for it. They often ratio-
nalise their behaviour by comparing it to that of others who are commit-
ting worse actions.
72
More reprehensibly, other individuals perpetrate human rights
violations or collaborate with oppressive regimes to benet personally.
This could be personal gain in the form of professional advancement or
nancial enrichment, or in the form of using new-found powers to
eliminate competitors and conduct personal vendettas. In these cases, the
individual perpetrators are aware that their actions are wrong, but are pre-
pared to commit them nonetheless,
73
as they feel that for them the poten-
tial rewards outweigh the costs. These individuals are perhaps the most
problematic of all groups of perpetrators, as it is difcult to nd any moral
justication for their behaviour and, consequently, they have frequently
been excluded from amnesty laws.
74
This section has argued that individuals may commit crimes for an
array of reasons, and that, perhaps these reasons can be used to justify an
amnesty. For example, where crimes were committed according to politi-
cal or ideological goals in which the offender believed their actions were
Can Offenders Reasons Justify an Amnesty? 97
70
Loi No 53-112 portant amnistie en faveur des Franais incorpors de force dans les formations
militaires ennemies 1953 (Fr).
71
Elster (n 16) 144.
72
Ibid 144.
73
Ibid 138.
74
This exclusion is based on their actions, and consequently will be discussed further in
ch 3 in the section on economic crimes.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 97
contributing to the greater good, imposing punishment may risk
entrenching their beliefs and destabilising the political transition.
Furthermore, where the political grievances that inspired their crimes are
addressed during the transition, their motivation for committing the
crimes will be removed, and the use of punishment as a deterrence may
not be needed. Where a crime was committed under substantial duress,
this section has argued that punishment may not be appropriate as
the perpetrator can also be described as a victim. This concept will be
discussed below.
VICTIMPERPETRATOR AXIS
As discussed above, the application of duress to individuals may cause
them to become perpetrators against their wishes. Such individuals are
likely to suffer severe trauma because of the actions they were forced to
commit, particularly if they were required to harm their relatives.
Therefore, such individuals can be viewed simultaneously as victims and
perpetrators.
The distinction between victims and those who oppress them can also
be blurred
75
where certain individuals were victims themselves before
becoming perpetrators. For example, an individual may be tortured or
witness the death of a family member, and then feel compelled to partici-
pate in the conict to exact revenge. Conversely, perpetrators may be cap-
tured by enemy forces and tortured, which could also make them victims.
The blurring of the distinction can also occur during the transition. For
example, individuals who have been convinced by propaganda of the
righteousness of their cause may feel victimised during the transition, if
they feel their sacrices are ignored by those for whom they fought, partic-
ularly when the enemy that [they] had been trained to hate and kill was
now invited to the negotiation table.
76
In such cases, the former combat-
ants lose not only their jobs, but the ideological foundations on which they
had built and understood their lives and what they were ghting for.
77
The distinction can also be obfuscated in relation to female combatants
who often
98 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
75
Trudy Govier and Wilhelm Verwoerd, How not to Polarize Victims and
Perpetrators (2004) 16 Peace Review 371, 372. See also Tristan Anne Borer, A Taxonomy of
Victims and Perpetrators: Human Rights and Reconciliation in South Africa (2003) 25
Human Rights Quarterly 1088, and Sarkin (n 19) 823.
76
Sasha Gear, Wishing Us Away: Challenges Facing Ex-Combatants in the New South
Africa (2002) Vol 8 (Violence and Transition Series, Center for the Study of Violence and
Reconciliation, Johannesburg 2002).
77
Ibid.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 98
do not t the usual stereotype of a combatant in that they may not have been
directly involved in the ghting, they may have served armed groups as cooks,
servants, or sexual slaves.
78
Furthermore, during the transition, such women might face shame, preju-
dice, and unwanted or unplanned pregnancies when they are trying to
return to their communities;
79
and their societies may be patriarchal and
impose pressure on women to (re-)submit to often oppressive gender
roles.
80
A further group that bridges the divide between perpetrators and vic-
tims are child soldiers. These children are often among the most vulnera-
ble groups in post-conict situations, as they usually have suffered
traumatic experiences and have limited means of supporting them-
selves.
81
As it is assumed under most legal systems that children are not
criminally responsible for their actions, it is usual for child soldiers not to
be prosecuted and, instead, to be encouraged to participate in rehabilita-
tion programmes. The situation can be more complicated for those who
transit to adulthood whilst in a ghting force,
82
but according to most
legal systems, individuals who committed crimes as children should be
held accountable according to their age when they committed the crime,
rather than imposing adult penalties upon them, and it seems appropriate
to this author that former child soldiers are treated in a similar manner.
In many situations, it may seem to dishonour those who have suffered
to recognise that those responsible for inicting harm upon them are also
victims, but Boraine reminds us that
[t]o think of the perpetrators as victims is not to condone their actions or their
deeds, nor is it to turn away from the many victims whose lives they destroyed
by their activities. It is simply to try to understand something of the ambiguity,
the contradictions, of war, of conict, of prejudice.
83
This recognition of the humanity and suffering of some of the perpetrators
contributed to the understandings of restorative justice that underpinned
the South African TRC.
84
Furthermore, it has been used to justify amnesty
in several contexts. For example, a recognition of the large numbers of
child soldiers in the conicts in Mozambique and Uganda contributed to
VictimPerpetrator Axis 99
78
Lotta Hagman and Zoe Nielsen, A Framework for Lasting Disarmament, Demobilization,
and Reintegration of Former Combatants in Crisis Situations (International Peace Academy,
New York, 1213 December 2002) 7.
79
Ibid 7.
80
Anton Baar, An Analysis of Transitional Economic Reintegration (SIDDR
Reintegration and peace building (paper presented to Working Group 3 of Swedish Initiation
for Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration in New York on 45 June 2005) 4.
81
Beth Verhey, Child Soldiers: Lessons Learned on Prevention, Demobilization and
Reintegration (World Bank 2002).
82
Baar (n 80) 13.
83
Boraine (n 56) 128.
84
For a discussion of the relationship between amnesties and restorative justice, see ch 4.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 99
a desire to allow combatants to return home and become reintegrated into
society.
IMPORTANCE OF RANK: SHOULD STATES DISTINGUISH
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF RESPONSIBILITY?
In recognising that individuals commit crimes and human rights viola-
tions for different reasons, attempts are being made in some transitional
contexts to distinguish between individuals who are perceived to bear dif-
ferent degrees of responsibility. According to the Amnesty Law Database,
to date, 11 per cent of the amnesty laws that provide immunity for state
agents exclude higher-ranking ofcials, and 9 per cent of the amnesty laws
for opponents of the state exclude the leaders of rebel forces or political
movements. The legal implications of such approaches will be explored
below, using case studies.
Amnesty for Subordinates?
Under international law, subordinates are liable for all crimes under inter-
national law that they commit, even when they were following the legally-
binding orders of a superior. This rule applies to orders of both military
and civilian authority, and whatever the rank of the superior authority.
85
Despite this, subordinates can receive mitigated punishment for crimes
committed when they were following orders, provided that certain condi-
tions apply.
86
These conditions can differ among the international tri-
bunals and national courts. Article 33 of the Rome Statute permits a plea
of superior orders where the person did not know that the order was
unlawful or the order was not manifestly unlawful.
87
It continues that
orders to commit genocide or crimes against humanity are manifestly
unlawful.
88
For other crimes, however, the accused may not have realised
an order was illegal, particularly where there had been widespread
propaganda to encourage the opposite viewpoint and where domestic
laws permitted such actions.
Slye has argued that amnesty laws recognising the defence of superior
orders are
less of a threat to the legal legitimacy of the amnesty if we believe that justice is
achieved through . . . process-oriented accountability.
89
100 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
85
Cassese (n 51) 181.
86
Slye (n 20) 1789.
87
ICC St art 33.
88
Ibid art 33.
89
Slye (n 20) 181.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 100
This means that amnesty laws such as South Africas, which required
applicants to publicly associate themselves with a specic violation; to
disclose and acknowledge their specic involvement; and, where appro-
priate, to testify publicly concerning their involvement and to publicly
answer questions from the state, victims, and representatives of individu-
als and communities they harmed could be viewed as meeting the
minimal requirements of justice as reected in international law.
90
He
continues that, in such instances,
the substantive decisions that provide amnesty to individuals who were only
following orders may be more appropriately interpreted as reafrming the
principle that following orders is a mitigating factor rather than an absolute
defence.
91
Amnesties that omit criminal punishment for lower-ranking perpetrators
because they were only following orders, but permit investigation of
crimes and the granting of reparations to victims, could meet international
standards.
92
The defence of superior orders has inuenced the scope of amnesty
laws, such as the 1987 Argentine Due Obedience Law.
93
This law
establishes an irrebuttable presumption that a subordinate who committed a
violation acted under orders without any ability to resist or to assess the orders
lawfulness.
94
In this case, a broad understanding of the term subordinate was
employed to cover
commanding ofcers, subordinate ofcers, non-commissioned ofcers and
members of the rank and le of the Armed Forces, security forces, police force
and prison force.
95
This meant that only those who held the position of commander-in-chief,
area head, sub-area head or head of a security, police or prison force or
superior ofcers who had been legally determined within 30 days of the
enactment of this law to have decision-making powers or were involved
in the drawing up of orders could be prosecuted.
96
The law assumed that
in all cases the individuals who committed crimes
Distinguishing Different Levels of Responsibility 101
90
Ibid 17881
91
Ibid 181.
92
For a discussion of the international standards on the rights to remedy, truth, justice and
reparations, see ch 4.
93
Ley de Obedencia Debida 1987 (Arg).
94
Slye (n 2) 106.
95
Ley de Obedencia Debida 1987 (Arg) art 1.
96
Ibid art 1.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 101
acted under duress, in subordination to a superior authority and following
orders, without having the possibility of resisting or refusing to follow those
orders and of examining their lawfulness.
97
The effect of this law was to leave only the most high-ranking ofcials
open for prosecution. A similar law was implemented in West Germany in
1954, which expressly amnestied deeds committed in the assumption of an
ofcial or legal duty.
98
Even where amnesties are used to help lower-level offenders evade
criminal sanctions for their actions, international law can be argued to
require that the offenders be subject to alternative transitional justice
mechanisms, to encourage or compel them to reveal the truth about their
actions. This would facilitate the gathering of detailed forensic informa-
tion about violations, such as who did what to whom; how, where, and
when a victim died; where a victims body might be found.
99
They could
also explain to victims why certain violations were committed and why
certain victims were targeted. Perhaps even more usefully, they could
point the nger across and up the chain of command by providing evid-
ence on who ordered them to commit the crimes. In this way, amnesties
could be like plea bargains, with individuals who are able to contribute
information that is useful to the investigation of their superiors being able
to obtain an exemption from imprisonment on condition that they admit
to their crimes. This could represent an efcient use of limited prosecuto-
rial resources,
100
by focusing efforts on prosecuting those who are deemed
most responsible.
Amnesty for Superiors?
It is an established principle of international law that superiors can be held
accountable for the actions of their subordinates.
101
This category of most
responsible
102
individuals is usually considered to include the planners,
leaders and persons who committed the most serious crimes,
103
and
102 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
97
Ibid art 1.
98
Gesetz ber den Erla von Strafen und Geldbuen und die Niederschlagung von Strafverfahren
and Bugeldverfahren vom 17.7.1954, BGBl I 1954, pp. 2039 (Law Concerning Release from
Punishment and Fines and the Cancellation of Punitive and Fining Proceedings) 1954
(Germany) para 6.
99
Slye (n 2) 108.
100
Slye (n 20) 1856.
101
ICC St art 28.
102
For a discussion of the approach of international courts to those who are most respon-
sible, see ch 6.
103
Carsten Stahn, Complementarity, Amnesties and Alternative Forms of Justice: Some
Interpretative Guidelines for the International Criminal Court (2005) 3 Journal of International
Criminal Justice 695, 707.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 102
could comprise the political, administrative and military leadership.
104
It
is argued that any level of participation by any such persons is thus suf-
cient to bring them within the category of those to be prosecuted.
105
Therefore, where superiors order the commission of wrongful acts, they
are directly responsible for the commission of the crimes (direct responsi-
bility). Superiors can also be held responsible, however, for crimes that
they did not order, if it can be demonstrated, that the
military commander or person either knew or, owing to the circumstances at the
time, should have known that the forces were committing or about to commit
such crimes
and he or she
failed to take all necessary and reasonable measures within his or her power to
prevent or repress their commission or to submit the matter to the competent
authorities for investigation and prosecution (imputed responsibility).
106
The principle reects the belief that leaders are more culpable and blame-
worthy than their followers
107
and can apply to the leaders of both state
and non-state forces.
108
A strategy of holding leaders accountable can be risky, as they are
generally needed to negotiate peace agreements or transitions. Efforts to
hold them accountable could benet transitional societies, however, as the
public repudiation of their actions could represent a clean break from the
past and the establishment of a new order based on the rule of law.
Furthermore, if they are held accountable, their chances of regaining
power are diminished and the public example of their accountability
could deter others from trying to replicate their actions.
109
Also, focusing
prosecutions on those who are most responsible could represent the most
efcient use of limited prosecutorial resources, where it is not possible to
prosecute every offender.
Approaches to granting amnesty to high-ranking ofcials have been
divergent, with many amnesties offering immunity to leaders and even
granting them a role in government.
110
Other amnesties exempt individuals
with high-ranking military or political status, which was deemed to make
them more culpable for any abuses that occurred. For example, the 1993
Distinguishing Different Levels of Responsibility 103
104
Hassan B Jallow, Prosecutorial Discretion and International Criminal Justice (2005) 3
Journal of International Criminal Justice 145, 152, also argues that, in addition to hierarchal
status, prosecutorial discretion should consider a perpetrators extensive and vicious
involvement in abuses, the nature and gravity of the offences committed, and the geo-
graphic spread of the crimes investigated.
105
Ibid 152.
106
ICC St art 28(1).
107
Slye (n 2) 11011.
108
Zegveld (n 5) 11420.
109
Slye (n 2) 10910.
110
The inclusion of former insurgents in transitional government structures will be
explored further in ch 10.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 103
Albanian amnesty law excludes inter alia persons who were the highest
Communist nomenclature approved by the Council of Ministers.
111
Similarly, the 1946 Italian amnesty law
112
excluded individuals in high
political and military positions in the state. In this instance, however, the
amnesty text failed to dene high and, consequently, the ordinary magis-
tracy and the Cassation interpreted the term broadly and permitted the
release of many high-ranking Fascists.
113
In other transitional contexts,
leaders who were originally exempted from amnesty laws managed subse-
quently to obtain legal immunity, through the introduction of further
amnesties. For example, leaders who were clearly excluded from the 1987
Due Obedience Law in Argentina were subsequently covered by President
Menems 1989 and 1990 pardons.
114
In recent years, increasingly intricate processes have been developed to
treat offenders differently, depending on their perceived level of respon-
sibility. For example, in Timor-Leste, the UN Transitional Administration
established a range of transitional justice mechanisms, including courts, a
truth commission and a community reconciliation process, to address the
divergent levels of responsibility among offenders.
Case Study 7: UNTAETs approach to divergent levels of responsibility
in Timor-Leste
104 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
Timor-Leste was invaded by Indonesia in December 1975 after a period of civil
turmoil and political instability sparked by competing demands for indepen-
dence or integration into Indonesia. The invasion brought massive human rights
violations and military clashes between Indonesian forces and the
independence movement, FRETILIN (Frente Revolucionria do Timor-Leste
Independente) which continued until 1979. The rebellion against Indonesian rule
continued less violently for the duration of the occupation. In January 1999,
widespread violence reignited when a pro-Indonesia militia, supported by the
Indonesian armed forces, attempted to use violence and intimidation to coerce
the Timorese population into supporting Indonesian rule in an UN-organised
referendum. This violent approach failed and, in August 1999, the referendum
resulted in an over-whelming vote in favour of independence. Following the
referendum, the pro-Indonesia militias and the Indonesian armed forces
unleashed a campaign of brutal oppression characterised by murders, assaults,
rapes, torture, arson, looting and plunder. Thousands of individuals were
killed, and 200,000 were forcibly displaced from their homes. In response to this
111
Law on the Status of Politically Ex-Convicted and Prosecuted People by the Communist
Regime, Law No 7748, amended by the law No 7771 (7 Dec 1993) 1993 (Alb) art 5.
112
1946 Amnistia Togliatti (n 59).
113
Franco Ferraresi, The Radical Right in Postwar Italy, in Stein Ugelvik Larsen and
Bernt Hagtvet (eds), Modern Europe after Fascism (Social Science Monographs, Columbia
University Press, New York 1998).
114
Presidential Decree of Pardon, No 1002/89 (6 October 1989) (Arg); Presidential Decree
of Pardon, No 2741/90 (29 December 1990) (Arg).
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 104
Distinguishing Different Levels of Responsibility 105
violence, in September 1999, the UN Security Council authorised the Australian-
led International Force for East Timor (INTERFET) to intervene, and on
25 October 1999, UN Security Council resolution 1272/1999 established the UN
Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET).
UNTAET took a diverse approach to addressing the crimes of the past. First, on
6 June 2000 it established panels within the District Court of Dili with exclusive
jurisdiction over serious crimes.
115
Simultaneously, efforts were underway to
establish the Comisso de Acolhimento, Verdade e Reconciliao de Timor-Leste,
(CAVR) to investigate the atrocities, promote reconciliation and reintegrate
persons accused of having committed less serious crimes in the context of the
political conicts in the territory between 25 April 1974 and 25 October 1999.
The CAVR was created on 13 July 2001 by UNTAET Regulation 2001/10.
The serious crimes panels and the truth commission were designed to oper-
ate simultaneously and to complement one another. Offenders were assigned
to an institution according to the crimes that they had committed, with those
individuals responsible for serious crimes such as murder, rape and torture
facing prosecution, and individuals who had committed minor offences being
dealt with by the truth commission. Offenders are required to apply to the
truth commission for a Community Reconciliation Process (CRP). Their appli-
cations are then referred to the Ofce of the General Prosecutor who then
determines which institution is appropriate. The criteria for determining who
had committed a minor offence are:
1. The nature of the crime committed by the applicant [or deponent in the
Timorese terminology]: for example, offences such as theft, minor assault,
arson (other than that resulting in death or injury), the killing of livestock or
destruction of crops might be appropriate cases to form the subject of a
Community Reconciliation Process.
2. The total number of acts which the deponent committed.
3. The deponents role in the commission of the crime, that is, whether the
deponent organised, planned, instigated or ordered the crime or was follow-
ing the orders of others in carrying out the crime.
116
Where the truth commission, with the support of the Ofce of the General
Prosecutor, felt that a deponent met these criteria, it could conduct a CRP
hearing, where it would hear from the applicant, the victim and members of
the community,
117
in order to establish the truth, before deliberating on the
most appropriate form of reconciliation.
118
An act of reconciliation could
include community service, reparation, public apology, and/or other acts of
contrition.
119
115
Serious crimes within this regulation were genocide, war crimes, crimes against human-
ity, murder, sexual offences and torture. See Regulation No 2000/15 on the Establishment of
Panels with Exclusive Jurisdiction over Serious Criminal Offences, 2000 (Timor-Leste) art 1.3.
116
Regulation No 2001/10 on the Establishment of a Commission for Reception, Truth
and Reconciliation in East Timor 2001 (Timor-Leste) s 1.
117
Ibid s 27.1.
118
Ibid s 27.7.
119
Ibid s 27.7.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 105
The CRP resembles an amnesty, as it suspends criminal prosecutions and
penal sanctions for the crimes that it covers; but there have also been calls for
a formal amnesty in Timor-Leste to cover both those who have already been
convicted and those who have not. To date, the drafts of the proposed
amnesty would exclude crimes which are punishable by more than ve years
imprisonment, but the proposed amnesty could grant sentence reductions for
these crimes, allowing some individuals who have been imprisoned since
1999 to go free. Furthermore, it would be applicable to pro-Indonesia militias
and the Indonesian armed forces, as well as members of the Timorese inde-
pendence movement. The proposed amnesty was passed by the Timorese
parliament in 2004 by 24 votes to 18, but has not yet been promulgated.
120
At
the time of writing, it is unclear whether the proposals have been abandoned
in favour of the Commission of Truth and Friendship (CTF).
The CTF is a joint Timorese-Indonesian commission, which was created in
March 2005 and began functioning in August 2005. It aims to investigate the
truth of the referendum-related violence, but not to seek retribution. This
commission has the power to recommend amnesty for individuals who are
responsible for serious human rights violations, provided that they admit the
truth of their actions and apologise to their victims. The Indonesian and
Timorese governments will ultimately decide whether to act on the amnesty
recommendations. At the time of writing, it was not yet clear whether the
commission would use this power.
Sources: Hansjrg Strohmeyer, Making Multilateral Interventions Work: The UN
and the Creation of Transitional Justice Systems in Kosovo and East Timor (2001)
25 Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 107; Carsten Stahn, Accommodating Individual
Criminal Responsibility and National Reconciliation: The UN Truth Commission for
East Timor (2001) 95 American Journal of International Law 952; Suzannah Linton,
New Approaches to International Justice in Cambodia and East Timor (2002) 94
International Review of the Red Cross 93; Spencer Zifcak, Restorative Justice in East
Timor: An Evaluation of the Community Reconciliation Process of the CAVR (Asia
Foundation, Timor Leste 2004); Open Society Justice Initiative, Unfullled
Promises: Achieving Justice for Crimes Against Humanity in East Timor (Open
Society 2004); Judicial System Monitoring Programme, The IndonesiaEast Timor
Truth and Friendship Commission: More Friendship, Less Truth, Impunity from
the Law (JSMP 2005).
120
On 4 June 2007, Timor-Lestes parliament passed a second amnesty law entitled Law
on Truth and Measures of Clemency for Diverse Offences. In contrast to the other transi-
tional justice measures that are the legacy of Indonesian occupation, this law applies to
crimes committed between 20 April 2006 and 30 April 2007 in relation to elections which
were marred by violence. On 16 August 2007, the Court of Appeals found the proposed law
unconstitutional, ruling that the limited time period to which it applies was discriminatory.
106 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 106
A more complex process was developed in Rwanda to deal with the large
number of perpetrators implicated in the 1994 genocide.
Case Study 8: Rwanda, gacaca and international justice
Distinguishing Different Levels of Responsibility 107
From independence, Rwanda endured periodic episodes of mass violence
between the rival groups, Hutus and Tutsis, particularly in 1963, 1974 and
1991, each of which were followed by an amnesty for those involved. The 1991
amnesty followed the outbreak of civil war in October 1990. This war contin-
ued until the signing of a peace accord in 1993. The power-sharing provisions
within this accord are one of the many factors which led to the genocide of
Tutsi (and some Hutu) individuals by extremist Hutu militias between April
and June 1994, in which over a million people were killed. The violence ended
when the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), an armed group of Tutsi exiles,
entered Rwanda and seized control.
Following the establishment of the RPF government, led by President Paul
Kagame, the government decided on a policy of retributive justice against
those who engaged in the genocide (although not against RPF members who
engaged in reprisal killings). They consulted international legal and policy
experts
121
and, subsequently, the Rwandan National Assembly adopted a
policy of classication which established categories of genocide suspects,
who have their cases heard before the International Criminal Tribunal for
Rwanda, national courts or gacaca tribunals, depending on the severity of
their actions. These categorisations have been altered since their original
introduction in 1996, and their most recent formulation provides:
First Category:
1. The person whose criminal acts or criminal participation place among [sic]
planners, organisers, imitators, supervisors and ringleaders of the genocide
or crimes against humanity, together with his or her accomplices;
2. The person who, at that time, was in the organs of leadership, at the
national level, at the level of Prefecture, Sub-prefecture, Commune, in politi-
cal parties, army, gendarmerie, communal police, religious denominations or
in militia, and has committed these offences or encouraged other people to
commit them, together with his or her accomplices;
3. The well known murderer who distinguished himself or herself in the loca-
tion where he or she lived or wherever he or she passed, because of the zeal
which characterised him or her in killings or excessive wickedness with
which they were carried out, together with his or her accomplices;
4. The person who committed acts of torture against others, even though they
did not result into death, together with his or her accomplices;
121
Jessica Raper, The Gacaca Experiment: Rwandas Restorative Dispute Resolution
Response to the 1994 Genocide (2005) 5 Pepperdine Dispute Resolution Law Journal 1.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 107
108 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
5. The person who committed acts of rape or acts of torture against sexual
organs, together with his or her accomplices;
6. The person who committed dehumanising acts on the dead body, together
with his or her accomplices.
The Prosecutor General of the Republic publishes, at least twice a year, a list of
persons classied in the rst category, forwarded by Gacaca Courts of the Cell.
Second Category:
1. The person whose criminal acts or criminal participation place among
killers or who commit acts of serious attacks against others, causing death,
together with his or her accomplices; [sic]
2. The person who injured or committed other acts of serious attacks with the
intention to kill them, but who did not attain his or her objective, together
with his or her accomplices;
3. The person who committed or aided to commit other offences persons,
without the intention to kill them, together with his or her accomplices.
Third Category:
The person who only committed offences against property. However, if the
author of the offence and the victim have agreed on their own, or before the
public authority witnesses an amicable settlement, he or she cannot be prose-
cuted.
122
Under this system, those perpetrators who are designated as Category 1
offenders are eligible for prosecution before ordinary courts and will be sen-
tenced according to their crimes and whether they pleaded guilty or repented.
In addition, they face a total loss of their civil rights. Category 2 offenders will
appear before gacaca courts and will be eligible for imprisonment. Finally,
Category 3 offenders will also be judged within the gacaca system, but instead
of imprisonment will be required to perform community service or come to a
settlement with the victim.
The gacaca courts, which hear the crimes of the lower-level offenders, are
adapted from a traditional form of justice. They operate within small com-
munities and work to identify victims and perpetrators and impose appro-
priate punishments, ranging from community service to life imprisonment.
The judges, who are elected by the community, have to determine whether
the accused is guilty and whether they have confessed to their crimes. For
those who plead guilty, they often do not have to return to prison as they have
already served several years waiting for their trial to take place.
122
Loi Organique portant organisation, comptence et fonctionnement des Juridictions Gacaca
charges des poursuites et du jugement des infractions constitutives du crime de gnocide et dautres
crimes contre lhumanit commis entre le 1er octobre 1990 et le 31 dcembre 1994 2004 (Rwanda) art
51.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 108
The Rwandan system combines prosecutions for higher-level offenders
with non-penal sanctions for lower-level offenders. The Minister of Justice
claimed that this classication system was necessary because genocide
crimes were often the result of strong state supervision and control.
123
This section has demonstrated that both state law and international law
distinguish between offenders based on their perceived levels of responsi-
bility. Under international law, subordinates should be held accountable
for crimes under international law even where they were following
orders, although the existence superior orders can potentially be used as a
factor to mitigate punishment. Consequently, where subordinates are
encouraged to participate in alternative justice mechanisms and provide
information on their actions, with the amnesty only excusing them from
penal sanctions, the amnesty could be viewed as fullling the needs of
justice. Furthermore, encouraging subordinates to reveal information on
their actions could provide evidence to facilitate domestic or international
prosecutions of those who are most responsible for the policies of oppres-
sion. This section has illustrated these arguments using case studies to
show that when introducing amnesties some states have recognised that
perpetrators hold different levels of responsibility for periods of human
rights violations, and have used this recognition has been used to justify
suspending punishment for lower-level offenders.
Distinguishing Different Levels of Responsibility 109
Sources: Erin Daly, Between Punitive and Restorative Justice: The Gacaca Courts in
Rwanda (2002) 34 Journal of International Law and Politics 355; Amnesty
International, Gacaca: A Question of Justice, AI Index AMR 47/007/2002 (2002);
Ervin Staub, Justice, Healing and Reconciliation: How the Peoples Courts in
Rwanda can Promote Them (2004) 10 Peace and Conict 25; Allison Corey and
Sandra C Joireman, Retributive Justice: The Gacaca Courts in Rwanda (2004) 103
African Affairs 73; William A Schabas, Genocide Trials and Gacaca Courts (2005) 3
Journal of International Criminal Justice 879; Jessica Raper, The Gacaca Experiment:
Rwandas Restorative Dispute Resolution Response to the 1994 Genocide (2005) 5
Pepperdine Dispute Resolution Law Journal 1; Jacques Fierens, Gacaca Courts:
Between Fantasy and Reality (2005) 3 Journal of International Criminal Justice 896;
Mark A Drumbl, Law and Atrocity: Settling Accounts in Rwanda (2005) 31 Ohio
Northern University Law Review 41; Coel Kirby, Rwandas Gacaca Courts:
A Preliminary Critique (2006) 50 Journal of African Law 94.
123
Raper (n 121) 32.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 109
INDIVIDUAL v BLANKET AMNESTIES
In choosing to amnesty groups or organisations, states either apply
amnesty uniformly to all members of a group or require the members who
wish to receive amnesty to apply individually. Alternatively, amnesties
could have no links to a particular group and instead could be open to all
citizens who wish to apply.
Where states choose to require individual applications, they must
establish a process to administer them.
124
First, they must decide who will
process the applications: the courts or specically-designed commissions.
Many countries have chosen their judicial systems to administer amnesties
in the context of their investigations into human rights abuses. This arises
most often in the case of blanket amnesties, where the courts determine
merely whether amnesty can be used as a defence if a challenge is brought
against an individual defendant.
125
Alternatively, where the legal infra-
structure has collapsed or been compromised by the period of conict or
repression, it may be necessary to establish an independent commission to
determine amnesty applications, particularly where there is likely to be a
large number of individual applications. Where such commissions are
established, the experience of truth commissions to date indicates that they
must be adequately resourced by the national government, possibly with
the assistance of international actors.
126
Furthermore, the author believes
that it is desirable that, as with truth commissions, the appointed commis-
sioners be impartial and representative of the population.
127
Secondly, the government must decide whether the amnesty will
remain in effect if the groups that it applies to reject it either by public
statements or by their actions, such as continuing their armed campaign.
Often, if groups decline amnesty offers, in practice the amnesties become
void. However, in some cases, members of an organisation may be willing
to apply for amnesty even where their leaders have rejected it. Therefore,
the approach taken by the government will depend on the context and the
unity of the targeted organisation. Furthermore, some amnesties are intro-
duced with the expectation that the insurgent leadership will reject it, but
with the hope that the lower ranks will seize the opportunity to rejoin
society, thereby weakening the insurgency.
110 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
124
A state must also decide what conditions are appropriate and what should happen
where an individual or group breaches the conditions of a conditional amnesty. For a dis-
cussion of this issue, see ch 4.
125
The role of national courts in implementing amnesty laws will be explored in ch 5.
126
Priscilla B Hayner, Unspeakable Truths: Confronting State Terror and Atrocity (Routledge,
New York 2001) 2234.
127
Ibid 217 and Jeremy Sarkin, Promoting Justice, Truth and Reconciliation in Transitional
Societies: Evaluating Rwandas Approach in the New Millennium of Using Community
Based Gacaca Tribunals to Deal with the Past (2000) 2 International Law FORUM du droit inter-
national 112, 118.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 110
Can Amnesties Prevent Individuals From Proving their Innocence? 111
To date, states are increasingly favouring individualised amnesties,
although this has not yet formed the majority of cases. This process should
be encouraged according to Sarkin, who argues
[i]f perpetrators apply for amnesty individually, they are more likely to be seen
as taking responsibility for their actions, which can promote reconciliation at
least on an individual level. If they must do somethingprovide the details of
their crimes, look into the eyes of their long-suffering victims, or simply apolo-
gisethey are holding themselves accountable to the community at large and to
the victim in particular.
128
In this way, amnesties can be related to other transitional justice mechan-
isms, thereby increasing accountability for perpetrators.
129
Therefore, this
section argues that although an amnesty may target members of particu-
lar organisations, it is desirable that the amnesty beneciaries are required
to make individual applications, rather than automatically beneting
from the amnesty by virtue of their membership of an organisation.
Furthermore, individualising amnesty applications enables individuals to
decide whether they wish to participate in the programme.
CAN AMNESTIES PREVENT INDIVIDUALS FROM PROVING
THEIR INNOCENCE?
While for the majority of amnesty beneciaries obtaining immunity from
prosecution is a valuable asset, for other individuals amnesty may not be
such an attractive proposition. Under normal circumstances, amnesty is
based upon an assumption of guilt, as it is designed to protect someone
who has committed a crime from legal penalties. This means that certain
individuals who feel that their actions were not criminal may be unwilling
to accept an amnesty, either because their actions were politically-
motivated or committed in self-defence in the face of oppressive policies,
or because the individuals were innocent of any crime. For example, some
members of the Mouvement des forces dmocratiques de Casamance (MFDC)
objected to the 2004 Senegalese amnesty law following their habitual dis-
course that they had done nothing wrong but simply acted to defend their
nation.
130
This also proved to be a problem with the 1990 Indemnity
Act in South Africa,
131
where imprisoned members of the ANC refused to
128
Jeremy Sarkin and Erin Daly, Too Many Questions, Too Few Answers: Reconciliation
in Transitional Societies (2004) 35 Columbia Human Rights Law Review 661, 721.
129
For a more in-depth discussion of the way in which amnesty canw be related to other
transitional justice mechanisms, see ch 4.
130
Mark Evans, Senegal: Mouvement des Force Dmocratiques de la Casamance, (Chatham
House, 2004) AFP BP 04/02, 15.
131
Indemnity Act No 35 1990, as amended by Indemnity Amendment Act, No 124 1992
(S Afr).
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 111
apply for indemnity arguing that this implied they had accepted guilt in
their opposition to an unjust system.
132
The problem was worsened by the
forms that the applicants for indemnity had to complete, as
one of the questions in the application asked prisoners if they subscribed to
peaceful solutions and development if the organisation of which they were a
member did not.
Many prisoners refused to answer this question and had to be encouraged
to do so by the ANC leadership.
133
The question of appeal mechanisms against the granting of amnesty (as
opposed to the refusal of an amnesty) is not generally addressed in the
terms of an amnesty law, although there have been a few exceptions. For
example, the 1951 French amnesty law declared that amnesty could not
constitute an obstacle for someone wishing to prove his or her inno-
cence.
134
The 1991 Rwandan amnesty law contained a similar provision.
135
Even where such provisions are excluded, individuals may still be able to
bring legal challenges. For example, Valentin Varennikov, a leader in the
1991 coup attempt in Russia refused to accept the 1994 amnesty,
136
saying
he wanted to be tried so he could be vindicated in court. He maintained
that he had done nothing wrong because he had been trying to save the
crumbling Soviet Union. Varennikov was acquitted by the military branch
of the Supreme Court of charges of high treason in August 1994.
137
As everyone has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty
according to law
138
under international law, in addition to most domestic
legal systems, it is desirable that future amnesty laws incorporate provi-
sions to enable individuals to prove their innocence. This view was
expressed in the Updated Set of Principles on impunity, which provided:
(c) Insofar as it may be interpreted as an admission of guilt, amnesty cannot be
imposed on individuals prosecuted or sentenced for acts connected with the
peaceful exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression. When they
have merely exercised this legitimate right, as guaranteed by articles 18 to 20 of
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and 18, 19, 21 and 22 of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the law shall consider any
112 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
132
Kate Savage, Negotiating the Release of Political Prisoners (Research report written
for the Northern Ireland Programme at the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard,
2000).
133
Ibid.
134
Loi No 51-18 portant amnistie, instituant un rgime de libration anticipe, limitant les effets
de la dgradation nationale et rprimant les activits antinationales 1951 (Fr) art 19.
135
Loi no. 60/91, Amnistie gnrale et voie de solution au problme des rfugis (JO 1991, p 1930)
1991 (Rwanda) art 3.
136
Decree, On Declaring an Amnesty in Connection With the Adoption of the
Constitution of the Russian Federation, 1994 (Russ).
137
, Russian Court Acquits Last 1991 Coup Defendant Facts on File Inc (18 August
1994) 587.
138
ICCPR art 14.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 112
judicial or other decision concerning them to be null and void; their detention
shall be ended unconditionally and without delay;
(d) Any individual convicted of offences other than those to which paragraph
(c) of this principle refers who comes within the scope of an amnesty is entitled
to refuse it and request a retrial, if he or she has been tried without benet of the
right to a fair hearing guaranteed by articles 10 and 11 of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights and articles 9, 14 and 15 of the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, or if he or she was convicted on the basis
of a statement established to have been made as a result of inhuman or degrad-
ing interrogation, especially under torture.
139
Amnesty should not be imposed on any individuals and, instead, individ-
uals should retain their right to trial to prove their innocence. However,
this may be difcult to implement in practice, due to the fragile legal
infrastructure that exists in most transitional states, and the right of states
under international human rights law to limit the right to freedom of opin-
ion and expression in times of public emergency.
CONCLUSION
This chapter has explored the legal considerations that can inuence a
states decision on whom to amnesty. First, a state is required under
domestic and international law to treat all its citizens equally. This posi-
tion is undermined by the inherent inequality that usually exists between
state forces and opposition groups. Where amnesty is introduced into sit-
uations of pre-existing inequality, it can either contribute to restoring
equality or worsen the imbalances that already exist. The situation can be
improved where an amnesty is granted only to opponents of the state to
award them similar favourable legal conditions to state agents who have
already been granted impunity through measures such as indemnity laws.
Inequality can be worsened, however, where amnesty is only granted to
state agents or the winning side in a conict. Where an amnesty worsens
inequality, it may undermine any attempts to promote reconciliation by
increasing tensions and bitterness between the parties.
Secondly, perpetrators are not a homogenous group and within groups
of wrongdoers, there are divergent levels of involvement in the commis-
sion of crimes, with higher-ranking ofcials issuing orders and designing
policies and lower-level agents executing the orders.
140
Furthermore,
Conclusion 113
139
UNCHR Updated Set of principles for the protection and promotion of human rights
through action to combat impunity (8 February 2005) UN Doc E/CN4/2005/102/Add1
(prepared by Diane Orentlicher), Princ 24. These principles are not binding on states but are
intended to reect international standards on impunity.
140
Elster (n 16) 119.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 113
offenders may have differing levels of autonomy when committing their
actions, with some offenders being subjected to duress in order to force
them to commit crimes. When deciding whom to amnesty, states should
be inuenced by the international legal doctrines of superior orders and
command responsibility. These principles provide that individuals who
have committed or ordered crimes under international law should be
held accountable, but that the existence of superior orders could be a
mitigating factor during sentencing. This could perhaps allow for indi-
viduals who were following orders to be investigated or required to par-
ticipate in truth-recovery mechanisms, but to benet subsequently from
an amnesty to shield them from penal sanctions. Such a policy could even
complement selective prosecutions of those who are most responsible,
with the testimony of subordinates contributing to the evidence against
their superiors.
Using the Amnesty Law Database, this chapter has demonstrated that
states are more inclined to introduce amnesty laws to benet their oppo-
nents than their own personnel;
141
and that, in the majority of cases where
state agents were offered protection, this was combined with protection
for their adversaries. This decision to move away from self-amnesties can
positively affect the domestic and international legitimacy of an amnesty.
Furthermore, it appears that states are becoming increasingly likely to dif-
ferentiate between the perceived levels of culpability, with those who are
deemed most responsible facing more severe sanctions than lower level
offenders, although this is not yet an overwhelming trend.
The assessment of which groups of offenders benet from amnesty laws
is essential to any analysis of the permissibility of amnesties under inter-
national law, as decisions to grant blanket amnesty to groups of offenders
could violate international law, where the targeted groups are responsible
for perpetrating crimes under international law. Furthermore, the inclu-
sions of the leaders of state and non-state forces within the scope of
amnesty laws could affect the status of the principles of command respon-
sibility under international law.
In addition to the legal implications of the personal scope of the
amnesty, the decisions on who to include or exclude from an amnestys
scope could have political repercussions. For example, where there are
many child soldiers in a conict, public opinion may be supportive of an
amnesty, and indeed campaign for the government to introduce one. In
contrast, where state agents are responsible for a campaign of repression
and violence, a self-amnesty to benet them could provoke further unrest.
Furthermore, as this chapter has argued, amnesties can provide recogni-
tion that individuals who commit human rights violations are not a mono-
lithic group, and that in some instances, victims and perpetrators may
114 The Personal Jurisdiction of Amnesty Laws
141
Although state agents may benet from other measures, such as indemnity laws.
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 114
overlap, particularly where individuals commit crimes under duress. In
this way, an amnesty that is coupled with truth-recovery mechanisms
could help rival communities within a transitional society accept that their
opponents also suffered, and that not every member of the rival commu-
nity represents a dangerous threat. It is hoped that the growth of such
understanding could pave the way for reconciliation.
Conclusion 115
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 115
(D) Mallinder Ch2 20/8/08 13:16 Page 116
3
Granting Immunity?
The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
INTRODUCTION
T
HE MATERIAL SCOPE of amnesty laws is the most contentious
issue relating to their introduction, with amnesty laws that cover
serious human rights violations often provoking heavy domestic
and international criticism. Furthermore, this aspect of amnesty laws has
the greatest potential to contribute to the development of customary inter-
national law and hence produce binding obligations on national govern-
ments.
