AfricanPharmacopoeia PDF

AFRICAN PHARMACOPOEIA
2014
AU/STRC
VOLUME 1
SECOND EDITION ABUJA, NIGERIA 2014
AFRICAN UNION SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL & RESEARCH COMMISSION
AU/STRC
UNION AFRICAINE, COMMISSION SCIENTIFIQUE, TECHNIQUE ET DE LA
RECHERCHE UA/CSTR
AFRICAN PHARMACOPOEIA
VOLUME 1 ABUJA, NIGERIA 2014

SECOND EDITION
COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION CAN BE OBTAINED FROM:

AFRICAN UNION SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL & RESEARCH COMMISSION AU/STRC
Plot 114 Yakubu Gowon Crescent,
Asokoro, Abuja
P.M.B 5368, Wuse Zone 2,
Abuja, Nigeria
http//www.austrc.org
ISBN 978-978-942-825-0
i
This publication has been prepared by the African Union Scientific, Technical & Research
Commission Abuja, Nigeria for distribution to the Governments of Member States of the AU,
Health Science Institutions and Researchers of the Africa Region.
The views expressed are those of the Scientific Members and the Consultant. The designations
employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of
any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Executive Secretariat of the AU/STRC concerning the
legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities.
ii
AFRICAN UNION
UNION AFRICAINE
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL & RESEARCH COMMISSION COMMISSION

SCIENTIFIQUE, TECHNIQUE ET DE LA RECHERCHE
AFRICAN
PHARMACOPOEIA
PHARMACOPÉE
AFRICAINE
AU/STRC Publication prepared by the Scientific Team and reviewed by consultant.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................... i
PREFACE .................................................................................................................................................. viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................ x
Abrus precatorius L....................................................................................................................................... 1
Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. ............................................................................................................................ 3
Acacia seyal Delile ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Achyranthes aspera L. ................................................................................................................................... 8
Adansonia digitata L. .................................................................................................................................. 10
Agave sisalana Perrine ................................................................................................................................ 12
Albizia ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.) Benth. .................................................................................................. 14
Alchornea cordifolia Müll.Arg. .................................................................................................................. 17
Allium sativum L. ....................................................................................................................................... 19
Aloe ferox Miller ........................................................................................................................................ 21
Althaea officinalis L. .................................................................................................................................. 24
Ammi visnaga (L.) Lamk. ........................................................................................................................... 27
Anacardium occidentale L. ......................................................................................................................... 30
Anethum graveolens L. ............................................................................................................................... 32
Annona muricata L. .................................................................................................................................... 34
Annona senegalensis Pers. .......................................................................................................................... 37
Anthocleista procera Lepr. ex Bureau......................................................................................................... 39
Antiaris africana Engl. ................................................................................................................................ 41
Arachis hypogaea L. ................................................................................................................................... 43
Argemone mexicana L. ............................................................................................................................... 47
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Areca catechu L. ......................................................................................................................................... 49
Artemisia absinthium L............................................................................................................................... 51
Astragalus gummifer Lab. .......................................................................................................................... 54
Atropa belladonna L. .................................................................................................................................. 56
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. ......................................................................................................................... 60
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. ..................................................................................................................... 62
Bauhinia reticulata DC. ............................................................................................................................... 64
Bobgunnia madagascariensis (Desv.) J. H. Kirkbr. & Wiersema ............................................................... 66
Bridelia ferruginea Benth. ........................................................................................................................... 68
Caesalpinia bonduc L. (Roxb.) ................................................................................................................... 71
Cajanus cajan Millsp. .................................................................................................................................. 73
Calotropis procera (Aiton) W. T. Aiton ...................................................................................................... 76
Canavalia ensiformis L. (DC.) .................................................................................................................... 78
Capsicum annuum L. .................................................................................................................................. 80
Capsicum frutescens L. ............................................................................................................................... 83
Carthamus tinctorius L. ............................................................................................................................... 88
Cassia fistula L............................................................................................................................................ 91
Cassia sieberiana DC. ................................................................................................................................. 94
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don ................................................................................................................ 98
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. .................................................................................................................... 101
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. ......................................................................................................................... 103
Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) L. .............................................................................................................. 105
Chamaecrista absus (L.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby....................................................................................... 109
Chamaecrista nigricans (Vahl) Greene ..................................................................................................... 111
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. ................................................................................................................. 113
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Chrysopogon nigritanus (Benth.) Veldkamp ............................................................................................ 116
Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (Trevir.) Vis........................................................................................ 118
Cinchona calisaya Wedd. .......................................................................................................................... 121
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl ....................................................................................................... 125
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. ............................................................................................................. 130
Citrus aurantium L. (pro. Sp) .................................................................................................................... 132
Citrus limonum Risso ............................................................................................................................... 134
Cissus quadrangularis L. ........................................................................................................................... 136
Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul. .................................................................................................................... 138
Cocculus pendulus (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Diels...................................................................................... 141
Cocos nucifera L. ...................................................................................................................................... 143
Coffea arabica L........................................................................................................................................ 146
Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott et Endl. .............................................................................................. 148
Combretum indicum (L.) DeFilipps.......................................................................................................... 152
Combretum micranthum G. Don .............................................................................................................. 154
Combretum nigricans Lepr. ...................................................................................................................... 156
Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. ............................................................................................................ 158
Convolvulus scammonia L. ...................................................................................................................... 160
Corchorus olitorius L. ............................................................................................................................... 162
Coriandrum sativum L. ............................................................................................................................. 164
Crataeva religiosa G. Forst. ...................................................................................................................... 167
Crotalaria retusa L..................................................................................................................................... 169
Cucurbita pepo L....................................................................................................................................... 171
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf ............................................................................................................ 174
Cynara scolymus L. .................................................................................................................................. 176
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Datura metel L. ......................................................................................................................................... 178
Datura stramonium L. ............................................................................................................................... 182
Derris elliptica (Roxb.) Benth. .................................................................................................................. 185
Desmodium adscendens (Sw.) DC............................................................................................................ 187
Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC.......................................................................................................... 189
Digitalis lanata Ehrh. ................................................................................................................................ 191
Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC. ............................................................................................. 196
Drimia maritima (L.) Stearn ..................................................................................................................... 198
Elaeis guineensis Jacq. .............................................................................................................................. 200
Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton............................................................................................................ 202
Entada africana Guill. & Perr.................................................................................................................... 205
Ephedra sinica Stapf ................................................................................................................................. 207
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. ...................................................................................................................... 210
Euphorbia hirta L. ..................................................................................................................................... 213
Erythrina senegalensis DC. ....................................................................................................................... 216
Erythrophleum guineense G. Don ............................................................................................................. 218
Erythroxylon coca Lam............................................................................................................................. 220
Eupatorium odoratum L. ........................................................................................................................... 223
Euphorbia tirucalli L. ................................................................................................................................ 226
Ferula assa-foetida L. ................................................................................................................................ 229
Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle ................................................................................................. 231
Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir. ............................................................................................. 251

Heliotropium indicum L. .......................................................................................................................... 253
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. ...................................................................................................................... 263
Hyoscyamus muticus L. ............................................................................................................................ 265
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Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. ......................................................................................................... 268
Lavandula angustifolia Mill. ..................................................................................................................... 270
Lawsonia inermis L................................................................................................................................... 272
Lindackeria dentata (Oliv.) Gilg ............................................................................................................... 275
Lippia multiflora Moldenke ...................................................................................................................... 277
Lobelia inflata L........................................................................................................................................ 279
Matricaria chamomilla L........................................................................................................................... 284
Melia azedarach L. .................................................................................................................................... 288
Mentha piperita L. (pro sp.) ...................................................................................................................... 290
Mentha spicata L. ...................................................................................................................................... 293
Mimosa pudica L. ..................................................................................................................................... 295
Mirabilis jalapa L. ..................................................................................................................................... 297
Mitragyna inermis (Willd.) Kuntze ........................................................................................................... 299
Momordica charantia L. ............................................................................................................................ 301
Morinda geminata DC............................................................................................................................... 303
Morinda lucida Benth. .............................................................................................................................. 305
Moringa oleifera Lamk. ............................................................................................................................ 307
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. ......................................................................................................................... 309
Myristica fragrans Houtt. .......................................................................................................................... 311
Ocimum gratissimum L ............................................................................................................................ 314
Papaver somniferum L. ............................................................................................................................. 316
Pericopsis angolensis (Baker)Meeuwen. .................................................................................................. 321
Pericopsis laxiflora (Benth. ex Baker) Meeuwen ..................................................................................... 323
Peumus boldus Molina .............................................................................................................................. 325
Phaseolus vulgaris L. ................................................................................................................................ 327
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Physostigma venenosum Balfour .............................................................................................................. 329
Pimpinella anisum L. ................................................................................................................................ 331
Pisum sativum L. ...................................................................................................................................... 334
Plantago ovata Forssk. .............................................................................................................................. 336
Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth........................................................................................................... 339
Polygala senega L. .................................................................................................................................... 341
Prosopis africana (Guill. & Perr.)Taub. .................................................................................................... 344
Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir. ....................................................................................................................... 346
Punica granatum L. ................................................................................................................................... 349
Quassia amara L........................................................................................................................................ 352
Quercus infectoria G. Olivier .................................................................................................................... 354
Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel. ....................................................................................................................... 358
Rhamnus frangula L. ................................................................................................................................. 361
Rhamnus purshiana DC ............................................................................................................................ 364
Ricinus communis L. ................................................................................................................................ 367
Saccharum officinarum L. ........................................................................................................................ 370
Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf. ......................................................................................................... 372
Schwenkia americana L. ........................................................................................................................... 374
Senna alata (L.) Roxb., ............................................................................................................................. 376
Senna alexandrina Mill And Cassia angustifolia Vahl. ............................................................................ 379
Senna italica Mill. ..................................................................................................................................... 383
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link ..................................................................................................................... 385
Senna podocarpa (Guill. & Perr.) Lock .................................................................................................... 388
Senna siamea (Lam.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby ........................................................................................... 391
Sesamum alatum Thonning....................................................................................................................... 393
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Solanum nigrum L. ................................................................................................................................... 395
Spermacoce latifolia Aubl......................................................................................................................... 400
Spermacoce verticillata L. ........................................................................................................................ 402
Sterculia setigera Del. ............................................................................................................................... 404
Sterculia tragacantha Lindl. ...................................................................................................................... 406
Strophanthus gratus (Wall. & Hook.) Baill............................................................................................... 408
Strychnos nux vomica L. .......................................................................................................................... 411
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill et L.M. Perry .................................................................................... 415
Tamarindus indica L. ................................................................................................................................ 419
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. ................................................................................................................... 422
Tephrosia vogelii Hook. f. ........................................................................................................................ 424
Terminalia avicennioides Guill. & Perr. ................................................................................................... 426
Theobroma cacao L................................................................................................................................... 428
Thevetia neriifolia JUSS. .......................................................................................................................... 430
Trema orientalis (Linn.) Blume ................................................................................................................ 432
Trigonella foenum-graecum L. ................................................................................................................. 434
Uncaria elliptica R.Br. ex G.Don .............................................................................................................. 436
Valeriana officinalis L. ............................................................................................................................. 438
Vanilla planifolia Jacks. Ex Andrews ....................................................................................................... 441
Ximenia americana L. ............................................................................................................................... 446
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides Waterm. ..................................................................................................... 448
Zea mays L. ............................................................................................................................................... 451
Zingiber officinale Roscoe ........................................................................................................................ 453
PHOTO GALLERY....................................................................................................................................... i
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PREFACE
There has been a global upsurge in the use of traditional medicines in recent times resulting in a
huge market worth billions of US dollars. There is need for Africa to reposition itself to benefit
from its stock of biodiversity. This will require scientifically organized information on useful
medicinal plants which have been found efficacious in the management of certain ailments in the
continent. Thus, African Pharmacopoeia will support the development of standard, safe,
efficacious and good quality traditional medicines.
The rationale for the production of the second edition of the African Pharmacopoeia arose from
the considerable gap left since the production of the first edition in 1985 and progress made in
science and research in the area of medicinal plants. With the trend in new knowledge production
and discoveries, it is becoming the focus of one of the most intense struggles in the medicinal
front globally. It is against this backdrop that the African Union developed a comprehensive
strategy on the review and production of the second edition by bringing together policy makers,
academia, scientists and researchers.
The African Pharmacopoeia series is an authoritative collection of standards for traditional

medicines and is an essential reference point for everyone involved in their research,
development, manufacture or use. With regulations and legislation constantly changing, the
African Pharmacopoeia serves as a comprehensive reference document. It contains user-friendly
features which bring wide-ranging benefits to anyone manufacturing or testing pharmaceutical
products. It is to be used extensively within the pharmaceutical and chemical industries, quality
control, chemical analysis, the government and academia. The contents have been designed as
reliable, comprehensive and flexible research and reference tools. In addition to standards
checking, it is equally important for method and product testing, and raw material specification.
It is with clear purpose of intent that the development of this second edition has been marked by
remarkable dedication, resilience, purposefulness, selfless devotion and a genuine desire to
improve traditional medicine practice in the continent. Improved formulation and better
presentation of these remedies will result in increased acceptability that will facilitate usage and
integration into AU Member States’ national health systems.
I commend the efforts of the Scientific Team of the African Union Scientific, Technical and
Research Commission (AU/STRC)in the development of the second edition of the African
Pharmacopoeia at this critical juncture when the African Union has developed “Agenda 2063” -
a shared framework for inclusive growth and sustainable development for the next 50 years.
African medicinal plant resources and the related knowledge play a critical role in health care.
Therefore, publications of African Pharmacopoeia are a step in the right direction. Meanwhile,
efforts are underway for the experimentation of further plant species, production of
pharmaceutical products, clinical trials, commercialization in African markets and utilization of
the drugs produced.
This timely work is a major contribution in the implementation of the Science, Technology and
Innovation Strategy for Africa (STISA) 2024 of which one of the six priorities - “Prevent disease
and ensure well-being” - focuses on health issues.
viii
It is our hope that our dream will become a reality that African pharmaceutical companies and
other related Pan African companies will dominate our domestic market and overtake multi-
nationals from the rest of the world in their own markets.
Special thanks go to the Member States, Regional Economic Communities (RECs) and other
International partners for their invaluable contribution in the production of the African
Pharmacopoeia series.
H.E Dr. Nkosazana Dlamini Zuma,

The Chairperson of the African Union Commission
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Executive Secretariat of the AU Scientific, Technical and Research Commission (STRC)
expresses its gratitude to all AU Member States and the Inter-African Committee on African
Traditional Medicine for the efforts and contributions towards the success of the African
Pharmacopoeia volume one second edition. The AU/STRC wishes to acknowledge the effort of
the STRC Scientific Team that produced the first draft of the second edition and later reviewed
by consultant Professor Abayomi Sofowora formerly of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife,
Osun State, Nigeria and other experts.
AU/STRC would like to offer sincere appreciation for their contribution to the first edition to the
following organizations/Agencies; WHO, FAO, RECs, and ANDDI that support this work
through participation in meetings and online reviews that culminated in the production of this
second edition. The support of the top management of the African Union Commission for the
express authorization in the preparation and organization, of meetings, hiring of consultants and
working visit to Centers of Excellence in the course of production of the second edition African
Pharmacopoeia volume one second edition was a turning point to be reckoned with.
The AU/STRC is grateful for the numerous people that were consulted in the course of
production of the second edition and a wide number of references used in the development of the
text. We also acknowledged and appreciate the Wikipedia and Wikimedia for using numerous
pictures of plant species in their galleries (internet based).
The Scientific Team composed of;
1. Dr. Ahmed Hamdy, Executive Director

2. Mr. Bather Kone, Principal Scientific Officer
3. Dr. Mohammed Kyari, Senior Scienfic Officer Coordination
4. Mrs. Grace Edison Ogolo, Senior Scientific Officer
5. Mrs. Rukaiya Shuaibu, Senior Scientific Officer
6. Mr. Gilbert Byatuhaire, Documentalist
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Abrus precatorius L.
Family name:
Fabaceae.
Synonyms:
(a) Abrus abrus (L.) W. Wight
(b) Glycine abrus L.
(c) Abrus cyaneus R.Vig.
(d) Abrus precatorius var. novo-guineensis Miq.
Common names:
Abrus seed, Crabs eye, Rosary pea, Love nut,
Jequirity (E). Pois rouge, Liane réglisse (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫ع ين تيرفعلا‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Idon Zakara, Cikaa-gidaa, Tandara,
Kalmunta, Damarzaya, Ta-ga-rana.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Otoberebe, Olorun yin-ni, Oju-ologbo, Iherenjeje, Iwere-jeje, Olorun
yenghen.
Brief description of the plant:
Abrus precatorius is a slender, perennial climber that twines around trees, shrubs, and
hedges. It has no special organs of attachment. It has slender branches and a cylindrical
wrinkled stem with a smooth-textured brown bark. Leaves are glabrous with long
internodes and are alternate compound paripinnate with stipules. Each leaf is 50-100 mm
long. It bears from 20 to 24 or more leaflets, each of which is about 12-18 mm long,
oblong and obtuse. It is blunt at both ends, glabrous on top and slightly hairy below.
Flowers are small and pale violet with a short stalk, arranged in clusters. The ovary has a
marginal placentation. The fruit, which is a pod, is flat, oblong and truncate-shaped with
a sharp, deflexed beak, 30-45 x 12 mm, and silky-textured. The pod curls back when
opened to reveal pendulous seeds and contains from 3 to 5 oval-shaped seeds, about 6
mm long. They are usually bright scarlet with a smooth, glossy texture, and a black patch
on top.
Geographical distribution:
It grows in tropical and sub-tropical areas.
Parts used:
Roots, leaves and stem.
Name of drug:
Abrus root.
Definition:
Abrus root is the dried roots of Abrus precatorius L (Family, Fabaceae). It contains not
more than 1% of foreign organic matter.
Description:
1
Macroscopical: Abrus precatorius is a slender, perennial climber that twines around
trees, shrubs, and hedges. It has no special organs of attachment. Leaves are glabrous
with long internodes. It has a slender branch and a cylindrical wrinkled stem with a
smooth-textured brown bark. Leaves alternate compound paripinnate with stipules. Each
leaf has a midrib from 5 to 10 cm long. It bears from 20 to 24 or more leaflets, each of
which is about 1.2 to 1.8 cm long, oblong and obtuse. It is blunt at both ends, glabrous
on top and slightly hairy below. Flowers are small and pale violet in colour with a short
stalk, arranged in clusters. The ovary has a marginal placentation.
Chemical constituents:
Alkaloids, Glycyrrhizin, Abrin.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with the above
descriptions.
(b) Perform the assay for glycyrrhizin under liquorice root (Glycyrhyza glabra) for Abrus
root.
Tests for purity:
(a) 99 % clean - Contains no more than 1% of foreign organic matter.
(b) Test for abrin in the seeds of Abrus
Pharmaceutical preparations:
N/A
Uses:
The root is used as a substitute for liquorice, to sweeten medicines. Leaves and stem for
cough.
Storage:
In a cool, dry, well ventilated area and in closed containers.
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Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.
Family name:
Fabaceae.
Synonyms:
(a) Mimosa senegal L.
(b) Acacia verek Guill. Et Perr.
Common names:
Gum Arabic tree, Senegal gum (E).
Gommier; Gommier blanc; Verek; Acacia du
senegal (F).
African Names:
(a) Arabic: ‫شجرة صمغ عربي‬
(b) Bambara: Dibe, Patukill.
(c) Hausa: Akovia, Akoura, Dakwara, Diishee, K’ayar, Kaimin-makiyaayaa, Akkora.
(d) Peuhl: Bulbi, Delbi, Patonki, Patuki.
(e) Swahili: Kikwata, Mgunga.
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Thorny shrub of 6 to 7 m with a grey fissured stem, straight, sometimes with
ramifications near its base, it is a somewhat large crowned shrub; thorns assembled into
three at the base of the branch of bipinnate leaves, with 2 to 6 pairs of pinules and 6 to 15
pairs of oval folioles; inflorescence in axillay clusters with perfumed white flowers;
membraneous flat cloves of 11 by 2 cm, with 7 or 8 flat and circular beige seeds.
Sub-desert regions of Sahelian and tropical zone.
Part used:
Dried gummy exudate.
Names of drug:
Gummi Arabicum, Gum Arabic, Gumme arabique.
Definition:
Gum Arabic is the dried gummy exudate from the stem and branches of Acacia senegal
(L.) Willd. (family, Fabaceae), or of some other African species of Acacia.
Description:
Colourless, taste, bland and mucilaginous.
Macroscopical: Gum Arabic occurs in rounded or ovoid tears, of variable size, usually
about 0.5 to 2 cm, in diameter, whitish or yellowish-white; opaque from the presence of
numerous small fissures in the outer part of the tears, in consequence of these, they
easily break up into a number of small transparent angular fragments with glistening
vitreous surface, almost odourless, taste, bland and mucilaginous.
Powder: Powdered Gum Arabic is white to yellowish-white; showing under the
microscope angular particles (slight traces), no starch granules, occasional particles of
vegetable tissues, and no mucilaginous cell wall (distinction from Gum Tragacanth).
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Gum Arabic consist of a glycosidal acid of high molecular weight which has been
termed Arabic acid combined with potassium, magnesium and calcium. Gum Arabic also
contains diastase and oxidase enzyme.
Tests for identity:
(a) An aqueous solution of Gum Arabic (1 in 1) is translucent, viscous, slightly acid to
litmus paper and not glairy, and when diluted with water and allowed to stand, no
gummy deposit separates.
(b) An aqueous solution of Gum Arabic (1 in 10) is slightly leavorotatory.
(c) To an aqueous solution of Gum Arabic (1 in 5), add a few drops of solution of
hydrogen peroxide and a few drops of benzidine T.S., shake, and allow to stand; a
deep blue or greenish-blue colour is slowly formed (presence of oxidase enzyme).
(d) To 5 ml of an aqueous solution of Gum Arabic (1 in 50), add 1 ml of solution of
leadsubacetate; a flocculent white precipitate is formed.
Tests for purity:
(a) Dissolve 1 g of Gum Arabic in 10 ml of water, add 0.2 ml of lead acetate T.S. no
precipitate is formed (distinction from agar and gum tragacanth).
(b) Dissolve 1 g of Gum Arabic in 10 ml of water, boil, then cool and add 0.1 ml of N/10
Iodine; no blue or brown colour is produced (absence of starch and dextrin).
(c) Dissolve 1 g of Gum Acacia in 10 ml of water, add 0.1 ml of ferric chloride T.S. no
bluish-black colour is produced (absence of tannin-bearing gums).
(d) Dissolve 5 gm of Gum Arabic in 100 ml of water in a 250 ml conical flask, add 10 ml
of dilute hydrochloric acid, and boil gently for 15 minutes, filter by suction, while
hot, through a tarred Gooch crucible, wash thoroughly with hot water, dry at 100oC,
and weigh. Not more than 0.05 g of residue is left ( insoluble residue).
(e) Gum Arabic loses, when dried at 100oC, not more than 15 per cent of its weight.
(f) Gum Arabic leaves on ignition, not more than 5 per cent of ash,; acid-insoluble ash,
not more than 0.05 per cent.
(g) 1 g Gum Arabic is almost completely soluble in 2 ml of water. It is insoluble in
alcohol (96 per cent).
(h) It is incompatible in alcohol, acids (unless well diluted), borax, ferric salts, calomel,
lead subacetate, and preparations containing guaiacum resin.
N/A
Uses:
Suspending and emulsifying agent, emollient, adhesive in tablets and pills manufacture.
Storage:
In well-closed containers.
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Acacia seyal Delile
Family name:
Fabaceae.
Synonyms:
(a) Acacia flava var. seyal (Delile) Roberty.
(b) Acacia hockii De Wild.
(c) Acacia stenocarpa Hochst. ex A. Rich.
(d) Vachellia seyal (Delile) P.J.H.Hurter.
(e) Acacia fistula Schweinf.
Common names:
Gum Arabic, Shittim wood, Talh, Whistling
thorn, White thorn, White whistling thorn,
White-galled acacia (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫السنط السيال أو السيال‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Dushe kerafi, Dumshishe, Dumshe, Dundushe, Dussa, Erafi, Irahi, Jan k’aya,
jimshi, Jushi, Gishishiya.
(d) Peuhl: Boulbi.
(e) Swahili: Mgunga.
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Acacia seyal Delile is a small to medium-sized tree, growing to 17 m tall and 60 cm in
diameter at breast height; crown is umbrella shaped, resembling that of A. tortilis. A
characteristic feature of the tree is its rust-coloured powdery bark; A. seyal var. fistula
has whitish bark. Large, straight spines occur on the branches, and smaller, curved thorns
are present near the tips of the branches. Leaves bipinnate, dark green, 4-12 pairs of
pinnae, 10-12 pairs of leaflets each 1-2 x 4-12 mm. Flowers clustered in shining, yellow,
globose heads, 1.5 cm diameter, on stems 3 cm long. Pods 10-15 x 1 cm, slightly curved,
light brown when mature and indehiscent, containing 6-10 seeds. Seeds are elliptic (5-6 x
2.5-3.5 mm ), olive-brown branches. The generic name ‘acacia’ comes from the Greek
word ‘akis’, meaning ‘point’ or ‘barb’.
Widespread in the drier parts of tropical Africa.
Part used:
Gum.
Name of drugs:
Acacia seyal, gum
Definition:
Acacia seyal gum also known as Gum Arabic, is a natural gum harvested from the
exterior of Acacia trees (Family, Fabaceae) in the form of dry, hard nodules up to 50 mm
in diameter, and ranging from almost colourless to brown.
5
Description:
Macroscopical: Tree 3–12 m tall, crown flat-topped; bark powdery, white to greenish-
yellow or orange-red; sparsely branched, the branches horizontal or ascending; young
branchlets with sparse hairs or almost glabrous, with numerous reddish sessile glands;
epidermis of twigs becoming reddish and shed annually; leaves often with a large gland
on petiole and between the top 1–2 pairs of pinnae; stipules spinescent, up to 8 cm long,
ant-galls present or absent; pinnae usually 3–7 pairs, the leaflets in 11–20 pairs, 3–8 cm
long, 0.75–1 mm wide, sparingly ciliolate or glabrous; lateral veins invisible beneath;
flowers bright yellow, in axillary, pedunculate heads 10–13 mm across, borne on terminal
or short lateral shoots of current season; involucel in lower half of peduncle 2–4 mm
long; apex of bracteoles rounded to elliptic, sometimes pointed; calyx 2–2.5 mm long,
puberulous in upper part; corolla 3.5–4 mm long, glabrous outside; pods 7–20 cm long,
0.5–0.9 cm in diameter, dehiscent, falcate, constricted between seeds, glabrous except for
sessile glands, 6–9-seeded; seeds elliptic, 7–9 mm long, 4.5–5 mm wide, compressed,
minutely wrinkled, olive-brown to olive; areole 5–6 mm long, 2.5–3.5 mm wide.
This species has been reported to contain the gum and 18–20% tannin.
Tests for identity:
(a) Acacia occurs as yellowish-white, yellow or pale amber, sometimes with a pinkish
tint, friable, opaque, spheroidal, oval or reniform pieces (tears) of a diameter from
about 1 cm to 3 cm, frequently with a cracked surface, easily broken into irregular,
whitish or slightly yellowish angular fragments with conchoidal fracture and a glassy
and transparent appearance. In the centre of an unbroken tear there is sometimes a
small cavity.
(b) Reduce to a powder (355). The powder is white or yellowish-white. Examine under a
microscope using glycerol R (50 per cent V/V). The powder presents angular, irregular,
colourless, transparent fragments. Only traces of starch or vegetable tissues are visible.
No stratified membrane is apparent.
(c) Examine the chromatograms obtained in the test for glucose and fructose. The
chromatogram obtained with the test solution shows three zones due to galactose,
arabinose and rhamnose. No other important zones are visible, particularly in the upper
part of the chromatogram.
(d) Dissolve 1 g of the powdered drug (355) in 2 ml of water R by stirring frequently for 2 h.
Add 2 ml of alcohol R. After shaking, a white, gelatinous mucilage is formed which
becomes fluid on adding 10 ml of water.
Tests for purity:
Loss on drying: Not more than 15% (105º, 5 h) for granular and not more than 10%
(105º, 4 h) for spray dried material. Unground samples should be
powdered to pass through a No. 40 sieve and mixed well before
weighing.
Total ash: Not more than 4%.
Acid-insoluble ash: Not more than 0.5%.
Acid-insoluble: Not more than 1%.
6
Starch or dextrin: Boil a 1 in 50 solution of the sample, cool and add a few drops of
Iodine T.S. No bluish or reddish colour should be produced.
Tannin-bearing gums: To 10 ml of a 1 in 50 solution of the sample, add about 0.1 ml of
ferric chloride TS. No blackish colouration or blackish precipitate
should be formed.
Microbiological Salmonella spp.: Negative per test.
criteria:
E. coli: Negative in 1 g
Lead: Not more than 2 mg/kg
N/A
Uses:
Gum Arabic is used as thickener, suspender, emulsifier, stabilizer, flavour carrier, binder
and encapsulating material. In addition, it is used in confectionaries, food, beverages,
pharmaceuticals and chemical industries.
Storage:
Moisture content for storage should be 4.5-9%. In well closed containers.
7
Achyranthes aspera L.
Family name:
Amaranthaceae.
Synonyms:
(a) Achyranthes argentea Lam.;
(b) Achyranthes aspera obtusifolia (Lam.) Griseb.;
(c) Achyranthes aspera var. indica L.
(d) Achyranthes indica (L.) Mill.
Common names:
Devil's horsewhip, Prickly-chaff flower, Burweed (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Sien doro nani.
(c) Hausa: Hakoorin-maciijii, Kaimin-kadangaree, Kiban
k’adangaruu.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Panga za wayuka.
(f) Yoruba: Aboro.
A perennial stiff erect herb 0.2-2m high, growing up to 1000m height. Stems are square,
leaves elliptic ovate or broadly rhoambate, 5-22m long, 2-5cm broad and adpressed
pubescent. The inflorences are 8-30cm long with many single white or red flowers, 3-
7mm wide. Flowering time is in summer.
It is found in the south east of Africa: Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.
Part used:
The whole plant.
Name of drug:
Achyranthes herb.
Definition:
Achyranthes herb is the dried leaf, stem and roots of Achyranthes aspera L. (family,
Amaranthaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Achyranthes aspera is an erect or spreading perennial herb which can
grow up to 2 m tall. Its stems become woody at the base. Its short-stalked leaves (dark
green above and paler below) are opposite, simple and egg-shaped with broad end at base
(ovate) up to 10 cm long by 8 cm wide, densely to sparsely hairy (pubescent) tapering to
a point at both ends and shortly stalked.
The small greenish-white flowers form narrow, elongated terminal spikes up to 60 cm

long. As the flowers age, they bend downwards and become pressed closely against the
stem. The bracts surrounding the flowers in the fruiting stage have sharp, pointed tips
8
making the heads spiny to the touch. The sharp-pointed fruits are orange to reddish
purple or straw-brown capsules.
The plant contains triterpenoid saponins possessing oleanolic acid as aglycone, as major
chemical constituents. Other constituents of the plant are ecdysterone, long chain alcohol,
penta triacontanol, cyclohexyl heptacosan, 16-hydroxyl 26-methyl heptacosan-2one,
dihydroxy hen-pentacontan-4one. It also contains a water soluble base, betaine.
Tests for identity:
descriptions.
(b) Shake the powdered herb with water. A foam which does not disappear on heating is
produced.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Antispasmodic.
Storage:
Store in sealed containers in a cool & dry place. Protect from light, moisture and pest
infestation.
9
Adansonia digitata L.
Family name:
Bombacaceae
Synonyms:
Adnsonia sphaerocarpa A. Chev.
Common names:
Baobab, Cream of Tartar tree, Monkey-bread tree,
Lemonade tree (E). Baobab (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫تبلدي إصبعي‬
(b) Bambara: Sira, Siti, Sito, Zira
(c) Hausa: Kuka, Kuukaa, Kumbali duku, Bambu,
Kulambali, Kwame Kubali, , Bakko, Kwame
kubali,
(d) Peuhl: Boki, Boy, Boio, Boki
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ose
A massive, deciduous tree with a trunk that can grow to an immense girth. The bark is
smooth.
The African baobab is one of the plant kingdom's strangest trees. It is not particularly tall,
growing (up to 25 m tall and usually less) but the trunk is massive: as much as 11 m in
diameter and shaped like a bottle. It is a deciduous tree, losing its leaves in the dry
season.
Adansonia digitata is widespread in the drier parts of tropical and southern Africa, from
Mauritania in the northwest to Sudan in the northeast, and south to South Africa. It is also
found in the Arabian Peninsula.
Parts used:
Fruit pulp, leaves.
Name of drug:
Baobab fruit pulp.
Definition:
Baobab fruit pulp is the cold-pressed unrefined fruit juice or pulp of the fruit of
Adansonia digitata L. Family, Bombacaeae collected when it has fallen to the ground. It
gives out a mild and nutty aroma and a golden liquid.
Description:
Macroscopical:
Leaves: Borne at the ends of branches, leaves are usually divided into 5‒7 leaflets
attached to a central point.
Flowers: Large (up to 20 cm in diameter), white and pendent on long stalks. Each flower
has five free petals and many stamens (male parts).
10
Fruit: More or less cylindrical and up to 35 cm long and 13 cm wide. Each fruit is filled
with mealy pulp containing many small, dark brown seeds, each about 1 cm long and
wide. The seeds have a reddish-black seed coat.
Microscopical: Fruit shell composed of numerous lignified stone cells, heavily pitted
vessels and lignified sclerenchymatous fibres. Pulp consists almost entirely of large
unlignified polygonal or irregular beaked pyrenchmatous cells containing numerous
simple or compound , angular or spherical large starch grains with distinct striations and
hila. Seed, with the brownish hard testa is composed of numerous stone cells and small
vessel members; the white kernel consists of soft parenchymatous cells, numerous oil
cells and a few unlignified fibres with pitted walls; crystalloids of numerous aleurone
grains are present in some cells.
Powder: Xylem vessels with pitted walls, numerous lignified stone cells staining red
with phloroglucinol and Hydrochloric acid, lignified sclerenchymatous fibres, plenty of
large-sized starch grains staining blue-black with iodine solution; aleurone grains are
seen numerous, there are parenchymatous cells in the field.
Baobab fruit pulp contains moisture, protein , fat , fiber , sugars , pectin, as galacturonic
acid, and ascorbic acid , calcium, phosphorus and iron.
Tests for identity
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination to confirm compliance with the above
descriptions.
(b) Thin-layer chromatography to confirm the presence of reducing sugars, galacturonic
acid and ascorbic acid
Tests for purity:

Baobab fruit pulp contains moisture 6.7 per cent. and, on a dry basis, protein 2.6; fat 0.2;
fiber 5.7; ash 5.3; total soluble solids 79.3; alcohol-insoluble solids 57.3; total sugars
23.2; reducing sugars 18.9; pectin, as galacturonic acid, 56.2 per cent. and, in mg/100 g,
ascorbic acid 300, calcium 655, phosphorus 51 and iron 9. The pectin is mainly water-
soluble and of poorer quality than commercial pectin.
N/A
Uses:
Foodstuff, medicine. Leaves and fruit pulp rich in micronutrients for supplementation.
Storage:
Store in a cool, dry, ventilated place protected from light. Refrigeration storage
recommended.
11
Agave sisalana Perrine
Family name:
Agavaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Agave amaniensis Trel. & Nowell
(b) Agave rigida Mill.;
(c) Agave rigida var. sisalana (Perrine) Engelm
(d) Agave segurae D.Guillot & P.Van der Meer
(e) Agave sisalana var. armata Trel.
(f) Agave sisalana f. armata (Trel.) Trel
Common name:
Sisal, Sisal hemp (E). Sisal (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫اغاف‬
(b) Bambara: Tangbeka, Tangeka
(c) Hausa: Axomyis, Zabuwa
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Katani, Mkonge, Mkatani, Mkatani Mkonge
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Perennial plant with short stem, numerous leaves (in rosette) which are thick, fleshy,
thorny and which can reach 2 m in height and 15 cm in width; inflorescence in panicles at
the apex of a hardy and long central stem of 3 to 8 m; greenish-yellow flowers which
rarely develop into capsular fruits and into seeds, but produce a lot of plantlets that ensure
the fast propagation.
Sisal can be cultivated in the whole of tropical zone of Africa.
Part used:
Leaf or leaf waste (sludge), stripped from the leaves during the removal of the fibers.
Name of drug:
Sisal. Sisal waste. Sludge.
Definition:
Sisal is the fresh leaf or the waste (sludge) from the leaf of Agave sisalana Perrine.
(family Agavaceae). Sludge is the juice of the leaf concentrate, which is allowed to
ferment for several days, then steamed at high pressure to complete the hydrolysis and
liberation of hecogenin, by filtration and drying. Sludge contains not less than 2 per cent
w/w hecogenin.
Description:
Macroscopical: Rosettes to 2 m tall, with a short trunk. Leaves 9–130 x 9–12 cm;
margins minutely toothed when young, toothless in mature leaves; terminal spine 2–2.5
cm long, dark brown. Inflorescence a 5–7 m tall panicle, producing bulbils after
flowering. Flowers 5–6.5 cm long, greenish-yellow; perianth-tube 15–18 mm long; sepals
17–18 mm long, equal, hooded at apex. Filaments 50–60 mm long. It has no odour but
slightly bitter mucilagenous taste.
12
Microscopical: Transverse section of the leaves show an epidermis surrounding a ground
tissue with scattered fibrovascular bundles in the ground tissue.
Powder: Several groups of fibers, long, lignified; spiral, annular and pitted vessels;
epidermal tissue.
Steroidal sapogenins e.g.: hecogenin, sisalagenin, tigogenin, neotigogenin, etc., also
mucilage, pectins and reducing sugars.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance
with the descriptions given above.
(b) Shake powdered leaf with water, it foams and the foam persists on boiling.
(c) Water extract of the leaf reacts positively to blood haemolysis test foe saponins
(d) Boil powdered sisal with dilute hydrochloric acid to hydrolyse the saponin. Extract
the sapogenin from the hydrolysate with chloroform. Concentrate the chloroform
extract and use to test for the presence of hecogenin by thin-layer co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
Moisture: Not more than 83 per cent (fresh leaf)
Ash: Not more than 14.3 per cent.
Acid-insoluble ash: Not more than 14.3 per cent.
Water –soluble ash: Not less than 90.1 per cent.
Alcohol-soluble extractive Not less than 13 per cent. (coarse powder)
Water-soluble extractive: Not less than 6.7 per cent. (coarse powder)
Assay:
N/A
Storage:
In well-closed containers, protected from light.
13
Albizia ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.) Benth.
Family name:
Fabaceae.
Synonym:
Albizia angolensis Welw. ex Oliv.
Common names:
Albizia
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Tsin, Tsiyar-kurmii
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ayinre-langara, Ayinre-ogo, Ayinre-semise, Semi-solose, Ayinreta.
A tall tree found scattered in the moist semi-deciduous high forest, less common in
secondary forest. Large spreading tree with low, fat buttresses; bark rough and scaly,
thick; slash fibrous, yellow-orange contoured with brown gritty streaks, exuding red-
gummy exudates; sapwood with ripple marks. Leaflets very hairy with long ginger hairs,
especially around the petiole; glands on rachises pinkish. Ripe pods dry, yellow, thin-
papery. Look for the crater-like glands on petiole and rachises.
Widespread, occurring from Senegal east to Uganda and south to northern Angola.
Part used:
Stem bark. Root bark.
Name of drug:
Albizia bark.
Definition:
Albizia bark is the dried stem bark or root bark of Albizia ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.)
Benth. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Large deciduous tree up to 45(–50) m tall; bole branchless for up to 22(–
30) m, straight and cylindrical, up to 100(–130) cm in diameter, without buttresses or
sometimes with small, thick buttresses up to 1.5 m high; bark yellowish brown to dark
grey, rough and scaly, inner bark fibrous, yellowish to orange-brown, with darker stripes
and clear or honey-coloured gum; crown dome-shaped, heavily branched, with fairly
spreading branches; young branches densely rusty hairy. Leaves alternate, bipinnately
compound with 3–7 pairs of pinnae; stipules awl-shaped, caduceus; petiole (2–)3–4.5(–6)
cm long, at the middle of upper side with a sessile gland, rachis (2–)4–15 cm long, rusty
hairy; leaflets in 6–14(–20) pairs per pinna, sessile, elliptical to oblong, slightly oblique,
1–2.5 cm × 0.5–1 cm, rounded at apex, densely pubescent below. Inflorescence an
axillary head on (2–)5–10 cm long peduncle. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous, white
to yellow, subtended by up to 7 mm long bracteoles; pedicel up to 3 mm long; calyx 3–6
14
mm long, with long tube and short lobes, densely rusty pubescent outside; corolla 9–13
mm long, with c. 6 mm long tube, rusty pubescent outside; stamens numerous, 3–5.5 cm
long, united into a tube in lower half; ovary superior, c. 3 mm long, gradually tapering
into an up to 3 cm long style. Fruit an oblong, flat pod 15–24 cm × 3–5 cm, glabrous,
transversely veined, yellowish brown when ripe, opening with 2 papery valves, c. 10-
seeded. Seeds flattened globose to ellipsoid, 7–10 mm × 4.5–8 mm. Seedling with epigeal
germination; hypocotyl 4–6 cm long, epicotyl 1–2.5 cm long; cotyledons c. 1 cm long,
thick and fleshy, rounded, early caduceus; first 2 leaves opposite, one pinnately
compound and the other bipinnately compound.
Microscopy: Wood, Growth rings: (1: growth ring boundaries distinct); (2: growth ring
boundaries indistinct or absent). Vessels: 5: wood diffuse-porous; 13: simple perforation
plates; 22: intervessel pits alternate; (23: shape of alternate pits polygonal); 26:
intervessel pits medium (7–10 μm); 29: vestured pits; 30: vessel-ray pits with distinct
borders; similar to intervessel pits in size and shape throughout the ray cell; 43: mean
tangential diameter of vessel lumina ≥ 200 μm; 46: ≤ 5 vessels per square millimeter; (47:
5–20 vessels per square millimeter); 58: gums and other deposits in heartwood vessels.
Tracheids and fibres: 61: fibres with simple to minutely bordered pits; 65: septate fibres
present; 69: fibres thin- to thick-walled. Axial parenchyma: 79: axial parenchyma
vasicentric; 80: axial parenchyma aliform; 81: axial parenchyma lozenge-aliform; 83:
axial parenchyma confluent; 91: two cells per parenchyma strand; 92: four (3–4) cells per
parenchyma strand. Rays: (97: ray width 1–3 cells); (98: larger rays commonly 4- to 10-
seriate); 104: all ray cells procumbent; 115: 4–12 rays per mm. Mineral inclusions: 136:
prismatic crystals present; 142: prismatic crystals in chambered axial parenchyma cells.
The phytochemical screening of the aqueous methanol leaf extract of Albizia ferruginea
revealed the presence of alkaloid, anthraquinones, carbohydrates, cardiac glycosides,
flavonoid, saponin, tannin and terpenes. The bark from roots and bole contains high
amounts of saponins, and the root bark also alkaloids. The content of protein in the leaves
was 38%, and that of crude fiber 41%, both of which are comparatively high. In another
test the crude protein content was only about 25%, while the leaves had a C/N ratio of
11.4, a lignin/N ratio of 10.3 and a polyphenol/N ratio of 0.82, indicating that the leaf
litter is slow to decompose.
Tests for identity
The heartwood is yellowish brown to reddish brown, with a golden or occasionally purplish
shine, and distinctly demarcated from the 3–7 cm wide pale yellow to pinkish brown
sapwood.
a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance
with the description given above.
b) Shake the powdered root or stem bark with water and warm. The foam produced
increases but does not decrease indicating the presence of saponins
c) Treat an aqueous acid extract with the alkoidal reagents (Wagner’s, Dragendorff’s), a
positive reaction is obtained in each case.
Tests for purity:
N/A
15
N/A
Uses:
Dysentery, bronchial affections and pain caused by fevers, vermifuge, jaundice.
Storage:
In a cool dry place.
16
Alchornea cordifolia Müll.Arg.
Family name:
Euphorbiaceae.
Synonyms:
(a) Alchornea cordifolia (Schumach. & Thonn.) Müll.Arg.
(b) Schousboea cordifolia Schumach. & Thonn.
Common names:
Christmas bush (E) Arbe de djeman (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Ko gira.
(c) Hausa: Bambamie, Bambana, Bambani.
(d) Peuhl: Holata, Bulora.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ewe-ifa, Ipa, Eepa, Esin-yin, Siin,Uhen-en,
Essinrin, Omusen-en, Usen-en.
Very common, sun-loving shrub or small tree of wet situations, common in secondary
bush, sometimes climbing. Leaf with distinct glands at the base of the lamina.
Distributed throughout tropical Africa.
Part used:
Leaves.
Name of drug:
Christmas bush leaf.
Definition:
Christmas bush leaf is the fresh or dried leaf of Alchornea cordifolia Müll.Arg. (family,
Euphorbiaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Alchornea is pantropical and comprises about 60 species of which 6
occur in tropical Africa. Straggling, laxly branched, evergreen dioecious shrub or small
tree up to 8 m tall; young shoots erect, later becoming horizontal, hollow, glabrous.
Leaves alternate, simple; stipules triangular, c. 1.5 mm long, acute, soon falling; petiole
(3–)5–15 cm long; blade ovate to elliptical-ovate, (5–)10–25 cm × (3–)7–15 cm, base
cordate, with basal lobes slightly auriculate and overlapping, apex acute to acuminate,
margins toothed, shortly hairy when young, later almost glabrous, 3–5-veined at the base
with 4 glandular patches in the angles of the veins. Male inflorescence an axillary panicle
up to 30(–45) cm long, sparingly hairy, bracts minute; female inflorescence an axillary
spike or lax panicle up to 30(–45) cm long, 1-several together, bracts broadly triangular-
ovate, c. 1 mm long, acuminate. Flowers unisexual, sessile; male flowers with 2 cup-
shaped sepals, petals absent, stamens 8, the united filaments forming a basal plate; female
flowers with 2–4-lobed calyx, lobes obtuse, hairy, petals absent, ovary superior, conical,
c. 2 mm × 2 mm, smooth, densely silky hairy, styles 2–3, 1–2 cm long, free or fused at
17
base, dark red. Fruit a 2-lobed capsule c. 1.5 cm × 1.5 cm, lobes somewhat compressed,
smooth, shortly hairy, green to red, 2-seeded. Seeds ovoid-ellipsoid, c. 6 mm long,
smooth, bright red.
Microscopical: Surface view shows stellate trichomes with unicellular arms and
unicellular clothing trichomes; warty epidermal cells, anisocytic stomata on lower
surface. Transverse section shows a dorsiventral leaf arrangement; palisade layer 2-celled
with numerous rosette calcium oxalate crystals; mesophyll cells abound in the
collenchymas tissue of the midrib region in both upper and lower surfaces, also spongy
mesophyll with rosette crystals; vascular bundle bicolateral, bounded by shield-shaped
lignified pericyclic fibres; xylem elements lignified
Powder: Colour green; odourless; taste slightly bitter; numerous lignified reticulate
xylem vessels and fibres; clothing unicellular and stellate trichomes with lignified bases;
anisocytic stomata, prismatic and rosette crystals of calcium oxalate; veins with sheaths,
prismatic crystals.
The leaves, roots and stem bark contain terpenoids, steroid glycosides, flavonoids ( 2–
3%), tannins (about 10%), saponins, carbohydrates and the imidazopyrimidine alkaloids
alchorneine, alchornidine and several guanidine alkaloids. The leaves also contain a
range of hydroxybenzoic acids: gallic acid and its ethyl ester, gentisic acid, anthranilic
acid (vitamin L1) and protocatechuic acid, and also ellagic acid (alizarine yellow). A C 20-
homologue of vernolic acid, named alchornoic acid, is present in the seed oil.
Tests for identity
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination to ensure the specimen complies with
the above descriptions.
(b) Microchemical tests to confirm the presence of flavonoids and alkaloids.
(c) Carry out thin-layer chromatographic test to confirm the presence of flavonoids and
alchorneine by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
Moisture: Not more than 4.8 per cent for dry leaf.
Ash: 5.6 per cent.
Water soluble extractives: not less than 22.8 per cent.
Alchohol (70%) soluble extractives: Not less than 22 per cent.
N/A
Uses:
Fever, rheumatism, anti-microbials, diuretic, purgative, toothache, cough, sore,
gonorrhea, insomnia.
Storage:
Store in a cold dry place.
18
Allium sativum L.
Family name:
Alliaceae
Synonym:
(a) Porvium sativum, Rchb.
(b) Porrum ophioscorodon (Link) Rchb.
(c) Porrum sativum (L.) Rchb.
(d) Allium arenarium Sadler ex Rchb.
(e) Allium controversum Schrad. ex Willd
(f) Allium longicuspis Regel
(g) Allium ophioscorodon Link
(h) Allium pekinense Prokh
Common names:
Common garlic, Garlic (E). Ail commun, Ail, Thériaque
des pauvres (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الثوم‬
(b) Bambara: Layi, Tume
(c) Hausa: Gabaruwa, Tafanuwa, Tafarnuuwaa, Tafaranoa.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Kitunguu-sumu, Kitungu saumu.
(f) Yoruba: Ayuu
Herbaceous plant with coated bulb consisting of some ten pods enclosed in a common
papery sheath; flat and smooth leaves, whitish or greenish umbellate flowers frequently
replaced by bulblets.
Garlic is indigenous to Asia but is cultivated all over Africa.
Part used:
The bulbs.
Names of drug:
Bulbus Allii, Garlic, Ail. Bulbus Allii Sativi.
Definition:
Garlic consists of the fresh or dry bulbs of Allium sativum L. (family, Alliaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: The mature garlic bulb consists of several outer layers of thin sheathing
protective leaves which surround inner sheath. The latter enclose the swollen storage
leaves called "cloves". A typical garlic bulb possesses a dozen of sterile sheathing leaves,
within these are 6-8 cloves bearing buds with a total number of 10-20 cloves; also it
possesses 20-40 well-developed but short and embedded roots. Cloves of the bulb are
quite asymmetric in shape, but those near the centre are symmetric. It has a strong
aromatic alliaceous odour and alliaceous acrid taste.
Microscopical: The protective leaf contains an epidermis enclosing a mesophyll free
from chlorophyll. The outer epidermis consists of lignified sclereid cells of thick pitted
19
walls, elongated, covered with thin cuticle, long fibres up to 500 µ long and 30 µ wide.
The cortical cells are thick-walled, non-lignified, tend to collapse on maturity,
isodiametric and contain purple pigments. The vascular bundles consist of lignified spiral
and annular vessels.
The storage leaves show an outer epidermis of thin, delicate cells of variable shape,
somewhat arranged in irregular rows; of 60 u long, 30 µ wide. Stomata are present on the
outer epidermis only at the extreme tip near the base of the foliage leaves.
The mesophyll consists of swollen storage parenchyma cell filled with fine granular
reserve material. Scattered in the cortex are about 20 laticiferous tubes of 500 to 1000 µ
in length. Two series of vascular bundles are arranged in the mesophyll consisting of
narrow lignified spiral and annular vessels.
Powder: Powdered garlic is pale buff to greyish or purplish white in colour, with
characteristic aromatic alliaceous odour and taste. It is characterized by the presence of
sclereids of the epidermis of protective leaves, thin epidermis of storage cells, latex tubes,
swollen parenchyma cells with granular contents, lignified narrow spiral and annular
vessels.
Garlic contains diallylbisulphide, diallyltrisulphide and diallylpolysulphides. Other
constituents include vitamins A, B, C (0.9 mg of Ascorbic acid/g) and D, a reserve
carbohydrate sistrin and a basic principle Alliin from which the diallylsulphides are
derived by enzymatic cleavage.
Garlic also contains a saponin, 10 per cent of a white, water-soluble and sweet
tuberoholoside; 0.41 per cent of phosphorus; some hydrocyanic acid as well as some
enzymes.
Test for identity:
(a) Carry out the carius halogen test for Sulphur compounds
(b) Also carry out the TLC analysis to determine the presence of Alliin as described in
Wagner et al. (1984), Drug Analysis, Berlin, SpringerVerlag, 253-257.
Tests for purity:
(a) Moisture: Not more than 7 per cent.
(b) Ash: Not more than 5.0 per cent.
(c) Acid-insoluble ash: Not more than 1.0 per cent.
(d) Water-soluble extractive: Not less than 5.0 per cent.
(e) Alcohol-soluble extractive: Not less than 4.0 per cent.
(f) Carry out qualitative and quantitative assay for sulfur constituents (alliin, allicin etc.)
i. content by means of high-performance liquid chromatography or gas
ii. chromatography–mass spectroscopy methods
Uses:
Antimicrobial, dietetic, flavouring agent, anthelmintic, antihypertensive, colon cancer
chemoprevention.
Storage:
20
Aloe ferox Miller
Aloe vera L.
Family name:
Xanthorrhoeaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Aloe ferox Miller
A. horrid Haw.,
A. perfoliata Thunberg.,
A. pseudoferox Salm. Dyck,
A. socotrina Masson.,
A. supralaevis Haw.,
Pachydendron ferox Humb. et
Bonplc.
P. supralaeve Haw.
(b) Aloe vera L.
A. barbadensis Mill.
A. chinensis Bak.,
A. elongata Murray,
A. indica Royle
A. officinalis Forsk.,
A. perfoliata L.,
A. rubescens DC,
A. vulgaris Lamk.
A. vera L. var.littoralis König ex Bak.,
A. vera L. var. chinensis Berger,
Common names:
Aloes foroce (F). Cape Aloe, Bitter Aloe (E) Aloe ferox Mill.
Aloes vulgaire (F). Aloe (E). Aloe vera L.
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الصبار‬
(b) Bambara: Sogobahu, Sogoba Ku = A. buettneri
(c) Hausa: Tinya, Zabuwa, Zaabuwaa.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Shubiri, Za'bila.
(f) Yoruba: Eti erin, Eti-erin oyinbo, Alon-erin.
Aloe ferox is a shrub with a single stem of 10 to 15 cm in diameter and 3 to 4 m in height,
crowned by a large rosette of numerous leaves which are sea milkwort green, oval-
lanceolate, of 40 to 60 cm by 10 to 12 cm, thorny on the ridge and the edges.
Inflorescence in cluster of about 60 cm in height, simple or with ramifications; flowers
with perianth of 2,5 cm tinged with yellow and purplish-blue, striped with red and green.
21
Aloe vera is nearly stemless with inflorescence in cluster pressed close to a stem of 50
cm, small yellow flowers of 20 to 25 mm .
Subtropical Africa.
Part used:
Solidified juice.
Names of drug:
Aloe, Aloes (E). Aloes (F).
Definition:
Aloe is the solid residue obtained by evaporating the liquid which drains from the cut
leaves of Aloe ferox Miller (family, Xanthorrhoeaceae) and its hybrids, known in
commerce as Cape Aloes, or of A. vera L. (family, Xanthorrhoeaceae) known in
commerce as Curacao Aloes, or of A. perryi Baker (family, Xanthorrhoeaceae), known in
commerce as Socotrine Aloes or Zanzibar Aloes. It has a characteristic and disagreeable
taste, bitter or faintly sour.
Description:
Macroscopical: Cape aloes occurs in dark brown or greenish-brown glassy masses, often
covered with a yellowish powder; in thin fragments. It is transparent and exhibits a
yellowish reddish-brown or greenish tinge; fracture, smooth, even, and glassy; odour,
characteristic and disagreeable; taste, somewhat sour, nauseating and very bitter.
Curacao or Barbados aloes occur in dark chocolate-brown usually opaque masses;
fracture, dull waxy, uneven and frequently conchoidal; odour, characteristic and
disagreeable; taste, nauseating and very bitter.
Socotrine aloes occurs in hard, dark brown or nearly black, opaque masses; fracture,
uneven, porous; odour, characteristic and disagreeable; taste, nauseating and very bitter.
Zanzibar aloes occurs in livery-brown opaque masses; fracture nearly smooth and slightly
porous; odour, slight and not disagreeable; taste, nauseating and very bitter.
Powder: Powdered aloes are yellowish-brown to dark reddish-brown. When mounted in
lactophenol T.S. and examined with the microscope: Cape aloes appear as transparent
brown irregular and angular fragments; Curacao aloes show fragments with numerous
minute acicular crystals embedded in an amorphous matrix; Socotrine aloes shows fairly
large prisms grouped into masses; Zanzibar Aloes shows irregular lumps with sphaerites.
The particles gradually dissolve in the mountant.
The principal constituent of all the foregoing varieties of aloes is the pale yellow,
crystalline substance, barbaloin. In Curacao aloes, the barbaloin is accompanied by
isobarbaloin. Socotrine and Zanzibar aloes contain no isobarbaloin and Cape aloes
contains traces only. Other constituents of aloes are resin and aloe emodin.
Tests for identity:
Aloes are partially soluble in water; soluble in alcohol (60 per cent) in glycerol; insoluble
in chloroform, in ether and in petroleum-benzene. It is soluble in alkalis and in glacial
acetic acid. Boil about 1 g of powdered aloes with 100 ml of water for about 2 to 3
minutes, cool, then shake thoroughly with about 1g of kieselguhr and filter. The clear
filtrate obtained responds' to the following tests:
22
(a) Dissolve, with the aid of heat, about 0.2 g of borax in 5 ml of the filtrate; transfer
5 to 10 drops of the solution to a test-tube nearly filled with water, a green
fluorescence is produced.
(b) Shake 30 ml of the filtrate with 20 ml of benzene and allow to separate. Shake 10
ml of the benzene layer with 10 ml of dilute solution of ammonium hydroxide. A
cherry-red colour is produced in the ammoniacal layer with Curacao and
Socotrine but not with Zanzibar and Cape aloes.
(c) To 1 ml of the filtrate, add 1 ml of bromine T.S.; a copious pale yellow precipitate
is formed.
(d) Mix 25 ml of the filtrate with 1ml of nitric acid; a yellowish-brown colour,
passing rapidly to vivid green, is produced with Cape aloes; a deep brownish-red
colour with Curacao aloes; and a yellowish-brown colour with Socotrine and
Zanzibar aloes.
(e) Dilute 2 ml of the filtrate to 10 ml with water, add a drop of copper sulfate T.S.,
warm and add about 0.5 ml of sodium chloride T.S., and then about I ml of
alcohol (95 per cent); a deep wine-red colour is produced with Curacao aloes and
an evanescent pale wine-red colour with Cape aloes (presence of isobarbaloin).
This test is not given with Socotrine and Zanzibar aloes.
Tests for purity:
(a) Dissolve, with the aid of gentle heat, 1 g of aloes in 50 ml of alcohol and cool.
An almost clear solution is obtained (detection of gums and inorganic impurities).
(b) Transfer 5 drops of a solution of aloes (1 in 100) to a porcelain dish and add 1 ml
of sulfuric acid, followed by a drop of fuming nitric acid; no green colour is
produced (Natal aloes).
(c) Aloes yield not less than 50 per cent of water-soluble extractives, and not more
than l0 per cent of alcohol-insoluble residue.
(d) Aloes lose, when dried at 100° C, not more than 12 per cent of its weight.
(e) Aloes leave on ignition not more than 5 per cent of ash.
Pilula Aloes.
Pilula Aloes et Ferri.
Pilula Colocynthidis et Hyoscyami.
Pilula Rhei Composita.
Tinctura Aloes.
Tinctura Benzoini Composita.
Uses:
Cathartic.
Storage:
23
Althaea officinalis L.
Family name:
Malvaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Althaea armeniaca Ten.
(b) Althaea cannabina L.
(c) Althaea taurinensis L.
(d) Althaea balearica Rodrigeuz
(e) Althaea kragujevacensis Pan.
(f) Althaea micrantha Wiesb. ex Borbas
(g) Althaea officinalis var. obtusifolia
(h) Althaea sublobata Stokes
(i) Althaea taurinensis DC.
(j) Althaea vulgaris Bubani
(k) Malva althaea E.H.L.Krause
(l) Malva althaea F.W.Schultz
(m) Malva maritima Salisb.
(n) Malva officinalis (L.) Schimper & Spenner.
Common names:
Marshmallow, marsh mallow, marshmellow, common marshmallow, White Mallow,
Wymote (E). Guimauve, Racine De Guimauve, guimauve officinale, guimauve sauvage,
mauve blanche (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الختمية الطبية أو الخبيز‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
The stems, which die down in the autumn, are erect, 3 to 4 ft (0.91 to 1.22 m), simple, or
putting out only a few lateral branches. The leaves, shortly petioled, are roundish, ovate-
cordate, 2 to 3 in (51 to 76 mm) long, and about 1¼ inch broad, entire or three to five
lobed, irregularly toothed at the margin, and thick. They are soft and velvety on both
sides, due to a dense covering of stellate hairs. The flowers are shaped like those of the
common mallow, but are smaller and of a pale colour, and are either axillary, or in
panicles, more often the latter.
The stamens are united into a tube, the anthers, kidney-shaped and one-celled. The
flowers are in bloom during August and September, and are followed, as in other species
of this order, by the flat, round fruit which are popularly called 'cheeses.'
The common mallow is frequently called by country people 'marsh mallow,' but the true
marsh mallow is distinguished from all the other mallows growing in Great Britain, by
24
the numerous divisions of the outer calyx (six to nine cleft), by the hoary down which
thickly clothes the stems and foliage, and by the numerous panicles of blush-coloured
flowers, paler than the common mallow. The roots are perennial, thick, long and tapering,
very tough and pliant, whitish yellow outside, white and fibrous within.
The entire plant, particularly the root, abounds with a mild mucilage, which is emollient
to a much greater degree than the common mallow.
Marshmallow is native to Europe and Africa.
Part used:
Root.
Name of drug:
Althaea radix, Radix Althaeae.
Definition:
Radix althaeae consists of the dried roots of Althaea officinalis L. (family, Malvaceae).
Roots are obtained from commercially cultivated plants that are at least 2 years old and
harvested in the autumn.
Description:
Odour: faint, aromatic; taste: mucilaginous.
Macroscopical:. Cylindrical or tapering, slightly twisted roots, up to 2 cm thick, with
deep longitudinal furrows. Outer surface greyish-brown, bearing numerous rootlet scars.
Fracture externally fibrous, internally rugged and granular; section shows a thick, whitish
bark with brownish periderm, separated by a well-marked, brownish cambium from the
white xylem; stratified structure of the bark and radiate structure of xylem become more
distinct when moist. Peeled root has greyish-white finely fibrous outer surface; cork and
external cortical parenchyma absent.
Microscopical: Phloem with numerous long, thin-walled, non-lignified fibres arranged in
tangential groups alternating with groups of sieve tissue, with a ground tissue of thin-
walled parenchyma; xylem containing reticulate or scalariform thickening and bordered
pits accompanied by lignified tracheids, a small amount of lignified parenchyma and
occasional small groups of fibres with only the middle lamella lignified; xylem and
phloem transversed by numerous non-lignified medullary rays, mostly uniseriate;
majority of parenchyma cells of the phloem and medullary rays contain abundant small
starch grains which are mostly simple, spherical to ovoid, occasionally 2–3 compound,
with a well-marked circular or slit-shaped hilum; some of these parenchyma cells contain
cluster crystals of calcium oxalate 20–40mm in diameter, while others exist as idioblasts
containing mucilage.
Powder: Brownish-grey (unpeeled root) or whitish (peeled root). Fragments of
colourless, mainly unlignified, thick-walled fibres with pointed or split ends; fragments
of reticulate or scalariform thickening and bordered pits; cluster crystals of calcium
oxalate about 20–35mm, mostly 25–30mm, in diameter; parenchyma cells containing
mucilage; fragments of cork with thin-walled, tabular cells in the powdered material from
the unpeeled root. Numerous starch grains, 3–25mm in diameter, with occasionally a
longitudinal hilum; starch grains mostly simple, a few being 2–4 compound.
25
Mucilage, asparagines, pectin, tannins, flavonoids, polyphenolic acids and Scopoletin.
Root: Mucilage, 18-35%: consisting of a number of polysaccharides: one is composed of
L-rhamnose, D-galactose, D-galacturonic acid and D-glucuronic acid; another a highly
branched L-arabifuranan, another a trisaccharide structural unit and one with a high
proportion of uronic acid units; about 35% pectin, 1-2% asparagines, tannins; In the
leaves: mucilage including a low molecular weight D-glucan; Flavanoids such as
kaempferol, quercitin and diosmetin glucosides; Scopoletin, a coumarin; polyphenolic
acids, including syringic, caffeic, salicyclic, vanillic, p-courmaric, etc.
Tests for identity
Not more than 2 per cent. of brown, deteriorated drug and not more than 2 per cent. of
cork in the peeled root.
Tests for purity:
Total ash: Not more than 6per cent. in the peeled root and not more than 8 per cent in the
unpeeledroot.
Acid-insoluble ash: Not more than 3 per cent. in the peeled root.
Water-soluble extractive: Not less than 22 per cent.
Moisture: Not more than 12 per cent.
Swelling index: Not less than 10.
Infusion of Marshmallow
Uses:
Asthma, Bronchitis, Common cold/sore throat, Cough
Storage:
Stored in a cool and dry well-closed container, keep away from moisture and strong light
heat.
26
Ammi visnaga (L.) Lamk.
Family name:
Apiaceae.
Synonym:
(a) Daucus visnaga L.,
(b) Apium visnaga (L.) Crantz
(c) Selinum visnaga E.H.L. Krause
(d) Sium visnaga Stokes,
(e) Visnaga daucoides Gaertn.
Common name:
Bishop's weed, Toothpick weed, Visnaga
Toothpick plant (E). Plante aux cure-dent,
Herbe aux cure-dents (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الخلة البلدية‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Herbaceous plant of 20 to 80 cm in height, with dentate leaves in strips which are very
narrow and whole; stalked umbellate flowers with highly swollen rays at the base; fruits
hardly ever as long as wide.
Mediterranean regions of Africa.
Part used:
Fruits.
Names of drug:
Fructus Ammi visnagae. Ammi visnaga fruit. Fruit d'Ammi visnaga.
Definition:
Ammi visnaga fruit is the dried ripe fruits of Ammi visnaga (L.) Lamk. (fam. Apiaceae)
containing not more than 3 per cent of the bitter principle, Khellin.
Description:
Odour slightly aromatic; taste, aromatic, bitter and slightly pungent.
Macroscopical: Fruit, cremocarp, usually separated into its mericarps, rarely entire with a
part of the pedicel attached. Mericarp, small, ovoid, about 2 mm long and I mm broad;
brownish to greenish-brown, with a violet tinge; externally glabrous, marked with 5
distinct, pale brownish, rather broad primary ridges, 4 inconspicuous dark secondary
ridges, and a disc-like styloped at apex; internally, the mericarp shows a pericarp with 6
vittae, 4 in the dorsal and 2 in the commisural side, a large oily orthospermous
endosperm and a small apical embryo.
Microscopical: Epidermis of pericarp consists of polygonal cells, elongated on the
ridges, with occasional crystals of calcium oxalate and finely striated cuticle; no hairs.
27
Mesocarp, normally of parenchyma traversed longitudinally by the schizogenous vittae,
each surrounded by large, slightly radiating cells, and in the ridges by vascular bundles
each forming a crescent around a comparatively large lacuna (distinction from A. majus)
and accompanied by fibres and reticulate, lignified cells; the innermost layer of the
mesocarp consists of large, polygonal, brown-walled cells, with thick porous inner walls.
Endocarp, composed of narrow tangentially elongated cells, some of these being
regularly arranged in groups variously oriented, adhering to the brown seed-coat which is
formed of similar but wider and somewhat shorter cells. Endosperm consists of
polygonal, thick-walled, cellulosic parenchyma, containing fixed oil and numerous small
oval aleurone grains, each enclosing a minute, rounded globoid and a micro-rosette
crystal of calcium oxalate.
Carpophore, split passing at the apex into the raphe of each mericarp traversed by a
vascular strand of fibres and spiral vessels.
Powder: Powdered Ammi visnaga fruit is brown; characterised by fragments of pericarp
with few brownish pieces of vittae, reticulate cells, vessels and fibres; fragments showing
the inner porous cells of the mesocarp crossed by and intimately united with endocarpal
cells which are in groups, some of them being differently oriented; fragments showing
cells of the brown seed-coat; numerous fragments of endosperm; aleurone grains, 4 to 10
microns in diameter containing micro-rosette crystals of calcium oxalate 2 to 5 microns
in diameter.
Furanochromones (Py-ones): 2-4% comprising khelin (0.3-1.2%), visnagin (0.05-0.3%),
khellol and its glucoside khellenin; khellinol, ammiol and its glucoside visammiol;
khellinone, visnaginone.
Pyranocoumarins (Visnagans): (0.2-0.5%) comprising visnadin, samidin and
dihydrosamidin.
Furanocoumarins: traces of xanthotoxin and ammoidin.
Flavonoids: 0.02-0.03% comprising quercetin and isorhamnetin and their 3-sulphates as
well as kaempferol.
Volatiles: camphor, carvone, (terpineol, terpine-4-ol, linalool, cis- and trans- linalool
oxides).
Fixed oils: 12-18%
Protein: 14%
Test for identity:
Boil about 0.05 g of Ammi visnaga fruit with 5 ml of water for a minute, strain, add 1 to
2 drops of this decoction to 1 ml of solution of sodium hydroxide (l in 1), and shake; a
rose-red colour is produced within 2 minutes.
Test for purity:
Ammi visnaga fruit contains no starch granules (cereals, etc.). Ash, not more than 8
percent.; Acid-insoluble ash, not more than 3.5 per cent.; Moisture, Not more than 10 per
cent.
28
Assay:
Introduce about 5 g of powdered Ammi visnaga fruit, module, 26, accurately weighed,
into a flask, add 50 ml of alcohol, shake well, set aside, for 10 minutes, and then shake
frequently for one hour. Transfer the mixture to a small continuous extraction apparatus
plugged with cotton-wool, and when the liquid ceases to flow, pack firmly, and continue
the extraction, until complete exhaustion of the bitter principle is effected, or when a drop
of the percolate fails to produce a rose-red colour with solution of sodium hydroxide (1 in
1). Evaporate the extract on a water-bath to 18 ml, dilute with water to 50 ml, and add 2
ml of lead acetate T.S. , or a sufficient quantity until no more precipitate is formed. Boil,
filter while hot, and wash the precipitate on the filter with boiling water until free from
the bitter principle. To the combined filtrate and washings, add I g of acid sodium
phosphate or sufficient quantity to precipitate the lead; filter, and wash the precipitate
with boiling water until free from the bitter principle. Mix the filtrate and washings, and
evaporate on a water-bath to about 59 ml. Filter while hot, into a separator, wash the flask
and filter with boiling water, cool, and shake the combined liquids successively with 4
portions, each of 20 ml of chloroform or until a drop of the chloroform extract fails to
produce a rose-red colour with solution of sodium hydroxide (1 in 1). Dry the combined
chloroform extracts with about 1 g of anhydrous sodium sulfate, filter through a dry filter
paper into a porcelain dish, wash the sodium sulfate and the filter with a few ml of
chloroform adding the washings to the chloroform extract in the dish. Evaporate the
chloroform, dry the residue, weigh, and calculate the percentage of the bitter principle,
khellin.
Pharmaceutical preparation:
Extractum Ammi Visnagae Fluidum.
Uses:
Treatment of angina pectoris; vasodilator; expels renal calculi.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, in a cool and dry place, protected from light.
29
Anacardium occidentale L.
Family name:
Anacardiaceae
Synonym:
N/A
Common names:
Cashew-nut tree, Caju, Cashew apple (E).
Anacardier, Pommier cajou, pomme
d'acajou, noix-cajou (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الكاجو أو البالذر الغربي‬
(b) Bambara: Finza
(c) Hausa: Jambe, Kanjuu, Fisa
(d) Peuhl: Darkassouyi
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ekaju, Kaju, Katonoyo
A small to medium tree, generally single-trunked and spreading in habit, up to 40′ in
height but generally 10-20′ in cultivation (Figure 9.3). In older trees, spread may be
greater than height, with lower limbs bending to touch the ground. Leaves are thick,
prominently veined, oval to spatulate in shape, with blunt tips and entire margins. New
foliage contains reddish pigment. Flowering is similar to the close relative mango: both
male and perfect flowers are borne in the same inflorescence (polygamous). Individual
flowers are 1/4″ across, with crimson petals, often striped longitudinally and reflexed.
They are borne terminally on panicles, generally at the beginning of the dry season.
Flowering may occur over several weeks.
Native of tropical America, now widely cultivated throughout the tropics mainly for its
edible seeds (cashew nuts).
Part used:
Nut, leaves, roots.
Name of drug:
Cashew nut
Definition:
Cashew nut is the roasted or boiled kernel of Anacardium occidentale L. (family,
Anacardiaceae)
Description:
Macroscopical: A medium-sized tree, beautiful, and not unlike in appearance the walnut tree,
with oval blunt alternate leaves and scented rose-coloured panicles of bloom - the tree produces a
fleshy receptacle, commonly called an apple, at the end of which the kidney-shaped nut is borne;
the end of it which is attached to the apple, is much bigger than the other. The outer shell is ashy
colour, very smooth, the kernel is covered with an inner shell, and between the two shells is found
a thick inflammable caustic oil, which will raise blisters on the skin and be dangerously painful if
the nuts are cracked with the teeth. The fruit is a so called psuedo fruit "false fruit" since the true
fruit is the cashew nut: that is first developed. The receptacle becomes fleshy and plump. It has a
30
waxy yellow, red or orange skin. It is juicy, acid to subacid. In India, this juice is distilled into
liquor (feni). The cashew Apple has a sour taste and is used in preserves and drinks in Brazil and
the West Indies.
Two peculiar principles have been found: Anacardic acid and a yellow oleaginous liquid
Cardol. Also present are Tannins, vitamin A at 2689 SI per 100 grams, 65 grams of
vitamin C per 100 grams, calories 73 grams per 100 grams, 4.6 grams of protein per 100
grams, 0.5 grams of fat per 100 grams, 16.3 grams carbohydrate per 100 grams, calcium
33 milligrams per 100 grams, phosphorus 64 milligrams per 100 gram, 8.9 milligrams of
iron and water 78 grams per 100 grams.
Tests for identity:
Macroscopical examination of the specimen and its source to ensure compliance with the
above descriptions.
Tests for purity:
The microbial load of the preparation was determined using the standard plate method
Various diagnostic media - Tryptone Soy Agar (TSA), Salmonella-Shigella Agar (SSA),
Eosin Methylene Blue Agar (EMBA), MacConkey Agar (MAC), Nutrient Agar (NA),
Manital Salt Agar (MSA), Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) - were used to culture the
test product. Each of the media was prepared according to manufacturers’ instruction and
sterilized at 121 oC for 15 minutes. Three fold serial dilutions (10-1, 10-2 and 10-3) were
made using sterile water and 1ml each of the dilutions seeded in 25 ml each of the sterile
culture media. The media were allowed to cool to 45 oC, swirled and left to solidify. The
bacterial media were incubated at 37 oC for 3 days while the fungal medium (SDA
culture) was incubated at 25 oC for 7 days. They were examined 24 hourly during this
period for the colonies and the result.
N/A
Uses:
All parts of the plant contain an irritant skin poison. On heating this substance is
destroyed. The nut is edible (cashew nut) after heating (boiling or roasting). The swollen
stalk of the fruit can be eaten raw. Various parts of the tree are used as medicine. The
roots decoction or infusion of leaves used for diabetes and hypertension. Half a glass
three times daily.
Storage:
Store in a very cool place.
31
Anethum graveolens L.
Family name:
Apiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Anethum sowa Roxb.
(b) Anethum sowa Roxb. ex J.
Fleming,
(c) Ferula marathrophylla Walp
(d) Peucedanum anethum Baill.
(e) Peucedanum graveolens Benth. et
Hook.
(f) Peucedanum graveolens (L.)
Hiern.,
(g) Peucedanum graveolens (L.)
Benth.
(h) Peucedanum sowa (Roxb. ex Fleming) Kurz,
Common names:
Fenouil bâtard, Faux anis, Aneth, Aneth odorant (F). Dill, Common dill, Garden dil, East
Indian dill (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫شبت‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Annual herbaceous plant 60 to 80 cm high; glaucous leaves divided into thread-like
stups; umbellate inflorescence ranging from 15 to 30 rays; yellow flowers; deep brown
fruits with protruding clear back ribs. Strongly aromatic plant.
Often cultivated in the Mediterranean parts of Africa.
Part used:
Dried ripe fruits.
Names of drug:
Fructus Anethi. Dill Fruit. Fruit d'Anethi.
Definition:
Dill fruit is the dried ripe fruit of Anethum graveolens L. (family, Apiaceae), containing
not more than 2 percent of foreign organic matter and not less than 2 percent of volatile
oil.
Description:
The drug has a characteristic and pleasant odour and taste.
32
Macroscopical: Fruit, cremocarp, usually separated into its mericarps, each mericarp is
dorsally compressed, broadly oval and about 3 to 4 mm long, 2 to 3 mm wide and 1mm
thick, the ratio of length to breadth being about 1.6 to 1. The mericarp is chocolate-brown
with wide Yellowish membranous wings, which are the extended lateral ridges; and
three brown, inconspicuous dorsal ridges. The transversely cut surface shows six vittae
four being dorsal and two on the commissural side and five vascular strands in the ridges,
those in the wings being somewhat wider than the others.
Microscopical: Each mericarp has four vittae on the dorsal surface and two on the
commissural. The outer epidermis has a striated cuticle and the mesocarp contains
lignified, reticulate parenchyma; the inner epidermis, composed of tabular cells
frequently with wavy walls; the thick-walled parenchyma of the endosperm, containing
fixed oil, aleurone grains and micro-rosettes crystals of calcium oxalate.
Powder: Powdered dill fruit is greyish brown in colour, characterised by fragments of
pericarp with few brownish pieces of vittae. Outer epidermis has striated cuticle,
fragments of the mesocarp showing lignified reticulate parenchyma, inner epidermis,
tabular cells frequently with wavy walls, numerous fragments of endosperm; aleurone
grains, fixed oil and micro-rosettes crystals of calcium oxalate.
Dill fruit contains 2-4 percent of volatile oil containing about 53-63 percent of carvone,
limonene and some phellandrene. Other constituents are fixed oil, protein and mucilage.
Test for identity:
Carry out thin-layer chromatographic test to confirm the presence of anethole and
fenchone.
Also carry out gas chromatographic examination to confirm the presence of anethole,
fenchone and oestragole
Test for purity:
Ash: not more than 11 percent., Moisture, Not more than 8 per cent.
Assay:
Determination of the volatile oil content as described in vol. 2.
Aqua Anethi Concentrata.
Aqua Anethi Distillata.
Uses:
The action of dill depends on the essential oil which it contains. It is used in mixtures in
the form of Aqua Anethi which is a common domestic remedy for the flatulence of
infants and is a useful vehicle for children's medicine generally.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, in a cool place protected from light and moisture.
33
Annona muricata L.
Family name:
Annonaceae
Synonyms:
(a) A bonplandiana Kunth
(b) A cearensis Barb. Rodr.
(c) Guanabanus muricatus (L.) M. GÃ³mez
(d) Annona portoricensis M. GÃ³mez
(e) Annona muricata f. mirabilis L.
(f) Annona muricata var. borinquensis L.
Common names:
Prickly custard apple, soursop, Graviola,
Brazilian paw paw, Guanábana (E). Cachiman épineux, Caichemantier, Coeur de boeuf,
Corossol, Corossolier, Epineux (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫قشدة شائكة الثمر‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Graviola is a small, upright evergreen tree, 5–6 m high, with large, glossy, dark green
leaves. It produces a large, heart-shaped, edible fruit that is 15–20 cm in diameter, is
yellow-green in color, and has white flesh inside.
An introduced W. Indian species.
Part used:
Leaves, fruit, seeds, bark, roots.
Name of drug:
Soursop. Graviola.
Definition:
Soursop or Graviola is the dried leaf of Annona muricata L. (family, Annonaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Soursop trees are bushy and low, only about 7.5-9 m tall. Young
branchlets are rusty-hairy. The smooth, glossy, dark green leaves are oblong to elliptical
and pointed at both ends, 6.25-20 x 2.5-6.25 cm wide. The underside of the leaves is
somewhat lighter than the top. Solitary flowers emerge anywhere on the trunk, branches
or twigs. They are 4-5 cm long, and cone shaped, the 3 fleshy outer petals are yellow-
green, the 3 inner petals are pale-yellow. The fruit looks like something out of a Dr.
Seuss book. It is more or less oval or heart-shaped, though it tends to be lopsided or
curved. The fruit is fairly variable in size, ranging from 10-30 cm long and up to 15 cm in
34
width. They can weigh as much as 6.8 kg. The fruit is covered with a leathery-appearing,
inedible, bitter skin which is covered with many flexible spikes. The skin is dark-green in
the immature fruit, becoming slightly yellowish-green before the mature fruit is soft to
the touch. The inside of the skin is cream-colored and granular. The white flesh, which is
the edible part of the flesh is fibrous and juicy, and separates easily from the rind. The
pulp smells a little like a pineapple, but the sweet, acrid flavor is unique and somewhat
indescribable. The fruit is segmented, with some segments containing a single oval,
smooth, hard, black seed, 1.25-2 cm long. A large fruit may contain from a few dozen to
200 or more seeds.
The plant is grown as a commercial crop for its 20–30 cm (7.9–12 in) long, prickly, green
fruit, which can have a mass of up to 15 lb (6.8 kg), making it probably the second
biggest annona after the junglesop. The flesh of the fruit consists of an edible, white pulp,
some fiber, and a core of indigestible, black seeds. The species is the only member of its
genus suitable for processing and preservation. The sweet pulp is used to make juice, as
well as candies, sorbets, and ice cream flavorings. The seeds are normally left in the
preparation, and removed while consuming.
Total ethyl-acetate extract of soursop nectar showed the presence of acetogenins. The
volatile oil constituents were α-pinene (9.4%), β-pinene (20.6%), ρ-mentha-2,4(8)-diene
(9.8%), β-elemene (9.1%) and germacrene D (18.1%). The flavonol triglycoside,
quercetin 3-O-α-rhamnosyl-(1″″ → 6″)-β-sophoroside, together with twelve known
phenolics were reported in the leaf. A new aporphine alkaloid named annonamine was
isolated from the leaves together with four known benzylisoquinoline alkaloids. Three
new megastigmanes, named annoionols A and B and annoionoside, were isolated from
the leaves together with 14 known compounds including annoionol C isolated from a
natural source for the first time. A methylene chloride extract of the pulp yielded the
previously known C-35 and C-37 mono-epoxy unsaturated compounds, epomuricenins-A
and -B (1+2) and epomusenins-A and -B. Two new mono-epoxy saturated C-35
representatives, epomurinins-A and -B were also isolated.
Tests for identity:
with the descriptions above.
(b) Gas chromatographic examination of steam distilled oil from it to ensure the presence
of β-pinene and α-pinene.
(c) Macrochemical tests on the acidulated water extract of the leaf gives a positive
reaction with the common alkaloidal reagents (Wagner’s, Dragendorff’s, Mayer’s)
(d) Thin-layer chromatographic examination of the leaf extract shows the presence of
annonamine (aporphine) or benzylisoquinoline alkaloids by cochromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
35
Uses:
Antioxidant, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antimicrobial.
Storage:
36
Annona senegalensis Pers.
Family name:
Annonaceae.
Synonym:
Annona africana L.
Common names:
African custard apple, Wild Custard-apple (E).
Pomme Cannelle du Senegal (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫قشدة شبكية‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Gwandar-daajii, Gwangwalaa, Tallafa
maraayu, Jan baroodo.
(d) Peuhl: Dukumi.
(e) Swahili: Mchekwa, Mkonokono, Mtomoko,
Mtomoko-mwitu, Mutopetope, Mwitu.
(f) Yoruba: Abo, Epo, Ibobo.
Annona senegalensis is a shrub or small tree 2-6 m tall but may reach 11 m under
favourable conditions; bark smooth to roughish, silvery grey or grey-brown, with leaf
scars and roughly circular flakes exposing paler patches of under bark. Young branches
with dense, brown, yellow or grey hairs that are lost later. Leaves alternate, simple,
oblong, ovate or elliptic, 6-18.5 x 2.5-11.5 cm, green to bluish-green, almost without
hairs on top, but often with brownish hairs on underside, net veining green to reddish on
both surfaces; apex rounded or slightly notched; base square to slightly lobed; margin
entire; petiole short, 0.5-2.5 cm, thickset. Flowers up to 3 cm in diameter, on stalks 2 cm
long, solitary or in groups of 2-4, arising above the leaf axils; 6 fleshy cream to yellow
petals in 2 whorls, greenish outside, creamy or crimson, 0.8-1.5 x 0.9-1.1 cm, glabrous or
minutely papillose within; inner whorl of the petals curving over the stamens and ovary;
sepals ovate, 3 in number, free, smaller than the petals, 3-4 x 4-5 mm; stamens 1.7-2.5
mm long. Fruit formed from many fused carpels, fleshy, lumpy, egg shaped, 2.5-5 x 2.5-4
cm, ovoid or globose; unripe fruit green, turning yellow to orange on ripening; stalk 1.5-5
cm long; seeds numerous, cylindrical, oblong, orange-brown.
African custard apple is a native to Western and Southern Africa ranging from Senegal to
South Africa. Wild trees are mostly found in semi-arid to sub humid regions occurring
along riverbanks, fallow land, swamp forests and at the coast. Besides Africa, this fruit is
also found in South India.
Part used:
Root, bark, leaves, seeds.
Name of drug:
African custard apple.
37
Definition:
African custard apple is the dried leaf or stem bark of Annona senegalensis Pers. (family,
Annonaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Annona senegalensis is a shrub or small tree 2-6 m tall but may reach 11
m under favourable conditions; bark smooth to roughish, silvery grey or grey-brown,
with leaf scars and roughly circular flakes exposing paler patches of under bark. Young
branches with dense, brown, yellow or grey hairs that are lost later.
Leaves alternate, simple, oblong, ovate or elliptic, 6-18.5 x 2.5-11.5 cm, green to bluish-
green, almost without hairs on top, but often with brownish hairs on underside, net
veining green to reddish on both surfaces; apex rounded or slightly notched; base square
to slightly lobed; margin entire; petiole short, 0.5-2.5 cm, thickset.
Flowers up to 3 cm in diameter, on stalks 2 cm long, solitary or in groups of 2-4, arising

above the leaf axils; 6 fleshy cream to yellow petals in 2 whorls, greenish outside, creamy
or crimson, 0.8-1.5 x 0.9-1.1 cm, glabrous or minutely papillose within; inner whorl of
the petals curving over the stamens and ovary; sepals ovate, 3 in number, free, smaller
than the petals, 3-4 x 4-5 mm; stamens 1.7-2.5 mm long.
Fruit formed from many fused carpels, fleshy, lumpy, egg shaped, 2.5-5 x 2.5-4 cm,
ovoid or globose; unripe fruit green, turning yellow to orange on ripening; stalk 1.5-5 cm
long; seeds numerous, cylindrical, oblong, orange-brown.
Methanolic extract of seeds yielded two new cytotoxic mono-tetrahydrofuran
acetongenins, annosenegalin and annogalene. Stem bark gave four bioactive ent-
kaurenoids (diterpenoids). A known aporphine alkaloid, (-)-roemerine isolated from the
leaves has citotoxic activity.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macrochemical and microchemical examination of the specimen to ensure
compliance with the descriptions given above.
(b) Macrochemical tests on the acidulated water extract of the leaf extract gives a
positive reaction with common alkaloid reagents (Dragendoff’s, Mayer’s, Wagner’s)
(c) Thin-layer chromatographic examination of an alkaloidal extract of the leaf shows the
presence of (-)-roemerine (aporphine alkaloid) by cochromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Cancer, dysentery, cough, venereal diseases, toothache, astringent, anthelminthic, ,
antisickling, cytotoxicity.
Storage:
Store in a cool dry place
38
Anthocleista procera Lepr. ex Bureau
Family name:
Gentianaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Anthocleista frezoulsii A.Chev.
(b) Anthocleista procera var. umbellata
(c)
A.Chev.
Common names:
Cabbage tree, Candelabrum tree (E).
Arbre chou (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Kwari
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
A tree 6–20 m tall, trunk cylindric, 15–50 cm diameter, without buttresses, and without
spines, leaf attaining 145 cm long by 45 cm wide, flower pale green; of swampy places in
open bush country at low elevations
It occurs in tropical Africa, including Comoros and Madagascar.
Part used:
Leaves.
Definition:
Candelabrum is the dried leaf of Anthocleista procera Lepr. ex Bureau (family, Gentianaceae)
Description:
Macroscopical: Small to medium-sized tree up to 20 m tall; bole up to 50 cm in
diameter; twigs without spines. Leaves opposite, simple, sessile; blade oblong-obovate to
oblanceolate, 40–45 cm × c. 20 cm, in young plants up to 145 cm × 45 cm, base cuneate,
auricled, apex rounded, margin entire or minutely crenate, brittle, leathery or papery.
Inflorescence an erect terminal dichasial cyme 30–60 cm long, many-flowered; peduncle
and branches pale green, thickened at the nodes. Flowers bisexual, regular; sepals 4, free,
orbicular or broadly ovate, 9–10 mm × 7–8 mm; corolla with cylindrical tube 35–55 mm
long, lobes c. 9, oblong, 10–15 mm long, obtuse, white; stamens as many as corolla lobes
and alternating with them, exserted, filaments fused; ovary superior, obovoid to
cylindrical, c. 7 mm × 3.5 mm, 4-celled, stigma obovoid-cylindrical, apically slightly
notched. Fruit an ellipsoid berry c. 3 cm × 2 cm, pale green, shining, rounded at the apex,
thick-walled, many-seeded. Seeds obliquely ovoid-globular, 1.5–2 mm × 1–1.5 mm, dark
brown.
Alkaloids
39
Tests for identity:
with the above descriptions.
(b) Macrochemical tests on the alkaloid extract gives a positive reaction with the
common alkaloid reagents (Wagner’s, Drgendorff’s, Mayer’s).
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Bark: abortifacients, ecbolics; antidote for venomous stings, bites, etc. dropsy, swellings,
oedema, gout; leprosy; menstrual cycle, laxatives, etc.
Leaf: febrifuges; liver, etc.
Storage:
40
Antiaris africana Engl.
Family name:
Moraceae.
Synonyms:
(a) Antiaris toxicaria var. africana Scott
Elliott ex A. Chev.
(b) Antiaris toxicaria subsp. africana (Engl.)
C.C. Berg
Common names:
Antiaris (E)
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Farin-loko.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: mkunde.
(f) Yoruba: Ooro, Akiro, Oriro, Aya.
Antiaris africana is a magnificent deciduous tree of the forest canopy, often 20- 40 m tall
with a dome-shaped crown, drooping branchlets and hairy twigs. This tree yields a useful
timber (known as antiaria) for general constructional purposes, and is exported to Europe
in small quantities. Whilst it shares to some extent the toxic properties of Antiaris
toxicaria, it is by no means so aggressively irritant.
In the drier types of forest.
Part used:
Stem-bark, root- bark,sap
Name of drug:
Antiaris
Definition:
Antiaris is the dried stem bark and root bark of Antiaris Africana Engl. (family,
Moraceae)
Description:
Macroscopical: Antiaris africana is a magnificent deciduous tree of the forest canopy,
often 20- 40 m tall with a dome-shaped crown, drooping branchlets and hairy twigs.
Large trees have clear boles and are buttressed at the base. Bark smooth, pale gray,
marked with lenticel dots and ring marks. When cut thin creamy latex drips out,
becoming darker on exposure to air. Leaves variable, usually oval 5-16 cm x 4-11 cm, the
upper half often widest to a blunt or pointed tip, the base unequal and rounded. Saplings
and coppice shoots have long narrow leaves, the edge toothed- but rare in mature leaves.
Mature leaves prominently veined. Leaves are rough, papery with stiff hairs above but
softer below. Male flowers short-stalked, discoid head with many flowers, each flower
with 2-7 sepals and 2-4 stamens, growing just below leaves. Female flowers in disc or
41
kidney-shaped heads to 3 cm across. Ovary adnate to the perianth, 1-locular with a single
ovule and 2 styles. Fruit bright red, ellipsoid, dull and furry, 1.5 cm long, the swollen
receptacle contains just one seed.
From the methanol extract of the stem bark, the α-amyrin derivative 1β,11α-dihydroxy-
3β-cinnamoyl-α-amyrin (antiarol cinnamate, 1) and a cardiac glycoside, 3β-O-(α-L-
rhamnopyranosyl)-14β-hydroperoxy-5β-hydroxy-19-oxo-17β-card-20-enolide
(africanoside), together with β-amyrin and its acetate, β-sitosterol and its 3-O-β-D-
glucopyranoside, friedelin, ursolic and oleanolic acid, 19-norperiplogenin, strophanthidol,
strophanthidinic acid, periplogenin, 3-epiperiplogenin, strophanthidin and 3,3'-
dimethoxy-4'-O-β-D-xylopyronosyl-ellagic acid. Sterols, triterpene alcohols, and
hydrocarbons were present in the unsaponifiable fraction of the seed oils.. Delta(5)-
sterols (1-5) occurred at the highest concentration. alpha-amyrin (urs-12-enol) was the
dominant triterpene alcohol. A mixture of C(18)-C(34) n-alkanes, squalene, and some
monoterpenes was detected in the hydrocarbon fraction.
Tests for identity:
(b) Thinlayer chromatographic examination of the extract to show the presence of .
alpha-amyrin (urs-12-enol) by cochromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Epilepsy, lumbago, skin irritant, purgative and nervous disorders
Storage:
42
Arachis hypogaea L.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonym:
(a) Arachis africana Lour.,
(b) Arachis americana Ten.,
(c) Arachis asiatica Lour.
(d) Arachis nambyquarae Hoehne,
Common names:
Ground-nut. Peanut. Monkey-nut (E).
Arachide. Cacahuète. Pistache de terre (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫فول سوداني‬
(b) Bambara: Tiga
(c) Hausa: Ga-bariya, Gama gari, Gèda, Guiya, Gyada, Gujiya, Càzbín kùréég Bariya.
(d) Peuhl : Gerte
(e) Swahili: Njugu- Nyasa, Karanga
(f) Yoruba: Ȩpa; Ȩpa-gidi, Gege
Annual herbaceous plant around 30 cm high with downy stalks; pinnate alternate leaves
with two pairs of leaflets, developed stipules more or less sessile to leaf-stalks; axillary
yellow flowers, solitary and stalked; after fertilization the fruit is pressed into the soil by
a gynophore where it reaches maturity; the pod contains two to three ovoid seeds.
Grown in all the parts of Africa lying in the tropical zone.
Part used:
The carefully dried roasted or unroasted seeds known as Peanuts. Arachis oil is also used
as will be demonstrated later under the drug name Oleum Arachidis, Arachis oil, Huile
d'arachide.
Names of drug:
Semen Arachidis, Peanut, Graine d'arachide.
Definition:
Peanut is the carefully dried roasted or unroasted seeds of Arachis hypogaeal L. (family,
Fabaceae); containing not more than 3 percent of foreign organic matter and yielding not
less than 44 percent of fixed oil.
Description:
Seeds are copper-coloured, brown or purple; odour, slight; taste, agreeable and bland.
Macroscopical: Whole fruits: Peanuts have one to several seeded pods, commonly two-
seeded, less often three-seeded, and only in certain unusual varieties, are four- or five-
seeded; more or less cylindrical, with swellings over the seeds and constriction in
between; having a single locule. Externally, the fruits are pale yellow, buff or orange
coloured, with a number of longitudinal ridges, connected here and there by branches to
form reticulation on the surface; Framework of shell (Pericarp), thin, 'brittle and papery,
with a silky luster on the inner surface.
43
Seeds: The seeds are nearly ovate, the adjoining ends of the seeds are flattened usually
diagonally. The small hilum of each seed is in the end nearest to the stalk of the fruit;
enveloping each seed is a thin skin, copper coloured, brown or purple on the outer,
yellow or white on the inner side. The skin consists chiefly of the testa with an inner layer
believed to be the endosperm; in this skin, the raphe and its branches (about five)
radiating from the chalaza are evident as veins. Each of the two cotyledons has a
longitudinal groove through the middle of the inner side; radicle, short and not recurved.
Microscopical: Pericarp; formed of five layers; epicarp of exceeding thin-walled cells,
many with characteristic hairs; hypodermis, of more or less rectangular cells, thin-walled
and non-porous, or thick-walled and porous arranged in cork-like radial rows; Mesocarp,
of two layers, an outer parenchymatous layer interrupted by ridges of fibres and an inner
fibrous layer; fibres are transverse and longitudinal, elongated, simple or branched in the
form of T-shape, multiple branched or saw-like these fibres form the ridges through
which the vascular bundles run; Endocarp, comprise pithlike, thin-walled
parenchymatous rounded cells with wide intercellular spaces and collapsed on maturity
of the fruit. Vessels of xylem are of various types.
Seeds: Spermoderm, a modified leguminous type from 4 layers; outer epidermis,
corresponding to the palisade cells of the other legumes, but not so high, being up to 25 µ
in length and up to 50 µ in width, with thick, porous walls in the outer part. They appear
polygonal, with straight beaded walls in surface view; Subepiderm, of thin-walled
polygonal-celled parenchyma (not spool or basket-shaped cf. other leguminous seeds);
spongy parenchyma of the nutritive layer with wide outer cells and narrow inner ones;
Inner epidermis of polygonal straight-walled parenchyma cells; Endosperm, a single
layer of moderately thick-walled cells which are slightly wavy; Embryo, epidermis of the
cotyledons consists of tangentially elongated, straight-walled cells with minute aleurone
grains and stomata of the anomocytic or paracytic type. The mesophyll has thick-walled
porous cells, but no palisade cells. Starch grains up to 15 µ, of globular form with central
hilum; aleurone grains also up to 15 µ, with several globoids and are evident contents.
Powder: Powdered seeds occur as yellowish-white, coarse greasy powder with faint
odour and bland taste. .
Microscopically: Fragments of the skin showing epidermis of spermoderm with porous
cells, thin-walled subepidermal parenchyma, wavy cells from endosperm, epidermis of
the cotyledons with straight walls and anomocytic or paracytic stomata; polyhedral thin-
walled parenchyma with oil globules, aleurone grains and starch granules; both of the
latter being up to 15 µ in diameter.
Peanuts contain 46-51 percent of fixed oil and 26-31 percent of proteins, while the
roasted nuts contain 48-55 percent of oil and 27-34 percent protein formed of arachin and
conarachin both being globulins.
Uses:
Unroasted seeds are expressed to produce archis oil which is used in forming emulsions
and the cake rich in protein is used as cattle food.
Peanuts are largely consumed salted, also in confectionary cakes and biscuits. Peanut
ground to a paste, known as peanut butter, furnish a spread for bread.
Storage:
44
In cold dry places, protected from light.
Arachis oil
Part used:
The fixed oil.
Names of drug:
Oleum Arachidis, Arachis oil and Huile d'arachide.
Definition:
Arachis oil is the fixed oil obtained by cold expression from the seeds of Arachis
hypogaea L. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Arachis oil is a pale yellow, or practically colourless oil; odour, faint, and nut-like; taste,
bland and nutty.
Arachis oil becomes opalescent at 3°C and partially solidifies below –l0°C. On exposure
to air, Arachis oil thickens very slowly and becomes rancid.
Tests for identity and purity:
Sp. gr. at 20°C, 0.911 to 0.926; refractive index at 40°C, 1.4625 to 1.4545; acid value, not
more than 4; saponification value, 186 to 197; iodine value, 83 to 100; unsaponifiable
matter, not more than 1.5 percent.
(a) Arachis oil is very slightly soluble in alcohol (90 percent). It is miscible with ether,
with chloroform, with carbon disulfide, and with petroleum-benzene.
(b) Saponify about 1 ml of Arachis oil in small flask, by boiling gently under
a reflux condenser for 5 minutes, with 5 ml of 1.5 N alcoholic potassium hydroxide,
then add 1.5 ml of acetic acid and 50 ml of alcohol (70 percent), warm until the
solution is clear, and cool slowly with a thermometer dipped in the liquid; the
temperature at which the solution becomes turbid is not lower than 39°C (other
vegetable fixed oils).
(c) Arachis oil does not respond to the tests for rancid oils, for cottonseed oil, for sesame
oil, and for mineral oils.
The presence of cottonseed or sesame oil is indicated by the following test:

1. Mix 2.5 ml with 2.5 ml each of amyl alcohol and a 1 per cent solution of
precipitated sulphur in carbon disulphide and heat the mixture in a closed tube
by immersing to one-third its depth in boiling water; the development of a
pink or red colour within 30 minutes indicates the presence of cottonseed oil.
Shake 2 ml with 1 ml of a 1 percent solution of sucrose in hydrochloric acid;
the development of a pink colour in the acid layer on allowing to stand for 5
minutes indicates the presence of 'sesame oil, if the colour produced is deeper
than that produced by repeating the test without the sucrose.
2. On exposure to air it thickens very slowly and may become rancid.
Uses:
Arachis oil has properties similar to those of olive oil and is used for the same purposes.
45
Emulsions containing 10 percent of Arachis oil and 40 percent dextrose have been used
by intragastric drip as a nitrogen-free diet.
Storage:
It should be stored in well-filled airtight containers. It becomes cloudy at about 3°C and
partly solidifies at lower temperatures. If it has solidified it should be completely
remelted and mixed before use. It is sterilised by dry heat.
46
Argemone mexicana L.
Family name:
Papaveraceae
Synonyms:
(a) Argemone leiocarpa Greene
(b) Argemone ochroleuca Sweet
Common names:
Mexican Prickly Poppy, Prickly poppy, Yellow
Mexican Poppy (E). Pivot epineux, Pavot du Mexique,
Tache de l’oeil, Chardon du pays (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫أرجمون مكسيكي أو خشخاش شائك مكسيكي‬
(b) Bambara: Bozobo
(c) Hausa: Boginahi, Hakoorin-kadaa, Kaaki rowan-
Allah, K’amuk’amu, Karanko, Kuurar-fataakee.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Orisa-ode, Ahon-ekun, Eekan-ekun, Egun-arugbo, Ma-fowokan-omo-mi
Leaves glaucous, oblong-oblanceolate, pinnately lobed, 1/2-3/4 to midrib, both surfaces
sparsely covered with prickles along veins, margins somewhat sinuate-dentate, the teeth
tipped with a prickle, sessile, upper ones usually somewhat clasping the stem. Buds
subglobose, 1.2-1.6 cm long, sparsely prickly; sepal horns terete, 5-10 mm long; petals
bright yellow, 1.7-3 cm long; stamens 30-50; ovary 4-6-carpellate. Capsules oblong to
broadly ellipsoid, 3-4.2 cm long, each valve with 9-15 prickles, the longest one 7-10 mm
long. Seeds numerous, 1.2-1.5 mm in diameter" .
India and all Africa.
Part used:
Aerial parts without seeds, Leaf.
Name of drug:
Prickly poppy.
Definition:
Prickly poppy consists of the fresh or dried leaves of Argemone mexicana L. (family,
Papaveraceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: The height of this plant varies between 0.3 to 0.12 meters, Leaves are
thistle like. Stem clasping, Oblong, sinuately pinnatifid, spinous and viens are white.
Flowers are terminal, yellow and of 2.5–5.0 cm diameter. Fruits are capsule. Prickly and
oblong ovoid. Seeds numerous, globose, netted and brownish black.
Coarse erect herbs with milk sap and prickly stems and leaves; leaves somewhat
irregularly pinnatilobed and serrate, glaucous, the edges crisped-undulate, each tooth
47
spinose; flowers sessile, yellow, showy, up to 6 cm broad.; stems 2.5-10 dm long,
branched, sparsely to moderately covered with prickles.
Microscopical: Groups of fibres with calcium oxalate crystals, spiral vessels, numerous
crystals of calcium oxalate, fragments of a few skins.
Powder: Powder is green, tasteless, rough to touch with characteristic tobacco smell.
Shows parenchyma cells of the leaf epidermis, fibres carrying calcium oxalate crystals as
identified under the general macroscopical characters above; fragments of epidermal
cells, xylem fibres, spiral vessels and numerous free crystals of calcium oxalate.
Mexicana Prickly poppy seeds contain 22–36% of a pale yellow non-edible oil, called
argemone oil or katkar oil, which contains the toxic alkaloids sanguinarine and
dihydrosanguinarine. Four quaternary isoquinoline alkaloids, dehydrocorydalmine,
jatrorrhizine, columbamine, and oxyberberine, have been isolated from the whole plant of
Argemone mexicana. The seed pods secrete a pale yellow latex when cut open. This
argemone resin contains berberine and protopine.
Tannins, benzoquinones, coumarins, mucilage, sterols, triterpenes fat, organic acids,
combined and free amino acids, monosaccharides, Vitamin C, flavonoids (rutin and
quercetin) have also been reported present in the plant.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination to ascertain compliance with the
descriptions given above.
(b) Microchemical tests to confirm the presence of alkaloids.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographical examination to show the presence of sanguinarine,
jatrorrhizine and/or berberine by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
Moisture: 6.53 per cent.
Water soluble extractive: Not less than 20 per cent.
Alcohol (70 per cent) soluble extractives: Not less than 19.4 per cent.
N/A
Uses:
Hypotensive, narcotic, diaphoretic, diuretic antibacterial.
Storage:
In closed containers kept dry and away from light.
48
Areca catechu L.
Family name:
Arecaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Areca cathechu Burm.f.
(b) Areca faufel Gaertn.
(c) Areca hortensis Lour.
(d) Areca himalayana Griff. ex H.Wendl.
(e) Areca nigra Giseke ex H.Wendl.
(f) Areca cathechu Burm.f.
(g) Sublimia areca Comm. ex Mart.
Common names:
Areca nut, Areca Palm , Betel nut palm,
Betelpalm, Catechu (E). Arec, Aréquier(F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫فوفل‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
It is a palm exhibiting a slender single trunk, up to 30 m tall and about 20 cm wide, green
at first, subsequently greyish and ringed by the remains of leaf scars. Its leaves, borne at
stem apex, are pinnate, with a rigid but recurved rachis and several rigid, closely packed
segments. Flowers, yellow and fragrant, are unisexual, clustered in inflorescences basally
arising from the leaves, and enveloped by two spathes; male flowers are more numerous
and located at inflorescence apex, whilst female flowers, less numerous, are to be found
near the base. Fruits are hard, ovoid, red-orange coloured; they possess a fibrous
mesocarp and a thin woody endocarp enveloping one seed.
: Zanzibar and coast of German East Africa, cultivated.
Part used:
The seed
Name of drug:
Areca nut
Definition:
Areca nut is the dried nut of Areca catechu L. (family, Arecaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: It is the most widely cultivated species in the genus Areca and has been
distributed by humans throughout the tropics. As a result of its long history of
domestication, the geographic origin of this palm is not known with certainty (similar
uncertainty surrounds the origin of Coconut (Cocos nucifera), Peach Palm (Bactris
gasipaes), and Sugar Palm (Arenga pinnata). The fruit of A. catechu turns a yellow to
49
scarlet color as it ripens and then consists of a thick fibrous pericarp, the so-called husk,
that encloses the seed. Like other Areca palms, this species is an understory palm and
thrives in humid tropical forests at low to medium elevations. Unlike some other
members of its genus, A. catechu readily self-seeds and is tolerant of open conditions.
Although this species is most often encountered in village gardens, it is also grown on
large-scale plantations in some areas, notably in India. Because this palm is planted
mainly for betel quid production, fruits and seeds have been the main target for selection
by growers, although cultivation for ornamental purposes has increased in recent years. In
cultivation, variation is seen in the overall growth habit and the size, shape, color, and
even taste of the fruits and seeds.
Areca nut contains a large quantity of tannin, also gallic acid, a fixed oil gum, a little
volatile oil, lignin, and various saline substances. Four alkaloids have been found in
Areca nut - Arecoline, Arecain, Guracine, and a fourth existing in very small quantity.
Arecoline resembles Pilocarpine in its effects on the system. Arecaine is the active
principle of the Areca nut.
Tests for identity
(a) Macroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with the
(b) Make an aqueous extract of the plant material. Filter and add a few drops of ferric
choride. A dark colouration is produced.
(c) Make an extract of the alkaloid portion with ammoniacal chloroform. Concentrate the
chloroform layer and confirm the presence of arecoline in it by thin-layer co-
chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Tapeworm, contraction of the pupil, colic.
Storage:
50
Artemisia absinthium L.
Family name:
Asteraceae
Synonyms:
(a) Absinthium officinale Brot.
(b) Absinthium majus Geoffr.,
(c) Absinthium vulgare Lam.
(d) Artemisia absinthia St.-Lag.
(e) Artemisia arborescens var. cupaniana Chiov.
(f) Artemisia arborescens f. rehan (Chiov.)
Chiov.
(g) Artemisia rhaetica Brügger
Common names:
Worm Wood; Old woman absinthe,
Common wormwood, Green ginger or Grand
wormwood (E). Absinthe (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫األفسنتين أو شيح ابن سينا أو شجرة مريم أو الشويالء أو الشيح الرومي أو الدمسيسة‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Herbaceous plant 40 cm to 1m high; leaves in rounded stups, spotted with small acorus;
inflorescence, large flower heads of 4 mm. Very bitter plant, and very sweet smelling.
Mediterranean region of Africa.
Part used:
Dried herb.
Names of drug:
Herba Artemisia absinthium. Absinthium herb. L'herbe d'absinthe.
Definition:
The drug is the dried leaves and flowering tops of Artemisia absinthium L. (family,
Asteraceae) It contains not more than 5 percent of foreign organic matter and yields not
less than 0.3 percent of volatile oil.
Description:
Odour characteristic and aromatic and tastes bitter.
Macroscopical: Stem is solid, nearly cylindrical, greyish-green in colour and
longitudinally striated. Leaves, alternate, exstipulate petiolate. Lower leaves have
pinnatisected lamina and very long petiole, the upper leaves are nearly simple and sessile.
Leaf is greyish green 4-12 cm long and 0.3-9 cm wide, having 5-9 broadly obstrangular
lobes which are repeatedly subdivided into 3-5 smaller ovoid lobes. Lobes have acute
apex, entire margins, lamina has pinnate reticulate venation, upper surface dark green in
51
colour, both surfaces densely covered with smooth hairs. Lamina of the simple leaves is
oval lanceolate, margin entire, apex acute, base symmetric. Petiole, is nearly triangular
with deep groove on the upper side, densely hairy, greyish green and its base broadly
flattened. Flower heads; hemispherical, greenish-yellow, arranged in panicles, peduncle
cylindrical erect, receptacle with central convexity, densely covered with hairs, and
surrounded by involucre of 2 rows, outer bracts oval, thick, distinctly keeled. Greyish
green in colour, outer surface hairy, inner smooth, shiny 0.2-0.3 cm long, 0.05-0.1 cm
wide; inner bracts more lanceolate, longer, thinner, florets of the outer whorls pistillate,
other hermaphrodite, corolla, epigyneous; formed of 5 pale yellow petals forming a tube.
Stamens 5 epipetalous syngenacious, filaments short, anther yellow oblong, ovary
syncarpus of two united carples, unilocular with one ovule, inferior, elongated
cylindrical, 5-ribbed covered with shinning oil glands. Style filiform brown; stigma bifid.
Microscopical: Leaf isobilateral, epidermal cells polygonal with wavy anticlinal walls,
more wavy in the lower epidermis, cuticle smooth stomata on both surfaces, more
numerous on the lower epidermis surrounded by 4 to 6 cells, ranunculaceous type.
Trichomes are numerous nonglandular hairs 1-3 cells uniseriate stalk and a horizontal
twisted end cell (the beam). Another type 1-4 short cells and a dagger-shaped apical end
cell.
Glandular hairs; short stalked bicellular biseriate and a multicellular biseriate head of 4-8
cells, another type of glandular hairs of rare occurrence of short one-celled stalk and
unicellular sac like head. Mesophyll with palisade of 2 rows abutting on each epidermis,
spongy mesophyll of several layers traversed by schizogenous glands. Midrib with
peripheral collenchyma in cortex and shows an arc of vascular bundles. Stem shows
epidermis with numerous hairs similar to those of the leaf; cortex with peripheral
collenchyma in the ridges and endodermis; pericycle with groups of fibres; phloem,
without fibres; xylem, as a continuous cylinder with, pitted, reticulate and spiral vessel;
pith with numerous schizogenous glands; bract, outer epidermal cells similar to those of
the leaf, covered with striated cuticle, the inner epidermis polygonal with lignified
anticlinal walls.
Stomata present only on the outer, trichomes similar to those of the leaf; corolla, outer
epidermal cells elongated having wavy anticlinal walls, striated cuticle, inner with
straight walls and smooth cuticle, stomata present only on both surfaces; stamen,
epidermal cells rectangular with rosette cystals of calcium oxalate; anther, epidermal cells
tabular somewhat collapsed; pollen grains, spherical with 3 pores and 3 germinal furrows
and smooth somewhat collapsed; furrows and a smooth exine; ovary; epidermal cells.
polygonal with straight anticlinal walls, hairs numerous on the outer surface only of the
glandular types; style, epidermal cells tubular covered with smooth cuticle; stigma,
papillosed receptacle, walls pitted, lignified, covered with non-glandular unicellular
twisted hairs.
Powder: Greyish green, taste, bitter, odour, aromatic shows fragment of epidermal cells
of leaves, stems, and flowers, ranunculaceous stomata, glandular and non-glandular hairs,
schizogenous glands, pericyclic fibres with tapering pointed ends, annual, spiral, pitted
vessels.
52
Absinthin, volatile oil contains mainly cineole and thujone.
Tests for identity:
(b) Gas chromatographic examination of the volatile oil to confirm the presence of
cineole and thujone.
Test for purity:
Worm wood contains not more than 1 percent of acid insoluble ash.
Assay:
Extract 10g of the powdered plant with 95 percent alcohol in a continuous extraction
apparatus till complete extraction, concentrated alcoholic extract transferred to 100 ml
volumetric flask containing 25 ml lead acetate 12.5 percent, volume completed with
distilled water. Filter, 50 ml of the filtrate transferred to 100 ml volumetric flask
containing 40 ml sodium phosphate 4.7 percent, volume completed to 100 ml, filter, 1 ml
of the purified extract transferred to test tube, evaporate in water bath; residue dissolved
in 5 ml alcohol 95 percent mixed with 5 ml of the colour reagent (50 percent sulphuric
acid containing 0.5 percent ferric chloride T.S.); warm for one minute on a boiling water
bath, the developed reddish-brown colour measured after 4 hours (400 nm); the
percentage of absinthin deduced from a preconstituted standard curve by adopting the
same procedures (0.1-0.5 mg of pure absinthin was found to obey Beer's law).
Tincture Absinthii.
Uses:
Tonic, stimulant, anthelmintic, has a powerful cytotoxic effect. Dose 4-16 ml of oil.
Storage:
In tightly closed, dark glass containers.
In a cool place, protected from light.
53
Astragalus gummifer Lab.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Astragalus strobiliferus Royle
(b) Astragalus erianthus Willd.
(c) A adpressus Ehrenb. ex Walp
(d) A noemiae Eig. var. Brantii Eig.
Common name:
Tragacanth tree, Tragacanth gum Goat's thorn,
Milkvetch (E). Adragante, Astragale Adragant,
Astragale de Marseille, Gomme Adragante (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫كثيراء او قتاد‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Umbellate shrub reaching 30 cm in height; leaves composed of thorny rachis with 4 to 7
pairs of mucronated and smooth leaflets and smooth or white downed stipules. Flowers
in clusters of two or three at the axils of leaves, calyx of 5 to 7 mm covered with white
down at the base, vexillum ranging from l0 to 12 mm.
Forests, steppe pastoral land, hillsides up to an altitude of 1300-1800 m of Sahel Region
of Africa.
Part used:
Dried gummy exudate.
Names of drug:
Gummi Tragacanthe, Gum Tragacanth and Gomme Adragante.
Definition:
Gum Tragacanth is the dried gummy exudation, obtained by incision from Astragalus
gummifer Lab., and some other African species of Astragalus (family, Fabaceae). Gum
Tragacanth contains not more than 1 per cent of foreign organic matter.
Description:
Gum Tragacanth occurs in thin, frequently curved, ribbon-shaped flakes; about 2.5 cm to
1 cm wide and 0.5 to 3 mm thick, or occasionally in straight or spirally twisted linear
pieces; white to pale yellowish-white, with, numerous concentric ridges or lamellae,
translucent; tough and horny; fracture, short; odourless; taste, mucilaginous. Gum
Tragacanth is rendered easily pulverisable when heated to 50°C.
Powder: Powdered Gum Tragacanth is white to light yellowish-white; showing under the
microscope angular particles of striated mucilaginous cell-walls, few simple, rounded to
elliptical starch granules, 3 to 25 μ in diameter, and occasional compound granules of 2 to
54
4 components; and very few or no fragments of lignified vegetable tissue (distinction
from Indian Gum).
Chemical constituent:
Tragacanth can be separated into two parts on the basis of its behavior when added to
water. The portion soluble in water is termed tragacanthin and the insoluble portion is
named bassorin.
Tragacanth contains also 15 per cent water, traces of starch, cellulose and nitrogenous
substances. No oxydase enzyme is present.
(a) Gum Tragacanth is sparingly soluble in water, but swells into a homogeneous,
adhesive opalescent gelatinous mass. It is insoluble in alcohol.
(b) Mix a small quantity of powdered Gum Tragacanth with a few drops of ruthenium red
T.S.; the particles do not acquire a pink colour (Sterculia Gum and Agar).
(c) To 4 ml of an aqueous solution of Gum Tragacanth (1 in 200), add 0.5 ml of
hydrochloric acid and heat for 30 minutes in a water-bath. Divide the liquid into two
portions.
(d) To one portion, add l.5 ml of sodium hydroxide T.S. and 3 ml of potassio-cupric
tartrate T.S., and warm in a water-bath; a precipitate is formed.
To the other portion, add barium chloride T.S.; no precipitate is formed (cf. Agar).
(e) To 20 ml of an aqueous solution of Gum Tragacanth (1 in 100), add 5 drops of
solution of hydrogen peroxide and 5 drops of benzidine T.S., shake, and allow to
stand; neither blue coloured particles (Indian Tragacanth) nor a blue coloured solution
is obtained (Gum Arabic).
(f) Boil 1 g of Gum Tragacanth with 20 ml of water, until a mucilage is obtained, then
add 5 ml of hydrochloric acid, and again boil the mixture for 5 minutes; no red or
pink colour is produced (Indian Gum or Karaya Gum). .
(g) Mix a small quantity of powdered Gum Tragacanth with a few drops of water,
followed by a few drops of N/50 iodine; the particles are coloured yellow and may
show minute scattered blue points. Examine microscopically; only a few groups of
small rounded starch granules are visible (Starch).
(h) Gum Tragacanth loses, when dried at 100oC, not more than 10 per cent of its weight.
(i) Gum Tragacanth leaves on ignition not more than 5 per cent of ash; acid-insoluble
ash, not more than 0.5 per cent.
(j) Boil 0.5 g of Gum Tragacanth with 20 ml of water, until a mucilage is obtained, add
10 ml of lead acetate T.S.; a flocculent precipitate is formed, filter, and to the filtrate
add 10 ml of solution of lead subacetate; no precipitate is formed, or at most a slight
turbidity is produced (Gum Arabic).
Mucilago Gummi Tragacanthae.
Pulvis Gummi Tragacanthae Compositus.
Uses:
Emulsifying and suspending agent.
Storage:
55
Atropa belladonna L.
Family name:
Solanaceae
Synonym:
Belladonna baccifera Lamk.
Common names:
Belladona. Deadly night-shade leaves (E).
Belladone (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫ست الحسن‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Shrub of 0.5 m to 2 m high, covered with a short down slightly fetid; undivided leaves of
15 cm over 8, gathering in two, one large and one small, purplish-blue flowers; fruits
black berries.
Mediterranean parts of Africa.
Part used:
Leaves with or without the flowering tops.
Names of drug:
Folium Belladonnae. Belladonna Leaf. Feuille de belladone.
Definition:
Belladonna Leaf is the dried leaves, with or without the flowering tops, of Atropa
Belladonna L. (family, Solanaceae), collected from plant in flower. Belladonna Leaf
contains not more than 20 per cent of belladonna stem, not exceeding 5 mm in diameter,
and not more than 2 per cent of foreign organic matter, and yields not less than 0.3 per
cent of total alkaloids of belladonna, calculated as hyoscyamine."
Description:
Belladonna Leaf usually occurs as partly matted masses together, crumpled and twisted,
or broken leaves, or together with some smaller stems and a number of flowers and fruits;
odour, slight; taste, somewhat bitter and acrid.
Macroscopical: Leaf, simple, alternate, but the upper, in pairs, each of a large and a small
leaf; shortly petiolate; petiole, 0.5 to 4 cm long; lamina, oval lanceolate to broadly ovate,
narrowed at the base and slightly deccurent; apex, acute to acuminate, margin, entire; 5 to
25 cm long, 2.5 to 12 cm broad; light green to brownish-green; thin, papery and brittle;
almost glabrous; showing, especially when examined by a lens, numerous, whitish,
slightly raised dots, indicating the crystal cells in the mesophyll; veins, prominent on the
lower surface and run parallel to the entire margin.
Flower, solitary, usually associating the pairs of leaves, pendulous, pedicellate, pedicel,
1.5 to 2 cm long; calyx, deeply 5-10 bed, 1 cm long; corolla, regular, companulate, dull
56
purplish or yellowish-brown, with 5 small reflexed lobes, about 2.5 cm long and 1.2 cm
wide; stamens, 5 short epipetalous; ovary, superior, bicarpillary, with numerous ovules.
Fruit, berry, absent or very few, immature, usually attached to the persistent calyx,
subglobular green to dull purplish-black, pulpy, up to about 12 mm in width, bilocular,
containing numerous small seeds attached to an axial placenta. Seed, about 2 mm long,
somewhat reniform, flattened, campylotropous, with brown reticulate seed-coat and
curved embryo embedded in an oily endosperm. Stem, more or less hollow, cylindrical,
flattened, longitudinally furrowed and hairy.
Microscopical: Leaf, dorsiventral; epidermal cells, with distinctly striated cuticle and
more or less sinuous anticlinal walls, more distinctly sinuous in the lower epidermis;
stomata, present on both surfaces (distinction from Scopolia), but more on the lower;
each surrounded by 3 to 5, mostly 3 subsidiary cells, one of which is distinctly smaller
than the others, cruciferous type; hairs, few, usually present, especially near the veins, on
the lower surface, more numerous on young leaves; glandular hairs, either short with
1- to 3-celled stalk and rounded or club-shaped multicellular head, or long with 4- to 6-
celled stalk, and l-celled ovoid head; non-glandular hairs, uniseriate, 2- to 6-celled,
smooth, thin-walled. Mesophyll shows a single layer of palisade and occasional idioblasts
filled with microsphaenoidal crystals, of calcium oxalate in the spongy parenchyma; such
idioblasts are also present in the tissues of the veins.
Midrib, as well as the big veins, show an array of collateral vascular bundles and
numerous groups of peri medullary phloem. Stem possesses elongated epidermal cells
with longitudinally striated cuticle, few hairs, endodermal starch sheath, small strands of
long thin-walled lignified pericyclic fibres, a ring of vascular bundles having large
reticulate vessels with ellipsoidal bordered pits, perimedullary phloem of supernumerary
strands in the pith, and occasional idioblasts of microsphaenoidal crystals in cortex and
pith. Calyx with numerous glandular hairs, having uniseriate stalks and 1- to 3-celled
heads. Corolla, with inner epidermis papillosed and outer epidermis with glandular hairs.
Pollen grains, in chloral hydrate T.S., subspherical, about 40 microns in diameter
tricolpate, having three broad germal furrows and rows of pits between the ridges on the
exine. Fruit, with epicarp exhibiting polygonal epidermal cells having straight walls,
striated cuticle and stomata; mesocarp, with large pulp cells containing occasional cluster
crystals of calcium oxalate.
Seed exhibits a white to brown seed-coat, with convoluted thick-walled cells, having
prominent ridges over the anticlinal walls.
Powder: Powdered Belladonna Leaf is green to brownish-green; characterized by
fragments showing epidermis with stomata of cruciferous type and striated cuticle;
numerous green fragments of mesophyll with idioblasts of microcrystals of calcium
oxalate; occasional non-glandular and glandular hairs; very few fragments of thin-walled
lignified fibres and reticulate vessels with ellipsoidal pits of stem. Pollen grains and
fragments from flower and fruit may be present.
Alkaloids, mainly hyoscyamine and small amounts of hyoscine, volatile bases- pyridine,
N-methyl pyrroline, N-methyl pyrrolidine and diamine. A fluorescent substance β-methyl
aesculetin.
57
Tests for identity:
(a) Shake 1 g, in powder, for 2 minutes with 10 ml of 0.1N sulphuric acid, filter, and to
the filtrate add 2 ml of dilute ammonia solution and 5 ml of water; extract with 15 ml of
solvent ether, cautiously, to avoid emulsion formation, separate, dry the ether layer over
anhydrous sodium sulphate, and filter; evaporate off the ether in a porcelain dish, add 10
drops of fuming nitric acid and evaporate to dryness over a small flame, add 10 ml
of acetone and, dropwise, a 3 per cent of potassium hydroxide in alcohol (95 per cent); a
deep violet colour develops.
(b) Carry out the method for thin-layer chromatography, in vol. 2, using silica gel G as
the coating substance and a mixture of acetone, water and 13.5M ammonia (ratio 90: 7:
3) as the mobile phase and allowing the solvent front to ascend 10 cm above the line of
application. Apply separately to the chromatoplate, at 2 cm intervals, 5 μl, 10 μl and 20 μl
of each of A and B solutions. Prepare solution (A) by adding 10 ml of 0.05M sulphuric
acid to 1 g, stir for two minutes, filter, add 1 ml of 13.5M ammonia to the filtrate, dilute
to 10 ml with water, extract with 10 ml of ether, separate the ether layer, dry over
anhydrous sodium sulphate, filter, evaporate to dryness on a water-bath, and dissolve the
residue in 0.25 ml of methanol; for solution (B) dissolve 24 mg of atropine sulphate in 9
ml of methanol and add to this 1 ml of a solution containing 7.5 mg of hyoscine
hydrobromide in 10 ml of methanol. After removal of the chromatoplate, dry it at 100 to
105°C for 15 minutes, allow to cool and spray with 10 ml of sodium iodobismuthate
solution followed by 0.05M sulphuric acid until the spots become visible as orange-red to
red on a yellow to grey background. The spots in the chromatograms obtained with
solution (A) are similar to those in the chromatograms obtained with solution (B) with
regard to their Rf (hyoscyamine-atropine, Rf 0.30 to 0.35; hyoscine, Rf 0.8 to 0.9), their
approximate size and colour . .Other spots do not appear, particularly at R f 0.45 to 0.50
(apo-atropine) in the chromatogram obtained with 20 μl of solution (A), or at Rf 0.05 to
0.10 (tropan-3-ol) in the chromatogram obtained with 10 μl of solution (A).
Tests for purity:
(a) Belladonna Leaf shows no papillosed and stomata-free epidermis (Scopolia
Leaf); no raphides (Phytolacca); no cluster crystal in rows and no thick-walled stiff hairs
(Ailanthus).
(b) Shake vigorously about 0.2 g of powdered Belladonna Leaf with 2 ml of dilute
hydrochloric acid, filter, and add to the filtrate a drop of potassiomercuric iodide T.S.; a
precipitate is immediately formed (exhausted Belladonna Leaf).
(c) Belladonna Leaf has no ammoniacal odour (bad storage).
(d) Ash, not more than 16 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 5 per cent.
Assay:
Introduce about 10 g of powdered Belladonna Leaf, module No. 22 accurately weighed,
into a stoppered flask, and add 10 ml of alcohol and 40 ml of ether. Mix well, set aside
for 10 minutes, add 5 ml of dilute solution of ammonium hydroxide, and shake frequently
for one hour.
Transfer the mixture to a small continuous extraction apparatus plugged with cotton-
wool, and when the liquid ceases to flow, pack firmly, and continue the extraction until
complete exhaustion of drug is effected.
58
Evaporate the ethereal extract to about 20 ml, and filter through a small dry filter paper
into a separator. Wash the receiver and filter, previously used, with three successive
portions; each of 5 ml of ether, transferring each to the separator. Add to the mixed
ethereal extract and washings 20 ml of N/I sulfuric acid, shake well, allow to separate,
and run off the lower layer into another separator. Continue the extraction with several
portions; each of 10 ml ofN/I0 sulfuric acid, until complete extraction of the alkaloid is
effected. Mix the acid liquids, wash with about 10 ml of chloroform, run off the latter
into a separator containing 10 ml of water, shake, allow to separate, and reject the
chloroform. Repeat the extraction of the acid liquid with two further portions; each of 10
ml of chloroform, transferring each to the separator containing the same water, and wash
as before. Transfer the water from this separator to that containing the acid liquid, add 20
ml of chloroform, followed by dilute solution of ammonium hydroxide, until distinctly
alkaline, and shake at once. Separate the chloroform layer, and repeat the extraction with
successive portions, each of 20 ml of chloroform, until complete extraction of the
alkaloids is effected, carrying out the extraction as rapidly as possible. Wash the
combined chloroform extracts with about 10 ml of water, reject the water, and dehydrate
the chloroform extract with about 2 g of anhydrous sodium sulfate. Filter the chloroform
extract through a dry filter paper into a porcelain dish and wash the sodium sulfate and
the filter with a few ml of chloroform. Remove the chloroform, add to the residue 2 ml of
dehydrated alcohol R., evaporate to dryness, dry for half an hour at 100° C, and then
cool. Dissolve the residue in 20 ml of N/50 sulfuric acid, and titrate with N/50 sodium
hydroxide, using methyl red T.S. as indicator.
Transfer the titrated liquid to a separator, add a few drops of dilute solution of ammonium
hydroxide, and shake with successive portions of chloroform.
Evaporate the chloroform, add to the residue a few drops of fuming nitric acid R.,
evaporate on a water-bath, cool, and add to the residue a few drops of alcoholic
potassium hydroxide T.S., a violet colour is produced.
Extractum Belladonnae Fluidum
Extractum Belladonnae Siccum
Pulvis Belladonnae Standardizata
Tinctura Belladonnae
Aluminium Hydroxide and Belladonna Mixture
Uses:
Parasympatholytic and anticholinergic.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, in a cool dry place protected from light.
59
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Family name:
Meliaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Antelaea azadirachta (L.) Adelb.
(b) Antelaea javanica Gaertn
(c) Melia azadirachta L.
(d) Melia indica (A. Juss.) Brandis
(e) Melia indica Brand.
Common names:
Indian lilac. Nim. Neem. Margose (E). Lilas
des Indes, Margousier, Nim (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫ازادخت‬
(b) Bambara: Sa furani, Mali yirini,
(c) Hausa: Dogo'n yaro
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Mwarobaini, Mwarubaini kamili
(f) Yoruba: Dongo yaro, Igi-Oba
A tree that can reach 25 m in height, straight-boled, with striped and fissured bark;
alternate paripinnate leaves with about 5-8 pairs of asymmetrical leaflets at the base, long
acuminate tip; inflorescence in axillary panicles; flowers white numerous and pedicellate,
fruit ovoid, yellow when ripe containing only one seed.
Originates from India, but it is naturalized all over intertropical Africa especially in the
coastal plains.
Parts used:
Leaves.
Name of drug:
Neem leaves. Folium Azadirachti.
Definition:
Neem is the fresh or dried leaf of Azadirachta indica A. Juss., (family, Meliaceae).
Description:
Odour, strong and characteristic; taste, bitter.
Macroscopical: The leaves are pinnate or alternate in arrangement. On each leaf there
may be up to 5-8 pairs of leaflets attached to the main strand through a small petiole. The
leaflets are ovate-Ianceolate to lanceolate falcate, asymmetrical at base, long acuminate
and coarsely serrated at the edges with acuminate apex and glossy appearance.
Microscopical: A transverse section of A. Indica leaf (midrib) shows a collateral
structure and characteristic sub-epidermal masses of collenchyma on both surfaces. The
xylem takes the form of a strongly curved arc while both surfaces have smooth cuticle,
epidermal cells with almost straight walls, particularly those of the upper epidermis. The
60
stomata of anomocytic type are present in the lower epidermis while they are absent on
the upper epidermis.
Palisade ratio is 4.5 to 6.20 to 7.80 (upper epidermis only).
Stomata index is 5.0 to 12.8 for upper epidermis, there is no stomata on lower epidermis.
Stomatal number is 200 to 333 to 500.
Veinlet number is 2.5 to 3.0.
Vein let termination number is 26.0 to 28.0.
Powder: Colour , greenish-brown; taste, slightly bitter; odour, alliaceous. Straight walls
epidermal cells; lamina pieces showing anomocytic stomata, collenchymatous cells,
xylem vessels, epidermal cell walls straight; lignified vascular elements in veins and
veinlets; rosette crystals present; starch granules absent.
Contains azadirachtin, salannin, meliantriol, azadirone, azadiradione, gedunin and other
meliacins.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination to comply with the descriptions given
above.
(b) Make a methanol extract of the leaf of Azadirachta indica A. Juss. It gives positive
tests for triterpenes, fatty acids and glycosides. It gives negative tests for alkaloids,
carboxylic acids and phenols.
Test for purity:
(a) Azadirachta indica leaf contains no starch granules.
(b) Total ash should not be more than 11.6 per cent. Acid-insoluble ash should not be
more than 1.2 per cent.
(c) Water-soluble ash should not be less than 1.8 per cent.
(d) Foreign organic matter, Not more than 2 per cent.
(e) Water soluble extractive: Not less than 16 per cent.
(f) Moisture: Not more than 30 per cent (fresh leaf).
(g) Alcohol-(70 per cent.)-soluble: Not less than 22 per cent.
Uses:
Used as an anti-inflammatory agent, antimalarial and as an insecticide.
Storage:
Store in a cool dry place.
61
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.
Family name:
Balanitaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Ximenia aegyptiaca L.
(b) Agialida senegalensis Van Tiegh.
(c) Balanites zizyphoides Mildbr.& Schlechter
Common names:
Myrobalan. Soapberry tree. Thorn tree. Desert
date (E). Myrobalan d'Egypte. Dattier du
desert (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الهجليج المصري او زقوم‬
(b) Bambara: Serene, Segene, Segere, Zekene.
(c) Hausa: Aduwa, Adua.
(d) Peuhl: Goleteki, Tani, Mutoki, Mourotauki, Muceteeki.
(e) Swahili: Mnyara, Njienjia.
(f) Yoruba: Adowa
Small straight boled tree of 8 to 9 m high, dark coloured bark with deep stripes; branches
with strong thorns reaching 8cm in length; petiolated leaves with two subsessile leaflets
of 3 over 2.5 cm; inflorescence in bunches or axillary racemes; flowers greenish-yellow;
the fruit ovoid drupe of 3 to 4 cm in length and turns yellow when ripe.
Sudanese-Sahelian regions of Africa.
Part used:
Seed.
Name of drug:
Desert date and Balanites seed.
Definition:
Balanites seed is the dried ripe seeds of Balanites aegyptiaca Del. (Family, Balanitaceae).
It contains not less than 0.5 per cent of total sapogenins.
Description of the drug:
Macroscopical: Stem bark flat or channeled pieces; outer bark with vertical cracks,
lenticullate; colour yellowish grey; inner bark with fine vertical striations; colour buff;
fracture short; odour characteristic; taste bitter.
Microscopical: Transverse and longitudinal sections show thin-walled lignified cork
cells; outer cells show exfoliations; thin three-layered cambial cells separate the cork
layer from the cortex; cortex consists of isolated groups of numerous sclereids with
thickened lignified walls and small lumen; two types of sclereids- isodiametric and
elongated cells; large rosette crystals occur in some cortical parenchyma; phloem tissue
consists of parenchyma and broad medullary rays with prismatic calcium oxalate crystals,
lignified phloem fibres occur in isolated groups among the phloem parenchyma.
62
Powder: Buff-coloured; odour sternutatory; taste bitter; numerous sclereids, isodiametric and
elongated, lignified; long fibres both lignified and non-lignified; few cork cells, rosette
and prismatic calcium oxalate crystals; starch grains present.
0.5 per cent Diosgenin//Yamogenin; 50 per cent fixed oil, protein, carbohydrates,
saponins, balanitoside, pregnane glycosides.
Test for identity:
(a) Examine macroscopically and microscopically to ensure compliance with the
(b) Perform the tests for steroidal sapogenins described in Vol. 2 of the first edition.
Tests for purity:
Moisture: Not more than 8.5 per cent.
Water-soluble extractives: Not more than 16.3 per cent.
Alcohol (70 per cent.)-soluble extractives: Not less than 14.8 per cent.
Uses:
The diosgenin obtainable from the seeds is used in the partial synthesis of sex hormones,
oral contraceptives and corticosteroids. Antidiabetic, antihelminthic, antipyretic,
anticancer, molluscicidal.
Storage:
Store in a cool dry place away from moisture.
63
Bauhinia reticulata DC.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
Piliostigma reticulatum (DC.) Hochst.
Commom names:
Camel’s foot (E). Pied de chameau,
Semellier (F).
African names
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Niama, Niama tiene.
(c) Hausa: Kargoo, Kalgoo.
(d) Peuhl: Barkey, Bordedji, Barkewi.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Abafe, Abafin, Ubons.
Evergreen shrub or small tree with a twisted bole to 9 m high, with a bushy spherical
canopy. Bark dark grey to brown, fibrous and corky, slash dark red. Leaves large, thick,
leathery, grey-green, 6-12 cm long x 4-8 cm wide; split in half in cattle-hoof shape, apex
bilobate, obtuse ; 9 palmate conspicuous central nerves. Flowers dioecious, clustered in
short, hairy, axillary racemes measuring 4-5 cm. Petals white with pink stripes. Fruit
large, long, straight, undulate or twisted and hard, either glabrous or sparsely pubescent,
brown, indehiscent, up to 25 cm long x 5 cm wide.
Piliostigma reticulatum occurs in the Sahelo-Sudanian region from Senegal and
Mauritania eastward to Sudan. It has been introduced into Mozambique.
Part used:
Leaves, barks.
Name of drug:
Camel’s foot.
Definition:
Camel’s foot is the dried leaves of Piliostigma reticulatum (DC.) Hochst. (family,
Fabaceae).
Description :
Macroscopical: Dioecious shrub or small tree up to 10(–15) m tall; bole short, rarely
straight, up to 30 cm in diameter; outer bark deeply fissured to cracked, grey to brown,
inner bark pink to red; crown rounded and dense; branches grey, waxy and glabrous.
Leaves alternate, conspicuously bi-lobed; petiole 1–3.5 cm long, swollen at both ends;
blade 5–12 cm × 4–18 cm, cordate or rounded at base, lobes rounded or more or less
cuneate, coriaceous, glabrous, greyish-green, palmately veined with 8–11 basal veins.
Inflorescence an axillary or terminal panicle, 5–15 cm long, shortly pubescent. Flowers
unisexual, c. 2.5 cm in diameter; calyx 5-toothed, 15–20 mm long; petals 5, obovate,
white with pink stripes; male flowers with 10 stamens, anthers brown. Fruit an oblong
pod 15–30 cm × 2.5–5 cm, straight, undulate or twisted, woody, hard, glabrous or
64
sparsely pubescent, brown, flat, pruinose, sometimes twisted and cracked, indehiscent
and persisting, many-seeded. Seedling with epigeal germination.
Tannins.
Test for identity:
(b) Extract the specimen with water. Add a few drops of ferric chloride solution. A dark
colouration appears.
Test for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Tooth ache, antidiarrhoeal, anticonvulsant, sedative, vibriocide.
Storage
65
Bobgunnia madagascariensis (Desv.) J. H. Kirkbr. & Wiersema
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
Swartzia madagascariensis Desv.
Common names:
Snake bean tree (E). Petit dim (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Samakara, firin gama, kõngo
dugura ni, sama kara, sama kata,
samagara, samãn kara.
(c) Hausa: Bayama, Bogozage, Gama fada,
Gwazkiya.
(d) Peuhl: Gugirki, Gugiriki.
(e) Swahili: msekeseke
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Brief description of the plant :
It is widely distributed across wooded habitats in Africa. It is usually small, with thick,
rough grey bark with longitudinal cracks and a light, rounded crown. For several months
each year the tree is bare, although the cylindrical chocolate-brown seed pods remain and
make it quite distinctive. When damaged the tree exudes a dark-colour gum and a pea-
like scent. The leaves have an odd number (imparapinnate) of greyish coloured leaflets
with yellow hairs on the underside. The tree bears fragrant pale, pea-like flowers
followed by the pods that release 10-15 seeds when the sticky yellow flesh around them
rots on the ground.
Widespread in tropical Africa and the Mascarene Islands.
Part used:
Whole plant, leaves, root and bark.
Name of drug:
Snake bean fruit.
Definition
Snake bean fruit is the dried ripe fruits of Swartzia madagascariensis Desv. (family,
Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Small or medium deciduous tree up to 18 m or occasionally a shrub; bark
grey or brown, deeply fissured or reticulate. Young branches, leaf rachides and
inflorescence axes and pedicels rather conspicuously covered with a rusty-brown or
greyish dense pubescence or tomentum, but fairly quickly somewhat glabrescent, the
indumentum inconspicuous at time of fruiting. Leaves: petiole and rachis together (3)6–
15(18) cm long; leaflets (3)5–9(13), alternate or occasionally opposite, each (1)2–6(10) ×
(0.8)1.2–3(5.7) cm, usually elliptic or broadly elliptic, occasionally ovate- or obovate- or
oblong-elliptic, rounded to emarginate at the apex, rounded at the base, usually markedly
darker above than beneath (particularly when young), the lower surface densely
66
appressed-pubescent and the upper surface sparsely so when young, tending to be
glabrescent with age; petiolules 1–3(4) mm; stipels absent or present at the base of the
terminal leaflet only. Racemes up to 5(8) cm long, sometimes appearing branched, with
up to 10 flowers but sometimes much reduced so that the flowers appear to be in sessile
fascicles of 2 or 3 or solitary in the leaf axil; bracts subtending pedicels triangular, up to 3
mm long, rapidly falling and often leaving two short stipules; pedicels 1–3(4) cm long.
Calyx globose and 6–7 mm in diameter before anthesis, then splitting for about half its
length into 2–5 lobes and reflexing. Petal 1, 2–3.6 × (1.8)2.2–3 cm including the short
claw, white with a yellow patch at the base inside, crinkled, densely covered with
appressed brown or greyish hairs outside, glabrous inside. Stamens probably 50–60,
exceeded by the petal, somewhat unequal, yellow or orange. Gynophore 7–12 mm long,
bearing the ovary usually largely clear of the stamens. Pods (6)8–18(30) × 1–1.7(2.3) cm,
roughly cylindrical, usually somewhat bumpy and twisted, hard, dark brown to black,
pendent, indehiscent, with several to many seeds. Seeds 7–8 × 5–7 × 3 mm, oblong-
reniform, compressed, with a small hilum below the radicular lobe, pale brown or
greyish, shiny.
Fruit: Saponin, flavonoid,glycoside.
Tests for identity:
descriptions.
(b) Shake the powdered fruit with water. It foams and the foam does not disappear on
heating.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Molluscicidal, Antifungal, insecticidal (fower).
Storage:
67
Bridelia ferruginea Benth.
Family name:
Phyllanthaceae
Synonym:
Gentilia chevalieri Beille
Common names:
Bridelia (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Saguan, Sabua, Sagba, Sagua, Saguin,
Dafi sagwan, Sagwan baboni.
(c) Hausa: Kumi, Kirni, Kisni, Kurni.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba:Ira, Ira odan, Eepo ira, Ura, Asaragba.
A shrub or small tree up to c. 6 m high with spiny branches. Bark cracked, grey.Twigs
dark brown. Young shoots and petioles densely ferrugineous-tomentose.
Guinée and Mali eastwards to the Central African Republic and from Gabon south and
east to Angola and extreme NW Zambia.
Part used:
Leaf and stem bark
Name of drug:
Bridellia
Definition:
Bridellia consists of the leaf or stem bark of Bridellia ferrigeia Benth. (family,
Phyllanthaceae)
Description:
Macroscopical: A shrub or small tree up to c. 6 m high with spiny branches. Bark
cracked, grey. Twigs dark brown.Young shoots and petioles densely ferrugineous-
tomentose. Petioles 5–7 mm long. Stipules 5–6 × 1.5–2 mm, lanceolate, acuminate,
tomentose, readily caducous.Leaf blades 4–10 × 3–5.5 cm, elliptic to elliptic-ovate,
subacute to shortly obtusely acuminate, rounded, truncate or sometimes cordulate at the
base, thinly coriaceous, evenly pubescent along the midrib and main nerves above and
beneath, otherwise sparingly so, glossy green above and paler beneath when fresh, drying
dark brown or greyish-brown above, dark reddish-brown beneath; lateral nerves in 7–10
pairs, cheilodromous, scarcely prominent above, prominent beneath, tertiary nerves
parallel, fairly prominent beneath, quaternary nerves reticulate. Male flowers: pedicels 1–
1.5 mm long, puberulous; sepals 2 × 1 mm, triangular-ovate-lanceolate, acute, puberulous
without, glabrous within, yellowish-green; petals 1 × 0.75 mm, obdeltoid-spathulate,
incised or tridentate at the apex, cornute, glabrous; disk 1.5–2 mm in diameter, annular, ±
smooth; staminal column 1 mm high; anthers 0.7 × 0.5 mm; pistillode 0.5 mm high,
68
conical, notched at apex. Female flowers subsessile; sepals 1.5 × 1.5 mm, triangular,
thick, otherwise as in male; petals elliptic-obovate, puberulous without, otherwise as in
male; outer disk ± as in male; inner laciniate at the apex, ciliate within, pubescent or
subglabrous; ovary 1.5 × 1 mm, ellipsoid, 2-celled; styles 2, c. 1 mm long, ± free, bifid,
stigmas ± smooth. Fruit c. 7 × 4–5 mm when dried, ellipsoid to ovoid-ellipsoid, 1-locular
by abortion, green at first, then reddening and becoming purplish-black at maturity. Seeds
5 × 3 mm, smooth, brownish.
Microscopy: Leaf dorsiventral with abundant fragments of lamina cells in sectional view,
showing the upper epidermis with no stomata, presence of thin cuticle; palisade layer is
single and cells are closely packed; lower epidermis is covered with fairly thick smooth
cuticle and consists of cells similar to the upper epidermis; trichomes are multicellular;
covering hairs, non-glandular, stomata, few, paracytic, surrounded by 2-3 subsidiary
cells; mesophyll parenchymatous; vascular bundles with phloem consisting of soft, thin
walled elements; the xylem vessels occur with groups of parenchyma cells in between;
idioblasts of microspaeroidal crystals of calcium oxalate, abundant in the mesophyll and
a few ones scattered in the parenchyma and the phloem; midrib at the upper epidermis
consists of polygonal, straight-walled cells with thick cuticle. Transverse section of the
stembark shows coastal and intercoastal regions filled with screnchymatous cells and
interspersed with various crystals of calcium oxalate. The bark surrounds the
paenchymatous cells which also contain crystals of calcium oxalate. Anticlinal walls of
parenchymatous cells are mostly straight, occasionally undulate and contain large
quantities of tannins. The radial tangential section shows diffuse ray tissues which are
hetrogeneous and multiseriate. Medullary rays contain calcium oxalate 0.15 +-0.07mm
by 0.085-+0.02mm.
Powder: Leaf powder greenish, odourless; taste bland; fragments of lamina show
trichome on veins and veinlets; numerous simple starch grains; lignified fibres; vessels,
veins and veinlet fragments. Abundant fragments of the lamina cells in surface view;
cells with thin sinuous anticlinal walls of the upper epidermis slightly thick-walled lower
epidermal cells with fragments of hairs, few paracytic stomata; scattered polygonal,
straight-walled cells of the upper epidermis; midrib with thick cuticle. Stem-bark with
pitted vessels that are alternate and large, few 9.8 µ -33.6 µ. fibres of different sizes
varying from 21 µ to 50 µ, some containing prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate.
Flavonoids (Bridelilactone and Bridelilactoside, apigenin and kaempferol etc.) ,
triterpenes, glycosides, saponins, steroids; tannins, astringents, lignans and phenols.
Tests for identity
b) Macrochemical tests for the presence of flavonoids, glycosides, steroids and tannins
Tests for purity:
Water-soluble ash: Not less than 1.3 per cent.
Water-soluble extractive: Not less than 31.4 per cent.
69
Alcohol (70 per cent. )- soluble extractive: Not less than 31.4 per cent.
N/A
Uses:
Antidiabetic, antihypertensive, anti-viral, antimicrobial, diuretic, antipyretic.
Storage:
70
Caesalpinia bonduc L. (Roxb.)
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Guilandina bonduc L.
(b) Guilandina bonducella L.
(c) Caesalpina bonducella (L.) Fleming
(d) Caesalpina crista of Small and other
authors
(e) Guilandina crista (L.) Small
(f) Caesalpinia crista Thunb.
(g) Guilandina crista auct. non (L.) Small
Common names:
Gray nicker, Nicker seed, Bonduc nut, Nicker nut, Nicker bean, Yellow nicker, Benga
nut, Physic-nut (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: Akit-makit, Banduc.
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Yayandara, Yaayan-daraa.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ayoo
Gray nicker is a twisted, woody shrub than can grow quite big in the Amazon Rainforest;
up to 20' high. It behaves more like a liana (woody vine) and can use the other trees as
support. Leaves are bipinnate, large prickly pods and spiny stems. The hard and shiny
seeds are green turning gray. They are used for jewelry. Gray nicker is a twisted, woody
shrub than can grow quite big in the Amazon Rainforest; up to 20' high. It behaves more
like a liana (woody vine) and can use the other trees as support. Leaves are bipinnate,
large prickly pods and spiny stems. The hard and shiny seeds are green turning gray.
They are used for jewelry.
Widespread in the tropics of the Old and New Worlds.
Part used:
Root, Bark, Leaves, Nuts, Seeds.
Name of drug:
Gray nicker.
Definition:
Gray nicker is the dried nuts of Caesalpinia bonduc L. (Roxb.) (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Perennial, Shrubs, Herbs, Vines, twining, climbing, Woody throughout,
Stems erect or ascending, Stems or branches arching, spreading or decumbent, Stems 1-2
m tall, Stems greater than 2 m tall, Trunk or stems armed with thorns, spines or prickles,
71
Stems solid, Stems or young twigs glabrous or sparsely glabrate, Leaves alternate, Leaves
petiolate, Stipules conspicuous, Stipules green, triangulate to lanceolate or foliaceous,
Stipules persistent, Stipules free, Leaves compound, Leaves even pinnate, Leaves
bipinnate, Leaf or leaflet margins entire, Leaflets opposite, Leaflets alternate or
subopposite, Leaflets 10-many, Leaves glabrous or nearly so, Inflorescences racemes,
Inflorescence terminal, Bracts conspicuously present, Flowers actinomorphic or som
ewhat irregular, Calyx 5-lobed, Calyx hairy, Petals separate, Petals clawed, Petals orange
or yellow, Banner petal narrow or oblanceolate, Banner petal ovoid or obovate, Wing
petals narrow, oblanceolate to oblong, Wing tips obtuse or rounded, Keel tips obtuse or
rounded, not beaked, Stamens 9-10, Stamens completely free, separate, Stamens long
exserted, Filaments glabrous, Style terete, Fruit a legume, Fruit unilocular, Fruit freely
dehiscent, Fruit tardily or weakly dehiscent, Fruit orbicular to subglobose, Fruit exserted
from calyx, Fruit spiny, bur-like, with hooked bristles or prickles, Fruit 1-seeded, Fruit 2-
seeded, Fruit 3-10 seeded, Seeds ovoid to rounded in outline, Seed surface smooth, Seeds
olive, brown, or black.
Alkaloids, Glycosides and Terpenoids.
Tests for identity:
(b) Make an extract with ammoniated chloroform. Shake with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Test the acidic extract with the common alkaloid reagents (Wagner’s, Dragendorff’s,
Mayer’s reagents). A positive reaction (precipitate) is obtained.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, fever, cough, worms, flatulence, dyspepsia, jaundice,
arthritis, splenomegaly and diabetes.
Storage:
72
Cajanus cajan Millsp.
Family names:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cytisus cajan L.
(b) Cajanus indicus Spreng.
Common names:
Field-pea, Pigeon pea (E). Pois d'Angol, Pois
de pigeon (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫بسلة هندية او بسلة الحمام‬
(b) Bambara:
(c) Hausa: Waken-masar, Waken-turawa,
Achi-shiru, Waken gizo, Waaken-
danfamii, Aduwaa.
(d) Peuhl:
(e) Swahili: Mbaazi
(f) Yoruba: Otili,Otinli, Feregede.
Annual or biennial shrub of 2 m high with stalks and leaves covered with white down;
trifolioliate leaves; short leaf stalks, oblong lanceolate folioles, inflorescence
corymbiform racemes; flowers brownish yellow; oblong linear pods obliquely constricted
between the seeds that vary from 3 to 6.
Originates from India and cultivated in the tropical regions of Africa.
Part used:
The dried ripe seeds known as pigeon pea.
Names of drug:
Semen Cajani Indici, Cajanus seed, Pigeon pea. Seme de Cajani.
Definition:
Pigeon pea is the dried ripe seeds of Cajanus cajan Millsp. (family, Fabaceae),,
containing not more than 3 per cent foreign organic matter.
Description:
Odourless when dry, characteristic when soaked in water; taste, slight, characteristic.
Macroscopical: Seeds are more or less spherical or sub-spherical, with smooth, glassy,
light to dark brown surface, 5 mm to 7.5 mm in length, 5 mm to 6 mm in width and 3.5
mm to 5 mm in thickness. It has a strongly convex dorsal side and more or less straight
ventral side. The hilum and micropyle are neighbouring each other and a short raphe is
present in the lower part of the ventral side; the hilum, covered by whitish remains of the
funicle in the form of two prominent ridges mounted on the hilum and occupies most of
the ventral side in the form of white long line; the seed being anatropous. The micropyle,
opposite to the radicle in the upper most part of the ventral side, the seed hard to break,
but becomes soft when soaked in water for about 24 hours. The seed is formed of thin
hard testa enclosing a large embryo filling its cavity, being exalbuminous. The embryo is
73
found of two large cotyledons enclosing the plumule and a small radicle slightly
projecting on the upper most part of the dorsal and ventral sides.
Microscopical: The seed shows a thin leathery testa with very thin cuticle, enclosing a
slightly accumbent embryo. The testa, formed of three layers, the epidermis, the
hypodermis and the parenchymatous nutritive layer. The epidermis consists of one layer
of cells in the different regions and two layers in the hilum region, palisade-like, being
radially elongated very closely packed, nearly equal in length in the different regions
except the hilum regions where they are slightly shorter having unequally thick, highly
refractive cellulosic, non-lignified walls with bar-like thickening, lumen narrow at the
outer extremity and wide, rounded or irregular at the base. These cells show a shining
line near its outer extremity. The cells appear from both upper and lower sides polygonal
5-6 sides, isodiametric with thick walls with narrow or wide lumen. The epidermal cells
measure 13 to 21 microns in length, 9 to 17 microns in width and 82 to 107 microns in
height. The hypodermis consists of a continuous single layer of radially elongated cells,
each resembling the tibial bone, basket or watch glass, consisting of narrow, shaft-like
middle part and two swollen extremities, having cellulosic, non-lignified, highly
refractive, unevenly thickened walls, with narrow lumen in the middle part and wide at
both extremities, the intercellular spaces between the constricted middle parts of each of
two contiguous bearer cells are wide and appear hexagonal or oval in shape. The cells
measure 9 to 17 microns in length, 13 to 21 microns in width and 43 to 64 microns in
height. In surface view, the cells appear polygonal in outline and show two concentric
rings, the outer ring corresponding to the wide lumen, and the inner ring to the narrow
lumen. The parenchymatous nutritive layer consists of 8 layers or more of large
tangentially elongated cells in the inner part and smaller cells in the outer, having thin
walls and containing large masses of protein filling the entire cell cavity. The embryo is
formed of small thin-walled parenchymatous cells, the cotyledons consist of an epidermis
of tabular mostly quadrangular cells and a mesophyll of radially elongated cells, filled
with starch granules. Aleurone grains are extended in the epidermal cells forming
aleurone layer, and also they are present in subepidermis and in few cells of mesophyll,
very small, polygonal or rounded and each containing one globoid.
Powder: Yellowish-brown, odourless, with slight characteristic taste. It is characterized
by the presence of fragments of the seed coat showing more or less polygonal
isodiametric cells with thick walls and narrow lumen when seen in top view and
relatively wide lumen when seen in base view, fragments of hypodermis with polygonal
cells with two concentric rings fragments of parenchymatous nutritive layer of the seed
showing elongated cells containing deposits of proteins, occasional parenchymatous cells
from embryo containing starch granules and aleurone grains, starch grain polyhedral with
round angles, oval or rarely rounded, simple or compound, showing faint concentric
striation and centric fissured, 2-3 branched hilum.
Pigeon pea seeds contain protein (10-11 per cent), fat (1.7-2 per cent); carbohydrates (68-
70 per cent); calcium (154-180 mg/100 g); phosphorous (255-284 mg/l00 g) and iron
(8.8-92 mg/100 g), in addition to saponins and flavonoids. Phenylalanine, p-hydroxy
benzoic acid, tryptophan and cajaminose are present in the aqueous ethanolic and water
extracts and are responsible for its antisickling (reversal and inhibitory) activity.
74
Tests for identity:

(b) Phytochemical tests to confirm the presence of glycosides and for flavonoids.
Tests for purity:
Ash 10.55-11.20 per cent; acid insoluble ash, 0.14-0.15 per cent and water-soluble ash
3.79-4.23 per cent, crude fiber 4.66-9.59 per cent.
Uses:
Seeds are used as a food in the cooked form. Also useful as antisickling (reversal and
inhibitory) agent.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, in a cool dry place, protected from light.
75
Calotropis procera (Aiton) W. T. Aiton
Family name:
Asclepiadaceae
Synonyms:
Asclepias procera Aiton.
Common names:
Giant Swallow wort, Milkweed, Apple of
Sodom, Giant milkweed, Roostertree (E).
Arbre à soie du Sénégal; Pomme de Sodome
(F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫العشار الباسق أو العشر‬
(b) Bambara: Pompopogolo, Mpopopogolo, Ngeyi, , Fogofoko, Tomo ndeke.
(c) Hausa: Tumfaafia, Bambambele.
(d) Peuhl: Bwami, Bamanbi, Baawan bawan.
(e) Swahili: Mpamba mwitu, Ol dule, Olmasiigi.
(f) Yoruba: Bomubomu, Bomibomu.
Calotropis procera is a shrub or small tree up to 2.5 m (max. 6) high, stem usually
simple, rarely branched, woody at base and covered with a fissured, corky bark; branches
somewhat succulent and densely white tomentose; early glabrescent. All parts of the
plant exude a white latex when cut or broken. Leaves opposite, simple, subsessile, stipule
absent; blade oblong-obovate to broadly obovate, 5-30 x 2.5-15.5 cm, apex abruptly and
shortly acuminate to apiculate, base cordate, margins entire, succulent, white tomentose
when young, later glabrescent and glaucous. Inflorescence a dense, multiflowered,
umbellate cyme arising from the nodes and appearing axillary or terminal; flowers
hermaphroditic, pentamerous; pedicle 1-3 cm long; calyx 5-lobed, shortly united at the
base, lobes ovate, 4-7 x 3-4 mm, glabrescent. Fruit, a simple, fleshy, inflated, subglobose
to obliquely ovoid follicle up to 10 cm or more in diameter; seeds numerous, flat obovate,
6 x 5 mm, with silky white pappus 3 cm or more long. The specific name, procera is
Latin for tall or high.
An introduced plant originally from Africa and Asia now naturalized across northern
Australia and also in South Australia.
Part used:
Leaves, Flowers, root bark.
Name of the drug:
Caloptropis. Mudar.
Definition:
Caloptropis or Mudar is the dried root of Calotropis procera (Aiton) W. T. Aiton (family,
Asclepiadaceae) freed from its outer cork layer.
76
Description:
It occurs in commerce in short quilled pieces about 1/5 to 1/10 of an inch thick and not
over 1 1/2 inch wide. Deeply furrowed and reticulated
Macroscopical: Shrub or small tree to 4 m high. Stems with soft thick corky bark.
Leaves grey-green, 5–20 cm long, 4–15 cm wide, lower leaf surface densely covered in
short white hairs; base of leaf heartshaped and stem-clasping; on leaf stalk to 0.4 cm
long. Fruit a grey-green pod, splitting to release seeds. Seeds numerous, ovate, flattened,
brown, ending in a tuft of white silky hairs.
Deeply furrowed and reticulated, colour greyish buff, easily separated from periderm.
Fracture short and mealy, taste bitter, nauseous, acrid; it has a peculiar smell and is
mucilaginous; official in India and the Colonial addendum for the preparation of a
tincture.
A yellow bitter resin; a black acid resin; Madaralbum, a crystalline colourless substance;
Madarfluavil, an ambercoloured viscid substance; and caoutchouc, and a peculiar
principle which gelatinizes on being heated, called Mudarine. Also, a neutral principle,
Calatropin, a very active poison of the digitalis type has been reported present in it.
Tests for identity
given descriptions.
(b) Marcochemical test to confirm the presence of cardiac glycosides.
(c) Choromatographical examination to confirm the presence of calotropin by co-
chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Febrifuge, anthelmintic, depurative, expectorant, asthma.
Storage:
In a cool dry place
77
Canavalia ensiformis L. (DC.)
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Dolichos ensiformis L.
(b) Malocchia ensiformis (L.) Savi
(c) Dolichos acinaciformis Jacq.
(d) Dolichos ensiformis L.
(e) Dolichos pugioniformis Rauschert
Common names:
Garde Place, Giant Stock-bean, Horse Bean,
Jack Bean (E). Pois De Sabre (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Ladiko, Wakenankwai, Baran-chaki, Waaken-bisa.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ponpondo, Sese nla.
Perennial climber, or stems trailing, 3–15 m long. Stems appressed ferruginous
pubescent, glabrescent. Leaflets 6–17(23) × 4–12(15) cm, ovate, acuminate to a short
blunt tip or elsewhere rarely rounded, sparsely to densely pubescent on both surfaces;
petiole 4–13(16) cm long; stipules c. 2 mm long, rather thick. Inflorescences 18–50 cm
long, long-pedunculate; pedicels 2 mm long; bracteoles just over 1 mm long, obtuse.
Calyx pubescent; tube 6–9 mm long; upper lip 4–5 mm long, rounded or emarginate.
Standard mauve with white veins and green towards the base, 2.7–3 × 1.7 cm, oblong;
wings and keel mauve, white towards the base. Pods 10–17 × 2.5–3 cm, linear-oblong,
each valve with a sutural rib and an extra rib just below this, densely ferruginous
pubescent at first, later somewhat glabrescent. Seeds brown or reddish-brown, sometimes
marbled with black, 16–20 × 11–20 × 7–11 mm; hilum 11–15 mm long.
Tropical Africa
Part used:
Seed
Name of drug:
Giant stock-bean
Definition:
Giant stockbean is the dried seed of Canavalia ensiformis L. (DC.) (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Hardy, drought-resistant annual, immune to most pests; cultivated
extensively for forage and green manuring. Young pods and immature seeds used as a
vegetable for human consumption; mature seeds ground for livestock feeding. Usually an
erect bushy annual crop plant 1–2 m tall, but can become a perennial climber to 10 m.
78
Stems glabrous to appressed pubescent. Leaflets 6–20 × 3–12 cm, elliptic or ovate-
elliptic, subacute to shortly acuminate, glabrescent to sparsely pubescent on both
surfaces; petiole 2–11 cm long; stipules soon deciduous. Inflorescences 6–40 cm long,
long-pedunculate; pedicels 2–5 mm long; bracteoles c. 2 mm long, obtuse. Calyx sparsely
pubescent; tube 6–7 mm long; upper lip 4–5 mm long, truncate. Standard rose to purple,
2.7–3 cm long. Pods 15–35 × 3–3.5 cm, linear-oblong, each valve with a sutural rib and
an extra rib just below this, pubescent, glabrescent. Seeds white with a brownish mark
round the hilum, 14–21 × 10–15 × 7–11 mm; hilum 5.5–9 mm long.
An insulin-binding protein was isolated from Canavalia ensiformis seed coat, by using an
insulin-Sepharose 4B affinity chromatography, and the protein was identified as
canavalin (Canavalia 7S globulin). The entomotoxic effect is due to the release of a 10-
kDa peptide by cathepsin-like enzymes in the insect's midgut. Canavalia ensiformis, C.
gladiata and C. virosa seeds contain high levels of trypsin inhinitor, lectins and
canavanine. The proteins urease and canatoxin (a toxic protein), a variant form of the
jackbean urease. Researchers have cloned a cDNA encoding another isoform of urease,
called JBURE-II. C. ensiformis seeds exhibited a relatively high level (69.0%) of in vitro
protein digestibility.
Tests for identity:
b) By using an insulin-Sepharose 4B affinity chromatography, confirm the presence of
canavalin (see under chemical constituents above).
Tests for purity:
Determine the in vitro protein digestibility. It should not be less than 60 per cent.
N/A
Uses:
Insecticide, Renal perfusion pressure.
Storage:
79
Capsicum annuum L.
Family name:
Solanaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Capsicum cerasiforme Lank.
(b) Capsicum chamaecerasus Nees.
(c) Capsicum hispidum Dunal
(d) Capsicum longum DC.
(e) Capsicum indicum Lobel.,
(f) Capsicum indicum Dierb.,
Common names:
Red pepper (E). Piment doux. Piment des jardins. Gros
piment. Poivron (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫فلفل رومى او فلفل احمر‬
(b) Bambara: Forotu, Kilikili.
(c) Hausa:Barkono, Barkhannu, Tasshii, Tsiiduhuu, Tonkaa.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Pilipili, Pilipili-hoho.
(f) Yoruba: Ata sisebe, Ata jije, Ata-gbasejo, koruko.
Capsicum annuum L.: Annual or biennial suffrutescent plant that can reach over 1 m in
height; ovate lanceolate leaves of 6 x 3.5 cm, inflorescence axillary bunches, greenish
white flowers, fruits polymorphic berries 18 cm long, red when ripe.
Grown in Africa within the tropics.
Part used:
The dried entire fruit.
Names of drug:
Fructus Capsici Annuum. Bombay Capsicum. Red Pepper.
Definition:
Red pepper is the dried ripe fruits of C. annuum L. (family, Solanaceae) containing not
more than 3 per cent of calyx and pedicel, and not more than 1 per cent of foreign organic
matter.
Description:
Colour, red, yellowish-red or brownish-red; odour, characteristic but not powerful; taste,
slightly pungent, the pungency not destroyed by solutions of caustic alkalies (1 in 50), but
is destroyed by potassium permanganate T.S. (distinction from gingerol and paradol).
Macroscopical: Fruit, berry, nearly globular, ovoid or oblong, bilocular about 5 to 12 cm
long and 2 to 4 cm wide in greatest width; red, yellowish-red or brownish-red; superior
and attached to a 5-toothed calyx and a cylindrical, curved or hooked pedicel about 2-5
mm thick. Pericarp glabrous, shining, somewhat shrivelled, thin and leathery. Seeds
numerous, brownish yellow, flat, subreniform, albuminous with curved embryo about 3-5
80
mm long, loose or attached to a reddish membranous dissepiment, not extending
throughout the entire length of the fruit.
Microscopical: Outer epidermis of the pericarp consists of polygonal thick straight,
pitted-walled cells, covered by a thick cuticle which is not uniformly striated; the outer
tangential and most of radial walls are much thickened; the hypodermis consists of
several layers of cuticularised collenchymatous cells; Mesocarp of several layers of thin-
walled cellulosic parenchyma, containing numerous, reddish oil globules, occasional
idioblasts containing microsphenoidal or prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate and
traversed by small vascular bundles; inner most layer of thin-walled giant cells;
Endocarp, composed of islets of isodiametric sclereids with thick, pitted, lignified,
sinuous walls; one islet over the cavity of each giant cell and separated by small thin-
walled parenchyma cells. Dissepiment shows an epidermis, formed of polygonal cells;
the cuticle of which being raised by secretion of reddish oily droplets, containing,
sometimes crystals of capsaicin; the remainder parenchyma contain occasional idioblasts
of microsphenoidal crystals of calcium oxalate, and traversed by vascular bundles. Seed-
coat consists of an epidermis composed of yellowish, very large, sinuous-walled cells
with characteristic thickening on the inner tangential and radial walls, and a nutritive
layer of collapsed parenchyma cells. Endosperm, of polygonal parenchymatous cells with
highly refractive colourless walls and containing fixed oil and aleurone grains. Calyx
with outer epidermis having anomocytic stomata; inner epidermis, with numerous
glandular hairs having unicellular stalk and multicellular head, few non-glandular hairs of
one or more cells, but no stomata; mesophyll containing many idioblasts of micro
sphenoidal crystals of calcium oxalate and a few small vascular bundles. Pedicel with
epidermis consisting of axially elongated subrectangular cells, numerous stomata and
scattered glandular hairs; pericycle with well-developed fibres, isolated or in groups of 2
or 3; xylem with radiating medullary rays; perimedullary phloem with fibres on the inner
border.
Powder: Yellowish-brown to brownish-red; characterised by fragments of the outer
epidermis of the seed-coat, consisting of lignified cells, with thick yellowish sinuous
walls; fragments of the endosperm with polyhedral cells containing oil globules and
aleurone grains, scattered reddish oily droplets; fragments of the outer epidermis of the
pericarp; scattered idioblasts of microsphenoidal crystals of calcium oxalate, fragments of
sclerenchymatous islets from the inner epidermis of the pericarp; few fragments from the
calyx and pedicel; only few small vessels and fibres but no starch granules.
Capsicum contains the pungent principle capsaicin, a minute amount of a liquid alkaloid,
fixed oil, carotin, a red colouring matter capsanthin and a lot of vitamin C.
Test for identity:
given Descriptions.
(b) Choromatographical examination to confirm the presence of capsaicin by co-
chromatography.
Test for purity:
N/A
81
Tinctura capsici.
Unguentum capsici.
Capsicum plaster.
Uses:
It is applied externally as a stimulant and counter irritant; internally, as a pungent
stomachic, carminative and stimulant, to dispel flatulence and rouse the appetite.
Storage:
82
Capsicum frutescens L.
Family name:
Solanaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Capsicum baccatum L.
(b) Capsicum fastigiatum Bl.
Common names:
Capsicum fruit. Japanese chillies (E).
Piment de cayenne, Piment enrage,
Petit piment, Pilipili (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫شطة‬
(b) Bambara: Foratu, Forotu, Gamaho, Gamako, Ebaba kani.
(c) Hausa: Barkono, Barkhannu, Tasshii, Tonkaa, Tsiiduhuuu.
(d) Peuhl:
(e) Swahili: Pilipili
(f) Yoruba: Ata weere
Capsicum frutescens L.: Perennial branchy sub-shrub sometimes exceeding 1 m in
height; yellowish white flowers, smaller fruits do not exceed 4 cm.
Other characteristics similar to those of C. annuum L.
Grown in the Mediterranean region and Africa within the tropics.
Part used:
Fruits.
Names of drug:
Fructus Capsici Frutescens. Capsicum.
Definition:
Japanese chillies are the dried ripe fruits of Capsicum frutescens L. (family, Solanaceae).
Capsicum is free from pedicels and calices, and not more than 1 per cent of foreign
organic matter.
Description:
Odour, characteristic but not powerful; taste, less pungent than C. minimum; the
pungency is not destroyed by solutions of caustic alkalis (1 in 50), but is destroyed by
potassium permanganate T.S. (distinction from gingerol and paradol).
Macroscopical: Fruit, berry, oblong conical, obtuse, somewhat flattened, bilocular about
15 to 26 mm long and 5 to 9 mm wide; bright crimson-red colour; superior and
sometimes remains attached to a small, inconspicuous, 5-toothed calyx, and a slender
straight pedicel, about 1 mm thick, which is as long as or rather longer than the fruit
itself. Pericarp, glabrous, shining somewhat shrivelled, thin, leathery and more or less
translucent. Seeds, 10 to 20 in each fruit, brownish-yellow, 'flat, subreniform,
albuminous, with curved embryo, about 3 to 4 mm long, either loose or attached to a thin
reddish, membranous dissepiment.
83
Microscopical: Outer epidermis of the pericarp consists of strongly thick walls, radiate
lumen, smooth cuticle, rectangular cells, 25 to 60 micronswide. Mesocarp, including the
hypodermis; have thick, pitted, cuticularised walls, cellulosic parenchyma containing
numerous reddish oil globules, occasional idioblasts containing microsphenoidal or
prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate and traversed by small vascular bundles; innermost
layer, of thin-walled giant cells. Endocarp, composed of islets of isodiametric sclereids
with thick, pitted, lignified, sinuous walls, one islet over the cavity of each giant cell, and
separated by thin-walled small parenchymatous cells. Dissepiment shows an epidermis,
formed of thinwalled polygonal cells, the cuticle of which being raised by secretion of
reddish oily drops, containing, sometimes, crystals of capsaicin; the remainder
parenchyma, containing occasional idioblasts of microsphenoidal crystals of calcium
oxalate, and traversed by vascular bundles. Seed coat consists of an epidermis composed
of yellowish, very large, sinuous walled cells, with characteristic thickening on the inner
tangential and radial walls, and a nutritive layer of collapsed parenchymatous cells.
Endosperm, formed of polygonal cellulosic parenchymatous cells with highly refractive
colourless walls and containing fixed oil and aleurone grains, 3 to 6 microns in diameter.
Calyx, with outer epidermis having stomata of
cruciferous type; inner epidermis, with numerous glandular hairs having uniseriate stalks
and multicellular yellowish heads, few non-glandular hairs of one or more cells, but no
stomata, mesophyll contains many idioblasts of microsphenoidal crystals of calcium
oxalate and a few small vascular bundles. Pedicel, with epidermis consisting of axially
elongated subrectangular cells, numerous stomata and scattered glandular hairs;
pericycle, with well-developed fibres, isolated or in groups of 2 or 3; xylem with
radiating medullary rays; perimedullary phloem, with fibres on the inner border.
Powder: Powdered Capsicum is yellowish-brown to brownish-red; characterized by
fragments of the outer epidermis of the seed-coat, consisting of lignified cells, with
yellowish thick and sinuous walls; fragments of the endosperm with polyhedral cells
containing globules of fixed oil and aleurone grains, 3 to 6 microns in diameter; scattered
reddish oily droplets; fragments of the outer epidermis of the· pericarp; scattered
idioblasts of microsphenoidal crystals of calcium oxalate; fragments of sclerenchymatous
islets from the inner epidermis of the pericarp; few fragments from calyx and pedicel;
only few small vessels, and fibres, but no starch granules.
Pungent principle, capsaicin (0.05 to 0.14 per cent), minute quantity of a liquid alkaloid
which is not pungent, fixed oil, carotin, red colouring matter, capsanthin.
Tests for purity: .
(a) Alcohol (60 per cent) extractive, not less than 20 per cent; non-volatile ether
extractive, not less than 12 per cent, when dried at 110°C.
(b) Ash not more than 8 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 1.5 per cent.
Tinctura Capsici.
Unguentum Capsici.
Uses:
Externally as a stimulant and counter-irritant, internally as a pungent stomachic
carminative and stimulant to dispel flatulence and arouse the appetite.
84
Storage:
In well-closed containers, protected from light in a cold place.
85
Carica papaya L.
Family name:
Caricaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Carica hermaphrodita Blanco
(b) Carica mamaya Vellon
Common names:
Pawpaw (E). Papayer (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫البَباز أو البَبايا أو دباء الهند‬
(b) Bambara: Papayi,Papiu, Papia, Mandje.
(c) Hausa: Gwandau, Gwandda, Gwandar rabeji,
Gwandar daafijii, Gwandar masar.
(d) Peuhl: Papayi, Papayo.
(e) Swahili:Papai, Papayu.
(f) Yoruba: Igi-ibepe, Ibepe, Sayinbo.
Shrub of 4 to 5 m high, swollen trunk, straight, branches out without explicit design,
remarkable foliar scars, leaf for the most part petiolated with extremely divided lamina;
dioecious with female feet with flowers sessile on the trunk and male stock with flowers
borne by large loose. Panicles, fruits vary in size and colour, pulp yellow or red when
ripe. The plant contains a copious white latex.
Originates from central America and widely grown in tropical Africa.
Part used:
Fresh ripe fruits.
Names of drug:
Fructus carica papaya. Carica papaya fruit. Fruit de carica papaya.
Definition:
Carica papaya fruit is the fresh ripe fruits of Carica papaya L., family Caricaceae,
containing not more than 2 per cent foreign organic matter.
Description:
Odour of ripe fruit is faintly aromatic and has a sweet taste.
Macroscopical: Fruit, berry, oblong to oblong ovate in shape, dark green becoming
yellowish orange on ripening with numerous seed on parietal placenta, epicarp is
leathery, mesocarp is fleshy, orange-coloured. The endocarp is unidentified. The fruit is
about 15-22 cm long and 7-11 cm broad.
Microscopical: The epidermis of the pericarp consists of polygonal isodiametric cells
with straight anticlinal walls, stomata, rare, of the ranunculaceous type; no hairs.
Mesocarp, formed of several layers of thin-walled parenchymatous cells, the outermost
layer more or less tangentially elongated and with smaller cells. The inner layer is formed
of large rounded or oval parenchymatous cells. The vascular strands, formed of narrow,
non-lignified spiral vessels and a patch of phloem. The mesocarp shows numerous
anastomosing laticiferous vessels, containing substance staining yellow colour with
iodine and few starch granules. Calcium oxalate being absent.
86
The drug contains an alkaloid, amino acids, fat, resin, sugars (a-D-glucose, B~-D-
glucose, fructose, galactose and arabinose) pectin in the unripe and ripe fruits, also
proteolytic enzyme "Papain" in the latex of the unripe fruit.
Tests for identity:
given descriptions.
(b) Macrochemical examination to confirm the presence of alkaloid.
Assay:
20 g of the drug is moistened with dilute ammonium hydroxide, dried and exhaustively
extracted by percolation with chloroform containing 20 per cent ethanol. The chloroform-
alcohol extract is evaporated on a water bath. The residue is dissolved in 50 ml of N/10
hydrochloric acid portionwise, then filtered through a small piece of cotton wool into a
separating funnel. The dish and filter are washed twice; each with 5 ml portions of N/l0
hydrochloric acid, and then with successive portions; each of 5 ml of distilled water till
free from alkaloids. The acidic solution and washings are combined, rendered alkaline
with ammonium hydroxide and extracted with chloroform several times till exhaustion.
The combined chloroform extracts are washed with 5 ml distilled water, transferred to an
extraction flask and the chloroform distilled off, 5 ml neutral absolute alcohol added,
evaporated to dryness on a water bath and residue further heated for 15 minutes. Residue
is dissolved in 2 ml chloroform, 25 ml N/50 hydrochloric acid added, warmed to drive off
the chloroform, cooled and titrated with N/50 sodium hydroxide using methyl red as
indicator. Each ml N/50 hydrochloric acid is equivalent to 0.00478 g of alkaloids
calculated as carpaine.
Uses:
As amoebicide. The milky juice of the unripe fruits used as cosmetic, anthelmintic, also
has
oxytocic properties. Ripe fresh fruits are stomachic, carminative, digestive and diuretic.
Storage:
87
Carthamus tinctorius L.
Family name:
Asteraceae
Synonyms:
(a) Centaurea carthamus E.H.L.Krause
(b) Carthamus glaber Burm.f.
(c) Carduus tinctorius (L.) Falk
(d) Carduus tinctorius Ehrh.
Common names:
Safflower, False saffron, (E). Carthame,
Safran bâtard (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫العصفر أو قرطم عصفوري‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
An annual herb, 0.4–1.3 m high, much branched, glabrous, spiny. Branches stiff,
cylindrical, whitish in colour. Leaves simple, spirally arranged, without petiole; oblong,
ovate, lanceolate or elliptic; dark green, glossy, 3–15 cm long, 1.5 cm wide, spinous
along the margin and at the tip. Flowers solitary, terminal, 2.5–4.0 cm in diameter with
spreading outer leafy spiny bracts and inner triangular bracts, spine tipped, forming a
conical involucre, with small opening at the tip. Florets, 30–90, tubular, hermaphrodite,
usually orange-yellow in colour; corolla tubes 4 cm long, with fi ve pointed segments.
Fruits white or grey, tetragonal achenes, about 8 mm long, without pappus.
Middle-east, Afghanistan, Ethiopia and India.Widely cultivated around the world.
Part used:
Flowers
Name of drug:
Flos Carthami, Safflower.
Definition:
Safflower is the dried flowers of Carthamus tinctorius L. (family, Asteraceae).
Description:
Odour: characteristic aromatic; taste: slightly bitter. Red to red-brown corollas, yellow
styles and stamens, rarely mixed with immature ovaries; corollas tubular, 1–2 cm long,
with fi ve segments; long pistils surrounded by fi ve stamens; pollen grains yellow and
spherical, approximately 50.0 μm in diameter, with fi ne protrusions on the surface.
Macroscopical: Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) is an annual herbaceous, highly
branched plant that can reach 0.3-1.5 m in height. It has an extensive root system with a
strong fleshy taproot reaching 2-3 m in depth and thin lateral roots exploring the first 30
88
cm of the soil (Ecoport, 2010; Oyen et al., 2007). The stems are glabrous, greenish white,
cylindrical and woody near the base. The leaves are sessile, arranged in a rosette from the
base, 4–20 cm long × 1–5 cm broad, glossy dark green; the upper leaves bear many sharp
spines. Each stem bears a terminal inflorescence. It is a globular capitulum, 1.3-3.5 cm in
diameter, containing 20-80 tubular orange-red flowers becoming dark red during
flowering. Each flower produces one fruit. Safflower fruits are achenes, usually called
"seeds", surrounded by a thick fibrous hull. They are smooth, shiny and angular, about 6-
9 mm long, white or brownish and white with grey, brown or black stripes. They
generally contain 33-60% hull and 40-67% kernel.
Carthamus comprises about 15 species. Section Carthamus comprises Carthamus
tinctorius and its 5 closest relatives, all annual species from western Asia with n = 12.
Because Carthamus tinctorius has been cultivated over a wide area since ancient times,
and because cross-pollination is fairly common, variability in safflower is large. The
morphological differences are most obvious in branching (height, density), leaves
(presence or absence of rosette leaves, more or less spiny leaves), involucral bracts (form,
pubescence, spiny or not), inflorescences (number and size of heads), flower colour
(reddish, orange, yellow, white), and achenes (size, presence or absence of pappus).
Powder: Orange-yellow with fragments of corolla, filament and stigma. Long tubular
secretory cells, up to 66 μm in diameter, usually accompanied by vessels containing
yellowish-brown to reddish-brown secretion. Outer walls of terminal epidermal cells of
corolla lobes projecting to be tomentellate.
Upper epidermal cells of stigma and style differentiated into conical unicellular hairs,
acuminate or slightly obtuse at the apex. Pollen grains subrounded, elliptical or olivary,
with three germinal pores, exine dentate spinose. Parenchymatous cells containing
crystals of calcium oxalate, 2–6 μm in diameter.
The major constituent is the chalcone C-glucoside carthamin (up to 8.5%). Other signifi
cant constituents include fatty acids, the chalcone hydroxysaffl or yellow A; the
nitrogenous chalcone tinctormine; the quinoid C-glycosides saffl or yellow A and safflor
yellow B; the flavonoids neocarthamin, quercetin, rutin, kaempferol and related hydroxy
derivatives and glycosides; dotriacontane-6,8-diol, erythrohentriacontane-6,8-diol,
heptacosane-8,10-diol, triacontane-6,8-diol and related alkanes.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the plant material to comply with
the descriptions above.
(b) Carry out thin layer chromatography tests to confirm the presence of carthamin using
this compound as a reference by co-chromaptography.
(c) Confirm the presence of carthamin by spectrophotometry.
Tests for purity:
Foreign organic matter: Not more than 2 per cent.
Total ash: Not more than 18 per cent.
N/A
89
Uses:
Treatment of amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea and wounds or sores with pain and swelling,
and prevention of atherosclerosis.
Storage:
To be stored in closed glass containers protected from moisture.
90
Cassia fistula L.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cassia fistulosa L. ex R.W. Long &
Lakela
(b) Cassia fistuloides Collad.
(c) Cassia rhombifolia Roxb.
(d) Bactyrilobium fistula Willd.
(e) Cassia bonplandiana DC.
(f) Cassia excelsa Kunth
(g) Cathartocarpus excelsus G. Don
(h) Cathartocarpus fistuloides (Collad.)
G.Don
(i) Cathartocarpus rhombifolius G. Don
Common names:
Canafistula, Golden shower, Indian laburnum, Purging fistula, Purging cassia (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫خيار شنبر أو كاسيا فستيوال أوالخروب الهندي‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Filasko
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Aidan tooro
The golden shower tree is a medium-sized tree, growing to 10–20 metres (33–66 ft) tall
with fast growth. The leaves are deciduous, 15–60 centimetres (5.9–24 in) long, pinnate
with 3 to 8 pairs of leaflets, each leaflet 7–21 centimetres (2.8–8.3 in) long and 4–9
centimetres (1.6–3.5 in) broad. The flowers are produced in pendulous racemes 20–40
centimetres (7.9–16 in) long, each flower 4–7 centimetres (1.6–2.8 in) diameter with five
yellow petals of equal size and shape. The fruit is a legume, 30–60 centimetres (12–24 in)
long and 1.5–2.5 centimetres (0.59–0.98 in) broad, with a pungent odor and containing
several seeds. The seeds are poisonous.
Native to South Asia, including India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar, this tree is now widely
grown throughout the tropics.
Part used:
Fruit
Name of drug:
Purging cassia
Definition:
Purging cassia is the dried ripe fruits of Cassia fistula L. (family, Fabaceae).
91
Description:
Macroscopical: Pods are pendulous, 40-70cm by 20-27mm. They smooth, straight or
slightly curved, cylindrical, shortly stalked, suddenly contracted into a blunt point and
dark chocolate brown in colour. The round distal end bears a small point marking the
position of the style and the base or proximal end is extended as a short stalk widening
below towards the remains of the thalamus. Pods are indehiscent and have dorsal and
ventral sutures distinctly marked by horizontal smooth lines running along the whole
length. Internally, the pod is divided by thin-buff coloured, transverse, dissepiments at
intervals of about 0.5cm. Seeds are about 25-100 in number per pod and each is
immersed in a dark-cloured pulp. Seed is small, ovoid , somewhat compressed. Testa is
very hard, smooth and shiny, pale orange brown in colour, marked down with one
flattened surface by a raised line.
Microscopical: Epidermis of fruit consists of rectangular to circular-shaped cells with
thick cell walls. Occasional stomata of the paracytic type are present. Fibres and calcium
oxalate crystals are present. The transverse section of the entire fruit shows 2-3 layers of
rectangular-shaped lignified cells usually 15-70u long, a layer of sclerenchymatous tissue
containing stone cells and layers of parenchyma. Transverse section of the seed consists
of a mucilage stratum followed by long, vertical palisade cells and hourglass cells. The
embryo is mainly made up of parenchyma.
Powder: Light yellow to brown in colour with slight odour. Diagnostic structures include
the presence of rectangular to circular-shaped epidermal cells showing paracytic stomata.
Fragments of lignified fibres, vessels of the vascular bundles and hourglass cells.
Purging fistula's laxative actions come from a group of well documented compounds
called anthraquinones that are found in all Cassia and Senna plants in varying degrees.
The seeds contain approximately 2% anthraquinones, 24% crude protein, 4.5% crude fat,
6.5% crude fiber, and 50% carbohydrates. The leaves have been documented with
15.88% crude protein, 6.65% crude fat, 20% crude fiber, and 39.86% carbohydrates. In
addition to the anthraquinone glycosides, other compounds documented in the plant
include fistulic acid, rhein, rheinglucoside, galactomannan, sennosides A and B, tannin,
phlobaphenes, oxyanthraquinone substances, emodin, chrysophanic acid, fistuacacidin,
barbaloin, lupeol, beta-sitosterol, and hexacosanol.
Tests for identity:
(b) Macrochemical test (Borntrager’s) to confirm the presence of anthraquinone
glycosides.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographic tests to confirm the presence of Emodin by co-
chromatography.
Tests for purity:
Ash: Not more than 5 per cent.
Water-soluble ash: Not less than 1.5 per cent.
Alcohol-soluble extractives: Not less than 20 per cent. (Coarse powder)
92
Water-soluble extractives: Not less than 2.3 per cent.
See under Alexandrian senna.
Uses:
Laxative and purgative. 2g of the of the powdered pod to be taken at bedtime as laxative.
Storage:
In well-closed containers protected from light and moisture.
93
Cassia sieberiana DC.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
Cassia kotschyana Oliv.
Common names:
African laburnum, Drumstick Tree (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Sindian
(c) Hausa: Arahe, Gammafada, Malga,
Marga.
(d) Peuhl: Samassindiangui, Sindia.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Aridan-tooro
Shrub or small tree to 15 m, savanna region or the northern edge of the forest, often
planted in villages. Rough, blackish bark; slash ochre-yellowish; wood reddish, very
hard. Fruit up to 80 cm long and 1.5 cm thick with the seeds in one series.
Cassia sieberiana is distributed from Senegal and Gambia east to DR Congo and
Uganda.
Part used:
Roots.
Name of drug:
African laburnum
Definition:
African laburnum leaf is the dried leaf of Cassia sieberiana DC. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Shrub or small tree up to 15(–20) m tall; bole short, twisted; bark
fissured, grey to brown, with blackish stripes; young branches densely shortly hairy.
Leaves arranged spirally, paripinnately compound with 5–14 pairs of leaflets; stipules
narrowly triangular, c. 2 mm long, caducous; leaflets elliptical to ovate, 3.5–10 cm × 2–5
cm, apex rounded to acute, shortly hairy. Inflorescence an axillary pendulous raceme up
to 35(–45) cm long; bracts soon falling. Flowers bisexual, slightly zygomorphic, 5-
merous; sepals elliptical, 5–8 mm long, slightly hairy; petals oblong to almost circular, 2–
3.5 cm long, bright yellow; stamens 10, free, 3 lower ones fertile, hooked at base, much
longer than the petals, 4 middle ones fertile, short, 3 upper ones rudimentary; ovary
superior, sessile, style slender, much longer than the petals. Fruit a, cylindrical pod 40–
60(–90) cm × c. 1.5 cm, transversely partitioned, dehiscent by 2 valves, black, many-
seeded with seeds embedded in yellow pulp. Seeds ellipsoid, 8–9 mm long, rusty to dark
brown, glabrous. Seedling with epigeal germination.
94
Cassia sieberiana contains calcium oxalate in abundance. The leaves contain flavones
(quercitrin, isoquercitrin), an anthraquinone (rhein) and tannins (11%). The roots contain
tannins (up to 17%), anthraquinones and sterols. The purgative action can be ascribed to
the anthraquinones. The flavones cause diuresis and have antibacterial and anti-
inflammatory activity.
Tests for identity:
(a) The termite-resistant wood changes from white or yellowish-pinkish to dark red upon
exposure. It is finely textured, heavy, hard and difficult to work.
(b) Macroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with the
(c) Carry out the macrochemical tests for anthraquinones described under the monograph
of Alexandrian senna. It should give a positive reaction.
(d) Confirm the presence of rhein by co-chromatography on thin-layer chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
See under the monograph for Alexandrian senna .
Uses:
Purgative, Root used as tonic, diuretic, aphrodisiac.
Storage:
95
Cassia tora L.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
(b) Cassia borneensis Miq.
(c) Cassia gallinaria Collad.
(d) Cassia numilis Collad.
(e) Cassia boreensis Miq.
(f) Emelista tora Britton & Rose
Common names:
Coffee pod, Foetid Cassia, Tora, Sickle Senna,
Wild Senna, Sickle Pod, Coffee Pod, Ringworm Plant (E),
Casse Puante Petite Espece (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Tafasaa, Zark’amo.
(d) Peuhl: Oulo
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Eru asunundegbe, Ako rere, Epa ikun, Jelenbeun, Epajagbo.
An annual foetid herb, with a height of 30 to 90 cm, Cassia tora is mainly found in the
states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, in India. It has pinnate leaves, which are
about 10 cm long. Each leaf has three pairs of leaflets that are opposite, ovate, oblong and
oblique at the base. The yellow-colored flowers are bearded in the axel of the leaves. The
flowers comprises of five petals, each about half inch in diameter.
The seeds are rhombohedral and brown in color, about 30 to 50 in number. The plant
bears flowers in the rainy season and fruits in the winter.
Widely diffused in Tropical Africa, as indeed through the Tropics generally.
Parts used:
Leaves, seeds, roots.
Name of drug:
Sickle senna leaves.
Definition:
Sickle senna leaves are the fresh or dried leaves of Cassia tora L. also known as Senna
tora (L.) Roxb. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Shrub or small tree to 15 m, savanna region or the northern edge of the forest, often
planted in villages. Rough, blackish bark; slash ochre-yellowish; wood reddish, very
hard. Fruit up to 80 cm long and 1.5 cm thick with the seeds in one series.
96
Macroscopical: Stem annual, erect or ascending, terete or nearly so, glabrous or thinly
pilose or pubescent, attaining 2–3 ft. Leaflets in 2 or 3 pairs, obovate or obovate-oblong,
obtuse, mucronate, thinly subappressed-pilose or glabrous, varying from 3/4–1 1/2 or 2
in. in length; petiolules very short. Common petiole pubescent or nearly glabrous, with
conspicuous narrow-cylindrical glands between at least the lower pinnæ. Stipules
subulate, or narrow-linear. Flowers usually in pairs or solitary, axillary, with or without a
short common peduncle; pedicels 3/4–1 in. long, in fruit stout ascending. Sepals unequal,
obtuse. Petals obovate, shortly clawed. Anterior anthers enlarged and usually distinctly
obtusely produced at the apex. Legumes elongate, curved, narrow-linear, 4–8 in. long,
1/6– 1/4 in. broad, oblong-quadrate in section; valves separating, marked internally with
the oblique transverse partial septa. Seeds arranged lengthwise, their larger diameter
parallel with the valves, rhomboidal or obliquely oblong; cotyledons plicate in transverse
section.
(+)- rhein, aloe-emodin, chrysophanol, 7% resins, cathatrine, calcium, iron, phosphorus,
1,3,5-trihydroxy-6-7-dimethoxy-2-methylanthroquinone, beta-sitosterol, naptho-alpha-
pyrone-toralactune, chrysophanol, physcion, emodin, rubrofusarin, cchrysophonic acid-9-
anthrone, tricontan-1-0l, stigmasterol, b-sitosteral-b-D-glucoside, freindlen, palmitic,
stearic, succinic and d-tartaric acids uridine, quercitrin, isoquercitrin.
Tests for identity
(b) Carry out the macrochemical tests for anthraquinones described under the monograph
of Alexandrian senna. It should give a positive reaction.
(c) Confirm the presence of rhein by co-chromatography on thin-layer chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
Uses:
Fresh leaves for insomnia, laxative.
Storage:
97
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don
Family name:
Apocynaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Ammocallis rosea (L.) Small
(b) Lochnera rosea (L.) Rchb. ex Endl.
(c) Vinca rosea L.
Common names:
Madagascar Periwinkle, Periwinkle, Rose
periwinkle, Chatas, Chula, Vinca (E).
Pervenche de Madagascar (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫عناقية وردية‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Fure biyu and Hure biyu.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Apabida
Perennial sub-shrub reaching 80 cm in height; oblong elliptic leaves of 2 to 7 cm long
and 1.5 to 3 cm wide, flowers solitary or twin, axillary, white or pink; fruits follicular
with two subulated mericarps, numerous black small seeds.
Spontaneous or grown over tropical and subtropical Africa.
Part used:
Leaves
Names of drug:
Pervenche de Madagascar, Periwinkle.
Definition:
Periwinkle consists of fresh or dried leaves of Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don (family,
Apocynaceae).
Description:
Green greyish after desiccation, taste feebly bitter.
Macroscopical: Suffrutex 30–100(–200) cm. high, erect or decumbent, usually with
white latex. Stems ± terete, green or yellowish-green, sometimes slightly to heavily
suffused with red or purple, laxly pubescent or glabrous. Leaves decussate, petiolate;
petiole (0·1)0·3–1 cm. long, laxly puberulous or glabrous, with a fringe of colleters in the
axil, the outer ones longer than the inner and with some strigose hairs; lamina rather
variable in shape, elliptic, obovate or narrowly obovate, 1·9–3 times as long as wide,
(3)4–9 x (0·8)1·5–3·5 cm., obtuse or acute, with a mucronate apex and sometimes
slightly emarginate, cuneate or obliquely cuneate at the base, laxly pubescent to glabrous
on both sides; veins paler; secondary veins more or less conspicuous, 7–11 on each side;
tertiary venation inconspicuous. Inflorescence ebracteate. Pedicel 0·1–0·2 mm. long,
laxly puberulous to glabrous. Flowers (3)4–5(5·6) cm. long. Sepals green, slightly
98
connate at the base, sometimes slightly unequal, 2·7–4·7 times as long as wide, (2)3–5 x
1–1·5 mm., outside laxly puberulous or glabrous, glabrous inside, sometimes towards the
apex with some minute white hairs, entire erect. Corolla white or pink, with a purple, red,
pink, pale yellow or — if white sometimes — white centre; tube often slightly greenish,
with a long narrow cylindrical basal and a short wider upper portion (4·2)5–8(12·5) times
as long as the calyx, 2·2–3 cm. long (in the narrow portion 1–2 mm. wide, up to 3 mm. in
the widened portion), outside laxly puberulous or glabrescent, within the throat at the
level of the anthers with a c. 0·5 mm. broad densely strigose ring, and then in the
widened portion velutinous for 1–1·5 mm. on the veins from the base of the filaments,
and below it with a 1·5–2 mm. broad sericeous ring, situated just below the level of the
clavuncula; throat 1·5–2 mm. in diam.; lobes usually paler outside, (0·8)1·2-2(2·8) x
(0·6)0·9-2 cm. broadly obovate, spreading, entire, sometimes ciliate, in bud overlapping
to the left. Stamens included, inserted 0·4–0·6 cm. below the corolla-mouth; filaments
very short, glabrous; anthers with the apex acute, cordate at the base, 2·3–3 x 1–1·3 mm.,
introrse, completely fertile. Pistil 17–26 mm. long; carpels 1·5–2(2·8) x 0·8–1 x 0·5–1
mm., connate at the base, rounded at the apex, puberulous at the apex and glabrous
towards the base; style 16–24 x 0·3 mm., sometimes slightly split at the base, glabrous;
clavuncula 1·3–2·3 mm. long, at the apex with a woolly ring, (0·1)0·3 x 0·8–1·3 mm., at
the base also with a woolly ring, 0·3–0·5 x (0·8)1–1·5 mm., and in between with a
glabrous or puberulous 0·4–0·8 x 0·5–1 mm. wide zone, and at the base with a reflexed
hyaline frill, 0·5–1 x 0·8–1·5 mm. Fruit green, also when mature, composed of two
follicles (sometimes one aborted or reduced) erect or slightly spreading. Follicle
cylindrical, striate, 5·2–13·5 times as long as wide, 1·2–3·8 x 0·2–0·3 cm., dehiscent at
the adaxial side. Seeds numerous grooved at one side, 1-2 x 0·5-0·8 mm.
Microscopical: The epidermis of the leaf is glabrous with some fibres; Peripheral part is
ligneous with islands of riddled perimedullary tissue. Trochomes are covering type,
uniseriate, 1-3 cells long, 35.5-280μm on the upper surface and 105.0-295.5μm on the
lower surface. Epidermal cells measure10.5-63μm with anticlinal walls more sinuous on
the lower surface than on the upper surface. Stomatal index is 0-21.4 on the upper surface
and 5.0 -31.1 on the lower surface while palisade ratio is 2.5-7.5. calcium oxalate crystals
are absent. Midrib is abaxially prominent, containing an arc of xylem with a narrow
phloem. Perimedullatry phloem is present. The zone of collenchymas underlies both
epidermises in the midrib region and the single layer of palisade cells, present on the
upper surface only, is interrupted in the midrib.
Powder: Fragments of epidermis, covering, uniseriate trichomes, stomata of cruciferous
type; cell fragments of palisade, collenchymas, parenchyma and also xylem and phloem
vessels fragments. Calcium oxalate crystals are absent.
Leaves contain 5 to 10 per cent of water and about 8 per cent of mineral matter. C. roseus
contains 63 alkaloids. Among them are vincristine, vinblastine, vinleurosine and
vinrozidine-vincerine, ajmalicine serpentine, etc.
Several organic acids have been characterised such as protocatechuic, caffeic, p-hydroxy-
benzoic, ursolic acids. The latter constitutes 3.7 per cent of the dried drug.
99
Also found: a volatile monoterpene, heterosidic pigments, aglucons of which are
hirsutidin, petunidin, malvidin, kampferol and quercitin. A phenolic heteroside, vincoside
has been characterised as β glucoside 2,3-dihydroxy benzoic acid.
They also contain tannoids, flavonic pigments and cholin. Active principles of the drug
are dimeric indolic alkaloids representing 0.40 to 0.90 per cent (depending on the
geographical origin) of dried leaves. The major therapeutic alkaloids are vincristine and
vinblastine.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the specimen to ensure it complies
with the above descriptions
(b) Triturate 0.50 g of the drug with dilute ammonium hydroxide, then shake with 100 ml
of ether. The solvent is then decanted, shake it well with 1 ml of dilute hydrochloric
acid. The aqueous acid solution separated must give a clear turbidity when Mayer's
reagent is added.
(c) The aqueous acid solution in the test in b) above gives positive reaction to other
common alkaloid test reagents such as Draggendorff, Wagner and Marquis reagents.
Tests for purity:
(a) Thin-layer chromatographic examination of the alkaloidal extract (ether extract in test
b above) of the specimen to confirm the presence of vincristine and vinblastine by co-
chromatography.
(b) Moisture: Not more than 66 per cent.; Acid-insoluble ash: Not more than 2.5 per
cent.; Water-soluble ash: not less than 1.83 per cent.; Alcohol-soluble extractive: Not
less than 8.3 per cent (moderately coarse powder); Water-soluble extractives: Not less
than 16.2 per cent. (moderately coarse powder).
Vinblastine (Vincaleucoblastine) as aqueous sulfate solution at 0.10 per cent. Vincristine
in form of sulfate.
Uses:
Periwinkle is utilised in traditional medicine as antidiabetic. Its alkaloids are utilised as
anti-tumor drug.
Leurocristine (Vinecristine) administrated in form of sulfate or injections i.v. dose of 0.03
to 0.1 mg/kg in hemopathies and lymphoblastic leukemia.
Vincaleucoblastine in intravenous injection dose, 0.10 to 0.15 mg/kg (physical weight) in
Hodgkin disease.
Storage:
Aqueous solutions are kept in refrigerators. The dry drug is kept in well-closed containers
in the absence of light and humidity.
100
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.
Family name:
Bombacaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Bombax pentandrum L.
(b) Ceiba caribaea (Dc.) A. Chev.
(c) Eriodendron anfractuosum DC.
Common names:
Kapok, Ceiba, Silk-cotton tree, White Silk-
cotton Tree (E). Kapokier (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫شجرة القابوق‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Riimii and Riinii.
(d) Peuhl: Bantangui
(e) Swahili: Msufi
(f) Yoruba: Eegun, Eegungun, Ponpola, Araba, Odere.
A giant in the rainforests, the kapok tree can reach up to 200 feet in height, sometimes
growing as much as 13 feet per year. Due to its extreme height, the kapok, or ceiba tree,
towers over the other rainforest vegetation. The trunk can expand to nine or 10 feet in
diameter. In the nooks and grooves of this huge plant live a diverse number of species
including frogs, birds and bromeliads. The kapok tree is deciduous, shedding all of its
leaves during the dry season. As its seeds are easily blown into open areas, kapok trees
are some of the first to colonize open areas in the forest. The white and pink flowers of
the kapok tree emit a foul odor that attracts bats. As the flying mammals move from
flower to flower feasting on the nectar, they transfer pollen on their fur, thus facilitating
pollination. The kapok tree does a great job at spreading its seeds, producing anywhere
between 500 and 4,000 fruits at one time, with each fruit containing 200 seeds. When
these fruit burst open, silky fibers spread the many seeds all over the forest.
Africa, South America, tropical Asia.
Part used:
Bark.
Name of drug:
Kapok bark.
Definition:.
Kapok bark is the stem bark of Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn (family, Bombaceae).
Description:
The genus Ceiba contains species that are large trees with most species 5-20 m tall, but
the largest species reaching up to 50 m in height.
Macroscopical: Tall tree with straight trunk and ± horizontal main branches; bark
smooth, usually with scattered conical spines to 1.5 cm long; young branches glabrous or
pubescent. Leaves 5–9-foliolate; leaflets narrowly elliptic-obovate, entire, acuminate, 7–
101
20 x 1.8–6.5 cm, glabrous; petiole 5.5–25 cm long, at the apex expanded into an almost
circular disk. Flowers often on leafless branches or present when the whole tree is
leafless, in 1–15-flowered axillary clusters. Calyx 9–15 mm long, lobed, glabrous
outside, pubescent inside. Petals pink or white, oblong, 2–3.5 cm long. Filament-tube 5–9
mm long; anthers coiled or reniform. Ovary glabrous or nearly so; style 2.5–3.3 cm long.
Capsule ± woody, smooth, brown, oblong-ellipsoid, up to c. 26 x 11 cm. Seeds
subglobose, c. 6 mm across.
A new naphthoquinone, 2,7-dihydroxy-8-formyl-5-isopropyl-3-methyl-1,4-
naphthoquinone together with a known naphthoquinone, 8-formyl-7-hydroxy-5-
isopropyl-2-methoxy-3-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone, isolated from the heartwood. A new
isoflavone glycoside was isolated from the bark, with 80 per cent ethanol, along with
known isoflavones, vavain and vavain glucoside. New isoflavones, pentandrin and
pentandrin glucoside, were isolated from the stem bark along with beta-sitosterol and its
3-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside. New isoflavone glucoside vavain 3'-O-beta-d-glucoside
and its aglycon, vavain, were isolated from the bark together with flavan-3-ol, (+)-
catechin, 8-formyl-7-hydroxy-5-isopropyl-2-methoxy-3-methyl-1,4-naphthaquinone and
7-hydroxycadalene. The new compounds were characterized as 2,7-dimethoxy-5-
isopropyl-3-methyl-8,1-naphthalene carbolactone and 2-hydroxy-5-isopropyl-7-methoxy-
3-methyl-8,1-naphthalene carbolactone.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the specimen to make sure it
complies with the descriptions given above.
(b) Thin-layer chromatographical examination of an 80 per cent alchoholic extract of the
bark to confirm the presence of vavain (an isoflavone) by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Antoxidant, antidiabetic, antisickling, anti-leishmaniasis, antimicrobial, hepatotoxicity.
Storage:
102
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.
Family name:
Apiaceae
Synonym:
(a) Hydrocotyle asiatica L.
(b) Trisanthus cochinchinensis Lour.
Common name:
Asiatic pennywort, Gotu kola, Indian
pennywort (E). Herbe boileau (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫سنتيال‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Smooth herbaceous plant with slender radiating stalks, producing rosettes of knotted
round leaves, very tortuous at the base, crenated edges; leaf stalks of 2 to 15 cm long,
inflorescence 2 to 4 small flowers on short stalks, fruits tuberous with mericarps rounded
at the top.
Throughout the tropical regions.
Part used:
Entire plant.
Names of the drug:
Hydrocotyl, Centella.
Definition of drug:
Centella is the dried herb of Centella asiatica (family, Apiaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Centella is a thin herb, thin leaves entirely with dented and round-shaped
limbus-umbels of simple appearance, have numerous small white flowers. When dried
leaves appear greyish-green powder, odour characteristic and taste sweet and slightly
bitter.
Microscopical: Small seeds greyish-green with calcium oxalate crystals and fiber cells of
pericylic fibres.
The entire plant contains asiaticoside composed of 3 sugars (2 glucose) and one thamose
and of a genin of asiatic acid (pentacylic, triterpenic acid derived from amyrine-a).
Test for identity:
(See vol. 2 of the first edition under identifications of reductive oses and triterpenes)
Test for purity:
N/A
103
Centella asiatica is prepared in form of extract titred 70 per cent of asiatoside in powder,
tablets, pomade and compresses. It is sold under the label of ‘Madegassol’.
Uses:
Asiatic acid is active on connective tissue in the biosynthesis of collagen. It has
cicatrizing and atrophic properties on connective tissue.
Centella is used in form of titred extract in the treatment of aricosis, ulcers, burns,
eschars, skin ulcers and stomach ulcers.
Powder or pomade are applied as external uses, internal administration is given by
intramuscular injection.
Storage:
In closed containers protected from light.
104
Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) L.
Family name:
Rubiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Uragoga ipecacuanha Bail!.
(b) Calliococca ipecacuanha Brot.
(c) Psychotria ipecacuanha Stok.
(d) Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.)
Rich.
Common names:
Ipecacuanha radix, Ipecacuanha root,
Ipecac, Rio or Cartagena Ipecacuanha
(E). Ipeca, Rio Ipecacuanha, Annele
mineur (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫عرق الذهب‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Brief description of plant:
Shrub with cuneate stipuled opposite leaves; inflorescence terminal with involucrate
flower heads; numerous flowers.
Originates from latin America, widely cultivated in the tropics.
Parts used:
Dried roots and rhizomes.
Names of drug:
Radix Ipecac, Ipecac Root, Racine d'Ipeca, Ipecacuanha.
Definition:
Ipecacuanha is the dried root or the root and rhizome of Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.)
A. Rich. (= Uragoga ipecacuanha Baillon, Psychotria ipecacuanha Stokes), known as
Rio or Brazilian Ipecacuanha, or of Cephaelis acuminata karsten (= Uragoga granatensis
Baillon) known as Cartagena, Nicaragua or Panama Ipecacuanha (fam. Rubiaceae).
Ipecacuanha contains not more than 2 per cent of foreign organic matter, and yields not
less than 2 per cent of total alkaloids calculated as emetine, of which not less than 60 per
cent consists of non-phenolic alkaloids, calculated as emetine.
Description:
Odour, faint, characteristic, irritating and sternutatory when in fine powder; taste bitter
and acrid.
Macroscopical: RIO OR BRAZILIAN IPECACUANHA: Root, occurs in cylindrical
slightly tortuous pieces, usually unbranched; 3 to 20 cm, mostly 5 to 7 cm, long; 1 to 4
mm rarely up to 6 mm in diameter; dark brick-red to very dark-brown; externally,
105
occasionally smooth, closely annulated, with thickened rounded almost complete rings,
usually exhibiting transverse, very deep cracks, or even part of the bark absent,
sometimes bearing scars or remains of rootlets; fracture, short in the bark, splintery in the
wood; internally, consisting of a broad, greyish-white bark, constituting about two-third
of the diameter of the root, easily separable from the light yellow, small, uniformly dense,
tough, non-porous central wood (distinction from Undulated and Lesser Striated
Ipecacuanha). Rhizome, in short pieces attached to roots, cylindrical, up to 2 mm in
diameter; externally, finely longitudinally wrinkled but without annulations, and showing
scars and occasional buds; internally, showing a narrow bark and a ring of dense
yellowish xylem surrounding a central pith, about one-sixth of the total diameter.
CARTAGENA, NICARAGUA, OR PANAMA IPECACUANHA: Resembles Rio
Ipecacuanha but differs in being larger, 3 to 9 mm thick; greyish-brown or reddish-
brown, with transverse ridges at intervals of 1 to 3 mm, the ridges about 0.5 to 1 mm,
wide, extending about half-way round the circumference and fading at the extremities
into the general surface level.
Microscopical: RIO IPECACUANHA root shows a cork, narrow, dark-brown, formed of
several layers of thin-walled cells, usually with brown granular contents; cortex, of
phelloderm, parenchymatous, containing numerous starch granules, also scattered
idioblasts with bundles of raphides of calcium oxalate; phloem, very narrow, with short
wedges of seive tissue, but no fibres or sclereids; projecting into the parenchyma; xylem,
wholly lignified; consisting of tracheids, with rounded ends and linear pits, narrow
tracheidal-vessels with rounded lateral perforations near the ends, substitute fibres with
oblique, slit-like pits, containing starch granules, few lignified fibres, and traversed by
medullary rays, 1 - rarely 2-cells wide, lignified and containing starch granules; primary
xylem, 3-arch, at the centre. Rhizome, shows a cork, a narrow parenchymatous cortex, an
endodermis, pericycle with thick-walled, pitted, elongated rectangular sclereids, phloem,
with fibres; xylem, radiating with fibres having linear pits and spiral vessels in the
protoxylem and pith with isodiametric lignified cells having thin walls. Starch granules,
rarely simple, mostly compound of 2 to 5 sometimes up to 8 components; individual
granules, being oval, rounded or muller-shaped, 4 to 10 µ, rarely more than 15 µ in
diameter.
CARTAGENA IPECACUANHA: resembles in structure and characters of elements the

