PLACES, PLANTS AND PEOPLE IN THE STATE OF

TERENGGANU, MALAYSIA: AN ASSESSMENT FROM TWO

ERAS

LONGUET CHRISTINE @ ROHANI BINTI ABDULLAH

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the award of the degree of Doctor in Philosophy

Institute of Oceanography and Environment

University Malaysia Terengganu
 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my late husband who supported me as long as he could, and to my

children and grandchildren who provided all the help they could imagine.
 ABSTRACT

This work is the result of research in Terengganu (Malaysia) among past and recent personal

documents gathered along four decades (1982 to 2022) of life, and often, research in the state, dedicated

to observation in the fields of floral and built environments. This study on “Places, Plants and People”,

had two main objectives: bear witness of the changes occurred in the landscapes and of their

significance for the people living there. It has led to key findings such as: Disappearances of plants and

cultural and ground features in these environments have been observed. These were verified through a

gathering of qualitative (narratives) and quantitative (inventories) comparisons of data. Thus, a

confirmation is provided of change over the years in the two considered aspects of the environment.

The review discovered as well a resiliency in certain floral and cultural original characteristics of the

state, which could be used as a reference for future decisions towards a development that would present,

not only a memory, but an understanding of and -perhaps- a re-use of the resources from the past.

ABSTRAK
 Kerja ini adalah hasil dari kajian di Terengganu (Malaysia) dalam dokumentasi peribadi selama

empat puloh tahun (1982-2022) kehidupan dan -kebanyakan- kajian, yang telah di khususkan kepada

perhatian di dalam bidan sekitaran floral dan seni bina di negeri ini. Kajian ini “Tempat, Tumbuhan dan

Penduduk” di khususkan kepada menyaksikan perubahan dan hakibatnya terhadap penduduk di situ.

Ianya telah membawa kepada penemuan utama seperti: Kehilangan tumbuhan, ciri ciri budaya dan

tanah telah di saksikan di sekitaran ini, yang telah di buktikan melalui gabungan perbandingan data

qualitative (karangan narrative) dan quantitative (inventori). Ini menghasilkan pengesahan pertukaran

dalam kedua ciri ciri sekitaran mengikut masa. Semakan ini menemui juga ketahanan dalam beberapa

sifat asal negeri ini, yang mungkin boleh di gunakan debagai rujukan untuk keputusan keputusan ke

arah pembangunan yang akan memberi, bukan sahaja sebuah ingatan- tetapi mungkin sebuah

kefahaman dan -mungkin- kegunaan semula sumber dari masa lalu.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to Express my gratitude to my supervisors,

Dr. Jarina Jani who relentlessly made efforts to transform my writer’s approach into a more

academic presentation and gave me her time exactly when needed, even when she was on sabbatical

leave.

Dr. Jamilah Salim who gave me encouragements when needed and helped with the proper

denomination of plant species.

And to my volunteer assistants Shahirah Azman and Athirah Lokman for their company and

help with my senior student’s digital gap.

 APPROVALS

I certify that an Examination Committee has met on Date Month 2023 to conduct the final
examination of Christine Longuet @ Rohani Abdullah, on her Doctor of Philosophy thesis entitled
“Places, Plants and People in The State of Terengganu, Malaysia: An Assesment From Two Eras”
in accordance with the regulations approved by the Senate of Universiti Malaysia Terengganu. The
Committee recommends that the candidate be awarded the relevant degree. The members of the
Examination Committee are as follows:

………………………, PhD
Associate Professor,
School / Institute,
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu.
(Chairperson)

………………………, PhD
Associate Professor,
School / Institute,
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu.
(Internal Examiner)

………………………, PhD
Associate Professor,
School / Institute,
University
(External Examiner 1)

………………………, PhD
Associate Professor,
School / Institute,
University
(External Examiner 2)

________________________________
MOHD FADZIL BIN MOHD AKHIR,
Phd
Associate Professor / Director
Institute of Oceanography and Environment
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
Date
 This thesis has been accepted by the Senate of Universiti Malaysia Terengganu in fulfilment of the
requirement for the degree of Doctor Philosophy.

________________________________
MOHD FADZIL BIN MOHD AKHIR,
Phd
Associate Professor / Director
Institute of Oceanography and Environment
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
Date:
DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations which
have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted
for any other degree at UMT or other institutions.

_________________________
CHRISTINE LONGUET @ ROHANI ABDULLAH

Date:
 iii

TABLE OF CONTENT

PAGE
DEDICATION
ACKNOWLEDMENT
ABSTRAK
ABSTRACT
KANDUNGAN
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATION

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION PAGE

1.1 Witnessing a turn in Civilization 1
1.1.1 A land between the hills and the sea 4
1.1.2 Trades and crafts 5
1.1.3 Development at its own pace 6
1.1.4 Blooming 7
1.1.5 1.1.5After a conservative interlude, deliberate fast
changes 7
1.2 The State government philosophy and the Attitude of the
9
people
1.2.1 The attitude of the people and the Terengganu
government philosophy 9
1.2.2 A vision of “traditional modernity”: A modern state
with Islamic foundations 10
1.3 A vision of “traditional modernity” A modern state with
12
Islamic foundations

1.3.1 Question 12
1.3.2 Assumption of change and hypothesis regarding
civilization 13

1.3.3 Objectives of the Research 13

1.3.4 Gap and Contributions 14

1.4 Research material from the past 15
1.5 The context of the research 18
1.6 Scope and definitions as understood in the thesis 18
1.6.1 “Landscape and “Place” 19
1.6.2 “Era” 20
1.6.3 “Civilization”, “Culture”, and “Custom.” 20
1.6.4 “Culture” 22
1.6.5 “Medicinal Plant Species” 23
1.6.6 “Cultural features” and “Ground furniture” 23
1.6.7 Traditional Knowledge Holders and other
23
Informants
1.6.8 “Sites” 24
1.7 Summary overview of the Chapters 25
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 28
2.1 Traditions and modernity in changing environment, global
28
perspectives
Floral materials and patterns, their practical and
2.1.1 symbolic uses in Terengganu 31
2.2 Traditional Medicine in Malaysia and Terengganu:
34
Knowledge or Magic?

The earlier British documentation: Magic Medicine 34

2.2.1
Post Independence interpretations of Malay
2.2.2 medicine 36
The origins of a fragmented knowledge 38
2.2.3
The Emic or “Insiders approach”: a feminine
perspective on people-plant relationship in 38
2.2.4
Terengganu
2.3 Plant-based economic products and Pharmacognosy 41
Plant species dictionaries 41
2.3.1
Research in Phyto-pharmacology and Ethnobotany 42
2.3.2
The scattered handbooks: Manuscripts of Kitab
2.3.3 Tibb 44
2.4 Land and knowledge 46
The role of the land as a language beyond the
2.4.1 “scape” 46
Home gardens as balanced microcosms and their
2.4.2 disappearance 47
Orang Asli perspectives on traditional plants and
the land as a place of permanent resources not to be 48
2.4.3
exhausted
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 51
3.1 Overview 51
Data gathering from the past personal records and
3.1.1 52
field notes
 3.1.2 Field Research areas 52
3.1.3 Landscapes and study sites 54
3.2 A multidisciplinary field 55
3.2.1 Informants and colleagues 55
3.2.2 Practice and exchanges on the field 56
3.2.3 References used in the past 57
3.2.4 Sources of data: Personal Documents 58
3.3 Three pathways to Medicinal plant species discovery 59
3.3.1 The “ethnography pathway” 60
3.3.2 The “phyto-chemistry pathway” 63

3.3.3 The “landscape architecture pathway” 64

3.4
Field data gathering and organization towards a baseline 65

Plant species inventories towards exploitation for

3.4.1 analysis 65
Reference inventory tables: selection of headings 66
3.4.2 and final baseline
Plant Species Identification details 66
3.4.3 Plant species “Value”, significance, or potential
3.4.4 Use 67
Final “Baseline inventory”: Plants with an address
3.4.5 (323 species) 69
3.5 Narratives: Visits and Re-visits on sites to note changes in
69
floral and built environments
3.5.1 Comparisons in inventories 72
3.5.2 Cultural features, architecture and ground elements
in the house compounds: 73
3.6 Theoretical Background 74
3.6.1 The concept of entwunderung or disenchantment 74

3.6.2 The Language of Landscape 74

3.6.3 “Imprinting” theory of behavior 75
da 3.6.4 Holistic theory 75
77
CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS FROM FIELD SURVEYS OVER TIME
Part 1: "Ilmu" Traditional Knowledge 77
4.1 Introduction 77
4.1.1 The Sources of “Ilmu” 77
4.1.2 Geology, landscape and ancient perceptions 77
4.1.3 Orogenesis and traditional knowledge 78
4.1.4 Mountain formations and magma intrusions 79
 4.1.5 Dunes by the seaside 82
4.1.6 The Flora of Terengganu 83
4.1.7 Forest life and beliefs 85
4.1.8 Traditional therapeutic knowledge 85
4.1.9 The concept of “ilmu”: Scattered, yet one 86
4.1.10 Historical heritage from a crossroad location 87
4.1.11 Plants as the words of a crafted language 91
4.1.12 In Practice in the past Era: Syncretism and common
Sense 92
4.1.13 The practitioners 93
4.1.14 Images of the Traditional medicinal knowledge 99
Part II : 2 Visits and Revisits over time in the tree main areas of
101
landscape

4.2 Introduction and Location of the visited places 101

4.2.1 Coastal areas 101
4.2.1.1 Pulau Duyong: “My island of autarchy” 101
4.2.1.2 Traditional Knowledge and Practice in Pulau
114
Duyong
4.2.1.3 End of The Past “Era” and The -Busy, Landscape
Changing- Transition to The Present Times 122

4.2.1.4 Re-visits Present times 2014-2021 125

4.2.2 The coastline to Jambu Bongkok: “Survivors” 135
4.2.2.1 Beaches, bris and lowland forest 139
4.2.2.2 Ethnography Record: Mat Kapur, herbalist and
145
businessman
4.2.2.3 Re-visits on the coast in present era 2013-2019 1491
4.2.3 Conclusions 172
4.2.3 Introduction: The “house compounds”: a reflection
of a traditional society 173
4.2.3.1 Landscape, Flora, ground and cultural features, in
the past 1751
4.2.3.2 “Ethnobotanical document”: Narratives, Visits in
the past and present eras 178
4.3 Natural Environment Narratives: 1: Forests hills, 2:
Lake Kenyir, 3: Orang Asli 208

4.3.1 Terengganu Hills: “On a higher plane” 208

4.3.2 “Ethnobotanical document”: Knowledge
213
continuation

4.3.3 Re-visits in the Present Era 218

 4.3.4 Re-visits surveys in the Present Era 220
4.4 Species used in Traditional Medicine 224
4.4.1 Cascades 225
4.4.2 Conclusion on revisit of forest hills and both
226
“Lata”waterfalls

4.5 “Waterworld”: Kenyir 228

4.5.1 First visits in the Past Era 229
4.6 Introduction to this “site” 264
4.6.1 Visits in the past 265
4.6.1.1 The Bateq 265
4.6.1.2 Kuala Sayap, an Orang Asli village about 10 km
266
from Kuala Keruak
4.6.1.3 Looking for Roots: researchers and orang asli.
267
Ethnographic document
4.6.1.4 Re-visits in “Present times” 274
4.7 The Semaq Beri: in Sungai Berua and Buluh Nipis 278
CHAPTER 5 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
5.1 Selection of data: from the “Past Era” to the “Present Era” 279

5.1.1 Impact of exogenous events on the landscapes 280

5.2 Changes in Floral environment: Comparisons past/present 283

5.2.1 Quantitative Results from the Plant Inventories 283

5.2.2 Results from the “Baseline inventory” (Inventory 284

with location, Uses and present Occurrence)

5.2.3 “Inventory of the disappeared species”: Qualitative 286

examination by category of use
5.2.4 Change in uses of plants species, in proportion 289

5.2.5 Factors of disappearance of plant species 290

5.3 Present Status of Traditional Medicinal Knowledge 291

5.3.1 Resilience in Traditional Knowledge through 293
written documentation
 5.3.2 Comparisons of medicinal species: Consensus 294

5.3.3 Resilience in Practice 296

5.3.4 The fate of the “Paths of knowledge” of the Orang 298

Asli and of the Villagers
5.4 The Built environment: a close relationship with the natural 300
background
Quantitative evolution in the Built Environment: 301
5.4.1 Cultural and ground Features
The landscape of the house compounds in
5.4.2 Terengganu as a language 305
5.5 Qualitative evolution: The Landscape Language significance
in the past era 312

314
Ethological structure of the built Environment
5.5.1
317
The landscape and its psyche training role
5.5.2
5.6 Ethologically structuring habitat”: Formatting in the past 322
The holistic interpretation of the Terengganu 322
5.6.1 landscape
Consequence of the Human habitat change: A new
5.6.2 formatting? 323
Summary on the causes and consequences of the
5.6.3 changes 324

5.7 Conclusions 326

5.7.1 Summary 1: Three levels of Change 326
5.7.2 Summary Diagram 328
CHAPTER 6 NEW INTERPRETATION OF THE NATURAL AND 332
BUILT ENVIRONMENTS
6.1 Prologue on human habitats in Terengganu: Diversity 332
6.1.1 Original question: is a turn towards a new 335
civilization being witnessed?
6.2 Natural environment and floral heritage 336
6.2.1 Tragedies of the ecosystem disturbances 337
6.2.2 Rescues 337
6.2.3 Repurposing the wilderness 340
6.2.4 Traditional Medicinal species 341
6.2.5 Traditional closeness with plants 342
6.3 The landscape heritage of the built environment 342
6.3.1 Dramas: houses destruction and abandon 342
6.3.2 Rescues: Museum and private efforts 343
 Present built Environment: Modern developments 346
6.3.3 and design efforts
New wave: buildings, materials, designs and 347
6.3.4 advertising

6.4 Recapitulation and Perspectives 349

6.4.1 Nostalgia and Loss of Bearings: : People Reactions 349
and Some unchanged Features
6.4.2 Secular values, spirituality: a potential balance? 352

6.4.3 Conclusions on the change observed in this work 354

and the resilience of a legacy
REFERENCES 356
APPENDIXES

Appendix A
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE
Table of the “visited sites”, in the “Past era”, divided in three areas
Table 1.1 17
according to the relief morphology and human habitat location Or for C3
List of subject matter experts and informants who assisted during field
Table 3.1 56
work
Table 3.2 Extract example of the plant taxa inventory (“Identification”): 587 species 67
Example extracted from the 587” species reference inventory” for:
Table 3.3 “Value”. Note: Abundance status: “=” exist; augmentation: “+”; 68
diminution: - ; disappearance: “0”.
Table 3.4 Surveyed sites in Terengganu and associated features in the “past era” 71
Recapitulation of the many concepts involved in the tradition, from China
Table 4.1 to Greece (1983) The various possible components of the traditional
knowledge.
Summary of the exogenous landscape changes accompanying
Table 5.1 282
development efforts
Extract of the Table Inventory with location and uses, or “Baseline
Table 5.2 284
inventory”.
Extract from the “Recapitulatory inventory of the disappeared species” (In
Table 5.3 286
Appendix A, 2 “Specific”)
Past and present status of the plants, by usage and present pharmaceutical
Table 5.4 287
interest
Extract from the “Table “Frequency of medicinal species from 5 local
different sources, according to various sources of knowledge available in
Table 5.5 Terengganu”. (Complete in Appendix A Specifics…) [ 25 species not 294
mentioned in the Foresters’ “Herba Ubatan” have been added for
reference, from observation and documentation].
Table 5.6 Example of cultural and ground furniture evolution over time 303
Table 5.7 Differences in quantity of cultural features seen over two eras 304
Table 5.8 Three Levels of Change 327
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE
Relief map of Malaysia with the location of Terengganu and the
Figure 1.1 4
North Sud direction of the hills (Polunin, before the Lake Kenyir )
Flow of the Research design and expected conclusions at the
Figure 1.2 27
present stage.
Map of the state of Terengganu with the general location of the
Figure 3.1 53
visited areas and research sites
a) Checking bark pleasant smell of -probably “akar sarsi”-in the
59
Hulu Besut hills
Figure 3.2
b) Botanical sample and medicinal parts of Cinnamomum
59
molissicimum, Vitis cinnamomea, and Polyaltia bullata
a) Traditional Materia medica sold in bulk ready to being brewed
is sorted out by species: Mas secotet, Gajah beranak leaves, Akar 61
Figure 3.3 sarsi stem wood and bark, dedawai tuber, betek hutan root
b) Back from the forest: roots, wood, barks, leaves. to dry and, for
61
some, to be sent to the UM and CNRS laboratories
a) Approach through a local practitioner 1983 63
Figure 3.4
b) With Ayah Wail 1992 or pak Hin 63
Figure 3.5 a) J-C Deverre testing alkaloids, in 1984) 64
b) Large harvest for Dr. Sevenet (CNRS)1985 64
The landscape architecture approach: inventories in these two
compounds have produced a total of 91 medicinal plant species,
Figure 3.6 known as such, but most not used anymore by the inhabitants. (in 65
house compounds A1 -Aristocrats 76 species , and R 3 -Rakyat 3,
15 species)
Figure 4.1 a) Malaysian mountains 79
b) Around the Besut river: Granitic mountains forests, waterfalls,
81
rapids
Figure 4.2 The process of granite hill formation from the earth magma 81
Figure 4.3 a) Batholiths in the high hills region of Terengganu 81
b) Map North of Terengganu with areas of Peda Kapal batholith,
81
Lata Belatan and Lata Tembakah waterfalls scale 1: 260 000
Figure 4.4 In pale blue, the sunk area of the Sunda Shelve 83
Figure 4.5 Geographic paths of the Malaysian medicinal influences 88
The diverse sources of the traditional medicinal knowledge
Figure 4.6 89
encountered in Malaysia and especially Terengganu
Figure 4.7 a) Cut out carvings in Kota Lama Duyong: 91
b) Tridimensional carvings on the House of Tokku Paloh 91

Figure 4.8 Medicinal plant collections according to location and knowledge 94

Figure 4.9 Kitab Tib Tgnu “Ubat Tradisyonal” 99
Figure 4.10 Anatomic interpretations in traditional documents 100
Figure 4.11 Pulau Duyong 1975: Cengal planks for boat building and “tukup” 102
kitchen double roof for smoke exhaust
Figure 4.12 Pulau Duyong 1992 Kekabu tree and rest “gerai” by the river 102
Figure 4.13 The islands in the estuary of the Terengganu River in the past. 103
Duyong in the estuary of the Terengganu River 1987
View on the estuary from the first guest house on the island
Figure 4.14 @1990 [ Pic: Kota Lama door gates and plaster carvings 1920 103
restoration 2004]
a). Hopea odorata: circumference 23’ at breast height (in Pulau
Figure 4.15 108
Ketam),

b) and c) flowers of Hopea odorata (Pulau Duyong). 108

Figure 4.16 a)“Bong”, coconut de-husking tool 110
b) Fig Nipah always at hand. 110
Outline of Pulau Duyong and Pulau Ketam in the estuary of the
Figure 4.17 123
Terengganu River:
Pulau Duyong in the past, then in 2013 with reclaimed areas in
Figure 4.18 123
front of Duyong Kecil. (“Survey outline” is a plan for future study)
Development on Duyong Kecil (a drone view from the internet)
View of the Terengganu River Estuary in 2017 with, mostly in
Figure 4.19 sand colour, the newly reclaimed land and the built areas of the 126
tourism development efforts on the eastern extremity of Pulau
Duyong
Present built environment: a) abandoned houses, b) bungalow c)
Figure 4.20 terrace houses “Taman Warisan”- “Heritage Garden” is the name 128
given to this modest row of concrete terrace houses.
d) -Projects: a concrete house around old house - A madrasah
Figure 4.21 128
built amongst an ancient “duku” garden
a) Cengal Cemetery. b) After a recent blooming of one cengal tree
Figure 4.22 in the cemetery: after 7 years, in 2021 the last fruiting? pic. 129
Mohamad Sufian)
new ways: a) Evening jogging (2020) before sun set, between a

modern house and a nursery of ornamental plants for sale in Pulau

Figure 4.23 132
Ketam. b) Ornamental trend confirmed: Podraena ricasoliana on a
front yard fence in Pulau Duyong,

Figure 4.24 Pic. Sun set on the medicinal lalang, Imperata

Figure 4.24 no pic
cylyndrica, a weed, and the” rumah pangsapuri rakyat”.
Figure 4.25 Madrasah in Pulau Ketam 133
Figure 4.26 a) Map of Terengganu with the visited areas in the triangle. 137
b) Map of the coast showing the line of water bodies along the
seashore and LDS -in green are set around part of the Jambu 137
Bongkok Reserve
Figure 4.27 Pic of Melaleuca cajuputi, pinkish bark and flower spindles 141
 Mohamed Yusof at work in Kuala Terengganu @1984 (“Utusan
Figure 4.28 Melayu”). Notice the bags. of woven ‘kerecut” -Molinaria latifolia 144
for the medicinal species.
in Seberang Marang, a classic picture (from an internet blog on
“Interesting places in Terengganu”, 2013): lagoon with boats and
Figure 4.29 153
houses on the dune (“mengabang”). The sea is behind the coconut
trees.
Draft Sketches before and after: Fig. Relief transect sketch with
Figure 4.30 development efforts (draft: alter proportions, text characters etc., 154
note: “fields” of solar electricity Station)
Figure 4.31 Polystyrene from white foam to black spill 156
Figure 4.32 Spinifex litoreus balls with spikes 156
Figure 4.33 Path on seaside dune 156
Figure 4.34 a) Scaveola taccada 157
b) Canavalia rosea 157
c) Wedelia biflora 157
Another dune and waterbody landscape, near the estuary of the
Figure 4.35 158
Merchang River.
Another dune and waterbody landscape, near the estuary of the
Figure 4.36 158
Merchang River.

Figure 4.37 The Melaleuca standing in the water 159

Figure 4.38 Lowland forest trees Their diameter is rarely over 50 cm 159
Figure 4.39 Hutan Lipur Rantau Abang”. Broken timber jetties over the 160
biodiversity of the swamp
Figure 4.40 Chassalia chartaceae: red peduncules For a blueblack fruit 160
Figure 4.41 A clump of Nimbong palm with tick lianas 160
Figure 4.42 Melaleuca cajuputi Scaffold joining honeybees nest trees Balau 161
pasir near the fallne Shorea materialis
Figure 4.43 View from the Bukit Hawa 162
Figure 4.44 “Penyu menangis siapa yang tahu”(J.M.Aziz); 162
Figure 4.45 Acacia on the Sand dune 163
Figure 4.46 Dianela ensifolia 163
Figure 4.47 Marang harbor with flag 165
Figure 4.48 Fire 165
Figure 4.49 Ancistrocladus 165
Figure 4.50 Hanging beards 165
Figure 4.51 Melaleuca cajuputi 165
Figure 4.52 Mixed with Acacia 165
Figure 4.53 Colours 166
Figure 4.54 Beach classics 166
Figure 4.55 No tourist then 166
Figure 4.56 Swale with water 167
Figure 4.57 Rodomyrtus tomentosa 167
Figure 4.58 From the sea to chalets 167
Figure 4.59 Sand mining 168
Figure 4.60 Forest interrupted 168
Figure 4.61 Swiflets breeding 168
Figure 4.62 Board at Rantau Abang Forest Reserve 169
Figure 4.63 Bridge to an islet 169
Figure 4.64 Honey hive entrance 170
Figure 4.65 Hopea break-in 170
Figure 4.66 Fish galore 170
Figure 4.67 Nepenthes cups 170
Figure 4.68 . …in a row 170
Figure 4.69 Flower of a Nepenthes gracilis (Pic. F. Limier) 171
Figure 4.70 Map with location of the described house compounds in 175
Terengganu from MA in architecture
Figure 4.71 a “Rakyat house compound.” 179
a)Well, kitchen with “periuk” for herbs, 180
b)Che Da,making a broom from coconut leaves, 180
c) Family on stairs 180
Figure 4.72 Remains in 2014 180
Figure 4.73 And 2018 180
Figure 4.74 …... 181

a) The new concrete house by the road display of ornamental

Figure 4.75 181
plants
b) That house with the plants nursery by the river bankside is now
181
on a popular afternoon jogging route.
Figure 4.76 Past: façade on the Southern side 183
Figure 4.77 Ornemental species 183
Figure 4.78 Present: façade with “wakaf” family gazebo 183
Figure 4.79 Present: ceramic stairs, South 183
Figure 4.80 arge building, added bathroom 184
Figure 4.81 Large building, added bathroom 184
Figure 4.82 Kek for “Songket” “Clinique ” 184
Figure 4.83 2016 renovation 185
Figure 4.84 Clinique used for a while as extra room 185
Figure 4.85 2004: a) A popular shop 186
b) “Caping” joint cover element from the front of a boat 186
c) 2017: Nearby remains of “bilis” small fish processing 186
Aristocrat house compound sketch: Priority: status symbols; a
gathering of roofs or a vast residence on well swept grounds
Figure 4.86 surrounded with a semi-circle of tall trees. A driveway leads to the 187
residence. Characteristic feature: decorative elements, for example
“sobek” -wooden panels cut outs with stylised floral motives or
with Islamic calligraphy (Four examples).
Figure 4.87 Restored building: Museum 187
Figure 4.88 Corinthian capitals 187
Restored building: Museum first-floor brick and stucco
Figure 4.89 187
bathroom

Figure 4.90 Kitchen reconstitution 189

Figure 4.91 Tongkat Ali in the garden 189
Figure 4.92 Façade, bay window 189
Figure 4.93 Alley 189
Figure 4.94 Staircase handle 190
Figure 4.95 Rear part and tempayang 190
Figure 4.96 Neglected entrance alley, ornamentals have disappeared 190
Figure 4.97 a) Alley, vast entrance space 191
b) Haji Abdul Ghani Embong 191
c) Staircase and Jambu tree 191
a) View of the new entrance, ornamental Allamanda on the side of
Figure 4.98 192
the lowered stair

b) old mango trees and coconut in the background have gone, or

192
remain on the sides, unused.

