Chapter 20

Cirripedia: The Barnacles

William A. Newman and Donald P. Abbott

The Cirripedia are crustaceans that as adults are usually sessile, at- sive carpets of barnacles (Stephenson & Stephenson, 1972). Those
tached to hard substrata or to other organisms. The carapace (man- seeking recreation at the shore may regard barnacles as an unnec-
tle) completely envelops the body, and in most forms it secretes a essarily abrasive nuisance, but to the biologist interested in ecol-
calcareous shell—a trait that led some earlier zoologists to place ogy and evolution they are among the most intriguing of all inver-
barnacles in the phylum Mollusca. In adapting to life in the pro- tebrates.
tected environment of the mantle cavity, the barnacle body has un- The subclass Cirripedia encompasses four orders: the Ascothora-
dergone an evolutionary reduction or loss of such features as the cica, Acrothoracica, Thoracica, and Rhizocephala. Representatives
compound eyes and the abdomen and its appendages, but most of each order occur in waters off California. The Thoracica, or true
adult cirripeds are still easily recognizable as crustaceans upon dis- barnacles, are ecologically more important by virtue of their abun-
section. This is not the case with the more highly modified parasitic dance and conspicuousness. Therefore only a few comments on the
species, whose true cirriped nature is clear only from a study of other orders will be made here, a fuller understanding being ob-
their larvae. tainable from the sources given in the bibliography.
The barnacles are an ancient group. There are published ac- Species of Thoracica occur in virtually all marine environments,
counts of Silurian fossil remains, and barnacles have been discov- from the highest reaches of the tides to the depths of the oceans.
ered very recently in the Burgess Shale deposits in British Colum- Some occur in estuaries, but none completes its life cycle in fresh
bia (D. H. Collins, pers. comm.), beds that date from the middle water. Diversity is greatest in the tropical Indo-Pacific, less in the
Cambrian period of the Paleozoic. Barnacles remain a very success- northeast Pacific, and far less in the North Atlantic (Cornwall, 1951,
ful group today, both in number of species —about 1,445 living spe- 1955; Henry, 1940,1942; Ross, 1962; Zullo, 1966). Size is generally
cies are known—and abundance. Charles Darwin, whose superb moderate, a few centimeters in greatest dimension, but some bar-
monographs on Cirripedia (1851,1854) are still valuable references, nacles exceed 10 cm and others are but a few millimeters. All are
once remarked that the present epoch may go down in the fossil permanently attached as adults. Most retain their calcareous shells
record as the "Age of Barnacles," so abundant and widespread are throughout life and strain food (small plankton and edible detritus
their remains. Barnacle shells make up 50 percent of the carbonate particles) from the water with biramous thoracic limbs called cirri.
sediments on the Florida shelf (Milliman, 1974), and, in many parts In some, the cirri are modified for grasping and rasping. Many of
of the world, rock surfaces in the middle intertidal zone bear exten- the Thoracica form intricate symbiotic associations with larger or-
ganisms such as whales, sea snakes, lobsters, medusae, corals, and
sponges. A few have become nutritionally dependent on sharks,
William A. Newman is Professor of Biological Oceanography at the Scripps Institution of
Oceanography of the University of California, San Diego. Donald P. Abbott is Professor, De-
worms, or corals, which in earlier stages of their evolution they ex-
partment of Biological Sciences and Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University. ploited simply for support or protection (Kriiger, 1940; Newman,
 The Barnacles

Zullo & Withers, 1969). Although most barnacles living symbioti- valved shell and a body organization somewhat like that of the
cally with other organisms do not occur in the intertidal zone, sev- adult. It cannot feed, but swims using its six pairs of thoracic legs.
eral species from California's offshore and subtidal waters have Periodically it settles to the bottom and crawls about on its first an-
been included in this chapter because of their very great biological tennae, testing the substratum for suitable places to attach. Settle-
interest. Some of these forms are periodically washed ashore, and ment in a spot favorable for the rest of the life history is important
others may be brought in by divers. for sessile animals, and the cyprid's "choice" of settlement site is
The order Thoracica is divided into three suborders: the Lepado- influenced by a variety of physical and chemical stimuli (reviewed
morpha (stalked barnacles), the Verrucomorpha (asymmetrical ses- by Lewis, 1978). The cyprid larvae of most species are especially at-
sile barnacles), and the Balanomorpha (symmetrical sessile barna- tracted by the presence of attached adults of their own kind. When
cles). In the stalked barnacles the body is divided into a capitulum ready to settle, the cyprids attach their heads to the substratum by
containing feeding appendages (cirri and mouthparts) and most their first antennae (which contain cement glands), and then un-
other organs, and a peduncle or stalk by which the animal is at- dergo a second metamorphosis to become juvenile barnacles, es-
tached to the substratum. The capitulum and sometimes the pe- sentially miniatures of the adults. Adults of some species live only
duncle are armored with characteristic calcareous plates. The ses- a matter of weeks or a few months; in other species they may per-
sile barnacles differ from stalked barnacles mainly in having lost sist for several years to a decade or more.
the peduncle, bringing what was the capitulum into direct contact The remaining three orders may be treated more briefly. The
with the substratum. In the process, certain of the capitular plates Ascothoracica contains forms ranging from semi-predaceous carni-
became articulated to form a rigid wall; others (anteriorly the scuta, vores to obligate parasites on various corals and echinoderms
posteriorly the terga) formed the movable lid or operculum. This (Newman, 1974; Wagin, 1946). It is an obscure group, but impor-
arrangement is generally considered better adapted to shore envi- tant in understanding the characteristics that distinguish cirripeds
ronments, but radiation of sessile barnacles into a wide array of from other crustaceans as well as the generalized form from which
habitats indicates other advantages. Most Verrucomorpha are the extraordinary radiation and diversity of the subclass has
found in deep water, and one yet undescribed species is known evolved. Ascothoracicans differ from all other adult cirripeds in
from the west coast of North America. The Balanomorpha, com- having a bivalved shell, in using their thoracic limbs for swimming
monly called acorn barnacles, constitute the majority of species rather than feeding, and in being unable to attach permanently by
found along the shore. their first antennae. A few rather specialized, wholly parasitic spe-
In general, the true barnacles are classified by the number, ar- cies are known from deeper waters off California (Fisher, 1911).
rangement, and specialization of the plates and the details of the None is included in this chapter.
appendages (Darwin, 1851,1854; Kriiger, 1940; Newman & Ross, The Acrothoracica are generally very small. They most com-
1976; Newman, Zullo & Withers, 1969; Pilsbry, 1907,1916). Most monly burrow in calcareous substrata and show their greatest di-
common forms are cross-fertilizing hermaphrodites, each barnacle versity in coral seas (Tomlinson, 1969). These burrowing barnacles
reaching out and depositing sperm in the mantle cavity of another differ from the true barnacles (Thoracica) in having limbs situated
barnacle nearby and in turn, but not simultaneously, receiving at the end of the thorax rather than evenly distributed along it.
sperm. However, there are species in which the hermaphrodites are Otherwise their biologies are similar. All species have separate
accompanied by dwarf, complemental males and still others in sexes, the female being accompanied by a dwarf non-feeding male.
which the sexes are separate, the female being accompanied by one One highly specialized species, Trypetesa lateralis (20.1), is known
or more dwarf males (Darwin, 1851,1854). from California.
Individual barnacles brood their fertilized eggs in the mantle cav- The Rhizocephala are highly modified parasites, primarily on de-
ity within the shell. Nauplius larvae (nauplii), bearing three pairs of capod crustaceans. The adults are unrecognizable as crustaceans,
appendages, hatch out, swim, feed, grow, undergo a series of molts, much less cirripeds, but life histories include the planktonic nau-
and then metamorphose into cyprid larvae. The cyprid has a bi- plius and/or cyprid larval stages characteristic of the subclass
Cirripedia

(Boschma, 1953; Smith, 1906; Yanagimachi, 1961). In general, a fe- of natural selection, Darwin (1851,1854) formulated such princi-
male cyprid attaches and injects its cellular content into the host, ples as neoteny and specialization through simplification.
where it develops into a complex of tubular rhizoids (the interna). In terms of taxonomy and geographical distribution the barna-
After the interna has become established, a reproductive b o d y de- cles are among the best-known marine invertebrates of the west
velops and appears as the externa, usually on or under the a b d o - coast. They thus contribute readily to the delineation of biogeogra-
m e n of the host after a molt. A male cyprid then attaches and in- phical provinces along the shore, providing a model probably ap-
jects its undifferentiated content into the virgin externa. This plicable to most other benthic invertebrate groups as well. The fig-
eventually differentiates into the male gametes that fertilize the ure on the facing page summarizes the distribution of those shore
next generation of eggs. T h e cycle starts over with the liberation of
larvae. The presence of the parasite generally castrates the host and
in males feminizes the form of certain appendages and the abdo-
men. Several rhizocephalans are k n o w n from California; accounts Latitudinal ranges of benthic cirripeds of the Oregonian and
of three species (20.34—36) are included in this chapter. Californian Provinces (from Newman, 1979). The 23 species
Barnacles have b e e n the subjects of a broad range of scientific re- shown are divided into four groups; see text.
search. The true barnacles have long caused problems as fouling
organisms on ships and docks, where they add weight and resis- Group I
tance and can cause deterioration of submerged surfaces. M u c h 1. Semibalanus cariosus (20.23)
study has therefore been devoted to understanding their habits and 2. Chthamalus dalli (see under 20.12)
seeking methods to control their settling and growth. O n the other 3. Balanus glandula (20.24)
hand, barnacles have their direct uses to man, as well. In Japan cer- 4. Pollicipes polymerus (20.11)
tain species are cultivated for fertilizer, and in countries like Chile, 5. Chthamalus jissus (20.12)
6. Tetradita rubescens (20.18)
Spain, and Portugal, some species are prized as food. The ability of
barnacle larvae to attach to wet surfaces has recently led to investi- Group II
gations of "barnacle cement" in dental research (anon., 1968; 1. Solidobalanus hesperius (20.20)
Manly, 1970; Walker, 1972). 2. Balanus crenatus (20.25)
3. Balanus nubilus (20.32)
M a n y barnacle species are used in basic biological research.
4. Balanus aquila (20.31)
Their reproductive relationships are of interest in studies of sexual 5. Arcoscalpellum californicum (20.10)
mechanisms and determination (Gomez, 1975; Henry & McLaugh- 6. Megabalanus californicus (20.33)
lin, 1967; Landau, 1976; McLaughlin & Henry, 1972; Tomlinson, 7. Balanus pacificus (20.27)
1966; Yanagimachi, 1961). Organic acids have been found to stimu- 8. Balanus trigonus (20.26)
late mating behavior (Collier, Ray & Wilson, 1956), and proteina- 9. Balanus regalis (20.30)
ceous substances in the shells of attached individuals encourage
Group III
cyprid larvae to settle (Crisp & Meadows, 1963). Insect juvenile 1. Balanus improvisus (20.29)
h o r m o n e and juvenile hormone mimics induce abnormal metamor- 2. Balanus amphitrite amphitrite (20.28)
phosis (Gomez et al., 1973; Ramenofsky, Faulkner & Ireland, 1974).
Group IV
M a n y species have very simple photoreceptors (Gwilliam, 1965);
1. Trypetesa lateralis (20.1)
others have the largest single muscle fibers k n o w n (Hoyle &
2. Armatobalanus nefrens (20.19)
Smyth, 1963), and these are useful in physiological research (Ha- 3. Conopea galeata (20.22)
giwara & Takahashi, 1967; Krebs & Schaten, 1976). Barnacles often 4. Octolasmis californiana (20.3)
figure prominently in ecological, biogeographical, and evolutionary 5. Membranobalanus orcutti (20.21)
studies, and in his work on cirripeds, before professing the theory 6. Oxynaspis rossi (20.2)

mti
 130c 125'