Rio variety but many of the starch granules are larger and measure up to 22 µ in
diameter.
Powder: Powdered Ipecacuanha, greyish-brown to light brown; characterized by
numerous fragments of thin-walled parenchymatous cells filled with starch granules,
scattered cells with bundles of raphides of calcium oxalate; few brown fragments of cork;
few fragments of wood showing tracheids, tracheidal-vessels, 10 to 20 µ wide and fibrous
cells with starch granules; raphides of calcium oxalate, 20 to 80 µ long scattered
throughout the powder, sometimes in fragments; numerous starch granules, simple or
mostly compound of 2 to 8 components; individual granules, oval, rounded or muller-
shaped, up to 15 µ in diameter in Rio and up to 22 µ in Cartagena variety; few vessels,
few sclereids and occasional phloem fibres from rhizome.
106
Rio Ipecacuanha root contains several related alkaloids. The amount of total alkaloids
present is about 2 to 3 per cent. The major alkaloids being emetine, cephaeline,
psychotrine, o-methylpsychotrine. 0.4 per cent of crystallisable glycoside ipecacuanhin.
30-40 per cent of starch, calcium oxalate, an acid saponin and ipecacuanhic acid.
Test for identity:
Digest about 0.1 g of powdered Ipecacuanha with 4 ml of hydrochloric acid and 1 ml of
water, filter, and add to the filtrate a few small crystals of potassium chlorate; a yellowish
colour is rapidly produced, which gradually changes to orange and finally to red within
an hour.
Tests for purity:
(a) Powdered Ipecacuanha contains no gelatinised starch (Root treated with steam); no
cluster crystals of calcium oxalate (Ionidium Ipecacuanha); no foreign starch (Arrow-
root, Potato starch, etc.); no inulin (Ionidium Ipecacuanha); no cells containing
colouring matter (Ipecacuanha cyanophyloca or Ipecacuanha nigra).
(b) Ash, not more than 5.5 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 3 per cent. Foreign
matter not more than 1 per cent.
Assay:
For total alkaloids: Introduce about 10 g of finely powdered Ipecacuanha, accurately
weighed, into a flask, and add 50 ml of a mixture of 3 volumes of ether and 1 volume of
chloroform. Shake well for 15 minutes, and set aside for 10 minutes. Add 10 ml of dilute
solution of ammonium hydroxide, and shake frequently for 1 hour. Transfer the mixture
to a small percolator, plugged with cotton-wool and when the liquid ceases to flow, pack
firmly, and continue the percolation with the same mixture of ether and chloroform, until
complete extraction of the alkaloids is effected.
Concentrate the extract to about 15 ml and transfer to a separator. Wash the receiver with
3 successive portions, each of 5 ml, of ether, then transfer each to the separator. Add to
the mixed extracts and washings 20 ml of N/10 sulfuric acid, shake well, allow to
separate, and run off the lower layer into another separator. Continue the extraction with
successive portions, each of 10 ml ofN/l0 sulfuric acid, until complete extraction of the
alkaloids is effected. Mix the acid liquids, and wash with 3 successive portions, each of
about 10 ml of chloroform, shaking each portion of chloroform with the same 10 ml of
water contained in a second separator, then reject the chloroform. Transfer the water to
the separator containing the acid liquid, make distinctly alkaline with dilute solution of
ammonium hydroxide, and shake with successive portions, each of 20 ml of chloroform,
until complete extraction of the alkaloids is effected, washing each chloroform extract
with the same 10 ml of water contained in a second separator, and reject the water.
Dehydrate the chloroform extract with about 2 g of anhydrous sodium sulfate, filter
through a dry filter paper into a porcelain dish, and wash the sodium sulfate and filter
with a few ml of chloroform, adding the washings to the chloroform extract in the dish.
Evaporate the chloroform, add to the residue 2 ml of alcohol, evaporate to dryness, and
dry for half an hour at 100°C. Dissolve the residue in 15 ml of N/10 sulfuric acid, and
titrate with N/l0 sodium hydroxide, using methyl red T.S. as indicator.
107
Each ml of N/l0 sulfuric acid is equivalent to 0.0240 g of total alkaloids, calculated as
emetine.
For non-phenolic alkaloids: Transfer to a separator the above titrated liquid, obtained in
the assay for total alkaloids, add 5 ml of sodium hydroxide T.S., and shake with
successive portions, each of 20 ml of ether, until complete extraction of the alkaloids is
effected. Mix the ethereal extracts, shake with further portions of 10 ml and 5 ml of
sodium hydroxide T.S. and then wash with successive portions, each of 10 ml of water,
until free from alkali, washing each of the aqueous liquids with the same 10 ml of ether
contained in a second separator, and reject the water.
Evaporate the ether, dissolve the residue in 10 ml of N/10 sulfuric acid, and titrate with
N/l0 sodium hydroxide, using methyl red T.S. as indicator.
Each ml of N/10 sulfuric acid is equivalent to 0.0240 g of non-phenolic alkaloids,
calculated as emetine.
Acidify 5 ml of the titrated liquid with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and then add a
few crystals of potassium chlorate, and warm; an orange red colour is produced, within
an hour.
Extractum Ipecacuanha Fluidum
Pulvis Ipecacuanha Standardizatus
Ammonia and Ipecacuanha Mixture (Syn. Mistura Expectorans)
Ipecacuanha and Morphine Mixture (Mistura Tossi Migra)
Ipecacuanha Tincture
Paediatric Belladonna and Ipecacuanha Mixture
Paediatric Ipecacuanha and Ammonia Mixture
Paediatric Ipecacuanha and Squill Linctus
Paediatric Ipecacuanha Emetic Dranynt (Ipecacuanha Emetic)
Prepared Ipecacuanha (Ipecacuanhae Pulvis Mormatus)
Uses:
Emetic. Emetine is anti-amoebic.
Storage:
108
Chamaecrista absus (L.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cassia absus L.
(b) Cassia coccinea Wall.
(c) Grimaldia absus (L.) Link
(d) Grimaldia opifera Schrank
(e) Senna absus (L.) Roxb.
(f) Senna exigua Roxb.
(g) Cassia viscida Zoll.
Common names:
Tropical Sensitive Pea, Four-leaved senna,
Black grain (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Fedali, Fidili.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
An erect branched ,viscidly glandular biennial herb, 15-45cm tall, leaves compound,
leavelet 4, ovate, 2.5-5cm tall obtuse, a small awl-shaped gland between each shaped
gland between each pair, flowers few, reddish-yellow, 3-4cm diameter appearing in
shorty racemes. Stamens 3, equal, perfect. Pod hairy, flat, seeds 6.
Widespread in tropical Africa, Asia and Australia.
Part used:
Roots
Name of drug:
Four-leaved senna root
Definition:
Four-leaved senna is the dried roots of Cassia absus L. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Erect or procumbent much-branched annual or short-lived perennial c.
0.1–1.2 m high, sticky on account of glandular-based setae in the indumentum. Leaves,
apart from glandular hairs, with only a scale-like scarcely glandular structure between
each of the 2 pairs of leaflets; leaflets obliquely elliptic or obovate, 1–4.5 x 0.8–3 cm.
Racemes 1–13 cm long, with few to numerous small flowers. Sepals obtuse. Petals
yellow to red or occasionally white, 5–7 mm long. Stamens 5, subequal. Pods linear-
oblong, flat, (2.5–)4–5.5 x 0.6–0.8 cm, elastically dehiscent, pubescent and glandular
hairy. Seeds brown to black, glossy, ovate or subrhombic, compressed, 4–5.5 x 3.4–4.5
mm.
109
Roots contain anthraquinones, Chrysophanol, aloe-emodin, alkanoids-chaksine and
isochaksine. Leaves contain alkanoids quercetin and rutin. Seeds have sitosterol
glycosides.
Tests for identity:
(b) Test the root powder for the presence of anthraquinones as described under the
monograph for Alexandrian senna.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographical examination of the root powder to show the presence
of aloe-emodin by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
See under the monograph for Alexandrian senna.
Uses:
Powder of leaves is used for ulcer dressings. leprosy. Seeds for ringworms and other skin
infections, in conjunctivitis and ophthalmia. Roots: laxative.
Storage:
110
Chamaecrista nigricans (Vahl) Greene
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
Cassia nigricans Vahl
Common names:
Black grain (E). Casse noircissante (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Annual, erect herb or undershrub, up to 1.5 m tall,
hairy, pale green. Leaves distichously alternate, paripinnate with 10–18 pairs of leaflets;
stipules 5–8 mm long; petiole with a sessile gland 2–4 mm long, rachis channelled;
leaflets sessile, narrowly oblong, symmetrical, up to 25 mm × 6 mm, apex rounded,
mucronate. Inflorescence a raceme, inserted slightly above the leaf axil, 3–8-flowered.
Flowers bisexual, nearly regular, 5-merous; pedicel 1–3 mm long; sepals acute, slightly
longer then petals; petals obovate, up to 4.5 mm long, yellow; stamens 8–10; ovary
superior, 1-celled. Fruit an erect compressed pod 2–4 cm × 0.5 cm, slightly raised over
the seeds, brown to black when ripe, splitting into 2 thin, spiralling valves, finely
pubescent, with up to 10 seeds. Seeds obovate or rhombic, up to 4 mm long, smooth.
Widespread in tropical Africa, also in Arabia and India.
Part used:
Leaf
Name of drug:
Black grain leaf
Definition:
Black grain leaf is the dried leaf of Cassia nigricans Vahl otherwise known as
Chamaecrista nigricans (Vahl) Greene (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Herb, apparently annual, erect, simple or branched, 25–45 cm. (–1.8 m.)
high. Stems pubescent with short crisped and longer spreading hairs. Leaves ± oblong, 3–
10 cm. long, 2–4 cm. wide; gland at top of petiole, sessile, cushion-shaped, 2–4 mm.
long, 1–1.25 mm. wide; rhachis glandular, channelled but not crenate-crested along upper
side; leaflets sessile, mostly in 7–15(–18, fide L.T.A., but not confirmed) pairs, narrowly
oblong, straight, (10–)12–25(–33) mm long, (2–)2.5–5(–7.5) mm wide, rounded to obtuse
and mucronate, rarely subacute, at apex, shortly and rather densely pubescent on both
surfaces; midrib central or almost so, particularly above. Inflorescences supra-axillary
(sometimes a second axillary one present), 3–8-flowered; pedicels very short, 2–4(–5)
111
mm. long. Petals small, yellow, 3.5–4.5 mm. long, 1.5–3.5 mm. wide. Pods erect, 1.7–
2.4(–4) cm. long, 4–5 mm. wide. Seeds brown, obovate or rhombic, 2.5–4 mm. long, 1.5–
2.5 mm. wide, not areolate.
The leaves of Chamaecrista nigricans contain the anthraquinone emodin and its
anthrone.
Tests for identity
(b) The specimen should comply with the test for anthraquinone derivatives as described
under the monograph for Alexandrian senna.
(c) Carry out thin-layer chromatographic examination on the leaf powder to confirm the
presence of emodin by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
See under the monograph for Alexandrian senna.
Uses:
Laxative
Storage:
112
Chenopodium ambrosioides L.
Family name:
Chenopodiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Adonois ambrosioides Lour.
(b) Ambrina ambrosioides Spach.
(c) Atriplex ambrosioides Crant.
Common names:
Mexican tea; Worm-seed; Mexican goose-
american; Wormseed; Gooxfoot;
Chenopodium Sweet pigweed (E).
Anserine, Chenopode vermifuge (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫شاى المكسيك‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Kafi kasha wari
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Kwima = C. botrys.
(f) Yoruba: Arunpale, A run tan tan, O-n-orun goo, Koriko Oyinbo, Ewe imi, Asin.
Annual or perennial plant that exceeds 1 m in height more or less downy with amber-
coloured acorns; ovate lanceolate leaves with widely dentate edges; presence of
glandulous dots under the lamina; inflorescence axillary spike-like tufts; flowers,
greenish, numerous and very small; fruit dehiscent with seed, bright and brownish.
Originates from America, ruderal in mediterranean Africa and the sahel region.
Parts used:
Fruit, flowering and fruiting overground parts.
Name of drug:
Fructus chenopodium, Chenopodium, Worm seed.
Definition:
Chenopodium consists of the dried or fresh flowering or fruiting aerial parts of
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. var. anthelminticum. A. Gray (family, Chenopodiaceae).
Description:
The odour is strong, peculiar, and recalls that of eucalyptus, and the taste is pungent and
bitter.
Macroscopical: Leaves are simple, oval-lanceolate and serrated when at the base of the
stem; the lamina is 15-60cm by 5.20mm or 5.20cm by 1.5mm at the base of stem. Apex
is acuminate to obtuse. The flowers are small and usually clustered on the axillary spikes
but dense towards the extremities of branches. The leaves are greenish in colour and
possess a characteristic, strong aromatic odour with pungent and bitter taste. The fruits
are small and subglobular; each surrounded by the five partite perianth, from 0.7 to 1.0
mm in diameter, very light, and dull greenish yellow or brownish in colour. On gently
rubbing the fruit, the perianth and membranous pericarp are removed, exposing a single,
113
shining, block, lenticular seed about 0.5 to 0.9 mm in diameter, containing a strongly
curved embryo and a scantly endosperm. The fruits occasionally occur in small groups
attached to short pieces of stem.
Microscopical: The leaf has wavy epidermal cells on both surfaces, 20.3-71.3 um by
11.6- 37.8um; devoid of calcium oxalate crystals but rich in trichomes, with few
unicellular, covering trichomes and more glandular trichomes 60.9- 124.7um by 11.6-
20.3um at the base. Large egg-shaped oil globules situated on the epidermis, are also
characteristic. Anomocytic stomata are present on both surfaces and two layers of
palisade cells lie immediately below the upper epidermis. Stomatal index: 6.3-14.4-25 for
both epidermises; Palisaderatio; 3.5-4.1-4.8; Vein-islet number: 8-12-14; Veinlet
termination number: 11-14.5-19.
Powder: Contains parenchymatous epidermal cells with wavy anticlinal walls; fragments
of trichomes, mostly glandular, and anomocytic stomata; calcium oxalate crystals are
absent. Odour and taste are aromatic and characteristic.
Chenopodium contains about I per cent of volatile oil, which consists mainly of 70 per
cent ascaridol.
Tests for identity:
(b) Thin-layer chromatographic examination to confirm the presence of ascaridole by co-
chromatography.
Test for purity:
(a) Chenopodium contains not more than 2 per cent of stalks and other foreign organic
matter.
(b) Moisture: Not more than 76 per cent.; Ash: Not more than 16.5 per cent.; Water-
soluble ash: Not less than 3 per cent.; Acid - insoluble ash, not more than 2 per cent.;
Alcohol-soluble extractive: not less than 10 per cent.; Water-soluble extractive: Not
less than 14 per cent.
Assay:
Ascaridol content of the oil can be estimated chemically briefly as follows:
The preparation of 5 per cent w/v solution of the oil in acetic acid (90 per cent) of which
5 ml are added to a previously cooled mixture to - 3°C and consisting of 3 ml of an 83
per cent aqueous solution of potassium iodide, 5 ml of hydrochloric acid and 10 ml of
glacial acetic acid placed in a stoppered tube. After setting the tube, with its contents,
aside in a cool place for 5 minutes, the liberated iodine is titrated with N/10 sodium
thiosulphate. At the same time a blank experiment is carried out without the oil. The
difference between the two titrations represents the iodine liberated by ascaridol. Each ml
of N/10 sodium thiosulphate is equivalent to 0.00665 g of ascaridol.
Uses:
Chenopodium is a vermifuge used to expel round-worms and hookworms. It is
administered in the form of powder, but the volatile oil, Oleum chenopodii, is now
generally preferred. It should be taken at bed time, fasting, and followed by a purgative.
Dose: 1-4 g.
114
Storage:
115
Chrysopogon nigritanus (Benth.) Veldkamp
Family name:
Poaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Vetiveria nigritana (Benth.) Stapf
(b) Andropogon nigritanus Benth.
(c) Jardinea kibambeleensis Vanderyst
(d) Mandelorna insignis Steud.
Common names:
Black Vetivergrass, vertiver, Adrenaline grass
(E). Vétiver (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Ngongonari, Bangasa, Ngokoba,
Babin, Gongo-dili, Ngσngσn.
(c) Hausa: Jema, Ğeemà, Darambuwa, Kambu.
(d) Peuhl: Sêban, Sâban.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Tufted perennial; culms 1.5–3 m. high. Leaf-blades narrow, up to 90 cm. long and 7 mm.
wide. Panicle lanceolate, 15–40 cm. long, its longest raceme 5–15 cm. Sessile spikelet
4.5–7 mm. long, including the bearded (hairs 0.5–1 mm.) callus which is rounded to fit
the slightly hollowed tip of the internode; lower glume spinulose; upper glume awnless;
upper lemma with a straight or curved awn l–4(–9) mm. long, usually protruding from the
glumes but sometimes enclosed by them.
Tropical and S. Africa generally.
Part used:
Roots, Culms, Stem, Stalk, Foliage.
Name of drug:
Vertiver.
Definition:
Vertiver is the dried tops of Vetiveria nigritana (Benth), Stapf (family, Poaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Caespitose perennial; culms 150–300 cm high, unbranched, the
uppermost nodes exposed, glabrous; ligule scarious with shortly ciliate margin or a line
of hairs on an extremely short scarious rim; leaf laminas up to 90 cm × 7 mm, narrow.
Panicle 15–40 cm long, lanceolate; main axis minutely ciliolate; whorls 8–10 each with
up to 15 racemes; racemes very slender; rhachis internodes longer than the spikelets,
glabrous; pedicels shorter than the sessile spikelets, glabrous. Sessile spikelet c. 7 mm
long, narrowly linear-lanceolate; inferior glume coriaceous, spinulose on the back;
superior glume coriaceous to chartaceous, sharply keeled in the middle and with inflexed
margins, spinulose along the keel, drawn out into a shortly aristate tip; inferior floret with
ovate hyaline lemma; superior floret bisexual, the lemma hyaline with a bilobed apex;
116
awn c. 5 mm long, sometimes slightly exserted from the glumes, glabrous on the column,
minutely scabrid on the bristle. Pedicelled spikelet neuter, shorter than the sessile; glumes
similar to those of the sessile spikelet but less coriaceous and less spinulose; inferior
glume c. 5 mm long, sparingly aculeolate along the keel towards the apex or almost
smooth; superior glume smooth with flexible ciliate margins; inferior lemma hyaline with
ciliate margins.
Saponin, fish poison.
Tests for identity:
descriptions.
(b) Shake the powdered drug with water. It foams and the foam does not disappear on
heating.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Molluscicidal, antimicrobial. Anti-diarrhoea, antioxidant.
Storage:
117
Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (Trevir.) Vis.
Family name:
Asteraceae
Synonyms:
(a) Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium Trev.
(b) Tanacetum cinerariaefolium (Trevir.)
Sch. Bip.
Common names:
Insect flower plant, Pyrethrum (E).
Pyrethre (F)
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫اقحوان الرماد‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Raariyaar kasa = C. americanum
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Pareto
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Herbaceous plant in light tufts, highly fragmented; 20 to 30 cm high, leaves with
numerous and close subdivisions, velvety and silvery on the surface; bracts of yellowish
involucre.
Cultivated in the mountainous regions of Africa.
Part used:
Flower heads.
Names of drug:
Flos Pyrethri, Pyrethrum Flower, Fleur de Pyrethre.
Definition:
Pyrethrum flower is the dried flower heads of Chrysanthemum cinerariaefoliumVisiani
(fam. Asteraceae).
Description:
Pyrethrum flower occurs loose or in compressed masses; odour faintly aromatic; taste,
bitter and acrid.
Macroscopical: Flower head hemispherical or subglobular; about 5 to 12 mm in
diameter; dull brownish-yellow or greyish-brown, commonly attached to a short piece of
longitudinally striated stalk; composed of few ray florets, and numerous disc florets,
carried on a receptacle surrounded by an involucre. Involucre of 2 to 3 rows of hairy
imbricated bracts, having a membranous white but not dark brown margin (distinction
from C. roseum); outer bracts, lanceolate, each with a distinct keel, inner bracts,
spathulate, somewhat longer than the outer ones. Ray florets 15 to 23, in a single outer
whorl, pistillate, corolla, pale brownish or whitish but not red or reddish-purple
(distinction from C. roseum), shrivelled, ligulate, oblong, 10 to 20 mm long, having three
short obtuse or rounded teeth, the middle tooth being smaller than the lateral ones and
showing about 17 veins of which 4 to 6 are more strongly developed. Disc florets, about
6 mm long, hermaphrodite; corolla, tubular, yellow, with 5 short lobes at the summit;
118
stamens, 5, epipetalous, ovary, inferior, 5-ribbed, 5 mm long and crowned by a
membranous cap-shaped calyx, about 11 mm high. Receptacle, nearly flat, usually about
4 to 10 mm wide, and destitute of paleae. Fruit, cypsela, 5-ribbed.
Microscopical: Involucral bracts show epidermis, with striated cuticle, numerous
stomata, twisted T-shape hairs, ovoid or spherical glandular hairs of compositae type and
lignified hypodermis. Upper epidermis of ligulate corolla, slightly papillosed (distinction
from C. roseum), while the lower epidermis consists of sinuous cells with striated cuticle.
Epidermis of the tubular corolla, papillosed near the apex, and consists of regular cells
with striated cuticle and containing small clusters of calcium oxalate.
Calyx shows numerous elongated, lignified cells and large, irregular pitted cells, some
containing prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Fruit or ovary bears numerous scattered
glandular hairs of compositae type, and shows in pericarp rhombic crystals of calcium
oxalate and ducts filled with a brown granular secretion.
Powder: Powdered Pyrethrum flower is yellowish-green; characterised by the fragments
of invuceral bracts, showing lignified hypodermis, epidermal cells with striated cuticle T-
shape hairs and glandular hairs of compositae type; fragments of the ovary exhibiting
glandular hairs, prisms of calcium oxalate and ducts with brownish secretion; numerous
spiny pollen grains, 30 to 40 µ in diameter; and fragments of the corolla.
The esters: Pyrethrin I and Pyrethrin II.
Tests for purity:
(a) Pyrethrum flower does not contain numerous fibres or large rounded pith cells or
wider vessels (stalk).
(b) Ether-extractive, not less than 5 per cent.
(c) Ash, not more than 8 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 1 per cent.
Assay:
Introduce 10 g of powdered Pyrethrum flower, .module No. 22 accurately weighed, into a
flask, add 50 cc of petroleum-benzine R., shake well, set aside for 15 minutes, and shake
frequently for 1 hour. Transfer the mixture to a small continuous extraction apparatus,
plugged with cotton-wool, and when the liquid ceases to flow pack firmly and continue
the extraction, until complete exhaustion of the drug is effected. Filter the extract through
a dry filter paper into a flask, and wash the receiver and filter with a little petroleum-
benzine R. adding the washing to the content of the flask. Add 5 cc of N/1 sodium
hydroxide in methyl alcohol R., connect the flask with a reflux condenser, and heat on a
water-bath for 2 hours. Cool, acidify with N/1 sulfuric acid, and distil in a current of
steam, until 150 cc of the aqueous distillate are collected below the petroleum-benzine
layer in the receiver. Transfer both liquids to a separator, then add 10 g of sodium
chloride, and shake vigorously. After separation, run off the aqueous layer into a second
separator, and shake with two successive portions, each of 20 cc of petroleum-benzine R.,
Mix the petroleum-benzine extract, and wash with three successive portions each of 10 cc
of water. Transfer the petroleum-benzine extract to a stoppered bottle, and rinse the
separator successively with 10 cc of neutral alcohol and 20 cc of water, adding the
rinsings to the bottle. Add 3 drops of phenolphthalein T.S., and titrate with N/50 sodium
hydroxide, until the aqueous layer shows a distinct red colouration after vigorous shaking
in the stoppered bottle for at least a minute. Carry out a blank test in exactly the same
119
manner, but without the Pyrethrum flower. The difference between the two titrations
represents the amount of N/50 sodium hydroxide used.
Each cc of N/50 sodium hydroxide is equivalent to 0.00663 g of Pyrethrin I.
Uses:
Insecticide
Storage:
120
Cinchona calisaya Wedd.
Cinchona ledgeriana Moens ex Trimen
Cinchona succirubra Pav.ex Klotzch
Family name:
Rubiaceae
Synonym:
(a) Cinchona calisaya Wedd. var. pedigenana
Rav.
(b) Cinchona pubescens Vahl
Common names:
Quinine plant, Cinchona (E). Quinquina (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫كينا‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Mkwinini
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Brief description of the plants:
These are arborescent shrubs or small trees with branches and red bark (C. succirrubra)
or yellow (C. calisaya); the C. ledgeriana is a hybrid between C. calisaya and C.
succirrubra; opposite leaves, elliptic stipules; inflorescence paniculate at terminal cymes.
Originates from latin America, introduced and grown in the mountainous humid tropical
region of Africa.
Parts used:
Stem and root bark.
Names of drug:
Cortex cinchonae. Cinchona bark. Jesuit bark.
Definition:
Cinchona bark is the dried stem and root barks of Cinchona succirrubra Pavon, and its
hybrids, known as red cinchona, of Cinchona ledgeriana Hoen., C. calisaya Weddel and
their hybrids with other species of Cinchona, known as Calisaya bark or yellow cinchona,
and of C. officinalis Linne, known as Pale Cinchona or Quinquina (family, Rubiaceae).
Cinchona contains not more than 2.0 percent of foreign organic matter, yields not less
than 5.0 per cent of cinchona alkaloids, of which not more than 50 per cent consists of
quinine and cinchonine.
Description:
Odour, faint and characteristic, taste, bitter to very bitter and astringent.
Macroscopical: Stem bark, occurs usually in quills, double quills, chips or curved pieces,
varying in sizes, up to 30 cm or more long, 1 to 4 cm wide and 2 to 9 mm thick, outer
surface, grey or greyish-brown' to reddish brown, usually bearing whitish or grey lichens
and mosses, more or less rough, with corky longitudinal ridges of variable distinctness,
121
with or without reddish warts and variable longitudinal and transverse fissures;
exfoliation of the cork may be common as in yellow cinchona, or may not be common as
in red cinchona; inner surface, pale yellowish-brown to brown, finely to coarsely
longitudinally striated; fracture, short in the outer part and shortly fibrous in the inner
part, the longitudinally cut surface shows, especially when examined by a lens, numerous
whitish points and pale streaks in brownish matrix.
Root bark, occurs in irregularly, channelled, often twisted pieces 2 to 7 cm long, both
surfaces of similar colour, the outer somewhat scaly whilst the inner surface, striated,
frequently fissured; other characters are similar to those of the stem bark.
Microscopical: Stem bark: Cork, frequently bearing dense masses of lichens tissues on
the outer surface and formed of thin-walled, rectangular cells with brownish contents.
Cortex, rather narrow, consisting of parenchyma cells with brown walls, containing
starch granules, and showing numerous scattered idioblasts of microcrystals of calcium
oxalate and in the inner part a row of widely separated long laticiferous tubes 25 to 115 µ
thick and 42 to 365 µ wide. Phloem, traversed by numerous medullary rays 1 to 3 cells,
wide with rectangular thin-walled cells and showing numerous blast fibres, isolated or in
small groups of single files. The fibres 300 to 470 µ long and 20 to 135 µ, mostly up to
200 µ wide, spindle-shaped, with narrow lumen, stratified strongly lignified walls having
numerous funnel-shaped pits and blunt, rarely forked tips.
Root bark: Almost entirely formed of secondary phloem similar to that of the stem bark,
but the fibres mostly forked; occasional sclereids with thick striated pitted walls are
present; laticiferous tubes, absent.
Powder: Powdered cinchona is yellowish-brown, brown or reddish brown, characterised
by the yellowish bright bast fibres, either entire or in broken pieces fragments of brown
parenchyma, occasionally with idioblasts brown fragments of cork, few small starch
granules usually simple, 6 to 12 µ, occasionally up to 21 µ in diameter, rarely compound
of 2 to 5 components; scattered very minute microsphenoidal crystals of calcium oxalate
and only occasional sclereids.
About 30 alkaloids have been reported in cinchona. The four most important alkaloids are
quinine, cinchonidine, cinchonine and quinidine. The alkaloids are combined with a
tannin, named cinchotannic acid.
Test for identity:
(a) Heat 0.5 g of powdered cinchona in a dry test-tube; purplish-red or carmine-red
vapours evolve, which condense on the cold walls of the tube as purplish-red tarry
drops, soluble in 10 ml alcohol (70 per cent); the solution having a blue fluorescence
when examined under U.V. lamp (366 nm) max.
(b) Shake vigorously about 0.1 g of powdered cinchona with 2 ml of dilute hydrochloric
acid and filter. To 1 ml of the filtrate, add a drop of potassiomercuric iodide T .S.; a
precipitate is immediately formed. Dilute the remainder of the filtrate to 10 ml with
water. The resulting solution when examined under U.V. lamp (366 nm) shows a blue
fluorescence which disappears on the addition of hydrochloric acid.
122
Tests for purity:
(a) Carry out the method for thin-layer chromatography, as described in vol. 2, using
silica gel G as the coating substance and a mixture of chloroform and diethylamine
(9: 1) as the mobile phase. Apply separately to the chromatoplate at 2 cm intervals, 1
µl and 2 µl of each of the following two solutions A and B: for solution (A), to 0.1 g,
in fine powder, in a test-tube add 0.1 ml of 12 3.5M ammonia and 5 ml of
chloroform, allow to stand for thirty minutes, occasionally shaking vigorously and
filter; evaporate the filtrate to dryness on a water-bath and dissolve the residue in 1 ml
of absolute ethanol. Prepare solution (B) by dissolving 17.5 mg of quinine, 0.5 mg of
quinidine, 10 mg of cinchonine and 10 mg of cinchonidine in 5 ml of absolute
ethanol. After removal of the chromatoplate, dry at 100 to 105°C for about ten
minutes, until the odour of diethylamine is no longer detectable, cool, spray with
anhydrous formic acid and examine under an ultra-violet lamp having a maximum
output at about 366 nm. The spots corresponding to quinine and quinidine show a
distinct blue fluorescence. Spray with iodoplatinate reagent. The chromatogram
obtained with solution (B) shows three violet spots, later becoming violet-grey, due to
quinine (Rf, 0.2 to 0.3), quinidine (Rf, 0.3 to 0.4) and cinchonine (Rf, 0.4 to 0.5).
Cinchonidine shows as an intense dark blue spot slightly below that of quinidine. The
chromatogram obtained with solution (A) shows spots corresponding in position to,
and having at least the same intensity as, the spots due to quinine, cinchonine and
cinchonidine in the chromatogram obtained with solution (B) but spots due to
quinidine may be absent.
(b) Cinchona contains not more than a few sclereids (cuprea).
(c) Ash, not more than 6.0 per cent; acid insoluble ash, not more than 20 per cent.
Assay:
(a) For total alkaloids: Introduce 10 g of powdered cinchona, module No. 22, accurately
weighed, into a flask add 10 g of calcium hydroxide and 10 ml of water, mix weJl and
set aside for 15 minutes, add 50 ml of alcohol (90 per cent), mix well and shake
frequently for one hour. Transfer the mixture to a small continuous extraction
apparatus plugged with cotton-wool and when the liquid ceases to flow, pack firmly
and continue extraction for about four hours or until complete extraction of the
alkaloids is effected. Evaporate the alcohol extract to about 10 ml, add 10 ml of N/l
sulfuric acid and 40 ml of water, heat to boiling, cool and filter into a separator. Wash
the residue in the flask with several portions, each of about 10ml of boiling N/10
sulfuric acid until complete extraction of the alkaloids is effected. Filter each portion
into the separator then add to the mixed acid filtrate and washings in the separator,
about 20 ml of chloroform and shake vigorously. Allow the chloroform to separate
and run it into a second separator containing 20 ml of N/10 sulfuric acid, shake well,
allow the chloroform to separate to reject it. Repeat the shaking of the acid liquid in
the first separator with two further portions, each of about 10 ml of chloroform,
running each into the second separator and washing it with the same acid liquid as
before. Transfer the acid washing contained in the second separator, to the first one,
make strongly alkaline with dilute solution of ammonium hydroxide and shake with
successive portions, each of 20 ml of chloroform until complete extraction of the
alkaloids is affected. Wash the combined chloroform extracts with about I g of
123
anhydrous sodium sulphate filter through a dry filter paper into a porcelain dish and
wash the filter and sodium sulfate on the filter, with a few ml of chloroform, adding
the washings to the chloroform extract in the dish. Evaporate
the chloroform to dryness, add 5 ml of alcohol and evaporate again to dryness.
Dissolve the residue in 20 ml of N /10 hydrochloric acid and titrate with N/ 10
sodium hydroxides using methyl red T.S. as indicator. Each ml of N/10 hydrochloric
acid is equivalent to 0.03091 g of cinchona alkaloids.
(b) For quinine and cinchonidine: filter the titrated liquid, and wash the dish and filter
with successive portions, each of 5 ml of distilled water, to obtain 50 ml of filtrate.
Add to the filtrate 12.5 g of powdered sodium potassium tartrate, shake until
dissolved, and set aside for 24 hours. Filter through a small hardened filter, and wash
the flask and filter with 20 ml of an aqueous solution of sodium potassium tartrate (1
:4), using small quantities of the solution at a time. Return the filter to the flask, add
10 ml of sodium hydroxide T.S. and 20 ml of chloroform and set aside with frequent
shaking, until the alkaloidal tartrates are completely decomposed. Transfer to a
separator, and run off the chloroform layer. Extract the flask and the liquid in the
separator with further portions, each of 20 ml of chloroform until complete extraction
of the alkaloids is effected. Wash the combined chloroform extracts with little water,
reject the water, dehydrate the chloroform extract with about I g of anhydrous sodium
sulfate, filter through a dry filter into a porcelain dish, and wash the filter and sodium
sulfate on the filter with a few ml of chloroform adding the washings to the
chloroform extract in the dish. Evaporate the chloroform, add 5 ml of alcohol and
evaporate again. Dissolve the residue in 10 ml of N/10 hydrochloric acid and titrate
with N/10 sodium hydroxide, using methyl red T.S. as indicator. Each ml of N/10
hydrochloric acid is equivalent to 0.03091 g of alkaloids, calculated as quinine and
cinchonidine. To 5 ml of titrated liquid, add 2 drops of bromine T.S., followed by 1
ml of dilute solution of ammonium hydroxide; an emerald-green colour is produced.
Extractum Cinchonae Fluidum
Extractum Cinchonae Siccum
Tinctura Cinchonae Composita
Uses:
Bitter stomachic and tonic and as a source of quinine, quinidine and cinchonidine;
Antimalarial.
Storage:
124
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl
Family name:
Lauraceae
Synonyms:
(a) Camphora officinarum Nees ex Wall.
(b) Camphora camphora (L.) H. Karst.
(c) Laurus camphora L.
Common names:
Camphor, Camphor Laurel, Camphor Tree,
Japanese Camphor, Chinese camphor tree
(E). Camphre, Camphrier(F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫قرفة كافورية‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Cinnamomum camphora (commonly known as Camphor tree, Camphorwood or camphor
laurel) is a large evergreen tree that grows up to 20–30 metres tall. The leaves have a
glossy, waxy appearance and smell of camphor when crushed. In spring it produces
bright green foliage with masses of small white flowers. It produces clusters of black
berry-like fruit around one centimetre in diameter. It has a pale bark that is very rough
and fissured vertically.
Moist subtropical areas, including the Gulf Coast.
Part used:
Leaves and Seeds.
Name of drug:
Camphor leaf.
Definition:
Camphor leaf is the leaf of Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl (family, Lauraceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Camphor is an evergreen tree with oval to elliptical leaves, arranged
alternately on the stem. Slender twigs are initially green but change to reddish brown.
Buds are sharply pointed, roughly 1/2 inch in length. Camphor tree bark is variable, from
scaly to irregularly furrowed with flat topped ridges. The camphor tree habit ranges from
small to medium (25 to 40 feet tall), but some specimens have attained over 100 feet.
Leaf margins are entire, but can be wavy with a shiny, dark green color. Fragrant flowers
are greenish white to pale yellow, borne on panicles about 3 inches long. The fruit is dark
blue to black, fleshy and approximately 1 to 1.5 cm in diameter. These are produced in
large quantities during the winter and spring months in central and north Florida.
125
The main chemical components are a-pinene, camphene, b-pinene, sabinene,
phellandrene, limonene, 1,8-cineole, y-terpinene, p-cymene, terpinolene, furfural,
camphor, linalool, bornyl acetate, terpinen-4-ol, caryophyllene, borneol, piperitone,
geraniol, safrole, cinnamaldehyde, methyl cinnamate and eugenol.
The brown and yellow camphor oil has a very high safrole content, with yellow having
between 10 - 20 % and the brown having 80%. These two oils are considered toxic, as
well as carcinogenic.
Tests for identity:
(a) A quick and easy method of identifying camphor is by crushing the leaves or peeling
a twig or bark. This will release oils and the scent of camphor.
(b) Macroscopical and microscopical examination to ensure compliance with the
(c) Gas chromatographical examination of the sample to confirm the presence of
camphor.
Tests for purity:

N/A
N/A
Uses:
Analgesic, Anthelmintic, Antianxiety, Antiarrhythmic, Antirheumatic, Antispasmodic,
Aromatherapy, Cardiotonic, Carminative, Deodorant; Diaphoretic.
126
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume
Family name:
Lauraceae
Synonym:
(a) Cinnamomum verum J. Presl
(b) Laurus cinnamomum L.
Common names:
Cinnamon tree Celon cinnamon, True
cinnamon (E). Cannelle de Ceylan,
Cannelier de Ceylan (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫قرفة سيالنية‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Abdalasini, Mdalasini.
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Shrub or small tree with brownish-green smooth bark, with opposite, oblong ovate
coriaceous shiny leaves 15 to 20 cm long equipped with 3 or 5 longitudinal ribs;
inflorescence axillary and terminal panicles; unisexual whitish flowers.
Originates from Ceylon and cultivated in humid African region and in the islands of the
Indian Ocean.
Part used:
The inner bark of shoots of coppiced trees.
Names of drug:
Cortex cinnamomi ceylanici, Cinnamon bark, Cannelle de Ceylan.
Definition:
Cinnamon is the dried bark of the shoots of coppiced trees of Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Nees (fam. Lauraceae), deprived of most of its cortex, and known as Ceylon Cinnamon.
Cinnamon contains not more than 2.0 per cent of foreign organic matter. It yields not less
than 1.0 per cent of volatile oil.
Description:
Odour, fragment, taste, sweet and aromatic.
Macroscopical: Cinnamon occurs in long, flexible, slender single or double, closely
packed compound quills; up to about 2 meters long, 1 cm in diameter and about 0.5 mm
thick; outer surface, yellowish-brown, smooth, with fine pale undulating longitudinal
lines and occasional small scars or holes, rarely showing patches of reddish-brown cork;
inner surface, rather darker than the outer and finely striated longitudinally; brittle;
fracture, short and splintery.
Microscopical: Cortex may be represented by a few parenchyma cells. Pericycle,
consisting of an almost continuous tangential band of sclereids with small groups of long,
127
narrow fibres on the outer side; the sclereids, isodiametric or slightly tangentially
elongated, with unequally thickened walls, and occasionally containing starch granules.
Phloem, traversed by medullary rays, 1 to 3 mostly 2 cells wide, and showing numerous
bast fibres, isolated or rarely in small groups of single fibres; each up to 700 µ long, and
not more than 30 µ wide, with strongly thickened lignified walls and very narrow lumen;
axially elongated secretion cells containing volatile oil or mucilage; parenchyma,
generally containing small starch granules,mostly 8 to 10 µ in diameter and a few minute
acicular crystals of calcium oxalate, especially those of the medullary rays.
Powder: Powdered Cinnamon is light brown or yellowish-brown; characterized by
fragments of bast fibres, mostly isolated with thick walls and rarely exceeding 30 µ in
diameter; sclereids, numerous and unequally thickened; fragments of parenchyma,
containing starch granules and minute acicular crystals of calcium oxalate and
accompanied with occasional isolated secretion cells. Starch granules, simple or
compound, mostly 4 to 8, rarely up to 10 µ in diameter; calcium oxalate, minute acicular
crystals, up to 8 µ long; very few cork cells.
Volatile oil 1-2 per cent., tannins and mucilage. The volatile oil contains 55-65 per cent
cinnamic aldehyde and 4-10 per cent of eugenol.
Test for identity:
Carry out the method for thin-layer chromatography as described in vol. 2, using silica
gel GF254 as the coating substance and dichloromethane as the mobile phase, but allowing
the solvent front to ascend 10 cm above the line of application. Apply separately to the
plate, as bands 20 mm long and not more than 3mm wide, 10 ul of each of the following
two solutions: (solution A) shake 0.1 g of the substance being examined, in powder
sufficiently fine to pass through a sieve with a nominal mesh aperture of 500 µm, for two
minutes, with 2 ml of dichloromethane, filter and evaporate to dryness over a water-bath;
dissolve the residue in 0.4 ml of toluene; (solution B) dissolve 50 µl of cinnamaldehyde
and 10 µl of eugenol in 10 ml of toluene. After removal of the chromatoplate, allow the
solvent to evaporate. Examine under an ultra-violet lamp having a maximum output at
254 nm, marking the quenching zones, and at 365 nm, marking the fluorescent zones.
The chromatogram obtained with solution (A), when examined in ultra-violet light of
wavelength 254 nm, shows a quenching zone due to eugenol, which corresponds to that
in the middle of the chromatogram obtained with solution (B), and when examined in
ultra-violet light of wavelength 365 nm, a light-blue band due to o-
methoxycinnamaldehyde is visible.
Spray with a solution of 2.5 g of O-dianisidine in 10 ml of glacial acetic acid; just above
the band due to O-methoxycinnamaldehyde, the band due to cinnamaldehyde is coloured
yellowish-brown.
Tests for purity:
(a) Cinnamon contains no vessels (wood); no starch granules exceeding 10 µ in diameter
(foreign starches Cassia bark); no fibres over 30 µ wide (Cassia bark); not more than
occasional cork cells (Cassia Bark, Cinnamon Feathering).
(b) Ash, not more than 7.0 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 2.0 per cent.
(c) 14-16 per cent Alcohol (90 per cent) Soluble extractive; 26-36 per cent Crude fibre.
Not more than 2 per cent foreign matter.
128
Assay:
Carry out the assay described under "Determination of Volatile Oils" using about 100 g
of powdered Cinnamon, Module No. 21, accurately weighed.
Aqua Cinnamomi
Pulvis Creta Aromaticus
Tinctura Cinnamomi
Tinctura Cardamomi Composita
Uses:
Flavouring agent, carminative.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, in a 'cool dry place, protected from light.
129
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.
Family name:
Cucurbitaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Colocynthis vulgaris Schrad.
(b) Cucumis colocynthis L.
Common names:
Colocynth, Bitter apple, Bitter cucumber,
Desert gourd,vine of Sodom (E). Coloquinte
(F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الحنظل‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Egusi-baara
Annual or perennial (in wild) herbaceous vine; stems angular and rough; leaves rough, 3-
to 7-lobed, 5-10 cm long, middle lobe sometimes ovate, sinuses open; flowers
monoecious, solitary, peduncled, axillary, corollas 5-lobed; ovary villous; fruit a pepo,
nearly globular, 4-10 cm in diameter with somewhat elliptical fissures, about size of
small orange, green and yellow variegated becoming yellow when ripe, with hard rind,
pulp light in weight, spongy, easily broken, light yellowish-orange to pale yellow;
intensely bitter; seeds numerous, ovoid, compressed, smooth, dark brown to light
yellowish-orange, borne on parietal placenta.
Tropical and subtropical north Africa and Asia, in the semi-desert regions from the
Atlantic Is. eastwards to Afghanistan and Pakistan.
Part used:
The dried pulp
Name of drug:
Colocynth pulp
Definition:
Colocynth pulp is the dried pulp of Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (family,
Cucurbitaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Perennial trailing herb with somewhat woody tuberous rootstock; stems
angled, shortly hairy when young becoming scabrid. Leaf-blade ± elongate-ovate in
outline, distinctly scabrid-hairy beneath, smooth except on the nerves above, 26–110 mm.
long, 24–66 mm. broad, palmately deeply 3–5-lobed; lobes pinnately lobulate, with the
central lobe longest, long-ovate in outline; petiole 8–60 mm. long, rather densely rough-
hairy. Tendrils simple, less often bifid. Probracts lanceolate-elliptic, 4–5 mm. long,
caducous. Male flowers on 8–20 mm. long pedicels; receptacle-tube broadly obconic,
130
1.5–2.5 mm. long, green; lobes lanceolate, 2–4 mm. long; petals greenish-yellow, ± 8–9
mm. long and 5 mm. broad, united below. Female flowers on 10–45 mm. long pedicels;
ovary hairy, subglobose, 7–9 mm. long, 5–8 mm. across; receptacle-tube short; lobes
lanceolate, 3–5 mm. long; petals 6–10 mm. long, 4–6 mm. broad. Fruit on a stalk up to 55
mm. long, subglobose, smooth, green longitudinally striped or mottled with yellow or
rather uniformly yellow when ripe, 50–120 mm. or more in diameter, firm-walled, fleshy.
Seeds ovate in outline, smooth, 6.5–10 × 3.5–5 × 2–2.5 mm.
The pulp contains Colocynthin, extractive, a fixed oil, a resinous substance insoluble in
ether, gum, pectic acid or pectin, calcium and magnesium phosphates, lignin and water.
Tests for identity
Macroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with the descriptions
given above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
It is a powerful drastic hydragogue cathartic.
Storage:
In a clool dry place.
131
Citrus aurantium L. (pro. Sp)
Family name:
Rutaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Citrus aurantium L. var. amara L.
(b) Citrus bigaradia Loisel
(c) Citrus bigarradia Duhamel
(d) Citrus vulgaris Risso
Common names:
Bitter-orange tree (E). Bigaradier; Orange
amer (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic:
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Babban-leemuu, Lenu maka,
Lemun zaakii, Dan-kaabuga.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Mkaburi shenzi, Chungwa-chungu.
(f) Yoruba: Oro-oyibo, Jaganyin, Ganin ganin.
Shrub 4 to 5 m high, very branchy with thorny branches, oval leaves, unbroken, 6 x 4 cm,
lamina joined to a winged leaf-stalk and pitted with cells containing essential oil; flowers
white and solitary; fruits acidic and very bitter and inedible.
Originates from the north of India and grown in mediterranean parts of Africa reaching
into forest areas.
Part used:
Outer part of the pericarp, fresh or dried.
Names of drug:
Flavdo Aurantii Amari, Bitter-Orange Peel, Ecorce d'orange.
Definition:
Bitter-Orange Peel is the fresh, or the dried outer part of the pericarp of the ripe or nearly
ripe fruit of Citrus aurantium L. Subsp. amara Engl. (Fam. Rutaceae). Bitter-Orange Peel
contains not less than 2.5 per cent v/w of volatile oil.
Description:
Odour, aromatic, fragrant and characteristic, taste aromatic and bitter.
Macroscopical: Dried Bitter-Orange Peel occurs in thin, narrow strips, or occasionally in
irregular ribbon-like bands; 2 to 12 cm mostly 4 to 6 cm long, up to 4 cm wide, 2 to 6
mm thick; outer-surface, red or deep orange-red, to reddish-brown or dark orange-red,
somewhat rough with numerous small minute pits; inner surface, whitish, with little
amount of the white spongy part of the pericarp attached, and showing small raised points
and fine anastomosing raised lines, marking the course of the vascular bundles; fracture,
short.
Microscopical: Epidermis, consisting of small polygonal cells, showing stomate and
thick cuticle, followed by parenchyma, the outer layers formed of slightly thick-walled
132
cells, containing chloroplasts or chromoplasts and occasional calcium oxalate prims and
showing numerous schizolysigenous oil glands, arranged mostly in two irregular rows;
the inner layers, formed of branched parenchymatous cells with large intercellular spaces,
traversed by delicate, anastomosing vascular bundles and containing sphoerocrystalline
masses of hesperidin; some of the cells contain prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate.
Powder: Powdered Bitter-Orange Peel is whitish-yellow to yellowish-grey; characterised
by numerous fragments of parenchyma, the cell walls from 2 to 12 µ thick; numerous oil
droplets or fragments of oil glands; few fragments of epidermal cells; few lignified,
narrow, spiral, or pitted vessels; calcium oxalate prisms, 15 to 45 µ long.
Volatile oil, bitter principle aurantiamarin, hesperidin, isohesperidin, hesperic acid, bitter
resin, bitter aurantiomaric acid and eriodictyol glycoside and small amounts of vitamins
A, B, C and D. Also pectin, a little fixed oil, carotenoid pigments kryptoxanthin,
zeaxanthin, citraurin and violaxanthin.
Tests for identity:
(a) Mix little powdered Bitter-Orange peel with a few drops of potassium hydroxide T.S.,
a yellow colour is produced.
(b) Mount little powdered Bitter-Orange peel in hydrochloric acid; a pale green colour is
produced (distinction from sweet-orange peel which gives a deep green colouration).
Tests for purity:
(a) Ash, not more than 7.0 per cent.
(b) Yields 30-40 per cent of extractive to alcohol (60 per cent).
Extractum Aurantii Amari Fluidum
Syrupus Aurantii Amari
Tinctura Aurantii Amari
Tinctura Cinchonae Composita
Tinctura Gentiana Composita
Concentrated orange peel Infusion (Infusum Aurantii Concentratum)
Uses:
Stomachic, flavouring agent.
Storage:
In the entire form, in well-closed containers, protected from light and heat.
133
Citrus limonum Risso
Family name:
Rutaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Citrus aurantifolia Swingle
(b) Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.
(c) Citrus medica var. acida Brandis
Common names:
Lemon, Citron (E). Citronnier, Limonier,
Lime, Citron vert (le fruit) (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫ليمون‬
(b) Bambara: Limono, nemuna, bulm mu'na,
leburu kumuni
(c) Hausa: Olomankilisi
(d) Peuhl: Lemo, Limo
(e) Swahili: Limao
(f) Yoruba: Osan, orombo-were
Short-boled shrub that sometimes branches off near the base, branches more or less wide
spreading, and thorny; leaves, simple, dentate 6 cm by 4.5 cm; articulated near the
lamina, pitted with essential oil cells; inflorescence small axillary; highly fragrant white
flowers, fruit is a spherical or ovoid berry of 3 to 4 cm in diameter, yellow when ripe.
Grown all over tropical Africa and in the mediterranean region.
Part used:
The fresh or dried part of the pericarp.
Names of drug:
Flavedo Limonis. Lemon Peel. Ecorce de Citron.
Definition:
Lemon Peel is the fresh or the dried outer-part of the pericarp of the ripe, or nearly ripe,
fruit of Citrus limonum Risso, (family, Rutaceae).
Description:
Odour, aromatic, fragrant and characteristic; taste, aromatic and bitter.
Macroscopical: Dried Lemon Peel occurs in strips or pieces, up to 2 cm wide, 2 to 3 mm
thick, often 10 cm or more long; outer surface, citron yellow, more or less rough; inner
surface, white, with a small amount of the white spongy part of the pericarp; fracture,
short.
Microscopical: Epidermis, consisting of small polygonal cells, with thick cuticle and
occasional stomata; followed by parenchyma containing numerous prisms of calcium
oxalate and sphaerocrystalline masses of hesperidin; the outer layers, with numerous
large ovoid schizolysigenous oil glands, almost in one row and formed of parenchyma,
with yellow
chromoplasts, and the inner layers, of spongy parenchyma of branched cells, with large
intercellular spaces, and traversed by scattered vascular bundles.
134
Volatile oil, hesperidin (and other flavonoid glycosides) and Vitamins B2, C and also a
bitter principle, mucilage, pectin and calcium oxalate.
Tests for identity:
a) Macroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with the above
given Descriptions.
b) Choromatographical examination to confirm the presence of hesperidin by co-
chromatography.
Test for purity:
N/A
Compound Orange Spirit (Spiritus Auranti Compositus)
Aetheroleum Citri
Lemon syrup
Uses:
Flavouring agent
Storage:
In the entire form, in well-closed containers, in a cool dry place, protected from light.
135
Cissus quadrangularis L.
Family name:
Vitaceae
Synonyms:
Vitis quadrangularis (Linn.) Wall. ex Wight &
Arn.
Common names:
Adament Creeper, Bone Setter, Edible-stemmed
Vine, Veld Grape, Winged Treebine (E).
Vigne de Bakel, Cissus de Galam, Raisin de
Galam (F).
African names:
Arabic: As fèl èl fil, Syεďàp
Bambara: N/A
Hausa: Da’ddori, Geewaya-tsaamiya, Do’doriya.
Peuhl: N/A
Swahili: N/A
Yoruba: Ogbakiiki
A glabrous large climber or trailer, with stout succulent quadrangular and almost winged
stems, leafy only on the young shoots; fruits glabrous, red when ripe; in savannahregions.
Widespread in the drier parts of Africa, Arabia and India.
Part used:
Roots and leafy stem
Name of drug:
Veld grape, Bone-setter.
Definition:
Veld grape is the leafy stem of Cissus quadrangularis L. (family, Vitaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: A Succulent climber up to 4 m long, frequently leafless; stems 4-angled,
up to 1.5 cm wide, green with often reddish edges, glabrous to shortly pubescent;
internodes 4–7 cm long; old stems woody with greyish bark. Leaves somewhat fleshy;
petiole 1–40 mm long; blade ± broadly ovate, 1.5–10 x 1–11 cm, cuneate, rounded or
cordate at the base, rounded to acute at the apex, sometimes ± deeply 3–5-lobed, dentate.
Flowers in 2–10 cm long inflorescences; peduncle 0.1–3.5 cm long; pedicels 3–8 mm
long, up to 12 mm in fruit. Calyx 1 mm long, glabrous. Petals yellowish-green to cream,
c. 2.5 mm long, glabrous. Fruits ovoid to ellipsoid, 8–12 x 5–8 mm, reddish, smooth or
with slight swellings, glabrous. Seed ellipsoid, compressed, 7–9 x 4–6 mm, with dorsal
ridge, otherwise smooth.
Fish poisons, Phytosterols, Friedelin, Ascorbic acid,
136
Two new iridoids 6-O-[2,3-dimethoxy]-trans-cinnamoyl catalpol and 6-O-meta-methoxy-
benzoyl catalpol along with a known iridoid picroside 1, two stilbenes quadrangularin A
and pallidol, quercitin, quercitrin, beta-sitosterol and beta-sitosterol glycoside. The
following marker constituents were also characterized : onocer-7-ene-3 alpha, 21 beta-
diol, delta-amyrin, delta-amyrone and 3,3',4,4'-tetrahydroxybiphenyl and 3,3',4,4'-
Tetrahydroxybiphenyl.
Tests for identity
(b) HPTLC or HPLC examination of the specimen for the marker constituents listed
under constituents following the method described by Mehta M, Kaur N and Bhutani
KK. in Phytochem Anal. (2001) Mar-Apr;12(2):91-5.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Anti-imflammatory, aphrodisiac, bone fracture repair, anti-oxidant, anti-arthritis, anti-
osteoporosis, hepatoprotective, anti-obesity, analgesic, tonic, antimicrobial.
Storage:
137
Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul.
Family name:
Clavicepitaceae.
Synonym:
Sclerotium clavus DC.
Common names:
Ergot of rye and other cereals; e.g.: millet, sorghum.
African names:
(a) Arabic: Ergot
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Brief description:
Ascomycete fungus whose mycelium develops as
parasite in the flowers of graminae which are thereby
castrated; the conidia which are accompanied by an honeydew much sought after by
insects ensure the development of the fungus. The final phase of the development is a
sclerotium or ergot (form of resistance) replacing the flower when the graminae ripens.
Ergot germinates from the soil in spring and produces ascus and ascospores.
Cosmopolitan
Parts used:
Sclerotium
Name of the drug:
Ergot
Definition:
Ergot (Ergot of Rye) is the dried sclerotium of a fungus, Claviceps purpurea Tulsane
(family, Clavicepitaceae), arising in the ovary of the rye, Secale seriale.
Description of the drug:
The Sclerotia are elongated masses, more or less curved, pointed at the two ends, 1 to 4
cm long and 2 to 7 mm wide. The surface is black-purple, is coloured with many
longitudinal furrows, one of them deeper than the others on the curved side. The crease is
net, whitish on the inner side and surrounded by brownish-purple edge. Odour unpleasant
becoming more unpleasant while getting old; extract by trituration with sodium
hydroxide. Taste slightly bitter.
Powder: Shows small groups of pseudo-parenchyma with rounded cells in transverse
sections; oily globules present.
Moisture: 2 to 10 per cent.
Minerals: 2 to 6 per cent of calcium, magnesium, potassium phosphates.
Sugars: Glucose, Manitol.
Lipids: 20 to 40 per cent lipidic extract contains 1 per cent sterols.
138
Colouring substances: 1 to 2 per cent
- Red hydroxylated and carboxylated derivates of Anthraquinone
- Yellow colouring matter
Proteinoid:
- Amino-acids
- Amines some of which are active components of the drug
- Amino-alcohol (choline)
- Sulphated betain
- Alkaloids which are active principles of the drug.
(a) Polypeptidic alkaloids insoluble in water (80 per cent)
- group of Ergotamine
- group of Ergotoxine
(b) Non polypeptidic alkaloids water soluble (20 per cent).
Assay:
(a) Identification of anthraquinone pigments: To one g of powder moistened with a few
drops of sulphuric acid 1/10, add 10 ml ether; progressive pink colour appears. The
solvent is collected and shaken with 2 ml of calcium carbonate (10 per cent) in water.
The aqueous layer develops purple colour.
(b) Identification of alkaloids: The powder is cleaned with petroleum-ether, impregnated
with ammonium hydroxide; add more ether. The organic phase is collected, shaken with
aqueous solution of tartric acid (1 per cent).
To 1 ml of the aqueous phase add same volume of solution of PDAB (dimethyl amino
benzaldehyde). A blue-purple colouration, characteristic of indole alkaloids is obtained.
(c) Total alkaloids: 10 g of ergot powder is cleaned with petroleum-ether. The powder,
dried at a temperature less than 40°C is moistened with ether and ammonium hydroxide
to free the alkaloids. Then extract in a soxhlet for 5 hours. Separate and filter the ether
phase and shake it several times with an aqueous solution of tartric acid 1 per cent in
separating funnel. The aqueous solutions which disolve the alkaloids are collected and
make up to 50 ml. Pippete 1 ml and add to 2 ml of p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde
reagent. After 5 minutes, the blue-purple colour obtained is compared with the colour
obtained in the same conditions with a reference solution of ergotomine tartarate, 1 ml of
which corresponds to 0.1 g of ergotamine base. The percentage of total alkaloids should
not be less than 0.15 per cent (calculated as ergotomine).
(d) Water soluble alkaloids: 25 ml of the aqueous solution of alkaloid tartrates are made
alkaline with ammonium hydroxide and exhausted, with ether. The ether phase solutions
are collected and washed several times with water. The ether solution without water
soluble alkaloids is shaken with the tartric acid aqueous solution, 1 per cent.
The dosage as previously gives the percentage of water insoluble alkaloids.
The water-soluble alkaloids are obtained by deduction, and expressed as ergometrine
using a coefficient.
According to the International Pharmacopoeia, ergot of rye should not contain less than
0.023 per cent of water-soluble alkaloids (calculated as ergometrine).
Powder
Prepared Ergot
139
Liquid extract
Uses:
Vasodilatator, oxytocic, anti-migrain, central nervous system sedative.
Storage:
To be stored in well-closed dry containers, in cold dry places, protected from light.
140
Cocculus pendulus (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Diels
Family name:
Menispermaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cocculus leaeba (Del.) DC.
(b) Cebatha pendula (J. R. & G. Forst.) O. Ktze.
(c) Epibaterium pendulum J. R. & G. Forst.
(d) Menispermum leaeba Del.
Common names:
Moonseed
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Much-branched woody, glaucous, puberulent, dioecious climber with elongate twining
branches. Leaves are subsessile, leathery and lanceolate-oblong or ovate-oblong, entire or
rarely lobed and mucronate. Flowers are small, solitary and axillary. Fruit is a spherical
drupe with hourseshoe-shaped seeds.
Widely spread from the Cape Verde Is. & Spanish Sahara to Somalia
Part used:
Leafy stem
Name of drug:
Cocculus herb
Definition:
Cocculus herb is the leafy stem of Cocculus pendulus (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Diels
(family, Menispermaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Dioecious, much-branched liana or scandent shrub; stem up to 15 cm in
diameter at base, striped, dark grey, branchlets long, slender, terete, hairy. Leaves
arranged spirally, simple; stipules absent; petiole 2–10 mm long; blade oblong-lanceolate,
in lower leaves sometimes ovate, 1.5–5 cm × 0.5–2 cm, base cuneate, rounded or
sometimes spear-shaped, apex obtuse, with mucro, sometimes notched, leathery,
glabrous, basal veins 3, conspicuous. Inflorescence a small axillary cyme, solitary or
clustered; male inflorescence few- to many-flowered, up to 2 cm long; female
inflorescence 1–2-flowered, up to 1.5 cm long. Flowers unisexual, small; sepals 6, ovate-
elliptical, fleshy to membranous, 3 outer ones 1–1.5 mm long, slightly hairy, 3 inner ones
larger, finely hairy to glabrous; petals 6, ovate-obovate, 0.5–2 mm × 0.5–1 mm, apex
notched; male flowers sessile or with short pedicel, stamens 6–9, up to 1.5 mm long, free;
female flowers with pedicel up to 1 cm long, staminodes 6, c. 1 mm long, ovary superior,
141
consisting of 3(–6) free, ovoid, laterally compressed carpels c. 1 mm long, stigma c. 0.5
mm long. Fruit composed of 1–3 obovoid, flattened drupes, each drupe 4–7 mm × 4–5
mm, dark red, stone ribbed on lateral faces, 1-seeded. Seed horse-shoe shaped, laterally
flattened.
The stems and leaves contain a great variety of bisbenzylisoquinoline dioxine alkaloids,
including cocsuline, cocsoline, cocsulinin, siddiquine, penduline, tetradine, isotrilobine,
siddiquamine, kohatine, telobine, pateline, kurramine, isotrilobine and tricordatine, and
many derivatives of these.
Tests for identity:
(b) Examine an alkaloidal extract of the specimen and test with the common alkoid
reagents (Wagner’s, Dragendorff’s, Mayer’s reagents). Positive reaction (precipitate)
should be obtained.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Febrifuge, vermifuge, diuretics; leprosy; liver disease.
Storage:
142
Cocos nucifera L.
Family name:
Arecaceae
Synonym:
Cocos mamillaris Blanco.
Common names:
Coconut (E). Cocotier (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫جوز الهند‬
(b) Bambara: Coco
(c) Hausa: Kwar kwar-atta-gara, Attacara,
Attagara.
(d) Peuhl:
(e) Swahili: Mnazi, Nazi (Mbata = Copra)
(f) Yoruba: Igi Agbon
Monoecious palm tree of 20 m, strait or curved
stem with marked foliar scars; pinnets leaves
gather at the top of the stem ranging from 5 to 10
m in length; inflorescence surrounded by spathes;
flowers male and female succeeed each other on a long stalk; the fruit is a drupe; the seed
is the coconut spherical in shape with a hard shell that encloses an oil-rich albumen and
the coconut milk.
Originates from the Pacific and is generally grown along intertropical coastal regions.
Part used:
The carefully dried shredded soft parts of the fruits formed of spermodern and endosperm
known as coconut meat or copra.
Names of drug:
Fructus cocos nucifera, Coconut fruits, Fruit de Coco.
Definition:
Coconut is the carefully dried shredded soft part of the fruits formed of spermoderm and
endosperm, containing not more than 3 per cent of foreign organic matter and yielding
not less than 37 per cent of fixed oil.
Description:
Odour faint, taste agreeable.
Macroscopical: Fruit, oval or subspherical with blunt pointed tips. The tough epicarp,
mass of fibrous tissue forming meso carp and woody shell or endocarp are several mm
thick. The thin soft spermoderm and endosperm are closely united. A raphe with
numerous branches runs through the spermoderm; Embryo, minute and lies below the
micropyle. The edible part (copra) occurs in the form of white or almost white raspings.
Microscopical: Pericarp; epicarp undifferentiated in mature and ripe fruits. Mesocarp,
fibrous, formed of longitudinal bundles of fibres running in a thin-walled
parenchymatous ground tissue, often impregnated with brown substance. Fibres; thick-
walled, pitted, lignified, showing here and there on the surface warty siliceous bodies up
143
to 12 µ in diameter; vascular bundles running in the mesocarp are bicollateral with two
phloem patches accompanied with bast fibres, the xylem being formed of spiral,
reticulate and pitted lignified vessels and tracheids. Endocarp, of elongated sclereid cells
in groups arranged in different directions. The sclereids having yellow thick pitted,
strongly lignified walls, lumen narrow, with dark brown contents.
Copra: Spermoderm (testa); in the outer spermoderm, cells are large, elongated in various
directions, with porous walls of medium thickness; in the inner spermoderm, they are
small and non-porous. Endosperm; the first 2-3 layers are isodiametric becoming
gradually radially elongated and larger towards the inner side, cells contain oil globules
or crystals of fat and aleurone grains with crystalloids; having no distinct outer coat or
ground substance; varying from minute up to 25 µ or more. On defatting with ether,
protein matter left is in form of a network or groups, resembling aggregates of starch.
Powder: Copra; coarsely powdered soft parts (spermoderm and endosperm) consist
chiefly of fragments of parenchyma cells; those of the outer spermoderm are distinctly
pitted and arranged in various directions, while the cells of inner spermoderm are smaller
and not pitted; isodiametric cells from the outer parts of endosperm; elongated cells from
the inner parts of endosperm. The latter parenchyma cells are thin-walled, contain oil
globules and fat crystals, in addition to aleurone grains with crystalloids only; powder
contains not more than few sclereid cells from endocarp.
Dry copra (coconut meat) contains protein about 6.3 per cent, fat (oil) about 57.3 per
cent, carbohydrates about 38 per cent, and minerals about 2 per cent. Carbohydrate is
formed mainly of sucrose 14.33 per cent, raffinose 2.42 per cent, galactose 2.42 per cent,
pentose 2.40 per cent, fructose 1.20 per cent, glucose 1.19 per cent, dextrin 0.58 per cent,
starch 0.87 per cent.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and miroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance
with the above given descriptions.
(b) Chromatographical examination to confirm the presence of simple sugars by paper
chromatography.
Test for purity:
N/A
Uses:
In domestic cookery and confectionary, desiccated canned. From the dried meat (copra)
coconut oil is obtained used in the butter manufacture and as lard substitute, as well as
soap; coconut cake, a by-product that ranks among the most concentrated of cattle foods.
Coir fibres from the pericarp are used in making mats, matting and cordage, and for
caking.
Storage:
Whole nuts should be stored in a cold place. Copra and oil in well-closed containers,
protected from light, at a low temperature.
COCONUT OIL
Names of drug:
Oleum Cocos nicifera, Coconut oil, Huile de Coco.
144
Definition:
Coconut oil is the refined oil obtained by expression of the spermoderm and endosperm
Cocos nucifera L. contains an amount of volatile fatty acids corresponding to a Reichert
Meissel value not less than 6 and a Polenske value not more than 20.
Description:
Coconut oil is a solid fat, melting at about 20-27°C, almost white or yellowish-white,
odourless; taste, bland.
Macroscopical: Greasy, somewhat crystalline fat, with a certain degree of brittleness at
low temperature; becoming a nearly colourless liquid at high temperatures; having a good
keeping quality.
Mainly glycerides of caprylic (5-10 per cent), capric (4-15 per cent), lauric (37-51 per
cent), myristic (7-19 per cent), palmitic (2-11 per cent), stearic (1.3 per cent), oleic (5-8
per cent) and linoleic acids (1-3 per cent).
(a) Coconut oil is very slightly soluble in alcohol (9 per cent). It is miscible with ether,
with chloroform, with carbon tetrachloride and with petroleum-benzine.
(b) Specific gravity 0.917 to 0.919, refractive index 1.4475 to 11.4495, unsaponifiable
matter, not more than 0.5 per cent; saponification value, 250 to 265; Iodine value 7.5
to 10.5; Reichert Meissel value 6-8; Polenske value 15 to 20. Coconut oil does not
respond to tests for rancid oils.
(c) Shake 5 ml of the oil or melted fat for 1minute with 5 ml, of hydrochloric acid, add 5
ml of a saturated solution of resorcinol in bezine R. and shake the mixture for 5
seconds, then set aside for 5 minutes; the colour of the acid layer is deeper than that
produced by diluting 3.8 ml of N100 potassium permanganate in 100 ml with water.
Coal Tar and Salicylic acid Ointment.
Uses:
Oil is enormously used in every form of food stuff to which a solid fat may be required,
sometimes as adulterant to butter-fat. In pharmacy, it is mainly used in the manufacture
of soap, cosmetics and as an ointment base.
Coconut oil is used as a source of medium chain-length triglycerides in dietary
preparations for patients with fat malabsorption syndromes. The medium chain-length
triglycerides are more readily absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract than long-chain
triglycerides and are not dependent on biliary and pancreatic secretions for their
absorption.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, in a cold place, protected from light.
145
Coffea arabica L.
Family name:
Rubiaceae
Synonym:
(a) Coffea corymbulosa Bertol.
(b) Coffea moka Heynh.
(c) Coffea laurifolia Salisb.
(d) Coffea sundana Miq.
(e) Coffea vulgaris Moench.
Common names:
Coffee tree, Arabian coffee (E).
Cafeier d'Arabie (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫بن‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Kahawa, Buni.
(f) Yoruba: Kofi
Shrub 2 to 3 m high with numerous wide spreading leaves; leaves opposite, elliptical dark
green shiny and smooth of 5 to 15 cm by 3 to 5 cm; inflorescence in contracted axillary
cymes; flowers white and sweet-smelling; fruits: berry-shaped containing one to 2 seeds.
Cultivated in the highland of tropical Africa.
Part used:
Seeds
Names of drug:
Semen coffea arabica, Coffee beans, Grains de cafe.
Definition:
Coffee beans are the dried seeds of Coffea arabica L. (family, Rubiaceae) deprived of
most of the seed coat. It contains not more than 2 per cent of foreign organic matter and
not less than 1 per cent of caffeine.
Description:
Taste very characteristic and agreeable, odour fragrant aroma.
Macroscopical: Seeds planoconvex, light green in colour 0.5-0.8 cm long, 0.3-0.4 cm
broad, having a characteristic longitudinal groove on one surface, surface smooth,
glabrous; seeds albuminous, with a curved embryo.
Microscopical: The epidermis and one or two layers immediately beneath it are
composed of cells with evenly thickened walls, the rest of the endosperm consists of
parenchymatous cells with thick walls and very large pits; the pits are so large that they
form ovate spaces that may be as long as the cell width or attain half that length. The
leafy cotyledons consist of small delicate, parenchymatous cells containing mainly oil,
proteid matter and occasional small starch granules.
146
Powder: Powdered coffee bean is deeply coloured brown, but may be decolourised by a
short maceration in solution of chlorinated soda; powder revealed fragments of
endospermal cells, parenchymatous cells with oil globules, starch granules of cotyledons,
very few sc1erenchymatous cells of the seed coat; they are almost about eight times as
long as they are broad, usually taper bluntly but sometimes terminated by flat transverse
walls often arranged side by side width their long axes parallel and bear numerous large
oblique pits, also fragments of small vessels derived from the raphe may also be found.
Caffeine, trigonelline, a non-toxic alkaloid, tannin, volatile oil.
Test for identity:
Extract 1 g of powdered coffee beans with 10 ml of dilute hydrochloric acid, filter,
evaporate in an evaporating dish to dryness, add 1 ml concentrated hydrochloric acid and
0.1 g potassium chlorate, evaporate to dryness on a water bath, a yellow residue is left,
which becomes crimson on further heating. The colour turns purple when the dish is
exposed to vapours of ammonia.
Test for purity:
Yields 4 to 7 per cent of total ash, nearly all of which is acid-soluble.
Assay:
Extract for 3 hours in aSoxhlet with chloroform 11 g of finely powdered sample which
has been previously moistened with 3 ml water and allowed to stand for 30 minutes.
Evaporate the extract to dryness. Take up the residue of fat and caffeine with water (hot),
filter through cotton pledget and a moistened paper into 55 ml volumetric flask, wash
with H2 O(hot), make up to the mark, pippete 50 ml of the liquid into separating funnel
and shake with four portions of H2SO4, Evaporate the combined chloroformic extracts in
a tared dish, dry at 100oC and weigh the caffeine. Remove the weighed caffeine to a
Kjeldahl flask by means of chloroform, rinse with H2SO4 and determine the percentage of
nitrogen by the Kjeldahl-Gunning method. Multiply by the factor 3.464 to obtain the
percentage of anhydrous caffeine.
Uses:
It is one of the most important beverage plants, stimulant, diuretic, in treatment of
poisoning with morphine.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, in cool dry place, protected from light.
147
Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott et Endl.
Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott et Endl.
Family name:
Stercu1iaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott et
Endl.
1. Sterculia acuminata P. Beauv.
2. Cola pseudo-acuminata Engl.
(b) Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott et Endl.
1. Sterculia nitida Vent.
2. Cola vera K. Schum.
3. Cola acuminata Engl.
Common names:
Cola. Kola tree(E). Colatier (F).
African names:
Arabic: ‫َجوز ال َّز ْنج أو القورو‬
Bambara: Goro
Hausa: Goro, Ajaaru
Peuh1: Goro, Goroyi
Swahili: N/A
Yoruba: Goro, Obi gbanja, Obi abata = C. acuminata.
Obi-gidi, Obi-abata (C.acuminata), Goro, Obi-gbanja (C.nitida).
A tree attaining 10 to 20 m with dark gnarled bark; leaves: alternate, oval 1anceo1ate,
cuneate at the base and acuminate at the tip or long stalks; flowers: male and female
greenish-yellow or cream stripped with red on the inner side. They are characteristic to
both species of the cola. Fruits: follicules reaching 13 cm for the Cola nitida and 20 cm
for the Cola acuminata, the Cola nitida seed contains 2 cotyledons and the Cola
acuminate seed contains 4 to 6 cotyledons.
Humid dense West African forests
Part used:
Dried ripe seeds
Names of drug:
Kola nuts, Semen Kola, Kolatier.
Definition:
Kola nuts are the dried ripe seeds of Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott & Endl. or of C.
acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott & Endl. (family, Stercu1iaceae).
Names of drug:
Kola nuts, Semen Kola, Kolatier.
Description:
Macroscopical: Dried seeds consist of the kernels only, mostly entire, sometimes
separated into two cotyledons (or more in the case of C. acuminata). Externally, with dull
148
dark brown or reddish-brown colour, internally, usually somewhat paler. Seeds are hard,
solid and exhibit when cut a perfectly uniform section. They are about 2 to 5 cm long and
about 2 cm in breadth and in thickness. They are flat on one side and curved on the other
or wedge-shaped or irregularly 6-sided. A shallow furrow encircles the kernel, where the
two cotyledons meet; transverse to this furrow at one end of the seed, a distinct cleft may
be found, partially separating each cotyledon into two portions; a small radicle will be
found towards the bottom of the transverse cleft. Kola is odourless, has a bitterish
astringent taste.
Microscopical: Cotyledon cells consist of thin walled parenchyma cells, with fat masses,
abundant small simple starch granules which are polyhydral, ovoid or spherical, with 2-3
radiate hilum, often eccentric; measuring from 10 to 25 to 40 μ in diameter larger
granules exhibit faint concentric striations.
Powder: Light greyish-brown to light reddish-brown, odourless, almost tasteless. It is
characterised by the presence of cellulosic parenchyma cells, fatty masses, abundant
small simple starch grains with cleft hilum.
Alkaloid caffeine 1-2.5 per cent, kolatin, kolatein, starch (40 per cent), lipids (2 per cent),
lipase and oxydase enzymes, sugars: glucose and laevulose.
Test for identity:
(b) It gives a positive reaction to Murexide test for purine alkaloids as described under
‘Test for identity’ in Coffea arabica monograph.
Assay:
For caffeine content as described in vol. 2 and under Coffea arabica.
Uses:
Central Nervous System stimulant.
Storage:
149
Combretum aculeatum Vent.
Family name:
Combretaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Combretum stefaninianum Pampan.
(b) Combretum ovale G. Don.
(c) Poivrea aculeata (Vent.) DC
(d) Poivrea ovalis (G. Don) Walp.
(e) Poivrea hartmanniana Schweinf.
(f) Combretum leuconili Schweinf.
(g) Combretum leuconiloticum Schweinf.
(h) Commiphora holstii Engl.
(i) Combretum denhardtiorum Engl. & Diels
Common names:
N/A
African names:
(a) Arabic: ikik, savât.
(b) Bambara: Kolobé, Konti, Uolo, Wolo-konti, Kabana, Kôti, Wolo, Wolo koli.
(c) Hausa: Fara-geeza, Bubukia.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Scandent shrub or woody climber up to 4 m tall; young branches pubescent or pilose.
Leaves subopposite; blade elliptic to obovate, up to 6.5 x 4 cm, acute to emarginate at the
apex, sparsely to densely pubescent or pilose on both surfaces; petiole 1–10 mm long,
persisting as a recurved spine. Flowers 5-merous, fragrant in pubescent short racemes;
bracts sometimes ± leafy. Lower receptacle 4–7 mm long, tomentose, upper 4–5 mm
long, campanulate, pubescent. Sepals greenish or red. Petals 4–6 x 1–2 mm, white,
pubescent outside; filaments 5–10 mm long. Fruits 5-winged, 1.2–2.7 cm long, ovoid,
yellowish brown, glabrous to pubescent; wings papery, 4–6 mm wide.
Eritrea, Ethiopia, westwards to Senegal, and in East Africa.
Part used:
Leaves, root, stem and bark.
Name of drug:
Combretum aculeatum leaf
Definition:
Combretum aculeatum leaf is the dried leaf of C. aculeatum Vent. (family,
Combretaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Climbing shrub up to 8 m tall or, in the absence of support, a compact or
rambling shrub up to 4.5 m tall; young branches grey to rufous pubescent, older shoots
with yellow-brown to dark red bark; inner bark greenish or pale yellow. Leaves alternate
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or subopposite; petiole up to 1.5 cm long, usually persistent and forming recurved spines
up to 17(–30) mm long; blade broadly elliptical to obovate, up to 7(–8.5) cm × 5 cm, base
cuneate, apex retuse to shortly acuminate, lightly to densely pubescent on both surfaces,
lateral veins in 4–6 pairs, rather prominent below. Inflorescence of short axillary racemes
c. 2 cm long. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous, fragrant; lower receptacle 4–8 mm long,
constricted above and below the ovary, tomentose; upper receptacle urceolate-
campanulate, (3–)4–6 mm × 3–4 mm, pubescent; sepals deltate, sometimes attenuate,
greenish or red; petals oblanceolate to obovate, 4–8 mm × 1–2 mm, white, lightly
pubescent outside; stamens 10, in 2 circles, filaments 4–10 mm long, anthers c. 7 mm
long; ovary inferior, style c. 8 mm long. Fruit indehiscent, 5-winged, obovate in outline,
up to 27 mm × 23 mm, apex emarginate; body shortly pubescent; wings papery, c. 5 mm
wide, purplish and somewhat shiny when young, yellow-brown when ripe; stipe 6–12
mm long. Seed c. 1 cm long, beige-brownish.
N/A
Tests for identity:
given above.
Tests for purity:
The feed composition of Combretum aculeatum browse per 100 g dried green leaves (dry
matter content 90.7%) was: organic matter 91.0 g, crude protein 16.1 g, neutral detergent
fibre 28.5 g, acid detergent fibre 21.7 g, lignin 3.8 g, tannin 6.8 g. An analysis in Niger
indicated per 100 g dry matter: crude protein 9.5 g, neutral detergent fibre 33 g, acid
detergent fibre 27 g, ash 6 g.
N/A
Uses:
Leaf: diuretics, laxatives, vermifuges. Root: naso-pharyngeal affections, stomach
troubles, antiplasmodial.
Storage:
151
Combretum indicum (L.) DeFilipps
Family name:
Combretaceae
Synonyms:
Quisqualis indica L.
Common names:
Creeper, Rangoon; Drunken Sailor; Rangoon
Creeper, Chinese honeysuckle, Red jasmine,
Yesterday, today, and tomorrow, ‘Love and
Innocence’ (E). Liane vermifuge (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الكيكوال الهندي أو القمبريط الهندي‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ogan-funfun, Ogan-igbo.
Quisqualis indica is a large climbing, woody shrub reaching a length of 2 to 8 meters.
Brown hairs give the younger parts a rusty appearance. Leaves are oblong to elliptic,
opposite, 7 to 15 centimeters long, rounded at the base and pointed at the tip. Flowers are
fragrant, tubular, showy, first white, then becoming red, reddish-purple or orange,
exhibiting the range of colors in clusters, on the same flower stalk. Fruit is narrowly
ellipsoid, 2.5 to 3 centimeters long, with five, sharp, longitudinal angles or wings. Seeds
are pentagonal and black.
Widespread in tropical Africa and Asia; cultivated throughout the Tropics.
Part used:
Roots, Fruits, Seeds (dried nuts) and Leaves.
Name of drug:
Red Jasmine
Definition:
Red jasmine is the dried leaves of Quisqualis indica L (family, Combretaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Woody climber; young branchlets tomentose to sparsely pubescent,
rarely sparsely glandular. Leaves opposite or subopposite; lamina papyraceous, elliptic or
oblong-elliptic, 8–14.5 cm long, 3.5–9 cm wide, apex acuminate or subcaudate, base
rounded or subcordate, tomentose to nearly glabrous, minutely verruculose; lateral nerves
5–7 pairs, domatia sometimes present; petiole up to 10 mm long, the base sometimes
persisting and forming a spine. Inflorescence terminal and axillary spikes 2–5(–10) cm
long, sometimes forming a leafy panicle; bracts lanceolate-acuminate or elliptic, 6–10
mm. long, 1–3 mm wide. Flowers fragrant. Lower receptacle 3–4 mm long, pubescent to
sericeous-tomentose; upper receptacle narrowly tubular, expanding slightly at the apex,
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6–8 cm long, tomentose to pubescent. Sepals triangular, 1–3 mm long, acute. Petals
imbricate in bud, white becoming dark red on the inner face, enlarging at anthesis, oblong
to oblong-obovate, up to 25 mm long, 13 mm wide, apex acute (in the Flora area)
orobtuse, shortly clawed. Stamen-filaments 7–8 mm long; anthers 0.9 mm long. Style
with upper part free for 10–20 mm fruit (from West African material) ovate-elliptic in
outline, 2.5–4 cm long, 0.75–1.25 cm wide, appressed pubescent to glabrous; wings 1–2
mm wide, stout; stipe 0.5–1 mm long.
Phytochemical screening yields major classes of constituents: alkaloids, carbohydrates,
protein, amino acid, saponins, glycosides, steroids, tannins, flavonoids and phenolic
compounds.
(a) Plant yields a fatty oil, 15%; gum; resin.
(b) The nut yields 12.96 percent moisture; a yellow oil, 28.37 percent of the original nut.
(c) Studies yield quisqualic acid, quisqualin A.
(d) An analysis of the seed reported the presence of oleic and palmitic acids in the oil, in
addition to sitosterol, and an acetyl derivative from the saponifable matter.
(e) Leaves yield rutin, trigonelline, L-proline, L-aspargine, and quisqualic acid.
(f) Flower gum yields pelargonidin-3-glucoside.
Tests for identity:
given above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
The seeds of this and the related species Quisqualis fructus and Quisqualis chinensis
contain the chemical quisqualic acid, used in neuroscience in the treatment of such
conditions as spinal cord injury, strokes, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s Disease,
Parkinson’s Disease, Huntington’s Chorea, and alcoholism. Antimicrobial, antitumour,
anthelmintic, astringent.
Storage:
153
Combretum micranthum G. Don
Family name:
Combretaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Combretum altum Lerr.
(b) Combretum floribundum Engl. and Diels
(c) Combreturn raimbaultii Heck
Common name:
Kinkeliba (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫عسم‬
(b) Bambara: Kokobe, Dolabe, Baraule,
Singolobé.
(c) Hausa: Geza, Siesa, Farar geézaà, Gaiza, Gaza Geézaà.
(d) Peuhl: Talli gugumi, Gougoumi.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Okan, òOgàn bulẹ, Ogàn ìbulẹ.
The Combretum micranthum is a bushy shrub or sarmentous creeper that can climb up to
15 to 20 m; opposite leaves, oval acuminate, lamina covered with reddish scales on the
inner side with downy tufts at the axis of lateral ribs; short axillary clusters on scaly
stalks; calyx covered with ferruginous scales; whitish corolla; fruit: four winged, smaller
1.5 x 1.5 cm with a scaly and ferruginous uberuhum.
The two combretum species are found in the Sudano-Sahelian and other tropical regions.
Part used:
Leaf
Name of drug:
Kinkeliba leaf
Definition:
Kinkeliba leaf is the dried leaf of Combretum micranthum G. Don. (family,
Combretaceae).
The principal substances identified belong to the following groups:
- Flavonoids
- Quaternary alkaloids named Combretin A and Combretin B
- Gallic tannins
- Catecho tannins
- Choline
- Organic acids: tartaric, citric
- Mineral substances with abundant potassium
Tests for identity:
b) Add a few drops of ferric chloride reagent to an aqueous extract of the sample, a dark
154
colouration is produced.
Test for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
(a) In decoction (5 to 10 per cent) it is diuretic and cholagogue.
(b) In less concentrated decoction it is used as hygienic drink.
Storage:
To be stored in a cool dry place.
155
Combretum nigricans Lepr.
Family name:
Combretaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Combretum elliotii Engl. & Diels
(b) Combretum lecanthum Engl. & Diels
Common names:
N/A
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: diangara, diangara ké, iribéléni,
sama m’bali, simbabali, tiankara, Takara.
(c) Hausa: Ciiriiri, Dangeera, Dagara, Dagra
tsiriri, Dageera , Chiriri.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
A small tree to 10 m high by 1 m girth with smooth bark and bole often twisted, of
savanna and fringing forest of dry regions. The species is represented by two varieties:
var. nigricans is recorded from Senegal and The Gambia, and var. elliotii (Engl. & Diels)
Aubrév. from Senegal across the Region to Nigeria, and on into Sudan. Var. nigricans has
the leafy stems puberulous, and var. elliotii is distinguishable by their near
glabrousness.The wood is dirty white to yellowish-green at the heart. It is very hard and
is included in the general designation of ‘breakaxe’ (Hausa, karya gatari) (14). When dry
it is reported to be susceptible to borer attack. It has no recorded use except for firewood
(6, 11).The bark in the hot season freely yields a gum known as chiriri in Hausa, which is
an item of market-trade in the sudano-guinean region (1, 4, 5, 12). It is white, yellow or
red-brown, water-soluble and of good viscosity. It might substitute Acacia gums but it
does not appear to have been accepted for industrial use. It is edible. It has good adhesive
properties.
It is a widespread Sahelian species distributed throughout tropical West Africa from
Senegal to Cameroon and eastwards to the Sudan.
Part used:
Bark
Name of drug:
Combretum nigricans gum
Definition:
It is the gum exudates obtained from Combretum nigricans Lepr. (family,
Combretaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: The species is either a tree or a shrub, 4-12 m high, with a dense,
rounded crown. The bark is rough or finely scaly, grey to ochre, the slash is brown on the
156
upper surface and pink-yellow beneath. The bole is twisted and often low branched, up to
30 cm in diameter, the bark of the bole and older branches are pinkish-brown. The
branches and leaves are glabrous to sparsely pubescent, glutinous when young. The
leaves are opposite to sub-opposite, 8-12 cm long and 3-5.5 cm wide including a 0.3-1
cm long petiole. The blade is ovate to elliptic with acuminate apex and rounded or shortly
cuneate base. Nerves are pinnate; 6-8 pairs of lateral nerves are visible on both surfaces.
The under surface of the leaves are sometimes glabrous, but without white scales. The
mature dry leaves have a reddish brown colour. The inflorescence is an axillary or spike-
like raceme, glabrous or downy, 1-7 cm long. The flowers are 4merous, glabrous to
pubescent, greenish yellow, 34mm in diameter. The petals are about 1 mm long,
spatulate, pilose on back and strongly ciliate. The petals and filaments are cream. A
bright red disk is present. The stamens are longer than the petals.
Pentacyclic triterpene: 11alpha-acetoxy-20,24-epoxy-25-hydroxy-dammar-3-one and the
corresponding diol, 20,24-epoxy-11alpha, 25-dihydroxy-dammar-3-one.
Tests for identity:
Macroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with the above given
descriptions.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Anthelminthic, cytotoxic.
Storage:
157
Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl.
Family name:
Burseraceae
Synonyms:
(a) Commiphora molmol Engl. ex Tschirch
(b) Balsamodendron myrrha Nees,
(c) Commiphora myrrha Holm,
(d) C. myrrha (Nees) Engl. var. molmol Engl.
Common names:
Myrrh, Arabian myrrh, Somali myrrh (E).
Molmol; myrrhe des somalis; oleo-resine (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫مر‬
(b) Bambara: Barakante = C. balsamifera
(c) Hausa: Dashi, 'Biskiti.
(d) Peuhl: Bardi = C. africaina
(e) Swahili: Mbebe, Mbele.
(f) Yoruba: Turari
Small short-baled tree with rounded top with a deep brown bark exuding a gum-oleo-
resin from its shakes. The branches covered with deciduous leaves generally end in
thorny top.
Originates from Somalia, found in arid and tropical regions of Africa.
Part used:
Oleo-gum resin
Names of drug:
Gummi Resina Myrrha, Myrrh, Myrrhe, Gummi Myrrha.
Definition:
Myrrh is the air-dried oleo-gum-resin obtained from the stems and branches of
Commiphora molmol Engler, and possibly other species of Commiphora (family
Burseraceae). Myrrh contains not more than 4 per cent of foreign organic matter.
Description:
Myrrh occurs in rounded or irregular tears, or lumps of agglutinated tears of variable
sizes; externally, brownish-yellow to reddish-brown and more or less covered with a
greyish or yellowish dust; internally, rich-brown or reddish-brown, sometimes marked
with nearly white spots or lines; thin splinters, translucent or almost transparent; brittle;
fracture, waxy, granular, concoidal; odour, characteristic and aromatic; taste, aromatic,
bitter and acrid.
Myrrh consists of a mixture of resin about 25 to 35 per cent, volatile oil, about 2.5 to 6.5
per cent. The remainder of the drug consisting of gum (57 to 61 per cent).
Tests for identity:
(a) Triturate a little of the crushed Myrrh with water, a yellowish-brown emulsion is
obtained.
158
(b) Triturate 0.4 g of Myrrh with 1 g of sand, shake for a few minutes with 10 ml of
ether, filter and divide the filtrate into 2 porcelain dishes. Allow the filtrate to
evaporate. To the film left in one porcelain dish add a few drops of nitric acid, a
purplish violet colour is instanttly produced (distinction from Bisubol).
Test for purity:
(a) Alcohol-insoluble residue, not more than 70 per cent.
(b) Myrrh leaves on ignition not more than 10 per cent of ash; acid-insoluble ash not
more than 5 per cent.
(c) Finely powdered myrrh is deficient in volatile oil and may yield as much as 13 per
cent of ash.
Tinctura Balsami Benzoini Compositae
Tinctura Myrrhea
Pilula Rhei Compositae
Uses:
Myrrh has stimulant and antiseptic properties. It is used as a mouth wash
and as a uterine stimulant and emenagogue.
Storage:
In the unground form, in well-closed containers, in a cool dry place,
protected from light.
159
Convolvulus scammonia L.
Family name:
Convolvulaceae
Synonyms:
Convolvulus scammonia var.
pseudoscammonia Sa'ad.
Common names:
Scammony, Syrian Bindweed (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: Sakmunia
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
It is a twining perennial, bearing flowers like those of Convolvulus arvensis, and having
irregularly arrow-shaped leaves and a thick fleshy root. The dried juice, virgin
scammony, obtained by incision of the living root, has been used in medicine as
scammonium. It has flowers of a very delicate tint of sulphur yellow and leaves of a
similar shape to our native species.
The roots are 3 to 4 feet long and from 9 to 12 inches in circumference; tapering, covered
with a light grey bark and containing a milky juice. Scammony is a gummy resin,
obtained from this milky juice of the root by clearing away the earth from the upper part
of the root and cutting off the top obliquely, about 2 inches below where the stalks spring.
Then a vessel is fixed in such a position as to receive the exuding juice, which gradually
hardens and becomes the Scammony of commerce. The best Scammony is black,
resinous and shining when in the lump, but of a whitish-ash colour when powdered, with
a strong cheesy smell and a somewhat acrid taste, turning milky when touched by the
tongue. It occurs in commerce in irregular pieces 1 to 2 inches or more in diameter.
Native to the countries of the eastern part of the Mediterranean basin; it grows in bushy
waste places, from Syria in the south to the Crimea in the north, its range extending
westward to the Greek islands, but not to northern Africa or Italy.
Part used:
Gum
Name of drug:
Scammony
Definition:
Scammony is a gummy resin, obtained from the milky juice of the root of Convolvulus
scammonia L. by clearing away the earth from the upper part of the root and cutting off
the top obliquely, about 2 inches below where the stalks spring. Then a vessel is fixed in
160
such a position as to receive the exuding juice, which gradually hardens and becomes the
Scammony of commerce.
Description:
Macroscopical: Convolvulus scammonia is a perennial growing to 0.8 m (2ft 7in).
It is hardy to zone 7. It is in flower in July, and the seeds ripen in September. The flowers
are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Bees, flies,
self. The plant is self-fertile. Suitable for light (sandy) and medium (loamy) soils, prefers
well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Suitable pH: neutral and basic
(alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers dry or moist soil.
The active principle is the glucoside scammonin or jalapin, C34H114O6.
Tests for identity
given above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
Powdered scamony root
Powdered Scamony resin, B.P.
Compound scamony resin Powder, B.P.
Uses:
Scammony is a drastic cathartic, closely allied in its operation to Jalap; though not so
nauseous, it is more active and irritating, and in inflammatory conditions of the
alimentary canal should not be used.
Storage:
161
Corchorus olitorius L.
Family name:
Tiliaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Corchorus longicarpus Don
(b) Corchorus lanceolatus Don
Common names:
Jute mallow, Indian Jute, nalta jute, Tossa
Jute (E); corète potagère, jute potager (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الجوت‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Laaloo, Malafia, Tungurnuwa, Turgunnuwaa.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ooyo, Eeyo, Ewedu, Ewedu-ga nbe, Eyo-ganbe.
Corchorus olitorius is a annual/perennial growing to 3.5 m (11ft 6in) at a fast rate.
it is hardy to zone 10. it is in flower from August to October, and the seeds ripen in
October. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are
pollinated by Insects. Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils.
Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline soils.
It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers moist soil.
Wild, or cultivated as a potherb in every part of tropical Africa, and also widely diffused
throughout the tropics, extending even into Australia.
Part used:
Fibre, Wood.
Name of drug:
Indian jute
Definition:
Indian jute is the fibre obtained from the stem of Corchorus olitorius L. (family,
Tiliaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Annual or suffrutescent, with erect, branching, nearly glabrous stem.
Leafstalks 1–2 inch long, pilose. Stipules setaceous, half the length of the petioles.
Leaves 2–4 in. long, 1–2 inch wide, ovate-lanceolate, 3–5-nerved, smooth, serrate; the
two lowermost serratures prolonged into long setaceous appendages. Pedicels 2–3-
flowered, erect, shorter than the petioles. Sepals sharply pointed, shorter than the
spathulate yellow petals. Pod cylindrical, appressed, straight or slightly curved, 1–3 inch
long, 10-ribbed, 5-valved, each valve ending in a long point, the whole forming a long,
straight, undivided beak to the fruit; inner surface of the valves transversely septate and
pitted to receive the numerous blackish seeds.
162
Beta-carotene: extremely high; vitamin E: medium; riboflavin: high; folic acid: extremely
high; ascorbic acid: extremely high; calcium: medium to high; iron: high to extremely
high; protein: 4.5% leaves contain mucilage and several phenolic compounds.
Test for identity
given above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
A fibre is obtained from the stems.
Storage:
163
Coriandrum sativum L.
Family name:
Apiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Bifora loureirii Kostol
(b) Coriandrum diversifolium Gilib.,
(c) Coriandrum globosum Salisb.,
(d) Coriandrum majus Gouan,
(e) Coriandrum melphitense Ten. et Guss.,
(f) Coriandrum testiculatum Lour
(g) Selinum coriandrum E. H. L. Kraus
Common names:
Coriander (E). Coriandre (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara:
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Giligilani
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Herbaceous plant of 30 to 60 cm high; upper leaves suborbicular, lower leaves divided
into linear strips; flowers white or pink; fruits round with a diameter of 5 mm; fresh plant
with a repulsive odour.
Mediterranean basin and tropical Africa.
Part used:
Fruits
Names of drug:
Fructus Coriandri, Coriander, Coriandre.
Definition:
Coriander is the dried ripe fruits of Coriandrum sativum L. (family, Apiaceae).
Coriander contains not more than 2 per cent of foreign organic matter and yields not less
than 0.3 per cent v/w of volatile oil. It contains about 13 per cent fixed oils and also
proteins.
Description:
Odour, aromatic; taste, aromatic, spicy and characteristic.
Macroscopical: Fruit, cremocarp usually entire nearly globular, 2 to 5mm in diameter;
brownish-yellow, or brown, sometimes with a purplish tint; externally, glabrous, marked
with 10 inconspicious wavy primary ridges and 8 more prominent, straight secondary
ridges; usually crowned by a short conical stylopod and the remains of the sepals;
mericarp, usually remaining attached by margin, concave on the commissural side,
internally the pericarp shows no vittae in the dorsal, but only 2 on the commissural side
of each mericarp and an almost complete ring or sclerenchyma in the dorsal side, a large
colospermous oily endosperm and a small curved apical embryo,
164
Microscopical: Outer epidermis of the pericarp, if present, consists of small, thick-walled
cells, and showing occasional small prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate few stomata of
cruciferous type and no hairs. Outer zones of mesocarp consist of few layers of
tangentially elongated parenchymatous cells usually collapsed, showing degenerated
vittae as tangentially flattened cavities, and longitudinally traversed by 10 vascular
strands with small spiral vessels. In the ripe fruits, the outer epidermis of the pericarp and
the outer layers of the mesocarp with the dorsal vittae are usually absent. Middle zone of
mesocarp, formed of a broad layer of sclerenchyma consisting of strongly lignified pitted,
fusiform fibres, in 2 bands crossing each other at right angles, one running longitudinally
and the other tangentially. Inner zone of mesocarp, formed of 2, sometimes 3 layers of
large, tangentially elongated thin-walled parenchyma with wide intercellular spaces and
an innermost layer of flattened hexagonal thin-walled sclerenchyma usually adhering to
the endocarp. Mesocarp on the commissural side shows no sclerenchyma layer, but 2
large elliptical yellowish-brown, schizogenous vittae. Endocarp, formed of very narrow
elongated thin-walled cells, in groups variously oriented. Endosperm consists of thick-
walled polygonal cellulosic parenchyma containing much fixed oil and several aleurone
grains, about 4 to 12 microns in diameter, each enclosing a micro-rosette crystal, rarely a
prism of calcium oxalate, about 3 to 10 microns in diameter. Carpophore, split, passing at
the apex of each mericarp into the raphe; traversed by a flattened vascular strand,
consisting of fibres surrounded by spiral vessels.
Powder: Powdered Coriander is light-brown to brown; characterised by numerous
irregular fragments of endosperm cells containing globules of fixed oil and aleurone
grains containing micro-rosette crystals of calcium oxalate; fragments of endocarps
associated with the hexagonal sclerenchyma of mesocarp; parenchymatous cells of the
mesocarp without reticulate thickening; very few fragments showing pieces of yellowish-
brown vittae, usually crossed elongated polygonal yellowish-brown cells, fragments of
characteristic irregularly curved, yellowish pitted lignified fusiform fibres of meso;;carp,
in sinuous rows, often crossing at right angle; and abundance of minute oil globules; hairs
and starch granules, absent.
Volatile oil containing up to 90 per cent linalool.
Test for identity:
(b) Examination of the volatile oil extract for the presence of linalool by gas
chromatography.
Test for purity:
Ash not more than 7 per cent; acid-insoluble ash not more than 1.5 per cent.
Assay:
Carry out the assay as described under "Determination of Volatile oils in Drugs", in vol.
2, using about 10 g of powdered Coriander, module No. 24, accurately weighed. It yields
not less than 0.3 per cent volatile oil.
Uses:
165
Tinctura Rhei Composita.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, in a dry cool place, protected from light.
166
Crataeva religiosa G. Forst.
Family name:
Capparaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Crataeva religiosa Oliv.
(b) Crataeva adansonii DC
(c) Crataeva adansonii (orth. aberr.) DC.
Common names:
Sacred Garlic-pear; March Dalur, Three-leaved
caper, Bidasi, Barna (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫نبتة المعبد أو زهرة العنكبوت أو كمثرى الثوم‬
‫المقدس‬
(b) Bambara: Balasirani, Banidiugu, Gandolo,
Mogo iri, Mongo kulu, Mugnien, Sunamin.
(c) Hausa: Unguduudu, Gude, Gudai, Ingidiido,
Ingudiidi, Kalu, K’ok’irmo , Bududu, Ingidudu, Engedid, Guvé.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Eegun-orun, Taniya, Ajanaka.
A small handsome tree of the galleried forest and savanna woodland, often on river-
banks, from Senegal to N Nigeria and across Africa to Zaïre, Tanganyika and
Madagascar. As understood here this species is confined to Africa but bears very close
affinity to the Asian C. religiosa Forst. f. with which it has been equated by some
authorities.The tree attains 7 m height or more. The trunk is irregular, seldom straight, but
it is worthy of cultivation as an ornamental for its dense masses of white flowers borne at
the ends of all the shoots. In the bush, owing to grass-burning, which it survives, and
repeated stripping of its leaves, the tree is often stunted. The wood is soft and yellow (2,
5) and strong-smelling when cut (9). It is of no practical use though it is reported in Togo
to be usable like boxwood (5) — presumably for small items of joinery. leaves have a
disagreeable smell when crushed.
Widely spread throughout drier parts of tropical Africa north of the equator and in India
and Burma.
Part used:
Leaves and bark
Name of drug:
Sacred garlic pear leaf or bark
Definition:
Sacred garlic pear leaf or bark is the dried leaf or stem bark of Crateva religiosa G.
Forst. (family, Capparaceae).
167
Description
Macroscopical:
Leaves: Twig pith septate. Compound leaf petiole quite long, but variable, often almost
as long as the leaflets. Leaflet blades about 6-18 x 3-7 cm. Lateral veins curved
throughout their length but not forming conspicuous loops. Elongated pale lenticels
usually obvious and numerous on the twigs.
Flowers: Flowers large and showy, the petals turning +/- orange with age. Petals large,
e.g. about 5-6 cm long overall, two petals large and two smaller. Petals clawed. Staminal
filaments about 6-8 cm long, red or purple in colour.
Fruit: Fruits large, about 6-15 x 5.5-9.5 cm, stalk about 12 cm long, surface +/- scurfy.
Ripe fruit emits a strong nauseating odour. Exocarp hard, woody but brittle. Seeds quite
large, about 6-17 mm diam. +/- horseshoe-shaped. Testa rugose. Embryo shaped like a
horseshoe.
Seedlings: Cotyledons about 20-34 x 7-9 mm, +/- strap-like, thick and fleshy, flat on the
upper surface and rounded on the lower surface. Venation longitudinal but obscure. Two
cataphylls or axillary buds often produced just above the cotyledons. First pair of true
leaves with narrowly lanceolate or elliptic leaflets. At the tenth leaf stage: lateral leaflets
unequal-sided for at least half their length; leaflets sessile, stipules very small, only
visible with a lens; stem usually marked with conspicuous pale lenticels.
Lupeol. Dichloromethane:methanol extract of the seed shows: oleanolic acid and 4-epi-
hederagenin.
Tests for identity:
given above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
It is used as a cure for urinary infections. The bark and leaves are used to cure rheumatic
pain and swellings. Antimycotic, Antiarthritic.
Storage:
168
Crotalaria retusa L.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Crotalaria retusifolia Stokes
(b) Dolichos cuneifolius Forssk.
(c) Crotalaria cuneifolia (Forssk.) Schrank,
P.P.A
(d) Crotalaria hostmannii Steud.
(e) Lupinus cochinchinensis Lour
(f) Crotalaria retusa var. maritima Trimen
Common names:
Wedge-leaf Rattlepod, Shak-shak,
Rattlebox, Wedge-leaf, Big Yellow
Pupbush, Yellow Lupin, Rattleweed,
Yellow rattlebox (E). Pois France Marron,
Sonnettes, Arachide de brousse (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Alatun-unse, Saworo, Koropo.
Erect annual or short-lived perennial, up to 1.5 m tall; stem shortly pubescent. Leaves
simple, oblanceolate to oblong-obovate, up to 35–110 x 18–40 mm, rounded or
emarginate at the apex, glabrous above, finely appressed pubescent beneath; petiole c. 2–
4 mm long. Stipules linear, 1–5 mm long. Racemes many-flowered. Calyx 11–14 mm
long, glabrous to appressed puberulous. Standard yellow, veined purplish, usually with a
few hairs along the midvein outside; keel rounded, 13–15 mm long, with a twisted beak.
Pod up to 40–50 x 13–18 mm, glabrous, c. 12–20-seeded.
Widespread in the tropics, probably introduced into our area and now naturalized.
Part used:
Leaf, seed.
Name of drug:
Wedge-leaf Rattlepod
Definition:
Wedge-leaf Rattlepod is the leaf of Crotolaria retusa L. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: It is a much-branched annual that can grow to 1.3 m tall but is usually
much less. The leaves are simple and wedge-shaped, slightly indented at the apex, lower
169
surface covered with adpressed hairs. The pea-shaped flowers are borne on a terminal
raceme. Standard is about 24 mm long, yellow often slightly streaked with red, wings are
as long as or longer than the keel. Pod is much inflated 3-5 cm long, black when ripe. It
contains 12-20 seeds yellowish to brown.
Leaf, seed: alkaloids. Pyrrolizidine alkaloid, monocrotaline
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical examination of the specimen source to comply with the descriptions
above.
(b) Macrochemical tests on the alkalidal extract with common alkaloid reagents:
Wagner’s, Dragendorff’s Mayer’s etc. to confirm the presence of alkaloids.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographic examination of the specimen’s extract to confirm the
presence of monocrotaline by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
The plant is very poisonous and should be avoided by amateur herbalists. Leaf,
febrifuges; leaf and seed, sedatives; seed, laxative, vermifuge; root: pulmonary and
stomach troubles. Insecticidal, antimicrobial.
Storage:
170
Cucurbita pepo L.
Family name:
Cucurbitaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cucumis pepo (L.) Dumort.
(b) Cucurbita aurantia Willd.
(c) C. courgero Ser.
(d) C. esculenta Gray
(e) C. fastuosa Salisb.
(f) C. melopepo L.
(g) C. ovifera L.
(h) C subverrucosus Willd.
(i) C. verrucosus L.
(j) Pepo melopepo Moench.
(k) P. verrucosus Moench.
(l) P. vulgaris Moench.
Common names:
Pumpkin, Summer squash, Autumn squash, Marrow, Courgette, Crookneck, Pattypan,
scallop squash, Acorn squash, Spaghetti squash, Squash and Gourd Varieties, Ornamental
gourd, Vegetable Gourd, Vegetable Marrow (E).
Courge, Potiron, Citrouille, Courge nue, Courge citrouelle, Giraumon (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫قرع بلدي‬
(b) Bambara: Dié
(c) Hausa: Wawan goma, Kubushi, Kabaiwa, Kabus, Ruguguwa, Ganwon fatake, Gojii,
Yar gari, Akwato, Balaya, Gesuma, Gwađađđasai, Zazzaße, ψar-garii, Rugudu,
Gesuma, Bakanuwa.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Apala, Elegede, Esin, Isi, Gbò ̣rò ̣, Gbò ̣rò ̣ esi, Langbade, Légedẹ.
Leaves, prostrate or climbing, branched, prickly stems, up to 10 m long. The solitary
flowers are large and yellow being arranged singly in the axils of leaves; the male flowers
have a peduncle of 10–17 cm, a calyx with very small sepals, a campanulate deep yellow
corolla (7–10 cm in diameter) gradually widening towards the top. Calyx lobes are
narrow. Female flowers are similar to the male ones, but with a shorter peduncle, small
stamin-odes, and inferior ovary of various shapes. The gourd-fruit varies in size (15–40
cm in diameter) and shape in the many cultivated varieties, and the toughened, furrowed
peduncle does not enlarge near it.
A native of North and Central America. It is now cultivated throughout the world except
in arctic regions in numerous cultivars.
171
Part used:
Seed
Name of drug:
Semen Cucurbitae
Definition:
Semen Cucurbitae consists of the dried seeds of Cucurbita pepo L. (family,
Cucurbitaceae) or its cultivars.
Description:
Odour: indistinct; taste: bland, oily and slightly nut-like.
Macroscopical: The seeds are ovate, constricted at one end forming a short, blunt
extension; flat or weakly biconvex; up to 25 mm long and 8–14 mm wide, 3–4 mm thick;
on both faces, close to the edge, is an encircling ridge and groove, 1–2 mm wide, absent
from projection; testa creamy-white to pale beige with a satiny sheen, smooth or with
irregular wrinkles; texture brittle, somewhat papery; inner surface of seed coat fawnish-
white, dull, rough or scurfy. The seed is non-endospermic. Embryo easily separated
from testa, more or less entirely covered in a dark olive-green pellicle, with metallic
lustre; light patches of inner seed coat may be adherent. Embryo pale greenish-yellow,
oily; large, almost flat cotyledons, small conical radical at constricted end of seed; inner
surfaces of cotyledons with three or five rudimentary veins, palmately arranged.
Microscopical: Epidermal cells of testa erect, prismatic, up to 200 μm long; walls thin,
bearing slender vertical strips of thickening, usually sinuous in upper portion; in surface
view polygonal, large with conspicuous beads; starch grains abundant, up to 5 μm, simple
but frequently clumped; a band, about six cells deep, of small, thin-walled, isodiametric
or small, elongated parenchymatous cells, finely reticulately thickened and strongly
lignified; a few larger, irregular simple pits; a single layer of large, sub-rectangular
sclereids, lumen narrow, ovoid, walls very thick and conspicuously layered, pits few and
not well-defined, only middle lamella and primary wall strongly lignified; in surface view
the sclereids are somewhat elongated and the anticlinal walls deeply sinuous. Internal to
the sclereid band several layers of progressively larger lignified parenchymatous cells
with very fine reticulate thickening; the cells, having short arm-like projections, form a
spongy, lacunose tissue; areas of contact between branches of cells have quite large
simple perforations. Innermost layers less welldefined, parenchymatous, largest cells
internally; greenish chromoplasts present. Cotyledon cells variable, very thin-walled,
containing oily globules and aleurone grains up to 4 μm in diameter.
The chemical composition of the whole seed varies: 36–40% oil, 30–41% crude
protein, 15–18% fibre, 3–4% ash and 2% carbohydrates . The oil consists of glycerides of
the following acids: linoleic 43%, oleic 34%, palmitic 16% and stearic 8% (3). Cold press
extraction which produces about 30–35% of the oil content is said to be suitable for
edible purposes.
C. pepo, C. maxima and C. moschata grown in Lebanon have been reported to contain a
water soluble amino acid, 3-amino–3-carboxypyrro-lidine, or cucurbitin, which is
taenifugal but only in large dosage . A resin, which may be taenicidal, and a toxalbumin
have been reported . A fairly strong presence of alkaloids in Nigerian material is recorded
172
The fruit-pulp contains 87–94% water, 4–8% carbohydrate, 0.5–1.8% protein and small
amounts of fibre, oil and minerals, especially iron, phosphorus and calcium . Fresh fruit-
pulp contains vitamin C and niacin, riboflavin and thiamine, and the level of these
declines on maturity , and some bitter forms have a high amount of cucurbitacin.
Tests for identity
Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the seed to comply with what is
described above.
Tests for purity:
Foreign organic matter: Not more than 1 per cent
Ash: Not more than 7 per cent
N/A
Uses:
For symptomatic treatment of difficulties with micturition associated with stage I–II
prostatic adenoma and irritable bladder, anthelmintic, oral daily dose: 10 g of seed;
equivalent preparations
Storage:
Store in a cool dry place away from heat and light.
173
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf
Family name:
Poaceae
Synonym:
(a) Andropogon citratus DC. ex Nees
(b) Andropogon cerifer Hack.
(c) Andropogon citriodorum Hort. ex Desf.
(d) Andropogon roxburghii Nees ex Steud.
(e) Andropogon citriodorus Desf.
(f) Andropogon ceriferus Hack.
Common names:
Lemon grass (E). Citronnelle, Fausse citronelle,
Verveine des Indes (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫حشيشة الليمون أو حشيشة الزيت‬
(b) Bambara: Bin boulou, Ce kala.
(c) Hausa: Ciyawar tsabre mai turare, Gajirii, Mobefa, Tsauri.
(d) Peuhl: C. giganteus= Dagé, Gageli, Nipéré.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Koko oba, Koriko oyibo, Tii.
Perennial herbaceous plant with aromatic green leaves in dense tufts that can reach 2 m in
height; inflorescence in agglomerated clusters on a branched spike that overrearches the
tuft of leaves.
Grown or introduced in all intertropical regions.
Part used:
Herb
Names of drug:
Herbus Cymbopogon citratus, Cymbopogon, Lemon grass, Citronnelle.
Definition:
Lemon grass is the dried herb of Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. (family, Poaceae).
Description:
Odour, characteristic and aromatic; taste, bitter.
Macroscopical: Root, adventitious, yellowish-white in colour small in length, cylindrical,
odourless with a bitter taste. Rhizome, cylindrical, showing nodes and internodes. The
culm is a solid cylinder interrupted at intervals by transverse partitions. Leaves, born on
the culm, green, sessile, erect composed of two parts, the sheath and the lamina. The
sheath surrounds the bases of the next higher leaves on the culm, but the two margins of
the sheath are free although they may overlap. The sheath is tubular and split on the side
opposite to the lamina. The lamina has a well-defined midrib, lanceolate with acute to
acuinate apex; with longitudinal parallel venation.
Microscopical: Root shows a piliferous layer with long root hairs, a comparatively
narrow exoderm, followed by a wide cortex. Fixed oil globules are scattered in the
174
parenchyma cells. Rhizome shows an epidermis followed by a moderately wide cortex,
an endoderrnis and a wide ground tissue with scattered vascular bundles. The vascular
bundles are of closed type, they are surrounded by lignified sclerenchymatous fibres.
Leaves show upper and lower epidermises, homogenous mesophyll traversed by vascular
bundles which are surrounded by lignified fibres.
Powder: Powdered lemon grass is greenish in colour, characterised by fragments of
thickened lignified fibres with wide lumen and tapering ends; fragments of vascular
tissue of pitted, annular and reticulate vessels, non-lignified, non-glandular trichomes and
numerous oil globules.
Lemon grass contains 0.75 per cent volatile oil containing citral, citronellal, camphene,
nerolidol and limonine. 0.03 per cent alkaloid along with rutin and querectin, glucose,
maltose and sucrose are also present.
Tests for identity:
(a) Examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with the descriptions given above.
(b) Microchemical test to confirm the presence of alkaloid.
(c) Thin-layer or gas chromatographic examination to confirm the presence of citral.
Test for purity:
Moisture: Not more than 68 per cent; Ash: Not more than 8.1per cent; Acid-insoluble
ash: Not more than 0.9 per cent; water –soluble ash: Not less than 2.5 per cent; Water-
soluble extractive: Not less than 7 per cent; Alcohol (70 per cent.)-soluble extractive: Not
less than 9.2 per cent; Volatile oil content: Not less than 0.75 per cent.
Assay:
See assay of citral in oils in vol. 2.
Uses:
It is used as diuretic, emenagogue, diaphoretic, stomachic, carminative, tonic,
antirheumatic and against diarrhea. It is also used in the form of an aqueous decoction in
treating feverish conditions. The essential oil is used in perfumery in making bath soap
and in cosmetics, insect repellant.
Storage:
LEMON GRASS OIL