Figure 4.99 Clan heritage such as in Kampong Hiliran 192

a) Tokku Paloh, b) alley and jambu trees, c) high timber columns,
Figure 4.100 193
d) tri-dimensional carvings
a) Land fragmented, modern bungalows b) The well with its clay
Figure 4.101 194
bricks c) Gathering of mixed memories
Two buildings of the many houses of Haji Mat Kaya and his
Figure 4.102 descendants in Losong:‘tiga berpeles”with front “serambi”; 194
“Belanda” roofs with two “sorong”protruding elements.
Figure 4.103 Other houses of Haji Mat and his family in Losong 195
Figure 4.104 Two revovated attached houses have become a museum 196
Figure 4.105 Linked houses, Pillar tops Western inspired, Traditional carvings 197
Figure 4.106 the new surau, Renovations, Tradition 197

Path to the ancient common well present activities: fighting cocks

Figure 4.107 198
memories from the past
a) Awang besar’s family: carved “sorong veranda,b) entrance door
Figure 4.108 199
with roof and finials, common well
Farm” house compound sketch with lambur verandah, baloh padi,
Figure 4.109 200
fence, chicken cages, plants presentoir,
Figure 4.110 a) 2004 house wall material: Tree bark 201
b) Eltingeria elator 201
Figure 4.111 c) Bunga kantan, still there 202
d) Tongkat Ali ,left to grow 202
e) 2014: Bark replaced by plank for walls 202

a) Former paddy fields, b) farm house, c) Hajah Aisha, d) kumai

Figure 4.112 203
and sobek, e) gerai, f) baskets for duku harvest
a) The farm house, b) A client for tamarind fruit, c) Haji Tahir, d)
Figure 4.113 205
Baloh padi
Figure 4.114 Concrete stairs 206
Haji Da preparing sireh, the “bekam” treatment Clinique, Mango
Figure 4.115 207
and Albizia
Figure 4.116 Spinning tops turning shed 207

Figure 4.117 Cow and duku tree at the back of the house 207
The new clinic and its garden: Albizia myriophyla, Phaleria
Figure 4.118 nacrocarpa, Abelsmoschus, Pterydophytes and New house in 208
concrete

1ocation of the sites in the“Hill forests” Map North of Terengganu

Figure 4.119 208
with Lata Belatan and Lata Tembakah waterfalls scale 1: 260 000
Lata Belatan:a) Landscape, whitreana and Ixora javanica,
Figure 4.120 209
c)Clerodendrum deflexum d) Clerodendrum deflexum
Gunung Tebu and lata Belatan: slabs of mafic granite boulders
Figure 4.121 210
weathered with time and eroded by monsoon rains
Figure 4.122 Lata Belatan 210

Figure 4.123 Weedy and medicinal: Catunarega spinosa 211

Figure 4.124 Latu Tembakah 212

a) Pak Hussin precising an information, b) Mustapha and Pak Him
Figure 4.125 have gathered specimen to plant in the University of Science 2142
Malaysia (USM) Penang.
Figure 4.126 a) Book in two volumes 215

b) One page: indications, botanical description, habitat 215

Figure 4.127 Map of the Terengganu Permanent Forest Reserves 220

Map North of Terengganu with Lata Belatan and Lata Tembakah
Figure 4.128 220
waterfalls (@ 2015) scale 1: 260 000
Sketch cross section of the land relief in northern
Figure 4.129 Terengganu(draft) @ 2015.Note: only @ 20 km from the sea to 221
Gunung Tebu
a) Majestic views Landscape on the way: Padi, palm oil, hills
Figure 4.130 222
b) Inside the Besut valley

Figure 4.131 Nursery 222

Figure 4.132 A choice of path: Easy or steep course ? 222

In the nursery: a) Meranti Tembaga b) Damar Hitam Siput c)Kelat

Figure 4.133 223
Syzygium species
Kapur:Driobalanocarpus aromatica, Mersawa kuning: Anisoptera
Figure 4.134 223
curtisii (Endemic to Pen. Mal.)
Figure 4.135 The name on the snake-like buttress roots is Shorea kunstlerii. 223

A ginger looking like a terrestral orchidea: Scaphoclamys disticha:

Figure 4.136 225
a new species (YY Sam, 2018) b) Lasianthus species

Figure 4.137

Figure 4.138

Lorry spotted carrying timber from Terengganu (Facebook Khaidir

Ahmad 20 May 2021).“The have a permit” explained the
Figure 4.139 228
Terengganu Forest Department, as the public had questioned,
seeing this picture on the medias.
Ancient Map (UPEN 1975) of the “Ulu Trengganu” -an area that
has now become the “Greater Kenyir” in and around the Lake.
Figure 4.140 2302
[Redraw or get it again from UPEN and Fig. modern map with
places visited from 1983 to 2019].

The Kenyir Lake with the location the visited sites from 1983 to
Figure 4.141 231
2019
Map of Terengganu, with Kenyir Lake among the hills and the
Figure 4.142 former rivers showing the proportions of the size of the lake 236
among the hilly areas

Elephants were shot with calming drugs) to allow them to be

Figure 4.143 238
pulled on the rafts (Picture from the Kenyir official pamphlet).

Figure 4.144 “Expedisi mempertahankan keaslian pergunungan” 239

Figure 4.145 .” Di mana kehijauan?” watercolour by Chang Fee Ming 244

Map of the area, with rivers and new dam reservoirs indicated in
Figure 4.146 244
the square. (Choy and Hanson 2016)

The approaches of the Kenyir Lake, Bukit Kapal in the

Figure 4.147 244
background
Figure 4.148 A classic view of a canopy “wall” 245
Figure 4.149 Kenyir Lake, one of the glimpses from the road 246
Figure 4.150 Another arm of the lake seen from a bridge 246
Figure 4.151 Tembat Permanent Forest Reserve area 246
Figure 4.152 Intake of the Puah dam towards the turbines 247
Figure 4.153 Spillway towards the Terengganu River 247

156 mammals were removed from the Tembat dam impoundment

Figure 4.154 248
area
 Many species of animals were found and saved. The Colugo is 248
Figure 4.155
number 1 on the fourth line from the left
Figure 4.156 View over the Puah reservoir 249

Figure 4.157 The visitors in front of the View from the top of the new dam 249

Figure 4.158 Beweh waterfall 251

Figure 4.159 Palm oil processing factory 256
Figure 4.160 Forest fauna-friendly TDM board 256
Lake Kenyir, 2001: Paths in the Hulu Telemong and Hutan Sinpan
Figure 4.161 257
Kekal Tembat are shown
Lake Kenyir 2014 The new road is indicated. The paths are still
Figure 4.162 257
shown
Figure 4.163 Permanent forest 258
Figure 4.164 Resort 258
Figure 4.165 Buttresses and boulders 258
Figure 4.166 Climbers prints 259

Figure 4.167 Floating resort between Lagerstroemia and emerging dead trees 259

Figure 4.168 Cauliflower Polyalthia macrocarpa 259

Figure 4.169 Costus speciosus 259

Figure 4.170 260

Figure 4.171 Hills 261

Figure 4.172 Timber 261

Figure 4.173 Rauvolfia cf verticillata 262

Figure 4.174 Bhesa paniculata 262

Figure 4.175 a) Sungai Lasir, b) Amenities, c) Hanging bridge 263

Figure 4.176 a) Hellenia speciosus, b) Saok: office trip, c) Lasir waterfall 263

Figure 4.177 Education, scientific (Board Lasir) 264

Figure 4.178 “The green” is back, mirrored 264

Figure 4.179 Houseboat with Gajah Terum hills at the back 264
 Location of the Orang Asli (Bateq) in Kuala Sayap on the Sungai 267
Figure 4.180
Lagos/Ruar
Field location: Sungai Lagos Ulu Besut and Sungai Berua (Semoq 267
Figure 4.181
Beri) on the lake Kenyir

Figure 4.182 First interview with Mak Timun 269

Figure 4.183 Encounter with Nilam the “ketua kampong ”(on the extreme right) 269

Figure 4.184 Hayak, Chandan, roots and transistor 270

Figure 4.185 Bringing back samples, with Abdullah 270

Stop over at the house of a Malay ‘bomoh’ near a forest edge
Figure 4.186 orchard. Photo souvenir: Pleasure of having been being brought 271
together for the sake of research.

Tracking alcaloids fresh from the forest in the Bateq “village”,

Figure 4.187 271
Nilam came looking, and had diner with us.
The pharmacist was willing to experience tracking the acaloids in

their habitat, using the lean-to lab (cf.perhaps pic“lab” only in file)
Figure 4.188 272
Fig. Field preliminary screenings: a) in the Kuala Sayap Orang Asli
village ; b) in the forest, a field lab, by the Lagos stream

Collecting in larger quantity @ 10 kg for chemical evaluation.

Figure 4.189 272
(Jabatan Kimia University Malaysia)

Figure 4.190 April 2014 - Adam, Nilam’s son reminisces 275

Figure 4.191 Buluh Nipis and kampong Setebu in Ulu Telemong . 276

Map of the Kuala Sayap settlement village in 2017. The roofs of

Figure 4.192 276
the dewan, of palm oil plantation can be seen

In the baskets, penawar hitam (Polyaltia bullata) and Kacip

Figure 4.193 Fatimah (Labisia pothoina) Adam’s house, the mosque, and the 276
surrounding

“Highway tak siap” 2020. -Google map (-add location Kuala

Figure 4.194 278
Sayap)
Hulu Telemong Forest Reserve: detail, hills landscape and
Figure 4.195 279
collapsed road

Figure 4.196 a) Camp in “Bukit Buluh Nipis”, b) Kitchen hearth 279

The Semak Beri refuge in Kampong Gadong Pic.Bernama, Jun
Figure 4.197 281
2019
Bukit Kapal, Jeneris river and collapsed road near where the
Figure 4.198 281
“sewang” ceremony took place
 Map with location of the Sungai Berua settlement of the Semoq
Beri in Terengganu and that of the “Kampong Buluh Nipis” where
Figure 4.199 traces of a “sewang” ceremony had been seen in 2017 and of the 282
area of Gerdong where the Semoq Beri sought refuge during the
2019 measles epidemy
a) Sungai Berua (2019) cars and row of concrete terrace houses).
Figure 4.200 At the back of a house, Pak Yusof and I are planning a trip to 283
check on some medicinal species.
b) (2021) In the library, in Pulau Duyong, orang Bateq look at
medicinal roots, after a meeting with the director of the State 283
Parks.
Figure 5.1 Past and present status of the plants, by main usage 287

Proportional evolution in occurrence of the plant species over

Figure 5.2 290
time, according to three main uses
Traditional treatment clinique in Pulau Duyong Kecil: “Islamic
Figure 5.3 297
acupuncture” blessed and “sufi”.
Pic botanical book in Arabic and Malay on plants, showing a

Figure 5.4 Middle East connection, shown at Pasar Manir, Terengganu: 297
Saffra: zakfaran, halba: Hilbeh.
” Kak Long balek Hari ini” Chan Fee Ming (1992) an example of
Figure 5.5 resilience: picture. on the Batu Rakit coast, in a sandy area (2007). 307
Today, pipe with faucet by the stairs and the fall of the jar (2022)

a) “Sail” (Chang Fee Ming, 1987) Batik drying in Pulau Duyong 308
Figure 5.6
b) Stil visiblel: “Ampaian” in the Kampong Setebu Farm, (2022). 308
Dehusker Painting Chang Fee Ming (1996) or “bong” in Bukit
Figure 5.7 309
Cempaka demonstrated by Haji Tahir’s son (2019)
Inverted shapes: a) Thai, Hindu “Dragon jaws (Hpp.Behance.net):
Figure 5.8 311
“Pemeleh” Makara shape in Duyong Kecil, stairs in Kuala Hiliran

Figure 5.9 a) “buah gutong” dry fruit 312

b) Roof top main beam finial on an “atap Belanda” 312
a) A well determined lay out. Even With different social
Figure 5.10 314
backgroud
b) The man is received in front “Serambi” while the woman
314
heads for the “dapor
Standard house compound lay out organization (Longuet,

2007,and in Delfolie 2019) well-defined lay out reference to

Figure 5.11 315
cosmology Qiblat, to proper behaviour according to gender and
status and to the spaces uses inside the house.
(From MA, 2005). A typical Terengganu house compound
interpreted in a holistic ecological landscape perspective or Total
Figure 5.12 323
Holistic Ecology. “Past Era”. (Schema by the author) referring to a
traditional “supra-system”

Figure 5.13 Spheres contents in the “Present Era” 325

 Steps of the evolution from one era to a new one, from data 330
collections and analysis of the floral and built environments and
Figure 5.14 the relationship of the inhabitants with these environments over
time

Figure 6.1 “Human Habitat forms” in Terengganu and their priorities 333
Lasir waterfall 19 Julai 2019: impact of a hurried last logging; now
Figure 6.2 336
(2022) restored, and part of the State Park.
Figure 6.3 Map of the newly created State Parks around Kenyir Lake 338
a) 2020: A uninhabited house in Pulau Duyong: climbers escalated
Figure 6.4 343
the walls.
b) 2022: Mango trees, gerai, serambi are gone. 2022: concrete
343
house with zinc roof is built next to it.
Janda –(jendela)- berhias- wall in Bakawali Sari Warisan,
Figure 6.5 346
Kampong Raja
a) The curves of a box window in Kampong Ladang: creativity in
Figure 6.6 346
the Past Era: foreign design for a feauture, local material
b) individual preferences, local material, in Sungai Durhaka,
“dangau” gazebo added, beach Cycas species planted. 346
Modern efforts for architectural resilience: a) Twin bujang
Figure 6.7 346
berpeles to be re-used (Sungai Durhaka)
b) Concrete house on stilt columns and “atap belanda” (Pulau
Duyong) 346

Figure 6.8 a) Facilities ready to welcome new inhabitants 348

b) A new mosque for a new era and “Kuala Nerus Baru” a former
Melaleuca cajuputi mangrove, the future “Putrajaya Terengganu” 348
waits for investments and future inhabitants
Figure 6.9 a) Cooking tripod in Kampong Padang Air for communal food 350

b) Public bench under The Sultan Mahmud Bridge another by the

350
jetty in Duyong Kecil
c) Praying together before re-building the “ tiang 12” “ surau”
350
building in Losong

Figure 6.10 a) 2007: Pic of the Surau in Kuala Hiliran 351

b) 2021: Maintenance: Taller pillars to protect the building from
351
floods, with new stairs and a garden
Community Prayers at the beginning of the restoration of the
Figure 6.11 351
Surau Haji Latif in Kampong Losong
Figure 6.12 Surau Wan Latiff: a) in 2020, with asbestos roof 354
b) Restoration design drawing (Punca Cipta Architects 2021) 354
Figure 6.13 Tanjung 355
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CNRS Centre de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique

EECRD East Coast Region Economic Development
FELCRA Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority
FELDA Federal Land Development Authority
KUSTEM Kolej University Sains dan Teknologi Malaysia
KUSZA Kolej Universiti Zainal Abidin
KTCC Kuala Terengganu City Center
LMD Laboratoire pharmaceutique MD
SREP Societe de Recherche Ethnopharmaceutiques
SEATRU Sea Turtle 5research Unit
UiTM Universiti Teknologi MARA
UTM University Technology Malaysia
UIA Universiti Islamik Antarabangsa
UM Universiti Malaya
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

“This plant is not there anymore, the hill itself has disappeared”

Pak Da “Bekam”, traditional practitioner, Bukit Cempaka, Terengganu, June 2004

1.1 Witnessing a turn in civilization?

Living “on the field” for five decades in Terengganu, this researcher observed that changes

happened: On the coasts, in the villages and upon the hills, parts of the Terengganu from the

past, its flora and its architecture seemed to disappear along the years. It was becoming urgent

to report that evolution, for the sake of historical value, ancient knowledge and nature

conservation.

The Northern states of the East Coast of Malaysia -which includes Terengganu, are

reputed to be a repository of a branch of the Malay culture related to ancient lands, from the

kingdom of Campa to the legendary Langkasuka (Wheatley 1976, Farish Nor et al. 2004).The

flora -a source of food, medicines an materials- is varied, and comprises endemic species
 2

(Turner 1995, Kiew 2013).The people of these areas have long been reputed to possess rich

traditions (Sheppard 1986), in particular their knowledge in timber architecture and the use of

the plants from their environment.

Today, however, with the rise of modernity, with economic development, international

curriculum in education and sciences, it would appear that this type of knowledge is on the way

to oblivion. New generations have few means of connection with it. Malay traditions and the

people who live in villages seem to -progressively- losing both a natural source of materials -

to development, and a world view -to global thinking. The threat of double disappearance is

real. However, research is necessary to substantiate this view and make it more specific.

The case of the state of Terengganu in Malaysia is particularly interesting as asignificant

example of the evolution of traditional knowledge and ancient landscapes in a modernizing

environment. In India (Yogendra Singh, 1986), Indonesia (Yonda Dominikus, 2016), China

(Bernard Henin,1996) in Turkey (Meldem Kaya, 2013) and also in Europe,

(Galen et al., 2008). studies have reported the paradoxes inherent to modern development in

ancient cultures. The trend of disappearance of vernacular architecture, natural vegetation as

well as of other traditional assets has been noted. In Malaysia, architects (SJ Kassim et al.2017,

p.39) report that “countries in South Asia are experiencing within a span of 50 years what it

took Europe and America 200 to 300 years to achieve” ... “Mass urbanization and

modernization have led to the disappearance of the Malay vernacular heritage”

In Terengganu, the population -of which 95% are Malay (Unit Perancang Economi Negeri,

2010), formed a society sharing a common cultural heritage. Back in the eighties, characteristic

features in traditional habitat could be identified, nestled in the middle of exuberant humid

tropical vegetation -where edible and medicinal species would be harvested. Time was marked
 3

by the azan -the call to the prayer. If change was obviously happening there, in a stronghold of

tradition, it would be significant of the strength of deep-running and perhaps unescapable

forces.

Would it be suitable to say that what has been witnessed during the latest decades

amounts to a civilization turning point? Observation along the years leads to a positive answer

to this question. Yet, as just mentioned, such a conclusion would be presumptuous without

demonstrating the reality of the move. Furthermore, if the described process is seen as on-

going, it is urgent to document its aspects, so that the ancient records and memories are

preserved as they may become a resource useful in the future.

It does appear that, as elsewhere in the developing world, landscapes, plants species.

as well as the related knowledge are changing fast. The bond that existed between the

components of that triple heritage of the state, is also vanishing. What is at stake is that

something essential, pertinent to a people’s identity, to its culture, appears to be lost,

deliberately replaced, abandoned, forgotten. How to demonstrate the reality of the perceived

loss?

This research begins with the results from previous studies in ethnobotany and

landscape architecture (Longuet, in Delfolie, 2007), then it compares these with current

circumstances in the villages, on the coasts, and upon the forest hills. It is intended to examine

if, in effect, change happened, and if it may be part of the expression of a move towards the

adoption by the people in Terengganu of new world views and even, of a new civilization.

[Prior to the evolution process, geography and historical context are remembered.]

To trace the circumstances of the evolution observed on the field in the natural and

built landscapes, a look at the geography and the history of Terengganu is useful. It may help
 4

discover the process by which a state reputed to be traditional can evolve, from an economy

based on its topography, its human and natural resources, to a modern state driven by the laws

of development and economic growth. It can help understand how the relation of a people with

their land may have changed in depth within the space of a few decades around the turn of the

twentieth and twenty-first centuries.

Figure 1.1: Relief map of Malaysia with the location of Terengganu and the North Sud
direction of the hills (Polunin, before the Lake Kenyir )

1.1.1 A land between the hills and the sea

The state of Terengganu is located at 5 degrees North of latitude, with the states of

Kelantan in the North and West, Pahang in the South. It lays on the Eastern part of the Malay
 5

Peninsula, between the summits of granitic hills of the main range Banjaran Titiwangsa and

the coast along the China Sea. Tropical forests have spread, with vegetal species dating back

to the Permian period, from 299 to 251 million years ago. A tall canopy and emergent trees as

high as 60m and 2m in diameter are found in these hills. Spectacular flora grows in the forests

that used to cover all of the land, including antediluvian Cycas and majestic Dipterocarps.

Smaller species such as the Baeckia, Leptospermum, Podocarpus are found on the heights of

Gunong Lawit (1500 m) and Gunong Tebu (1039 m). On lower lands, are more forest reserves,

then, pioneer settlements, paddy fields, small orchards, down to the coastal areas that run along

210 km by the China Sea with varied landscapes of sand beaches, wet lands, dunes, mangroves

and lagoons. The rivers, often beginning in spectacular cascades, flow from the mountains and

reach more leisurely river confluences and estuaries where eponymous towns have been built:

Besut, Terengganu, Marang and Dungun.

The sub-equatorial climate is dominated by Monsoon rains, mainly the North East

Monsoon that comes from November to February. Heat and humidity foster abundance on the

otherwise not very fertile, often laterite and granitic soils, except in the sedimentary valleys

where grow rice, maize, and sweet potatoes. Plantations of rubber and palm oil have spread

over the low lands as well as on the lower hills.

Around villages are fields and orchards of duku, durian, langsat, rambutan. In open

areas of belukar or semak secondary growth-, luxuriant wild trees, shrubs and climbers, useful

for food, cosmetics and medicine are accessible to the inhabitants.

1.1.2 Trade and crafts

Being relatively secluded in Malaysia, Terengganu did not have -like Selangor or

Johore- an eventful history of contacts with the western world where seeds of change could be
 6

sown. Proclaimed as a kingdom in 1742 (Mohamad Abu Bakar, 2010), the state was in majority

“rural” -rural- meaning that there were few cities, not that the main occupation was agriculture.

The capital, Kuala Terengganu, had only one street, reported Munshi Abdullah in 1838. In fact,

the town underwent a first metamorphosis from the beginning of the 19th to the beginning of

the 20th century. During the reigns of Baginda Omar (1831-1876) and Zainal Abidin III (1881-

1918), in the tradition of the port cities of South East Asia, Kuala Terengganu developed an

economy based on skills and crafts, producing goods for export. The state had a fleet of fishing

and cargo vessels that traded over the China Sea and maintained a network of commercial ties

with the Indonesian Archipelago. Historian Khoo Kay Kim could picture an image of

prosperity:

“The least that may be said about Terengganu is that its principal port and capital,

Kuala Terengganu, was, for the greater part of the eighteen and nineteen centuries, a thriving

trading center with a comparatively dense population. The people were skillful craftsmen and

a large proportion of them were a maritime people” (Kho Kay Kim, Malay Society, 1991, p

94).

1.1.3 Development at its own pace

After the second world war, and up to independence, the inhabitants of the state

continued to use the wealth from the forest, the timber, fish from the sea, and their own ability

in crafts with copper, silver, gold, songket, batik cloth, timber carvings and boat building.

However, the fame of the harbour declined -salt import from Thailand was the remaining cargo-

, perhaps compared to the tin and rubber rich, more western export oriented Malaysian West

coast. Rancangan -pioneer settlements- planted rubber (@ 1930) and palm oil (@1950)

appeared. Iron mining up the Dungun Rive (1929-1960) did bring a whiff of foreign ways but,
 7

altogether, Terengganu went on, living in self-sufficient peaceful “backwardness”. Western

health care was unknown in remote areas. Infantile mortality was relatively high (Official

Statistics or and - until the 1970s, cholera epidemics were not uncommon (Siti Hasmah 1963

in Wilson, 1973). [As witnessed by this researcher], they were treated both by religious singing

processions at night and compulsory vaccination at the government clinics or in schools by

day.

1.1.4 Blooming

In 1973, oil was discovered in East Tiong field on the continental shelve at 140 km

off the coast. 5% of the oil revenue would be given to the state. Suddenly, economic and

political realities intervened and would have had a strong impact on the physical image of the

state.