II

40' 40c

III 1 {Point Arena

5 6

7 8

-35' 35*

9 1 PACIFIC
OCEAN
SONORA
0 MILES 50
I
0 KILOMETERS

-30' 30"
50
130c 125° VQs
J I J I ft i i i
508 Cirripedia
barnacles treated in this chapter that are attached to fixed substrata merus, which ranges through both provinces. All other species in
such as rocks and pilings, or to benthic organisms that move about Groups I-IV terminate one end of their latitudinal range in, or re-
little if at all (forms attached to such moving hosts as whales, tur- side wholly in, the Transition Zone.
tles, or ships are omitted). All Group I species are represented by aggregations of individu-
It is clear from the figure that most of the species encountered als that are community dominants. Chthamalus generally ranges
near Cape Mendocino in northern California are different from higher into the intertidal zone than Balanus and Tetraclita. The
those found in the vicinity of San Diego, and they are usually des- northern forms, Chthamalus dalli and Semihalanus cariosus, are largely
ignated as members of the Oregonian and Californian Provinces, replaced in the south by C.fissusand Tetraclita ruhescens, respec-
respectively (see, for example, Newell, 1948; Valentine, 1966). The tively. Balanus glandula, occurring for the most part between the
species of each province extend well to the north or south of the northern and southern species in vertical distribution, ranges far-
political boundaries of California. The region of overlap, the Cali- ther south than S. cariosus and is eventually replaced in part by B.
fornian Transition Zone, centering on Point Conception, contains a regalis. As adults, in various species combinations, these species
mixture of species that totals more than the number of species compete for space and food along both horizontal and vertical gra-
found immediately to the north or south. In addition, the Transi- dients.
tion Zone contains a number of short-range endemic species. Group II, from continental-shelf waters, follows a similar pattern,
There is a marked climatic difference between Oregonian and the northern Solidobalanus hesperius, B. crenatus, and B. nuhilus being
Californian Provinces, and the change in the Transition Zone is replaced by Megahalanus calif ornicus, B. pacificus, and B. trigonus in the
rather abrupt. Differences in ocean temperature are believed to south. All these species, with the possible exception of B. nuhilus
play an important role in sustaining the position of biogeographical and B. crenatus in the northern parts of their ranges, are relatively
boundaries. This conclusion is borne out by the finding that high- opportunistic. That is, they neither dominate, nor become long-
latitude shallow-water species occur in deeper (therefore colder) standing members of, the subtidal community.
water at the southern ends of their ranges, and by the discovery of Two of the four short-range endemic species of the Transition
cold-water species well to the south of their normal distributional Zone, B. aquila and Arcoscalpellum californicum, are encountered in
ranges in isolated areas where upwelling of cold deep-ocean water this group. The former occurs with B. nuhilus in the northern part of
occurs. The importance of temperature in sustaining the boundary its range, but both undergo submergence south of Point Concep-
is also shown by laboratory studies of thermal tolerances, the tem- tion, where they are replaced by a close relative of B. aquila, B. re-
perature optima for enzyme action, and the role of temperature re- galis. Being at the ends of their respective ranges, apparently nei-
gimes in regulating reproductive cycles. Moreover, studies of pa- ther B. nuhilus nor B. regalis is capable of fully exploiting the
leoecology (e.g., Addicott, 1966) demonstrate that the boundary available resources, and this has left space for B. aquila. The situa-
shifted its latitudinal position with rapid climatic changes during tion for Arco scalp ellum appears quite different. The genus occurs pri-
the Pleistocene. marily in deep water, butyl, californicum ranges up into shallower
The benthic cirripeds shown in the figure have been divided into water (less than 30 m) in the Transition Zone.
four ecological groups: (I) intertidal species (those species native to Group III contains two bay and estuarine species. Both have been
the coast that are largely restricted to the intertidal zone), (II) shal- introduced to California, probably by ships or along with trans-
low-water species (species that, though sometimes found in the low planted oysters. Balanus improvisus, from the North Atlantic, ranges
intertidal zone, occur mainly at subtidal depths on the continental into the Transition Zone from the north. B. amphitrite amphitrite,
shelf), (III) introduced bay and estuarine species (species occurring probably from the Indo-West Pacific, does likewise but from the
in both intertidal and shallow subtidal waters), and (IV) obligate south.
commensal species (forms living on or in other living organisms Members of Group IV, being obligate commensals, do not inter-
that are themselves sessile or relatively sedentary). act with other barnacle species, at least in the adult stage. They re-
Group I contains the only highly eurytopic form, Pollicipes poly- ceive varying degrees of protection by their hosts, and are usually
 The Barnacles
limited by host distribution. All are warm-temperate/subtropical liostoma costatum and Acanthina spirata (13.81). They are best
derivatives that have cognates in other regions. All are the sole rep- seen by breaking the tops (apices) off shells occupied by her-
resentatives of their groups in the eastern Pacific. Two of the spe- mit crabs (Pagurus samuelis, P. hirsutiusculus, P. hemphilli, and P.
cies, Armatobalanus nefrens and Trypetesa lateralis, are short-range en- granosimanus, 24.10-24.13) and removing the crabs. If the
demics. A. nefrens occurs on hydrocorals, sometimes Errinopora shells are then illuminated by a bright spot of light from
pourtalesii but more commonly Allopora californica, which is itself a below (aperture side), and the columella and adjacent areas
short-range endemic. Trypetesa, an acrothoracican, burrows in the on the "floor" of the whorls are viewed from above (apical
interior of gastropod shells inhabited by hermit crabs. Although side), the burrows appear as translucent areas in the wall of
hermit crabs range widely in temperate and tropical regions, and the shell, often colored yellow, orange, or red.
into deep water, T. lateralis is found only in the northern part of the The body of the female barnacle is partly encased in a mus-
Transition Zone. cular mantle provided externally with chitinous teeth that are
Thus it can be seen that the Californian Transition Zone is rich in renewed at each molt. Shell boring involves the rasping action
barnacle species, owing to the overlap of the Oregonian and Cali- of the teeth and probably chemical action as well; in a related
fornian Provinces and to the presence of the short-range endemics. species, T. nassaroides, the enzyme carbonic anhydrase reaches
This is the case with the mollusks and undoubtedly many other in- high levels in the body during periods of boring activity. The
vertebrates. The disharmony between overlapping provincial com- cirri of the female are greatly reduced in T. lateralis, but ap-
munities caused by the steep latitudinal temperature gradient in pear to be involved in feeding as in the more familiar acorn
the vicinity of Point Conception apparently results in incomplete barnacles. They are not constantly active, but when in motion
utilization of the resources upon which the short-range endemics they beat regularly, about once every 2 seconds at 17°C, ac-
depend (Newman, 1979). Identifying these resources and how they companied by regular pulsations of the mantle. These actions
are shared by so many species offers a whole area of interesting re- create a flow of water in and out of the mantle cavity and past
search. the mouth, a circulation probably involved in both feeding
and respiration. The food is uncertain, but probably consists
of minute organic particles dropped by the hermit crab in its
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia Jf j ......: ' ^ feeding, or brought in with currents created by movements of
Order Acrothoracica / Suborder Apygophora / Family Trypetesidae $ > "C%J|p f the crab within its shell. The gut of the female barnacle is re-
20.1 Trypetesa lateralis Tomlinson, 1953 \)\-- </$ markable in lacking both intestine and anus; the muscular
esophagus opens into a stomach that is a large, lobulated,
Common in some localities, burrowed into shells of gastro- blind sac. Experiments show that elimination of undigested
pods (particularly Tegula species) occupied by hermit crabs, particles is probably by regurgitation.
middle and low intertidal zones; Point Arena (Mendocino On reaching adult size, females form an external mantle
Co.) to Point Conception (Santa Barbara Co.); the only mem- flap, a tongue of tissue provided with rasping teeth, that bores
ber of the order known from north of Mexico on the Pacific a hole through to the outside of the gastropod shell, leaving
coast. the burrow open to the sea on both inner and outer surfaces
Females to 5 mm long, distinguished from all other Califor- of the host shell. Once the new hole is completed, water is
nia cirripeds by habitat, and in having but three pairs of pumped in a jerky flow from outside to inside the shell, the
uniramous cirri arranged on posterior end of thorax; males flow reversing only if the outer hole becomes clogged. The
microscopic. flow provides males and embryos with fresh seawater.
The females of this remarkable species form slitlike bur- The males are tiny, non-feeding dwarfs, averaging about
rows parallel to the shell surface in shells of gastropods Tegula 0.4 mm in greatest length. They are smaller in size than even
brunnea (13.31) and T. funebralis (13.32), and occasionally Cal- the cyprid larvae from which they develop, and lack both gut
510 Cirripedia
and feeding appendages. Their most prominent organs are a Phylum Arlhropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica A
single testis and seminal vesicle, a nauplius eye, and paired Suborder Lepadomorpha / Family Oxynaspididae h/ ,
first antennae. In some species of Trypetesa the mature males 20.2 Oxynaspis rossi Newman, 1972 \fi\
develop a penis much longer than the body, but this is lack-
ing in T. lateralis. The sperm are threadlike, and become m o - O n black coral in deep water; recorded from 183 m depth off
tile after release into the seawater filling the mantle cavity. Santa Catalina Island (Channel Islands) and south and from
They need move only a millimeter or two to reach the eggs. 55 m depth off Baja California (22°55'N).
O n e to several males may be present with a given female, ei- Small, to 2 cm in length; distantly related to Lepas (e.g.,
ther partly embedded in the mantle of the female or attached 20.4-6) and Octolasmis (e.g., 20.3), but differing from both in
by their first antennae to the wall of the cavity near the fe- having the growth center (umbo) of the carina subcentral
male's external mantle flap. rather than basal.
The females discharge their eggs into the mantle cavity, W i t h the exception of one species that lives on a sponge, all
where they are brooded. The eggs are oval, averaging about members of this genus live on black or horny corals (Cni-
0.25 m m in greatest length; at least 180 have been observed in daria: Anthozoa: Antipatharia). The group to which Oxynaspis
a single brood. They develop past the nauplius stage within belongs is an ancient one, considered by some workers to be
the egg membranes, hatching as non-feeding, weak-swim- transitional between lepadid and scalpellid barnacles. Be-
ming cyprid larvae about 0.5 m m long. The lack of free nau- cause of their deep-water habitat, nothing is k n o w n of their
plius stages, together with a tendency of hermit crabs to re- biology.
main within a localized area, may account for the rather
patchy distribution of T. lateralis along the shore in areas See Newman (1972).
where it is k n o w n to occur. The greatest settlement of the lar-
vae is in the winter (November through January), with a A
smaller peak in June. The life span, which is not known, may Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica
depend on the durability of the shell; the animals have been Suborder Lepadomorpha / Family Poecilasmatidae
kept in seawater in a cold box for more than a year without 20.3 Octolasmis californiana Newman, 1960
noticeable growth.
The genus Trypetesa is a small one, including two k n o w n In gill chambers of large decapod crustaceans such as Panu-
species from the North Atlantic, one from California, one lirus, Loxorhynchus grandis (25.10), Pugettia producta (25.4), and
from Japan, and one from Madagascar. The species are gener- Cancer spp. (e.g., C. antennarius, 25.16, and C. productus, 25.22),
ally endemic to a limited geographical area that marks the low intertidal zone and continental shelf; Monterey Co. to
transition between major biogeographical provinces. It is Panama.
curious that apparently suitable gastropod shells, inhabited Small, to 1.5 cm in length; similar to lepadids in having five
by hermit crabs and ranging from north to south and into capitular plates, these reduced in extent, the scutum with two
deep water, are not inhabited by these barnacles. slender arms; differing from lepadids in having uniarticulate
caudal appendages.
For T. lateralis, see Tomlinson (1953,1955,1960,1969a,b). For re- N o other representatives of the diverse tropical family to
lated species, see Darwin (1854), Tomlinson (1969a,b), Turquier
(1971), Utinomi (1964), and White (1970). which this species belongs are k n o w n from the northeastern
Pacific. Octolasmis feeds on plankton carried in the respiratory
current of the host. The barnacles are shed along with the
exoskeleton of the host w h e n the host molts. Nothing else is
known about the biology of the animal.
 The Barnacles 511