When introducing an amnesty, a government must decide carefully
which crimes to include or exclude from its provisions. This decision can
be inuenced by the laws objectives, the domestic legal rules on
amnesties and the states obligations under international law. Although,
as this chapter will argue, political concerns often take precedence over
legal obligations. Furthermore, when describing the material scope of the
amnesty in the legislation, the case studies explored in this research indi-
cate several potential approaches available to governments. First, the
amnesty could apply broadly to all crimes committed within specied
dates or connected to the dictatorship or conict. This broad approach
could be restricted, however, by including a list of crimes for which the
amnesty does not apply, such as crimes under international law.
Secondly, the amnesty could be restricted to political and related crimes.
The criteria for determining what constitutes a political crime will be
explored below. Where the amnesty covers only political crimes, the most
serious actions could be excluded on the grounds of proportionality.
Thirdly, the amnesty could be restricted by specifying that it can only be
granted for a specic list of offences. Typically, these lists would cover
offences such as draft-dodging and desertion, illegal possession of
weapons or distribution of propaganda. Each of these different
approaches and the crimes that are amnestied could affect the efcacy
and legitimacy of the amnesty process.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 117
This chapter will begin by explaining how crimes have been categorised
within the Amnesty Law Database, before providing a statistical overview
of the trends in amnestying each category of crimes. Subsequently, the
legal obligations on states for each category and the related state practice
will be considered, using treaty and customary international law and case
studies.
1
There will also be a discussion of the ways the material scope of
amnesty can be restricted, for example, with geographic or temporal con-
straints.
This chapter will argue that the scope of amnesty and the context in
which the crimes occurred can have differing implications for a states
obligations, as, although crimes under international law can impose a
duty on states to prosecute or extradite, not all political transitions are
characterised by abuses reaching the threshold of crimes under inter-
national law. It will further argue that not all amnesties are problematic
under international law, as states have standing to amnesty political
crimes against themselves, although dening which crimes are political
can be a complex issue and will be explored further below. Finally, the
chapter will demonstrate that although states are increasingly excluding
crimes under international law from their amnesty laws, this behaviour is
not yet sufciently widespread to be considered as state practice for cus-
tomary international law.
WHICH CRIMES ARE GRANTED AMNESTY?
Dening which actions are criminal can be highly ideological and politi-
cal, both under international law and within any national jurisdiction.
Critical criminological studies have revealed the
power of the state in criminalising particular behaviour (usually the crimes of
the weak and the poor) while condoning or even in some instances encouraging
the crimes of the rich and powerful.
2
Similarly, political forces can inuence which crimes are included within
the terms of an amnesty.
To analyse the crimes that states choose to amnesty, the crimes were
allocated to the following categories in the Amnesty Law Database: crimes
under international law; political crimes; crimes against civilians; and
economic crimes. For each of these categories, information was compiled
on whether the amnesty included or excluded the relevant crimes, and
118 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
1
The domestic and international case law relating to the duty to prosecute will be consid-
ered in greater depth in Part II.
2
Kieran McEvoy, Kirsten McConnachie and Ruth Jamieson, Political Imprisonment and
the War on Terror in Yvonne Jewkes (ed), Handbook on Prisons (Willan Publishing,
Cullompton 2007).
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 118
whether the crimes must have occurred within specic regions or between
specic dates. These categorisations were identied using the academic
literature on amnesties, which focuses predominantly on the duty to pros-
ecute crimes under international law.
Each amnesty law can apply to either one or several of these categories,
and these categories can overlap. Furthermore, when amnesties are intro-
duced within dictatorial, conict or transitional contexts, they can be
designed to cover the crimes within one or several of the categories, with
blanket amnesties commonly covering all types of crimes.
The typology is further complicated as many crimes fall between differ-
ent categories. For example, crimes against civilians can, when particu-
larly severe, also be crimes under international law. Furthermore, it is
often problematic to determine which category of crimes is applicable to
particular actions. For example, if several civilian deaths occur, should
they be treated as murder or crimes against humanity? It can also be dif-
cult to distinguish between economic crimes and political crimes. For
example, non-state actors often commit economic crimes, such as robbery
and extortion to raise funds for their political struggle. Such crimes,
although economic, have clear political objectives. Within the Amnesty
Law Database, any crime with economic consequences is recorded as an
economic crime, but where it was also political, this has been noted.
Furthermore, distinguishing between political crimes and common
crimes that are committed by members of political organisations or within
political contexts can be very contentious, as any determination often
involves a degree of subjectivity. Different amnesties have taken different
approaches to this issue, as will be discussed below.
3
Within the database,
crimes have been recorded according to the terms of the amnesty itself and
how it was implemented. However, where there is uncertainty due to a
lack of specicity in the amnesty itself, common crimes that do not appear
to be political have been recorded as crimes against civilians, whereas
offences committed against public institutions or ofcials were treated as
political. For example, if an insurgent murdered an off-duty police ofcer,
this would be considered political for the purposes of the database,
although the police ofcer was not acting in an ofcial capacity at the time
of his death.
Categorising amnesty laws can be further complicated, where there are
difculties in obtaining the full text of the legislation (where such a text
exists), or where the terms of the amnesty law itself were deliberately
ambiguous. For example, even when it can be proven that crimes under
international law did take place, it can be difcult to ascertain whether the
governments deliberations took the international character of the crimes
into account, thereby deliberately amnestying or excluding crimes under
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 119
3
For a more in-depth discussion of political crimes, see pp 135ff.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 119
international law, or whether the government simply considered the
domestic legal system and political constraints. This can be particularly
problematic when amnesties for crimes committed during a civil war pro-
vide immunity for actions that are characterised as domestic crimes, rather
than as crimes under international law. For example, in a conict where
murders of civilians were widespread and systematic, the amnesty text
may cover murder, but not crimes against humanity. This means that per-
petrators of crimes under international law can benet from the amnesty,
without the nature of the crimes that they committed being recognised or
acknowledged by the state.
4
States can also create ambiguity in the terms
of the amnesty by using phrases such as ferocious and barbarous acts,
5
atrocious acts,
6
or blood crimes, but failing to dene these terms. This
ambiguity contributes to concealing the truth about events and denies
acknowledgement to the victims. Further ambiguity can occur when,
rather than explicitly listing all crimes that fall within its scope, amnesties
cover all crimes that occurred between certain dates, which enables states
to avoid explicitly declaring that they are amnestying gnocidaires or tor-
turers. For the purposes of this book, amnesties have been described as
including crimes under international law only where conicts that were
characterised by crimes under international law resulted in blanket
amnesties for all crimes that occurred;
7
or where there is specic evidence,
such as court proceedings, to demonstrate that the amnesty was applied
to crimes under international law. For this reason, the proportion of laws
granting amnesty for crimes under international law is probably under-
represented in the data.
Finally, difculties can be encountered when an amnesty law is
designed to cover a category of crimes, but specically excludes certain
actions that would fall within this category. For example, an amnesty may
cover political crimes but exclude economic crimes with political objec-
tives such as drug trafcking to raise funds for an insurgency. Where this
occurs the amnesty is treated as including the relevant category of crimes,
120 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
4
Cassese, discussing prosecutions for crimes that are classed as ordinary crimes
although they are of sufcient gravity to be classed as crimes under international law,
argues that the classication of the offence as an ordinary crime presupposes a deliberate
(or unconscious) proclivity to misrepresent the very nature, hence to belittle the seriousness, of
international crimes. In other words, the national court shows that, either intentionally or
unwittingly, it is not cognizant of both the international dimension and the gravity of the
criminal offence. See Antonio Cassese, International Criminal Law (Oxford University Press,
Oxford 2003) 34950.
5
Ley 37 de 1981 por la cual se declara una amnista conditional, Diario Ofcial No 35760, 14 May
1981, p 442 (Colom).
6
Ley 35, Diario Ofcial No 36133 bis, p 529 por la cual se decreta una amnista y se dictan nor-
mas tendientes al restablecimiento y preservacin de la paz, 19 November 1982 (Colom) (This
amnesty provided immunity to torturers, despite exempting atrocious crimes).
7
See eg Peace Agreement between the Government of Sierra Leone and the Revolutionary
United Front of Sierra Leone (Lom Accord) 1999 (Sierra Leone) art IX(2).
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 120
and the specic exceptions are detailed in the Amnesty Law Database
within the exclusion section, so one amnesty can simultaneously include
and exclude the same category of crimes.
The distribution of the inclusion and exclusion of each category of
crimes in 494
8
amnesty laws is shown in Figure 7. As described above, one
amnesty may cover several categories of crimes and consequently be
counted within multiple columns in this Figure. From this, it is clear that
the vast majority of amnesty laws were offered for political crimes,
although 22 per cent of amnesties excluded all or some political crimes.
9
Immunity for crimes against civilians was granted in 24 per cent of
amnesties; however, an almost equal number of amnesties excluded some
form of these crimes. This meant usually amnestying lower-level offences
against civilians, but denying immunity for serious crimes such as murder
or sexual violence. Only 19 per cent of the amnesties included in the data-
base have explicitly included protection for some or all of the crimes under
international law, although, for many amnesties the crimes occurring,
although serious, did not reach the threshold of crimes under inter-
national law. This means that, of the amnesties where crimes under
international law were a factor, the proportion granting amnesty for
crimes under international law would be higher. Among amnesties for
crimes under international law, there have been some disparities between
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 121
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Crimes under
international law
Political crimes Crimes against
individuals
Economic crimes
Type of crimes
Included
Excluded
Figure 7: Treatment of categories of crimes in amnesty laws
8
Crimes could not be clearly ascribed to a category for 12 amnesties of the 506 in the data-
base, due to a paucity of data on the amnesty processes concerned.
9
That is, 108 amnesties out of 494 excluded political crimes.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 121
the regions. For example, 36 per cent of amnesties excluding crimes under
international law were enacted in Europe and Central Asia, whereas only
18 per cent of amnesties including crimes under international law
occurred in this region. In contrast, 35 per cent of amnesties for crimes
under international law were enacted in Sub-Saharan Africa and only
20 per cent of the amnesties excluding crimes under international law
came from this region.
When the patterns relating to amnestying crimes under international
law are looked at over time, it becomes apparent that the number of
amnesties, both including protection for crimes under international law
and excluding immunity for them, has increased since the Second World
War, particularly after 1985, as shown in Figure 8 below. Perhaps the most
signicant period in the relationship between crimes under international
law and amnesties is after the UN changed its approach to amnesty laws
with the signing of the Lom Accord on 7 July 1999.
10
Between this date
and the end of December 2007, 34 amnesty laws have excluded some form
of crimes under international law, which has inspired human rights
activists to point to a growing trend to prohibit impunity for these crimes.
This research has found, however, that during the same period,
28 amnesty laws have granted immunity to perpetrators of crimes under
international law, and that consequently it is too early to suggest that an
international custom has emerged.
122 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
Figure 8: Relationship of amnesties to crimes under international law
Jan 1980Dec 2005
25
20
15
10
5
0
1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 1945 2005
Year
N
o
o
f
A
m
n
e
s
t
i
e
s
Included
Excluded
10
For a discussion of the approach of the UN to amnesty laws, see ch 8.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 122
Amnestying Atrocities? Can States Amnesty Crimes Under
International Law?
Of all the categories of crimes to be considered, those which have been
designated as international cause the most concern to policy makers and
human rights activists, and place the most restrictions on those who wish
to introduce amnesty laws. Crimes under international law are crimes
which emanate from a treaty or customary international law and are bind-
ing on individuals without intermediate provisions of municipal law.
11
They focus on prohibiting the most serious violations of international
humanitarian and human rights law and, due to their severity, have been
described as affecting
the interests of the world community as a whole because they threaten the peace
and security of humankind and because they shock the conscience of humanity.
12
These crimes subject states to obligatio erga omnes
13
to prosecute or extra-
dite perpetrators.
There is no widely accepted list of current crimes under international
law, with some experts such as Bassiouni identifying 22 crimes under
international law,
14
and others a much more limited list. For the purpose
of this research, crimes under international law will refer to genocide,
war crimes, crimes against humanity, torture, and disappearances, as
these have the most relevance to amnesties in the context of political tran-
sitions. For each of these crimes, the extent of states obligations can vary
according to each states treaty ratications, the status of the crime under
customary international law, the nature of the violence, and the context in
which it occurs.
Furthermore, as discussed in the introduction, there are different types
of amnesty, and consequently, any assessment of whether an individual
state has breached its obligations under international law could depend on
whether the amnesty is accompanied by other mechanisms. In addition,
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 123
11
The Encyclopedia of Public International Law, cited in Kristin Henrard, The Viability of
National Amnesties in View of the Increasing Recognition of Individual Criminal
Responsibility at International Law (1999) 8 MSU-DCL Journal of International Law 595, 606.
These crimes also give rise to universal jurisdiction, which will be discussed in ch 7.
12
M Cherif Bassiouni, International Crimes: Jus Cogens and Obligatio Erga Omnes (1996)
59 Law and Contemporary Problems 63, 68.
13
[Latin: towards all] (in international law) Obligations in whose fullment all states
have a legal interest because their subject matter is of importance to the international com-
munity as a whole. It follows from this that the breach of such an obligation is of concern not
only to the victimized state but also to all other members of the international community.
Thus, in the event of a breach of these obligations, every state must be considered justied in
invoking the responsibility of the guilty state committing an internationally wrongful act.
Denition from Elizabeth A Martin (ed), A Dictionary of Law (Oxford Paperback Reference,
5th edn Oxford University Press, Oxford 2002).
14
Cited in Henrard (n 11) 607.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 123
the motivation for the amnesty would also be signicant where a state was
consciously balancing its duty to prosecute against its other international
duties, such as the duty to prevent further human rights violations in its
attempts to end the violence.
15
Where this is the case, it is not apparent
that the duty to prosecute should trump the duty to protect. Indeed, the
current UN Secretary General has repeatedly emphasised in his speeches
the importance of the responsibility to protect,
16
and in December 2007, he
underlined this point by appointing a special adviser on the issue.
17
This
duty to prevent violations is contained in the international treaties relating
to serious violations, but has frequently been overlooked in favour of
requirements to prosecute, which will be explored below.
International humanitarian law has outlined the duty of states to prose-
cute serious war crimes that occur during international conicts in the
four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and Additional Protocol I of 1977. The
conventions require each state party to criminalise grave breaches,
18
and
stipulate that each party
shall be under the obligation to search for persons alleged to have committed, or
to have ordered to be committed, such grave breaches, and shall bring such per-
sons, regardless of their nationality, before its own courts.
19
Alternatively, each party has the option to extradite the accused to face
prosecution in the territory of another state party.
20
This wording places a
clear obligation on state parties to prosecute or extradite those responsible
for ordering or committing serious war crimes during international con-
icts. Scharf claims the commentary to the conventions conrms that this
obligation to prosecute is absolute, meaning inter alia that states parties
can under no circumstances grant perpetrators immunity or amnesty from
prosecution for grave breaches.
21
124 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
15
The notion of balancing the duty to prosecute against other international duties, such as
the duty to prevent, is taken from the following conference presentation: Mark Freeman,
Debating the New Intolerance for Amnesties, Transitional Justice and International Law con-
ference (Oxford, 23 June 2007).
16
See, eg, Ban Ki-Moon, press release, Secretary-Generals UN Day Speech (3 October
2007) UN Doc SG/SM/11203.
17
UNSC, Letter dated 31 August 2007 from the Secretary-General addressed to the
President of the Security Council (7 December 2007) UN Doc S/2007/721.
18
Each convention lists its own grave breaches, and they include crimes such as wilful
killing of protected persons, torture or inhuman treatment, wilfully causing suffering or seri-
ous injury to body or health, extensive destruction of property not justied by military neces-
sity, wilfully depriving a civilian of the right to a fair and regular trial, and unlawful
connement of civilians. For a discussion, see Michael P Scharf, The Letter of the Law: The
Scope of the International Legal Obligation to Prosecute Human Rights Crimes (1996) 59 Law
and Contemporary Problems 41, 43.
19
Geneva Conventions (adopted 12 August 1949, entered into force 21 October 1950),
common arts 49 (Geneva I), 50 (Geneva II), 129 (Geneva III), and 146 (Geneva IV).
20
Ibid.
21
Ibid 44.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 124
The situation is less clear regarding internal conicts, as common article
3 of the Geneva Conventions, relating to non-international conicts, does
not contain an explicit duty to prosecute.
22
Furthermore, Additional
Protocol II, which regulates warfare in non-international conicts that
meet strict criteria
23
provides that:
At the end of hostilities, the authorities in power shall endeavour to grant the
broadest possible amnesty to persons who have participated in the armed con-
ict, or those deprived of their liberty for reasons related to the armed conict,
whether they are interned or detained.
24
The Commentary on the Additional Protocols asserts that this provision is
intended
to encourage gestures of reconciliation which can contribute to re-establishing
normal relations in the life of a nation which has been divided.
25
According to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), this
amnesty should only cover combat immunity, which would ensure that
a combatant cannot be punished simply for participating in the conict,
including killing enemy combatants, as long as he respected international
humanitarian law.
26
This means that, where war crimes were committed,
for example, by a failure to apply the minimum standards of common arti-
cle 3 of the Geneva Conventions,
27
the ICRC argues it was still intended
that the perpetrators would be prosecuted, and that an amnesty law
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 125
22
Henrard (n 11) 617.
23
Additional Protocol II only applies to conicts that take place in the territory of a High
Contracting Party between its armed forces and dissident armed forces or other organised
armed groups which, under responsible command, exercise such control over a part of its ter-
ritory as to enable them to carry out sustained and concerted military operations and to
implement this Protocol. In fact, it specically excludes situations of internal disturbances
and tensions, such as riots, isolated and sporadic acts of violence and other acts of a similar
nature. See Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating
to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conicts (Protocol II), 1977 art 1.
24
Ibid art 6(5).
25
Yves Sandoz, Christophe Swinarski and Bruno Zimmerman (eds), Commentary on the
Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 (International
Committee of the Red Cross, Geneva 1987) [4618].
26
Letter from Dr Toni Pfanner, Head of the Legal Division, ICRC Headquarters, Geneva,
cited in Douglass Cassel, Lessons from the Americas: Guidelines for International Response
to Amnesties for Atrocities (1996) 59 Law and Contemporary Problems 197, 218. For a discus-
sion, see Ronald C Slye, The Legitimacy of Amnesties under International Law and General
Principles of Anglo-American Law: Is a Legitimate Amnesty Possible? (2002) 43 Virginia
Journal of International Law 173, 178.
27
These minimum standards prohibit the following crimes against protected persons
(ie, civilians and combatants who are hors de combat): (a) violence to life and person, in
particular murder of all kinds, mutilation, cruel treatment and torture; (b) taking of hostages;
(c) outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment;
(d) the passing of sentences and the carrying out of executions without previous judgment
pronounced by a regularly constituted court, affording all the judicial guarantees which are
recognised as indispensable by civilised peoples. Common art 3 of Geneva Conventions
1949.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 125
would not cover such crimes even during an internal conict. The ICRC
recently reiterated this position in their study of customary international
humanitarian law, although this study considered only a small number of
amnesty laws.
28
The duty to prosecute war crimes occurring during
internal conicts has been reinforced by the jurisprudence of the ad hoc
tribunals and the provisions of the Rome Statute of the ICC.
29
In contrast, the Plenary Meeting Notes for Additional Protocol II seem
to show that the provision was regarded as a recommendation designed
to promote reconciliation in post-conict societies
30
and that a proposal
to exclude individuals who committed crimes against humanity from
any amnesty was rejected.
31
Therefore, it would appear that the duty to
prosecute serious war crimes occurring during non-international armed
conicts, remains permissive rather than mandatory. This view has been
supported by the South African Constitutional Court in the AZAPOcase
32
and the Salvadorean Supreme Court of Justice in its decision on the
Amnesty Law.
33
Since the Second World War, several subject-specic conventions relat-
ing to crimes under international law have been formulated to combat
impunity, beginning with the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.
34
This convention requires con-
tracting parties to enact appropriate legislation to enforce the convention
and to provide effective penalties for those guilty of committing acts of
genocide.
35
It provides that prosecutions would be conducted either
before the national courts of the state where the crime occurred or before
a competent international tribunal.
36
Although this international tribunal
did not exist for most of the time this convention has been in force,
37
the
126 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
28
Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck (eds), Customary International
Humanitarian Law, Vol 1: Rules (ICRC and Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2005), rule
159. Volume Two of this study looks at Practice and discusses six treaties (Additional
Protocol II, plus ve peace treaties), which provide for amnesty; and 17 amnesty laws from 11
states. In addition, it looks to other sources of practice including national legal provisions gov-
erning the grant of amnesty, military manuals, national and international case law and UN
resolutions. However, in each case, the number of sources employed is comparatively small.
29
ICC St art 8(2)(c).
30
Karen Gallagher, No Justice, No Peace: The Legalities and Realities of Amnesty in
Sierra Leone (2000) 23 Thomas Jefferson Law Review 149, 177.
31
Ibid 1778.
32
Azanian Peoples Organization (AZAPO) v the President of the Republic of South Africa (CCT
17/96) (8) BCLR 1015 (CC) [3032] (S Afr).
33
Corte Suprema de Justicia, 20/05/93, Resolucin de la Demanda de Inconstitucionalidad
presentada por Joaqun Antonio Cceres Hernndez, No 10-93 [1993] (El Sal)
34
There are a number of other subject-specic conventions relating to international
crimes, such as those that address apartheid or terrorism.
35
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 1948 (opened
for signature 9 December 1948, entered into force 12 January 1951) 78 UNTS 1021, (Genocide
Convention) art 5.
36
Ibid art 6.
37
The ICC will now perform the role of the envisaged international tribunal.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 126
duty to prosecute contained in the conventions provisions is undeniable
and cannot be avoided by introducing amnesty laws. The scope of the
Genocide Convention to address situations of serious human rights viola-
tions is, however, limited, as the denition of genocide is restricted to
actions taken with an intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, eth-
nical, racial or religious group.
38
This denition suggests two limitations.
First, the requirement of specic intent literally to destroy a substantial
portion of the population of a target group
39
does not necessarily apply to
many conict situations. Secondly, the omission of acts directed against
political groups,
40
means that many situations of mass violence, such as
South Americas dirty wars, are not included in the scope of the Genocide
Convention, and hence excluded from its obligation to prosecute.
The 1984 Convention Against Torture or Inhuman or Degrading
Treatment or Punishment places an obligation on each state party to crim-
inalise torture in its legal system and impose appropriate penalties on per-
petrators.
41
According to the convention, torture can only be committed
by or at the instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence of a public ofcial
or other person acting in an ofcial capacity.
42
Therefore, acts which may commonly be described as torture but are
perpetrated by members of armed groups ghting against the state do not
trigger an obligation to prosecute under this convention. The convention
requires any state party, in which an alleged torturer is present, to investi-
gate the facts
43
and, if appropriate, submit the case to its competent
authorities for the purpose of prosecution or extradite the suspect.
44
This
wording is more ambiguous than the explicit obligations outlined in the
Genocide Convention, and consequently has caused many commentators
to argue that there is a degree of permissiveness regarding the manner in
which a state must carry out its duties under the Convention Against
Torture, as it does not explicitly require a prosecution to take place, let
alone that punishment be imposed and served.
45
It seems, instead, to leave
the decision on whether to prosecute alleged torturers to the prosecutorial
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 127
38
Genocide Convention, art 2.
39
Scharf (n 18) 45.
40
Ibid 47.
41
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment
(adopted 10 December 1984, entered into force 26 June 1987) 1465 UNTS 85 (CAT), art 4.
42
Ibid art 1(1). This understanding of torture as a discrete crime applies in peacetime. In
contrast, when torture occurs during a conict and can be treated as a war crime, or where it
is sufciently systematic and widespread to be considered a crime against humanity, private
individuals can be held accountable. See Antonio Cassese, International Criminal Law (Oxford
University Press, Oxford 2003) 118.
43
Convention Against Torture, art 6(2).
44
Ibid art 7(1).
45
Diane F Orentlicher, Settling Accounts: The Duty to Prosecute Human Rights
Violations of a Prior Regime (1991) 100 Yale Law Journal 2537, 2604.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 127
authorities. The prosecutors may, after considering the case, decide not to
proceed for a number of reasons such as a lack of evidence, or because they
believe that the prosecution would not be in the public interest, perhaps
because it would risk instigating further violence. The scope for prose-
cutorial determinations on whether to proceed indicate that the duty to
prosecute torture, although explicit, is not mandatory.
Forced disappearance has recently moved towards recognition as an
international crime. It was rst prohibited by the Inter-American
Convention on Forced Disappearances of Persons, in which state parties
undertook
to punish within their jurisdictions, those persons who commit or attempt to
commit the crime of forced disappearance of persons and their accomplices and
accessories.
46
The UN has recently created a Convention for the Protection of All
Persons from Enforced Disappearance, which was approved by the UN
Human Rights Council on 23 June 2006,
47
and has been signed by 72 states,
with one ratication.
48
This convention will require each state party to
take the necessary measures to ensure that enforced disappearance con-
stitutes an offence under its criminal law,
49
and if it has a person alleged
to have committed an offence of enforced disappearance within its terri-
tory to extradite the person or submit the case to its competent authorities
for the purpose of prosecution.
50
It continues that the authorities should
take their decision on whether to proceed with the prosecution in the
same manner as in the case of any ordinary offence of a serious nature
under the states domestic law.
51
Furthermore, the Convention allows for
[m]itigating circumstances, in particular for persons who, having been impli-
cated in the commission of an enforced disappearance, effectively contribute to
bringing the disappeared person forward alive or make it possible to clarify
cases of enforced disappearance or to identify the perpetrators of an enforced
disappearance.
52
These mitigating circumstances may, depending on the precise operation
of national law, have an impact on the penalty imposed.
53
Therefore, it
128 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
46
Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons, 1994 art 1.
47
UNHRC International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced
Disappearance Res 2006/. . . (23 June 2006) UN Doc A/HRC/1/L.2.
48
OHCHR, International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced
Disappearance: Ratications and Reservations (19 April 2007) <http://www.ohchr.org/
english/countries/ratication/16.htm> accessed 27 January 2007.
49
International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance
art 4.
50
Ibid art 11.
51
Ibid art 11.
52
Ibid art 7(2).
53
Susan McCrory, The International for the Protection of all Persons from Enforced
Disappearance (2007) 7 Human Rights Law Review 545, 553.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 128
appears that the duty to prosecute disappearances under this convention
will be similar to the obligations imposed by the Convention Against
Torture.
The relationship between amnesties and crimes under international law
is signicant for the development of customary international law, and
particularly for understanding the extent of the duty to prosecute crimes
against humanity, as this group of offences has not been codied. The
recognition of the criminality of crimes against humanity under inter-
national law does not automatically imply a duty to prosecute.
54
This duty
must be found by considering the existence or absence of relevant domes-
tic legislation; UN General Assembly resolutions; and the judgments of
domestic courts. Whilst strong support for this duty might resonate from
some sources, such as the UN General Assembly resolutions, these reso-
lutions are not binding. Indeed, states continue to introduce amnesty laws
for crimes against humanity. For example, on 10 November 2000 Angolan
president, Jos Eduardo dos Santos, stated I am presenting a law to the
National Assembly, to grant amnesty to individuals, who have committed
crimes against humanity in armed conict, if they renounce the war.
55
The law was approved by the Angolan parliament on 29 November 2000,
with 112 votes in favour and 16 against.
56
In addition to states introducing amnesties for crimes that occurred
within their jurisdiction, state practice is also evident from the involve-
ment of states in peace agreement mediations or treaty negotiations. As
will be explored further in chapter 8, there are numerous examples where
states and international organisations have supported negotiations and
peace agreements which offered amnesties to combatants. Indeed, many
international actors have offered nancial or material support to amnesty
processes following their implementation.
57
Furthermore, the lack of con-
sensus on the issue of amnesty among the states negotiating the Rome
Statute of the International Criminal Court illustrates that a rm state
practice has not yet been established.
58
Therefore, whilst there might be a permissive duty to prosecute, it can-
not yet be said to be mandatory, as state practice does not reect a general
recognition of the norm. Furthermore, for much of the period since the
Nuremberg judgments, crimes against humanity have been understood
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 129
54
Andreas OShea, Amnesty for Crime in International Law and Practice (Kluwer Law
International, The Hague 2002) 205.
55
, Angola; President Offers Amnesty Angola Peace Monitor (London 30 November
2000).
56
, Parliament passes amnesty bill BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (2 December
2000).
57
For a detailed analysis of state practice in relation to amnesties, see Charles P Trumbull,
Giving Amnesties a Second Chance (2007) 25 Berkeley Journal of International Law 283, 2969.
58
The negotiations on amnesty at the Rome Conference will be discussed in more depth
in ch 6.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 129
to require a nexus to armed conict, although the International Criminal
Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) has moved away from this
position and delegates at the Rome Conference declined to include it in the
ICC Statute.
59
Nonetheless, this nexus may still apply for crimes against
humanity committed during much of the post-war period.
When individual case studies are analysed to determine the impact that
a states perception of its legal obligations had on the scope of its amnesty,
it appears that amnesties for crimes under international law have often
been specically designed to full political objectives, without regard for
legal duties. For example, the 1972 Simla Agreement
60
between India and
Pakistan provided inter alia amnesty for 195 Pakistani soldiers who had
been accused of crimes against humanity and genocide. In this instance,
the amnesty was used as a trade-off to obtain Pakistans recognition of
Bangladeshs independence and to persuade Pakistan to drop its case
against India at the International Court of Justice.
61
Here it is clear that the
perpetrators of crimes under international law were used as pawns in a
wider political dispute, and that consequently the states concerned felt
that they did not have to prosecute these individuals, if doing so conicted
with their other goals. Political objectives were also paramount in the
introduction of the 1953 French amnesty law,
62
which was specically
designed to grant immunity to French citizens who had been conscripted
into the German army and then forced to perpetrate massacres. Here, the
state was willing to amnesty crimes against humanity to promote national
unity. Amnesty for crimes under international law was also regarded as a
precondition for peace in South Africa, where amnesty
63
was applied to
apartheid-era crimes that could be described as crimes against humanity
provided they were viewed as having political motives (although the
crime of apartheid itself was not addressed). Here, it was considered nec-
essary to amnesty these crimes to ensure a stable transition to democracy,
as explored in Case Study 9.
In contrast to amnesties that are designed to grant immunity for crimes
under international law, there are an increasing number that exclude some
or all of such crimes. For example, crimes against humanity were explic-
itly excluded in the 1987 Nicaraguan amnesty law.
64
In this instance, there
were political benets for the Sandinista government in denying amnesty
for these crimes, as its opponents had been convicted of crimes under
130 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
59
Darryl Robinson, Dening Crimes Against Humanity at the Rome Conference
(1999) 93 American Journal of International Law 43, 456.
60
Simla Agreement on Bilateral Relations between India and Pakistan 1972.
61
Scharf (n 18) fn 100.
62
Loi No 53-112 portant amnistie en faveur des Franais incorpors de force dans les formations
militaires ennemies, 1953 (Fr).
63
Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act, 1995 (S Afr).
64
Ley de Amnista para Detenidos por Violacin de la Ley de Mantenimiento del Orden y
Seguridad Pblica, 1987 (Nicar) art 2.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 130
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 131
From 1948 South Africa was ruled by a white minority government, which
enforced a brutal policy called apartheid based on the separation of individu-
als of different races. This resulted in hundreds of thousands of individuals
being resettled and suffering discrimination. Those who opposed the regime
were tortured and murdered. The repression was so severe that apartheid
itself has been outlawed as a crime against humanity in an international con-
vention. Despite the repression, armed opposition groups did arise, including
the African National Congress (ANC), and these groups also engaged in
crimes under international law, such as torture and disappearances, albeit on
a smaller scale than the state violence.
In 1990, negotiations began between the government and the ANC to ensure
a transition to democratic rule. In order to facilitate these talks, the govern-
ment released many members of the ANC from prison and granted tempo-
rary immunity from prosecution to ANC members in exile. The talks resulted
in the creation of an interim constitution, which initially did not mention an
amnesty. But, as a result of a last-minute compromise between the outgoing
and incoming governments, and in response to threats of violence from
extreme right-wing groups, provisions for amnesty and the South African
Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) were added in an epilogue.
Following the adoption of the interim constitution, efforts were made to
engage with the public by conducting consultations across South Africa with
individuals, community groups, and political parties, before the enactment of
the legislation to create the TRC.
The Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act came into effect on
15 December 1995. It differed from previous truth commissions by compris-
ing three committees: (1) Committee on Human Rights Violations, to hear the
testimony of victims; (2) Committee on Amnesty, to decide whether to grant
amnesty following individual applications; and (3) Committee on Reparation
and Rehabilitation, to recommend reparations measures to the government.
It was intended that amnesty would only be offered for acts associated with
a political objective in exchange for full disclosure of the facts. The scope of
political crimes was viewed as including crimes under international law. This
was seemingly the most contentious aspect of the TRCs work and has been
debated in many academic papers and newspaper articles both within and
outside South Africa.
The process of exchanging amnesty for truth meant that although, like many
other amnesty processes the South African amnesty was born from a political
comprise during a transition in which none of the parties had a monopoly on
power, amnesty came to be viewed not simply a necessary compromise, but
also as a virtuous action. This perception was based on a number of factors,
including a perception that granting truth in exchange for amnesty rather
than formal prosecutions offered a more inclusive, restorative approach to
Case Study 9: Amnesty in Exchange for Truth in South Africa
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 131
132 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
past crimes that could foster reconciliation, rather than reinforcing differences
between communities. It was also argued that granting amnesty resonated
more closely with indigenous cultural traditions, such as ubuntu, which call
for tolerance rather than retribution. The work of the TRC was also viewed as
essential in establishing a common history, and the amnesty was seen as a
necessary part of the process of memorialisation, without which only a lim-
ited or partial truth would be revealed. The chair of the TRC, Archbishop
Desmond Tutu, was instrumental in developing these conceptions of the
TRCs work.
The Amnesty Committee received 7,116 applications, mostly from lower-
level offenders, and granted amnesty to 16 per cent of the applicants. The
majority of the applications denied were refused because they related
to common crimes, rather than political offences, and therefore were ineligi-
ble.
To be effective, the bargain of amnesty in exchange for truth requires that eli-
gible offenders who do not apply for amnesty or fail to comply with its con-
ditions will face prosecution. However, since the Amnesty Committee held its
nal public hearings in 2000, very few prosecutions have been pursued. And
now, it seems highly unlikely that any will take place as the National
Prosecuting Authority has issued a prosecution policy for past crimes, which
resembles the mechanisms in place under the Amnesty Committee, but with
broader criteria for who is eligible, and without a requirement that the
information revealed be made public. At the time of writing, this prosecution
policy was the subject of legal challenges launched by victims and human
rights organisations before the domestic courts in South Africa.
Sources: John Dugard, Retrospective Justice: International Law and the South
African Model in A James McAdams (ed), Transitional Justice and the Rule of law in
New Democracies (University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame IN, 1997); John
Dugard, Is the Truth and Reconciliation Process Compatible with International Law?
An Unanswered Question (1997) 13 South Africa Journal of Human Rights 258; John
Dugard, Reconciliation and Justice: The South African Experience (1998) 8
Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems 277; Desmond Tutu, No Future with-
out Forgiveness (Rider, London 1999); Antjie Krog, Country of my Skull (Jonathan
Cape, London 1999); Charles Villa-Vicencio and Wilhelm Verwoerd (eds), Looking
Back, Reaching Forward: Reections on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of
South Africa (Zed Books, London 2000); Alex Boraine, A Country Unmasked: Inside
South Africas Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Oxford University Press, Cape
Town 2000); Richard A Wilson, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South
Africa: Legitimizing the Post-apartheid State (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
2001); Jeremy Sarkin, Carrots and Sticks: The TRC and the South African Amnesty
Process (Intersentia, Antwerp 2004); Antje Pedain, Was Amnesty a Lottery? An
Empirical Study of the Decisions of the Truth and Reconciliation Commissions
Committee on Amnesty (2004) 121 South African Law Journal 785; Graeme Simpson
and Nahla Valji, Backroom Deals with Apartheid Perpetrators undermine TRC
Rationale The Sunday Independent (South Africa 29 July 2007).
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 132
international law committed before July 1979, and the Sandinistas were
reluctant to release them from prison.
65
More recently, in the amnesty
process in Afghanistan in 2005, immunity was offered to rank and le
members of the Taliban provided they were not linked to al-Qaeda or
responsible for crimes against humanity.
66
Here, the amnesty was used to
weaken the Taliban, but it is possible that by excluding the perpetrators of
crimes against humanity, the Afghani government was seeking to re-
emphasise the organisations responsibility for these crimes whilst failing
to address similar crimes committed by other actors, who are supportive
of the regime. This viewpoint is reinforced by the introduction of a further
amnesty in Afghanistan in March 2007, which granted impunity for the
serious human rights violations committed by warlords, many of whom
were in the government or parliament.
67
Where a regime chooses to exclude crimes under international law from
an amnesty, it is not always possible to tell whether it is doing so to com-
ply with its international obligations or simply to respond to domestic
pressures. Similarly, where the text of an amnesty law states that it specif-
ically excludes crimes that are contrary to international law, the exclusion
may be a response to international pressure. For example, the limited
amnesty laws which have been introduced in the Balkans following the
conicts in the region were often the result of international pressure to cre-
ate amnesties to encourage refugees to return home, but also to co-operate
with the work of the ICTY.
68
Similarly, the 1999 Lusaka Agreement pro-
vided amnesty for combatants in the Democratic Republic of Congo, but
excluded gnocidaires,
69
mass killers and perpetrators of crimes against
humanity
70
who had to be handed over to the ICTR.
A further problem with the exclusion of crimes under international law
is that many amnesties will exclude crimes that resulted in the death of the
victim, but will allow amnesty for torturers where the victim survived. For
example, the 1991 Angolan amnesty law simply excluded crimes leading
to death committed by members of the armed forces.
71
Similarly, the 1987
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 133
65
John J Moore Jr, Note, Problems with Forgiveness: Granting Amnesty under the Arias
Plan in Nicaragua and El Salvador (1991) 43 Stanford Law Review 733.
66
Carlotta Gall, Afghanistan Offers Amnesty to Wanted Taliban Rebels The New York
Times (Kabul, Afghanistan 9 May 2005); Ron Synovitz, Afghanistan: Karzai Conrms
Amnesty Offer is for all Willing Afghans Radio Free Europe (Prague 10 May 2005).
67
National Reconciliation Charter (March 2007) (Afghanistan).
68
An obligation to cooperate with the ICTY was contained in the amnesties in Bosnia-
Herzegovina; Croatia; FYR Macedonia; and Kosovo. In addition, the 2001 amnesty in
Yugoslavia exempted crimes against humanity, although it did not make a specic reference
to the ICTY.
69
Lusaka Ceasere Agreement, 1999 (Dem Rep Congo) ch 8.2.2. This provision related to
members of the Interahamwe, armed militias who carried out genocide in Rwanda in 1994,
before eeing to the DRC.
70
Ibid Annex A, ch 9.2. Other war criminals just had to be handled.
71
, Angola Decrees Amnesty to Criminals Xinhua News Agency (Luanda 16 July
1991).
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 133
Ugandan amnesty law excluded murder, kidnapping, genocide and rape,
but did provide immunity to torturers.
72
Although Angola has yet to rat-
ify the Convention Against Torture, Uganda became a state party the year
before it introduced the amnesty law, but nonetheless felt able to amnesty
torturers.
Even where crimes under international law are clearly excluded from
the provisions of an amnesty, the process can be further complicated dur-
ing implementation. First, as discussed in chapter 2, where there are large
numbers of offenders, it is unlikely that every perpetrator of crimes under
international law will be investigated and prosecuted. Secondly, the
excluded crimes under international law are often not fully incorporated
into domestic law, which may permit individuals to benet from an
amnesty under national law when it would have been denied using the
broader denitions recognised in international law.
73
This is particularly
likely where the judiciary were corrupted by the former regime, causing
them to interpret amnesty laws in as wide a manner as possible to benet
more perpetrators than was intended.
Where the screening process of those eligible for amnesty is conducted
by an independent commission, there can also be difculties when dealing
with the complex denitions of crimes under international law, particu-
larly where the commissioners are not appropriately trained legal profes-
sionals. This problem arose in Algeria after the 1999 amnesty,
74
where,
although serious human rights violations were ofcially excluded from
the law, in practice, the probation committees tended to exonerate repen-
tis after a cursory examination, according to victims rights groups.
75
Furthermore, screening processes to exclude perpetrators of crimes under
international law may be constrained by many of the same difculties that
can afict courts during transitional periods, such as a lack of evidence
and personnel. Furthermore, where an independent amnesty commission
is granted wider powers, such as administering DDR programmes, there
may be an incentive for the amnesty applicant to lie and therefore obtain
amnesty and the benets of the programme.
76
As will be explored in the
next chapter, these problems could potentially be alleviated by offering
amnesty in exchange for full disclosure before a truth commission,
although problems remain, however, where prosecution for those who
134 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
72
Amnesty Statute, 1987 (Uganda).
73
For a more detailed discussion of national jurisprudence, see ch 5.
74
Loi relative au rtablissement de la Concorde civile, Loi No 98-08, 1999 (Alg).
75
Human Rights Watch, World Report 2002: Algeria (Human Rights Watch, New York
2002). The probation committees were presided over by the general prosecutor responsible
for the area and composed of representatives of the Ministries of Defence and of the Interior,
the commander of the gendarmerie for the wilaya, the chief of security for the wilaya, and the
head of the Bar Council or his or her representative.