The newly appointed State Minister Wan Mokhtar Wan Ahmad, in office from 1974

to 1999, led a twenty-five years-long effort of construction of infrastructures, roads, electricity,

piped water, schools, health care, hospitals, local public clinics that modified the life of the

people. In 1985, in the same spirit of modernity, the damming of the Terengganu River and the

260.000 hectares Kenyir lake created a shimmering landscape of water in the middle of former

forested hills. Timber exploitation and sawmills continued; their pace increased by machinery.

Bridges, -no more ferries across the rivers-, a completely new town in Kerteh and gaz burning

torches modified the landscape of the coast. A magnificent neo-vernacular Museum appeared

at the end of kampong Losong. Health statistics improved. Pharmaceutical products rendered

available became commonly used. The state was dubbed “the Kuweit of Malaysia”.

1.1.5 After a conservative interlude, deliberate fast changes

 8

Then, in 1999, at the dawn of the 21th century, political turmoil elsewhere in

Malaysia had an impact on conservative Terengganu: Haji Hadi, from the conservative

opposition party “PAS” became state Chief Minister. The oil revenues were withdrawn after

an examination of their use by the state government. At the end of Hadi’s mandate, another -

pro-federal government- Minister was chosen. The oil revenues were given back. Dubbed

“wang ihsan” (charity money), they would be allotted by the central government for projects

that would benefit the people of Terengganu. Dato’Idris Jusoh, the new State Chief Minister,

(from 2004 to 2008) introduced a vision of a modern and highly educated Terengganu.

Besides oil, tourism was definitively identified as an essential source of revenue. A grand -

neo-vernacular- airport would welcome visitors. In the estuary of the Terengganu River

appeared the Terengganu Islamic Civilization, a collection of 20 classic mosques replica. And

not far, at the end of the island of Pulau Duyung, the “Monsoon Cup” yachting event was

launched. A marina and a grand hotel were built. On the way to Besut, came an “Ululalbab

Institut”, a religious academy, a football college, a brand new international coastal university,

while -extended, the colleges “Samudra” and “Kuza” became full-fledged universities.

Change was heartily endorsed by the following state governments (Ahmad Said 2008-

2014). The official slogan of “transformasi” even became “transformasi baru”-the new

transformation. Logging in some former lowland forest reserves had allowed the spread of

more palm oil plantations. Industrial estates were created that could provide work to a growing

population. Meanwhile, the federal inspired ECERD plan (East Coast Economic Region

Development launched in 2007) spelled out a bold future for the northern coastal regions. A

draw bridge would cross the Terengganu River estuary. A high-speed train would link Kota

Baru, Kuala Terengganu and Kuantan to Port Kelang on the west coast. And it was not only
 9

the physical face - the zahir -the appearance, of the sleepy state, but also the mentality, the

minds of the Terengganu people that were to be changed.

1.2 The State government philosophy and the Attitude of the people

1.2.1 The attitude of the people and the Terengganu government philosophy

The old bond of the inhabitants with nature was referred to in 2004 in an illustrated brochure,

the “Perancang Economi Negeri” (State Economic Planning Unit 2004-2008}.

”Daya tarikan pantai yang menyusur panjang turut mempengaruhi karakter rakyiat Terengganu

yang tidak dinafikan wujudnya hubungan alam-manusia zaman berzaman” “The beauty of the

beaches that spread along the coast contributes to the character of the inhabitants where one

cannot deny that a bond between man and nature has been woven since time immemorial.”

(Rancangan Pembangunan Negeri Terengganu 2004-2008, p.170)

The symbiosis with nature was more than santai (nonchalant): it was an experience

embedded in an idiosyncratic attitude. That was the attitude that the government led by Haji

Idris Yusof had identified as needing to be transformed, if the people in Terengganu wanted

access to modern progress. In areas where fishermen were a majority, financial rewards were

deemed to be unimportant compared to the peacefulness of everyday life:

“Dengan itu sangat logik sekiranya nelayan Terengganu terus merasa “selesa”walaupun

hidup dalam situasi miskin, tidak mewah. Golongan ini puas berkommunikasi dengan alam

walaupun tidak mempunyi duit yang banyak” (ib.).

 10

“And so, it was perfectly logic if a Terengganu fisherman would continue to feel

“comfortable” although he would live in poverty and would not rich. This group of people are

satisfied with their communication with nature even if they do not have a lot of money.” (ib.)

Aware of the danger of the possible intrinsic contradiction, the government of Terengganu,

in the same illustrated pamphlet, gave the direction of what that Datuk Idris Jusoh and his team

wanted to see taken, the condition for progress: a change of mentality or a perubahan of the

“mind-set” of the people. From “santai” and “lesu” picturesque portrait of the Terengganu

people, to a modern time Islamic view.

1.2.2 A vision of “traditional modernity”: A modern state with Islamic foundations

The projects selected by the authorities were destined to express a continuity with two of

the reputed characteristics of the state of the people of Terengganu: Their knowledge in religion

and their aptitude at sailing and riding the waves. The large estuary could host buildings

celebrating that fame from the past. The modernization plan of the state was conceived to have

Islamic and historical foundations.

The Terengganu envisioned by Idris Yusof and his advisors presented in the illustrated

pamphlet would produce a vibrant state capital city, with cafes where international and local

students would engage in discussion. There will be research centers and even a Nobel Prize

laureate from the state who would return to his hometown and be amazed by the modern

developments not only in material infrastructures, but also in the existence of an intellectual

and scientific community.

This “mindset transformation” would not be a rupture with the past but be based on the

reputation of the East Coast of Malaysia particularly of Terengganu as a center of “Ilmu”, -

 11

knowledge in a wide sense of the term- including Islamic teachings. In the state, since

beginning of the eighteen century ulama -scholars and leaders often from Arab descent or of

Arab learning background from Pattani and Champa such as Tokku Pulau Manis or Tokku

Paloh had been at the root of prior development. And there was the Batu Bersurat -the scripted

stone (1303) up the Terengganu River, witness of the arrival Islam.

Therefore, the state could engage in the material aspects of global civilization without

abandoning its Islamic culture. In his introduction to the state development program the Chief

Minister quoted the Qoran:

“Dan tuntutlah dengan harta kekayaan yang telah di kurnyakan oleh Allah kepadamu akan

pahala dan kebahagian hari akhirat dan jangan melupakan bahagianmu di dunia” “And claim

the wealth that Allah has granted to you, the rewards and the happiness in the hereafter, and do

not forget your part in the world” (Surah al Qasas, 77).

The result was to be a “quantum leap” where superstitions and wrongly understood fatalism

“serah kepada takdir” would have disappeared. In the Terengganu River estuary, in Nerus area

where new modern settlements and terrace housing grew, on the coast in Kemaman, whereoil

from offshore was processed, a physical metamorphosis was obviously taking place. On the

mental side, the transformasi was not much questioned: The word techno-daii “muslim techno-

missionary” was created. The magic of the Ulit Mayang therapeutic ceremony was given a

place in the tourism agendas and gave its name to a giant “Mayang Mall” for the new KTCC -

the Kuala Terengganu City Centre. It would remind of the “mayang” flowers (which had

disappeared from the landscape of the estuary, together with the coconut trees). In a move akin

to Max Weber (1864-1920) social analysis in Germany, together with rationalization, reason

and finance would replace the old “enchanted” (wunderung) beliefs.

 12

Some projects did not quite meet the expectations: The “Monsoon Cup” sailing event,

designed to last 10 years, did not provide a sufficient return on investment. The Marina and the

Hotel continued to exist on Pulau Duyong. Like the Islamic Cultural Park, they faced

maintenance problems. They could not recreate the atmosphere of the past. The development

projects wrapped in Islamic package were little connected with the people living in the estuary

at that time (Nawal et al., 2016). They remain today as ambitious touristic attractions, related

in their own way, to the state identity.

1.3 A vision of “traditional modernity” A modern state with Islamic

foundations

1.3.1 Question

The question today is: Are the centuries-old Terengganu assets in landscapes, plant

species and built environment observed in the past, on the way to disappearance or do they

remain resilient? [ Among all the progress efforts, have the vernacular floral and built

environments been reduced or do they continue to prosper? Have the natural and built

environments, their characteristics in landscapes, in floral diversity and in traditional

therapeutic knowledge, all part of the heritage of the state, been reduced? or -even, are they,

in the present times, at risk of disappearance?] A question that can be reformulated according

to the three involved fields:

1) Are the landscapes in Terengganu, for centuries the natural resource, with its vernacular

architecture and day to day living environment of the inhabitants, being transformed?
 13

2) What is the present status of the floral species and traditional therapeutic knowledge?

Are they on the way to disappearance, or remain resilient, compared to the observations

made during earlier times?

3) Is a centuries-old relationship between a people and its natural environment being

severed, along with the apparent disappearance of a number of plant species or is it still

alive?

1.3.2 Assumption of change and hypothesis regarding civilization

At first, an assumption of change can be deducted from field observation, [ However,

change over time needs to be verified in its details, quantitively and qualitatively, using

information and inventories collected over the years. repetition]

Further, a hypothesis emerges, which has sociological and philosophical significance:

During the recent decades, what was witnessed, was perhaps a progressive, irresistible-

civilization turn. Observation for over forty years leads to a positive answer to this question.

Moreover, if the described process of change is seen as on-going, it is urgent to document its

nature and its extent, as surviving remains from the past may be found useful in the future.

1.3.3 Objectives of the Research

The first objective of this research is to describe what has happened along the years

from the witness point of view of a field ethnobotanist and landscape architecture researcher.

To reach this objective, narratives (i) describe what has changed in the floral and built

environments along two “Eras” of visits in the past -from 1980 to 2005-, and “re-visits” in

present times from 2013 to 2022. The second objective is to recall the floral and cultural

features of the past and evaluate the evolution through inventories (ii) of plants and cultural
 14

features along the two “Eras”. The third objective is to review (iii) the causes and the

consequences of the change, and to introduce its extent, its impact on the environment and on

the psychology, or the mind, of the people.

There had been drastic visual changes in some landscapes. Then, from recent surveys, while

ancient houses have been transformed, invasive climbers and small trees have flourished, a

good number of plant species with a medicinal use seem to have disappeared from the location

they had been found decades earlier. Finally, holders of ancient knowledge have passed away

and are not replaced. However, an awareness exists of the threat of further losses of a heritage

which was previously valued and could remain of potential value for the future of the state of

Terengganu.

1.3.4 Gap and Contributions

Apart from the recent works mentioned further down in the literature review on the

subject, the evolution of the state over the years and in the three considered field had been little

explored. Although often fondly remembered, in literature writings, in the past (Marzuki Ali,19

, Awang Goneng 2011) the ground elements and cultural features of the state had, until recently

little motivated academic research. Similarly, Terengganu has attracted only few botanical

expeditions (Tan… ) and even recently a government offices 70 strong members bio-diversity

in Gunong Tebu…yet plant species inventories are few. (Kew….), The subject of the natural

assets heritage of the state had sparsely attracted academic interest. A few signals of alarm have

been heard and reported in the press, demonstrating attention among concerned people. In the

forest, a pregnant tigress was found dead on the new highway. Poachers were

denounced.161Traps were found by the Rimba team from Basong. Extensive illegal logging in

Pelagat was discovered in 2010 (…).

 15

A contribution will be made for two important aspects of the state assets: the flora of the

state, as well as the cultural habitat found in traditional houses and their compounds or

“Halaman”

[The lists of encountered species in the visited areas will serve to support and compare with

any further explorations. A preliminary change in the number of medicinal species available in

the landscapes of Terengganu along two periods of time will be made. The status, -oblivion or

resilience- of traditional therapeutic principles within the current world view of the people will

be approached.

1.4 Research material from the past

As further explained in the methodology chapter, the research through past personal

researches has depended on fragile documents, salvaged from humidity and gathered from

memories of elder informants. Fortunately, it was possible to conduct interviews about the past

to confirm previous data, and collections on the field were still available. “Re-visits” were

made in the previously visited areas. A trend was appearing: Already, by the end of the 1990es,

even common species such as the telinga kerbau (Blumea balsamifora) or tapak Suleiman

(Elephantopus scaber) could not be found again where they had been easily spotted before.

Something else was happening: At the beginning of the 21 Century, some timber

houses and their compounds, rich in cultural features and where had been growing, edible,

cosmetic, medicinal, fragrant and ornamental plant species, had disappeared or were

abandoned and dilapidated. This occurred particularly in Kuala Terengganu and surrounding

villages. This researcher began to document the important -yet disappearing- cultural elements

of the built environment in Terengganu. It had been possible to identify a typology of these
 16

particular “house compounds” (Longuet, 2007). Yet, what was evident already was the fragility

of the historical material remnants of a passing way of life, compared to new construction in

brick, concrete, asbestos and industrial tiles, as well as the emergence of new terms to define

habitations such as “terrace housing” and “condos”.

Following the natural relief distribution, Coastal areas, and forest hills, villages visited in

the past, were re-visited. The following table summarizes the sites surveys, according to their

characteristics and their location within the landscapes of the state.

 17

Table 1.1: Table of the “visited sites”, in the “Past era”, divided in three areas according to the relief morphology and human habitat location

Location Main site Landscape type Information Source List of species, Prominent features Resources utilization
visits and dates

2 Jambu Bongkok Beach, beris, low Mat Kapur+ other sellers 1984.,1985 Bags 400gr dry roots Business, commercial use
land forest explorations for labs barks and leaves,
majun
1985, to 2001
1 Pulau Duyung and Estuarine Tok Bidan Wan 1983 to 2003 Freshsamples Personal care, first aid Nuralam project
Pulau Ketam island village Esah, inhabitants spp samples and lists Medicinal plants
mangrove presenceAround
houses and belukar
5 Sekayu, Small hills Botanist, L. Hume, 1983, 1988, 199 Environment and Notion: valuable spp not to be submerged
forests waterfalls,
artificial lake
Kenyir Prof. Karim (UMT) 2 lists Phytochemistry.
conservationist and
journalists
Tersat,

(+Pasir Raja et.)

4 “Tgnu highlands” Hills and Pak Husin, Expeditions NTFP “Minor Recreation, tourism, pharmacognosy
waterfalls forests “Rangers” Report lists for lab forest products” of collaboration with businesses and Universities
and further 2002 interest for -→next
Gunung Lawit
column

Gunong Kambing

Gunung Tebu
6 Kuala Sayap Forest Batiq people 1984,1985, Aborigines Progressive stages of Changing ways
dwellings “Abdullah” development
Sungai Bera 2002
Settlements Semoq Beri Palm oil,
secondary school
3 Kuala Terengganu Traditional Inhabitants, 1973, 1983 to Pharmacy around the Rural functional habitat to urbanised life.
and Surroundings villages traditional practitioners 2003. house amongst species
with multiple uses
1.5 The context of the research

This work, although based on concrete features like plants and element of landscape,

has also a sociological, ecological and philosophical context. Long ago, in industrializing

Europe, Max Weber (1919) had already described the process of replacement of a mentality by

another, and the people psychological and mental experience in a society that faces

transformation issues. He presented a model that qualified the deep change in attitude of the

people in Europe. He called it: “entzauberung” -the “disenchantment”. Reason and legality

would dominate instead of beliefs and magic. Modernity implied getting rid of religion - as

“enchantment”- in the fields of politics and administration of a country. Bureaucracy could

rule, so would finance and business. In northern Europe, Protestantism would uphold hard work

and ethics. In Terengganu, similarly, religion was trusted to re-establish the -sometimes

imperiled- balance between economic objectives and spiritual concepts. Mosques and

madrasah (religious colleges) would be built as testimony of the found coexistence.

1.6 Scope and definitions as understood in the thesis

The scope of this thesis is wide. Befitting its human ecology discipline, it is an inter-

disciplinary study where landscape architecture, botany and anthropology are referred to, in

order to identify the changes that happened in their respective fields and sites. The more fields

are concerned, the wider the range of changes are shown, the closer one gets to an evaluation

of the extend of the change. The convergence of the results of observations from various

disciplines increases the impact of the reports. As expressed by Japanese researcher Keisuke

Okamura (2019): “Addressing many of the world’s contemporary challenges requires a

multifaceted and integrated approach, and interdisciplinary research (IDR) has become

increasingly central to both academic interest and government science policies”.

 19

Each field has series of details, plant species and cultural or ground architectural features, to

be inventoried. The inventories may not be exhaustive; however, the repetition of noted

disappearances or diminutions in the various fields will add weight to the demonstration.

Meanwhile, the meaning of the terms, related to different disciplines or fields, which are as

referred to in this thesis and their definition in the frame of this research, needs to be

introduced:

1.6.1 “Landscape” and “Place”

At first, considered as pictorial representations of scenes of nature, “landscapes”

moved from the canvas to nature: In 1903, Vidal de la Blache gave a simple definition “Un

paysage est ce qui peut etre percu d’un seul coup d’oeil” “-A landscape is what can be grasped

at a glance. The human sensory element was introduced. The “glance” was enlarged, and

landscape disciplines appeared that dealt with man living in his habitat, in his natural or built

environment. (Antrop, 2018). A landscape could also be “cultural” -the result of the impact of

a culture on the inhabitants of a place. In previous studies in landscape architecture made by

authors from Terengganu (Raja Bahrin, 1988, Mohd Yusof, 2012), it had been found that

kampong houses and their compound (halaman) in Terengganu expressed the social status and

the beliefs of the inhabitants. And there was more:

It appeared that, beyond the fact that a landscape was the language of the land, telling

of the people who lived in it, of who they were, and of what they valued, a familiar landscape

provided its inhabitants with a “sense of place” -comparable to “bearings” in navigation which

give a concrete direction. Without that direction, they may experience a feeling of

disorientation. The loss of such a significant landscape may have negative social consequences

on members of the concerned communities as in the example of the Inuit Esquimaux in Canada,
 20

who “after 7 years of self-rule are still struggling” (Clifford Krauss, 2006), and in Malaysia,

some Orang Asli (Colin Nicholas, 2000) as well as some individuals in the second generation

of “Rancangan” (communitarian projects) settlers who may have experienced a feeling of

alienation (Mohd Khairi et al.,2017)

Place” is used as it is the word that translate best one of the most frequent interpretations

of a “landscape” as a “place”, in both the visual and sensorial environment of inhabitants. It

anchors an intellectual and sensorial concept (Merleau-Ponty, 1945) in a material space. It is

related to the “genus loci” or the” spirit of a place”, the particular atmosphere of a location

often referred to by landscape phenomenology architecture theories (Norberg-Shultz,1979),

where a place is invested with emotional and intellectual significance: It is where events

happen, where memories are made and embodied.

1.6.2 “Era”

Dictionaries define an era as “a period of time known for particular circumstances, events

or developments. The Terengganu administration of the “Monsoon Cup” event qualified it as

“The dawn of a new Era” (Wan Salleh and Wan Ramlie, 2006). In fact, the present research

could refer to the “Wan Moktar era” as the past, and to “Transformasi era” as the present times,

referring to the deliberate will of the successive chief Ministers to modernize the state.

However, in this work, to remain true to the actual collections of data, and following them, the

dates referring to the “Past Era” are from 1983 to 2007, -first researches- then the ‘Present Era’

run from 2013 to 2022.

1.6.3 “Civilization”, “Culture” and “Custom”

 21

The concept and understanding of the word “Civilization” have changed over the

times. It varies according to the cultural backgrounds of the writers. Civilization, by etymology,

is the product of many “cives”, individuals who live in a city and follow the urban rules of

“citizens”. Many definitions of that human phenomenon with such significant and wide reach

have been given along the years by scholars. Yet unanimity is found in the recurrent terms that

help define the concept of civilization in dictionaries: -“high level of intellectual, technological,

cultural and social development,” -a highly developed culture and way of life”, -own level and

advanced state of development. The recurring words “development”, “high level”, advanced”,

imply an idea of value attributed to the said civilization. On a slightly different tone “a

perceived separation from and the domination over the natural environment” is often added.

Different interpretations and views have appeared as in the following examples:

Historian and sociologist Fernand Braudel (1979) retraced the emergence of the present

Western or European civilization to the birth of capitalism and to the banking and financial

organization of trade starting from the in the 16 th century. He underscores how European

civilization has spread capitalism -a system based on economy and technology- over the world.

More recently, (2016) with another point of view, Kabuye Uthman Suleiman, (from the

International Islamic University Malaysia), has detailed how civilizations have answered the

needs of humanity, amongst these: “material, economic, intellectual, social, military,

technological and cultural needs”. He adds that without it “solidarity among peoples of

different nations, cooperation and fraternity among people of different nations cannot be

achieved”.

Altogether, the normative and generally economically oriented Western civilization

sounds like a description of the emerging modern global civilization with its urbanization and
 22

its separation from a natural environment. It would perhaps not be fit for the ancient Chinese

or Amerindian civilizations: Their most known buildings are not agglomerations of houses, but

monuments to their gods or to their rulers; and even less suitable for “The Malay Civilization”

as defined for example by Malaysian historian Mohd Arof Ishak (2007), where, for long, travel,

a life close to the sea, sailing and ocean exploration towards new lands, seem to have been

fundamental. Philosopher Regis Debray (2019) has defined a civilization in terms of its

“capacity for metabolism as it transforms itself and stimulates others”, thus widening further

the concept, relating civilization to change.

1.6.4 “Culture”

Civilization is not necessarily linked to a place or the product of the history of a country. It

can be adopted or accepted from other peoples, while a culture is defined by the people who

practice that culture and have interiorized its values along -usually- a few generations:

Etymologically, a culture is the result of what has been grown -cultivated- deliberately, be

it plants or knowledge or art. A culture expresses the philosophy of a people, through its art,

its language. This is another word that has many definitions. Although sometimes taken as

synonym of civilization, In the present work, culture is more related to the identity of a people,

to their specific artistic and intellectual endeavors and less to economic or political

circumstances. Culture is interpreted as a device to be used by man to project himself in time,

related to his effort to overcome death after his own individual demise through his teachings,

his art and his built environment. If one wants to study cultural change, the transmission of

vernacular knowledge is an important factor relative to the preservation or the loss of a culture.

Another factor of local resiliency is the custom followed by the people of an area.

“Custom” – adat in Malay- is a social tool, a medium for transmitting aspects of a people’s
 23

singular culture. It is evoked in Chapter 5: Has it, in Terengganu, resisted to the material impact

of change? This would deserve to be the subject for another research in sociological studies. It

is briefly evoked in this study, as adat was reputed to be important for the Malay people, and

particularly to the people in traditional Terengganu.

1.6.5 “Medicinal Plant species”:

A medicinal plant is generally, a vegetal species identified in relation to its

therapeutic effect. However, the criterion for activity is relative to many circumstances. As Pak

Hin, a traditional practitioner from Kampong Pengkalang Merbau, used to say: “Every plant is

medicinal, only we have not found that use yet”. General consensus among the informants on

the medicinal value of a species is the practical criteria followed in this research; while

phytochemical literature is referred to, often confirming the vernacular reputation.

1.6.6 “Cultural features” and “Ground furniture”

In Landscape Architecture, “cultural features” frequently include the “ground furniture”,

the tools and elements in a garden or a yard that are found around a house, used for work,

comfort, entertainment or ornamentation. In this work, although differentiated in the

inventories, they are mentioned together, abbreviated as “cultural features”.

1.6.7 “Traditional Knowledge holders” and other informants

In Terengganu, traditional practitioners are individuals who heal patients, using herbs or

shrubs or parts of trees or other therapeutic material that they have or find in the proximity of

their house or village. They are merchants of roots and leaves, who are usually found near the

market place in towns. They are as well plant collectors and villagers familiar with the edible

floral species and aware also of their medicinal reputation. There are personnel from the
 24

government departments who are knowledgeable in the use of plants: such as the foresters

(including specialists of the NFTP -Non-Timber-Forest-Products-) and the officers of the State

Museum. They too are considered in this research as they represent part of the learned

relationship of the Terengganu inhabitants with the floral resources of the land where they were

born, for the majority of them or where they serve.

1.6.8 “Sites”

Sites, are different from places in the sense that they refer to an intention of activity.

Wherever mining, filming or researching can be done, it is a “site”. In this work, they are not

all specific geographic areas, but can be different places that are united by common features of

land geography or social characteristics

“Sites” here therefore are the locations where the phenomenon of change has been

observed over the years by this researcher. These locations, for example, the forests mountains

-dubbed sometimes the “Terengganu Highlands” (Kiew 2003)- include Lata Tembakah and

Lata Belatan. Both are waterfalls cascades. They have become part of the “amenity forests”

The two rather different orang asli settlements are reunited in one “site” study: The Sungai

Lepah /Kuala Sayap and Sungai Berua, one in the northern forests the other in the periphery of

the lake Kenyir, both inhabited by Orang Asli or aborigenes tribes Batek and Senoi Semaq

Beri.

House compounds which share common features from the point of view of sociology but

are found in various locations in villages or in town are considered as parts of the site “House

compounds”.
 25

1.7 Summary overview of the Chapters

The first chapter introduces the traditional assets at stake, in landscape, plant species, built

environment and the inhabitants’ relationship with them. It recalls events that have occurred in

the past history and have led the evolution towards what seems to be a turning point where the

state is entering “global civilization”.