A closely related east coast species occurs on the gills of passing on to them surplus or partially consumed prey; thus
blue crabs. The particular portion of the gills that becomes in- the association with Janthina appears to b e mutualistic.
fected is related to the distribution and effectiveness of the Lepas (Lepas) anatifera individuals have been observed to set-
host's gill-cleaning mechanisms. The reason Octolasmis does tle gregariously on the less brightly illuminated portions of
not settle on caridean and anomuran crustaceans is probably floating survey beacons, and they prefer the rougher surfaces.
that these animals have more efficient methods of gill clean- W h e n the barnacles are closely crowded, growth of the capi-
ing. tulum appears to be retarded, whereas that of the peduncle is
accelerated. Ovigerous lamellae commonly appear in individ-
See Newman (1960). For related species, see Bowers (1968) and uals about 23 m m in capitular length, several weeks after set-
Walker (1974, on east coast species). tling. Nauplius larvae appear a week or so thereafter, from in-
dividuals with 27 m m capitula.
Adults survive and breed in the laboratory if fed an appro-
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica priate diet and maintained in running seawater. After copula-
Suborder Lepadomorpha / Family Lepadidae
tion, the individual acting as the female sheds ova into the
A
20.4 Lepas (Lepas) anatif era Linnaeus, 1758 ^ *' mantle cavity by contraction of the peduncle. Ovigerous la-
Goose Barnacle mellae are attached to ovigerous frenae (membranous exten-
sions of the interior of the mantle) whereas in Pollicipes (e.g.,
Common, oceanic, gregarious; n u m e r o u s individuals attach 20.11) they are free within the mantle cavity. Embryos de-
ing in clusters to such floating objects as logs, bottles, glass velop normally at 1 9 - 2 5 ° C , and gravid females refrain from
fishing floats, and shells of the pelagic snail Janthina; not molting until during or shortly after the release of nauplii.
usually seen washed ashore south of Point Conception (Santa Molting rate increases with temperature between 10 and
Barbara Co.); cosmopolitan. 25°C, but falls with further rise in temperature.
Length to about 15 cm; species distinguished from the
smaller L. (L.) pacifica (20.5) in having a thicker, opaque scu- See Barnes & Klepal (1971), Bieri (1966), Bigelow (1902), Boetius
t u m and two filament-like appendages at the base of each (1952), Burnett (1975), Crisp & Southward (1961), Gwilliam (1963),
first cirrus; species determination generally requires dissec- Howard & Scott (1959), E. Jones (1968), Lacombe & Liguori (1969),
Mahmoud (1959), Patel (1959), Pilsbry (1907), and Skerman
tion.
(1958a,b).
All lepadids, or goose barnacles, differ from scalpellids in
having no more than five capitular plates and a naked p e d u n -
cle. Lepas (Lepas) is distinguished from the subgenus Dosima by
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica jff^S
its heavier valves and in not producing a float of its own. Suborder Lepadomorpha / Family Lepadidae l^sss?
The m a n y fine setae on the cirri of species in the subgenus
20.5 Lepas (Lepas) pacifica Henry, 1940 te f
Lepas permit the capture of tiny organisms and particles. Rela-
tively large planktonic organisms can also be captured and
Oceanic, in clusters on floating objects such as Lepas (Dosima)
eaten, and material too bulky to be completely devoured by
fascicularis (20.6), Velella velella (3.18), seaweeds, wood,
one individual m a y be relinquished to another. The diet in-
feathers, cardboard; Alaska to San Diego and south.
cludes young fishes, and large pelagic hydrozoan cnidarians
Length to about 2.5 cm; similar to L. (L.) anatifera (20.4) but
such as Physalia, Porpita, and Velella (3.18). Lepas attached to
distinguished from other species of the subgenus Lepas in Cal-
the pelagic gastropod Janthina and dependent on it for flota-
ifornia b y small size, thin shell with underlying bluish tissues
tion reach further and hold prey more tightly than Lepas at-
visible through scutum, and only a single short filamentary
tached to other substrata. Such Lepas benefit their hosts by
appendage at base of each first cirrus.
512 Cirripedia
This species, along with L (D.) fascicularis, is commonly (Lepas) in having thin, papery calcareous plates, in not being
stranded by seasonal onshore winds in southern California. as markedly laterally flattened, and in secreting a float from
This has provided an opportunity to observe large n u m b e r s the base of the peduncle rather than depending on floating
of the two species and to analyze their settling preferences. In objects as adults.
general L. pacifica is more often found attached to tar and less Although adults of the subgenera Lepas and Dosima use dif-
often to floating feathers, eelgrass blades, and bits of interti- ferent methods for staying afloat, their sizes are generally
dal brown algae. Occasionally it is found growing on the back comparable, and one might expect t h e m to share many of the
of the northern elephant seal, Mirounga angustirostris. Curi- same resources. However, even though members of both sub-
ously, the two barnacle species are found attached in about genera can handle larger prey, in Lepas (Lepas) species the cirri
equal n u m b e r s to debris of terrestrial origin. are equipped for straining out tiny particles, whereas those in
The circulatory system of L. (L.) pacifica, like that of the L. (Dosima) species are shorter and stouter and are equipped
other lepadids (L. (D.) fascicularis, L. (L.) anatifera (20.4), and with spinelike setae unsuited for fine filtering. The stomachs
Conchoderma virgatum, 20.7), is relatively simple and primitive of L. (Dosima) species are commonly packed with copepods,
compared to that of more advanced barnacles, such as Polli- whose pigment is the source of the carotenoprotein providing
cipes (e.g., 20.11) and Megabalanus (e.g., 20.33). The rostral ves- the barnacle's blue color.
sel has been interpreted as a vestige of the heart, and the ros- The abundance of Lepas (Lepas) is in good part limited by
tral sinus equivalent to the pericardial sinus of ordinary the availability of floating objects (feathers, wood, seaweed,
crustaceans. Curiously, the smaller lepadid species, I . (L.) pa- pumice, coconuts, tar, etc.). Lepas (Dosima) has partially cir-
cifica and L. (D.) fascicularis, have larger blood vessels in pro- cumvented this limitation. Initially it attaches to a small float-
portion to body size than do the larger species L. (L.) anatifera ing object and then, as the barnacle grows further, it forms a
and Conchoderma virgatum. The ladderlike nervous system of gas-filled float of its own. If the cyprid formed a float during
Lepas is also relatively generalized. In higher forms ganglia co- metamorphosis, the species could become completely inde-
alesce into a large neural mass. pendent of floating objects. Although this evolutionary step
Experiments have shown that Lepas can live, grow, and re- has not been made, it would appear to be an easy one, b e -
produce in certain situations along the shore, but only if pro- cause the cement by which the cyprid attaches itself to an ob-
tected from predation. Apparently this ancient stock has ject, and the substance forming the float, are believed to come
found its last refuge in the open sea. from the same glands.
Little is k n o w n of the natural history of this species.
See Ankel (1962), Bainbridge & Roskell (1966), Ball (1944),
See Baldridge (1977), Burnett (1975), Cheng & Lewin (1976), Barnes & Klepal (1971), Boetius (1952), Cheng & Lewin (1976), Dar-
Cornwall (1953), and Henry (1940). win (1851), Fox & Crozier (1967), Fox, Smith & Wolfson (1967),
Knudsen (1963), and Thorner & Ankel (1966).

Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica

Suborder Lepadomorpha / Family Lepadidae Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica
Suborder Lepadomorpha / Family Lepadidae fS^^-v
20.6 Lepas (Dosima) fascicularis Ellis & Solander, 1786
20.7 Conchoderma virgatum (Spengler, 1790) *A
Common, oceanic; cyprid larvae settling on small objects,
commonly feathers; developing juveniles and adults forming Oceanic, on a wide variety of objects including ships, buoys,
gas-filled floats of their own; cosmopolitan. telegraph cables, seaweeds, decapod crustaceans, fishes, ma-
To 5 - 6 cm in length; distinguished from species of Lepas rine reptiles, and whales; cosmopolitan.
To about 5 cm in length, with five capitular plates much re-
 The Barnacles 513

duced in extent; capitulum and peduncle leathery, usually having two fleshy tubular structures projecting from top of
with several purplish-brown, longitudinal stripes; species dif- capitulum, connecting mantle cavity with exterior, and in
fering from C. auritum (20.8) in having five rather than two having two rather than five calcareous plates.
plates, and in lacking fleshy perforate lobes at top of capitu- This species is wholly adapted to living on cetaceans, al-
lum. though it occasionally settles on other organisms and some-
This is an opportunistic species that settles on any hard times even on the hulls of submarines. Apparently unable to
substratum away from the shore. It attaches to the parasitic attach directly to whale skin, it requires a hard surface such as
copepod Pennella that infects flying fish, and to the hard sur- a barnacle or the whale's teeth, where these are continuously
faces of swimming crabs and turtles. The occurrence of C. vir- exposed due to lip or jaw damage. Both Conchoderma auritum
gatum on fishes is unusual, but it has been reported on species and the sessile whale barnacle Coronula diadema, to which it
of Mola, Gymnothorax, Tylosurus, Diodon, and Remora, the Re- most commonly attaches, orient themselves so the cirral net
mora having been removed from the blue shark Prionace glauca. faces in the direction the whale swims, taking full advantage
A close relative of Conchoderma virgatum, C. auritum, occurs on of the water flow. Water bearing food enters the anterior slit
whales, and a distant relative, Anelasma, occurs on certain and strained water exits by way of the paired tubes, or "ears."
sharks, but these barnacles are obligate commensals; the oc- As much as 98 percent of the humpback whale population
curence of C. virgatum on fishes appears to be largely fortu- carries some Conchoderma. The incidence is higher in female
itous. whales, presumably owing to their longer sojourns from high
Conchoderma virgatum grows rapidly. Specimens became ma- latitudes into warm waters.
ture in less than 17 days after settling on a buoy at approxi- Nothing is k n o w n of the biology of C. auritum, although in-
mately 30°S off Australia; the largest animals had capitular dividuals are apparently reproductively inactive when the
lengths approaching 20 m m and contained ovigerous lamel- hosts migrate into higher latitudes.
lae. During Darwin's visit to the Galapagos Islands, C. virga-
tum seriously fouled the Beagle in 33 days. In another case, re- See Barnes & Klepal (1971), Clarke (1966), Cornwall (1924), Dar-
corded here with some skepticism, Conchoderma individuals win (1851), Maclntyre (1966), and Petriconi (1969).
were reported to reach a total length of 1 3 - 1 9 m m on instru-
ments immersed for 2.5 days at 5 0 - 1 5 0 m depth in cold j:
waters off Greenland. O n the same occasion, Balanus amphi- Phylum Arihropoda j Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica ^Sf;
trite was reported to have reached a diameter of 13 mm. Suborder Lepadomorpha / Family Lepadidae '
20.9 Alepas pacifica Pilsbry, 1907
See Clarke (1966), Darwin (1851), E. Jones, Rothschild & Sho-
mura (1968), Maclntyre (1966), and Roskell (1969). Oceanic, attached to the bells of large jellyfishes; occasionally
washed inshore; Indian, Pacific, and South Atlantic Oceans.
To about 6 cm in length; species distinguished from other
Phylum Arihropoda / Class Crustacea j Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica ., r7 lepadids in having the n u m b e r of plates reduced, from a nor-
Suborder Lepadomorpha / Family Lepadidae vjh? ' mal complement of five, to a pair of Y-shaped scuta; capitu-
20.8 Conchoderma auritum (Linnaeus, 1758) lum globular; entire animal translucent.
Rabbit-Eared Barnacle Aside from its habit of attaching to jelly fishes, and its oc-
currence in the few widely distributed localities where it has
Attached to the sessile barnacle Coronula (e.g., 20.15) on baleen been reported, nothing is k n o w n about this species. As in
whales, or to teeth of the sperm whale or other toothed ceta- Lepas (Dosima), the cirri are short and spiny rather than long
ceans; cosmopolitan. and setose, but h o w this characteristic relates to its food
Length to 12 cm; species differing from C. virgatum (20.7) in habits is not understood.
514 Cirripedia
See Pilsbry (1907) and Utinomi (1958). This species feeds by directing its cirral net into currents,
usually the backwash of waves. It captures mainly large parti-
cles of detritus, but crustaceans u p to 1 cm long are also com-
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica monly ingested.
Suborder Lepadomorpha / Family Scalpellidae The barnacle's body temperature is frequently lower in air
20.10 Arcoscalpellum californicum (Pilsbry, 1907) than would be expected from the heat load, and evaporation
( = Scalpellum) from the peduncle is responsible, a loss of 35—40 percent of
the b o d y water being tolerated during periods of exposure of
O n rocks and other organisms at subtidal depths of 18—400 less than 9 hours. The species is an osmoconformer: the salin-
m; in shallow water ranging from Monterey (but usually ity of the body fluids increases in sunshine and decreases in
south of Point Conception, Santa Barbara Co.) to San Diego; rain, and the urine is isosmotic with the blood. Blood pressure
in deep water ranging from approximately Point Arena (Men- averages 250 cm of water, remarkably high for a crustacean.
docino Co.) to Bahia Magdalena (Baja California). Pollicipes has a four-part circulatory system and a blood p u m p
Length to 4 cm; like Pollicipes polymerus (20.11) in having ca- formed by three pairs of skeletal muscles, which are appar-
pitulum covered with more than five plates, but with a single ently unstriated.
whorl of basal plates and a peduncle armored by conspicuous Reproduction, at least in northern California and Washing-
scales. ton, occurs in the summer. At Monterey, the seminal vesicles
This species appears to be synonymous with A. osseum begin to enlarge with spring warming (above 12 °C) and de-
(Pilsbry), which differs mainly in being more heavily calci- crease in size in the fall, bracketing the occurrence of embryos.
fied. Nothing is k n o w n of A. californicum other than its geo- The fertilized eggs, expelled on either side of the thorax, ad-
graphical distribution. It appears to be hermaphroditic. In here to one another and form a pair of flattened disks (ovig-
related deep-water forms the hermaphrodite may be accom- erous lamellae). The lamellae are brooded in the mantle cav-
panied by complemental males; or the sexes may be separate, ity within the shell, one on each side. The time from
with large females accompanied by dwarf males. fertilization to the release of swimming nauplius larvae is
about 30 days. A n individual may produce three to seven
See Cornwall (1951) and Pilsbry (1907). broods a year, with 100,000-240,000 larvae per brood, de-
pending on age and size. Only early development is espe-
cially sensitive to temperature changes. Growth is slow in at-
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica tached juvenile barnacles over 10 m m in length. It has been
Suborder Lepadomorpha / Family Scalpellidae inferred that maturity is reached in 5 years and that fully
20.11 Pollicipes polymerus Sowerby, 1833 grown individuals m a y be 20 years old.
t J i ^ ( — Mitella polymerus) Leaf Barnacle This is a hermaphroditic species, but cross fertilization is
thought to be the rule, since isolated individuals have not
C o m m o n , usually in clusters but also mixed with Mytilus call- been found to contain embryos.
fornianus (15.9), middle intertidal zone on wave-swept rocky Although it is not k n o w n to foul ships, the leaf barnacle has
shores; British Columbia south at least to Punta Abreojos been reported on a h u m p b a c k whale, associated with Concho-
(Baja California); replaced along western Mexico by P. elegans. derma (e.g., 20.8) attached to Coronula (e.g., 20.15), and it occa-
To 8 cm in length; capitulum covered with more than five sionally becomes established in large n u m b e r s in the labora-
plates and surrounded basally by several whorls of imbricate tory seawater system at Scripps Institution of Oceanography
scales; peduncle tough, roughened by inconspicuous cal- at La Jolla (San Diego Co.). The closely related European spe-
careous spicules. cies, Pollicipes pollicipes, is cooked and served as a delicacy in
 q