Definition:
Lemon grass oil is the volatile oil obtained by steam distillation from the herb of
Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. (fam. Graminae).
Description:
Lemon grass oil is pale yellow; odour, lemon-like; taste, agreeable. Lemon grass oil is
soluble in ether, ethanol, petroleum ether and chloroform.
Test for identity:
Sp. gr., 0.8850; refractive index, 1.4850 at 25°C, optical rotation, - 60.
Assay:
See assay of citral in oils as described in vol. 2.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, as full as possible, in a cool place, protected from light.
175
Cynara scolymus L.
Family name:
Asteraceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cynara cardunculus L. ssp. Scolymus Hay
(b) Cynara cardunculus L.
Common names:
Globe artichoke, Leaf artichoke (E).
Artichaut (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫خرشوف شوكي أو الخرشف‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Herbaceous plant reaching 1.5m in height rather
thorny with leaves deeply dentate almost
pinnatified whitish capitulum of tall purple flowers
subtended by thick and imbricate bracts.
Cultivated in mediterranean Africa and subtropical regions.
Part used:
The fresh lower part of the flower head.
Names of drug:
Flos Cynara scolymus, Artichoke, Folium Cynareae.
Definition:
Artichoke is the fresh, thickened lower part of the involucral bracts and the receptacle of
thistle-like flowers of Cynara scolymus L. (family Asteraceae) gathered before
blossoming. It yields not less than 0.1 per cent of cynarin.
Description:
Odour, faint characteristic; taste, characteristic.
Macroscopical: The involucral scales are greenish or purplish, arranged in many series,
more or less enlarged at the base with a short, sharp spine arising from the notched apex.
The receptacle is soft and tender throughout, enlarged, forming a cushion-like mass.
Microscopical: The involucral bracts consist of six layers but the tissues of the fourth,
classed as mesophyll, vary greatly in character according to the position. Outer (lower)
epidermis of isodiametric or enlarged, irregularly arranged, striated, beaded cells and
ranunculaceous stomata; hypodermis of about 5 rows of longitudinally elongated cells;
fibres in about 15 rows; mesophyll with fibro-vascular bundles, oleoresin cavities and
latex tubes with granular contents in a ground tissue varying from rounded cells to
spongy parenchyma and then to chains of small cells with large intercellular spaces;
collenchyma of several layers; inner epidermis, toward the apex is similar to the outer
epidermis but at the base, mostly of elongated cells. The spine consists of a vascular
176
bundle with narrow elements surrounded by broad fibres with broad lumens, the whole
enclosed in an epidermal tissue of elongated elements. Receptacle, the ground tissue
consists of rounded cells with intercellular spaces, through this run small vascular
bundles.
Powder: Greyish-green to brown powder with faint odour; fragments of the lamina
with more or less sinuous walls and anomocytic stomata; covering trichomes, scattered or
in felted masses and large, glandular trichomes with brown contents; groups of lignified
fibres and vessels from the midrib and petiole, the larger vessels with reticulate
thickening.
Cynarin (polyphenolic compound), proteins, inulin.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the specimen to comply with the
above descriptions.
(b) Thin-layer chromatography of the extract of the specimen to show he presence of
cynarin.
Test for purity:
Ash: not more than 13 per cent
Moisture: not more than 8 per cent
Assay:
Take 10 g of powdered artichoke extract with 70 per cent methanol by maceration
overnight and then percolate till complete extraction. Concentrate under reduced
pressure. Extract with ether, ether extract to be shaken with 25 ml of 50 per cent
methanol. Collect ether extract and washings and concentrated to 10 ml, transfer to 25 ml
flask, complete with methanol (80 per cent). 0.06 ml spotted in a form of a band in the
centre of Kieselgel G plates. Develop the plates with ethyl acetate-methanol-acetic acid
(9:4:2). Scrape the bands and elute with 80 per cent methanol. Evaporate to 1 ml,
complete with 50 per cent methanol to 2 ml, add the colour reagent (0.5 ml of modified
Arnow's reagent). Measure at 510 nm. Results are deduced from a standard curve done
under the same conditions as mentioned before.
Uses:
In liver and kidney dysfunctions, diuretic and anti-atherosclerotic. Treatment of digestive
complaints (e.g. dyspepsia, feeling of fullness, flatulence, nausea, stomach ache and
vomiting). Adjunct treatment of mild to moderate hypercholesterolaemia.
Storage:
Used fresh
177
Datura metel L.
Family name:
Solanaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Datura fastuosa Clarke
(b) Datura alba Nees
Common name:
Datura herb
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫عشب الداتورا‬
(b) Bambara: Batine = D. inoxia,
Almukayekaye.
(c) Hausa: Han Kai-yaro, Babbajuujii,
Zakani, Zakamii, Faren-juujii, Haukata-
yaaro, Itaacen-aljan,Kwarakko,
Mairawiya, Sitira, Sutura.
(d) Peuhl: Lofose
(e) Swahili: Mnanaa, Mnawha, Muranha.
(f) Yoruba: Apikan, Apakan.
The Datura metel is generally annual, lignified at the base, reaching 1 m in height; stalks,
smooth and breakable; leaves, elliptical widely oval, slightly lobed, downy of 20 cm by
14 cm; large wide flowers standing erect from a tubular calyx with single or double
corolla and long acuminate lobes; hanging capsules more or less verrucose opening into
two valves.
Native of America, now widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions.
Part used:
Herb
Name of drug:
Datura herb
Definition:
Datura herb is the dried flowering or fruiting tops of Datura metel Linn. or Datura metel
variety fastuosa Safford, (family, Solanaceae).
Description:
Datura herb occurs matted together, much shrunken and twisted or broken; frequently
consisting of leaves, stems, flowering tops and occasional young fruits; odour, slight
disagreeable and characteristic, taste, bitter and disagreeable.
Macroscopical: Leaves simple, alternate, with short cylindrical petiole, grooved on the
upper side and generally bent. Lamina ovate; 8 to 13 cm long and 7 cm broad; base,
usually asymmetric, wedged or cordate; margin, with 3 or 4 coarse teeth on each side;
apex acute; thin and brittle, dark green on the upper, and paler on the lower surface;
nearly glabrous; midrib prominent on upper and lower surfaces, veins 4 to 6, run into
marginal teeth. Stems, often flattened, longitudinally, wrinkled, occasionally deeply
grooved; light-brown to purple brown, dichasially branched.
178
Flowers absent or very few; solitary, shortly pedicellate, erect; calyx, green, tubular, 5-
toothed, about 6 cm long; corolla, white, funnel-shopped, about 11 cm long; stamens,
epipetalous; ovary, superior, conical bicarpellary, bilocular in the upper part, tetralocular
in the lower part, covered by short emergences. Fruit immature, shrivelled, with short
protuberances; capsule, containing numerous compylotropous albuminous seeds on axile
placenta.
Microscopical: Leaf; dorsiventral; epidermal cells with thin wavy anticlinal walls and
smooth thin cuticle; stomata present on both surfaces but more on the lower, and
surrounded by 3 to 5 mostly 3 subsidiary cells; one of which is distinctly smaller than the
others, anisocytic type. Hairs, generally few, present particularly near the veins on the
lower surface usually less than 35 μ in diameter at the base, the basal cell up to 50 μ in
length; glandular hairs, rare, small, each with unicellular curved stalk and multicellular
head 3 to 7 celled. Mesophyll shows a single layer of palisade, followed by a crystal
layer, each cell containing a cluster crystal of calcium oxalate or occasionally prisms or
microsphenoidal crystals; large irregular masses about 170 µ in diameter extending
throughout several cells; soluble in solution of ammonia. Midrib, with upper and lower
hypodermal collenchyma, and containing an area of collateral bundles, with upper
numerous groups of peri-medullary phloem; single prisms and idioblasts of
microsphenoidalcrystals in the cortical tissue but no fibres. Stem exhibits epidermis with,
uniseriate non-glandular hairs; few pericyclic fibres; xylem, with numerous fibres and
large, annular, spiral and reticulate vessels; numerous groups of perimedullary phloem
and pith with idioblast of micro sphenoidal, cluster and prismatic crystals of calcium
oxalate. Calyx, with outer epidermis having scattered simple uniseriate hairs, stomata of
cruciferous type; inner epidermis with rare stomata and hairs of short capitate glandular
type; epidermal cells, with wavy anticlinal walls; many mesophyll cells with cluster
crystals of calcium oxalate, also some prisms. Corolla, with short uniseriate 1- to 4-celled
non-glandular hairs, on the lower half of the inner epidermis; mesophyll, with numerous
small crystals and some prisms, characteristic plastids as collar-like rings or flat discs
with thin or hollow centres. Anther, with chain-like thickening in the endothelium.
Pollen grains, in chloral hydrate T.S., 60 to 80 µ in diameter, with finely daedalian
ridging of exine, tricolpate, with three wide pores. Seed, with reticulate ridging of testa,
outer wall of epidermis of young seeds, mucilaginous, swelling in water.
Powder: Powdered Datura herb is greyish-green to brownish-green; characterised by
numerous green fragments of mesophyll and epidermis with stomata of anisocytic type;
fragments of glandular hairs and warty non-glandular hairs; few fragments showing
pitted, reticulate, spiral and annular vessels of large dimensions; numerous crystals of
calcium oxalate, mostly clusters; occasionally prisms and microsphenoidal; cluster
crystals; single crystals; occasional fibres and wide vessels may be present; also
fragments of flower, fruit and seed, as well as pollen grains may be present.
Datura herb contains about 0.5 per cent of alkaloids, chiefly hyoscine with traces of
hyoscyamine and atropine.
179
Tests for identity:
(a) Shake vigorously about 0.2 g of powdered Datura with 2 ml of dilute hydrochloric
acid for 3 minutes, filter and add to the filtrate a drop of potassio-mercuric iodide, T.S., a
precipitate is immediately formed.
(b) Shake about 0.2 g of powdered Datura with 2 ml hydrochloric acid for 3 minutes,
filter, and render alkaline with ammonia T.S., shake vigorously with 5 ml chloroform;
separate the chloroform layer and evaporate it in an evaporating dish to dryness on a
water bath. Add to the residue few drops of fuming nitric acid, evaporate to dryness, cool
and add 1 ml alcoholic potassium hydroxide, a violet colour is produced.
(c) Subject a sample of the chloroform extract obtained in a similar manner as described
under Vitali test (b) above to thin-layer chromatography, as described in vol. 2, using the
following systems:
STATIONARY PHASE. Silica Gel GF254, 0.25 mm.
MOBILE PHASES. System A: chloroform + acetone + diethylamine (5:4:1).
System B: n-butyl alcohol + glacial acetic acid + water (4:1:5).
Co-chromatograph the chloroform solution with solution of Hyoscyamine and Hyoscine.
The chromatogram should show spots corresponding to Hyoscyamine and Hyoscine at R
fs 0.30 and 0.50 in system A or 0.28 and 0.25 in system B respectively.
Test for purity:
Stomatal number about 60 to 140 on the upper and 140 to 250 on the lower surface.
Ash, not more than 20 per cent; acid-insoluble ash not more than 5 per cent.
Assay:
Introduce about 10 g of powdered Datura herb, module No. 22 accurately weighed, into a
stoppered flask, and add 10 ml of alcohol and 40 ml of ether. Mix well, set aside for 10
minutes, add 5 ml of dilute solution of ammonium hydroxide, and shake frequently for
one hour. Transfer the mixture to a small continuous extraction apparatus plugged with
cottonwool, and when the liquid ceases to flow, pack firmly, and continue the extraction
until complete exhaustion of the drug is effected. Evaporate the ethereal extract to about
20 ml and filter through a small dry filter paper into a separator. Wash the receiver and
filter, previously used, with three successive portions, each of 5 ml of ether transferring
each to the separator.
Add to the mixed ethereal extract and washing 20 ml of N/1 sulfuric acid, shake well,
allow to separate, and run off the lower layer into another separator. Continue the
extraction with several portions, each of 10 ml of N/10 sulfuric acid, until complete
extraction of the alkaloids is effected.
Mix the acid liquids, wash with about 10 ml of chloroform, run off the latter into a
separator containing 10 ml of water, shake, allow to separate, and reject the chloroform.
Repeat the extraction of the acid liquid with two further portions, each of 10 ml of
chloroform, transferring each to the separator containing the same water, and wash as
before. Transfer the water from this separator to the one containing the acid liquid, add
20 ml of chloroform, followed by dilute solution of ammonium hydroxide, until distinctly
alkaline, and shake at once. Separate the chloroform layer, and repeat the extraction with
successive portions, each of 20 ml of chloroform
180
until complete extraction of the alkaloids is effected, carrying out the extraction as
rapidly as possible. Wash the combined chloroform extraction as rapidly as possible.
Wash the combined chloroform extracts with about 10 ml of water, reject the water, and
dehydrate the chloroform extract with about 2 g of anhydrous sodium sulfate. Filter the
chloroform extract through a dry filter paper into a porcelain dish, and wash the sodium
sulfate and the filter with a few ml chloroform. Remove the chloroform, add to the
residue 2 ml of absolute alcohol, evaporate to dryness, dry for half an hour at 100°C, and
then cool. Dissolve the residue in 20 ml of N/50 sulfuric acid, and titrate with N/50
sodium hydroxide, using methyl red T.S. as indicator. Each ml of N/50 sulfuric acid is
equivalent to 0.005787 g of total alkaloids calculated as hyoscyamine.
Transfer the titrated liquid to a separator, add a few drops of dilute solution of ammonium
hydroxide, and shake with successive portions of chloroform. Evaporate the chloroform,
add to the residue a few drops of fuming nitric acid, evaporate on a water-bath, cool and
add to the residue a few drops of alcoholic potassium hydroxide T.S.; a violet colour is
produced.
See under Stramonium.
Uses:
The herb serves as commercial source of hyoscine.
Antispasmodic in renal and alimentary spasms.
Antiasthmatic, used as cigarettes for smoking.
Dilates the pupil of the eye and stops secretion of mouth and sweat.
Storage:
181
Datura stramonium L.
Family name:
Solanaceae
Synonym:
(a) Datura tatula L.
(b) Datura inermis Juss. ex Jacq.
Common names:
Thorn apple, Devil’s apple, Jimsonweed,
Purple Thorn-apple, Stramonium (E).
Stramoine, Stramoine commune (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫داتورة‬
(b) Bambara: Satine = D. inoxia
(c) Hausa: Ran kai-yaro, Babajuji, Zakani.
(d) Peuhl: Lofose
(e) Swahili: Mnanaa, Mnawha.
(f) Yoruba: Apikan, Adodo-mode.
The Datura stramonium is a shrub with deep dentate leaves, dumb bell-shaped flowers,
erect capsules open into 4, bristle with dense, strong and uneven thorns.
Datura stramonium is cosmopolitan.
Part used:
Leaves with or without the flowering tops.
Names of drug:
Follium Stramonii, Stramonium Leaf, Feuille de Stramoine.
Definition:
Stramonium is the dried leaves, with or without the flowering tops, of Datura
stramonium L. or D. tatula L., collected from the plant in flower. Stramonium contains
not more than 3 per cent of stramonium stems, over 8 mm in diameter, and not more than
2 per cent of foreign organic matter, and yields not less than 0.25 per cent of total
alkaloids of stramonium, calculated as hyoscyamine.
Description:
Stramonium occurs matted together, much shrunken and twisted or broken; frequently
consisting of leaves, stems, flowering tops and occasional young fruits; odour, slight,
disagreeable and characteristic; taste, bitter and disagreeable.
Macroscopical: Leaf, simple, alternate, with short cylindrical petiole grooved on the
upper side and generally bent. Lamina, ovate or triangular ovate; base asymmetric,
wedged or cordate; margin, distinctly unequally dentately lobed and irregularly serrate;
apex, acuminate; thin and brittle; dark green on the upper, and paler on the lower surface,
hairy if young and almost glabrous if old, usually showing small circular perforations
surrounded by or sometimes filled with cork; midrib, prominent on upper and lower
surfaces; veins leave the midrib at an angle of 45° and run into the marginal teeth. Stem
often flattened, longitudinally wrinkled occasionally deeply grooved; olive-brown to
purple-brown, dichasially branched.
182
Flowers, absent or very few; solitary, shortly pedicellate, erect; calyx, green tubular, 5-
toothed, about 4.5 cm long; corolla, white or purple, plicate, funnel-shaped, about 8 cm
long; stamens, 5, epipetalous; ovary, superior, conical, bicapellary, bilocular in the upper
part, tetraocular in the lower part, covered with short stiff emergences. Fruit, immature,
shrivelled, thorny capsule, containing numerous campylotropous albuminous seeds on
axile placenta.
Microscopical: Leaf, dorsiventral; epidermal cells with thin wavy anticlinal walls, and
smooth thin cuticle; stomata, present on both surfaces but more on the lower, and
surrounded by 3 to 5, mostly 5, one of which is distinctly smaller than the others,
cruciferous type. Hairs, generally, few present particularly near the veins on the lower
surface; glandular hairs, rare, small, each with 1- to 2-celled curved stalk, and
multicellular, usually 3- to 7-celled head; non-glandular hairs, slightly curved, with warty
walls, 2- to 6-celled, uniseriate, up to 500 µ long; the basal cell being large usually more
than 50 µ long (distinction from D. metel) and 35 µ wide at the base.
Mesophyll shows a single layer of palisade, followed by crystal layer, each cell
containing a cluster of calcium oxalate or occasional prisms or microsphenoidal crystals.
Midrib, with upper and lower hypodermal collenchyma, and containing an arc of
collateral bundles, with upper numerous groups of perimedullary phloem; single prisms
and idioblasts of microsphenoidal crystals in the cortical tissue but no fibres. Stem
exhibits epidermis with uniseriate non-glandular hairs up to 800 µ long; few pericyclic
fibres; xylem, with numerous fibres and large, annular, spiral and reticulate vessels;
numerous groups of perimedullary phloem and pith with idioblast of microsphaenoidal,
cluster and prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Calyx, with outer epidermis having
scattered simple uniseriate hairs, about 20 to 40 µ long; stomata of cruciferous type; inner
epidermis, with rare stomata, and hairs of short capitate glandular type; epidermal cells,
with wavy anticlinal walls; many mesophyll cells with cluster crystals of calcium oxalate,
also some prisms. Corolla, with short uniseriate, 1- to 4-celled non-glandular hairs, up to
about 40 µ long on the lower half of the inner epidermis; mesophyll, with numerous
small cluster crystals and some prisms, characteristic plastids as collar-like rings or flat
discs with thin or hollow centres. Anther, with chain-like thickening in the endothecium.
Pollen grains, in chloralhydrate T.S., 60 to 80 µ in diameter, with finely daedalian ridging
of exine, tricolpate, with three wide pores. Seed, with reticulate ridging of testa, outer
wall of epidermis of young seeds, mucilagenous, swelling in water.
Powder: Powdered Stramonium is greyish-green to brownish-green; characterised by
numerous green fragments of mesophyll and epidermis with stomata of cruciferous type;
fragments of glandular hairs and warty non-glandular hairs; few fragments showing
pitted, reticulate, spiral and annular vessels of large dimensions; numerous crystals of
calcium oxalate, mostly clusters, occasionally prisms and microsphaeniodal; duster
crystals, 10 to 25 µ rarely up to 55 µ in diameter; single crystals up to 20 µ; occasional
fibres and wide vessels may be present; also fragments of flower, fruit and seed, as well
as pollen grains may be present.
Alkaloids, mainly hyoscyamine and traces of atropine.
183
Tests for identity:
(b) Microchemical test to indicate the presence of alkaloids using Dragendorff’s or
Mayer’s reagent.
(c) Carry out the Vitali’s chemical test to show the presence of Datura alkaloids.
(d) Thin-layer chromatographic examination of the sample to confirm the presence of
atropine, hyoscyamine.
Tests for purity:
(a) Powdered Stramonium shows no short hairs with pointed tips and bulging basal cells
(Xanthium).
(b) Shake vigorously about 0.2 g of powdered Stramonium with 2 ml of dilute
hydrochloride acid for 3 minutes, filter, and add to the filtrate a drop of potassio-mercuric
iodide T.S.; a precipitate is immediately formed (Exhausted Stramonium).
(c) Ash, not more than 20 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 5 per cent.;
Alcohol-soluble extractive: Not less than 5 per cent; Water-soluble extractive: Not less
than 26 per cent; Foreign matter: Not more than 2 per cent; Not less than 0.25 per cent
of total alkaloids of stramonium calculated as hyoscyamine; Not more than 3 per cent of
stem with diameter exceeding 5 mm.
Assay:
Carry out the assay described under Datura metel using about 10 g of powdered
Stramonium, module No. 22, accurately weighed.
Extractum Stramonii Fluidum
Extractum Stramonii Siccum
Pulvis Stramonii Standardizata
Tinctura Stramonii
Uses:
Anticholinergic
Storage:
184
Derris elliptica (Roxb.) Benth.
Family names:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cylista piscatora Blance
(b) Milletia splendidissima Vidal.
(c) Paraderris elliptica (Wall.) Adema
(d) Pongamia volubilis Zollo ou Mor.
Common names:
Tuba-root (E). Touba. Aker tuba. Derris (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫ديريس‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Brief description:
Rising and branchy shrub with a developed root system imparipinnate leaves,
inflorescence in spikelike clusters, ornamental purplish-blue flowers.
Introduced and cultivated in tropical Africa.
Part used:
The dried rhizomes and roots.
Names of drug:
Derris root, Derris.
Definition:
Derris is the dried rhizome and root of Derris elliptica Benth. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
The rhizome, short pieces; brown in colour; taste somewhat bitter followed by sensation
of numbness; odour slightly aromatic; fracture, flexible and fibrous.
Macroscopical: The rhizome, oblique, longitudinally wrinkled, with transverse cracks
and circular lenticels, 8 to 25 mm thick, the slender roots, some pieces are as much as 2
meters long, maximum diameter 8 mm to 1 cm and not more than 5 mm thick, with fine
longitudinal furrow.
Microscopical: Thin cork; followed by phelloderm, parenchymatous, filled with starch
granules; single or 2-3 compound, rounded, or ellipsoid, being 3 µ to 6 µ to 12 µ to 20 µ
in diameter; pericycle, parenchymatous with numerous lignified sub-rectangular
sclereids; phloem, alteration of phloem fibres and bands of sieve-tissue, the parenchyma
adjacent to the fibres containing a prism of calcium oxalate, measure 10 to 20 µ in
diameter, the fibres of phloem and xylem have lignified middle lamella; xylem,
continuous rings of secondary xylem with medullary rays which are one to six-seriate and
include radial chains of three to seven cells with resinous contents, the xylem vessels are
in two sizes, larger, 40-220 μ in diameter; smaller, 20-40 µ in diameter; xylem fibres are
185
present; both xylem fibres and vessels are embedded in a starch bearing parenchyma
which is cellulosic, but near the vessels the cell walls are lignified.
Rotenone, about 2 to 10 per cent; degueline, tephrosin, and toxicarol.
Test for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the specimen to ensure
(b) The freshly cut surface appears grey or yellowish-grey in filtered ultraviolet light.
Test for purity:

The freshly cut surface appears grey or yellowish-grey in filtered ultraviolet light.
N/A
Uses:
Insecticide, not poisonous to men or domestic animals.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, protected from light in a cold place.
186
Desmodium adscendens (Sw.) DC.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Desmodium caespitosum (Poir.)DC.
(b) D. glaucescens Miq.
(c) D. heterophyllum sensu auct.
(d) D. oxalidifolium Miq.
(e) D. ovalifolium Guill. & Perr.
(f) D. obovatum Vogel
(g) D. simplex G. Don
(h) D. vogelii Steud.
(i) Hedysarum adscendens Sw.
(j) H. caespitosum Poir.
(k) Meibomia adscendens (Sw.) Kuntze
Common names:
Hard stick, Tick-clover, Tick-trefoil, Zarzabacoa Galana (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Tahe
(c) Hausa: waaken-zoomoo =D. canum
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Epa-ile, Epakun.
Desmodium adscendens is a vine, which grows wild in the Amazon rainforest of Peru and
other South American countries and on the West Coast of Africa as well. It is an
herbacious, perennial plant which grows up the trunks of trees. An undershrub with
slender thinly pubescent branches, straggling and sometimes prostrate and rooting;
flowers pink or whitish.
Extends through tropical Africa to S. Africa.
Part used:
The leaves, aerial parts and stems .
Name of drug:
Tick-clover
Definition:
Tick-clover is the dried leaves of Desmodium adscendens (Sw.) DC. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Straggling perennial herb or undershrub, or often prostrate and rooting at
the nodes, 0.2–1 m long or tall. Stems densely covered with spreading white hairs when
young, eventually glabrescent, red-brown and striate. Leaves 3-foliolate; leaflets 1.5–5.6
× 1.3–3.5 cm, elliptic to round or obovate to subrhombic, broadly rounded at both ends or
somewhat acute, glabrous or with fine very short hairs above, densely appressed pilose
187
beneath; petiole 8–30 mm long; rhachis 2–6 mm long; petiolules 1.5–2 mm long; stipules
7–10 × 1.5–2.5 mm, lanceolate, striate, hairy, persistent. Inflorescences mostly terminal,
lax 2–11 cm long, finely uncinulate-puberulous and with longer hairs; peduncles 4–10 cm
long; pedicels 7–16 mm long, uncinulate-pubescent; primary bracts each subtending 2
pedicels, 4–11 × 1.5–2.5 mm, ovate-lanceolate, long attenuate, pubescent, soon
deciduous; secondary bracts mostly absent. Calyx finely puberulous and with sparse long
hairs; tube 1.2 mm long; lobes 1–2 mm long, triangular. Standard whitish, greenish-blue,
pink or mauve, 3.5–4 mm × 2–2.5 cm, obovate; wings bright pinkish-mauve; keel
greenish-white. Fruit 2–2.5 cm long, of 2–5 articles, each article 5–9.5 × 2.6–3.5 mm,
semi-elliptic with straight upper margin and strongly rounded lower margin, densely
uncinulate-pubescent, joined by necks 1 mm wide, reticulately veined. Seeds chestnut-
brown, 5 × 2.5 mm, elongate-reniform, narrowed towards one end.
The therapeutic phytochemicals in Desmodium adsendens include alkaloids of the family
of indolic alkaloids. The plant contains 4 mg/kg of alkaloids expressed in tryptamine.
Fatty acids are present in a concentration of up to 3%, which is relatively rich in
unsaturated acids. Tick-clover is known to be rich in flavonoids, alkaloids, and chemicals
known as soyasaponins. A novel soyasaponin in it is dehydrosoyasaponin. It also
contains a chemical called astragalin. Main chemicals found in it include astragalin, beta-
phenylethylamines, cosmosiin, cyanidin-3-o-sophoroside, dehydrosoyasaponins,
hordenine, pelargonidin-3-o-rhamnoside, salsoline, soyasaponins, tectorigenin,
tetrahydroisoquinolines, and tyramine.
Tests for identity
(a) Macrochemical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with the
(b) Chemical tests for the presence of alkaloids with the common alkaloidal reagents.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographic examination or HPLC examination of the alkaloidal
extract to confirm the presence of tryptamine.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Asthma and allergies. Generally, 1-3 cups of tick-clover leaf tea (standard infusion) daily,
4-6 ml of a standard tincture, or 4-5 g of powdered leaves in capsules daily are used for
most conditions.
Storage:
188
Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Desmodium lasiocarpum (P. Beauv.) DC.
(b) Desmodium latifolium (Roxb.) DC.
(c) Desmodium plukenetii (Wight & Arn.) Merr.
(d) Anarthrosyne cordata Klotzsch,
(e) Hedysarum deltoides Poir.
(f) Hedysarum deltoideum Schum. & Thonn.
(g) Hedysarum lasiocarpum P. Beauv.
(h) Hedysarum latifolium Roxb
(i) Hedysarum velutinum Will
(j) Pseudarthria cordata (Klotzsch)C.Mueller
Common names:
Velvet-Leaf Desmodium, Villous leaf Desmodium, (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Dankadafi, Ma’da’ddafi, Kadankadafi.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Emo, Arorin-ewuju, Imo, Abere-defe, Amo, Basore, Borodefe, Ewe-
eemo.
Erect, subshrub or woody herb, 0.5 -3 m tall. Stems with dense spreading ferrugineous
hairs when young, becoming hairless below. Leaves 1-foliolate; leaflet lamina large, 3-19
× 2-13 cm, ovate to almost circular; apex bluntly acute to rounded; appressed-pubescent
above, velvety beneath; petiole 1.5 - 3.5 mm inflorescences of terminal and axillary false
racemes. Calyx hairy; lobes to 1.5 mm long. Standard violet, lilac, red or blue. Fruit of 2-
7 articles, bearing hooked hairs; articles 2.5-4 mm long. Seeds brown.
A common plant of the Old World tropics . Widespread in Africa, Madagascar, SE. Asia
and Malaysia.
Part used:
Leaf, root.
Name of drug:
Velvet-Leaf Desmodium
Definition:
Velvet-Leaf Desmodium is the leaf of Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC. (family,
Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Upright woody perennial herb, subshrub, or shrub, up to 3m tall; stem
simple or somewhat branched, reddish, lineate, densely uncinulate-pubescent. Leaves 1-
189
foliolate (rarely 3-foliolate), occasionally opposite; stipules stramineous, rather long
persistent, ovate-long-attenuate, lobed at base, soon narrowed to a slender caudate tip,
2.2–8.5 mm long, 1–4 mm wide at base, pilose on the outer surface, becoming ±
glabrous, ciliate; petiole sulcate, usually linear, densely strigose to glabrescent, 0.3–2.2
cm long; leaflet light green to blue-green or darker above, paler beneath and with
prominent pallid veins, suborbicular to elliptic to rhombic-ovate, 3–9.4 cm long, 2–7 cm
wide, entire or repand (indented at the termination of the lateral veins) and ciliate, thick,
mostly soft velvety on both surfaces with long stiff golden, reddish or white hairs slightly
hooked at apex and intermixed with straight tapering ones. Inflorescences axillary and
terminal densely flowered racemes to 1 dm or more long, at least the terminal ones often
paniculately branched; rhachis striate, densely long uncinulate-pubescent with straight
hairs intermixed; primary bracts each subtending 3–5 pedicels, stramineous, lanceolate-
to ovate-attenuate, 1.5–4 mm long, 0.5–1 mm wide, somewhat pilose and uncinulate-
puberulent on the outer surface, ± persistent; secondary bracts similar, slightly smaller
and almost linear; pedicels abundantly uncinulate-pubescent with straight hairs
intermixed, 1–3 mm long; occasionally small bracteoles present on the pedicels. Flowers
white to pink, to blue, mauve or brilliant purple, usually appearing whitish or pale when
dry. Calyx rather densely strigose, central tooth of lower lobe attenuate, 3 mm long, the
lateral teeth slightly shorter; upper bifid lobe almost rounded to acute, notched at centre,
2 mm long. Corolla ± twice the length of calyx; standard suborbicular, retuse at apex,
gradually narrowed to the cuneate base, 4.2–6 mm long, 3.5–6 mm wide; wings ± oblong,
obtuse, shortly clawed, 4–5.5 mm long, 1–2.4 mm wide; keel-petals remotely scythe-
shaped, slenderly clawed, equalling or exceeding calyx in length, 1–2 mm wide. Fruit
sessile to shortly stipitate (stipe to 1.5 mm long), with style usually persistent, 2–6(–7)-
articled, upper suture essentially straight to slightly curved and somewhat indented at the
isthmi, lower suture ± rounded, indented at isthmi (between the articles), surfaces and
sutures uncinulate-pubescent throughout with straight tapering hairs intermixed; articles
subrectangular, 2.5–4 mm long and wide. Seed orbicular to reniform, reddish to almost
black, 1.5–2.5 mm long, 1.5–2 mm wide.
N/A
Tests for identity
above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Roots used in diarrhoea, vomiting, stomach pain, fever and insanity. Leaf, root: ecbolics,
diarrhoea, dysentery.
Storage:
190
Digitalis lanata Ehrh.
Family name:
Plantaginaceae
Synonyms:
N/A
Common names:
Gerician fox glove, Wooly foxglove (E). Digitale
laineuse (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫القِ َمعية الصوفية أو كف الثعلب أو أصبع العذراء‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Annual or biennal herbaceous plant with dark green,
oblong ciliated leaves; inflorescence terminal in long dense clusters, multiflowers, bracts
shorter than flowers characterised by a greyish white corolla reticulated with brown,
downy underneath; lower lobe long, white, sppeter with brown villous downy calyx;
fruits, capsule.
Temperate and subtropical regions.
Part used:
Leaves
Names of drug:
Folium Digitalis, Digitalis lanata leaf, Feuille de Digitala.
Definition:
Digitalis lanata leaf is the dried leaf of Digitalis lanata Ehrh (fam. Scrophulariaceae),
collected and rapidly dried at about 55-60°C. Digitalis leaves contain not more than 2 per
cent foreign organic matter and 5 per cent acid insoluble ash. 1 g of Digitalis lanata leaf
corresponds to, at least, 19 international Digitalis units.
Description:
Odour: somewhat tea like; taste is very bitter.
Macroscopical: Leaves are sessile, usually about 30 cm long and 5 cm wide; the upper
surface is dark green, the lower light green; the lamina is oblong lanceolate; the margin is
entire and in the basal half ciliate with long trichomes, otherwise the leaf is glabrous; the
main veins are few, they leave the midrib at very acute angles, and travel for some
distance towards the apex, while the smaller branches are inconspicuous, thus giving an
appearance simulating a parallel venation, apex is acute and the base is symmetric.
Microscopical: The leaf is dorsiventral; palisade may be 2-3 layers or may be
undifferentiated. Calcium oxalate crystals are absent. Epidermal cells are polygonal with
straight or slightly wavy anticlinal walls, more strongly, wavy in the lower epidermis;
stomata, on both surfaces, more numerous on the lower surface, each surrounded by 3 to
191
7 mostly 4 cells, ranunculaceous type. Cuticle is striated. Glandular hairs and non-
glandular hairs are very rare and present only on the margin of the basal ciliated part.
Glandular hairs uni- or multicellular uniseriate stalk (1-7 cells) and a uni- or bicellular
globular head. Non-glandular hairs are multicellular, uniseriate consist of 5 to 7 cells.
Mesophyll with palisade of 2 or 3 layers of short cells, sometimes undifferentiated
spongy mesophyl of several layers. Midrib shows an arc of vascular bundles with radiate
xylem; narrow pholoem one celled medullary rays, accompanied with collenchymatous
pericycle of small cells and an endodermal starch sheath.
Powder: Powdered Digitalis leaf is dark green in colour, characterised by numerous
fragments of epidermal cells, with beaded walls; striated cuticle, ranunculacious stomata,
and very few glandular and non-glandular hairs, large veins showing annular and spiral
vessels; sclerenchyma and crystals are absent.
1-1.4 per cent of a mixture of cardiac glycosides: digitoxin, gitoxin, digoxin, lanadigin
and digilanids A, B and E.
Tests for identity:
(a) Boil 1 g of powder with 10 ml of alcohol (70 per cent) for 2 minutes and filter; to 5 ml
of the filtrate add 10 ml of water and 5 ml of chloroform, separate the lower layer, and
evaporate to dryness; dissolve the cooled residue in 3 ml of glacial acetic acid containing
0.1 ml of ferric chloride solution and transfer this solution to the surface of 2 ml of
sulphuric acid; a reddish-brown layer forms at the interface and the upper layer gradually
acquires a bluish-green colour which darkens on standing.
(b) Boil 1 g of powder with 20 ml of alcohol (50 per cent) and 10 ml of lead acetate
solution for 2 minutes, allow to cool, and centrifuge; shake the supernatant solution with
2 portions, each of 15 ml of chloroform; if necessary, separate the 2 layers by
centrifuging; dry the combined chloroform layers over anhydrous sodium sulphate and
filter; evaporate 5 ml of the solution to dryness on a water-bath and to the residue add 2
ml of dinitrobenzoic acid solution and 1 ml of IN sodium hydroxide solution; a red-violet
colour develops within 5 minutes.
(c) Evaporate 5 ml of the chloroform solution, prepared as described in (b) above, to
dryness on a water-bath; to the residue add 3 ml of xanthydrol solution and heat for 3
minutes on a water-bath; a red colour develops.
Test for purity:
Digitalis leaf shows no calcium oxalate crystals no sclerieds, no bast fibres and no thick
walled hairs, no large pitted pith cells, no pitted vessels of large diameter and no fibres.
Assay:
The biological activity of a sample of Digitalis leaf is determined by comparing its
potency with that of the International Standard Preparation of Powdered Digitalis Leaf.
This potency is expressed in International Units, each of which corresponds to the
potency of 0.08 g of the International Standard of Powdered Digitalis Leaf, The
International Standard of Powdered Digitalis Leaf, is a mixture of dried and powdered
Digitalis leaf, kept in sealed vials in the National Institute for Medical Research,
Hampstead, London, on behalf of the World Health Organisation of the United Nations.
The method of comparison is based on the determination of the quantity of the prepared
drug which, when injected into an animal, will cause death due to cardiac arrest.
192
Among satisfactory methods are those in which the frog, the cat, the dog or the guinea-
pig is used for the experiment. Whatever method is used it must be so applied that the
standard deviation of the result, ascertained by a large number of determinations, is not
greater than 10 per cent.
The method of preparing a solution, containing the active constituents of the Standard
Preparation of Powdered Digitalis Leaf, depends on the biological method selected and
the procedure to be applied in testing the sample must be the same as that used for the
Standard Preparation.
The solution is prepared so as to contain the maximum amount of the active principles of
the drug and the volume to be administered must be proportional to the weight and
sensitivity of the animal.
The Method employing the Frog: The method is based on determining the percentage
mortality obtained in a group of frogs, in a limited time, when injected with a dose of
concentrated extract of the sample to be tested sufficient to kill not less than 50 per cent,
of the animals but not all, and comparing its activity with that of similar extract of the
International Standard of Powdered Digitalis Leaf prepared in precisely the same way as
the extract used in the test.
(a) Preparation of the solution for the tests:
Weigh a quantity of the powdered sample, module No. 22, to be tested in a stoppered
weighing bottle. Transfer the contents of the weighing bottle to a small continuous
extraction apparatus, extract with about 25 ml of absolute alcohol per gram of powder for
6 hours, or until the drug is completely exhausted. Concentrate the extract to a volume of
5 ml per gram of powder taken, transfer to a measuring cylinder, and make up to volume
with physiological sodium chloride T.S., so that 10 ml of this extract represents 1 g of the
sample to be tested.
Prepare a similar extract of the Standard Preparation of Powdered Digitalis Leaf, and
adjust it so that 10 ml of this extract represents 1 g of the Standard Preparation.
(b) Choice of the frogs:
Select healthy frogs of the same species, more or less of equal weights, and preferably
males (females must not be used when distended with eggs); the frogs in anyone
comparison must be either all males or females; the weight of each frog must be between
15 to 30 g. Keep the frogs, before being injected for at least 2 hours in a uniformly
lighted part of the laboratory. Make the injections into the ventral lymph sac. Leave the
frogs for 24 hours after the injection. Then determine the number per group of the frogs,
which dies from the specific effect of Digitalis leaf on the heart, and calculate the
percentage mortality.
(c) The test:

The assay includes a preliminary test and a final test. The preliminary test is made to
ascertain the doses of the extract of the Standard Preparation as well as those of sample to
be tested, which are to be used in the final test. These doses must be big enough to kill
some but not all the frogs, with the view of finding out the doses that would kill about
one half the frogs in each batch. Usually such doses are about 0.5 ml of the extract per
193
100 g of frog. The method of testing is constituted by injecting similar groups of frogs
with suitable dilutions of the extracts of the Standard Preparation and of the sample to be
tested. The dilutions are made with physiological sodium chloride T.S. The dose, which
each frog receives, must be proportional to its body weight, determined to the nearest
gramme, and may conveniently be expressed in millilitres per 100 g of frog.
1. Preliminary test:
Take 12 frogs, and divide them into 2 groups of 6 each; inject each frog of one group
with 0.5 ml per 100 g of frog, of the (l in 10) dilution of the extract of the Standard
Preparation, and each of the other group with the same dose and dilution of the extract of
the sample to be tested. After 24 hours, calculate the percentage mortality in each group,
and from the result obtained, determine the doses which kill about 50 per cent of the
frogs in the final test.
2. Final test:
This test is performed in two parts on two successive days.
(a) First day's comparison:
Take not less than 24 frogs, and divide them into 2 equal groups so that the individuals of
any given weight are equally distributed, as far as possible, between the two groups.
Inject each frog of the first group with the extract of the Standard Preparation, giving not
more than 1 ml per 100 g of body weight, of the extract diluted with physiological
sodium chloride T.S., similarly inject each frog of the second group with 1 ml per 10 g of
body weight of the extract of the sample to be tested which must not be necessarily
diluted to the same concentration. From the number of the observed deaths in the two
groups, express as percentage mortalities the potency of the dose of the extract of the
sample to be tested relative to the potency of the dose of the extract of the Standard
Preparation. This is ascertained by means of the following table:
Table of Potency Corresponding to a Given Percentage Mortality of the Frogs

Percentage Mortality Potency Percentage Mortality Potency
5 66 55 103
10 67 60 107
15 75 65 110
20 80 70 114
25 83.7 75 118
30 87 80 122
35 90 85 127
40 93.5 90 134
194
45 97 95 146
50 100
Potencies corresponding to percentage mortalities other than those given may be obtained
by interpolation. The relation between the potencies of the sample to be tested and of the
Standard Preparation, taken as unity, is calculated from the following formula:
where:
P = The potency of the Standard Preparation of Powdered Digitals
Leaf
P' = The potency of the sample to be tested
C' =The concentration of the extract of the sample to be tested
C = The concentration of the extract of the Standard Preparation
of Powdered Digitalis Leaf
(b) Second day's comparison:
Repeat the procedure on the second day, using a fresh batch of not less than 24 frogs. The
doses to be given to this batch must be such as would produce a mortality of 50 per cent
in each group; these are calculated by deduction from the results of the first day's
comparison. From each comparison, a figure is obtained for the potency of the sample to
be tested and the average of these two figures is taken to indicate the true value.
The potency of the sample to be tested, in units per gramme, is obtained by dividing the
figure of its average potency by the weight, in grammes, of the Standard Preparation,
which contains 1 unit. The number of units per gramme multiplied by 8 gives the potency
of the sample to be tested in terms of the potency of the International Standard of the
Powdered Digitalis Leaf expressed as 100.
Infusion of Digitalis
Pulvis Digitalis Standardizata
Tinctura Digitalis. Prepared digitalis
Uses:
Treatment of heart failure
Storage:
In tightly closed containers, in a cool dry place, protected from light.
195
Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC.
Family name:
Ebenaceae
Synonyms:
N/A
Common names:
Jackalberry Tree, Jakkalbessie, African
Ebony, Ebony Diospyros (E). Ebénier
d'Afrique (F)
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Kalwaa, Kanyaa, Moowar birii.
(d) Peuhl: Koukoui
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ige
The Jackalberry tree is found throughout Africa, from Senegal and the Sudan to Namibia.
It and the northern Transvaal. It is most commonly found on savannas or savanna
woodlands where it can be found growing on termite mounds. In heavy soils the termite
mounds provide the tree with aerated soil, and a source of moisture. The roots provide
protection for the termites, that don't eat the living wood. Jackalberry wood is almost
termite-resistant after it has been cut down. The tree prefers moist soil, rocky soils. It
grows well in red loams, volcanic and loamy sands. Jackalberry trees are also commonly
found along river beds and swampy areas.
The tree is widely distributed throughout the eastern part of the African continent, from
Ethiopia to the south of Swaziland.
Part used:
Bark, leaves, twigs, and roots.
Name of drug:
Jackalberry root
Definition:
Jackalberry root is the dried roots of Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC. (family,
Ebenaceae).
Description:
Diospyros mespiliformis is a tall, upright tree that can reach a height of 25 m, with a
trunk circumference of more than 5 m. It has a dense evergreen canopy. The bark is black
to grey, with a rough texture. The fresh inner skin of the bark is reddish. Leaves are
simple, alternate, leathery and dark green. The margin is smooth and new leaves in spring
are red, especially in young plants. Flowers are cream-coloured and bell-shaped. Male
flowers are arranged in stalked bunches and female flowers are solitary. The fruit is a
fleshy berry, with an enlarged calyx, yellow to orange when ripe.
196
The leaves, bark and roots of the tree contain tannin, Root bark: Diosquinone.
anthraquinones, tannins, triterpene, saponins, steroids, and sugars and the absence of
alkaloids reported.
Tests for identity
(b) Aqueous extract of the root powder gives blue-black colouration with ferric choride
solution.
(c) Extract of the root powder gives a positive reaction for the test for anthraquinone
derivatives as described in volume 2 or under the monograph for Senna.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
It is antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antidiaorrhea, cytotoxic.
Storage:
197
Drimia maritima (L.) Stearn
Family name:
Asparagaceae
Synonym:
(a) Charybdis maritima (L.) Speta
(b) Urginea maritima (L.) Baker
(c) Urginea scilla Steinh.
Common names:
Squill (E). Scille offici (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫بصل ألفأر أو بصل البرأو ألباصول‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Albasar kura, Albasar gizo.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Esinsin-uroro = U. altissima
Bulbous plant 10 cm in diameter; handy stem reaching 1.50 m high; wide leaves of 3-6
cm; white flowers in long tight clusters.
Coastal mediterranean regions
Part used:
Dried fleshy scales of the bulbs
Names of drug:
Bulbus Scillae, Squill.
Definition:
Squill is the dried, sliced, fleshy scales of the bulb of Urginea maritima (L.) Baker
(family, Asparagaceae) collected shortly after withering of flowers and leaves, and
known as White Squill. Squill contains not more than 2.0 per cent of foreign organic
matter.
Description:
Odour, slight; taste, mucilaginous, bitter and acrid.
Macroscopical: Squill occurs in irregular, curved, flattened, narrow pieces, frequently
tapering towards both ends; 0.5 to 5 cm long, 5 to 8 mm wide, 2 to 5 mm up to 7 mm
thick; yellowish-white to pale yellow, somewhat translucent; exhibiting raised slightly
darker points or lines, the vascular bundles; brittle when perfectly dry; tough and flexible
when moistened: fracture, short.
Microscopical: The epidermis is formed of subrectangular or polygonal, axially
elongated cells, sometimes having thick cuticle; stomata, very few, large, nearly circular,
with no special subsidiary cells. The mesophyll is traversed by several collateral vascular
bundles, with lignified annular, spiral and rarely reticulate xylem vessels, and consists of
colourless large polygonal, rounded or slightly elongated thin-walled parenchyma cells,
usually containing a reducing sugar and sinestrin; many scattered, axially elongated cells
containing bundles of large raphides of calcium oxalate, embedded in mucilage which
198
stains pink with alkaline corollin T.S.: some of the cells near the vascular bundles contain
occasionally small, simple starch granules.
Powder: Powdered Squill is white to light yellowish-brown: very hygroscopic forming
caked masses in moist atmosphere: characterised by numerous fragments of translucent
parenchyma; few fragments of epidermis with occasional stomata; few fragments of
vascular tissues; cells with mucilage and bundles of raphides numerous raphides of
calcium oxalate, free, in bundles, or broken 50 to 1000 µ, mostly 250 to 500 µ long and
0.5 to 20 mostly 5 to 8 µ thick; very occasional simple starch granules.
Cardenolides: Scillaren A and Scillaren B; mucilage, sinistrin and xanthoscillide.
Test for identity:
(b) The mucilage in the cells of the mesophyll stains red with alkaline corallin solution
but gives no red colour with ruthenium-red solution and no purple colour with iodine
water.
Tests for purity:
(a) The powder contains no starch granules over 20 µ in diameter and only very few
small starch granules (Flours and other adulterants), no fragments of red, pink, or
purplish epidermal or parenchyma tissue (Red Squill); no trichomes and no thick-walled
sclerenchymatous cells.
(b) Soak a piece of Squill in water for a few minutes, transfer to dehydrated alcohol R.
and examine with the microscope; acicular crystals of sinestrin aggregated in rosettes are
seen in several cells (Exhausted Squill).
(c) Squill yields not less than 65.0 per cent of alcohol (60 per cent) extractives.
(d) Ash, not more than 6.0 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 2 per cent.
Acetum Scillae
Acetum Scillae Mellittus
Tinctura Scillae
Opiate Squill Linctus (Gees Linctus)
Opiate Squill pastilles (Gees pastilles)
Paediatric Ipecacuanha and Squill Linctus
Paediatric Opiate Squill Linctus
Squill Liquid Extract
Squill Syrup
Uses:
Cardiotonic, diuretic.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, over quick lime, in a cool dry place, protected from light.
199
Elaeis guineensis Jacq.
Family name:
Arecaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Elaeis nigrescens A. Chev.
(b) Elaeis virescens A. Chev.
Common names:
King Palm (Elaeis guineensis var.
idolatrica) (E). Palmier a huile (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫نخل الدهن أو نخلة الزيت‬
(b) Bambara: M’te,
(c) Hausa: Kuaku, Kwakwa, Alayyadii, Bamii, gima, Mahjaa, Kwaardr kwaakwaa.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Mawese (Palm oil)
(f) Yoruba: Ope, Eyin
Straight stemmed palm tree of 15 to 20 m high, with prominent foliar scars, dark brown
leaves that gather at the top, pennatisealed with span of about 7 m; inflorescence male
and female at the axils of leaves; fruits in cluster ranging from 3 to 10 kg; ovoid drupes
red when ripe (3 to 4 cm); meso carp fibrous and oily; endocarp hard containing a brown
seed with an oily white albumen.
Spontaneous, or grown in dense humid tropical forest regions.
Palm oil is obtained from the mesocarp by several methods of extraction.
- Separation by decantation after grinding.
- Extraction by solvent and refining.
Aspect (or characteristic)
The palm fruit varies according to the species with the colours ranging from orange
yellow to orange red. The semi-solid or liquid consistency corresponds to melting-points
ranging from 30 to 45°C. It has a characteristically agreeable aromatic smell.
The main constituents are glycerides of fatty acids with high molecular weights:
Oleic acid 40 to 50 per cent
Palmitic acid 40 per cent
Linoleic acid 6 to 10 per cent
Stearic acid 3 to 5 per cent
Myristic acid 1 to 5 per cent
The unsaponifiable fraction contains two interesting substances:
- Carotenoid pigments rich in vitamin A (Xanthophyll and ~-Carotene).
- Sterols especially ergosterol.
200
Cabbage palm oil is obtained from the kernel by pressure or dissolution followed by
refining of a pale yellow or even colourless oil which comprise the following glycerides
of fatty acid.
Lauric acid: 50 per cent of total fatty acids
Myristic acid: 15 per cent of total fatty acids
Oleic acid: 15 per cent of total fatty acids
Assay:
Specific gravity at 15 or 20°C.
Uses:
Palm and Cabbage palm oils are edible with nutritional value linked to prevention of
various manifestations of vitamin A deficiency e. g. eye troubles, xerophthalmia, growth
retardation, low resistance to infections.
External medical uses are varied:
- wounds, burns, skin infections.
- Decongestant: can be applied without mixture or together with other substances.
Storage:
201
Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton
Family name:
Zingiberaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Alpinia cardamomum Roxb.
(b) Amomum cardamomum Lour.
(c) Amomum racemosum Lamk.
(d) Amomum repens Sonnerat
Common names:
Cardamom, True cardamom (E).
Cardamome, Cardamomier (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫حبهان أو حبهال‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Hiliki
(f) elletaria:
Perennial plant with leafy rhizomes of 2 to 3 m; lanceolate leaves; spike with greenish
white flowers, pyriform fruits with ovoid seeds emitting a pungent, lemon-scented aroma.
Humid mountainous regions of tropical Africa
Part used:
The dried ripe seeds
Names of drug:
Semen Cardamomi, Cardamom seed, Semene de cardamorne.
Definition:
Cardamom seeds are the dried ripe or nearly ripe seeds of Elettaria cardamomum (L.)
Maton var. minuscula Barkhill, (family, Zingiberaceae) recently separated from the fruit.
Cardamom seed contains not more than 3 per cent of foreign organic matter, and yields
not less than 3 per cent of volatile oil.
Description:
Odour, strong aromatic; taste, agreeable, aromatic and pungent. Pericarp, almost
odourless and tasteless.
Macroscopical: Fruit, inferior, ovoid or oblong, septicidal capsule plump or slightly
shrunken; 8 to 20 mm, mostly 10 to 15 mm long, 8 to 10 mm thick; green to pale buff,
sometimes yellowish-grey, mostly 3-sided; externally, smooth or longitudinal striated;
base, rounded and may bear the remains of the stalk; apex, more or less blunt and
sometime crowned by a short beak formed of the remains of the floral parts; internally, 3-
celled, in each cell is an adherent mass of two rows of small seeds attached to axile
placenta.
202
Seed, irregularly angular, 3- to 4-sides, oblong, ovoid; 2 to 4 mm long, up to 3 mm broad;
pale orange to dark reddish-brown; usually enveloped by a thin colourless membranous
arillus externally, transversely wrinkled but not minutely pitted; hilum, depressed; raphe,
indicated by a channel extending on one side from base to apex; hard; internally, whitish,
showing a thin dark testa, a whitish starchy perisperm grooved on one side, and in the
centre a small yellowish translucent endosperm, surrounding a paler minute embryo.
Microscopical: Arillus, of several layers of elongated, more or less collapsed, flattened,
thin-walled cells containing small rounded or oval droplets of oil. Testa, with an outer
epidermis of long, narrow cells, 20 to 30 μ wide, having slightly thickened undulating
walls; followed by a layer of collapsed parenchymatous cells, with brownish contents, a
single layer, becoming 2 or 3 layers in the region of raphe, composed or large thin-
walled, rectangular cells containing volatile oil; a band of 2 or 3 layers of
parenchymatous cells and an inner epidermis of thin-walled flattened cells. Inner
integument, of 2 layers of cells, an outer layer of yellowish to reddishbrown, rectangular,
radially elongated, strongly lignified sclereids, about 40 μ long, 20 μ wide, strongly
thickened on the inner and anticlinal walls and each cell with a small funnel-shaped
lumen, nearly filled with a small warty module of silica, and an inner epidermis of
flattened cells. Perisperm, of thin-walled cells, packed with minute starch granules, 1 to 6
μ, mostly about 4 μ in diameter, and containing 1 to 7 small prisms of calcium oxalate.
Endosperm, of small thin-walled parenchymatous cells, each filled with a hyaline or
granular mass of protein but no starch, fibrous sclerenchyma and large vessels present in
pericarp but absent from seed.
Powder: Powdered Cardamom seed is reddish to greyish-brown characterized by
numerous fragments of perisperm cells, each filled with starch granules and containing
one or more prisms of calcium oxalate, 10 to 25 μ long; polyhedral masses of adherent
starch granules from peri sperm, individual granules, up to 4 μ in diameter; numerous
fragments or yellowish to reddish-brown sclereids; occasional particles of epidermal
cells, often crossed at right angles by the cells of the collapsed layer.
The principal constituent of the seed is a volatile oil; yield from 2 to 8 per cent. Seeds
also contain abundant starch.
Tests for purity:
(a) Powdered cardamom seed contains no sclerenchymatous fibres (pericarp of fruit); no
starch granules measuring more than 10 μ (graminaceous fruits and ginger).
(b) Ash, not more than 10 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 5 per cent.
Assay:
Carry out the assay as directed under "Determination of Volatile oils" in vol. 2. The
extractive value (in 45 per cent alcohol) is 7 per cent.
Tinctura Cardamomi
Tinctura Cardamomi Composita
Tinctura Gentianae Composita
Tinctura Rhei Composita
Aromatic Cardamom Tinctura
203
Uses:
Aromatic carminative and an agreeable flavouring agent.
Storage:
The seed, in the capsule until required for use; the fruits in well-closed containers,
protected from light. Cardamom seed, after the removal from the fruit must not be stored.
204
Entada africana Guill. & Perr.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Entada sudanica Schweinf.
(b) Entadopsis sudanica (Schweinf.) G.C.C.Gilbert &
Boutique
(c) Entada ubanguiensis De Wild.
Common names:
Entada (F)
African names:
(a) Arabic: Bu salel
(b) Bambara: 'Samanéré'
(c) Hausa: Taawatsaa
(d) Peuhl: Padapadi, Padapar, Padapari.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ayunre-banabana
Small, low branching tree, up to 7-12 m, with a narrow open crown. Bark fibrous and
creviced grey-brown, transversally striped, slash red with white streaks, twigs grey-
brown, pubescent. Leaves large bipinnate 15-45 cm long, with 2-9 pairs of pinnae with 8-
24 pairs of linear-oblong leaflets 0.9-4.5 x 0.3-1.5 cm. Leaves glabrous. Flowers cream,
in racemes 5-10 cm long. Pods, with an undulate margin, 10-30 x 2-5 cm, dark +/-
pubescent, 12-15 seeds per pod, seeds two-winged, ca 4 000 per kg.
Throughout the Sahel to East and South Africa
Part used:
Bark and Roots
Name of drug:
Entada bark
Definition:
Entada bark is the dried stem bark or root bark of Entada africana Guill. & Perr. (family,
Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Entada africana is a small tree up to 4-10 m in height and 90 cm in girth;
branching low down, with a wide crown; bark brown-grey to black, very rough,
transversely striped, scaly, peeling in long fibrous strips, slash fibrous, red or yellow-
brown. Leaves bipinnate, alternate, 3-9 pairs, with a glabrous common stalk 15-45 cm;
rachis 25-30 cm long with 2-9 pairs of pinnae; 8-24 pairs of leaflets. Leaflets 2-3 x 0.5-
1.5 cm, elongated elliptic with the apex rounded and occasionally minutely notched, the
base asymmetrical with the lower edge more rounded than the upper; midrib and nerves
distinct on both surfaces. Flowers creamy-white or reddish-yellow, about 6 mm long,
slightly scented, densely clustered in spike-like racemes 5-15 cm long including the short
central stalk; spikes solitary or in small clusters in the leaf axils or arranged in panicles at
205
the ends of shoots, 1-4. Sepals glabrous, small, 5-lobed; petals 3 x 1 mm, spatulate; 10
free stamens. Fruit is a pod, 15-40 x 5-8 (15) cm, very persistent, hanging down untidily
for many months and eventually breaking up on the tree, very flat and fragile (papery),
with the seeds showing through, straight or slightly curved, with thick wavy margins, red-
brown on the outside; breaking open with segments of the dry interior part of the pod,
containing 10-15 broad elliptic flat seeds about 12 mm long; on breaking up, the outer
coat of each segment of the pod peels off, the straw-coloured inner coat remaining
attached to the seed and acting as a wing.
Nine triterpene ester saponins isolated from the root, the aglycones were echinocystic
acid for 7 compounds and acacic acid for 2.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical examination of the specimen and its source to ensure compliance with
(b) Shake the powdered drug with water. It produces a foam which does not decrease
with heating.
(c) Examine the hydrolysed saponin extract of the powder and extract the aglycone with
an organic solvent. Use the aglycone solution to carry out chromatographic
examination to confirm the presence of echinocystic acid or acacic acid by co-
chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Antimalaria, Alzheimer disease and other neurological diseases. Anti-imflamatory,
antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-leishmaniasis, cytotoxicity, complement fixing activity in
the polysaccharide in the root.
Storage:
206
Ephedra sinica Stapf
Family name:
Ephedraceae
Synonym:
(a) Ephedra ma-huang Tang S.Liu
(b) Ephedra flava F.P.Sm.
Common names:
Mahuang, Shrubby, Horsetail, Ephedra,
Chinese joint-fir, Chinese ephedra (E).
Ephedra (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫األدير‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Shrub of 4 to 1 m high with stalks made up of more or less internodes, leaves are
rudimentary and reduced to small membranous scales at the nodes; with spikelike male
inflorescences, female inflorescences in compact clusters; fruits drupaceous.
Mediterranean coastal regions
Part used:
Herb (green stem with its scaly leaves)
Names of drug:
Herba Ephedrae Sinicae, Ephedra sinica Stapf. herb.
Definition:
It is the dried herb of Ephedra sinica Stapf. (family, Ephedraceae) containing not more
than 1 per cent of foreign organic matter and yielding not less than 1 per cent of total
alkaloids calculated as ephedrine.
Description:
Odourless and has a faint bitter taste.
Macroscopical: Stem, erect and branched with swollen nodes and long internodes,
branching confined to the lower 2 or 3 internodes, bluish green in colour with rubbed
surface. Old stems yellowish brown in colour, internally solid. Scaly leaf, opposite,
decussate, usually 2, rarely 3 at each node; greyish-white with reddish-brown bases,
elongated with subulate and recurved apices and entire or finely toothed margin, 2 to 4
mm long, the membraneous sheath, greyish-white in colour up to 2 mm height, loosely
surrounded the node, I to 2mm in height. Female strobilus, usually single or rarely
arranged in small groups; shortly stalked, greenish in colour, oval, consisting of 4-5 pairs
or scaly bracts, the apical pair subtends 2 ovules. Male strobilus, rare, single, usually
sessile, yellowish in colour, oval, consisting of 4-5 pairs of scaly bracts, staminal column,
unbranched, carrying 6-8 anthers opening by apical pores. Fruit, fleshy oval to rounded,
207
reddish-brown in colour, with 3-4 pairs of bracts, usually 2-seeded; seed, glabrous, dark
brown, oval in shape, with pointed apex and rounded base, albuminous, triangular with
plano-convex sides.
Microscopical: The epidermal cells of the stem are covered with a moderately thick
granular cuticle and consists of polygonal or subrectangular, axially elongated cells,
having straight anticlinal walls. The stomata are few of ranunculaceous type with
lignified appendages. The epidermis of the scaly leaf is covered with smooth (upper) or
warty (lower) cuticle and consists of sub rectangular to polygonal cells, having straight,
sometimes slightly beaded anticlinal walls, few stomata are present resembling those of
stem. The epidermis of the apical and marginal regions of the scaly leaf show short
papillae-like outgrowths. Chlorenchymatous palisade-like cells form the outer zone of the
cortex as well as rounded ordinary parenchymatous cells of the inner zone of the cortex.
Cortical parenchyma and pith cells containing amorphous reddish-brown substance.
Non-lignified or lignified hypodermal and pericyclic fibres, which have thick walls,
bearing slit-like pits and blunt, slightly tapering, occasionally forked ends. The vessels of
the secondary xylem of the stem are lignified with bordered pits, having rounded or oval
apertures. The vessels segments have much inclined end walls, bearing foraminate
perforation plates. The xylem consists of reticulate and spirally thickened vessels and
tracheids. The tracheids and fibrous tracheids of secondary xylem of stem are lignified
with bordered pits having oval or slit-like aperture. The fibres of the scaly leaf are
lignified usually irregular or nearly straight, having moderately thick walls and blunt or
sometimes forked ends. The pith cells of the stem are rounded or subrectangular, axially
elongated with thin, non-lignified or lignified simply pitted walls. Few, small rounded,
simple and compound starch granules with indistinct hilum, are present in cortical
parenchyma, pith and medullary ray cells. Few, small prisms of calcium oxalate are
present in the cortical parenchyma.
Powder: Powder of the green stem and leaf is greyish green in colour, having faint odour
and slight bitter astringent taste.
Alkaloids, mainly Il-ephedrine, d-pseudo-ephedrine.
Test for identity:
(a) Mix the powder with NH4OH and sodium carbonate, then percolate with CHCI3:
ether (1:3) mixture, then with ether alone. The percolate extracted with dil. HCI and
few drops of Mayer's reagent added, a white precipitate is obtained, indicating the
presence of alkaloids.
(b) Total ash: not more than 9%; Acid-insoluble ash: not more than 2%; Moisture: not
more than 9%.
Assay:
Weigh about 20 g of powdered drug (No. 40 mesh size) accurately mixed with 4 g of
calcium oxide and shake with 200 ml of ether-chloroform mixture (3:1). Add 20 ml of
dilute ammonia and shake the mixture at frequent intervals for 3 hours, and allow to stand
overnight. Transfer to a percolator, and percolate first with 100 ml of ether-chloroform
mixture, then with ether alone, until complete exhaustion of alkaloids is effected. To the
208
percolate add 120 ml of N/3 hydrochloric acid, and distill off the ether-chloroform
mixture on a water-bath.
Filter the acid solution through a small filter paper previously moistened with N/3
hydrochloric acid, wash the filter paper twice with small portions of N/3 HCl and add the
washings to the filtrate. The combined filtrate and washings are then rendered slightly
acidic with N/1 sodium hydroxide solution. Add 10 g of anhydrous sodium carbonate and
sufficient sodium chloride to saturate the liquid. Then extract alkaline liquid with 4
successive portions of 40, 30, 30 and 20 ml of ether respectively, then with 20 ml
portions until complete extraction of alkaloids takes place. The combined ether extracts
are then washed with 10 ml of saturated solution of sodium chloride, the sodium chloride
solution extracted with 10 ml of ether, and this ether added to the main bulk. To the
combined ether extracts and washings add 25 ml of N/10 sulphuric acid and 20 ml of
distilled water, the ether is then distilled off on a water-bath and excess acid titrated back
against N/10 sodium hydroxide solution. Each ml N/10 sulphuric acid = 0.0165 g
ephedrine. It contains not less than 1 per cent of total alkaloid calculated as ephedrine.
Uses:
It raises the blood pressure and is used to relieve asthma and hay fever.
Storage:
209
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
Family name:
Myrtaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Eucalyptus cordata Miq.
(b) E. diversifolia Miq.
(c) E. gigantea Dehn.
(d) E. glauca D.C.
(e) E. globulus St Lag.
(f) E. pulverulenta Link
Common names:
Eucalyptus leaf, Blue gum tree,
Stringy Bark Tree (E). Eucalyptus, Feuilles
d’eucalyptus (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫أوكاليبتوس أو كافور‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Mti-ulaya, Mkafuri.
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Very tall tree that can attain 100 m in height; orbicular leaves that exude a fragrance
when crushed; inflorescence umbellate with white flowers. Fruits capsular.
Originates from Australia and introduced into all tropical subtropical and Mediterranean
regions.
Part used:
Leaf
Names of drug:
Eucalyptus leaf, Folium Eucalypti.
Definition:
Eucalyptus consists of the dried leaves of the blue gum tree, Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
(family, Myrtaceae).
Description:
Odour is agreeable and aromatic, and the taste is aromatic, pungent and slightly bitter.
Macroscopical: The leaves measure about 30 cm in length and 4 cm in width, they are
eusiform, acute, entire, coriaceous, brittle and punctate; both surfaces are pale green, with
minute, brown, cork spots; the petiole is short, flattened and twisted; the lateral veins
anastomose to form a continuous line near the margin and parallel to it.
Microscopical: The diagnostic characters are the isobilateral mesophyll; a midrib, which
shows in transverse section one large crescent-shape meristele, surmounted by two
smaller vascular strands lying side by side, the whole group being surrounded by
sclerenchymatous fibres; on both surfaces, numerous stomata surrounded by straight-
walled polygonal cells, which have a thick cuticle; the palisade three to four cell deep on
210
both sides; the mesophyll contains numerous large, sub-spherical, schizolysigenous oil
glands, some of which have voided their contents through the epidermis and have become
lined with a layer of periderm; prismatic and cluster-crystals of calcium oxalate.
Powder: Powdered Eucalyptus leaf is light green, characterised by straightwalled
polygonal epidermal cells with ranunculaceous stomata; fragments of palisade cells,
fragments of schizolysigenous oil glands, prismatic and cluster crystals of calcium
oxalate, fragments of vessels and fibres.
Eucalyptus contains 1 to 3 per cent of volatile oil, the major constituents of which is
cineole, together with tannin, a bitter principle, and resin, (+) a-pinene, phellandrene and
other terpenes.
Test for identity:
Carry out the test for cineole in volume 2 on the leaf extract or the oil from it.
Test for purity:
Foreign organic matter: Eucalyptus contains not more than 1 per cent of fruits, and not
more than 2 per cent of stems or other foreign organic matter.
Total ash: Not more than 6% (2, 3)
Acid-insoluble ash: Not more than 0.2% (8)
Moisture: Not more than 10%
Assay:
(a) Carry out the determination of the volatile oil as described in vol. 2. Dried leaves
contain 1–3% (v/w) essential oil (fresh leaves contain 0.4–1.6%).
(b) Assay for cineole content: Place 10 ml of Eucalyptus oil, accurately measured at
25°C, in small evaporating dish, measured about 5 ml of phosphoric acid in a small
measure, and cool both in a freezing mixture. When sufficiently cooled, add the
phosphoric acid gradually to the oil, stirring continuously, until the oil is converted into a
solid mass. Transfer to a piece of Calico, fold well, and wrap in two sheets of filter paper;
press strongly for about 5 minutes, remove from the press, change the filter paper and
press again for 2 minutes. Break the pressed mass into small pieces and introduce it into a
well cleaned flask of about 150 cc capacity, having a neck of about 16 cm in length and
about 8 mm in diameter which is graduated in tenths of a cubic centimetre. Add warm
water to raise the oily layer in the graduated portion of the neck of the flask. Cool to 25°C
and note the volume of the oily layer which should not be less than 7 cc, corresponding to
not less than 70 per cent v/v of cineol.
(c) Mix 1 ml with 2 ml of glacial acetic acid and 5 ml of petroleum spirit (boiling range,
40 to 60°C), add 2 ml of a saturated solution of sodium nitrite and shake gently; no
crystalline precipitate forms in the upper layer within one hour (Phellanthrene).
Tinctura Eucalyptus (Tinct, Eucalyp.)
Tinctureof Eucalyptus 1 in 5
Menthol and Eucalyptus Inhalation
Uses:
Eucalyptus leaves are used as astringent; they have also been employed in the form of a
cigarette for asthma. The volatile oil has antiseptic properties.
Dose 0.05 to 2 ml. Oily solution of this oil should not be used as nasal drops.
211
Storage:
Store in a cool dry place away from light.
212
Euphorbia hirta L.
Family name:
Euphorbiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Euphorbia pilulifera Chev.
(b) Euphorbia bancana Miq.
(c) E. capitata Lam.
(d) Euphorbia chrysochaeta W.Fitzg.
(e) Euphorbia gemella Lag.
(f) Euphorbia globulifera Kunth
(g) Euphorbia hirta L. var. typica L.C. Wheel
(h) Euphorbia karwinskyi Boiss.
(i) Euphorbia obliterata Jacq.
(j) Euphorbia nodiflora Steud
(k) Chamaesyce hirta (L.) Millsp
(l) Chamaesyce gemella (Lag.) Small
(m) Chamaesyce karwinskyi (Boiss.) Millsp.
(n) Chamaesyce rosei Millsp.
(o) Ditritea hirta (L.) Raf.
(p) Desmonema hirta (L.) Raf.
Common names:
Australian Asthma herb, Queensland Asthma weed,
Pills bearing Spurge, Asthma herb,Cat's hair, Hairy spurge.(E).
Petite euphorbe, Euphorbe herissee, Malnommee (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫فربيون‬
(b) Bambara: Dada dable, Dabadaba bileni.
(c) Hausa: Noonon kurchiyaa, Oegendagar.
(d) Peuhl:
(e) Swahili: Mwache, Mziwaziwa.
(f) Yoruba: E gele, Ege ile, Emi-ile, Loloaikuku, Bije, Oro-satipo,Adindin, Oro-
onigunmeta, Urokoju, Iroko-iju, Oro-elewe, Irawo ile.
Herbaceous shrub with annual stems reaching 40 cm in height, erect or prostrated,
covered with yellowish bristly hairs especially in the young parts. The older parts have
reddish-purple patches.
The leaves oppositely arranged are oblong-lanceolate 2 to 5 cm long, minutely dentate or
serrulate and asymmetrical inflorescence in compact axillary tufts with small yellow
fruits in downy capsules.
All intertropical regions
Part used:
Whole herb
Name of drug:
213
Asthma herb
Definition:
Asthma herb is the dried aerial parts of Euphorbia hirta L. (family, Euphorbiaceae). It is
cropped when the flower and fruits are dry.
Description:
Odour slight, taste numb.
Macroscopical: The plant is slender, erect or ascending, 30-60 cm high, often growing
close to the ground. The stem is cylindrical often reddish or white with a milky juice,
covered with yellowish bristly hair especially in the younger upper parts while the older
parts have reddish-purple patches. The leaves are oppositely arranged, oblong-lanceolate,
2-5 cm long, shortly petiolate, minutely dentate, asymmetrical with round base and is
dark green in colour, hairy on both surfaces.
Flowers in axils of the leaf as dense round cluster or terminal cymes about 1 cm in
diameter, acuminate apex. Fruit is minute yellow three-celled capsule with each carpel
containing a single reddish four-sided transversely wrinkled seed.
Microscopical: The transverse section of E. hirta L. shows a bifacial structure with
smooth cuticle. The lower epidermal cells have wavy walls and the upper epidermis are
almost straight walled. Anomocytic stomata are present on both surfaces but greater in
lower epidermis, also the lower epidermis has stomata which are of the anisocytic type.
Hairs scattered all over the leaf are uniserriate, slightly curved with thin warty walls. A
layer of modified parenchyma immediately surrounding each vascular bundle is a
perculiar characteristic of the leaves of E. hirta.
Palisade ration is 3.3 to 4.38 to 5.5.
Stomatal index is 8.3 to 22.6 - Upper epidermis.
18.8 to 25.0 - Lower epidermis.
Stomatal number is l00-250-400 Upper epidermis.
300-317-400 Lower epidermis.
Powder: Diagnostic features include anomocytic/anisocytic stomata; unicellular warty,
uniseriate hairs, some in fragments; epidermal cells with wavy and straight anticlinal
walls;fragments of vascular elements.
Chemical constituents
Stem - taraxerol, friedelin, ellagic acid, myricyl alcohol, hentriacontane sitosterol.
Latex - alkaloid (xanthorhannine) I-inositol, pyrogallic and catechol tannins.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the specimen to ensure ompliance
(b) Microchemical tests for the presence of alkaloids, with Dragendorff’s, Mayer’s
reagents
(c) Thin-layer chromatographic examination of an extract of the specimen to confirm the
presence of xanthorhannine.
Test for purity:
(a) Total ash not more than 13.6 per cent.
(b) Acid-insoluble ash not more than 3.0 per cent.
(c) Water-soluble ash not less than 3.0 per cent.
214
(d) Water-soluble extractive (Coarse powder) not less than 17.0 per cent.
(e) Alcohol-soluble extractive (Coarse powder) not less than 1l.50 per cent.
Uses:
In asthma, as bronchial sedative, in amoebic dysentery and as decoction (fresh plants) for
acute enteritis and dysentery.
Storage:
Store in a cool dry place protected from light.
215
Erythrina senegalensis DC.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Erythrina latifolia Schumach. and Thonn.
(b) Erythrina guineensis G.Don
Common names:
(a) Coral tree, coral flower (E).
(b) Arbre corail, érythrine, érythrine du
Sénégal (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N'den
(c) Hausa: Murjiya, Showoh or Ankai, Idon-sakaraa, Jinjinriya, Majiriya, Minjiriya.
(d) Peuhl: Mototay
(e) Swahili: Mjafari = E. abyssinica
(f) Yoruba: Ologun sheshe, Ologbosere, Lakale, Okiki Ogigbon, Ologbonsese,
Olugunsese.
A tree to 15 m high, usually much less, trunk with corky bark bearing recurved prickles
arising from a woody base, of savanna country and present in all territories of the Region,
and into Eastern Cameroun.The tree bears conspicuous large red flowers in lax ter
Native to Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Mali, Burkina
Faso, Ivory Coast, Niger, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria and Cameroon.
Part used:
Barks, Roots, Leaves, Wood.
Name of drug:
Coral tree bark
Definition:
Coral tree bark is the dried bark of the stem of Erythrina senegalensis DC. (family,
Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: A tree growing up to 7 m tall, rarely to 15 m, with deeply fissured, corky
bark. The branches and bark are armed with slightly hooked spines up to 10 mm long.
The leaves are composed of three leaflets, each measuring 5-15 × 4-10 cm and having a
thorny stalk. The flowers appear in large groups at the end of the branches, when the tree
is leafless (in the first half of the dry season). The flowers are bright red and 4-5 cm long.
The fruit is a bent, twisted and slightly hairy pod, 7-15 × 1 cm. It is constricted between
the seeds, which are bright red. Reproduction is by seed, but farmers also propagate the
tree by taking cuttings. There are no known varieties or subspecies. The corky bark
enables the tree to withstand the fires which regularly pass over the West African
savanna.
216
Chemical constituents
Isoflavonoids, neobavaisoflavone, sigmoidin H and a pterocarpan that is a special type of
isoflavonoid, isoneorautenol.were reported present in the plant. One new pterocarpan
(named erybraedin F) along with seven known prenylated flavonoids were isolated from
the stem and root bark. prenylflavonoids, 8-prenylleutone, auriculatin, erysenegalensein
O, erysenegalensein D, erysenegalensein N, derrone, alpinumisoflavone and 6,8-
diprenylgenistein. Also Dichloro methane extracts yielded: 8-prenylluteone, auriculatin,
erysenegalensein O, erysenegalensein D, erysenegalensein N, derrone, alpinumisoflavone
and 6,8-diprenylgenistein. More prenylated flavonoids were isolated for bioactivity tests.
The flavonoids were alpinumisoflavone. Also erysenegalensein D and erysenegalensein
N. Known Compounds senegalensin, lupinifolin, erythrisenegalone, and auriculatin, Two
new isoflavones named erysenegalensein H and erysenegalensein I were isolated from
the dichloromethane extract of the stem bark. 2,3-Dihydroauriculatin, was also isolated.
Tests for identity
the descriptions given above.
(b) It gives a positive reaction in the test for flavonoids as described in volume 2.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Cytoxicity, obesity, anti-HIV, antibacterial, antimalarial, analgesic, anti-inflammatory.
Storage:
217
Erythrophleum guineense G. Don
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
Erythrophleum suaveolens (Guill. & Perr.)
Brenan
Common names:
Sassy bark, Redwater tree, Sasswood (tree),
ordeal tree, Mancona Bark ,Doom Bark,
Ordeal Bark ,Casca Bark ,Saucy Bark ,Red
Water Bark (E).
Bois rouge: Poison d’épreuve (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: teli tali
(c) Hausa: Gwaska, Makawa, Ircin-gwaska, Samberu.
(d) Peuhl: Pelli = E africanum
(e) Swahili: muavi
(f) Yoruba: erun-obo, olu-obo.
Large tree, with spreading crown, to 100 ft. high; flowers small, very fragrant, crowded
In spike-like racemes; pods opening without scattering the seeds . Sassy bark collected
from the tree varies from the age of the tree. The bark is usually hard, curved or flat of
about 8 to 10 cm long and 4 to 7 cm wide. The outer surface of bark is dull grey tinted
and sometimes it appears black having reddish spots. The bark collected is eventually
bumpy, elevated and rugged coarsely.
Widespread in tropical Africa
Part used:
Bark
Name of drug:
Sassy bark
Definition:
Sassy bark is the dried stem bark of Erythrophleum guineense G. Don (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Tree up to 30 m high; bark dark brown, very rough. Young branches and
leaf rachides glabrous to shortly pubescent. Leaves: petiole and rachis together (6)11–35
cm long; pinnae 2–4(5) pairs; pinna rachis 8–20 cm long; leaflets (6)9–13(15) per pinna,
(3)4.5–7(9) × (1.5)2.2–4.5(5.3) cm, obliquely ovate to elliptic, the base asymmetrical
(except the terminal leaflet), the apex bluntly acuminate, i.e. drawn out into a short 'drip-
tip', the surfaces glabrous except on the midrib beneath which is usually strongly
pubescent; petiolules 2–4.5(5) mm long. Racemes 2.5–8(11) cm long including a
peduncle 0.7–1.5 cm long, the axis and peduncle densely puberulous to pubescent with
short, crisped, appressed, rusty-brown hairs. Flowers 6–8(9) mm long from base of
pedicel to anthers, cream or lemon-yellow to greenish-yellow; pedicel 0.6–1 mm long at
218
anthesis. Calyx 1–2(2.5) mm long, fused for almost half its length, rusty-brown pubescent
like the inflorescence axis. Petals 2–3.5 mm long, greyish-brown pubescent. Stamen
filaments glabrous. Pods (7)10–14(17) × 3–4.5(5.3) cm excluding the stipe, oblong or
somewhat curved, rounded at both ends, often somewhat woody, dehiscing along one
margin only; stipe (1)1.5–2(2.5) cm long, inserted ± asymmetrically; seeds (4)6–9 × 10–
12 × 4–7 mm, oblong-ellipsoid, on a funicle 7–10 mm long.
Sassy bark contains toxic alkaloids erythrophloeine, erythrophleguine, resin, and tannin,
small quantity of fatty acid, ipuranol and luteolin.
Tests for identity:
given descriptions.
(b) Extract the powdered bark with ammoniated chloroform. Shake the alkaloidal extract
with dilute hydrochloric acid. To the acidic fraction, add a few drops of Mayer’s.
Dragendorff’s or Wagner’s reagent a precipitate is obtained indicating the presence of
alkaloids.
(c) Evaporate a portion of the chloroform extract to low volume and examine it by thin-
layer chromatography for the presence of erythrophleguine by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Antifungal, dental surgeries. narcotic, astringent, anodyne, laxative. The bark is
poisonous because of its poisonous alkaloids.
Storage:
219
Erythroxylon coca Lam.
Family name:
Erythroxylaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Erythroxylum coca var. novo-granatense
D. Morris
(b) Erythroxylum coca Lam
Common names:
Coca, Cocaine plant, Coca leaf, Amazonian
coca, Bolivian coca, Huanuco coca (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
The plant grows to about 2.4 meters tall (~8 feet) and possesses small flowers, with
yellowish-white petals, that grow in little clusters on short stalks. The leaves of the coca
contain many alkaloids, one of which is cocaine.
The coca plant now grows throughout the tropical regions of the Andes, mainly Bolivia,
Ecuador and Peru. It has also spread to regions in Chile, Colombia, East and West Indies,
Ceylon, India, Taiwan and some parts of Africa, Mexico, Indonesia and Formosa.
Part Used:
Leaves
Name of drug:
Coca leaf
Definition:
Coca leaf is the dried leaves of Erythroxylon coca Lam. (Bolivian or Huanuco) or E.
truxyllense (Peruvian or Truxillo) (family, Erythroxyllaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Erythroxylum coca is a high altitudes S. American small evergreen
shrubs with reddish bark whose leaves are the sources of cocaine. They have many small
branchlets with leaves that measure 4-7 cm long and 3-4 in width. The plants have small
yellowish-green flowers that grow on them and develop into red drupes. Leaves grown in
Columbia tend to be smaller and less pointy than those grown in other locations. The
leaves are "chewed" (held in the cheek) in combination with mineral lime to provide
physical and mental stimulation and reduction in altitude sickness. It has a long history of
human use. The coca plant resembles a blackthorn bush, and grows to a height of 2–3 m
(7–10 ft). The branches are straight, and the leaves, which have a green tint, are thin,
opaque, oval, and taper at the extremities. A marked characteristic of the leaf is an
areolated portion bounded by two longitudinal curved lines, one line on each side of the
midrib, and more conspicuous on the under face of the leaf.
220
The flowers are small, and disposed in little clusters on short stalks; the corolla is
composed of five yellowish-white petals, the anthers are heart-shaped, and the pistil
consists of three carpels united to form a three-chambered ovary. The flowers mature into
red berries.
The leaves are sometimes eaten by the larvae of the moth Eloria noyesi. Coca is grown
from seed. When the drupes are ripe, women tend to go around and collect them. The
pulp is washed away and the seeds are allowed to dry in the sun. The seeds are then
placed in seed beds and germinate in approximately 24 days. When the plants reach a
height of about 30-40 cm, they are transplanted to prepared fields. This is done during the
rainy season and after three years the plants may produce a small harvest of leaves. In the
ensuing years, leaves are harvested three of four times per year from the plant. Insects
known as mounga burrow into the trunk of the plant and can destroy the plant and taja, a
fungus, tends to grow on the leaves and branchlets of the coca plant.
Microscopical: A transverse section of coca leaf shows upper epidermis, palisade
parenchyma containing prisms of calcium oxalate, spongy parenchyma and a very
characteristic lower pappilose epidermis with numerous stomata. The midrib is partly
surrounded by an arc of pericyclic fibres, above and below which is a considerable
amount of collenchymas. A surface preparation of the lower epidermis shows the
papillae as well-marked circles, numerous stomata, each with four subsidiary cells two
which have their long axis parallel to the pore.
Coca leaves contain the alkaloids Cocaine, Cinnamyl Cocaine, and Truxilline or
Cocamine. As a rule the Truxillo or Peruvian leaves contain more alkaloid than the
Bolivian, though the latter are preferred for medicinal purposes. Java Coca contains
tropacocaine and four yellow crystalline glucosides in addition to the other constituents.
Tests of Identity:
(b) Extract the alkaloids with acidulated water. Filter and add a drop of Meyer’s,
Draggendorff’s or Wagner’s reagent to the extract. A precipitate is produced with the
reagent.
(c) Basify the acid extract with ammonia and extract the mixture with chloroform.
Concentrate chloroform extract and confirm the presence of cocaine and cinnamyl
cocaine by thin-layer co-chromatography.
Tests of Purity:
N/A
Elixir Coca, B.P.C.
Extract of Coca, B.P.C.
Liquid extract of Coca, B.P.
Fluid extract of Coca, U.S.P.
Tincture of Coca, B.P.C.
Coca Wine, B.P.C.
Wine of Coca, U.S.P.
Cocaine, P.B.
221
Uses:
Anaesthetic
Storage:
222
Eupatorium odoratum L.
Family name:
Asteraceae
Synonyms:
(a) Chromolaena odorata (L.) R.M. King &
H.Robins.
(b) Eupatorium conyzoides Vahl
(c) Eupatorium brachiatum Sw. ex Wikstr.
(d) Eupatorium atriplicifolium Vahl
(e) Eupatorium stigmatosum Meyen & Walp.
(f) Eupatorium clematitis DC.
(g) Eupatorium sabeanum Buckley
(h) Eupatorium divergens Less.
(i) Eupatorium odoratum L.
(j) Eupatorium affine Hook. & Arn.
(k) Eupatorium floribundum Kunth
(l) Eupatorium dichotomum Sch. Bip.
(m) Osmia odorata (L.) Sch. Bip.
(n) Chrysocoma volubilis Vell. Conc.
Common names:
Bitter Bush, Tonka Bean, Triffid Weed , Jack in the bush
Common floss flower, Siam Weed, Christmas Bush (E).
Herbe du Laos (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara N/A
(c) Hausa: Shuwaka balaga
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Akintola-taku, Ewe Awolowo, Ewe Akintola.
Eupatorium odoratum is a woody herbaceous perennial growing as a climbing shrub to 3
meters in height, typically shorter. The leaves are arranged oppositely, to 15 cm in length,
triangular to ovate with an acuminate leaf apex and dentate leaf margin with large teeth.
The vegetative structures are covered with articulate hairs throughout. The actinomorphic
flowers are arranged in corymbs of heads subtended an involucre made of 4 series of
phyllaries. The calyx is modified as hairs forming a pappus. The corolla has 5 fused
white to lavender petals. There are 5 stamens fused to the base of the corolla. The ovary
is inferior with a single locule. The fruit is an achene at maturity that retains the modified
calyx (pappus).
It is native to North America, from Florida and Texas to Mexico and the Caribbean, and
has been introduced to tropical Asia, West Africa, and parts of Australia.
Part Used:
Leaf
223
Name of drug:
Tonka bean, Siam weed, Christmas bush.
Definition
Siam weed is the fresh or dried leaf of Chromolaena odorata (Linn) King and Robinson,
(family, Asteraceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: A scrambling shrub. It may reach 1 m or more as a free standing shrub
and 4 m or more when climbing into trees or shrubs. Stems reach 2 cm in diameter. The
plants are maintained by a system of abundant, yellowish, fine lateral roots. Multiple
sprouts arise from the root crown and lower stems. The individual branches are long with
relatively few branches. Foliage occurs only on recent growth. The opposite, three-nerved
leaves are deltoid to ovate-lanciolate, usually with a dentate margin and a long pointed
tip. The leaves are aromatic when crushed. The inflorescences are corymbs of cylindrical
heads located on the terminals of lateral branches. There are 15 to 25 tubular florets per
head, white, lavender, pink, or blue in color. The seeds are a brownish gray to black
achene that is 4mm longwith a pale brown pappus 5 or 6 mm long.
Microscopical: The leaf is generally dorsiventral, epidermis of silicified cells, stomata
variously distributed, mostly anomocytic, but also anisocytic and variable mesophyll.
Vascular bundles of the veins possess distinct sheath of parenchyma. Upper epidermal
cells are slightly wavy with few unicellular, glandulartrichomes. The covering trichomes
are uniseriate, 3-4 celled and devoid of oil glands. The lower surface consists of wavy
epidermal cells, smaller than those on the upper surface but containing similar stomata
types, numerous uniseriate covering trichomes, 4-9 celled, with a whip-like terminal cell-
numerous oil glands are visible in the surface view. The transverse section is composed
of four separate collateral vascular bundles, the xylem and phloem, consisting of two
portions. When cut through the midrib, the transverse section shows the presence of
trichomes with 4-9 unseriate cells, which are present in both surfaces at the mid vein
only. There is a row of palisade cells under the upper portion which does not run through
the midrib. The oil glands in the transverse section of the lamina possess many cells
indicating a schizogenously formed oil gland. Stomatal index: 0.059-0.12-0.22 (lower
epidermis); Palisade ratio: 6-7.1-8.5; Vein-islet number: 0.0-0-1.0;Veinlet termination
number: 12.0-19.3-28.0.
Powder: Fragments of slightly wavy epidermal cells, numerous stomata- anomocytic and
anisocytic types. There are numerous fragments of covering trichomes but few glandular
trichomes. Xylem with phloem cell elements and isolated glands are visible in the field of
view. Taste is bitter, odour characteristic and colour is light green.
Odoratin, salvingenin, (a flavone), isisakuranetin and quercetin(flavonoids), triterpene
alcohol, lupeol and B-amyrin have been isolated from the plant. The leaf volatile oil gave
saligenin, sequiterpene, acetylenic compounds as well as alkaloids of pyridine nucleus.
The essential oil also gave a-pinene(19.3 per cent), camphor (15.5 per cent), limonene
(10.2 per cent), citronella, p-cymene, cadinene, oxygenated sesquiterpenoids and
geraniol. Tannins also present.
Tests of Identity
224
(b) Microchemical tests for the presence of flavonoids, and the terpenoids: citronella,
citral or geraniol.
(c) Thin-layer or gas chromatographic examination to confirm the presence of the
terpenoids.
Tests of Purity
Moisture: Not more than 57 per cent
Acid-insoluble ash: Not more than 6 per cent
Water-soluble ash: Not less than 1 per cent
Alcohol-soluble extractive: Not less than 28 per cent
Water-soluble extractive: Not less than 22 per cent
Pharmaceutical preparations
N/A
Uses:
Siam weed is used to treat burns, skin diseases and wounds.
Storage:
In a cool, dry place away from light and moisture.
225
Euphorbia tirucalli L.
Family name:
Euphorbiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Tirucalia indica Raf.
(b) Tirucalia tirucalli (L.) P.V.Heath
(c) Euphorbia viminalis Mill.
(d) E. geayi Costantin & Gallaud
(e) E. laro Drake
(f) E. media N.E.Br.
(g) E. rhipsalioides Lem.
(h) E. scoparia N.E.Br.
(i) E. suareziana Croizat
(j) Arthrothamnus ecklonii Klotzsch & Garcke
(k) Arthrothamnus tirucalli (L.) Klotzsch & Garcke
Common names:
Pencil plant, rubber-hedge euphorbia, Firestick Plants, Indian Tree Spurge, Naked Lady,
Sticks on Fire, Milk Bush (E). Arbre de Saint Sébastien, Euphorbe effile euphorbe,
Garde maison,Ttirucalli (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Mtupa mwitu, Mwasi, Utupa.
(f) Yoruba: N/A
The rubber-hedge euphorbia is a many-branched, succulent plant, usually 3-5 m but may
reach 10 m on occasion. The bark of very old specimens is grey and rough with
longitudinal dents and ridges that break up into very small fragments. There are
sometimes conspicuous, small protuberances, such as a bulge, knob, or swelling, on the
bark, and occasionally black, rough, crosswise bands. The branches are cylindrical,
smooth and glabrous-green, 5-8 mm in diameter, forming brush-like masses that are the
best known feature of this species. Plants are without spines. The leaves are small and
slender, up to 12 x 1.5 mm, rarely seen, as they fall very early. Leaf scars on young twigs
form conspicuous dents which contract until they are no more than grey dots on older
branchlets and can even be seen on fairly thick green stems. The thin twigs are pendant
(hanging down), pale green and occur opposite each other, alternate or in groups on the
branchlets which gives a rather untidy and rounded appearance to the crowns.
The flowers are yellow, inconspicuous, and carried in clusters at the apex of the short
branches or in the angles of branches. They appear in September to December. Fruits are
tripartite capsules (divided into three parts), about 12 mm in diameter, longitudinally very
slightly lobed, short-stalked (8 mm), pale green, with a pink tinge and conspicuously
pubescent (clothed with soft hairs). As with other members, the capsules dehisce while
226
still on the tree. The fruits appear from November to December. Generally the stalks are
bent at an angle. The seeds are oval, about 4 x 3 mm, glabrous, smooth and dark brown
with a white line around the small white caruncle (fleshy wart near the hilum of the seed).
This spineless species contains large quantities of latex which is freely exuded by the
twigs and branchlets at the slightest injury
It has a wide distribution in Africa, being prominently present in northeastern, central
and southern Africa.
Parts Used:
Latex, Branches, Roots.
Name of drug:
Pencil plant latex
Definition:
Pencil plant latex is the dried latex obtained from the branches and roots of Euphorbia
tirucalli L. (family, Euphorbiaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Spineless succulent densely branched often apparently dioecious shrubs
to 4 m or trees to 7 m high, with a copious irritant white to yellowish latex.Branchlets
brittle terete succulent, c. 7 mm thick, often produced in whorls, green with longitudinal
fine striations and very small leaf scars, the extreme tips of young leafy branchlets
sparsely tomentose with curled brown hairs.Leaves few, present only at the tips of young
branchlets and quickly deciduous, subsessile; stipules glandular, minute, dark brown;
lamina fleshy to 15 × 2 mm, linear-lanceolate.Cymes congested, 2–6 at the branchlet
apices, each forking 2–4 times, with rays less than 1 mm long, producing a dense cluster
of cyathia developing only male flowers, or occasionally a few female flowers also
present, or cyathia fewer and only female flowers developing, the whole cyme ±
glabrous, or tomentose with curled brown hairs especially on the involucres and lobes;
bracts c. 2 × 1.5 mm, rounded, ± sharply keeled, usually glabrous except on the
margin.Cyathia subsessile, c. 3 × 4 mm, with cup-shaped involucres; glands 5, 0.5 mm in
diameter subcircular to 1.5 × 2 mm transversely elliptic, bright yellow; lobes c. 0.5 mm
long, triangular.Male involucres: bracteoles linear with plumose apices; stamens 4.5 mm
long; an aborted female flower is occasionally present.Female involucres: bracteoles
present and occasionally also a few male flowers; female perianth distinctly 3-lobed
below the tomentose ovary, with lobes 0.5 mm long; styles 2 mm long, joined at the base,
with thickened deeply bifid recurved apices.Capsule glabrescent, c. 8 × 8.5 mm,
subglobose, exserted on a tomentose pedicel to 10 mm long.Seeds 3.5 × 2.8 mm, ovoid,
smooth, buff speckled with brown and with a dark brown ventral line; caruncle 1 mm
across.
E. tirucalli contains 4-deoxyphorbol ester, beta-sitosterol, caoutchouc, casuariin,
corilagin, cycloeuphordenol, cyclotirucanenol, ellagic acids, euphorbins, euphol,
euphorone, euphorcinol, gallic acids, glucosides, hentriacontane, hentriacontanol,
ingenol, isoeuphoral, kaempferol, pedunculagin, phenols, phorbol esters, proteases,
putranjivain A-B, sapogenin acetates, succinic-acid, taraxasterol, taraxerin, tirucallol, and
tirucallin A-B.
227
diterpene esters of the tigliane, ingenane and daphnane types, based on the parent
alcohols ingenol, phorbol, resiniferonol, 12-deoxyphorbol and the rare 4-deoxyphorbol
and 12-deoxy-4β-hydroxyphorbol. The latex is an emulsion of about 30% terpenes in
water.
Other terpenes isolated from latex of different origins are the diterpenes euphol and its
stereoisomer tirucallol, the highly toxic daphnane diterpene ester tinyatoxin, the
triterpenoids euphorbinol, cycloeuphorbinol, euphorone and the 31-nortriterpene
cycloeuphordenol and the macrocyclic diterpene tirucalicine. The latex also contains an
isoquinoline alkaloid as well as the sterols taraxasterol, phorbosterol, euphorbosterol, α-
amyrine and cycloartenol. Four trypsine-like proteolytic enzymes, euphorbains t1–t4,
have also been isolated. The twigs have yielded taraxasterol, β-sitosterol, ellagic acid,
kaempferol, glucose and the hydrocarbon hentriacontane, as well as an alcoholic
analogue. The whole plant contains 7.4% citric acid with some malonic and succinic acid.
The stem bark yielded the following compounds: cycloartenol, 24-methylene
cycloartenol, β-sitosterol, α-taraxerol, euphorbol, euphorbol-hexacosonoate, taraxerone as
well as diterpene esters, including ingenol triacetate, the pentacyclic triterpene
euphorcinol and the taraxerane type triterpene euphorginol. Several diterpene esters,
tiglianes and daphnanes have been isolated from the roots, based on 12-deoxyphorbol,
12-deoxy-16-hydroxyphorbol and resiniferol, including tinyatoxin and candletoxin A.
Two anthocyanins were also isolated from the roots.
Tests for identity:
(b) Thin-layer chromatographic examination of the extract to confirm the presence of
ellagic acid, kaempferol or euphol by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Gastric healing, anti-imflamatory, wound healing, anticancer.
Storage:
228
Ferula assa-foetida L.
Ferula foetida (Bunge) Regel
Family name:
Apiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Ferula scorodosma Bent et Trim. = F.
foetida Regel
(b) Scorodosma foetidum Bunge. = F. asa-
foetida L.
Common name:
Asafoetida (E). Ferula perisque (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الحلتيت أو صمغ األنجدان‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Mvuje
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Tall perennial herbaceous plant with petiolated radical leaves of 50 cm, while the cauline
leaves are widely sheathing, leaves denticulated into oblong lanceolate round segments of
2.0 to 5 cm long. Flower bearing stem reaches 2 m and produces yellowish white flowers
on stalked umbels.
Fruits: compressed almost flat ovoid achenes.
Subtropical Africa
Part used:
Gum-resin
Names of drug:
Gummi Resina Asafoetid, Asafetida, Ase Fetide.
Definition:
Asafoetida is an oleo-gum resin, obtained by incision from the living rhizome and roots
of Ferula foetida Regel, Ferula rubricaulis Boiss or certain other species of Ferula.
Description:
Asafoetida occurs in irregular lumps formed of tears embedded in a yellowish-brown or
dark-brown matrix, in masses, agglutinated tears or in separate ovoid, rounded or
flattened tears; from 1 to 4 cm in diameter; more or less tough at ordinary temperature,
becoming hard and occasionally brittle on drying; externally, greyish-white to dull
yellow or reddishbrown; internally, milky-white and opaque gradually 'passing through a
very characteristic change of colour on exposure to air or light, becoming at first pink,
then reddish-purple, and finally reddish-brown; odour, strong, persistent and alliaceous;
taste, bitter alliaceous and acrid.
229
Asafoetida consists principally of volatile oil, resin and gum, Good samples yield from
10 to 17 per cent of volatile oil, from 40 to 67 per cent of resin, about 25 per cent of gum
and l.5 to 10 per cent of ash, The volatile oil contains pinene together with various
disulphides, The percentage of sulphur varies from 17 to 38 per cent. Asafoetida contains
no free umbelliferone.
Test for identity:
Place a drop of sulfuric acid on the freshly fractured surface of a tear of Asafoetida; a
bright red or reddish-brown colour is produced, changing to violet on washing with
water. Boil about 1 g of Asafoetida with 20 cc of equal volumes of hydrochloric acid and
water, filter into water made strongly alkaline with strong solution of ammonium
hydroxide; a blue fluorescence is produced.
Tests for purity:
(a) Alcohol-insoluble residue, not more than 50 per cent.
(b) Thoroughly triturate about 0,5 g of Asafoetida with 2 g of sand, in moderately coarse
powder, and boil with 5 cc of alcohol (90 per cent) in a test-tube for 1 to 2 minutes, then
cool and filter into 5 ml alcohol (90 per cent) to which 0,5 ml of strong solution of
ammonium hydroxide has been added, no blue fluorescence is produced (Galbanum).
(c) Triturate about 1 g of Asafoetida with 10 cc of water. To the milky-white emulsion
obtained, add a few drops of choralin soda T.S,; no deep orange red colour is produced
(Arnmoniacum).
(d) Asafoetida leaves on ignition not more than 20 per cent, of ash; acid-insoluble ash,
not more than 15 per cent.
Tinctura Asafoetida
Uses:
Preparations containing Asafoetida are unsuitable for children under one year old.
Storage:
230
Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle
Family name:
Euphorbiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Baill.
(b) Securinega obovata Muell.-Arg.
(c) Flueggea microcarpa Blume
(d) Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle
(e) Securinega abyssinica A. Rich
(f) Acidoton virosus (Roxb. ex Willd.) Kuntze
(g) Phyllanthus virosus Roxb. ex Willd.
Common names:
Chinese waterberry, Common bushweed,
Simple leaf bush weed, Snowberry tree, White berry bush (E). Balan des savanes (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: Kartié kartié, Kartjé-kartjé, Dabalab, Kartjik-artij, L’emleise.
(b) Bambara: Balamanantièn, Baram baram, Diéné, Karam karam, Nkoloninge,
Nkoloningié, Surku mańéńé, Tiéné.
(c) Hausa: Tsa, Gwiwar kare, Tswa, Gussu, Tsugawun kare, Itachen-gado, Tsúwààwún
karee.
(d) Peuhl: Tiambel gore.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ìranjé, Awewe.
Securinega virosa is a deciduous, smooth, graceful, small to large shrub. Leaves are
extremely variable in shape, elliptic-ovate, obovate or orbicular, 2.5 to 10 centimeters in
length, rather glaucous beneath, and rounded, obtuse or pointed at the tip. Flowers are
usually borne on axillary fascicles. Fruit is mostly small, black or white, dry, and about 3
to 5 millimeters in diameter.
Geographical distribution :
Widespread in tropical Africa, S. Africa, the Mascarene Islands, tropical and subtropical
Asia.
Part used:
Roots, leaves, wood, juice.
Name of drug:
Common bushweed bark
Definition:
Common bushweed bark is the dried bark of Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Baill.
(family, Euphorbiaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: A shrub or small tree to 4 m high with numerous branches arising from
the base and spirally arranged upwards, somewhat angular, of wooded savanna and
transition-forest, throughout the Region from Senegal to Southern Nigeria, and
231
widespread across tropical Africa to India and Australasia.The plant has attractive foliage
and white waxy berries.
Bark contains 10% tannic acid and an alkaloid.
(a) Phytochemical screening yielded reducing sugars, cardiac glycosides, resin, tannins,
saponins, glycosides, flavonoids, glycerin carbohydrate, anthraguine and steroids.
(b) Phytochemical screening of aqueous extract of dried root yielded saponins, tannins,
cardiac glycosides, and steroids.
Tests for identity:
Macrochemical examination of the specimen to ensure the compliance with the
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Antipsychotic, central depressant, antioxidant, antimalarial, antimicrobial, trypanocidal,
antiarrhythmic.
Storage:
232
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
Family name:
Apiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Anethum foeniculum L.
(b) Foeniculum foeniculum (L.)
Karst.
(c) Foeniculum officinale All.
(d) Foeniculum rapillaceum Gilib.
Common names:
Fennel, Sweet fennel, Sweet cumin
(E).
Fenouil, Queue de pourceau, Anis
doux (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الشمر الحلو أو الشمر السكري‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Shamari (f)
(g) Yoruba: N/A
Plant with perennial stump and annual growth; filiform pinnatisected, sweet-smelling
leaves; terminal umbels of small yellow leaves; dry small fruits ovoid and oblong of 5
mm.
Cultivated in Mediterranean and temperate regions of Africa.
Part used:
Fruits
Names of drug:
Fennel, Fructus Foeniculi, Fennel, Fenouil.
Definition:
Fennel is the dried ripe fruits of Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (family, Apiaceae).
Fennel contains not more than 4 per cent or foreign organic matter, and yields not less
than 1.4 per cent v/w of volatile oil.
Description: .
Odour, sweet and aromatic; taste, sweet, agreeable and aromatic.
Macroscopical: Fruit, cremocarp, often entire, cylindrical or nearly so, attached to a
slender pedicel, 2 to l0 mm, long, sometimes separated into its two mericarps. Mericarp,
elliptical, tapering slightly towards both ends, 5-sided, the commissural side being the
wider and more or less undulating, 4 to 12 mm long and up to 4 mm broad, crowned with
a short conical stylopod, yellowish-green to yellowish-brown; externally, glabrous
(distinction from Anise), and marked with 5 paler, prominent primary ridges;
commissural side, flat and shows 3 narrow pale brown, longitudinal areas, separated by 2
dark brownish areas over the vittae; internally, mericarp shows a pericarp containing
233
usually 6 brown vittae, 4 in the dorsal side and 2, occasionally 3 to 4, in the commissural
side, large oily, orthospermous endosperm and a small apical embryo.
Microscopical: Outer epidermis of the pericarp consists of thick-walled, rectangular,
polygonal, colourless cells, with smooth, not striated cuticle (distinction from Caraway),
few stomata and no hairs. Mesocarp consists of rather thick-walled, somewhat brownish,
parenchyma, traversed longitudinally by 6 large schizogenous vittae, appearing elliptical
in transverse sections and possessing brown epithelial cells, and in the ridges, by vascular
bundles, each having one inner xylem strand and two lateral phloem strands, and
accompanied by strongly lignified fibres; some of the cells of the mesocarp, especially in
the neighbourhood of the vascular bundles, possess lignified, reticulate thickened walls.
Endocarp, composed of very narrow, thin-walled cells, mostly 4 to 6 μ thick, arranged
parallel to one another in groups of 5 to 7, many of these groups being variously oriented.
Endosperm, formed of somewhat thick-walled polygonal cellulosic parenchyma
containing much fixed oil, and several aleurone grains, up to 6 μ in diameter, enclosing a
globoid, and one or more micro-rosette crystals of calcium oxalate, about 3 μ in diameter.
Carpophore, often not split, with very thick-walled sclerenchyma in 2 strands.
Powder Powdered Fennel is yellowish-brown to greenish-brown; characterized by
colourless fragments of thick-walled polygonal endosperm cells containing globules of
fixed oil and aleurone grains containing microrosette crystals of the calcium oxalate;
fragments of epidermal cells of the pericarp, usually polygonal with smooth cuticle and
very few stomata; few fragments with yellowish-brown vittae, 100 to 200 μ wide,
generally crossed by the cells of the endocarp; the ratio of the width of these cells to that
of the vittae is from 1: 30 to 1:25; occasional parenchymatous cells of the meso carp
with lignified reticulate thickening generally accompanied by narrow fibres with
numerous oblique simple pits; hairs and starch granules, absent.
Volatile oil (0.8-4 per cent) containing anethole (50-60 per cent) and fenchone (18-20 per
cent). The fruit also contains 20 per cent proteins and 12-18 per cent of fixed oil.
Tests for purity:
(a) Powdered Fennel contains no starch granules over 10 μ in diameter (distinction from
cereals, etc.), no large amount of fibres or vessels more than 20 μ in diameter (absence of
stalks).
(b) Ash, not more than 12 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 1.5 per cent;
Moisture, not more than 8 per cent.
Assay:
Carry out the assay as directed under "Determination of volatile oils, in drugs" as
described in vol. 2 using about 10g of powdered Fennel, module No. 24, accurately
weighed.
Pulvis Glycerrhizae Compositus
Uses:
Flavouring agent, Carminative.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, in a dry cool place, protected from light.
234
Gentiana lutea L.
Family name:
Gentianaceae
Synonym:
(a) Asterias lutea Bork.
(b) Swertia lutea Vest
Common names:
Gentian root, Yellow gentian, Bitterwort (E).
Gentiane jaune, Gentis, Quinquina du pauvre (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫حنطيايا‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Tall perennial herbaceous plant with multi-rooted stump, and a strong erect aerial
branchless stem that can reach 1.5 m in height; opposite leaves with ovate lamina 30 cm
by 15 cm; flowers golden yellow in colour and grow in whorls at the axis of top leaves.
Mountain plant of Europe and Asia Minor presence signalled in Egypt. Though not a
typically African plant, it has been noted in Egypt.
Part used:
Roots
Names of drug:
Gentian, Gentiane, Radice de Gentiana, Enzianwurzel, Radix Gentianae Luteae.
Definition:
Gentian is the dried fermented root and rhizome of Gentiana lutea L. (family,
Gentianaceae) Gentian contains not more than 2 percent of foreigns organic matter.
Description:
Odour, characteristic; taste, at first sweet but afterwards persistently bitter.
Macroscopical: 3 to 15 cm long 0.5 to 2.5 cm rarely up to 4 cm thick, occasionally
reaching 4 to 8 cm at the crown; externally, yellowish-brown to dark brown. Root,
longitudinally wrinkled and furrowed, sometimes twisted with a few scars of lateral
rootlets. Rhizome, erect, with numerous transverse annulations of encircling leaf-scars,
occasional scars of rootlets, frequently terminates in a bud and occasionally branched.
Fracture, short when dry but tough and flexible when moist, internally, reddish-yellow,
showing a somewhat yellowish to reddish-brown bark, a well-marked dark, wavy
cambium ring, and a large yellowish-brown, mainly parenchymatous xylem. Pith present
only in rhizome.
Microscopical: Cork, yellowish-brown, formed of few layers of polygonal tabular cells
with slightly wavy walls; cortex, of phelloderm in root, of several layers, the outer,
collenchymatous, with thick-walled cells, sometimes containing oily globules and minute
235
acicular crystals of calcium oxalate, the inner, of tangentially elongated parenchyma, the
cells being more or less collapsed and separated by large intercellular spaces, and each
containing a distinct nucleus and minute needle shaped crystals of calcium oxalate;
phloem, consisting of polygonal parenchyma and numerous scattered groups of thin-
walled sieve-tubes with companion cells; xylem, formed principally of thin-walled
parenchyma containing minute crystals of calcium oxalate and oily globules; vessels,
large, slightly lignified, reticulate or scleriform, scattered, singly or in small groups, with
tendency to a radial arrangement near the cambium, and small groups of collapsed tissue
of interxylary phloem; primary xylem, 3-arch and may be found at the centre. Very
occasional small oval starch granules present in parenchyma. Medullary rays,
parenchymatous and not clearly marked. Parenchymatous pith with anastomosing
vascular strands, in rhizome only.
Powder: Powdered Gentian; light brown to yellowish-brown; characterized by abundant
fragments of thin or thick-walled parenchyma with minute acicular crystals of calcium
oxalate, and oily globules; fragments of yellowish-brown cork cells; few reticulate and
scalariform vessels, slightly lignified; numerous minute acicular crystals of calcium
oxalate, 3 to 6 μ long, 0.5 to 1 μ wide; sometimes very occasional small starch granules;
sclereids and fibres, absent.
The bitter crystalline glucoside, gentiopicrin, some of which disappears during the curing
of the drug; the glucosides gentiamarin (amorphous) and gentiarin (crystalline); gentisin,
gentianose, glucose, pectin, etc.
Test for identity:
On micro-sublimation, powdered Gentian gives pale yellow almost straight crystals,
isolated or in groups, insoluble in water, in alcohol, and in ether, but is soluble in chloral
hydrate T.S. and in potassium hydroxide T.S., giving a yellow but not red solution
(distinction from Rumex).
Tests for purity:
(a) Powdered Gentian contains no sclereids, and no fibres (distinction from Rumex
species, Coco nut shell, or stems of Gentian); no starch granules over 20 μ in diameter
(foreign starches).
(b) Water-soluble extractives, not less than 30 per cent.
(c) Powdered Gentian loses, when dried at 100°C, not more than 10 per cent of its
weight.
Extraction Gentianae
Tinctura Gentianae Composita
Alkaline Gentian mixture (Mistura Gentianae Cum Soda)
Uses:
Bitter stomachic
Storage:
236
Glycine soja Sieb et Zucco
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Glycine max (L.) Merr.
(b) Soja hispida Moench.
(c) Dolichos Soja L.
Common names:
Soja bean, Soya bean, Soy (E). Soja
(F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫فول الصويا‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili:N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ewa
Annual plant of 30 cm to 1 m high, with an erect stem that branches out right from the
base. Leaves of three petiolated leaflets, ovate lanceolate and equipped with stipule
flowers; violet on short pedicels and blossom in small axillary clusters villous and linpid
straight pods that enclose 2 to 4 seeds.
Cultivated in intertropical Africa
Part used:
Ripe Seeds
Names of drug:
Semin Glycine soja, Glycine soja Seeds, Graines de soja, Soya bean.
Definition:
Soya consists of the dried ripe seeds of Glycine soja Sieb & Zucco. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
The seeds are without odour, and the taste is bland and oily.
Macroscopical: The seeds are usually pale yellow in colour although brown or black
varieties also occur. They are rounded ovoid in shape, measuring on the average 8 mm
long, 7 mm wide and 6 mm thick. The hilum is 3 to 4 mm long and is found in the middle
of one of the longer edges of the seed. The leathery and somewhat translucent seed coat
surrounds two plano-convex cotyledons which enclose a small radicle and plumule.
Microscopical: Testa, with an epidermis of palisade-like cells, covered with thick cuticle
and have thick-lamellated walls, the lumen being conical at the upper extremity and
rounded at the base, subepidermal layer of basket-like cells varying in length; the cells of
the cotyledons are filled with closely packed aleurone grains, and droplets of fixed oil;
occasional cells containing prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate.
Powder: Powdered soya bean is yellowish-white, characterised by fragments of testa
showing the palisade-like epidermal cells, the basket-like cells of the subepidermal layer;
fragments of the cotyledons with parenchymatous cells containing fixed oil and aleurone
237
grains; the occasional cells containing prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Starch is
absent.
Fixed oil (about 18 per cent), proteins (about 40 per cent), carbohydrates (about 22 per
cent) and the enzyme urease.
Test for identity:
Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with
Test for purity:
Ash, not more than 5 per cent.
N/A
Uses:
Soya is used chiefly for the production of soya oil. It is sometimes used in the
manufacture of food products, and soya cake is used as a fertilizer and for cattle food.
Soya is also used for the determination of urea.
Storage:
238
Glycyrrhiza glabra L.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Glycyrrhiza glabra L. var. typica Reg. et
Herd.
(b) Liquiritia officinalis Moench.
Common names:
Liquorice (E). Reglisse, Bois doux, Racine
douce, Herbe aux tanneurs (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: Irksos
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: NA
Under shrubs of highly developed stolonferous roots; leaves-compound alternate
imparipinnate from 9 to 17 leaflets; flat pods of 2 cm x 6 mm.
Cultivated in the arid regions around the Mediterranean basin
Part used:
Roots and Rhizomes
Names of drug:
Radix Glycyrrhizae, Liquorice root, Reglisse.
Definition:
Liquorice consists of the roots and rhizomes of Glycyrrhiza glabra var. typica Regel et
Herd, known as Spanish Liquorice or Glycyrrhiza glabra var. glandulifera (Wald et Kit)
Regel et Herder, known as Russian Liquorice or of other varieties of Glycyrrhiza glabra
L.
Description:
Odour, faint and characteristic; taste very sweet, almost free from bitterness and acridity.
Macroscopical: SPANISH LIQUORICE: Consists generally of roots and rhizomes, in
nearly cylindrical pieces, 11 to 20 cm or more long and 5 to 20 mm in diameter;
externally, the unpeeled dark-brown or reddishbrown, longitudinally wrinkled,
occasionally bearing small dark buds in rhizomes or small circular or transverse rootlet-
scars in roots. The peeled bark is yellow smooth fibrous finely striated; fracture fibrous in
the bark and splintery in the wood; internally bright-yellow. Showing a distinct cambium
ring separating the yellowish-grey bark from the finely radiate yellow wood; central pith,
only in rhizomes.
RUSSIAN LIQUORICE: Consists mainly of roots, in cylindrical pieces somewhat
tapering sometimes longitudinally split; 15 to 40 cm long, 1 to 5 cm in diameter the
enlarged crown of the root may attain up to 10 cm in diameter; externally, the unpeeled,
239
purplish-brown, somewhat scaly, with stem scars at the top; the peeled, yellowish,
coarsely striated; fracture as Spanish; internally yellow, radiating.
Microscopical: Cork, thick, brown or purplish-brown, formed of several layers of
flattened polygonal thin walled cells, cortex of phelloderm in root somewhat narrow
yellow of parenchyma cells containing isolated prisms of calcium oxalate, phloem, wide,
yellow, traversed by numerous wavy parenchymatous medullary rays, 1 to 8 cells wide
and consisting of numerous radial groups of fibres, each surrounded by a sheath or
parenchyma cells, each usually containing a prism of calcium oxalate, and alternating
with layers of parenchyma and sieve tissue the latter occasionally obliterated, appearing
as refractive irregular structures; phloem fibres, very long, with very narrow lumen and
strongly thickened stratified walls which are cellulosic in the inner part of the phloem and
slightly lignified in the outer; xylem, yellow, distinctly radiate; the rays of xylem,
consists of a little pale yellow parenchyma, groups of fibres similar to those of the
phloem but more lignified, and surrounded by crystal-sheath, tracheids and large wide
lumen vessels, 80 to 200 µ in diameter, with thick yellow reticulate walls or with
numerous oval bordered pits with slit-shape openings. Other parenchyma cells contain
small round or oval starch granules. Pith, only in rhizome, dark yellow, parenchymatous.
Root, with 4-arch primary xylem, with no pith and shows 4 broad primary medullary
rays, radiating from the centre at right angles to one another. In the peeled Liquorice; the
cork, cortex, and sometimes part of the phloem, absent.
Powder: Powdered Liquorice, light yellow in the peeled or brownish yellow or purplish-
brown in the unpeeled; characterised by the numerous fragments of the fibres
accompanied by crystal-sheath the fibres being 8 to 25 µ, mostly 10 to 15 µ in diameter;
dark yellow fragments of vessels, 80 to 200 µ in diameter prismatic crystals of calcium
oxalate, free or in cells 10 to 35 µ, mostly 15 to 25 µ, long; numerous starch granules.
Free or in parenchyma cells, mostly simple oval, round or fusiform, with no striation but
occasionally showing hilum, 2 to 20 µ, mostly about 10 µ in diameter cork may be
present.
5 to 8 per cent of glycyrrhizin, an intensely sweet, water-soluble principle consisting of
the potassium and calcium salts of glycyrrhizic acid, glycyramarin; a bitter principle
occurring mostly in the bark; mannite, a yellow colouring matter; volatile oil, resin,
starch, sucrose, glucose and calcium oxalate.
Tests for identity:
(a) Mix a little of powdered Liquorice with 1 or 2 drops of sulfuric acid (80 per cent); an
orange-red colour is produced.
(b) Shake the aqueous decoction of Liquorice, a voluminous froth is produced.
Tests for purity:
(a) Powdered Liquorice contains no foreign starch granules (Flour); no yellow masses
(Curcuma); no sclereids (Olive Stones).
(b) Water-soluble extractive, not less than 25 per cent.
(c) Ash, not more than 6.5 per cent for the peeled, and not more than 10 per cent for the
unpeeled. Acid-insoluble ash not more than 1 per cent, for the peeled, and not more than
2.5 per cent for the unpeeled.
Assay:
240
This method is based on the hydrolysis of glycyrrhizin, to its aglycone glycyrrhetic acid
and the extraction of the aglycone with chloroform. The chloroform extract gives with 80
per cent sulphuric acid, ethanol and alcoholic solution of vanillin a red colour, the
intensity of which depends on the amount of aglycone and is found to obey Beer's law at
a concentration up to 250 ug in which the developed colour was stable for at least one
hour.
PREPARATION OF STANDARD CURVE:
100 mg of authentic glycyrrhetic acid should be accurately weighed into a 100 ml
volumetric flask dissolved in chloroform and diluted to the mark with the same solvent. 5
ml of this solution is diluted to 100 ml with chloroform. Appropriate volumes of the
diluted solution viz; 1.0, 3.0, 4.0 and 5ml corresponding to 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 ug
of glycyrrhetic acid respectively are pipetted into separate test tubes and the volume in
each tube adjusted to 5 ml with chloroform. Meanwhile, 5 ml of pure solvent is used as a
blank. The chloroform is evaporated to dryness on boiling water-bath, 5 ml of 80 per cent
sulfuric acid added to the tubes heated on boiling water bath, for 10 minutes and then
cooled in ice bath. 5 ml of ethanol is added by allowing it to run down the side of the tube
to form a layer over the sulphuric acid.
Similarly, 0.5 ml of 1 per cent vanillin solution is added carefully without mixing. The
tubes are successively mixed and immediately placed in water bath at 65°C. The tubes
are left in the bath for 5 minutes to develop maximum colour, and then cooled to room
temperature. Measure the colour at wave length 545 nm by means of a spectrophotometer
at 100 per cent transmittance with the blank solution. The absorbances of different
concentrations of glycyrrhetic acid are recorded in Table I.
Table I: The Absorbances of different concentrations of glycyrrhetic acid for the
calibration curve
Volume taken of the Glycyrrhetic Absorbance