The second chapter reports literature findings on change from Art and architecture,

ethnology, phyto-pharmacy, according to their fields’ respective approaches and evolution.

Today a few researchers have signaled the identity role and particular services rendered by

traditional settlements such as those found in Terengganu. The modern context of the

“Anthropocene” and globalization is briefly evoked as well. As the warnings (premonitory OA,

COP27) on the current dangers of exhaustion of earth resources and climate warming in the

present civilization system.

Chapter three explains the methodology of the research, (1) the procedures used in the past

to collect data (plant species inventories, landscape characteristics, types of practitioners), then,

how current data were collected and organized in view of (2) a comparison past - present eras.

From this comparison, the assumption of change will be verified. These changes (3) will be

referred to a set of theories related to the evolution of a society and of its natural environment.

Then, from the examination of the features of that change, the demonstration of the hypothesis

of a civilization change will be envisioned.

Chapter four presents, in a first part, an introduction to the natural environment in the state

and to some of the inhabitants ilmu (traditions in knowledge) in relation with this environment.

A second part reviews six “sites” in three areas of the state relief morphology: the forested
 26

hills, the coasts, and villages, where ethno-botanical visits and re-visits have been made along

the years. The sites are examined to assess the evolution of the status of plants species -

particularly medicinal- that of cultural features, ground elements and of the inhabitant’s

vernacular phyto-therapeutic knowledge. In a third part, inventories -plants and culturalfeatures

materialize the findings.

Chapter five analyses the results from fields comparisons of the of data collected in past and

present times, giving an interpretation of the causes and consequences of the witnessed changes

in the diverse locations or “sites”, referring to the theories mentioned in the methodology that

assist in these interpretations and their conclusions.

Chapter six identifies, from the results of the investigation, some negative aspects of change

as well as, on the positive side, indices of directions for a development in Terengganu towards

judicious preservation of values from the triple heritage in built and floral landscapes and in

the people’s knowledge.

The following Figure 1. 2 summarizes the process of the research.

 27

Observation
Past Present
Landscapes were the hosts to the plants The landscapes are disturbed
that people used. A spiritual and magic the floral diversity is diminishing, many of
world was deemed to exist. traditional medicinal knowledge holders are
Architecture was in wood. not replaced. So have traditional timber
craftsmen and workers

Assumption
During the last four decades, important, physical and mental changes have occurred in the
Traditional floral and built environments in Terengganu,
Hypothesis
These changes imply that a civilization turn is being taken

Research Design
Method: data comparison in past and in present time
in six sites selected for geographical and social characteristics
From Past Visits -1983-2007- and Re-visits: -2013 2022-

Qualitative appreciation Comparisons Quantitative appreciation

Sites narratives & photographs Sites inventories, plant species, scientific &
Species with medicinal, food vernacular names: habit, habitat,
Esthetic, cultural values @ 576 species & @ 80 cultural and 51 architectural
features

Results Analysis and Discussion

- Differences in each field and in each site between past and present are noted;
the assumption of change is verified. is indeed drastic, fast, and confirms the premises. it is urgent
to prevent further loss of floral heritage, vernacular architecture and ancient knowledge

- Causes Exogenous and endogenous: modernization, population increase, political will, new
ways of making a living, obsolescence and oblivion of old ways, urbanization
- Consequences of the phenomenon:
- the previous bonds between plants and people are severed
- the previous natural and built environment of the people vanishes
- A feeling of alienation & loss of identity may replace a “sense of place”,

Perspectives
Trappings of modernity are introduced, have been witnessed in the three considered fields, turning towards a new
civilization.
The move may not be complete: artists, religious people and politicians protest in the name of identity. ethics and
beauty. And wisdom versus rationality.

Figure 1.2: Flow of the Research design and expected conclusions at the present stage.
 CHAPTER 2

LITTERATURE REVIEW

A literature review of the various studies on matters related with the evolution of flora,

their therapeutic uses and the transformation of the built environment in Terengganu is

particularly interesting: it shows how authors have interpreted the world they discovered

according to their own background and knowledge; thus, it may be revealing two ways of

thinking, the one of the “explorers”, -mostly foreigners, and the one of the explored people:

Malaysian and Terengganu researchers. These authors of different origins had world views that

started quite far from each other chronologically but today tend to meet in the common

awareness of the modern need for sustainability and resilience of valuable features from the

past.

2.1 Traditions and modernity in changing environment, global perspectives

While change spreads over today’s “global world”, the fate of traditional societies

facing development and modernity has attracted attention of researchers from all over the
 29

world where the effect of that change over time have been observed. In Japan, Hirai Naofusa

(1983) had already explained how modernization should not be confused with Westernization.

The new modernizing elements should enlarge “the spheres of life” and “broaden one’s

outlook”, meaning that the Japanese are “remolding a cultural system into a new form”. In

Bolivia, Reyes Garcia et al. (2005) have noted how ethnobotanical knowledge regresses as life

becomes more urbanized amongst the people of the indigenous Tsimane tribe. In Turkey,

Meltem Erdem Kaya (2013), has studied particularly the “spatial characteristics” of rural

settlements where changes occurred and became signs of a loss of identity. In Yunnan, the fate

of the formerly indispensable buffalo that has lost its role and place in deforested ecosystem of

modern agriculture has been described (Rousseau andTurner, 2018), as well as the concurrent

loss of traditional landscapes.

Malaysia’s own path towards the future has been observed in Sarawak with the Dayak

(Boulanger, 2008) and in Malacca (Anisa Ani et al., 2012). However, the aspects ofthe

change that may have occurred in the State of Terengganu had not been the subject of specific

reports until the recent studies on rural settlements by Nor Zalina Harun and Najiha Jaffar

(2018), on Kampong Losong and Pulau Duyong in the estuary of the TerengganuRiver,

places they identified as traditional villages that exhibited a balanced lifestyle within their floral

and built environment.

Existing literature on plants highlight the constant presence of the plants in the

environment of the inhabitants in Malaysia. Plants are used as materials, food, medicine and

appear in architecture, house ornamentation and games (ADD THE CORRESPONDING REF

HERE). They also show how omnipresent as well are the beliefs and the cosmology linked to

traditional medicinal practices which were carefully described by the earlier anthropologists at

the beginning of the 20th century. Detailed documentation (Burkill and

 30

Gimlette1966, Thomson, 1939) has appeared on the plant species used in Malaysia,

especially the medicinal species, in the environment of inhabitants.

The first descriptions of the Malaysian cultural and built environment (Raja Bahrin 1988,

Jee Yuan Lim, 1991) have been updated by recent studies in the present times through

organisations such as the Association of Behavioural Researchers on Asians (Nur Adilah

Hassan et al.) and universities at the Institute of Malay World and Civilization (ATMA) at the

National University of Malaysia, the Faculty of Architecture at the University Technology

Malaysia by scholars such as Mohamad Tajuddin Rasdi (2012), or Noor Fazaminah Mohd

Ariffin (2020). They contribute to the understanding of the extent and the significance of the

change observed in traditional settings facing the present world context, while considering

present and future re-use of traditional concepts in modern housing (S J Kassim et al. 2017) in

“The resilience of Transition, Malay Allusions in Contemporary Architecture”

From the point of view of the plant species, the stakes are high. Medicinal discoveries

are increasingly difficult to find as biodiversity is in jeopardy (Humphrey 2019, Kew State of

the Word Plants and Fungi, Report 2020), while putting on the market new molecules or

compounds is expensive (Daniel Jean, 1982, Christophe Wiart, 2007). Furthermore, nowadays,

available land space where plants would grow is carefully measured and accounted for.

Landscape organisation and management have become essential in economic planning and

political agendas, while traditional landscapes are changing. However, as shown by the

literature, the importance and the meaning of the vegetal kingdom in Terengganu remains.
 31

2.1.1 Floral materials and patterns, their practical and symbolic uses in Terengganu

Compared to the rest of Malaysia, the state of Terengganu has long been relatively

unchartered in scientific or popular publications (Abdul Rahman et al., 2018). Here in

Terengganu, craftsmanship is the field the relationship between the people and their natural

environment has been most observed and reported. The natural vegetation has been noted as

integral part of the life of the Malays (Jee Yuan Lim, 1987, Abdul Halim Nasir and Hashim

Haji Wan Teh, 2011). Trees provided the material used in building, food and medicine as

well in arts and crafts, while the motifs of the flora constantly inspired the creativity of the

craftsmen and were invested with a didactic message. “Each produced carving contains both

clear and hidden meanings” observed Noor Hafiza Ismail et al. (2014, p 187)

Plants were used as a symbolic medium carved in wood. Their leaves, branches, stems,

flowers and fruit, provided patterns for carvings on everyday life objects such as coconut

graters, cake moulds, room partitions and boats parts (Ismail Said, 2002). Plants also served as

material for building sailing ships, traditional houses, and for carved ventilation panels in

wooden filigrees, the shadow of which would be projected on the timber floor and walls of the

rooms.

After Mubin Sheppard (1978) enthusiastically promoted the conservation of the

ancient palaces of Terengganu with their wooden ornaments, Paul Coatalen (1984)

mentioned plant species, namely Bunga Kesidang (Valoris glabra), daun sesayap (Cratavea

nurvala), Benalu (Loranthus parasiticus) that were the inspiration for motifs on boats

carvings. Ismail Said (2002) listed the wood species mostly used in house building: Cengal

(Neobalanocarpus heimii), Kemuning (Muraya paniculata), Seraya (Shorea species) that

were extracted from the forests, and Halban (Vitex pinnata) from the belukar secondary

growth. Also mentioned was the diverse style of architecture of the residences
 32

decorated by the carvings, and the uses of plant species found in the halaman – house

compounds gardens- of the villagers. Other scholars as well have studied the use of wood

in art and architecture on the East Coast of the Malay Peninsula: Farish Noor and Edwin

Khoo gave in “The Spirit of wood” (2003) an illustrated gathering of significant works of

art produced in an area spreading over Pattani, Kelantan and Terengganu, states that are

related, together with Kedah, to the legendary kingdom of Langkasuka. These authors

showed the important role of the trees and other plants species, herbs and flowers, such as

the Ketumbit (Leucas zeylanica), the modest Bayam peraksi (Emilia sonchifolia), the Capa

(Blumea balsamifera) with a camphor odour, the fragrant Kenanga (Cananga odorata)

portrayed in art pieces, in life, in food and medicine, being elements of the mental world-

view of the inhabitants of the East Coast, beyond the aesthetic and practical value as models

of the plant species for the craftsmen. They reported how reputed carver Nik Rashidin Nik

Hussein from Besut in the North of the state, explained that the Hindu motifs were re-

interpreted when Islam came to Malaysia: The Gunungan - the mountain, such as the Mount

Meru, became the more abstract “punca” -the concept of a source, in a pattern which would

be a symbol of the Creator in wood carving. Plants species became the ultimate symbolic

representation of a controversial character to obliterate its un-Islamic connotations (Ismail

Said & Ahmad Saifudin Abdullah, 2001): “Kala” -a deity of the Hindu underworld, was

assigned to guard the boats as it was used as a sail support carved in the shape of the

makara -a mythic fish dragon vehicle of the goddess Ganga. It waslater transformed into

a bangau -an egret- which itself was eventually turned into to a graceful sulur kacang (bean

tendril). According to Mohd Sabrizaa (2008), in house architecture, the temple stupa

became a roof finial called buah gutong (Baringtonia asiatica) a plant frequently seen near

sand beaches.
 33

Plant species pictured in carvings followed ethics rules which were similar to those of the

silat, the martial art that teaches to win in a fight but not to aim at harming the adversary

(Farish Noor and Khoo, 2003). The carved sharp tips of leaves would turn before meeting

another leave so as not to stab or harm the integrity of the neighbouring motif. In both fields,

the martial art and the craft, an attitude of respect for the elders is followed: the younger

sulur -tendrils- will not overlap the older stems (Nur Suriani Shafee and Ismail Said, 2013).

It is probably not a coincidence if the term “silat” describes carving works where the

motifs are reproduced in relief and intertwined. When the “sobek” wooden cut-out acquired

a third dimension, following its floral models, it was said to “bersilat”. The silat of wood

carving, like its martial homonym, is tri-dimensional, circular, and graceful. Both arts draw

“bunga” -flowers and bear “buah” -fruit (Noor Hafiza Ismail, 2014). Functional, aesthetic, and

pedagogic, the crafts, in wood carvings, as well as in songket, and batik, in Terengganu,

Kelantan and Pattani, were a repository of a language and a tradition of knowledge that used

symbols and floral motifs as words (Hazyia Hussin et al., 2012). In this regard, Islam had an

important influence, to the extent that the carvings had developed a representation of a

relationship between man and his creator in an abstract form while at the same time creating

aesthetic values (Ismail Said and Ahmad Saifudin Abdullah, 2001). As observed earlier, faith

in Islamic principles, particularly monotheism (Tauhid) was expressed in carving patterns.

The motives chosen for the panels above doors lintels were laid out following a precise

order: From a source or punca, sometimes called tapak (foundation), a vase, a hill or a flower,

was born the exuberance of the branches, twigs, leaves, and tendrils (as events in the life of

man), that would be pacified or framed in the symmetry of a geometric design -symbol of

religious education, and would return to its original punca. As expressed by Naquib al
 34

Atas, (1980), botany and religious knowledge are not separated, as ilmu, -knowledge- forms an

integral whole.

2.2. Traditional Medicine in Malaysia and Terengganu: Knowledge or

Magic?

The constant appearance in the Malay tradition of ancient symbols and shapes in

craftsmanship and in therapeutic practices, as well as their persistence over time, may have led

outsiders to an impression of superstitious attachment (Taib Osman, 1989). This isperhaps

what had brought the foreign anthropologists who described the medicinal practices they

discovered in Malaysia to qualify them as “magic” and, at first, not seeing these as aspects of

a consistent -albeit symbolic- transmission of knowledge.

2.2.1 Earlier British documentation: Magic and Medicine

Not only nature provided a symbolic language to the craftsmen, but also an ever-

present link for the people with a world of supernatural beings that was present in many aspects

of the Malay life, including health or illness. The mystery of the large body of concepts

apparently incompatible with Islam or with rational thinking has attracted the early British

anthropologists of the early twentieth century such as William Skeat (1900), -posted in

Selangor but travelling over the Malay Peninsula and Richard Olaf Winstedt (1925) who began

his explorations in Singapore and Johore.,

Although Skeat and Winstead observed and documented carefully the healing practices

and ceremonies in Johore, Selangor, Kedah and Perak. Their records may as well serve as an

introduction to similar practices in Terengganu (where dances and songs are still performed as

theatre entertainment), when plants were also used as a medium of communication with the

spirits (Jabatan Kebudayaan dan Kesenian Negara, 2005). Tarian

 35

balai (using Pulai -Alstonia angustifolia), tarian saba and ulek mayang (using Cocos nucifera

fronds and blossoms, respectively) still took place, up-river Dungun, in Kuala Berang, and on

the coast, in the 21rst century, for therapeutic use or for cultural remembrance.

William Skeat (Malay magic”, 1900) described how Malay “beliefs” are organized

around the cosmology and the place of man in the universe. He carefully wrote down the

paradoxical words of a mantra formula loaded with esoteric references as well as claiming

allegiance to Islam (p.36):

“Genies in whose lap is the world

Return ye to your place the broken rock at the navel of the sea!

If you enter, I will curse you with the words of the prophet Salomon

I will curse you with the creed: “There is no God but Allah and Mohamed is his

prophet.”

Together with the mantra formulas, the jampi (spells) “magic” and syncretic attitude,

(Where beliefs from different traditions were mixed), Skeat recorded the plants species used in

therapy, They were mostly those from the belukar (secondary growth), the paths, the fieldsand

riverside landscapes- such as Lengundi hitam (Vitex trifolia), Rengas (Gluta renghas),

Gandarusa (Justicia gandarusa) or spices available in Indian grocery shops, that were used. He

remarks that one may trace the geographical origins of the knowledge through an analysis of

the species in the medicinal recipes.

The Senna leaves, in one example, are given for “chest problems, to reinforce the bones,

get rid of bad humors”, with honey, moist sugar, clarified butter, goats milk, with dates, orange

juice- all not common in Malay villages. So, this Senna is not the Angsana (Pterocarpus

indicus) tree, also called Senna in Malay, but here, it is an imported Cassia
 36

angustifolia or Senna Mekka native to the Middle East and an indication of the range of

source of knowledge at hand for the local practitioners.

In his preface to Skeat’s book, his colleague, G. Blagden (1900) points out the boldness of

their common enterprise in the context of the times: The tales of “fanciful superstitionsand

beliefs”. could lead to be interpreted as reports of sihir, -a cardinal sin in Muslim faith. The

translation of sihir in English is “magic”, but it can be rendered as well by “witchcraft”or

even “sorcery”. Then, from the point of view of science, what can be a reasonable pretext for

recording “non sensical” folklore tales? Blagden answers: The “beliefs” are facts, as other parts

of history: They may prove useful in science and they will help “understand the mentality of

the governed people”: The anthropologist could serve his country and science at the same time.

In “The Malay Magician Shaman, Saiva and Sufi”, R.O Winstedt (1925) unraveled

“a complex system of magic in the light of historical and comparative data”. After gathering

data over more than twenty years throughout the Peninsula, Winstedt understood the

ceremonies and the treatments he witnessed as the result of an evolutionary syncretism, “This

system is a tangle every thread of which scholars working in Europe are led to term Malay,

although even the native distinguishes this thread as Indian and that as Muslim.”.

However critical Winstedt may appear towards the “Malay Magic”, he maintains his

impartiality and explains the many faces of the Malay traditional knowledge: “Every race has

its lumber-room of magical beliefs and practices, and many such survivals are gracious and

beautiful and full of historical interest. It is to be hoped that the rapid influx of modern ideas

will not wash away too many of the landmarks of their complex and ancient civilization”.

2.2.2 Post Independence interpretations of Malay medicine

 37

Since those precursors, the perception of anthropologists in Malaysia has evolved.

Kirk Endicott in “An Analysis of Malay Magic” (1970), instead of seeing a kind of “random

syncretism” , saw compatible concepts which could be explained in term of their structure

and their functions within in the Malay world-view. “By world-view” he clarified, “I mean the

system of ideas which members of a culture hold about things around them. In other words, it

is the way things are pictured or conceived by them as a "reality" (p…). Endicott considered

the Malay “magician” more as a healer with specialities according to his knowledge. For the

theoretical background of the practice, he focussed on the concept of “soul” and how to figure

out its correct interpretations within the Malay world view. “Soul” could be “Semangat”,

attributed to every living body, vegetal, animal or human or even inanimate, a vital force given

as a spark at birth or creation. It can be also “ruh” an Arabic term that refer to the spiritual

aspect of human existence and is different from the body, and it can be “nyawa”. Nyawa is a

term connected -like other ancient Malay words, to proto- Polynesian. “manawa” meaning

breath, life. It is found in Samoan and in Maori languages and refers to the life-force of an

individual on this earth. Endicott pointed out as well how, apart from the apparent pantheon of

ancient deities, Hinduist and Buddhist mystical experiences met with the vision and practices

of the Malay Muslim sufi.

In 1989, After reviewing the previous researchers’ perceptions, Mohd Taib Osman

(“Malay Folk Beliefs: An Integration of Disparate Elements”), agreed with the more recent

interpretation: “Despite the differences in traditions, the component items in Malay culture,

even if they are apparently opposed to one another, have an underlying meaningful order and

an analysable relationship among themselves within the world-view of the culture.”

“Mohd Taib suggested: “Perhaps Malay culture is like that, it is the cupboard inwhich

are stored all the gifts from other cultures”. Following Mohd Taib, traditional
 38

therapeutics devices can be considered today not as actual beliefs and superstitions, but -the

way carvings may be interpreted too- as historical references dressed in vernacular

philosophical wrappings, together with a repertory of mnemotechnic incantations from an

ancient heritage: To evoke is not necessarily to invoke.

2.2.3 The origins of a fragmented knowledge

Earlier, in “Malay Poisons and Charm Cures” (1915) Gimlette did report a beautiful

and tragic metaphor on the origin of therapeutic knowledge. It bears on the nature of medicinal

knowledge according to tradition, telling how it can be gathered from manysources -which

seemed to be what the Malay practitioners did. As a young man, Akmal Hakim (Luqman ul

Hakim of Arab tradition) to whom the trees, would tell him of their use for medicine, could

even resuscitate a dead person. For some time, nobody died in Akmal’s country. But “he began

to get proud and God became angry with him”. One day, Akmal decided to cross a river to

reach a faraway country. He took all his books on medicine with him. God commanded the

archangel Gabriel to take the place of the boatman and upset the boat. The boat turned over and

Akmal Hakim drowned. All the books were lost but for piecesthat floated to various countries.

Those who find the scattered pieces would become healers. Thus, medicine which is “one”,

could seem to be diverse and sourced from many places and many schools of knowledge. This

is a view shared in modern research and advocated by the holistic theoreticians (Naveh 1998,

Marcucci, 2000), even if, in practice, science is fragmented according to its disciplines.

2.2.4 The Emic or “Insiders approach”: a feminine perspective on people-plant

relationship in Terengganu
 39

Among anthropologists who studied the practices and treatment methods of thepeople

in Malaysia are women researchers: Christine Wilson (1967), Carol Laderman (1983), Josiane

Massard (1985), who went on the east Coast- striving to understand culture from "the native's

point of view" and “participant observer” (Malinowski, 1922). They took interest in the diet of

the villagers in Terengganu, as well as the treatments around birth giving. Josiane Massard

observed that Wilson’s (1967) reported idea that the Malays villagers, especially the women

after delivery did not take vegetable or fruit in their diet was not correct. A misunderstanding

may have come from cultural linguistic differences. In fact, Massard noticed, ulam, (greens)

and sayur (vegetables) are eaten, but not especially mentioned because they are not “lauk” -

main dishes. Fruit as well were appreciated, but in season, often outside the meals, not as part

of a meal menu. Both Massard and Laderman were following the “insider’s” perspective of

ethnographers or “emic” perspective -by analogy with the “emic” perspective identified by

linguists (Pike, 1967), which is different from the “etic” - outsider’s perspective of

comparativist researchers, who tend to describe differences across cultures in terms of a

general, external standards (Pike and Headland, 1990).

On her side, ethnologist Carole Laderman, who lived together with her husband and

their youngest son in Merchang, South of Kuala Terengganu and was accepted as a trainee by

a midwife in the coastal village of Machang, reported in “Wives and Midwives” (1983) the

particular care of the newly delivered mother and the practices around childbirth in Marang, on

the coast south of the state capital. She underlined the traditional understanding -in the village

and in the family- of the need for a woman to be taken care of in a special way after delivery.

The often athletic, unaccustomed effort of giving birth, especially for a first child, is followed

with the consumption of special food - nothing “cold-”, and is fortified by taking the “one

hundred spices decoction” by special massages; and sleeping on a wooden bed made of
 40

planks with a small brasero and herbs placed below the platform. In the past Skeat (1906) did

mention a local post-delivery treatment in Selangor where he described the woman “roasted”

over a fire. He qualified of the treatment “barbarities” that he understood as a rite (perhaps even

a relic of the cult of agni, fire god in Hinduism or Vedic tradition).

Laderman captured the psycho-analytic aspect of the healing process in “Main Puteri”,

the “shamanistic” healing “psycho-drama” ceremony practiced to restore calm and relieve pain,

by the bomoh-healer. In an induced trance, the patient can express his or her hidden desires -

the inner angin (winds ) - hidden desires or talents and personality traits. The treatment aims at

liberating the angin - that trouble the patient. These angin are similar to the repressed desires

that, in psychoanalysis, cause havoc in the psyche of the patient. The ‘scattered parts” of the

psyche need to be “welded again”. “Pateri” means “to weld” or “to repair” in Malay. As

“puteri”, -princess, has more poetic connotations, “main puteri” is more used as the name of

the treatment. Percussions, flute and incense, cater for the senses while the tok miding and the

tok pateri questions the patient, encourage him or her to dig into his or her soul. The American

anthropologist did not see main puteri (for “pateri”) as magic, but a connection with the

unconscious mind. Today, for schizophrenia - a psychiatric illness that literally refers to “a cut

mind”, group therapy is nowadays an accepted practice.

Another aspect of the therapeutic connection with the local flora is the decor in the healing

ceremony: is not only an ornamental background, but it reconstitutes a world. Plants are integral

part of it. In Malaysia, (Jabatan Kesenian dan Kebudayaan, 2005) If it is held in a specially

built space, that place is made of bamboo, with a “roof” or sky (lelangit) where are placed a

bloom of Pinang palm, flowers of white Cempaka Michelia alba, Gardenia - Gardenia

jasminoides, Kenanga -Cananga odorata, Cempaka merah -Magnolia liliiflora, Melor -

Jasminum, Geginang -Crotalaria species, bananas, sugar cane, and are ritual part of
 41

the evocation of a world, similar to reality, a recreated material and culturally meaningful

place where practitioners can call upon their knowledge and put it to use

2.3 Plant-based economic products and Pharmacognosy

2.3.1 Plant species dictionaries

Although medicinal or symbolic plants were always present in the life of the people, their

number were far from the actual wealth in nature, and scientists would record them in

systematically.