The Barnacles 515

Portugal and Spain, but it has long been in short supply. mens of C. fissus with a narrow, slitlike orifice were formerly
In recent years P. polymerus has been exported from British called C. microtretus.
Columbia to these countries. Gibbons (1964) pronounces it Chthamalus individuals can occupy higher intertidal situa-
moderately good eating, and provides recipes. tions than any other acorn barnacles, spending considerably
more than half their lives out of water. Some species occur
See Barnes (1959, I960), Barnes & Barnes (1959a), Barnes & where they are only wetted by splash. O n California shores,
Gonor (1958a,b), Barnes & Klepal (1971), Barnes & Reese (1959, Balanus glandula (20.24) nearly equals Chthamalus in resistance
1960), Burnett (1972), Cornwall (1936,1951,1953), Darwin (1851),
Dayton (1971), Dudley (1973), H. Fyhn, Petersen & Johansen (1972, to desiccation. W h e r e both Chthamalus and B. glandula occur,
1973), Gwilliam (1963), Hilgard (1960), Holter (1969), Howard & the latter dominates, since a growing shell of Balanus pushes
Scott (1959), Lewis (1975a,b, 1977), Lewis, Chia & Schroeder (1973), adjacent Chthamalus from the rocks. However, Balanus is pre-
Paine (1974,1979), Petersen, Fyhn & Johansen (1974), Rice (1930), ferred over Chthamalus by such predators as the gastropod
and Seapy & Littler (1978). Nucella emarginata (13.83) and the starfish Pisaster ochraceus
(8.13), and this selective predation on Balanus apparently
makes more space available for Chthamalus. Under optimum
Phylum Arthropo da / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica conditions, densities of 70,000 per m 2 are found.
Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Chthamaloidea / Family Chthamalidae
Chthamalus is frequently parasitized by the epicaridean iso-
Chthamalus dalli Pilsbry, 1916 pod Cryptothir ( — Hemioniscus) balani; infected barnacles are in-
20.12 Chthamalus fissus Darwin, 1854 fertile.
( = C. microtretus Cornwall) From field sampling, it has been inferred that both C. dalli
and C. fissus that are separated by more than 5 cm from their
/,&£
Chthamalus dalli: common on rocks, pier pilings, and hard nearest neighbor fertilize themselves, but cross-fertilization
shelled organisms, high and upper middle intertidal zones, normally occurs. C. fissus in central California produces about
Alaska to San Diego; northern Japan. C. fissus: common in 16 small broods from spring through fall, with reduced
similar habitats; San Francisco to Baja California. brooding activity in the winter. Brood production is limited
Both species small, to 8 m m in diameter, externally similar; by food availability, and depending on the size of the parent,
wall of shell with both end plates overlapped by adjacent 200—3,000 nauplius larvae are released per brood. Settlement
plates (thus differing from balanids, in which one end plate, occurs erratically year-round at all tide levels. Mortality in
the rostrum, overlaps adjacent plates). newly settled C. fissus on rock surfaces is apparently little af-
Reliable identification of these species usually requires re- fected by the grazing of limpets, owing to the small size of the
moval of the scutal plates and examination of their inner sur- cyprids and their ability to settle in tiny cracks and minute
faces under a good hand lens. The two scuta are triangular, depressions. C. fissus individuals in central California reach
with their apices meeting at the peak of the operculum. The reproductive maturity when 2 - 3 m m in diameter and about 2
lateral scutal depressor muscles attach near the basal angles of months old. They may live to about 3 years, with better sur-
the scuta laterally. In C. dalli the muscle attachment scar bears vival rate in the high than the low intertidal zone.
strong ridges or crests, whereas in C. fissus it is a smooth- Adult Chthamalus feed by extending their cirri while splash
walled depression. Another character separating the species is or wave wash flows over them and retracting the cirri and
the nature of the setae on the ends of the second cirri; under closing the operculum when the water has flowed away.
microscopic examination the setae of C. dalli appear finely bi- Although the activity of cirri has not been studied in local
pectinate, but those of C. fissus are coarsely bipectinate and species, studies on other forms show it to be temperature-
have a pair of basal pectinations enlarged as guards. Speci- dependent, and its rate apparently differs among local races.
516 Cirripedia

See Augenfeld (1967), Barnes & Barnes (1958), Barnes & Gonor Even though this species is common on turtles, nothing is
(1958a), Barnes & Klepal (1971), Connell (1970), Cornwall (1953, known about its biology.
1955a), Dayton (1971), Henry (1960), Hines (1976,1978,1979), Kle-
pal & Barnes (1975a,b), Newman & Ross (1976), Paine (1974), See Darwin (1854), Newman & Ross (1976), Pilsbry (1916), and
Pilsbry (1916), Rice (1930), Ross (1962), Seapy & Littler (1978), and Utinomi (1970).
Stallcup (1953). For related species, see Monterosso (1933) and
Southward (1962,1975).

Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica 0?\

Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Coronuloidea / Family Coronulidae ~~ ~ lf
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica
Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Coronuloidea / Family Coronulidae 20.15 Coronula diadema (Linnaeus, 1767)
20.13 Chelonibia testudinaria (Linnaeus, 1758)
Found locally on the h u m p b a c k whale (Megaptera novaeang-
Turtle Barnacle
liae), especially on the fins, the lips, the long grooves of the
throat region, and the lips of the genital aperture; also re-
O n shells of sea turtles; u n c o m m o n in southern California,
ported from the fin, blue, and sperm whales; cosmopolitan.
common in all warm seas including eastern Pacific.
To 80 m m in diameter; wall smooth, low, dome-shaped, To about 85 m m in diameter, white, dome-shaped, firmly
broadly attaching to turtle shell, supported internally by n u - anchored in skin of whale but not (like Cryptolepas, e.g., 20.16)
merous septal buttresses. completely embedded in it; bearing a single pair of opercular
There is a great diversity of barnacles on turtles. Chelonibia valves suspended in opercular membrane.
is the largest and least specialized genus. Superficially, the This species has undergone striking modification in con-
wall appears to be made u p of six plates, but close inspection nection with its life on whales. The outer wall of the barnacle
reveals that one, the rostrum, is formed of three fused to- shell bears large radiating ridges or buttresses, each of which
gether. T h e "tripartite" rostrum of Chelonibia is a vestige of develops, on its distal margin, flanges that meet and fuse with
the eight-plated ancestry of all balanomorphs. similar flanges on the buttresses on either side of it. The re-
sult is a roofing over of the buttresses, except on the side of
See Darwin (1854), Newman & Ross (1976), Ross & Newman the barnacle adjacent to the whale. The skin of the whale is
(1967), and Zullo (1966). pulled u p between the concealed buttresses as the barnacle
grows, firmly anchoring the shell to the whale.
The barnacles on the whale are generally oriented such that
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea j Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica the rostrum, and the short extended cirri, face into the current
Suborder Balanomorpha j Superfamily Coronuloidea / Family Coronulidae as the whale swims along. This is surely an advantage in feed-
.^Jf 20.14 Platylepas hexastylos (Fabricius, 1798) ing. C. diadema are thought to live for only 1 year. Their shells
frequently form an attachment surface for Conchoderma auri-
U n c o m m o n on turtles in southern California; commoner else- tum (20.8) and, less often, Conchoderma virgatum (20.7). These
where attached to skin of turtles, of mammals such as the pedunculate barnacles are borne on the posterior (carinal)
American manatee and the dugong, and of gar fish (Lepidos- edge of the Coronula shell, where they do not interfere with
teus); cosmopolitan in warm seas. Coronula's feeding.
To 18 m m in diameter; species superficially resembling
Chelonibia testudinaria (20.13) but differing markedly in struc- See Cornwall (1955a,b), Crisp & Stubbings (1957), Darwin (1854),
and Newman & Ross (1976).
ture of wall, in which six internal buttresses extend down to
the m e m b r a n o u s basis.
 The Barnacles 517
(
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica ^i^\
Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Coronuloidea / Family Coronulidae ^- *» ~*\", Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Coronuloidea / Family Coronulidae
20.16 Cryptolepas rachianecti Dall, 1872 (', r 20.17 Xenobalanus globicipitis Steenstrup, 1851

O n the fins and head of the California gray whale (Eschrichtius O n various whalebone whales including the sei whale and
robustus); Bering Sea to Baja California; Korea; not Hawaii, common finback, also on the blackfish or Pacific pilot whale,
as once reported. usually attached to the fin tips; cosmopolitan.
Shell to 60 m m in diameter, white, depressed, deeply em- Length to about 75 mm; species superficially resembling a
bedded in skin of whale, often with only the bright-yellow stalked barnacle, but the six plates of the balanoid wall visi-
opercular m e m b r a n e and a few ridges of shell visible. ble, forming a star-shaped anchor, e m b e d d e d in skin of host.
As in Coronula diadema (20.15), the wall of the shell in this This remarkable species has, through convergent evolution,
species develops great radiating ridges or buttresses, but they come to resemble a pedunculate barnacle. The elongate tube
do not form flanges, so the spaces between buttresses remain is not actually a peduncle, but represents the greatly drawn-
open (not roofed over). The shell grows down into the whale out opercular membrane. Opercular plates are lacking, but
skin, as in Coronula, but the outer shell surface erodes away distally the membrane forms a hood with reflexed lips from
until it is virtually flush with the surface of the whale. This is which the short cirri protrude. This elongate form apparently
a valuable adaptation, since gray whales have been noted to represents an adaptation to feeding in the turbulent waters
rub against objects on the sea floor and near shore. behind the trailing edge of whale fins. Little else is k n o w n of
More than a century ago the naturalist and geologist W . H. the biology of this unique species.
Dall observed the barnacles while still alive and wrote, "This
species is found sessile on the California Gray whale. . . . I See Cornwall (1955a), Darwin (1854), and Newman & Ross
have observed them on specimens of that species hauled up (1976).
on the beach at Monterey for cutting off the blubber . . .
and the animal removed from its native element—protruding
its bright yellow hood in every direction, to a surprising dis- Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica
Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Coronuloidea / Family Tetraclitidae
tance, as if gasping for breath—presented a truly singular ap-
pearance." 20.18 Tetraclita rubescens Darwin, 1854
The surface of the shell of C. rachianecti is friable and easily ( = T. squamosa rubescens)
eroded, which may help explain why the pedunculate barna-
cle Conchoderma is not found attached to it. O n the other hand, Common, middle and low intertidal zones on rocks exposed
the caprellid amphipod Cyamus scammoni (often called the to strong surf; occasionally subtidal on hard-shelled organ-
"whale louse") is commonly found clinging to Cryptolepas (see isms such as abalones; San Francisco Bay to Cabo San Lucas
the photograph). (Baja California).
Diameter usually to 30 m m , rarely to 50 m m ; wall consist-
See Cornwall (1955a), Dall (1872), Kasuya & Rice (1970), New- ing of only four plates (only balanomorph on this coast in
man & Ross (1976), and Pilsbry (1916). which this is the case); shell of adult reddish, appearing
"thatched" externally; shell of young (uneroded) individuals
white, superficially resembling shell of Semibalanus cariosus
(20.23) but with four wall plates instead of six.
Tetraclita is remarkable in that it relies mostly on erosion at
the top of the wall rather than diametric growth to enlarge the
Cirripedia