glycyrrhetic acid solution acid content at 545 nm.
1 ml 50 µg 0.11
2 ml 100 µg 0.24
3 ml 150 µg 0.35
4 ml 200 µg 0.48
5 ml 250 µg 0.65
The absorbance versus concentrations is then plotted. Each value represents the mean of
two experiments.
HYDROLYSIS PROCEDURE:
24 and 30 mg of ammonium glycyrrhizinate is accurately weighed into a 250 ml quickfit
flask. 20 ml of each of 50 per cent dioxan and 12N sulphuric acid are successively added.
The mixture is refluxed vigorously for one hour to hydrolyse the glycyrrhizin. Add 70 ml
of water and 100 ml of chloroform through the top of the condenser.
Reflux the mixture for additional 15 minutes and then cool. Transfer the contents of the
flask to a 250 ml separating funnel, shake vigorously and let it separate into 2 liquids.
The chloroform layer is then drawn into a second separating funnel containing 100 ml of
241
2 per cent sodium bicarbonate solution. Shake the mixture vigorously to remove
flavonoid aglycones. Allow the chloroform to separate and transfer it to an extraction
flask containing 5 g anhydrous sodium sulphate, and then filtered into a 260 ml
volumetric flask.
The mother liquor in the first separating funnel is then successively shaken with 75 ml
and 25 ml of chloroform, washing the chloroform extract with the same solution of
sodium bicarbonate and drying with the same solution of sodium sulphate. Mix the
chloroformic extracts and adjust the volume to 200 ml with chloroform. Pipette 4 ml of
the chloroformic solution into a test-tube and 4 ml of pure chloroform is to be used in a
second test-tube to serve as a blank. Evaporate the chloroform to dryness in a boiling
water-bath and continue as mentioned in the preparation of standard curve.
= factor of conversion of glycone (glycyrrhetic acid) to

glycyrrhizin.
Extractum Glycyrrhiza
Extractum Glycyrrhiza Fluidum
Pulvis Glycyrrhiza Compositus
Uses:
Liquorice root is a demulcent and expectorant. The liquid extract is often employed to
mask the taste of nauseous medicines. It is used for gastric and duodenal ulcers.
Storage:
N. B. Powder from unpeeled Liquorice must be expressly named.
242
Grewia bicolor Juss.
Family name:
Tiliaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Grewia grisea N.E.Br,
(b) Grewia kwebensis N. E. Br.,
(c) Grewia miniata Mast. Ex Hiern,
(d) Grewia mossambicensis Burret
Common names:
White-leaved raisin, False brandy bush,
Bastard brandy bush, Donkey berry, Two-
coloured grewia, Grey Raisin, Asegaai Wood
(E).
Nogo blanc, Greuvier (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫العرقسوس أو أصل السوس‬
(b) Bambara: Nogo nogo
(c) Hausa: Marken-duutsee
(d) Peuhl: Kelli
(e) Swahili: mfukufuku, mkone.
(f) Yoruba:N/A
Grewia bicolor is usually a many-stemmed shrub, occasionally small tree up to 7 m in
height; bark dark grey, deeply fissured and peeling away in strips in older specimens,
grey to reddish-grey, and smooth when young. Leaves elliptic to elliptic-oblong or
lanceolate, 1.5-7 x 1-3.2 cm, dark, dull green above, almost silvery white with fine hairs
below; the leaves are held horizontally or slightly drooping; apex tapering to rounded;
base broadly tapering to rounded, asymmetric, or almost symmetric; margin finely
toothed, occasionally almost entire; petiole very short. Flowers yellow, 1.5 cm in
diameter, axillary, often produced in profusion; the central mass of stamens characteristic
of the genus. Fruit single, or 2-lobed, each lobe about 6 mm in diameter, reddish-brown
when mature, edible, sweetish but astringent. Fruits are often parasitized and develop a
shaggy appearance.
Widespread from Swaziland, Zululand, Transvaal and South West Africa/Namibia to
Ethiopia and West Africa.
Parts used:
Bark, wood, leaves, fruit, roots.
Name of drug:
Grewia seed
Definition:
Grewia seed is the dried ripe seeds of Grewia bicolor (family, Tiliaceae).
243
Description:
Macroscopical: The bicoloured-leaved Grewia bicolor has beautiful, bright yellow
flowers. It is a frost-resistant, hardy shrub or small tree that is adaptable to all soils, from
clay to sand, and does not require much water.
Grewia bicolor is a multi-stemmed shrub or small tree, up to 9 m high. Its bark is smooth,
grey, becoming dark grey and deeply fissured and peeling away in straps with age. The
young branchlets are velvety grey or brown.
The leaves are alternate, simple and elliptic to slightly ovate, 15–80 x 10–32 mm, with a
broadly tapering to rounded apex. They are 3-veined from the asymmetrically lobed base,
rounded to slightly cordate, held horizontally or drooping, glossy green above, almost
white and silvery hairy below, while the margins are entire to slightly serrated. The
petiole (leaf stalk) is about 1–8 mm long.
The flowers are small, bright yellow, born in axillary clusters at the end of branches.
They are often borne in profusion, with sepals up to 12 mm long and petals shorter. The
flowering time: October–March.The fruits are round and fleshy drupes (fruits such as
plums), reddish brown or orange and black when ripe, entire or deeply 2- lobed, up to 6
mm in diameter.
Per 100 g dry matter the leaves contain: crude protein 16.7 g, fat 4.7 g, nitrogen-free
extract 48.4 g, crude fibre 21.5 g per 100 g dry matter the fruit contains: crude protein 4.9
g, fat 3.5 g, carbohydrate 74.3 g, crude fibre 13.0 g, Ca 920 mg, Mg 200 mg and P 144
mg (Baumer, 1983). The fruits are sweet but astringent.
The bark and other plant parts contain farnesol, which has sedative activity and is
antagonistic to the stimulant effect of caffeine; farnesol also enhances the effects of
barbiturates. A petroleum ether extract of the root contained the triterpenes lupeol and
betulin, and triterpene esters. A methanol extract yielded the alkaloids harman, 6-
methoxyharman and 6-hydroxyharman.
Tests for identity:
(b) Carry out thin-layer chromatographical examination of an extract to confirm the
presence of farnesol by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Tranquilizer, antimicrobial, sedative.
Storage:
244
Guaiacum officinale L.
Family name:
Zygophyllaceae
Synonyms:
Guajacum officinale L.
Common names:
Guaiacum, Gum guaiacum, Lignum-vitae,
Tree of Life, Guaiac, Pockwood, Wood of life,
Lignum Vine, Lignum vitae (E). Gaïac, Arbre
de vie, Bois saint, Gaïac bâtard, Ggaïac franc,
Gaïac mâle, Gaïac officnale (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الجياك المخزني أو عود األنبياء أو خشب النبي‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
An ornamental evergreen tree with pretty rich blue flowers, the trunk is a greenish-brown
colour, the wood of slow growth but attains a height of 40 to 60 feet, stem almost always
crooked, bark furrowed; the wood is extraordinarily heavy, solid and dense, fibres cross-
grained; pinnate leaves, oval obtuse; fruit obcordate capsule; seeds solitary, hard, oblong.
The old heart wood is dark green, the sap wood little in quantity and of a much lighter
yellowish colour.
Native : Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Dominica, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras,
Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, Nicaragua, Panama,
Puerto Rico, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and
Tobago, United States of America, Venezuela, Virgin Islands (US)
Exotic : Ghana, India.
Part used:
Resin, bark, wood.
Name of drug:
Guaiacum resin
Definition:
Guaiacum is the dried resin obtained from the wood and stem bark of Guaiacum
officinale L., (family, Zygophyllaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Guaiacum officinale grows to a height of 9-12 m. Stem is generally
crooked wood intensely hard, the branches knotty and bark deeply furrowed. The dense
crown of close-growing foliage gives the tree a rounded, compact, net appearance. Each
leaf is composed of 2 or 3 pairs of smooth, stalkless leaflets arranged on a slender mid-
rib. The leaflets are 6-13 cm in length. There is much irregularity both in their size and
245
shape: some are broadest above the middle (obovate), some almost blunt (obtuse).
Beautiful blue flowers grow in great profusion and almost cover the tree and remain for a
long time. As the older blooms fade from deep blue to paler shades, some becoming
almost white, a striking variegation of colour is produced. The flowers grow in clusters at
the ends of the branches. Each flower has 5 petals cupped in a small, finely hairy calyx,
supported on a slender stalk. There are 10 stamens bearing golden yellow anthers. The
fruit appears as small, round, compressed, yellow capsules, containing 5 cells;
occasionally there are fewer. Each cell encloses a single seed.
It has a slight acrid taste and is odourless, unless heated, when it emits an agreeable scent.
The bark yields 1 per cent volatile oil of delicious fragrance.
Fragrant volatile oil (1% from bark of tree). Lignum vitae contains lignans (such as
furoguaiacidin and guaiacin), 18-25% resin, vanillin, and terpenes.
Tests for identity:
(b) Gas chromatographic examination of an extract to confirm the presence of vanillin.
Tests for purity:
(a) Lignum Vitae is the heaviest and densest wood in the world and will rapidly sink to
the bottom when placed in water.
(b) It has a slight acrid taste and is odourless.
(c) When heated, it emits an agreeable scent.
(d) The bark yields 1 per cent volatile oil of delicious fragrance.
N/A
Uses:
Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, molluscicidal.
Storage:
246
Guibourtia copallifera Benn.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Copaifera copallifera (Benn.) Milne-
Redh.
(b) Copaifera guibourtiana Benth.
(c) Guibourtia vuilletiana (A. Chev.) A.
Chev.
(d) Guibourtia vuilletii (A. Chev.) A. Chev.
Common names:
Sierra Leone gum-copal, gum-copal, true
gum-copal, red gum, yellow gum, gun copper,
kobo tree (E).
Copalier; Copalier de Guinee (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Kobo tree can be a shrub or tree growing up to 25 metres tall.
A large tree to 25 m high, bole 75 cm in diameter, straight, cylindrical, plank-buttressed
at base to 2 m height (2, 3, 9), or, as in Sierra Leone, bole swollen at base with short
sharp buttresses extending upwards as fluting (12), of the dense forest.
Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Mali, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Cote D'Ivoire;
Part Used:
Leaves, roots, fruits, stem exudate.
Name of drug:
Copal
Definition:
Copal is a hard resin, obtained from Guibourtia copallifera Benn. (family,Fabaceae) and
various tropical trees, which is used to make varnish.
Description:
Macroscopical: Tree; extremities rather stout sinuous rugulose, giving off numerous
ascending branches, puberulous or obsoletely pubescent at first. Leaflets 1-jugate,
coriaceous, broadly semi-elliptical or -obovate, obtusely acuminate, 3–4-nerved with
subprominent reticulation, 2 1/2–3 1/2 inch long, 1–1 1/3 inch broad, sessile; petiole 2
lines. Flowers numerous, sessile in panicled ascending spikes, overtopping the leaves.
Bracts ovate, 1–1 1/2 lines long, caducous. Bracteoles truncate or broadly rounded,
closely investing the base of the calyx. Buds ellipsoidal, 2 lines long. “Sepals 4,
imbricate, coriaceous, subequal in length, elliptical, obtuse, glabrous. Ovules 2–4.” The
247
wood has some resemblance to rosewood. The heartwood is pink, vivid red, or red-brown
with purple streaks or veins, on exposure becomes yellow or medium brown with a
reddish tint. The sapwood is whitish and clearly demarcated. The texture is fine and even,
the grain straight or interlocked, lustrous, sometimes highly figured. It has an unpleasant
odour when first cut which disappears on drying. Though quite hard and heavy it works,
saws, and planes rather well and produces a good finish, glues well. The heartwood has
good durability and is resistant to termite attack.
Gum, Resin.
Test for identity:
given above.
Test for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Galactogogue, rheumatism, gastro-enteritis, dysentery.
Storage:
248
Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmel.
Family name:
Rosaceae
Synonym(s)
(a) Banksia abyssinica Bruce
(b) Brayera anthelmintica Brayer
(c) Hagenia abyssinica var. viridifolia
Hauman
(d) Hagenia anthelmintica (Kunth) Eggleling
Common names:
African redwood, Brayera, Cusso, Hagenia,
Kousso (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl:N/A
(e) Swahili: mdobore, mlozilozi.
The tree is named after Dr. K. G. Hagen of Konigsberg, a German botanist (d. 1829), and
also after A. Brayera, a French physician in Constantinople, who wrote a monograph on
the tree in 1823. It is a beautiful tree growing about 20 feet high, at an elevation of 3,000
to 8,000 feet. The flowers are unisexual, small, of a greenish colour, becoming purple.
The dried flowers have a slight balsamic odour, and the taste is bitter and acrid; the
female flowers are chiefly collected, although not exclusively so. 'Loose Kousso,' i.e.
flowers stripped from their panicles, sometimes come into the market, often with some
staminate flowers among it. These are much less active, easily distinguished by their
greeny colour, fertile stamens and outer hairy sepals, whereas the female flowers are a
dark reddish colour.
Central Africa, Eastern Africa, Eastern Arc Mountains, Lake Malawi region, Malawi,
Northern Tanzania, Zambia.
Part used:
Herb, unripe fruit, and the dried panicles of the pistillate flowers.
Name of drug:
Kousso herb
Definition:
Kousso herb is the dried herb of Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmel. (family,
Rosaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Hagenia abyssinica is a slender tree up to 20 m tall, with a short trunk
and thick branches; branchlets covered in silky brown hairs and ringed with leaf scars.
Bark thick, brown or reddish-brown and readily peeling. No thorns or buttresses. Leaves
compound, 40 cm long, in terminal tufts; leaflets pale or bright green above, with silvery
249
hairs below, reddish and sticky when young, 3-6 pairs plus a terminal leaflet, each about
10 cm long; margin finely toothed and fringed with long hairs; leaf stalks 12 cm long,
with expanded wings formed from the stipules, densely hairy on the underside. Flowers
in handsome multibranched, terminal, drooping panicles up to 60 cm long and 30 cm
wide, polygamo-dioecious, female heads pinkish-red, clearly veined, bulkier than the
more feathery orange-buff to white male heads. Fruit small, dry, winged, asymmetric,
single seeded, brown syncarp with a single more or less ovoid carpel and fragile pericarp.
Hagenia is a monospecific genus and is most closely related to the monospecific genus
Leucosidea. The specific name means ‘from Ethiopia’.
A volatile oil, a bitter acrid resin, tannic acid, and a bitter principle called A Kosin and B
Kosin, which is found in Kousso, but thought to be decomposition products. The
principle constituent of Kousso is Koso-toxin, a yellow amorphous body, possibly closely
allied to filicic acid, and Rottlerin; other inactive colourless bodies are crystalline
Protokosin and Kosidin.
Tests for identity
(a) Macroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with descriptions
given above.
(b) Examine an extract of the plant for the presence of tannic acid by thin-layer co-
chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Antimicrobial, anthelmintic, antidiarrhoea.
Storage:
250
Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir.
Family name:
Hypericaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Arungana paniculata Pers.
(b) Haronga madagascariensis (Lam. ex
Poir.) Choisy
(c) Haronga paniculata (Pers.) Lodd. ex
Steud.
Common names:
Orange-milk tree, Dragon's-blood-tree ,
Praying-hands, Haronga tree (E).
Guttier du Gabon, (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Sãndala giri, Sumbala.
(c) Hausa: alillibar, Alillibar-raafii.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: kumamaji, mbura, mdamu mdamu, mgondogondo, ngoningoni.
(f) Yoruba:Adidun, Amuje, Asonje, Arunje, Adenden, Elepo = the roots, Legun soko =
the roots, Igi ekpó.
Small to medium-sized shrubby tree with distinctly russet young leaves and branchlets.
Bark brown, rough and scaly, with orange sap when damaged. Leaves opposite, elliptic,
up to 20 cm long, dark shiny green above, densely covered in rusty hairs below; margin
entire. Young leaves at stem apex flattened together; hence the common name "praying
hands". Flowers in dense, branched, terminal heads, creamy-white, hairy inside, with
glandular dots near the apex, sweetly scented. Fruit in clusters, 2-4 mm in diameter,
greenish-orange to red when ripe.
Widespread in tropical Africa, Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands.
Part used:
Barks stem, branch, trunk.
Name of drug:
Haronga tree bark
Definition:
Haronga tree bark is the dried stem bark of Harungana madagascariensis [Lam. ex] Poir
(family, Hypericaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Shrub or tree up to 12 m (exceptionally 27 m) high, much branched,
evergreen, with scaly bark and orange or blood-red sap. Young stems densely covered
with rusty stellate or dendroid hairs. Leaves petiolate; petioles up to 27 mm long; blades
lanceolate to ovate, ranging from 6.5 x 4.5 cm and 8.5 x 3.5 cm to 20 x 10 cm, shortly
acuminate, rounded (rarely broadly cuneate, truncate or cordate) at the base, with about
14 parallel lateral veins on each side of the midrib, glabrescent and dark glossy green
251
above, pallid below with short glandular or rusty stellate indumentum; young leaves
densely rusty on both surfaces. Inflorescence a large many-flowered corymbose-cymose
panicle; pedicels and calyx rusty. Flowers sweet-scented. Sepals ovate-elliptic, about 2
mm. long, with a few longitudinal linear glands and gland dots. Petals ovate-elliptic, up
to 3 mm. long, with 2–4 gland dots near the apex, white. Stamens 3–4 per bundle;
filaments glabrous. Staminodes fleshy, glabrous. Drupe spherical, about 4 mm. diameter;
pericarp crustaceous, yellow or orange; pyrenes each 0–2-seeded. Seeds about 2 mm.
long.
Leaves: Prenylated anthranoids, harunmadagascarins C and D; and kenganthranol D.;
Root bark: An anthracenone, Bazouanthrone (3,5,8,9-tetrahydroxy-2,4,4-tri-(3,3-
dimethylallyl)-6-methyl-1-(4H)-anthracenone), feruginin A, harunganin, harunganol A,
harunganol B, friedelan-3-one and betulinic acid.; Also: Flavanone as the active
compound astilbin or 3-O-alpha-L-rhamnoside-5,7,3',4'-tetrahydroxydihydroflavonol.
Bark: Alkaloïdes, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids and saponins.
Tests for identity:
(b) Shake an aqueous extract of the powdered bark with water. It produces a foam which
does not disappear with heat.
(c) Also perform the test for flavonoids as described in volume 2. It gives a positive
reaction.
(d) An extract of the powdered bark is warmed with acidulated water and filtered. The
filtrate gives a precipitate with Mayer’s reagent, Wagner’s reagent and with
Dragendorff’s reagent.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Cancer, malaria, antitrypanosomal, anti-inflammatory, antisickling, antioxidant,
antibacterial.
Storage:
252
Heliotropium indicum L.
Family name:
Boraginaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Heliotropium cordifolium Moench;
(b) Heliotropium foetidum Salisb.;
(c) Heliotropium horminifolium Mill;
(d) Eliopia riparia Raf.;
(e) Eliopia serrata Raf.;
(f) Heliophytum indicum (L.) DC;
(g) Tiaridium indicum (L.) Lehm
Common names:
Heliotrope, Indian Heliotrope, Turnsole,
Scorpion weed, Wild clary, Erysipelas plant,
Cock’s comb (E).
Herbe à verrues (F), Héliotrope d'Inde (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic:‫رقيب الشمس الهندي‬
(b) Bambara: ńâgiku
(c) Hausa: Korama, Kalkashin korama.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ori-igun, Apari-igun, Ogbe-akuko, Agogo-igun, Arapari, Obuko, Olojo-
gburu, Akuko omade.
A coarse somewhat succulent, annual, 15-60 cm high with stout stem and ascending
branches, more or less densely hirsute. Leaves 4.5-10 cm long, ovate or ovate-oblong,
obtuse or subacute, hairy. Flowers small, pale violet, numerous, sessile, 2-ranked, in
simple or rarely forked, usually extra-axillary spikes, 5-15 cm long.
Pantropical and also in the south of the United States of America. Throughout the tropics
in the Old World.
Part used:
Whole plant, Roots, Leaves.
Name of drug:
Heliotrope
Definition:
Heliotrope is the dried herb of Heliotropium indicum L. (Family,Boraginaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Erect annual or a few times short-lived perennial herb up to 150 cm high.
Stem quadrangular, thick, empty or pithed, woody to the base, variably hairy. Leaves
alternate or subopposite; petiole 20–70(110) mm long, pubescent, with scattered bristles;
lamina 40–170 x 30–130 mm, ovate to broadly ovate or triangular-ovate, strigose by
areolae and with scattered bristles, roughish or only punctate above, generally pubescent-
253
villous, rarely tomentose or punctate and with some scattered bristles mainly on the
nerves and veins below, acute at the apex, obtuse to subcordate at the base and abruptly
decurrent on the petiole, often with crisped margins; secondary nerves 4–8 on each side
of the midrib. Cymes long and flexuous, up to 36 cm long when completely expanded,
usually shorter, ± dense, single or sometimes in pairs, on a short terminal peduncle.
Flowers sessile. Calyx lobes 1.5–3.5 mm long, narrowly elliptic to subulate, unequal,
sparsely hispid. Corolla 3.5–5.0 mm. long, hypocrateriform, pubescent outside, glabrous
inside, white or rarely mauve or blue; tube 3.0–4.5 mm long, usually longer than the
calyx; lobes c. 0.6 x 1.0 mm, depressed-ovate, rounded at apex. Stamens inserted at 0.8–
1.0 mm from the base of the corolla tube; anthers 0.5–0.9 mm long, narrowly ovate,
cordate at the base, subsessile. Ovary with 4 fleshy crests, glabrous. Style 0.5 mm long,
terete, glabrous; sterile appendix hemispheric. Fruit deeply bilobed, mitre-shaped with
the lobes strongly divergent, glabrous or puberulous, first divided into 2, each one c. 4 x 4
x 2.5 mm, later split into 4 nutlets, these angular, rostrate, with the surface 3-ribbed; each
nutlet with 2 cavities, the distal one fertile and the proximal one empty and larger than
the other.
Aerial parts contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids, indicine (principal), echinitine, supinine,
heleurine, heliotrine, lasiocarpine, its N-oxide, acetyl indicine, indicinine and anti-tumour
alkaloid, indicine-N-oxide. The plant also contains rapanone and lupeol and an ester of
retronecine. Roots contain high amount of estradiol.
It’s essential oil extracts contains 49% phytol, 6.4% 1-dodecanol and 3% ?-linalool
constituents.
It contains chemical constituents of heliotrine, helindicine, lycoqsamine, indicine,

indicine-N-oxide, acetyl-indicine, heleurine, supinine, supinidine, lindelofidine,
trachelanthamidine, retronecine, putrescine, spermidine, rapanone, C16-C18 fatty acid
esters of 1-cyano-2-hydroxymethylprop-1-en-3-ol.
Tests for identity:
(b) Thin-layer chromatographical examination of the extract of the specimen to confirm
the presence of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (especially heliotrine) by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Cytotoxicity, antimicrobial, histo-gastroprotection, diuretic, wound healing,
antimicrobial, anticancer.
Storage:
254
Hippocratea indica Willd.
Family name:
Celastraceae
Synonyms:
(a) Pristimera indica (Willd.) A.C. Sm.
(b) Hippocratea loesneriana Hutch. & M. B.
Moss
(c) Reissantia indica (Willd.) N. Hallé
Common names:
Mopane Paddle-pod (E)
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Gwadayii = H. africana
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Youruba: Ponju-owiwi, Abodediji, Ilayin.
A shrub or slender climber to 4 m long of the closed-forest and dry deciduous forest.
Young branches characteristically 4-angled with indistinct lenticels. Leaves, obovate to
oblong-elliptic, 4-15 cm long, greyish- or yellowish-green, glabrous; apex tapering with a
distinct tip, margin shallowly crenate-dentate with glandular teeth. Flowers in terminal
and axillary branched heads, very small, yellowish. Fruit with 2 spreading flattened
mericarps, oblong to elliptic, each c. 5 cm long, yellow-green, smaller than in most other
species in the genus.
This species (or close relatives) is widespread in tropical Africa and tropical Asia.
Part used:
Whole plant, Leaves and roots.
Name of drug:
Mopane
Definition:
Mopane is the dried levees of Hippocratea indica Willd. Otherwise known as Pristimera
indica (Willd.) A.C. Sm. (family, Celastraceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Shrub, often scandent or scrambling, 1–5 m high, or liane up to c. 12 m
high, more rarely a small tree, glabrous; stems greyish- to yellowish-green, smooth and 4-
lined when young, becoming obtusely 4-lobed or terete and reddish-purple when mature,
smooth, without lenticels. Leaf-lamina greyish- or yellowish-green, concolorous or
slightly paler and sometimes with brownish nervation below, 4–11·7(15) × (2)3·2–7(10)
cm, oblong or elliptic to obovate or subcircular, obtuse to acuminate at the apex, with
margin denticulate to subentire, cuneate, ± decurrent at the base, chartaceous, with midrib
255
and 5–7 lateral nerves ± prominent below but the venation otherwise plane; petiole (4) 8–
12 mm long; stipules c. 0·5–0·7 mm long, triangular to semicircular, laciniate or
irregularly dentate, not united. Flowers ? in lax to rather dense simple axillary dichasia
with accessory branches; peduncles and inflorescence-branches quadrangular, sometimes
glandular along angles; buds c. 0·5 mm long, ovoid to globose; pedicels 0·5–1 mm long;
bracts c. 0·5–0·7 mm long, triangular, acute, eroded-denticulate, persistent. Sepals
reddish-brown, 0·7–1 mm long, equal, oblong to ovate-lanceolate, acute or subacute, with
margin irregularly ciliolate, united in lower 1/3–2/3. Petals yellowish to cream, drying
reddish-brown, 1–2 mm long, linear-lanceolate, acute to subacute, entire, with margins
inrolled, imbricate in bud, erect or ± spreading but straight or incurved towards the apex
at anthesis. Disk single, shallowly 3-lobed, surrounding the ovary. Stamens 3, with
filaments short, narrow; anthers extrorse, circular, 1-thecous. Ovary with a short style;
stigmas completely united; ovules 2 per loculus. Mericarps pale green, 2·8–4 (4·5) × 0·9–
1·5 cm, flattened, narrowly oblong to oblanceolate, rounded at the apex, 2-seeded, striate.
Seeds winged, with veins marginal and submedian.
Alkaloids detected in the leaves.
Tests for identity:
(b) Examine the leaf extract for the presence of alkaloids by microchemical tests with
Dragendorff’s reagent.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Antibiotic, bacteriostatic, fungistatic.
Storage:
256
Holarrhena floribunda T. Dur. et Schinz
Family name:
Apocynaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Holarrhena africana A. DC.
(b) Holarrhena wulfsbergii Stapf.
(c) Rondeletia ftoribunda G. Don
Common names:
Holarrhena (E, F). Faux caoutchouc (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫هوالر هينا‬
(b) Bambara: Fufu, Nofo, Kedan.
(c) Hausa: Baakin-mutun, Bakin maayuu, Sandan mayu, Gamon sauwa.
(d) Peuhl: Indama, Taraki.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ako-ire, Are-ibeji, Areno, Isai, Irena.
Tree reaching 15 m high; oval lanceolate leaves; lamina covered with a fine down on the
inner part; corymbiform axillary cymes; while scented flowers, linear cylindrical follicles
hanging in pairs reaching 60 cm in length.
Forests of Guinea and the Congo.
Part used:
The dried stem bark of Holarrhena floribunda (G. Don) Dur. et Schinz.
Names of drug:
Cortex Holarrhena. Holarrhena bark. Kurchi. Ecorce de Holarrhine.
Definition:
Holarrhena is the dried stem bark of Holarrhena floribunda (G. Don) Dur. et Schinz.
(family, Apocynaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: The bark occurs in recurved pieces; both longitudinally and transversely;
about 6 to 12 mm thick. The outer surface shows deep cracks and is buff to brownish in
colour, with brittle and splintery fracture. It is odourless and having a distinct bitter taste.
Microscopical: A transverse section shows an outer cork layer of 3-5 rows of polygonal,
suberized cells. The secondary cortex consists of large ovoid parenchyma cells, followed
by the compact parenchyma cells of the primary cortex. The pericycle region is
characterised by numerous groups of lignified fibres, long, narrow or wide lumen,
pointed tips, lignified pitted walls. The phloem region consists of soft bast elements.
Powder: Light buff brown to dark brown, odourless, with a bitter taste. It is characterised
by the presence of suberized cork cells, lignified fibres, sclereids, soft phloem tissue.
Starch and calcium oxalate are absent.
257
0.1 per cent alkaloid of glucosteroid type: canessine, kurchine, holarrhenine, kurchicine,
kurchenine, holarrhine, holarhimine; tannins, reducing sugars; steriodal glycosides:
holacurtenin holacurtin.
Test for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopicalexamination to ensure compliance with the
(b) Macrochemical tests on the total alkaloidal extract to confirm the presence of
alkaloids with the common alkaloid reagents (Dragendorff’s, Wagner’s, Mayer’s
reagents).
Assay:
Determine the total alkaloid as described under "Determination of total alkaloid" as
described in vol. 2.
N/A
Uses:
Antidysentric, and antiamoebic.
Storage:
258
Hydrastis canadensis L.
Family:
Ranunculaceae
Synonyms:
N/A
Common names:
Goldenseal, Yellow root, Yellow-puccoon,
sceau d’or, Ground raspberry, Eye-balm, Indian
turmeric, Orange Root, Indian Dye, Eye Root,
Jaundice Root (E). Sceau d'or, Hydraste,
Hydraste du Canada (F).
African names
Arabic: ‫خاتم الذهب‬
Bambara: N/A
Hausa: N/A
Peuhl: N/A
Swahili: N/A
Yoruba: N/A
Goldenseal is a slow-growing perennial herb that spreads via root-like, yellow
underground stems (rhizomes). Juvenile plants are often single-stemmed. Mature
(reproductive-aged) individuals are characterized by a pair of leaves arranged alternately
on a forked stalk that may reach about 30 cm. (one foot) in height. Leaves are palmately-
lobed with toothed margins. Short minute hairs cover the stems and leaves.
Goldenseal flowers from April to May. A single white-green flower is borne atop a short
flowering stalk emanating from the uppermost leaf. Fruits resemble raspberries,
containing 10-30 black, shiny smooth seeds.
Goldenseal is native to the woodlands of the Eastern United States and Southern Canada.
Part Used:
Whole plant.
Names of drug:
Golden seal root, Hydrastis.
Definition:
Golen seal root is the dried rhizome and roots of Hydrastis Canadensis L. (family,
Ranunculaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Herbs, 15-50 cm Rhizomes with tough fibrous roots. Stems erect,
unbranched, pubescent. Leaves: basal leaf often quickly deciduous, 1; cauline leaves, 2,
similar to basal. Leaf blade 3-10 cm wide at anthesis, to 25 cm wide in fruit; lobes
variously incised, margins singly or doubly serrate. Flowers 8-18 mm wide; peduncle 5-
38 mm, ± closely subtended by distalmost cauline leaf; sepals not clawed, 3.5-7 mm,
glabrous; stamens strongly exserted, white showy, 4-8 mm; pistils 1-carpellate, distinct;
stigma 2-lipped. Berry aggregates dark red, 10-15 × 8-15(-20) mm, each berry 5-8 × 1.5-
259
5 mm. Seeds 1-2 per pistil, 2.5-4.5 mm. The drug breaks with a short, waxy fracture. It
has slight but distinctive odour and bitter taste. A transverse section of the rhizome shows
a fairly thick, yellow or yellowish-brown bark; 12-20 radially elongated , bright yellow
wood bundles, separated by wide medullary rays; a large pith.
Chemical Constituents:
Goldenseal contains at least three active alkaloids, namely Hydrastine, Berberine and
Canadine, as well as traces of essential oil, fatty oil and resin. The rhizome of goldenseal
is a source of the medicinal alkaloids hydrastine (1.5-4%), berberine (0.5-6%), and
berberastine (2-3%), with lesser amounts of canadine and some minor alkaloids.
Test for Identity:
(b) Macrochemical test on a total alkaloid extract to give a positive reaction (precipitate)
with Wagner’s, Dragendorff’s and Mayer’s reagents.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographic examination of the total alkaloid extract to confirm the
presence of hydrastine.
Test for Purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
For uterine haemorrhage, respiratory, immune system and gastrointestinal ailments,and
externally for inflammation.
Storage:
260
Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine
Family name:
Acanthaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Asteracantha longifolia (L) Nees,
(b) Asteracantha macracantha
Hochst,
(c) Barleria auriculata Schumach,
(d) Barleria glabrata Vahl ex
Schumach.,
(e) Barleria longifolia Linn,
(f) Barleria macracantha,
(g) Hygrophila longifolia (Linn)
Kurz,
(h) Hygrophila spinosa T. Anders
(i) Hygrophila schulli (Hamilton) M.R.Almeida & S.M.Almeida
Common names:
Indian paint plant, Starthorn, Long Leaved Barleria, Marsh Barbel, Asteracantha (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: kélé béto kala
(c) Hausa: Zazar giwa, kayar rak’umi, Dayin giwa, Kayar giwa, Saare- gwiiwa.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: mafọwọo kauruọnu
A stout erect herb of wet places, up to 1m high, quadrangular stem, leaves whorled with
strong spines. A stout erect herb of wet places, 2-3 ft. or up to 6 ft. or more, with 4-angled
usually bristly stem, and bluish or purple flowers 1-1 1/4 inch long in dense whorls with
about 6 strong spines.
From Senegal to West Cameroons and widespread in the Old World tropics.
Part Used:
Whole plant, leaves, seeds and Roots.
Name of drug:
Starthorn.
Definition:
Starthorn is the dried tops and roots of Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine
(family, Acanthaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: A stout herb with numerous fasciculate usually unbranched,
subquadrangular, erect, stems, 0.6-1.5 m high, thickened at the nodes. Leaves oblong-
lanceolate or oblanceolate, sparsely hispid on both sides, six at a node, the outer 2 large,
reaching 15 cm long, each leaf bear straight, sharp, yellow, spines in its axil. Flowers
261
purple-blue, 3.5 cm long, in a whorl of 8 at each node. Capsules 8 mm long, linear-
oblong, pointed.
Steroids, Alkaloids. Aerial parts contain alkaloids, phytosterol, essential oil, mucilage,
triterpene alcohol, lupeol, stigmasterol and hydrocarbons. Seeds contain fixed oil,
enzymes and sterol. Asterol I, II, III and IV and asteracanthine & asteracanthicine have
also been isolated from the seeds. Flowers contain apigenin glucuronide. Roots contain
an essential oil. (Palmitic, stearic, oleic and linoleic 80.1%) acids have been detected in
seed oil.
Test for Identity:
(b) Extract of the total alkaloids to be examined macrochemically by testing with the
common alkaloid reagents (Wagner’s, Dragendorff’s, Mayer’s reagents).
Tests for Purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Antioxidant, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, antiplasmodial,
antimicrobial.
Storage:
262
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.
Family name:
Lamiaceae
Synonyms:
Ballota suaveolens L.
Common names:
Wild spikenard, Bush tea. Chan, Horehound,
Mintbush, Mintweed, Pignut, Stinking Roger
(E). Gros baume (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫نعناع دغلي حلو الرائحة‬
(b) Bambara:
(c) Hausa: kimbar dawaakii = H. pectinata
(d) Peuhl:
(e) Swahili:
(f) Yoruba: Jogbo, Arunfofo.
A strongly aromatic, stout bush to 1 m tall, flowers blue, 6 mm across, borne in lax
axillary heads; of roadsides, waste places and cultivated land across the Region from
Senegal to South Nigeria; native of tropical America and now widely established in
tropic. Terrestrial, annual, erect, aromatic herb, up to 200 cm tall. Taproot white or
brown. Stem quadrangular, hollow, (glandular) hairy. Leaves simple, entire, opposite,
stalked, ovate, hairy on both sides, margin coarsely dentate, papillae present, apex acute,
base cordate or rounded, pinnately veined. Flowers bisexual, gouped together in an
axillary head, sessile, petals 5, white. Fruit a nut.
Geographical Distribution:
Encountered in all tropical zones, originating from tropical America.
Part used:
Leaves, Seeds.
Name of drug:
Spikenard
Definition:
Spikenard is the dried or fresh leaves of Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. (family, Lamiaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: A much-branched erect annual, with slender pilose stems. Leaves
petioled, ovate, the lower cordate, irregularly crenate, thin, pubescent on both surfaces.
Cymes few-flowered, umbellate, shortly peduncled, arising from the axils of the reduced
upper leaves so as to form a lax terminal panicle. Calyx-tube campanulate, pubescent,
strongly 5-ribbed, finally 1/6 inch long; teeth subulate, equal, shorter than the tube.
Alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids and phenols. Leaves twigs and flowers yield an essential
oil containing β-caryophyllen, cineol, terpenol, α-bergamotene, sabinene, menthol, l-
sabinene, d-limonene and azulenic sesquiterpenes. Leaves and flowers also contain
campesterol and fucosterol. Seeds contain anti-A haemagglutinin . Roots contain β-
263
sitosterol, oleanolic and α-peltoboykinolic acids. Two new diterpenes suaveolic acid and
suaveolol have also been isolated from this plant.
Tests for Identity:
given descriptions.
(c) Gas chromatographic examination of the essential oil to confirm the presence of β -
cayophelene, cineole, terpeneol etc.
Tests for Purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Stimulant, carminative, sudorific and lactagogue; infusion is used in catarrhal conditions,
affections of the uterus and parasitical cutaneous diseases Anticancer, antispasmodic.
Storage:
264
Hyoscyamus muticus L.
Family name:
Solanaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Hyoscyamus falezlez Coss., rient. iv. 293.
(b) Scopolia mutica Duna
(c) Scopolia Datora Dunal
Common names:
Egyptian Hyoscymus, Egyptian Henbane
(E). Jusquiame d’Egypt (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Herbaceous plant reaching up to 6 m in height with cylindrical stalks, unbroken or
dentate petiolated generally downy leaves; inflorescence in cymes on flower bearing
branches. Flowers emerging from a swelling striped downy calyx with yellow or whitish
corolla; fruit: a corpulent pyxidium capsular with very small and numerous seeds.
Originates from India and introduced and cultivated in Upper Egypt and Southern
Algeria.
Part used:
Dried leaves and flowering tops.
Names of drug:
Herba Hyoscyami mutici, Hyoscyamus muticus herb, Jusquiame d'Egypte, Egyptian
Hyoscyamus
Definition:
Egyptian Hyoscyamus is the dried leaves and flowering tops of Hyoscyamus muticus L.
(family, Solanaceae). Egyptian Hyoscyamus contains not more than 45 per cent of its
stem, not exceeding 10 mm in diameter, and not more than 2 per cent of foreign organic
matter; and yields not less than 0.8 per cent of total alkaloids of Egyptian Hyoscyamus,
calculated as hyoscyamine.
Description:
Egyptian Hyoscyamus occurs generally in matted masses or broken loose pieces of
shrivelled leaves inter-mixed with stems and flowering tops and also few fruits; odour,
slightly foetid and narcotic; taste, bitter, acrid especially on chewing.
Macroscopical: Stem, cylindrical, slightly compressed, greyish-yellow, finely
longitudinally striated, slithly hairy, hollow with hairy branches.
265
Leaves, pale green to yellowish; petiolate, or nearly sessile; varying in shape and size;
lamina, oval rhomboidal to broadly elliptical, up to 15 cm long; tapering to an equal base
and acuminate apex; margin, entire or with 2 to 5 triangular acute teeth on each side; both
surfaces, densely hairy; midrib, broad, prominent on the lower surface; venation, pinnate,
the main side veins at an angle of 45° to the midrib; lower leaves, large, with few large
teeth on each side and narrowly winged petioles; upper leaves, smaller, shortly petiolate
to nearly sessile, with less teeth to entire margin.
Flowers, crowded together in a more or less unilateral cyme; each shortly pedicellate,
pushed to one side of large, hairy, leafy bract; bract, usually ovate lanceolate to narrowly
lanceolate; calyx, very hairy, tabular, striated, 2 to 4 cm long and 8 cm wide at the mouth,
with 5 short, unequal triangular, obtuse teeth (distinction from H. niger); corolla, when
dried yellowish, sometimes with deep coloured patches, zygomorphic, funnel-shaped,
with 5 broad, unequal lobes, slightly longer than the calyx tube and almost of the same
width at the mouth; stamens, 5, epipetalous, unequal in length, with hairy purplish
filaments and brownish or sometimes purplish anthers; ovary, ovoid, superior,
bicarpellary, bilocular, slightly hairy, containing numerous campylotropous ovules,
attached to axile placenta. Fruit, pyxis, enclosed in the persistent calyx cylindrical, 1.5 cm
long and 0.6 cm broad, slightly laterally compressed, apiculate, with or without the lid.
Seed, minute, yellowish-grey to brown, more or less reniform laterally compressed, about
1mm long, with reticulate testa; internally, shows a curved embryo embedded in an oily
endosperm.
Microscopical: Leaf, isobilateral; epidermal cells, polygonal with slightly sinuous
anticlinal walls and striated thick cuticle; stomata, present on both surfaces surrounded by
3, rarely 4, subsidiary cells, one of which is distinctly smaller than the others, cruciferous
type; glandular hairs very numerous up to 600 µ long, multicellular, branched (distinction
from H. niger) and non-branched, each with terminal, glandular, globular unicellular
head and 1- to 4-celled stalk; and non-glandular hairs, very few, short, multicellular,
uniseriate; mesophyll shows a single layer of short palisade cells abutting on each
epidermis; numerous crystals of calcium oxalate, prisms, twins minute cubes, rarely
cluster or micro-sphenoids in idioblasts; midrib, without peripheral collenchyma in cortex
and shows an arc of several collateral bundles with numerous groups of perimedullary
phloem, in supernumerary strands. Stem shows epidermis with numerous hairs similar to
those of the leaf; cortex, with peripheral collenchyma and endodermis in the form of
starch sheath; pericycle, with isolated small groups of fibres with wide lumen; phloem,
without fibres; xylem, as a continuous cylinder, with annular, spiral, reticulate and pitted
vessels; pith, with a central cavity, formed of rounded, thin-walled parenchyma and
shows numerous strands of perimedullary phloem accompanied by isolated fibres with
wide lumen; crystals, as in the leaf, scattered in the cortex and pith. Calyx, with stomata
and hairs as in the leaf, and with bast fibres. Corolla, with elongated epidermal cells,
having striated cuticle; hairs and few stomata on outer epidermis only; small prisms of
calcium oxalate scattered in mesophyll. Stamen, with hairy filament, papillosed and
striated exothecium and polygonal endothecial cells with thick lignified bars. Pollen
grains, rounded, about 50 μ in diameter, with finely pitted exine and 3 conical exit pores.
Pericarp, with elongated, pitted, lignified endocarpal cells. Epidermal cells of testa are
266
thickened on the lateral and inner but not on the outer walls. Endosperm with thin-walled
cells, containing oil droplets and oval aleurone grains, 3 to 8 microns in diameter, each
containing a polygonal crystalloid and a small globoid.
Powder: Powdered Egyptian Hyoscyamus is light greenish-yellow; characterized by
numerous green fragments of leaf showing sinuous epidermal cells, striated cuticle and
stomata of cruciferous type; few, multicellular, uniseriate, non-glandular hairs; numerous
branched and non-branched glandular; fragments of wood fibres and vessels; very few
fragments of pericyclic fibres; numerous crystals of calcium oxalate having variable
shapes, prisms, 45 to 110 μ, mostly 70 to 75 μ long, twin crystals, rarely cluster or micro-
sphenoidal; yellowish fragments of petals and of anthers showing thickened bands of
endothecium; few rounded pollen grains, with finely pitted exine, up to 50 μ in diameter;
very occasional fragments of seed coat.
0.7-l.5 per cent of alkaloid mainly hyoscyamine.
Tests for purity:
(a) Shake vigorously about 0.2 g of powdered Egyptian Hyoscyamus with 2 m1 of dilute
hydrochloric acid, filter, and to the filtrate add a drop of potassio-mercuric iodide T.S.; a
precipitate is immediately formed (exhausted Egyptian Hyoscyamus).
(b) Mix 1 g of powdered drug with 10 ml of 0.1N sulphuric acid, shake, filter, add to the
filtrate 1 ml of strong ammonia solution and add 5 ml of water, and extract with 15 ml of
ether, taking care to avoid formation of an emulsion; dry the ether layer over anhydrous
sodium sulphate, filter, evaporate to dryness in a porcelain dish, add 10 drops of fuming
nitric acid, evaporate to dryness over small flame, and add 10 ml of acetone and,
dropwise, a 3 per cent solution of potassium hydroxide in alcohol; a violet colour is
produced.
(c) Egyptian Hyoscyamus is free from ammoniacal odour (bad storage).
Assay:
Carry out the assay as mentioned under Datura metel using about 10 g of powdered
Egyptian Hyoscyamus, module No. 22 accurately weighed.
Extractum Hyoscyami Fluidum
Extractum Hyosciami Siccum
Pilulae Colocynthidis et Hyoscyami
Tinctura Hyoscyami
Potassium Citrate and Hyoscyamus Mixture
Uses:
Parasympatholytic, antispasmodic for plain muscles of trachea, alimentary tract and
kidney.
Storage:
267
Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl.
Family name:
Cucurbitaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cucurbita lagenaria L.
(b) Cucurbita siceraria Molina
(c) Lagenaria vulgaris Ser.
(d) Lagenaria leucantha (Duchesne ex Lam.)
Rusby
Common names:
Bottle gourd, Calabash gourd, Common
gourd, White-flowered gourd, Birdhouse
gourd, Hard-shelled gourd, Dolphine gourd,
Long Squash, Trumpet gourd (E). Calebasse;
Calebasse cultivée; Ccourge; Cougourde;
Gourde massue ; Ggourde trompette ; Gourde de pèlerins (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫قرع‬
(b) Bambara: fie, file, bara.
(c) Hausa: Dumar kwaryaa, Jemo, Bumbu, Dumaa, Dumar-luudayii, Karaguna, K’I
ta’bewa, Kulubuutuu, K’undumasa, Tsana, Dumar gauraallaa, Bukhsa langa,
Gumbul, Gumbul alme, Agofata, Akwato, Bango, Borin danki, Gooráá, Ka-fi-ďa-
wuya.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Igba, Ugba, Àdó, Agbè, Aha, Akèngbè, Akerengbe, Akoto, Pánsá, Pọọkó ̣.
Brief Description of the plant:
Vigorous annual herb. Stems prostrate or climbing, angular, ribbed, thick, brittle, softly
hairy, up to 5 m long, cut stems exude no sap. Leaves simple, up to 400 mm long and 400
mm broad, shortly and softly hairy, broadly egg-, kidney- or heart-shaped in outline,
undivided, angular or faintly 3-7-lobed, lobes rounded, margins shallowly toothed,
crushed leaves non-aromatic. Leaf stalks up to 300 mm long, thick, often hollow, densely
hairy, with two small, lateral glands inserted at the leaf base. Tendrils split in two.
Flowers stalked (female flower stalks shorter than male), solitary, monoecious (male and
female flowers on the same plant); petals 5, crisped, cream or white with darker veins,
pale yellow at the base, obovate, up to 45 mm long, opening in the evenings, soon
wilting. Fruit large, variable, up to 800 x 200 mm, subglobose to cylindrical, flask-shaped
or globose with a constriction above the middle; fleshy, densely hairy to ultimately
glabrous, indehiscent, green, maturing yellowish or pale brown, pulp drying out
completely on ripening, leaving a thick, hard, hollow shell with almost nothing inside
except the seeds. Seeds many, embedded in a spongy pulp, 7-20 mm long, compressed,
with two flat facial ridges, in some variants rather irregular and rugose.
Cultivated and subspontaneous in the tropics of both hemispheres.
268
Part Used:
Fruit, Leaves, Seed, Calabash.
Name of drug:
Bottle gourd
Definition:
Bottle gourd is the fruit of Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. (family, Cucurbitaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Monoecious, annual, climbing or trailing herb, with proximally bifid
tendrils. Leaves alternate, simple; stipules absent; petiole 2.5–12.5 cm long, pubescent,
with a pair of tiny glands at apex; blade broadly ovate to kidney-shaped in outline, 3–33
cm × 4.5–33 cm, undivided or shortly palmately 5–9-lobed, cordate at base, shallowly
sinuate-dentate, palmately veined. Flowers unisexual (rarely bisexual), solitary in leaf
axils, regular, 5-merous, up to 15 cm in diameter; receptacle tube obconic-cylindrical, 1–
1.5 cm long, lobes remote; petals free, white; male flowers on long pedicels 7–31 cm
long, with 3 free stamens inserted on the receptacle tube, connectives broad; female
flowers on short pedicels 2–10 cm long, with inferior, densely hairy ovary, stigma 3-
lobed, thick, each lobe 2-lobed. Fruit a berry, very variable in size and shape, often
globular, bottle- or club-shaped, up to 1 m long, white-yellow to dark green when young,
sometimes whitish speckled, usually brown when mature and dried, with hard, durable
rind, flesh white and soft, many-seeded. Seeds oblong, compressed, up to 2 cm long,
emarginate at base, with 2 flat facial ridges, smooth, sometimes rugose, whitish to
brownish.
Tannins, Saponins, Steroids. The oil is rich in linoleic acid (about 60%), but contains
only 0.1% linolenic acid. One of the major bitterness components of the bitter fruits is the
poisonous cucurbitacin B. Elaterase, an active β-glucosidase, has been isolated from the
juice of bitter fruits; it is an enzyme for hydrolysis of the bitter principles of the
Cucurbitaceae, capable of splitting glucose from tri-glucosides and tetra-glucosides.
Test for Identity:
given above.
Tests for Purity:
N/A
Pharmaceutical Preparations:
N/A
Uses:
Antioxidant, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, cardioprotective.
Storage:
269
Lavandula angustifolia Mill.
Family name:
Lamiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Lavandula vera DC.
(b) Lavandula officinalis Chaix.
(c) Lavandula spica Loisel.
(d) Lavandula vulgaris Lam.
Common names:
Lavender (E). Lavande (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الفندر حقيقي أو الضرم ضيق األوراق‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Lofinda
Perennial subligneous branchy plant of less than 1 m in height; bark sparkling grey and
detachable; elliptical narrow and scented leaves; flowers mauve, in terminal cluster,
sweet smelling.
Spontaneous or cultivated in arid or pebbly surface in mediterranean regions of Africa.
Part used:
Flower
Names of drug:
Flos Lavendulae, Lavender flower.
Definition:
Lavender flower is the dried flowers of Lavendula officinalis Chaix. (family, Lamiaceae)
Lavender flower contains not more than 2 per cent of foreign organic matter, and yields
not less than 0.5 per cent v/w of volatile oil.
Description:
Odour, fragrant, aromatic; taste, aromatic, bitter and somewhat camphoraceous.
Macroscopical: Flower, nearly sessile, up to 8 mm long. Calyx, tubular, hairy, greyish-
blue to bluish-violet, about 5 mm long, with 10 to 13 ribs, and formed of 5 united sepals;
the posterior sepal, large, rounded, while the others, small. Corolla, bilabiate, hairy, dark
blue, about 8 mm long; the upper lip, 2-lobed, while the lower lip, 3-lobed. Stamens, 4,
epipetalous, didynamous. Ovary, superior, bicarpellary, tetralocular; stigma, bifid.
Microscopical: Calyx and corolla bear glandular hairs. with very short unicellular stalk
and 4- to 8-celled head of labiaceous type, and characteristic branching unicellular and
multicellular non-glandular hairs with pointed ends and somewhat streaked or warty
cuticle. Corolla bears also on the inner surface at the throat characteristic glandular hairs
with unicellular, globular head and a bicellular stalk, its basal cell being long and knotted
and the other cell, short and cylindrical. Anthers covered with whip-shaped, unicellular,
non-glandular hairs; pollen grains, almost rounded, with 6 germ pores.
270
Powder: Grey-blue with fragments of calyx, elongated epidermal cells with wavy
anticlinal walls, and multicellular non-glandular covering trichomes. Encapsulated labiate
oil glands. Corolla fragments, almost oval and slightly wavy-walled epidermal cells,
labiate oil glands and branched covering hairs; unicellular glandular hairs. Pollen grains
spherical to ellipsoidal, 24–30 μm in diameter, with six furrows, six germ pores and lines
of pits radiating from the poles. Leaf fragments, almost straight-walled epidermal cells,
covering branched trichomes and labiate oil glands, glandular hairs with a unicellular
stalk and a bicellular head.
Volatile oil, containing linalyl acetate and geranyl acetate.
Test for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination to ensure compliance with the above
descriptions.
(b) Carry out thin-layer chromatography as described in volume 2, to confirm the
presence of linalyl acetate and linalool.
Tests for purity:
Ash, not more than 8 per cent; moisture not more than 10 per cent.
Assay:
Carry out the assay as directed in volume 2 under "Determination of volatile oils in
drugs", using about 20 g of Lavender flower, accurately weighed.
(a) Aetheroleum Lavendulae
(b) Gamma Bensene Hexachloride Application
Uses:
In perfumery and cosmetics.
Storage:
271
Lawsonia inermis L.
Family name:
Lythraceae
Synonym:
Lawsonia alba Lam.
Common names:
Henna (E). Henne (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫حناء‬
(b) Bambara: Jabi, Dabe.
(c) Hausa: Lale, Lallee, Gwarwoo.
(d) Peuhl: Bubure
(e) Swahili: Mhina
(f) Yoruba: Laali, Laari.
Shrub of 2 to 4 m high, branchy at the base
with branches bristling with thorns; leaves opposite elliptical or oblanceolate;
inflorescence in densely flowered terminal panicles of small aromatic cream-white
flowers; fruit spherical and capsular of 5 mm.
Tropical plant abundant in the sahelian region.
Part used:
Leaves
Name of drug:
Henna
Definition:
Henna is the dried leaves of Lawsonia alba Lam. containing not less than 1 per cent of
lawsone and not more than 2 per cent of foreign organic matter.
Description:
Odour faint and characteristic, taste, astringent and slightly bitter.
Macroscopical: The leaves are greenish-brown, oblong or broadly lanceolate, having
symmetric base, entire margin and acute to acuminate apex. They measure 2-3 cm in
length and 1-2 cm in width. They are shortly petiolate and petiole is concavo-convex and
winged. Venation is reticulate pinnate and the lateral veins leave the midrib at an angle of
60°. The leaves are leathery and glabrous.
Microscopical: The leaves are isobilateral showing 2-3 rows of palisade cells abutting the
upper epidermis and one to two rows abutting the lower side with narrow spongy
mesophyll containing idioblast with cluster crystals of calcium oxalate. The upper
epidermis consists of.polygonal isodiametric cells with straight anticlinal wall showing
few anomocytic stomata and the cells are covered with striated cuticle. The cells of the
lower epidermis are almost similar to those of the upper side but the stomata are more
frequent and the anticlinal walls are slightly wavy. In the midrib region the vascular
272
strand is surrounded by an arc of pericyclic fibres and the vascular strands are
bicollateral. Bands of subepidermal collenchyma are present.
Powder: Dark green colour with faint characteristic odour and astringent slightly bitter
taste. It shows fragments of upper and lower epidermal cells covered with striated cuticle
and shows anomocytic stomata, cluster crystals of calcium oxalate, numerous palisade
cells, spiral, annular and reticulate vessels. Fragments of lignified pericyclic fibres with
thick walls, narrow lumina and acute apices.
Lawsone, mannite, flavonoids, coumarins, naphthalene derivatives, sterols, pentacyclic
triterpenes, essential oils and tannins.
Tests for identity:
(b) Boil 1 g of powdered Henna with 15 ml of water, filter. The decoction has an orange-
brown colour which fades on addition of acid and deepens with alkali.
(c) Thin-layer-chromatographic examination of an extract of the specimen to confirm the
presence of lawsone by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
(a) Moisture: Not more than 7.3 per cent.
(b) Ash: 8.32 per cent.
(c) Water-soluble extractive: Not less than 11.2 per cent.
(d) Alcohol (70 per cent)-soluble extractive: Not less than 9.52 per cent.
Assay:
Macerate 2 g of powdered Henna in saturated solution of sodium carbonate for 24 hours,
percolate with the same solution until all the orange colour has been removed. Acidify
the sodium carbonate extract to litmus by the addition of small increments of
hydrochloric acid, taking care against strong effervescence.
Shake with successive portions of chloroform (about 5 x 20 ml) or until 1 ml of the

chloroform extract imparts no colour on shaking with 1 ml of saturated solution of
sodium carbonate. Dry the chloroform extract with anhydrous sodium sulphate, filter and
adjust to 100 ml (concentrate if necessary). Apply 0.4 ml to a silica gel G or aluminium
oxide G plate as band and develop with ethyl acetate-methanol-SN ammonium hydroxide
(60: 15:5). Locate the zone corresponding to lawsone visually and scrape with a thin
spatula.
Transfer the powder corresponding to the located lawsone area to a flask and extract with
5 ml of saturated sodium carbonate. Filter the solution, wash the residue with 2 ml of
sodium carbonate twice, and adjust the volume to 10 ml. Measure the developed colour in
a colorimeter using filter No.2 (or appropriate filter). The percentage of lawsone is
calculated from the standard calibration curve of lawsone or by comparing with a known
concentration of authentic lawsone.
Alternatively, estimate the lawsone content as follows:
273
Transfer 0.4 ml of the above chloroform solution to a test-tube, evaporate by means of
boiling water, add 20 ml of saturated solution of sodium carbonate and measure the
colour as directed above. The results obtained by the direct method are higher than those
of TLC method by 7 per cent.
N/A
Uses:
Hair dye, dye for hands and feet.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, in a cool place, protected from light.
274
Lindackeria dentata (Oliv.) Gilg
Family name:
Flacourtiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Lindackeria caillei A. Chev. ex
Hutch.& Dalz
(b) Oncoba dentata Oliv.
Common names:
N/A
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ooa-edun, Iyagbo.
Shrub or small tree recognized by its small spiny fruits and its dentate leaves with long
petioles. The blade has a ± distinct pair of basal, ascending laterals. Lamina with 8 - 12
pairs of laterals and scalariform venation; stipules/stipule scars may be present. Stem
often with spines; slash thin, orange, scented. The spiny fruit looks very similar to that of
Caloncoba echinata but is smaller and the infructescence is more branched.
Extends through Cameroons and Congo to A.–E. Sudan and Angola.
Part used:
Seeds, leaves, roots, barks, stem.
Name of drug:
Lindackeria leaf
Definition:
Lindackeria leaf is the dried leaves of Lindackeria dentata (Oliv.) Gilg (family,
Flacourtiaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: This tree rarely reaches more than 10 m in height. Large individuals have
a trunk diameter of up to 20 cm. The large triangular leaves with long petioles are not
always obviously toothed, despite the Latin name. However, the leaves always have at
least some small sharp teeth and each tooth has a veinlet which ends at its tip. The first
pair of veins arise at the base of the leaf. The stipules are narrow and pointed and are
semi-persistent. The flowers are white with bright yellow anthers on very short filaments.
The flowers have a very sweet scent. The most striking aspect to this plant are the
bunches of long-spined fruit which are orange when ripe. The slash is rather distinct; it is
whitish to pale yellow with orange fibers.
275
Alkaloids, Saponins, hydrocyanic acid. Also a mixture of cyanogenic glucosides
epivolkenin and taraktophyllin, 1,4-dihydroxy-2-cyclopentenecarboxamide, and uridine
were isolated from. Another cyclopentanoid amide, (1 R,4 S,5 R)-1,4,5-trihydroxy-2-
cyclopentenecarboxamidealso synthetized.
Tests for Identity:
given descriptions.
Tests for Purity:

N/A
N/A
Uses:
Yaws, leprosy, treating fleas and mental problems.
Storage:
276
Lippia multiflora Moldenke
Family name:
Verbenaceae
Synonym:
Lippia adoensis Hochst. p.p.
Common names:
Tea bush; Gambian tea bush; Healer
tea,Healer herb, Lippia tea; Bush tea (E). Thé
de Gambie (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic:
(b) Bambara: Ganéla, Ganéba.
(c) Hausa: Bunsurun fadama or ‘Godon kada’.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Efinrin gogoro’, ‘Efinrin odan’ or ‘Efinrin Ajase’, Efinrin-foromoba,
Kanhoun, Efirin-oko.
Lippia multiflora Moldenke is a shrubby plant which grows in the tropical regions of
Africa. It is commonly called Savanna tea or Gambia tea. Lippia multiflora Moldenke
also known as Lippia adoensis Hochst is a herbaceous plant of the genus Lippia. It
belongs to the family Verbanaceae, which is composed of 41 genera with approximately
220 species of herbs, shrubs and small trees. L. multiflora is a stout woody, perennial and
aromatic shrub mainly distributed throughout tropical Africa, South and Central
American countries. It occurs in a wide ecological range throughout West Africa. In
undisturbed sites, the plant can grow to a height of 2.7 to 4.0 m bearing large oblong-
lanceolate bluish-green leaves . The plant flowers from September to November and
fruits in January. It possesses white,sweet-scented flowers stalked on cone-like heads in a
terminal panicle nearly 120 mm long.
Common throughout the Region and across Africa to Sudan and Zaïre.
Part used:
Leaves
Name of drug:
Healer herb
Definition:
Healer herb consists of the fresh or dried leaf of Lippia multiflora Moldenke, (family,
Verbenaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Robust woody perennial up to 12 ft high with large oblong-lanceolate
bluish-green leaves; pleasantly aromatic flowers; small, whitish in branched
inflorescences; in savanna. Leaves broadly oblong-lanceolate, 5-12cm by 2-4 cm, margin
277
serrated, acuminate apex, base asymmetric, texture rough; colour olive green; odour
aromatic; taste sharp.
Microscopical: Both surfaces covered with numerous clothing and glandular trichomes,
more abundant on lower surface, clothing trichomes unicellular uniseriate, thin and
warty; stomata on both surfaces paracytic; epidermis striated; transverse section shows
straight anticlinal epidermal cell walls; mesophyll abounds in collenchymas tissue in
midrib region; vascular bundle bicollateral, xylem lignified.
Powder: Colour green;numerous clothing trichomes, warty; paracytic stomata; lignified
vascular elements in veins and veinlets.
Essential oils, lignins, cellulose, tannins, starch, oxalates, flavonoids, saponin glycosides,
peptides, caffeine, terpenes and alkaloids.
Tests for identity:
(b) Gas chromatographical examination of an extract of the leaves to confirm the
presence of linalool, camphor and thymol.
Tests for purity:
Moisture: Not more than 7.9 per cent
Ash: 17.8 per cent
Acid-insoluble ash: 27.9 per cent
Water-soluble extractive: Not less than 1.58 per cent
Alcohol (70 per cent.)-soluble extractive: Not less than 5.0 per cent
N/A
Uses:
As a sedative. Make an infusion of 30 grams in 200mls of water. Drink a glassful before
going to bed.
Storage:
Store in a cool dry place in converted containers.
278
Lobelia inflata L.
Family name:
Campanulaceae
Synonym:
(a) Lobelia michauxii Nutt.
(b) Lobelia inflata f. albiflora
(c) Lobelia inflata var. simplex
(d) Rapuntium inflatum (L.) Mill.
(e) Rapuntium michauxii (Nutt.) C.Presl
(f) Dortmanna inflata (L.) Kuntze
(g) Lobelia syphilitica L.
Common names:
Indian tabacco. Wild Tobacco, Bladder-pod Lobelia (E).
Tabac Indien (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: Lobelia
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Annual herbaceous plant downy or hirsute with leafy ramose stalks; thin denticulate
leaves, oval or oboval, rounded and narrowing down to short leaf stalks on the lower part,
while the upper leaves are oval and sessile. Flowers in loose clusters with sky-blue
corolla with leaf-like bracts; more or less smooth calyx with awl-shaped lobes; swelling
and veined capsule.
Grows widely in temperate and subtropical Africa.
Part used:
Aerial parts
Names of drug:
Herba Lobeliae, Lobelia Herb, Lobelia.
Definition:
Lobelia is the dried aerial parts of Lobelia inflata L. (family, Campanulaceae) collected
towards the end of the flowering stage. Lobelia contains not more than 60 per cent of its
stems, and not more than 4 per cent of foreign matter, and yields not less than 0.3 per
cent of total alkaloids of lobelia, calculated as lobeline.
Description:
Lobelia occurs generally in oblong compressed masses or in more or less broken loose
pieces; odour, slight and irritant; taste, at first slight but subsequently burning and acrid.
Macroscopical: Stem, branched, angular, irregularly furrowed, with narrow wings, green
to yellowish, usually with large purplish patches, hairy on the upper parts and nearly
glabrous on the lower. Leaves, frequently much broken, alternate, pale-green, with
279
scattered stiff hairs especially along the margin and veins on the lower surfaces; lower
leaves, oblong, shortly petiolate, up to 9 cm long; upper leaves, smaller, oval to
lanceolate, sessile; margin, irregularly crenate-dentate, each tooth ending in a yellowish-
brown swollen apex. Flowers, shortly pedicellate, arranged in long racemes, pale blue,
about 7 mm long; calyx, tubular with 5 long linear teeth; corolla, tubular, bilabiate, the
posterior lip with 2 erect lobes and cleft nearly to the base, the anterior lip with 3
spreading lobes; stamens, with blue anthers, united above forming a curved tube
enclosing the bifid stigma; each anther ends with a tuft of hairs at the apex; ovary,
inferior, bilocular, bicarpellary. Fruit, inflated capsule, dehiscing by 2 pores at the
summit, ovoid or ellipsoidal, 5 to 8 mm long, light brown, inferior, crowned by the
remains of the calyx, with 10-ribbed, membraneous pericarp; internally bilocular,
containing numerous seeds arranged on an axile placenta. Seeds, minute, oval oblong 0.5
to 0.7 mm long and about 0.3 mm wide, reddish-rown, with fine, elongated, polygonal
reticulations.
Microscopical: Stem shows epidermis with axially elongated cells, striated cuticle, few
stomata and non-glandular hairs, 1200 μ long; cortex, of rounded parenchyma and well
marked endodermis, with rather large cells having distinct casperian strips; pericycle,
parenchymatous; phloem, narrow, with brownish anastomosing laticiferous vessels;
xylem, as a continuous cylinder, surrounding a partly hollow pith; wood fibres,
numerous, narrow, very long, and lignified; vessels, numerous, pitted, spiral and
scalariform remains of pith, formed of lignified, thin-walled parenchyma with simple
pits. Leaf, indistinctly dorsiventral; upper epidermal cells, mostly papillosed, polygonal
with straight, beaded anticlinal walls and striated cuticle; lower epidermal cells, with
wavy walls; stomata, without special subsidiary cells, present on lower epidermis only,
non-glandular hairs, present on both surfaces, conical, swollen at the base, unicellular,
rarely bicellular, with lignified walls and warty or streaked cuticle, 300 to 600 μ long and
50 to 60 μ wide at base; mesophyll shows a single layer of short, rectangular palisade
cells and some layers of spongy tissue, containing minute droplets of oil, and in some
leaves numerous small crystals are present in many of the cells; each marginal tooth
exhibits several wide water-pores on the upper surface and some on the edge; midrib,
with peripheral collenchyma in cortex, and laticiferous vessels but no fibres in phloem.
Corolla, with papillosed upper epidermis. Hairs, on apex of the anther, narrow,
cylindrical 300 μ long, with rounded tips.
Pollen grains, nearly spherical, smooth or faintly warty and with 3 exit pores. Pericarp,
longitudinally traversed by several vascular bundles and showing well developed
irregularly shaped lignified idioblast in mesocarp especially beneath the veins and in the
dissepiment. Seed-coat shows elongated polygonal, tabular epidermal cells, about 100 μ
long, and 25 μ wide, with lignified thick, brown anticlinal walls.
Powder: Powdered Lobelia is green to dark-green; characterised by numerous fragments
of stem, some showing wood fibres, vessels etc.; occasional hairs up to 1200 μ long;
green fragments of leaf, some showing beaded papillosed epidermal cells and conical
hairs up to 600 μ long; few fragments of petals, some showing delicate, strongly
papillosed cells; very few fragments of fibrous layer of the anthers; and pieces of the
brown seed coat showing the characteristic thick-walled, lignified epidermal cells; pollen
280
grains, subspherical, smooth or faintly warty, 20 to 30 μ in diameter; calcium oxalate
crystals, absent.
Lobelia contains the alkaloids lobeline, lobelidrine, lobelanine and isolobelanine.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with
(c) Thin-layerchromatographical examination of the total alkaloid extract to confirm the
presence of Lobeline by co-chromatography.
Test for purity:
Ash, not more than 13 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 5 per cent.
Assay:
Introduce 10 g of powdered Lobelia, module No. 22, into a 150 ml flask, add 5 ml of
alcohol (90 per cent) and 45 ml of ether, and shake well. Set aside for 10 minutes, add 5
ml of dilute solution of ammonium hydroxide, and shake frequently for 1 hour. Transfer
the mixture to a small percolator, plugged with cotton-wool, and when the liquid ceases
to flow, pack firmly and continue the percolation, until complete extraction of the
alkaloids is effected. Filter the ethereal extract through a small dry filter paper into a
separator, and wash the receiver and the filter, previously used, with 3 successive
portions, each of 5 ml of ether, transferring each to the separator. Add to the mixed
ethereal extract and washings 20 ml of N/10 hydrochloric acid, shake well, allow to
separate, and run off the lower layer into another separator. Continue the extraction with
successive portions, each of 10 ml of N/10 hydrochloric acid, until complete extraction of
the alkaloids is effected. Mix the acid liquids, and wash with 10 ml of ether. Run off the
lower acid layer into another separator, wash the ether with a few ml of water, and add
the water to the acid liquids, rejecting the ether. Make distinctly alkaline with dilute
solution of ammonium hydroxide, and repeat the extraction with successive portions,
each of 20 ml of ether, until complete extraction of the alkaloids is effected. Wash the
combined ethereal extract with about 10 ml of water, reject the water, and dehydrate the
ether with about 2 g of anhydrous sodium sulfate. Filter through a dry filter paper into a
porcelain dish, wash the sodium sulfate and the filter with a few ml of ether, adding the
washings to the ethereal extract in the dish, and evaporate to dryness. Dissolve the
residue in 10 ml of N/10 hydrochloric acid, and titrate with N/10 sodium hydroxide,
using methyl red T.S. as indicator. Each ml of N/10 hydrochloric acid is equivalent to
0.033722 g of the alkaloids of lobelia, calculated as lobeline.
Tinctura Lobeliae
Uses:
Expectorant, respiratory stimulant
Storage:
281
Mangifera indica L.
Family name:
Anacardiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Mangifera amba Forsk.
(b) Mangifera domestica Gaertn.
(c) Mangifera gladiata Boj.
(d) Mangifera racemosa Boj.
(e) Mangifera rubra Boj.
Common names:
Mango; Cuckoo's joy, Mango tree (E).
Manguier, Margot, Mangue (F).
African names
(a) Arabic: ‫المانجو الشائع أو المانجو الهندية‬
(b) Bambara: Mangoro
(c) Hausa: Mangoro, Mangwaro.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Muembe, Maembe, Mwembe.
(f) Yoruba: Mangoro
Tall tree with a dense crown. Leaves glabrous; petiole 2–4.5 cm long; blade oblong or
oblong-lanceolate, 10–30 x 3.5–6.5 cm, acute to acuminate at the apex, cuneate at the
base, shiny, ± leathery; midrib and lateral nerves prominent. Flowers in 10–60 cm long
much-branched pubescent panicles; sepals 2–2.5 mm long, pubescent; petals 3–5 mm
long, reflexed, cream becoming pinkish; stamens 1(–2), staminodes 3(–4). Drupe 8–30 x
7–12 cm, green to yellow or red.
Cultivated particularly in southern Somalia and locally naturalized native of southern
Asia, now cultivated throughout the tropics.
Part used:
Roots, bark, leaves, fruits, seeds, flowers and kernels are used.
Name of drug:
Mango bark
Definition
Mango bark is the dried stem bark of Mangifera indica L. (family, Anacardiaceae). It
sometimes comes with leaves.
Description:
Macroscopical: The Mango tree is erect, 30 to 100 ft (roughly 10-30 m) high, with a
broad, rounded canopy which may, with age, attain 100 to 125 ft (30-38 m) in width, or a
more upright, oval, relatively slender crown. The tree is long-lived, some specimens
being known to be 300 years old and still fruiting. Nearly evergreen, alternate leaves are
borne mainly in rosettes at the tips of the branches and numerous twigs from which they
droop like ribbons on slender petioles 1 to 4 in (2.5-10 cm) long. The new leaves,
appearing periodically and irregularly on a few branches at a time, are yellowish, pink,
282
deep-rose or wine-red, becoming dark-green and glossy above, lighter beneath. The
midrib is pale and conspicuous and the many horizontal veins distinct. Full-grown leaves
may be 4 to 12.5 in (10-32 cm) long and 3/4 to 2 1/8 in (2-5.4 cm) wide. Hundreds and
even as many as 3,000 to 4,000 small, yellowish or reddish flowers, 25 to 98 % male, the
rest hermaphroditic, are borne in profuse, showy, erect, pyramidal, branched clusters 2
1/2 to 15 1/2 in (6-40 cm) high. There is great variation in the form, size, color and
quality of the fruits. They may be nearly round, oval, ovoid-oblong, or somewhat kidney-
shaped, often with a break at the apex, and are usually more or less lop-sided. They range
from 2 1/2 to 10 in (6.25-25 cm) in length and from a few ounces to 4 to 5 lbs (1.8-2.26
kg). The skin is leathery, waxy, smooth, fairly thick, aromatic and ranges from light-or
dark-green to clear yellow, yellow-orange, yellow and reddish-pink, or more or less
blushed with bright-or dark-red or purple-red, with fine yellow, greenish or reddish dots,
and thin or thick whitish, gray or purplish bloom, when fully ripe. Some have a
"turpentine" odor and flavor, while others are richly and pleasantly fragrant. The flesh
ranges from pale-yellow to deep-orange. It is essentially peach-like but much more
fibrous, extremely juicy, with a flavor range from very sweet to subacid to tart. There is a
single, longitudinally ribbed, pale yellowish-white, somewhat woody stone, flattened,
oval or kidney-shaped, sometimes rather elongated. Within the stone is the starchy seed,
monoembryonic - usually single-sprouting or polyembryonic - usually producing more
than one seedling.
Mangiferin a xanthone glycoside major bio-active constituent, isomangiferin, tannins &
gallic acid derivatives. The bark is reported to contain protocatechic acid, catechin,
mangiferin , alanine, glycine, γ-aminobutyric acid, kinic acid, shikimic acid and the
tetracyclic triterpenoids cycloart-24-en-3β,26diol, 3-ketodammar-24 (E)-en-20S,26-diol,
C-24 epimers of cycloart-25 en 3β,24,27-triol and cycloartan-3β,24,27-triol.
Test for Identity:
Macroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with the above
descriptions.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
A decoction or infusion of leaves and bark for diabetes or cough.
Storage:
283
Matricaria chamomilla L.
Family name:
Asteraceae
Synonyms:
(a) Chamomilla chamomilla (L.) Rydb.
(b) Chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert
(c) Matricaria recutita L.
(d) Matricaria suaveolens L.
Common names:
Camomile, German camomile (E).
Petite camomille. Camomille sauvage (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫بابونج‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Herbaceous perennial stumb of 10 to 30 cm with downy recumbent stalks that become
erect and branch out; pennatisected leaves; terminal capitulum with golden yellow disk.
Fruit very small, smooth and yellowish. Plant emitting a strong camomile smell.
Spontaneous or cultivated around the Mediterranean region in North Africa.
Part used:
Flower heads
Names of drug:
Flos Chamomillae, Camomile.
Definition:
Camomile is the dried flower head of Matricaria chamomilla L.
German Camomile contains not more than 10 per cent of its stems, and not more than 2
per cent of foreign organic matter, and yields not less than 0.4 per cent v/w of volatile oil.
Description:
Odour, pleasant, aromatic; taste, aromatic, slightly bitter.
Macroscopical: Flower-head, hemispherical; about 6 mm in diameter; composed of a few
ray florets, and numerous disc florets (distinction from Matricaria disco idea, with disc
floret only), carried on a receptant surrounded by an involucre. Involucre, green, formed
of 2 to 3 rows of lanceolate, glabrous, imbricated bracts with blunt apices and scarious
whitish edges.
Ray florets, usually fallen off, 10 to 20 pistilate; corolla, ligulate, white, but darkens on 6
mm long, 2 mm wide, with more or less 3 teeth, ·and traversed by 4 main veins. Disc
florets, yellow, perfect, about 2 mm long without pappus (distinction from Matricaria
284
chamomilla L. var. courrantiana), usually firmly attached to the receptacle; corolla,
tubular with 5 teeth; stamens, 5 apipetelous syngenous. Receptacle, hollow (distinction
from Chrysanthemum and Anthemis species), hemispherical in the young and conical in
the old flower-head, 3 to 10 mm wide, and devoid of paleae. Fruit, capsule, ovoid, with 3
to 5 longitudinal ribs.
Microscopical: Receptacle shows schizogenous secretory ducts, present also in the
bracteoles; vascular bundles, with phloem fibres, spiral, annular and reticulate but no
pitted vessels, and lignified cells at the bases of the ovaries. Nearly all parts of both
florets bear glandular hairs with short, biseriate stalk and enlarged head, formed of
several tiers, each of two cells, of compositae type, ovary possesses longitudinal bands of
small mucilage cells; stigma, with elongated papillae at the apex pollen grains, spherical
or triangular, spiny, with short, numerous spines.
Powder: Powdered Camomile is greenish-yellow to yellowish-brown; characterised by
numerous spiny pollen grains, up to 20 μ in diameter; yellow or white fragments of
corolla, with polygonal, small, epidermal cells having straight, or slightly wavy walls,
sometimes papillosed, and sometimes bearing glandular hairs of compositae type;
fragments of the fibrous layer of anther; fragments from ovary, with glandular hairs and
rows of small mucilage cells; green fragments of parenchyma of involucre; minute cluster
crystals of calcium oxalate, up to 10 μ in diameter; fragments of lignified parenchyma of
the filaments and occasional fragments of vessels.
Volatile oil (0.8 to l.0 per cent), the bitter principle anthemic acid and a yellow colouring
substance, apigenin, free and in the form of glycoside.
The volatile oil is blue when freshly distilled; it consists chiefly of ester of angelic and
tiglic acids, with isobutyl and amyl alcohols; it also contains the alcohol anthemol and a
crystalline hydrocarbon anthemene.
Tests for purity:
(a) Camomile does not contain numerous pitted vessels (stalk).
Assay:
Carry out the assay as directed under "Determination of volatile oil in drugs" as described
in vol. 2, using about 20 g of powdered camomile, module No. 24, accurately weighed.
Uses:
Camomile flowers possess aromatic, bitter stomachic properties; the oil is carminative.
Storage:
285
Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell
Family name:
Celastraceae
Synonyms:
(a) Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes.
(b) Celastrus senegalensisLam.
Maytenus emarginata
(c) Celastrus coriaceus Guill. & Perr.
Common names:
Confetti Tree, Thorny staff tree, Red Spike
Thorn (E)
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Bakororo, Namijin tsada, Mangaladi, Kyalbuwa, Kunjushewa.
(d) Peuhl: Guiel gotel
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Shepolohun, Iyepolowun, Isepolohun.
Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell, is a savannah shrub or tree, 5-6m high, spiny, often
forming an impenetrable thicket. Flowers white. Fruit an ovoid capsule, yellowish pink or
red. Seeds brown and avillate.
Semi desert regions of both Asia and Africa.
Part used:
Leaves, Roots, Stems, Bark.
Name of drug:
Confetti tree leaf
Definition:
Confetti tree leaf is the dried leaf of Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell (family
Celastraceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Shrub or tree, often spreading or straggling, or more rarely a shrublet,
(0·3)1–7(9) m high, unarmed or with green to brown spines up to 24 cm long, axillary or
terminating short axillary branches, glabrous or very rarely with young shoots and leaves
puberulous (var. puberula), without latex; branches lined or angular or rarely subterete,
pale green or rarely reddish-purple or glaucous at first, becoming terete (or rarely
remaining angular), grey-brown or dark grey to purplish-brown or whitish, usually
without visible lenticels. Leaves fasciculate or not, petiolate;lamina pale to deep green or
rarely ± glaucous above, concolorous or often grey-green below, often with pale midrib,
rarely mottled when dry, 1–9·5 × 0·4–5 cm, ovate or oblong-ovate or elliptic or circular
(on long shoots) to obovate or oblanceolate or linear-oblanceolate or often spathulate (on
fasciculate shoots), subacute or obtuse to rounded or emarginate and often shortly
apiculate at the apex, with margin acutely or rarely obtusely shallowly and often
286
irregularly serrulate (especially towards the apex) to entire, cuneate or rarely rounded to
angustate at the base, membranous to coriaceous, with lateral nerves and reticulation
varying in prominence and density; petiole 1–10 mm long. Cymes dichasial, solitary and
axillary or 1–7 on short axillary shoots, or rarely in axillary panicles, with peduncle 1–30
mm long or occasionally absent; pedicels 1–7 mm long, articulated at or near the base;
flowers 2–24 or more in each cyme or very rarely solitary, 2–5 mm in diam., always (?)
dioecious, unscented or sometimes apparently malodorous. Sepals 5(6), equal, 0·3–1(1·5)
mm, circular to triangular-lanceolate, rounded to acute, with margin ciliolate. Petals 5(6),
white, 1–3·5 mm long, elliptic-oblong to oblong-spathulate, with margin finely ciliolate
to entire. Male flowers with stamens 5(6), shorter or longer than petals, with filaments 1–
2·5 mm long, slender, arising below disk; disk relatively narrow, ± concave, 5(6)-
lobed;pistillode small, globose, with short style without spreading stigmas. Female
flowers smaller than the male flowers, with staminodes 5 shorter than ovary; disk as in
the male flowers; ovary 2–3(4)-locular, 0·3–0·5 mm long, globose, not or scarcely
immersed in the disk; style 0·2–0·5 mm long, shorter than or equalling the ovary, shorter
than or exceeding the petals, with 2–3(4) spreading stigmas. Capsule yellow or yellow-
tinged-red or red, 3–10 mm long, obovoid or subpyriform to 3-gonous or subglobose,
thinly to thickly coriaceous or slightly succulent, smooth or rugulose. Seeds 1–3(4),
reddish-brown, glossy, with a thin yellowish aril obliquely covering the lower 1/2–2/3.
Alkaloid amines such as cathine often occur in this botanical family as also, rarely,
benzylisoquinolin alkaloids. Celastraceae members are commonly tanniferous, containing
anthocyanins, sometimes saponiferous, only rarely cyanogenic and without iridoid
compounds. Among the compounds isolated from their species, triterpenes and
triterpenoid quinonemethides are of great interest due to their wide range of biological
activities. Constituents as β-amyrin, lupane derivatives and quinoid pigments are
considered typical of the Celastraceae family members.
Test for identity:
Macroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with the above
descriptions.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Cytotoxicity, anti-imflammatory, antiplasmodial, antidiabetic, antitumour.
Storage:
287
Melia azedarach L.
Family name:
Meliaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Melia australis Sweet
(b) Melia candollei Sw.
(c) Melia japonica G.Don
(d) Melia sempervirens Sw
Common names:
White cedar, Chinaberry tree, Bead-tree,
Cape lilac, Syringa Berrytree, Persian lilac,
Indian lilac, Texas umbrella, Ceylon cedar,
Umbrella tree, Margosa tree (E). Arbre à
chapelets, Lilas des Indes, lilas de Perse; lilas du Japon; orgueil des Indes; lilas des Falls
(F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الزنزلخت أو االزدرخت أو التمر األخرس‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Kurnam nasara, Itcin-kur’di.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Mmelia, Mwarubaini nusu.
(f) Yoruba: Eke-oyinbo, Aforo-oyinbo.
White Cedar belongs to the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is a deciduous, shade tree
with a rounded crown. The tree can reach height of 12m at maturity and having a width
of 6-8m (sometimes up to 30m in its natural environment). The plant has an average
lifespan around 20 years.
The flowers are small with pale purple and white petals of five. The flowers are often
found growing in clusters. The stamens are clustered into a cylindrical dark purple tube
6-8mm long. The fruit of the White Cedar is round (1.5cm in diameter), fleshy and
yellow in colour when mature. Fruits are poisonous to humans and some other mammals
but birds are able to eat the fruits and thus disperse the seed through their droppings.
Native of India. Widely planted in tropics and subtropics.
Parts used:
Bark, kernels, leaves.
Name of drug:
Margosa bark, White Cedar.
Definition
Margosa bark is the dried bark of Melia azedarach L. (family, Meliaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Melia azedarach is a deciduous tree up to 45 m tall; bole fluted below
when old, up to 30-60 (max. 120) cm in diameter, with a spreading crown and sparsely
branched limbs. Bark smooth, greenish-brown when young, turning grey and fissured
with age. Leaves alternate, 20-40 cm long, bipinnate or occasionally tripinnate. Leaflets
288
3-11, serrate and with a pungent odour when crushed. Inflorescence a long, axillary
panicle up to 20 cm long; flowers showy, fragrant, numerous on slender stalks, white to
lilac; sepals 5-lobed, 1 cm long; petals 5-lobed, 0.9 cm long, pubescent; staminal tube
deep purple blue, 0.5 cm long, 1 cm across. Fruit a small, yellow drupe, nearly round,
about 15 mm in diameter, smooth and becoming a little shrivelled, slightly fleshy. Seed
oblongoid, 3.5 mm x 1.6 mm, smooth, brown and surrounded by pulp.
Four flavonol 3-O-glycosides including rutin, kaempferol-3-O-robinobioside,
kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside and isoquercetin along with a purin nucleoside, Î²-adenosine.;
Thirty-one limonoids and one tirucallane-type triterpenoid were isolated from the fruits.
Also: hexadecanoic, acetic, and hexanoic acids as well as furfural, 5-
hydroxymethylfurfural, 5-methylfurfural, and furfurol.. Meliarachin C and 3-O-deacetyl-
4'-demethyl-28-oxosalannin exhibited potent cytotoxic activity against HL60 cells. 12-O-
Acetylazedarachin B also from fruit is cytotoxic; Fruit also yielded: tirucallane-type
triterpene, 3-alpha-tigloylmelianol and three known tirucallanes, melianone, 21-beta-
acetoxy-melianone, and methyl kulonate. From the stem bark: two limonoids, one
triterpenoid, one steroid, and one sesquiterpenoid, along with nine known limonoids. The
leaf yielded six compounds, namely β-sitosterol, β-amyrin, ursolic acid, benzoic acid, 3,5
dimethoxybenzoic acid and maesol were isolated from the chloroform fraction and found
to be antifungal. Also, meliacin obtained from the leaves was antiviral.
Test for identity:
Macroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with descriptions given
above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Anti-syphilitic, boils, skin diseases, antihelmintic, immune-modulatory, antiviral.
Storage:
289
Mentha piperita L. (pro sp.)
Family name:
Lamiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Mentha aquatica var. crispa (L.)
Benth.
(b) Mentha balsamea Willd
(c) Mentha crispa L.
(d) Mentha piperata Stokes
(e) Mentha piperita (L.) Huds.,
Common names:
(a) Peppermint, Black peppermint,
Crisped mint(E).
(b) Menthe anglaise, Menthe poivree,
Sentebon (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫نعنع فلفلي‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Peuhl: N/A
(d) Swahili: Pereminde
(e) Yoruba: Mintii
Perennial plant of 30 to 90 cm; lanceolate ovate dark green leaves; pink purple flowers
grouping on a long terminal spike. The two Mentha present only some slight vegetative
and morphological differences.
Cosmopolitan, cultivated in gardens, in intertropical Africa.
Name of drug:
Folium Menthae Piperitae, Mentha piperita leaf, Peppermint.
Definition:
Peppermint is the dried leaves and flowering tops of Mentha x piperita L. (family,
Lamiaceae).
Peppermint contains not more than 2 per cent of foreign organic matter, and yields not
less than 0.5 per cent of volatile oil of peppermint.
Description:
Odour, aromatic, characteristic; taste, aromatic, followed by a cold sensation in the
mouth.
Macroscopical: Stem, quadrangular; 1 to 3 mm thick; green to dark purple, nearly
glabrous, with scattered deflexed hairs. Leaves, crumpled, opposite decussate, frequently
detached from stem; petiolate; ovate-lanceolate: 1 to 9 cm long, 0.5 to 5 cm wide; light or
dark green with purplish tinge; upper surface, dark green, nearly glabrous; lower surface,
light green, hairy especially on the veins; apex, acute; base, acute or rounded; margin,
sharply serrate; petiole, 4 to 15 mm long, slightly hairy.
290
Flowers, small, purple, zygomorphic, occurring in terminal obtuse spikes, consisting of
closely arranged verticillasters; bract, oblong-lanceolate, 4 to 7 mm long; calyx, tubular,
equally 5- toothed, green to dark purple, hairy; corolla, dark purple, hairy, bilabiate,
about 3 mm long; stamens, 4, short, equal; ovary, superior, bicarpellary, tetralocular, with
gynobasic style terminating with a bifid stigma. Fruit, of 4 nutlets, ellipsoidal, about 0.5
mm in diameter, blackish-brown.
Microscopical: Stem shows an epidermis with numerous uni- to multicellular, uniseriate,
conical, warty, non-glandular hairs, and a few glandular hairs; cortex with collenchyma
in the ridges; xylem, consisting of spiral reticulate and pitted vessels, wood fibres and
wood parenchyma; pith, parenchymatous, partly hollow. Leaf dorsiventral; epidermal
cells, with wavy anticlinal walls; stomata, very few on the upper, numerous on the lower
surface, each surrounded by 2 subsidiary cells with their long axes perpendicular to the
ostiole, caryophyllaceous type; hairs, few; glandular hairs, with 1- to 2-celled stalk and
globular head of 1 to 8 radiating cells, labiaceous type, usually occuring in depressions in
the leaf and occasionally showing refractive crystals of menthol; non-glandular hairs,
present, especially on the lower surface near the veins, uniseriate, 1- to 8- celled, thin-
walled, with warty or streaked cuticle. Pollen grains, spheroidal and smooth.
Powder: Powdered Peppermint is green to light olive green; characterized by fragments
of epidermis with wavy walls, stomata of caryophyllaceous type; non-glandular and
labiaceous glandular hairs; fragments of chlorenchyma with vascular tissue; fragments of
collenchyma and of pith cells; fragments of vascular tissue consisting of spiral, reticulate
or pitted vessels, wood fibres, and wood parenchyma; smooth spheroidal pollen grains;
calcium oxalate crystals, absent.
Volatile oil containing 50-60 per cent menthol and 9-12 per cent, menthyl acetate,
menthyl isovalerianate and menthone.
Test for identity:
(a) Perform the following test with the volatile oil obtained by carrying out the assay for
"Determination of volatile oil in drugs" as described in volume 2.
(b) Mix in a dry test-tube 3 drops of the oil with 5 ml of a mixture containing 1 volume of
nitric acid and 300 volumes of glacial acetic acid, and place the tube in a beaker of
boiling water; a blue colour develops within 5 minutes. Continue heating; the colour
deepens and shows a copper-coloured fluorescence, and finally fades, leaving a golden-
yellow solution (distinction from other mint oils).
Test for purity:
(a) Not more than 5 per cent. stems, the diameter of which must be not more than
1.5 mm; not more than 8 per cent. leaves showing brown stains due to Puccinia menthae;
not more than 2 per cent. other foreign matter.
Assay:
Carry out the assay as described in vol. 2 under "Determination of volatile oil in drugs",
using about 100 g of powdered peppermint, module No. 26, accurately weighed.
Aqua Menthae Piperitae Conc.
Spiritus Menthae Piperitae
291
Concentrated Peppermint Emulsion
Compound Magnesium Trisilicate Tablets
Compound Sodium Bicarbonate Tablets
Uses:
Storage:
292
Mentha spicata L.
Family name:
Lamiaceae
Synonym:
Mentha viridis L.
Common names:
Common mint. Spearmint. Whorled mint
(E). Menthe (F).
African names:
Arabic: ‫نعنع أخضرأو النعناع المدبب‬
Bambara: N/A
Hausa: N/A
Peuhl: N/A
Swahili: N/A
Yoruba: N/A
Perennial plant of 30 to 90 cm; lanceolate ovate dark green leaves; pink purple flowers
grouping on a long terminal spike. The Mentha viridis L. and the M. piperita present only
some slight vegetative and morphological differences.
Distribution in Africa:
Cosmopolitan, cultivated in gardens in intertropical Africa.
Part used:
Herb
Names of drug:
Herba Mentha viridis, Spearmint herb.
Definition:
Spearmint consists of the dried leaves and flowering tops of Mentha viridis L.
(Lamiaceae).
Description:
The odour is strong and characteristic; the taste is somewhat bitter and pungent.
Macroscopical: The stems, quadrangular, purplish in colour, with scattered reflexed
hairs; leaves, sessile, elliptical-oblong, acute, sharply serrate about four times as long as
their width. Flowers, slender somewhat terminal spikes, bract, oblong-lanceolate 7-10
mm long; calyx, tubular, equally 5-toothed, hairy green to dark green; corolla, dark
purple, hairy bilabiate; stamens 4, long; ovary, superior, bicapellary, tetralocular with
gynobasic style terminating with a bifid stigma. Fruit, of 4 nutlets, blackish-brown.
Microscopical: Stem, shows an epidermis with numerous multicellular uniseriate,
conical, up to 6-celled non glandular hairs, and few glandular hairs; cortex with
collenchyma in the ridges; xylem, consisting of spiral, reticulate and pitted vessels, wood
fibres and wood parenchyma; pith, parenchymatous. Leaf, dorsiventral; epidermal cells
with wavy anticlinal walls; stomata, very few on the upper, numerous on the lower
surface, of the caryophyllaceous type; hairs, few; glandular hairs of 1 to 2-celled stalk
and globular head of 1 to 8 radiating cells showing no crystals of menthol, non-glandular
of uniseriate up to 6-celled, pollen grains, spheroidal and smooth.
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Powder: Powdered spearmint is green to olive green; characterised by fragments of
epidermis with wavy walls; stomata of caryophyllaceous type; non-glandular and
labiaceous glandular hairs; fragments of collenchyma and of pith cells; fragments of
vascular tissue consisting of spiral, reticulate or pitted vessels, wood fibres and wood
parenchyma; smooth spheroidal pollen grains.
The drug contains volatile oil. Spearmint resembles peppermint in its properties, but its
flavour is less agreeable in medicines. The spearmint oil contains from 45 to 60 per cent
of 1- carvone, 6 to 20 per cent of alcohols, 4 to 20 per cent of esters and terpenes, chiefly
l-limonene, l-phellandren and l-pinene.
Test for purity:
Contains not more than 2 per cent of stems over 3 mm in diameter or other foreign
organic matters.
Assay:
Carry out the "Determination of the volatile oil content" as described in vol. 2.
Aqua Mentha Viridis Concentrata
Aqua Mentha Viridis Distillata
Uses:
Spearmint oil is a flavour. It possesses carminative properties. It is used to a considerable
extent in the chewing gum industry.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, in a place protected from light.
294
Mimosa pudica L.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Mimosa hispidula Kunth
(b) Mimosa tetrandra Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.,
(c) Mimosa pudica L. var. tetrandra (Willd.) DC.,
(d) Mimosa unijuga Duch. & Walp.,
(e) Mimosa pudica L. var. unijuga (Duch. &
Walp.) Griseb.
Common names:
Sensitive plant, touch-me-not plant, humble plant,
shameful plant, Sleeping Grass, Prayer Plant(E).
Sensitiva, Sensitive (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫نبات ميموسا بوديكا‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Aluro, Dan-kunya.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Patanmo
Native to Brazil, this short lived evergreen sub shrub is usually treated as an annual. It is
grown for its curiosity value- the fern like leaves close up and droop when touched,
usually re-opening within minutes. It has prickly stems and small, fluffy, ball shaped pink
flowers in summer. It grows to a height of 5 ft and spreads around 3 ft- a perennial plant,
it grows to a height of 0.5m with a spread of 0.3m. In some areas this plant is becoming a
noxious weed. The stem is erect, slender and branching. The leaves are bipinnate, fern
like and pale green- closing when disturbed. The flowers are pale lilac pink, occurring in
globose heads and appearing in summer.
The sensitive plant is native to tropical America, and is found as a weed throughout the
tropics.
Part used:
Leaves, entire plant.
Name of drug:
Prayer plant
Definition:
Prayer plant is the dried or fresh whole plant of Mimosa pudica L. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Mimosa pudica is an annual or perennial that normally grows to 50-70
cm tall (but can be up to 1 m tall), and often takes the form of a straggling prickly sub-
shrub. Its stems have sparse prickles, 2-2.5 mm long, or are sometimes bristly, or can also
be almost hairless. The leaves are alternate, bipinnate (twice compound), do not have
295
prickles and are very sensitive to touch. The rachis (axis of the compound leaf) is 1.5-5.5
cm long, and the pinnae (primary divisions of the compound leaf) are subdigitate (almost
finger-like projections). There are 10-26 pairs of leaflets (the smallest segments of the
leaf) per pinna, which are 6-15 x 1.2-3 mm and linear-oblong. The flowers are lilac or
pink (the colour mainly the stamen filaments) and are held in ovoid, stalked heads of 1-
1.3 x 0.6-1 cm. A cluster of 1-5 flower heads is borne in the leaf axil. The calyx is
minute, about 0.2 mm long. The corolla is 2-2.3 mm long, and contains four stamens. The
pods are 1.8 cm x 3-5 mm, densely bristly, clustered, and have prickles along their
margins.
Contains the alkaloid mimosine (a hydroxamino acid of aromatic nature), which in large
doses is toxic to humans and animals. Ascorbic-acid, crocetin, crocetin-dimethyl-ether,
D-glucuronic-acid, D-xylose, linoleic-acid, linolenic-acid, mimosine, mucilage,
norepinephrine, oleic-acid, palmitic-acid, sitosterol, stearic-acid.
Test for identify:
(a) Macroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with descriptions
given above.
(b) Extract of the total alkaloids give a positive reaction to common alkaloid reagents
(Dragendorff’s, Wagner’s, Meyer’s).
(c) Thin-layer chromatographic examination to confirm the presence of mimosine in the
total alkaloid extract.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Cancer, lumbago, nephritis, analgesic, wound healing.
Storage:
296
Mirabilis jalapa L.
Family name:
Nyctaginaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Jalapa congesta Moench
(b) Mirabilis dichotoma
Common names:
Clavillia, Jalap, Maravilla, Beauty of the
night, Marvel of Peru, False jalap, Four
o'clock flower, Four o'clock plant, Garden
jalap, Jalap plant, Japanese wonder flower,
Marvel of the world, pearl of Egypt, Pretty-
by-night, Tea time plant, Coat of many
colours, Austin Chalk Four-o'clock (E). Belle
de nuit(F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Giyeya
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Tanaposo, Ajeonisu.
Herb up to 1.5 m tall, stems glabrescent or pubescent, pubescence often concentrated in
longitudinal strips down stem. Leaves ovate, 3.5–13 × 2–8 cm, entire, acuminate, base
rounded, truncate or cordate, glabrous to puberulent (particularly along veins above),
margins often ciliate, rhaphides usually conspicuous beneath, superior leaves frequently
subsessile, inferior leaves petiolate; petioles up to 4.5 cm long, pubescent along superior
surface. Inflorescences terminal. Pedicels pubescent. Involucre 5–13 mm long, divided
more or less halfway into 5 triangular to ovate, acute to acuminate lobes, glabrescent to
pubescent or pilose particularly along margins. Perianth tubular 4–5.5 cm long, lower
portion green, upper portion spreading 2–3 cm diameter, purple, red, yellow, white or
variegated. Stamens 5–6, exserted, 2.75–6 cm long; filaments filiform, united into fleshy
cup at base; anthers 1.2–2 mm long, oblong-ellipsoid. Ovary ellipsoid or ovoid, 1–1.5
mm long; style 4–6.5 cm long, filiform; stigma with stalked papillae. Anthocarp ellipsoid
to subglobose, 7 – 9 mm long, ribbed or angled, tuberculate between the ribs (in dried
state), hard, black.
Introduced from tropical America, now widely cultivated and naturalised in all tropical
regions.
Part used:
Leaves, root, flowers.
Name of drug:
Clavillia
297
Definition:
Clavillia is the dried resin obtained from Mirabilis jalapa L. (family, Nyctaginaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Mirabilis jalapa is a long-lived (perennial) herb growing up to 2 metres
high, with a tuberous root. Its leaves are egg-shaped in outline with broad end at base
(ovate), oblong, or triangular, measuring to 9 cm long, the leaf tip is acute, base cordate.
The leaf stalk (petiole) is 4 cm long. Flowers of M. jalapa occur in groups of 3-7; flower
stalks more or less absent; flowers are fragrant and open in the afternoon; flowers are
tubular, white, pink or red in colour, up to 6.5 long by 3.5 wide with 5-6 stamens. The
fruit is a small, one-seeded capsule (anthocarp).
Native to Peru, four-o-clock or marvel of Peru is a bushy tender perennial that typically
grows to 24-36” (less frequently to 48”) tall on erect, branching stems. It is an old garden
favorite that features fragrant, funnel-shaped, tubular flowers (2” long) with five flaring
petal-like lobes. Flowers blooms from early/mid-summer to fall. Flowers come in pink,
rose, red, magenta, yellow and white, sometimes with interesting mottling and striping.
Different colored flowers often appear on the same plant. Flowers open in the late
afternoon (around four o’clock) and stay open only until the following morning. Flowers
are attractive to hummingbirds. Ovate dark green leaves (to 4” long) are heart-shaped at
the base.
Chemical analysis of clavillia shows that it is rich in many active compounds including
triterpenes, proteins, flavonoids, alkaloids, and steroids. Of particular interest to
researchers is a group of amino acid-based proteins, called mirabilis antiviral proteins
(MAPs). These chemicals have shown specific antiviral and antifungal actions. Clavillia's
main chemicals include: alanine, alpha-amyrins, arabinose, beta amyrins, betalamic acid,
betanin, brassicasterol, beta-sitosterols, 2-carbosyarabinitol, campesterol, daucosterol, d-
glucan, dopamine, hexacosan-1-ol, indicaxanthin, isobetanin, 6-methoxyboeravinone C,
methylabronisoflavone, mirabilis antiviral proteins, mirabilis peptides, miraxanthins, n-
dotriacontane, n-hentriacontane, n-heptacosane, n-hexacosane, n-nonacosane, n-
octacosane, n-pentacosane, n-pentatriacontane, n-tetracosane, n-tetratriacontane, n-
triacontane, n-tricosane, n-tritriacontane, oleanolic acid, stigmasterol, tartaric acid,
trigonelline, tryptophan, ursolic acid, and vulgaxanthin I.
Test for identify:
Macroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance with descriptions given
above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antialergic, antiasthmatic, antimicrobial, antinociceptive.
Storage:
298
Mitragyna inermis (Willd.) Kuntze
Family name:
Rubiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Nauclea africana Willd
(b) Adina inermis (Willd.) Roberty
(c) Nauclea africana Willd.
(d) Nauclea africana var. luzoniensis DC.
(e) Nauclea inermis (Willd.) Baill.
(f) Nauclea platanocarpa Hook.f.
(g) Platanocarpum africanum (Willd.) Hook.f.
(h) Stephegyne africana (Willd.) Walp.
(i) Uncaria inermis Willd
(j) Cephalanthus africanus Rchb. ex DC.
(k) Mitragyna africana (Willd.) Korth.
Common names:
African linden, False abura, (E). Pied d’éléphant (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa : Giyayya/Etiyayya, Giyeya.
(d) Peuhl: Koyli
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Okobo
The plant is a low branching tree and 16m, height. Its bole is 60cm diameter, scaly
grayish bark and flower head is white. M. inermis is grown on damp perennially flooded,
sites, swampy savannah, or inland site of coastal mangrove.
Tropical Africa - Senegal to Sudan, south to Zaire.
Part used:
Leaves
Name of drug:
Mitragyna leaf
Definition:
Mitragyna leaf is the dried leaf of Mitragyna inermis (Willd.) O. Kuntz (family,
Rubiaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Bark is grayish with a fairly smooth surface. Inner bark is pale to dark
brown and is fibrous. Odour and taste characteristic.
299
Microscopical: Leaves with straight walled epidermal cells with numerous anisocytic
cells. Numerous unicellular and multicellular clothing trichomes. Bark has numerous
pitted vessels and cortical fibres.
Powder: Numerous starch grains occur, non-lignified pitted vessels, bundles of sclereids,
scanty prismatic calcium oxalate crystals, cork cells, non-lignified fibres and unicellular
covering trichomes.
Steroids, triterpenoids, polyphenols, flavonoids, catecunic tannins, saponins and
alkaloids. The alkaloids, speciophylline and uncarine were isolated from the leaves, while
glycosides (Inermiside I and II) were isolated from the stem bark.
Test for identify:
(b) Microchemical tests for the presence of alkaloids in the extract of the specimen using
Dragendorff’s and Mayer’s reagents.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographic examination of the extract to confirm the presence of
speciophylline and uncarine by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
Ash: 2.02 per cent.
Water-soluble extractive: Not less than 7.35 per cent.
Alcohol (70 per cent)-soluble: Not less than 10.3 per cent.
N/A
Uses:
Antimalaria, febrifuge, antispasmodic, cardiotonic, anticholesteremic.. Decoction: 30g
leaf per litre of water, boil for 15 minutes, take a cupful three times daily.
Storage:
In a cool, dry place.
300
Momordica charantia L.
Family name:
Cucurbitaceae
Synonyms :
(a) Momordica balsamina Banco,
(b) Momordica chinensis Spreng.
(c) M. elegans Salisb.
(d) M. indica L.
Common names:
Bitter melon, Bitter gourd, Bitter squash,
Balsam apple, African cucumber, Balsam
pear (E). Concombre africain, Liane
merveille, Margose, Poire de balsam (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫القرع المر أو مثل الكمثرى البلسمية‬
‫أوالخيار الكوري‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa : Garaafunii, Garahuni, Daddagu.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Akara-aje, Ejinrin-weere, Ejinri-aja, Ejinrin-dudu, Awara, Edjini, ìgbólé ajá.
A climbing vine, it is commonly seen growing on walls and shrubs in the tropics. The
textured leaves look as though a bite has been taken from them giving the plant its Latin
name Momordica which means to bite. The orange fruits are soft when ripe and inside
black seeds have a red covering.
Found throughout the tropics. Widespread in the warmer parts of the world.
Part used:
Fruit
Name of drug:
Fructus Momordicae
Definition:
Fructus Momordicae consists of the fresh or the dried fruits of Momordica
charantia L. (family, Cucurbitaceae).
Description:
Odour: characteristic; taste bitter
Macroscopical: This herbaceous, tendril-bearing vine grows to 5 m. It bears simple,
alternate leaves 4–12 cm across, with three to seven deeply separated lobes. Each plant
bears separate yellow male and female flowers. In the Northern Hemisphere, flowering
occurs during June to July and fruiting during September to November.
The fruit has a distinct warty exterior and an oblong shape. It is hollow in cross-section,
with a relatively thin layer of flesh surrounding a central seed cavity filled with large, flat
seeds and pith. The fruit is most often eaten green, or as it is beginning to turn yellow. At
this stage, the fruit's flesh is crunchy and watery in texture, similar to cucumber, chayote
301
or green bell pepper, but bitter. The skin is tender and edible. Seeds and pith appear white
in unripe fruits; they are not intensely bitter and can be removed before cooking.
As the fruit ripens, the flesh (rind) becomes tougher, more bitter, and too distasteful to
eat. On the other hand, the pith becomes sweet and intensely red; it can be eaten
uncooked in this state, and is a popular ingredient in some Southeast Asian salads.
When the fruit is fully ripe, it turns orange and mushy, and splits into segments which
curl back dramatically to expose seeds covered in bright red pulp.
Aerial parts - flavanoids, saponocides, phenols, tannins, alkaloids, steroids, terpenoids-
momordicines 1,2,3, quinines.
Fruits - amino acids alanine, beta alanine, gamma alanine, gamma-amino-butyric acid,
glutamic acid, prolin, tryptamine, p-polypetides, steroids-charantine, alpha-spinasterol,
beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol and derivatives, D-galacturonic acid. Green fruit-saponins-
diosgenin, triterpine momordicosides, fruit pericarpium: carotinoids abg caratine
derivatives lutein, lycopene, Zeaxantine, zeinoxantine. Amino acids found in seeds-
alinine, arginine,asparagines, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, leucine,
leusine, lysine, ornatine, sterine, tyrosine, vicine, a and b momorcrines, momordine,
zeatine and zeatine rhibosides, momordicosides A,B,C,D,E.
Monordicine I and II (leaves) Cucurbitane triterpenoids, Stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic
and oleostearic acid (seeds).
Test for identity:
descriptions.
(b) Thin-layer chromatographic examination of the extract of the specimen for the
presence of constituents like flavonoids, diosgenin.
Tests for purity:
Ash: Not more than 8.5 per cent
Acid-insoluble ash: Not more than 0.6 per cent
Water-soluble extractive: Not less than 28 per cent
Alcohol-soluble extractive: Not less than 6 per cent
N/A
Uses:
Used to treat diabetes, stomach upset, rectal prolapse and hernia.
Storage:
302
Morinda geminata DC.
Family name:
Rubiaceae
Synonyms:
N/A
Common names:
Brimstone bush, Indian mulberry (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Mâgana
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Much branched small tree with strong quadrangular branches. Leaves widely elliptic, up
to 20cm long and 12cm wide,glabrous. Inflorescences globose, terminal or opposite to
the leaves, with robust peduncles. Flowerswhite, tube-like with 5 lobes ovate. Fruits
closely united in a globose whitish somewhat succulent infrutescence. The bark of the
trunk is roughly and deeply fissured. The wood is yellow.
W. Africa from Senegal to Angola, Zaire, Uganda and Tanzania.
Part used:
Roots, leaves and bark.
Name of drug:
Morinda geminata leaf
Definition:
Morinda geminata leaf is the dried or fresh leaves of Morinda geminata DC. (family,
Rubiaceae).
Description:
A tree to 10 m tall, sometimes multi-stemmed, bark heavily fissured, with crown
branches 4–angled; of secondary jungle and scrub. The plant is said to be commonly
planted near to houses in Sierra Leone for its general use.
The plant has anthraquinones, triterpenesand sterols.
Test for identity:
Macroscopical examination of the specimen to ensure it complies with the above
descriptions.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Diuretic, hypotensive, laxative, antimicrobial.
303
Storage:
304
Morinda lucida Benth.
Family name:
Rubiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Morinda citrifolia sensu Hiern
(b) Morinda lucida A.Gray
Common names:
Brimstone tree (E). Arbre à soufre (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Oruwo,Eruwo, Owuru, Erigho.
This distinctive tree has light coloured, scaly or fissured bark and dark shiny leaves on
the upper surface. The shiny leaves are the origin of the latin name ‘lucida’. Unlike most
members of Rubiaceae the stipules fall very early, leaving a clear scar. The ‘fruit’ of this
species is actually a compound inflorescence made of several flowers fused together at
their base. The result is similar in structure to the fruit of Myrianthus arboreus. These
fruits are especially appreciated by hornbills. In the axils of the veins and the midrib there
are small tufts of hair called ‘domatia’. There are also two species of liana in this genus
which occur in the area.
Morinda lucida occurs from Senegal to Sudan and southward to Tanzania, Angola and
Zambia.
Part used:
Stem bark, leaves.
Name of drug:
Brimstone tree
Definition:
Brimstone tree consists of the leaf or stem bark of Morinda lucida Benth. (family,
Rubiaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Evergreen shrub or small to medium-sized tree up to 18(–25) m tall, with
bole and branches often crooked or gnarled; bark smooth to roughly scaly, grey to brown,
often with some distinct purple layers. Leaves opposite, simple and entire; stipules ovate
or triangular, 1–7 mm long, falling early; petiole up to 1.5 cm long; blade elliptical, 6–18
cm × 2–9 cm, base rounded to cuneate, apex acute to acuminate, shiny above, sometimes
finely pubescent when young, later only tufts of hairs in vein axils beneath and some
hairs on the midrib. Inflorescence a stalked head 4–7 mm in diameter, 1–3 at the nodes
opposite a single leaf; peduncle up to 8 cm long bearing at base a stalked cup-shaped
gland. Flowers bisexual, regular, 5-merous, heterostylous, fragrant; calyx cup-shaped, c.
2 mm long, persistent; corolla salver-shaped, c. 1.5 cm long, white or greenish yellow,
305
lobes ovate-lanceolate, up to 5 mm × 2.5 mm; ovary inferior, 2-celled, style 8–11 mm
long with 2 stigma lobes 4–7 mm long; stamens 5, inserted in the corolla throat, with
short filaments. Fruit a drupe, several together arranged into an almost globose succulent
syncarp 1–2.5 cm in diameter, soft and black when mature; pyrene compressed ovoid, up
to 6.5 mm × 4 mm, dark red-brown, very hard, 1-seeded. Seed ellipsoid, c. 3.5 mm × 2
mm × 0.5 mm, yellowish, soft. Outer bark is smooth to roughly scaly, grey to brown. The
inner bark is light brown to yellowish. It has an aromatic smell with bitter taste.
Microscopical: Thick walled collenchymas cells below the upper epidermis and above
the lower epidermis. Acicular crystals in cortical parenchyma cells. Vascular bundle is
arc shaped. Straight-walled epidermal cells with numerous anisocytic stomata.
Unicellular covering trichomes.
Powder: Acicular calcium oxalate crystals as well as raphides with few prismatic
crystals. Abundance of stone cells with pits. Numerous cork cells and pitted vessels.
From the wood and bark of Morinda lucida 18 anthraquinones have been isolated,
including the red colorants 1-methylether-alizarin, rubiadin and derivatives, lucidin,
soranjidiol, damnacanthal, nordamnacanthal, morindin, munjistin and purpuroxanthin.
Two anthraquinols, oruwal and oruwalol, have also been found; these give a yellow
colour and possibly are intermediates in the formation of anthraquinones. In addition to
anthraquinones, tannins, flavonoids and saponosides have been isolated.
Test for identity:
(b) Microchemical tests for the presence of anthraquinones (Borntrager’s test).
(c) Thin-layer chromatographic examination to establish the presence of Oruwal and
oruwalol. Also confirm the presence of lucidin, morindin or any other of its
anthraquinone constituents by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
Moisture: 6.35 per cent. (leaves), 6.13 per cent (stem bark)
Ash: 8.39 per cent (leaves), 5.54 per cent (stem bark)
Sulphated ash: 12.33 per cent (leaves), 6.64 per cent (stem bark)
Water-soluble extractive: Not less than 17.65 per cent (leaves), 20.89 per cent (stem bark)
Alcohol (70 per cent )-soluble extractive: Not less than 15.78 per cent (stem bark)
N/A
Uses:
Malaria, stomach upset, jaundice.
30g plant material in 900ml water, simmer until reduced to 600ml, 1 teacup three times
daily.
Storage:
In a cool and dry place.
306
Moringa oleifera Lamk.
Family name:
Moringaceae
Synonym:
(a) Moringa pterigosperma Gaertn.
(b) Moringa moringa (L.) Millsp.
Common names:
Moringa tree, Horseradish tree, Drumstick Tree
(E). Ben aile, Pois quenique, arbre radis du cheval
(F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫البان الزيتوني او الشوع‬
(b) Bambara: Nevrede
(c) Hausa: Samaarin-dangaa, Danga, Zogallagandi,
Zingaridende, Bagaaruwar-makka, Barambo,
Karaukin zaila, Riimin nasaara, Riimin-tuuraa,
Zogalle, Zogallandi.
(d) Peuhl: Nebodey
(e) Swahili: Mronge, Mzunze, Mlonge, Mrongo.
(f) Yoruba: Ewe-Igbale, Ewe-Ile.
Branchy shrub of 4 to 5 m, with a coarsely lenticellate brownish bark, bipinnate or
tripinnate leaves with opposite pinnules; axillary or terminal panicles of white flowers;
fruit; angular, linear pods of 20 over 2 cm; spherical seeds of 1 cm with 3 hyaline wings.
Originates from India, cultivated throughout all tropical regions.
Part used:
Seeds
Names of drug:
Semen Moringae, Moringa seeds.
Definition:
Moringa seeds are the dried ripe seeds of Moringa oleifera Lamk. (family, Moringaceae)
which contain not less than 45 per cent of fixed oil and not more than 2 per cent of
foreign organic matter.
Description:
Odourless and with bland oily taste.
Macroscopical: The seeds are white, ovate to elongated ovoid, nearly sac-like shaped,
measuring 8-12 mm in length and 5-9 mm in width with almost smooth surface, showing
3 prominent marginal ridges and 3 shallow grooves under each ridge, the hilum and
micropyle are situated at the pointed end at the connection of the 3 ridges. The seeds are
anatropous, exalbuminous, easily crushed, with thin testa having 3 membraneous wings
each is 25-30 mm in length and 2-5 mm in width. The embryo is straight with 2 fleshy
plano-convex cotyledons 7-10 mm in length and 4-7 mm in width. The radicle is short
and conical.
307
Microscopical: Testa shows an epidermis of axially elongated, subrectangular cells. The
subepidermal layer is of 12-14 rows of reticulate lignified cells. The cotyledons show an
epidermis of small rectangular cells, the ground tissues of thin-walled cells filled with oil
globules and aleurone grains free of crystalloids or globoids.
Powder: Pale yellowish-white, odourless and with bland oily taste. It shows fragments of
reticulate lignified parenchyma, numerous fragments of embryo cells filled with oil
globules and aleurone grains, few fragments of the epidermal cells and few spiral and
annular vessels.
Fixed oil, 45 per cent containing up to 77.5 per cent of oleic acid and 6.5 per cent linoleic
acid.
Test for identity:
Test for purity:
N/A
Uses:
Wound healing, cerebroprotective, haemostatic, antibacterial, anticancer, antiulcer,
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory etc.
Storage:
308
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Carpopogon capitatum Roxb.
(b) Carpopogon capitatus Roxb.
(c) Carpopogon niveum Roxb.
(d) Macranthus cochinchinensis Lour.
(e) Mucuna aterrima (Piper & Tracy)
Holland Mucuna atrocarpa F.P.
Metcalf,
(f) Mucuna capitata Wight & Arn.
(g) Mucuna deeringiana (Bort) Merr.,
(h) Mucuna hassjoo (Piper & Tracy) Mansf.
(i) Mucuna martinii H. Lev. & Vaniot
(j) Mucuna nivea (Roxb.) Wight & Arn.
(k) Mucuna utilis Wight
(l) Stizolobium aterrimum Piper & Tracy
(m) Stizolobium deeringianum Bort
(n) Stizolobium hassjoo Piper & Tracy
(o) Stizolobium pruriens (L.) Medik.
(p) Stizolobium utile (Wall. ex Wight) Ditmer
(q) Stizolobium niveum (Roxb.) Kuntze
Common names:
Mucuna, Mauritius bean, Itchy bean, Buffalobean, Velvet bean, Bengal bean, Cowitch,
Cowhage, Donkey eye, Hard-fern (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫شجر البلسم‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: kakara, Abbala, Sansoni, Karara.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Werepe or Yerepe, Igherepe, Esisi, Ewe-ina, Herepe.
A lofty climber, with more or less pubescent stems; flowers deep purple to almost black;
fruit densely clothed with rusty stinging hairs.
Widespread in the tropics.
Part used:
Seeds, Hairs on the pod.
Name of the drug:
Velvet bean
309
Definition:
Velvet bean is the dried seed of Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Velvet bean (Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. var. utilis (Wall. ex Wight)
Baker ex Burck) is an annual (sometimes short-lived perennial), vigorous trailing or
climbing leguminous vine that can be up to 6-18 m long . Velvet bean has a taproot with
numerous, 7-10 m long, lateral roots. The stems are slender and slightly pubescent. The
leaves are generally slightly pubescent, alternate, trifoliolate with rhomboid ovate, 5-15
cm long x 3-12 cm broad, leaflets . The inflorescence is a drooping axillary raceme that
bears many white to dark purple flowers. After flower pollination, velvet bean produces
clusters of 10 to 14 pods. They are stout, curved, 10-12.5 cm long, 2-6 seeded, covered
with greyish-white or orange hairs that may cause irritation to the skin. The velvet bean
seeds are variable in colour, ranging from black glossy to white or brownish with black
mootling. Seeds are oblong ellipsoid, 1.2 to 1.5 cm long, 1 cm broad and 0.5 cm thick.
The seeds of velvet bean are high in protein, carbohydrates, lipids, fiber, and minerals.
They are also rich in novel alkaloids, saponins, and sterols. The seeds of all mucuna
species contain a high concentration of L-dopa; velvet bean seeds contain 7-10% L-dopa.
Concentrations of serotonin also have been found in the pod, leaf and fruit. The stinging
hairs of the seed pods contain the phytochemical mucunain, which is responsible for
causing skin irritation and itch.
The main plant chemicals found in velvet bean include: alkaloids, alkylamines, arachidic
acid, behenic acid, betacarboline, beta-sitosterol, bufotenine, cystine, dopamine, fatty
acids, flavones, galactose d, gallic acid, genistein, glutamic acid, glutathione, glycine,
histidine, hydroxygenistein, 5-hydroxytryptamine, isoleucine, l-dopa, linoleic acid,
linolenic acid, lysine, mannose d, methionine, 6-methoxyharman, mucunadine,
mucunain, mucunine, myristic acid, niacin, nicotine, oleic acid, palmitic acid, palmitoleic
acid, phenylalanine, prurienidine, prurienine, riboflavin, saponins, serine, serotonin,
stearic acid, stizolamine, threonine, trypsin, tryptamine, tyrosine, valine, and vernolic
acid.
Tests for identity:
given above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Neuro-protective, antioxidant, antiparkinsonism, nociceptive, antidiabetic.
Storage:
310
Myristica fragrans Houtt.
Family name:
Myristicaceae
Synonym:
(a) Myristica moschata Thunb.
(b) Myristica officinalis L. f.
Common names:
Nutmeg tree (E). Muscadier. Noix de
muscade (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫جوز الطيب‬
(b) Basbasa, Josat at-Tib, Josat al-Tib.
(c) Bambara: N/A
(d) Hausa: N/A
(e) Peuhl: N/A
(f) Swahili: Kungu
(g) Yoruba: Ariwo, Abolakose.
10 to 15 m high tree with oval-lanceolate glossy dark green leaves of 10 to 15 cm long;
dioecious insignificant flowers, fleshy fruit opening into two valves; seeds wrapped in an
orange coloured aril or mace.
Originates from the spice Islands and cultivated in humid tropical regions.
Part used:
Seeds
Names of drug:
Semen Myristicae, Nutmeg.
Definition:
Nutmeg is the dried ripe seeds of Myristica fragrans Routt. deprived of its arillus and
testa, and with or without a thin coat of lime. Nutmeg yields not less than 25 per cent of
fat, and not less than 5 per cent of volatile oil.
Description:
Odour, strong aromatic and characteristic; taste, pungent and somewhat bitter.
Macroscopical: The kernel of the seed, rounded, ovoid, or broadly oval; 10 to 33 mm
mostly 20 to 30 mm long, and 15 to 28 mm mostly 15 to 20 mm broad; externally, light
brown, or whitish from dressing of lime, reticulately furrowed, and marked with
numerous small dark brown points and lines; position of hilum, indicated by a slight
circular elevation, 3 to 6 mm in diameter somewhat eccentrically placed at the wider end
with a depression in the centre, indicating position of micropyle; position of raphe,
indicated by a broad shallow groove extending from the circular elevation at one end to a
slight dark depression at the opposite end, indicating the position of the chalaza. The
kernel is easily cut by a knife; internally, with a waxy luster and thin dark brown
perisperm, penetrating into the greyish-brown or yellowish-brown endosperm by
numerous enfoldings.
311
Embryo, small, generally shrunken and lying in an irregular cavity in the endosperm near
the micropyle. When pressed by the fingernail, the cut surface exudes oil.
Microscopical: Perisperm, with an outer layer of irregular or flattened cells, with brown
contents or containing prismatic crystals; remainder mostly of collapse cells with thin
brown walls, containing occasional oil cells, and traversed by vascular bundles; the
enfoldings show loose parenchyma and numerous large oil cells with brown cell walls,
either isolated or in groups.
Endosperm, parenchymatous with occasional dark brown tannin idioblasts; cells, large
polyhedral, with thin brown walls, each containing numerous starch granules, simple,
rounded up to 20 μ in diameter, and compound with 2 to 10 components; most of the
cells with crystals of fat and often single large aleurone grains with a large crystalloid,
about 12 by 20 μ and small aleurone grains with less regular crystalloids; all frequently
embedded in a dark-brown fatty mass. Embryo, of shrivelled and collapsed parenchyma,
with short conical unicellular trichomes on plumule.
Powder: Powdered Nutmeg is reddish-yellow to reddish-brown; characterized by
irregular yellowish fragments of perisperm with large circular or elliptical oil cells, thin-
walled parenchyma with brown contents or prismatic crystals and occasional spiral
tacheae; fragments of endosperm, with parenchyma containing starch granules, aleurone
grains and crystals of fat and occasional brown pigment cells, tannin idioblast, starch
granules, simple or compound 2 to 10 components granules or less rounded, polygonal or
plano-convex, 3 to 20 μ in diameter, with distinct, sometimes cleft hilum; aleurone grains
with a large rhomboidal crystalloid about 12 to 20 μ ; slerenchyma, absent. In chloral
hydrate T.S. the powder shows numerous fixed oil globules.
7 to 15 per cent volatile oil and solid fat (25 to 35 per cent), also starch.
Test for identity:
Test for purity:
Ash, not more than 5 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 0.5 per cent.
Assay:
Introduce about 10 g of moderately fine powdered Nutmeg, accurately weighed, into a
small continuous extraction apparatus plugged with cotton-wool, add 50 cc of ether, and
when the liquid ceases to flow, pack firmly, and continue the extraction, until complete
exhaustion of the drug is effected. Evaporate the ether, dry the residue in a dessicator for
21 hours and weigh. The weight of the residue represents the amount of fat and volatile
oil present in the weight of the drug taken. Mix the residue with 10 ml of water and distil
the water completely to drive off the volatile oil.
Dry the residue at about 105°C. Cool in a dessicator, and weigh the residue of fat. The
loss in weight of the residue after the steam distillation represents the amount of volatile
oil present in the weight of the drug taken.
Aromatic chalk powder
Uses:
312
Nutmeg has stimulant and carminative properties. In large doses, it is toxic, producing
convulsions due to myristicin. The expressed and volatile oil is used externally in chronic
rheumatism.
Storage:
In the entire form, in well-closed containers, in a cool dry place.
313
Ocimum gratissimum L
Family name:
Lamiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Ocimum viride Willd.
(b) Ocimum guineense Schum. et Thonn.
(c) Ocimum suave Willd.
(d) Ocimum viridiflorum Roth
Common names:
Tea bush. Mosquito plant. Fever leaf of Sierra
Leone. Fever plant of Sierra Leone, African
basil, Wild basil (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫حبق سرنديب‬
(b) Bambara: Sukolan
(c) Hausa: Dai doya ta gida, Daddoya, Dai Dooyaa ta gidaa, Tagida.
(d) Peuhl: Guguma
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Efinrin, Efinrin nla.
Leaves are nearly glabrous with rather long petiole. They are lanceolate to oblong
lanceolate or ovate in shape, acute at both ends. They can be up to 12 cm long and 6 cm
wide. The base is usually cuneate with toothed or distinctly serrated margin. They are
markedly punctuate glandular below; racemes spike-like, strict, solitary to several in a
panicle about 15 cm long.
Found mainly in gardens, in compounds, old farms near villages, often cultivated in
various parts of West Africa.
Part used:
Leaves
Name of drug:
Ocimum leaves, Folium Ocimi.
Definition:
Ocimum leaves are the fresh young leaves of Ocimum gratissimum L. (family,
Lamiaceae) containing not more than 2% of stem.
Description:
Odour, thyme-like, pungent, characteristic. Taste pungent and aromatic.
Macroscopical: Leaves of O. gratissimum are about 6-12 cm long and 3 cm broad. They
vary from ovate to obovate in shape with cuneate base; while beneath it is subglabrous
but gland pitted and slightly pubescent on the nerves. The calyx is about 6 mm long in the
fruit. The whorls are only continuous in the flowers and are interrupted in fruit. The
pedicels are pubescent, with 2 lipped calyx, upper lip broadly ovate and mucronate.
The lower lip is usually oblong with 2 teeth, with a continuous or more or less strongly
curved arc often with incurved ends to a closed ring of bundles.
314
Microscopical: The midrib and transverse section of O. gratissimum leaf show a bifacial
structure and characteristic subepidermal masses of collenchyma on both surfaces.
The xylem takes the form of a strongly curved arc. Stomata of diacytic type are present
on both surfaces though more common on the lower epidermis.
The hairs are most numerous in young leaves particularly in the midribs and veins. They
are uniseriate and 3 to 8 cells long, slightly curved with thin warty walls.
Palisade ration is 4.25-5-89-7.5
Stomatal index is 12.5 to 28.7 (Upper epidermis)
Stomatal index is 18.2 to 28.5 (Lower epidermis)
Stomatal number is 100 to 184 to 300 (Upper epidermis)
Vein-islet number is 300 to 317 to 400 (Lower epidermis)
Veinlet termination number is 10.0 to 14.5.
Powder: Colour green; taste aromatic and spicy. Wavy epidermal cell walls; lignified
elements of veins and veinlets; starch grains; oil globules; multicellular uniseriate
clothing trichomes; warty uniseriate and fairly curved, and some with collapsed cells,
small groups of fragmented epidermal paenchymastous cells and collenchymas tissue;
diacytic stomata; fragmented xylem vessels members and oil droplets are present.
Volatile oil (3% v/w) and non-phlobatannin. Thymol and/or Eugenol (up to 75 per cent of
oil) and other terpenes.
Tests for identity:
b) Thin-layer chromatographic examination of the extract to show the presence of
eugenol or thymol.
Test for purity:
Total ash, not more than 15.5 per cent
Acid-insoluble ash, not more than 3.4 per cent
Water-soluble ash, not less than 4.0 per cent
Water-soluble extractive, not less than 15.0 per cent (Coarse powder)
Alcohol-soluble extractive-not less than 10.0 per cent (Moderately fine
powder)
Assay:
Perform the assay for volatile oil content as described in vol. 2.
Uses:
As antibacterial agent and as a spice, for diarrhoea.
Storage:
Store the oil in airtight containers, in a cool place, protected from light.
The leaves are to be used fresh.
315
Papaver somniferum L.
Family name:
Papaveraceae
Synonyms:
(a) Papaver hortense Huss.
(b) Papaver officinale Gmel.
Common names:
Poppy (E). Pavot, Eillette (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫خشخاش األفيون أو الخشخاش المنوم‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Kasumba
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Annual plant of 0.3 to l.5 m high; 'branchy and leafy stalks; smooth stalks and sepals;
leaves: cauline, amplexical and glaucous; very large purplish red flowers; fruit: large
capsule without opening.
Cultivated in the flat spaces of the Mediterranean.
Part used:
Dried latex
Names of drug:
Opium, Opium Bert or Raw Opium.
Definition:
Opium is the dried latex obtained by incision from the fully grown but unripe capsule of
Papaver somniferum L. (family, Papaveraceae) and its varieties.
Opium yields not less than 10 per cent of morphine, calculated as anhydrous morphine.
Description:
Opium occurs in more or less rounded, or cubical pieces, or somewhat flattened or brick-
shaped masses, usually about 8 to 15 cm in diameter varying in weight, but commonly
weighing between 250 and 1000 g sometimes wrapped in tissue red paper or covered
with poppy leaves or rumex fruits; externally, dark brown to chocolate brown, sometimes
with fragments of poppy leaves and with rumex fruits adhering to the masses; more or
less plastic, when fresh, becoming hard and tough, or occasionally brittle on keeping;
internally, dark brown, coarsely granular or nearly smooth, frequently interspersed with
lighter areas, somewhat lustrous; odour, strong, characteristic, and narcotic; taste,
characteristic, and very bitter.
Alkaloids (morphine, codeine, narcotine, narciene, papaverine, thebaine, protopine,
laudanine, codamine, cryptopine, groscopine, lanthopine, laudanine, laudanidine,
deuteropine, meconine, meconidine, pseudornorphine, etc., in combination with meconic
316
or sulfuric acid, free meconic acid, glucose, mucilage, pectin, wax, fatty matter, meconin,
odoriferous substances and colouring matter.
Tests for identity:
(a) Exhaust about 1 g of Opium with water, and examine the insoluble residue
microscopically; it shows more or less granular or irregular brown to yellow fragments of
the outer epidermis of the poppy capsules, with thick-walled, dotted, polygonal or
isodiametric elongated epidermal cells and a few large stomata of ranunculaceous type;
rarely collenchymatous hypodermal cells; a few fragments of spiral or pitted vessels,
fragments of pitted fibres of the capsule wall; a few fragments of the tissues of poppy
leaves, with thin-walled polygonal cells of the upper epidermis having no stomata, and
with slightly wavy-walled cells of the lower epidermis having numerous large stomata of
ranunculaceous type; fragments of mesophyll, very rarely spiral vessels, tracheids; round
starch granules, 2 to 12 μ in diameter; pollen grains, 16 to 40μ in diameter, and
occasionally fragments of rumex fruits.
(b) Extract about 0.1 g of Opium by warming with 5 ml of water, filter and add to the
filtrate a few drops of ferric chloride T.S.; a deep purplish colour is produced which is not
destroyed by adding a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid (distinction from acetates
and formates), or by adding mercuric chloride T.S. (distinction from thiocyanates).
(c) Shake about 0.2 g of powdered Opium with 5 ml of chloroform and a few drops of
dilute solution of ammonium hydroxide for 10 minutes, and filter.
Allow the chloroform to evaporate spontaneously in a watch-glass; a white-grey
crystalline residue is left. Add to the residue the mixture of 1 drop of solution of
formaldehyde and 5 drops of sulfuric acid; an intense crimson colour is produced.
Assay:
Triturate about 5 g of Opium, accurately weighed, in a mortar with 10 ml of water,
accurately measured, until a perfectly uniform mixture is produced. Add 2 g of calcium
hydroxide, mix thoroughly, and triturate carefully with 40 ml of water, accurately
measured, for half an hour, taking care to prevent evaporation of water. Filter slowly
through a coarse sintered-glass suction filter. Transfer 26 ml of the filtrate, accurately
measured, representing half the quantity of the Opium to be assayed, to a 50 ml conical
flask, add 2.5 ml of alcohol (90 per cent), and 12.5 ml of ether, stopper the flask, shake,
add 1 g of ammonium chloride and shake vigorously for 5 minutes, then frequently for
half an hour. Allow the mixture to stand overnight in the stoppered flask. Bring the
deposited morphine into suspension by vigorous shaking, and pour out the contents of the
flask as completely as possible into a fine sintered-glass suction filter, taking care not to
wet the upper portion of the filter. Filter off the liquid completely by the application of
slight suction. Wash the flask with 3 ml of ether, pour this into the fine sintered-glass
suction filter, and filter without applying suction. Incline the filter, turn round so as to
rinse the filter, and suck the liquid completely through. Repeat the rinsing of the flask and
filter with successive portions, each of 3 ml of a saturated aqueous solution of morphine,
until the filtrate is free from chlorides. Dry the flask, in which some traces of morphine
may be left, and the glass-suction filter which contains most of the morphine, at about
105°C for half an hour. Add to the flask 10 ml of warm neutralised alcohol to dissolve
the last adhering morphine crystals, then pour the warm solution into the fine sintered-
glass suction filter without applying any suction. Dissolve the main mass of morphine on
317
the filter by stirring, and then apply suction. Wash the flask and filter repeatedly with 2 to
3 successive portions, each of 10 ml of warm methyl alcohol R., until no more morphine
remains in the flask, and filter.
The filtrate must be absolutely clear. If any morphine crystallises out, it must be brought
into solution by gently warming the mixture. Add 10 drops of methyl red T.S., and titrate
with N/10 sulfuric acid, until a faint orange colour is produced.
Then add 120 ml of freshly boiled and cooled water to the titrated liquid, and complete
the titrations until the liquid begins to turn red. Each ml of N/10 sulfuric acid is
equivalent to 0.02853 g of C17H19O3N.
To the amount indicated by the titration add 0.02853 g in order to correct for loss of
morphine due to its solubility.
To 5 ml of the titrated liquid, add a few drops of potassium-ferricyanide T.S. containing 1
drop of ferric chloride T.S. per ml; an immediate blue-green colour is produced.
Extractum Opii Siccum
Pulvis Opii Standardizata
Tinctura Opii
Tinctura Opii Benzoica
Aromatic Chalk with Opium Mixture (Mistura Cretae Aromatica cum Opio)
Aromatic Chalk with Opium Powder (Pulvis Cretae Aromaticus cum Opio)
Camphorated Opium Tincture (paregoric)
Concentrated Camphorated Opium Tincture (Liquor Opii Camphoratus Concentratus)
Prepared Opium (Opium pulveratum)
Opiate Squill Linctus
Opiate Squill Pastilles
Uses:
Analgesic, hypnotic, narcotic.
Storage:
318
Pauridiantha callicarpoides (Hiern) Bremek.
Family name:
Rubiaceae
Synonym:
Urophyllum callicarpoides Hiern.
Common names:
N/A
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
N/A
Cameroon to Uganda.
Part used:
Root bark
Name of drug:
Pauridiantha root
Definition:
Pauridiantha root bark is the dried root bark of Pauridiantha callicarpoides (Hiern)
Bremek (family, Rubiaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Shrub or small tree 4–15 m tall, the branches concentrated towards the
apex of the main stem; youngest parts of shoots hairy, very soon glabrous or in Zaire
material persistently pubescent. Leaf-blades narrowly oblong or obovate-oblong, 15–40
cm long, 3.7–12 cm wide, acuminate at the apex, cuneate to shallowly emarginate at the
base, sometimes bullate, at first shortly pubescent above and beneath particularly on the
venation, at length practically glabrous save for a few hairs on the midnerve particularly
above or in Zaire material often scabrid yellowish pubescent to densely velvety all over;
lateral nerves ± 15–30 on each side; petioles 0.4–1.3 cm long; stipules ovate-triangular,
1.1–2.3 cm long, 0.9–1.9 cm wide, glabrous to pubescent outside, deciduous, the scar
hairy within. Inflorescences axillary, often trichotomous from the extreme base,
peduncles or apparent peduncles 0.5–2.5 cm long, the bracts borne towards the apex, 2–6
mm long, 1–1.5 mm wide; secondary peduncles 5 mm long; pedicels 1–5 mm long; all
parts of inflorescence rather sparsely to very densely yellowish pubescent. Calyx
hemispherical, the tube 1–1.5 mm long, the limb 1.1–1.6 mm long, glabrous or pubescent
at the base, the lobes no more than slight undulations on the limb edge. Buds grooved and
ribbed when dry. Corolla glabrous outside, whitish or pale green with blue hairs in the
throat; tube 1.6–3.2 mm long; lobes ovate-triangular, 2.2–3 mm long, 1.3–1.7 mm wide.
Stamens almost as long as the lobes in short-styled flowers, just exserted in long-styled
319
flowers. Disc subglobose, pubescent to tomentose, the central stigma-pit surrounded by
10 small pits visible only when hairs have worn off. Style densely hairy, 0.8–1.7 mm
long in short-styled flowers, 2–6 mm long in long-styled flowers; stigma 0.7–1.25 mm
long. Berries green, subglobose, ± 6 mm in diameter. Seeds dark brown, ovoid, 0.8–1
mm long, deeply wrinkled and pitted.
Root bark alkaloids: (Pyridine Harman alkaloids) Harman, Pauridianthine,
Pauridianthinine, Pauridianthinol.
Test for identity:
the detail descriptions given above.
(b) Make an extract of the total alkaloids and shake with dilute acid. Treat the acidulated
fraction with Daragendorff’s, Wagner’s or Mayer’s reagents. Precipitates are
produced in each case.
(c) Examine the total alkaloid extract chromatographically to confirm the presence of
Harmane, Pauridiantine and Pauridianthinine by co-chromatography.
Test for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Anti-osteoporotic , Molluscicidal, antioxidant, cytotoxicity.
Storage:
320
Pericopsis angolensis (Baker)Meeuwen.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Afrormosia angolensis (Baker) De Wild
(b) Pericopsis angolensis var. subtomentosa
(De Wild.) Meeuwen.
(c) Pericopsis schliebenii (Harms) Meeuwen.
(d) Afrormosia angolensis var. subtomentosa
(De Wild.)Louis.
(e) Afrormosia angolensis var. brasseuriana
(De Wild.)Louis.
(f) Afrormosia schliebenii Harms.
Common names:
Afrormosia, East African afrormosia (E).
African names:
Arabic: N/A
Bambara: N/A
Hausa: Bafini, Barkin-makarfo, Kariye gatari, Bajini.
Peuhl: N/A
Swahili: N/A
Yoruba: N/A
Medium to large tree. Bark smooth, pale grey to whitish, with large irregularly shaped
thin pieces peeling off the lower trunk. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate with 8 to 20
alternate leaflets and a terminal leaflet. Flowers in terminal branched inflorescences, pale
pink to purple with a darker centre and veining, covered with golden-brown hairs on the
calyx. Fruit a flattened pod, pale brown with narrow wings along the margins.
Central African Republic, Tanzania, Zaire, Zimbabwe, DRC, Angola, Zambia, Malawi
and Mozambique.
Part used:
Wood
Name of drug:
Afromorsia wood
Definition:
Afrormosia wood is the dried wood of the trunk and branches of Afrormosia angolensis
(Baker) De Wild. (family, Fabaceae) known as East African Afrormosia, or of Pericopsis
angolensis (Baker) Meeuwen. (family, Fabaceae). It contains not more than 2 per cent of
foreign organic matter.
Description:
The colour of this timber can be quite wide ranging and covers from Golden to Dark
Brown. The timber itself is considered to be very durable and has often been used as a
substitute for Teak.
321
Macroscopical: Medium to large tree. Bark smooth, pale grey to whitish, with large
irregularly shaped thin pieces peeling off the lower trunk. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate
with 8 to 20 alternate leaflets and a terminal leaflet. Flowers in terminal branched
inflorescences, pale pink to purple with a darker centre and veining, covered with golden-
brown hairs on the calyx. Fruit a flattened pod, pale brown with narrow wings along the
margins.
N/A
Test for identity:
Macroscopical examination of the specimen, and its source, to ensure compliance with
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Afrormosia wood can be used as an alternative to teak where a strong, stable and durable wood is
required. It is used for Furniture. Used in medicine to chase away witchcraft (Tanzania).
Storage:
In well closed containers away from light.
322
Pericopsis laxiflora (Benth. ex Baker) Meeuwen
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Afrormosia laxiflora (Baker) Harms
(b) Pericopsis laxiflora (Baker)Meeuwen
Common names:
Kulkuli, Satin wood, False dalbergia,
Afrormosia (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Makarfo, Bafini, Barkin-makarfo, Kariye gatari, Karya gatari, Bajini, Don
zakara.
(d) Peuhl: Koukouli
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Shedun, Sedun.
A small medium sized tree 2-12m tall, reaching to 25cm of diameter, bearing crooked,
dropping branches forming a disheveled crown, one of the commonest trees of the
savannah woodland and fringing forest and also in dry dense forest.
West and Central Africa.
Part used:
Roots, seed, leaves and wood.
Name of drug:
Kulkuli bark
Definition:
Kulkuli bark is the dried stem bark of Afrormosia laxiflora (Baker) Harms also known as
Pericopsis laxiflora (Baker) Meeuwen (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
N/A
α-methyldeoxybenzoins angolensin, 2-O-methyl-angolensin and the pterocarpan maackiain
(demethylpterocarpin) have been isolated by bioactivity-guided fractionation (brine shrimp test)
from the bark of Pericopsis (Afrormosia) laxiflora. The presence of compounds such as
polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins, cardiac glycosides, alkaloids and sterols and
polyterpenes have been demonstrated.
Tests for identity:
(b) Macrochemical test with an alkaloidal extract of the bark gives a positive reaction
with Wagner’s, Dragendorff’s and Mayer’s reagents.
Tests for purity:
Water-soluble extractive: 16.4 per cent (dried leaves).
323
N/A
Uses:
Headache, body pains, agitation and anxiety, rat ovulation blocked through effect of
stem bark on pituitary gland.
Storage:
324
Peumus boldus Molina
Family name:
Monimiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Laurus boldus Molina
(b) Peumus fragrans
(c) Ruizia fragrans Ruiz & Pav.
Common names:
Boldo leaves, Boldu, Boldus, Boldoa,
Boldina, Baldina, Molina. Chilean bold-tree
African names
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
A Chilean tree now introduced to the Ivory Coast and to Guinea . The wood is hard and
the bark yields a dye. The leaves are aromatic with a fresh taste.
Boldo is found in the Andean regions of Chile, Argentina, Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru, and
also is indigenous to parts of Morocco. It is cultivated in Italy, Brazil, and North Africa to
meet the demand for its medicinal leaves in European and Canadian markets where it is
widely used.
Part used:
Dry leaves, fruits, bark, wood.
Name of drug:
Boldo leaf
Definition:
Boldo leaf is the dried leaves of Peumus boldus Molina (family, Monimiaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Boldo is a slow-growing, shrubby evergreen tree that grows 6-8 m in
height and produces small, berrylike fruit. The plant's scented flowers are either male or
female, and only one sex is found on any one plant; as such, male and female plants must
be grown together for the plants to reproduce. It leaves have an aromatic fragrance and it
grows white or yellow corolla flowers. Suitable for: light (sandy) and medium (loamy)
soils and prefers well-drained soil. Suitable pH: acid and neutral soils. It can grow in
semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers dry or moist soil. An evergreen shrub
growing in the fields of the Andes in Chile, where its yellowish-green fruit is eaten, its
bark used for tanning, and its wood utilized in charcoalmaking.
Leaves are opposite, sessile, about 2 inches long entire, and colour when dried red brown,
coriaceous, prominent midrib, a number of small glands on their surface. Odour peculiar,
when crushed very strongly disagreeable, not unlike oil of Chenopodium (wormseed).
325
The leaves contain about 2 per cent on distillation of an aromatic volatile oil, chemically
related to oil of Chenopodium.
Boldo leaves contain about 2 per cent of volatile oil, in which, in addition to terpenes,
terpineol has been detected. They also contain the bitter alkaloid Boldine and the
glucoside Boldin or Boldoglucin.
Test for identity:
given above.
Test for purity:
N/A
Tincture of Boldo, B.P.C.
Boldo Fluid extract
Uses:
Antifungal, antioxidant, cytotoxicity, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, hapatoprotective.
Storage
326
Phaseolus vulgaris L.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Phaseolus compessus DC.
(b) Phaseolus communis Pritzel.
(c) Phaseolus nanus L. & Jusl.
(d) Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. humilis Alef.
Common names:
Bean, Dwarf Bean, Kidney Bean (E). Haricot (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫فاصولياء‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Wake.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Haragwe, Haragi.
(f) Yoruba: Awuje.
Annual herbaceous plant of short stems, erect or recumbent climbing 5 to 3 m; leaf
opposite, oval pinnate and acuminate; whitish flowers with yellow or purple spots; pod
containing seeds of various colours.
Grown everywhere
Part used:
Name of drug:
Bean
Definition:
Bean is the dried ripe seeds of Phaseolus vulgaris L. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
The seeds are almost odourless and with a starchy characteristic taste.
Macroscopical: The seeds are flattened, subcylindrical, ovate to reniform, glassy, smooth
or slightly wrinkled, white to yellowish white, being 10 to 19 mm long, 5 to 9 mm wide
and 4 to 6 mm thick. It has a convex dorsal side and more or less straight ventral side;
hilum large oval scar at the middle of the ventral side; micropyle, small opening at the
top of the ventral side; raphe, runs from the hilum to the distal end of the seed on the
ventral side as slightly raised line; seed, anatropous, when dry is hard to break; embryo,
filling the cavity of the seed and is exalbuminous.
Microscopical: Testa consists of three regions; palisade layer with thick cuticle, radially
elongated, having unequally thick, highly refractive, cellulosic, non-lignified walls with
bar-like thickening, conical lumen which is narrow at the outer extremity and wide or
irregular at the base. The cells measure 13-21 µ long, 9-17 μ wide and 21-83 μ height;
bearer layer, single, radially elongated, thick-walled, narrow discontinuous lumen, the
cells measure 13-17 µ in length, 9-13 μ in width and 21-43 μ in height; nutritive layer of
several rows of branched irregular parenchyma. Embryo, of two cotyledons showing thin
327
epidermal cells and moderately thick-walled mesophyll cells containing rounded or oval
starch granules with fissured central hila. Numerous aleurone grains are present.
Powder: Powdered seed is faintly yellowish white, odourless and with starchy
characteristic taste, it shows fragments of palisade layer with polygonal isodiametric cells
with bar-like thickening, fragments of the bearer layer with polygonal thick walls and
narrow uneven lamina. Numerous parenchymatous cells of the embryo containing starch
granules with fissured hila and aleurone grains.
Protein, starch and a cyanogenetic glycoside: phaseolitin.
Test for identity:
the above given descriptions.
Test for purity:
N/A
Uses:
Nutritive
Storage:
328
Physostigma venenosum Balfour
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonym:
Physostigma venosum Balf.
Common names:
(a) Calabar bean, African ordeal bean (E).
(b) Feve de Calabar (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Esere, Djirou.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Iso
Subligneous creeper with smooth climbing stalks; trifoliolate leaves of 6 x 10 cm;
axillary racemes; pink or purple flowers; oblong pods of 15 x 4 cm with few ellipsoidal
seeds of 3 cm long.
Dense forest areas of Guinea and the Congo.
Part used:
Seeds
Names of drug:
Semen physostigma, Physostigma seed, Graines de Calabar.
Definition:
Physostigma seed, is the dried ripe seeds of Physostigma venonosum Balfour. (family,
Fabaceae).
It contains not more than 2 per cent of foreign organic matter and not less than 0.5 per
cent of total alkaloids.
Description:
No characteristic odour or taste.
Macroscopical: Calabar beans, somewhat flattened, reniform shape, 15-30 cm long, 10-
15 mm wide, up to 15 mm thick. Seeds extremely hard, dark brown, testa smooth in the
neighbourhood of the grooved hilum which runs the whole length of the convex side and
round one end; where somewhat wrinkled, on other side the groove well marked ridge, in
the groove the greyish, papery remains of the funiculus.
Physostigmine (eserine), eseridine, eseramine, physovenine, phytosterol, starch.
Test for identity:
given descriptions.
(b) Shake the specimen with acidulated water. Filter and add a few drops of Wagner’s,
Dragendorff’s or Mayer’s reagent. A precipitate is obtained.
329
(c) Basify the acid extract from b) above with ammonia. Shake out the alkaloid into
chloroform. Perform a thin-layer chromatographical examination of the concentrated
chloroform extract to confirm the presence of physostigmine by co-chromatography.
Test for purity:
It yields about 4 per cent of ash.
Physostigmine salicylate and physostigmine sulphate eye drops.
Uses:
In ophthalmology in treatment of glaucoma; also as a source of physostigmine
alkaloids.
Storage:
In tight, light-resistant containers in quantities not exceeding 1 g.
330
Pimpinella anisum L.
Family name:
Apiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Anisum odoratum Raf.
(b) Anisum vulgare Gaertn.
(c) Apium anisum (L.) Crantz
(d) Pimpinele anisa St.-Lag.
(e) Petroselinum sativum Hook. & Gillies
(f) Sison anisum (L.) Spreng.
Common names:
Anise or Aniseed, Anise Burnet, Saxifrage (E).
Anis. Boucage. Anis d'Europe, Anis vert (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫األنيسون أو اليانسون أو كمون حلو‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Annual herbaceous plant 60 cm high with dentate lobate lower leaves, upper leaves
contain 3 various linear lobes; umbel or umbellules of small white flowers; fruits, oblong,
striped, greenish grey and very sweet smelling.
Cultivated in temperate and Mediterranean parts of Africa.
Part used:
Fruits.
Names of drug:
Fructus Anisi, Anise Fruit, Anis, Anis Vert.
Definition:
Anise is the dried ripe fruits of Pimpinella anisum L.(family, Apiaceae) It contains not
more than 3 per cent of foreign organic matter, and yields not less than l.5 per cent of
volatile oil v/w.
Description:
Odour, strong, aromatic, agreeable and characteristic; taste, sweet and strongly aromatic.
Macroscopical: Fruit, cremocarp, partly separated into its mericarps, often entire
remaining attached to a slender pedicel, 2 to 12 mm long; ovoid enlarged at the base and
tapering at apex, somewhat laterally compressed 3 to 6 mm long and 2 to 3 mm broad;
greyish or greenish-grey, seldom greyish-brown; externally, rather rough to the touch due
to the presence of numerous very short, stiff hairs, marked on each mericarp with 5 very
slightly raised filiform pale brown primary ridges (distinction from Conium), and at the
apex with a ring-like disc, stylopod, and the remains of two diverging styles;
commissural surface, nearly flat, with two dark brownish longitudinal areas, containing
vittae, separated by a middle paler one; internally, the mericarp shows a pericarp with
331
numerous branched vittae, in the dorsal and usually 2 large ones in the commissural side,
a large oily endosperm, not deeply grooved on the commissural surface (distinction from
Conium) and a small apical embryo.
Microscopical: Epidermis of peri carp consists of cells with striated cuticle, many of
which project into short, conical, curved, thick-walled, unicellular, sometimes bicellular
non-glandular hairs with bluntly pointed apex and finely warty cuticle. Mesocarp, formed
of thin-walled parenchyma traversed longitudinally by numerous schizogenous vittae
with brown epithelial cells and in each primary ridge, by a small vascular bundle
accompanied by a few fibres and shows a patch of porous or reticulate lignified cells
existing only in the middle of the commissural side, but not in the ridges (distinction
from Fennel). Endocarp, composed of narrow, tangentially elongated thin-walled cells,
except when adjacent to the reticulate cells in the mesocarp, where it is formed of porous,
lignified and reticulately thickened cells. Seed-coat consists of one layer of tangentially
elongated cells with yellowish-brown walls, closely adhering to the endocarp except
when separated by a large cavity along the commissural surface. Endosperm, formed of
polygonal thick-walled cellulosic cells, containing fixed oil and many aleurone grains,
each enclosing one globoid and one or two micro-rosette crystals of calcium oxalate.
Carpophore, split passing at the apex into the raphe of each mericarp; traversed by a
vascular strand of fibres and spiral vessels.
Powder: Powdered Anise is grey, greenish-brown; or yellowish-brown;
characterised by numerous almost colourless fragments of endosperm; abundant minute
oil globules; numerous warty simple hairs 25 to 200 μ long and 10 to 15 µ broad;
fragments of pericarp with yellowish-brown comparatively narrow branching vittae,
usually crossed by the cells of the endocarp, the ratio of the width of these cells to that of
the vittae varies from 1.75 to 1.5 (distinction from Fennel and other umbelliferous fruits)
few fibres and very scanty pitted lignified, parenchyma; aleurone grains 2 to 15 mostly 6
to 10 µ in diameter, calcium oxalate, micro-rosette crystals 2 to 10 mostly 4 to 6 μ in
diameter and each containing a minute air bubble.
Volatile oil containing up to 90 per cent anethole, fixed oil and proteins.
Test for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination should fit the description given above.
(b) Carry out thin-layer or gas- chromatographic examination to confirm the presence of
anethole as described in volume 2.
Tests for purity:
(a) Powdered Anise shows no starch granules more than μ in diameter (Flours, etc.), no
vessels more than 20 μ in diameter and not more than a small amount of small starch
granules (stalks).
(b) Heat 1 g of powdered Anise with 10 cc of potassium hydroxide T.S.; no mouse-like
odour is developed (Conium).
(c) Ash, not more than 11 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 2.5 per cent.
(d) Moisture, not more than 7 per cent.
Assay:
Carry out the assay as directed under "Determination of volatile oils in drugs", using
about 10 g of powdered Anise, module No: 24 accurately weighed.
332
Aetheroleum Anisi
Aqua Anisi
Uses:
Storage:
333
Pisum sativum L.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonym:
(a) Pisum arvense L.
(b) Pisum humile Boiss. & Noe
(c) Pisum sativum L. ssp. arvense (L.) Poir.
(d) Pisum sativum L. var. arvense (L.) Poir.
(e) Pisum sativum L. var. humile Poir.
(f) Pisum sativum L. var. macrocarpon Ser.
Common names:
Garden pea. Common pea (E). Pois (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫بازيالء مزروعة او بسلة أو الجلبانة‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Njegele, Kunde.
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Climbing herbaceous plant with tendrils that can reach 3 m; paripinnate leaves,
pedunculate flowers solitary or clusters of three, white or purple wings or without;
spherical or angular seeds that may be mottled or not.
Grown throughout the world
Part used:
Ripe seeds
Name of drug:
Pea
Definition:
Pea is the dried seeds of Pisum sativum L. (family, Fabaceae) containing not more than 3
per cent of foreign organic matter, and yielding not less than 3.5 per cent of proteins.
Description:
Odour of delicate flavour; taste, sweet and characteristic.
Macroscopical: Seed, spherical 0.5-0.7 cm in diameter, buff or green in colour, funicle
prominent 3 to 4 mm long, broaded at the end; hilum oval with a slit through its longest
diameter; strophoile consisting of a slight elevation, raphe extending from the hilum and
beneath the strophoile to the chalaza, micropyle close by the other end of the hilum slit,
radicle is beak-like; cotyledons two and hemispherical, somewhat distorted by the short
recurved radicle.
Microscopical: Epidermis of the seed coat formed of palisade-like cells covered with thin
cuticle, the lumen of these cells is narrow and smooth in the outer two-thirds, broader and
wrinkled in the inner portion. This layer followed by spool-shaped cells with ribs which
are more or less evident especially in surface view, the third layer formed of parenchyma
334
cells without inward decrease in size and have increasingly large intercellular spaces.
Endosperm and peri sperm are not evident; cotyledons consist of two epidermis of
narrow tangentially elongated cells, often in parquetary-like groups, followed by very
indistinctly porous-walled cells, with small intercellular spaces at the corners, containing
starch grains 20-40 µ oval-oblong, rounded or subreniform in shape, many are irregularly
enlarged so that their outline appears composed as arcs of circles of varying radius.
Hilum is elongated sometimes with dark transverse clefts; radial fissures are
comparatively common. Most grains are distinctly striated, especially near the periphery,
the central portion often presenting a more or less homogeneous appearance.
Powder: Powdered Pea is pale green, characterised by fragments of palisade cells of the
seed-coat, fragments of subepidermal cells spool-shaped, fragments of cotyledonous cells
in parquetory form, some with starch grains.
Proteins, mainly vicilin and legumin, fats and starch.
Tests for identity:
Test for purity:
Ash about 3.46 per cent.
Uses:
Nutritive
Storage:
335
Plantago ovata Forssk.
Family name:
Plantaginaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Plantago brunnea Morris
(b) Plantago fastigiata Morris
(c) Plantago gooddingii A. Nelson & Kennedy
(d) Plantago insularis Eastw.
(e) Plantago minima A. Cunn
(f) Plantago ispaghula Roxb.
Common name:
Ispaghula husk, Blond Plantain, Blond Psyllium, (E).
Graines de Psyllium (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫لسان الحمل البيضوي أو لسان الحمل أولقمة النعجة‬
(b) Bambara:
(c) Hausa:
(d) Peuhl:
(e) Swahili:
(f) Yoruba:
Perennial plant with one or few rosette of flowers; linear or linear lanceolate leaves of 2.5
to 12 cm long covered with woolly brown spikes over-top, the leaves with dense clusters,
flowers of 0.5 to 3.5 cm; small flowers with scarious edged, sepals and corolla with lobes
reaching 2.5 mm; capsule around 3 mm with small seeds in the form of a carina.
Mediterranean and subtropical regions
Part used:
Dried ripe seeds
Name of drug:
Plantago seeds, Semen Plantaginis.
Definition:
Plantago seed is the dried ripe seed of Plantago ovata Forsk. (family, Plantaginaceae).
Description:
The seeds are odourless and with mucilagenous taste.
Macroscopical: The seed is boat-shaped with ovate outline, pinkish grey to brown in
colour along the margin with opaque reticulate surface, 2-2.3 mm long, 1-1.5 mm wide
and 1 mm thick, usually with central reddish-brown oval patch extending about 1/3 of the
length of the seed. The convex dorsal surface exhibits a longitudinal brown area
extending nearly along the length of the seed and represents the position of the embryo
lying beneath the seed-coat, as well as a transverse groove nearer to the broader than to
the narrower extremity and over the points of union of the hypocotyle and cotyledons.
The ventral surface shows a deep brown furrow which does not reach to either end of the
seeds, in the centre of which is an oval yellowish-white hilum, from which extends to the
336
chalazal end, a slightly elevated dark brown raphe. The seed is albuminous with oily
endosperm. the embryo is straight, formed of two large plano-convex cotyledons and a
small radicle in the narrow end and directed towards the micropyle. The seed is
mucilagenous and upon soaking in water, the seed-coat swells and the seed becomes
enveloped with a colourless mucilage.
The weight of 100 seeds is about 0.1 g. A longitudinal cut perpendicular to the ventral
surface and passing through the hilum, shows a thin dark brown testa within which is a
narrow endosperm surrounding a large oval-lanceolate cotyledon and large pyramidal
radicle directed towards the micropyle.
Microscopical: The transverse cut through the central region possesses a reniform or a
concave-convex outline and shows a testa, endosperm and two plano-convex cotyledons.
Each cotyledon shows aleurone strands. On the convex surface a small raphe. The testa
formed of one integument showing outer epidermis consisting of polygonal tabular cells
with straight thin anticlinal walls covered with smooth cuticle. They measure 52-60-68 μ
in length, 30-45-52 μ in width and 27-29-32 μ in height, the middle (nutrient) layer is
formed of collapsed layer of thin cellulosic parenchyma usually more than one layer
about 5 or 6 rows; the inner epidermis consists of polygonal cells with straight thin
anticlinal walls, containing reddishbrown contents, they measure 16-25-38 μ in length
and 11-16-20 μ in width and 2-3 μ in height. The endosperm is formed of irregularly
shaped thick cellulosic parenchyma showing an epidermis which is palisade like, cells
containing aleurone, grains without inclusion, and fixed oil. The embryo, formed of thin-
walled cellulosic parenchyma containing fixed oil and aleurone grains. Each cotyledon
shows 3 aleurone strands.
Powder: Greyish-brown in colour showing glossy particles, colourless and with
mucilagenous taste, characterised by fragments of epidermis formed of thin-wall
polygonal cells with smooth cuticle and containing mucilage in the outer tangential and
anticlinal walls, staining red with ruthenium red and blue with methylene blue; fragments
of the pigment layer which is formed of polygonal cells with thin straight anticlinal walls
with brown content traversed by collapsed colourless parenchyma; abundant fragments of
endosperm with aleurone grains which are free of content and fixed oil; fragments of
embryo tissues showing thin wall parenchyma containing fixed oil and aleurone grains;
few fragments showing spiral vessels attaining 11-13-15 μ width and few fibres which
are elongated with thin pitted walls and pointed ends attaining 80-150-180 μ in length
and 8-10-12 μ in width.
Mucilage, fixed oil and brown pigments, glycoside (Aucubin).
Test for identity:
(b) Place 1 g of the fresh plant material, which is reduced to coarse particles, in a test
tube with 5 ml of 1 per cent HCl, after 3-6 hours maceration, transfer about 0.1 ml of
macerate to another test tube, add 1 ml of Feld's reagent and heat on a small flame; a
blue colour is produced; indicating the presence of aucubin.
337
Tests for purity:
Foreign organic matter: not more than 0.5 per cent; Total ash: not more than 4 per cent;
Acid insoluble ash: not more than 1 per cent; moisture not more than 14 per cent.
Assay:
Determination of aucubin content:The aucubin content is estimated colorimetrically by
measuring the blue colour developed on warming the glycoside with p-dimethylamino-
benzaldehyde reagent; 1 g of the powdered air dried organs of the plant is defatted,
extracted with ethanol (50 per cent) for 24 hours, filtered and the process repeated three
times. The combined filtrates are concentrated to 40 ml, transferred to a 50 ml volumetric
flask and adjusted to the mark with alcohol (50 per cent). I ml of the alcohol extract is
then treated with I ml of p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde reagent, 1 ml of 20 per cent HCI
and 7 ml ethanol 50 per cent. The mixture is heated for 8 minutes at 65°C, cooled to
room temperature, allowed to stand for 15 minutes and then the developed blue colour is
measured at 595 nm by means of a spectrophotometer.
Ash not more than 4.5 per cent.
Uses:
Laxative and suspending agent.
Storage:
338
Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth.
Family name:
Lamiaceae
Synonyms
(a) Pogostemon patchouli Pellet.
(b) Mentha cablin Blanco
Common names
Patchouli, puchaput (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
It is a bushy herb of the mint family, with erect stems, reaching two or three feet (about
0.75 metre) in height and bearing small, pale pink-white flowers. The patchouli plant is
grown for the intoxicating fragrance of its leaves. The flowers are not showy but they are
more fragrant than the leaves so it might be worth the trouble to provide your plant with
the conditions it needs to bloom.
The plant is native to tropical regions of Asia, and is now extensively cultivated in
China, Indonesia, India, Malaysia, Mauritius, Taiwan, the Philippines, Thailand, and
Vietnam, as well as West Africa.
Part used
Leaf oil
Name of drug:
Pachouli oil
Definition:
Patchouli oil is the essential oil extracted from the dried grass of the Pogostemon cablin
(Blanco) Benth. (family, Lamiaceae) plant by steam distillation.
Description:
Macroscopical: Herbs or subshrubs, perennial, aromatic. Stems erect, 30-100 cm tall,
tomentose. Petiole 1-6 cm; leaf blade circular to broadly ovate, 2-10.5 × 1-8.5 cm,
herbaceous, adaxially dark green, sparsely tomentose, abaxially tomentose, base cuneate-
attenuate, margin irregularly incised, apex obtuse to acute; lateral veins ca. 5-paired.
Spikes 4-6.5 × 1.5-1.8 cm, densely tomentose, terminal and axillary; verticillasters 10- to
many flowered, basally somewhat lax; peduncle 0.5-2 cm; bracts and bracteoles linear-
lanceolate, somewhat shorter than to as long as calyx, densely tomentose. Calyx tubular,
7-9 mm, tomentose outside, minutely tomentose inside; teeth subulate-lanceolate, ca. 1/3
as long as calyx tube. Corolla purple, ca. 1 cm, lobes villous outside. Stamens bearded.
Fl. Apr.
339
Three terpenoids Germacrene, Patchoulol or patchouli alcohol, Norpatchoulenol found in
patchouli oil.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical examination of the leaf specimen for extracting the oil to ensure
(b) Gas chromatographical examination of the essential oil to confirm the presence of
Germacrene, Patchoulol or Patchouli alcohol and Norpatchoulenol.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Patchouli is used widely in modern perfumery and industry.
Storage:
Dried leaves to be kept in a cool dry place. Oil to be stored in well closed containers
away from light and heat.
340
Polygala senega L.
Family name:
Polygalaceae
Synonym:
(a) Polygala senega L. var. latifolia Torr. &
A. Gray
(b) Polygala senega var. senega L.
(c) Polygala senegum L.
Common names:
Senaca, snake-root, Senega, Seneca
Milkwort, Mountain Flax (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Hankakidako = P. arenaria
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Perennial herbaceous plant with numerous stems sprouting from a single thick gnarled
stump; leaves lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate with rough edges; flowers, almost sessile
with rounded-obovate wings, concave with a short-crested carina.
Temperate and subtropical regions of Africa
Part used:
Root and root-stock
Names of drug:
Radix senegae, Senega root, Racine de senega.
Definition:
Senega is the dried root and root-stock of Polygala senega L. (family, Polygalaceae).
Senega contains not more than 5 per cent of its stems, and not more than 2 per cent of
other foreign organic matter.
Description:
Odour, slight and characteristic, recalling that of methyl salicylate, sternutatory when in
powder form; taste, sweet, subsequently acrid and irritant to the throat.
Macroscopical: Senega occurs usually in pieces, sometimes entire, consisting of a large,
knotty, tortuous crown or root-stock, up to 3 cm wide, bearing numerous purplish short
stem-bases and buds, and of a long tapering root slender, more or less obconical,
frequently curved and contorted, somewhat twisted, sparingly branched: 3 to 20 cm
mostly 8 to 9 cm long, 2 to 10 mm thick; greyish-yellow or brownish-grey; externally
transversely wrinkled, sometimes more or less annulated especially on the convex side in
the upper part, also longitudinally wrinkled, frequently showing a longitudinal ridge, the
keel, running spirally and prominent on the concave side; fracture, short, smooth in the
bark, splintery in the wood; internally, consisting of a narrow, light-yellow, horny,
341
somewhat translucent bark, frequently strongly developed on one side and protruding to
form the keel, and of a hard whitish, uniform normal wood, or irregularly developed
anomalous wood, appearing in transverse section, oval semi-circular, or variously
wedged with one or more broad parenchyma rays commonly reaching to the centre.
Microscopical: Cork, narrow, formed of 2 to 6 layers of tangentially elongated,
yellowish-brown, thick-walled cells; cortex of phelloderm, narrow, usually containing
large lacunae, and formed of 2 to 6 layers of isodiametric, occasionally tangentially
elongated, collenchymatous parenchyma, phloem in parts wholly replaced by
parenchyma but abnormally developed in the keel region, consisting of radial rows of
parenchyma, small groups of sieve tissue, and traversed by medullary-rays 1 to 3 cell-
wide; cambium, circular; xylem, with the exception of the parenchyma wedges, wholly
lignified, consisting mainly of tracheids, and short pitted vessels, few fibrous tracheids,
and thin-walled fibres, the whole traversed by numerous indistinct lignified medullary-
rays; primary xylem, 2-arch. All parenchyma with small oily globules but no starch or
calcium oxalate. Root-stock, with polygonal cork cells, irregularly disposed xylem
elements, occasional spiral vessels and thin-walled parenchymatous pith.
Stem with epidermis of elongated subrectangular cells; cortex parenchymatous;
pericyc1e, with a band of unlignified fibres; xylem containing pitted tracheid and pitted
reticulate and spiral vessels; pith, parenchymatous.
Scale leaf, with ranunculaceous stomata and unicellular warty simple hairs.
Powder: Powdered Senega, yellowish-grey to grey characterised by few fragments of
cork; numerous fragments of wood showing pitted tracheids, fibrous tracheids and few
vessels up to 65 μ in diameter, usually crossed with medullary-ray cells; numerous small
oily globules, free or in cells; occasional fragments of aerial stems with long un lignified
fibres, and frequent fragments of scale leaves, with ranunculaceous stomata and
unicellular warty simple hairs with solid tips.
Senega root contains as principal constituents the saponin senegin about 4 per cent and
polygalic acid, about 5.5 per cent. The drug contains a small percentage of methyl
salicylate. Senega root also contains 5 per cent of fixed oil.
Tests for identity:
(a) Shake the aqueous decoction of Senega, a voluminous froth is produced.
(b) Extract 10 g of powdered Senega firstly with ether, then with ether acidulated with
dilute hydrochloric acid (2 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid for each 25 ml of ether) so as
to obtain 25 ml of the ethereal extract in each time; mix the two extracts, and divide into
two portions, each of 25 ml.
Add one portion to 20 ml of warm water, 40° to 50°C, placed in an evaporating dish,
drive off the ether, filter if necessary, and then add 1 drop of ferric chloride T.S.; a
reddish-violet colour is produced.
Evaporate the other portion to dryness, and weigh; the residue is not less than 0.2 g.
Dissolve the residue in 2 ml of chloroform, transfer to a test-tube, and run carefully on
the side of the tube I ml of sulfuric acid; a deep reddish-brown zone is formed between
the two liquids, and the sulfuric acid layer shows a faint greenish fluorescence within 24
hours.
342
Tests for purity:
(a) Powdered Senega contains no, or very few, starch granules; no crystals of calcium
oxalate (other roots); no inulin (False Senega); and only very few fragments of bast fibres
(Senega Stem).
(b) Boil, for 5 minutes, 1 g of very finely powdered Senega with 100 ml of water in a
porcelain dish, cool, filter through cotton-wool, and wash with sufficient water to obtain
100 ml of filtrate. Transfer 4 ml of the filtrate to a 100 ml measuring cylinder having a
diameter of 3 cm, complete with water to 100 ml and shake vigorously; a voluminous
froth is produced which persists for not less than one hour (Exhausted Senega).
(c) Alcohol (20 per cent) soluble extractives, not less than 27 per cent.
Ash, not more than 7 per cent; acid-insoluble ash not more than 2 per cent; moisture, not
more than 13 per cent.
Extractum Senegae Fluidum
Tinctura Senegae
Uses:
Expectorant
Storage:
343
Prosopis africana (Guill. & Perr.)Taub.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Prosopis lanceolata Benth.
(b) Prosopis oblonga Benth.
(c) Coulteria africana Guill. & Perr.
(d) Prosopis oblonga Benth
Common names:
Iironwood, Locust bean, African Mesquite
(E). Arbre de forgerons, Prosopis (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Guele
(c) Hausa: Kiriya, K’irya tamata.
(d) Peuhl: Thiélingayi
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ayan
Prosopis africana reaches 4-20 m in height; has an open crown and slightly rounded
buttresses; bark is very dark, scaly, slash orange to red-brown with white streaks. Foliage
drooping; leaves alternate, bipinnate; rachis 10-15 cm long with 3-6 pairs of opposite
pinnae (5-8 cm long); 9-16 pairs of leaflets, oblong-lanceolate, 12-30 mm, pubescent; a
typical gland between pairs of pinnae and leaflets. Flowers greenish-white to yellow,
fragrant, in dense 6-10 cm long axillary spikes; calyx pubescent but petals glabrous; 10
free-standing stamens; anthers with a small apical gland. Pods dark brown, cylindrical,
thick and hard, shiny, up to 15 x 3 cm, with woody walls, compartmented; about 10
loose, rattling seeds per pod with a thin, intermarginal line around.
From Senegal to Ethiopia in the zone between the Sahel and savannah forests.
Part used:
Roots
Name of drug:
Locust bean root
Definition:
Locust bean root is the dried root of Prosopis africana (Guill. & Perr.)Taub. (family,
Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Tree 4.5–12(–21) m high, unarmed, with grey, rough, scaly or fissured
bark. Young branchlets shortly pubescent or puberulous. Leaves: petiole 2.5–6.6 cm long,
pubescent or puberulous as in the (0–)2.7–9.5 cm long rhachis; pinnae (1–)2–4 pairs,
glandular between most of the pairs of leaflets; leaflets opposite, in (5–)7–15 pairs,
oblong-lanceolate or elliptic-lanceolate, (1.3–)1.5–3(–4) cm long, 0.4–1(–1.5) cm wide,
narrowed to an usually acute or subacute apex, inconspicuously appressed-puberulous on
both sides. Flowers creamy-white or yellow-green, fragrant, sessile or nearly so, in 3–6
344
cm long spikes borne on 1–3.5 cm long peduncles. Calyx 1.5–2 mm long, puberulous.
Petals free, 3–4.5 mm long, glabrous or nearly so outside. Stamen-filaments 5.5–6.5 mm
long. Ovary hairy. Pods 10–20 cm long, 1.5–3.3 cm in diameter, black or brown, glossy,
subcylindrical or slightly compressed, thickened. Seeds ellipsoid, 8–10 mm long, 4–9
mm wide, blackish-brown, glossy.
Alkaloids: Prosopine and prosopinine.
Tests for identity:
(a) Examine the specimen macroscopically to ensure compliance with the descriptions
given above.
(b) Extract the powdered root with ammoniacal Chloroform. Treat a portion of the
chloroform extract with dilute acid and test the acidic fraction with Mayer’s,
Dragendorff’s, Wagner’s or other alkaloid testing reagent. A positive reaction
(precipitate) is obtained.
(c) Examine the chloroform extract of the alkaloid (see b above) chromatographically for
the presence of prosopine and prosopinine by thin layer co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Purgative, Analgesic, Anti-inflammatory,
Storage:
In air-tight containers.
345
Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Echinodiscus erinaceus Benth. ex Walp.
(b) Pterocarpus africanus Hock.
(c) Pterocarpus senegalensis Vahl ex DC.
Common names:
African gum, African rosewood, African teak,
Gambia gum, Senegal rosewood, barwood;
black camwood; African kino; Gambian kino
(E). Palissandre du Sénégal, Santal rouge
d’Afrique, Veine teck africain (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Ngueni
(c) Hausa: Dorowan kurmi, Madobia, Mai-jini, Shaa-jini.
(d) Peuhl: Bani
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Osun-dudu, Gbingbin, Apepe.
Deciduous small tree up to 15(–25) m tall; bole straight, cylindrical and branchless for up
to 10 m under good conditions but often twisted, fluted and low-branched under poorer
conditions, up to 75(–100) cm in diameter, slightly buttressed; bark surface greyish
brown to blackish, fissured and scaly, inner bark yellowish brown, with reddish streaks,
exuding a reddish translucent gum on slashing; crown rounded, open; twigs densely
short-hairy when young. Leaves alternate, imparipinnately compound with (5–)7–11(–15)
leaflets; stipules linear, up to 9 mm long, hairy, falling off early; petiole 3–7 cm long,
rachis (7–)10–17(–22) cm long, hairy; petiolules 3–8 mm long; leaflets usually alternate,
ovate to elliptical, (4–)6–11 cm × (2–) 3–6 cm, base rounded to obtuse, apex obtuse to
slightly acuminate with usually shallowly notched tip, thick-papery, brownish hairy when
young but later glabrescent, with 12–20 pairs of lateral veins. Inflorescence an axillary or
terminal panicle 7–20 cm long, densely brown hairy; bracts up to 6 mm long, falling off
early. Flowers bisexual, papilionaceous; pedicel 4–8 mm long, hairy; calyx campanulate,
c. 7 mm long, densely hairy, with 5 triangular teeth 1–2.5 mm long, upper 2 more or less
connate; corolla with clawed petals, golden yellow, standard almost circular, up to 15 mm
× 13 mm, wings up to 13 mm long, keel up to 10 mm long; stamens 10, fused into a
sheath up to 8.5 mm long, the upper stamen sometimes free; ovary superior, stiped, hairy,
style up to 5 mm long, almost glabrous. Fruit a circular, flattened, indehiscent pod 4–7
cm in diameter, on a stipe up to 1 cm long and with a papery, finely veined wing with
wavy or plaited margin, with prickles on the seed-bearing portion, straw-coloured, 1(–2)-
seeded. Seed kidney-shaped, flat to slightly thickened, c. 10 mm × 5 mm, smooth, red to
dark brown. Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons leafy.
346
It is a native of Senegal. Broad distribution from Senegal to Gabon, up to Sahel border.
Part used:
Leaves
Name of drug:
African kino
Definition:
African kino consists of the leaf of Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir (family, Papillionaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Pterocarpus erinaceus is a medium-sized, generally deciduous tree 12-
15 m tall, bole often of poor form, strongly fluted and gnarled, with numerous, plank-like
buttresses; bark surface finely scaly fissured, brown-blackish, inner bark thin, producing
red sap when cut; crown dense, domed; branchlets often lenticelled; indumentum of
simple, usually short and adpressed hairs. Old trees often hollow. Leaves alternate,
imparipinnate, up to 30 cm long; stipules generally small, linear or narrowly triangular,
usually early caducous; up to 11 leaflets, alternate or sometimes subopposite, entire.
Inflorescence paniculate; bracts and bracteoles small, linear to narrowly triangular.
Flowers bisexual, irregular; calyx 5 mm long, turbinate to campanulate, 5-lobed, the
upper 2 lobes usually larger, sometimes united; petals 5, free, clawed, 10-12 mm,
generally yellow, glabrous or sparsely hairy outside, standard obovate to spatulate, keels
shorter than the wings and connate at the base. Fruit a compressed indehiscent pod, green
when young, disk-like, up to 7.5 cm diameter, broadly winged or rarely slightly keeled,
with a thickened central, usually woody or corky seed-bearing portion, with 1-3(4) seeds.
Seed kidney-shaped to oblong, usually narrowed and curved near the minute hilum,
smooth to undulate, testa brown to blackish, aril, minute.
Microscopical: Epidermal cells have straight to undulating anticlinal walls on the adaxial
surface and straight on the abaxial; stomata on the abaxial surface consist of anomocytic
and paracytic types; transverse section of leaf is isobilateral, epidermis is single layered
on both surfaces with thick cuticle, mesophyll is undifferentiated and has many air
spaces; multicellular trichomes with glandular heads are present on the two surfaces; they
are more on the ventral surface; transverse section through the mid rib region shows
protuberances on both ventral and dorsal sides forming an ovoid shape; vascular bundle
fan shaped; xylem (5-7 celled) located above phloem; centrally placed in the lamina
region are some stone cells.
Powder: Parenchymatous cells of the epidermis, straight anticlinal walls, stomata of
anomocytic and paracytic, multicellular glandular trichomes and xylem vessels.
Alkaloids; tannins, astringents. Homopterocarpin, pterocarpin, angolensin,
acetyloleanolic acid, pseudobaptigenin, saponins and flavonoids.
Tests for identity:
(b) Microchemical test for the presence of alkaloids.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographic examination to confirm the presence of
homopterocarpin, pterocarlin or angolensin by co-chromatography.
347
Tests for purity:
Ash: 13.7 per cent
Water-soluble extractives: Not less than 14.3 per cent
Alcohol (70 per cent.) –soluble extractives: Not less than 15.7 per cent
N/A
Uses:
Malaria, dysentery, diarrhea, fever and insomnia. 300g of plant material boiled with
900ml of water until reduced to 600ml. take two tablespoonfuls twice daily.
Storage:
348
Punica granatum L.
Family name:
Punicaceae
Synonym:
Punica nana L.
Common names:
Pomegranate tree, Dwarf
Pomegranate (E). Grenadier, Grenade
(F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫الرمان‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Ximani, Rumman,
Rummani.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Mkoma manga, Komamanga, Kudhumani.
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Shrub that can reach 2.50 m in height, with young quadrangular more or less thorny
stalks; linear lanceolate leaves of 4 to 6 cm by 2.5 cm; wide solitary flowers red in colour
4 cm long; spherical fruits 10 cm in diameter, containing numerous reddish fleshy seeds.
Cosmopolitan and widely cultivated in gardens. Widely cultivated in warm regions
throughout the world.
Part used:
Bark
Names of drug:
Cortex Granati, Pomegranate Bark, Pericarpium Granati.
Definition:
Pomegranate bark is the dried stem and root barks of Punica granatum L. (family,
Punicaceae). Pomegranate bark contains not more than 2.0 per cent of wood or other
foreign organic matter, and yields not less than 0.5 per cent of total alkaloids of
Pomegranate bark.
Description:
Odour slight, taste astringent, somewhat bitter and nauseous.
Macroscopical:
STEM BARK: occurs in curved pieces or quills; up to 10 cm long, 0.5 to 2.5 mm thick:
outer surface, yellowish to greyish-brown, with occasional greyish patches of lichens,
longitudinally wrinkled and marked small, broadly elliptical lenticels; inner surface, light
yellow or yellowish-brown, finely striated; fracture, very short and granular.
ROOT BARK: occurs in flat, irregular, curved, or recurved small pieces; outer surface,
brownish-yellow, rough, with darker patches and conchoidal depressions due to
exfoliation of the outer portion, but no lenticels; inner surface, yellow, smooth, with
irregular darker brown patches; other characteristics similar to those of stem bark.
349
Microscopical: Cork, formed of several alternating layers of suberized thin-walled cells
and of lignified cells with greatly thickned inner tangential walls. Cortex, consisting of
parenchyma containing small starch granules, scattered prisms and occasional cluster
crystals of calcium oxalate, and of large sclereids which are isolated, rarely in small
groups, with very thick and strongly stratified walls, up to 400 μ long and 200 μ-broad.
Phloem shows numerous cells containing cluster crystals of calcium oxalate in more or
less tangential rows, and parenchyma cells with numerous starch granules or amorphous
tannin masses. Medulary rays, one cell wide, with occasional cells containing numerous
small prism.
Powder: Powdered Pomegranate bark is yellowish-brown to dark brown; characterised
by fragments of parenchyma containing numerous starch granules and crystals of calcium
oxalate; sclereids with very thick and pitted walls; fragments of cork with prominent,
thickened and lignified walls; numerous calcium oxalate crystals, prisms, 6 to 10 μ long
and cluster crystals, up to 15 μ in diameter; starch granules, abundant, simple, 2 to 10 μ in
diameter, or rarely compound; occasional long wood fibres, 15 to 20 μ in diameter,
associated with pitted vessels; bast fibres absent.
The alkaloids pelletierine, isopelletierine, methyl pelletierine, methyl isopelletierine and
pseudo-pelletierine. The bark contains about 22 per cent of gallo-tannic acid.
Tests for identity:
Macerate 0.5 g of powdered Pomegranate bark with 25 ml of water for one hour, with
occasional shaking, and filter; the light-yellow filtrate responds to the following tests:
(a) To 10 ml of the filtrate, add a drop of ferric chloride T.S.; a bluish-black precipitate is
formed.
(b) To 10 ml of the filtrate, add 1 ml of calcium hydroxide T.S.; an orange brown
floculent precipitate is formed.
Tests for purity:
(a) Pomegranate bark contains no bast fibres (Foreign barks) and not more than
occasional fragments of wood elements (wood).
(b) Ash, not more than 17.0 per cent.
Assay:
Mix, in a flask, about 10 g of powdered Pomegranate Bark, module No. 22, accurately
weighed, with 5 g of magnesium oxide, add 50 ml of chloroform and shake frequently for
one hour. Transfer the mixture to a small continuous extraction apparatus plugged with
cotton-wool, and when the liquid ceases to flow, pack firmly and continue the extraction,
until complete extraction of the alkaloids is effected. Evaporate the chloroform extract to
about 20 ml, transfer the concentrated extract to a separator, cool, add 10 ml of N/10
hydrochloric acid and shake well. Allow to separate and run off the chloroform layer into
another separator.
Continue the extraction with successive portions, each of 10 ml of N/10 hydrochloric

