Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ver. 2.1
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aila (Papua New Guinea); chataignier de Tahiti (French); ifi (Samoa, Tonga, Niue, Horne Islands, ‘Uvea); ihi
(Marquesas); i‘i (Cooks); ivi (Fiji); mape (Society Islands); mworopw (Pohnpei); namambe (Vanuatu: Bislama);
naqi (Solomon Islands: Nduke); Tahitian chestnut, Polynesian chestnut (English); te ibi (Kiribati)
Richard L. Pauku
photo: R. Leakey
IN BRIEF
Distribution Found in many countries of
Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.
Size Typically grows to 20 m (66 ft) in height,
with a crown diameter of 4–6 m (13–20 ft).
Habitat Grows at elevations of 0–500 m (0–
1640 ft), although is found most commonly
at low elevations along shorelines and rivers;
mean annual rainfall 1500–4300 mm (60–170
in).
Vegetation Associated with lowland second-
ary forest, stream banks, swamps and marshes,
mangrove areas, and coconut plantations.
Soils Grows in a wide range of soils with pH
5–14.
Growth rate Moderate, up to 2 m (6.6 ft) per
year.
Main agroforestry uses Coastal stabilization,
soil stabilization, crop shade/overstory.
Main products Edible nut, wood.
Yields Up to 75 kg (165 lb) fruits/tree/yr for
trees 25+ years old.
Intercropping Can be used as a component
of a multistory planting, both as a middle story
or overstory tree.
Invasive potential Not considered invasive.
Mature tree, Tututi,
Kolombangara Island,
Solomon Islands.
INTRODUCTION BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Tahitian chestnut (Inocarpus fagifer) is a medium size, ever-
green tropical tree found in secondary forests, homegardens, Preferred scientific name
and coconut plantations. It is most common along river- Inocarpus fagifer (Parkinson ex Zollinger) Fosberg
banks, in swamps and marshes, and within coastal shore-
lines. It appears that Tahitian chestnut was cultivated more Family
intensively in the past. Today the species is found mostly Fabaceae (legume family)
in wild form. The native distribution spreads across Mela-
nesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, extending eastward to Non-preferred scientific names
Johore in Sarawak and Sabah in Malaysia.
Inocarpus fagiferus (Park.) Fosb.
Tahitian chestnut is a leguminous, evergreen tree produc- Inocarpus edulis Forst.
ing a seed that is edible when cooked and is among the Aniotum fagiferum Park.
most important nut species in the Pacific. The tree is shade-
tolerant, although heavy shading may decrease its yield. It Common names
has a dense canopy, which makes it unsuitable for close aila (Papua New Guinea)
planting between light-demanding agricultural crops such chataignier de Tahiti (French)
as sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas), taro (Colocasia esculenta), ifi (Samoa, Tonga, Niue, Horne Islands, ‘Uvea)
sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum), and corn (Zea mays). ihi (Marquesas)
However, it is suitable as a boundary tree to provide shade i‘i (Cook Islands)
and shelter for more shade-tolerant crops. Some types are ivi (Fiji)
compatible with other trees such as vi (Spondias cyathera), mape (Society Islands)
canarium nut (Canarium spp.), and breadfruit (Artocarpus mworopw (Pohnpei)
altilis). It also grows together well with cutnut (Barringtonia naqi (Solomon Islands: Nduke)
spp.), sago palm (Metroxylon salomonense), betel nut palm namambe (Vanuatu: Bislama)
(Areca catechu), and coconut (Cocos nucifera). There is no Tahitian chestnut, Polynesian chestnut (English)
record that suggests Tahitian chestnut is invasive, and this te ibi (Kiribati)
is supported by in situ observation. In the Solomon Islands it is well known in rural villages in
numerous dialects. It is called ailali in Kwara‘ae (Malaita
Is.), dulafa in To‘oabaita (Malaita Is.), dola in Varisi (Choi-
DISTRIBUTION seul Is.), mwaqe in Santa Ana (Santa Ana Is.), naqi in
Nduke (Kolombangara Is.), ivi in Roviana (New Georgia
Native range
Is.), Marovo (New Georgia Is.), julapa in Bugotu (Isabel
Tahitian chestnut is indigenous to many South Pacific Is.), and zulapa in Zabana (Isabel Is.).