76
See the introduction for a discussion of the difculties of trials during transitional
periods.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 134
refuse to participate is not pursued, or where the investigative powers of
the commission are curtailed. Finally, where amnesty laws exclude crimes
under international law, perpetrators of these crimes should face prosecu-
tion, but this rarely occurs, and consequently the theoretical denial of
amnesty for crimes under international law often becomes de facto
impunity.
This section has argued that although crimes under international law
such as genocide and grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions may
impose a mandatory duty on states that are parties to the relevant treaties
to prosecute or extradite offenders, such a duty may not always apply to
crimes committed under dictatorships or during internal conicts, due to
the restricted denitions of the crimes. For these situations, the provisions
of Additional Protocol II or the customary international law obligations on
crimes against humanity may be applicable, but this section has argued
that these obligations only impose a permissive, rather than mandatory,
duty on states. This more lenient understanding is illustrated by state
practice, which shows that although states are increasingly willing to
exclude crimes under international law from amnesty laws, they tend to
do so when the exclusion complements their domestic or international
policy objectives. In contrast, where their political objectives, such as
securing a peace treaty following an internal conict, may be better served
by amnestying crimes under international law, states continue to do so,
regardless of the development of international law. Therefore, it is not yet
possible to assert that state practice established an absolute prohibition on
amnesties for crimes under international law.
Should Amnesties Treat Political Crimes Differently?
Political crimes are frequently included in amnesty laws; indeed, offering
protection to political offenders is often the purpose of an amnesty. The
concept of political offences has been described as elastic by Van den
Wyngaert, as it can encompass a wide range of behaviours and offences
that stretch across a spectrum from extreme purely passive offences such
as political dissidence to other active offences of opposition against the
prevailing social order or against the ruling group in power.
77
The few
purely political crimes that are traditionally recognised by state practice
are those that are exclusively directed against the state or the political
organisation without injuring private persons, property or interests, and
offering an amnesty for such crimes is not contentious under international
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 135
77
Christine van den Wyngaert, The Political Offence Exception to Extradition: The Delicate
Problem of Balancing the Rights of the Individual and the International Public Order (Kluwer, The
Hague 1980) 95.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 135
law.
78
Amnesties for purely political crimes usually include the following
activities: treason, sedition, subversion, rebellion, using false documents,
forgery, anti-government propaganda, possessing illegal weapons, espi-
onage, membership of banned political or religious organisations, deser-
tion and defamation. A political amnesty may only cover the less serious
of these offences, for example, it could grant immunity for the authors of
illegal or defamatory publications, whilst permitting criminal prosecu-
tions of individuals accused of espionage. When granting amnesty for
purely political crimes, it is usual for the state to specify certain provisions
of its penal code or particular pieces of legislation. For example, the 1987
Indo-Sri Lanka Accord required that Sri Lanka release individuals who
had been detained under the 1979 Prevention of Terrorism Act and other
emergency legislation,
79
which provided for the prosecution of any person
who inter alia causes the death of any specied person, or kidnaps or
abducts a specied person.
80
As argued in chapter 2, there are justications for treating political
offenders differently to common criminals. This has meant that the special
status of political crimes has been recognised in refugee law
81
and extra-
dition law;
82
however, both extradition and refugee law prohibit recog-
nising genocide and war crimes as political.
83
In contrast, as will be shown
in the case studies below, national amnesties have offered immunity for
crimes under international law where they are deemed to have been com-
mitted with political motives.
84
Dening political crimes is further complicated by common offences
which are related to political crimes, as most common crimes
136 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
78
Christine van den Wyngaert, The Political Offence Exception to Extradition: The Delicate
Problem of Balancing the Rights of the Individual and the International Public Order (Kluwer, The
Hague 1980) 95.
79
Indo-Sri Lanka Accord 1987 [2.11].
80
Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act, No 48 1979 (Sri Lanka) art 1. Here
specied person means (a) the President; (b) a Judge of the Supreme Court, Court of
Appeal, High Court, District Court, Magistrates Court, Primary Court or any other Court of
First Instance; (c) any representative or ofcial of a foreign State or any ofcial or other agent
of an international organisation of an inter-governmental character; (d) a member of
Parliament or of a local authority; (e) any member of a commission established under the
Special Presidential Commissions of Inquiry Law, No 7 of 1978, or under the Commissions
of Inquiry Act; (f) juror, counsel or ofcer of court; and (g) any member of the Armed Forces,
Police Force and any other Forces charged with the maintenance of public order (art 31(1)).
81
See Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (adopted 28 July 1951, entered into
force 22 April 1954) 189 UNTS 137 (Refugee Convention), arts 1 and 33. For a detailed dis-
cussion, see Van den Wyngaert (n 77) 7489.
82
Van den Wyngaert states that extradition acts and treaties usually refer to the term
political offence without further specifying or dening it, Van den Wyngaert (n 77) 103.
See also Ronald C Slye, Justice and Amnesty in Charles Villa-Vicencio and Wilhelm
Verwoerd (eds), Looking Back, Reaching Forward: Reections on the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission of South Africa (Zed Books, London 2000) 17980 and Colm Campbell,
Extradition to Northern Ireland: Prospects and Problems (1989) 52 Modern Law Review 585.
83
For a discussion of the relevant treaty provisions, see Campbell (n 82) 5889.
84
Van den Wyngaert (n 77) 13962.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 136
can, as a matter of fact, be considered as political crimes under certain circum-
stances, namely when they are committed with a political purpose or when they
have political consequences.
85
There has been disagreement in extradition law on how to distinguish
between common crimes and political offences, with states favouring
either subjective,
86
objective
87
or mixed
88
approaches. When a state is
deciding to amnesty political crimes, it may pursue a broad approach and
grant amnesty for both political crimes and related common crimes.
89
Often when a state does this, it simply amnesties the crimes without
explicitly dening which actions are included in this description. In such
cases, it is the role of the courts to determine whether amnesty should be
applied to specic acts.
Alternatively, a state could provide more guidance in the legislation.
For example, in the 1996 Guatemalan amnesty law, criminal and human
rights violations are grouped into three categories: (1) clearly political
crimes, such as sedition and treason, for which amnesty is granted;
90
(2) serious human rights violations which remain liable for prosecution;
91
and (3) common crimes which are directly, objectively, intentionally and
causally linked to war-related political acts.
92
For this nal category, the
appellate courts must determine on a case-by-case basis whether to grant
amnesty by considering whether there is a rational and objective relation
between the goal of the crime and the crime committed.
93
For this deci-
sion, the burden of proof is on the person opposing the amnesty.
94
As the
focus here is on the perpetrators intentions, rather than the outcome of the
act, it appears that the Guatemalan amnesty adheres to the subjective
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 137
85
Ibid 95.
86
The subjective approach which emphasises the intentions of the perpetrator to deter-
mine whether he or she was politically motivated, regardless of whether the act had a polit-
ical outcome. Also known as the predominant motive test. See Van den Wyngaert (n 77)
109 and Anurima Bhargava, Note, Dening Political Crimes: A Case Study of the South
African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (2002) 102 Columbia Law Review 1304, 1329.
87
The objective approach, which focuses instead on the political context of the act and
its actual outcome or consequences. In this instance, if there is a political outcome, the act is
considered a political crime, regardless of the intentions of the perpetrator. See Van den
Wyngaert (n 77) 109.
88
The mixed approach combines the other two approaches requiring that in order to be
political, the offence should be at the same time subjectively and objectively a political crime.
See Van den Wyngaert (n 77) 109.
89
Such language has been used in many amnesties; eg the 1996 Angolan amnesty granted
immunity for all crimes against the internal security of the state and all related crimes com-
mitted by national citizens in the framework of the armed conict. See Lei 11/96 1996 (Angl).
90
Ley de Reconciliacin Nacional, 1996 (Guat), art 2.
91
Ibid art 8.
92
Ibid art 5. For discussion of the legislation, see Inter-Am. CHR, Annual Report 1996:
Guatemala (14 March 1997) OEA/SerL/V/II95 Doc 7 rev [30].
93
Naomi Roht-Arriaza and Lauren Gibson, The Developing Jurisprudence on Amnesty
(1998) 20 Human Rights Quarterly 843, 852.
94
Ibid 852.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 137
approach to determining whether common crimes should be treated as
political crimes. This approach was also pursued in 1946 Czechoslovak
amnesty which granted impunity to
any act committed between 30 September 1938 and 28 October 1945, the object
of which was to aid the struggle for liberty of the Czechs and Slovaks, or which
represented just reprisals for actions of the occupation forces and their accom-
plices.
95
Similarly, under the 1985 Uruguayan amnesty law,
96
political crimes were
considered to be those committed for motives which were directly or indi-
rectly political and common crimes were
those that were committed with a political purpose as with the political crimes
or were committed to facilitate them, to prepare them, to complete them, to
aggravate their effects or to prevent their punishment.
97
The objective approach is often used in self-amnesties to protect state
agents from prosecution for any actions they might have taken in accord-
ance with an ofcial policy of repression or armed conict against insur-
gents. For example, the 1975 Bangladeshi amnesty, which beneted state
agents who had participated in a successful coup, granted immunity for
any act, matter, or thing done or step taken by such person in connection with,
or in preparation or execution of any plan for, or as, necessary steps towards, the
change of government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh and the procla-
mation of Martial Law on the morning of 15 August 1975.
98
Similarly, the 1995 Peruvian amnesty law granted amnesty for common or
military crimes, whether under the jurisdiction of civil or military courts,
but it required that the crime derived, originated from, or [was] a conse-
quence of the ght against terrorism . . . between May 1980 and June 1995.
99
As applied, the only signicant restriction this imposed is temporal.
100
The objective approach has also been used to grant amnesty for conict-
related crimes, meaning all crimes that occurred within a particular con-
text and had a political outcome, regardless of whether there was a
political intent. For example, the 1994 Lusaka Protocol granted amnesty
for illegal acts committed by anyone . . . in the context of the current
138 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
95
Law concerning the legality of actions related to the ght for renewed freedom of the
Czechs and Slovaks and the exemption of certain crimes from the statute of limitations, 1946
(Czechoslovakia).
96
Ley No 15.737Se aprueba la Ley de amnista, 1985 (Uru).
97
Ibid art 2.
98
Indemnity Ordinance Act, 1975 (Bangl) art 2(a).
99
Ley conceden amnista general a personal militar, political y civil para diversos casos, 1995
(Peru) art 1.
100
William W Burke-White, Protecting the Minority: A Place for Impunity? An Illustrated
Survey of Amnesty Legislation, Its Conformity with International Legal Obligations, and Its
Potential as a Tool for Minority-Majority Reconciliation (2000) Journal of Ethnopolitics and
Minority Issues in Europe, 10.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 138
conict.
101
Angola continued to use similar wording in its subsequent
amnesty laws. The same approach was also employed by France to
address crimes which had occurred during the Algerian war of indepen-
dence. Here, the French government granted amnesty in 1966 for crimes
and misdemeanours committed in direct relation to the events in
Algeria.
102
The provisions were even wider for the 1946 Italian amnesty
law,
103
which granted amnesty for wartime crimes connected in any way
to the ofcial policies of Fascism, or indeed, any such crime committed at
any time before 1946.
Amnesty laws that have applied a more mixed approach to dening
political crimes can also be identied. For example, the 1987 Salvadorean
amnesty law recognised a political crime could be committed by
any person with motive, occasion, in reason or as a consequence of the armed
conict, without taking into account militancy, afliation, political status or ide-
ological beliefs of one or other parties.
104
It has been argued that motive, occasion, and consequence each offer
broad loopholes as they appear to permit amnesty for any crimes proxi-
mate to war, which in El Salvador, probably covers everything.
105
Similarly, the 2000 Immunity Decree in Fiji declared that a political offence
is
an offence allegedly committed by any person or persons between the 19th day
of May, 2000 and the 13th day of July, 2000 (both dates inclusive), such offence
being either directly or indirectly prompted and motivated by the attempted
illegal takeover of the Government on the 19th day of May, 2000 and the politi-
cal developments during that period and including any offence which has been
subject of police complaint, which was prompted or motivated by the political
developments during the relevant period.
106
It is clear that in this instance, the crime must both have political motives
and occur within a specied political context.
To date, the most thorough consideration of political crimes relating to
amnesty laws occurred in South Africa.
107
This process began in 1990,
when the South African government requested Carl Norgaard, a Danish
jurist who was then president of the European Commission on Human
Rights, to compile a list of principles to determine which common crimes
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 139
101
Lusaka Protocol, 1994 (Angl) Annex 6, s I, art 5.
102
Loi portant amnistie dinfractions contre la sret de lEtat ou commises en relation avec les
vnements dAlgrie, 1966 (Fr) art 1.
103
Decreto Presidenziale 22 giugno 1946, No 4. Amnistia e indulto per reati comuni, politici e mil-
itari (known as Amnistia Togliatti), 1946 (Italy).
104
Ley de Amnista para el Logro de la Reconciliacin Nacional, Decreto No 805, Diario Ocial No
199, 1987 (El Sal) art 2.
105
Moore (n 65) 766.
106
Immunity Decree, 2000, s 2 (Fiji).
107
For an overview of the South African amnesty, see case study 9.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 139
should be treated as political offences.
108
Norgaard based his principles on
the political offence exception in extradition law, and they were enacted in
the Indemnity Act of 1990,
109
which provided for the release of political
prisoners. These principles listed factors to be considered when determin-
ing whether a crime was a political one or not, including:
(a) whether the motive was political or private; (b) the context in which the
offence occurred especially if it was part of a political uprising or disturbance;
(c) the nature of the political objective; (d) the legal and actual nature of the
offence (rape could never be regarded as a political offence); (e) the object of the
offence (committed against the state or private property); (f) the relationship
between the offence and the political objective being pursued; and (g) whether
the offence was committed in the execution of an order or with the approval of
the organization concerned.
110
These principles subsequently formed the basis for the treatment of polit-
ical crimes before the Amnesty Committee of the South African TRC. In
its constituent legislation, the criteria for determining political crimes are
outlined as follows:
Whether a particular act, omission or offence contemplated in subsection (2) is
an act associated with a political objective, shall be decided with reference to the
following criteria:
(a) The motive of the person who committed the act, omission or offence;
(b) the context in which the act, omission or offence took place, and in particu-
lar whether the act, omission or offence was committed in the course of or
as part of a political uprising, disturbance or event, or in reaction thereto;
(c) the legal and factual nature of the act, omission or offence, including the
gravity of the act, omission or offence;
(d) the object or objective of the act, omission or offence, and in particular
whether the act, omission or offence was primarily directed at a political
opponent or State property or personnel or against private property or indi-
viduals;
(e) whether the act, omission or offence was committed in the execution of an
order of, or on behalf of, or with the approval of, the organisation, institu-
tion, liberation movement or body of which the person who committed the
act was a member, an agent or a supporter; and
(f) the relationship between the act, omission or offence and the political objec-
tive pursued, and in particular the directness and proximity of the relation-
ship and the proportionality of the act, omission or offence to the objective
140 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
108
Bhargava (n 86) 1311.
109
Indemnity Act No 35, as amended by Indemnity Amendment Act, No 124 (1992), 1990
(S. Afr).
110
Kate Savage, Negotiating the Release of Political Prisoners (Research report written
for the Northern Ireland Programme at the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard,
2000). See also Raylene Keightley, Political Offences and Indemnity in South Africa (1993) 9
South African Journal on Human Rights 334, 3447.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 140
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 141
pursued, but does not include any act, omission or offence committed by any
person referred to in subsection (2) who acted
(i) for personal gain: Provided that an act, omission or offence by any per-
son who acted and received money or anything of value as an informer
of the State or a former state, political organisation or liberation move-
ment, shall not be excluded only on the grounds of that person having
received money or anything of value for his or her information; or
(ii) out of personal malice, ill-will or spite, directed against the victim of the
acts committed.
111
As Sarkin demonstrates in his study on the workings of the Amnesty
Committee, these criteria were not uniformly applied, with some provi-
sions such as target of the attack
112
often being ignored in favour of other
criteria. Slye suggests that the criterion that was particularly overempha-
sised was whether
an authorised superior in a recognised political organization ordered the act, or
whether the act was closely related to an explicit programmatic statement of an
established political organization.
113
Slye views this as problematic as it grants power to the state, political par-
ties and other political organisations in decisions concerning amnesty as
an individuals application for amnesty may depend on whether the
organisation admits to having ordered the act in question.
114
In practice,
many superiors would be reluctant to admit ordering acts if doing so
would make them liable to prosecution. This could lead to a false conclu-
sion that many of the atrocities against civilians were not in pursuit of any
legitimate military objective, and a wrongful denial of amnesty.
115
Furthermore, this requirement denies the possibility that certain actions
could be classied as political crimes where the perpetrator acted individ-
ually or for a political organisation that is not publicly recognised.
116
Finally, it has also been argued that the focus on obeying orders has over-
shadowed the proportionality requirement.
117
The potential to recognise an action as a political crime is generally limited
under extradition law by the requirement that the action be proportional
111
Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act, 1995, s 20.3 (S Afr).
112
Jeremy Sarkin, Carrots and Sticks: The TRC and the South African Amnesty Process
(Intersentia, Antwerp 2004) 28898. This book provides a thorough overview of the decisions
of the Amnesty Committee on the notion of Political Objective. Sarkin argues that the
approach of the committee is inconsistent and he partially credits this to the lack of resources
and non-application of precedent.
113
Slye (n 82) 17980.
114
Ibid 180.
115
Gallagher (n 30) 163.
116
Bhargava (n 86) 132930. For a discussion of the committees application of the criteria
of membership, see Sarkin (n 112) 2808.
117
Rosemary Nagy, Violence, Amnesty and Transitional Law: Private Acts and
Public Truth in South Africa (2004) 1 African Journal of Legal Studies, 15.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 141
to its objectives.
118
Consequently, the principle of proportionality can be
applied to extremely serious crimes to prevent the extradition of the accused,
where it is deemed the violence used exceeded what was necessary to
achieve the political objective. Applying this to human rights crimes can be
difcult, however, as it is problematic to determine when and how torture
and murder ever constitute a proportional means to a political objective, and
how to measure proportionality.
119
In the context of the South African
Amnesty Committee, when the principle was used, the proportionality of
the act was determined on the basis of the stated objective.
120
This meant,
for example, that torture was deemed disproportionate where there was no
reasonable hope of obtaining information,
121
but that there were occasions
where the committee felt that serious human rights violations had been pro-
portional to the objectives pursued.
122
In reviewing the decisions of the
Amnesty Committee, Sarkin found that the issue of proportionality was a
central question in only a minority of cases; and that more often when it
was raised it generally did not form part of the reasoning of the decisions,
and
was usually only called upon to add weight to the way in which the Committee
determined the outcome of the decision.
123
The requirement of proportionality has arisen in relation to amnesty laws
elsewhere; for example, the 1945 Greek amnesty excluded common law
offences against life and property which were not absolutely necessary to
the achievement of the political crime concerned.
124
There have also been
amnesties that have attempted to solve the issue of proportionality by sim-
ply excluding all crimes that resulted in death or injury to civilians. For
example, 1991 Albanian amnesty excluded persons convicted of terrorist
acts that resulted in deaths or serious consequences.
125
Alternatively,
amnesties have excluded crimes where the applicable penalties exceeded
a dened limit, such as 10 years imprisonment. For example, the 1946
French amnesty covered
all offences committed before 8 May 1945 which were or are punished: 1. With
penalties of imprisonment less than or equal to two months or a ne less than or
equal to 6,000 francs . . .; [or] 2. Penalties of imprisonment less than or equal to
142 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
118
Andreas OShea, Pinochet and Beyond: The International Implications of Amnesty
(2000) 16 South African Journal on Human Rights 642, 6601.
119
Nagy (n 117) 1516.
120
Ibid 1516.
121
Ibid 1516.
122
Emily H McCarthy, Note, South Africas Amnesty Process: A Viable Route Toward
Truth and Reconciliation? (1997) 3 Michigan Journal of Law and Race 183, 21314.
123
Sarkin (n 112) 319.
124
Varkiza Agreement, 1945 (Greece).
125
Law On the Innocence and Amnesty of those formerly Convicted and Political
Persecuted, No 7516, 1991 (Albania), art 3.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 142
six months with application of the law of reprieve and a ne less than or equal
to 6,000 francs . . .
126
A nal complication with the criteria of the South African Amnesty
Committee is the exemption of crimes committed for personal gain. Whilst
it is a recognised principle that political crimes are not personal, problems
arose for acts of racial hatred. Here the approach taken by the Amnesty
Committee was somewhat inconsistent, as the murder of black people by
white people was regarded as personal malice and not a political crime,
whereas black people killing white people was viewed as political.
127
Wilson has argued that,
[g]iven the history of apartheid and degree to which racism is at the centre of
state policies of racial superiority, segregation and denationalisation of blacks,
it would seem fairly obvious that racism constituted a political motivation per
se.
128
This highlights a difcult issue, as during a conict situation or oppressive
regime most crimes can result from the political context in indirect ways,
although to recognise all these actions as political would dilute the polit-
ical offence exception.
In contrast to the South African approach, which tried to address the
question of dening political crimes, there have been a number of amnesties
that have made no attempt to distinguish between political and common
crimes. For example, the 1978 Chilean amnesty applies equally if the crimes
were committed out of personal animosity or state policy.
129
Similarly, the
1988 and 2000 Ugandan amnesties, although directed at offences of a polit-
ical nature, refrain from expressly requiring that the crimes covered are
political. This reluctance to label the actions of amnesty beneciaries as
political could emanate from a fear on behalf of the state that to do so
would award the actions of their opponents a degree of legitimacy.
This section has argued that it is an established principle of international
law that politically-motivated crimes should be treated differently to other
crimes. However, common crimes that are related to political crimes can
be treated in a similar fashion, although there is no clear formula yet under
international law to determine when such relationships are sufciently
linked. Consequently, states introducing amnesty laws have implemented
a number of different approaches to the problem, which place differing
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 143
126
Law no 46-729 du 16 avril 1946 Loi Portant Amnistie, (Fr) art 2. These restrictions were
loosened in subsequent amnesty laws.
127
Jon Elster, Closing the Books: Transitional Justice in Historical Perspective (Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge 2004) 119. See also Sarkin (n 112) 3028.
128
Richard A Wilson, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa: Legitimizing the
Post-apartheid State (Cambridge Studies in Law and Society, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge 2001) 84. This book provides a thorough discussion of the implications of the fail-
ure of the South African TRC to dene racism as a political crime.
129
Burke-White (n 100) 7.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 143
degrees of emphasis on the objectives and outcome of the crimes.
Furthermore, states have been willing to include factors such as propor-
tionality and the organisational membership of the accused when outlin-
ing the scope of political crimes. The criteria of proportionality could be
used to exclude crimes under international law from being labelled as
political, which would coincide with the political exception to extradition
law. However, it appears that states have been reluctant to pursue this
approach explicitly. States have been more willing to exclude crimes that
are committed for personal gain, particularly where such crimes are eco-
nomic.
Impinging On Individual Rights: Amnesties For Crimes Against
Civilians and Combatants Who Are Hors de Combat
As described in the previous section, when a state is choosing to grant an
amnesty, it can decide to include only the crimes committed against itself (ie
purely political crimes), which it has standing to amnesty. Alternatively, it
could also provide immunity to those persons who committed crimes
against individuals who were not involved in violent activities, such as
civilians or former combatants who were hors de combat due to sickness,
wounds, detention, or any other cause and hence entitled to be treated
humanely according to common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions.
130
Although the language used here is borrowed from international humani-
tarian law, it is envisaged that this category of crimes also applies to indi-
viduals who suffer at the hands of a dictatorship, where no conict exists.
By amnestying crimes against civilians, states deny victims the possibil-
ity of seeing those who harmed them brought to justice. Clearly, where
states grant such amnesties they cede particular citizen rights, which are
enshrined in international treaties and domestic laws, to bring justice to
past wrongs.
131
The issue becomes especially contentious when the state
itself is responsible for the crimes committed against its citizens, and con-
sequently the government by introducing amnesty is absolving itself of its
own sins. In contrast, it is a well-established concept in most legal systems
that victims should allow the state to determine which remedies are suit-
able, rather than the victims themselves pursuing justice, which could
result in vigilantism and further injustices. If the prerogative of the state
were completely removed in the sphere of human rights violations, it
144 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
130
Geneva Conventions, common art 3.
131
William W Burke-White, Reframing Impunity: Applying Liberal International Law
Theory to an Analysis of Amnesty Legislation (2001) 42 Harvard International Law Journal 467,
4701. This argument is premised on the notion that formal prosecutions are required to
ensure the victims rights, but it is possible to reason that other forms of justice, such as
restorative justice processes that have non-criminal sanctions, could be more effective in
meeting the needs of victims. For a discussion of restorative justice processes, see ch 4.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 144
could enable some victims to effectively veto any peace process by threat-
ening to hold perpetrators legally accountable. This could result in the
continuation of violence and the creation of more victims, rather than the
healing of those who have already suffered. Therefore, it seems advisable
that states should be able to grant amnesty for crimes against civilians,
provided that they establish consultation mechanisms and alternative
processes to meet the needs of victims,
132
and are not simply granting
themselves impunity for their own actions.
Crimes against civilians is an extremely broad category of crimes, which
can cover a range of activities from theft to serious crimes of physical or
sexual violence. It is distinct from crimes under international law, as,
although crimes under international law are often perpetrated against
civilians, civilians also endure a much broader spectrum of crimes, which
should be dealt with separately. In dictatorial or conict situations, it is
likely that crimes against civilians will occur and, as illustrated above;
they often subsequently benet from amnesty. But, it is common for
amnesty laws that prevent prosecution for crimes against civilians to
make exceptions for certain crimes, the most common of which being rape,
murder, kidnapping, and theft.
Do States Amnesty Economic Crimes?
In many situations of mass human rights violations, there are also concur-
rent epidemics of economic crime, whether in terms of the members of the
ruling elite using their power to enrich themselves; foreign corporations
exploiting (or perhaps even instigating) political instability for prot; cor-
ruption by state ofcials, usually by extracting bribes or expropriating
property; collaboration with enemies by business people; or simply
engagement in black market trade by ordinary civilians. In contrast to
political crimes, these crimes are usually committed for personal gain,
although there can be a degree of pressure on individuals to participate in
the lower-level crimes. However, as discussed above, economic crimes can
occasionally have political motivations, for example, where extortion and
robbery are used to raise funds for an insurgency.
The more serious of these offences, such as the plundering of a state by
a kleptocratic government, can affect the legitimacy of the regime whilst
in power. It can also have serious implications on the ability of a transi-
tional state to recover from the abusive period, as they will often have
large debts to service and few resources available for reconstruction and
development. Furthermore, it can have implications for any transitional
justice programmes, as the attempts to address the crimes of the past have
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 145
132
For a discussion of the needs of victims, see ch 9.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 145
to compete with projects to ensure a better standard of living for the
future. This can be particularly important when it comes to awarding
nancial compensation to victims of human rights abuses. The exposure
of extensive greed and plunder by a former regime can also contribute to
undermining any lingering support that it might have as a dictator can
usually claim that human rights abuses result from a seless desire to
eradicate the dangers to the state; but there can be no such defence for
corruption.
133
Furthermore, with crimes of corruption, the public may
collectively feel that they are the victims of theft, whereas
human rights violations generally lack this sense of collective victimisation
because in most cases the violations have not affected the majority of the
public.
134
A recent example of the negative impact of economic crimes on public
opinion would be the reaction in Chile to the exposure of Pinochets secret
bank accounts.
135
The risks posed by committing and concealing economic crimes could
explain why many repressive governments have chosen not to include
them in their amnesty laws, preferring instead to try to distance them-
selves from the commission of such crimes. For example, the 1978 Chilean
amnesty law pardons a wide range of crimes committed by state agents
including murder and physical injury, but it excludes inter alia fraudulent
crimes committed by public ofcials.
136
It is accepted that such crimes
were committed by state agents, but yet the state appeared unwilling to
amnesty their perpetrators. It seems likely that the state wanted to deny its
involvement in such crimes as it felt that acknowledging them would
undermine its legitimacy and tarnish the image the state was trying to pro-
ject, namely that it was waging a seless battle to protect the nation against
left-wing extremists. Several amnesties excluded economic crimes, such as
embezzlement of public funds, extortion, and bribery.
137
These exclusions
have applied both to crimes of corruption committed by state ofcials and
criminal fund-raising activities of opposition groups. Economic crimes
were also barred from amnesties by regimes that viewed them as subvert-
146 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
133
Mark Freeman, Lessons Learned from Amnesties for Human Rights Crimes,
Transparency International Newsletter (December 2001).
134
Ibid.
135
Federico Quilodran, Chiles high court strips former dictator Augusto Pinochet of
immunity from prosecution in human rights case Associated Press (Santiago 26 August 2004);
Adam Thomson Pinochet Stripped of Prestige Financial Times (London 15 December 2004);
James Cavallaro and Sebastin Albuja, The Lost Agenda: Economic Crimes and Truth
Commissions in Latin America and Beyond in Kieran McEvoy and Lorna McGregor (eds),
Transitional Justice from Below (Hart Publishing, Oxford 2008).
136
Decreto Ley de Amnista, 1978 (Chile) art 3.
137
Eg, extortion was excluded from the 1987 Salvadorean amnesty. See Ley de Amnista
para el Logro de la Reconciliacin Nacional, Decreto No 805, Diario Ocial No 199, 1987 (El Salv)
art 3.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 146
ing the political (usually socialist) order, as economic control was viewed
as fundamental to the entire social system. For example, the 1989 Albanian
amnesty excluded
illicit appropriation of socialist property according to arts 6168 of the Penal
Code; appropriation of private property according to arts 101102 of the Penal
Code; as well as those persons who have been given uncommutable sentences
for various repeated penal offences.
138
Finally, serious offences for personal enrichment such as drug trafcking
seem to be consistently barred from national amnesty laws. For example,
the 1997 Tajik amnesty proclaimed:
Those accused under the following articles of the criminal code of the Republic
of Tajikistan are not freed from punishment or criminal liability: 76 [smuggling
of narcotics, powerful drugs and poisonous substances], . . . 240 [illegal manu-
facture, acquisition, storage, transport, dispatch or sale of narcotics], 240/1
[theft of narcotics], 241 [illegal sowing or cultivation of narcotic plants].
139
Such exemptions could be due, not just to the concept of excluding crimes
for personal gain, but also to the negative consequences of such crimes on
society as a whole including social mores on drug use, to international
pressure to curtail the drugs trade and the recognition by national gov-
ernments that such transnational criminality often provides a means for
non-state actors to obtain currency to buy weapons.
Nonetheless, in many transitional contexts, amnesties have been
granted for economic crimes, often recognising that under the previous
regime, obtaining basic necessities was hard and individuals were forced
to engage in smuggling, black market purchasing or breaking rationing
rules. The recognition of these conditions have provided the justication
for amnesties following the resolution of conicts, for example, the 1946
French amnesty following the Second World War covered
1. Individuals convicted for black market purchases or smuggling, the acqui-
sition or utilization of undue rations, when these infractions applied to
foodstuffs, clothes, heating or lighting;
2. The rst time offenders convicted of theft, hijacking, or concealment of food-
stuffs, clothing, heating or lighting.
The benets of this amnesty only apply when the crimes are committed with the
aim of personal gain: a) The personal or familial needs of the authors or persons
living under their roof; b) The needs of the resistance, or escaped prisoners;
c) The needs of salaried persons living outside their family.
140
Which Crimes Are Granted Amnesty? 147
138
Decree No 7338, 1989 (Albania), art 1(1).
139
Law On Amnesty for Participants in the Political and Military Confrontation in the
Republic of Tajikistan, 1997 (Tajikistan) art 4.
140
Law no 46-729 du 16 avril 1946 Loi Portant Amnistie, (Fr).
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 147
Even where the crimes are more serious, such as business people trading
with the enemy, amnesty is sometimes granted as the support of the busi-
ness community is necessary for national reconstruction. This occurred in
several countries in Europe after 1945. For example, the 1953 French
amnesty covered those convicted of trading with the enemy, if their sen-
tences did not exceed ve years of prison and a 20,000 franc ne.
141
Amnesties for economic crimes were also granted during the transition
from socialist regimes. For example, the 1989 Czechoslovak amnesty by
outgoing President Husak amnestied crimes such as unauthorised busi-
ness activity which had been outlawed under the repressive communist
system.
142
RESTRICTING AMNESTIES AND THE SCOPE OF THE
DUTY TO PROSECUTE
In many amnesty laws, the subject-matter jurisdiction is restricted by
geographic and temporal limitations. First, in terms of geographic scope,
a state introducing an amnesty law can choose to apply it to the whole of
its territory. For example, the 1996 Croatian amnesty covered all
criminal acts [committed] during the aggression, armed rebellion or armed con-
icts, in or relating to the aggression, armed rebellion or armed conicts in the
Republic of Croatia . . . during the period from 17 August 1990 to 23 August
1996.
143
Alternatively, an amnesty can simply cover the region in which the crimes
were concentrated. For example, the 1994 Mexican amnesty applied only
to the Chiapas region.
144
A choice of location can be strategic; for example,
the Russian amnesty laws for the Chechen conict apply to Chechnya and
its surrounding regions (Daghestan, North Ossetia and Stavropol), but
exclude crimes that occurred elsewhere in the Russian Federation. This
means that notorious crimes committed in the heartland of Russia, such as
the Moscow theatre hostage crisis in October 2002, are excluded, and
therefore can still be prosecuted.
Furthermore, states have occasionally chosen to amnesty crimes that
were committed outside its borders, particularly where insurgents were
based across a frontier. For example, the 2002 Ivorian amnesty applied to
Ivorian nationals whether they are on the territory or in exile during the
events cited.
145
Similarly, France introduced a series of amnesty laws after
148 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
141
Loi no 53-681 portant amnistie, 1953 (Fr).
142
, President Husak Declares Major Amnesty BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
(11 December 1989).
143
Law on General Amnesty, No 80/96, 1996 (Croatia).
144
Ley de Amnista, 1994 (Mexico).
145
Loi portant amnistie, 2003 (Cte dIvoire) art 1.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 148
Indochina and Algeria became independent to cover the actions of its
agents in those territories.
146
Furthermore, Sarkin asserts that
when dealing with incidents that occurred outside South Africa, the [Amnesty]
Committee generally did not see this factor as an obstacle to amnesty.
147
It should be noted, however, that the extraterritorial application of these
laws is only valid before the courts of the territorial state, and can be dis-
regarded by international courts or courts in third states.
148
Secondly, the scope of amnesties can be limited by requiring the crimes
to have been committed within a specic period. Depending on the pur-
pose of the law, the period can be extremely brief, perhaps just a few days.
For example, the 2000 amnesty in Ecuador applied to civilians, and milit-
ary and police personnel who joined in the indigenous uprising against
the government of Jamil Mahuad on 21 January 2000.
149
Alternatively, it
can be very long, for example, covering all crimes committed before the
amnesty law entered into force. For example, the 1991 Angolan amnesty
covered all crimes contravening the internal security of the state and other
offences committed prior to 31 May 1991, when the Bicesse Accords were
signed.
150
Usually, however, an amnesty covers a period of several years,
perhaps from the start of the conict or a coup dtat, or the date of promul-
gation of the previous amnesty law. Sometimes the choice of dates appears
to be self-evident due to the political events that occurred; however, in
other instances it can be strategic. For example, the 1987 Salvadorean
amnesty excludes crimes that were committed after 22 October 1987
to exempt the murderers of Herbert Anaya, the head of the non-
governmental Human Rights Commission.
151
In contrast, the time limit for
the 1995 South African amnesty was extended by President Mandela, fol-
lowing the start of the TRCs work, to include atrocities committed by
members of the right-wing white Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging and the
Azanian Peoples Liberation Movement.
152
The choice of dates to include within the temporal jurisdiction of the
amnesty can be very contentious in contexts where there is a long history
of abuse. This was illustrated recently in a judgment of the Timorese Court
of Appeal. The case was referred to the court by the Timorese President,
Amnesties and the Scope of the Duty to Prosecute 149
146
Eg, Loi No 66-396 de 17 juin 1966 portant amnistie dinfractions contre la sret de lEtat ou
commises en relation avec les vnements dAlgrie (Fr).
147
Sarkin (n 112) 345.
148
For a discussion of the extraterritorial application of amnesty laws, see Chs 6 and 7
respectively.
149
US Department of State, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2000: El
Salvador.
150
Lei No 24/91 (Angola).
151
Moore (n 65) 766.
152
Alex Boraine, A Country Unmasked: Inside South Africas Truth and Reconciliation
Commission (Oxford University Press, Cape Town 2000) 7071.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 149
who requested that it consider the constitutionality of the proposed Law
on Truth and Measures of Clemency for Diverse Offences. This law, which
had been approved by parliament, but not signed by the president, was
intended to offer amnesty only to offences committed between 20 April
2006 and 30 April 2007. This would have meant that perpetrators of
violent crimes committed during this period would have been treated dif-
ferently to perpetrators of similar crimes that occurred during Indonesian
occupation. In its judgment, the court found that
[i]t is manifest that such provisions would result in an unequal handling of
individuals who face similar circumstances, without there being any serious,
legitimate and reasonable grounds to do so.
153
The court argued that, in
[t]he absence of any serious, legitimate and reasonable grounds for the unequal
handling of perpetrators of offences committed during the abovementioned
time period and the perpetrators of offences committed before said period
makes the unequal treatment conspicuous, intolerable and lays bare a violation
of the principle of equality.
154
The court consequently found the law to be in violation of the principle of
equality enshrined in the Timorese constitution. At the time of writing, the
future of this proposed amnesty legislation was uncertain.
CONCLUSION
This chapter has explored the idea that extending the scope of an amnesty
to crimes under international law can breach a states obligation to prose-
cute or extradite such crimes. It has found that this obligation is manda-
tory for grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions and genocide, but the
obligation to prosecute crimes against humanity under customary inter-
national law is permissive. Furthermore, it has argued that these obliga-
tions do not apply in every instance of serious human rights violations,
particularly where the violence did not occur within an international
conict or have genocidal intent. Indeed, where less serious crimes are
committed with political objectives, there is even a well-established legal
tradition of political exception that enables the offenders to evade pun-
ishment. This has frequently been reected in the implementation of
amnesty laws. The application of this exception is particularly desirable in
the case of purely political crimes that have been committed against a
state, and which a state has standing to forgive. However, even where the
crimes have been committed against individuals, an amnesty that offers
150 The Material Scope of Amnesty Laws
153
Court of Appeal, Case No 02/ACC/2007 (16 August 2007) (Timor-Leste).
154
Ibid.
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 150
alternative transitional justice mechanisms might satisfy the needs of
victims and full a states obligations under international law. Such indi-
vidualised, conditional amnesties will be explored in the next chapter.
The Amnesty Law Database has enabled trends in state practice to be
identied relating to each category of crimes. It has shown that since July
1999, when the UN publicly stated its opposition to amnesties for crimes
under international law, some states have adhered to the UN position and
excluded such crimes from their amnesty laws. However, other states
have continued to include them, particularly where the UN was not
involved in the decisions leading to the amnesty. This means that it is too
early to say that a state practice has developed for the purpose of identi-
fying a rule of customary international law. Furthermore, the Amnesty
Law Database has shown that the majority of amnesty laws recognise the
political nature of the crimes that they cover, although few attempt to
dene these crimes.
These ndings indicate that, despite the developments in international
law during the post-war period, some states continue to view their oblig-
ations to prosecute certain crimes under international law as permissive,
and that consequently, state practice has not yet reached a point where the
duty to prosecute can be argued to be customary, and hence binding on all
nations. This more permissive understanding can be argued to grant states
more space in addressing the crimes of the past. For example, if a state pur-
sues prosecutions of those who are deemed most responsible whilst cre-
ating alternative justice mechanisms for lower-level offenders, this could
potentially be argued to have fullled the states international obligations.
Allowing transitional states this exibility to address the unique circum-
stances that they face has the potential to foster greater innovation and the
creation of justice processes that are more resonant with the conceptions
of justice among the local communities. The next chapter will explore the
range of alternative transitional justice mechanisms that have been
employed to date, and assess how an amnesty can complement the work
of such processes.
Conclusion 151
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 151
(E) Mallinder Ch3 20/8/08 13:17 Page 152
4
Towards Greater Accountability:
The Role of Conditional Amnesties
INTRODUCTION
E
XPLORING HOW THE grant of amnesty can be made conditional
on various factors is a crucial element in assessing whether
amnesties can move towards greater accountability. This chapter
will consider how states can avoid using amnesties to offer blanket
impunity, and instead employ amnesties to contribute to wider efforts to
address the needs of victims and rebuild transitional states through pro-
grammes such as disarmament and institutional reform.
States frequently grant amnesty on the stipulation that the beneciaries
adhere, either individually or in groups, to certain conditions. These
conditions could be an integral part of the amnesty process, for example,
surrendering to state agents to make the amnesty application.