Away from the cosmological and psychological aspects of the Malay healing traditions, a

paper by Henri Burkill, -a botanist, J. D. Gimlette -a medical doctor, (1930) gathered an

actual Malay Materia medica from a compilation “translated by Inche Ismail Munshi,” based

on previous researches, local practitioners and village informants. In addition, Burkill’s

publication in 1935 “A Dictionary of the Economic products of the Malay Peninsula” recorded

no less than 1,300 plants (Ibrahim Jantan, 2004) that have been used in traditional medicine.

Burkill collected the vernacular names of the species, and often their various uses, if any, in

the rest of the world, such as the cosmetic and skin care species Urang aring(Eclipta

alba) reputed from Africa to China or the omnipresent Gandarusa (Justicia gendarussa) and

Setawar (Biophytum adiantoides).

Smaller in volume, Gimlette and Thomson’s “Dictionary of Malayan Medicine”(1939,

reprinted in 1971 and 1983) is such a good source on Malay traditional names for illnesses,

treatments plants and human anatomy, that Terengganu Forest Department officers still consult

it today.
 42

2.3.2 Research in Phyto-pharmacology and Ethnobotany

After the surge in the USA of in vitro massive screenings for active components in

plant species (World Health Organisation, 2000, Gerbhart, 2000), many researchers at

universities all over the world sought new ways to guide their explorations. Scientists in

Malaysian universities resorted as well to phytochemistry and ethno-pharmacy methods. In

1981, the FRIM (Forest Research Institute of Malaysia) began collaborating with Japanese

universities and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1980s, the Universiti Malaya,

began a collaboration with the French Centre for Scientific Research and undertook systematic

research (Chan Kai Cheong and Deverre 1985, Sevenet, 1994 with the University Malaya)

based on the phytochemistry of the plant families that contained alkaloids - one of the plant’s

chemical substances most effective on the human body. Laboratories in Malaysia, such as those

in Univeriti Teknologi MARA, Universiti Malaya, Universiti Technology Malaysia, were

equipped with the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy - that helps identify

molecular composition of plant species.

In ethno-pharmacy, researchers published studies giving scientific support to medicinal

plants of traditional reputation, but also giving precisions on the actual effect the species and

clarifying matters. One example is the case of synonyms like the three Aji Samat

-Prismatomeris glabra or Salacia macrophylla, or Jacopsis ornata that was clarified byUiTM

researchers (Tengku Azlan Shah et al. 2013). Tentative patents applications were registered on

six of the genus Smilax in Malaysia (George, 2010). Five Callophyllum species were

discovered to have potential anti-HIV activity (Kashman, 1992) while researchers at University

Malaysia Terengganu developed a cosmetic from Cucur atap -Baeckia frutescens (Fadzilah

Adibah A. Majid, UMT, 2018) and proceeded to clinical trials on Ortosiphon stamineus and

Andrographis paniculata for lowering blood glucos. Once cleared of potential

 43

toxic effects, Eurycoma longifolia (Tongkat Ali) and Labisia pumilla (Kacip Fatimah) were

commercialised as ingredients of approved “alternative and complementary medicine” (Goh

Cheng Song, 2018).

Officers from The Forest Department of Terengganu also undertook research on the

medicinal species used by the local practitioners or those commonly known by the villagers

in the state. Two volumes comprising @ 335 species- of “Herba Ubatan Negeri Terengganu”

were published in 2006 and 2011. Other studies by Malaysian universities researchers on the

topic were conducted in villages in Terengganu, by teams from the University of Sabah and

the University Malaya (see Ong and Millow 2011a, Ong and Millow 2011b) in Tanjung Sabtu

and in Mak Kemas . Today, numerous scientific and wider public works have been published

by the Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI)together with the

Forest Research Institute (FRIM) such as “Herbs: The green pharmacy of Malaysia” (2000),

and the two volumes of the “Flora of Peninsular Malaysia” (Kiew et al. 2011). In the collection

“Terapi alami” -natural therapeutics- by Ong Hean Chooi, three illustrated small volumes,

providing details on the on the vegetables (2003), on the wild species (2004) and on the weeds

(2014) were published. More popular and including information collected from Indonesia as

well, is an “Encyclopedia Tumbuhan Ubatan Malaysia” (Siti Fuziah Yusof, 2013).

In 2002, Phyto-pharmacologist Christopher Wiart re-edited his “Medicinal Plants of

South East Asia” (2000) that includes 225 species, of which 175 species are found inMalaysia.

He underscored that biological activity may be predicted through botanical family

classification. In 2006, Wiart added in the introduction to his most recent book: that “the

eradication of human illnesses will only be achieved when shamanism, traditional medicines,
 44

and science work side by side”. That declaration is a far cry from observations made at the

beginning of the last century presented above.

Nowadays, it is possible to consult inventories of medicinal plants found in Malaysia

and from all over the world, from Yunnan to Africa and South America. One can compare them

to find out that some of them such as Hibiscus esculentus, Datura stramonium, Punica

granatum, Morus alba, are reputed since a long time from Morocco to India, and often

introduced through Arab sources (Bellakhdar,1997). Many are known from China to Malaysia

and Madagascar such as Zizyphus jujuba, Brucea javanica, Melia azedirachta, Plantago major

and Elephantopus scaber (Sidel,1974, Key J.D.,1976). Other species, someof them perhaps

less spread, have been catalogued, as well as the knowledge on them, more recently, from

villages in South East Asia, in Thailand (Jungsongyuan et al.2000), in Indonesia (Eko Batoro

and Siswanto, 2017, Kasmawati, 2010) and Malaysia, including Terengganu (Ong Hean Choi

2008, Abdul Rahman Mahmud Dougara et al, 2018). Traditional knowledge is caught before

it disappears and will be available for examination, future preservation and eventually modern

uses.

2.3.3 The scattered handbooks: Manuscripts and Kitab tibb

One way to retrieve traditional knowledge is to transliterate ancient manuscripts from

jawi (Malay language written in Arabic letters) script and -if felt necessary, introduce and edit

them, as A. Samad Ahmad did in 1982 for “Warisan Perubatan Melayu” (the Malay

Therapeutic Heritage). This manuscript, copied in 1867 in Kelantan, was kept at the Dewan

Bahasa dan Pustaka. In his rendering, the author acknowledges that he left out of his

compilation “the un-islamic formulas”. The book lists 237 species presented in various

categories; including “village or planted: 52, forest 26, spices: 17; belukar: 113”.
 45

Others manuscripts of kitab Tibb -medicinal books- have been decrypted and

transliterated, such as Tayyib al-Ihsan, and Ar Rahmah fiat Tibb, (collections of the National

Museum). Closer to Terengganu, Roland Werner was trusted with the confidences of Nik

Abdul Rahman bin Haji Nik Dir, royal healer in Kelantan, and with a manuscript belonging

to the healer’s family. Werner wrote down every detail, including the rather astonishing

incantations and the not so strictly religious recipes (Werner 2002). By the same year, he

worked on the “Medical book of Malay Village Medicine” compiled in 1930 by Burkill and

Gimlette and the results of Burkill and Haniff methodical investigations in Malay villages over

Malaya, making these accessible, and easy to compare with other sources of in Malaysia.

A linguist, Mat Harun Piah, in 2015, studied and published the first of such

manuscripts from Terengganu. Having reviewed about 40 manuscripts deposited at the

National Library of Malaysia, Mat Harun translated and edited the manuscript entitled: “Ubat

tradisyional” obtained from the Terengganu State Museum which included prescriptions and

indications similar with those of another manuscript (the Kuala Lumpur Kitab Tibb MSS2515)

he had translated earlier. Taking in account the synonyms and non-identified species, a total of

870 medicinal plants found in the forest and in the belukar of Malaysia were inventoried.

Harun Mat Piah underscores the organization and the presentation of the “handbook” he has

translated and, -for a part, edited: The traditional names of the plant species are known, and,

for most, he had them identified in botanical terms. There are discrepancies and some taxa have

been changed, yet, commented Harun Mat Piah, thetherapeutic procedures or treatments are

explained precisely. He noted that the approach to illnesses, medicines and treatments is similar

with the one of Islamic tradition of Ibnu Sina, and refers to Imam Ghazali, and Imam Shafei.

He further observed that medicinal knowledge

 46

is often reported in manuscripts together with other branches of knowledge or “ilmu”, such as

fiqah -religious law, tasaauf -sufism, falsafah -philosophy, law and ethics. Concerning the

creatures from the invisible world (anasir-anasir lain dari alam ghaib), djinns, devils and

shaitan or satans (devils), Piah noted that the place given to these creatures in the Terengganu

manuscript follows the Islamic tradition.

2.4. Land and knowledge

Other than harboring plants species that have many uses for its inhabitants, land is a now

viewed as source of knowledge, or more precisely a place where knowledge can be “written”

and “red”.

2.4.1 The role of the land as a language beyond the “scape”

Parallel with the understanding of illness and the uses of plants species, the knowledge

on plants species is rooted in the land itself, in the landscapes that offer the plant material to

the inhabitants of a place (Sourkand and Raivo Kale, 2010). Landscapes today are understood

or “read” as expressing the way of life of a people while giving the visual appearance of that

very way of life (Anne Whiston Spirn, 1998).

Over the years, the interpretation of the concept of land has moved from a quasi-

contemplative perception of views to a deliberate overtaking of the land management (Antrop

2013). Today, landscape has been defined as “an area, as perceived by people, whose character

is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors” (European

Landscape Convention, Council of Europe, 2000, referring to Carl Sauer, 1925). In Europe,

there is now a legal recognition of landscapes as an essential component of people’s

surroundings, as an expression of the diversity of their shared cultural and natural

 47

heritage and a foundation of their identity. This definition puts the focus on the human

experience of landscape (Tweit et al. 2006). Landscapes are now accepted as “places”, that

may have, beyond the land morphology, cultural and floral features essential to the identity of

these places, and so, can be used to understand better the philosophy and the psyche of the

inhabitants of a place. Criteria for cultural landscapes were listed such as in “The informational

reference model” (Stephan and Rachel Kaplan, 1978; the Experiential Approach (Taylor et al.,

Rapoport, 1987, 2004); “Holistic landscape ecology (Zev Naveh, D. Marcucci , 2000); and the

US National Park Registry (Bult. 18 & 38).

2.4.2 Home gardens as balanced microcosms and their disappearance

Researchers documenting the features of the house gardens in Malaysia and in Thailand

underscored the “microcosm” character of these cultural units, the harmony between the floral

life and the inhabitants, between needs and activities. While studying the useful plant species

found in these gardens, they observed a balanced land organization and a micro-ecologic

system favorable to the keeping of medicinal plant species. There had been studies done on the

perception of the gardens as the expression of a society, such as in Malacca (Anisa Ani et al.

2012) or having a socio-cultural significance as in kampong MasjidIjok in Perak (Ramli et al.

2021) or a specific function as therapeutic gardens ((Ismail Said, 2003). In Thailand, Gajaseni

and Gajaseni, described the “Ecological rationalities of the traditional home garden system in

the Chao Phraya Basin” (1999). The home gardens were dubbed by other- authors as “in-situ

reservoirs” for biodiversity at all levels: genetic, species, and ecological. (Kujawska et al.,

2018). In Indonesia, in East Java, Tika Putri Agustina et al., (2019) underscored the plant

diversity -447 species- and the knowledge on them in 90 home gardens of the area of Pijon,

stating that that knowledge and the plants themselves are

 48

currently “facing serious treats, mainly because of globalization and rural tourism

development”.

The importance of the village landscapes and path sides as documents on the vernacular

knowledge on plants has been underlined as well by Robert Voecks (2018), who stressed the

importance of the information collected by inhabitants of tropical countries such as Brazil and

Indonesia, not only from the forests, but from their own gardens or rural surroundings where

those with knowledge would preserve the species -the effect of which they were familiar with.

In studies (Lynnwood Hume,1984, Longuet, in “La Malaisie Contemporaine”, 2019) on the

house compounds visited in Terengganu, the presence of deliberately preserved medicinal

“weeds”, together with planted therapeutic species in the villages landscape was witnessed.

Unfortunately, these home gardens or pathways to knowledge are disappearing, as land

use may be the object of contradicting interpretations of development. Change has been

reported in Dengkil in Selangor (Katiman et al. 2011) where home gardens and villages have

-in stages- moved from rural areas to become urban settings and parts of the Dengkil former

kampong is not different from the neighboring modern Putra Jaya. Najihah Jafaar and Nor

Zalina Harun (2018) have called for an awareness of the losses of traditional settlements and

have identified the impacting factors: “natural disaster, lack of maintenance, modern

development, destruction by irresponsible parties, lack of awareness and declining of

traditional product in the market”.

2.4.3 Orang Asli perspectives on traditional plants and the land as a place of

permanent resources not to be exhausted

 49

Another area where the situation of the inhabitants is changing is the habitat of the

Orang Asli, as explained already by Colin Nicholas, (2000). It is not only their shelters, but

their natural environment as well. Unlike that of the other inhabitants of Peninsular Malaysia,

the Orang Asli’s “home garden” had no precise limits as their home is generally the forest itself

(Lye Tuck Poh, 2010). On their part, in Terengganu, academic researchers (Ramle1993,

Muhamad Fuad et al, 2021), and the Department of the Orang Asli Affairs (JAKOA) have

recorded the knowledge, the species of medicinal plants and the life philosophy of both the

Orang Asli peoples in the state -the Bateq and the Semoq Beri tribes. They understood how the

Orang Asli have the notion of the forest and its natural landscapes as a “lifeworld” the

stewardship of which is given to them in trust.

The knowledge of the Orang Asli has spread within the material forest paths they

have learned to know through succeeding generations, memorizing the potential resources of

the places in the forest where they take only as much as they need. Researchers Nicholas (2010)

and Endicott (2016) have noted the particular position of the Orang Asli in Malaysia vis-à-vis

the many aspects of “development” that may destroy a previous balance. Lye (2004) reported a

poignant message aimed at the authorities and the land planners in Malaysia based on a warning

given the Bateq community in Pahang about the destruction of the environment. The Orang Asli

concern sounds like a premonition of catastrophe: “Take away the forest, the dunia (world)

ends. We want people to know that the world can end. Already there aren’t trees” said Tebu -

a hala (shaman) of the Bateq in Pahang. “Our nyawa (life-force) lives upon the trees. The forest

is the urat (the nerves or the blood vessels) of our lives”. The planters are removing humanity

from the landscape” (In: Lye Tuk Po p. ).

The study of the relationship of the people of a place with their natural surroundings

and their heritage is nowadays viewed as an indispensable preparation to plan any sustainable
 50

development (Stobellar and Pedroli 2011). A call for a “landscape literacy” (Whiston Spirn,

1998, page? ) -a necessary ability in planning and landscape architecture, to understand the

“words of nature” and human environment, without which, decisions for a sustainable future

could not be made, has long been heard. Zev Naveh (2000) had explained the importance in

the present circumstances of the relation of man with nature. The author added that “many

threatening syndromes indicate that at this critical transitional stage from the industrial to the

post-industrial global information age, humanity has reached a crucial turning point in its

relationship with nature”

 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Overview

Time passing -from 1980 to 2022- has equaled, it seemed, in Terengganu, to a change in

landscapes, in the flora and built surroundings that have affected the interaction of the people

with their environment.

In this chapter, the methodology for producing a verification of this statement is described.

It seeks ways to answer the questions presented in the Introduction chapter: What changes have

occurred in the floral environment and in the cultural landscape or builtenvironment over the

past decades? What is today the status of the plant species in the state, and what is the status of

its landscapes? Are the inhabitants in the same relationship with their surroundings as in the

1980ties?

To empirically capture the elements of change, the disappearance or the resilience of the

past, two sets of data on landscapes, plants and traditional knowledge -the field data from the

past and those from the present time- have been compiled to prepare for an overview of the

changes, their occurrence, extent and significance.

Three research methods are presented here: those used in the past era for discovering

medicines, the one used today to evaluate the changes occurred between the past and the
 52

present era, and the conceptual background drawn from theoretical approaches used to

analyze the results from the gathered data.

3.1.1 Data gathering from the past personal records and field notes

The data for “the Past Era”- 1983 to 2007-, were collected amongst records of visits

and expeditions conducted over time. From 1983 until 2002, they were collected during

ethnobotanical research for private laboratories (SREP, LMD, Pernod-Ricard) and universities,

often in collaboration with the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)

and the University Malaya (UM) Universiti Teknologi MARA (UITM). For the years 2004 to

2007, another set was compiled during cultural features data collection for a Master degree in

Landscape Architecture at the University Technology Malaysia (UTM). Further visits were

made in other various areas of the state during these periods. The data for “Present Era” of the

current study, were recorded from 2014 to 2022, during revisits in the previously explored sites.

3.1.2 Field Research areas

The areas where the visits and re-visits were conducted and data were recorded aresituated

mostly in the Northern part of Terengganu, the region where the earlier explorations had been

made, allowing comparison over time. The following map provides a general location of these

areas.
 53

No. Type of Places Sites Location

1 “Forests Hills” Belatang, Tembaka Waterfalls

2 Batik, Semoq Beri Tribes

3 Kenyir Lake

4 “Coasts” Pulau Duyong

5 Jambu Bongkok

6 “Villages” Rivers Valleys

Figure 3.1 Map of the state of Terengganu with the general location of the visited areas and
research sites
 54

3.1.3 Landscapes and study sites

The research field covers three types of landscapes, with two of them are associated with

the relief of the State: -the coasts, the forest hills, and a third, the river valleys or “villages”,

which are more associated with human habitat. Within each area, two or three particular “sites”

-a total of six- were selected for field study because of their natural and cultural characteristics,

and because they had been visited previously and had been found to illustrate the relationship

of the people with their floral and cultural environment.

The “Coasts”-the first selected area, are often considered as reflecting an important

part of the identity of Terengganu, a state spread in length along the sea with agglomerations

gathered around the rivers and their estuaries. It comprises two sites: Facing the capital of Kuala

Terengganu, in the estuary Terengganu River, the estuarine island of Pulau Duyonghad a

landscape made of mangrove, a forest of tall Dipterocarps and orchards. The inhabitants had

gained a reputation in religious knowledge, naval trade and fishing. The second coast site

extends from Marang to Jambu Bongkok and Dungun. The inhabitants ofthe km long

beach strewn with coconut trees, had found resources in the complex ecosystem between the

sea and the sand, dunes, mangroves and lowland forests.

The area called “Villages” includes the gathering of habitations and gardens -located

most often along the rivers and their confluents (water ways were in the past a convenient mean

of transport). It has been chosen as it embodies the characteristics of the way of life of the

Malay inhabitants in Terengganu in the past: The “House compound” with their gardensor

“halaman” had been created, where daily life was led according to cultural and practical needs,

as well as reflecting the social status and taste of the house owners. The full landscape

components, -including the flora and the built environment features, of the previously
 55

explored house compounds, serves as a part of the general baseline, especially for the cultural

significance of the landscapes.

The “Forest hills” area includes the more interior parts of the state. Working along the

paths of the forests with scientists in search of medicinal plant species, was rewarding: Plants,

trees, shrubs, climbers, herbs, including numerous medicinal species, were collected. There had

been opportunities to meet knowledgeable inhabitants, and explore with other visitors who

provided more information on the plants. The “Forests hills”-comprises: hills, mountains (some

are above 1000m such as Gunng Tebu, Gunung Lawit;), and waterfalls, the Kenyir Lake and

its surroundings and two Orang Asli settlements, in Kuala Sayap and Sungai Berua.

The visited sites, individually, do not yield an equal amount of data. The collection

depended on the objectives of the expeditions, accessibility, the time spent there, as well as the

number of informants. Furthermore, development had brought, with time passing by, obvious

changes in each of the sites. Once reviewed, the sites have been found significant in

representing its own category of landscape identity and in revealing the relationship of the

inhabitants with their natural environment.

3.2 A multidisciplinary field

The plant collection was not difficult to gather on the field as Terengganu has a rich floral

background. Plant species, part of everyday life, have been listed from field observations in

good numbers, with the guidance of knowledgeable individuals. With the help of these various

experts, it became possible to identify the species, and note their reputed use and therapeutic

potential.

3.2.1. Informants and colleagues

 56

A list of the main colleagues, companions in the research on the ground, from various

disciplines, whose contribution was often worth months of lectures, each in their domain, is

given below in Table 3.1.

Expertise Name Contributions

Botany Lynwood Hume Plant samples preparation
and identification
Medicinal plants Mat Kapur Commercial presentation
entrepreneur and Malay names

Phyto-pharmacists Drs.Daniel Jean, Leon Compounds and molecules

Cariel, JFWeber, JR Deverre in botanical families
Midwives Wan Esah Tok Bidan and Perinatal treatments, care of
Mek Haji Siah women as mothers and
wives
Collectors of medicinal Bateq people, Abdullah and Life from -and in, the forest
plants Nilam,

Foresters Mustapha and Ibrahim Led to the places and the

trees they knew and sharing
the book on herbal medicine
they produced
Terengganu inhabitants, Villagers and town people Field informants and guides
for local knowledge and
herborizing on the floristic
paths
Traditional practitioners Pak Ibrahim and others, in Recipes for medicines and
Tepoh, Bukit Cempaka, etc. majun

Table 3.1 List of subject matter experts and informants who assisted during field work

3.2.2 Practice and exchanges on the field

The participants in some field expeditions were typically representative of the pluri-

disciplinary nature of ethnobotanical studies. This researcher would introduce a team of

 57

medical doctors and a phyto-pharmacist to a knowledgeable practitioner, villagers or orang

 58

asli, men and/or women, who would guide the outsiders’ team to the medicinal plants they

knew. (Pic Dr Jean and Trad Practitioner.)

Exchanges on the field were frequent: An ethnobotanist is often in the position of a

knowledge peddler or knowledge interpreter. Collaboration happened and consensus was found

often when medicinal samples from one traditional practitioner would be brought to another,

for him or her to compare (for example, Mat Kapur’s specimen from Jambu Bongkok were

brought to Pak Ibrahim in Bukit Payong ), and often confirmed the use and reputation of the

species; or, when the recorded chemical characteristics of a plant according to its botanical

family was explained to a local practitioner. For example, a Polyalthiabullata, the reputed

tonic and spicy smelling pelah hitam -an Annonaceae, would contain alkaloids, substances that

are effective on the human body. So would the Rubiaceae, explained the phyto-pharmacist to

the local informants; while, in the forest, phyto- pharmacists followed the path of the medicinal

species indicated by the local informant with therapeutic knowledge. A doctor in phyto-

pharmacy (Daniel Jean) would confide one of his prefered clues to the foresters: “It looks

strange, it smells strange, or it tastes strange: it is medicinal.” The foresters readily agreed to

the pharmacognosy clue as they used it already, and both parties from different disciplines or

style of knowledge, appreciated the consensus.

3.2.3 References used in the past

Apart from the past and current references in the disciplines where research has been

conducted, and before internet arrival in Pulau Duyong, (circa 2000), a few scientific works

provided by the laboratories this researcher worked for were a useful method tool: - Kerharo

(1974) in Senegal, Jamal Belakhdar (1997) in Marocco, the National Centre for Scientific

Research (Fernand Meyer, 2002) documentation in Tibet. These references work explained

their research methods, with detailed monographs and descriptions of plants species, uniting
 59

botany, medicine and anthropology. The voluminous “Merk Manual” (1977) the latest -then-

was used as reference for information on medicine and pathology.

In Malaysia in the 80s, the two volumes of the “Dictionnary of the Economic Products of

the Malay Peninsula” (Burkill 1935, reprinted in 1966), were found at the book store of the

Forest Research Institute in Kuala Lumpur (FRIM). Other few references sources then were

the tomes 1 and 3 of the “Tree Flora of Malaya” from FRIM (1972, 1978), with leaves

descriptions, and Keng Suang’s work on “Orders and families of Malayan Seed Plants” (1978)

with keys to identify the species from leaves, flowers and fruit.

The research then was not destined to be academic, but practical, to find out therapeutic

potential species to study and if promising, develop; yet, following the above, the models of

procedures for botanical research in Belakhdar or Kheraro works, disponibleearlier, were found

to be similar to those recommended later for ethnobotany by Cotton (1996) and Martin (2004).

[Perhaps mention here cf “Research sequences”1 and 2 in appendix:” From a plant to a

drug” and 2 “From a (traditional) drug to a plant” typed in the past for the Project Institute

Nuralam (Original in appendix)

3.2.4 Sources of data: Personal Documents

The data from field research in Terengganu were recorded along the years in the form

of dried botanical specimen, traditional medicinal samples, pictures, research reports on

species, inventories and diaries of species encounters, as illustrated in the following pictures in

Figure 3.2 a) and b).