countries (from Java in the west to the Marquesas in the
east). It is found in Melanesian countries (the Solomon Size and form
Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, and Papua New Guinea) where it is
Tahitian chestnut is a medium size tree reaching a typical
believed to be indigenous.
height of 20 m (66 ft). Some trees in Santa Cruz, Vanuatu,
grow to less than 10 m (33 ft) in height and trees in Choi-
Current distribution
seul and Kolombangara in the Solomon Islands reach 30
In parts of Polynesia (Samoa, Tonga, Cook Islands, and m (100 ft) tall. Mature fruiting trees have a typical crown
French Polynesia) and Micronesia (Pohnpei, Marshall Is- diameter of 4–6 m (13–20 ft). The trunk diameter at breast
lands, and Kiribati), the species is believed to be an ab- height (dbh) of mature trees ranges from 7 to 90 cm (3–35
original introduction. In Pohnpei, Tahitian chestnut is in) and is typically 30 cm (12 in). The trees have a distinc-
found growing in coastal locations and in the uplands to tive, short, thick, irregular, and very fluted bole. Branches
an elevation of 200 m (650 ft) and is most common along have a spirally alternate arrangement. Secondary branch-
riverbanks and in giant taro patches (Kostka, pers. comm., ing creates a network of branches within the dense canopy.
2004). It has been introduced to the Philippines.
Flowers
The flowers are fragrant and clustered along a short rachis
found at the apex of branches, stems, and twigs. They are
distributed in its native range. It is commonly found in Solomon Islands. It is also found naturalized east of Johore
lowland woody regrowth, edges of old gardens, along rivers in Sarawak and Sabah.
and streams, in swamps and marshes, along shorelines, and In its native range, mature trees of Tahitian chestnut are
in coastal locations including mangrove areas and coconut found scattered with varying density. In Veratalevu, Fiji,
plantations. for example, 206 trees/ha (83 trees/ac) have been found,
compared with an estimated density of 10–20 trees/ha (4–8
Associated species commonly found in native trees/ac) in Kolombangara, Solomon Islands.
habitats
Other species that are found within the natural range Species commonly associated as aboriginal intro-
of Tahitian chestnut include canarium nut (Canarium ductions in Pacific islands
spp.), breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), coconut (Cocos nu- Commonly associated aboriginal introductions in the Pa-
cifera), cutnut (Barringtonia spp.), Flueggea flexuosa, sago cific islands include canarium nut, Malay apple, cutnut,
palm (Metroxylon salomonense), Malay apple (Syzygium Burckella obovata, and several mangrove species.
malaccense), Mangifera minor, Ficus spp., beach hibiscus
(Hibiscus tiliaceus), beach she-oak (Casuarina equisetifolia), Species commonly associated in modern times or
Intsia bijuga, Terminalia spp., and narra (Pterocarpus indicus). as recent introduction
In Choiseul, Solomon Islands, Tahitian chestnut is com-
monly naturalized together with coconut in coastal loca- Species commonly associated as more recent introductions
tions and in woody secondary regrowth. The species occurs include banana and plantain (Musa spp.) and coconut.
with mangrove on muddy shorelines in Kolombangara,
Soils
The tree has been classified as a beach-forest
species and is often found in swamps, marsh-
es, waterlogged areas, and highly alkaline soils
along shorelines. It also grows along the banks
of rivers and streams, at the edges of villages,
and in homegardens. Tahitian chestnut gener-
ally grows in a wide range of soils that include
highly calcareous and saline soils and poorly
drained seasonal to permanently waterlogged
valleys, swamps, and marshes. It occurs in soils
with medium to very low fertility rating. It can
grow in mildly acidic to very alkaline coastal
soils.
Frost
Its natural range is frost free.
Waterlogging
Tahitian chestnut tolerates and is adapted to permanent
and seasonal waterlogging.
Salt spray
The species is tolerant of salt as it naturally grows close to
the sea.
Wind
It has medium to high tolerance of steady and strong winds.
The tree tolerates tropical cyclones that usually occur dur-
ing the wettest months of November to March in the
Solomon Islands. Branches and twigs do not easily break,
but they may be sheared off during strong winds. The trees
are windfirm due to a strong lateral root system including
buttresses. The medium height of the tree contributes to its
windfirm character.