Alternatively, the conditions could correspond to mechanisms which
accompany the amnesty law, for example, requiring amnesty benecia-
ries, as a consequence of their status, to participate in vetting procedures
before being appointed to public sector jobs. This chapter, by considering
case studies, will explore the nature of the conditions attached to amnesty
laws. It will consider conditions which are tactical, in that they can con-
tribute to the efcacy of an amnesty in restoring peace and stability for
society as a whole, such as requiring amnesty beneciaries to surrender
and disarm. It will also consider conditions that are more reparative and
focus more on addressing individual victims rights to truth and repara-
tions, by designing amnesty processes to complement other transitional
justice processes, such as truth commissions and community-based justice
mechanisms. This chapter will explore how such complementary relation-
ships can be established.
The chapter will begin by discussing how conditional amnesties have
been classied in this research and the frequency with which states rely on
each classication. Each of these categories will then be discussed in detail,
using the case studies from the Amnesty Law Database and, where appro-
priate, the prescriptions of international law, such as the rights to truth
and reparations. For conditional amnesties to be effective, they must be
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 153
adhered to. Consequently, the nal section will consider how they should
be enforced, with particular focus on potential responses to failures to ful-
l conditions. This discussion will also consider the role of temporary
immunity laws as an alternative to permanent amnesties. This chapter will
argue that states are increasingly willing to make amnesty beneciaries
more accountable for their crimes by attaching conditions to the amnesty.
It will further argue that such conditions can be benecial in reducing the
level of violence and recidivism rates within a state and in improving rela-
tionships between rival communities.
WHICH CONDITIONS ARE ATTACHED TO AMNESTIES?
In researching conditional amnesties, the following classications were
identied, using the text of the amnesty laws and academic literature on
individual amnesty processes and transitional justice mechanisms:
surrendering and disarming; applying within prescribed time limits;
repenting and providing information on comrades; telling the truth;
repairing the harm; participating in community-based justice mechan-
isms; and submitting to lustration and vetting procedures. These condi-
tions can either be an integral part of the amnesty process, such as
surrendering, or they can be independent yet complementary mechan-
isms that are introduced at the same time as the amnesty, or possibly some
time afterwards in order to lessen its negative impact on victims and soci-
ety. On occasion, this distinction between integral and independent can
become muddled. For example, although truth commissions are usually
independent yet complementary mechanisms, in the case of the South
African TRC, telling the truth to the Amnesty Committee was an integral
part of the amnesty process.
In practice, many of the categories can overlap. For example, a require-
ment to repent for past crimes could be a stand-alone obligation to be car-
ried out before a state ofcial in exchange for amnesty, or it could require
applicants to participate in a truth commission or community-based jus-
tice mechanism and confess their actions. Similarly, truth-telling can have
an intrinsic value, but it can also be a form of reparations for victims who
wish to discover the truth about their own or their relatives suffering.
Furthermore, tactical conditions can also be inter-related. For example, the
requirement to apply individually for an amnesty can be dependent upon
adhering to conditions such as applying before a deadline or surrendering
to particular institutions.
The conditions that are attached to amnesties can vary between
extremes, with some amnesties being unconditional, others imposing very
few conditions, and others introducing nearly all possible measures by, for
example, combining amnesty with processes such as truth commissions
154 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 154
and reparations programmes. Often, however, conditions are simply not
described in the amnesty law, although they may be created by subse-
quent implementing regulations. Due to this disparity in practice (and also
the exclusion of reparative amnesties from this analysis), information has
only been gathered on the conditions attached to 278 amnesty laws.
1
The
distribution of these conditions is illustrated in Figure 9 below. This shows
that the most popular conditions are the requirement to surrender, the
obligation to comply with the conditions with a prescribed time period
and to provide reparations. As will be discussed in detail below, the term
reparations describes an extremely broad range of actions from compen-
sation to institutional reform and public apologies. This breadth indicates
why reparations measures so often accompany amnesty laws. From
Figure 9, it is possible to argue that states are increasingly attaching
restorative conditions to their amnesties, rather than focusing simply on
tactical measures. Furthermore, within this data it is interesting to note
that some conditions, such as the surrender of weapons have been relied
upon throughout the history of warfare whereas others are recent innova-
tions. Perhaps the most signicant recent development has been the
growth of truth commissions, which will be discussed in more depth
below. Overall, the data on conditional amnesties appears to show that all
forms of conditional amnesty have increased in popularity since the
Second World War.
Each of these conditions will be explored below, using case studies. It
should be noted, however, that each of the transitional justice mechanisms
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 155
1
Reparative amnesties were excluded, as the gure is intended to illustrate the frequency
with which non-reparative amnesties have conditions attached.
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
N
o
o
f
A
m
n
e
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Figure 9: Distribution of conditions attached to amnesty laws
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 155
discussed and their relationships to amnesties warrant extensive further
study, which is beyond the scope of this book. For example, when
information has been gathered within the database on lustration
processes, it has merely focused on whether they exist and how they are
sequenced with amnesty laws, rather than amassing procedural data on
how the lustration was implemented.
Amnesty for Surrender and Disarmament
The obligation to surrender and hand over weapons to the authorities is a
long-standing condition of peace initiatives following conicts or internal
unrest.
2
It can contribute positively to attempts to achieve stability, by
inter alia: providing a symbol that the violence is nished; reducing the
potential of rebel forces to cause disruption; facilitating trust-building
initiatives to enable different stakeholder groups to work together in
rebuilding the country; contributing to a general demilitarisation of soci-
ety; and boosting the local communitys condence that progress could be
made in restoring law and order.
3
The requirement to surrender often stipulates that combatants must do
so voluntarily to benet from the amnesty, although it can be accompan-
ied by threats of further legal or military action against those who refuse
to turn themselves in. For example, in 1997, the Taliban chief in
Afghanistan asked all opposition forces to surrender, and offered them
amnesty, warning that those who did not would be tried by Islamic
courts.
4
The process of surrendering varies between different conicts. For
example, in some conicts, combatants can be required to surrender to
civilian authorities, whereas in others they may have to present them-
selves to the security forces. Occasionally, insurgents can surrender to
more neutral institutions. For example, under the 1983 Bangladeshi
amnesty for insurgents in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, individuals could
surrender to inter alia leading members of their locality, and in the Indo-
Sri Lanka Accord 1987 it was agreed that
Tamil militants shall surrender their arms to authorities . . . The surrender shall
take place in the presence of one senior representative each of the Sri Lanka Red
Cross and the Indian Red Cross.
5
156 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
2
This section addresses only surrendering and disarming; for a discussion of disarma-
ment, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) programmes, see ch 10.
3
James Watson, A Model Pacic Solution? A Study of the Deployment of the Regional
Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands Working Paper No 126 (Land Warfare Studies Centre,
Australian Army, Duntroon, ACT 2005) 11.
4
, Afghan Taliban chief asks rivals to surrender, offers amnesty Agence France Presse
(Islamabad 20 May 1997).
5
IndoSri Lanka Accord (1987), annex 7.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 156
Most often, they can surrender before a range of government bodies
depending on their preference and location. For example, the Civil
Harmony Law 1999 in Algeria permitted insurgents to surrender to milit-
ary, civilian, administrative or judicial authorities.
6
In many amnesty processes, insurgents do not simply have to turn them-
selves in, but are also encouraged or required to surrender their weapons,
ammunitions and explosives. Sometimes, cash incentives, known as buy
back programmes, are introduced. These offer payments usually on a
varying scale depending on the type of weaponry that is surrendered.
7
For
example, under the 2006 Nepalese amnesty, Maoist guerrillas were to be
paid between NRS 500 (3.86) for surrendering with plastic grenades, to
NRS 500,000 (3,855) for giving themselves up with mortars.
8
In addition
to contributing to disarmament, such programmes can provide nancial
resources to insurgents to help them establish their new lives. Buy-back
programmes can, however, cause difculties where a state has only limited
resources, particularly where nancial rewards are given to the combatants
but the victims receive little support.
9
Furthermore, if such programmes
establish a high price for weapons, rather than promoting disarmament as
intended, they risk instead creating an articial market and sparking an
overwhelming movement of weapons into the country and surrounding
region.
10
Furthermore, nancial incentives to surrender weapons
can exclude particularly vulnerable groups of former combatants, such
as female combatants or child soldiers, as they carry weaponry less fre-
quently.
11
Disarmament need not always be a pre-requisite for amnesty and, on
occasion, the annulment of punishment and the surrender of weapons
have been treated as distinct issues. This occurred under the early release
scheme in Northern Ireland, which, although not included in the Amnesty
Law Database,
12
can illustrate an alternative approach to disarmament.
Under this scheme, prisoners were released before their organisations had
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 157
6
Loi sur la concorde civil (1999) art 30 (Alg).
7
For a discussion of other cash incentives offered to individuals who have surrendered,
see ch 10.
8
, Nepal Government Offers Surrender Bait as Maoists start Blockade Indo-Asian
News Service (Kathmandu 14 March 2006). This amnesty was not implemented, as Maoists
declined to take advantage of the offer.
9
For a discussion of this issue, see ch 10.
10
UNSC, Report of the Secretary-General on the Role of United Nations Peacekeeping in
Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (11 February 2000) UN Doc S/2000/101
[38] and Jeffrey Isima, Cash Payments in Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration
Programmes in Africa (2004) 2 Journal of Security Sector Management <http://www.ssron-
line.org/jofssm/index.cfm?iss=6&pre=true> accessed 29 April 2008.
11
For a discussion of the difculties faced by female combatants and child soldiers, see ch 2.
12
The Early Release Scheme in Northern Ireland is excluded from the Amnesty Law
Database, as the beneciaries had already been convicted and they retained their criminal
record once they were released on license. In this way the scheme more closely resembles a
pardon than amnesty. For greater detail on this distinction, see Introduction.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 157
decommissioned, provided their organisations had proclaimed a cease-
re. The early release was conditional on the released individuals refrain-
ing from supporting paramilitary organisations or becoming involved in
acts which endanger the public.
13
Furthermore, the releases were
designed to occur incrementally, with the possibility that they would be
halted for members of individual organisations if their organisation
breached their ceasere. Smyth has claimed that
in the earlier stages of the peace process, retention of weapons was necessary in
order to prevent a split with those Republicans within the ranks of the IRA who
feared a sell-out
and that protracted negotiations on the issue provided Sinn Fin with
the time to persuade their grass roots of the merits of decommissioning.
14
By separating the prison releases from disarmament, the releases could be
used to build trust between the British government and members of the
IRA, which eventually contributed to the Republicans decommissioning
their weapons. However, it is important to note that in this example, the
releases were conditional on non-recidivism and were revoked for indi-
viduals who breached the terms of their license. As discussed below,
amnesties should have similar mechanisms to enforce compliance with
the terms of the amnesty.
In addition to handing over weaponry, in some conicts amnesty is also
conditional on the surrender of hostages. For example, following the
attempted coup in Fiji in May 2000 in which Prime Minister Chaudhry and
his cabinet were taken hostage, the negotiated Maunikau Accord 2000
required George Speight and his followers to release the hostages before
beneting from the amnesty.
15
Such releases seem to reect a military tra-
dition of exchanging prisoners at the end of a conict, particularly where
the release of hostages is timed to coincide with the release of detained
insurgents.
Despite the difculties that can result from a disarmament programme,
demilitarising society and reducing the level of violence are essential
objectives in most transitional states. Where amnesty is used to encourage
the surrender of weapons, the author argues that the process needs to be
158 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
13
The Northern Ireland (Sentences) Act 1998, 1998 (UK) s 16. For discussion, see Daniel F
Mulvihill, Note, The Legality of the Pardoning of Paramilitaries under the Early Release
Provisions of Northern Irelands Good Friday Agreement (2001) 34 Cornell International Law
Journal 227. Prisoner releases have also preceded disarmament in South Africa, Spain and
Israel/Palestine, see Kieran McEvoy, Prisoner Release and Conict Resolution: International
Lessons for Northern Ireland (1998) 8 International Criminal Justice Review 33.
14
Marie Smyth, The Process of Demilitarization and the Reversibility of the Peace
Process (2004) 16 Terrorism and Political Violence 544, 554. See also Kris Brown and Corinna
Hauswedell, Burying the Hatchet: The Decommissioning of Paramilitary Arms in Northern
Ireland Brief 22 (Bonn International Center for Conversion, Bonn 2002).
15
Maunikau Accord (2000) (Fiji).
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 158
implemented early in the transition, possibly according to the provisions
of a peace agreement. To encourage the targeted group to come forward,
it is preferable, based on the experiences described above, that they are
permitted to surrender to a range of governmental and non-governmental
institutions, rather than simply the states armed forces, which could seem
unattractive to insurgents and may lead them to believe that the amnesty
is a trap to capture them rather than to reintegrate them into society.
Furthermore, where nancial rewards are promised in exchange for
weapons, according to Isima, these must be paid promptly as delays could
cause combatants to withdraw their trust from the process.
16
Finally,
whichever process a state decides upon, it should inform the insurgents on
where and how to surrender through newspapers, leaet drops or radio
broadcasts, as without such awareness-raising measures, few insurgents
are likely to come forward.
17
Application Deadlines for Amnesties
It is common practice for amnesty laws to impose time limits for surren-
dering and/or submitting applications. These limits can increase pressure
on the targeted groups to participate in an amnesty process while the
option is available to them, which may help the peace process to progress.
Furthermore, time limits on amnesty processes emanating from peace
treaties are often integrated into overall time frames to establish democra-
tic rule. They may also be designed to coincide with religious festivals or
political events, such as elections.
The amount of time available for people to apply for amnesty can affect
the contribution of the process to the establishment of peace and stability.
For example, if the period is too short, it may undermine the potential of
the amnesty to create a space for trust building, as some targeted groups
may be reluctant to come forward and lay down their weapons until they
have sufcient reassurances that their security will be guaranteed. In
many contexts a longer period may be needed to raise awareness among
insurgents that the offer is available and to allow time for them to travel to
the surrender points, given that insurgents are often based in remote
areas. Furthermore, if new institutions are to be created to implement the
amnesty, it will take time to allocate the resources, recruit and train the
personnel, establish ofces and create modes of working.
The time limits that are imposed have ranged from 15 days in the
Central African Republic in 1997, to two years in South Africa.
18
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 159
16
Isima (n 10).
17
For a detailed discussion on publicising amnesties, see ch 10.
18
The deadline for the submission of applications was extended from 6 December 1996 to
30 September 1997.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 159
Furthermore, as discussed in chapter 1, the limits have frequently been
lengthened either by an extension as provided for in the text of the
amnesty, an amendment to the original law, or by the introduction of sub-
sequent amnesty laws, which can extend the amnesty for several years.
For example, the Amnesty Act 2000 in Uganda, which was originally
intended to be available only for six months, has been repeatedly extended
and is still operating at the time of writing. However, problems may arise
where an amnesty is frequently extended or renewed, as such activity may
create an expectation among insurgents that they can benet from an
amnesty at any time, and can therefore take a wait and see approach
rather than engaging with the process.
This section has argued that time limits can have a signicant impact on
the efcacy of amnesty processes, by encouraging targeted groups to
respond promptly by creating an incentive for participation. However,
where the time limits are too short, practical difculties, such as travelling
long distances, may reduce the ability of insurgents to participate, and
where the limits are too long or repeatedly extended, the incentive created
by the limits will be undermined.
Amnesty and Repentance
The concept of repentance has a long lineage in philosophy and theology,
which is beyond the scope of this book to recount. However, drawing on
these literatures, repentance can be dened as a process where a wrong-
doer gains recognition of and regret for his action, and [is] willing to make
amends.
19
Clearly, in this sense, repentance requires the wrongdoers to
change their feelings about their past actions. It can be difcult to judge
whether an individual is sincerely repenting for his behaviour, but the
idea of repentance being a necessary prerequisite for amnesty has been
employed in many countries, usually for opponents of the state. These
repentance requirements can take a number of forms, such as publicly
renouncing previous actions, admitting guilt, demonstrating remorse,
providing information on former comrades or participating in re-
education programmes.
First, repentance requirements can make amnesties conditional on the
beneciaries signing written documents or making public statements in
which they renounce their political or violent activities and swear loyalty
to the state and its laws. For example, the 1981 amnesty in Colombia
required each beneciary to make an express and individual statement to
160 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
19
Joanna North, Wrongdoing and Forgiveness (1987) 62 Philosophy 499, 503. See also
Amitai Etzioni and David Carney (eds), Repentance: A Comparative Perspective (Rowman and
Littleeld Publishers Inc, Oxford 1997).
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 160
cease his participation in the punishable acts.
20
Similarly, the amnesty
laws of South Korea in the 1980s required beneciaries, mostly commu-
nists, to sign statements renouncing their political beliefs.
21
This policy
was replaced in 1998 by a requirement that they pledge to obey the law,
including the National Security Law, and to recognise the Republic of
Korea.
22
It has been suggested that amnesty should not be exchanged for
a pre-existing duty (such as the duty to obey the law).
23
But for insur-
gents who were willing to risk their life and liberty to ght the central
government, any public statement of recognition of the legitimacy of the
state can be of major symbolic importance.
In certain states, individuals who have promised to obey these condi-
tions can face stiff penalties for recidivism. For example, the 1990 exten-
sion of the 1989 Angolan amnesty stated amnesty was conditional on the
beneciary not repeating his crime or committing any other serious
crime.
24
The 1991 Lebanese amnesty went further, by stating that
those committing crimes covered by the amnesty, after the date of its promul-
gation, will be liable for prosecution and will also be liable for all the offences
they committed during the war.
25
These conditions resemble the licence scheme in Northern Ireland out-
lined above.
Alternatively, amnesty processes may require applicants to admit
their guilt. For example, Sarkin highlights that the Amnesty Committee of
the South African TRC deemed denial of guilt to be an obstacle to the
granting of amnesty.
26
He comments that this can be problematic where
people might be guilty, but believe that they are not, since they view the
acts they admittedly performed as legitimate.
27
Furthermore, condition-
ing amnesty on admissions of guilt does not provide any assistance for
people who are innocent, but were found guilty by the apartheid-era judi-
ciary.
28
Indeed, it is alleged that the plea bargaining system in Rwanda
29
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 161
20
Ley 37 de 1981 por la cual se declara una amnista conditional, Diario Ofcial No 35760, p 442,
1981 (Colom) art 3.
21
Nicholas D Kristof, New South Korea Leader Grants Sweeping Amnesty to 5.5 Million
New York Times (Tokyo 13 March 1998) 1.
22
, South Korea Relaxes Rules on Amnesty Washington Post (Seoul 2 July 1998) A24.
23
Jeremy Sarkin and Erin Daly, Too Many Questions, Too Few Answers: Reconciliation
in Transitional Societies (2004) 35 Columbia Human Rights Law Review 661, 722.
24
, Angola: Dos Santos Approves Extension of the Amnesty Law, Issues Decree on
State Crimes BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (6 February 1990).
25
Loi damnistie gnrale No 84/91 (1991) art 2 (Lebanon).
26
Jeremy Sarkin, Carrots and Sticks: The TRC and the South African Amnesty Process
(Intersentia, Antwerp 2004) 237.
27
Ibid 238.
28
Ibid 245.
29
The plea bargaining system, pre-dated the current gacaca arrangements. It was made
available to all perpetrators except the very most responsible category. However, it did
enable Category One offenders to benet from reduced sentencs, but only if their confessions
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 161
which allowed for sentence reductions or prison releases for those who
pleaded guilty, encouraged innocent people to plead guilty to escape the
horrendous conditions in Rwandas prisons.
Amnesty applicants in other processes have been required to show
remorse. For example, in Timor-Leste, individuals who participate in the
Community Reconciliation Process could be required to perform an act of
reconciliation, such as a public apology.
30
Although determining the sin-
cerity of any such proclamations is difcult and insincere apologies risk
devaluing genuine expressions of remorse, it may be of symbolic import-
ance for victims to see those who tortured them admit that their actions
were wrong. It can also be benecial for societies which have been exposed
to prolonged periods of propaganda to help dispel the myths and preju-
dices that had been created and to contribute to establishing a common
history.
Amnesty applicants may also be required to demonstrate that they have
turned their backs on their past organisations, by providing information
on their former comrades. For example, under a series of Repentance
Laws in Turkey, those who surrendered were required to provide
information on the identities and whereabouts of fellow ghters who had
not surrendered.
31
Whilst such evidence would clearly be of value to
counter-insurgency forces, the requirement is problematic. Requiring
individuals wishing to obtain amnesty to provide information risks false
evidence being given to security forces, which could lead to innocent
people being falsely accused and detained.
Finally, some states have decided to try to ensure that repentance is
genuine by requiring beneciaries of the amnesty to participate in re-
education programmes. For example, Eritrean secessionist guerrillas who
received amnesty in Ethiopia in 1978 and 1980 were required to attend
briengs on Ethiopias long-recorded unity, the theory of Marxism-
Leninism and the process of the Ethiopian revolution.
32
This section has argued that states can encourage amnesty beneciaries
to show their repentance for their previous actions in a number of ways,
162 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
are made prior to their names being listed in the Ofcial Gazette. See Organic Law No
08/1996 of 30/8/1996 Organization of Prosecutions for Offenses Constituting the Crime of
Genocide or Crimes against Humanity Committed since 1 October 1990, ch III. For discus-
sion, see Coel Kirkby, Rwandas Gacaca Courts: A Preliminary Critique (2006) 50 Journal of
African Law 94; Philip J Drew, Dealing with Mass Atrocities and Ethnic Violence: Can
Alternative Forms of Justice be Effective? A Case Study of Rwanda (Access to Justice
Network, 2000).
30
UNTAET, Regulation No 2001/10 on the Establishment of a Commission for Reception,
Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor, 2001 (E. Timor) s 27.7. See ch 2 for a discussion of the
Community Reconciliation Process.
31
Amberin Zaman, Turkish Parliament Approves Amnesty for Kurdish Rebels Voice of
America News (Ankara 29 July 2003).
32
, Amnesty for Several Hundred in Eritrea BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
(Addis Ababa 26 April 1980). The concept of re-education is discussed further in ch 10.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 162
with each approach having different implications for states and for vic-
tims. For example, requiring insurgents to provide information on their
former comrades to receive amnesty can be viewed by a state as a tool to
assist in its campaign to end an insurgency. In contrast, conditioning
amnesty on applicants apologising directly to their victims within the con-
text of a truth commission or community-based justice mechanism could
be viewed as pre-dominantly of benet to individual victims and their
families. For all forms of repentance, however, the benets are primarily
symbolic, as it can be difcult to ascertain the sincerity of an apology, and
even where individuals genuinely swear to uphold the law, they may
reverse their position if they feel that their former enemies are failing to
full their obligations within a peace process. Despite these difculties,
the symbolism of public displays of repentance from belligerent institu-
tions or individual amnesty applicants can contribute to repudiating the
crimes of the past and demonstrating an intention to adhere to the rule of
law. Where this occurs, such proclamations, although symbolic, may be
necessary to build trust in the edgling institutions of a transitional state
and reduce enmity between previously warring factions.
Amnesty and the Search for Truth
The right to truth applies to both the right of individuals to know the truth
about their suffering and the right of society as a whole to know the truth
about past events. The victims right to truth is not explicitly referred to in
the general human rights instruments or subject-specic conventions,
with the possible exception of the right of every individual to receive
information that is articulated in the African Charter on Human and
Peoples Rights.
33
However, all major human rights treaties articulate the
states duty to investigate human rights violations and Hayner asserts that
within this duty is the inherent right of the citizenry to know the results
of such investigations.
34
The content of the right to truth has been
outlined in the UN General Assemblys Basic Principles and Guidelines on
the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of
International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International
Humanitarian Law. These principles, which are not binding on states but
are intended to reect international standards on the right to a remedy,
state that to ensure satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition, there
must be
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 163
33
African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights (adopted 27 June 1981, entered into
force 21 October 1986) (1982) 21 ILM 58 (African Charter), art 19(1).
34
Priscilla B Hayner, 15 Truth Commissions1974 to 1994: A Comparative Study (1994)
16 Human Rights Quarterly 597, 611.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 163
Verication of the facts and full and public disclosure of the truth to the extent
that such disclosure does not cause further harm or threaten the safety and
interests of the victim, the victims relatives, witnesses, or persons who have
intervened to assist the victim or prevent the occurrence of further violations.
35
The Basic Principles and Guidelines further state that
Victims and their representatives should be entitled to seek and obtain informa-
tion on the causes leading to their victimization and on the causes and condi-
tions pertaining to the gross violations of international human rights law and
serious violations of international humanitarian law and to learn the truth in
regard to these violations.
36
From this, it is clear that the right to truth is regarded as a fundamental
component in ensuring victims right to reparations for gross violations of
human rights law, which can be viewed as equivalent to crimes under
international law. It can be inferred that, for less serious crimes, the duty
to investigate is not mandatory under international law.
The right of a society to know the truth about serious human rights vio-
lations was recognised by the Inter-American Commission on Human
Rights in 1986, which asserted that
every society has the inalienable right to know the truth about past events, as
well as the motives and circumstances in which aberrant crimes came to be com-
mitted, in order to prevent repetition of such acts in the future.
37
The Updated Set of Principles for the Protection and Promotion of Human Rights
through Action to Combat Impunity has recently reafrmed this idea for
crimes under international law by proclaiming:
Every people has the inalienable right to know the truth about past events con-
cerning the perpetration of heinous crimes and about the circumstances and rea-
sons that led, through massive or systematic violations, to the perpetration of
those crimes. Full and effective exercise of the right to the truth provides a vital
safeguard against the recurrence of violations.
38
Such support for an obligation to investigate crimes under international
law was also given by the other treaty-monitoring bodies. For example, in
the Hugh Jordan v United Kingdom case before the European Court of
164 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
35
UNGA, Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for
Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of
International Humanitarian Law UNGA Res 60/147 (16 December 2005) Princ 22(b).
36
Ibid Princ 24.
37
Inter-Am CHR, Annual Report 19856: Chapter V Areas in which Steps need to be
taken towards full Observance of the Human Rights set forth in the American Declaration of
Human Rights and Duties of Man and the American Convention of Human Rights,
OEA/SerL/V/II 68 (26 September 1986).
38
UNCHR Updated Set of principles for the protection and promotion of human rights
through action to combat impunity (8 February 2005) UN Doc E/CN.4/2005/102/Add1
(prepared by Diane Orentlicher), Princ 2. These principles have a similar non-binding status to
the Basic Principles and Guidelines.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 164
Human Rights, the court analysed the minutiae of the domestic investiga-
tion process into violations of the right to life, before nding that families
are entitled to thorough information into the planning and decision-
making resulting in the death of their relatives at the hands of the state or
state-sponsored paramilitaries.
39
Amnesty laws do not automatically deny victims their right to truth,
and in fact can often co-exist with truth commissions. This relationship
can take many forms.
40
First, an amnesty can be introduced before the
establishment of the truth commission. This was the case in Chile, where
the military junta had promulgated an amnesty law in 1978 to shield
members of the armed forces from prosecution for serious crimes that
they had committed during the dirty war. When the democratic gov-
ernment subsequently came to power in 1990, it found for a number of
reasons that the amnesty law was impossible to repeal. This led the then
president, Patricio Aylwin, to inaugurate a truth commission to achieve
justice inasmuch as was possible.
41
Secondly, an amnesty can be
introduced following a truth commission, as occurred in El Salvador as is
illustrated in Case Study 10.
Case Study 10: Sequencing amnesty and truth in El Salvador
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 165
A violent civil war raged in El Salvador between 1980 and 1991, which pitted
left-wing insurgents against the military-backed governments, supported by
the United States. All parties to the conict were engaged in atrocities and the
government forces employed death squads. The conict resulted in 75,000
deaths.
During the ghting there were several attempts to reach a peaceful settle-
ment, but the transition began in earnest following the 1992 Chapultepec
Accords, which were brokered by the UN. The accords called for the
39
Hugh Jordan v United Kingdom (App No 24746/94), Eur Ct Hum Rts, ECHR 2001-III. For
a discussion of this case, see Fionnuala N Aolin, Truth Telling, Accountability and the
Right to Life in Northern Ireland (2002) 5 European Human Rights Law Review 572; and
Christine Bell and Johanna Keenan, Lost on the Way Home? The Right to Life in Northern
Ireland 32 Journal of Law and Society 68. For an overview of the jurisprudence of international
courts relating to a states duty to investigate, see ch 6.
40
For a discussion of the impact of the amnesty in exchange for truth model, see literature
on the South African TRC, such as Sarkin (n 26); Peter A Schey, Dinah L Shelton and Naomi
Roht-Arriaza, Addressing Human Rights Abuses: Truth Commissions and the Value of
Amnesty (1997) 19 Whittier Law Review 325; Lyn S Graybill, Pardon, Punishment and
Amnesia: Three African Post-conict Methods (2004) 25 Third World Quarterly 1117; Kader
Asmal, Truth, Reconciliation and Justice: The South African Experience in Perspective
(2000) 63 Modern Law Review 1; Alex Boraine, A Country Unmasked: Inside South Africas Truth
and Reconciliation Commission (Oxford University Press, Cape Town 2000).
41
Cited in Terence S Coonan, Rescuing History: Legal and Theological Reections on the
Task of Making Former Torturers Accountable (1996) 20 Fordham International Law Journal
512, 539. For a description of the Chilean amnesty process, see case study 5.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 165
166 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
establishment of an Ad Hoc Commission to consider military reform and a
truth commission to be staffed by international personnel. The commissions
mandate was to investigate the serious acts of violence that occurred since
1980 and whose impact on society urgently demands that the public should
know the truth.
42
Following the peace agreements, the Salvadorean legislature passed a limited
amnesty in 1992, which granted immunity to those responsible in any way for
political crimes or any deeds with political ramications, and for those who
participated in common crimes committed by no less than 20 people, before
1 January 1992.
43
However, it exempted individuals who had been convicted
by juries and persons whose alleged crimes fell within the jurisdiction of the
truth commission. This provision meant that any individuals named as per-
petrators in the commissions report were to be deprived on the benets of the
1992 amnesty.
The commissions nal report, which was made public on 15 March 1993,
named 40 high-level ofcials comprising members of the armed forces and
the president of the Supreme Court. It also named 11 Frente Farabundo Mart
para la Liberacin Nacional (FLMN) members. The government responded to
this report, and related threats from the military, by enacting an amnesty to
protect those who had been named and to broaden the denition of political
crimes.
44
This 1993 amnesty, however, retained the clause from the 1992
amnesty, which excluded crimes committed by more than 20 people and it
also excluded acts of terrorism, where the offender deprives third parties of
their freedom, threatens or causes death for prot, and drug-related crimes,
kidnapping and extortion.
Since 1993, the transition has been comparatively stable, although in recent
years there has been a rise in the numbers of murders and forced disappear-
ances. The main insurgent group, the FMLN, became one of the two major
political parties. Furthermore, the amnesty has remained in tact and there has
been no ofcial investigation or memorialisation of past crimes in El Salvador.
However, civil society groups have continued campaigning.
Sources: Amnesty International, El Salvador: Peace can only be achieved with jus-
tice AI Index AMR 29/001/2001 (2001); Margarita S Studemeister (ed), El
Salvador: Implementation of the Peace Accords (US Institute of Peace, Washington
DC 2001); Mike Kaye, The Role of Truth Commissions in the Search for Justice,
Reconciliation and Democratisation: The Salvadorean and Honduran Cases (1997)
29 Journal of Latin American Studies 693; Margaret Popkin, Latin American
Amnesties in Comparative Perspective: Can the Past be Buried? (1999) 13 Ethics
and International Affairs 99.
42
Chapultepec Agreement 1992, art 2 (El Sal).
43
Law of National Reconciliation, Legislative Decree 147, Ofcial Journal 14, Vol 314
(23 January 1992) (El Sal).
44
Ley de Amnista General para la Consolidacin de la Paz, Decreto No 486 (20 March 1993)
(El Sal).
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 166
Finally, an amnesty can be introduced in conjunction with a truth com-
mission. This could mean either two independent mechanisms that are
introduced simultaneously as, for example, under the 1999 Lom Accord
that aimed to end the conict in Sierra Leone;
45
or a truth commission that
has the power to grant or recommend amnesty. It is this latter relationship
between the two forms of transitional justice that has sparked the most
debate in recent years, following the establishment of the South African
TRC.
46
The appeal of the South African TRC is based on the belief that providing
amnesty encourages the involvement of perpetrators in revealing the truth,
thereby contributing to the establishment of a more balanced historical
account than would be the case if only the stories of the victims were
heard.
47
This truth-recovery role is further enhanced in comparison to trials,
as truth commissions explore the crimes in a wider political context.
48
Furthermore, as truth commission hearings are often in public and tele-
vised, and their reports are widely distributed, the truth can be revealed to
society as a whole, making it harder for the abuses to be denied and increas-
ing the possibility that an accepted common history can be established. For
this goal to be achieved, however, the commission must be viewed as rep-
resentative and unbiased. Truth commissions can also be attractive where
they are seen as more victim-centred than trials, as they provide space for
victims to recount their stories and have their suffering acknowledged.
49
Furthermore, the participation of both victims and perpetrators in truth
commissions can help to foster a climate of reconciliation between their
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 167
45
1999 Peace Agreement between the Government of Sierra Leone and the Revolutionary
United Front of Sierra Leone (Lom Accord) (Sierra Leone).
46
See case study 13.
47
For a discussion see Martha Minow, Between Vengeance and Forgiveness: Facing History
after Genocide and Mass Violence (Beacon Press, Boston 1998) 889. See also Richard Mosier,
Truth Commissions: Peddling Impunity? (2003) 6 HRF; Daan Bronkhorst, Truth and
Reconciliation: Obstacles and Opportunities for Human Rights (Amnesty International
Dutch Section, Amsterdam, 1995); Tom Winslow, Reconciliation: The Road to Healing?
Collective Good, Individual Harm? (1997) 6 Track Two; Brandon Hamber, Do Sleeping Dogs
Lie? The Psychological Implications of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South
Africa (Seminar No 5, Center for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation, Johannesburg
1995); Anita Isaacs, The Therapeutic Benets of Truth: Insights from Guatemala
(Presentation at Conference on Reconciliation, University of Western Ontario, 1415 May
2005); Sam Garkawe, The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission: A Suitable
Model to Enhance the Role and Rights of the Victims of Gross Violations of Human Rights?
(2003) 27 Melbourne University Law Review 334.
48
Neil J Kritz, Dealing with the Legacy of Past Abuses: An Overview of the Options and
their Relationship to the Promotion of Peace in M Bleeker Massard and Jonathan Paige
Sisson (eds), Dealing with the Past: Critical Issues, Lessons Learned, and Challenges for Future
Swiss Policy (Swiss Peace Foundation, Bern, Switzerland 2004) 22.
49
Jeremy Sarkin, The Necessity and Challenges of Establishing a Truth and Reconciliation
Commission in Rwanda (1999) 21 Human Rights Quarterly 767, 799 and Priscilla B Hayner,
Unspeakable Truths: Confronting State Terror and Atrocity (Routledge, New York 2001) 26. For a
discussion of the attitudes of victims towards truth commissions, see ch 9.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 167
communities.
50
Truth commissions may also be a more appropriate
response to the difcult conditions faced by a transitional state where
resources are limited and an appropriately trained and impartial legal com-
munity is absent,
51
making it impossible to hold fair legal proceedings, and
where former combatants are threatening further violence if prosecuted.
For these reasons, truth commissions are increasingly implemented in con-
junction with amnesties, as is shown in Figure 10 below. This gure shows
that although truth commissions were used before the fall of apartheid in
South Africa in the early 1990s, in the period after the Human Rights
Violations Committee of the South African TRC submitted its report in
October 1998, the popularity of truth commissions accompanying amnesty
processes increased. However, none has exactly replicated the South
African approach, with truth commissions in Liberia, Aceh, Indonesia and
Timor-Leste, instead being given the power to recommend amnesty. Since
the beginning of 2005, 41 amnesty processes have been introduced, of which
four have been accompanied by truth-recovery mechanisms.
For a truth commission that offers amnesty in exchange for truth to be
an adequate alternative to formal justice, there are a number of key
168 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
N
o
o
f
A
m
n
e
s
t
i
e
s
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
Figure 10: Truth commissions coinciding with amnesties between 1980
and 2005
50
Sarkin (n 49) 799800.
51
Gunnar Theissen, Supporting Justice, Co-existence and Reconciliation after Armed
Conict: Strategies for Dealing with the Past in David Bloomeld, Martina Fischer and
Beatrix Schmelzle (eds), Berghof Handbook for Conict Transformation (Berghof Research
Center for Constructive Conict Management, Berlin 2005) 6; Sarkin (n 49) 800.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 168
requirements that have been identied from the experience of the com-
missions which have operated to date. First, the truth commission must be
a separate institution created formally by law, rather than established
through executive policy, as
if the government were to create the commission, the life and work of the com-
mission would be at the whim of the government.
52
Secondly, the truth commission should pursue a restorative conception
of justice that involves revealing the truth, repairing victims harm and pro-
moting reconciliation.
53
For the commission to achieve this, it should
accommodate all those affected by the conict: offenders, victims and their
respective families and supporters, and the wider community.
54
By involv-
ing perpetrators and their communities, and granting the perpetrators
amnesties rather than prison sentences, truth commissions may reduce the
likelihood that they will provoke the offender and their communities into
restoring hostilities in the future.
55
Thirdly, the commissioners who are
appointed should be perceived as above politics
56
or, if political commis-
sioners are included, the composition should be balanced so that the truth
commission is not viewed as biased. Fourthly, the mandate of the truth
commission should be broad enough to provide a more complete picture of
the past,
57
and it should select representative cases to appear in the public
hearings to reconcile limited resources with the need to present a clear his-
tory. Where decisions are made to focus on particular events rather than all
incidents, the factors inuencing the decision should be transparent.
Once a truth commission has been established, any amnesties should be
granted individually to encourage each applicant to full the necessary
conditions, particularly the requirement to tell the truth. For those
individuals who fail to adhere to the conditions, prosecutions should be
pursued. Truth commissions should name the individuals responsible for
the violations, even when they have received an amnesty. In order not to
conict with the applicants rights, any allegations should be substanti-
ated by the commission, and the individual who has been named should
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 169
52
Sarkin (n 49) 805.
53
Declan Roche, Truth Commission Amnesties and the International Criminal Court
(2005) 45 British Journal of Criminology 565, 569. To date, the truth commission that has most
clearly associated itself with the principles of restorative justice is the South African TRC. For
more information see Jennifer J Llewellyn and Robert Howse, Institutions for Restorative
Justice: The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (1999) 49 University of
Toronto Law Journal 355; Desmond Tutu, No Future without Forgiveness (Rider, London 1999);
Charles Villa-Vicencio and Wilhelm Verwoerd (eds), Looking Back, Reaching Forward:
Reections on the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa (Zed Books, London 2000).
54
Roche (n 53) 570; Sarkin (n 49) 803.
55
Roche (n 53) 574.
56
Eric Brahm, Truth Commissions June 2004 <www.beyondintractability.org/essay/
truth_commissions> accessed 20 February 2008; Sarkin (n 49) 803 and 80510.
57
Brahm (n 56).
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 169
be given the opportunity to reply in either an oral statement before the
commission or a written submission that will be included in the commis-
sions le.
58
The publication of names is important, as, although
amnesties result in the perpetrators evading criminal sanctions, naming
names exposes the truth and holds perpetrators accountable for their
actions.
59
By identifying individual perpetrators in publicised sessions or
in the commissions report, there is the possibility that they will face some
mental anguish in owning up to what one has been capable of.
60
Furthermore, they may have to carry the burden of potential or real social
ostracism, which could be a form of punishment.
61
Truth commissions
should not impose more serious punishments, as they do not have the
same standards of proof or evidence as courts.
62
Consequently, as
Freeman argues, it would be unreasonable, as well as illogical, to hold
truth commissions up to the standards of full due process.
63
However, he
continues:
Where a right or legal entitlement implicated in a trial closely overlaps with one
implicated in a truth commission procedure (eg the right against compelled self-
incrimination), due process standards provides a useful benchmark of fair-
ness.
64
Furthermore, Sarkin has advocated in his study of the Amnesty
Committee of the South African TRC that legal standards such as the use
of precedent should be employed to ensure that amnesty is granted fairly,
and that procedures are being consistently applied to all.
65
In conclusion, this discussion has argued that amnesties need not pre-
vent victims and societies learning the truth about past events, and in fact,
where amnesties are used to entice offenders to admit the truth about their
actions, they may contribute to the uncovering of more information on the
past than would have been possible under formal criminal proceedings. In
this way, offering amnesties in exchange for truth can contribute to repair-
ing the harm suffered by the victims.
170 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
58
UNCHR (n 38) Princ 9.
59
Hayner (n 49) 132.
60
Stephen A Garrett, Models of Transitional JusticeA Comparative Analysis, (presen-
tation at International Studies Association 41st Annual Convention, Los Angeles, CA, 14/18
March 2000).
61
Ibid.
62
Brahm (n 56).
63
Mark Freeman, Truth Commissions and Procedural Fairness (Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge 2006) 109.
64
Ibid 110.
65
Sarkin (n 26) 181.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 170
Amnesty and Repairing the Harm
The right to reparations is not specically addressed under the inter-
national human rights conventions,
66
although all the main instruments
afrm a right to a remedy,
67
which contains inter alia the right to repara-
tions for the harm suffered.