 60

Figure 3.2 a) Checking bark pleasant smell of -probably “akar sarsi”-in the Hulu Besut
hills b) Botanical sample and medicinal parts of Cinnamomum molissicimum, Vitis
cinnamomea, and Polyaltia bullata.

The records from expeditions and interviews included pictures, ethnographic and

botanical reports and landscape descriptions of the visited areas. Extracts of some of these

narratives are used to establish part of the baseline datas as records of the past circumstances.

Species inventories were made, by site, by use, with vernacular name, seen or collected,

separately or together with other researchers or traditional practitioners.

The journals of plant species were written along the years, following their collection

date, with individual information on each species as they were found, and complemented

during later encounters. Given the humid climate and heavy monsoon floods, the “medicinal

samples”, the botanical specimen or the documents on floppy disks did not fare as well as the

hand-written records on notebooks but, altogether, it was possible to retrieve the gist of most.

3.3 Three pathways to Medicinal plant species discovery

In practice, three “pathways”, were used to discover medicinal plant material. The

first was direct observation in the street or at the market in Kuala Terengganu where sellers

would display their goods This would lead to the reputed medicinal part of a species and to
 61

its vernacular name. (C.M. Cotton, 1996; Jamal Bellakdar,1997; Gary Martin, 2004). The

second method was to follow the botanical classification where botanical families known for

holding active compounds were sought in the natural environment by teams from the Phyto-

pharmacology departments in Japanese Universities, the Centre National de la Recherche

Scientifique in France, and the Massachusets Institute of Technology in USA. The third method

was the cultural landscape approach, or that could be called the “bona fame” or“good

reputation” path: Observations were made where villagers grew or let grow around their houses

some species -usually not rare in the landscapes of South East Asia-, thetherapeutic reputation

and the properties of which they knew. This method today is part of ethnobotanical research,

as a direct approach to vernacular knowledge. It was also used on the field by this researcher,

as plants could be identified first as signs characteristics of a cultural landscape, or significant

“ground features” for example Inai -Henna, Delima, Zizyphus Mauritiana in the house

compounds in Terengganu.

3.3.1 The “ethnography pathway”

This path goes from raw traditional Materia medica found with the local practitioners

and inhabitants to plant species on the ground: In 1982, the research had for objective to

identify leads to find new compounds in the vernacular traditional pharmacopeia,

particularly in the field of cosmetics which were legally faster to develop for a laboratory in

France. In the eighties already, the activity of local practitioners was on decline.Malaysia

had a long-established network of government hospitals and private clinics, especially

around the city of Kuala Terengganu. Generally, consultation of “bomoh” -or local

medicinal practitioner- was resorted to last, when modern medicine was unable to alleviate

the symptoms. The term bomoh had even acquired a dubious connotation as if the healers

were charms spellers as much as healers. The respectful formula was “dia berubat orang”,

“he treats people”.

 62

A few individuals with entrepreneurial spirit and traditional medicine knowledge,

but not actual traditional healers, came in town to sell medicinal products. Particularly

interesting were the presentation in plastic bags of about 300 gr. of dried materials. They were

dried roots, barks, twigs, and leaves, rarely fruit, cut in chips or small parts. The components

were mixed according to the illness or the desired effect. The most frequently advertised were

aphrodisiacs or tonics for men and after-delivery recovery mixtures for women. Other mixtures

were prepared, aiming at specific complains such as kidney stones (batu karang), pain in the

stomach (uluran) or skin problems. The contents of the bags were sorted out according to the

aspect of the wood or leaves chips: texture, smell, taste, color, followed up with meeting the

seller at the market or at his house. There, the objectives of the research were explained. Further

business arrangement was proposed, larger quantities were ordered. Relevant information such

as botanical names and scientific findings were given, if the species was already explored, and

further exchanges in collaboration were proposed, starting with an official letter of appreciation

from the director of the French laboratory.

The following picture shows materia medica as it is sold in bulk, ready to be brewed is

sorted out by species.

Figure 3.3 a) Traditional Materia medica sold in bulk ready to being brewed is sorted out by
species: Mas secotet, Gajah beranak leaves, Akar sarsi stem wood and bark, dedawai tuber,
betek hutan root b) Back from the forest: roots, wood, barks, leaves. to dry and, for some, to
be sent to the UM and CNRS laboratories.
 63

To verify the seller assertions as well as to record the vernacular names and reputed

uses of the plants, after checking the literature, other sellers or to practitioners were visited,

with the species, and comparing their information with the one given at the market. Discussions

and tips on “marker features” used in vernacular botany were useful as many specimens found

later in the forest were most of the time sterile: They were the wheel shaped rays of the section

of the Menispermaceae, the pungent fragrance of a Polyalthia with their almost black bark, the

yellowish grey dense texture of the bitter Eurycoma longifolia, the famous dot on the leaves of

Ficus deltoidei. Further information was given on the therapeutic indications and warning as

to the mixture effects and any contra-indications. Then, the concordance of that local

information was checked with the literature.

Usually, the seller of roots would accept to lead this researcher on a walk in the nearby

forests (Mat Sakai in Jambu Bongkok) or in the hills (Pak Hin in Tepoh, Pak Da in Bukit

Bintang) to identify the plant species on site. Specimen with their Malay name -even if sterile,

were collected, pressed, dried and mounted on drawing paper. Later they were compared with

the scientific references in the herbaria at the Forest Research Institute Malaysia or at the

University Malaysia, in Kuala Lumpur. Then it was possible to benefitfrom the help of well-

known botanists such as K.M. Kochummen (FRIM) or -for mangrove, Benjamin Stone (UM)

to verify the identity of the specimen laid in a portable herbier.

The resulting information was noted in the journal of species, with the location where

the plant was found. Lists with location and lists by informants were made for future reference.

The following Figure 3.4 illustrates some interviews: a). in 1983 with a Tok Bidan in the forest

near Sungai Ruar, b) another in Jerangau FELDA settlement in 1992.

 64

Figure 3.4 a) Approach through a local practitioner 1983 b) With Ayah Wail 1992 or pak

Hin

3.3.2 The “phyto-chemistry pathway”

That pathway led from chemically known plant families to species collection in quantities:

Phyto-chemists working with local universities such as the University Malaysia (such as Pr.

Chan Kai Chong, who specialized in chemical screening survey for saponins and triterpenoids)

and pharmacists from laboratories gave this researcher the opportunity to organize three to five

days of field trips in the forest. They introduced the method ofmolecules discovery through

preliminary direct phytochemical trial. A makeshift lab was established in the forest with a leaf

thatched lean-to. In the 1980s and 90s, scientists were looking particularly for plants species

belonging to families containing alkaloids: Apocynaceae (Kopsia, Ervatamia, Alstonia,

Annonaceae, Rubiaceae (Ophioriza), Alangium

-(a Cornaceae), Myrsinaceae, Menispermaceae (Coculus,) Celestraceae (Lophopetalum),

Magnoliaceaea, Rhamnaceae, Labieae, Simaroubaceae (Deverre, 1985). During these

expeditions, after confirmation of the presence of the desired components, the species had to

be harvested in larger quantity of 10 kilograms for further studies at the laboratories of the

University or at the Research Centre overseas.

 65

Figure 3.5 : a) J-C Deverre testing alkaloids, in 1984); b) Large harvest for Dr. Sevenet
(CNRS)1985.

3.3.3 The “landscape architecture pathway”

From plants in village gardens and surroundings to first aid medicines:

Back in the 80ties, invigorating decoctions (ubat periuk) and health enhancing greens

(ulam) where still in use in their original form. Up to ten years ago, it was still possible to

spot in the gardens and around the house compounds halaman gardens in Kuala Terengganu,

more than 200 medicinal species (Longuet, in Helen Seguin,2010). The “third path” to

medicinal and useful species could be identified through cultural landscape architecture

approach.

This path is found when a garden or a house compound can be “read” (Rapoport,1982) as

holding a cultural message, telling to the passer-by of the beliefs, the cultural heritage and the

worldview of the inhabitants. The species -planted or naturally occurring- most having a

medicinal or health related use- , were inventoried, and consigned in chronological journals

with their “address” in the villages in and around Kuala Terengganu, and some along the main

rivers and the coastal area in the state. Interviews with villagers were conducted, which helped

further identify the “proximity plants” and their -growingly only occasional- uses. The

following Figure 3… show two of the sixteen house compounds in Terengganu where
 66

medicinal plants have been inventoried, here respectively a) Seberang Bukit Tumboh spp.

and b) Pulau Ketam ….spp.

Figure 3.6 The landscape architecture approach: inventories in these two compounds have
produced a total of 91 medicinal plant species, known as such, but most not used anymore by
the inhabitants. ( in house compounds A1 -Aristocrats 76 species , and R 3 -Rakyat 3, 15
species)
3.4 Field data gathering and organization towards a baseline

The three approaches had resulted in a collection of data which were recorded in the form

of notes from daily walks, short trips or expeditions, with reports, site inventories, botanical

specimens, traditional medicine samples, pictures, and journals of plant species, A

recapitulation of the encountered and identified plants amounted to about 600 (587 after

verification of identities) species. These plants were reported as being medicinal in theliterature

as well as by the knowledgeable villagers. More than 300 (323 noted) of them had an “address,

-the location where it had been personally observed, documented and/ or photographed and/or

collected.

To obtain data relevant to change and establish a baseline from where to proceed for

comparisons, the information has been divided in two types of presentation: (1) inventories of

-mainly- reputed medicinal species, and (2) narrative surveys of the explored sites.

3.4.1 Plant species inventories towards exploitation for analysis

 67

Other than to revisit the sites, a method for obtaining data relevant to the objective of

tracking the changes, was to consult the plant collection lists from past expeditions, as well as

the chronological note-books surveys. These hand written lists sometimes include only the

vernacular name and a first botanical identification and sometimes they include the

identification of plant family, and uses. There were as well recapitulative inventories that

gathered all species encountered at certain points in time. Once retrieved, these various field

documents could be completed and their data be presented in an alphabetic table of encountered

plant species.

3.4.2 Reference inventory tables: selection of headings and final baseline

For this research, a set of two tables comprising recapitulative data on the plant

species. was devised: One is for “Species Identification”, the other for “Value” appreciation.

@ 587 Species encountered during past researches on medicinal plants in Terengganu were

listed. The titles of the columns or headings in the tables were selected following the

information in the plants compilations monographs consulted in the literature and the field

information gathered from traditional practitioners or other knowledgeable individuals.

3.4.3 Plant Species Identification details

A table of “Identification Inventory” (cf. Full table in Appendix Inventories “General”) with7

columns of characteristics that serve to identify the species was created. The titles of the seven

columns indicate, for each taxon -botanical name, -vernacular name -family, -habit, -

distribution range, -habitat, and -location in Terengganu. An example of this table is given

below:
 68

Scientific Botanical Vernacul Habit Range Habitat Location

name family ar Name

Abrus Mimosaceae Saga Slim India Sunny KT, Jerat

precatorius akar betina climber subtropics, belukar Cina
tropics
Abutilon Malvaceae Bunga Herb India to Shrubber Villages,
indicum kembang Southern y paths sides
lohor China
Acalipha Acanthaceae Ekor Herb Oceania Gardens P.Duyun
hispida kucing , g near
worldwide houses
Acalipha Acanthaceae Kucing Herb Shrubber
indica galak y
Acanthu Acanthaceae Jeruju Prickl South Shores Bank,
s ebracteus y shrub China, Sungai
South East Mangrov Nerus
Asia Sea e
Acanthu Acanthaceae Jeruju Prickl South Shores, Bank,
s ilicifolius puteh y shrub China, mangrove Sungai
SEA Nerus
Table 3.2: Extract example of the plant taxa inventory (“Identification”): 587 species

The information from the field was later completed with that gathered by archival

research, especially for the botanical “range of distribution” of the species. The latter is an

important factor to determine the frequency of a species over geographic areas and its

reputation, carried over the continents by ancient traditions and trade. It can underscore as well

the rarity or perhaps the relative endemism of a species. For the vernacular and botanical names,

classic references (Gimlette 1929, and Burkill 1966) had usually a good list ofsynonyms that

included the ones used in Terengganu. The local informants were often aware of various

designations or local names in other states. These were later verified in the more recent

compilations of monographs in Plant Resources of South East Asia (PROSEA, 1999) and in

Wiart’s “Medicinal Plants of South East Asia” (2002).

3.4.4 Plant species “Value”, significance, or potential Use

The second table dubbed “Value inventory” had eight columns. The botanical names

and the vernacular name of the species were followed by their location in Terengganu, their

use(s) in Terengganu, their uses in other countries traditional medicines, their phyto-
 69

pharmaceutical reputation, their landscape and aesthetic value, and their abundance status as

seen in the table below:

Botanical Malay Location Uses in Phyto- Other Landscape Abundance

name name in Terengganu pharmacy Traditions and status 2017
Terenggan esthetics
u
Macaranga Mahang Villages Not specified Not NS NS =
hypoleica puteh bushes specified
Maesa Setulang Villages For itch Not NS NS =
ramentaceae specified
Mallotus Mahang, Jalan Postpartum NS NS Fragrant +
floribundus Hiliran flowers
Cosmetic
Mallotus Balek Bukit Kecil Leaves Anti- NS NS +
macrostachy angin KT circumcision diabetic
s
Mangifera Mempela Villages Seeds NS NS Long-lasting =
indica m vermifuge (?) leafy large
tree
Manilkara Sawo, Villages, Seeds Saponine NS Introduced 0
kauki ciku Duyung
Table 3.3: Example extracted from the 587” species reference inventory” for: “Value”.
Note: Abundance status: “=” exist; augmentation: “+”; diminution: - ; disappearance: “0”.

The data on “part used” usually mentioned in medicinal plants lists was not included, as it

is not directly relevant to the research, although that important information for sustainability

would be duly noted in interviews or site visits. On the other hand, two headings were added:

“Abundance status” and “phyto-pharmacy” which refers to today’s known bioactivity.

This second list (“Value”), although used, is not presented here as, once the species has been

identified, the information obtained was overwhelming (much documented in the literature) or

not reliable (hearsay).

It was noted that the “location in Terengganu” -the exact “address” - as it were- where

the plant had been found, could not be filled for a number of taxa, as that information - although

the habitat was noted- was not precise enough in the documentation to evaluate
 70

change over time. So, a third and final inventory was made that includes only the plants that

had a location or an “address”.

3.4.5 Final “Baseline inventory”: Plants with an address (323 species)

This inventory (available in full in “Appendix A -Inventories, general”) has beencreated

selecting from the general lists above. It includes only the species with the location where they

could be found again -if it is still present-, during a re-visit as this a most important information

for tracing change. This inventory includes 323 taxa. It documentsboth the “Identity” and

the “Value” characteristics. The column “location in Terengganu” is filled. It is the table that

will serve for demonstrating the sustained existence, the disappearance or the increased

abundance of the plants. As in the larger reference inventories, the value of the taxa is noted

from various points of view such as traditional knowledge, new potentially therapeutic

molecules, aesthetic, and environmental services presented in the full table in Appendix.

The column “Abundance status” refers to the present situation in Terengganu in the

mentioned location: “=” means that it exists; “-“ means: diminished; “+” means: increase, “0”

means: not seen anymore.

For the plants botanical identification and phytopharmaceutical components that are

needed for the record, the information was up-dated by research in recent papers on the

mentioned taxa as well as by verification with former colleagues and mentors among phyto-

pharmacists and forest rangers (Jean Frederic Weber, Salleh Endot).

3.5 Narratives: Visits and Re-visits on sites to note changes in floral and

built environments
 71

Each site survey is divided in five parts, focusing on both floral and built or cultural

environments: 1) they briefly present the geography, the history and the people in each site,

2) they mention the reputed floral icons. 3) an “ethnological reportage” is made to illustrate the

character of the site, 4) fourthly, re-visits are made with focus on the observed changes in the

floral and built environment.

The interpretation of the term “site” given previously refers to places visited that

present a unity in landscapes or in type of settlement, even though they may be located at

different places, such as the house compounds with a culturally significant landscape

disseminated in towns or in the country, or the orang asli settlements, as seen in Kuala Sayap

and Sungai Berua. Each of these sites has a value in term of the medicinal species growing in

them and inhabitants who were knowledgeable in traditional medicine. Each of them can be

characterized by particular features that define the main uses of its natural resources. The data

from the surveys were recorded as narratives, sketches, and inventory tables. They provide

descriptions of the relief and flora of the land as well as results of interviews.

The Table 3.4 below gives a summarized view of the first retrieved documentation. It is detailed

by type of landscape and informants, records along the past era, with main ethnobotanical

features, including trends in the use of natural resources or assets, before revisits in present

times.
 72

Table 3.4 : Surveyed sites in Terengganu and associated features in the “past era”

Main site Landscape Informatio Spp. Prominent Floral assets ancient

type n Source inventories features utilization and emerging
location and dates trends.

Jambu Beach, Mat Kapur+ 1984 Bags 400gr dry Small scale trade to
Bongkok beris, low other sellers explorations, roots barks and commercial development
land coast personal and leaves, majun
forest for
labs1985, to
2002
Pulau Estuarine TokBidan 1973, 1983 Fresh Personal care and
Duyung and island Wan Esah, to 2003
samples first aid
Pulau Ketam village inhabitants spp Medicinal
mangrove specimen plants around
and lists houses and in
belukar
Sekayu, Small Botanist, 1983, Environment concept: valuable spp.to
Kenyir hills forests L. Hume, 1988, 2002 and be considered before project
Tersat waterfalls, Prof. exploratory Phytochemis logging -or submersion
artificial Karim inventories try.
lake (UMT) conservationists
and journalists

Kuala Sayap Forest Batiq 1984,198 From Stages of Changing

Sungai Bera dwellings people 5, aborigines paths environment: schools, Palm
Settlem “Abdullah” 2002 of life in the oil
ents Semoq Beri visits, spp. forest to
collections settlement
Kuala Traditio Inhabita 1973- Pharmacy Rural functional habitat to
Terengganu nal villages nts, 1983-2003-- around the urbanized life.
& traditional 2013 house, spp. with
Surroundi practitioners permanent multiple use
ngs collections

“Terengganu Hills and Pak Husin Expeditions NTFP “Non- Recreation,tourism,pharmac

highlands” forests and reports lists timber forest ognosy, collaboration with
or Hill Foresters for lab 1985, products” of businesses and universities
Forests personal and interest for -
Gunung shared 2002 →next column:
Lawit molecules
G.Kambing

G.Tebu

Events that occurred along the years in landscape and in the life of the traditional

knowledge holders were reported as well in the narratives. as a base to the future re-visits.

Some decisive events in the history of each site have had a strong impact on the landscape of
 73

the considered areas. These are presented in the following analysis as exogen causes of
 74

change or disappearance. The re-visits of each site have been done a few times during the years

of this research from 2014 to 2022. There are a new series of maps, profile sketches, for the

changes in landscapes, new taxa inventories per site and new interviews which are compared

with the data from the past, preparing to materialize the visible aspects of the change.

3.5.1 Comparisons in inventories

In complement to the taxa inventories by site, and to obtain a broader view of the present

situation of the plant species in Terengganu today, the baseline inventory from the past was re-

viewed according to the existence -or disappearance or increase- of the taxa on the localities

where they had been previously spotted in the past.

The results of these comparisons established two types of assessment, giving a measure of

the amount of change occurred in the three fields of the research where one is quantitative, the

other is qualitative.

i) Quantitative Assessment

The question - are there more or less plant species? - was answered by counting the number

of taxa (particularly medicinal species) seen during a “present time” in each site visit, versus

records in the past. Re-visits have been re-iterated to verify the first findings.

ii) Qualitative assessment

As landscape changes are often anthropogenic, specific data such as place and dates are

available for dams, road, bridges construction, or clearings for plantations and mines, so that

it is possible to obtain a list of the changes introduced in the landscapes. Similarly, on the

qualitative side, traditional knowledge, survival or disappearance, can be evaluated through

information on the life events of the practitioners as well as their children or disciples.
 75

To appreciate the value of a plant species in an area, the headings “uses in Terengganu” and

“phyto-pharmacy”, as well as those on ornament and food indicate what valuable assets may

be lost. For the landscape benefits that can be drawn from the flora, the headings “aesthetic and

other environmental values” and “habit” of plants, attract attention to the services that nature

provides to human beings beyond sustenance, including shade, wellbeing, artistic satisfaction.

3.5.2 Cultural features, architecture and ground elements in the house compounds:

As far as the built environment is concerned, its changes are assessed through the

differences over time in the number of cultural and architectural features observed during “re-

visits”

The built environment within the natural surroundings is included in this study as

it was an essential element of the landscape of Terengganu in the past. Inventories of cultural

features and significant ground elements found in the house compounds in 2005 had already

been made, following the criteria reflecting the cultural values attributed to landscape

mentioned in the literature review. There were 54 “Architectural features” and 82 “Ground

elements” identified as present in the past in previous research work (Longuet, in Delfolie

2019). The informational reference model” (Stephan and Rachel Kaplan,1978) and other

evaluation methods mentioned previously are used as well during the” re-visits” as a base

reference to evaluate their persistence, disappearance or increase of the cultural and ground

features in the present times (2013-2020) compared to the past. They are, for their resilience or

disappearance, important signs of change.

As for plants, presence or absence, the results “P”-presence and “0”disappearance columns

are significant for change. “Cultural and ground features” in “Villages” areas signal an impact

on the identity, on the link with nature and on the psychological significance of a
 76

place for the people, especially in the context of the theories of landscape reading and

interpretation.

3.6 Theoretical background

The research has used a background of four theories that have assisted in identifying the

significance of the gathered data as well as widening the understanding of the range and impact

and consequences of the change occurred along time over the considered eras.

3.6.1 The concept of entwunderung or disenchantment

One important step in the understanding of change in the relationship of people with

plants or cultural features is the change in people’s mind, a psychological revolution described

by Max Weber (1905) at the beginning of the of the 21th century in Germany at first: The

“magical” world that was believed to exist had disappeared. (for which the Malay world was

known in literature). The entwunderung -the disenchantment- left space for reason and legal,

administrative rules as bases for action in human life. The efforts of the Government in

Terengganu -the “transformasi”and “transformasi baru’’, and its concrete development efforts

evokes in some aspects a mental revolution where industrialization brought about

rationalization of production through uniformization and globalization. (That transformation

would be the second important one in Malaysia, after the tauhid revolution, about the concept

of unity of God long ago in the 15 century)

3.6.2 The Language of Landscape

Another theory, or quasi philosophical view, -also introduced in the literature review, is

supported by the tenants of the “language of landscape” for whom landscape reading is

essential to understand a country and its people, -from Kevin Lynch (1960) who introduced
 77

the idea, to the concept of “place legibility” promoted by Anne Whiston Spirn. This reading

view is useful in the analysis of the signs of change and their significance as “words” of the

landscape language. It leads to an interpretation of the components of the landscapes in the

visited sites as witnessed in the past and in the present times. It is helpful to perceive landscape

changes when numerous elements or “words”, significant in the past may have disappeared, a

change resulting in a “muted” landscape, silencing previously clear landscape messages. These

interpretations assist in capturing the significance of a diminishing timber houses count or of a

rural place on the way to become urbanized.

3.6.3 “Imprinting” theory of behavior

Another theory that suits the particular social organization reflected in the village landscapes

in Terengganu is the one that Konrad Lorenz developed through his concept of behavior

training, when studying the early “formatting” of animals. The importance of the teaching role

of an environment close to the inhabitants was, on the field, exemplified by Mohd Yusof

(interview in 2017) referring to Raja Bahrin’s drawing and notes (19 on the specific paths

designed around a Terengganu Malays house, where a male guest will enter from the front

while the female takes the direction of the kitchen, the pintu rezeki (“the livelihood door”) at

the back in the compound. Other rules of conduct have been seen as written in the lay out of

the space around the house: a place to clean the feet and leave shoes and other dedicated

features (platforms to rest in the afternoon, ground cleaning on the way towards the main stairs,

), referring to an organized way of life.

3.6.4 Holistic theory

The third theoretical approach is holistic: the three spheres supra-system schema proposed

by Zev Naveh and Lieberman, (1994) had been found -appropriate by this researcher (in

Delfolie, 2019) to describe the significance of the habitat of the villagers in Terengganu. In
 78

2005-2007-, the house compounds in Terengganu could be interpreted as “holons” or

microcosms, with their own “noosphere” -the sphere of the mind, the “biosphere”, -the sphere

of life and survival- and “the techno-sphere” the sphere of commerce and communication.

These holons or house compounds could be considered as part of the macrocosm in the central

concept of “Total Holistic Environment (THE)”. This is used in analysis and results to qualify

the considerable change in the situation of the villager from Terengganu, from living in a house

compound in the past era, to living in the present era with a perhaps completely differently

significant habitat.

These theories have prepared to interpret the role of the many cultural features and plant species listed

in inventories as significant “words”. They will help analyze the process of the evolution in the

relationship places-plants-people over time- that has been witnessed in Terengganu.