orifice of the shell. Most balanomorphs grow laterally b e - ded in corals, and some forms found in the tropics are highly
tween wall plates, as well as upward from the base. Most Te- modified. However, apart from its specificity for hydrocorals
traclita do not, and if there is little erosion, the orifice remains A. nefrens is hardly specialized at all, and one could envisage
remarkably small. its living equally well on a rock. The methods it uses to get
In central California this species produces about three through the coral's defenses and establish itself, as well as
broods in the summer, releasing 1,000-50,000 nauplius larvae other aspects of its biology, are u n k n o w n .
per brood, depending on the size of the parent. Individuals do
not begin to reproduce until they are about 18 m m in diame- See Ross & Newman (1973) and Zullo (1963).
ter and 2 years old. Like Semibalanus cariosus, its northern eco-
logical equivalent, T. rubescens is an effective competitor for
space in the lower intertidal zone, and individuals grow to a Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica
size large enough to exempt them from predation by m a n y Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Archaeobalanidae
gastropods and sea stars. Some may live as long as 10—15 20.20 Solidobalanus hesperius (Pilsbry, 1916)
years. ( = Balanus hesperius)
Tetraclita rubescens var. elegans Darwin, 1854 (Fig.
20.18b), has the same general distribution as the common O n hard-shelled organisms usually from soft bottoms, subti-
form, although it is more prevalent in the lower intertidal and dal from 18 to 64 m depth; Bering Sea to Monterey Bay.
subtidal waters and in the southern half of the geographical To 20 m m in diameter; walls dirty white, usually ribbed;
range. Up to 20 m m in diameter, it is distinguished from the species similar in appearance to Balanus crenatus (20.25), B.
type variety by its white uneroded wall and peltate form. It is glandula (20.24), and w h e n smooth (southern end of range), to
often found on shelled mollusks and crabs that spend much B. improvisus (20.29), but distinguishable from all three in hav-
of their time subtidally, and also on wharf piles in Monterey ing strongly elevated callus above articular ridge on internal
harbor. It is an ecotype, rather than a genetically distinct p o p - surface of scutum; distinguished from all except mature B.
ulation. glandula in having the wall solid rather than permeated by
longitudinal canals.
See Barnes (1959), Barnes & Klepal (1971), Cornwall (1951), Dar- This species is rarely seen alive unless one resorts to dredg-
win (1854), Emerson (1956), Henry (1960), Hewatt (1946), Hines ing or diving. However, it occurs on mollusks and crabs and
(1976,1978,1979), Newman & Ross (1976), Pilsbry (1916), Rasmus-
is commonly found on the Dungeness crab, Cancer magister
sen (1935), Ross (1962), Seapy & Littler (1978), and Willett (1937).
(25.20), in markets or w h e n washed ashore.

See Barnes & Barnes (1959c), Cornwall (1955a), Newman (1975),

Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica and Newman & Ross (1976).
Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Archaeobalanidae
20.19 Armatobalanus nefrens (Zullo, 1963)
( = Balanus nefrens) Phylum Arthropoda j Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica
Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Archaeobalanidae
O n and embedded in the hydrocorals Allopora californica and 20.21 Membranobalanus orcutti (Pilsbry, 1907) *>lStf>*"
Errinopora pourtalesii, subtidal to 64 m; Monterey to Channel ( = Balanus orcutti) Sponge Barnacle ^*< 2"<& «
Islands. /* ' » '
Shell to 10 m m in diameter, white; only barnacle species in In sponges, very low intertidal zone and subtidal waters to 40
California k n o w n to infect hydrocorals. m; Point Conception (Santa Barbara Co.) to Cabo San Lucas
Balanids have adapted in a variety of ways to living e m b e d - (Baja California).
 The Barnacles 519
To 15 mm in length, white, thin-walled, with membranous attached to axial skeleton, and becoming overgrown by gor-
basis; rostral plate much elongated and recurved basally. gonian tissue.
Balanids frequently become overgrown and smothered by This species is remarkable not only in being an obligate
sponges, but they are usually attached to the substratum be- commensal of gorgonians but in being one of the few balano-
fore the sponge becomes established. M. orcutti, on the other morphs in which the normal hermaphrodite is accompanied
hand, settles on established sponges. After metamorphosis by small complemental males. Usually several of these males
the barnacle becomes embedded in sponge tissue with only can be found attached within the hermaphrodite's orifice,
the opercular aperture exposed. The anterior cirri are armed mainly on the scuta. Males do not feed and apparently serve
with special hooks that apparently aid in removing sponge to ensure cross-fertilization, since the hermaphrodites are
tissue that would otherwise tend to clog the aperture. commonly widely separated on the gorgonian host. A larval
Sponge barnacles of the genus Membranobalanus are found cyprid sex ratio of one male to three hermaphrodites is evi-
in all tropical seas of the world but virtually nothing has been dently genetically determined. This suggests that the proba-
published on their biology. However, an intensive study of bility of male propagules finding a place to settle is much
the sponge-barnacle relationship has recently been made, greater than that of hermaphroditic propagules. Hermaphro-
and the following are some of the results (L. L. Jones, pers. dite cyprids settle directly on the gorgonian axial skeleton,
comm.). The apical portions of the shell plates in M. orcutti where it has been denuded of tissue by grazing gastropods or
have rows of upturned spines that apparently prevent the other predators. Male cyprids settle and metamorphose only
young barnacles from pushing themselves out of the sponge on the hard parts of established hermaphrodites. However,
as growth at the basal margins of the shell extends those mar- mature cyprids can be induced to metamorphose in vitro with-
gins deeper into the sponge. The barnacle is found in only out attaching to anything when treated with insect juvenile
two sponge species in California: the loggerhead sponge Sphe- hormone and certain compounds that mimic them. Barnacle
ciospongia confoederata (2.21), in shallow water (low intertidal and insect hormones show many similarities.
zone to 18 m), and the boring sponge Cliona celata var. califor-
niana (2.20), in deeper waters (18-40 m). Cyprid larvae show See Bebbington & Morgan (1976), Cornwall (1951), Darwin
preference for, and actively select, the host species of their (1854), Gomez (1973,1975), Gomez et al. (1973), McLaughlin &
parents. Laboratory experiments indicate that the attractive- Henry (1962), Molenock & Gomez (1972), Newman & Ross (1976),
Pilsbry (1916), and Ross (1962).
ness of the alternate host species can be increased by expo-
sure of the developing barnacle eggs to the alternate host.
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica /f^fh
See L. L. Jones (1978), Newman & Ross (1976), and Pilsbry (1907). Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Archaeobalanidae "'"*' '""'•
20.23 Semibalanus cariosus (Pallas, 1788)
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica //
( = Balanus cariosus)
Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Archaeobalanidae ^ //
Common in low intertidal zone on rocks along exposed
20.22 Conopea galeata (Linnaeus, 1771) shores; Bering Sea to Morro Bay (San Luis Obispo Co.);
( = Balanus galeatus)
Japan.
To 60 mm in diameter; superficially resembling Tetraclita
Embedded in sea fans (gorgonians), subtidal to 90 m; Mon-
rubescens (20.18), especially when young, because of
terey to Central America; Caribbean Sea.
"thatched" texture of wall, but with six plates rather than four
To 15 mm in length; individuals aligning themselves with
making up the wall; species distinguished from various Cali-
long axis of gorgonian branch, forming a boat-shaped basis
fornia Balanus species by the white or gray, thatched wall per-
520 Cirripedia
meated by numerous rows of longitudinal tubes, and by the coast where, throughout its latitudinal range, it forms a band
membranous basis. a third of a meter or more in width, in association with the
The thatched appearance of the walls derives from a series red alga Endocladia muricata. At Monterey this band centers at
of basally directed, riblike buttresses that detach periodically about 1.4 m above mean lower low water, and individuals are
as they are carried upward with growth. In central California submerged 27 percent of the time. Their longest periods of
individuals grow more or less separately, but in the Pacific continuous exposure to air and of submergence are about
northwest they form crowded colonies in which the thatched 20.25 and 6.5 hours, respectively. The maximum period of ex-
appearance is not as well developed. posure above water at the upper limit of the band is in the
The species is known to brood in winter, and larvae settle order of 24 hours, if the sea is calm and without swell. B. glan-
in the spring. Individuals grow large enough to be exempt dula is moderately resistant to desiccation compared to other
from attack by many predators, and may live up to 10-15 species of Balanus so far studied, losing less than 50 percent of
years. its total water in 24 hours. On the other hand, it apparently
osmoregulates more strongly than B. amphitrile amphitrite
See Barnes (1959), Barnes & Klepal (1971), Batzli (1969), Connell (20.28) and B. improvisus (20.29), although the last is more tol-
(1970), Cornwall (1955a), Darwin (1854), Dayton (1971), Fahrenbach erant of dilute salinities. Nearly a hundred species of multi-
(1965), Gwilliam (1963,1965), Gwilliam & Bradbury (1971), Millec-
chia & Gwilliam (1972), Newman & Ross (1976), Paine (1974), cellular organisms live in the Balanus-Endocladia association.
Pilsbry (1916), Rice (1930), Seapy & Littler (1978), Southward & The average number of individuals of the 31 commonest spe-
Crisp (1965), Stickle (1973), Worley (1939), and Zullo (1969a). cies in the band has been estimated at 210,000 per m2, with a
dry weight biomass of 2,640 gms (157 gms of protein), of
which Balanus glandula and Endocladia muricata form the great-
x est proportion. It is not known whether it can deposit salts of
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica
Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Balanidae heavy metals, such as zinc, as granules in tissues surrounding
20.24 Balanus glandula Darwin, 1854 the midgut; such deposition occurs in 5. balanoides, where
the amount deposited is proportional to environmental levels.
Abundant on rocks, pier pilings, and hard-shelled animals, Balanus glandula produces two to six broods during the win-
high and middle intertidal zones in bays and along outer ter and spring in British Columbia and in central and south-
coast; Aleutian Islands (Alaska) to Bahia de San Quintih (Baja ern California. It stores yolk in the summer and remains ripe
California); recently reported to be introduced at Puerto de in the fall until cold temperatures induce brooding. Depend-
Mar del Plata (Argentina). ing on the size of the parent, 1,000-30,000 nauplius larvae are
Shell to 22 mm in diameter, white to gray, variable in shape produced per brood. Settlement occurs in all but the highest
and texture but comparable in size and general form to B. part of the intertidal zone in the spring and summer. Peak set-
crenatus (20.25) and to some extent to Solidobalanus hesperius tlement usually occurs in the spring and may result in dense
(20.20); usually distinguishable from both by the dark area "sets" of B. glandula smothering and crowding other organ-
seen externally on each scutum, where underlying pigmented isms, especially Chthamalus species (e.g., 20.12). However, the
tissues show through thin central portion of shell plate, and presence of the crustose red alga Petrocelis middendorffii ap-
by the more heavily ribbed wall. parently inhibits barnacle settlement. Growth rates are vari-
able but tend to be more rapid in the lower intertidal zone, if
This is probably the most common intertidal balanid along
crowding is not too severe. Basal diameters reach 7-12 mm in
our shores. It is the ecological counterpart of Semibalanus ba-
1 year, 10-16 mm in 2 years, and 14-17 mm in 3, with a max-
lanoides, which occurs in both the North Pacific and Atlantic.
imum diameter of about 22 mm. B. glandula that settled in the
Although Balanus glandula is found in bays and the polyhaline
portions of estuaries, the main population occurs on the open
 The Barnacles