68
The importance of the right to reparations
has been supported in the decisions of the international courts,
69
and it has
been recognised in Rule 106 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the
ad hoc tribunals, which establishes:
pursuant to the relevant national legislation, a victim or persons claiming
through the victim may bring an action in a national court or other competent
body to obtain compensation.
70
In addition, Article 75 of the Rome Statute of the ICC makes provision for
reparations to be paid either by the convicted person or, where that person
lacks the necessary funds, the Victims Trust Fund,
71
which can receive
grants from governments, international organisations or individuals.
In addition to international courts, the right to reparations was explicitly
elaborated in the unanimously adopted UN General Assembly Declaration
on the Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power
1985,
72
although its language lacks potency.
73
More recently, the Basic
Principles and Guidelines declared that reparations are integral to a victims
right to a remedy.
74
These principles stipulate that reparations should be
adequate, effective and prompt; should seek to redress gross violations of
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 171
66
However, some subject-specic conventions, such as the Convention Against Torture
1984; the International Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination
1969, and other regional human rights treaties do explicitly recognise the right to reparations.
67
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (adopted 10 December 1948) UNGA Res 217
A(III) (UDHR) art 8; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (adopted 16
December 1966, entered into force 23 March 1976) 999 UNTS 171 (ICCPR) art 2; Convention
for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms as amended by Protocol No
11, (adopted 4 November 1950, entered into force 3 September 1953) 213 UNTS 221
(European Convention on Human Rights) (ECHR) 1950 art 13; and African Charter art 25.
For a discussion of the right to a remedy, see ch 6.
68
Remedies for gross violations of international human rights law and serious violations
of international humanitarian law include the victims right to the following as provided for
under international law: (a) Equal and effective access to justice; (b) Adequate, effective and
prompt reparation for harm suffered; (c) Access to relevant information concerning viola-
tions and reparation mechanisms. See UNGA (n 78) Princ 11.
69
Aloeboetoe et al v Suriname, Inter-Am. Ct HR (ser C) No 11 (1991). For an overview of the
jurisprudence of the treaty-monitoring bodies in relation to reparations see ch 6.
70
ICTY, Rules of Procedure and Evidence 29 March 2006 <http://www.un.org/icty/
legaldoc-e/basic/rpe/procedureindex.htm> accessed 21 April 2006, Rule 106(b).
71
ICC St art 75.
72
UNGA, Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of
Power (29 November 1985) Res 40/34.
73
Chante Lasco, Repairing the Irreparable: Current and Future Approaches to Reparations
(2003) 10 Human Rights Brief 18.
74
UNGA (n 78) Princ 11.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 171
human rights; and must be proportional to the gravity of the violations
and the harm suffered.
75
Finally, the principles provide that, where the
state is responsible for the violations, it must make reparations to the vic-
tims or their families, and where an individual is found to be responsible,
that individual should provide reparation to the victim or compensate the
state if the state has already provided reparation to the victim.
76
However,
as will be discussed below, most offenders, except the former elite or insur-
gency leaders, will not have sufcient nancial resources to be able to pay,
and indeed, some former combatants may be in need of nancial assistance
themselves whilst they attempt to demobilise and reintegrate into society.
77
Amnesty laws raise various issues relating to the right to reparations.
First, as discussed in chapter 1, amnesties can be a form of reparation to
individuals who have been penalised or imprisoned by the state for their
alleged political or religious beliefs. In these instances, the granting of
amnesty could restore the dignity and status of those who have been
oppressed and remove their criminal record, which might be a barrier to
full participation in society.
In contrast, amnesty laws that are issued to perpetrators of crimes under
international law could constitute a violation of the victims right to a rem-
edy, which should then itself be remedied. For example, the amnesty law
could work to prevent victims obtaining reparations for the suffering they
endured, by prohibiting civil proceedings or by making investigations too
difcult to enable such civil proceedings to succeed. An amnesty law could,
however, include provision for reparations, or could be accompanied by
legislation to provide nancial compensation for victims and their families.
Furthermore, amnesties can be accompanied by measures to facilitate the
victims right to le a civil suit or participate in truth-recovery mechanisms,
and by measures to memorialise the suffering of the victims and prevent
such violations recurring. Such measures could potentially mean that a state
could satisfy its obligation to provide a remedy, even where it has intro-
duced an amnesty.
As the category of reparations is extremely broad, it has been divided
into the following sub-categories: restitution, compensation, rehabilita-
tion, satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition, using the denition of
reparations in the Basic Principles and Guidelines.
78
In addition, the right of
individuals to regain property that was conscated or that they had been
forced to abandon whilst eeing violence could be regarded as a form of
restitution, it has been treated as a separate category in the database, due
to the complex issues related to it. Finally, in analysing the relationship of
reparations to amnesty, reparative amnesties are excluded from the data
172 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
75
UNGA (n 78) Princ 15.
76
Ibid Princ 15.
77
For a discussion of the provision of nancial incentives to former combatants, see ch 10.
78
UNGA (n 35) Princs 1923.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 172
discussing trends, as they would skew the results. They will, however, be
referred to in the discussion of case studies below. This restriction, plus the
fact that not all amnesties have conditions attached, has limited the iden-
tication of amnesties with accompanying reparations measures to 151
amnesty laws. The distribution of each form of reparations among these
amnesties is shown in Figure 11 below. This distribution perhaps reects
the differing natures of each form of reparations, with measures to pro-
vide satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition often being less expen-
sive to implement and potentially benecial for more individuals than, for
example, efforts to promote rehabilitation. Indeed, although some of the
reparation measures can be expensive for the state to provide, others can
occur without any nancial burden, for example, an ofcial apology. This
exibility in the forms of reparations that can be implemented can perhaps
explain why, when comparing the patterns across regions, there is little
difference in the number of amnesty laws that are related to reparations in
each region, despite the wide disparities in wealth in the different parts of
the world. Related reparations and amnesties were introduced in 30 coun-
tries in Europe and Central Asia, and in 53 countries in Sub-Saharan
Africa. Overall, the introduction of reparation measures has grown in pop-
ularity during the period since the Second World War with 90 amnesty
laws having complementary reparation measures since 1990. This increase
in popularity has included all forms of reparations, with the most dra-
matic growth in recent years occurring in measures to ensure satisfaction
and guarantees of non-repetition. These developments are to be welcomed
as they illustrate that, although states are introducing amnesties, such
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 173
Figure 11: Amnesties and reparations programmes
N
o
o
f
A
m
n
e
s
t
i
e
s
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Restitution Compensation Rehabilitation Satisfaction
and guarantees
of non repetition
Return of exiles
Form of Reparations
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 173
amnesties are increasingly moving away from blanket approaches which
overlook the rights and needs of victims.
Restitution
The duty of the state to provide restitution has been described as follows:
Restitution should, whenever possible, restore the victim to the original
situation before the gross violations of international human rights law or seri-
ous violations of international humanitarian law occurred. Restitution includes,
as appropriate: restoration of liberty, enjoyment of human rights, identity,
family life and citizenship, return to ones place of residence, restoration of
employment and return of property.
79
Some of these measures were implemented in the amnesty laws studied
for this research. First, as discussed previously, many amnesty laws have
provided for the release of political prisoners, which is an act of restitution
that restores the liberty of those who were imprisoned. For example, the
1990 Romanian amnesty included measures to release those who had been
imprisoned; to establish committees of inquiry and ad hoc committees to
settle cases of persons claiming to have been wronged; to re-examine cer-
tain verdicts; and to grant compensation.
80
Secondly, some amnesties
have also sought to restore individuals civil and political rights. For
example, the 1979 Brazilian amnesty law
81
introduced by the ruling milit-
ary junta in response to demands from the opposition movement, allowed
previously disenfranchised politicians to re-engage in politics in return for
tacitly agreeing not to challenge the impunity granted to the armed forces
by the same law.
82
Individuals right to employment has also been restored in several
amnesties which aimed to reintegrate those who had lost their jobs due to
their political or religious beliefs. For example, the 2002 Angolan amnesty
resulting from the Luena peace agreement provided for the reinstatement
into the police force of ofcers who had received amnesties for crimes
174 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
79
UNGA (n 78) Princ 19.
80
Joby Warrick, Ceausescus Political Prisoners Freed United Press International (Bucharest
5 January 1990); Jan Krcmar, New Leadership Grants Amnesty to Political Prisoners The
Independent (6 January 1990) 15; , Decree on Amnesty Adopted ITAR-TASS (6 January
1990).
81
Lei Concede anistia e d outras providncias, 1979 (Braz).
82
For a discussion of the Brazilian transition, see Guillermo ODonnell, Philippe C
Schmitter and Laurence Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for
DemocracyLatin America (John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1986); Jorge Zaverucha,
The Degree of Military Autonomy During the Spanish, Argentine and Brazilian Transitions
(1993) 25 Journal of Latin American Studies 283; Brian Loveman, Protected Democracies and
Military Guardianship: Political Transitions in Latin America, 19781993 (1994) 36 Journal of
Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 105; Lawrence Weschler, A Miracle, A Universe: Settling
Accounts with Torturers (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill 1998).
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 174
against state security.
83
In other cases, governments have offered to pro-
vide support in nding new employment. For example, in the 2005 peace
agreement for Aceh the Indonesian government undertook to provide jobs
or farming land for GAM ghters, political prisoners and all civilians who
have suffered a demonstrable loss due to the conict.
84
However, this
would clearly be a difcult and expensive policy for many transitional
governments to pursue.
Restitution has also been offered in many amnesties that allowed for the
return of property or where that was no longer possible, compensation for
the loss. For example, the 1991 Bulgarian amnesty law provided that
[r]eal property . . . that has been conscated shall be returned to the persons
from whom it was conscated or to their legal heirs if it is in the possession of
the state or in the possession of a state or municipal company in which the state
owns at least a 51 per cent share before this Law goes into effect.
If the conditions of the preceding paragraph have ceased to exist or if the prop-
erty has been destroyed, demolished or rebuilt, said convicted individuals shall
be compensated with another piece of real property of equal value or with mon-
etary compensation under rules and procedures determined by the Council of
Ministers . . .
85
Instituting policies of restitution can be problematic. For example, when
considerable time has passed since the original violations occurred, new
patterns of ownership and distribution of resources may have been estab-
lished, and attempts to redress past violations would lead to the creation
of new groups of victims.
86
Nonetheless, restitution, where possible, can
help to mitigate the negative consequences of an amnesty for human
rights abusers by going some way to restoring victims to their former
state.
Compensation
According to the Basic Principles and Guidelines:
Compensation should be provided for any economically assessable damage, as
appropriate and proportional to the gravity of the violation and the circum-
stances of each case, resulting from gross violations of international human
rights law and serious violations of international humanitarian law, such as:
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 175
83
Law No 4/02 (Angola). For a description see , Angolan government urged to
speed up reintegration of amnestied police BBC Worldwide Monitoring (Luanda 18 February
2004).
84
Memorandum of Understanding between the Government of the Republic of Indonesia
and the Free Aceh Movement, 2005 (Indon) s 3.2.5.
85
Law on Amnesty and Restoration of Conscated Property and Implementing
Regulations, 1991 (Bulg) art 5.
86
For a discussion of the risks inherent in any approach to restitution, see Minow (n 47)
107112.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 175
(a) Physical or mental harm;
(b) Lost opportunities, including employment, education and social benets;
(c) Material damages and loss of earnings, including loss of earning potential;
(d) Moral damage;
(e) Costs required for legal or expert assistance, medicine and medical services,
and psychological and social services.
87
In dispersing this compensation, the mechanisms employed by states with
amnesty laws have varied between establishing independent commis-
sions to administer the provision of compensation, as in Chile,
88
or relying
on the judiciary through civil suits, as was the case in Peru, before the gov-
ernment launched its state-wide compensation programme.
89
However,
the latter approach created difculties for victims where thorough inves-
tigations were not conducted. When awarding monetary reparations,
there are a number of factors that states have chosen to consider, for exam-
ple, the type of physical or psychological harm endured and how long it
lasted; and the loss of earning potential or pension. For example, under the
1993 Albanian amnesty, the compensation granted to former political
prisoners was proportionate to every day of imprisonment not being
guilty.
90
In making nancial compensation, some states have chosen to
pay a lump sum in a single payment, sometimes with the condition that
victims who accept the payment surrender their right to make any further
complaints, whereas other states have chosen to pay reparations in the
form of monthly pensions. Each of these approaches has some difculties.
For example, making large-scale one-off payments can prove very costly
at a time when a state needs to invest in infrastructure and development.
In contrast, making monthly payments to victims and their relatives can
prove more expensive in the long term, and it would be difcult to esti-
mate the nal cost of the programme. Furthermore, both approaches can
face logistical difculties in distributing payments, particularly where
there are few functioning banks or nancial institutions.
Whereas some states are willing to provide compensation for crimes
committed by their agents, others have also compensated for crimes com-
mitted by non-state forces. For example, the United Kingdom paid com-
pensation to victims and their relatives for harm resulting from terrorist
activities relating to the conict in Northern Ireland.
91
In other instances,
176 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
87
UNGA (n 35) Princ 20.
88
See eg Hayner (n 34); Margaret Popkin and Naomi Roht-Arriaza, Truth as Justice:
Investigatory Commissions in Latin America (1995) 20 Law and Social Inquiry 79.
89
UNHRC Summary Record of the 1521st meeting: Peru (23 October 1996) UN Doc
CCPR/C/SR 152 [33].
90
Law on the Status of Politically Ex-Convicted and Prosecuted People by the Communist
Regime, Law No 7748 (29 July 1993), amended by the law No 7771 (7 December 1993) art 9
amended (Alb).
91
Nigel Biggar (ed), Burying the Past: Making Peace and Doing Justice after Civil Conict
(Georgetown University Press, Washington, DC 2003) 15.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 176
non-state actors or private entities that supported perpetrators (either
terrorist groups or dictatorial regimes) have been required to contribute to
compensation programmes. For example, on 25 February 2005, Riggs
Bank, which had been sued in a Spanish court for helping Pinochet to
launder money, agreed to pay $8 million to a fund established to assist
persons who suffered human rights violations under Pinochet.
92
Furthermore, under the recent Ley de Justicia y Paz 2005 in Colombia, per-
petrators can be required to contribute to the victims reparations as a
more reconciliatory form of punishment. Where non-state actors are
required to contribute to reparations programmes, this is not to excuse the
state from its responsibility to pay reparations for crimes committed by
state agents, or to contribute to reparations programmes where offenders
are unable to make a sufcient nancial contribution.
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 177
Case Study 11: Colombias Justice and Peace Law (Law 975) 2005
Colombias civil war is the longest running conict in the Americas, begin-
ning in 1948 and continuing to the present day. It is a complex conict with
multiple actors and widespread human rights violations. Amnesty
International claims that 70,000 people have been killed in the past 20 years
and thousands more have disappeared or have suffered violations of their
fundamental rights.
During the conict, there have been many attempts to reach a negotiated set-
tlement. The current process began following the election of President Alvaro
Uribe in 2002 and applies only to the Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia (AUC),
a right-wing, paramilitary, self-defence organisation, which is involved in
drug-trafcking and is alleged to have close ties to the armed forces and intel-
ligence organisations. Tentative talks on a ceasere are underway with the
left-wing Ejrcito de Liberacin Nacional (ELN), but the Fuerzas Armadas
Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC) is not involved in current peace talks.
During the peace negotiations with the AUC, there has been a series of
accords in which the paramilitaries agreed to disarm and demobilise. Under
Colombias scheme, lower-level combatants are granted amnesty for political
crimes under Decree 128 (2003), but individuals accused or sentenced in
absentia for crimes against humanity or drug trafcking are excluded from
this law. Decree 128 was found not to apply to AUC members by the Supreme
Court in July 2007, as the court held that they could not have committed polit-
ical crimes such as sedition, since they had not been working against the state,
but rather had co-operated with some state ofcials.
93
To address this gap in the programme of re-integrating former members of
the AUC, the government created the Justice and Peace Law 2005. Under its
92
Saul Hansell, Riggs National Will Settle Spanish Suit Linked to Pinochet, New York
Times (26 February 2005). Press Release from Spanish Legal Team, August Pinochet and
Riggs Bank (25 February 2005).
93
, Demob Unhappy The Economist (Bogota 2 August 2007).
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 177
94
Corte Constitucional, 18/05/06, Sentencia C-370/06 (Colom).
95
Amnesty International, Colombia: The Paramilitaries of Medelln: Demobilization or
Legalization? (Report) (September 2005) AI Index AMR 23/019/2005.
terms, the individuals excluded from Decree 128 will receive reduced sen-
tences that will be served in concentration zones, which are the areas in
which the demobilising combatants are required to assemble.
Many concerns have been raised domestically and internationally about the
Justice and Peace Laws approach including the security in the concentration
zones and the lack of initiatives to disable the criminal infrastructure of the
paramilitaries, which, if it remains in place, will provide them with the means
to simply buy more weapons if they were to return to violence. Furthermore,
during the debates preceding the laws enactment, civil society organisations
argued that the law should have provisions to protect victims rights to truth,
justice and reparations, a position that was arguably strengthened by the fact
that the ICC could exercise its jurisdiction over crimes against humanity com-
mitted since July 2002.
The resulting law requires offenders to face prosecution, but permits the
judge to suspend sentences if the offender agrees inter alia to refrain from fur-
ther criminality and to contribute to the victims reparations. In the original
text of the law, this provision only related to the offenders illicitly acquired
assets, but in a May 2006 judgment, the Constitutional Court ruled that para-
militaries could also be required to pay reparations from their legally
acquired assets.
94
Finally, the law requires judges to impose alternative sanc-
tions, such as a denial of political rights or a prohibition on living in certain
areas where victims reside.
95
Sources: Amnesty International, Colombia: The Paramilitaries of Medelln:
Demobilization or Legalization? AI Index AMR 23/019/2005 (2005); Human Rights
Watch, Colombia: Letting Paramilitaries Off the Hook (2005); Markus Koth, To
End a War: Demobilization and Reintegration of Paramilitaries in Colombia (Bonn
International Center for Conversion, Bonn 2005); Jos E Arvelo, Note, International
Law and Conict Resolution in Colombia: Balancing Peace and Justice in the
Paramilitary Demobilization Process (2006) 37 Georgetown Journal of International
Law 411; International Crisis Group, Colombia: Towards Peace and Justice? (2006);
Lisa Laplante, Transitional Justice in Times of Conict: Colombias Ley de Justicia y
Paz (2006) 28 Michigan Journal of International Law 108; Timothy Posnanski,
Note, Colombia Weeps but Doesnt Surrender: The Battle for Peace in Colombias
Civil War and the Problematic Solutions of President Alvaro Uribe (2005) 4
Washington University Global Studies Law Review 719; Inter-American
Commission on Human Rights, Report on Demobilization in Colombia,
OEA/Ser.L/V/II.120 (2004); Catalina Daz, Colombias Bid for Justice and Peace in
Kai Ambos, Judith Large and Marieke Wierda (eds) Building a future on Peace and
Justice: Studies on Transitional Justice, Conict Resolution and Development
(Springer, Heidelberg 2008)
178 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 178
Rehabilitation
The Basic Principles and Guidelines state that rehabilitation should include
medical and psychological care as well as legal and social services.
96
In
the amnesty laws studied for this book, including both reparative
amnesties and those for offenders, rehabilitation has more commonly con-
sisted of economic and social support to help the victims to become fully
functioning members of society again. The economic and social measures
have consisted of policies to nd employment for former prisoners, to pro-
vide economic support and housing assistance, and to provide medical
care and education. For example, the 1987 East German amnesty provided
for
the reintegration of the amnestied citizens in social life through integration on
an equal footing in the work process while observing the existing qualication,
the support for the start and execution of training measures, housing accommo-
dation, and the organisation of social care and support.
97
Such services, particularly health and education programmes, should be
an essential component of any rehabilitation programme, although it may
not be possible for a transitional state to introduce a widespread pro-
gramme immediately if there are large numbers of victims and few trained
personnel. Furthermore, where programmes are introduced to create the
necessary infrastructure to provide rehabilitation, it can be difcult to dis-
tinguish reparations for individual victims from development work to
benet society as a whole. Nonetheless, rehabilitation programmes can
form an important component in addressing victims needs.
Satisfaction
The Basic Principles and Guidelines treat measures to ensure satisfaction and
provide guarantees of non-repetition as a single form of reparations, but
due to their differing natures, they will be treated separately here. The list
of possible measures that could be introduced to provide victims with sat-
isfaction contained in the Basic Principles and Guidelines is as follows:
(a) Effective measures aimed at the cessation of continuing violations;
(b) Verication of the facts and full and public disclosure of the truth to the
extent that such disclosure does not cause further harm or threaten the
safety and interests of the victim, the victims relatives, witnesses, or per-
sons who have intervened to assist the victim or prevent the occurrence of
further violations;
96
UNGA (n 35) Princ 21.
97
Resolution of the Council of State of the German Democratic Republic on a general
amnesty on 17th July 1987, on the occasion of the 38th anniversary of the founding of the
German Democratic Republic 1987 (East Germany).
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 179
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 179
(c) The search for the whereabouts of the disappeared, for the identities of the
children abducted, and for the bodies of those killed, and assistance in
the recovery, identication and reburial of the bodies in accordance with the
expressed or presumed wish of the victims, or the cultural practices of
the families and communities;
(d) An ofcial declaration or a judicial decision restoring the dignity, the repu-
tation and the rights of the victim and of persons closely connected with the
victim;
(e) Public apology, including acknowledgement of the facts and acceptance of
responsibility;
(f) Judicial and administrative sanctions against persons liable for the violations;
(g) Commemorations and tributes to the victims;
(h) Inclusion of an accurate account of the violations that occurred in inter-
national human rights law and international humanitarian law training and
in educational material at all levels.
98
Many of these measures are collective reparations to benet a society as a
whole, rather than solely individual victims, which differs from the
approach pursued under the other forms of reparations outlined above.
Furthermore, this list can be argued to lack coherence as some of these
measures overlap with those suggested under restitution or guarantees of
non-repetition. In addition, where tension exists between need to pursue
effective measures aimed at the cessation of continuing violations and
the other suggested measures, there is little guidance on which form of
satisfaction should have priority. Despite these difculties, the Basic
Principles and Guidelines still provide a useful indication of the form mea-
sures to ensure satisfaction could take.
There have been several amnesties that were accompanied by measures
to provide satisfaction to victims. Indeed, as satisfaction could include
effective measures aimed at the cessation of continuing violations,
99
an
amnesty that is tied to peace negotiations could itself, if genuine, be
viewed as a form of satisfaction. In addition, truth commissions and com-
munity-based justice mechanisms represent a means of offering satisfac-
tion to the victims. Similarly, there have been amnesties which have been
accompanied by measures to investigate disappearances and, in some
cases, return the remains of the victims to their families. As discussed
above, amnesty laws could also satisfy victims needs when they are
intended to restore the dignity, reputation and the rights of the victim by,
for example, releasing those who were imprisoned by an oppressive
regime and proclaiming their innocence. Furthermore, in several countries
that have introduced amnesty laws, the lack of criminal responsibility has
not prevented representatives of both governments and non-state actors
who are responsible for human rights violations, publicly admitting their
180 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
98
UNGA (n 35) Princ 22.
99
Ibid Princ 22(a).
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 180
responsibility and in some cases apologising for their actions.
100
For exam-
ple, in Argentina in April 1995, General Martn Balza, chief of the
Argentine army, apologised to the nation for the militarys crimes during
the dirty war and in March 2004 President Kircher said:
As president of the nation I come here today to ask forgiveness for the shame of
a democracy which stayed silent on these atrocities during the past twenty
years.
101
Measures of atonement and acknowledgement have also been pursued
through commemorations and tributes to the victims, such as instituting
national days of memorial and transforming former torture centres into
museums. For example, in Benin, Decree No 9195 of 27 May 1991 led to
the establishment of a national day for the victims of torture or corporal
punishment,
102
and in South Africa, there were a variety of commemora-
tive measures, including erecting tombstones, memorials or monuments,
and renaming streets or public facilities. In addition to states acknowledg-
ing their responsibility, an amnesty can also be accompanied by pro-
grammes to ensure individual accountability, through either selective
prosecutions or non-criminal sanctions, such as lustration programmes as
discussed below.
Guarantees of Non-Repetition
According to the Basic Principles and Guidelines:
Guarantees of non-repetition should include, where applicable, any or all of the
following measures, which will also contribute to prevention:
(a) Ensuring effective civilian control of military and security forces;
(b) Ensuring that all civilian and military proceedings abide by international
standards of due process, fairness and impartiality;
(c) Strengthening the independence of the judiciary;
(d) Protecting persons in the legal, medical and health-care professions, the
media and other related professions, and human rights defenders;
(e) Providing, on a priority and continued basis, human rights and inter-
national humanitarian law education to all sectors of society and training
for law enforcement ofcials as well as military and security forces;
(f) Promoting the observance of codes of conduct and ethical norms, in particu-
lar international standards, by public servants, including law enforcement,
correctional, media, medical, psychological, social service and military
personnel, as well as by economic enterprises;
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 181
100
For a discussion of the impact of such apologies see Biggar (n 91).
101
David Pilling, Argentine Army Chief Apologises Financial Times (Buenos Aires
27 April 1995) 7; Michael McCaughan, Argentina Expunges past in Navy School of Horrors
The Irish Times (Dublin 29 March 2004) 13.
102
UNHRC, Consideration of Reports submitted by States Parties under Article 40 of the
Covenant: Interim Report: Benin, UN Doc CCPR/C/BEN/2004/1, 16 February 2004 [65].
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 181
(g) Promoting mechanisms for preventing and monitoring social conicts and
their resolution;
(h) Reviewing and reforming laws contributing to or allowing gross violations
of international human rights law and serious violations of international
humanitarian law.
103
Although amnesty is often criticised for eliminating both specic and
general deterrence for those who commit human rights violations, thereby
increasing the risk that similar crimes will re-occur,
104
an amnesty pro-
gramme can be linked to measures to ensure non-repetition, for example,
the 1992 peace accords in El Salvador, which offered limited amnesty to
individuals accused of political crimes, also recognised that the military
was subordinate to civilian control.
105
Right of Return
The Basic Principles and Guidelines do not explicitly provide for a right of
return, other than to state that restitution should include where appropri-
ate return to ones place of residence.
106
However, due to the unique
issues that can result from large numbers of refugees or internally
displaced people attempting to return to the homes they were forced to
abandon, it was felt that the issue should be considered separately within
the Amnesty Law Database. As discussed in chapter 2, amnesties fre-
quently provide for the safe return of exiles and refugees. For transitional
states, such returns can be positive, as they can help to: reverse the conse-
quences of the conict, particularly where there has been ethnic cleans-
ing;
107
provide a symbol that the violence has ended; and, where the exile
community has been politically active, provide greater stability for a peace
process.
108
Such returns can be complicated by measures to restore the
former land and property of the returnees, particularly where they have
been absent for long periods and new patterns of ownership have been
established. In this regard, Bell asserts that, although international law
does not make direct provision for a right of return to former homes or
home areas, it can be argued that
182 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
103
UNGA (n 35) Princ 23.
104
David Wippman, Atrocities, Deterrence, and the Limits of International Justice (1999)
23 Fordham International Law Journal 473. For a discussion of amnesties relationship to deter-
rence, see ch 2.
105
Acuerdos de Chapultepec 1992, (El Sal), chs 1 & 6.
106
UNGA (n 35) Princ 19.
107
Rhodri C Williams, The Contemporary Right to Property Restitution in the Context of
Transitional Justice (International Center for Transitional Justice, New York 2007) 11.
108
Christine Bell, Negotiating Justice? Human Rights and Peace Agreements
(International Council on Human Rights Policy, Versoix, Switzerland 2006) 578.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 182
such a right can be inferred from the right to liberty of movement and the right
to enter ones own country.
109
The approach taken by the states in the Amnesty Law Database has var-
ied with some agreements, such as the Dayton Peace Accords 1995 for
Bosnia-Herzegovina providing the right of refugees and displaced per-
sons to return to their homes of origin.
110
Other amnesties also specied
that where return was no longer possible, the returnees would be given
support in nding alternative accommodation and compensation for their
loss. For example, the 1993 Albanian amnesty stipulated that the govern-
ment would
through special acts . . . guarantee to all those persons [granted amnesty] facil-
ities and priorities for their individual or collective requests in the following
elds of economical, nancial and social activities . . . c) In the eld of construc-
tion and accommodation.
111
Similarly, the 1991 amnesty process in Bulgaria provided that
if the property has been destroyed, demolished or rebuilt, said convicted indi-
viduals shall be compensated with another piece of real property of equal value
or with monetary compensation under rules and procedures determined by the
Council of Ministers.
112
Clearly, where there has been widespread destruction of property, such
policies can be costly for a transitional government and, if new patterns of
ownership have been established, can risk inaming tensions between
communities, particularly where there are large numbers of displaced
people. Therefore, the decision whether to allow people to return to their
home or region of origin may have to be balanced against whether nding
alternative accommodation for them in other regions might be more prac-
tical and could offer them greater guarantees of safety.
From this discussion of reparations, it is clear that amnesties can be
related to reparations in several ways. For example, an amnesty for
political prisoners could itself be viewed as restitution, and amnesties
which attempt to end violence and prevent further human rights viola-
tions could be viewed as a form of satisfaction. Furthermore, even where
an amnesty benets former combatants and human rights abusers, it can
be accompanied by measures to compensate for the harm endured, inves-
tigate the crimes of the past and prevent the violations re-occurring. The
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 183
109
Ibid 61.
110
Dayton Peace Agreement (1995) Annex 7, art 1(1) (Bosn. & Herz). For a description of
this process, see case study 6.
111
Law on the Status of Politically Ex-Convicted and Prosecuted People by the
Communist Regime, Law No 7748 (29 July 1993), amended by the law No 7771 (7 December
1993) art 12 (Alb).
112
Law on Amnesty and Restoration of Conscated Property and Implementing
Regulations, Law No 167 (1991) art 5 (Bulg).
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 183
relationship between amnesties and reparations could be particularly
strengthened where the amnesty is integrated into restorative justice
processes.
Amnesty and Restorative Approaches to Justice
In much of the academic literature relating to amnesties, there is a focus on
whether amnesties represent a denial of victims rights to justice. This
debate is typically focused on retributive approaches to justice which
entail criminal prosecutions and penal sanctions. For example, this was
the approach pursued in the Basic Principles and Guidelines description of
appropriate forms of remedy for human rights violations. However, in
both transitional justice literature and the eld of criminal justice more
widely, there is an increasing recognition of the signicant role that can be
played by more restorative approaches to justice.
113
Whilst more retribu-
tive systems focus on the crime and the appropriate punishment, restora-
tive approaches emphasise the harm and the need to repair relationships.
Minow describes the aim of restorative justice as
to repair the injustice, to make up for it, and to effect corrective changes in the
record, in relationships and in future behaviour.
114
From this it is clear that the objectives of restorative justice are both back-
ward-looking, in that it addresses past crimes, and forward-looking, as it
does not simply seek to restore the status quo ante, but to contribute to the
establishment of a more equal and harmonious society.
115
Restorative
approaches can be suitable where formal Western-style retributive prose-
cutions are not possible due to practical and political constraints, or where
restorative mechanisms are the preferred approach to justice, which is the
case in many societies in Africa and elsewhere.
184 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
113
For a critique of the problems of state-centric approaches to justice, see Kieran McEvoy,
Beyond Legalism: Towards a Thicker Understanding of Transitional Justice (2008) 34
Journal of Law and Society 411; Phil Clark, Recreating Tradition: Assessing Community-Based
Transitional Justice in Northern Uganda in Tim Allen and K Vlassenroot (eds), The Lords
Resistance Army: War, Peace and Reconciliation ( James Currey, Oxford 2008); OHCHR Making
Peace Our Own: Victims Perceptions of Accountability, Reconciliation and Transitional Justice in
Northern Uganda (OHCHR, Geneva 2007); Victor Igreja, Gamba Spirits and the Homines
Aperti: Socio-Cultural Approaches to Deal with Legacies of the Civil War in Gorongosa,
Mozambique in Kai Ambos, Judith Large, and Marieke Wierda (eds), Building a Future on
Peace and Justice: Studies on Transitional Justice, Conict Resolution and Development (Springer,
Heidelberg 2008); Stef Vanderginste, Transitional Justice for Burundi: A Long and Winding
Road in Kai Ambos, Judith Large and Marieke Wierda, (eds) Building a Future on Peace and
Justice: Studies on Transitional Justice, Conict Resolution and Development (Springer,
Heidelberg 2008).
114
Minow (n 47) 91.
115
Guillermo Kerber, Overcoming Violence and Pursuing Justice: An Introduction to
Restorative Justice Procedures (2003) Ecumenical Review. See also Llewellyn & Howse (n 53)
3745 and Sarkin & Daly (n 23) 693.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 184
To date, there have been several examples of situations where amnesty
laws have been introduced in conjunction with more restorative
approaches to justice. For example, the Acholi people of northern
Uganda,
116
who have suffered greatly from the acts of the Lords
Resistance Army (LRA), use their traditional dispute resolution mechan-
isms, known as nyouo tong gweno, mato oput and gomo tong as a means of
reintegrating into society former combatants who have been amnestied.
117
Nyouo tong gweno is a cleansing ritual that is used to purify anyone who
has been away from home for a long period and can occur soon after his or
her return. When the individual who is returning is a wrongdoer, the cere-
mony is a necessary precondition before the reconciliation ceremony, but
if the returnee was simply an individual who was abducted, this ceremony
is considered sufcient.
118
Nyouo tong gweno is a public event which mem-
bers of the community travel to watch. It can last several hours and has
multiple stages: rst, it requires former combatants to place their bare right
feet into a freshly cracked egg.
119
Here, the egg symbolises innocent life
and by dabbing themselves in it the combatants are restoring themselves
to the way they used to be.
120
Next, they are brushed by a twig of an opobo
tree, which symbolically cleanses them. Finally, after stepping over the
twig, they are welcomed back into the community by the elders.
121
At this stage, where former combatants are considered to have commit-
ted murder, they have to participate in the mato oput ceremony. This
process begins with lengthy mediation by elders from neutral clans who
determine the appropriate compensation to be paid by the offenders clan
and whether emotions have sufciently cooled and the parties are ready
to communicate.
122
This mediation may take years before the affected
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 185
116
The Acholi are just one tribe living within northern Uganda who have suffered from
the conict. For an overview of the amnesty process in Uganda, see case study 2.
117
There is some dispute over the extent to which these rituals have been used in recent
decades following the erosion of customary leadership under Obote and Amin and the dis-
location caused by the conict, but in a 2007 study, the OHCHR reports that overall, use of
key Acholi rituals has increased in recent years, though to what extent remains unclear.
Based on limited surveys, usually of several hundred respondents, several commentators
report that between 28 and 50 per cent of returned combatants have participated in some
form of ritual, usually welcoming or cleansing ceremonies such as nyono tong gweno. See
OHCHR (n 113). See also Thomas Harlacher and others, Traditional Ways of Coping in
Acholi: Cultural Provisions for Reconciliation and Healing from War (CARITAS, Kampala
2006).
118
Lucy Hovil and Joanna R Quinn, Peace First, Justice Later: Traditional Justice in
Northern Uganda (2005) Working Paper No 17 (Refugee Law Project, Faculty of Law,
Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda) 24.
119
Amy Colleen Finnegan, A Memorable Process in a Forgotten War: Forgiveness within
Northern Uganda (MA in Law and Diplomacy book, Fletcher School, Tufts University 2005),
43.
120
Marc Lacey, Atrocity Victims in Uganda Choose to Forgive The New York Times (Gulu,
Uganda 18 April 2005).
121
Ibid.
122
OHCHR (n 113).
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 185
clans are willing to participate and able to pay the compensation.
123
Once
the participants are ready, the ceremony will be arranged to take place at
a neutral location. During the ceremony, the offenders clan must
announce that it is willing to accept responsibility for the crime and to
offer restitution.
124
Then, a drink is prepared from the bitter oput herb,
blood of sacriced livestock and local beer. This mixture is drunk by rep-
resentatives of both clans to show that they accept the bitterness of the
past and promise never to taste such bitterness again.
125
After this, both
clans share the meat of the sacriced livestock. This meal marks the
restoration of trust between the clans.
126
Finally, there are also traditional gomo tong (bending of spears) cere-
monies which are collective rituals performed to mark the end of conict,
rather than individual killings. In these ceremonies, the elders from the
warring clans
meet to discuss the cause of the conict, resolve to end the ghting and com-
mand their people to cease all violence.
127
Gomo tong ceremonies can be performed in isolation or in combination
with mato oput ceremonies, where one side believes they deserve com-
pensation for an initial killing that sparked wider violence.
128
For these reconciliation processes, acknowledgement and truth-telling
are vital parts of the ritual,
129
and it is expected that individual returnees
will accept responsibility for their actions and repent for their crimes.
130
As will be explored in chapter 9, some studies have shown that there are
high levels of support for this process among the Acholi community,
131
and following the opening of an investigation of the LRA at the ICC, tribal
and religious leaders have lobbied the ICC prosecutor to encourage him to
respect their traditions and allow the amnesty law to remain in place.
132
More recently, the Agreement on Accountability and Reconciliation 2007
from the Juba peace talks raises the possibility that these traditional justice
rituals will be incorporated into the formal justice system.
186 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
123
OHCHR (n 113).
124
Ibid.
125
, Uganda: Traditional Ritual Heals Communities torn Apart by War IRIN (9 June
2005).
126
Ibid.
127
Ibid.
128
Ibid.
129
Hovil & Quinn (n 118) 34.
130
(n 125).
131
Hovil & Quinn (n 118) 1. For a more detailed discussion of the attitudes of victims, see
ch 9.
132
The tribal and religious leaders travelled to The Hague and met the ICC Prosecutor.
They issued a joint press release, see ICC, Press Release: Joint Statement by ICC Chief
Prosecutor and the visiting Delegation of Lango, Acholi, Iteso and Madi Community Leaders
from Northern Uganda (16 April 2005) No: ICC-OTP-20050416. 047-EN.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 186
Similar community rituals have been used to address conict-related
crimes in Somalia,
133
Kenya,
134
Mozambique,
135
Sierra Leone,
136
Rwanda,
137
and Angola.
138
They have also been employed in countries outside Africa,
such as the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea,
139
and even in more
developed states which have been confronted by conict.
140
Restorative just-
ice in transitional states may also be incorporated into the work of a truth
commission
141
or take the form of a hybrid between truth commissions and
community-based justice mechanisms, as illustrated by the work of the
Community Reconciliation Process of the East Timorese Commission for
Reception, Truth and Reconciliation.
142
Amnesty can be related to restorative justice in a number of comple-
mentary ways. For example, amnesty could be used in conjunction with a
restorative justice mechanism to encourage the perpetrators to participate
in the mechanism without inculpating themselves. This was the approach
followed by the South African TRC.
143
Furthermore, although punishment
is not the objective of restorative justice, it remains possible to look at other
forms of punishment such as public identication; or the imposition of
obligations to perform community services, to contribute to nancial com-
pensation for victims, or to apologise publicly. As discussed above, such
measures would help to full the victims rights to reparations. In these
instances, the amnesty could be conditional on the offenders complying
with the penalties imposed by the restorative justice mechanism and could
therefore work as an enforcement mechanism, and act to reassure the
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 187
133
Lacey (n 120).
134
Ibid.
135
Ramesh Thakur, When Peace and Justice Collide: East Timor International Herald
Tribune (Dili 31 August 2005); Graybill (n 40); Dani W Nabudere, Ubuntu Philosophy:
Memory and Reconciliation (Rseau Grands Lacs Africains, Geneva, 1 March 2005).
136
Rosalind Shaw, Rethinking Truth and Reconciliation Commissions: Lessons from
Sierra Leone Special Report 130 (United States Institute of Peace, Washington DC 2005).
137
Jessica Raper, The Gacaca Experiment: Rwandas Restorative Dispute Resolution
Response to the 1994 Genocide (2005) 5 Pepperdine Dispute Resolution Law Journal 1; Helena
Cobban, Amnesty After Atrocity? Healing Nations After Genocide and War Crimes (Paradigm
Publishers, Boulder CO 2007); Coel Kirkby, Rwandas Gacaca Courts: A Preliminary
Critique (2006) 50 Journal of African Law 94; Lars Waldorf, Rwandas Failing Experiment in
Restorative Justice in Dennis Sullivan and Larry Tifft (eds), Handbook of Restorative Justice:
A Global Perspective (Routledge International Handbooks, Routledge, London 2006). The
Rwandan approach was discussed in case study 8.
138
Carola Eyber and Alastair Ager, Conselho: Psychological Healing in Displaced
Communities in Angola (2002) 360 Lancet 871.
139
Pat Howley, Breaking Spears and Mending Hearts: Peacemakers and Restorative Justice in
Bougainville (Zed Books, London 2002).
140
See eg Anna Eriksson, Community Restorative Justice in Northern Ireland: Building
Bridges and Challenging Cultures of Violence (PhD in Law, Queens University Belfast,
2007).
141
See discussion on truth commissions, pp 163ff.
142
Erica Harper, Delivering Justice in the Wake of Mass Violence: New Approaches to
Transitional Justice (2005) 10 Journal of Conict and Security Law 149. The East Timorese
approach was discussed in case study 7.