 CHAPTER 4

Part 1: “Ilmu” Traditional Knowledge

4.1 Introduction

This part the study is a baseline of data from where the evolution of the state of Terengganu

in its floral and built environments as well as the people relationship with these can be observed.

This is done through comparing significant details in the landscape, the flora and thepeople ‘s

life between two era. It is presented in tree parts:

4.1.1 The Sources of “Ilmu”

In this first part of the chapter, the role of geology, geography and tradition in the perception

of nature and medicine in Terengganu is evoked.

4.1.2 Geology, landscape and ancient perceptions

Back in the late seventies and early eighties, when the first documented obsercvations

were initiated, the land in the state of Terengganu appeared as drawn by geological events, for

a long time covered with forests which were used as an ever present resource and were often

spiritually interpreted. Then, during the following decennies, change happened.

 78

It is therefore important to describe the particularities of relief and geography that have a

link with the beliefs and the “ilmu” or traditional knowledge of the inhabitants, the general

lines of which are presented.

In this explaining the research direction, a light is shed first in the past on the people in

Terengganu and their relationship with the vegetation around them, on their world between the

sea and the forest, when nature was a permanent source of a livelihood granted by God (rezeki),

rich in diversity, contrasts and paradoxes.

There were the forests and their animals and fruit, the sea with the fish, the squids, the shells,

the paddy fields, the mangroves , the beaches… all with food, building materials, medicines;

but as well inhabited by spirits, and dangers lurking in the hunger of predators and the roll of

the powerful waves. A world that had inspired writers, British and Malays such as Arthur Locke

(The tigers of Terengganu 1954) and S. Othman Kelantan (Angin Timur Laut, 1969 .

The state is filled with figures of immensity, in time and in space, when its relief keeps traces

of the Permian age (299 to 251 million of years ago) in plant fossils identified in Bukit Keluang

(Mohd Shafeea Leman et al. 2008), lower Jurassic (205 to 180 million of years ago) in the

discovery of tooth and other traces of dynosaures found near Mount Gagau, at Sungai Chichir

in 2014, and in the presence of prehistoric tree species such as the Coniferous family, the

Gnetum and Cyrcas species; as well as in the -formerly- vast extent of its forested areas. “of

this area” -refering to Trenganu-,” could a British administrator write “ nearly the whole is

continuous jungle .”(John Crawford 1867 History of the Malay Archipelago). Behind the forest

mantle, the telluric origin of the state of Terengganu remained visible in the mountains and

seashore landscapes.

4.1.3 Orogenesis and traditional knowledge

 79

Spread on 320 km along the China Sea, the land in Terengganu was formed by a series of

geologic events that are rarely found together on such a relatively small area: One was, in the

interior, the appearance of granite mountains with emerging rocks of mafic origin and high

waterfalls; the other was, on the coast side, the progressive creation of a sea shore made of lines

of parallel dunes and water bodies. The maps in the following figures introduce that particular

relief of Malaysia with its general South North direction of the hills and mountains and the

Northern part of Terengganu.

Figure 4.1 a) Malaysian mountains b) Around the Besut river: Granitic

mountains forests, waterfalls, rapids

4.1.4 Mountain formations and magma intrusions

The state is located by the Eastern Range of the three belts of mountainous relief of the

Malay Peninsula, -or “coulisses” -as the geologists call the folds of high Palaeozoic relief

(about 542 to 251 million years ago) that run parallel to each other, over the Peninsula in a

South-North Northwest direction, creating an undulated terrain. Valleys appear between these

folds where, as in the North of the state, the Besut, the Tembat and Petuang, rivers have found

their beds. Smaller stream tributaries fall from the slopes towards flatter land producing series

of waterfalls such as Lata Belatan, Lata Tembaka and La Hot springs. (Location on the fig.
 80

map). Once having left the hills, the larger rivers slow down and meadow toward their estuaries

with, in places, patches of sand or sediment alluvions. They flow through palm oil and rubber

plantations and small pioneer towns with official buildings heralding the agricultural

development, toward towns and villages by the estuaries such as Kuala Terengganu and Pulau

Duyong.

In the north of the state, hills or small mountains are distributed in a fork shape around the

valley of the Besut River. A line of peaks marks the border with the state of Kelantan on the

west: Gunung Kambing (1308ft), Bukit Temiang (1249 ft), Bukit Tangga, Gunung Ayam.

Some of the mountains on the right side of the Besut river are higher: starting at Bukit Bintang

(542) of modest height but with a view on the China Sea and on the islands of Pulau Perhentian

and Lang Tengah, while the higher Gunung Tebu (1035ft) is often wrapped in clouds of brume,

in line with its reputation of mystery. Further upstream are, at 1161ft, Bukit Batu Balai, and at

1518ft, Gunung Lawit, the highest summit in the state. Down towards the border of the area is

Bukit Susu Dara (1452 ft). In the South is the region of Hulu Terengganu, where begin the

water catchment territory of the Terengganu River tributaries.

A most interesting feature of these hills is the occurrence of batholiths or Pluton and “dykes,”

relics of volcanic intrusions of early earth magma explosions that, -hundreds of millions of

years ago, (during the Palaeozoic Era, 542 to 251 M.A. million years ago)- went through the

crust of the earth but did not reach then through the surface. Having been exposed to years of

weathering on the land of the hill slopes, they have emerged. (En. Hamli…, Department of

Geology Terengganu, 2016) The following Figure 4.2 illustrates the process of erosion.
 81

Figure 4.2 The process of granite hill formation from the earth magma

The well-defined shapes of the emerged mafic rocks and summits have inspired the locals to

give them names such as, in the Peda granite: Bukit Kapal -the vessel hill- or Jong -the junk,

or the Jerung -the shark- to these protuberances.

Figure 4.3 a) Batholiths in the high hills b) Map North of Terengganu with areas of
region of Terengganu Peda Kapal batholith, Lata Belatan and Lata
Tembakah waterfalls scale 1: 260 000
 82

Their petrology -the nature of their rocks- and their extent have been analyzed by geophysicists

(Rajah et al., 1977). and recorded more recently (Tajuddin et al, 2014). The Kapal batholith,

one of the largest granitic bodies in the Eastern Belt, extends from the Setiu River in the north

to Gunong Irong in the south. It also consists of several smaller granitic plutons such as the

Saok diorite, Chengal and Kesing Granites outcrops are exposed mainly on the riverbanks and

at rapids such as Sungai Belatan and Lata Tembakah.

Other remains of that volcanic past such as dykes have often appeared later, as streaks of dark

color held in rocks on beaches and other reliefs such as those exposed during excavations in

the Kenyir Lake.

4.1.5 Dunes by the seaside

The second event occurred at the end of the glacial period. The slow warming of the earth

climate resulted in the sinking of the Sunda shelve. That event took place from around 11 000

to 8000 A.D., a long example the effects of climate change- and flooded the Sunda Shelve

continent. It created folds of dunes along the Terengganu coast, forming the sand relief profile

called the BRIS -Beaches Ridges Interspersed with Swales. (Jamilah Mohd Salim, 2011,

interview with Enche Hamli, Department of Geology Terengganu 2016).

“Global sea level rose by a total of more than 120 metres as the vast ice sheets of the last

Ice Age melted back. This melt-back lasted from about 19,000 to about 6,000 years ago,”

(National 0ceanographic Centre, 2010)

At the onset of deglaciation about 19,000 years ago, a brief, at most 500-year long,

glacio-eustatic event may have contributed as much as 10 m to sea level rise with an average

rate of about 20 mm/yr. During the rest of the early Holocene, the rate of sea level rise varied

from a low of about 6.0–9.9 mm/year to as high as 30–60 mm/year during brief periods of
 83

accelerated rise. Subsequently, the constant North-East winds and waves during the monsoon

added to the formation of the sand dunes parallele to the sea shore.

Figure 4.4 In pale blue, the sunk area of the Sunda Shelve

4.1.6 The Flora of Terengganu

The floral composition follows the land slopes and soils Terengganu has beaches,

mangroves, lowland forests, -much of it now replaced in the present times by plantations-, river

valleys with villages and their useful trees and herb species.[ It has been introduced in C1and

will be described further in detail in the following “areas” of part 2 of this chapter, according

to their relief :coasts, -house compounds, and -hills.]

Compared with the recessing coastal area, the forests that are found in the inland hills

have remained unchanged since the Pleistocene for about 130 million years. There are less

climbers and epiphytes than in the western range and in terms of species, the vegetation is

closer to that of Borneo (Ruth Kiew 2015). The tree species are reputed for diverse reasons:

their size like the Koompassia excelsia tualang (host of bees), their rarety outside of the

Southern hemisphera like the Araucaria, or hey were deemed lost such as the recently

rediscovered the Aquilaria rostrata (2015), gigantic size such as the Neobalanocarpus heimii

Cengal in Cemerong, or the Melunak (Pentace Burmanica), the largest of its species in
 84

Malaysia.The forest canopy camphor fragrant Kapur, and on the top of the mountains, where

the monsoon winds blow, then smaller trees and shrubs of heath forests with Leptospermum

and Baeckia genuses.

Endemic species to Terengganu have been discovered recently: Aristolachias, Genesriaceae

Codonoboea (Kiew and Chung 2019), medicinal mistletoes, orchids, gingers Scaphochlamys

small gingers (Y.Y. Sam and L.G. Saw 2005), and translucid Thismyae (Siti Munira, 2019)

without chlorophyll.

Other than providing the use of their trees as building material, -growingly for export-

medicinal ressources or phytochemial leads, forests in Terengganu are known to have offered

retreat areas. Visitors feel the energy of nature at work and will, revere such places where

humanity seems dwarfed by nature. People would practice silat, cults, meditation away from

earthly preoccupations in places such as near “Batu Mat Hassan”, or at “the Madrasah” in

Gunung Tebu.

The grandiose landscape is perceived by the inhabitants as haunted or inhabited by

forces -beneficent or malefic, ghosts, jinns, bunian, spirits that live their own life as creatures

on this earth, on the land and in the sea. Witnesses of powerful waves, fearsome forests, the

minds are used to contradictions alive.

There was a constant link with the ever present natural environment, landscapes, flora and

fauna, and their immediat resources. It still is, in some familial local traditions, forbidden to

cut certains trees: bamboos for Wan Yayah family of Kuala Hiliran) or to kill certain animals

etc. in memory of a familial “debt” for exemple the Kekacang fish for Haji Wan Latif family

of Losong.
 85

4.1.7 Forest life and beliefs

The hills were particularly a spirits inhabited place, a source of mystery and unknown, a

refuge for the bertapa meditation retreat. The interpretation of which was singular and had

puzzled academic observers, British anthropologists (already mentionned in the litterature

review) in its seemingly contradictory concepts, especially in a series of beliefs juxtaposed

such as a long pra-islamic acquaintance with the invisible in Terengganu with a strong

attachment to the Islamic faith. Compatibility was found between “magic”or superstitions and

righteous practices. Respect of the learned dogma was not found incompatible,with practices

according to the circumstances.

A matter the interpretation of the correct of spiritual attitude. The attention given to the

“niat”or intention at the moment of the taking of a species, tells of the awareness of the

existence of an owner, other than man. Beyond this respect of the creator, the proper way to

take a species includes as well salam and reference to the prophet Elias (Jabatan Perhutanan

Negeri Terengganu, 2006, p. 208, for the sites in the “Hills” area).

A Form of mystical geology has developed, from the mythical tree (Pau janggi) that lies in

the Indian Ocean to the more scientific Islamic concept of mountains bases (Press et Siever,

2002) in the earth, being deep and, like stakes pegs (“alwatd”), or pasak in timber building, the

roots of the mountains hold their emerged part above them.

4.1.8 Traditional therapeutic knowledge

The information below is a gathering of information made in 1984-2005 from literature,

observations, and interviews, allowing the traditional therapeutic knowledge as observed in

 86

Terengganu to be presented here under five of its aspects: The traditional concept of “ilmu”,

its filiations, the artistic metaphors, the traditional therapists and illustrations of their practice

4.1.9 The concept of “ilmu”: Scattered, yet one

Being brought up with reading the Qoran and listening to the Hadith, a few traditional

practitioners in Terengganu would mention the name of Luqman al Hakim as a proper reference

for the kind of knowledge or “ilmu” they held. Their side of the story of the too successful

doctor whose documents were scattered in the water by angels obeying to God order-, was not

always known in details, but the important point was that their ilmu was connected to Islam

and that it could seem limited.

Syed Naquib (1992) has explained another important aspect of traditional “ilmu”. “Ilmu”

is translated by “knowledge”. However, is not only acquired, like science can be, but the word

refers to a knowledge revealed, for which one has to prepare oneself, to deserve it. Furthermore,

knowledge is all encompassing. The disciplines are not fundamentally separated. Medicine can

be taught together with cosmology, geometry, mathematics, and other sciences.

In villages in Terengganu, human life was connected with the invisible or spiritual world

that dwelled in nature, in the environment. Che Da Wan Khalijah from Pulau Duyung would

advise this researcher (so did the foresters) to give salam to Nabi Alias when entering the forest

and to Nabi Khader when going sailing.

The relationship with nature was also a symbiotic experience, where natural elements could

be invested of human intentions. As another woman from PD confided: “Pokok naik naik

menjadi tinggi kepada langit adalah doa dia kepada Allah” -The trees grow and grow tall

towards the sky; it is their prayer to Allah”.

 87

It is on that background of closeness with nature and flora as well as from various sources

of influence that the traditional healers would operate. The medicinal Ilmu was transmitted

personally or individually, from many origins, as well as taught in madrasah religious schools

and recorded in Malay jawi or in “Kitab Tib”, -manuscripts of materia medica in Arabic

language.

4.1.10 Historical heritage from a crossroad location

The heritage in terms of content and concepts of the Malay traditional medicine found in the

Malay Peninsula and in Terengganu had been strongly influenced by the immigration currents

that have touched Malaysia during its history. It has been fed from sources geographically wide

apart and reached Terengganu as well as the rest of old established areas in Malaysia such as

Malacca and Johore or Kedah and Kelantan.

Back in the 80ties, to set the background for ethnobotanical research on medicinal plants

species in Malaysia, it was possible to briefly summarize the medicinal knowledge

geographical origins and influences, and share the resulting information and sketches with

French phyto-pharmacists. One of them concluded: “Thus, Indian, Chinese, Arabo-islamic and

shamanist components are found. However, Islam, practiced by all the Malays has realized the

present general unity and originality of the traditional therapeutics” (Deverre 1983). Reputed

religious teachers with therapeutic knowledge in Terenggganu came from Hadhramaut -today

Yemen -which had for long a successful trade harbor- such as Tokku Paluh and Abdul Malik.

The families of Tok Sheik Duyung, and Sheik Abdul Khader came from Pattani and Champa

-today Vietnam- (Mohamad Abu Bakar, 2010).

The following documents are extracted from early researches made in 1983 for the SREP.

There are a map (Figure 4.6 a diagram of filiations (Figure 4.7 ) and a table (Table 4.1 ) showing
 88

the diverse sources of the traditional medicinal knowledge encountered in Malaysia and

especially Terengganu:

Figure 4.5 Geographic paths of the Malaysian medicinal influences

 89

COMPLEX FILIATIONS

Proto-Malay sources
Varied shamanitistic and tribal

Local aborigenes
sources
Chinese
Malay traditional
medicine

Homeopathy South Indian

Muslim Medicine

Arabo-islamic Indonesian Melanesia

medicine medicine
M

Persia
Aceh – Java - Sumatra
Grece
Babylone
Ayurvedic

Figure 4.6 The diverse sources of the traditional medicinal knowledge encountered in

Malaysia and especially Terengganu

 90ponents
Table 4.1 Recapitulation of the many concepts involved in the tradition, from China to Greece (1983) The various possible com
of the traditional knowledge.
In his practice, a bomoh can use a During a trance, the bomoh may
Shamanist technique, refer to ayurvedic become a dancer or a tiger
concepts and pronounce a Hinduist
mantra In Arabic disguise

According to the need and his knowledge, the bomoh can permute his sources

Concepts Shamanism Chinese medicine Indian Arabo-Islamic medicine Malay traditional medicine
medicine
Metaphysics/philosophy/physics

-World vision//to medicinal ✓ ✓ ✓

✓ ✓
Practice
-A fundamental energy animates “Mana” “Chi” “Semangat”
“Prana” “Roh” (+ or -)
living beings
-Dualism Alimentary taboos, Yin - Yang Creator: one. Practical
Multiple forces Not essential, Unicity of the Creator, Moral duality: ex.: food: hot-cold
but: Shiva/kali duality: good /bad
- Equilibrium = life (health) “Tao”, a balance in Balance + internal strength
movement Hellenic-Arab concept: Subject to alterations
Health= balance “mu’tadil tibbi”
Medicine/theory 5: earth, fire, wood. Metal, 4: (or 5): earth, fire, 4: earth, fire, air, water Air (angin), water
-The elements _ water air (ether), water Yellow&black biles
“Climatic” conditions: Hot, “Humors”: elements Similar to Chinese with Importance; hot/cold states
-The “humors” _ cold, dry, humid, and their combinations and predominance: blood, yellow associated with pathological
combinations predominance &black biles, phlegm. conditions

Coupled organs. “Shakras” astral Heart & liver (hati) synonyms,

_ Full/hollow. Acupuncture bodies; paths of Organs arranged in urat essential
-Fantastic anatomy & role of the circuits spiritual energy systems/function; urat (ducts)
“ducts” present.
Non respect /taboo Unbalance of climates Unbalance of Lack/taboos; lack/semangat,
-Pathological etiology Less “mana” &elements elements in body Unbalance of humors and unbalance humors/elements
Diagnostic Up to 92 pulses elements water/winds
Not used, except by Sheiks of
Arabic learning
-With the pulse ✓ ✓ 9 12 ✓
-General condition, symptoms, ✓
way of life ✓ ✓
✓
-Trials and errors allowed
4.1.11 Plants as the words of a crafted language

One aspect of the Malay thinking that this researcher has observed with traditional

practitioners, villagers, students and craftsmen was a preference in reasoning by analogy.

Kiasan or perupamaan symbolism, metaphors, comparisons, pantun even…are often a

pedagogic method. Thus, in architecture, decorative elements, art or craftsmanship are made to

serve a further purpose. As reported in the Literature review, it can be said that the cutting blade

is a tool of expression, a writing tool like a pen; plants with their stems, twigs, leaves, sprouts,

flowers and fruit are as the words of a language; carving patterns are sentences, using the moves

of plants to convey a message, be it in elaborated tri-dimensional carvings or in cutout sobek

or kerawang. In the Spirit of wood, Farish Nor and Eddie Kho have noted how young leaves are

carved to bow in front of old ones, and how a sharp point in a leaf will not be made to strike

(“tidak menikam”) another leaf. The significance of the carved panel is embodied in the paths

of the leaves.

The relationship between the material and the crafted world has a metaphoric, even mystical

significance. Function- aesthetics -significance are associated. The two examples of carvings

from Terengganu, presented below in Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.7 a) Cut out carvings in Kota Lama b) Tridimensional carvings on the House
Duyong: of Tokku Paloh
 92

The Kota Lama carving may be understood as an image of the life of man: The stems and twigs

are linked to one source, develop in loops and circles in youth and maturity but remain framed

in the geometric design (of religion) and return to the source (punca) of their creation.

In the fig. 4. The carvings on the wall of Tokku Paloh’s and Haji Wan Abdul Latif’s housein

Losong have each a wall with similar tri-dimensional motives that can be interpreted as a

representation of “Ilmu”: Here, the branches are presented as ascending from one another,

linked and returning to one source (Punca), probably the spirit of the Creator of all knowledge.

“The craft is an abstracted manifestation of craftsmen's ideas into architectural timber

component” (Ismail Said 2008)

In conclusion, it appears that for a long time, plants where part of the people life, and not

only (as usually admitted for villages) alive- around the house, providing food, fragrance,

shade, but they were part of the house architecture as well, not only as building materials, but

as aesthetic and didactic elements on the doors and windows; and, when the sun went through

the sobek tri-dimensional carved panels, they entered inside the house, reproduced on the

wooden floor.

4.1.12 In Practice in the past Era: Syncretism and common Sense

In the past (1985-2005), in Terengganu, the four elements -air, fire, earth and water were

known among some of the practitioners. Wood of Chinese tradition, was not mentioned. Ibn

Sina was heard of among some. The concepts of humors and temperaments seemed to have

been mixed, but remained the idea that a balance in the body had to be maintained. There was

a routine evocation about hot and cold food and a consensus seemed to exist as women

anthropologists had noted. (Laderman 1988, Myer and Sturm, 2010])

 93

Everyone seemed to know what was “cold” and “what was “warm”. Kangkong, as many

vegetables, was evidently sejuk, so were the betik -papaya and bananas(Massard 1983,

Laderman,1988). Illnesses were described in relation with urat -nerves and angin -winds.

In Kuala Terengganu, four Sensei had established Chinese medicine shops, two of them

with consultation cabinets, each with a qualified practitioner giving prescriptions and

practicing acupuncture. Indian groceries for medicinal spices were established in Kampong

Cina street, and at the market, “Habib” had a booth, providing Sepang Kederang (Caesalpinia

sapan, Cudrania sp. ) and spices. Both Indian and Chinese sellers had local Malay consumers

and their advice was listened to.

4.1.13 The practitioners

Some of the Malay traditional practitioners in Terengganu evoked references to Luqman ul

Hakim and to the Tajul Muluk. Hot and cold balance were of importance. Prescriptions could

be given according to the patient needs as identified, but there was no apparent therapeutic

system.The personalities of a few of practitioners and informants are presented in more details

in their house within their respective “site” in the following part of this chapter.

Not wanting to appear questioning the knowledge of a practitioner, this researcher refrained

from exploring their eventual panoplies, even though it seemed already (in about 1990-2002).

that the familiarity with traditional knowledge as a system was regressing, Concepts and beliefs

were verified, not through the informant healer’s explanations, but quite often through village

women a parte remarques.

 94

If knowledge in the Malay Peninsula did come from four directions of the compass, in

practice, a part of the medicinal species came from different sources in the proximity of the

villages houses as shown in the figure below

Figure 4.8 Medicinal plant collections according to location and knowledge

What was evident is that, in matter of therapeutics, there were specialists who could be

identified, not as coming from ancient schools of traditional medicines, but more as local

possessors of knowledge, a knowledge dispersed and the origin of which for them was traced

to a few local gurus or to the healer’s own family members.

Examples of holders of traditional medicine knowledge met in the past are given below: the

medicine sellers, the givers of treatment, the field guides, the esoteric school, and the everyday

practitioners.

i) Small entrepreneurs at the market and in town

Five traditional medicine sellers form an important group of informants for the research:
 95

Encik Hassan sold small bottles of “Minyak Geliga” made from of Gelam (Melaleuca cajuputi)

leaves, an oil that a lady distilled in her house in Kuala Terengganu. Encik Hassan had a

network of customers including the government midwife in the klinik bersalin -delivery clinic-

of Pulau Duyong.

Habib sold imported spices as well as the local Sepang Kederang in his booth at the main

market in Kuala Terengganu.

Encik Roslan from Marang was knowledgeable in women tonics for after delivery. Still

today: his wife is active at the pasar tani t-he farmer market in Kuala Terengganu.

Mat Kapur had a considerable display of bags of medicinal roots and leaves near the bus

station in town, there were postpartum species, tonics for men etc. The report on his activity

and medicinal plant inventory is part of Jambu Bongkok site documentation and appendix.

Pak Hin, who was perhaps in his 60ties in 1985, was a known figure around the streets of

Kuala Terengganu, sporting long hair, dressed in black sailor pants, shirtless, with a bracelet

of kayu bahar (black coral) on the biceps. While entertaining a small crowd of interested

passers-by, he gave verbally a list of the species in his ma’ajun panacea. Like often with

ma’ajun pills, it was complex, based on spices with added reputed local roots (100+spp. list in

appendix)

ii) Treatment providers

Besides selling, some knowledgeable people also provided treatment. Five of them assisted the

research. First, there was Haji Da Padang Air -a jovial old man, with a pointed beard, the father

of whom had immigrated from Java. He gave massages for fractures and practiced bekam

moxibustion with a cow horn, to clean the blood.

 96

Wan Ismail Wan Yahya, originally from Kuala Hiliran on the Terengganu River, belonged

to one of the first group of people who opted for participating in the rancangan pioneer

settlement of Felda Jerangau in the 1960ties. In 1985, he collected for the French phyto-

chemical laboratory large quantities of dedawai -Smilax myosotiflora. His son explained that,

as part of his amanah -a legacy from his guru, he could not refuse to assist someone who

requested his help.

Pak Su Man, 68, Sungai Rengas, was a relative of Tokku Paloh, he was also nicknamed Pak

Man “Castro” as he had received commando training with the army in other times. In 2003, he

had established a modest wooden “klinik” where he stored medicinal plants and some other

substances. He also grew vegetables on neat beds.

Sporting a thick mustache, then 40, Pak Daud Mohamed also from Sungai Rengas, was a

masseur, using medicated oils. Himself a silat proponent, his specialty was more sportmassages

and treatment for athletes.