spring are reproductive their first winter and may live u p to mens of B. crenatus, and (2) the presence of large, regular, lon-
8 - 1 0 years. gitudinal tubes permeating the wall plates of B. crenatus (best
Balanus glandula survives best in the narrow band on the seen from below, or in broken plates).
high shore. The upper intertidal limit of the b a n d is set by the Balanus crenatus is in some respects the subtidal equiva-
species' ability to withstand desiccation; the lower limit ap- lent of B. glandula in the North Pacific and of Semibalanus balan-
pears to be set by both competition and predation. B. glandula oides of the North Pacific and Atlantic. Size for size B. crenatus
tends to be crowded out at the bottom of the band by the is more susceptible to water loss through desiccation than
mussel Mytilus californianus (15.9), in more northerly areas by some intertidal rock barnacles, especially Chthamalus (e.g.,
the barnacle Semibalanus cariosus (20.23), and in more south- 20.12). This and its greater fragility correlates with its interti-
erly areas by Tetraclita rubescens (20.18). Also, in this zone at dal occurrence in relatively quiet waters. The species is found
the bottom of the band, barnacles can be preyed on effectively in polyhaline reaches of estuaries on both coasts of North
by the gastropod Nucella emarginata (13.83), and the sea stars America and on the west coast of Europe. In New Brunswick
Pisaster ochraceus (8.13) and Leptasterias hexactis (8.11). All three (Canada), for example, adults are abundant in Miramichi Bay
predators prefer Balanus to Chthamalus as prey; thus their de- but rare in the adjoining gulf. Plankton sampling revealed
predation helps to counterbalance the physical dominance of that early nauplius larval stages remain high in the water col-
Balanus over Chthamalus. T h e effect of limpets feeding on, or u m n and therefore move seaward, but later larvae descend
bulldozing off, cyprids and juvenile barnacles is more pro- deeper and undergo a net movement landward; the cyprids,
nounced on Balanus than on Chthamalus. being the deepest, are carried far into the bay with the saline
wedge. Larvae likely spend 2 - 3 weeks in the plankton, and
See Augenfeld (1967), Barnes & Barnes (1956), Barnes & Gonor before they settle they are transported to areas where condi-
(1958a), Barnes & Healy (1969), Barnes & Klepal (1971), Batzli tions approach the barnacle's lower salinity tolerance limits.
(1969), Bergen (1968), Connell (1970), Cornwall (1955a), Darwin
In years of exceptionally great larval "set," or settlement,
(1854), Dayton (1971), Glynn (1965), Hines (1976,1978,1979), John-
son & Miller (1935), Newman (1967), Newman & Ross (1976), Paine extreme crowding occurs, with the result that barnacles with
(1974), Paine, Slocum & Duggins (1979), Pilsbry (1916), Rice (1930), tall columnar walls develop. The individuals and clumps
Seapy & Littler (1978), Spight (1973), Stephenson & Stephenson formed have small areas of attachment proportional to their
(1972), Stickle (1973), Walker et al. (1975), Worley (1939), and size and are easily broken loose; consequently, relatively few
Zullo (1969a).
members of heavy sets survive a season. Experiments involv-
ing containers suspended from a barge have shown that light
has no significant effect on growth rate, fertilization, or devel-
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica ' opment of embryos.
Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Balanidae ; : ||
Balanus crenatus is sparsely distributed in the subtidal poly-
20.25 Balanus crenatus Bruguiere, 1789 £• haline reaches of San Francisco Bay, but it becomes an impor-
tant subtidal species, in terms of numerical abundance, in the
U n c o m m o n on rocks and, from Monterey Bay north, on northwest. In Monterey Bay, B. crenatus settles erratically dur-
deeply shaded pier pilings, low intertidal zone; common at ing most months of the year. After settlement, the animals
subtidal depths to 182 m on various objects including can grow to a basal diameter of 20 m m in 1 year.
seaweeds; northern Japan and Alaska south to Santa Barbara;
North Atlantic. See Addicott (1966), Austin, Crisp & Patil (1958), Barnes
Shell to 20 m m in diameter, white; species separable from (1953a,b,c, 1959), Barnes & Healy (1969), Barnes & Klepal (1971),
B. glandula (20.24) and Solidobalanus hesperius (20.20), which it Barnes, Klepal & Munn (1971), Barnes & Powell (1950), Barnes,
Read & Topinka (1970), Bousefield (1955), Cornwall (1955a), Crisp
resembles, b y (1) the smoother wall plates in California speci- (1955), Crisp & Barnes (1954), Crisp & Southward (1961), Crisp &
522 Cirripedia
Stubbings (1957), Darwin (1854), Foster (1969,1971), Haderlie Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica
(1974), Herz (1933), Kauri (1962,1966), Newman (1967), Newman & Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Balanidae 01
Ross (1976), Southward & Crisp (1965), and Zullo (1969a).
20.27 Balanus pacificus Pilsbry, 1916

Occasionally on rocks, usually on other organisms, low inter-

#s^gA|r Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica
!|§|P<^P^ Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea j Family Balanidae tidal zone to 73 m depth; Monterey Bay to Baja California; re-
placed in Gulf of California by B. pacificus mexicanus, a form
IIP ,;.:,"'2Q 2 6 g a i a n u s trigonus Darwin, 1854
ranging south to Panama and perhaps Peru.
To 35 mm in diameter; wall smooth, white with reddish
On hard substrata, including hard-shelled invertebrates, or stripes; species distinguished from B. amphitrite amphitrite
embedded in sponges or corals, low intertidal zone to 90 m (20.28) by longitudinal striations across growth lines of scuta.
depth; Monterey to Peru; cosmopolitan in warm seas. Balanus pacificus produces many broods throughout the year
Rarely more than 15 mm in diameter, usually less than 10 in southern California. The larvae settle year-round on
mm; wall ribbed, white usually mottled with some shade of ephemeral substrata in subtidal sandy areas, rather than on
red; orifice triangular in outline; exterior of scuta with one to rock bottom bearing well-established communities! In many
several rows of pits, distinguishing it from all other species of sand dollar populations, up to 15-25 percent of the adults are
Balanus occurring locally. fouled by B. pacificus, and the barnacles themselves become
This species may form facultative associations with other substrata for bryozoans, algae, and especially the hydroid Cly-
organisms, and sometimes lives buried in corals or sponges. It tia bakeri (3.9). Many living sand dollars washed ashore dur-
has been found on the whale barnacle Coronula (e.g., 20.15), ing storms are fouled, and field observations indicate that the
and it is therefore likely that whales have been in part respon- proportion of fouled sand dollars in established populations
sible for its wide distribution. Its fossil record goes back to increases shorewards after storms. Thus, it appears that bar-
the Miocene. It arrived in the Hawaiian archipelago no later nacle fouling increases the tendency of shoreward transport,
than the Pleistocene, at least a million years before the Poly- adding to both sand dollar and barnacle mortality.
nesians. It is one of the few cosmopolitan shore barnacles
By settling on other organisms, B. pacificus tends to avoid
not suspected of having become so via transport by ships.
many predators such as asteroids, gastropods, crustaceans,
This species has generally escaped the attention of west and fishes. Settling on organisms living in sand may be espe-
coast naturalists other than in Panama, where it contributes cially helpful in this regard. An unusual and apparently major
significantly to the sediments formed by coral reefs on off- cause of mortality is predation by two polyclad flatworms,
shore islands. Laboratory studies in Florida indicate that it Stylochus tripartitus (4.2) and Notoplana inquieta, against which
and Tetraclita stalactifera are relatively intolerant of high and the barnacle has no defenses. The flatworms can reach the
low temperature extremes (mid-40's and 0°C), compared barnacles as planktonic larvae. They enter the shell through
with Balanus amphitrite amphitrite (20.28) and Chthamalus stel- the opercular aperture and eat the barnacle at a rate (in the
latus. Settling experiments and field observations indicate that laboratory) of 0.05 gms barnacle tissue per gm flatworm tis-
this is primarily a subtidal species; there is no evidence that sue per day. Balanus pacificus is opportunistic, taking advan-
the larvae settle intertidally only to die later. tage of surfaces freshly placed in the water or freshly cleaned
by disturbances, but it does not form a permanent part of the
See Barnes & Klepal (1971), Darwin (1854), Henry (1960), New- bottom community.
man & Ross (1976), Pilsbry (1916), Ross, Cerame-Vivas & McClos-
key (1964), and Werner (1967).
See Cornwall (1962), Darwin (1854), Giltay (1934), Henry (1960),
Houk & Duffy (1972), Hurley (1975,1976), Merrill & Hobson
(1970), Newman & Ross (1976), Pilsbry (1916), Ross (1962), and
Zullo (1969b).
 The Barnacles 523

Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica hastily transported there. It differs somewhat in form from
Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Balanidae the coastal populations and has been formally considered a
20.28 Balanus amphitrite amphitrite Darwin, 1854 / 5* distinct subspecies. The differences could be genetic, owing
to rapid selection in an artificial sea with an exceptionally
Common on hard substrata such as rocks, shells, and pier pil- short faunal list. Alternatively, the differences could be envi-
ings, low intertidal zone to 18 m depth in bays and estuaries; ronmentally induced, for although the salinity of the Salton
San Francisco to Panama; introduced into Salton Sea (Imperial Sea approaches that of the ocean, the ionic composition is dif-
and Riverside Cos.); cosmopolitan in warm seas. ferent, sulfates being markedly higher and chlorides propor-
To 20 mm in diameter, white with reddish-brown or pur- tionately lower than in normal seawater. The case, for the Sal-
plish stripes; resembling young B. pacificus (20.27), but lacking ton Sea barnacle being an ecotype rather than a genetically
longitudinal striations on scuta; similar to B. improvisus distinct form presently seems stronger, since a similar popu-
(20.29), but the latter never has dark-purple stripes on wall. lation has been identified statistically in Wilmington harbor
Although B. amphitrite is easy to identify in California, care (Los Angeles Co.) on the outer coast.
must be taken to distinguish it from B. inexpectatus farther In general, larvae select suitable settling sites in relation to
south, and from B. reticulatus in all tropical regions of the depth, illumination, surface contour, previous settlements of
world, for the species have been much confused in the past. individuals of the same or related species, and the velocity of
Balanus amphitrite is a bay form, but does not survive long in the currents. Cyprids of Balanus amphitrite settle with their
very dilute seawater. A fouling barnacle, it is widely distrib- tails to the current, in the absence of other stimuli, which
uted in harbors of the world by ships. It becomes established orients the cirral net in the right direction (facing upstream)
only in bays in which the summer water temperatures reach following metamorphosis. Although the cyprids are not re-
20°C, permitting breeding to take place. sponsive to the direction of light when searching for a suit-
Certain Atlantic invertebrates were introduced to the west able spot, they head into light while attaching, regardless of
coast through the commercial importation of the east coast the normal current direction. Above all, the larva seeks a
oyster Crassostrea virginica. Balanus improvisus (20.29) was ap- small pit in which to settle. Although some reorientation of
parently introduced in this way before 1853. B. amphitrite also the body to the current can be accommodated by differential
grows on C. virginica, but the first records of this barnacle on growth after metamorphosis, it is limited after initial attach-
our coast are those at San Diego (1921) and San Francisco ment has been made.
(1939). It did not arrive with the oysters, apparently because Shallow-water barnacles generally withdraw and close up
the oysters were imported from north of Cape Hatteras when suddenly placed in shadow. Since the compound eyes
(North Carolina), the barnacle's northern limit of distribution of the cyprid are shed with the exoskeleton during metamor-
on the east coast. It seems likely that B. amphitrite came later, phosis, it has been presumed that the photoreceptors, or
transported by ships. It was first collected in Hawaii and the ocelli, are persisting elements of the nauplius larval eye.
Philippines between 1914 and 1916, at the Suez Canal in These ocelli can be seen, one on each side under the basal
1924, and in northern Europe in 1929. However, only in the margins of the scuta, in freshly metamorphosed juveniles of
past decade has this species been clearly defined. Therefore, Balanus, but their position becomes obscured with calcifica-
only on the west coast and in northern Europe, where there tion, and dissection is necessary to locate them in adults. Each
are no closely related species, do the earlier records tell us ocellus is composed of three large photoreceptor cells without
clearly the approximate times of introduction. •ommatidial organization. The cell bodies have projections
The Salton Sea population (Imperial and Riverside Cos.) bearing microvilli and a large axon (15-20 jiim in diameter). It
apparently became established early in World War II, when has been shown electrophysiologically in a close relative, B.
buoys from San Diego Bay used to mark seaplane lanes were eburneus, that the primary event at the photoreceptor is an
Cirripedia
"on" response similar in form to that described for the retinu- improvisus living at salinities 75-90 percent that of ocean
lar cells in a number of arthropods. water with those living at salinities 15-18 percent of seawater
show no significant differences between the two populations
See Barnes, Klepal & Munn (1971), Barnes, Read & Topinka in a number of respects, including shell characters, ripe em-
(1970), Costlow & Bookhout (1956,1958a,b), Crisp & Costlow bryos, first nauplius larvae, ratio of shell volume to basal di-
(1963), Crisp & Southward (1961), Davis, Fyhn & Fyhn (1973), ameter, and ratio of shell weight to dry body weight. Balanus
Fahrenbach (1965), U. Fyhn & Costlow (1975,1977), Graham & Gay
(1945), Henry & McLaughlin (1975), Hillman et al. (1973), Lacombe improvisus is evidently a well-adjusted estuarine species, in
(1970), Newman (1967), Newman & Ross (1976), Pilsbry (1916), and contrast to Semibalanus balanoides, which is not known to os-
Zullo, Beach & Carlton (1972). moregulate and which terminates its range into estuaries at
salinities ranging from 30 to 75 percent that of normal
seawater, accompanied by a marked reduction in size.
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica Studies of relative growth show that in B. improvisus the
Suborder Balanomorpha j Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Balanidae shell grows faster than the body, which provides the adult
20.29 Balanus improvisus Darwin, 1854 with a mantle cavity with plenty of room to accommodate de-
veloping embryos. In the Miramichi Bay (New Brunswick),
On rocks, pilings, and hard-shelled organisms, low intertidal larval planktonic life is estimated to last 18 days, the cyprid
zone to subtidal depths in estuaries; particularly tolerant of stage being reached by the fourteenth day. The stages show
brackish waters; Columbia River (Oregon) to Salinas River some vertical stratification with depth according to tidal stage.
(Monterey Co.), occasionally in harbors south of Point Con- In general, cyprids are found nearer the surface at the head of
ception (Santa Barbara Co.); Ecuador; Japan, Australia; North the bay during flood tides, which ensures their transport into
and South Atlantic; introduced into North Pacific. the intertidal reaches of the estuary where the adults are most
Small, to 10 mm in diameter; closely related to B. amphitrite commonly found.
amphitrite (20.28), but shell wholly white, lacking purple In laboratory tests, B. improvisus grew more rapidly when
stripes. fed the alga Chlamydomonas alone than a mixture of Chlamydo-
Another white, brackish-water form, B. eburneus, has been monas and Nitzschia, but growth was less than under field con-
introduced from the east coast to Central America, Hawaii, ditions. On the average, molting occurred every 2 - 3 days.
and Japan, but it is not yet known from the west coast of Metamorphosed individuals passed through a stage possess-
North America. It is distinguished from both B. improvisus and ing four wall plates in 2 days; this was followed by a stage
B. amphitrite by the longitudinal striations of the exterior of showing the typical six-plated wall. Carbonic anhydrase inhib-
the scuta. itors prevented the transition from four to six plates. At later
Balanus improvisus is a truly estuarine barnacle, apparently stages the application of these inhibitors reduced the rate of
introduced from the east coast before 1853, along with the growth, but individuals removed from the presence of inhibi-
eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica. In the northern reaches of tors resumed normal growth. Treatment of the earliest juve-
San Francisco Bay the barnacle spends as much as 10 months nile, however, precluded further development, suggesting
of the year in fresh water. Here, contrary to previous reports, that mechanisms regulating growth must be initiated shortly
it has recently been shown to osmoregulate if given sufficient after metamorphosis, and once blocked are not triggered
time to acclimate. Specimens have been found attached to again.
other freshwater organisms such as crayfish and water beetles Three closely related barnacles, including B. improvisus,
in various parts of the world. In the North Sea this species is have been used in tissue and organ culture studies. Bovine
suffering from competition with a recently introduced Aus- embryo extract and yeastolate added to Balanus saline were
tralian form, Elminius modestus. Comparisons of Baltic Sea B. favorable for cell outgrowth and organ maintenance; other
 The Barnacles 525
additions had neutral or negative effects. Organs cultured in- Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica
clude mantle parenchyma, ovarioles, and cement glands. Ger- Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Balanidae
minative tissue retained high mitotic activity for at least 7 20.31 Balanus aquila Pilsbry, 1907
days. Epithelial and fibroblast-like cells underwent extensive
growth and migration. Success in this study may in part re- O n rocks, pier pilings, and abalone shells, low intertidal
flect the wise choice of materials; all three of the species se- zone to 18 m depth; San Francisco to San Diego.
lected are eurytopic, and B. improvisus is especially tolerant of To 130 m m in diameter; species often confused with an-
estuarine conditions. other large white species, B. nubilus (20.32), but distinguished
from it b y (1) the small rather than flaring orifice, (2) the
See Barnes & Barnes (1961), Barnes & Healy (1969), Barnes & beaked terga, and (3) the longitudinal striations on the scuta;
Klepal (1971), Barnes, Klepal & Munn (1971), Barnes, Read & To-
distinguished from B. regalis (20.30) by the coarsely ribbed
pinka (1970), Bartha & Henriksson (1971), Bousfield (1955), Carlton
& Zullo (1969), Costlow (1956,1959), Costlow & Bookhout (1953, white wall.
1957), Crisp (1953), Crisp & Southward (1961), Darwin (1854), H. This species, endemic to a limited region of California, is
Fyhn (1976), U. Fyhn & Costlow (1975), Graham & Gay (1945), L. W. one of the last surviving members of the concavus group,
Jones & Crisp (1954), Kauri (1962,1966), Meith-Avcin (1974), k n o w n as fossils from the Oligocene-Pleistocene period in
Newman (1967), Newman & Ross (1976), Tornava (1948),
Europe and in North and South America and from the Plio-
Visscher (1928), and Zullo, Beach & Carlton (1972).
cene period in northern Japan.
Because suppliers of biological materials have often m i s -
identified B. aquila and sent it to investigators ordering B. nu-
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica MJS|S
Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Balanidae JWmi bilus, much of the membrane work reported for B. nubilus was
actually done on B. aquila. Both species occur on pier pilings
20.30 Balanus regalis Pilsbry, 1916 ^jj at Monterey. If there is an "endangered" barnacle species in
California, it is B. aquila.
Low intertidal and subtidal zones on surf-washed rocks; Point
Conception (Santa Barbara Co.) to western Mexico. See Baskin et al. (1969), Cornwall (1960), Newman (1979), New-
To 60 m m in diameter, closely related and similar in form man & Ross (1976), Pilsbry (1916), and Zullo (1966).
to the larger northern species B. aquila (20.31), but distin-
guished by having fine, uniform, whitish ribs separated by
brown to reddish-brown grooves on the walls, rather than a Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica
pure-white wall. Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Balanidae A
This little-known species, one of the more ornamental ba- 20.32 Balanus nubilus Darwin, 1854
lanids, was only recently reported inhabiting wave-swept
rocky outcrops in southern California. C o m m o n on rocks, pier pilings, and hard-shelled animals,
low intertidal zone to 90 m depth; southern Alaska to La Jolla
See Henry (1960), Newman & Ross (1976), Pilsbry (1916), and
(San Diego Co.).
Ross (1962).
To 110 m m in diameter; not easily confused with any other
species except B. aquila (20.31), from which it is distinguished
by a large, flaring (rather than small) aperture, and by the lack
of longitudinal striations on the scuta.
Barnacles of this species are reputed to be eaten by the na-
tives of the northwest, who cook them whole on open fires
 Cirripedia
and then remove the operculum and eat them out of the shell. Phylum Arthropoda J Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia
The animal contains the largest individual muscle fibers Order Rhizocephala / Suborder Kentrogonida / Family Sacculinidae
k n o w n to science and ostensibly has enjoyed considerable 20.34 Heterosaccus californicus Boschma, 1933
popularity in physiological research. However, much of this
work was actually performed on B. aquila, through misidenti- Parasitic on the spider crabs Loxorhynchus grandis (25.10) and
fication. L. crispatus (25.11), Pugettia producta (25.4), and Taliepus nuttallii
(25.3); k n o w n only from Monterey Bay to San Diego.
See Addicott (1966), Arvy & Lacombe (1968), Arvy, Lacombe & Externally visible portion of parasite (the "externa") at-
Shimony (1968), Arvy & Liguori (1968), Ashley, Ellory & Hainaut
tached to ventral surface of crab's abdomen, in same position
(1974), Barnes (1959), Barnes & Barnes (1959b), Barnes & Gonor
(1958a), Carderelli (1968), Cornwall (1936,1951), Darwin (1854), that fertilized eggs are carried by ripe female crab; externa to
Devillez (1975), Emerson & Hertlein (1960), Hagiwara & Takahashi 40 m m wide, globular, saclike, with a central orifice; similar to
(1967), Hagiwara et al. (1968), Harnden (1968), Houk & Duffy externa of another rhizocephalan barnacle reported from Cal-
(1972), Hoyle, McNeill & Selverston (1973), Hoyle & Smythe (1963), ifornia, Loxothylacus panopaei (Gissler), which differs in
Lacombe (1970), Newman & Ross (1976), Pilsbry (1916), Ross
parasitizing only crabs of the family Xanthidae.
(1962), Shelford et al. (1935), Tait & Emmons (1925), Whitney
(1970), and Zullo (1969a,b). Little has been published on the biology of Heterosaccus.
However, its general life history probably resembles that of
Sacculina carcini, a similar form carefully studied by the French
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia / Order Thoracica zoologist Yves Delage and others nearly a century ago. In Sac-
f: Suborder Balanomorpha / Superfamily Balanoidea / Family Balanidae culina the larvae hatch as nauplii that differ from those of free-
living barnacles mainly in lacking a m o u t h and gut. The cy-
20.33 Megabalanus californicus (Pilsbry, 1916)
prid larval stage also lacks a gut and has only rudimentary
( = Balanus tintinnabulum californicus)
mouthparts. Female cyprid larvae locate host crabs (Carcinus,
Portunus, etc.) and attach themselves by one antennule at a
U n c o m m o n in low intertidal zone; commonly subtidal to 9 m
place where the host's exoskeleton is very thin and soft. The
depth on rocks, pilings, buoys, kelp, mussels, and other hard-
cyprid then sheds much of its larval body, including thoracic
shelled organisms; Humboldt Bay to Guaymas (Mexico); very
limbs, muscles, and bivalved carapace. The small mass of tis-
u n c o m m o n north of Monterey.
sue that survives this metamorphosis becomes surrounded
To 60 m m in diameter, with longitudinal red and white
with a new cuticle, one feature of which is a hollow needle or
stripes; the only Megabalanus species k n o w n from California;
dart. This larval stage, the "kentrogon," extends its dart
genus distinguished from all other balanid genera in having
through the host cuticle and by muscular action injects the
radii permeated by transverse tubes rather than being solid.
larval tissues into the crab's body. The kentrogon tissue then
This is one of the most colorful balanids and tends to be
develops the "interna," a central lobe on the host's gut just
very gregarious. Crowding causes the basis to elongate into a
back of the stomach, and, extending out from this lobe, a
deep cup so that the plates remain undistorted and individu-
branching network of threadlike nutritive rootlets that range
als form spectacular clusters. A related species is considered a
throughout the blood spaces of the crab's body. Some 9
delicacy in Chile and is sold fresh or canned.
months after initial penetration, the interna extends a lobe
that emerges on the ventral abdomen of the crab, forming the
See Aleem (1957), Barnes & Klepal (1971), Coe (1932), Coe &
Allen (1937), Graham & Gay (1945), Henry (I960), Hewatt (1946), sacklike externa. The externa contains the large ovary and a
Kanakoff & Emerson (1959), Newman & Ross (1976), Pilsbry (1916), sack containing sperm probably derived from a male cyprid
Rasmussen (1935), Willett (1937), and Zullo (1968). (see the account of Peltogasterella gracilis, 20.35, and Ichikawa &
Yanagimachi, 1960). Eggs and sperm are both shed into an
 The Barnacles 527