143
Sarkin & Daly (n 23) 693.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 187
victims of the genuineness of the process. The exibility of the restorative
justice approach to punishment offers the opportunity for an amnesty to be
reconciled with a legitimate justice process in which the needs of the vic-
tims are acknowledged. By performing appropriate cultural or religious
rituals, perpetrators show their desire to change and to respect the norms
of society.
144
This can be particularly benecial for individual or commu-
nal levels of reconciliation outlined in chapter 1. In this way, grass-roots
efforts to reintegrate former combatants through community-based
approaches to justice can help to address local issues that would be ignored
by more top-down, elite driven processes and could enable the amnesty to
be granted in a context of societal forgiveness and reconciliation.
In order to achieve its goals, a restorative justice process must to take a
holistic approach to crimes by bringing together victims, offenders, and
representatives of their respective communities.
145
Victims must be given
a central role, be able to describe their suffering and have their pain
acknowledged, and be able to receive reparations for the harm they
endured. Offenders, whilst being encouraged to take responsibility for
their actions, should be treated with respect. The involvement of repre-
sentatives of the communities to which the victims and offenders belong
is desirable, particularly in transitional societies, as restorative justice
processes recognise that crime does not simply affect individuals, but soci-
ety as a whole, with individual members of different communities perpe-
trating different acts that reect upon the entire community.
146
It follows
from this acknowledgment that any reconciliation process should attempt
to recognise the humanity of the opponent by addressing the faults of
ones own community. This approach mirrors that of the traditional
African concept of Ubuntu, which translates roughly as humaneness or
largeness of spirit.
147
This concept aims to
create an environment where people are able to recognise that their humanity is
inextricably bound up in the humanity of others
148
thereby encouraging individuals to see beyond the crimes of the perpetra-
tors because it seeks to integrate the wrongdoer back into the community,
rather than punish them. Creating a more victim-centred approach based on
restorative justice principles does not mean that victims have a right to see
188 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
144
M Cherif Bassiouni, Searching for Peace and Achieving Justice: The Need for
Accountability (1996) 59 Law and Contemporary Problems 9, 21.
145
Kerber (n 115). See also John Braithwaite, Principles of Restorative Justice in Andrew
Von Hirsch and others (eds), Restorative Justice and Criminal Justice: Competing or Reconcilable
Paradigms? (Hart Publishing, Oxford 2003) 10 and Sarkin & Daly (n 23) 693.
146
Kerber (n 115) 1556.
147
Rian Malan, My Traitors Heart: A South African Exile Returns to his Country to Face his
Tribe and his Conscience (Vintage, New York 1990) 227.
148
Lyn Graybill, To Punish or Pardon: A comparison of the international criminal
tribunal for Rwanda and the South African truth and reconciliation commission (2001) 2
Human Rights Review 3.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 188
somebody prosecuted or punished: instead, the outcome of the proceedings
must be determined either through mediation between the victim, the per-
petrator and their respective communities, or by independent adjudicators,
who have heard the views of all parties. It is argued by restorative justice
advocates that this more holistic approach can contribute to breaking the
cycles of power and oppression that frequently exist in transitional societies.
Lustration and Vetting Procedures and Amnesty
Several of the amnesty laws considered for this book have been related to
policies that aimed to remove those implicated in the former regime from
ofce, or to bar them and insurgents from certain public sector posts. The
removal of existing ofcials is known as lustration,
149
and refers to the
process of purifying state organisations from their sins by purging
them of anyone with close connections to the former regime or who could
be responsible for human rights abuses.
150
Similarly, the policy of screen-
ing new public ofcials, known as vetting, seeks to eliminate a signicant
injustice and threat to reform
151
and create a climate of security for the
population. Boed emphasises that such a measure is not premised on the
criminal responsibility of its targets, but remains a measure that is puni-
tive in nature and
may have severe consequences on its targets, ranging from a loss of a job and
ineligibility for employment in given positions to stigmatisation of the targets
and their families.
152
Such laws can also include restrictions on the accused exercising their
civil and political rights, usually for designated periods. For example, the
Civil Harmony Law 1999 in Algeria exempted former militants from exer-
cising their civil and political rights for a 10-year period,
153
although this
was later rescinded in the Presidential Decree 2000.
154
Subsequently, in the
Amnesty Ordinance 2006, the Algerian government banned anyone who
had used religion to contribute to the conict from being politically active.
This ban also applies to those who were engaged in terrorism and who
refused to recognise their responsibility for the national tragedy.
155
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 189
149
According to Boed, it comes from the Latin lustratio meaning purication by sacrice.
See Roman Boed, An Evaluation of the Legality and Efcacy of Lustration as a Tool of
Transitional Justice (1999) 37 Columbia Journal of Transitional Law 357, 358.
150
Ibid 358.
151
Kritz (n 48) 25.
152
Boed (n 149) 3645.
153
Loi relative au rtablissement de la Concorde civile, No 98-08, (1999) art 39 (Alg). See Case
Study 4.
154
Presidential Decree no 2000-03 (2000) (Alg).
155
Ordonnance no 06-01 portant mise en oeuvre de la Charte pour la paix et la reconciliation
nationale (2006) art 26 (Alg).
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 189
From a human rights perspective, these lustration or vetting laws can be
troubling, as they undermine the right of individuals to be free from dis-
crimination,
156
to be free to work,
157
and to have a fair hearing.
158
Despite
this, Nanda claims that provided certain safeguards are met, lustration is
a sound accountability mechanism as
it sends a salutary signal to victims in particular and society in general that those
responsible for excesses, egregious violations and abuses will not stay in
ofce.
159
Furthermore, lustration can help to full the victims rights to reparations
by symbolically acknowledging the responsibility of the state for the
violations, and by removing from ofce individuals who pose a risk to
civilians.
Amnesty laws can be related to lustration policies in a number of ways.
First, a few amnesty laws have followed purges to undo their perceived
excesses. For example, immediately following World War Two, there were
purges (also known as puration) in Germany,
160
Austria,
161
France
162
and
Italy
163
of Nazi and Fascist operatives and collaborators. As time passed,
190 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
156
ICCPR, art 26.
157
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16
December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976) 993 UNTS 3 (ICESCR) art 6(1).
158
ICCPR art 14(1). For a fuller discussion of the impact of lustration laws on human rights
see Boed (n 149).
159
Ved P Nanda, Civil and Political Sanctions as an Accountability Mechanism for
Massive Violations of Human Rights (1998) 26 Denver Journal of International Law and Policy
389, 396.
160
See eg Jon Elster, Closing the Books: Transitional Justice in Historical Perspective
(Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004); Norbert Frei, Adenauers Germany and the
Nazi Past: The Politics of Amnesty and Integration (Columbia University Press, New York 2002);
Stein Ugelvik Larsen and Bernt Hagtvet (eds), Modern Europe after Fascism (Social Science
Monographs, Columbia University Press, Boulder 1998).
161
See eg Elster (n 160); Siegfried Beer, Hunting the Discriminators: Denazication in
Austria, 19451957 in Gumundur Hlfdanarson (ed), Racial Discrimination and Ethnicity in
European History (Edizioni PlusUniversit di Pisa, Pisa 2003); John H Herz (ed), From
Dictatorship to Democracy: Coping with the Legacies of Authoritarianism and Totalitarianism
(Contributions in Political Science, Greenwood Press, Westport, Conn 1982); Winfried R
Garscha and Claudia Kuretsidis-Haider, War Crimes Trials in Austria (Presentation at the
21st Annual Conference of the German Studies Association in Washington, 2528 September
1997); Frederick C Engelmann, How Austria has Coped with Two Dictatorial Legacies in
John H Herz (ed), From Dictatorship to Democracy: Coping with the Legacies of Authoritarianism
and Totalitarianism (Contributions in Political Science, Greenwood Press, Westport, Conn
1982).
162
See eg Elster (n 160); Jon Elster, Redemption for Wrongdoing: The Fate of
Collaborators after 1945 (2006) 50 Journal of Conict Resolution 324; Istvn Dek, Jan Tomasz
Gross and Tony Judt, The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and its Aftermath
(Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ 2000); Michle Cointet-Labrousse, Between
Summary Justice and the Reconstruction of Legality by Decree: The Theory and Practice of
French Purge Policy 194353 in Stein Ugelvik Larsen and Bernt Hagtvet (eds), Modern Europe
after Fascism (Social Science Monographs, Columbia University Press, New York 1998).
163
See, eg, Michele Battini, Sins of Memory: Reections on the lack of an Italian Nuremberg
and the Administration of International Justice after 1945 (2004) 9 Journal of Modern Italian
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 190
these measures became viewed as too severe, and consequently amnesties
were introduced to reverse them.
More commonly, however, a lustration policy is implemented in con-
junction with amnesty, or soon afterwards, to ensure accountability and
institutional reform, in the absence of prosecutions. This can occur in a
variety of settings, for example, dictatorial states making the transition to
democracy, as in Albania, where the lustration law barred potential can-
didates for political and judicial posts due to their links to the former com-
munist regime, whilst an amnesty was granted to former political
prisoners.
164
A similar approach was followed in Bulgaria, where lustra-
tion laws required the screening of
all members and persons seeking positions in the governing bodies of universi-
ties and research institutes, as well as the central academic examining and
degree awarding body, to certify that they had not been closely afliated with
the former communist regime.
165
States wishing to purge their armed forces following military coups, as in
Haiti and Ecuador, have granted the coup participants amnesty, but then
forced the leaders into retirement. Amnesty and lustration have also co-
existed in states seeking to resolve civil conict as in El Salvador, where
the peace accords provided guidelines on the purication of the armed
forces and an ad hoc commission was set up to investigate human rights
abuses which recommended the removal or transferral of military person-
nel. However, its recommendations were only enforced after considerable
delay.
166
Lustration is not without dangers, however, as depriving
large numbers of people of their position in the security forces, social status,
source of livelihood or rights of political participation
can encourage them to resort to criminality or political violence,
167
as is
vividly illustrated by the results of the recent de-Baathication process in
Iraq.
168
Furthermore, if large swathes of public ofcials are removed from
ofce, the new government will be faced with a dearth of expertise at a
Which Conditions Are Attached to Amnesties? 191
Studies 349; Jon Elster, A Framework for the Study of Transitional Justice (16 August 2001)
<http://www.media.uio.no/forskning/prosjekter/1945/artikler/framework1.shtml>
accessed 31 January 2008; Franco Ferraresi, The Radical Right in Postwar Italy in Stein
Ugelvik Larsen and Bernt Hagtvet (eds), Modern Europe after Fascism (Social Science
Monographs, Columbia University Press, New York 1998); Roy Palmer Domenico, Italian
Fascists on Trial, 19431948 (University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill 1991); Herz (n 161).
164
See eg US Department of State, Country Report on Human Rights Practices 1997:
Albania (30 January 1998). This law was amended twice in 1997, once prior to the June elec-
tions, to allow additional groups and individuals to run for ofce, and again in August to
lessen its impact further.
165
Boed (n 149) 361.
166
Nanda (n 159) 393.
167
Kritz (n 48) 25.
168
Larry Diamond, What Went Wrong in Iraq Foreign Affairs (September/October 2004).
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 191
time when creativity and knowledge are very much in demand. The stakes
are particularly high where the policy consists of a blanket removal of
party members rather than individualised screening processes. It is also
preferable that any lustration or vetting process is individualised and
operates according to standards of procedural fairness.
169
It has even been
advocated that soft approaches such as early retirement or the appoint-
ment of new ofcials to strategic posts may in some instances be more
suitable to ensure that unreliable ofcials are replaced.
170
Nonetheless,
combining amnesties with programmes to remove those associated with
abusive policies from ofce can provide a form of accountability for per-
petrators, can meet the needs of victims that their former oppressors do
not continue to benet from their crimes,
171
and can help to restore faith in
government institutions.
ENFORCING CONDITIONS AND THE POTENTIAL OF
TEMPORARY AMNESTIES
When a conditional amnesty is granted it represents a quid pro quo
between the parties to the conict, whereby amnesty is awarded on the
understanding that the recipients will full the necessary conditions. This
can give rise to several problems. First there is the issue of timing. If insur-
gents are called upon to disarm in exchange for amnesty, are they required
to do this immediately, or should it be a gradual process? In some cases,
disarmament plans may be delayed by the need to establish institutions to
oversee the process. Furthermore, internally within the insurgent group, it
may take time for the leaders to convince their followers of the need to dis-
arm and participate in the peace process. In the Prosecutor v Allieu Kondewa
case at the Special Court of Sierra Leone, Justice Robertson considered
conditional amnesties in his separate opinion and declared that
insurgents, terrorists and common criminals who want to obtain the protection
of a pardon must comply promptly with its conditions or else it becomes value-
less.
172
In the uncertain conditions that accompany any transition, however, the
notion of what is prompt should be assessed according to the conditions
at the time.
192 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
169
For a detailed discussion of procedural fairness, see Freeman (n 63).
170
Theissen (n 51) 5.
171
For a discussion of victims needs in relation to the position and nancial status of their
former oppressors see ch 9.
172
Decision on Lack of Jurisdiction / Abuse of Process: Amnesty Provided by the Lom
AccordProsecutor v Allieu Kondewa, SCSL-04-14-T-128-7347 (25 May 2004), Separate
Opinion [24].
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 192
A further issue concerns who should be held responsible for breaches of
a conditional amnesty. As discussed in chapter 2, amnesties are generally
granted to categories of individuals based on their common identity, such
as membership of a political organisation. The individuals are then
required to comply with the conditions, either individually or as a group,
in order to be granted immunity. A problem arises where certain members
of an organisation choose to breach the conditions: should this have reper-
cussions for the entire group? Where the conditions are broken by an indi-
vidual whose organisation remains committed to the process, it seems
reasonable that only the individual be denied the benets of the amnesty,
if investigations are undertaken to prove that the individual acted without
the support of the organisation and the organisation publicly repudiates
the individuals actions. Conversely, where a group violates the terms
of the amnesty, should those individuals who have already, in good faith,
made efforts to comply be penalised? Although applying the resulting
penalties to all the organisations members would have negative reper-
cussions on those who have made efforts in good faith, such severe penal-
ties would, it is hoped, encourage the organisation to adhere to its
commitments and strengthen its members in holding the leadership to
account. Furthermore, where sufcient resources are available, appeal
procedures could be created for individuals whose amnesty status is
removed. Alternatively, such individuals could face temporary sanctions
for breaches, such as a suspension of the benets of a disarmament, demo-
bilisation and reintegration (DDR) programme. Where the amnesty bene-
ts multiple groups in a society, if one group breaches its amnesty
conditions, where possible, the amnesty should continue to apply to the
other groups. As Schabas argues:
the suggestion that an amnesty in a peace agreement becomes null and void, or
that it is voidable, because some parties later violate the agreement does not
seem to be sustainable.
173
This position seems to be particularly relevant when extremists splinter
from parties to the peace process with the explicit aim of returning to
armed conict. Generally, such splinter groups only have small numbers
of members, and whilst they can be capable of extreme acts of violence,
they should not be permitted to derail the peace initiatives.
In contrast to the approaches discussed above, which would require
monitoring and, where appropriate, revoking amnesties throughout the
transition, an alternative would be to grant temporary immunity, which
would then be reassessed at the end of an agreed period. Such temporary
laws contradict the traditional assumption that an amnesty law is a
Enforcing Conditions and Temporary Amnesties 193
173
William A Schabas, Amnesty, the Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission
and the Special Court for Sierra Leone (2004) 11 UC Davis Journal of International Law and
Policy 145, 160.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 193
permanent closing of the books on the past, but it reects an approach pur-
sued by some states. The granting of temporary immunity relates to the
practice of allowing free passage for negotiators, so as to enable peace
talks to occur, except that it stretches the period of immunity from just the
duration of the talks to a longer prescribed period, such as the duration of
a transitional government. Here, the immunity allows negotiations to
occur, but it also aims to ensure some stability whilst the fruits of the nego-
tiations are implemented. This was the justication for the 2003 temporary
immunity law in Burundi that shields political leaders who returned from
exile to participate in the negotiations and the transitional government
from prosecution for the duration of that government.
174
It is envisaged
that, once the transitional period is complete and provided no new
amnesty is agreed, these leaders will be eligible for prosecution. A similar
time limited amnesty was introduced in the Democratic Republic of
Congo in 2003. It provided temporary immunity for facts of war, political
and opinion offences, but excluded war crimes, genocide and crimes
against humanity.
175
Temporary immunity is therefore not an amnesty in the traditional
sense, as it simply defers the decision on prosecutions until a time when
conditions are hopefully more stable. This approach may be attractive for
negotiators as it recognises the realities within a transitional state where
the political situation is precarious and the legal infrastructure compro-
mised. Temporary immunity may create a space for democratic and legal
institutions to become entrenched and it leaves open the possibility that
prosecutions can be pursued once the government is secure enough to
take action against members of the former regime and the judiciary is
capable of conducting high-prole prosecutions in a fair and effective
manner.
176
A delay in deciding whether to prosecute is justied by Scharf and
Rodley, who argued that the doctrine of force majeure can warrant tempo-
rary postponement of prosecutions, provided steps are taken without
delay to collect and preserve relevant evidence.
177
Similarly, temporary
immunity may be conceptualised as a form of derogation, whereby the vic-
tims rights to justice are exceptionally and temporarily limited in response
to serious conditions threatening the life of the nation, with the intention of
194 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
174
Law relating to the judicial proceedings for provisional immunity of political leaders
returning from exile, 2003 (Burundi). For discussion, see , Burundi: Approval of
Temporary Immunity Law Sparks Heated Debate IRINnews.org (3 September 2003).
175
Decret-Loi portant amnistie pour faits de guerre, infractions politiques et dopinion (2003)
(Dem Rep Congo). This law was subsequently made permanent in Loi portant amnistie des per-
sonnes responsables de faits de guerre, des infractions politiques et de dlits dopinion (2005) (Dem
Rep Congo).
176
Michael P Scharf and Nigel Rodley, International Law Principles on Accountability in
M Cherif Bassiouni (ed), Post-Conict Justice (International and Comparative Criminal Law
Series, Transnational Publishers, Ardsley, NY 2002) 96.
177
Ibid 96.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 194
fully restoring these rights at a later date.
178
Even though international
actions have been pushing for prosecutions of crimes under international
law, Article 16 of the Rome Statute recognises that it may occasionally be
necessary to defer prosecutions in the interests of peace and security,
179
No investigation or prosecution may be commenced or proceeded with under
this Statute for a period of 12 months after the Security Council, in a resolution
adopted under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations, has requested
the Court to that effect; that request may be renewed by the Council under the
same conditions.
180
The provision was included to enable the Security Council to encourage a
party to a conict to participate in peace negotiations by temporarily
removing the threat of prosecution. This would appear to signify that the
international community deems it acceptable and sometimes necessary to
delay prosecution to ensure international peace and stability.
There are, however, dangers with delayed accountability. For example,
temporary immunity is likely to be less attractive to perpetrators than per-
manent shielding from prosecution, and the uncertainty surrounding
their treatment following the end of the transition period may create insta-
bility and reduce incentives to establish viable political institutions.
Furthermore, the victims may suffer due to the delay in bringing charges
and, particularly when the immunity lasts for a lengthy period, some may
die before seeing their oppressors on trial. Finally, the longer the time
between the commission of the crimes and the court proceedings, the
more difcult it becomes obtain evidence and reliable witness testimony.
These difculties indicate that temporary immunity may not be practical
to implement, and indeed, the experiences in Burundi and the Democratic
Republic of Congo are, thus far, very discouraging. Furthermore, it may
possible to minimise some of the problems by the manner in which the
temporary immunity law is designed.
If a government decides to rely upon a temporary immunity it should
outline initially that the amnesty will only be in place for a specied time,
perhaps ve years. Slye has suggested that a period of at least this length
is necessary
both to provide a sweet enough carrot to induce the recipient to give up power
and to provide enough time for the beneciary to demonstrate more than a
supercial commitment to human rights and the rule of law.
181
Enforcing Conditions and Temporary Amnesties 195
178
Ibid 96.
179
Yasmin Naqvi, Amnesty for war crimes: Dening the limits of international recogni-
tion (2003) 85 International Review of the Red Cross 583, 592.
180
ICC St art 16. See also the discussion of this art in ch 6.
181
Ronald C Slye, The Cambodian Amnesties: Beneciaries and the Temporal Reach of
Amnesties for Gross Violation of Human Rights (2004) 22 Wisconsin Journal of International
Law 99, 11920.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 195
Slye argued that
at the end of this period, an evaluation could be made to determine whether the
beneciary of the amnesty is entitled to a permanent amnesty or something
less
182
such as a mitigated prison sentence. These determinations should be
individualised and based upon the actions of the beneciary during the
probationary limited amnesty period,
183
to enable those who made a
good faith effort to contribute to reconciliation to be reintegrated into
society.
For all forms of conditional or temporary amnesty, the determination
whether a beneciary has fullled the conditions for amnesty must be free
from political control. To ensure this, there must be clear guidelines as to
what is necessary to demonstrate adherence to the conditions and what
methods will be employed to assess compliance. Ideally, the decision-
making body should be independent, as the state itself is usually an actor
in political transitions and should not be in a position where it can, or at
least be perceived to, undermine its opponents by accusing them of
breaching the terms of the agreement, particularly where there is no
equivalent institution capable of monitoring the states behaviour.
Furthermore, to allow politicians to inuence the decisions would reduce
their imperative to commit rmly to a peaceful society, and could create
the appearance that the criminals had been able to amnesty themselves. To
ensure independence, the commission should have its own access to
resources and personnel, possibly with the support of international organ-
isations or states.
Where an amnesty has been withdrawn because an individual or group
did not adhere to its conditions, this implies that they should then be
eligible for prosecution and punishment both for the original crime and
for the breach. Such prosecutions should be pursued, to encourage other
amnesty applicants to engage with the process and to bring those individ-
uals who are not committed to peace and stability to justice for their past
crimes. Difculties arise, however, when considering whether the
information that these individuals provided in their amnesty applications
can be used as evidence in their prosecution. This would probably depend
on the objectives of the amnesty processes, with processes that emphasise
engaging perpetrators in truth-recovery mechanisms providing greater
safeguards to ensure more information is provided than processes that
simply ask amnesty applicants to provide basic personal details.
Furthermore, even where prosecutions are postponed by a temporary
196 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
182
Ronald C Slye, The Cambodian Amnesties: Beneciaries and the Temporal Reach of
Amnesties for Gross Violation of Human Rights (2004) 22 Wisconsin Journal of International
Law 99, 119.
183
Ibid 120.
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 196
immunity law, archives must be preserved and investigations conducted,
possibly by truth commissions, even while the immunity is in place.
Finally, where time limits are imposed on the duration of the immunity,
it is advisable that these limits be sequenced with the work of com-
plementary transitional justice mechanisms, such as truth commissions,
in order to encourage former combatants to engage with the transitional
justice projects during the early stages of their work.
CONCLUSION
This chapter has explored the conditions that can be attached to an
amnesty, including tactical conditions to improve the laws efcacy and
more reparative conditions which aim to full the states obligations to
ensure the victims rights to truth and reparations. By using the examples
in the Amnesty Law Database, this chapter has argued that states are often
willing to impose practical conditions such as requiring combatants to sur-
render and lay down their weapons within a specied time period before
being considered eligible for amnesty. Where an amnesty aims to promote
peace and stability within a war-torn society, such conditions can create an
incentive for former combatants to engage promptly with a peace process,
and can contribute to the gradual demilitarisation of the society and a
reduction in violence.
The Amnesty Law Database has also revealed that states are becoming
increasingly willing to attach more reparative conditions to the grant of
amnesty, including showing remorse, telling the truth, participating in
restorative justice mechanisms, or paying reparations. This chapter has
argued that such conditions can help to reconcile a national amnesty with
a states international obligations to ensure the victims rights to truth and
reparations. These obligations require the state to conduct investigations
and inform the victims of their results, and to provide victims with appro-
priate reparations, including compensation and restitution, whilst work-
ing towards establishing a society in which the suffering of the victims is
memorialised and measures are taken to prevent a repetition of the crimes
that they endured. Clearly, these obligations would be breached by
amnesty processes that offer blanket impunity to perpetrators in an
attempt to bury their past crimes. However, such breaches can be avoided
by amnesties that are combined with alternative justice processes, which
aim to reveal the truth and respond to the needs of the victims. Studying
the patterns revealed by the Amnesty Law Database has shown that states
are increasingly willing to do this, with large numbers of amnesties now
granting some form of reparation, although the approaches followed by
states differ considerably due to the nature of the violations that occurred
and the resources available to the government. Furthermore, since the
Conclusion 197
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 197
work of the South African TRC, it appears that states are more willing to
establish truth commissions in conjunction with amnesties.
In its analysis of the conditions attached to amnesties, this chapter has
made a number of recommendations that could contribute to enhancing
the legitimacy and efcacy of the amnesty process. First, it has been
argued that, where amnesty is designed to persuade insurgents to surren-
der, they should be permitted to surrender to a range of governmental and
non-governmental institutions, rather than simply the states armed
forces, and where buy-back programmes are offered for weapons, the
payments must be made promptly and should be publicised clearly.
Furthermore, the cut-off date for applications should allow a sufcient
period for potential applicants to debate the amnesty with their comrades
and families, and to travel often considerable distances to apply.
Secondly, this chapter has contended that, where a truth commission
offers amnesty in exchange for truth, the commission should involve vic-
tims, offenders and their communities in its decisions; its commissioners
should be perceived as representative and unbiased; and its mandate
should be broad enough to enable a complete picture of the past to be
revealed. Where individuals fail to comply with the requirements of the
truth commission, prosecution should be pursued, and for those who are
granted amnesty, their names and actions should be revealed in the com-
missions report.
Similarly, where a government relies on restorative justice processes to
address past crimes, victims should be given a central role, although there
should also be participation from offenders, plus representatives of the
communities to which the victims and offenders belong. The processes
should be mediated or arbitrated by individuals who are independent rep-
resentatives of all participants, and where punishments are imposed, they
should take into account the needs of the victims and the community.
Thirdly, to meet international legal standards, all amnesties should be
accompanied by reparations programmes which take into account the
needs of the victims and the wider society, and the nature of the violations
that occurred. Whilst states have considerable discretion in designing their
reparations programmes, it is essential that they encompass measures to
ensure the crimes are not repeated and the suffering is not forgotten.
Fourthly, this chapter has argued that lustration or vetting processes
should be individualised, operate according to procedural fairness,
184
and
avoid casting the net too wide, which could deny the state access to indi-
viduals with expertise in carrying out public policy and could create
resentment and instability that could threaten the transition.
Finally, the chapter has asserted that adherence to the conditions
attached to an amnesty should be enforced by means of the state remov-
198 The Role of Conditional Amnesties
184
Freeman (n 63).
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 198
ing the amnesty from those who breach the conditions and exposing them
to prosecution. Alternatively, this chapter has explored the possibility of
provisional immunity and suggested that, if a government decides to pur-
sue such immunity for the duration of a transitional government, it should
state an upper time limit after which prosecutions will be pursued, unless
efforts are made in good faith to establish democratic government, so that
the beneciaries are not encouraged to delay establishing permanent insti-
tutions. Furthermore, determinations on whether to offer permanent
amnesty at the end of the temporary immunity should be free from
political control.
Although these conditions appear stringent, it may not be necessary for
a state to full all of them. For example, if community-based justice mech-
anisms are implemented, they may reduce the need to also create a truth
commission. Furthermore, the precise scope of the conditions may be dic-
tated by the unique circumstances of each transition, for example, whether
the crimes were predominantly committed by secretive state forces or
whether there were multiple parties perpetrating atrocities. Similarly, the
nature of the crimes committed and the level of violence occurring when
the amnesty is introduced may inuence the conditions attached to it. For
all conditional amnesties, however, it is necessary that reparations be
made to the victims. Even this does not create strict guidelines, however,
as international law permits states some discretion when designing their
reparations programmes in recognition of the disparities that can occur
between states due to factors such as divergent levels of resources and
numbers of victims seeking reparation. In this way, the development of
conditional forms of amnesty appears to enable transitional governments
to tailor their approach to past crimes by balancing their obligations under
international law against the political and economic conditions faced by
their country. The following chapters will argue that this exibility can be
recognised both by the courts in the territorial state and by international
courts.
Conclusion 199
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 199
(F) Mallinder Ch4 20/8/08 13:17 Page 200
Part II
Approach of Courts to Amnesties
(G) Mallinder Ch5 20/8/08 13:17 Page 201
(G) Mallinder Ch5 20/8/08 13:17 Page 202
5
Implementing the Amnesty:
The Approach of National Courts
INTRODUCTION
P
ART I OF THIS book focused on the process of introducing
amnesty laws, and their relationship to states obligations under
international humanitarian and human rights law. In Part II, the
discussion will concentrate on how these amnesty laws are addressed at
the different levels within the international criminal justice system,
namely: the national courts of the territory where the crime occurred;
international or hybrid courts and human rights treaty-monitoring bodies;
and courts in third states operating under the principles of extraterritorial
jurisdiction. This chapter will begin with an analysis of the judgments of
national courts relating to amnesty laws introduced by the governments
of their states.
This chapter will explore whether there are any trends in the behaviour
of national courts, for example: are they more likely to uphold or overturn
an amnesty? Have their attitudes changed over time? Are there differ-
ences between the approaches followed by higher and lower courts, and
by military and civilian courts? Do national courts alter their approach for
amnesty laws which grant impunity for international crimes? This chapter
will also analyse the judgments of courts to determine how they view the
legality of amnesty laws under national and international law, and to
investigate whether other considerations such as the political situation in
the state inuence their decisions. This chapter will consider both rulings
on judicial review and the application of amnesty laws. It will begin with
a brief overview of trends in the attitudes of the courts to permitting or
denying amnesty laws, both in general terms and in relation to specic
issues such as the granting of amnesty for international crimes. This will
be followed by an in-depth discussion of the legal reasoning used by the
courts in reaching their decisions. This analysis aims to provide further
clarity on the characteristics of the amnesty laws under investigation and
explain the factors that inuence the decisions of the courts relating to
amnesties in order to identify practices that could offer greater protection
to victims.
(G) Mallinder Ch5 20/8/08 13:17 Page 203
TRENDS IN THE RESPONSES OF NATIONAL COURTS TO
AMNESTY LAWS
This research has compiled varying degrees of information on 315 cases
before national courts. Of these, it has been possible to state the outcome
in 257 cases relating to 77 amnesty processes.
1
Within the national cases,
there are several ways in which an amnesty be considered. First, depend-
ing on the powers of the judiciary within the domestic legal system, a
court could be asked to review the amnesty judicially, based on either
domestic legal provisions or applicable international treaties, in order to
decide whether it conicts with a states pre-existing legal obligations. If
the law is found to be in conict, the court must then decide whether the
amnesty can take precedence over the pre-existing obligations.
If an amnesty is found to be valid, the courts may subsequently have to
decide whether to permit investigations. A court may determine that,
rather than applying a blanket amnesty, it should conduct investigations
into individual cases, in order to determine the applicability of the
amnesty law in each case, depending on whether the crime falls within
the scope of the amnesty or on whether the applicant has adhered to the
amnestys conditions. If it is determined that an investigation should take
place, depending on the jurisdiction, it could be conducted by either the
police or investigating judges or magistrates. These investigations would
try to establish whether a crime had occurred, who was responsible, and
whether the actions fell within the scope of the amnesty, for example,
whether the crime was political
2
and whether it had occurred within the
prescribed time limits. Even if the court decides that the amnesty should
be applied and that the perpetrator cannot be prosecuted, the court may
still assert its power by ruling that the victim or their family should be
compensated for their suffering.
Cases relating to amnesty can also arise where political opponents of a
regime petition to be granted the benets of an amnesty, or where indi-
viduals appeal against the grant of an amnesty, because they wish to have
court proceedings in order to prove their innocence. Finally, there have
been some amnesty laws which have beneted individuals when they are
convicted or whilst they are serving their sentence. Whilst such measures
204 Implementing the Amnesty: National Courts
1
As explored in Part I, these amnesty processes differ considerably, as some cover crimes
under international law, whereas others liberate non-violent political prisoners. Where it has
not been possible to state the outcome of a case, it is due to a variety of factors including lin-
guistic difculties (the author could only read in English, French and Spanish), the time since
the judgment was issued (for example, making it harder to nd the full text of the judgment
online), and the fact that not all judgments were published. Furthermore, for several amnesty
processes, the decision of whether to grant amnesty to individual applicants was made by an
independent commission, rather than by courts.
2
See discussion on political crimes, ch 3.
(G) Mallinder Ch5 20/8/08 13:17 Page 204
are, strictly speaking, pardons, as discussed in the introduction, they have
been included in the database to illustrate amnesty processes that also pro-
vide for prisoner releases.
3
Each of the cases for which information on the outcome is available has
been allocated to one of the following categories: upheld/applied; limited;
overturned; or non-applicable. The upheld/applied category covers
cases that adhere to the amnesty law by either: (1) nding the amnesty
constitutional and in accordance with international law;
4
or (2) granting
amnesty to the defendant according to the terms of the law, including
where the defendant has already been convicted. The overturned cate-
gory covers cases where the court found the amnesty law itself to be
unconstitutional or in conict with the states obligations under inter-
national law. The limited category applies to cases where a court limits
the application of the amnesty law by interpreting it in such a way as to
enable it to refuse to apply it to specic cases, for example, by classifying
disappearances as continuous crimes and therefore outside the time limits
of the amnesty, or where the crimes are held to be common crimes rather
than political crimes. This category could also apply where a court accepts
the concept of amnesty per se as legal, but reinterprets certain provisions.
Finally, the non-applicable category includes cases where the court
refuses to apply the amnesty outside the laws stated terms, for example,
for crimes that occurred outside its time limits.
The process of categorising the outcomes of national cases has been prob-
lematic, as there is overlap between the categories. For example, it can be
difcult to distinguish between cases where an amnesty has been over-
turned or where it has merely been limited, particularly as many of the cases
discussed in this chapter are still under consideration for nal appeals; and
certain cases where the amnesty law was originally applied have been
reopened.
5
Furthermore, the ability of courts to overturn amnesty laws dif-
fers between jurisdictions, with supreme courts in some states having more
power than others. Therefore, these categorisations should not be viewed as
an exact science, but rather merely as a tool to identify trends.
The results for the each category of outcomes of national cases are
shown in Figure 12 below.
6
This illustrates the fact that domestic courts
Responses of National Courts to Amnesty Laws 205
3
For a discussion of the distinction between amnesty and pardon, see Introduction.
4
These two issues are separate legal tasks and will be analysed in separately below.
However, they are grouped together here for illustrative purposes.
5
This is particularly the case in Chile, where the Pinochet Affair sparked renewed judicial
activity in cases that were previously considered to be closed (as discussed in ch 7), and in
Argentina, where the repeal of the amnesty laws has led to hundreds of cases being
reopened. For a detailed overview of this process, see Jos Sebastin Elas, Constitutional
Changes, Transitional Justice, and Legitimacy: The Life and Death of Argentinas Amnesty
Laws Yale Law School Student Scholarship Series, Paper 57 (Yale Law School, November 2007).
6
For these results, rather than counting each case individually, all cases with a particular
result that fall within each amnesty process are counted as one, regardless of the number of
cases that occurred relating to that process.
(G) Mallinder Ch5 20/8/08 13:17 Page 205
are much more likely to uphold amnesty laws than to limit or overturn
them. It should be noted, however, that certain amnesty processes will
appear in multiple categories, as their national courts changed their posi-
tion on the amnesties over time, usually being more willing to apply the
amnesty unquestionably in the early days of the transition, but becoming
more willing to challenge or restrict it as time progressed and the political
conditions became more stable. The changes of over time for each category
are shown in Figure 13 below. This shows that the number of amnesty
processes where amnesty is applied or upheld by national courts
increased until 1995, before beginning to drop gradually, as the other pos-
sible outcomes increased in frequency. However, as it has been easier to
obtain information on judgments since the 1990s than it has been for the
earlier period, these gures may exaggerate these trends. It will be inter-
esting to observe how this pattern develops during the next decade, as the
implementing legislation for the ICC comes into effect within the national
legal systems of states parties.
The actions of national courts can also be assessed, in order to investi-
gate whether the approaches of lower and higher courts have differed
when addressing amnesty processes. The results of this research have
shown that, in the majority of cases, both the lower and upper courts
applied the amnesty. There were a few instances where only the upper
courts applied an amnesty, thereby overruling an earlier judgment by a
lower court that had overturned or limited it. Finally, there are a few
examples where both the lower and upper courts overturned or limited
206 Implementing the Amnesty: National Courts
Figure 12: Results of national cases
70
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(G) Mallinder Ch5 20/8/08 13:17 Page 206
the amnesty. These results indicate that the higher courts are more likely
to apply amnesty laws, which could be due to a number of factors such as
a greater susceptibility to political pressure or a propensity to defer to the
government on issues of national security.
7
Where the decision whether to
apply an amnesty was granted to military courts, usually resulting from
national legislation or the rulings of higher courts granting them jurisdic-
tion, it appears they were far more likely to enforce amnesty laws to pro-
tect members of the armed forces than civilian courts. This only occurred
in a small number of states, however, most notably in South America.
When the outcomes of national cases are considered in relation to the
crimes covered by the amnesty, it appears that, for amnesty processes that
have covered crimes under international law, many national courts have
been willing to uphold and apply the amnesty, as shown in Figure 14
below. Where the courts have been willing to uphold such amnesties, they
have often limited their recognition of the applicability of international
law within their national legal system. However, Figure 14 also reveals a
similar pattern of outcomes where the amnesty law explicitly excluded
some or all crimes under international law, with the majority of cases
being applied or upheld. Even where some crimes under international law
are excluded, however, courts have in a few cases been willing to limit
or overturn the amnesty. Here, the justication could be that not all
7
For a discussion on the motivations of the judiciary, see under Adhering to the
Separation of Powers Doctrine, below.