acid, until complete extraction of the alkaloids is effected.
Mix the acid extracts, make distinctly alkaline with sodium hydroxide T.S., and repeat
the extraction with successive portions, each of 10 ml of chloroform, until complete
extraction of the alkaloids is effected. Wash the combined chloroform extracts with about
350
10 ml of water, reject the water, and dehydrate the chloroform with about 2 g of
anhydrous sodium sulfate.
Filter through a dry filter into a porcelain dish, wash the sodium sulfate and the filter with
a few ml of chloroform, adding the washing to the chloroform extract in the dish.
Evaporate the chloroform on a water-bath, add to the residue 2 ml of alcohol and
evaporate again. Dissolve the residue in 10 ml of N/10 hydrochloric acid and titrate the
excess of acid with N/10 sodium hydroxide, using methyl red T.S. as indicator.
Each ml of N/10 hydrochloric acid is equivalent to 0.0148 g of total alkaloids.
Uses:
Taenifuge and vermifuge
Storage:
351
Quassia amara L.
Family name:
Simarubaceae
Synonym:
N/A
Common names:
Bitter wood tree, Quassia Wood, Surinam
Quassia (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: Kékudié = Q. undulata
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Shrub of 3 to 4 m high with composite leaves, winged rachis, opposite leaflets 3 or 4
elliptical pairs; paniculate leaves; obovate-elliptical hard edged fruit.
Originates from tropical America and grown in gardens in tropical Africa.
Part used:
Wood
Names of drug:
Lignum Quassiae, Quassia Wood.
Definition:
Quassia wood is the dried wood of the trunk and branches of Picraema excelsa (SW)
Planchon (family, Simarubaceae), known as Jamaica Quassia, or of Quassia amara L.
known as Surinam Quassia.
Quassia contains not more than 2 per cent of foreign organic matter.
Description:
Odour very slight or odourless; taste intensely bitter and persistent.
Macroscopical: JAMAICA QUASSIA: Occurs in chips, raspings or shavings,
occasionally in logs, varying in size; yellowish-white or bright yellow, sometimes with
light or dark-grey patches of the thin bark; tough, but easily split longitudinally; light in
weight; diffuse porous, with false annual rings; transverse surface shows numerous white
radial lines and irregular concentric rings; tangential surface shows numerous parallel
streaks.
SURINAM QUASSIA: Similar to Jamaica Quassia except that the logs are usually
thinner.
Microscopical: JAMAICA QUASSIA: Elements, in storeyed arrangement. Wood fibres,
constituting the main bulk of the wood; long, 750 to 900 µ in length and up to 18 μ in
width, with thin walls, linear oblique simple pits and fine pointed ends. Wood
parenchyma, metatracheal parenchyma in narrow tangential bands, of 2 to 4 up to about
15 cells thick; paratracheal parenchyma, in 1 to several layers, around the parts of the
vessels not touching medullary rays; some, being small, short, in files of up to about 15
352
cells, each containing a prism of calcium oxalate; others, longer and without crystals, in
files generally of about 4 cells. Vessels, up to 200 μ in diameter; isolated or in groups of
2 to 6, and rarely up to 11, with very numerous minute oval bordered pits. Medullary rays
numerous, about 6 to 8 per mm of arc, almost homogeneous 2- to 5-mostly 3-cells wide;
about 20 per cent of the medullary rays being l-cell wide; 10 to 25, up to 40 cells high;
cells, rectangular, elongated on the edges of medullary rays, with pitted walls; occasional
cells with prisms of calcium oxalate. Starch granules, occasional in parenchyma; about 4
to 12, up to 20 microns in diameter; mostly simple, rounded occasionally compound, with
2 components.
SURINAM QUASSIA: Similar to Jamaica Quassia except that the medullary rays are
mostly l-cell, sometimes 2-cell wide, and 5 to 20 up to 30 cells high; vessels, smaller in
diameter, and calcium oxalate crystals very few or absent.
Powder: Powdered Quassia, pale yellow or pale buff; consisting wholly of lignified
elements; characterised by numerous fragments of wood fibres with thin walls and
oblique linear pits; fragments showing medullary rays in different aspects; fragments of
rectangular and lignified wood parenchyma; fragments of vessels with very small oval
bordered pits, having linear openings; calcium oxalate sometimes absent in Surinam
Quassia only, prisms 6 to 30 μ long, free or in the parenchyma accompanying the fibres
and in some cells of medullary rays; few starch granules, rounded or ellipsoidal, 5 to 15 μ
in diameter or occasionally compound with two components.
Bitter amaroids: quassin, isoquassin and neoquassin.
Test for identity:
b) Boil gently about 0.5 g of powdered quassia with 5 ml of alcohol for few minutes,
filter, add to the filtrate 2 drops of phloroglucin T.S. and 4 ml of hydrochloric acid; a
rose-red colour is produced within few minutes.
Tests for purity:
(a) Boil about 1 g of powdered Quassia with 20 ml of water for few minutes, filter, add to
the filtrate a drop of ferric chloride T.S.; no change of colour takes place (Tannin
containing woods).
(b) Water-soluble extractive, not less than 3 per cent.
(c) Ash, not more than 8 per cent for Jamaica Quassia and not more than 4 per cent for
Surinam Quassia.
Uses:
Anthelmintic, bitter stomachic.
Storage:
353
Quercus infectoria G. Olivier
Family name:
Fagaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Q. alpestris Koch
(b) Q. infectoria subsp puberula O.Schwarz
(c) Q. lusitanica Boiss.
(d) Q. lusitanica var. infectoria (G.Olivier)
A.DC
(e) Q. lusitanica subsp infectoria (G.Olivier)
Mouillef.
(f) Q. lusitanica subsp orientalis A.DC
(g) Q. valentina Koch.
Common names:
Aleppo Oak, Oak gall, Magin gall, Dyers’ Gall, Magic Nut (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Quercus infectoria is an evergreen Shrub growing to 1.8 m (6ft). It is hardy to zone 6
and is not frost tender. The flowers are monoecious (individual flowers are either male or
female, but both sexes can be found on the same plant) and are pollinated by Wind.
Asia Minor (Irak, Kurdistan, Turkey); Cyprus, Greece.
Part used:
Seed, bark.
Name of drug:
Allepo oak
Definition:
Allepo oak is the dried bark of Quercus infectoria G. Olivier (family, Fagaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Growth habit 5-6 m tall; often small shrub less than 2 m tall; Leaves 3-8
x 1.5-5 cm; semi-evergreen; leathery; oblong; base rounded sometimes cordate; apex
obtuse; margin dentate 4-9 pairs of teeth) or crenate-dentate often wavy or rarely lobed;
hairless, shiny above; paler beneath or glaucous, glabrous or with some stellate hairs;
actually very polymorphous; leaves at the base of twigs are often entire; 5-11 vein pairs;
intercalary veins present; petiole cylindrical 1 cm long; Fruits acorn mucronate, ovoid
elongated, 2-3.5 cm long, 1.8 cm in diameter; glabrous, shiny light brown; peduncle as
long as the petiole; enclosed 1/5 by cup; cup hemispheric or subconical, 1.5-1.8 cm in
diameter,with lanceolate, appressed, tomentose scales.
Bark, twigs and buds bark grey, scaly, ridged; twig with deciduous pubescence.
354
Tannic acid, Gallic-acid, Gallo-tannic acid, Syringic and ellagic acid.
Tests for identity:
(b) Examine an aqueous extract of the specimen for the presence of tannins by the
addition of ferric chloride solution. A blue-black colouration is obtained.
Test for purity:
The galls contain 36 - 58% tannin.
N/A
Uses:
An ink is made from the tannin-rich galls.
Storage:
355
Quillaja saponaria Poir.
Family name:
Quillajaceae
Synonym:
Quilaia saponaria Mol.
Common names:
Quillaia. Soap Bark-tree (E).
Kilaya (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫القِالَ َجة الصابونية‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Tree of 15 to 20 m high with persistent cariacious, ovate leaves almost invariably dentate,
smooth, glossy on short leaf-stalks; flowers-whitish and terminal either solitary or in
clusters of 3 or 5 on the same peduncle; corolla consisting of 5 small petals and fruit of 5
follicules shedding winged Seeds.
Originates from South America (South of Brazil, Chile and Peru) can also grow in the
Mediterranean regions.
Part used:
Inner bark
Names of drug:
Cortex Quillajae, Quillaia Bark.
Definition:
Quillaia is the dried inner part of the bark of Quillaja saponaria Nolina and possibly
other species of Quillaja. (family, Quillajaceae).
Quillaia contains not more than 5.0 per cent of adhering outer bark and not more than 2.0
per cent of other foreign organic matter.
Description:
Odourless, but its powder is strongly sternutatory; taste, very acrid.
Macroscopical: Quillaia occurs in flat pieces; varying in size, generally up to about I
metre long, 20 cm broad, 3 to 10 mm thick, outer surface, pale brownish or yellowish-
white, longitudinally striated with occasional reddish-brown patches of incompletely
removed rhytidome; inner surface, nearly smooth, white or yellowish-white, hard, tough;
fracture, splintery and laminated: the fractured surface showing here and there glittering
crystals of calcium oxalate; the smoothed transverse surface has a chequred appearance,
showing alternating dark and paler tangential, bands, traversed by radial white lines.
Microscopical: The bark consists mainly of secondary phloem, composed of alternating
tangential bands of fibres and sieve tissues with parenchyma. Fibres, in irregular groups,
occasionally isolated tortuous, with thick, strongly lignified walls and irregularly
356
enlarged at intervals, up to 1000 μ long. Phloem parenchyma contains numerous starch
granules and large prisms of calcium oxalate. Sieve tubes, 20 to 30 μ wide and having
oblique transverse walls with several sieve areas. Medullary rays, mostly 3 to 4, rarely up
to 6 cells wide, parenchymatous, but having the cells abutting on the groups of fibres,
generally regularly thickened, pitted and lignified.
The innermost part of the bark consists of unlignified elements and contains no fibres.
Rhytidome, if present, consists of bands of reddish-brown cork cell, alternating with
bands of brown parenchyma with groups of fibres and large prisms of calcium oxalate.
Powder: Powdered Quillaia is pinkish-white; characterised by numerous fragments of
tortuous fibres staining red with hydrochloric acid, occasionally crossed by cells of the
medullary rays; few fragments of parenchyma; prisms of calcium oxalate, 35 to 200,
mostly 50 to 170 μ long, 8 to 30 μ, mostly 10 to 20 μ wide, usually broken; numerous
starch granules, simple or compound, of 2 to 3 components, spheroidal, 5 to 10 or up to
20 μ in diameter; occasional sub rectangular sclereids and a few brownish-red fragments
of cork cells with reddish-brown contents.
Saponin glycosides, quillajic acid and quillaia sapotoxin.
Test for identity:
(b) When powdered Quillaia is shaken with water, a copius persistent froth is produced.
Tests for purity:
(a) Boil 1 g of powdered Quillaia, module No. 22, with 100 ml of water in a porcelain
dish for 5 minutes, cool, filter through cotton-wool and wash with sufficient water to
produce 100 ml. Transfer 1 ml of the filtrate to a measuring cylinder of about 150 ml
capacity, having a diameter of 3 cm, complete with water to 100 ml and shake
vigorously; a voluminous froth is produced which persists for not less than one hour.
(b) Alcohol (45 per cent) soluble extractive, not less than 28.0 per cent.
(c) Ash, not more than 18.0 per cent: acid-insoluble ash, not more than 2.0 per cent.
Tinctura Quillajae
Quillaja Liquid Extract
Uses:
Emulsifying agent for liquid tar.
Storage:
357
Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel.
Family name:
Apocynaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Rauvolfia stuhlmannii K. Schum.
(b) Rauvolfia senegambiae A. DC.
(c) Rauvolfia congolana De Wild. & Durand
(d) Hylacium owariense P. Beauv.
Common names:
Swizzlestick, African Rauwolfia, Poison
devil's-pepper (E).
Rauwolfia emetique (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Kolijoi, Kolijohi, Kolijoli.
(c) Hausa: Wada,
(d) Peuhl: Moyatalal, Modatatel.
(e) Swahili: Msesewe = R. caffra
(f) Yoruba: Akanta, Adapopo, Asofeiyeje, Ira-Igbo.
Tree that can attain 15 m in height with dichotomous ramification; whorled leaves in
groups of 4 or 5 widely lanceolate and acuminate; inflorescence terminal and corymbose
abundantly flowered; small white flowers; fruit, berry, red when ripe.
Dense forest and Guineo-Congolese gallery forests.
Parts used:
Roots and rhizomes
Names of drug:
Radix Rauvolfia Africana, African Rauvolfia root.
Definition:
African Rauvolfia is the dry transversely cut roots and rhizomes of Rauvolfia vomitoria
Afzel. (family, Apocynaceae). African Rauvolfia contains not more than 2 per cent of
foreign organic matter, and not less than 0.2 per cent of total alkaloids calculated as
reserpine.
Description:
Odour, very slight, decreased on aging; taste bitter.
Macroscopical: The subcylindrical very slightly tapering and occasionally branched
roots are up to about 30 cm long and 0.15 cm rarely up to 9 cm diameter; outer surface
greyish-brown deeply longitudinally cracked or rubbed smooth with a few oblique rootlet
stumps; cork; if present, splintery in the wood, short in the bark: the smoothed
transversely cut surface shows a narrow pale-brown bark, up to about 3 mm thick, and a
buff or yellowish, finely radiate porous wood forms the majority of the drug.
358
Pieces of rhizome closely resemble the root but can be differentiated by the presence of a
small central pith. Pieces of root-stock with attached stem bases may be sometimes found
in the drug.
Microscopical: Cork, stratified zones of flattened suberized cells, each 3 to 4 layers in
radial width, alternating with zones of larger lignified cells, each from one to about 120
layers in radial width, cells isodiametric in surface view, about 10 to 55 µ, the flattened
cells, about 5 to 15 µ, the larger cells about 14 to 20 µ in the radial direction; phellodern
of about 5 to 16 layers of parenchyma, sclereids about 12 to 18 µ in width or length,
singly or in small groups, occasionally containing small prisms of calcium oxalate;
phloem having scattered secretion cells with granular contents and isolated groups of
sclereids which in larger roots form several discontinuous bands of sclereids alternating
in the outer phloem with collapsed sieve tissue, while the inner region has sieve elements
clearly defined; xylem with numerous vessels, about 36 to 180 µ in diameter, singly or in
pairs, subcylindrical with small bordered pits, the vessel elements being about 75 to 1200
µ long, lignified tylosis occasionally present in the older vessels; fibres, numerous about
200 to 1500 µ long and up to 32 µ wide, with oblique slit-like pits; medullary rays up to
three cells wide, heterogenous with isolated groups of sclereids; starch granules in all the
parenchymatous tissues, rounded, 1 to 10 to 20 µ in diameter, with central hila or stellate
clefts, also some 2- to 4-compound granules, yielding muller-shaped components.
Powder: Powdered African Rauvolfia is brownish-grey, characterised by abundant
simple and compound starch granules, greyish fragments of cork tissues, yellowish
fragments of xylem elements viz. Vessels, fibres and parenchyma, moderate amounts of
sclereids. The tissues of the rhizome are similar to those of the root; there is in addition a
cortex, a pericycle with non-lignified fibres having an elongated ovoid enlargement near
the end. In the periphery of the pith there are about 20 small strands of perimedullary
phloem.
African Rauvolfia contains a number of alkaloids the most active being the ester alkaloid
reserpine (about 0.2 per cent) and rescinnamine. Others include reserpoxidine, seredine,
ajmaline, alstonine, isoajmaline, isoreserpiline, raumatorine, rauvomitine, reserpiline,
serpagine, vomalidine, yohombine and a-yohombine.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the specimen to make sure it
complies with the descriptions given above.
(b) Gives a positive reaction when the powdered drug is tested for the presence of
alkaloids using the standard reagents (Wagner’s, Mayer’s etc).
(c) Thin-layer chromatography to confirm the presence of reserpine by co-
chromatography.
Tests for purity:
Loss on drying; it loses not more than 12 per cent of its weight on drying at 100°C to
constant weight.
Ash: 11.89 per cent
Alcohol (70 per cent) –soluble extractives: Not less than 19.7 per cent
359
Assay:
Content of reserpine-like alkaloids: Not less than 0.2 per cent, determined by the
following method, all operations being carried out in subdued light. Triturate about 2.5 g
accurately weighed, in fine powder, with 10 ml of a 5 per cent wjv solution of glacial
acetic acid in alcohol (95 per cent), allow to stand for 2 hours, stirring occasionally,
transfer to a Soxhlet apparatus, extract for 4 hours with 90 ml of alcohol (95 per cent),
and dilute the extract to 100 ml with alcohol (95 per cent).
To 20 ml of this solution add 200 ml of N/2 sulphuric acid; extract with three successive
25 ml portions of trichloroethane, washing each extract with the same 50 ml of N/2
sulphuric acid, retain the washings and discard the extracts; extract the aqueous solution
with 20 ml of chloroform, followed by five successive 15 ml portions of chloroform, and
extract the washings retained from the first extraction, successively, with each
chloroform extract; wash each extract with two successive 10 ml portions of a 2 per cent
w/v solution of sodium bicarbonate in water, filter the extracts through a cotton-wool
plug, and dilute the combined extracts to 100 ml with chloroform. Evaporate 20 ml to
dryness in a boiling tube, add 10 ml of alcohol (95 per cent) and 2 ml of N/2 sulphuric
acid, warm to dissolve the residue, cool, and add 2 ml of a 0.3 per cent w/v solution of
sodium nitrite in water; maintain at 55°C for 30 minutes, cool, add 1 ml of a 5 per cent
w/v solution of sulphuric acid in water, dilute to 20 ml with alcohol (95 per cent) and
measure the extinction of a 1 cm layer at 390 µ using a blank (a solution prepared by
evaporating to dryness 20 ml alcohol (95 per cent) and following the above procedure,
but omitting the addition of the sodium nitrite solution). Calculate the proportion of
reserpine like alkaloids present by comparing the values obtained with a calibration curve
prepared using a solution of reserpine in alcohol (95 per cent).
Uses:
Hypotensive and for the preparation of reserpine.
Storage:
Store in well-closed containers and protected from light.
360
Rhamnus frangula L.
Family name:
Rhamnaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Frangula alnus Mill.
(b) Rhamnus alnus Mill.
(c) Rhamnus frangula var. angustifolia
Louden.
(d) Rhamnus baeticus Willk. & Reverchon.
Common names:
(a) Alderbuckthorn bark, Block Alder bark,
(b) Tall Hedge Buckthorn (E).
(c) Bourdaine. Bois noir (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫قشر أألوساج األسود‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Yoruba: N/A
Shrub reaching 4 m high with non-thorny stalks; with dark red purplish-blue young
branches spotted with greenish lenticels; greenish flowers; fruit, red turning black when
ripe.
Temperate and Mediterranean regions of Africa
Part used:
Stem bark
Names of drug:
Cortex Rhamni Frangulae, Frangula Bark.
Definition:
Frangula bark is the dried stem bark of Rhamnus frangula L. (family, Rhamnaceae),
collected at least one year before being employed medicinally. Frangula contains not
more than 2.0 per cent of foreign organic matter and not less than 6 per cent of hydroxyl-
antharacene derivatives calculated as anhydrous glucofrangulin.
Description:
Odourless; taste, mucilaginous, sweetish and then slightly bitter.
Macroscopical: Frangula occurs in single or double quills, rarely in channelled pieces;
varying in size, usually 15 cm long or more; 0.5 to 2 cm wide and extremely thin, about 1
mm thick; outer surface, greyish-brown or purplish-black, smooth, with numerous
tranversely elongated whitish lenticels (distinction from R. cathartica L.); sometimes
bearing patches of foliacious lichen, with small black apothecia, when gently scratched,
the crimson colour of the inner layers of cork becomes evident (distinction from R.
purshiana D.C.); inner surface, reddish-yellow to dark brown, finely longitudinally
361
striated, becoming red when moistened with dilute solutions of alkalis; fracture, short in
the outer and slightly fibrous in the inner part.
Microscopical: Cork, formed of numerous layers of cells with amorphous purplish-red
contents. Cortex, yellowish-brown, consisting of thin-walled parenchyma, containing
scattered cluster crystals of calcium oxalate and few small starch granules, and showing
large cells filled with mucilage and few groups of slightly lignified fibres, each up to 40 µ
wide. Phloem, yellowish-brown, traversed by numerous somewhat wavy medullary rays,
1 to 3 cells wide and 10 to 25 cells high, and showing numerous tangential groups of
strongly lignified fibres, accompanied by prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate, in files of
cells, forming crystal-sheath around each group; fibre, 121 to 24 µ wide.
Powder: Powdered Frangula is yellowish-brown; characterised by fragments of brownish
or purplish cork; fragments of groups of lignified bast fibres, accompanied by crystal-
sheath; occasional fragments of slightly lignified fibres; fragments, showing cells of
medullary rays, with yellow contents, coloured red with solutions of alkalis or with
sodium hypochlorite T.S. cluster crystals of calcium oxalate, 10 to 25 µ in diameter;
prisms of calcium oxalate, 7 to 15 µ long, few starch granules 3 to 10 microns in
diameter.
Frangulin glycoside, gluco-frangulin and frangula-emodin.
Tests for identity:
(a) On microsublimation, powdered Frangula gives a yellow acicular crystalline
sublimate, which produces a red colouration with dilute solutions of alkalis.
(b) Boil 0.1 g of the crushed or powdered Frangula with 4 ml of alcoholic potassium
hydroxide T.S. for about 2 to 3 minutes, dilute with 4 ml of water and filter. Acidify 5 ml
of the filtrate with dilute hydrochloric acid, filter, if necessary, cool and shake well with 5
ml of ether or benzene.
Separate the yellowish ethereal layer into a clean test-tube and shake with 2 ml of dilute
solution of ammonium hydroxide; a cherry-red colour is produced in the aqueous layer,
while the ethereal remains light yellow.
Tests for purity:
(a) Carry out the method for thin-layer chromatography (volume 2), using Sillicagel G as
the coating substance and a mixture of ethyl acetate, methanol and water (100:17:13) as
the mobile phase, but allowing the solvent to ascend 10 cm above the line of application.
Apply separately to the chromatoplate, as bands 15 mm long and not more than 5 mm
wide, 10 ml of each of the following two solutions. For solution (1), heat to boiling 0.5 g,
in fine powder with 5 ml of ethanol (70 per cent), cool and centrifuge; decant the
supernatant liquid immediately and use within thirty minutes; for solution (2) dissolve 20
mg of barbaloin in 10 ml of ethanol (70 per cent).
After removal of the chromatoplate, allow the solvent to evaporate for five minutes at
room temperature then spray immediately with a freshly prepared 0.1 per cent w/v
solution of N,N-dimethyl-p-nitrosoaniline in pyridine, using about 10 ml for a 200 x 200
mm plate; no grey-blue bands should appear (anthrones). Spray with a 5 per cent w/v
solution of potassium hydroxide in ethanol (50 per cent), heat at 100° to 105° for 15
minutes and examine immediately. The chromatogram obtained with solution (2) shows a
362
red-brown band due to barbaloin (Rf, 0.4 to 0.5). The chromatogram obtained with
solution (1) shows several red bands, the most important having an Rf, value about 0.25
to 0.35 (glucofrangulin =emodin rhamnoglucosides). A red band with an Rf, value of
about 0.10 to 0.15 should not be present. When examined under an ultraviolet lamp
having a maximum output at about 366 nm, the chromatogram obtained with solution (1)
shows no bands with an intense yellow or blue fluorescence (absence of other species of
Rhamnus).
(b) Powdered Frangula contains no sclereids (R. purchiana DC and R. carniolica A.
Kern.), no knotty twisted fibres and not more than few starch granules (Alnus, Prunus
and other species of Rahmnus). Fragments of powdered Frangula are not coloured red
with vanillin in hydrochloric acid T.S. (Prunus padus).
(c) Not more than 8.0 per cent of ash; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 2.0 per cent.
Uses:
Cathartic
Storage:
363
Rhamnus purshiana DC
Family name:
Rhamnaceae
Synonym:
(a) Frangula purshiana Cooper
(b) Rhamnus anonifolia Greene
(c) Rhamnus ovalifolius Pursh
Common names:
Cascara Sagrada, cascara buckthorn,
bearberry, Chitien bark, Chittambark (E).
Écorce sacrée, nerprun cascara,
nerprun de Pursh Cascara (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫القشرة المقدسة‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Very polymorphous tree of varied forms, dimension and texture. Leaves are generally
rigid, ovate, sharp-pointed with pinnated venation and close secondary veins;
inflorescence in small umbellar cymes; red berries that become black when ripe.
Originates from California, cultivated in the mountainous regions of East Africa,
especially Kenya.
Part used:
Stem bark
Names of drug:
Cortex Rhamni Purshianae, Cascara Bark, Cascara sagrada.
Definition:
Cascara Sagrada is the dried stem bark of Rhamnus purshiana DC (family, Rhamnaceae)
collected, at least, one year before being employed medicinally. Cascara Sagrada contains
6-9 per cent of anthraquinone glycosides and not more than 4.0 per cent of foreign
organic matter.
Description:
Odour, faint, but characteristic; taste, bitter, nauseous and persistent.
Macroscopical: Cascara Sagrada occurs in quills, channelled or nearly flat pieces;
varying in size, up to 20 cm long, 2 cm broad and 1 to 5 mm thick; outer surface, dark
brown, purplish-brown or reddish-brown, smooth or longitudinally ridged, marked with
transversely elongated lenticels, usually covered with grey or whitish lichen, and
occasionally bearing yellowish-green tufted moss; inner surface, dull yellowish-brown to
dark reddish-brown, longitudinally striated and somewhat corrugated transversely;
fracture, short and granular in the outer and somewhat fibrous in the inner part.
364
Microscopical: Cork, frequently bearing dense masses of lichen tissues, and formed of
several layers of small, flattened thin-walled cells with yellowish-brown contents. Cortex,
narrow, yellowish-grey, consisting of few layers of collenchyma and several layers of
parenchyma, containing starch granules and scattered cluster crystals of calcium oxalate,
and showing numerous scattered, bright ovoid groups of sclereids, usually encircled by
crystal-cells with prisms of calcium oxalate. Phloem, wide, brownish-yellow, traversed
by numerous wavy medullary rays, 1 to 5 cells wide and up to 25 cells high; and consists
of alternating bands of lignified fibres, surrounded by crystal-sheath with prisms of
calcium oxalate and of soft tissue of sieve tissue and parenchyma with scattered cluster
crystals of calcium oxalate and starch granules; each fibre, 8 to 15 µ wide; groups of
sclereids are also found in the outer part of the phloem. The sclereids possess thick
stratified pitted walls. The parenchyma may contain a yellow substance, changing to
crimson with sodium hydroxide T.S.
Powder: Powdered Cascara Sagrada is brownish-yellow to olive brown; characterised by
numerous fragments of lignified bast fibres; fibres in groups, accompanied by crystal-
sheath; sclereids, in groups, sometimes isolated; fragments of yellowish-brown cork;
numerous brown fragments of parenchyma; numerous crystals of calcium oxalate,
clusters and prisms; cluster crystals, 5 to 20 µ occasionally up to 45 µ in diameter;
fragments of phloem tissue crossed or traversed by medullary rays; starch granules,
spheroidal, 4 to 5 µ and up to 8 µ in diameter.
Several glycosides of emodins (emodin, iso-emodin, aloe-emodin) and of chrysophanol.
Also cascarosides A, B, C and D as well as small quantities of break-down products of
these glycosides.
Tests for identity:
(a) Place a small quantity of the drug, in powder, on a microscope slide. Add one drop of
sodium hydroxide solution, and examine. The yellow substance present in the cells of the
parenchyma is coloured violet.
(b) On micro sublimation, powdered Cascara Sagrada gives a yellow crystalline
sublimate, which produces a reddish-brown colouration with solutions of alkalis.
(c) Boil 0.1 g of the crushed or powdered Cascara Sagrada with 4 ml of alcoholic
potassium hydroxide T.S. for about 2 to 3 minutes, dilute with 4 ml of water and filter.
Acidify 5 ml of the filtrate with dilute hydrochloric acid, filter, if necessary, cool, and
shake with 5 ml of ether or benzene. Separate the yellowish-ethereal layer into a clean
test-tube and shake with 2 ml of dilute solution of ammonium hydroxide; an orange red
to deep orange-red colour is produced in the aqueous layer (distinction from Frangula).
Tests for purity:
(a) Water-soluble extractive, not less than 23.0 per cent
(b) Ash, not more than 7.0 per cent
(c) Moisture, not more than 10 per cent
Extractum Rhamni Purshianae Fluidum
Cascara and Belladonna Mixture (compound Cascara Mixture)
Cascara Dry Extract
Cascara Elixir
365
Cascara Tablets.
Uses:
Cathartic
Storage:
366
Ricinus communis L.
Family name:
Euphorbiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Ricinus japonicus Thunb.
(b) Ricinus laevis DC.
(c) Ricinus sanguineus hort. ex Groenl.
(d) Ricinus speciosus Burm.
(e) Ricinus viridis Willd.
Common names:
Castor-oil plant, Castor Bean Palma Christi (E).
Ricin (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫خروع‬
(b) Bambara: Tomontigi
(c) Hausa: Zurma, Zurman kulakula,
Cika cida, Dan kwasape, Zurma nasara,
Zurmataho, Zurma mutane.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Mbono, Nyonyo.
(f) Yoruba: Lapa-lapa-adete, Lara, Ilara, Ilarun, Ewe laa, Upe-erenla, Upe-elila.
Shrub of 2 to 3 m high; branchy at the base, round alternate leaves, palmate on long leaf
stalks, palmatilobate with 7 dentate glandular lobes; inflorescence panicled with male
flowers preceding female's capsules containing three arillated seeds.
Indigenous to tropical regions of Africa, probably native to Ethiopia, but has been
adapted and cultivated in subtropical to temperate areas of the world.
Part used:
Dried ripe seed
Names of drug:
Semen Ricinus communis L, Castor oil seed.
Definition:
Castor oil seed is the dried ripe seed of Ricinus communis L. (family, Euphorbiaceae).
Description:
The seeds have a slight odour and a weakly acrid taste.
Macroscopical: The seeds are rounded, oblong and somewhat flattened, from 8 to 12 mm
long, 6 to 9 mm wide and 4 to 8 mm thick, with an arched, dorsal surface, and a nearly
flat, ventral surface. The seed coat, which is thin and brittle, is smooth and glossy,
varying in colour from greyish brown to grey, and mottled with reddish-brown or black
spots and strips. At one extremity of the seed there is a prominent and usually pale
coloured caruncle, from which the raphe runs along the ventral surface as a distinct line
to the other extremity, where it terminates in a raised chalaza. The caruncle can be
removed easily, disclosing the hilum beneath as a dark spot. A delicate, silvery-white
367
membrane inside the seed coat surrounds a large, yellowish-white oily endosperm, which
encloses the embryo with two large, papery cotyledons. .
Microscopical: Epidermis consists of polygonal, pitted cells, some with, and others
without, brown contents. The palisade layer of the seed coat, consisting of brown, pitted,
and sclerenchymatous cells; the large aleurone grains of the endosperm and the abundant
fixed oil. The aleurone grains are round or ovoid, and measure up to about 20 µ in
diameter.
Powder: There are polygonal parenchymatous cells; occasional isodiametric, abundant
oil cells and starch granules in the field of view; few cluster crystals of calcium oxalate;
elongated fibres and vessels re of annular thickening. Tannins are present with yellow
and brown colours.
Castor oil seed contains about 50 per cent of fixed oil. The cake left after expression of
the oil contains a crystalline principle, ricinine, the poisonous phytalbumose, ricin, and a
very active lipase and other enzymes.
CASTOR OIL
Castor oil is a fixed oil obtained by cold expression from castor oil seed. It occurs as a
nearly colourless or pale yellow, viscid liquid, having a faint odour and a taste which is
bland at first, but afterwards acrid and nauseating.
Tests for identity:
(a) When 1 ml of the oil is shaken with 0.5 ml of light petroleum (B.P. 50-60°C) a clear
solution is produced which becomes cloudy on the addition of a further 1.5 ml of the
light petroleum.
(b) It forms a clear solution with an equal volume of absolute alcohol.
(c) On cooling the oil to 0°C itremains bright, but on cooling to about -18°C it congeals
to a yellowish mass.
(d) The specific gravity is high due to its high acetyl value and its high viscosity.
(e) Castor oil contains the glycerides of ricinoleic and isoricinoleic acids; the glycerides
of stearic and dihydroxy stearic acids are also present in small quantities. Ricinoleic
acid is a viscid liquid, yields when acted upon by nitrous acid a crystalline body,
ricinelaidic acid; a similar reaction occurs when castor oil is treated with acid.
(f) Soluble in alcohol (90 per cent) (1 in 3.5);
(g) miscible with dehydrated alcohol, ether and glacial acetic acid.
Tests for purity:
a) Castor oil has a specific gravity 0.958 to 0.969
b) Refractive index at 40°C, 1.4695 to 1.4730
c) Acid value, not more than 4.0
d) Saponification value, 177 to 187
e) Iodine value, 82 to 90
f) Optical rotation, not less than +3°C
g) It remains bright when maintained at 0°C for three hours
368
Uses:
Castor oil is a mild purgative. The oil is used as a rectal injection to remove impacted
faeces, sometimes with olive oil. Externally, castor oil is sometimes applied, generally
mixed with other emollients, for bed sores.
The oil is often used as an ingredient of spirituous hair lotions. It is an excellent solvent
for alkaloids, such as cocaine and atropine, when used in ophthalmic surgery. Castor oil
is best administered in milk or lemon juice, in capsules, or as Mistura Olei Ricini. The
dose should be administered an hour before breakfast, on an empty stomach.
Emulsio Olei Ricini Aromatici, (Emulsion of Aromatic castor oil)
Mistura Olei Ricini (Castor Oil mixture)
Oleum Ricini Aromaticum (Aromatic castor oil)
Unguentum Zinci et Olei Ricini (Zinc and castor oil ointment)
Unguentum Zinci et Olei Ricini Cum Benzoine (Zinc and castor oil ointment with
Benzoin)
Storage:
369
Saccharum officinarum L.
Family name:
Poaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Saccharum sinense Roxb.
(b) Saccharum violaceum F. ViiI.
Common names:
Sugar cane (E). Canne a sucre (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Haussakala
(c) Hausa: Cíí dà gééró, Arakkr, Rake , Kuburu, Karan
sarkii, Dalimi, Gwalagwaji, Gyauron rake.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Muwa
(f) Yoruba: Ireke
Herbaceous plant that can reach 6 m in height; stem characterised by a series of nodes
and internodes; propagation by cuttings; ribboned leaves up to 4 cm wide; inflorescence,
plumose in terminal pyranical panicles ranging from 0.5 to 1 m long.
Widely cultivated in the tropics
Part used:
Dried purified extract
Names of drug:
Saccharum, Sucrose, Sugar.
Definition:
Sucrose is the purified disaccharide which may be obtained from Saccharum officinarum
L. (family, Poaceae) and other sources.
Description:
Sucrose occurs as colourless crystals, crystalline masses or blocks, or as white crystalline
powder; odourless; taste, sweet. Sucrose is stable.
Tests for identity:
(a) 1 g of sucrose is soluble in 0.5 ml of water and in about 170 ml of alcohol. It is
insoluble in chloroform and ether
(b) Solution of sucrose is neutral to litmus paper
(c) To a few ml of an aqueous solution of sucrose, and a few drops of cobalt nitrate T.S.
add excess of sodium hydroxide T.S.; permanent violet colour is produced
(d) Heat a little sucrose in a porcelain dish. It melts, swells up, and burns, developing an
odour of burnt sugar, and a bulky carbonaceous residue is left
(e) Add sulfuric acid to a little sucrose; a brown colour is produced and the sugar is
rapidly converted to a black carbonaceous mass
370
(f) To a few ml of an aqueous solution of sucrose, add a few drops of dilute sulfuric acid,
boil for a few minutes, neutralize with sodium hydroxide T.S., add potassio-cupric
tartrate T.S., and then heat, a copious red precipitate of cuprous oxide is formed.
Tests for purity:
(a) Specific rotation, determined in a 10 per cent aqueous solution, not less than +66°C
and not more than +66.7°C.
(b) 20 g sucrose completely dissolved in 10 ml of water giving a clear colourless or at
least faintly yellow solution, when viewed transversely against a white background in a
cylinder of colourless glass, having an inside diameter of about 2.5 cm, odourless and
sweet syrup which when kept in well-closed, and completely filled bottle, deposits no
sediment on prolonged standing (Foreign admixtures, insoluble salts, ultramarine or
Prussian blue).
(c) Mix 2 rn1 of the syrup form of the above test with 5 ml of alcohol; the solution
remains clear (Dextrin, calcium sulfate and other admixtures).
(d) Dissolve 10 g of sucrose in 20 ml of water, add 5 ml of potassio-cupric tartrate T.S.,
and heat to 50°C, not more than a trace of a red colour or yellow precipitate is formed
(limit of reducing sugars).
(e) Dissolve 1 g of sucrose in 10 ml of water and add 1 ml of ammonium oxalate T.S.; the
solution remains clear for at least one minute (calcium salts).
if) Dissolve 1 g of sucrose in 10 ml of water, add 1 ml of dilute sulfuric acid, and allow to
stand for 24 hours; no turbidity is produced (Limit of barium and of struntium salts).
(g) Dissolve 1 g of sucrose in 10 ml of water, transfer to a Nessler tube and continue as
mentioned in volume 2 under "Limit test for chlorides" (Limit of chlorides).
(h) Dissolve 20 g of sucrose in 20 rn1 of water, transfer to a Nessler tube and continue as
mentioned in volume 2 under "Limit test for sulfates" (Limit of sulfate).
(i) Dissolve 1 g of sucrose in 10 ml of water, and continue as mentioned in volume 2
under "Limit test for Heavy Metals", in presence of Lead (Limit of heavy metals).
(j) Dissolve 10 g of sucrose in 10 ml of water, transfer to a Nessler tube, and continue as
mentioned in volume 2 under "Limit test for lead", using 2 ml of standard solution of lead
limit, for comparison (Limit of lead).
(k) Make a paste of 10 g of sucrose and 2 g of calcium hydroxide with 5 ml of water in a
porcelain dish, and continue as mentioned in volume 2 under "Limit test for Arsenic in
Organic Compounds" (Limit of arsenic).
(l) Sucrose leaves on ignition, not more than 0.05 per cent of residue.
Sirupus Simplex
Uses:
Sucrose is employed in Pharmacy chiefly as a sweetening agent and demulcent
preservative. In large quantities it is recommended in wasting diseases as phthisis and
cancer, intravenous injection in case of heart failure.
Storage:
371
Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf.
Family name:
Amaryllidaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Haemanthus multiflorus Martyn
(b) Haemanthus coccineus Forssk
(c) Amaryllis multiflora (Martyn) Tratt.
(d) Nerissa multiflorus (Martyn) Salisb.
Common names:
Football lily, African Blood Lily , Powder
puff Lily, Blood Flower, Common fire ball,
Pom Pom, Blood lily (E).
Boule de feu, Haemanthe multiflore (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Gatarin kurege = H. rupestris, Albásar kwaadíí, Gaatarin kureege, Kureegee
jerboa.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Areyinkosun
Stout bulb giving rise to a lateral inflorescence 1-2 ft. high with red-blotched scape;
flowers numerous, scarlet, in a spherical head; leaves sheathed together at the base into a
false stem, fully expanding after flowering; in forest margin, secondary forest and in
savanna woodland.The leaves are smooth and dark green in colour and fresh ones appear
after flowering. The plant grows to a height of 12-18 inches and blooms only once a year.
It is found in forest margin, secondary forest and in savanna woodland.
Part used:
Roots (Bulb)
Name of drug:
Blood lily
Definition:
Blood lily is the dried bulb of Haemanthus multiflorus Martyn also known as Scadoxus
multiflorus (Martyn) Raf. (family, Amaryllidaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: A fleshy herbaceous plant with a large bulb bearing leaves to 25 cm long
by 8 cm wide which appear during the rainy season. The inflorescence a globular head of
red flowers to 15 cm in diameter borne on a spotted scape 20–40 cm long which is
produced in the dry season while the bulb is still leafless; of savanna woodland
throughout the Region, and widespread in tropical Africa.The flowers are distinctly
decorative and the plant is often grown as an ornamental, and also for superstitious
372
purposes. Most of the species have brush-like flowerheads enclosed in four or more
membranous to fleshy spathe bracts which usually match the flower colour and, like
sepals, protect the flowerheads from damage and desiccation. The flowers produce
abundant nectar and pollen and a faint smell unattractive to humans. Fruits are mostly
globose and when ripe, range through bright red, to pink, orange and white, and are
usually aromatic. Three of the species, H. albiflos, H. deformis and H. pauculifolius are
evergreen; these three species have bulbs that are only partly buried, the exposed section
often turning bright green. The winter rainfall region's bulbs on the other hand are mostly
from arid habitats and are found fairly deep below the surface, usually flowering before
producing leaves. The genus produces relatively large bulbs that act as food and water
storage organs, and consist of fleshy leafbases or tunics that may be arranged in two
obvious ranks - termed a distichous arrangement. The morphology of the bulbs is useful
in taxonomy and identification.
Haemanthus have from one to six leaves, ranging from broad, leathery and prostrate to
narrow, crisped or succulent and erect, with a variety of surface textures from smooth to
extremely hairy or even sticky. A few species such as H. unifoliatus and H. nortieri,
usually produce only a single erect, broad leaf. H. coccineus and H. sanguineus were two
of the first species in this genus to be described and because of their reddish flowers,
gave rise to the generic name, being Greek for 'blood flower'.
Xylanase and alpha-amylase inhibitor protein (XAIP).
Tests for identity:
descriptions.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
It can be used as stimulants, cardiac tonic.
Storage:
In a cool, dry and dark location.
373
Schwenkia americana L.
Family name:
Solanaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Schwenckia adscedens Link
(b) Schwenckia angustifolia Benth.
(c) Schwenckia guianensis Benth.
(d) Schwenckia guineensis Schumach. &
Thonn.
(e) Schwenckia hirta Benth.
(f) Schwenkia americana var. hirta
(Klotzsch) Carvalho
(g) Schwenkia hirta Klotzsch
(h) Schwenkia hirta var. angustifolia Benth.
Common names:
Schwenkia (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫قصب السكر‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Dandana, Farfetsi.
(d) Peuhl: Gérôwil
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ale-odan, Igbale-odan, Oju isin.
Slender herb; leaves alternate, simple, ovate-elliptic, base acute, somewhat decurrent on
the petiole, margin entire, apex obtuse-rounded; inflorescence a slender panicle, corolla
strictly tubular, pinkish-purple; fruit a capsule.
Schwenckia americana is native to Central and South America, but it has spread to
tropical Africa and India as a weed. In tropical Africa it was restricted to West and
Central Africa, but in recent decades it has also reached East and southern Africa.
Part used:
Whole plant, leaves, roots, stem.
Name of drug:
Scwenkia
Definition:
Schwenkia is the dried areal parts of Schwenkia americana L. (family, Solanaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Annual or short-living perennial herb, erect or ascending and spreading,
up to 70(–100) cm tall; stem grooved, glabrous but young parts sometimes with curved
hairs. Leaves arranged spirally, simple and entire; stipules absent; petiole up to 8 mm
long; blade ovate to obovate, up to 4 cm × 2 cm, base cuneate to rounded, apex acute to
rounded, almost glabrous to densely short-hairy. Inflorescence a lax, terminal panicle,
many-flowered; peduncle 2–12 cm long, slightly longer in fruit. Flowers bisexual,
slightly zygomorphic; pedicel 2–4 mm long, erect or curved; calyx tubular, 2–4 mm long,
374
4–5-lobed, lobes acute to acuminate; corolla narrowly tubular, 6–8 mm long, white,
greenish yellow, pale blue to purplish, lobes unequal, up to 0.5 mm long; stamens 2,
attached to corolla tube, filaments 0.5–3 mm long, staminodes 3, resembling filaments;
ovary superior, ellipsoid, 1–2 mm long, style 3–6 mm long, stigma small, exserted. Fruit
a globose or ovoid capsule 3.5–4.5 mm × 2.5–4.5 mm, pale brown, dehiscent, many-
seeded. Seeds prismatic, 0.5–1 mm long, black or reddish. Seedling with epigeal
germination.
The plant is reported to contain carbohydrates, reducing sugars, cardiac glycosides,
saponins, steroids, triterpenes, flavonoids, cyanogenic glycosides, tannins, alkaloids and
resins.
Tests for identity:
given above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Anti-inflammatory, analgesic.
Storage:
375
Senna alata (L.) Roxb.,
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cassia alata L.
(b) Senna alata (L.) Roxb.,
(c) Herpetica alata (L.) Raf.
(d) Cassia bracteata L. f
(e) Cassia herpetica Jacq.
(f) Cassia rumphiana (DC.) Bojer
Common names:
Candlebush, Candlesticks, Christmas-
candle, Emperor's Candlesticks, Ringworm
Plant, Winged Senna (E).
Herbe á Dartres, Fleur á Dartre, Fleur St. Christophe, Dartrier (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Plasco, Rai dore, Majamfari, Sanga sanga.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Asunwon oyinbo, Asunwon pupa, Asunron oyinbo, Asunrun.
Cassia alata L. or Senna alata (L.) Roxb.is a shrub, 2-3m high, widely distributed in the
tropical countries.It is A shrub 1-5 m tall. Stem marked with leaf scars and persistent
stipules. Stipules 6-9 mm long, persistent, auriculate. Petiole 1.5-2.5 cm long, rachis 30-
60 cm long, leaflets 8-24 pairs, 3-15 cm long, 2-7 cm wide, oblong-elliptic or oblong¬-
obovate, top rounded or slightly notched. Raceme 15-70 cm long; bracts 2-3 cm long,
enclosing the bud, caducous. Flowers yellow. Sepals 1.5-2 cm long, 4-6 mm wide. Petals
1.5-2 cm long, 1 cm wide. Stamens 9 or 10, variable in size, all func¬tional. Pod straight
with 2 longitudinal wings, 40-60 seeded.
Widely spread in the Tropics of both hemispheres, though probably only indigenous in
America.
Part used:
Leaves
Names of drug:
Emperor's Candlesticks, Alata leaf.
Definition:
Emperor's Candlesticks or Alata leaf is the fresh or dried leaves of Senna alata (L.) Roxb.
or Cassia alata L (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Perennial, Shrubs, Woody throughout, Stems woody below, or from
woody crown or caudex, Taproot present, Stems erect or ascending, Stems less than 1 m
376
tall, Stems 1-2 m tall, Stems greater than 2 m tall, Stems solid, Stems or young twigs
glabrous or sparsely glabrate, Stems or young twigs sparsely to dense ly hairy, Stem hairs
hispid to villous, Leaves alternate, Leaves petiolate, Stipules inconspicuous, absent, or
caducous, Stipules conspicuous, Stipules setiform, subulate or acicular, Stipules
persistent, Stipules free, Leaves compound, Leaves even pinnate, Leaf or leaflet margins
entire, Leaflets opposite, Leaflets 10-many, Leaves glabrous or nearly so, Inflorescences
racemes, Inflorescences spikes or spike-like, Inflorescence axillary, Bracts conspicuously
present, Bracts very small, absent or caducous, Flowers actinomorphic or somewhat
irregular, Calyx 5-lobed, Calyx glabrous, Petals separate, Petals orange or yellow, Fertile
stamens 6-8, Stamens heteromorphic, graded in size, Stamens completely free, separate,
Filaments glabrous, Anthers opening by basal or terminal pores or slits, Style terete, Fruit
a legume, Fruit stipitate, Fruit unilocular, Fruit freely dehiscent, Fruit elongate, straight,
Fruit oblong or ellipsoidal, Fruits quadrangulate, Fruits winged, carinate, o r samaroid,
Fruit exserted from calyx, Fruit internally septate between the seeds, Fruit compressed
between seeds, Fruit glabrous or glabrate, Fruit 11-many seeded, Seed with elliptical line
or depression, pleurogram, Seeds ovoid to rounded in outline, Seed surface smooth,
Seeds olive, brown, or black.
Microscopical: Epidermal layer consists of polygonal cells covered by a thin, warty and
undulating cuticle; stomata are paracytic; epidermal cells wavy and stomata fewer on
upper surface; covering trichomes with pointed tips, thick and warty walls, conical and
sometimes appressed to the epidermis, present on both surfaces, unicellular with the base
surrounded by radially elongated epidermal cells; clusters of calcium oxalate distributed
throughout the tissue while prisms are found in the epidermal cells; transverse section
presents a dorsiventral leaf arrangement, thick cuticle, papillose on lower surface,
cuboidal epidermal cells; thick warty-walled, with a layer of discontinuous mono-layer
palisade cells, below the upper epidermis with almost straight anticlinal walls; interrupted
in midrib region by spongy mesophyll cells; midrib projects on the lower surface and is
traversed by a vascular strand formed by an arch of collateral vascular bundles,
endodermis in two semi-circles enclosing the collateral vascular bundle, whole strand
surrounded by a sclerenchymatous pericycle followed by the cortex, consisting of 3-5
rows of parenchyma cells and 2-3 rows of collenchymas cells; xylem vessels and the
endodermis (fibrous) are lignified while the epidermis and mesophyll cells contain
mucilage, the latter also contain round yellowish ergastic substances.
Powder: Green in colour with characteristic bitter taste. Consists of fragments of
epidermal cells which are polygonal in shape showing paracytic stomata, fragments
showing cicatrix with epidermal cells radiating outwards, xylem tissue: reticulate,
(lignified) annular, spiral vessels; few phloem fibres non-lignified; characteristic warty-
walled covering trichomes, unicellular and uniseriate, appressed, fragments of pitted
vessels and groups of fibres with prisms of calcium oxalate crystals which may also be
isolated and also occurring as sheaths on veins, Starch grains 26u-42u by 49u-120u.
Anthraquinones: aloe-emodin, rhein glycoside and aloe-emodin glycoside, sennosides,
rhein, crysophanic acid; tannins and mucilage.
377
Tests for identity:
(b) Macrochemical test (Borntrager’s test) to confirm the presence of anthraquinone
derivatives.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographic examination of an extract of the soecimen to confirm the
presence of aloe-emodin by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
Moisture: loses not more than 12 per cent. (course powder) when dried at 100oC
Acid insoluble ash: Not more than 1.6 per cent
Uses:
Antidiarhoeal, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral.
Storage:
378
Senna alexandrina Mill And Cassia angustifolia Vahl.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cassia acutifolia Del.
- Cassia lanceolata Collado
- Cassia lentiva Brisch.
- Cassia Senna L.
- Senna acutifolia Link.
- S. alexandrina Gars
(b) Cassia angustifolia Vahl.
- Cassia elongata Lam.
- Cassia lanceolata Wight and
Am.
Common names:
(a) Cassia acutifolia Del.
Alexandrian Senna (E).
Sene d' Alexandrie or Sene de Khartoum (F).
(b) Cassia angustifolia Vahl.
Tinnevelly Senna (E). Sene de Tinnevelly or Sene de l'Inde (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫سنامكى او سنا حجازي‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Filaskon maka, Ilesko, Rinji.
(d) Peuhl: Falajin, Sanjerehi.
(e) Swahili: Msahala
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Cassia acutifolia Del.: Sub-shrub of 40 to 60 cm with erect stalks with paripinnate
alternate leaves with 4 or 5 pairs of pifonious leaflets, yellow flowers that blossom in
axillary bunches. Bract flat pod.
Cassia angustifolia Vahl.: Distinctive feature: 5 to 8 pairs of leaflets.
These species are present in the semi-desert and sudano-sahelian zones of Africa.
Parts used:
Dried ripe fruits and leaves.
Names of drug:
Fructus sennae, Senna fruit, Follicule de Sene.
Definition:
Senna fruit or Senna leaf is the dried ripe fruit or leaf of Cassia Senna L. (C. acutifolia
Delile) known as Alexandrian Senna pods or leaf and of Cassia angustifolia Vahl.,
known as Tinnevelly Senna pods or leaf (family Fabaceae). Senna Fruit contains not
more than 2 per cent of foreign organic matter.
Description:
Odour and taste, slight but characteristic.
379
Macroscopical: Alexandrian Senna pods: Fruit, legume, entire compressed laterally,
almost flat, broadly oblong or subreniform, thin and papery; 3 to 6 cm long, and up to 3
cm wide; pale green to greenish-brown with a brown central area over the positions of the
seeds; apex rounded, with a slightly projecting point or a scar left by the style; base,
cuspidate, sometimes ending in a short stalk. Pericarp, dry and membranous. Seeds, 5 to
7 in each fruit, attached to central suture by thin funicles, obovate, wedge-shaped, hard; 5
to 6 mm long and 3 to 4 mm wide, having reticulated, but not transversely ridged whitish-
green surface and a short raised ridge on each of the 2 flat sides at the bluntly-pointed
end, where the hilum is situated; embryo, large and straight, with green flat cotyledons
and surrounded by a scanty grey endosperm.
Tinnevelly Senna pods: differs from Alexandrian Senna pods in having more extensive
central brown area.
Alexandrian Senna leaf: Greyish-green, thin fragile leaflets, lanceolate, mucronate,
asymmetrical at the base, 20 to 40 mm long and 5 to 15 mm wide, the maximum width
being at a point slightly below the centre, lamina slightly undulant, both surfaces covered
with fine, short trichomes. Pinnate venation with lateral veins leaving the midrib at an
angle of about 60° and anastomosing to form a ridge near the margin.
Tinnevelly Senna leaf: Yellowish-green leaflets, elongated and lanceolate, slightly
asymmetrical at the base, 30 to 50 mm long and 7 to 20 mm wide at the centre. The two
surfaces are smooth with a very small number of trichomes, and frequently marked with
transverse or oblique lines.
Up to 5 cm long and up to 2 cm wide somewhat straighter and the remains of the style
usually more distinct. Seeds, 6 to 8 in each fruit, having reticulate and indefinite wavy
transverse ridges on the testa. Tinnevelly Senna pods: Contain not less than 2.2 per cent
of hydroxyanthracene derivatives, calculated as sennosides B while Alexandrian Senna
pods contain not less than 3.6 per cent.
Microscopical: Outer epidermis of the pericarp consists of isodiametric cells with very
thick outer walls, occasional stomata of the rubiaceous type and few unicellular warty
hairs. Mesocarp consists of a hypodermis of rounded collenchymatous cells, followed by
parenchymatous cells with thin wavy walls, each of the innermost cells contains a prism
of calcium oxalate. Endorcarp composed of 2 to 4 layers of crossing fibres. Seed-coat
consists of an epidermis formed of palisade-like thickened cells, followed by a layer of
bearer-cells of horseshoe-shaped outline, thin layers of parenchyma, a layer of thick-
walled cells and lastly several layers of collapse parenchyma. Endosperm, of polygonal
cells with thickened mucilagenous stratified walls. Embryo and cotyledons, mainly of
thinwalled palisade tissue.
Powder: Light-green to greenish-yellow. Diagnostic structures: polygonal epidermal cells
showing paracytic stomata. Unicellular trichomes, conical in shape, with warty walls,
isolated or attached to fragments of epidermis. Fragments of vascular bundles with a
sheath of prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Cluster crystals isolated or in fragments
of parenchyma.
Leaf epidermis with polygonal cells, frequently mucilaginous. Unicellular trichomes,
conical, often slightly arched with thick warty walls, up to 250 mm long; paracytic
stomata, numerous on both surfaces. Cluster crystals of calcium oxalate distributed
throughout the lacunose tissue.
380
Fibrovascular strands incompletely surrounded by fibres with a crystal sheath containing
prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate.
Stomatal index Alexandrian Senna, 10 to 12.5 to 15.
Tinnevelly Senna, 14 to 17.5 to 20.
Sennosides A, B, C and D; also rhein, aloe-emodin free and in glycosidal combinations.
Tests for identity:
(a) Water-soluble extractive of Senna pods is not less than 25 per cent (pods) 3 per cent
(leaf)
(b) Heat about 25 mg, in fine powder with 50 ml of water and 2 ml of hydrochloric acid
in a water-bath for 15 minutes; allow the mixture to cool, add 40 ml of ether, shake, allow
to separate, and dry the ethereal layer with anhydrous sodium sulphate; evaporate 5 ml of
the ethereal solution to dryness, allow the residue to cool, and add 5 ml dilute ammonia
solution; a yellow or, at most, orange colour is produced. Heat the solution on a water-
bath for 2 minutes; a reddish-violet colour is produced.
(c) Ash (pods) not more than 6 per cent, 12 per cent (pods). Foreign organic matter, not
more than 1 per cent. (pods) 1 per cent (leaf). Acid-insoluble ash, not more than 2 per
cent. (pods), 2 per cent (leaf). Moisture, not more than 12 per cent(pods), 10 per cent
(leaf).
(d) Carry out the method for thin-layer chromatography as described in vol. 2, using
silica gel GF 254 as the coating substance and a mixture of propan-1-ol, ethyle acetate
and water (ratio 4:4:3) as the mobile phase, but allowing the solvent front to ascend 10
cm above the line of application. Apply separately to the chromatoplate, as bands 15mm
long and not more than 5 mm wide, 10 ul of each of the following solutions A and B. For
solution (A), heat to boiling 0.5 g, in fine powder, with 5 ml of a mixture of equal
volumes of ethanol (96 per cent) and water, centrifuge, and use the supernatant liquid; for
solution (B) dissolve 10 mg of sennoside A and 10 mg of sennoside B in 10 ml of the
mobile phase, with gentle warming if necessary. After removal of the chromatoplate
allow the solvent to evaporate, spray with a 25 per cent w/v solution of nitric acid, heat
for 10 minutes at 120°C, allow to cool, and spray again with a 5 per cent w/v solution of
potassium hydroxide in ethanol (50 per cent) until the spots appear. The chromatogram
obtained with solution (A) shows two purplish-brown spots, due to sennoside B (Rf 0.1 to
0.2) and sennoside A (Rf 0.3 to 0.35), with Rf values similar to those in the chromatogram
obtained with solution (B). The chromatogram obtained with solution (A) also shows a
red spot, due to rhein-8-glucoside (Rf 0.5 to 0.7).
Test for purity:
The pods should contain not less than 2.2 per cent of hydroxyanthracene glycosides,
calculated as sennoside B when determined by spectrophotometry or by high
performance liquid chromatography.
Senna Liquid Extract
Senna Tablet
381
Uses:
Laxative, at a dose of 0.5-2.0 g at bed time as hot tea. As purgative, 2-4g as hot tea at bed
time.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, protected from light and moisture.
382
Senna italica Mill.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cassia obovata Collado
(b) Cassia aschrk Forsk.
(c) Cassia italica (Mill.) Spreng
Common names:
Dog senna, Italian senna, Spanish senna (E).
Sene africain. Sene du Senegal (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫سنا الكلب‬
(b) Bambara: Balibali, M'bali mbali.
(c) Hausa: Illesko, Filasko, Filaskoo.
(d) Peuhl: Sanjeréhy, Falajin.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Cassia italica Mill. Distinctive characteristic: 5 to 6 pairs of obovate leaflets with
mucronated tips. Fruits highly arched on the two sides with seeds having a protruding
middle ridge.
This species is present in the semi-desert and sudano-sahelian zones of Africa.
Part used:
Leaf
Names of drug:
Dog Senna, Senna of Senegal, Sene du Port Royal.
Definition:
Dog Senna is the dry leaflets of Cassia italica Mill. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Leaves are broadly ovate, apex abruptly tapering, venation pinnate,
distinct, pale greyish-green, no odour, slightly bitter taste.
Microscopical: Epidermis, of straight walls, polygonal tabular cells, covered with thick,
striated cuticle, stomata of paracytic type, hairs are non-glandular, conical, multicellular,
uniseriate overed with warty cuticle. The mesophyll is heterogenous, dorsiventral,
palisade of 3 rows. Arc of vascular bundle is surrounded by an arc of lignified pericyclic
fibres. Calcium oxalate prisms are absent.
Powder: Greyish-green in colour, tasteless, to slightly bitter, without any distinct odour.
It is characterised by the presence of epidermal cells, straight-walled, striated cuticle,
paracytic stomata, non-glandular multicellular uniseriate conical hairs, lignified fibres,
vessels, absence of prisms of calcium oxalate.
383
2.5 per cent oxymethyl anthraquinones; mainly sennosides A and B, mucilage; fiavonoids
of kampherol, iso-rhamnitol.
Tests for identity:
As for Alexandrian Senna.
Tests for purity:
Yields 30-40 per cent of water extractives, not more than 2 per cent of stalks, 1 per cent
of foreign matter and not more than 12 per cent sulphated ash and 2 per cent of acid-
insoluble ash.
Assay:
N/A
Uses:
Purgative, drink one big glass of the infusion of the leaf at night before going to bed.
Storage:
384
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cassia occidentalis L.
(b) Cassia caroliniana Walter
(c) C. ciliate Raff.
(d) C. falcate L.
(e) C. foetida Pers.
(f) C. longisiliqua Schrank
(g) C. macradenia Collad
(h) C. obliquifolia L.
(i) C. occidentalis (L.) Rose
(j) C. planisiliqua L.
(k) Ditremexa occidentalis (L.) Britton & Rose ex Britton & P. Wilson
(l) Ditremexa occidentalis (L.) Britton & Wilson
Common names:
Arsenic Bean , Coffee Senna , Stinking Weed , Negro Coffee (E). Cassia occidentale,
Faux kinkeliba, Gros Indigo á Fleurs Jaunes , Gros Indigo Sauvage, Herbe puante, Casse
fetide (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Mbala, Nbalan balanfing.
(c) Hausa: Rai’dore, Albarka, Bajamfari, Ba-zanfaree, Kwarkwati, Majamfari,
Rairai, Yawan-rai, Zark-amo.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Rere, Abo rere, Asun-undegbe, Epooro-iseseope, Papala-omode.
The plant is a variable, branching, erect shrub, up to 1.8 m in height. Leaves pinnate
pubescent, leaflets pale green to bluish green, 3 to 9 pairs, lanceolate or elliptic, varying
on the same plant, 1.5 to 5 cm X 0.4 to 2 cm. ; flowers brilliant yellow, in erect, terminal
racemes ; pods light green when young to dark brown or black when mature, flat, thin,
oblong pubescent, 3.5 to 7 cm x 0.2 to 2.5 cm ; seeds dark brown, obovate-oblong, 5 to 7.
A pantropical weed, of disturbed areas, especially damp sandy alluvium along river
banks, coastal sand flats, grassland, roadside.
Part used:
Leaves
Name of drug:
Coffee senna
Definition:
Coffee senna consists of the dried leaves of Senna occidentalis (L.) Link. (Cassia
occidentalis L.) (family, Fabaceae).
385
Description:
Macroscopical: Annual, or short-lived perennial, herb or sub-shrub with erect, simple, or
sparsely branching stems (0,5-)l-l,8(-2) m high. Stems ridged, glandular, especially in the
hollows between the ridges, and subglabrous when young, becoming Â± terete and
glabrous with age. Leaves densely glandular and sparsely pubescent when young
becoming sparsely glandular and Â± glabrous with age; petiole and rhachis 12-15(-20)
cm long; stipules asymmetric, ovate-lanceolate, acute, Â± 7 mm long, Â± 3 mm wide,
caducous; petiole (4-)5(-7) cm long including basal pulvinus; petiolar gland at distal end
of pulvinus, sessile, hemispherical, globose or ovoid, blackish, Â± 1 mm in diameter;
rhachis without special glands; leaflets in 4-5 (-6) pairs, ovate to ovate-elliptic,
occasionally lanceolate, (2,5-)4-10 cm long, (l,5-)2-4 cm wide, uppermost pair largest,
bases rounded to asymmetric, apices acute to acuminate (sometimes obtuse or rounded on
very young shoots), margins white-ciliate, almost pectinate, surfaces densely glandular
when young, becoming Â± glandular adaxially and sparsely glandular abaxially with age.
Inflorescences in axils of upper leaves, racemes short, almost umbellate, 2-4-flowered;
peduncles, at flowering, 3-5 mm long, at fruiting to 8 mm; bracts 9-16 mm long, linear,
acuminate; pedicels, at flowering, Â± 5mm long, at fruiting Â±15 mm long, sparsely to
densely pubescent. Sepals obtuse, usually glabrous. Petals obovate, 0,9-1,5 mm long, 0,5-
0,6 mm wide, pale yellow with brown venation that becomes conspicuous with age.
Stamens 10: usually 4 staminodal (3 adaxial, 1 abaxial) linear, flattened, 6 functional of
which 2 lateral-abaxial are largest, dehiscence porose. Ovaries densely velutinous, hairs
white; stigma hooded, Â±1 mm long, fringed with short, soft white hairs. Pods linear,
straight or slightly curved upwards, 8-13 cm long, 0,5-0,8 cm wide, compressed, septate,
sutures thickened, green or yellowish, valves sparsely pubescent with curved, white-
appressed hairs, not or tardily dehiscent, many-seeded. Seeds laterally compressed,
suborbicular or elliptic in face view, 4,5-5 mm long, 3,75-4,5 mm wide; testa greyish-
brown with minute raised dots; areole on each face oblong to elliptic, finely horizontally
striated, Â±2,5 mm long, Â± 1,5 mm wide.
Microscopical: The testa comprises of an outer cuticularised layer surrounding a
vascularised circumscribed layer; within is a monolayer of radially orientated nearly
isodiametric cells; followed by an inner tangentially elongated sclerenchymatous tissue; a
hyaline layer separates the testa from the endosperm. The leaves have straight walled
epidermal cells with numerous paracytic stomata on both surfaces. Few scattered
unicellular clothing trichomes.
Powder: Roasted seed, colour dark brown; odour aromatic coffee-like; sclerenchymatous
tissue; sclereids; parenchymatous cells with oil; starch grains. The leaf powder has
straight walled epidermal cells with few unicellular trichomes and scattered starch grains.
The main plant chemicals in coffee senna include: achrosine, aloe-emodin,
anthraquinones, anthrones, apigenin, aurantiobtusin, campesterol, cassiollin, chryso-
obtusin, chrysophanic acid, chrysarobin, chrysophanol, chrysoeriol, emodin, essential
oils, funiculosin, galactopyranosyl, helminthosporin, islandicin, kaempferol, lignoceric
acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, mannitol, mannopyranosyl, matteucinol, obtusifolin,
obtusin, oleic acid, physcion, quercetin, rhamnosides, rhein, rubrofusarin, sitosterols,
tannins, and xanthorin.
386
Tests for identity:
(b) Microchemical test (Borntrager’s) to confirm the presence of anthraquinone
derivatives.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographical examination to confirm the presence of aloe-emodine
by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
Moisture: 8.84 per cent
Ash: 11.54 per cent
Alcohol (70 per cent.) –soluble extractives: 21.17 per cent
Uses:
Laxative
Storage:
Store in airtight containers in a cool dry place.
387
Senna podocarpa (Guill. & Perr.) Lock
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
Cassia podocarpa Guill. & Perr.
Common names:
Podocarpa pod, Podocarpa leaf (E).
African names:
Arabic: N/A
Bambara: N/A
Hausa: Rai dore
Peuhl: Yelok, Bendan, Kafaa.
Swahili: N/A
Yoruba: Asunwon funfun, Asunwon anago, Aja-rere, Peiebe.
A glabrous shrub, up to 15 ft. high, with rather dense racemes of yellow flowers and thin
flat pods;locally common on old farmland, mainly in forest regions.
Mainly in forest regions
Part used:
Leaves
Name of drug:
Podocarpa leaf
Definition:
Podocarpa leaf consists of the fresh and dried leaflets of Senna podocarpa (Guill. &
Perr.) Lock also known as Cassia podocarpa Guill. & Perr. (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: A glabrous shrub or small tree of 15 ft.; branches terete, smooth. Leaves
ample 9–14 inch long; leaflets membranous in 4 or 5 pairs, elliptical obtuse mucronulate;
the upper larger leaflets 4–6 inch long, 2–2 3/4 inch broad; petiolules 1–2 lines. Common
petiole glandular. Stipules ovate-lanceolate, 1/4 inch long, more or less deciduous.
Racemes dense, at first strobiliform, solitary from the upper axils on long erect naked
peduncles, at length equalling or exceeding the leaves. Bracts imbricate, ovate, obtuse,
deciduous. Pedicels 1/4– 1/3 inch. Sepals subequal, obtuse, glabrous. Petals obovate or
oblanceolate, obtuse, venose, clawed. Two of the anterior stamens with enlarged curved
anthers 4–5 lines long. Legumes spreading or the fruit-pedicels recurved, straight or
nearly so, broadly linear, flat, thinly coriaceous or firmly papery, shining, 2-valved, the
thin pericarp depressed between the (15–20) seeds when dry, 3 1/2–4 1/2 inch long, 6–7
lines broad, tipped with the curved slender remains of the style. Fully developed seeds
not seen.
Microscopical: Surface view shows warty walled clothing trichomes on epidermal cells
with wavy walls on both surfaces, those on lower surface being wavier and smaller; leaf
epidermis consists of polygonal epidermal cells with slightly wavy anticlinal walls
covered with a thin cuticle showing paracytic stomata on both surfaces, but more
388
abundant on lower surface, cicatrices present; the epidermal cell measure 35 – 85u by 50-
60μ for the upper surface, while 60-90u by 40-70u for the lower surface; unicellular
covering trichomes are conical in shape, with warty walls and often appreseed to the
epidermal surface, measuring 320u by 87u towards the middle; cluster crystals of calcium
oxalate are enclosed in parenchyma cells, transverse section shows a bifacial structure
containing two discontinuous palisade layers, interrupted by spongy mesophyll cells in
the midrib region below the collenchymatous tissue in the lamina differentiates the leaf of
S. podocarpa from S. alata. With only one layer of discontinuous palisade in the lamina
region below the upper epidermis, mesophyll is differentiated into palisade and spongy
tissue, a thin cuticle borders both surfaces; midrib projects on the abaxial surface and is
transverse by a vascular strand formed by an arch of collateral vascular bundles; whole
strand is surrounded by sclerenchymatous percycle, followed outwards by the cortex,
consisting of 4-6 rows of parenchyma cells and then by 305 rows of collenchymas cells;
xylem tissue is lignified; spongy mesophyll contains starch, calcium oxalate, prismatic
crystals and mucilaginous epidermis.
Powder: Colour, dark green to pale yellowish to deep brown; odour characteristic; taste
astringent and slightly bitter. Consists of unicellular covering trichomes; paracytic
stomata, cluster crystals of calcium oxalate and palisade cells are characteristic features
with fragments of lamina; lignified vascular elements are identifiable in the veins and
veinlets.
Anthracene glycosides; O- and C- anthraquinone glycosides; free anthraquinones
(emodin).
Tests for identity
(b) Microchemical (Borntrager’s) test to confirm the presence of anthraquinone
glycosides.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographic examination to confirm the presence of emodin by co-
chromatography.
Tests for purity:
Moisture: Not more than 12 per cent (Course powder)
Acid-insoluble ash: Not more than 15 per cent
Sulphated ash: Not more than 16 per cent
Water-soluble ash: Not less than 3.5 per cent
Water-soluble extractives: Not less than 17 per cent
Alcohol (70 per cent.)-soluble extractives: Not less than 15 per cent
Stomatal index: 2.6-4.5-9.1 9 (upper surface); 12.5-20-28.5 (lower surface)
Stomatal number: 24-46-72 (Upper surface); 306-480-708 (lower surface)
Palisade ratio: 4-5-6.5
Vein-islet number: 18-20-25.5
Veinlet termination number: 17-19.5-24.5
389
Uses:
Treatment of malaria and constipation.
Storage:
In well-closed bottles in a cool, dry place protected from light and moisture.
390
Senna siamea (Lam.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cassia Siamea Lam.
(b) Senna sumatrana (DC.)Roxb.
(c) Sciacassia siamea (Lam.) Britton
(d) Cassia arborea Macfad.
(e) Chamaefistula gigantea G. Don
(f) Cassia florida Vahl
(g) Cassia gigantea DC.
(h) Cassia sumatrana Roxb.
(i) Cassia sumatrana DC.
Common names:
Kassod Tree, Siamese Cassia, Siamese Senna (E).
African names:
Arabic: N/A
Bambara: N/A
Hausa: N/A
Peuhl: N/A
Swahili: mjohoro
Yoruba: N/A
Cassia siamea is a medium sized evergreen tree having a great many branches. The
leaves are arranged in cascades and the flowers hang in bunches not unlike grapes. The
petals are yellow and are from 5 cm to 7 cm in length.
A native of tropical Asia, now widely spread in the tropics.
Part used:
Leaves
Name of drug:
Siamese senna leaf
Definition:
Siamese senna leaf is the dried leaf of Cassia siamea Lam. Otherwise known as Senna
siamea (Lam.) H. S. Irwin & Barneby (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Cassia siamea is a medium sized evergreen tree having a great many branches.
Macroscopical: Senna siamea is a medium-size, evergreen tree growing up to 18 m tall,
with a straight trunk of up to 30 cm in diameter; bole short, crown usually dense and
rounded at first, later becoming irregular and spreading with drooping branches. Bark
grey or light brown, smooth but becoming slightly fissured with age. The root system
consists of a few thick roots, growing to considerable depth, and a dense mat of rootlets
in the top 10-20 cm of soil, which may reach a distance of 7 m from the stem in 1 year
and eventually a distance up to 15 m. Leaves alternate, pinnately compound, 23-33 cm
long, with slender, green-reddish, tinged axis; leaflets 6-12 pairs on short stalks of 3 mm,
391
oblong, 3-7 cm long, 12-20 mm wide, rounded at both ends, with tiny bristle tip. Flower
clusters are upright at ends of twigs, large branched, 20-30 cm long, 13 cm broad, with
many bright yellow flowers 3 cm across, pentamerous; sepals imbricate, obtuse at the
apex; petals subequal to heteromorphic, yellow; stamens 10, accrescent toward the
abaxial side of the flower; filaments straight and not more than twice as long as the
anthers; ovary superior, linear and curved. Pods numerous, long, narrow, 5-25 cm long,
12-20 mm broad, flat, dark brown, strap shaped, stipitate, terete to compressed, dehiscent,
with septae between the numerous seeds; seeds are bean shaped, shiny, dark brown, 8
mm long, with distinct areole.
5-acetonyl-7-hydroxy-2methyl-chromone, Alkaloids, anhydobarakol, apigenin, apigenin-
7-0 galactoside, barakol 8-10-11, cassiachromone, cassiamine, chrysophanic acid,
anthrone, dianthrone, chrysophanol, p-coumaric acid, 1,2-dimethyl-6,8
dihydroxysoquinol-1-one, physcion, rhein, siamine, ß-sitosterol, thalictin.
Tests for identity:
(b) Carry out the tests for anthraquinones as described under the monograph for
Alexandrian Senna.
(c) Confirm the presence of chrysophanic acid by co-chromatography using thin-layer
chromatography.
Tests for purity:
N/A
Uses:
Laxative
Storage:
392
Sesamum alatum Thonning
Sesamum indicum L.
Family name:
Pedaliaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Sesamum alatum Thonning
1. Sesamum capense Burm.
2. Sesamum sabulosum A. Chev.
(b) Sesamum indicum L.
1. Sesamum orientale L.
2. Sesamum africanum Todaro,
3. Sesamum brasiliense Vell.,
4. Sesamum luteum Retz.,
Common names:
Sesame, Beniseed (E). Sesamier (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Benefin, Bene.
(c) Hausa: Ridin-bareewaa, Nomen-bareewaa, Nonan’ barya, Namijin dayi (S.
alatum) Riidii, Li’di, Nome, Nomi, Karkasii, Labto, Tabso (S. indicum).
(d) Peuhl: Berne, Poeuloel (S. alatum.)
(e) Swahili: Ufuta
(f) Yoruba: Yanmoti, Ekuku, Eeku, Beni, Eluru.
Annual or suffrutescent herbaceous plants attaining 1.75 m in height; leaves, opposite;
stem divided or palmilobate; flowers, axillary, white or pink with purplish-red spots;
erect capsules of 5 cm long with a long beak for the S. alatum or awl-shaped for the S.
indicum; seeds muricate and winged (S. alatum) ; seeds non-winged, reticulate or
smooth, asymmetrical in the case of S. indicum.
Tropical Africa
Part used:
Names of drug:
Semen Sesame, Sesame seed, Gingelly seed, Teel seed.
Definition:
Sesame seed is the dried ripe seeds of Sesamum indicum L. or S. alatum Thonning
(family, Pedaliaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Seeds are flattened, ovoid, pointed at one end, about 3 to 4 mm long, 2
mm broad and 1 mm thick, buff-coloured or whitish, finely punctate, with 4 delicate
longitudinal ridges at the edges of the flat faces; the hilum is at the pointed end, from
which the raphe extends as a line along the centre of one flat face to the broader end. The
393
oily endosperm is very thin and surrounds a large embryo with two large plano-convex
cotyledons and a small radicle.
Microscopical: The epidermis consists of thin-walled palisade cells, the anticlinal walls
being more or less wavy; cells are about 18 to 30 µ wide and 50 to 95 µ long and with the
exception of the cells constituting the four ridges, each cell has a spherical mass of
crystals of calcium oxalate about 12 to 40 µ in diameter at the apex. The remainder of the
testa consists of collapsed cells with yellowish membrane on the inner side. The tissues
of the endosperm and cotyledons consist of cellulosic polygonal parenchyma cells
containing fixed oil and small aleurone grains measuring 2 to 12 µ.
Starch is absent.
Powder: Powdered Sesame seed is pale yellowish-brown to buff-coloured, odourless, but
with bland oily taste. It is characterised by the presence of abundant oil globules,
numerous palisade-like cells of the testa containing calcium oxalate spheroied masses;
small aleurone grains, no starch.
45 to 55 per cent fixed oil, 20 per cent proteins, 4 per cent mucilage. The oil consists of
glyceryl esters of palmitic, stearic, myristic, oleic and linoleic acids; also a crystalline
substance sesamine and a phenolic compound sesamol.
Test for identity:
(b) A small amount of the powder gives a red colour with 4 per cent sucrose solution in
strong hydrochloric acid.
Test for purity:
Ether-soluble extractive, not less than 45 per cent.
Uses:
Dietetic
Storage:
394
Solanum nigrum L.
Family name:
Solanaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Solanum fistolosum Rich
(b) Solanum nodiflorum Jacq.
(c) Solanum guineense (L.) Lam.
Common name:
Black nightshade, Garden nightshade
Common nightshade (E). Creve chien,
Morelle noir, Herbe du magiciens, (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫عنب الديب أو مغد أسود أو عنب الثعلب‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Goutan Kadji
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Mtura, Ndura, Tagunjamito.
(f) Yoruba: Odu, Ogumo, Igba yirin elegun.
An annual herbaceous plant of 40 to 60 cm in height with whole or tortuous, ovate and
briefly ciliated leaves; inflorescence extra axillary white flowers, with berry-shaped fruits
of 5 mm in diameter, black when ripe.
The plant is sub-spontaneous or grown in all tropical and subtropical regions.
Part used:
The whole plant
Names of drug:
Herba Solanum Nigri, Solanum nigrum Herb.
Definition:
Herba Solanum Nigri is the dried herb of Solanum nigrum L. (family, Solanaceae).
Description:
Odour, faint and characteristic; taste, bitter.
Macroscopical: Root, attains up to about 30 cm long and 2.5-3 cm in diameter in its
crown region. It bears numerous spreading long tapering lateral roots leaving the tap root
either at right angle or at an angle of nearly 45°. Numerous thin wiry and fibrous rootlet
come out from the root and its branches. Externally, it is brownish-white in colour with a
somewhat rough surface. The stem, erect, solid and with 2-4 ridges. The internodes are 3-
7 cm long and 2 cm in diameter. The stem and branches are slightly pubescent, green in
colour with a purplish tinge which is more distinct in the apical parts of the stem and
branches and intensified at the maturity of the plant. The leaves, alternate, showing
adnation with the stem or branches. They are exstipulate, petiolate, symmetric or
sometimes asymmetric. The petiole is biconvex but more boldly convex on the lower
side. It varies from 2-5 cm in length, 2-4 mm in width and 1-3 mm in thickness. The
lamina is simple, nearly oval and having symetric or asymmetric decurrent base. It
395
measures from 6-9 cm in length and 4-6 cm in width and the leaves of the older plants are
usually smaller in size not exceeding 7 cm in length. The leaf has an acute apex and
entire, sinuate or sometimes sinuate-dentate margin. The upper surface is dark green but
the lower surface is lighter in colour. The petiole, midrib and lateral veins may show
slight purplish tinge, the leaves are slightly hairy on upper surface of the midrib. The
main lateral veins are about 6-9, each leaving the midrib at an angle of about 45° and run
up to near the margin.
Sometimes the lateral veins anastomose together at a distance of 2-3 mm from the
margin. The inflorescence, monochasial scorpoid cyme, but the axis is very contracted
resulting in the umbellate appearance. It is lateral and 2-10 pedicellate flowers, borne on
a slender peduncle, 0.5-2 cm long and about 1 mm in diameter. The flowers are
pedicellate. The receptacle, is somewhat enlarged, nearly obconical in shape.
Each flower arises in the axil of a caducous leafy bract falling off early leaving a scar.
The flower is 0.8-1 cm in diameter and 0.5-0.6 cm in height hermaphrodite, cyclic
actinomorphic. The calyx, cup-shaped about 2 mm diameter and in length. It is formed of
5 sepals which are united to almost half its length. The tube is about 1mm long and
terminates with five ovate free lobes which are 1 mm long and broad. The calyx is green
and pubescent especially at the margin of the lobes. It is persistent and becomes thicker
on the development of the fruit. The corolla, white with slight yellowish tinge at the base
and slight purplish tinge at the apex of the lobes.
It is lobate about 3 mm high, formed of 5 petals which are united at the base. The tubular
part is about 2-4 mm long and terminates with 5 acute lobes. The lobes are speading,
oblong-lanceolate and each is about 4-7 mm long and 2-4 mm broad. The androecium is
five, epipetalous; the filaments being adnate with the corolla and nearly a fifth of the
length of the corolla.
The free part of the filament is cylindrical, very short, about 1 mm long or even shorter
while the adnated part is broad and flattened, about 2 mm long. The surface of the free
part of the filament opposite to the style is covered with long hairs. The anthers are
oblong, obtuse, are parallel to each other forming a cylinder around the style. Each is
about 2 mm long and 1mm in diameter, basifixed, glabrous, bilobed and dehisces by
means of two oblique pores at the apex. The Gynaecium, the ovary superior, glabrous,
oval and about 1.5-2 mm in diameter. It is bicarpellary, bilocular with numerous ovules
attached to axile placentation. The style arises from the apex of the ovary and is about 4-5
mm in length. It is glabrous in the upper half, densely pubescent in the lower one, being
covered with long hairs. The style is white in colour and terminates with an obtuse green
stigma which is slightly bilobed.
The fruits occur in clusters carried on straight peduncles. Each fruit is borne on a short
stalk which is 0.2-1.3 cm long.
The fruit is a berry, globular, 0.7-0.9 cm in diameter having a distinct brown scar of the
style at the apex and a persistent calyx. The fruit is glabrous, green, becoming purplish
396
black and soft on ripening. The pericarp is soft and fleshy and having a thin leathery
epicarp. The seeds are numerous, attached to an axile placenta which is fleshy and
bilobed, each lobe projecting into one of the two locules. The seeds are whitish yellow,
reniform or disc-shaped tapering into a pointed end where the hilum and micropyle are
situated together in a small depression, and as no raphe is present the seed is thus derived
from a campylotropous ovule. The seeds are thicker towards the strongly convex dorsal
edge and thinner towards the straight or slightly concave edge. Externally, they are
minutely pitted, 1.5-2 mm long 1-1.5 mm across at the wider end and about 0.5 mm
thick.
The seeds are hard but easily crushed under the teeth, odourless and with slightly oily
taste. The seed consists of a comparatively thick testa, enclosing a copious oily
endosperm in which is embedded a coiled, whitish opaque embryo having a radicle
pointed towards the micropyle and hilum and two acutely curved cotyledons.
Microscopical: The root is formed of few layers of polygonal tabular cells of cork,
phelloderm consists of scattered lignified fibres and sclereids having wide lumen, the
phloem having groups of fibres in its outer part, and the xylem which is formed of
vessels, abundant fibres, few tracheids and tracheidal fibres. The stem, green with slight
purplish tinge, about 2 cm in diameter and formed of epidermal cells which are
polygonal, straight pitted anticlinal walls and covered with slightly warty occasionally
striated cuticle. The stomata of cruciferous and ranunculaceous type.
The trichomes are few of non-glandular, unicellular or multicellular uniseriate 2-6 cells
and covered with warty cuticle. The cortex consists of 1-2 layers of chlorenchyma, 2-3
layers of collenchyma, 2-3 layers of parenchyma and starch sheath. Few calcium oxalate
as prisms and idioblasts are present. Pericycle formed of 1-2 layers of parenchyma cells
with numerous idioblasts of microcrystals of calcium oxalate. The phloem formed of
sieve tubes, companion cells, and phloem parenchyma with numerous idioblasts of
micro-crystals of calcium oxalate. The xylem consists of vessels of lignified, pitted,
reticulate and scalariform, abundant fibres with lignified, straight walls and pointed or
blunt apices, lignified iso-diametric or elongated and pitted wood parenchyma, medullary
rays of uni- or bi-seriate lignified cells. The pith formed of parenchymatous cells
containing starch granules, calcium oxalate and strands of perimedullary phloem
accompanied by fibres in the periphery. The leaf having upper epidermal cells of
polygonal, straight, curved or wavy anticlinal walls, covered by smooth cuticle and the
cells over the midrib are axially elongated covered by slightly warty and longitudinal
striated cuticle. The lower epidermal cells are polygonal or elongated with distinctly
sinuous walls and covered with smooth cuticle. The stomata are abundant on both
surfaces and of cruciferous and ranunculaceous type, some stomata with outgrowths.
Non-glandular trichomes are present on both surfaces as those of the stem. The
mesophyll formed of one layer of palisade cells with sinuous walls, 72-126-162 µ in
length and 15-21-28 µ in diameter, the rest of mesophyll 5-6 layers of spongy
parenchyma.
397
Calcium oxalate of idioblasts are very rarely found. The vascular system formed of an arc
of collateral vascular bundle with groups of perimedullary phloem on its upper side and
surrounded by starch sheath. Few idioblasts of micro-crystals scattered in the cortical
parenchyma and phloem. The flower consists of the calyx having inner epidermal cells
axially elongated, rectangular with sinuous walls and smooth cuticle, some cells contain
prisms of calcium oxalate, the outer epidermal cells are polygonal with straight, curved or
wavy anticlinal walls, covered with warty and striated cuticle.
Stomata are present on both surfaces of cruciferous type. The non-glandular hairs are
present on outer epidermis and margin of lobes as those of leaf, while the glandular hairs
of solanaceous type are present on both surfaces but more numerous on the inner one.
The mesophyll of the calyx is homogenous of 2-3 layers, up to 7 layers in the lobes. The
corolla having inner epidermal cells of polygonal, straight, curved or slightly wavy
anticlinal walls and covered by smooth cuticle, the cells show long papillae up to 36 µ
long. The lower epidermal cells are polygonal, subrectangular, sinuous anticlinal walls
and smooth cuticle, the papillae attain 25 µ long.
Trichomes of non-glandular on outer epidermis and margin of the lobes, formed of

multicellular, uniseriate 2-5 celled with barrel-shaped basal cell and warty cuticle, while
the glandular solanaceous hairs are present only on the outer epidermis. The mesophyll of
corolla is homogenous and formed of 2-4 layers of parenchymatous cells. The epidermis
of the filament is formed of axially elongated cells with straight or curved anticlinal walls
and covered by smooth cuticle, non-glandular hairs of multicellular uniseriate, 2-5 celled,
with rounded apices and smooth cuticle present.
The epidermis of anther is formed of polygonal, elongated wavy beaded anticlinal walls
and striated cuticle. The pollen grains 21-28 µ in diameter, minutely pitted and having
three germ pores. The gynaecium formed of stigma and style having epidermal cells
axially, elongated with straight anticlinal walls and longitudinally striated cuticle, the
lower half densely covered by papillae of non-glandular hairs; the ovary epidermal cells
are small polygonal with straight anticlinal walls and smooth cuticle. The fruit formed of
epicarp cells, polygonal with straight or curved anticlinal walls, showing numerous pits
or slightly beading and covered with warty or striated cuticle; mesocarp formed of an
outer 2-4 layers of slightly thickened cellulosic cells followed by thin-walled
parenchyma, calcium oxalate scattered as idioblasts and few prisms; endocarp of
polygonal thin-walled cells with straight anticlinal walls. The seed, formed of epidermal
cells which are polygonal, mostly elongated, inner tangential and inner part of the
anticlinal to about X3-X2 the height of cells thickened, lignified and striated. The
remaining outer part of the anticlinal walls are thin with cellulosic thickening in the form
of bars 80-97 µ high, the endosperm formed of polygonal cells with straight cellulosic
walls and containing aleurone grains and oil globules.
Solanine, solasonine, demisine, solamargine, solasodarnine, tomatine, solauricine,
solangustine, etc.
398
Test for identity:
(b) The plant material when treated with concentrated sulfuric acid followed by
formaldehyde solution in the cold gives reddish-violet colouration.
Assay:
Macerate 10 g of the plant material with 10 ml alcohol (95 per cent) containing 1 per cent
acetic acid with stirring for 15 minutes; transfer to a percolator and continue extracting
with alcohol till exhaustion. Evaporate the alcoholic extract to dryness under reduced
pressure and extract the residue with 3 per cent acetic acid and filter through cotton wool.
Wash the residue and filter with 3 per cent acetic acid till the washings were free from
any alakaloid as tested by Mayer's reagent. Mix the acidic solution and render alkaline
with concentrated ammonia and leave overnight.
Separate the coagulated gluco-alkaloids by centrifugation, dissolve in a few ml of 1 per