Abilities
Fix nitrogen
Tahitian chestnut is a leguminous species and may fix at-
mospheric nitrogen. Nodulation with Rhizobium bacteria
has been found, although nitrogen fixation has yet to be Nodules on root system. photo: R. Pauku
confirmed. The tree is reported to improve soil fertility in
Fiji and the Cook Islands.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Regenerate rapidly
Seedlings commonly regenerate only below the canopy of Growth rate
the parent tree unless the fruits are distributed by animals Generally, Tahitian chestnut growth is moderate, but this
or by rolling down a slope. Therefore, the tree is generally varies significantly among trees. Seedlings can reach 1–2
not a colonizer of open areas. m (3.3–6.6 ft) in the first year in ideal conditions. The tree
is reported as a fast growing tree in Fiji and the Cook Is-
Self–prune
lands.
Self-pruning of side branches occurs naturally. Trees nor-
mally have a single trunk clear of branches to 3–4 m. Reaction to competition
Coppice At early stages of growth, Tahitian chestnut can be
smothered by rapidly growing vines such as Mikania and
Trees coppice well, usually producing new leafy shoots
Merremia, but mature trees compete well with other tree
Growing area
The poly-propagator is made of clear plastic
sheeting and wood. The base is filled with layers
of sand, stones, and pebbles that are saturated
with water. A layer of rooting medium such as
sterilized coir 10–15 cm [4–6 in] deep is placed
on top of these layers. Coir provides a good
rooting medium for the cuttings because it is
easy to work with during transplanting. Well
drained garden soil, which may be sterilized as
a precaution against soil-borne diseases, also
makes a good rooting medium. Water is sup-
plied through a pipe and retained within the
underlying layers. The water keeps the tem-
perature and relative humidity fairly constant
inside the propagator; these conditions are
maintained by opening the lid only when ab-
solutely necessary. Whenever the enclosure is
opened, the cuttings should be sprayed with
water before closing the lid. The water level is
checked regularly through an observation pipe
inserted in the medium and refilled if low. The
poly-propagator should be placed under shade,
protected from wind, and treated with fungi-
cide every 1–2 months.
Media
Rooted cuttings can be transplanted into 1–2 l
(1–2 qt) polyethylene nursery bags or other simi-
lar containers filled with a potting medium that
is well drained, has good water retention capac-
Top down: Multiplication garden of stock plants of selected trees at Ringgi,
ity, and is light in weight for ease of transport.
Kolombangara, Solomon Islands. Poly-propagator system, Ringgi nurs-
Coir has proven to be excellent for this purpose, ery, Kolombangara, Solomon Islands. photos: R. Pauku
although freely drained garden soil (clay loam
DISADVANTAGES
The seeds are recalcitrant and can easily lose viability dur-
ing international transport. This limits germplasm ex-
change between countries and reduces opportunities for
comparing provenances.
The lack of appropriate postharvest extraction, drying, and
storage of kernels at the village level may be a production
constraint. Centralized extraction units may be impractical
due to unreliable transportation. Deterioration of kernel
Six month old clone propagated from cutting, Ringgi nurs-
ery, Kolombangara, the Solomon Islands. photo: R. Pauku quality before reaching market is of major concern. Lack
of awareness of the potential economic benefits of the spe-
cies may be limiting the cultivation of Tahitian chestnut.
or sandy loam), which may be sterilized, is also good. Coir
must be heated to 100°C (212°F) for 30–45 minutes to pre- Potential for invasiveness
vent potential occurrence of fungal infection, and left over- The tree is unlikely to be an invasive species outside its
night to cool down before use. This may be done using a natural range and does not appear to have potential to be-
200 l (55 gal) barrel cut in half lengthwise and placed over come a pest.
a wood fire. During heating, the coir must be turned over
thoroughly four or five times to ensure thorough heating Diseases and pests
throughout.
Very moderate infestation of leaf miners was found on seed-
Hardening lings at Ringgi nursery on Kolombangara Island, Solomon
Islands. No major pests or diseases are known that attack
Potted cuttings are weaned progressively from shade to full-
mature foliage, although developing flowers and fruits are
sun over a period of 2–3 months. A shade level of 30–50%
susceptible to fruit flies. The fruit flies lay eggs on the skin
is best at first. Plants should be exposed to full sunlight for
of immature fruits. As the eggs hatch the larvae burrow
at least a month before field planting.
into the fleshy mesocarp and feed on the kernel, which
Approximate size at outplanting deteriorates the eating quality. Severe fruit fly infestation
When about 5–6 months old, cuttings usually have attained may result in 100% loss of the edible kernel. Some types
30–50 cm (12–20 in) in height and are fit for field planting. are more resistant to fruit fly infestation than others.