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(O) Mallinder Appendix 2 20/8/08 13:20 Page 424
Appendix 2: International Court System 425
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(O) Mallinder Appendix 2 20/8/08 13:20 Page 428
Appendix 3
Provisions of the Universal Jurisdiction
Legislation in Third States
1
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For a table of the provisions of extraterritorial jurisdiction laws in the European Union see
Redress and Fdration internationale des lingues des droits de lHomme, Legal Remedies for
Victims of International Crimes: Fostering an EU Approach to Extraterritorial Jurisdiction
(March 2004) <http://www.dh.org/IMG/pdf/LegalRemediesFinal.pdf> accessed 27
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(P) Mallinder Appendix 3 20/8/08 13:21 Page 429
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(P) Mallinder Appendix 3 20/8/08 13:21 Page 432
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, Ethiopia; Soldiers Way Economist (22 May 1976) 58
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(Pyongyang 21 July 1978)
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, Ethiopia Frees 1,163 to Mark Anniversary New York Times (Addis Ababa
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, Extension of Guatemalan Amnesty BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
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, Guatemala Sets Amnesty The Washington Post (Guatemala City 13 August
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, Criminals Granted Amnesty in Bangladesh Xinhua News Agency (Dhaka 28
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, Moi Extends Amnesty Deadline for Bandits in NE Kenya BBC Summary
of World Broadcasts (17 October 1984)
, Return of Kenyan Exiles includes Liberation Group Leaders BBC Summary
of World Broadcasts (19 September 1984)
, Some Political Prisoners in Ethiopia Ordered Released United Press
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, US Holds Fire on Lifting Sanctions on Poland / Political Prisoners Amnesty
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, 7 From Security Force Seek Israeli Amnesty New York Times (Jerusalem
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, Amnesty Law for Guerrillas Passes Legislature Associated Press (Maputo
19 December 1987)
, Aquino Extends Amnesty Program United Press International (Manila
19 August 1987)
, Argentina Amnesty Laws Ruled Illegal St. Petersburg Times (Florida)
(Buenos Aires 12 June 1987) 17A
, Chissano Offers Amnesty to Rebels United Press International (Maputo 17
December 1987)
, Ex-guardsmen Freed in 81 Slayings Facts on File, Inc. (31 December 1987)
995 A1
, Government releases 1,218 Prisoners, Including 17 Dissidents Associated
Press (Seoul 27 February 1987)
, Guatemala Amnesty is Passed New York Times (30 October 1987) 2
, Iran: Amnesty under Certain Circumstances for Mini-Group Members BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts (28 October 1987)
, Panama Declares Amnesty Xinhua News Agency (Panama City 16 December
1987)
, Philippine President Declares Amnesty for Insurgents Xinhua News
Agency (Manila 28 February 1987)
, South Korea Frees 357 More Political Prisoners Japan Economic Newswire
(Seoul 8 July 1987)
, Sri Lanka, India Sign Pact to End Tamil Rebellion; Chief Rebel Band
Withholds Consent Facts on File, Inc. (31 July 1987) 545 A1
, Uganda Extends Amnesty Law Xinhua News Agency (Kampala 30 December
1987)
, Uganda says 10,000 Rebels have Surrendered, Extends Amnesty Associated
Press (Kampala 4 November 1987)
, Ugandan Prime Minister Outlines Tasks of Amnesty Bodies BBC Summary
of World Broadcasts (7 August 1987)
, Ugandan Prime Minister Reiterates Policy of Reconciliation Xinhua News
Agency (Kampala 5 August 1987)
, US Government Intervenes in Salvadoran Amnesty Xinhua News Agency
(Mexico City 17 November 1987)
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, Law of Repentance Adopted by Grand National Assembly BBC
Worldwide Monitoring (31 March 1988)
, Angola Council of Ministers Approves Draft Amnesty Law BBC Summary
of World Broadcasts (28 December 1988)
, Angola Promulgates Amnesty Law Xinhua News Agency (Luanda
24 December 1988)
, Bhutto Names Cabinet Facts on File, Inc. (9 December 1988) 920 G3
, Bhutto Plans Amnesty and No Change in Afghanistan Policy New York
Times (Islamabad 4 December 1988) 19
, Exiled Panamanian Opposition Leaders Return Home Xinhua News Agency
(Panama City 28 January 1988)
, First Batch of Political Exiles return to Pakistan Xinhua News Agency
(Islamabad 12 December 1988)
, Frelimo Party Central Committee Meets Xinhua News Agency (Maputo
15 December 1988)
, General Amnesty Law Issued by the Nicaraguan National Assembly BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts (29 March 1988)
, Guatemala Amnesty Law for Political Crimes BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (27 June 1988)
, Iraq Announces General Amnesty for Kurdish Rebels Xinhua News Agency
(Baghdad 6 September 1988)
, Iraq Issues Amnesty Decree Xinhua News Agency (Baghdad 8 September
1988)
, Iraq Opposition Group says Amnesty Announcement a Public Relations
Exercise BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (1 December 1988)
, Iraq Proclaims a General Amnesty for Political Prisoners Xinhua News
Agency (Baghdad 1 December 1988)
, Iraq says over 19,000 Kurds have returned BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
(Baghdad 16 September 1988)
, Large Number of Iraqi Kurds Return Home Xinhua News Agency (Baghdad
10 September 1988)
, More Kurdish Refugees return to Iraq Xinhua News Agency (Baghdad
5 October 1988)
, Nicaragua Signs Cease-Fire Accord with Contra Rebels; Amnesty, Free
Speech Pledged under 2-Month Truce; Surprised US reacts coolly Facts on File,
Inc. (25 March 1988) 197 A1
, Over 1,000 South Korean Prisoners Freed Under Amnesty Xinhua News
Agency (Seoul 3 October 1988)
, Pakistan to Fete Freed Political Prisoners Japan Economic Newswire
(Islamabad 9 December 1988)
, Panamanian Government Frees 26 Political Prisoners Associated Press
(Panama City 24 December 1988)
, Roh Grants Amnesty to 7,200 People United Press International (Seoul
26 February 1988)
, Senegalese Cabinet Approves Amnesty Bill Senegalese in Libyan Agents
Case Released BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (27 May 1988)
, South Korea Announces Massive Amnesty Xinhua News Agency (Seoul
26 February 1988)
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, South Korea Releases 7,234 in Sweeping Amnesty United Press International
(Seoul 26 February 1988)
, Supreme Court upholds Controversial Amnesty Law Associated Press
(Montevideo 5 May 1988)
, Suspects Involved in Thailands Abortive Coup granted Amnesty Xinhua
News Agency (Bangkok 28 September 1988)
, Thai Caretaker Government approves Bill to Grant Amnesty to 1985 Coup
Leaders Xinhua News Agency (Bangkok 21 June 1988)
, Trial of Revolutionary Path Organisation Members ends After Eight Years
BBC Worldwide Monitoring (26 August 1988)
, Uganda: Government Statement on the Extension of Amnesty for Rebels
For the Lasttime BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (1 April 1988)
, Zimbabwean Government Gazettes Amnesty Order Xinhua News Agency
(Harare 5 May 1988)
, Angola Begins Implementation of Amnesty Law Xinhua News Agency
(Luanda 4 February 1989)
, Angola Permanent Commission Approves Social Reintegration Law BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts (6 February 1989)
, Benin Political Bureau Announces Amnesty Measure BBC Summary of
World Broadcasts (31 August 1989)
, East Germany Grants Amnesty to Refugees, Demonstrators United Press
International (Berlin 27 October 1989)
, Economic Pressure leads to Major Political Amnesty in Benin Xinhua News
Agency (Lom 30 August 1989)
, Ershad Offers Amnesty to Insurgents Japan Economic Newswire (Dhaka
22 April 1989)
, General Amnesty to Tribal Rebels Announced in Bangladesh Xinhua News
Agency (Dhaka 24 August 1989)
, General Amnesty, Repeal of Discriminatory Laws Announced in Namibia
Xinhua News Agency (Windhoek 6 June 1989)
, Mozambican President Announces Extension of Amnesty Law in his New
Year Message BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (3 January 1989)
, Namibian Refugees leave Tanzania for Home Xinhua News Agency (Dar es
Salaam 31 July 1989)
, OAU Demands General Amnesty in Namibia Xinhua News Agency
(Windhoek 31 May 1989)
, Policy of Mercy and National Harmony in Angola ITAR-TASS (4 January
1989)
, President Husak Declares Major Amnesty BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
(11 December 1989)
, Soviet Parliament Grants Amnesty for Soviet POWs ITAR-TASS
(28 November 1989)
, Surinam Parliament Approves Amnesty for Rebels BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (5 June 1989)
, SWAPO Protests against Namibia Amnesty Exclusions BBC Summary of
World Broadcasts (10 June 1989)
, Zimbabwe Clears 15 Men of Murdering Missionaries BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (4 May 1989)
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, Amnesty Ruling Splits Chileans Commercial Appeal (Santiago 30 September
1990) A2
, Angola Extends General Amnesty for Anti-Government Rebel Xinhua News
Agency (Luanda 1 February 1990)
, Angola: Dos Santos Approves Extension of the Amnesty Law, Issues Decree
on State Crimes BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (6 February 1990)
, Burundi Amnesty for those involved in the 1988 Massacres; 1989 Coup Plot
BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (1 September 1990)
, Decree of the President of the USSR on the Law of the Lithuanian SSR On
Amnesty in Connection with the Re-establishment of the Independent
Lithuanian State Russian Press Digest (9 June 1990)
, Decree on Amnesty Adopted ITAR-TASS (6 January 1990)
, Honduras to Grant Amnesty to Political Prisoners United Press International
(Tegucigalpa 5 December 1990)
, Nicaragua Amnesty Law Comes into Force BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (16 March 1990)
, Nicaragua Approves Amnesty for Former Somoza Guards Xinhua News
Agency (Managua 10 May 1990)
, Nicaragua Passes Amnesty The Independent (Managua 12 March 1990) 10
, Parliament Passes Political Amnesty Law BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
(24 December 1990)
, Presidential Decree Concerning a Law of Lithuania ITAR-TASS (Moscow
8 June 1990)
, Rurarz and Spasowski Acquitted Polish News Bulletin (27 November 1990)
, South Africa Grants Black Leaders Indemnity United Press International
(Johannesburg 19 May 1990)
, South African Parliament Passes Indemnity Bill BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (9 May 1990)
, Supreme Court Re-Examines Cases of Spasowski and Rurarz PAP News
Wire (23 November 1990)
, Zimbabwe President Grants Amnesty to Criminals Xinhua News Agency
(Harare 26 July 1990)
, All Laotian Refugees in Thailand to be Resettled BBC Worldwide Monitoring
(2 July 1991)
, Amnesty Declared in Mauritania Agence France Presse (Nouakchott 29 July
1991)
, Amnesty law seen as Whitewash Latin America Weekly Report (25 July
1991) 8
, Angola Decrees Amnesty to Criminals Xinhua News Agency (Luanda 16 July
1991)
, Angola Grants Amnesty to Political Prisoner Associated Press (Luanda
16 July 1991)
, Assam Militants Issue new Deadline for Release of Hostages BBC Summary
of World Broadcasts (17 July 1991)
, Assamese Government to Release Rebels before Execution Deadline Agence
France Presse (New Delhi 9 July 1991)
, Burkina Grants Amnesty for Political Offenders Agence France Presse
(Ouagadougou 26 July 1991)
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, Cameroon Parliament Adopts General Amnesty Bill; Stormy Debates
BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (24 April 1991)
, Democratic Transition Begun Facts on File, Inc. (21 November 1991)
886 E3
, Former Cops benet from Amnesty, Escape Jail Terms PAP News Wire
(21 January 1991)
, French Court Bars Indochina War Crimes Trial for Professor Associated Press
(Paris 30 May 1991)
, Gambia Amnesty for Remainder of 1981 Coup Plotters BBC Summary of
World Broadcasts (21 February 1991)
, Haitis Government to Give Amnesty to January Putschists Associated Press
(Port-au-Prince 25 December 1991)
, Hassan II Announces Amnesty for Opponents in Sahara Agence France
Presse (Rabat 12 June 1991)
, Iraq Extends Amnesty Deadline for Deserters Associated Press (Nicosia
8 March 1991)
, Iraq Issues Amnesty for Political Fugitives, Army Deserters Xinhua News
Agency (Baghdad 21 July 1991)
, Iraq Issues Amnesty for Political Prisoners Xinhua News Agency (Baghdad
21 July 1991)
, Iraq Pardons Deserters, Absentees Xinhua News Agency (Baghdad 4 March
1991)
, Kidnapped Oil Ofcial Rescued BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (12 July
1991)
, Kidnapped Russian Killed in eastern India Agence France Presse (New Delhi
9 July 1991)
, Lebanon Amnesty Law Introduced; Karami Denies Agreement Reached on
Gen. Awn BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (28 August 1991)
, Lebanon Aoun Pardon Agence France Presse (Beirut 27 August 1991)
, Mauritania FLAM Announces Immediate Suspension of Armed Struggle
BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (1 August 1991)
, Mauritania General Amnesty Announced; Citizens Encouraged to Express
Views BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (30 July 1991)
, Mauritania General Amnesty for Prisoners Detained on Security Grounds
BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (9 March 1991)
, More Misled People Respond to Government Amnesty BBC Worldwide
Monitoring (18 January 1991)
, More than 8,000 Deserters returned to Units under Amnesty BBC Summary
of World Broadcasts (7 December 1991)
, New Amnesty for Exiles BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (21 August 1991)
, Nicaragua Chamorro Grants Amnesty to Political Prisoners BBC Summary
of World Broadcasts (24 December 1991)
, No Trial for French Commissar of Vietnamese POW Camp Agence France
Presse (Paris 20 December 1991)
, Pardons in Popieluszkos Death Case Polish News Bulletin (13 November
1991)
, Popieluszko Killers not to Benet from Amnesty PAP News Wire
(23 December 1991)
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, Rebel General Pardoned Xinhua News Agency (Beirut 27 August 1991)
, Senegal National Assembly Approves for Casamance Separatists BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts (1 July 1991)
, Soviet Law on Amnesty Fails to Return Deserters ITAR-TASS (Moscow
4 December 1991)
, Thai Military Leaders get Amnesty for Coup United Press International
(Bangkok 4 April 1991)
, Togolese President Grants Exiles Amnesty BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
(14 January 1991)
, Amnesty for All Protesters Announced in Thailand Xinhua News Agency
(Bangkok 24 May 1992)
, Amnesty for Jailed RENAMO Fighters United Press International (14 October
1992)
, Amnesty Law for Ivory Coast The Independent (Abidjan 30 July 1992) 9
, Amnesty Law goes into Effect Xinhua News Agency (Amman 15 November
1992)
, Army to take case of Disappearance: Supreme Court Wrests the Inquiry
from Civilian Judge Latin America Weekly Report (12 November 1992) 5
, Case against Functionaries charged with Burning Car Dropped PAP News
Wire (Zlotoryja 13 February 1992)
, Chmielewskis Parole Contested Polish News Bulletin (28 August 1992)
, Cote dIvoire National Assembly Unanimously Adopts Amnesty Law BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts (Abidjan 31 July 1992)
, Court refuses to grant Parole to Popieluszko Killer PAP News Wire (11 May
1992)
, Djibouti Opposition Forms United Front Agence France Presse (Paris 25 June
1992)
, El Salvador passes Amnesty for Political Crimes National Public Radio (San
Salvador 24 January 1992)
, Equatorial Guinea further report on democratisation; amnesty and other
measures BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (16 January 1992)
, Father Jankowski acquitted at Supreme Court Retrial PAP News Wire
(Warsaw 16 October 1992)
, General Amnesty Law Promulgated in Equatorial Guinea BBC Summary of
World Broadcasts (9 January 1992)
, Houphouetboigny Announces Amnesty Law; Calls for Peaceful Change
BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (Abidjan 27 July 1992)
, Jibuti Government Offers Amnesty to Afar Rebels BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (26 June 1992)
, Jibuti Presidnet Pardons Five of his Exiled Opponents; France Welcomes the
Move BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (13 July 1992)
, Jordanians Rejoice over Kings Order for Amnesty Xinhua News Agency
(Amman 13 November 1992)
, Judge orders arrest of top M-19 leaders; Betancur also summoned in review
of 1985 siege case Latin America Weekly Report (4 June 1992) 3
, Leader of rebel council arrives in Kabul St. Petersburg Times (Florida) (Kabul
29 April 1992) 8A
, MauritaniaTorture Canadian Press (9 February 1992)
Bibliography 511
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, Mujahedeen dissolve old government, party, cast doubt on amnesty Agence
France Presse (Kabul 6 May 1992)
, Opposition Reaction to Announcement of Amnesty BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (Abidjan 27 July 1992)
, Peace Accord Signed Between Rebel Group and Government Agence France
Presse (NDjamena 16 June 1992)
, Pekalas Parole Contested Polish News Bulletin (20 August 1992)
, Philippine President Renews Call for National Unity Xinhua News Agency
(Manila 2 August 1992)
, Philippines to Grant Amnesty to Rebels Xinhua News Agency (Manila 28 July
1992)
, Popieluszko Killer Chmielewski asks to be Paroled PAP News Wire
(Warsaw 8 May 1992)
, Popieluszko Killer Granted Conditional Discharge PAP News Wire (Warsaw
28 May 1992)
, Prosecutor-General wants Pekala back in Jail PAP News Wire (Warsaw
19 August 1992)
, Prosecutors Ofce Appeals Against Zlotoryja Court Verdict PAP News
Wire (Legnica 24 March 1992)
, Rebel Leader says Armed Struggle Suspended in Favour of Political
Struggle BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (29 June 1992)
, Salvador adopts Amnesty Law The Washington Post (San Salvador
24 January 1992) A18
, Salvadoran Ofcers get 30 Years for Killings St Louis Post-Dispatch (San
Salvador 25 January 1992) 1A
, Salvadoran Ofcers Jailed for Murder of Six Priests The Gazette (San
Salvador 25 January 1992) A13
, SOC State Council grants amnesty to detainees BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (28 November 1992)
, State of Emergency in Tbilisi to be Lifted Today Xinhua News Agency
(Moscow 4 August 1992)
, Surinam Amnesty Ends Guerrilla War Reuters (Paramaribo 4 August 1992)
, Surinamese Rebels and Government to Sign Peace Accord Agence France
Presse (Paramaribo 3 July 1992)
, Thai Government held Responsible for Tribunals Ruling on Amnesty
Decree Xinhua News Agency (Bangkok 10 November 1992)
, Thailands Constitutional Tribunal Begins Sensitive Discussions on
Amnesty Agence France Presse (Bangkok 27 May 1992)
, Thailands Juridical Council meets on Amnesty Decree Xinhua News Agency
(Bangkok 15 October 1992)
, Trial of Generals Involved in Popieluszko Murder Adjourned PAP News
Wire (Warsaw 22 October 1992)
, Amnesty for more than 5,000 Burundi Prisoners BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (10 September 1993)
, Amnesty for Salvadorean Military Linked to War Crimes by UN Truth
Commission Latin American Newsletters (1 April 1993) 1
, Amnesty Law Changed to Exclude Former Communist Ofcials Crimes
Against State BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (12 June 1993)
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, Aristide Grants Full Amnesty to Coup dEtat Participants BBC Summary of
World Broadcasts (7 October 1993)
, Chile: Court Makes Historic Ruling on Abuses Under Pinochet Inter Press
Service (Santiago 16 September 1993)
Cotonou Accord (25 July 1993)
, Court Upholds Amnesty for Salvadorans The Houston Chronicle (San
Salvador 11 September 1993) 19
, Croatian Supreme Court Denies Trying Large Numbers of Serbs BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts (10 December 1993)
, Deputies Approve Law on Political Prisoners BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (18 January 1993)
, El Salvador: Court Amnesty for Ofcers Involved in Murder of Jesuits BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts (2 August 1993)
, El Salvador: FMLN rejects amnesty after publication of Truth Commission
report BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (17 March 1993)
, General Amnesty takes effect in El Salvador Xinhua News Agency (Mexico
City 31 March 1993)
, Haiti Compromise Sets Aristide Return; Amnesty for Military Leaders
Agreed; Other News Facts on File, Inc. (8 July 1993) 498 E1
, Haiti; Agency gives Summary of UN-Brokered Agreement between Cedras
and Aristide BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (5 July 1993)
, Information Ministry announces Aristide Amnesty for Political Breaches
BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (6 October 1993)
, Islamic Jihad Criticises Decision to exclude US Embassy Bombing from
Amnesty BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (14 May 1993)
, Madagascars Zafys Presidential Inauguration BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (29 March 1993)
, Nicaraguan Soldiers and Contra Rebels and Re-arm Themselves National
Public Radio (Managua 15 August 1993)
, Nun Killers Lose Appeal Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (4 June 1993) A4
, Parliament Endorses Bill on General Amnesty BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (Bujumbura 11 September 1993)
, Partial amnesty to Guerrillas Latin American Newsletters (2 September 1993) 5
, Partial Amnesty to Mark Independence Anniversary BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (29 January 1993)
, President Grants Amnesty to over 40,000 BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
(8 March 1993)
, President Grants Political Amnesty to more than 41,000 People Associated
Press (Seoul 5 March 1993)
, Salvador: Getting Away with Murder New York Times (24 March 1993) 20
, Salvadoran Judge Denies Amnesty to Killers of US Churchwomen United
Press International (San Salvador 3 June 1993)
, South Korea Declares Special Amnesty Xinhua News Agency (Seoul 6 March
1993)
, Tashkent court releases Uzbek opposition gure BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (29 January 1993)
, Trial against Generals Responsible for Files Destruction Resumed PAP
News Wire (Piotrkow Trybunalski 19 October 1993)
Bibliography 513
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, Trial of 3 Generals Charged with Destroying Files Adjourned PAP News
Wire (Piotrkow Trybunalski 19 October 1993)
, Trial of Interior Ministry Generals Abandoned PAP News Wire (Piotrkow
Trybunalski 21 July 1993)
, UN Chief Criticizes Salvadors Amnesty for War Abuses United Press
International (24 March 1993)
, Amnesty Commission for Chiapas Rebels formed in Mexico Xinhua News
Agency (Mexico City 24 January 1994)
, Cabinet disbands Lebanese Forces Party and outlaws unofcial news broad-
casts BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (25 March 1994)
, Court refuses to grant Parole to Father Popieluszkos Killer PAP News Wire
(Lublin 17 October 1994)
, Defence Minister in Sana Offers an Amnesty for the Misled Forces of
DRY BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (27 May 1994)
, Defence Minister on Amnesty Law and Conditions in Aden BBC Summary
of World Broadcasts (14 July 1994)
, Deputies Approve Amnesty for EZLN Rebels; Hostages, Weapons must be
Surrendered BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (22 January 1994)
, Filipino Rebels Granted Amnesty by Government Xinhua News Agency
(Manila 25 March 1994)
, Former SB Agent Piotrowski Sentenced to Eighteen Months in Prison PAP
News Wire (Lublin 1 September 1994)
, Haitian Parliament Approves Amnesty Law for Coup Plotters Agence
France Presse (Port-au-Prince 7 October 1994)
, Haitian Senate Approves an Amnesty Bill National Public Radio (7 October
1994)
, Haitian Senate Passes Amnesty Law for Military Agence France Presse (Port-
au-Prince 7 October 1994)
, HRCC Member on Release of 413 Prisoners BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (25 July 1994)
, Judge Orders arrest of Former Secret Police Leaders Chile Information Project
(25 November 1994) <http://ssdc.ucsd.edu/news/chip/h94/chip.19941125.
html#a0> accessed 29 August 2006
, Lebanese Court delays Verdict on Slaying United Press International (Sidon
10 May 1994)
, Mexico Sets Up Commission to Work on Rebel Amnesty United Press
International (Mexico City 24 January 1994)
, National Assembly Raties Lusaka Protocol, Approves Amnesty Law BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts (14 November 1994)
, No Amnesty Latin America Regional Reports (Panama 28 July 1994) 4
, Opposition Calls Amnesty Law Publicity-Orientated BBC Summary of
World Broadcasts (19 December 1994)
, Parliament Amnesties Presidents Attackers Agence France Presse (Lom
16 December 1994)
, Philippine Senate Approves Amnesty Proclamations Xinhua News Agency
(Manila 31 May 1994)
, Piotrowski Paroled Polish News Bulletin (2 November 1994)
, Piotrowski Sentenced Again PAP News Wire (2 September 1994)
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, President Banda Decrees General Amnesty: Correction and Amplication
BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (Blantyre 5 January 1994)
, President issues Amnesty Law and sets up Amnesty Commission for
Chiapas Rebels BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (26 January 1994)
, Ramos Grants Blanket Amnesty to all Rebel Groups United Press
International (Manila 25 March 1994)
, Rules for Amnesty Program Oked in Philippines Xinhua News Agency
(Manila 30 August 1994)
, Russian Court Acquits Last 1991 Coup Defendant; Former General Assails
Gorbachev Facts on File, Inc. (18 August 1994) 587
, Russias Supreme Court closes the Case of the 1991 Coup Plotters Associated
Press (Moscow 10 May 1994)
, SCSE Court Case Abandoned for Good BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
(12 May 1994)
, SCSE Trial Halted Following Amnesty Ruling BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (3 March 1994)
, Supreme Court Amnesties Case on 78 Disappeared Chile Information
Project (28 December 1994) <http://ssdc.ucsd.edu/news/chip/h94/chip.
19941228.html#a1> accessed 28 August 2006
, Supreme Court, Snubbing Amnesty, Rules to Resume August Coup Trial
Agence France Presse (Moscow 11 March 1994)
, Trial of 1991 Plotters Go Ahead despite State Duma Resolution BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts (28 February 1994)
, US Ambassador Assassins get Life United Press International (Beirut 6 May
1994)
, US Ambassador Killer gets 4-years United Press International (Beirut 21 July
1994)
, Amnesty International: Syria Frees Hundreds of Prisoners Associated Press
(Nicosia 29 November 1995)
, Assembly Raties General Amnesty Law BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
(20 December 1995)
, Cimoszewicz orders Review of Court Verdict on Popieluszko PAP News
Wire (Warsaw 9 February 1995)
, Civil Court Dismisses Suit against Former Junta Leader Associated Press
(Bangkok 26 May 1995)
, CJ asks to Reopen Kuklinski Case Polish News Bulletin (31 March
1995)
, Court Drops Proceedings against Three Generals PAP News Wire (Piotrkow
Trybunalski 29 December 1995)
, Court rules that Amnesty Law applies to a case of Ofcers Accused of
Murder BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (23 October 1995)
, Demands for Further Trials follow Geagea Conviction The Irish Times
(26 June 1995) 8
, Father Popieluszko Cleared Polish News Bulletin (16 March 1995)
, Human RightsChile: Child Disappearance Case Causes Confusion Inter
Press Service (Santiago 8 December 1995)
, Iraq Announces Amnesty for Army Deserters, Criminals Agence France
Presse (Nicosia 22 July 1995)
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, Iraq Grants Political Crime Amnesty United Press International (Beirut
31 July 1995)
, Iraqs Hussein Issues Amnesty in Apparent Bid to Lift Sanctions Associated
Press (Nicosia 23 July 1995) 48
, Kim Plans Sweeping Amnesty to Shore Up Popularity Associated Press
(Seoul 2 August 1995)
, Krajina Serbs; Croatian Presidential Amnesty for 47 Serbs Suspected of
Armed Rebellion BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (17 May 1995)
, Muslim Brotherhood Prisoners Reportedly Released BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (18 December 1995)
, National Assembly Extends Repentance Law by Four Months BBC
Worldwide Monitoring (2 March 1995)
, Opposition accuses Russia of Blocking Settlement in Dnestr Region BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts (9 August 1995)
, Peru to pay Families of Army Killing United Press International (Lima
26 October 1995)
, Peruvian Congress Grants Amnesty to Soldiers Associated Press (Lima
14 June 1995)
, Peruvian Court Overturns Amnesty Ruling United Press International (Lima
14 July 1995)
, Peruvian Judge supports Amnesty Ruling United Press International (Lima
27 July 1995)
, Popieluszko Murderer Sentenced for Torturing Oppositionist PAP News
Wire (Lublin 21 April 1995)
, Salvadoran Court Rejects French Request United Press International (San
Salvador 29 April 1995)
, Syria Frees 1,000 Political Prisoners: Amnesty International Agence France
Presse (Nicosia 29 November 1995)
, Syrian Amnesty Covers Jailed Merchants United Press International
(Damascus 17 December 1995)
, Thai Crackdown Victims Families Sue Generals Japan Economic Newswire
(Bangkok 6 February 1995)
, Thailands Victims of Suppression Call for Compensation Japan Economic
Newswire (1 February 1995)
, Tiraspol Reluctant to Announce Political Amnesty BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (1 August 1995)
, Togo: Seven released under amnesty BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
(9 January 1995)
, UN Members question Peruvian Amnesty United Press International (Lima
18 August 1995)
, Amnesty Law passed in Angola Xinhua News Agency (Luanda 8 May
1996)
, Burundi; Justice Minister Orders New Arrest Warrants for Released Coup
Suspects BBC Summary of World Broadcasts (17 March 1996)
, Burundi; Major coup suspects freed BBC Summary of World Broadcasts
(10 March 1996)
, Captured Rebel becomes Governments Star Prisoner Cerigua Weekly Briefs
(9 May 1996)
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, Chilean Court Rejects Army Appeal United Press International (Santiago
31 October 1996)
, Court Case Halts Panel from Granting Amnesty Associated Press (Cape
Town 26 April 1996)
, Court postpones verdict in French attache Murder Trial Agence France Presse
(Beirut 4 April 1996)
, El Salvador Drops Charges vs. Rebels United Press International (San
Salvador 16 May 1996)
, French Diplomat Murder Trial Ends in Lebanon Agence France Presse (Beirut
24 October 1996)
, Lebanon Rejects US Statement on Court Verdict Xinhua News Agency (Beirut
19 March 1996)
, Military Court Dismisses 1973 Case of Missing Peasants BBC Summary of
World Broadcasts (22 July 1996)
, National Assembly Approves Amnesty Law BBC Summary of World
Broadcasts (9 May 1996)
, Panamas Bad Old Times Return: Why is the US silent about pardoning of
governmental thugs? Los Angeles Times (20 May 1996) 4
, Peru backs Proposed Pardon for General United Press International (Lima
4 December 1996)
, President Address Nation on Security Issues, Offers Amnesty BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts (4 June 1996)
, Prisoners Amnestied by President to Leave Prison on 31st BBC Summary of
World Broadcasts (1 January 1996)
, Rebel Acquitted in Public Trial Cerigua Weekly Briefs (6 June 1996)
, Sec Council Demands Croatia Ensure Full Rights for Local Serb Population
Federal News Service (26 February 1996)
, Sec Council Expreses Concern at Continued Acts of Harassment & Attacks
Against Croatian Serbs M2 Presswire (23 December 1996)
, Yugoslav Ofcial says no progress made in POW talks with Croatia BBC
Summary of World Broadcasts (28 November 1996)
, 21 Retired Army Ofcers Charged in 1975 Murder of Bangladesh President
Associated Press (Dhaka 16 January 1997)
, 39 Serbs Found Guilty of War Crimes in 1991 War Associated Press (Split
26 May 1997)
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, Croatia Reportedly Reactivating Indictments for Amnestied Serbs BBC
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access to justice:
effective, 171, 263, 268
and universal jurisdiction, 4302
accomplices, 70, 93, 1078, 128, 138, 265, 343
see also subordinates
accountability, 153200, 413
and denitions of amnesty, 3
and international actors, 3245, 341, 344,
346
and international courts, 24851, 406
mechanisms, 63, 3989
and motivations, 38, 44
and national courts, 234
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 388, 396, 402
and responsibility levels, 103
and universal jurisdiction, 315
and victims needs, 365, 370, 374
ad hoc tribunals, 4248
Afghanistan, 32, 50, 94, 133
African Commission on Human and
Peoples Rights, 252, 4248
Albania, 43, 64, 142, 147, 191
Algeria:
amnesty list, 417
case study, 6971
and conditional amnesties, 149
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 78, 11
crimes granted amnesty, 134, 139
and international actors, 340
introduction of amnesty laws, 32
motivations, 49, 53, 667
national courts, 231
allegiance of offenders, 8292
alternative forms of punishment, 2767
amnesty:
see also Introductory Note and detailed
entries
denitions, 37
Amnesty Law Database, 2, 6, 224, 4037
and conditional amnesties, 153, 157,
1823, 197
and crimes granted amnesty, 11819, 121
and international actors, 329
introduction of amnesty laws, 1920, 30
and motivations, 37, 40
and national courts, 223, 246
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 82, 88, 100, 114
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 384
amnesty processes, list, 41621
Angola:
amnesty list, 415
conditional amnesties, 161, 1745, 187
crimes granted amnesty, 129, 1334, 137,
139
and international actors, 325, 331, 338,
342
motivations, 445, 56, 68
personal jurisdiction of amnesty laws, 91
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 3945, 397
restrictions on amnesties, 149
and victims needs, 357
Annan, Ko, 283, 335, 353
application deadlines, 15960
applications, individual, 70, 11011, 131,
208, 252
appropriate punishments, 108, 184, 271,
274, 276
Argentina:
amnesty list, 415
conditional amnesties, 181
and international actors, 350
and international courts, 254, 2656,
2734
introduction of amnesty laws, 31
motivations, 40, 43
Index
Introductory Note
References such as 1789 indicate (not necessarily continuous) discussion of a topic across
a range of pages, whilst 84f6 indicates gure 6 on page 84. Wherever possible in the case of
topics with many references, these have either been divided into sub-topics or the most
signicant discussions of the topic are indicated by page numbers in bold. Because the entire
volume is about amnesties and transitions, and certain other terms occur constantly
throughout the work, the use of these terms as entry points has been minimized. Information
will be found under the corresponding detailed topics.