cent sulfuric acid and complete with the acid to exactly 25 ml. Transfer 2.5 ml of the
solution to 50 ml Erlenmayer flask surrounded by ice and then add 5 ml concentrated
sulfuric acid drop by drop from a burette with the same precautions, add 2.5 ml of 1 per
cent formaldehyde.
Allow to stand for 40-45 minutes at room temperature and finally measure the red-violet
colour in the spectrophotometer at 560 µ. The percentage of the solution could be directly
known from the standard curve.
Uses:
It is used as a source for solasodine which is starting material for steroidal hormones
synthesis.
Storage:
399
Spermacoce latifolia Aubl.
Family name:
Rubiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Borreria bartlingiana DC.
(b) Borreria eradii Ravi
(c) Borreria fockeana Miq.
(d) Borreria platyphylla DC.
(e) Borreria splitgerheri Bremek.
(f) Borreria tetraptera Miq.
(g) Borreria latifolia (Aubl.) K. Schum.
(h) Bigelovia elata Bartl. ex DC.
(i) Tardavel latifolia (Aubl.) Standl.
Common names:
Broadleaf buttonweed, Oval-leaf False Buttonweed (E).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Broadleaf-button weed. Branched herb; stem fleshy, rectangular, ca 60 cm tall. Leaves
opposite, elliptical, rather thick, broadest above the middle, tip broadly and shortly
pointed, base tapered, variable in size, ca 2.5-5 cm long and 2,5 cm wide, hairy on both
sides, short leaf stalk. Leaf-base joined with cup-shaped stipules with bristles on edges.
Flower heads from leaf-axils ca 0.6-1.2 cm, through, white, hairy calyx of four sepals,
corolla-tube white with lilac petals; stamens and stigma forked. Fruit hairy, splitting into
two pairs.
Native of South America and now an established plant in Sierra Leone to Ghana, and in
eastern Africa.
Part used:
Leaf.
Name of drug:
Broadleaf buttonweed leaf
Definition:
Broadleaf buttonweed leaf is the dried leaf of Borreria latifolia (Aubl.) K. Schum.
(family, Rubiaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Straggling or prostrate annual herb 10–60 cm long with bright pale
yellow green stems and foliage; stems branched or unbranched, square with angles
slightly to distinctly winged, glabrous or with sparse to fairly dense short hairs on the
400
angles or stems hairy all over. Leaf-blades often red margined, elliptic, 1.2–5 cm long,
0.8–2.9 cm wide, acute at the apex, cuneate at the base, pubescent or ± scabrid above
with tubercle-based hairs, pubescent beneath or almost glabrescent all over save for the
scabrid margins; petiole 0.5–3 mm long; stipule-sheath 1.5 mm long, with 5–9 setae 1.5–
3.5 mm long. Flowers in axillary clusters ± 8 mm. wide. Calyx-tube pubescent, obconic,
2.5 mm long; lobes 4, oblong to lanceolate, 1.2–2 mm long. Corolla whitish, blue or pink;
tube funnel-shaped, 5 mm long; lobes ovate-triangular, 1.5 mm long and wide. Filaments
exserted ± 1 mm style exserted 2 mm; stigma-lobes linear, 1 mm long. Capsule ellipsoid
or subglobose, 2.5–3 mm long, wrinkled, hairy. Seeds yellow brown, ellipsoid, 2–2.8 mm
long, 1.3–1.7 mm wide, 0.8–1 mm thick, reticulate-rugulose, with a deep wide ventral
excavation..
N/A
Tests for identity:
descriptions.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Weed
Storage:
401
Spermacoce verticillata L.
Family name:
Rubiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Borreria verticillata (L.) G.F.W. Mey.
(b) Spermacoce globosa Schum. et Thonn.
Common name:
Green borreria, African borreria (E).
Bouleau d’Afrique, Borrerie verticillee,
Borreria verte (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Som som, Missini koumbere.
(c) Hausa: tururuwa, Karya garma, Marké.
(d) Peuhl: Samtarde, Gudurdel.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Irawo-ile
Perrennial bushy sub-shrub, 1m high, that branches out in slightly regular stalks,
oblanceolate smooth leaves of 4 cm over 7 mm, inflorescence compact terminal and
axillary spheres of 10 to 15 mm in diameter; small white flowers.
Intertropical Africa and Madagascar
Parts used:
Leaf, aerial parts.
Definition:
African Borreria is the leaf or aerial parts of Borreria verticillata (L.) G.F.W. Meyer
(family, Rubiaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Stem: The stem is obscurely angled, glabrous with stipular sheaths which
are glabrous or scabrid. The leaves are oblanceolate, 3-5 cm long and 5-10 mm wide,
glabrous with faint lateral nerves.
The terminal inflorescence is globose, 1-1.5 cm in diameter, usually with two leafy bracts
about 1 cm long which is reflexed beneath. The flowers are usually bisexual. The corolla
is epigynous more or less tubular. The lobes 4-12 are contorted, stamens are epipetalous
and as many as are alternate with the corolla tubes. The anthers are mostly separate and
2-celled. The ovary is inferior with two or more cells; an axial and apical or basal
placenta. The style is slender.
The fruit is a drupe dry and dehiscent. Seeds are mostly with endosperm which are
ruminate. The embryo is either straight or curved.
Microscopical: The leaf has nearly straight to straight upper epidermal cells measuring
31.9-116.0 microns by 17.4-52.2 microns; lower epidermal cells are wavy, measuring
38.2-133.4 microns by 20.3-63.8 microns. Calcium oxalate crystals and trichomes are
absent while stomata of rubia-ceous type are present on both surfaces with greater
402
abundance on the lower surface. The mesophyll consists of a row of palisade on the upper
epidermis only. Special features include oil globules which are small spherical and
numerous throughout the mesophyll.
Powder: Brownish in colour with characteristic odour, containing fragments of wood
from the stem and root; also fragments of leaf lamina with rubiaceous stomata, remains
of vascular bundles, parenchyma cells; while calcium oxalate crystals and tricomes are
absent.
Root: 0.1 per cent alkaloid present as emetine without cephaeline or tetrahydro-B-
carboline alkaloids: borrerine and borreverine.
Leaves: Volatile oil which contains hydrocarbon sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpenes lactones,
phenolic compounds and aromatic polycarboxylic acids, Azuleneguaine is also present.
Root bark: Iridoids, asperuloside, feretoside daphyloside.
Test for identity:
with the above given descriptions.
(b) It gives positive tests for alkaloids and for indole alkaloids as described in vol. 2.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographical examination of the extract of the specimen to confirm
the presence of Borrerine and Borreverine by co-chromatography.
Test for purity:
Ash: 4.06 per cent
Water-soluble extractives: Not more than 10.48 per cent
Alcohol (70 per cent.) –soluble extractives: 11.06 per cent
N/A
Uses:
It is used as an antimicrobial in skin preparations.
Storage:
403
Sterculia setigera Del.
Family name:
Sterculiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Sterculia cinerea A. Rich.
(b) Sterculia tomentosa Guill. et Perr.
Common names:
Sterculia Gum (E). Mbep. Gommier-mbep. Platane du
Senegal (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Kogurani, Kogosito, Forko, congo serani,
congo sera, kungosiranin, kènyèkoro.
(c) Hausa: Kukuko, koukoulé, Kukkuki, Kukkugi,
Kukukri, Shafo, Bakin kukkuki.
(d) Peuhl: Bobere, Bobori.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Omurun, Owun, Iwanran-wanran, Ose awere.
Cylindrical boled tree of 12 to 15m, trunk 2-3 m widened at the base, ovoid or rounded
tips; huge tortuous branches with tufts of leaves at the extremities. Alternate, digitilobate
leaves with 3 or 5 triangular lobes with acuminate tips and cordate base, 20 cm long and
as much wide, the two surfaces are densely covered with star-shaped down. Inflorescence
in bundles of terminal racemes. Calyx of 1 cm long with 5 lanceolate lobes densely
rugged on the outer surface, pale green with reddish stripes.
Fruits of five carpels formed of brownish beige velvety apiculate follicles of 9 cm in
length and 5 cm in diameter.
Tropical Africa
Part used:
Bark and gum
Name of the drug:
Sterculia Gum
Definition of the drug:
Sterculia gum is the dry gummy exhudate obtained from the tree Sterculia setigera Del.
(family, Sterculiaceae).
Description:
The bark is a smooth bark coming away in irregular patches. It is a pale yellow bark
resembling platan.
Gum: Colourless, mucilagenous.
Microscopical: For bark vessels medium-sized to large, few (1-5 per m); simple
perforation; alternate intravascular pitting; small pits to parenchyma sometimes larger
and elongated. Parenchyma principally of 2 types: one diffuse vasicentric and another
broad apotracheal to confluent bands, also with some vasicentric parenchyma; terminal
sometimes present; storied.
404
Rays of 2 distinct sizes the layer up to 3-20 cells wide, 1-4 mm.
Uniseriate rays scarce, heterogeneous, with sheath cells; the small cells sometimes
storied. Fibres with small pits, storied of medium length to very long. Intercellular canal
of the vertical traumatic type.
Water 17-16 per cent
Mineral matter 7-12 per cent
Tannin 2 per cent
Acetic acid 15-17 per cent
Galacturonic acid 43 per cent
Galactose 17 per cent
Rhamnose 15 per cent
Uronic acids 42.8 per cent
Oligo saccharides and their acids.
Test for identity:
The gum is very resistant to fermentations and absorbs more than 250 times its volume of
water while retaining its jelly form.
Gomme de Sterculia
Uses:
Emulsifying agent used in the preparation of food products, cosmetics, textile industry for
the preparation of varnish, also laxative.
Storage:
To be kept in well-closed containers and protected from light and humidity.
405
Sterculia tragacantha Lindl.
Family name:
Sterculiaceae
Synonyms
(a) Sterculia pubescens Don
(b) Sterculia obovata R. Br.
Common names:
African tragacanth, Karaya gum,Sterculia,
Gum Tragacanth (E).
Edjefoc, Gomme de Sterculia (F).
African names
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Forko
(c) Hausa: Kukukin rafi, Kusuru.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Alawefon, Okagbo, Omurin, Owun, Olofulofulo, Ilaka-ile, Alafuufuu.
A tree 40–50 ft high, with rugged greyish bark; younger shoots as well as the leafstalks,
under surface of the leaves, pedicels, calyx, and outer surface of the follicles, clothed
with rufous down. Leafstalks 1–2 inch long. Leaves leathery, oblong, obtuse at the base,
blunt or subacuminate at the apex or even slightly 3-lobed, entire or sinuous, unicostate,
feather-veined. Flowers small, numerous, in much-branched clusters; pedicels jointed.
Calyx funnel-shaped, red, 5-toothed; lobes oblong, cohering at the apex. Column shorter
than the calyx. Anthers in 2 rows. Follicles 5, stipitate, oblong acute or slightly cuspidate,
covered with close reddish down, 2–4 inch long, 1 1/2 inch across.
Part used,
Whole plant, root, gum, leaves, ash, bark, fruit, seed.
Name of drug:
African tragacanth
Definition:
African tragacanth is the dried gum from the stem bark of Sterculia tragacanth Lindl.
(family, Sterculiaceae).
Description :
Macroscopical: Tree 3–24 m tall; bole cylindrical, sometimes with fluted buttresses; bark
rough, grey or greyish brown, often deeply fissured; slash pale pink or pale orange,
quickly becoming deep orange, exudate clear; ultimate branchlets rough and grey, 5–10
mm thick, the apex rusty tomentose. Leaf-blade elliptic-oblong or slightly obovate, (6.5–
)11–21(–30) cm long, (4.7–)6.5–13(–16) cm wide, apex rounded to acuminate, base
truncate, rounded, or subcordate, texture papery or leathery, glabrous, sometimes glossy
above, tomentose (sometimes tomentellous in shade or on sucker growth) with red-brown
5–6-armed stellate hairs beneath; petiole terete, slightly swollen at base and tip, (2.5–)5–
7.5 cm long, 1–2 mm wide, tomentellous with pale brown stellate hairs; stipules
406
caducous. Inflorescences borne with the leaves, 2–10 per stem, each inflorescence 10–
14(–22) cm long, 2.5–5(–8) cm wide, 2–3 mm thick at the base, with 20–25(–30)
branches; pedicels 1–4.5 mm long. Flowers with perianth campanulate, rose-pink, pinkish
or brownish purple, rarely green tinged with red, 4–7(–8) mm long, 3–5 mm wide,
divided into 5 acute lobes 3–4 mm long, 1.5 mm wide, cohering at the apex, margins
reflexed, outer surface with a mixture of short, wide, flaccid, ± appressed, colourless
hairs and fine, pale brown stellate hairs; inner surface glabrous apart from the extreme
base and the lobes which densely covered in long, stout pointed, patent white or purple
hairs. Fruit with 3–5 follicles, follicles ellipsoid, 5.7–10 cm long, 2.5 cm wide, dehiscing
flat, then 3.6–8.9 cm long, 4–8 cm wide, rostrum rather short, blunt, 3–5(–10) mm long,
stipe stout, (0.5–)1(–2) cm long, pericarp thick, woody, 2–3 mm thick, outer surface red,
then rusty brown, tomentellous, inner surface yellow-brown, stiffly and thickly
tomentose; seeds glossy black, ellipsoid, 10–13(–18) mm long, 7–9(–12) mm wide, hilum
white, terminal, elliptic, 1–2 mm long, with a small, globose, orange aril 0.5–1 mm wide
on a short margin; seeds sessile, leaving a white scar on the pericarp wall.
Chemical constituents :
Tannins and catechins and the presence of a flavonoid substance.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopic examination of the specimen to ensure compliance
(b) Test an aqueous extract of the specimen with ferric chloride solution. A dark
coloration is produced.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Antitumor, antimicrobial, immunogenicity.
Storage:
407
Strophanthus gratus (Wall. & Hook.) Baill.
Strophanthus hispidus DC
Strophanthus kombe Oliv.
Family name:
Apocynaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Strophanthus gratus (Hook.) Franch.
(b) Rampelia grata Hook. = S. gratus Bail.
Common names:
Strophanthus (E, F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫ستروفانتوس‬
(b) Bambara: Kuna, Kunade, Kunamkala.
(c) Hausa: Kwan-Kwani, Kwaman kwani,
Tantsiya.
(d) Peuhl: Tokere
(e) Swahili: Mtowe
(f) Yoruba: Isha gidi; Langba omode, Ishan gere, Isa-ogbugbu, Ololo etu, Isa-kere.
The Strophanthus trees are ligneous creepers or sarmentose or bushy shrubs; the branches
are interlaced and can wind round a tree up to 15 m in height; stems and leaves are
smooth with the exception of S. hispidus which is covered with long dense awns; leaves:
opposite or whorled in groups of 3 ovate leaves; inflorescence axillary cymose of white,
yellow, pink or purple flowers, with petals sometimes prolonged by a long filament;
follicules are in pairs that can reach 35 cm with rounded tips, flattened or widened; seeds
are crested.
The S. Kombe hails from East Africa; the other Strophanthus species originate from
Western or Central Africa.
Part used:
Seeds
Names of drug:
Semen Strophanthi, Strophanthus.
Definition:
Strophanthus is the dried ripe seeds of Strophanthus kombe Oliver, or S. hispidus DC or
of S. gratus Franchet (family, Apocynaceae) deprived of their awns. Strophanthus
contains not more than 2 per cent of foreign organic matter. 1 g of Strophanthus
corresponds in potency to not less than 0.055 g of the International Standard Ouabain.
Description:
Odour slight, almost odourless, but characteristic and unpleasant when crushed; taste
very bitter.
408
Macroscopical: S. kombe: Seed, lanceolate to linear lanceolate, unevenly flattened, with
acute or acuminate apex and obtuse base; 9 to 18 mm sometimes up to 22 mm long. 3 to
5 mm broad and 1 to 2 mm thick; greyish-green sometimes with brownish tinge;
externally, covered with longitudinal rows of silky very closely appressed hairs
(distinction from S. sarmentosus DC), not wholly (distinction from S. courmonti Sael.),
directed towards the apex; hilum, situated just beneath the apex or the broken point left
by the removal of the awn; raphe, extending as a distinct longitudinal ridge from the
centre of the ventral, nearly flat side to the apex; internally, whitish, oily, showing,
besides the thin testa, a narrow oily endosperm completely surrounding the straight
embryo which is composed of two plano-convex, almost flat, oily cotyledons and a small
radicle pointing towards the apex.
S. hispidus: Seed, l0 to 15 mm long, about 3 mm broad; yellowish or reddish-brown to

dark brown, and less hairy. S. gratus: Seed, 12 to l3 mm long, yellowish-brown and
nearly glabrous.
Microscopical: Testa, of one integument; outer epidermis of long large elongated,
polygonal cells with straight, lignified, thickened anticlinal walls, the outer walls usually
prolonged in the centre into long narrow appressed hairs, bent at right angles at the base,
up to 0.8 mm long, each with single longitudinal lignified rib on the under side; nutritive
layer, of collapsed cells containing occasional cluster-crystals and single prisms of
calcium oxalate (absent in S. gratus, in S. nickolsoni and in S. emeni, and abundant in S.
courmonti and in S. sarmentosus) and a few small ovoid starch granules; inner epidermis,
of tangentially elongated cells; raphe, with one vascular strand, containing spiral vessels.
Endosperm, of thick-walled parenchyma containing oil-plasma, aleurone grains, fixed oil,
very occasional ovoid starch granules up to about l0 µ in diameter, but free from crystals
(distinction from S. sarmentosus). Embryo, of small thinwalled parenchyma with oil-
plasma and aleurone grains. Hairs of S. hispidus seeds are alembic-shaped.
Powder: Powdered Strophanthus is greenish-yellow, brownish-red or yellowish-brown
characterised by numerous fragments of the thin-walled hairs, fragments from testa,
showing elongated cells of epidermis with broken hairs; fragments of somewhat thick-
walled parenchyma from endosperm; fragments of thin-walled parenchyma from embryo;
aleurone grains, 5 to 10, mostly 5 to 7 µ, in diameter; calcium oxalate, occasional, in
clusters and in prisms.
Strophanthus contains 8 to l0 per cent of mixture of glycosides known as K strophanthin.
The seeds also contain about 30 per cent of fixed oil, together with kombic acid, choline
and trigonelline. K strophanthin has been shown to consist of a mixture of four
glycosides: cymarin, K-strophanthoside B, K-strophanthoside and cymarol.
Test for identity:
(b) Mount a section of Strophanthus in sulfuric acid (66 per cent v/v); the endosperm
acquires a green colour and the embryo a green or reddish colour in S. kombe and a
red colour in S. hispidus and in S. gratus.
409
Test for purity:
Assay:
Biological: The activity of Strophanthus is determined by comparing its potency with that
of the International Standard Ouabain. This potency is expressed in milligrammes of
ouabain for each gramme of the powdered drug.
Carry out the assay as directed under Digitalis lanata, using for comparison an aqueous
solution of the International Standard Ouabain (1 in 1000). The dose of ouabain for use in
the frog method is about 0.1 mg per 100 g of body weight.
Tinctura Strophanthi
Uses:
It raises the blood pressure, is an efficient diuretic and a powerful cardiac poison. It is not
cumulative and less liable than Foxglove to produce gastro-intestinal irritation, hence it is
sometimes substituted for Foxglove when this remedy has failed or is contra-indicated.
Storage:
410
Strychnos nux vomica L.
Family name:
Loganiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Strychnos lucida Wall.
(b) Strychnos vomica St. Lag.
Common names:
Nux vomica seed, Poison nut, snake-wood,
Strychnine tree (E). Strychnos, Vomique
officinale, Pomme de voutac (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫جوز مقيء‬
(b) Bambara: Grangoro = S.spinosa
(c) Hausa: Kookiya = S.spinosa
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
The plant Strychnos nux vomica is a shrub with opposite leaves with parallel veins;
inflorescence in axillary panicles of small flowers; globulous fruits.
Introduced and cultivated in Africa.
Part used:
Dried ripe seeds
Names of drug:
Semen strychni, Nux vomica.
Definition:
Nux vomica is the dried ripe seeds of Strychnos nux vomica L. (family, Loganiaceae).
Nux vomica contains not more than 1 per cent of foreign organic matter, and yields not
less than 2.5 per cent of total alkaloids of Nux vomica, and not less than 1.2 per cent of
strychnine (Mol. Wt.334.40).
Description:
Odourless, or almost odourless; taste, intensely bitter, and persistent.
Macroscopical: Seed, disc-shaped, compressed, nearly flat, usually concave on one side
and convex on the other, sometimes irregularly bent; margin, rounded or somewhat acute;
10 to 30 mm in diameter and 3 to 6 mm thick; grey or greenish-grey; externally, with a
satiny sheen due to the closely appressed hairs radiating from the centre to the
circumference; hilum, a raised circular scar in the centre of one of the flat sides, and
connected by the micropyle, situated on a prominence on the margin, by a raised ridge
which is mainly due to crossed hairs; very hard, but softens when soaked in water and
can then be easily split into two thin discs; internally, greyish-white horny and
translucent, consisting mainly of the endosperm with a central, thin disc-shaped cavity, in
which lies the small embryo with 2 small, thin, cordate, 5- to 7-nerved cotyledons and a
terete radicle about 7 mm long, adjacent to the micropyle.
411
Microscopical: Testa, of one integument; outer epidermis, of lignified, thick-walled cells
with sinuous polygonal outline in surface view, small branched lumina and oblique
linear pits; each cell prolonged externally into a closely appressed hair up to 1 mm long,
and a wall having about 10 strongly lignified, longitudinal internal ribs of thickening,
remainder of testa, consisting of collapsed flattened brown parenchyma cells, appearing
in section as brown band, and in the region of the hilum showing a short vascular strand
with small spiral vessels. Endosperm, with very thickwalled, non-lignified,
hemicellulosic, polyhedral cells showing plasmodesma but no obvious pits, and
containing oil plasma and aleurone grains, up to 30 µ in diameter, with globoids.
Embryo, of small parenchymatous cells containing oil and small aleurone grains.
Powder: Powdered Nux vomica is yellowish-grey; characterised by the thick-walled
lignified, somewhat spirally pitted bases of hairs, which appear, in surface view, with
polygonal sinuous outline; numerous arrangements of endosperm with hemicellulosic
thick-walled polyhedral cells; numerous lignified rod-shaped fragments of ribs from the
hairs, 5 to 15 µ wide; the irregular aleurone grains being 10 to 30 µ in diameter,
embedded in the oil-plasma of the cells, starch and calcium oxalate, absent.
Nux vomica seeds contain 1.54 to 2.8 up to 5.3 per cent of total alkaloids consisting
chiefly of strychnine and brucine, from 35 to 50 per cent of the total amount being
strychnine. The average amount of strychnine is 1.23 per cent, of brucine 1.55 per cent.
Tests for identity:
(a) Mount a little powdered Nux vomica in 1 or 2 drops of iodine T.S.; a fine granular
brown precipitate is formed in the endosperm cells.
(b) Mount a little of powdered Nux vomica in nitric acid; an orange-red colour is
produced in the endosperm cells.
(c) Mount a little of powdered Nux vomica in sulfovanadic acid T.S.; a pinkish to violet
colour is produced especially in the endosperm cells.
(d) Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance
with the above descriptions
Tests for purity:
Powdered Nux vomica contains not more than a few small starch granules from adhering
pulp tissue (Starch and other starchy seeds); no crystals and no sclereids.
Assay:
(a) For total alkaloids: introduce about 10 g of very finely powdered Nux vomica,
accurately weighed, into a flask, and add 100 ml of alcohol. Shake well, set aside for 10
minutes, add 5 ml of dilute solution of ammonium hydroxide, and shake frequently for 2
hours. Transfer the mixture to a small percolator with more alcohol, and when the liquid
ceases to flow, pack firmly and continue the percolation for 4 hours, or until complete
extraction of the alkaloids is effected. Evaporate the alcohol, add 10 ml of N/10 sulfuric
acid, 20 ml of water, and filter into a separator. Wash the receiver and filter, with 3
successive portions, each of 5 ml of a mixture of 5 ml of N/10 sulfuric acid and 10 ml of
water, or until the washing is free from alkaloids, transferring each to the separator. Add
to the mixed acid liquids in the separator 30 ml of chloroform, shake, allow to separate,
run off the chloroform, and repeat the shaking with 2 further portions, each of 5 ml of
412
chloroform. Mix the chloroform, wash with 2 successive portions, each of 10 ml of N/10
sulfuric acid, and reject the chloroform. Add the acid washing to the first acid liquid,
make distinctly alkaline with dilute solution of ammonium hydroxide, and extract the
alkaloids by shaking with successive portions each of 20 ml of chloroform, until
complete extraction of the alkaloids is effected. Wash the combined chloroform extracts
with about 10 ml of water, reject the water, dehydrate the chloroform extract with about 2
g of anhydrous sodium sulfate, filter through a dry filter into a porcelain dish, and wash
the sodium sulfate and the filter with a few ml of chloroform, adding the washings to the
chloroform extract in the dish. Distill the chloroform, add 5 ml of alcohol, and evaporate
to dryness. Dissolve the residue in 5 ml of neutral alcohol, add 10 ml of N/10 sulfuric
acid and 10 ml of recently boiled and cooled water, and titrate with N/10 sodium
hydroxide, using methyl red T.S. as indicator.
Each ml of N/10 sulfuric acid is equivalent to 0.03344 g of total alkaloids, calculated as
strychnine and brucine.
(b) For strychnine: evaporate the titrated liquid on a water-bath to about 10 ml, add about
5 drops of sulfuric acid, cool, then add 2 ml of nitric acid, stir well, and allow to stand for
30 minutes at a temperature between 5°C and 20°C. Transfer to a separator, and rinse the
dish with successive portions, each of 5 ml of distilled water, adding the rinsings to the
separator.
Then add 20 ml of chloroform, followed by 20 ml or a sufficient amount of sodium

hydroxide T.S. to render the solution distinctly alkaline.
Shake the mixture gently for 10 minutes, and allow the liquids to separate.
Draw off the chloroform into another separator, and continue the extraction with
successive portions, each of 10 ml of chloroform, until complete extraction of the
alkaloids is effected. Wash the combined chloroform extracts, with about 10 ml of water,
reject the water, dehydrate the chloroform extracts with about 1 g of anhydrous sodium
sulfate, filter through a dry filter, and wash the sodium sulfate and filter with a few ml of
chloroform, adding the washings to the chloroform in the dish. Distill the chloroform, add
5 ml of alcohol, evaporate, and dry the residue for 30 minutes at 100°c. Dissolve the
residue in 10 ml of N/10 sulfuric acid, and titrate with N/10 sodium hydroxide, using
methyl red T.S. as indicator. Each ml of N/10 sulfuric acid is equivalent to 0.03344 g of
strychnine.
(c) Multiply the result by 1.02 in order to correct for loss of strychnine.
To 5 ml of the titrated liquid, add 2.5 ml of sodium hydroxide T.S. and 10 ml of ether,
shake vigorously for 5 minutes, leave to settle, decant 2.5 ml of the ethereal solution, and
evaporate the ether on a water-bath. Add to the residue 0.1 g of powdered potassium
chromate R., and mix immediately.
Pass over the mixture a glass rod moistened with sulfuric acid; a violet colour is
produced.
Extractum Strychni Fluidum
Extractum Strychni Siccum
Pulvis Strychni Standardizatus
Tinctura Strychni
413
Uses:
Nux vomica is largely used as a bitter stomachic and tonic. It stimulates the muscular
coat of the intestine, increasing peristalsis.
Storage:
414
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill et L.M. Perry
Family name:
Myrtaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Caryophyllus aromaticus L.
(b) Caryophyllus hortensis Noronha
(c) Caryophyllus silvestris Teijsm. ex
Hassk.
(d) Eugenia aromatica (L.) Baill.
(e) Eugenia caryophyllata Thumb.
(f) Eugenia caryophyllus (Spreng.)
Bullock & S. Harrison
(g) Jambosa caryophyllus (Spr.) Nied.
(h) Myrtus caryophyllus Spreng.
Common names:
Clove (E). Clou de girofle, Giroflier (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫القَـَر ْنـفـل‬
(b) Bambara: Benefundi
(c) Hausa: Kanunfari, Kananfari, Karanho, Kade, Karafuu.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Karafwu
(f) Yoruba: Konofuru, Kananfuru.
Tree of 10 to 15 m high, petiolated lanceolate leaves with translucid aromatic glands;
inflorescence racemose panicles; the buds which take on the form of nails before
blossoming constitute the spice.
Grown specially in the islands of Indian Ocean (the Comoro archipelago, Madagascar,
Reunion Island, Zanzibar, etc.).
Part used:
Flower buds
Names of drug:
Flos caryophylli, Cloves.
Definition:
Clove is the dried flower buds of Syzvgium aromaticum (L.) Merrill et L.M. Perry
(family, Myrtaceae); Clove contains not more than 5 per cent of its stalks and not more
than 1 per cent of foreign organic matter, and yields not less than 15 per cent v/w of
volatile oil.
Description:
Odour strong aromatic, characteristic; taste pungent and spicy followed by a slight
numbness.
Macroscopical: Flower bud, 10 to 20 mm long, bright reddish-brown to dark brown;
lower part, the hypanthium, solid, cylindrical, somewhat flattened, 4-sided tapering
415
towards the base and bearing at the apex 4 thick, triangular, divergent sepals, alternating
with four rounded, fragile, unexpanded, membranous, imbricated petals forming a pale,
nearly spherical head, and enclosing numerous stamens; curved inwards and inserted on a
small disc, and a stiff, slender, erect, single style arising from a depression in the centre;
externally, wrinkled internally, the hypanthium contains in its upper portion 2-celled
inferior ovary with numerous ovules attached to axile placenta, and shows a very large
outer zone, with numerous shining oval oil glands near the periphery, numerous vascular
bundles in the middle and a dark lacunous layer abutting on the central zone and lamella.
Clove readily exudes volatile oil when indented or scratched by the fingernail.
Microscopical: Hypanthium possesses an epidermis of small, thick-walled isodiametric
cells with very thick cuticle, and showing stomata with no special subsidiary cells:
followed by a parenchymatous layer containing numerous large, oval, radially elongated,
schizo-lysigenous oil glands, up to about 200 µ long, arranged in 2 or 3 more or less
intermixed layers; a layer of parenchyma and collenchyma containing cluster crystals of
calcium oxalate, and traversed by small, irregularly arranged vascular bundles, consisting
of delicate spiral vessels, up to 20 µ wide, accompanied by usually isolated fusiform
pericyclic fibres, 200 to 650 µ long and up to 40 µ in diameter, having strongly-thickened
lignified walls.
The lacunous layer formed of thin-walled parenchyma. The columella consists of a

parenchymatous strand with numerous closely-arranged small vascular bundles. Sepals,
with epidermis resembling that of the hypanthium, and showing numerous stomata on the
outer surface; mesophyll, with rounded or stellate cells, numerous ovoid oil glands and
cluster crystals of calcium oxalate, and traversed by a few slender vascular bundles.
Petals, with epidermis formed of cells with straight thin walls; stomata, absent;
mesophyll, undifferentiated, containing oil glands and cells with cluster crystals of
calcium oxalate, and traversed by small vascular bundles. Stamens, with filaments having
a central vascular strand and oil glands beneath the epidermis; connective, with a large oil
gland in the apex; anther walls, with fibrous layer and minute cluster crystals of calcium
oxalate along the line of dehiscence. Pollen grains, triangular, tricolpate, 10 to 20 µ in
diameter. Style, with epidermis similar to that of hypanthium, and consisting of small
collenchyma cells, with cluster crystals of calcium oxalate, radially elongated oil glands,
and traversed by 2 narrow vascular strands.
Powder: Powdered clove is dark brown; characterised by abundant fragments of
collenchyma and parenchyma with cluster of calcium oxalate, fragments of epidermis
with thick-walled cells and few stomata; fragments of vascular or parenchyma tissue
showing broken or entire oil glands; numerous fragments of vascular bundles with
delicate spiral vessels, 4 to 20 mostly 6 to 10 µ in diameter; occasional spindle-shaped
rather thick-walled fibres, 6 to 45 µ wide; numerous pollen grains, appearing either as
equilateral triangles, with truncated somewhat emarginated as pieces or oval in outline,
15 to 20 µ in diameter; fragment of the fibrous layer of the anther wall; cluster of calcium
oxalate 10 to 15 µ in diameter.
15 to 20 per cent of volatile oil, about 13 per cent of gallotanic acid and caryophyllin.
416
Test for identity:
(b) Mix a little of powdered clove with a few drops of ferric-chloride T.S.; a deep blue
colour is produced in all the elements, except in the fibres which remain colourless.
Tests for purity:
(a) Clove contains no starch granules and no irregular fibrous cells (anthophylli, cereals),
not more than few sclereids with thick numerously pitted walls and large lumen,
frequently filled with yellowish-brown amorphous contents; no reticulately thickened
vessels and no prisms of calcium oxalate.
(b) Carry out the method for thin-layer chromatography, in vol. 2, using silica gel GF254
as the coating substance and toluene as the mobile phase, but using an unlined tank
closed with an un greased lid, developing the chromatogram immediately after
introducing the mobile phase into the tank and allowing the solvent front to ascend 10 cm
above the line of application, allowing the chromatoplate to dry, and allowing the solvent
front again to ascend 10 cm above the line of application under the same conditions.
Apply separately to the chromatoplate, as bands 20 mm long and not more than 3 mm
wide, 10 µl of solution (1) and 20 µl of solution (2). For solution (1) shake 0.1 g, in
powder sufficiently fine to pass through a sieve with a nominal mesh aperture of 500 nm,
with 2 ml of dichloromethane for fifteen minutes, filter, carefully evaporate the filtrate to
dryness on a water-bath, and dissolve the residue in 2 ml of toluene; for solution (2)
dissolve 20 µl of eugenol in 2 ml of toluene.
After removal of the chromatoplate following the second development allow it to dry in
air and examine under an ultra-violet lamp having a maximum output at about 254 nm. A
quenching zone, due to eugenol, is seen in the chromatograms obtained with solution (1)
and solution (2). A weak quenching zone, due to acetyleugenol, may also be present in
the chromatogram obtained with solution (1), immediately below the zone due to
eugenol. Spray the chromatoplate with about 10 ml of anisaldehyde solution and heat at
100 to 105°C for 5 to 10 minutes.
In the chromatograms obtained with solution (1) and solution (2) the zones due to
eugenol are strongly coloured brown-violet; the zone due to acetyleugenol in the
chromatogram obtained with solution (1) is faintly coloured blue-violet. Other coloured
zones may be visible in the chromatogram obtained with solution (1), in particular, a faint
pink zone in the lower part of the chromatogram and a red-violet coloured zone, due to
caryophyllene, in the upper part.
(c) Foreign matter. Not more than 4 per cent of blown cloves, peduncles and fruits; not
more than 2 per cent of fermented cloves; and not more than 0.5 per cent of other foreign
matter, see vol. 2.
(d) Ash, not more than 10 per cent; acid-insoluble ash not more than 1 per cent.
(e) Moisture. Not more than 12 per cent.
Assay:
Carry out the assay as directed under "Determination of volatile oils, in drugs" (see vol.
2) using about 10 g of powdered clove accurately weighed.
417
Contains not less than 15 per cent v/w of volatile oil.
Aetheroleum Caryophylli
Uses:
An agreeable aromatic stimulant, anti-spasmodic, and carminative, properties that are due
to the volatile oil. Oil is largely used to relieve toothache.
Storage:
In well-closed containers, in a cool, dry place, protected from light.
418
Tamarindus indica L.
Family names:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Tamarindus occidentalis Gaertin
(b) Tamarindus officinalis Hook
(c) Tamarindus umbrosa Salisb
Common names:
Tamarind tree, Indian date (E).
Tamarinier, Tamarin, Tamarin des Bas (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫التمر الهندي‬
(b) Bambara: Tombi, Ntomi, Tumi.
(c) Hausa: Tsamyia, Tsamia, Busai,
Gundagura, Jimbirii, Lalewa, Lototuwa,
Tausani, Tamani.
(d) Peuhl: Dam, Dabe, Dami, Djammi.
(e) Swahili: Ukwaju, Mkwaju, Msisi.
(f) Yoruba: Ajagbon
Short boled tree with striped shaky dark brown bark; paripinnate leaves with 7 to 12 pairs
of opposite leaflets; terminal recemose inflorescence; yellow purple flowers, thick pods
with edible fibrous pulp with 5 to 6 seeds.
Spontaneous or cultivated in all intertropical regions.
Part used:
Fruits and seeds
Name of drug:
Tamarind
Definition:
Tamarind consists of the dried fruits of Tamarindus indica L., (family, Fabaceae),
containing about 30 per cent of reducing sugars and 10 per cent of tartaric acid.
Description:
Odour faint, characteristic; taste acrid and sweet.
Macroscopical: The pod, contains a dozen or more seeds. It reaches up to 20 cm in
length. The peduncle is jointed 2 to 3 cm long. The pod is rounded triangular with a main
longitudinal bundle in each angle and two or three others embedded between the two
ventral angles, all running the entire length of the pod and with numerous fine lateral
branches. The harsh, brittle, brown rind, about 1cm thick, may be removed readily from
the septate pod exposing the soft mesocarp, from which in turn it may be separated.
The seeds are flattened, more or less rounded quadrilateral brown, strongly lustrous at the
edges but with a somewhat dull, slightly depressed and distinctly outlined patch on the
centre of each side. The seed is orthotropolle, the hilum and micropyle being on opposite
419
edges. The hilum is recognized by the remnants of a torn-off funiculus and the micropyle
by its uniform circular raised border. A faint ridge on the edge of the seed might be
mistaken for a raphe but it runs completely around and not to a chalaza.
The hilum is directly over the short, straight (not recurved) radicle which is about one
quarter of the length of the fleshy cotyledons, these latter being matched to receive it.
Neither endosperm nor perisperm is evident.
Microscopical:
Peduncle: Cross section shows cork cells brown contents, brown parenchyma and stone
cells; pericycle of stone cell and crystal cells, phloem zone with crystal fibres, cambium,
xylem zone of vessels and bast fibres and pith.
Pericarp: Six layers are present of which the first two form the rind.
Epicarp of cork cells, several thick, often with thickened inner and side walls.
Hypoderm of a dense mass of stone cells with dark contents, increasing in size from out
to inward, and narrow radical rows of parenchyma.
Mesocarp of parenchyma containing starch up to 12 µ and beautiful crystals of potassium
(or calcium) bitartrate, also fibre vascular bundles.
Fibres about 15 µ broad with distinctly beaded walls.
Brown parenchyma with cells smaller than in the mesocarp and endocarp of colourless
fibres less than 10 µ broad with scarcely visible luminae.
Spermoderm: On the centre of the dull patches five layers are differentiated.
Palisade cells 135 µ high and 10 µ broad, forming the epiderm with a cuticle.
Sub-epiderm of spood or bone-shaped cells up to 50 µ high and 25 µ broad, one to three
thick, containing disorganized chlorophyll grains or deep brown content passing into
thick-walled parenchyma, varying from isodiametric in the outer or transversely
elongated cells in the inner layer.
Radially elongated parenchyma.
Inner epidermis of small cells with thick walls.
The subepidermal cells vary considerably in the different parts. On the edges of the seed
all the inner layers are strongly developed.
Perisperm and endosperm appear to be entirely lacking at full maturity.
Embryo: Reserve carbohydrate in the cell wall such as is present is here found in the
cotyledons, but in the form of amyloid, not mucilage. The cells contain fat and protein in
granules of obscure structure.
Powder: Powdered Tamarind is yellowish-brown in colour, characteristic odour and
acidic taste characterised by the following:
Pulp containing long stringy bundles. Quadrilateral brown seeds, with lustrous margin
and dull patches on the sides encased in sacs of endocarp.
Pulp containing bitartrate crystals, starch cells, cork cell, stone cells of various sizes,
broad fibres with beaded walls, and narrow fibres with scarcely any lumen. Palisade cells
with two bulbs, thick-walled subepiderm of spermoderm and cotyledons with thick,
beaded walls, staining blue with iodine.
420
The fruit flesh is highly acid. It is stated to be the most strongly acid of all natural food
products. It contains tartaric acid, citric, malic and acetic acids. The pulp contain 12 to 14
per cent of tartaric acid.
The fresh ripe tamarind contained 30 to 41 per cent of reducing sugars and 9.5 to 12.76
per cent of tartaric acid. Unripe tamarind contains little sugar or acid.
Test for identity:
Test for purity:
Ash, not more than 1.56 per cent.
Uses:
It is used for flavouring foods, drugs, drinks and laxative.
Storage:
421
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cracca purpurea L.
(b) Tephrosia piscatoria (Aiton) Pers.
(c) Tephrosia ionophlebia Hayata
(d) Tephrosia lanceifolia Link
(e) Tephrosia colonila (Ham.) Benth.
(f) Tephrosia diffusa (Roxb.) Wight &
Arnott
(g) Tephrosia wallichii Grah. ex Fawc. &
Rendle
(h) Tephrosia purpurea var. diffusa (Roxb.)Aitch.
(i) Glycyrrhiza mairei H. Lév.
Common names:
Fish Poison, Wild Indigo, Purple tephrosia (E). Indigo sauvage, Indigo Rouge, Indigotier
Sauvage (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫حويرة أرجوانية‬
(b) Bambara: Defe daba = T. vogelii
(c) Hausa: Babababa, Babbaba, Maraguwa, Tutubidi, Baaba mooree.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
It is a highly branched suberect herbaceous perennial, up to 60 m in height with spreading
branches; the leaves are imparipinnate, with narrow, oblanceolate leaflets; the flowers are
red or purple in extra-axillary racemes, the pods are slightly curved, 3–4.5 cm long, grey,
smooth and containing 5–10 seeds per pod.
Widely cultivated in tropics.
Part used:
Root, leaves, seeds and bark.
Name of drug:
Tephrosia herb
Definition:
Tephrosia herb is the dried tops and roots of Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. (family,
Fabaceae).
Description:
Erect or spreading annual or short-lived perennial herb, up to 80(–150) cm tall. Leaf-
rhachis up to 8 cm long, including a petiole of under 1 cm, prolonged ± 3 mm beyond the
lateral leaflets; stipules narrowly triangular; leaflets 9–17(–21), elliptic-oblong, ± 2 cm
422
long and 6 mm wide, truncate or rounded at the apex, shortly mucronate, sparsely
striguloseto silky pubescent beneath; main nerves ± 7 on each side. Flowers reddish-
purple or bright pink, in slender lax leaf-opposed pseudoracemes, a few also in the upper
leaf-axils; bracts narrowly triangular, ± 4 mm long; pedicels ± 4 mm long, pubescent or
strigulose. Calyx brown, appressed strigulose to spreading pubescent; tube ±1.5 mm.
long; teeth narrowly triangular, the lowest ± 3 mm, others ± 2 mm long, upper pair ± one-
third united. Standard white pubescent outside, 6–9 mm long and wide; keel glabrous.
Upper filament lightly attached, widened, but not bent or callous, 1.5 mm above the base;
filament-sheath ± 6 mm, free parts ± 2 mm, anthers 0.3 mm long. Style glabrous, linear,
gently curved, ± 2.5 mm. long, not penicillate. Pod gently upcurved towards the tip, 4–
4.5(–6) cm long, ± 4(–6.5) mm wide, shortly strigulose; distance between the centres of
adjacent seeds greater than the width of the pod; pubescent style-base horizontal or gently
downcurved. Seeds 6–9, mottled, longitudinal, subcylindrical, ± 3 mm by 1.5 mm; hilum
central, hardly arillate.
The leaves and seeds contain tephrosin, which paralyzes fish.
Tests for identity:
given above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Antimicrobial, anti-diarrhoeal, vasorelaxant, antihepatotoxic, diuretic, anti-
inflammatory, anti-ulcer, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, antioxidant, wound healing.
Storage:
423
Tephrosia vogelii Hook. f.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Cracca vogelii (J.D. Hooker) O.
Kuntze.
(b) Tephrosia periculosa Baker.
Common names:
Fish-poison bean, Fish-poison-tree, Vogel’s
Tephrosia (E). Bois poison (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Diéfa diaba, Diéfé daba,
Tiabi ndiaboy, Tiébi ndiaboy.
(c) Hausa: Magyamfa, Magimfa, Jimfa, Shibi, kini.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Utupa wa kibaazi, Kibazi, Mibaazi, Mtupa, Utupa wa kibaazi, Utapa,
Utupa wa kingindo, Utupa wa mrima.
(f) Yoruba: Lakuta, Agba-odo, Orobeja.
Shrub, 1-3 m tall. Stems and branches covered in brown spreading heairs. Leaves
imparipinnate with 6-15 pairs of leaflets and a terminal leaflet; rhachis and petiole
covered in dense spreading golden brown hairs; leaflets elliptic-oblong to oblanceolate,
up to 6 cm long, thinly appressed hairy above, more densely so below; apex slightly
mucronate. Flowers in dense terminal heads, large, white; calyx densely brown or greyish
hairy. Pods up to 15 cm long, densely covered in pale brown hairs.
Widespread in tropical Africa and often cultivated.
Part used:
Leaves
Name of drug:
Fish poison tree leaf
Definition:
Fish poison tree leaf is the dried leaf of Tephrosia vogelii Hook. f (family, Fabaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: A soft, woody branching herb or small tree with dense foliage, 0.5-4 m
tall, with velutinous to sericeous indumentum. Stems and branches tomentose with long
and short white or rusty-brown hairs. Leaves arranged spirally, imparipinnate; stipules
10-22 x 3-3.5 mm, early caducous; rachis 5-25 cm long, 1.5-5 mm long including
petiolule; leaflets in 5-14 pairs, narrowly elliptical to elliptical-oblanceolate, up to 7 x 2
cm, base acute to obtuse, apex rounded to emarginate, venation most distinct on lower
surface, silky tomentose. Inflorescence a terminal or axillary pseudo-raceme, 8-26 cm
long, rusty tomentose; basal bracts leaflike, peduncle stout, as long as pseudo-raceme;
flower 18-26 mm long, fragrant when fresh, white, violet-purple or blue; pedicel up to 23
424
mm long; bracteoles sometimes present on calyx. Pod linear, slightly turgid, 5.5-14 x 0.8-
1.8 cm. Brown or green, woolly to sericeous, 6-18 seeded. Seed ellipsoid to reniform, 5-7
x 3-5 mm, dark brown to black.
It is a shrub 1–3(4) m high, usually much branched and bushy. Stems brown tomentose
with long flexuous hairs intermixed among shorter and denser spreading hairs. Leaves
with (6)8–13(15) pairs of leaflets; petiole 9–28 mm long, petiole and rachis together
(9)11–22(27) cm long, tomentose like the stem; leaflets 2.5–5.5(7.5) × (0.6)0.9–1.7(2.3)
cm, elliptic-oblong to oblanceolate, rounded to cuneate at the base, rounded to
emarginate at the apex, slightly mucronate, the upper surface rather thinly appressed-
pubescent, the lower surface densely appressed-pubescent; stipules 11–20 × 2.5–4.5 mm,
narrowly triangular or sometimes markedly falcate, soon falling. Flowers in dense heads
up to 10(20 in fruit) cm, or the lowermost sometimes somewhat remote; bracts up to 16 ×
13 mm, broadly ovate-acuminate to suborbicular-acuminate, brown or greyish tomentose,
conspicuous at bud stage but soon falling as flowers open; pedicels 14–26 mm long,
brown tomentose. Calyx 14–20(24) mm long, brown or greyish tomentose; upper and
lateral teeth about twice as long as the tube, oblong, ± truncate at the apex, the lower
tooth about 1.5 times as long as the lateral, strongly grooved and upwardly curved
distally into a keel-like shape. Petals white, rarely the standard purple; standard 24–
30(34) mm long, truncate to strongly cordate at the base, the wings and keel petals
somewhat shorter. Upper stamen loosely attached to, and easily detachable from, the
adjacent stamens about the middle of the filament. Ovary tomentose; style pubescent.
Pods 9–14.5 × 1.3–1.7 cm, light brown lanate-tomentose. Seeds numerous (more than
15), 6–8 × 4–4.5 × 2–2.5 mm, black, smooth, with a well-developed white U-shaped aril
c.2 mm long.
Rotenone and deguelin were found in the leaves (0.044% and 1.13%), Also, Vogeletin, a
flavonol was reported in this plant.
Tests for identity:
descriptions.
(b) Use the powdered leaf extract to perform the test for rotenone in powdered drug as
described in volume 2.
(c) Examine the extract of the leaf by High Pressure Liquid Chromatography. See the
method of Zeng et al (2002). Se Pu.; 20(2): 144-7.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Pesticide, Acaricide, fish poison, anticancer.
Storage:.
In a cool dry place away from light.
425
Terminalia avicennioides Guill. & Perr.
Family name:
Combretaceae
Synonyms:
Terminalia dictyoneura Diels.
Common names:
Badamier duveteux (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: wolo,wolojjèni, woloké,
waraza, wolo toeloemezeiv, volo de, volo
fi, volo teni, bisoi, bode, volodé, Bodèyi,
Uolo, Uolodié, Uolofi, Uolotiéni, Wolo-
dyé, Horo, Wolo, Wolodé, Wolofi, Wolocè, Wolbugun.
(c) Hausa: Baushe, Bawshi, Baushi, Baotché, Baotchi, Báúshe, Baúsheè.
(d) Peuhl: pulemi, buri, volo de, pulume, puulleemi, bôde.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Idi odan, Idi, Udi.
A small tree with short bole to 10 m high, sometimes bushy, branching from the base. A
savanna tree with narrow elongated leaves cover with a felt of very short hairs The wood
is yellowish-brown, hard, tough and durable.
Southern Sahel and Sudan; from Senegal to Chad, Cameroon, Nigeria, Central Africa,
West Africa, Ivory Coast.
Part used:
Roots, leaves.
Name of drug:
Terminalia avicennoides leaf
Definition:
Terminalia avicennoides leaf is the dried leaf of Terminalia avicennioides Guill. & Perr.
(family, Combretaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: Savannah tree, to 30 ft. high; flowers and leafy shoots pinkish when
young; mature leaves greyish-green above and white beneath, drying brownish;
sometimes extremely abundant.
Flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins or polyphenolic compounds, sterol, saponin.
Tests for identity:
given above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
426
N/A
Uses:
Antimalarial, cytotoxic, trypanocidal, antimicrobial.
Storage:
427
Theobroma cacao L.
Family name:
Sterculiaceae
Synonym:
(a) Theobroma leiocarpum Bernoulli
(b) Theobroma pentagonum Bernoulli
(c) Theobroma sativa (Aubl.) Lign. & Le Bey
(d) Theobroma sphaerocarpum A. Chev.
(e) Theobroma cacao ssp. cacao L.
(f) Theobroma cacao ssp. sphaerocarpum (A. Chev.)
Cuatrec.
Common names:
Chocolate nut. Cocoa. Cocoa tree (E). Cacao,
Cacaoyer (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫كاكاو‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Kakao
(f) Yoruba: Koko
More or less branchy shrub of 3 to 6 m high; leaves oblong ovate reaching 12 x 6 cm,
new leaves vividly coloured; flowers and fruits develop on the trunk: cocoa-pods; yellow
or purplish blue when ripe; cacoa beans, violet and bitter.
Cultivated in the intertropical humid forest regions of low and medium altitudes.
Part used:
Seeds
Names of the drug:
Theobromatis semen, Theobroma seeds.
Definition:
Cocoa consists of the dried seeds of Theobroma cacao, (family, Sterculiaceae).
Description:
Odour is agreeable when bruised or heated, taste astringent and bitter followed by a bland
oily one.
Macroscopical: The seeds are flattened, ovoid, about 22 mm long, 12 mm wide and 6
mm thick; testa, thin, brittle, brownish-red, marked longitudinally with veins radiating
from the chalaza; kernel, of 2 irregulary folded brown cotyledons which readily break
into small angular fragments and into the folds of which the narrow endosperm
penetrates.
Microscopical: Epidermis, elongated, polygonal, usually faced with the endocarpal layer
and crossing each other at right angles; the hypodermis, large mucilage cells. The
sclerenchymatous layer of thick lignified cells; cotyledons, epidermis of thin-walled cells
428
containing granules of brown pigments and bearing club-shaped multi-cellular hairs.
Mesophyll cells are polygonal and containing starch granules.
Powder: Powdered theobroma is brown in colour and is characterised by fragments of the
polygonal cells of the epidermis of the seed coat being crossed by the cells of the
endocarp, large mucilage cells, fragments of the sclerenchymatous layer of the seed coat,
fragments of the epidermal cells of the cotyledons with brown pigments, numerous
parenchyma cells containing starch granules and brown pigments.
The kernel contains 0.9 to 3 per cent of theobromine together with small amount of
caffeine; 40 to 50 per cent of solid fat and about 2.5 per cent of sugars, mainly sucrose
and dextrose. The shell contains about 0.4 to 2 per cent of theobromine and also
mucilage.
Test for identity:
(b) Perform the Murexide test under the monograph for Coffea arabica. Cocoa gives a
positive reaction also.
Test for purity:
Ether-soluble extractives not less than 50.
Uses:
Suppository base and chocolate.
Storage:
429
Thevetia neriifolia JUSS.
Family name:
Apocynaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum.
(b) Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
(c) Cerbera thevetia L.
(d) Cerbera peruviana Pers.
Common name:
Lucky nut, Milk bush, Yellow oleander,
Exile tree, Exile oil tree (E). Laurier jaune
des Indes, Chapeau de Napoléon (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Olomiojo
Latex bearing shrub of 6 m high; alternate quasi-linear lanceolate leaves; terminal cymes
of bell-shaped yellow flowers of 7 cm long; fruits, spherical drupes yellow when ripe;
seeds enclosed in an angular bilobed shell.
Grown in all intertropical regions.
Part used:
Ripe seeds
Names of drug:
Semen Thevetiae, Thevetia seeds.
Definition:
Thevetia seed is the dried ripe seeds of Thevetia neriifolia Juss. (family, Apocynaceae)
containing not less than 2 per cent of total cardenolides calculated as thevetin and not
more than 1 per cent of foreign organic matter.
Description:
The seeds are odourless and have an intense bitter taste followed by numbness.
Macroscopical: The seed is compressed, wedge-shaped with a triangular to semi-circular
outline having a broad end and another pointed end, a flat inner surface and slightly
convex outer one. It is buff to pale-brown in colour with minutely pitted surface. It
measures 1.4-1.5 cm in length,1.2-1.3 cm in width and 0.4-0.5 cm in thickness.The
micropyle is situated at the narrow end of the seed; while the hilum is at the middle of the
flat inner side, around which is irregular scar 5-7 mm in diameter produced by tearing off
the part of the testa that is fused with the placenta. In this area several vascular strands are
clearly visible, radiating from the hilum and ramifying through the testa. One of these
strands is more distinct and running from the hilum to the rounded chalazal end and
430
representing the raphe. The seed has two lateral thin wings. Internally, the seed is
exalcuminous with straight fleshy embryo. Each 100 seeds weigh 45-47g.
Microscopical: The testa, epidermis of brown polygonal lignified unequally thickened
cells; the radial and inner tangential walls being strongly thickened with distinct wide
pile. The outer tangential walls are thin and projecting outwards in the form of curved
papillae. The hypodermis is of polygonal, isodiametric cells with reticulately thickened
lignified straight walls, followed by the nutritive layer of thin-walled collapsed cells
traversed by vascular strands of spiral and annular tracheids. Endosperm of one or two
rows of polygonal cells with oil globules and aleurone grains. The cotyledons show a
well-defined epidermis, and a ground tissue of thin-walled cellulosic cells full with oil
globules and aleurone grains. The aleurone grains are rounded to oval, each with one or
two distinct crystaloids and a globoid. In the ground tissue are scattered ramifying
laticiferous tubes.
Powder: Greyish-buff in colour, odourless with oily strongly bitter taste followed by
numbness. It shows numerous oil globules and aleurone grains free or in the embryo
cells; fragments of the epidermal cells with thick lignified walls; fragments of reticulate
lignified cells; spiral and annular vessels and tracheids.
Cardenolides, thevetin A, thevetin B, neriifolin, fixed oil and protein.
Test for identity:
(b) Macerate 1 g of powdered seed with 10 ml of alcohol 95 per cent for one hour, then
filter. To 1 ml of the filtrate add 0.5 ml of alcoholic solution of metadinitrobenzoic
acid and 1 ml of 5 per cent alcoholic potassium hydroxide. A violet colour is
produced.
Test for purity:
Ash, not more than 2.5 per cent, acid-insoluble ash not more than 2 per cent.
Assay:
Macerate 2 g of powdered seeds with 15 ml alcohol 70 per cent for 48 hours. Filter the
extract and adjust the filtrate to 20 ml. Transfer 2 ml of the filtrate to an Erlenmayer
flask, add lead acetate 10 per cent solution drop wise. Dilute with 5 ml of distilled water,
filter the precipitated material, delead the filtrate with 10 per cent aqueous solution of
disodium hydrogen phosphate, filter the precipitated lead phosphate, adjust the filtrate to
25 ml. Take 10ml of the filtrate and add 10ml of Baldet reagent, leave for one hour at
room temperature. Measure the developed colour spectrophotometrically at 495 nm.
Calculate the cardenolide content from a standard curve.
Uses:
Cardiotonic for treatment of congestive heart failure.
Storage:
431
Trema orientalis (Linn.) Blume
Family name:
Ulmaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Trema guineensis Ficalho
(b) Trema Hochstetteri Engl.
(c) Sponia Hochstetteri Buching. ex Planch.
(d) Sponia orientalis var. asperata Solms-
Laub.
Common names:
Indian Charcoal tree, Gunpowder-tree, Elm,
Pigeonwood (E). Tréma vert, Tréma nain, bois
d'andréze (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Alakra bagbena
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Aferife, Afere, Afe, Ayinyin, Afoforo, Afefe, Ayenyen.
Shrub, small or medium sized monoecious or rarely dioecious tree, up to 12 m tall, with
smooth grey bark. Twigs pubescent to tomentose. Leaf-blades oblong-lanceolate to
attenuate-ovate, (2–)7.5–14 cm long, (l.2–)2.3– 7.2 cm wide, acuminate, rounded to
cordate at the base, evenly and closely serrate from near the base, glabrous to puberulous
above, pubescent to tomentose beneath, scabrous, penninerved; petiole 7–12(–15) mm
long. Stipules lanceolate, 4–7 mm long, pubescent, caducous. Cymes usually congested,
± 1 cm long in flower, up to 2 cm in fruit, many-flowered, mostly ♂, with a few
♀(hermaphrodite) flowers at the top. Calyx-tube short; lobes 5, 1–2 mm long, pubescent.
Ovary pubescent; styles inrolled or divaricate, 0.5–1 mm long, usually persistent. Drupes
black, thinly fleshy, ovoid to globose, 3–5 mm long when dried, glabrous.
Throughout Africa south of the Sahara, Madagascar, Mascarene Is. and tropical Asia.
Part used:
Bark, leaves, wood, foliage, fruit.
Name of drug:
Elm bark
Definition:
Elm bark is the dried bark of Trema guineensis Ficalho (family, Ulmaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: A coarser-looking plant with generally larger leaves, 3–6 inch long, 1
1/4–2 1/2 inch wide, scabrous on the upper face and pubescent beneath. Trema orientalis
is an evergreen shrub or tree up to 18 m in height. A short basally swollen bole, heavy
branching and rounded to spreading crown. The slender branchlets are covered with
white velvety hairs. Bark grey or brown, smooth but marked with parallel longitudinal
432
lines and corky spots; slash creamy-white to light yellow, fibrous, bright green
immediately beneath the bark. It has an extensive root system that enables it to survive
long periods of drought. Leaves simple, alternate, stipulate, along drooping branches, to
14 cm long, papery, rough to the touch and dull above, short grey hairs below, the edge
finely toothed all round, blade unequal sided. Flowers small, green or greenish-white,
unisexual, borne in a crowded inflorescence consisting mainly of male flowers with a few
female ones at the top. Fruit small, round and fleshy, glossy black when ripe, 4-6 mm,
containing 1 dull black seed embedded in bright green flesh. The name Trema is based on
the Greek word for a hole and alludes to the pitted seeds. The specific name, ‘orientalis’
is Latin for eastern-'of the orient'.
Tannins, saponins, flavanoids, triterpenes, phytosterols, and several constituents of
xanthones.
Tests for identity:
given above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Antimicrobial, antimalarial, antipyretic.
Storage:
433
Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Family name:
Fabaceae
Synonym:
(a) Trigonella tibetana (Alef.) Vassilcz.
(b) Buceras foenum-graecum (L.) All.
(c) Foenum-graecum offi cinale Moench,
(d) F. offi cinale Moench var. cultum Alef.
(e) F. sativum Med.
(f) Folliculigera graveolens Pasq.
(g) Tels foenum-graecum (L.) Kuntze
(h) Trigonella foenum-graecum L. subsp.
Culta (Alef.)Gams,
(i) T. graeca St Lag.
(j) T. jemenensis (Serp.) Sinsk
Common names:
Fenugreek (E). Fenugrec, Sénegré, Trigonelle (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫حلبة‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Uwatu
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Erect annual herbaceous plant of 10 to 40 cm, smooth; whitish or purplish blue flowers
that blossom solitarily or in groups of 2; pods of 2 to 10 cm with a "beak" of 2 to 3 cm,
aromatic plant.
Temperate and Mediterranean regions of Africa.
Part used:
Seeds
Names of drug:
Semen Foenugraci, Foenugreek, Fenugrec, Semen Trigonellae Foenugraeci.
Definition:
Foenugreek is the dried ripe seeds of Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (family, Fabaceae)
Foenugreek contains not more than 2 per cent of foreign organic matter.
Description:
Odour faint, characteristic but strong when powdered; taste mucilaginous, and slightly
bitter.
Macroscopical: Seed, oblong, flattened or rhomboidal; 3 to 7 mm long; dark yellowish-
brown; externally, nearly smooth; the whitish hilum and micropyle, in a depression on
one of the narrow sides, from which a deep furrow running diagonally dividing the seed
into two unequal portions the smaller containing the radicle and the larger, the
cotyledons; very hard; internally showing a horny, translucent endosperm surrounding
434
the radicle and the two yellowish accuabent cotyledons; soaked in water the endosperm
swells and becomes mucilaginous.
Microscopical: Testa with an epidermis of palisade-like cells, about 2 to 6 times as long
as they are wide, with thick cuticle, and thick lamellated walls, the lamen being conical at
the upper extremity and rounded at the base; subepidermal layer of basket-like cells, with
bar-like thickening on the radial walls, followed by the parenchymatous nutritive layer.
Endosperm, of several layers of polyhedral cells with stratified mucilaginous contents.
Cotyledons, of parenchymatous cells containing fixed oil, and aleurone grains, up to 15 µ
in diameter.
Powder: Powdered Fenugreek is yellowish; characterised by fragments of testa showing
the palisade-like epidermal cells, the basket-like cells of the subepidermal layer;
fragments of endosperm with mucilaginous cells; fragments of the cotyledons with
parenchymatous cells containing fixed oil and aleurone grains up to 15 µ in diameter,
starch granules small, very few.
Fenugreek contains 28 per cent of mucilage, which occurs in the endosperm. It yields on
hydrolysis the sugars mannose and galactose. It contains proteins, 6 per cent fixed oil, a
saponin, two alkaloids (trigonelline and choline) and about 1 per cent of diosgenin.
Tests for identity:
(a) Macroscopical and microscopical examinations to confirm that the specimen
complies with the descriptions above.
(b) Michrochemical tests for the presence of Trigonelline and for Diosgenin.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographical examination of extracts of the seed to confirm the
presence of trigonelline and of Disgenin.
Tests for purity:
Cold-water extractives, not less than 30 per cent
Ash, not more than 6 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 2 per cent
Moisture, not more than 12 per cent
Swelling index, not less than 6.
N/A
Uses:
Fodder for animal and occasionally as a spice in curry powder. Source of diosgenin. As
an adjunct for the management of hypercholesterolaemia, and hyperglycaemia in cases of
diabetes mellitus. Prevention and treatment of mountain sickness.
Storage:
In well-closed containers away from heat and light.
435
Uncaria elliptica R.Br. ex G.Don
Family name:
Rubiaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Uncaria gambir Roxb.
(b) Nauclea gambir Hunt.
(c) Uncaria gambier Thwaites
Common names:
Catechu (E).
Gambier (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫قفرهندى أو قوقال هندى أو سنط‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Climber with strong curved thorns (sterile peduncles); opposite leaves, briefly petiolated,
ovate or ovate-lanceolate, contracted at the tip into a short tail or .acuminate of 10 to 12
cm long, coriaceous and smooth. Yellowish flowers in axillary bunches, pedunculate
flowers on tomentose calyx with the corolla of about 12 mm. Fruit, septicidal capsule of
two locules containing numerous seeds.
Originates from India, naturalized in Mediterranean Africa.
Part used:
Dried aqueous extract
Names of drug:
Catechu, Pale catechu, Gambier.
Definition:
Catechu is a dried aqueous extract prepared from the leaves and young shoots of Uncaria
gambier (Hunter) Roxb. (family, Rubiaceae).
Description:
It is odourless; taste is at first bitter and astringent, but afterwards sweetish.
Macroscopical: Gambier occurs in the form of regular cubes measuring from 2 to 3 cm
each way or in masses of adherent cubes and sometimes in larger rectangular blocks
about 4 cm long or in irregular broken pieces.
It is light in weight, and of a dull, dark reddish-brown colour externally.

The surface of the cubes are even, with a few minute cavities, slightly concave and
striated. The cubes or masses break easily and are friable; internally they are porous and
pale brown.
Microscopical: Powdered drug, exhibits numerous minute acicular crystals of catechin.
436
Catechu contains catechin (7 to 33 per cent), and catechu-tonic acid (22 to 50 per cent),
quercetin, wax and oil in small quantities.
Test for purity:
Catechu yields not more than 33 per cent of water-insoluble matter, not more than 36 per
cent alcohol (95 per cent) insoluble matter, contains not more than an occasional starch
grain. Ash, not more than 8 per cent.
Tests for identity:
(a) A 1 per cent aqueous solution gives a dark green colour with 0.1 per cent w/v ferric
chloride solution changing to purple when made slightly alkaline with 5 per cent sodium
hydroxide solution.
(b) Mix 2 ml of a filtered and cooled 15 per cent solution in warm alcohol (95 per cent)
with an equal volume of sodium hydroxide solution, shake with 2 ml of light petroleum
(40-60°) and allow to separate; the light petroleum layer (the upper layer) exhibits a
brilliant greenish fluorescence (differ from black catechu).
(c) Warm catechu with chloroform and filter; a yellowish-green solution is produced.
Pulvis Catechu Compositus - Compound Powder of Catechu
Tinctura Catechu - Tinctura of Catechu
Trochisci Catechu - Catechu Lozenges
Uses:
Catechu is a powerful astringent, in diarrhoea and haemorrhage. Preparations of catechu
are incompatible with gelatin, iron salts and alkalis.
Storage:
437
Valeriana officinalis L.
Family name:
Valerianaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Valeriana alternifolia Ledeb.
(b) Valeriana excelsa Poir.
(c) Valeriana sylvestris Grosch.
Common names:
Valerian rhizome. Valerian root. Catmint, Garden
Heliotrope, Common Valerian, Garden Valerian (E).
Valeriane officinale. Herbeaux chats (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫ناردين طبي‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Perennial plant with stoloniferous underground stems; aerial stalks hollow and cordate
attaining 2 m in height; pennatisected leaves in rosette at the base and opposite along the
stem; terminal umbellar cymes pink or white flowers.
Temperate regions but rarely seen in the Mediterranean region.
Parts used:
Rhizome and roots
Names of drug:
Rhizoma Valerianae, Valerian.
Definition:
Valerian is the dried rhizome and roots of Valeriana officinalis L. (Valerianaceae)
carefully dried at a temperature below 40oC. Valerian contains not more than 5 per cent
of foreign organic matter.
Description:
Odour distinctive, disagreeable; taste camphoraceous, somewhat pungent, and more or
less bitter.
Macroscopical: Rhizome, erect, entire, or usually cut longitudinally, 2 to 5 cm long, 1 to
3 cm thick; externally, dull yellowish-brown or dark brown, sometimes crowned by the
remains of stem bases and scale leaves, and bears occasional, short, horizontal branches,
and numerous roots or their circular scars; fracture, short and horny; internally, whitish,
with an irregular outline, occasionally hollow, and exhibiting a comparatively narrow
bark traversed, here and there, by root-traces, and separated by a dark line, the cambium
form a ring; small xylem bundles surrounding a central pith.
Roots, numerous, slender, cylindrical, usually plump; 2 to 12 mostly 8 to 10 cm long; 0.5

to 2 mm in diameter; externally, greyish-brown to greenish-yellow, longitudinally
438
striated, with fibrous lateral rootlets; brittle; internally, showing a wide bark and a narrow
central stele.
Microscopical: Rhizome, with epidermis of polygonal ceils, having the outer walls
slightly thickened; cork, immediately below the epidermis, of up to 7 layers of slightly
suberized, brownish large polygonal cells; cortex, parenchymatous, with rather thick-
walled parenchyma, containing numerous starch granules and traversed by numerous
root-traces; endodermis of a single layer of tangentially elongated cells containing
globules of volatile oil; pericyc1e, parenchymatous; vascular bundles, collateral, in a ring
and surrounding a very large parenchymatous pith, containing starch granules and
occasional scattered groups of sclereids with thick pitted walls and narrow lumen;
xylem, with slender, annular, spiral, and pitted vessels, in small numbers. Branches,
similar to rhizome but with a prominent endodermis and a well-defined ring of vascular
bundles showing secondary thickening.
Root, with piliferous layer, of papillosed cells, some being developed into root hairs;
exodermis, or a single layer of quadrangular to polygonal cells, with suberized walls, and
containing globules of volatile oil; cortex, parenchymatous, with numerous starch
granules, the outermost cells containing globules of volatile oil; endodermis, of one layer
of cells with thickened radial walls primary xylem, of 3 to 11 arches surrounding a small
central parenchymatous pith containing starch granules but no sclereids. Older roots show
a pith of starch-bearing parenchyma, vascular bundles with secondary thickening and a
periderm originating in the piliferous layer.
Powder: Powdered Valerian is light brown to greyish-brown; characterized by numerous
fragments of parenchyma cells containing globules of volatile oil and starch granules;
fragments of scalariform and reticulate thickened vessels and tracheids and strongly
lignified narrow fibres; fragments of periderm and of piliferous layer with root hairs;
numerous starch granules, rarely simple, mostly compound of 2 to 6 components,
spheroidal, planoconvex, 3 to 20 mostly 8 to 12 µ in diameter with a central hilum. Starch
granules being from 7 to 10 to 25 to 30 µ in diameter.
1 per cent of volatile oil, consisting mainly of bonyl isovalerate. Non-volatile esters,
valpotriate I and II.
Tests for identity:
(a) To 0.2 g add 5 ml of dichloromethane, shake several times during five minutes and
filter, washing the filter with 2 ml of dichloromethane. Heat the combined filtrate and
washings on a water-bath for the minimum time required to remove the solvent and
dissolve the residue in 0.2 ml of methanol. Reserve 0.1 ml for test for identification (b).
To the remainder add 3 ml of a mixture of equal volumes of 6M acetic acid and 7M
hydrochloric acid and shake. A blue colour develops within fifteen minutes.
(b) Carry out the method for thin-layer chromatography (volume 2), using silica gel GF254
as the coating substance and a mixture of hexane and butane-2-one (4: 1) as the mobile
phase. Apply the following solutions separately to the chromatoplate in bands each l.5 cm
long and not more than 0.5 cm wide, 10 ml of the solution reserved in test for
identification (a) (solution A) and 5 ml of a solution prepared immediately before use by
dissolving 10 mg of vanillin and 10 ml of anisaldehyde in sufficient methanol to produce
439
10 ml (solution B). Develop twice, allowing the solvent front to ascend 10 cm above the
line of application. After removal of the chromatoplate, examine under an ultra-violet
lamp having a maximum output at about 254 nm. The chromatogram obtained with
solution (A) exhibits a number of dark zones against a light background; the largest of
these, corresponding to valtrate, has the same Rf, (0. 5 to 0.6) as the zone due to
anisaldehyde in the chromatogram obtained with solution (B).
Spray the chromatoplate with dinitrophenylhydrazine reagent and heat at 100 to 105°C
for ten minutes. A number of coloured zones appear in the chromatogram obtained with
solution (A); the zone corresponding to valtrate is greyish-green and that corresponding
to anisaldehyde is yellow.
The chromatogram obtained with solution (A) exhibits, in the lower part, a blue zone
having the same Rf, (about 0.3) as the yellow area corresponding to vanillin in the
chromatogram obtained with solution (B) and between the blue zone and the zone
corresponding to valtrate, two much smaller and more faintly coloured zones
(dihidrovaltrate and acevaltrate).
(c) Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance
Tests for purity:
(a) Powdered Valerian contains no calcium oxalate crystals and no foreign
starch granules.
(b) Alcohol (60 per cent) soluble extractives, not less than 18 per cent.
(c) Ash, not more than 15 per cent; acid-insoluble ash, not more than 10 per cent.
Extractum Valerianae Fluidum
Tinctura Valerianae
Uses:
Treatment of nervous disorders.
Storage:
In tightly-closed containers, in a cool dry place, protected from light.
440
Vanilla planifolia Jacks. Ex Andrews
Family name:
Orchidaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Vanilla aromatica Willd.
(b) Vanilla fragans Salisb.
(c) Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews
(d) Vanilla sativa Schiede
Common names:
Common vanilla. Vanilla plant, Least Water-
lily, Vanilla Orchid (E). Vanille. Vanillier
odorant (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫فانيال او فنلية‬
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: N/A
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Lavani
(f) Yoruba: N/A
Climbing plant fixed to the support by aerial roots; leaves, thick, flat, oblong lanceolate;
inflorescence in 4 to 5 greenish-yellow flowers, fruit in the form of a bean of 15 to 20 cm,
brown when ripe, black and aromatic after fermentation.
Intertropical humid regions.
Part used:
Dried fermented fruits
Names of drug:
Fructus vanilla, Vanilla fruits.
Definition:
Vanilla is the fully grown, unripe, cured fruits of Vanilla planifolia Anfr. (family,
Orchidaceae). It contains not more than 2 per cent of foreign organic matter and not less
than 2-3 per cent of vanillin.
Description:
Odour, and taste agreeable, fragrant and aromatic.
Macroscopical: Fruits slender linear capsules about 15 to 25 cm long, 8-l0 mm in
diameter, flattened cylindrical, usually curved at the stalk end, nearly black; surface,
longitudinally wrinkled covered with minute crystals of vanillin; capsule unilocular with
three carpels, contain innumerable minute black seeds embedded in a dark aromatic
balsamic fluid secreted by the hair-like cells of the inner epidermis of the pericarp; fruit
dehisces imperfectly and somewhat exceptionally by two unequal valves.
Powder: Powdered vanilla is dusky brown to nearly black, shows fragments of
parenchyma; pericarp with longitudinal, oblique, slit-like walls; calcium oxalate acicular
and prismatic crystals, fragments of seed coat with polygonal stone cells and slender
crystals of vanillin.
441
Vanillin, vanillic acid, resin.
Tests for identity:
(a) For vanillin, on treating a few of crystals as an efflorescence on the fruit with a drop
of phloroglucinol T.S. and a drop of hydrochloric acid the resulting solution
immediately acquires a red colour.
(b) Odour agreeable fragrant, vanillin crystals acicular and stand out at right angles from
the surface of the fruit.
(c) Macroscopical and microscopical examination of the specimen to ensure compliance
Tinctura Vanilla (1 in 10)
Uses:
Vanilla is used solely as a flavouring agent. The tincture is an ingredient of several
official preparations.
Storage:
Preserve in tight containers in cold place. Do not use vanilla which has become brittle.
442
Voacanga africana Stapf. ex Eliot
Voacanga thouarsii Roem. and Schult.
Family name:
Apocynaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Voacanga africana Stapf.
1. Voacanga glabra K. Schum.
2. Voacanga magnifolia Wernham.
3. Voacanga eketensis Wernham.
4. Voacanga glaberrima Wernham
5. Voacanga bequaerti De Wild.
6. Voacanga boehmii K. Schum.
7. Voacanga schweinfurthii var.
puberula K. Schum. Pichon
8. Voacanga schweinfurthii Stapf
9. Voacanga puberula K. Schum.
10. Voacanga schweinfurthii var. parviflora K. Schum.
11. Voacanga angolensis Stapf ex Hiern
12. Voacanga spectabilis Stapf
13. Voacanga lutescens Stapf
14. Voacanga lemossii Philipson
15. Voacanga africana var. glabra (K. Schum.) Pichon
16. Voacanga africana var. auriculata Pichon
17. Voacanga africana var. lutescens (Stapf) Pichon
18. Voacanga talbotii Wernham
19. Voacanga glaberrima Wernham
(b) Voacanga thouarsii Roem. and Schult.
1. Annularia natalensis Hochst.
2. Voacanga obtusa Schum.
3. Voacanga thouarsii var. obtusa (K. Schum.) Pichon
4. Voacanga dregei E. Mey.
5. Cyclostigma natalense Hochst. Hochst. ex Endl.
6. Piptolaena dregei E. Mey. A. DC.
7. Voacanga thouarsii var. dregei E. Mey. Pichon
Common name:
Small-fruited Voacanga (E). Voacanga d’Afrique (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Kokiyar biri
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Ako-dodo, Adapopo, Sinrinpin, Dodo.
443
Voacanga africana is a shrub reaching 6 m in height; leaves, opposite obovate and
acuminate of 18 over 7 cm terminal corymbs of white flowers in pairs; fruits spherical,
mettled green joined in pairs, seeds wrapped in yellow pulp.
V. thouarsii can attain 9 m in height with crown of leaves at the tips of branches.
V. africana is grown all over Africa in drained soils.
V. thouarsii also grows in Africa and Madagascar in swampy forests.
Part used:
The dried fruit
Names of drug:
Akanga, Voacanga.
Definition:
Voacanga consists of the fresh or dried leaf of Voacanga Africana Stapf. (family,
Apocynaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: The fruit is bacciform, spherical, fleshy, the size of a peach which
becomes open at the bottom when ripe. The opening reveals numerous seeds spread out
in the white pulp which is edible, sweet and bitter. The dark green fruit covered with
numerous white dots and contains ribs of lighter green. The fruits usually hang in clusters
of two at the top of the same stem.One or two carpels may sometimes secrete an
abundant flow of latex from the pericarp.
Microscopy: Trichomes are absent. Epidermal cells measure 10.5-45.5um on the upper
surface and 3.5-42.0um on the lower surface. Palisade ratio is 3.3-7.0; calcium oxalate
crystals are absent. The midrib is abaxially prominent with an arc of xylem and narrow
V-shaped phloem. Perimedullary phloem is present and a zone of collenchymas underlies
both epidermises in the midrib region. Latex tubes are also present.
Powder: fragments of the epidermal cells with or without stomata attached. Few isolated
cells of the palisade, fragments of the xylem and phloem vessels elements. Crystals of
calcium oxalate are absent so also are trichomes.
Alkaloids mainly voacangine also voaphylline, voacamine, vobtusine. In the stem and
root, the following compounds have also been reported: alkaloids, saponins, tannins,
vobtusine, voaphylline, desoxy-vobtusine, desoxy-vovtusine lactone, voacangine,
voacamine, voacamidine and voacristine, vobasine, voacryptine, voacorine. In the leaf:
benzoic, prptocatechuic, vannillic, caffeic, and p-coumaric acids are present; while
voacamine-N-oxide was obtained from the root bark. Tuberosonine was the major
alkaloid from the seed. Average total alkaloid yield is 1.5 per cent.
Tests for identity:
(b) Microchemical tests on the extract of the specimen for the presence of alkaloids using
Dragendorff’s and Mayer’s reagents.
(c) Thin-layer chromatographical examination of the extract to confirm the presence of
voacangine by co-chromatography.
444
Tests for purity:
Ash: Not more than 11.34 per cent
Acid-insoluble as: Not more than 1.72 per cent.
Alcohol-soluble extractive: Not less than 2.3 per cent (moderately coarse powder BP)
Water-soluble extractive: Not less than 13.9 per cent
Total indole alkaloids: Not be less than 0.12 per cent w/w calculated as reserpine under
the assay for alkaloids as in the Catharanthus roseus monograph.
Assay:
Carry out the assay as described under total alkaloids in volume 2.
Uses:
Voacangine is a cardiotonic.The LD50 by intra-veinous route is about 33.75 mg/kg.
Storage:
445
Ximenia americana L.
Family name:
Olacaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Ximenia americana L. var. microphylla
Welw. ex Oliver
(b) Ximenia americana L. var. oxyprener
Chiov.
(c) Ximenia americana L. var. sphaerica
Chiov.
(d) Ximenia laurina Del.
(e) Ximenia rogersii Burtt-Davy
(f) Ximenia inermis L.
Common names:
Wild olive, Wild lime, Yellow Plum or Sea Lemon, Tallow nut; Seaside plum, Spiny
plum, Mountain plum; False sandalwood, Tallow wood, Hog plum, Small sourplum,
Sour plum, Wild lime, Wild plum (E). Citron de la mer, Citronnier de la mer,
Heymassoliépineux, Macaby, Prune-épine, Prunier canaque, Prunier de mer, Prune bord
de mer; Prunellier chimène (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: Abu khamier, Abu khamira, Ankwi, Humeid abiad, Kelto, Medica.
(b) Bambara: N/A
(c) Hausa: Tsaadaa, Tswada.
(d) Peuhl: Tiéni
(e) Swahili: Mpingi, Mtumbui tumbui, Mtundakula, Timbui timbui.
(f) Yoruba: Igo
A small sprawling tree of woodlands native to the tropics. Leaves are oval shaped, bright
green and have a strong smell of almonds. Flowers are pale in color. Fruits are lemon-
yellow or orange-red. It is a shrub like plant found in abundance in the West African
region. It flowers usually in the second part of the dry season, producing cream – white to
greenish yellow flowers. The fruits are green but turn Golden-yellow or red. The fruit
when eaten is very refreshing and has almond acid taste.
Widespread in tropical Africa, Asia and America.
Part used:
Leaves, root and seed.
Names of drug:
Wild olive, wild lemon.
Definition:
Wild olive is the dried leaves of Ximenia americana L. (family, Olacaceae).
446
Description:
Macroscopical: Bushy and spiny shrub or small tree 4-5m high, with open crown. Bark
cracked and scaly. Thorn single, straight very sharp and brown. Flowers cream white to
greenish yellow. Fruit an ellipsoid, edible, golden yellow when ripe with a thin skin.
Ximenia americana is a semi-scandent bush-forming shrub or small tree 2-7 m high.
Trunk diameter seldom greater than 10 cm; bark dark brown to pale grey, smooth to
scaly. The lax, usually divergent branching forms a rounded or conical crown. Branchlets
purple-red with a waxy bloom and the tree usually armed with straight slender spines.
Sometimes semi-parasitic with haustoria on the roots. Leaves alternate, lanceolate to
elliptic, 3-8 to 1.5-4 cm, variable thickness (semi-succulent to thin); obtuse or
emarginate, 3-7 pairs veins, inconspicuous. Petioles short, slender, up to 6 mm long,
canaliculate. Grey-green, hairless and leathery or thin flesh. When crushed, young leaves
smell of bitter almonds. The fragrant white, yellow-green or pink flowers occur in
branched inflorescences borne on shortly pedunculate axillary racemes or umbels;
pedicles 3-7 mm long, both peduncles or pedicles glabrous. Fruits globose to ellipsoidal
drupes about 3 cm long, 2.5 cm thick, glabrous, greenish when young, becoming
yellowish (or, rarely, orange-red) when ripe, containing a juicy pulp and 1 seed. Seed
woody, light yellow, up to 1.5 cm long, 1.2 cm thick with a fatty kernel and a brittle
shell..
Tannins, saponins, resin and alkaloids.
Tests for identity:
given above.
Tests for purity:
N/A
N/A
Uses:
Antiulcer, anticancer, antisickling, anthelmintic, trypanocidal, analgesic, antioxidant,
antimicrobial, antimalarial, molluscicidal.
Storage:
447
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides Waterm.
Family name:
Rutaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Fagara zanthoxyloides Lam.
(b) Fagara senegalensis (DC.) A. Chev.
(c) Zanthoxylum senegalense (DC.) A. Chev.
(d) Zanthoxylum polyganum Schum.
Common names:
Fagara, Senegal prickly-ash, Candlewood,
Toothache bark (E). Fagarier, Fagara jaune
(F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: N/A
(b) Bambara: Won, Wo, Gozo ngua, Huo,
Goro ngua.
(c) Hausa: Fasakwari, Fasahuari.
(d) Peuhl: Barkeley, Bulebarkele.
(e) Swahili: N/A
(f) Yoruba: Igi-holarrhenaata, Ata, Orin ata.
Brief description:
Small tree of 6 to 12 cm high, branchy near the base; branches bustle with many hooked
thorns and imparipinnate leaves with rachis thorny underneath; median ribs of leaflets are
also thorny underneath; inflorescence in loose axillary or terminal panicles; small white
flowers; spherical capsule of 5 mm in diameter; all organs contain essential oil.
Sudano-Guinean West African regions.
Part used:
Root
Name of drug:
Fagara root
Definition:
Fagara root is the dried root of Zanthoxylum (Fagara) zanthoxyloides
Waterman and other species of Zanthoxylum. (family, Rutaceae).
Description:
Macroscopical: The leaves are pinnate with 3-5 pairs of shining aromatic leaflets 3.5-10
cm long by 1.5-3.5 cm broad. They are elliptic to elongated, elliptic or slightly obovate,
rounded or notched, or very shortly acuminate at the apex; broadly cuneate. They are
dark green glossy, glabrous, rather leathery; with a prominent midrib and rather faint and
irregular lateral nerves looped near the margin, and connected by an open network of
indistinct veins. Leaflets stalks are stout, 0.2-10.5 cm long.
The flowers are small, numerous and greenish-white. The axillaries are narrow and
terminal panicles are 5-25 cm long with short spike-like branches. They are glabrous and
448
usually without thorns. Individual flowers are about 0.2 cm long. The fruits are brown,
about 0.6 cm across, splitting into two, to reveal shining blue black seeds within having a
spicy taste. The bark is fairly fissured with longitudinal slash, yellow above, mottled with
orange beneath, and it is quite rough. The root is cylindrical and tortuous with rootlets
attached to it. The wood is yellow, hard and close-grained. The root consists of both the
lignified and unlignified cork cells forming alternate bands. Pericyclic fibres are present,
but the fibres are less abundant and vessel elements more numerous.
Microscopical: the root consists of both lignified and unlignified, thin-walled,
rectangular to square, cork cells, forming alternate bands; pericyclic fibres are present;
sclereids in the phloem are arranged in 1-3 bands; phloem parenchyma contains starch
granules with few phloem fibres; both xylem fibres and vessel elements are present;
transverse section shows suberised cork cells (some lignified) with yellow brown content,
about 6 to 7 layers thick, exfoliating in some places; wide cortex of parenchymatous cells
containing large numbers of starch grains, oil cells and prismatic crystals of calcium
oxalate; an endodermis consisting of parnchymatous cells containing large amounts of
starch grains delineate the cortex from the vascular tissue consisting of phloem tissue,
which is capped by lignified pericyclic fibres; medullary ray 1-2 cells wide and full of
starch grains; wood is composed of lignified vessels, pitted tracheids and xylem
parenchyma.
Powder: Colour pale yellow; taste aromatic; cork tissue; numerous starch grains in
parenchymatous cells; prismatic calcium oxalate crystals and lignified fibres present;
pieces of cork cells in rectangular or square shapes, fragments of pericyclic phloem and
xylem fibres with vessel elements present; Powder shows calcium oxalate crystals and
starch granules giving blue black reaction to iodine solution.
Alkaloidal constituents, Benzophenanthridines, phenolic benzophenanthridines,
furoquinolines, canthinones, aporphines, protopines, acridines, quinolines and atypical
alkaloids. Also tannins, flavonoids, saponins, acids, phenols, reducing sugars, calcium
oxalate crystals. The major alkaloids are Chelerythrine, Skimmianine, Fagraramide and
Fagaronine.
Others are Benzoic acid derivatives (anti sickling acids) including, p- 449ydroxyl benzoic
acid, 2-hydroxymethylbenzoic acid and vanillic acid. Also contains gums and essential
oil (containing atarine the spicy principle).
Tests for identity:
(b) Microchemical tests (Dragendorff’s and Mayer’s reagents) for alkaloids in a total
alkaloid extract of the plant .
(c) Thin-layer chromatographical examination to confirm the presence of Chelerythrine,
Canthine-6-one and Berberine by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
Moisture: Not more than 7 per cent
Acid-insoluble ash: not more than 3.5 per cent
449
Water-soluble ash: Not less than 0.25 per cent
Water-soluble extractives: Not less than 10 per cent (moderately coarse powder)
Alcohol (70 per cent) –soluble extractives: Not less than 10 per cent (moderately coarse
powder).
N/A
Uses:
Antisickling agent, antimicrobial and anticancer.
Storage:
450
Zea mays L.
Family name:
Poaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Zea alba Mill.
(b) Zea americana Mill.
(c) Zea vulgaris Mill.
Common names:
Maize. Indian corn. Turkey wheat (E). Maïs (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫ذرة شامية‬
(b) Bambara: Kaba, Magnon.
(c) Hausa: Masara, Agwado, Ba- gwariya, Burudi,
Yaggulumbe, Kwattatwali, Madaraa, Masaraa
kwona, Hak’orin karuwa, Gwari.
(d) Peuhl: N/A
(e) Swahili: Mahindi
(f) Yoruba: Agbado, Igbado, Oka, Ijere, Elepa, Erin-
igbado, Erinka, Eginrin.
Annual herbaceous plant 3 m high; straw base with aerial roots; linear lanceolate leaves
that can reach 1 m long and 10 cm wide; male flowers in racemose terminal panicles;
axillary female clusters of 2 to 3 flowers and on longitudinal rows with stigmata coming
together at the extremity of clusters; maize seeds of varied colours.
Widely cultivated in all inter and extra-tropical regions.
Part used:
The starch
Names of drug:
Amylum, Maize starch.
Definition:
Maize starch is prepared from the grains of Zea mays L. (family, Poaceae).
Description:
Odourless and with characteristic starchy taste.
Macroscopical: Maize starch occurs as a fine white powder or in irregular masses.
Microscopical: The granules are polyhedral, subspherical or occasionally muller-shaped,
measuring 10 to 20 µ in diameter. The hilum is centric triangular or 2 to 5 rayed fissure,
striations are invisible. The granules show a well marked cross by polarised light.
Amylose, amylo-pectin and amylo-hemicellulose.
Test for identity:
451
(b) Add one drop of Iodine T.S. to the starch mucilage (formed by boiling 1 g of starch in
50 ml of water and cooled); a bluish-violet colour is developed which disappears on
warming and reappears on cooling.
Tests for purity:
(a) Starch loses on drying at 100°C not more than 14 per cent of its weight.
(b) Mount a little of the starch in iodine T.S.; no yellow co loured particles are observed
(gelatinised starch).
(c) Triturate about 0.5 g of starch with 5 ml of water; the mixture is neutral to litmus
paper (acidity or alkalinity).
(d) Mix 0.5 g of starch with 10 ml of water, add 0.5 ml of hydrochloric acid and 3 drops
of potassium ferrocyanide T.S., no blue colour is developed within 5 minutes (Iron salts).
Assay:
1.5 g accurately weighed of the starch and 90 ml of water, mix well, add 10 ml cone.
sulphuric acid, reflux for 2½ hours on a boiling water bath, cool, neutralize with sodium
carbonate, complete the volume to 250 ml with water and transfer part of it to a burette.
Place 5 ml of each of standard Fehling solutions A and B in a conical flask; add 40 ml of
water and boil the mixture. Run about 3 ml of the hydrolysed starch solution into the
Fehling solution; after each addition the mixture is boiled and the precipitate allowed to
settle before the next addition is made. When the blue colour of the mixture has
disappeared add 4 drops of methylene blue indicator to the mixture and titrate with the
sugar solution in drops. The end point is reached when the colour of the indicator
disappears and record the volume of the sugar solution used. Subtract 0.2 ml from that
volume which was required for complete reduction.
Calculate the percentage of starch. Each g of glucose is equivalent to 0.9 g of starch.
Glycerinum Amyli
Pulvi Zinci et Amyli
Pulvis Zinci et Amyli Compositus
Uses:
Starch soaks up secretions and helps to render injured parts less liable for infection. As a
dusting powder it is used for chafings and exfoliated surfaces, it is used alone or mixed
with zinc oxide or boric acid. Boiled with water, it may be used as emollient for skin. As
a protective application in skin diseases it may be used in the form of Glycerinum Amyli.
Mucilage of starch is the basis for many enemas and is an antidote for iodine poisoning, it
should be freshly prepared. Boiled with water to form stiff paste, starch forms an
excellent poultice.
Storage:
452
Zingiber officinale Roscoe
Family name:
Zingiberaceae
Synonyms:
(a) Amomum zingiber L.
(b) Zingiber blancoi Massk.
(c) Zingiber majus Rumph
(d) Zingiber zingiber (L.) H. Karst.
Common names:
Ginger, Garden ginger, Spice ginger (E).
Gingembre (F).
African names:
(a) Arabic: ‫زنجبيل‬
(b) Bambara: Niamaku, Niamahu, Dugukoro
niamaku.
(c) Hausa: Afu, Chitta, Citta, Citta ahoo, Citaraho, Sakanjabir, Saifa, Zanzabir, Sakan
zabur, Cittafo.
(d) Peuhl:
(e) Swahili: Tangawizi
(f) Yoruba: Ata-le, Ata-le funfun, Jinja.
Rhizomatous plant with leafy stems of 1.50 m in height with linear lanceolate sheathing
leaves on smaller flower-bearing stems of 20 cm; greenish yellow flowers in clusters;
vegetative propagation by rhizomes.
Cultivated in all intertropical regions of Africa.
Part used:
Dried uncoated, unbleached rhizome.
Names of drug:
Rhizoma Zingiberis, Ginger.
Definition:
Ginger is the dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale Roscoe (family, Zingiberaceae)
deprived of the dark outer tissues and known as unbleached Jamaica Ginger.
Ginger yields not less than 1 per cent of volatile oil.
Description:
Odour, agreeable and aromatic; taste, agreeable, pungent and aromatic.
Macroscopical: Ginger occurs in horizontal, laterally flattened, sympodially branching
pieces: 4 to 16 cm long, 1.5 to 6.5 cm usually 3 to 4 cm wide, up to 2 cm thick; pale
yellowish-buff or light brown externally, longitudinally striated, somewhat fibrous;
branches flattish, obovate, short, about 2 cm long, each ending with a depressed stem
scar; fracture, short with projecting fibres, or sometimes resinous; internally, yellowish-
brown, showing a yellow endodermis separating the narrow cortex from the wide stele,
and numerous yellowish points, secretion cells and numerous bigger greyish points;
vascular bundles, scattered on the whole surface.
453
Microscopical: Cortex, of isodiametric, thin-walled parenchyma cells with starch
granules, and showing scattered secretion cells with suberized walls and yellowish-brown
oleo-resinous content, and scattered bundles of the leaf traces accompanied by fibres;
endodermis, of pale-brown, thin-walled cells with suberized radial walls; stele, with
parenchymatous ground tissue, numerous yellow oleo-resin secretion cells and numerous
scattered, closed collateral vascular bundles with non-lignified, reticulate, scalariform,
and spiral vessels, often accompanied by narrow cells; containing a dark brown pigment,
and supported by thin-walled fibres with wide lumen, small oblique slit-like pits, and
lignified middle lamella; some of those fibres being septate.
Powder: Powdered Ginger is yellowish-white; characterised by numerous fragments of
thin-walled parenchyma containing starch granules; fragments of thin-walled septate
fibres with oblique slit-like pits; fragments of non-lignified scalariform, reticulate and
spiral vessels, sometimes accompanied by dark pigment cells; numerous starch granules,
simple, flat, oval, oblong with terminal protuberance, in which the eccentric hilum is
situated, 5 to 60 usually 15 to 30 µ long, 5 to 40 usually 18 to 25 µ wide, 6 to 12 usually
8 to 10 µ thick with somewhat marked fine transverse striations.
Ginger contains from 0.25 to 3 per cent of volatile oil possessing the aroma but not the
pungency of the drug. The latter property is due to a yellowish oily body, gingerol which
is odourless but has an intensely pungent taste.
The drug contains resin and 56 per cent of starch.
Tests for identity:
(b) Thin-layer chromatographic examination of the specimen to confirm the presence of
gingerols by co-chromatography.
Tests for purity:
(a) Powdered Ginger contains no gelatinized starch (boiled Ginger); no starch granules
less than 10 µ (Rice) and not more than 30 µ in diameter (Cereals and Potato); no
sclereids or lignified elements, no calcium oxalate crystals and no cork cells.
(b) Shake 1 g of powdered Ginger with 5 ml of dilute acetic acid, and filter; to the filtrate,
add a few drops of ammonium oxalate T.S.; not more than a slight turbidity is produced
(Limed Ginger).
(c) Alcohol -soluble extractives, not less than 4.5 per cent water-soluble extractive, not
less than 10 per cent.
(d) Ash, not more than 6 per cent; water-soluble ash, not less than 1.7 per cent.
(e) Foreign organic matter: not more than 2 per cent.
Assay:
Carry out the assay in volume 2 as directed under "Determination of volatile oils in
drugs". It yields not less than 1 per cent of volatile oil.
Tinctura Zingiberis Forte
Ginger Syrup (Syrupus Zingiberis)
Weak Ginger Tincture
454
Uses:
Flavouring agent, carminative, minimum dose 0.30 g, maximum dose 1.0 g.
Storage:
455
PHOTO GALLERY
Abrus precatorius L.
Acacia senegal (L.) A Willd.
Acacia seyal Delile
i
Achyranthes aspera L.
Adansonia digitata L.
Afrormosia angolensis (Baker) De Wild
ii
Afrormosia laxiflora (Baker) Harms
Agave sisalana Perrine
Albizia ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.) Benth.
iii
Alchornea cordifolia Müll.Arg.
Allium sativum L.
iv
Aloe ferox Miller
Althaea officinalis L.
v
Ammi visnaga (L.) Lamk.
Anacardium occidentale L.
Anethum graveolens L.
vi
Annona muricata L.
Annona senegalensis Pers.
Anthocleista procera Lepr. ex Bureau
vii
Antiaris africana Engl.
Arachis hypogaea L.
Argemone mexicana L.
viii
Areca catechu L.
Artemisia absinthium L.
Astragalus gummifer Lab.
ix
Atropa belladonna L.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.
x
Borreria latifolia (Aubl.) K. Schum.
Borreria verticillata (L.) G.F.W. Mey.
Bridelia ferruginea Benth.
xi
Caesalpinia bonduc L. (Roxb.)
Cajanus cajan Millsp.
Calotropis procera (Aiton) W. T. Aiton
xii
Canavalia ensiformis L. (DC.)
Capsicum annuum L.
Capsicum frutescens L.
xiii
Carica Papaya L.
Carthamus tinctorius L.
Cassia absus L.
xiv
Cassia acutifolia Del. And Cassia angustifolia Vahl.
Cassia alata L.
Cassia fistula L.
xv
Cassia italica (Mill.) Spreng
Cassia nigricans Vahl
Cassia occidentalis L.
xvi
Cassia podocarpa Guill. & Perr.
Cassia siamea Lam.
Cassia sieberiana DC.
xvii
Cassia tora L.
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.
xviii
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.
Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) Rich.
Chenopodium ambrosioides L.
xix
Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (Trevir.) Vis.
Cinchona calisaya Wedd.
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl
xx
Cinnamomum zeylanicumBlume
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad.
Citrus aurantium L. (pro. Sp)
xxi
Citrus limonum Risso
Cissus quadrangularis L.
Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul.
xxii
Cocculus pendulus (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Diels
Cocos nucifera L.
Coffea arabica L.
xxiii
Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott et Endl.
Combretum aculeatum Vent.
Combretum micranthum G. Don
xxiv
Commiphora molmol Engl. ex Tschirch
Combretum nigricans Lepr.
xxv
Convolvulus scammonia L.
Corchorus olitorius L.
xxvi
Coriandrum sativum L.
Crateva religiosa G. Forst.
Crotalaria retusa L.
xxvii
Cucurbita pepo L.
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf
Cynara scolymus L.
xxviii
Datura metel L.
Datura stramonium L.
Derris elliptica (Roxb.) Benth.
xxix
Desmodium adscendens (Sw.) DC.
Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC.
Digitalis lanata Ehrh.
xxx
Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC.
Elaeis guineensis Jacq.
Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton
xxxi
Entada Africana Guill. & Perr.
Ephedra sinica Stapf
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
xxxii
Euphorbia hirta L.
Erythrina senegalensis DC.
Erythrophleum guineense G. Don
xxxiii
Erythroxylon coca Lam.
Eupatorium odoratum L.
Euphorbia tirucalli L.
xxxiv
Ferula assa-foetida L.
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
Gentiana lutea L.
xxxv
Glycine soja Sieb et Zucco
Glycyrrhiza glabra L.
Grewia bicolor Juss.
xxxvi
Guaiacum officinale L.
Guibourtia copallifera Benn.
Haemanthus multiflorus Martyn
xxxvii
Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmel.
Harungana madagascariensis [Lam. ex] Poir.
Heliotropium indicum L.
xxxviii
Hippocratea indica Willd.
Holarrhena floribunda T. Dur. et Schinz
Hydrastis Canadensis L.
xxxix
Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.
Hyoscyamus muticus L.
xl
Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl.
Lavandula officinalis Chaix.
Lawsonia alba Lam.
xli
Lindackeria dentata (Oliv.) Gilg
Lippia multiflora Moldenke
Lobelia inflata L.
xlii
Mangifera indica L.
Matricaria chamomilla L.
Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell
xliii
Melia azedarach L.
Mentha piperita L. (pro sp.)
Mentha viridis L.
xliv
Mimosa pudica L.
Mirabilis jalapa L.
Mitragyna inermis (Willd.) Kuntze
xlv
Momordica charantia L.
Morinda geminata DC.
Moringa oleifera Lamk
xlvi
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.
Myristica fragrans Houtt.
Ocimum gratissimum L
xlvii
Papaver somniferum L.
Pauridiantha callicarpoides (Hiern) Bremek.
N/A
Peumus boldus Molina
xlviii
Phaseolus vulgaris L
Physostigma venenosum Balfour
Piliostigma reticulatum (DC.) Hochst.
xlix
Pimpinella anisum L.
Pisum sativum L.
Plantago ovata Forssk.
N/A
Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth
l
Polygala senega L
Prosopis africana (Guill. & Perr.)Taub.
Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir.
li
Punica granatum L.
Quassia amara L.
Quercus infectoria G. Olivier

N/A
Quillaja saponaria Poir.
lii
Quisqualis indica L.
Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel.

N/A
Rhamnus frangula L.
Rhamnus purshiana DC
liii
Ricinus communis L.
Saccharum officinarum L.
Schwenkia americana L.
liv
Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Baill.
Solanum nigrum L.
Solanum nigrum L.
lv
Strophanthus gratus (Wall. & Hook.) Baill.
lvi
Strychnos nux vomica L.
Swartzia madagascariensis Desv.
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill et L.M. Perry
lvii
Tamarindus indica L.
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers.
Tephrosia vogelii Hook. f.
lviii
Terminalia avicennioides Guill. & Perr.
Theobroma cacao L.
Thevetia neriifolia JUSS.
lix
Trema guineensis Ficalho
Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Uncaria gambier Thwaites
lx
Urginea maritima (L.) Baker
Valeriana officinalis L.
Vanilla planifolia Jacks. Ex Andrews
lxi
Vetiveria nigritana (Benth.) Stapf
Voacanga africana Stapf. ex Eliot
Ximenia americana L.
lxii
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides Waterm.
Zea mays L.
Zingiber officinale Roscoe
lxiii
lxiv

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AFRICAN PHARMACOPOEIA

VOLUME 1 ABUJA, NIGERIA 2014

COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION CAN BE OBTAINED FROM:

SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL & RESEARCH COMMISSION COMMISSION

AU/STRC Publication prepared by the Scientific Team and reviewed by consultant.

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................... i

PREFACE .................................................................................................................................................. viii

Abrus precatorius L....................................................................................................................................... 1

Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. ............................................................................................................................ 3

Acacia seyal Delile ....................................................................................................................................... 5

Achyranthes aspera L. ................................................................................................................................... 8

Adansonia digitata L. .................................................................................................................................. 10

Agave sisalana Perrine ................................................................................................................................ 12

Albizia ferruginea (Guill. & Perr.) Benth. .................................................................................................. 14

Alchornea cordifolia Müll.Arg. .................................................................................................................. 17

Allium sativum L. ....................................................................................................................................... 19

Aloe ferox Miller ........................................................................................................................................ 21

Althaea officinalis L. .................................................................................................................................. 24

Ammi visnaga (L.) Lamk. ........................................................................................................................... 27

Anacardium occidentale L. ......................................................................................................................... 30

Anethum graveolens L. ............................................................................................................................... 32

Annona muricata L. .................................................................................................................................... 34

Annona senegalensis Pers. .......................................................................................................................... 37

Anthocleista procera Lepr. ex Bureau......................................................................................................... 39

Antiaris africana Engl. ................................................................................................................................ 41

Arachis hypogaea L. ................................................................................................................................... 43

Argemone mexicana L. ............................................................................................................................... 47

Artemisia absinthium L............................................................................................................................... 51

Astragalus gummifer Lab. .......................................................................................................................... 54

Atropa belladonna L. .................................................................................................................................. 56

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. ......................................................................................................................... 60

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. ..................................................................................................................... 62

Bauhinia reticulata DC. ............................................................................................................................... 64

Bobgunnia madagascariensis (Desv.) J. H. Kirkbr. & Wiersema ............................................................... 66

Bridelia ferruginea Benth. ........................................................................................................................... 68

Caesalpinia bonduc L. (Roxb.) ................................................................................................................... 71

Cajanus cajan Millsp. .................................................................................................................................. 73

Calotropis procera (Aiton) W. T. Aiton ...................................................................................................... 76

Canavalia ensiformis L. (DC.) .................................................................................................................... 78

Capsicum annuum L. .................................................................................................................................. 80

Capsicum frutescens L. ............................................................................................................................... 83

Carthamus tinctorius L. ............................................................................................................................... 88

Cassia fistula L............................................................................................................................................ 91

Cassia sieberiana DC. ................................................................................................................................. 94

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don ................................................................................................................ 98

Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. .................................................................................................................... 101

Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. ......................................................................................................................... 103

Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) L. .............................................................................................................. 105

Chamaecrista absus (L.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby....................................................................................... 109

Chamaecrista nigricans (Vahl) Greene ..................................................................................................... 111

Chenopodium ambrosioides L. ................................................................................................................. 113

Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium (Trevir.) Vis........................................................................................ 118

Cinchona calisaya Wedd. .......................................................................................................................... 121

Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl ....................................................................................................... 125

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. ............................................................................................................. 130

Citrus aurantium L. (pro. Sp) .................................................................................................................... 132

Citrus limonum Risso ............................................................................................................................... 134

Cissus quadrangularis L. ........................................................................................................................... 136

Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul. .................................................................................................................... 138

Cocculus pendulus (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Diels...................................................................................... 141

Cocos nucifera L. ...................................................................................................................................... 143

Coffea arabica L........................................................................................................................................ 146

Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott et Endl. .............................................................................................. 148