enclosed space, the mantle cavity, where fertilization occurs, ported. Their externae are similar, but one type produces only
and the embryos are brooded until they hatch as nauplius lar- small eggs (140-150 pirn diameter). W h e n fertilized, they give
vae and escape by the orifice. The presence of the parasite in- rise to small nauplius larvae, and later small cyprids. The cy-
hibits molting and normal sexual development of the host, prid locates a crab host, attaches by an antennule, sheds its
but seems to cause little damage in other respects. After the thoracic limbs and carapace, and metamorphoses into a ken-
parasite reproduces, the externa is sometimes shed or lost, trogon larva (see the account of Heterosaccus californicus, 20.34).
but may persist on the host for at least a year and possibly a The kentrogon penetrates the host with a hollow dart, and in-
lifetime. jects tissues that proliferate to form the interna, or internal
All of the rhizocephalans included in this chapter are " k e n - portion, of the parasite. The central cell mass of the interna
trogonids," that is, they pass through a kentrogon stage and grows in the a b d o m e n and sends nutritive rootlets ramifying
undergo a period of internal development between initial in- into the rest of the host body. Eventually the rudiment of the
fection of the crab and the emergence of the externa. This is externa arises as a bud on the central cell mass, grows, and
in contrast to the "akentrogonid" type of rhizocephalan, re- pushes out through the abdominal wall of the host, while re-
cently described by Bocquet-Vedrine (1972), in which the maining firmly attached to the root system. The female para-
parasite always remains in communication with the exterior. site develops ovaries in the externa, and also a pair of small
sacs of "male-cell receptacles" that lack gametes.
See Bocquet-Vedrine (1972), Boschma (1953), Day (1935), Delage A second type of female parasite, from another crab host,
(1884), Foxon (1940), Fratello (1968), Ichikawa & Yanagimachi produces only large eggs (160-170 fim diameter). W h e n these
(I960), and O'Brien (1977).
are fertilized, they yield large nauplius larvae and later large
cyprids, which become males. The large male cyprids swim
and settle, not on crab hosts like the small cyprids, but on the
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea j Subclass Cirripedia y<^W^^\
apertures of the mantle cavities of Peltogasterella gracilis exter-
Order Rhizocephala / Suborder Kentrogonida / Family Peltogasteridae ^0-^^S\
nae, which are all females. A large cyprid does not metamor-
20.35 Peltogasterella gracilis (Boschma, 1927) ( f|C QHg phose into a kentrogon stage, but through one of its anten-
nules it injects a cell mass into the mantle cavity of the female
O n abdomens of hermit crabs (Pagurus spp.); Bering Sea to parasite. Both types of females receive such male-cell masses,
Chile; Japan; only member of family Peltogasteridae known which migrate through the mantle cavity and take u p resi-
from California. dence in the male-cell receptacles. Here the male cells dif-
External portion of parasite ("externa") to 10 m m long, ferentiate to form sperm.
with mantle aperture terminal (rather than medial as in other Female parasites may produce several successive batches of
California rhizocephalans); one host usually bearing several eggs, after which the externa dies and is shed, leaving the in-
externae. terna intact. New externae may develop from the same in-
Classical studies of rhizocephalan barnacles suggested that terna. W h e n several externae are present on a host, they are
they were self-fertilizing hermaphrodites. Some were known probably (but not certainly) all b u d d e d from the same in-
to be accompanied by males, presumed to be non-functional. terna. Occasional exceptional female parasites were found
Recent studies of this species in Japan show that the stage that produce both large and small eggs, yielding, respectively,
parasitizing crabs is not hermaphroditic, but female. The so- large and small larvae; it is possible that the female actually
called "testes" are actually pockets in the female (analogous alternates between large and small cyprid production, as is
to seminal receptacles) in which male tissue has come to re- the case in Lernaeodiscus porcellanae (20.36).
side following the attachment of a male cyprid.
In Peltogasterella gracilis two types of females have been re- See Bocquet-Vedrine (1972), Reinhard (1942), and Yanagimachi
(1961a,b).
528 Cirripedia
Phylum Arthropoda / Class Crustacea / Subclass Cirripedia sive broods of eggs produced in the externa. The maturing
Order Rhizocephala / Suborder Kentrogonida / Family Lernaeodiscidae externa takes on the general form, and occupies the same po-
20.36 Lernaeodiscus porcellanae F. Muller, 1862 sition on the crab's abdomen, as the eggs being brooded by a
normal female crab; and it is cared for and cleaned by the last
O n the porcelain crab Petrolisthes cabrilloi (24.17), middle and pair of thoracic legs as if it were indeed the crab's egg mass.
low intertidal zones on rocky shores; La Jolla (San Diego Co.), Mature externae wither and die if experimentally deprived of
only m e m b e r of family Lernaeodiscidae k n o w n from west this care, in good part for lack of assistance in molting. Lost
coast of North America; if identification is correct, previously externae are regenerated, but normally they are long-lived,
k n o w n only from southern Brazil. producing successive broods of nauplius larvae that develop
To 10 m m wide, distinguished from other solitary Califor- into female, mixed female and male, or male cyprids, in a suc-
nia rhizocephalans by fluted edges of external sac. cession that is apparently seasonal.
Although the species was only recently discovered in Cali-
See Boschma (1969).
fornia, an intensive study of the host-parasite relationship has
been made by the late L. Ritchie. The following are some of
his results (pers. comm.).
Sexes are separate in Lernaeodiscus; the smaller female- Literature Cited
producing cyprid enters the gill chamber of the crab, where it
attaches to a gill lamella by both first antennae. In the next Addicott, W. 0.1966. Late Pleistocene marine paleoecology and
zoogeography in central California. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 523-C:
few days the kentrogon stage forms (see the account of Hetero-
1-21.
saccus californicus, 20.34). Unless the crab has successfully re- Aleem, A. A. 1957. Succession of marine fouling organisms on test
moved the parasite in the process of cleaning its gills, the lat- panels immersed in deep water at La Jolla, California. Hydrobio-
ter invades the host through a trough formed by the cyprid logia 11: 40-58.
labrum (upper lip), rather than by a tube inserted through Ankel, W. E. 1962. Die blaue Flotte. Natur und Museum 92: 351-66.
one of its first antennae. Gill cleaning is accomplished by the Anon. 1968. Science and the citizen: Barnacle cement. Sci. Amer.
219: 46.
posterior pair of thoracic legs, especially modified in connec- Arvy, L., and D. Lacombe. 1968. Activites enzymatiques traceuses
tion with this cleaning function. The mere presence of female dans "l'appareil cementaire" des Balanidae (Crustacea, Cirripe-
cyprids initiates vigorous gill cleaning in P. cabrilloi, but not in dia). C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris, 267:1326-28.
other porcelain crabs of the region. Between 5 and 60 percent Arvy, L., D. Lacombe, and T. Shimony. 1968. Studies on the biology
of the host population can be infected, the incidence of infec- of barnacles: Alkaline phosphatase activity histochemically de-
tectable in the cement apparatus of the Balanidae (Crustacea, Cir-
tion being significantly increased in the laboratory by damag- ripedia). Amer. Zool. 8: 817 (abstract).
ing or removing the last thoracic legs. Infection castrates both Arvy, L., and V. R. Liguori. 1968. Studies on the biology of barna-
sexes and feminizes male crabs. Such non-reproductive indi- cles: Differences in muscular cytochrome oxidase activity histo-
viduals have normal life expectancies and continue to draw chemically detectable in some Balanidae (Crustacea, Cirripedia).
on the resources of the crab population. Upon completion of Amer. Zool. 8: 817 (abstract).
Ashley, C. C , J. C. Ellory, and K. Hainaut. 1974. Calcium movement
maturation the tissues of the parasite inside the crab's body
in single crustacean muscle fibres. J. Physiol., London, 242:
develop an incipient externa, between the proximal a b d o m - 255-72.
inal sterna. This forms the externa on the next molt of the Augenfeld, J. M. 1967. Respiratory metabolism and glycogen
host. O n e to several male cyprids of L. porcellanae locate the storage in barnacles occupying different levels of the intertidal
virgin externa, attach, and extrude their cellular contents into zone. Physiol. Zool. 40: 92-96.
it. These male cells come to reside in receptacles and differen- Austin, A. P., D. J. Crisp, and A. M. Patil. 1958. The chromosome
tiate into spermatozoa in time to fertilize the first and succes-
 The Barnacles
numbers of certain barnacles in British waters. Quart. J. Micro- Barnes, H., W. Klepal, and E. A. Munn. 1971. Observations on the
scop. Sci. 99: 497-504. form and changes in the accessory droplet and motility of the
Bainbridge, V., and J. Roskell. 1966. A re-description of the larvae spermatozoa of some cirripedes. J. Exper. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 7:
of Lepas fascicularis Ellis and Solander with observations on the 173-96.
distribution of Lepas nauplii in the northeastern Atlantic, pp. Barnes, H., and H. T. Powell. 1950. The development, general mor-
67-82, in H. Barnes, ed., Some contemporary studies in marine phology and subsequent elimination of barnacle populations,
science. London: Allen & Unwin. Balanus crenatus and B. balanoides, after a heavy initial settlement.
Baldridge, A. 1977. The barnacle Lepas pacifica and the alga Navicula J. Anim. Ecol. 19:175-79.
grevillei on northern elephant seals, Mirounga angustirostris. J. Barnes, H., R. Read, and J. A. Topinka. 1970. The behaviour on im-
Mammal. 58: 428-29. paction by solids of some common cirripedes and relation to
Ball, E. G. 1944. A blue chromoprotein found in the eggs of the their normal habitat. J. Exper. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 5: 70-87.
goose-barnacle. J. Biol. Chem. 152: 627-34. Barnes, H., and E. S. Reese. 1959. Feeding in the pedunculate cirri-
Barnes, H. 1953a. The effect of lowered salinity on some barnacle pede Pollicipes polymerus J. B. Sowerby. Proc. Zool. Soc. London
nauplii. J. Anim. Ecol. 22: 328-30. 132: 569-85.
1953b. Size variation in the cyprids of some common barna- 1960. The behaviour of the stalked intertidal barnacle Polli-
cles. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 32: 297-304. cipes polymerus J. B. Sowerby, with special reference to its ecology
1953c. The effect of light on the growth rate of two barnacles and distribution. J. Anim. Ecol. 29:169-85.
Balanus balanoides (L.) and B. crenatus Brug. under conditions of Bartha, S. D., and S. Henriksson. 1971. The growth of sea organisms
total submergence. Oikos 4:104-11. and the effect on the corrosion resistance of stainless steel and
1959. Stomach contents and microfeeding of some common titanium. Cent. Rech. Etudes Oceanogr. Paris, Travaux 11: 7-20.
cirripedes. Canad. J. Zool. 37: 231-36. Baskin, R. J., W. C. Stanford, P. D. Morse, and M. L. Biggs. 1969.
1960. The behaviour and ecology of Pollicipes polymerus. Rep. The formation of filaments from barnacle myosin. Comp. Bio-
Challenger Soc. 3: 30. chem. Physiol. 29: 471-74.
Barnes, H., and M. Barnes. 1956. The general biology of Balanus Batzli, George O. 1969. Distribution of biomass in rocky intertidal
glandula Darwin. Pacific Sci. 10: 415-22. communities on the Pacific coast of the United States. J. Anim.
1958. Further observations on self fertilization in Chtha- Ecol. 38: 531-46.
malus sp. Ecology 39: 550. Bebbington, P. M., and E. D. Morgan. 1977. Detection and identifi-
1959a. The effect of temperature on the oxygen uptake and cation of moulting hormone (ecdysones) in the barnacle Balanus
rate of development of the egg masses of two common cirri- balanoides. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 56B: 77—79.
pedes, Balanus balanoides (L.) and Pollicipes polymerus J. B. Sowerby. Bergen, M. 1968. The salinity tolerance limits of the adults and
Kieler Meeresforsch. 15: 242-51. early-stage embryos of Balanus glandula Darwin, 1854 (Cirripedia,
1959b. The naupliar stages of Balanus nubilus Darwin. Thoracica). Crustaceana 15: 229-34.
Canad. J. Zool. 37:15-23. Bieri, R. 1966. Feeding preferences and rates of the snail, lanthina
1959c. The naupliar stages of Balanus hesperius Pilsbry. prolongata, the barnacle, Lepas anserifera, the nudibranchs, Glaucus
Canad. J. Zool. 37: 237-44. atlanticus and Fiona pinnata, and the food web in the marine neus-
1961. Salinity and the biometry of Balanus improvisus. Soc. ton. Publ. Seto Mar. Biol. Lab. 14:161-70, 2 pis.
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Barnes, H., and M. J. R. Healy. 1969. Biometrical studies on some Boetius, J. 1952-53. Some notes on the relation to the substratum of
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