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 569
Argentina (cont.):
national courts, 205, 243
legality of amnesties under municipal
law, 21112, 21617
legality under international law,
21921, 223, 228
and separation of powers doctrine, 233
and transnational judicial dialogue, 237
personal jurisdiction of amnesty laws,
104
and universal jurisdiction, 2967, 301,
308, 310, 312
assassinations, 79, 214, 224
see also murder
atrocities see crimes under international
law
attractiveness of amnesties to targeted
groups, 379402
AUC (Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia),
86, 177
Austria, 190, 396, 430
Belgium, 300, 401, 430
beneciary groups, 8292
exiles, 84f6, 8991
foreign nationals, 84f6, 912
non-violent political prisoners, 84f6, 88
opponents of the state, 84f6, 878
promoting participation, 379402
methods, 38498
refugees, 8991
state agents, 84f6, 857
terminology, 3801
Benin, 59, 181, 339, 397
blanket amnesties, 2, 6, 114, 408
case study, 356
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 10, 14
crimes granted amnesty, 11920
and individual amnesties, 11011
and international actors, 320, 330, 332,
3345, 345, 349
and international courts, 256, 266, 280,
292
motivations, 61
and national courts, 204, 238
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 3813
and universal jurisdiction, 297, 312
Uruguay, 356
and victims needs, 355, 373
Bosnia-Herzegovina, 8990, 133, 220,
415
Brazil, 174, 325, 415
Bulgaria, 645, 90, 175, 183, 191, 416
Burkina Faso, 266, 416
Burma, 416
Burundi, 1945, 217, 321, 416
Cambodia:
amnesty list, 416
and conditional amnesties, 1956
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 11
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts in
Cambodia (ECCC), 251, 2578
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 75, 106
case studies:
Algeria, 6971
blanket amnesties, 356
Bosnia-Herzegovina, 8990
Chile, 7981
Colombia, 1778
crimes under international law, 1312
El Salvador, 1656
forgetting, 513
gacaca, 1079
Haiti, 3224
international actors, 3224, 3367
international justice, 1079
motivations of international actors, 3224
reconciliation, 513
refugees, 8990
reparations, 1778
reparative amnesties, 356
repeated amnesties, 6971
responsibility levels, 1046
Rwanda, 1079
scope of amnesty, 389
self-amnesty, 7981
Sierra Leone, 3367
South Africa, 1312
Spain, 513
Timor-Leste, 1046
truth commissions, 1312, 1656
truth recovery, 1656
Uganda, 389
UN attitudes, 3367
Uruguay, 356
cash payments, 3903
Central African Republic, 159, 416
Chad, 268, 3967, 416
cherry picking of jurisdictions, 2367
child soldiers:
and conditional amnesties, 157
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 18
and international courts, 288, 290
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 77, 99, 114
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 3867, 393, 401
Chile:
amnesty list, 416
case study, 7981
and conditional amnesties, 165, 176
570 Index
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 570
crimes granted amnesty, 143, 146
and international actors, 332, 347
and international courts
jurisdiction, 2557
and victims rights, 263, 2667, 269,
272, 2745, 278
introduction of amnesty laws, 31
motivations, 47
national courts, 205
legality under international law, 2213,
2256, 22930
legality under municipal law, 215
and peace/reconciliation, 239
and transnational judicial dialogue, 237
and truth recovery, 243
and universal jurisdiction, 2967, 3013,
31213
and victims needs, 358
Chittagong Hill Tracts, 58, 156, 390
claims-making, 710
collaborators, 49, 58, 61, 67, 867, 190, 336,
419
Colombia:
case study, 1778
and conditional amnesties, 160
and international actors, 3478
and international courts, 264, 267, 272,
276
motivations, 49
national courts, 231
personal jurisdiction of amnesty laws, 86
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 391
and victims needs, 365
Comisso de Acolhimento, Verdade e
Reconciliao de Timor-Leste
(CAVR), 1056, 356, 368
common crimes:
and conditional amnesties, 166
crimes granted amnesty, 119, 132, 1369,
143
and international actors, 341
and national courts, 205, 209, 211, 214,
235
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 79
common criminals, 15, 83, 136, 192
communal reconciliation, 5961
community-based justice mechanisms, 25,
406
and conditional amnesties, 1534, 163,
180, 187, 199
and international courts, 248
and motivations, 48
and universal jurisdiction, 315
community sensitisation, 60, 383, 385f20,
3879
community service, 105, 108, 187, 370
compensation:
and conditional amnesties, 155, 1712,
173f11, 1757, 183, 1856, 197
nancial
and conditional amnesties, 172, 176,
187
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 10
and crimes granted amnesty, 146
and international courts, 271, 278
and victims needs, 377
and international actors, 341, 343
and international courts, 264, 274, 277
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 392
and universal jurisdiction, 312
and victims needs, 366
complementarity, 2825, 290, 304
conditional amnesties, 56, 25, 153200, 403
and international actors, 352
and international courts, 251
and motivations, 60
and national courts, 238, 244
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 81, 110
and universal jurisdiction, 314
and victims needs, 355, 368, 373
conditions attached to amnesties, 15492
see also conditional amnesties
disarmament, 155f9, 1569
enforcement, 1927
lustration, 155f9, 18992
reparations, 155f9, 17184
reparative, 197
repentance, 155f9, 1603
restorative justice, 155f9, 1849
surrender, 155f9, 1569
tactical, 154, 197
truth recovery, 155f9, 16370
Congo see Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC)
consolidation of power see power consoli-
dation
constitutionality, 150, 21416, 252, 256
continuous crimes, 205, 230
controversial nature of amnesty laws, 718
Cte dIvoire, 92, 148, 325, 416
courts and amnesties:
international courts, 24792
national courts, 20346
third-state courts, 293316
crimes against individuals not involved in
violent activities, 121f7, 1445
crimes excluded see crimes granted
amnesty
crimes granted amnesty, 11848
crimes against individuals not involved
in violent activities, 121f7, 1445
Index 571
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 571
crimes granted amnesty (cont.):
crimes under international law, 121f7,
122f8, 12335
economic crimes, 121f7, 1458
political crimes, 121f7, 13544
crimes under international law:
and granting of amnesty, 120, 121f7,
122f8, 12335
and international actors, 338, 343, 350
and international courts, 2489, 2578,
261, 276
and national courts, 203, 208f14, 246
and universal jurisdiction, 301, 304, 312
criminal responsibility, 180, 189, 2835
cultural traditions, as motivation, 41f5, 634
customary international law, 25
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 9
and crimes granted amnesty, 118, 123,
126, 129
and international actors, 321, 327, 333
and international courts, 259, 287
and national courts, 218, 2301, 245
and restrictions on amnesties, 150
and universal jurisdiction, 294,
299302
DDR see disarmament, demobilisation and
reintegration programmes
degrading treatment, 125, 127, 296
demobilisation:
and conditional amnesties, 156
and international actors, 341, 351
motivations, 58, 60
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 85, 379, 3814, 389
democracy, establishment of, 579
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), 5
amnesty list, 416
and conditional amnesties, 1945
crimes granted amnesty, 133
and international actors, 346, 3501
and motivations, 58
and universal jurisdiction, 300
deterrence, 17, 96, 98, 182, 288
dignity, 16, 57, 172, 180, 216, 3757
diplomatic pressure/support, 319, 328,
329f16, 330, 33140
dirty wars, 127, 165, 181, 297, 302, 308
disappearances, 409, 411
and conditional amnesties, 166, 180
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 8, 11, 14
crimes granted amnesty, 123, 1289, 131
and international courts, 264, 269, 271,
274, 2768, 296
and introduction of amnesty laws, 356
and motivations, 51, 66
and national courts, 21213, 215, 2212,
22830, 230, 234, 243
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 7980
and repeated/rolling amnesties, 71
and universal jurisdiction, 305, 310
and victims needs, 358
disarmament, 406, 411
as condition attached to amnesties, 1534,
155f9, 1569, 177, 1923
and international actors, 336, 341, 351
and motivations, 38, 47, 60, 73
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 85, 99
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 379, 3814, 386, 38890,
396, 402
disarmament, demobilisation and reinte-
gration programmes, 134, 3813
disclosure:
see also truth recovery
full, 131, 134, 370
public, 164, 179
discretion see executive discretion
displaced persons, 89, 1823, 366, 382, 402
see also refugees
Djibouti, 416
domestic law and universal jurisdiction,
3024
domestic pressure as motivation, 416
domestic remedies and international courts,
424
Dominica, 420
Dominican Republic, 416
double jeopardy, see non bis in idem
draft-dodging, 19, 31, 71, 878, 90, 117, 212
DRC see Democratic Republic of Congo
(DRC)
drug trafcking, 79, 120, 147, 166, 177, 352
due process, 170, 181, 408
duress, 18, 76, 923, 968, 102, 11415,
277
Duvalier regime, 322, 345
early release scheme, Northern Ireland,
1578
ECCC see Extraordinary Chambers in the
Courts in Cambodia (ECCC)
economic crimes, 52, 97, 11821, 121f7,
1458, 236
economic pressure, 323, 329f16, 331, 3402
Ecuador, 149, 191, 416
education, 176, 179, 366, 3934, 401
effective access to justice, 171, 263, 268
effective investigation, 263, 268, 273, 275,
277
effective remedies, 2634, 273, 343
Egypt, 416
572 Index
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 572
El Salvador:
amnesty list, 41617
case study, 1656
conditional amnesties, 182, 191
crimes granted amnesty, 133, 139, 146
and international actors, 321, 324, 328,
339, 341, 3469
and international courts, 2534, 2668,
273, 275
motivations, 53, 62, 65
national courts, 21415, 224, 227, 233, 237,
239
personal jurisdiction of amnesty laws, 81
restrictions on amnesties, 149
elders, 1856
elections:
and conditional amnesties, 159, 177
and international actors, 322, 336
and introduction of amnesty laws, 35
and motivations, 68
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 7980, 86, 106
and repeated/rolling amnesties, 69
embezzlement, 79, 146
empirical evidence/research, 356, 378,
4034
employment, 58, 1746, 179, 189, 374, 3845
employment programmes as method of
promoting amnesty participation,
385f20, 3934
enforcement, 237, 2456, 269, 272
of conditions, 1927
equal protection, 778, 217
equality, 7682, 81, 150, 21617, 239, 253,
266, 405
Equatorial Guinea, 417
equivalency myth, 7682
Eritrea, 162
espionage, 136, 406
establishment of democracy and reconcilia-
tion, 579
Ethiopia, 162, 417
European Court of Human Rights, 1645,
264, 268, 2723, 4248
evidence leaders, 3712
exceptional circumstances, 2389, 245, 287
excluded crimes see crimes granted
amnesty
executions, 51, 125, 138, 140, 179, 221, 271,
358, 409
executive discretion, 29f4, 302
and universal jurisdiction, 294, 304,
3089, 4302
exiles:
as beneciary group, 84f6, 8991
and conditional amnesties, 182, 194
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 11
and crimes granted amnesty, 131, 148
and international actors, 323, 3334, 345
and motivations, 47, 59, 62, 64
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 76, 79, 82, 86, 95
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 380
return, 173f11
and trends in introduction of amnesty
laws, 20
and universal jurisdiction, 314
expertise, 191, 198
explanations of approach by national
courts, 20944
legality under international law, 21831
legality under municipal law, 20917
peace and reconciliation, 23941
separation of powers doctrine, 2326
transnational judicial dialogue, 2368
extension of amnesties, 1601
extortion, 119, 1456, 166
extradition, 91
and crimes granted amnesty, 118, 124,
1278, 1357, 1402, 144
and international actors, 343, 353
and international courts, 270
and national courts, 223
and restrictions on amnesties, 150
and universal jurisdiction, 2956,
298301, 310
extrajudicial executions, 8, 221, 257, 271,
275, 278
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts in
Cambodia (ECCC), 251, 2578
fair trial, 113, 190, 2646, 286
fairness, 170, 181, 253, 409
false innocents, 18
families, 1
and conditional amnesties, 154, 163, 165,
172, 176, 180, 189, 198
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 11, 15
and crimes granted amnesty, 147
and international courts, 264, 2701, 275,
278, 425
and introduction of amnesty laws, 356
and motivations, 47
and national courts, 204, 216, 228,
2423
needs, 355, 35960, 363, 3669, 371
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 80, 96, 98
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 381, 3856, 388,
399400
and repeated/rolling amnesties, 71
and universal jurisdiction, 309
Index 573
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 573
female combatants, 98, 157
Fiji, 43, 139, 158, 417
nancial assistance/benets/support:
and conditional amnesties, 172
and international actors, 322, 325, 328,
341
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 379, 383, 386, 3902,
395
and victims needs, 374
nancial compensation see compensation
nancial incentives, 157, 172, 384, 385f20,
3903, 401
nancial rewards, 157, 159, 3401, 3902
forced disappearances see disappearances
foreign nationals, 76, 79, 82, 84f6, 912, 217,
321
forgetting:
case study, 513
reconciliation as, 504
forgiveness, 399, 411
and conditional amnesties, 167, 169, 181,
185
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 1617
and crimes granted amnesty, 1323
and international courts, 278, 2889
and introduction of amnesty laws, 29
and motivations, 37, 41, 48, 547, 60, 62
reconciliation as, 547
and restrictions on amnesties, 150
and victims needs, 355, 359, 364, 3678,
3701, 376, 378
former combatants, 412
and conditional amnesties, 157, 168, 172,
183, 185, 188, 197
and crimes granted amnesty, 144
and international actors, 336, 341
and international courts, 268
and motivations, 46, 48
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 79, 98
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 381, 3834, 38695,
398401
and victims needs, 373
Former Yugoslavia, 89, 130, 249, 332, 335,
418
see also International Criminal Tribunal
for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
and international courts, 4248
forum states, 294, 300, 3045, 30810, 314,
316
France, 5
amnesty list, 417
and conditional amnesties, 190
crimes granted amnesty, 130, 139, 142,
1478
and international actors, 325, 340, 345
and introduction of amnesty laws, 32
and motivations, 43, 49, 53, 67
national courts, 231
personal jurisdiction of amnesty laws,
867, 94, 97, 112
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 390
and universal jurisdiction, 297, 310, 431
Frente Farabundo Mart para la Liberacin
Nacional, 166, 214
friendly settlement, 252, 278
Fujimori, Alberto, 211, 228, 345
full disclosure, 131, 134, 370
FYR Macedonia, 133, 332, 340, 418
Gabon, 325
gacaca, 1079
Galtieri, Leopoldo Fortunato, 296
GAM insurgent group, 175, 368, 389
Gambia, 417, 424
Garzn effect, 313
general amnesties, 4, 42, 66, 85, 148, 179,
336
genocide, 405, 409
and conditional amnesties, 162, 187, 194
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 8
crimes granted amnesty, 123, 1267, 130,
1336
and international actors, 335, 338, 340,
3434
and international courts, 257, 426
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 89, 100, 105, 107, 109
and restrictions on amnesties, 150
and universal jurisdiction, 294, 296,
2989, 3057, 430, 432
Georgia, 417
Germany, 16, 49, 102, 190, 333, 417
and universal jurisdiction, 299, 432
Ghana, 417
good faith, 412
and conditional amnesties, 193, 196, 199
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 18
and international actors, 352
and international courts, 267, 294
and introduction of amnesty laws, 26
and motivations, 45, 59
and national courts, 229
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 78
and universal jurisdiction, 308, 316
government type, 22t1, 23f3
Greece, 34, 47, 61, 142, 417
gross violations of international human
rights law, 1634, 171, 1745, 182
574 Index
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 574
guarantees of non-repetition see
non-repetition guarantees
Guatemala:
amnesty list, 417
and conditional amnesties, 167
crimes granted amnesty, 137
and international actors, 320, 324, 347
and international courts, 252, 272, 278
and motivations, 56, 66, 68
national courts, 235
and universal jurisdiction, 3048
and victims needs, 356, 366
guilt, 15, 71, 11112, 1601, 364
Guinea, 417
Guinea-Bissau, 417
Haiti:
amnesty list, 417
case study, 3224
and conditional amnesties, 191
and international actors, 3214, 326,
3334, 342, 3501
and motivations, 58, 61
harmony, 39, 50, 55, 184, 404
hierarchy of needs, 3606
high-ranking ofcials/offenders, 100,
1023, 109, 113, 2734, 291, 307
see also responsibility levels
homogeneity of groups, 113, 359, 365, 380
Honduras, 211, 214, 263, 2679, 271, 277, 417
honour, 212, 215, 226, 278, 351
hostages, 125, 158, 259
Hukbalahap, 419
human rights:
law see international human rights law
organisations
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 89, 14
and crimes granted amnesty, 132
and international actors, 328, 339, 347
and introduction of amnesty laws, 21
and universal jurisdiction, 315
treaty-monitoring bodies, 77, 203, 260,
273, 319, 349, 405
humanitarian law see international
humanitarian law
Hungary, 417
Hutus, 107
hybrid courts/tribunals, 247, 249, 2578,
261, 291, 405, 407
see also Extraordinary Chambers in the
Courts in Cambodia (ECCC); Special
Court of Sierra Leone (SCSL)
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 8
and international actors, 345
and national courts, 203
rules, 4248
ICC see International Criminal Court (ICC)
ICTR see International Criminal Tribunal
for Rwanda (ICTR)
ICTY see International Criminal Tribunal
for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
ideology, 17, 88, 913, 95, 118, 139, 210, 320
impartiality, 408
and conditional amnesties, 181
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 14
and crimes granted amnesty, 168
international courts, 265, 269, 273
national courts, 206, 235, 246
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 78
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 396
and universal jurisdiction, 299, 302
in absentia prosecutions and universal
jurisdiction, 30910, 4302
incentives, 15, 134, 160, 195, 197, 244, 388,
398
India, 130, 391, 417
individual amnesties and blanket
amnesties, 11011
individual applications, 70, 11011, 131,
208, 252
Indonesia:
amnesty list, 418, 420
conditional amnesties, 168, 175
and motivations, 42
personal jurisdiction of amnesty laws,
104, 106
restrictions on amnesties, 150
inequality, 76, 78, 81, 113, 216, 279
infrastructure, 14, 176, 179
legal, 14, 110, 113, 194
innocence, 6, 645, 76, 142, 180, 204, 220, 363
proving, 11113
instability, 195, 198
institutional reform, 408, 411
and conditional amnesties, 153, 155, 191
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 14, 16, 18
and international actors, 323
and international courts, 290
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 382
integration, 58, 104, 179, 385, 400
into armed forces, as method of promot-
ing amnesty participation, 385f20,
3946
intelligence services, 67, 79, 85, 177, 211
Inter-American Commission on Human
Rights, 2527, 2601, 263, 2659, 271,
2736, 278
and conditional amnesties, 164, 178
and international actors, 324, 3478
Index 575
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 575
Inter-American Commission on Human
Rights (cont.):
and introduction of amnesty laws, 31
and motivations, 64
and national courts, 215
rules, 4248
and universal jurisdiction, 296
Inter-American Court of Human Rights,
252, 2545, 257, 261, 26773, 2778
and national courts, 211, 221, 228, 230,
234, 238
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 81
rules, 4248
and universal jurisdiction, 298
interests of justice, 28691, 314
intergovernmental organisations, 23, 321,
407
internal conicts, 5, 407
and conditional amnesties, 156
and crimes granted amnesty, 1256, 135
and international actors, 327
and international courts, 260
and introduction of amnesty laws, 234,
29, 32
as motivation for amnesties, 37, 41, 41f5,
61
and universal jurisdiction, 295
international actors, 403, 406, 408, 412
approach to amnesty, 31953
attitudes towards amnesties, 32751
nation states, 330f17, 331f18
regional organisations, 330f17, 331f18
supranational institutions, 330f17,
331f18
treaty monitoring bodies, 330f17,
331f18
case studies, 3224, 3367
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 10
and crimes granted amnesty, 129
diplomatic pressure, 329f16, 33140
economic pressure, 329f16, 3402
and Haiti, 3224
and introduction of amnesty laws, 246
legal obligations, 31953
legal pressure, 329f16, 34250
military pressure, 329f16, 3501
and motivations, 612
motivations, 3217
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 110
self-interest, 31953
international amnesties, 60
international arrest warrants, 297, 300, 307,
310
International Committee of the Red Cross,
1256, 227
international community see international
actors
international conicts, 5, 20, 61, 124, 150,
225, 227, 260, 295
international consensus, 238, 31516, 412
International Court of Justice, 130
international courts, 24792, 4248
see also Extraordinary Chambers in the
Courts in Cambodia (ECCC); Special
Court of Sierra Leone (SCSL)
and accountability, 24851
ad hoc tribunals, 4248
constituent instruments, 424
and domestic legal systems, 424
and domestic remedies, 424
hybrid tribunals, 4248
impact on national amnesties, 2612
initiation of proceedings, 4245
International Criminal Court, 27991
jurisdiction, 25361, 4268
location, 424
and multilateral treaties, 424
quasi-judicial bodies, 4248
regional, 4248
and standing, 2523
status of rulings, 426
and victims rights, 26279
international crimes see crimes under
international law
International Criminal Court (ICC), 2,
2479, 251, 256, 274, 277, 27991,
4079
complementarity, 2825
and conditional amnesties, 169, 171, 178,
186
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 7, 1112
and crimes granted amnesty, 126, 129
and international actors, 335, 345
and introduction of amnesty laws, 33
and motivations, 389
and national courts, 206
non bis in idem, 2856
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 102
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 385, 387
prosecutorial discretion, 28691
rules, 4248
Security Council deferral, 282
and universal jurisdiction, 295, 299300,
304, 316
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
(ICTR), 107, 133, 247, 250, 4248
International Criminal Tribunal for the
Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), 24950,
260, 4248
and conditional amnesties, 171
576 Index
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 576
and crimes granted amnesty, 130, 133
and international actors, 332, 344
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 8990
rules, 4248
international human rights law, 22531
and conditional amnesties, 164, 171,
1745, 180, 182
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 78, 18
and crimes granted amnesty, 123
and international actors, 326, 343, 352
and international courts, 248, 252, 265,
268, 271
and introduction of amnesty laws, 245
and national courts, 203, 218, 220, 222,
22531, 246
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 778, 113
and victims needs, 355
international humanitarian law, 22531, 410
and conditional amnesties, 1634, 171,
1745, 182
and crimes granted amnesty, 1234, 144
and international actors, 325, 335, 3434
and international courts, 24950, 257, 263
and national courts, 203, 222, 22531, 245
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 77, 89
international justice case study, 1079
international law:
and amnesties, 710
customary see customary international
law
within domestic legal systems, 21824
and national courts, 21831
international legitimacy, 114, 315, 326
international mediators, 61, 259
international pressure see diplomatic
pressure/support; economic
pressure; military pressure
interpretation, 10, 48, 21819, 231, 241, 277
intimidation, 35, 104, 263, 387, 409
introduction of amnesty laws, 2936
executive discretion, 29f4, 312
negotiated peace agreements, 29f4,
323
public consultations, 29f4, 346
referenda, 29f4, 346
statutes, 29f4, 334
investigations, 316, 319, 346, 3489, 355, 403,
413, 424, 4278, 4302
Iran, 418
Iraq, 62, 191, 268, 418
Islamic League for Preaching and Holy
War, 70
Islamic Salvation Army, 70
Islamic Salvation Front, 69
Israel, 667, 75, 21314, 23940, 418
Italy, 49, 95, 104, 139, 223, 310, 312, 418
Japan, 49, 345, 418
jobs, 58, 64, 978, 1745, 189, 382
see also employment
Jordan, 418
journalists, 37, 278, 358, 365, 3678, 386, 389
Jreda prison, 297
judicial review, 203, 2089
national courts, 209f15
jurisdiction:
international courts, 25361, 4268
third states, 294311
universal see universal jurisdiction
jus cogens, 260, 297, 301, 306
justice, interests of, 33, 284, 28691, 314, 409
Kenya, 187, 386, 418
kidnapping, 134, 145, 166, 211, 230, 269, 339
Korea, 418
Kosovo, 133, 383, 418, 421
Kyrgyzstan, 67, 418
land, 182, 362, 391, 394
language:
and conditional amnesties, 171
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 8
and crimes granted amnesty, 137, 144
and international courts, 272
and motivations, 46, 50, 59
and national courts, 244
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 386, 389, 401
and universal jurisdiction, 3045
Laos, 418
leaders see responsibility levels
Lebanon, 161, 418
legal infrastructure, 14, 110, 113, 194
legal obligations, international actors,
31953
legal pressure, 329f16, 34250
legal representation, 3701, 375, 387
legality, 4
and conditional amnesties, 158, 18990
and crimes granted amnesty, 138
and international actors, 339
and international courts, 255, 259, 261
and national courts, 203, 20910, 218, 232,
2412, 2445
and universal jurisdiction, 294, 2967
legitimacy, 409
and conditional amnesties, 161, 198
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 13
and crimes granted amnesty, 117, 143,
1456
Index 577
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 577
legitimacy (cont.):
international, 114, 315, 326
and international actors, 325
and international courts, 2489, 255, 258,
285, 289
and introduction of amnesty laws, 26,
2931, 334, 36
and motivations, 63
and national courts, 205, 215, 232
perceived, 75, 82, 233, 356, 387
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 88, 96
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 379, 392, 3956
and repeated/rolling amnesties, 71
and universal jurisdiction, 311, 316
and victims needs, 373
Lesotho, 418
levels of responsibility see responsibility
levels
Liberia, 5, 168, 336, 338, 397, 418
limited amnesties, 69, 76, 89, 133, 166, 194,
196, 383
limited resources, 157, 169, 251, 268, 275,
308, 31516
linguistic difculties, 23, 204, 245
literacy levels, 386, 401
local communities, 151, 156, 388
location, 107, 148, 157, 305, 424
lower courts, 203, 206, 215, 225, 242, 244,
307
lower-level offenders, 406
and conditional amnesties, 177
and crimes granted amnesty, 132
and international courts, 251, 266, 274,
285, 291
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 101, 1089, 114
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 400
and universal jurisdiction, 301, 313
lustration:
as condition attached to amnesties, 1546,
181, 18992, 198
and international actors, 341
and international courts, 251, 276
and introduction of amnesty laws, 25, 33
and motivations, 58
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 3956
and victims needs, 377
Madagascar, 418
Malawi, 42, 66, 418
Maslows hierarchy of needs, 3606
mass violence, 2, 12, 14, 24, 72, 107, 127,
3456
material scope, 11752
mato oput ceremonies, 1856
Mauritania, 297, 301, 310, 418
mediation, 185, 189, 319, 325, 333, 338
mediators, international, 61, 259, 315, 339
memorialisation, 35, 54, 132, 166, 181, 278,
341
mercenaries, 91, 401
Mexico, 148, 298, 303, 418
military advisers, 214, 224
military coups, 22, 68, 72, 83, 191, 322, 333
military courts, 80, 138, 207, 21112, 235,
244
military governments/juntas/regimes:
and conditional amnesties, 165
and international actors, 323, 3323, 342,
351
and international courts, 253, 255
and introduction of amnesty laws, 31,
345
and motivations, 47
and national courts, 221, 229, 2412
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 7980
military leaders, 35, 103, 24950, 333
military personnel, 1
and conditional amnesties, 174, 181, 191
and crimes granted amnesty, 136
and international actors, 322, 335
and international courts, 260
and motivations, 43, 61, 67
and national courts, 211, 214, 224, 235
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 80, 103
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 388
and repeated/rolling amnesties, 70
and universal jurisdiction, 312
military pressure, 11, 69, 329f16, 3501
military training, 297, 320, 395
minority groups, 34, 62, 256, 397
mitigated punishments, 92, 100, 109, 196
Moldova, 418
monetary compensation/reparations,
1756, 183, 277, 279, 372, 407
Montenegro, 87, 212
morality, 934, 235
Morocco, 418
motivations, 3768
cultural traditions, 41f5, 634
domestic pressure, 416
internal unrest, 41f5
international actors, 3217
international pressure, 41f5, 613
pacication of serious unrest, 423
peace, 41f5, 467
power consolidation, 412
reconciliation, 41f5, 4661
religious traditions, 41f5, 634
578 Index
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 578
reparations, 41f5, 646
self-amnesty, 41f5, 668
shielding of state agents, 668
violent conict, 446
Mozambique, 18, 99, 184, 187, 288, 325, 357,
389, 418
murder, 12, 4, 36
and conditional amnesties, 166
crimes granted amnesty, 11921, 125,
1423, 1456
and international courts, 255, 264, 269,
285
and national courts, 215, 217, 226, 228,
230
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 1045, 107
and restrictions on amnesties, 149
mutual amnesties, 47, 76, 7980, 835, 87
Nagaland, 417
national courts:
explanations of approach, 20944
international law within domestic legal
systems, 21824
legality of amnesties under international
law, 21831
legality of amnesties under municipal
law, 20917
and peace, 23941
and reconciliation, 23941
and separation of powers doctrine, 2326
and transnational judicial dialogue,
2368
trends in amnesty rulings, 2049
and truth recovery, 2414
national holidays, 64
national reconciliation, 20, 53, 5660, 106,
166, 284
national unity, 42, 4950, 58, 66, 79, 130, 240,
397, 404
nationality, 124, 2935, 365
Nazi regime, 87, 94, 190, 223, 333, 396, 401
negotiated peace agreements/settlements,
29f4, 323
and conditional amnesties, 177
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 7, 13
and international courts, 252, 266
and introduction of amnesty laws, 2930,
323
and motivations, 40, 61
and national courts, 239
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 379
and victims needs, 362
Nepal, 45, 157, 391, 418
New Caledonia, 43
newspapers, 23, 47, 131, 159, 298, 3856
nexus requirement, 130, 294, 304, 30910,
4302
Nicaragua, 62, 85, 130, 419
Niger, 419
Nigeria, 325, 338, 345, 419
non bis in idem, 2856
non-monetary reparations, 279, 407, 410
non-reparative amnesties, 155
non-repetition, 163, 1723, 17982
see also repetition of crimes
non-repetition guarantees, 163, 1723,
173f11, 17981
non-state actors, 405, 410
and conditional amnesties, 177, 180
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 8, 13
and crimes granted amnesty, 119, 147
and international actors, 343
and international courts, 247, 252, 270,
4258
and introduction of amnesty laws, 24, 33
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 769, 82, 86
and repeated/rolling amnesties, 69
and universal jurisdiction, 299300
and victims needs, 359
non-violent individuals, 67, 19, 65, 845,
88, 330
non-violent political prisoners, as bene-
ciary group, 84f6, 88
North Yemen, 419
Northern Ireland, 1, 410
amnesty list, 419
and conditional amnesties, 1578, 161,
165, 176
and crimes granted amnesty, 136
and introduction of amnesty laws, 31
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 79, 94
and victims needs, 355, 375
Northern Uganda:
and conditional amnesties, 1856
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 11
and international actors, 332, 341, 353
and international courts, 280, 28890
and motivations, 39, 55
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 385, 393
and victims needs, 366, 368
OHCHR see UN, Ofce of the Human
Rights Commissioner (OHCHR)
opinio juris, 910, 2445, 299300
opponents of the state, as beneciary
group, 84f6, 878
Organisation of American States (OAS),
261, 319, 3334, 347, 4278
Index 579
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 579
organised crime, 380, 383, 392, 401
outreach programmes, 373, 385
overturning of amnesties, 203, 2058, 228,
238, 244, 246, 262
ownership, new patterns, 175, 1823, 394
pacication of serious unrest, as motiva-
tion, 423
Pakistan, 91, 130, 419
Panama, 313, 419
Papua New Guinea, 187, 213, 419
paramilitaries, 79, 86, 158, 1778, 352, 365,
395
pardons, 4, 6
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 8
and international courts, 279, 345
and introduction of amnesty laws, 31
and motivations, 53
and national courts, 205, 214, 240
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 75, 85, 90, 104
passive personality principle, 293, 30810
past events, dealing with, 1316
paucity of data, 30, 84, 121, 358
payments, cash, 3903
peace:
see also negotiated peace agreements/set-
tlements
as motivation, 41f5, 467
and national courts, 23941
peace agreements/settlements see
negotiated peace agreements/settle-
ments
peacekeepers, 319, 328, 3501
perceived legitimacy, 75, 82, 233, 356, 387
see also legitimacy
perceptions, 3, 15, 94, 131, 288, 313, 363, 387
permanent amnesties, 154, 196, 199
personal gain/enrichment, 35, 87, 934,
978, 141, 1435, 147
personal jurisdiction of amnesty laws,
75115
Peru, 1
amnesty list, 419
conditional amnesties, 176
crimes granted amnesty, 138
and international actors, 3489
and international courts, 255, 2635,
2679, 271, 275, 2778
motivations, 64
national courts, 211, 221, 2278
and universal jurisdiction, 298
Philippines, 31, 4950, 867, 386, 419
Pinochet regime, 7980, 142, 146, 177, 205,
3001, 308, 31113
piracy, 299300
Poland, 64, 333, 340, 355, 419
political amnesties, 52, 54, 78, 136, 232, 348
political beliefs, 32, 88, 90, 161
political crimes, 2, 406
and conditional amnesties, 166, 177, 182
crimes granted amnesty, 11821, 121f7,
1312, 13545
and international actors, 3223, 339
and international courts, 288
and introduction of amnesty laws, 19, 23
and motivations, 52, 62, 65
and national courts, 2045, 21011, 214,
246
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 89, 956
and restrictions on amnesties, 150
political instability, 104, 145, 232, 251, 275
political institutions, 195, 411, 413
political offences see political crimes
political rights, 21, 64, 11213, 171, 174, 178,
189, 263, 396, 406
political transitions see transitional justice
mechanisms
Portugal, 325, 419
poverty, 252, 379, 390, 392
power consolidation, as motivation, 412
power-sharing governments/institutions,
107, 3845, 3968, 401
pragmatic peacemaking, 1213
prejudice, 94, 99, 162, 213, 223, 323
primacy, 210, 2201, 297, 424
prioritisation of needs, and victims views,
35578
prisoner releases, 7, 158, 162, 205
propaganda, 50, 85, 935, 98, 100, 117, 162
proportionality, 117, 1402, 144, 395
prosecution:
duty to prosecute, 14850
threat of, 17, 39, 195, 270, 282
prosecutions in absentia see in absentia
prosecutions and universal jurisdic-
tion
prosecutorial policy/strategy, 24950, 256,
287, 290, 344
protected persons, 1245, 224, 257, 269
pseudo-amnesties, 6
psychological support, 3712, 377
psychological trauma, 18, 57
public apologies, 105, 155, 162, 180, 278
public consultations, 346
public disclosure, 164, 179
see also truth recovery
public hearings, 1, 5, 78, 169, 374
public identication, 187, 377
public works schemes, 388, 393
publicity, 3857
quasi-judicial bodies, 247, 253, 2612,
4248
580 Index
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 580
rank, 1009
rape, 70, 79, 1045, 108, 134, 140, 145
reasons for commission of crimes, as
justication for amnesties, 928
reasons for introduction of amnesties see
motivations
reassurances, 159, 382, 385
recidivism, 34, 161, 402
see also non-repetition guarantees
reconciliation, 2, 45, 404, 406, 41012
case study, 513
and conditional amnesties, 162, 1659,
1845, 1878, 196
contribution of amnesties, 5961
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 1418
and crimes granted amnesty, 1256, 132,
1423
denitions, 489
and establishment of democracy, 579
as forgetting, 504
as forgiveness, 547
and international actors, 3223, 3267,
334, 3378, 342, 3467
and international courts, 248, 281, 287,
292
and introduction of amnesty laws, 26, 29,
33, 36
as motivation, 37, 39, 41f5, 4661, 66
national, 20, 53, 567, 5960, 106, 166, 284
and national courts, 209, 2345, 23941,
245
as national unity, 4950
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 7980, 86, 98, 105, 10911, 113,
115
processes, 55, 186, 188, 288, 356
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 37980, 382, 384,
38990, 393, 398, 4012
and universal jurisdiction, 294
and victims needs, 3567, 360, 3634,
3667, 36973, 376
reconstruction, 12, 15, 58, 145, 23940, 327,
340, 404
reeducation, 96, 160, 162
referenda, 409
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 1112
and international actors, 339
and international courts, 256
and introduction of amnesty laws, 29f4,
30, 346
and motivations, 43, 67
and national courts, 212
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 104
and repeated/rolling amnesties, 701
and universal jurisdiction, 315
refugees, 82, 8991, 133, 136, 1823, 323, 326,
402
regional organisations, attitudes towards
amnesties, 330f17, 331f18
regional trends, 21f2
rehabilitation, 6
and conditional amnesties, 172, 173f11,
179
and crimes granted amnesty, 131
and international actors, 337, 3423
and motivations, 65
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 87, 94, 96, 99
reintegration, 406
and conditional amnesties, 1567, 159,
172, 1745, 1789, 185, 188, 193
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 11
and international actors, 336, 338, 341
and international courts, 253
and motivations, 50, 60
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 94, 96, 99, 105
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 379, 3814, 38794,
398401
and victims needs, 355, 363, 368
religious beliefs, 55, 64, 88, 172, 174
religious holidays, 63
religious traditions, as motivation, 41f5,
634
remedies, effective, 2634, 273, 343
remorse, 5, 55, 60, 160, 162, 197, 389, 400
reparations, 3, 4067, 40911, 413
case study, 1778
as condition attached to amnesties, 155f9,
17184
and conditional amnesties, 1535, 1634,
1878, 190, 1979
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 7, 910, 16
and crimes granted amnesty, 131
and international actors, 3234, 342
and international courts, 249, 255, 2624,
266, 271, 2734, 2779, 282, 2901
and introduction of amnesty laws, 20, 25,
29, 356
monetary, 1756, 183, 277, 279, 372, 407
as motivation, 41f5, 646
and motivations, 39, 54, 64
and national courts, 215, 234, 240, 246
non-monetary, 279, 407, 410
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 80, 94, 101, 105
and repeated/rolling amnesties, 68, 71
symbolic, 35960, 364, 377
and universal jurisdiction, 312
Index 581
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 581
reparations (cont.):
and victims needs, 358, 360, 3723, 3767
reparative amnesties:
case study, 356
conditional, 155, 172, 179
and international actors, 330
introduction, 19, 21, 32
motivations, 41, 65
personal jurisdiction of amnesty laws,
889
Uruguay, 356
reparative conditions, 197
repeated/rolling amnesties, 6871
repentance, 55, 154, 155f9, 1603, 186, 386,
399
repetition of crimes, 408, 412
see also non-repetition
and conditional amnesties, 164, 173, 197
and introduction of amnesty laws, 26
and national courts, 238
and victims needs, 367, 369, 373, 377
Republika Srpska, 90, 346
resentment, 556, 198, 392, 401
resources, limited, 157, 169, 251, 268, 275,
308, 31516
responsibility levels, 1009, 285, 368, 410
restitution, 172, 173f11, 1745, 180, 1823,
186, 197, 277
restorative justice, 402
as condition attached to amnesties, 155f9,
169, 1849, 1978
and conditional amnesties, 1845
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 12, 17
and crimes granted amnesty, 131, 144
and international actors, 350
and international courts, 266, 274, 291
and introduction of amnesty laws, 31
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 99, 109
and victims needs, 359, 372
restrictions on amnesties, 14850
retribution, 489, 55, 106, 132, 190, 368, 406
retributive justice, 2, 107, 109
return of exiles see exiles, return
return of property, 1745
returnees, 89, 1823, 1856, 382, 387, 389
rewards, nancial, 157, 159, 3401, 3902
Rhodesia, 419
right of return, 1824
ripple effect, 294, 31113
rival communities, 107, 115, 154
robbery, 119, 145
rolling amnesties, 6871
Romania, 42, 64, 174, 340, 419
Russia, 63, 112, 148, 41920
Rwanda:
amnesty list, 419
case study, 1079
conditional amnesties, 162, 1878
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 1314, 18
crimes granted amnesty, 133
and international actors, 321, 334
and international courts, 247, 4248
personal jurisdiction of amnesty laws, 96,
1079, 112
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 389
and victims needs, 356
Sarajevo, 89, 220
satisfaction, 173f11, 17981
Saudi Arabia, 45, 385, 419
scapegoats, 18, 387
scope of amnesties, 6
see also conditional amnesties; crimes
granted amnesty; restrictions on
amnesties; personal jurisdiction of
amnesty laws
case study, 389
and international actors, 341
and introduction of amnesty laws, 256
screening, 134, 189, 191, 397
SCSL see Special Court of Sierra Leone
(SCSL)
search for truth see truth recovery
sedition, 52, 1367, 177
selective prosecutions, 4056, 410
and conditional amnesties, 181
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 14
and international courts, 248, 274, 276
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 114
and universal jurisdiction, 31415
selectivity, 325
and universal jurisdiction, 294, 31011
self-actualisation, 361, 364
self-amnesties, 6, 76, 78, 114
case study, 7981
and crimes granted amnesty, 138
and international courts, 255, 269, 272
as motivation, 41, 41f5, 668
and national courts, 238
and universal jurisdiction, 301
self-defence, 76, 92, 111
self-esteem, 361, 364, 393
self-interest, international actors, 31953
self-protection, 978
Senegal, 111, 349, 419
separation of powers doctrine, 207, 209,
2326, 239, 245
sexual abuse, 374, 388
sexual slaves, 99, 381
sexual violence, 93, 121, 145, 260, 359
582 Index
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 582
sham trials, 285, 314
shame, 99, 181, 3634, 374, 400
shielding of perpetrators, 73, 2835
Shin Bet, 66, 21314, 238
Sierra Leone:
amnesty list, 419
case study, 3367
conditional amnesties, 167, 187
crimes granted amnesty, 120
and international actors, 3349, 345
and international courts, 250, 25960,
4248
motivations, 54, 56, 612, 68
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 382, 389, 399400
Special Court see Special Court of Sierra
Leone (SCSL)
and universal jurisdiction, 304
and victims needs, 357
Slovak Republic, 67, 339, 420
social conditions, 360, 401
social mores, 147, 388
social order, 96, 135
social peace, 4, 239
Solomon Islands, 187, 420
Somalia, 187, 322, 389, 420
South Africa, 56
amnesty list, 420
case study, 1312
conditional amnesties, 154, 1589, 161,
165, 16770, 181, 1878, 198
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 1516
crimes granted amnesty, 1302, 13941,
143
and international actors, 321, 3245, 341,
353
and international courts, 26970, 280, 283,
286, 288
introduction of amnesty laws, 22, 34
motivations, 55, 57, 62
national courts, 210, 219, 227, 235, 2378,
240
personal jurisdiction of amnesty laws,
812, 96, 989, 101
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 380, 384, 387,
3989
restrictions on amnesties, 149
truth commission see truth commissions
and victims needs, 3667, 369, 3712,
374, 376
Spain:
case study, 513
conditional amnesties, 158
and international actors, 340
and international courts, 266, 288
motivations, 513
personal jurisdiction of amnesty laws, 78,
80
and universal jurisdiction, 2969, 3023,
3057, 310, 420
Special Court of Sierra Leone (SCSL),
24951, 2578, 261, 405
and conditional amnesties, 1923
and international actors, 328, 337
and motivations, 44, 61
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 3989
rules, 4248
and universal jurisdiction, 3034
Sri Lanka, 136, 156, 420
stakeholder groups views, 319402
state agents, 3, 405
as beneciary group, 84f6, 857
and conditional amnesties, 153, 177
and crimes granted amnesty, 138, 1456
and international actors, 343, 349
and international courts, 252, 264, 273
and introduction of amnesty laws, 35
and motivations, 40, 49
and national courts, 235
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 768, 827, 100, 11314
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 3801, 384, 390, 395
and repeated/rolling amnesties, 71
shielding, 668
and universal jurisdiction, 300
and victims needs, 373
state security, 678, 175, 217
state sovereignty, 2, 259, 3267
Sub-Saharan Africa, 21, 122, 173
see also Rwanda; Sierra Leone; South
Africa; Uganda
subordinates, 1002, 109, 114
subsidiarity, 294, 3048, 314
Sudan, 386, 420
superior orders, 76, 97, 1001, 109, 114
superiors, 97, 1029, 114, 141
see also responsibility levels
surrender, 12, 14, 412
as condition attached to amnesties, 1539,
155f9, 178, 1978
and international actors, 332
and international courts, 280
and introduction of amnesty laws, 33
and motivations, 389, 45, 47, 60
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 91
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 3812, 3856, 3903,
402
and repeated/rolling amnesties,
6970
survivors, 57, 356, 358, 366, 371
Index 583
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 583
symbolic reparations, 35960, 364, 377
Syrian Arab Republic, 420
tactical conditions, 154, 197
Tajikistan, 147
Taliban, 32, 133, 156
Tanzania, 424
targeted groups see beneciary groups
targeted prosecutions, 251, 285, 328
temporary amnesties, 1927
temporary immunity, 154, 1935, 199, 282
territoriality and transnational prosecu-
tions/amnesties, 293316
terrorism, 126, 138, 142, 166, 189, 294, 296,
2989, 305
Thailand, 420
theft, 105, 1457, 391
third states, 149, 203, 244
third states jurisdiction see universal
jurisdiction
threat of prosecution, 17, 39, 195, 270, 282
time limits, 75, 15960, 197, 205
Timor-Leste, 5
amnesty list, 420
case study, 1046
conditional amnesties, 162, 168, 187
and international courts, 250, 268
personal jurisdiction of amnesty laws,
1046
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 389, 395
restrictions on amnesties, 14950
and victims needs, 3568, 367, 370
Togo, 56, 91, 339, 420
tolerance, 1, 46, 56, 132
torture/torturers, 12, 405, 40910
and conditional amnesties, 174, 181
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 8, 11
and crimes granted amnesty, 120, 1235,
1279, 131, 1334, 142
and international actors, 339, 3423, 349
and international courts, 249, 260, 264,
267, 271, 276
and introduction of amnesty laws, 356
and national courts, 21013, 216, 21921,
226, 229, 231, 236
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 7980, 1045, 1078, 113
and universal jurisdiction, 294, 2967,
305, 3078, 310, 431
and victims needs, 3579, 36970
traditional ceremonies, 1856
traditional justice, 39, 186, 2812, 288, 290,
346, 389
traditions see cultural traditions; religious
traditions
training programmes, 385f20, 3934
transitional justice mechanisms, 3, 4024,
406
and conditional amnesties, 1535, 197
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 910, 12, 16, 18
and crimes granted amnesty, 145
and international actors, 321, 328, 330,
346, 353
and international courts, 285, 291
and introduction of amnesty laws, 245
and motivations, 46, 5960
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 102, 104, 111
and universal jurisdiction, 301, 315
and victims needs, 3568, 360, 363, 366,
3724, 3778
transnational amnesties, 293316
transnational judicial dialogue, 236, 238, 246
and national courts, 2368
transnational prosecution, 293316
transparency, 40, 396
treaty law:
and international courts, 424
and universal jurisdiction, 2959
treaty-monitoring bodies, 25, 164, 171, 248,
261, 264, 269, 32931, 347, 350, 407
trends in introduction of amnesty laws,
1822
Trinidad and Tobago, 420
trust, 367, 1589, 163, 186, 331, 3878, 395,
402
truth commissions, 3, 5, 406
case studies, 1312, 1656
coinciding with amnesties, 168f10
and conditional amnesties, 1535, 163,
16570, 180, 187, 1979
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 14
and crimes granted amnesty, 131, 134,
146
impact on potential amnesty applicants,
398400
and international actors, 324, 337, 341,
3468
and international courts, 248, 251, 2667,
273, 280, 282, 2846
and introduction of amnesty laws, 25, 33
and motivations, 39, 48, 612
and national courts, 237
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 1046, 110
and promotion of beneciary group
participation, 398400
and universal jurisdiction, 31315
and victims needs, 358, 3667, 36970,
3726
truth recovery:
see also truth commissions
584 Index
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 584
as condition attached to amnesties, 155f9,
16370
and national courts, 2414
Turkey, 162, 2634, 268, 273, 386, 420
Tutsis, 107
ubuntu, 16, 55, 132, 188, 240, 372
Uganda, 11, 18, 389, 99, 134, 143, 1856,
2801, 2889, 332, 341, 356, 363, 383,
387, 389, 420
case study, 389
scope of amnesty, 389
Uganda, Northern, 11, 39, 55, 1856, 280,
28890, 332, 341, 353, 366, 368, 385,
393
UN:
Human Rights Committee (UNHRC),
253, 264, 269, 276, 3423, 4248
Ofce of the Human Rights
Commissioner (OHCHR), 3389, 368
Secretary General, 124, 250, 335, 338, 345
Security Council, 319, 324, 327, 329,
3345, 340, 342, 3445, 351
and conditional amnesties, 195
and crimes granted amnesty, 124
and international courts, 247, 250, 282
and International Criminal Court, 282
and motivations, 62
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 105
and universal jurisdiction, 300
Transitional Administration in East
Timor, 1045, 162
unconditional amnesties, 68, 85, 248, 283,
352
unconstitutionality, 90
and international courts, 2545
and national courts, 205, 208, 21012, 217,
241
unemployment, 390, 393
UNHRC see UN, Human Rights
Committee (UNHRC)
UNITA, 44, 91, 342, 395, 397
United Kingdom, 165, 176, 2723, 300, 308,
332, 335, 420
see also Northern Ireland
United States, 322, 325, 3334, 33841, 3501
and conditional amnesties, 165
and introduction of amnesty laws, 31
and motivations, 612
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 90
and universal jurisdiction, 299, 431
universal jurisdiction, 12, 6, 123, 203, 259,
327, 412
and in absentia prosecutions, 30910,
4302
and access to justice, 4302
Austria, 430
Belgium, 4301
crimes covered, 4302
and customary international law, 299302
Denmark, 431
and domestic law, 3024
and executive discretion, 3089, 4302
France, 431
Germany, 432
impact on national amnesties, 31113
investigations, 246, 2945, 297, 300, 308,
311, 31316, 319, 346, 4078
legislation, 304, 307, 42930
and nexus requirement, 30910, 4302
principle of, 259, 2945, 297, 299300, 302,
307, 309
ripple effect, 31113
scope within third states, 30411
and selectivity, 311
and subsidiarity, 3048
and treaty law, 2959
unjustied delay, 283
unwillingness or inability to prosecute,
2845, 295, 307, 314, 411
upholding of amnesties, 206f12, 207f13,
208f14
see also overturning of amnesties
Uruguay:
amnesty list, 420
blanket amnesties, 356
case study, 356
and controversial nature of amnesty
laws, 11
crimes granted amnesty, 138
and international actors, 349
and international courts, 2534, 256, 265,
2734, 276
introduction of amnesty laws, 356
motivations, 43, 67
national courts, 228, 234, 243
reparative amnesties, 356
and universal jurisdiction, 313
and victims needs, 362
Uzbekistan, 420
vengeance, 16, 556, 240, 3789, 399
vetting procedures, 18992
see also lustration
victim participation, 315, 370, 375
victimperpetrator axis, 98100
victim testimonies, 71, 80, 131, 375
victims:
effects of amnesty laws, 36572
identication, 35865
needs
identication, 35865
Maslows hierarchy, 361f19
prioritisation, 35578
Index 585
(R) Mallinder Index 26/8/08 11:07 Page 585
vengeance (cont.):
needs (cont.):
responsiveness of amnesty laws, 3726
views, 1012
and prioritisation of needs, 35578
research, 3568
Vietnam, 31, 71, 322, 421
vigilantism, 11, 144
violent conict, as motivation, 446
war crimes:
see also crimes under international law
crimes granted amnesty, 1237, 136
and international actors, 335, 338, 3434
and international courts, 259, 426
and national courts, 225, 246
and personal jurisdiction of amnesty
laws, 105
and universal jurisdiction, 294, 299, 4302
weapons, 14, 33, 37, 45, 47, 117, 147, 1559,
178, 1978, 280, 294, 322, 350, 382,
388, 3912, 412
witnesses, 98, 164, 179, 242, 263, 268, 270,
305, 346, 402
World Bank, 319, 341, 388, 392
Yemen, 421
Yugoslavia, 87, 96, 133, 212, 247, 334, 421,
4267
see also Former Yugoslavia; FYR
Macedonia; International Criminal
Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
(ICTY)
Zaire, 421
Zimbabwe, 421
586 Index
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