Such plants have stem diameters of 4–5 mm (0.16–0.2 in)
and more than five well formed leaves.
Mulch/organic matter
Fallen leaves, flowers, and dead branches enrich surround-
ing soil.
Soil stabilization
The tree is rated high (by more than 60% of farmers inter-
viewed in Kolombangara, Solomon Islands) for soil stabi-
lization due to a good network of lateral roots including
three or four structured buttresses at the base of the trunk.
In Pohnpei, it was found that Tahitian chestnut stabiliz-
es soils along the riverbanks and prevents rapid erosion
(Kostka, pers. comm., 2004).
Crop shade/overstory
With appropriate spacing, the tree can provide medium
shade that may be suitable for understory crops such as
cocoa (Theobroma cacao), Gnetum gnemon, and betel nut
(Areca catechu). It is also a good support tree for betel vine
(Piper betle). Tahitian chestnut was reported in Pohnpei
to provide suitable shade for the shade-loving giant taro
Top: Four-week-old air-layer on tree. Bottom: Rooted end (Alocasia macrorrhiza) (Kostka, pers. comm., 2004).
after removal from the tree. Tututi, Kolombangara, the
Solomon Islands. photo: R. Pauku Homegardens
The tree is a good candidate species for inclusion in
Host to crop pests/pathogens homegardens, particularly as a boundary line species for
No cases have been reported in the literature. However, shade, windbreak, and a companion crop.
fruit flies as well as cockatoos and flying foxes that feed
on the mesocarp of fruits could potentially be drawn to Improved fallows
other tree and field crops that are interplanted with Tahi- Unlikely to be of importance for short-duration, high-
tian chestnut. density fallows.
Fruit
The fleshy mesocarp is inedible for humans.
Medicinal
The bark was grated and mixed with coconut milk or bark
sap to treat urinary infections in the Solomon Islands. The
juice from the mesocarp of green fruits was used in Tonga
to treat insect bites and burns. In Fiji, all parts of the tree
(roots, stem, bark, and leaves) were thought to have various
medicinal properties.
Animal fodder
The kernel is a good feed for free-range chickens.
Cooked nuts on skewers for sale at Nuku‘alofa market,
Beautiful/fragrant flowers Tongatapu, Tonga. photo: C. Elevitch
The flower buds can be used in short-term decorations.
Canoe/boat/raft making
Timber The wood is used for making canoes in Rennell and Bel-
The wood is of moderate quality and reported to be used lona, the Solomon Islands. In Wallis, the leaves were sewn
for flooring in Temotu, Solomon Islands. Treating the together to make sails for boats.
wood with appropriate preservatives may provide protec-
tion against wood borers and increase its suitability for Wrapping/parcelization
light construction purposes. The large leaves were traditionally used for wrapping and
parceling throughout the Pacific islands. In Fiji, cooked
Fuelwood kernels were wrapped with the leaves when sold in the
Fallen branches and felled trees are good firewood when market. In Tonga, the leaves were used for making belts.
dried. Green wood also burns well and is used in Choiseul,
Solomon Islands, for firewood to dry copra. Thatch/roofing/mats
In Tonga, the leaves were once used to cover the ground
Craft wood/tools beneath mats.
The wood is used for carvings and tool handles in Fiji, the
Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Tonga. The buttress is used
in the Reef Islands (Solomon Islands) as a platform for URBAN AND COMMUNITY
dancing; when placed over a hole it provides a resounding FORESTRY
tone.
Tahitian chestnut is rarely found in abundance in
homegardens in the Solomon Islands. In Temotu province
Root system
Roots of mature trees are unlikely to be invasive.
However, it has a well developed lateral root
system and, in old trees especially, the thin but-
tresses can extend for long distances. Surface
roots are occasionally partly exposed as the soil
erodes. Large lateral roots may interfere with
other plantings within its surroundings.
The tree is very suitable for urban areas where people make use of the fruit.
Tongatapu, Tonga. photo: C. Elevitch