In Kampong Nerus, the brothers Wan, who had worked as assistants at the Terengganu

General Hospital, practiced from their house in Kampong Nerus where they helped for

fractures and other results of accidents or athletics damages. They used traditional poultices as

well as modern bandages. (pic) with Lepisanthes rubiginosum based paste.

iii) Guides or forest collectors with knowledge in traditional medicinal spp.

There was Pak Da Muda Ayub who lived at the foot of Bukit Bintang hill. In 2002 he was

a retired collector of plants but sometimes led botanical explorations on the hill.

Pak Ibrahim, 50, of Pengkalan Merbau, was a forest collector. He showed all the edible

species he used to find in the belukar around his village. For the French Research Laboratory
 97

he collected 10 kg of Mytragyna speciosa (Ketum). “Each plant has its use, he said, but we do

not know it yet”. When inquired if there was anything he would be interested in receiving, he

requested a tusk of a walrus.

Pak Husein was a practitioner in his village and around, as well as a collector for the state

foresters. He guided our team of researchers on the “Forest Hills” site.

iv) The more esoteric trend

Other practitioners had more exclusive specialities: Ayahku Sheik Abdullah had

organized in his village at Kampong Pengkalang Atap a center for rehabilitation of (mostly

young) drug addicts, using prayers and personal training. He confided trying a particular

Nibong -Orania sylvicola. The soporific power of that nibong was later evoked years later by

a plant technician in Kenyir “can carry a man asleep without him being aware of it because he

has taken the Orania”

On his side, Ustaz Zakaria of kampong Paloh delivered bottles of blessed water to children

before school exams (Hume1984).

v) The practical side: midwife, silat instructor, measles specialist

Many treatment providers were known in their village for a particular effectiveness:

Other than Mak chik Esah would provide all peri-partum treatments, Ayah Da Neng a jeragan,

-fishing boat skipper- in Pulau Duyong, also known for his silat knowledge, accepted to treat

people brought to him by friends. Together with a medical doctor from France, it was witnessed

how he cured a 15-month-old baby girl from a painful intestinal invagination. Prayers and water

aspersion stopped the crying on the spot. The child did not show any more symptoms after that

consultation.
 98

Also in Pulau Duyong, Ayah Man was a specialist of the campak measles in Pulau Duyong.

Besides his incantations and prayers, to lower the fever, he advised a shower with boiled

Kankung (Ipomea aquatica). En. Ali (specialist of uluran abdomen inflammations) did

massages to help get rid of batu karang –kydney stones.

Abdul Rahman lived in a house by the roadside toward Kampung Kesing. He was reputed

as a bomoh and gathered plants species from the forest near Kuala Berang such as Akar sarsi

Cinnamomum porrectum, as well as he captured monkeys. He claimed to be able to treat “a

hole in the heart” with a secret species, and he deplored the deforestation for agriculture that

made the forest “too far”.

There were others who, progressing in age, feeling they had gained enough knowledge to

help, declared that they could berubat orang - treat people- with their prayers. In Pulau Haji

Siak a man gathered a team of assistants to catch the jinns a village lady claimed disturbed her.

The team caught the jinns and put them in buyung copper jars. On their side, The State Museum

has kept a list of all those who wished to be registered as traditional practitioners with their

names and mention of their specialty.

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4.1.14 Images of the Traditional medicinal knowledge

The type of knowledge or “ilmu” found in Terengganu was illustrated as in the three

different documents presented below:

i) Manuscript treaty of therapeutics

Figure 4.9 Kitab Tib Tgnu “Ubat Tradisyonal”

This kitab Tib has been found in Terengganu. Acquired by the State Museum in 16.10.1984

from Tengku Ahmad Roslan bin Abdullah, it is, in 312 pages, a large material medica of the

19th century-early 20th century. About 800 medicinal substances-including repetitions-, are

inventoried, as well as illnesses, symptoms, and the related therapeutic practices, with parts of

the plants used as well as other natural products -stones, animal parts, and the related

preparations, are described. Harun Mat Piah (1937- 2019) has produced a full rendition of the

manuscript in Jawi in 2006, with an introduction and notes.

ii) Mystical anatomy

Another document was given in Duyong Kecil to a family member of this researcher by a

follower of the author. The 82 pages “Hakikat Insan” dactylographied document came
 100

originally from Kelantan. It explains esoteric practices familiar to sufi students and illustrate

them with drawings.

Figure 4.10 Anatomic interpretations in traditional documents

In the zikir bond between the human body and the practice of prayer, the heart is the physical

place of the incantation in the body of the believer. The qalbun (hati, liver, jantung, heart).

Both zikir and qalbu are illustrations of the individual perceptions of the believer on the steps

of a mystical path. The zikir follows the rhythm of the heart, then makes the other parts of the

body follow and all enter the rhythm of the cosmos.

iii) Bekam

The third document is 2 meters by 1-meter 40cm board hung on the wall of a clinic in Padang

Air (Nerus). It informs of the operation hours from 7 to 10 in the morning, warns that sleeping

afterwards before 7 pm is not recommended and that bekam cupping is for people from18 years
 101

old and above. Pak Weil -the practitioner- gives the indications of bekam and the parts of the

body where the cups are applied, corresponding to the patient complaint described in a mixture

of modern and traditional Malay terms such as gout, high blood pressure, male and female

organs good functioning, numbness of the extremities, sinusitis.

Part II: 2 Visits and Revisits over time in the tree main areas of landscape

4.2. Introduction and Location of the visited places

The sites where researches have been done and re-conducted over the years have been

introduced in the chapter on methodology with their location map and details on their particular

identity in the past era. The following narratives develop the information on each of these

places.

4.2.1 Coastal areas

The “coastal areas” comprises two sites: Pulau Duyong, an estuarine island -which is dubbed

“My Island of autarchy” and the coast from Marang to Jambu Bongkok dubbed “Survivors”.

4.2.1.1 Pulau Duyong: “My island of autarchy”

To illustrate the atmosphere of the estuarine island of Pulau Duyong, two pictures show (

Figure 4.11) The timber planks drying for boat building in front of a house with a tekup double

roof for the kitchen and (Figure 4.12)

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Figure 4.11 Pulau Duyong 1975: Cengal planks for boat building and “tukup”
kitchen double roof for smoke exhaust

Figure 4.12 Pulau Duyong 1992 Kekabu tree and rest “gerai” by the river

i) Geography

The estuary of the Terengganu River is oriented North East towards the China Sea,

between the hills of Bukit Datu, Losong, and Bukit Puteri -a rocky promontory with a

lighthouse that overlooks the sea and the land. The capital of the state, Kuala Terengganu,

is built on the right side of the river as well as the oldest street, the central market, and the

ancient royal palace. Three main large islands are found in the middle of the river. Two of

the islands, Duyong Besar -the big mermaid, and Duyong kecil -the small mermaid, were

given their name after the dugong sea grass amateurs, a mother and a daughter who were

stranded on the sands. On Pulau Ketam, the third island, it was a ketam emas, a golden crab,

that is said to have been found. It is a current practice in Terengganu to use the nameof

“Pulau Duyung” for the three islands.

 103

Figure 4.13 The islands in the estuary of the Figure 4.14 View on the estuary from
Terengganu River in the past. Duyong in the the first guest house on the island
@1990 [ Pic: Kota Lama door gates and
estuary of the Terengganu River 1987
plaster carvings 1920 restoration 2004]

ii) Landscape

Seen from the town over the Terengganu River, at first, the islands of Pulau Duyung Besar

and Pulau Ketam could appears like a dense mass of riparian trees and abundant shrubs

interspersed with coconuts trees if it were not for, running along their length. an impressive

“dorsal spine” of chengal pasir -Hopea odorata- trees that are up to up to 30m in height. The

umbrella shaped crowns of these cengal trees provide a deep green background to thelandscape.

Down inside, streamlets cross the land, surrounded by a mangrove rich in Nipah, Brugiera,

Euphorbiaceae and Alstonia species. Houses are hidden among fruit trees and the rest of the

naturally abundant vegetation of native belukar -secondary growth or “rak” as the inhabitants

call the spontaneous vegetation that spreads over any unoccupied part of the 2 km long and 800

m large stretch of islands.

In places, the soil -a mixture of alluvium, with clay, sand, and humus (Biot et al. 1986)- was

so fertile that, in the past, rice fields and vegetable were grown by Chinese gardeners and

“Pulau Peria”-Momordica charantia- was the original name of Pulau Duyung. Bananas grew
 104

on the South eastern bank where royal elephants came swimming to feast on them. (Othman

1995).

Part of the visual and sound landscape was provided by the birds: Merbok who sing in duo,

the mangrove whistler, Blue raja udang who shouts on the wing, Capling who gather in noisy

meetings, yellow Kunyit and the large black Tuhu malkoha. There were occasional hornbills,

squadrons of swiftlets and the seasonal white egrets perching in the mangrove after resting on

the back of buffaloes in the paddy fields on the mainland. The Burung lang Haliaeetus

leucogaster with a wingspan up to 7ft, would be planning above the waters, before landing on

a cengal tree to enjoy his catch of fish or snake.

Fertilizing fauna and trees looked after by successive generations contributed to a diverse

ecosystem. Human and animal life interacted on the estuarine lands. Timber houses on stilts

surrounded by carefully laid out compounds had diverse architecture and ground accessories.

Aristocrats had pagar fences, carvings on doors and above windows -often as pedagogic as

aesthetic- such as in the Kota Lama Duyong or on their large “Serambi” balcony, as that of Pak

Wan Su in Duyong Besar. Owners of paddy fields on land had a “Baluh padi” shed to store the

rice. Ground elements told of the daily life: There were wells, many jars for water and

preserves, “Pankin” (‘gerai’ in Terengganu language) -platforms for work and rest, and

benches, sometimes with chess games carved on the planks. Half hidden under the greenery of

hundred-year-old mango trees, gable roofs covered with dark red tiles or brown “Nipah” palms,

offered shelters and pathways to fruit-loving bats, squirrels, and foxes. There were as well

whistling “Ceriang” insects, butterflies, monitor lizards, and mounds-building termites which

were food for chicken and occasional pangolins.

 105

On the northern bank, coves provided mooring to “Sampan” -small boats. On the southern

side, at low tide, sandy beaches areas emerged where the larger fishing and cargo boats would

be stranded for repairs. For more than three decades (1970-2005), close to the shores, “Cengal”

(Neo-balanocarpus heimii) planks set crosswise to dry, heralded the local and international

fame of the islands in boat building. Another component essential to the islands landscape and

daily life were wooden titian bridges crossing over the swamps in the interior, or built on the

shore for the “Moto-nambang” ferries, which brought people as well as their goods, from and

to town. The ferries would depart to cross the river at the will of the conductor; so, during the

waiting time, they served as conversation hubs for the passengers.

iii) History and Society: “Natural Autarchy”

Notwithstanding the smell of dried fish often prevalent on some paths, Pulau Duyong

was not a fisherman’s village, but, since the 19th century, had a particular vocation: It was a

convenient stop over for Malay groups, who travelled away from troubles in Pattani, Kelantan,

and, earlier, from the disappeared kingdom of Champa in central Vietnam. “We came

originally from Kochi” informed Tuan Haji Wan Daud, a “Nakhoda” -sea captain- from a

prominent family in Pulau Duyong. The islands provided not only a refugee harbor but a retreat

place -“Tempat bertapa”- for religious people to retire or go there to participate in the reading

of ancient manuscripts. Reflecting the activity of the people who settled there, where the ulama

-religious teachers -such as Tok Sheik Duyong, (@1820- 1900) or legists such Datuk Biji Sura

(@1870-1945), and those who donated “Surau” -Muslim chapels: a “Syed” from Iraq (Surau

al Baghdadi) Haji Kalsum or “Cik Istana” (Surau Puteh) and Haji Omar (Surau Nibong);

It was also a trading harbor, with up to 80ft-long sailing vessels and their “Nakhoda”

carrying from Ban Lan in Thailand the irreplaceable necessity of the times: salt, -as well as
 106

rice, penicillin, and opium. The third group of residents and the most recent in time, were the

“juragan (juru ragam)” or skippers of engine-powered fishing boats. [There were, often from

the same familial group, enterprising businessmen, engaged in trade over the China Sea and

owners of fleets of fishing boats]. Boat building thrived as timber could be brought by rafts

from the forests up the river and, later, by petrol powered ferries. Fishing vessels from 45 to 80

feet, were built. The houses of wealthy traders and respected religious personalities were

surrounded by those of relatives, followers, and retainers.

The primary school, third open in the state, could be a stepping stone for the villagers

who wished to enter the outside world; however, work could be found close to home, as crew

on one of the family boats, as apprentice with an uncle in timber house or boat building. The

older people went to Mekkah, transmitted their knowledge, and helped the new generation to

replace them in their teachings or in their trade. Women rolled “keropok” -fish sausages-, dried

fish, baked traditional cakes, collected greens, and provided health care by massages with

herbs-based oils and assisted in deliveries. They were chicken, goats, ducks, even a batik

“factory” and a gold jewelry workshop. Two ladies paddled on their sampans to the market to

fetch extra vegetable, maize, and tobacco, for their small shops.

[This is a record of an impression born from half a century living there. cf. in C 3

methodology warning: emic observations. Add a Transition to presentation for next flora,

icons”and herborizing]

iv) Flora, Plant “Icons”, and Herborizing in The Past

In the middle of the eighties, naturally occurring trees were the multi-storeyed

“Ketapang”Terminalia catapa, dark “Rhengas” with their large roots, long fruited “Tui” -

Dolichandrone spathacea, “Bongor”-Lagerstroemia speciosa- with their flowers of violet lace,

 107

spreading “Angsana” or senna -Pterocarpus indicus, and “Bidara” - Ziziphus Mauritiana, along

the more sunny area of the streamlets. There were as well planted species, beyond the vertically

folded trunks of the “Duku”, the lanky durian, the “Rambai” -Bacaurea mothleyana-

, stout grey “Setor” Sandoricum koejape- rambutan trees, “Kekabu” with their fluffy spindles

hanging down, refreshing “Belimbing” -Averrhoa carambola, star fruit- and the smaller

“Belimbing besi”, many “Jambu” -Syziphus, Jambu Batu” -Psydium guava, “Jambu golok” -

Anacardium occidentale, offering their low branches to for children entertainment.

Wild vegetation on the islands flourished along with the human settlement. Amongst

these, dominating by their physical presence, and because of their relationship with the

inhabitants, some species -although common in Malaysia, were particularly important, (or

“icons”) for the people of Duyong.

By their sheer size and appearance, “Cengal pasir” trees and “Pohon nyor” -coconut palm

trees in Pulau Duyong language- formed the visual core of the landscape. Both species do grow

on other grounds, even not far on the mainland, where they are often planted; but as the

estuarine islands were naturally secluded, these trees were de facto more part of the life of the

people of the islands than in other places. The “Cengal kampong” or “Cengal Pasir” -Hopea

odorata- offered the comfort of their shade, timber material, masts, and spars for sailing boats.

They are associated to -the now legendary- sailing years of the “Perahu besar”. They are found

in the main cemeteries.

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Figure 4.15 a). Hopea odorata: circumference 23’ at breast height (in Pulau
Ketam), b) and c) flowers of Hopea odorata (Pulau Duyong).

Hopea odorata –“Merawan siput jantan”, by its local trade name, is an evergreen

Dipterocarpaceae tree with a large crown, growing to 45m tall, with a straight bole, branchless

to 25m, with a diameter of up to 4.5m and prominent buttresses. The bark is longitudinally

furrowed. The leaves, ovate-lanceolate, 7-14 by 3-7cm are dark green, slightly shiny with short

petioles. Pollinated by thrips insects, this Hopea bears sweet scented flowers and fruits almost

regularly every two or three years in mass -meaning “all individuals at the same time”-

blooming. [In May 2014, they were observed particularly doing so in Pulau Duyong, covering

the ground with a yellowish white carpet of small flowers.] The gyrating winged fruits would

then be dispersed by wind and germinate readily on falling to the ground, remaining close,

about two or three meters from the parent tree.

Apart from those dispersed further around, 30 individual trees have been counted in Kubur

Cengal, -the Cengal cemetery, and the same number were found in the Kubur Rambai cemetery

of Pulau Ketam. Providing shade for those inhabitants who come to remember their relatives,
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the trunks of the Hopea odorata trees look like the columns of a vast hall, and their high crowns

are a delicately drawn roof.

In South East Asia, the astringent bark of the “Cengal pasir” had therapeutic uses

(Simmathiri and Turnbell 1998). In Laos, it was reputed to be useful for healing wounds and

sores. In Pulau Duyong, with their straight trunk that branches high, strong and yet souple, they

were the ideal masts for the sailing boats. Their damar -resin- would be used in caulking boats.

In the nineties, there were dissentions among the various landowners in Pulau Ketam, near

the mosque, about cutting some chengal trees. As for a young child, a “Tangkai” amulet was

tied around the trunk of the oldest tree as a protection from any project to fell the beloved

heritage asset.

The other iconic species was the Cocos nucifera palm, “Pohon nyor” in Terengganu

language. As in many other communities, from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean, that species

provided endless services. Because of the relative isolation of the island, the coconut trees

products were closer than purchased goods, always at hand. During the 80ties and the 90ties

“Yusof panjat nyor” -Yusof the coconut tree climber- had a special place in the community of

Pulau Duyong. In Pulau Ketam, a trained monkey was seen going to work, seated in the basket

of his owner’s bicycle. Some coconut trees were planted. Many had been just left to grow.

Bending over the river, they invited children to climb up and jump in the water. They were

used every day. Each part of the coconut tree was present in many aspects of the life routines.

The fruit provided oil, “Santan” -cooking milk, sugar, recipients, “Sabut” -fiber for ropes, fuel

for the kitchens. The trunks gave construction material, and the palms, brooms and sliding

games. In a haunting song and dance, seven fairy princesses take turns swaying a “Mayang” -

a coconut tree blossom- over the body of a sick fisherman to restore his health and spirit. Some
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of the habitants of Terengganu with a sailing history had perhaps a closeness with the gigantic

palm, having found life on land, but had needed the sea as well to travel and find a place to

settle. On a more prosaic note, close to the shores on the northern bank of Pulau Duyong, was

a commercial exploitation of coconuts, and a coconut shell based activated carbon enterprise

was set in Pulau Ketam.

Figure 4.16 a)“Bong”, coconut de-husking tool, b) Fig Nipah always at hand.

Among the other palms, many had importance for the people in Pulau Duyong. Ever present

in the mangrove, the Nipah -Nipa fructicans, provided roof covers. It gave its fruit as well as

wrappings for the “Rokok daun”, the hand-made cigarettes dear to the men of Pulau Duyong

who preferred the raw chinese tobacco [from Kuala Berang in Terengganu] to cigarettes. The

“Mengkuang” -Pandanus growing around the cemetery, served to weave mats and bags which

were sold at the market in town.

v) Flora in Pulau Duyung, continued: Herborizing in Pulau Duyung

As mentioned previously, Pulau Duyong was not initially on the list of the areas to study for

the botanist Lynwood Hume or this researcher, but the vegetation of the island where we lived

was attractive, diverse and used by the local people. It was attractive to walk around,

herborizing in Pulau Duyung, from May to October1983, unaware that it could be preparing
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for comparisons in change over time many years later. Here are the species described then

(Lynwood Hume, 1983). Lynwood own writings, showing the point of view of a foreign

botanist are quoted in brackets Some more recent pharmacological remarks are added to

materialize the value of the traditional species,

Among the tree species, were noted:

Gluta renghas that has “strange ribbed bumpy fruit brought by the current” and tortuous

roots diving in the river; its dark red wood is a skin irritant; Lagerstroemia speciosa, “Bongor”

at the end of the Pulau Ketam, is “offering its masses of lavender flowers to the sun”. Its

spreading branches giving a shelter to the local doves. Like the Rhengas, and the ubiquitous

mangoes, Bouea macrophylla is an Anacardiaceae. Its yellow orange “Buah setor” fruit is often

acid, its dense foliage provides shade and has medicinal uses.

Two species of “Mengkudu” were omnipresent: Morinda elliptica, whose fruit becomes

black, and is smaller than Morinda citrifolia, a post-partum medicinal whose leaves are used

to wrap the “Tungku” stones -local hot water bottles. Their small white flowers have a

“delightful fragrance”

Among the small trees and shrubs, two were intriguing: Rauvolfia verticillata, the small

Apocynaceae “with its characteristic contorted corolla and white flower”, a cousin of Rauvolfia

serpentina, the hypo-tensor dear to Mahatmah Ghandi. Phyto-chemist Christophe Wiart (2006)

mentions the specimen from Pulau Duyung given by Lynwood Hume to the herbarium of the

University Malaya. This Rauvolfia, called “Batu pelir kambing”, did not seem to be known in

Duyung as medicinal. It is replete with alkaloids (Bo Hong et al., 2010).

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Trichilia connaroides, a Meliaceae medicinal in China (HY Wang, 2013) “with fragrant

flowers and attractive, large clusters of red fruit. It is an insect antifeedant”. Mice, eager to taste

plant specimen on the botanist table would avoid these.

Dolichandrone spathaceae (Bignoniaceae) “Tui”, usually found at the edges of tidal rivers.

The 30cm long pods of its fruit were “quite a sight”, so were “its flower (“mangrove trumpet”

in English) with their long corolla and twisted petals”.

Sapium indicum, (Euphorbiacea) Gurah, “its graceful, pendulous branches lined the jetties

that cross over the swampy stream running along the length of Duyong Besar”. The slow

burning wood is used after delivery for warming the “Tunku” -local hot water bottles- under

the “Gerai bersalin” post-delivery platform. The seeds serve for children in the game of “Main

congkak”. The leaves help accelerate scratch wound healing.

Fagraea racemosa, “Setebal”, its thick oval leaves and fragrant flowers are used in the

“Mandi serum” for after-delivery showers.

Sauropus androgynus (Euph.) “Cekur manis” is a -sometimes planted- shrub, and a common

diuretic vegetable. It has dark leaves with attractive red and white flowers.

Wilkstroemia indica, “Depu”. Its red and small fruit is found on sandy places areas in the

East coast. There is poison in the bark and the seeds. The leaves are laxative.

Leea indica, “Memali”, has long leaves with wavy margins, and a fruit favorite of the

bulbul.

Two climbers were included:

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Aristolochia tagala (Aristolochiaceae) “Akar ketola hutan”: “The fruit, according to the

stage of maturity and dehiscence, is a pipe, a Nepenthes looking trap and a parachute”.

Psychotria sarmentosa, “Akar daldaru” is “a climber that grows up the trunk of trees. The

leaves are eaten as “Ulam” greens”.

Cultivated tree species were described:

Flacourtia inermis (Flacourtiaceae) “Buah ceri Siam”: The edible sweet black fruit reminds

of cherries. It grew over the wall of one of the stately houses, hanging outside the compound

wall.

Lansium domesticum, “langsat/duku”, has deeply fluted trunks that evokes the folds of the

Malay women dress “Baju kurong”. The smoke from the burnt skin is reputed repellent to

mosquitoes. It is cultivated in Vietnam and Thailand. Perhaps is frequency in the islands is a

souvenir of the Champa or Pattani origins of the people in Pulau. Duyong. There is a Kebun

Duku cemetery cum small orchard in Pulau Ketam.

Manilkara zapota, “Buah Ciku”, (in Aztec “chikl”) “it is medicinal, and its high tannin

content, bark can be used for reinforcing sails and tackle ropes”. It was seen planted in front of

the house of an owner of a “Perahu besar” sailing trader, close to a “Dedap” tree -Erytrina

variegata- the red flowering of which a signal of the end of the North East monsoon and time

to sail again over the China. Sea.

Lawsonia inermis, -Inai, a “spidery shrub”. Its dye, oxytocic, preserve the nails and the hair

of the human body. It is an effective oxytocic (Kheraro,1974) and is associated with ceremonies

and religious traditions and red fingers in Pulau Duyong signaled marriages in the family.
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As I was adding “Bonglai”, “Keduduk”, “Bayam peraksi”, “Kemunting cina”, and other

“Batang kemoyang” to my list; “You and your weeds” exclaimed LH. Villagers volunteered

information on some plants and asked about the therapeutic use of others. “They thought that

she was a “Bomoh” - (traditional practitioner) herself” wrote LH.

vi) Further Plant Species Inventories in Pulau Duyong

Later along the years, this researche continued the collections, meeting in mangroves

“Bebuta” -Excoecaria agallocha, “Ketuil” -Derris trifolia and “Pulai” -Alstonia angustifolia.

In Duyong Kecil, Toh Puan Aisha, a daughter of Dato Biji Sura, remembered her vegetable

garden, her “Nilam” jasmine, “Putat” -Barringtonia racemosa and “Bidara” - Ziziphus Jujuba.

Three house compounds with their garden from the island were chosen among a total of 16

compounds for studying details of landscape architecture (Longuet, 2007). Inventories of the

plant species made in Pulau Duyong in 2005 have been compared with the situation in 2019:

(Appendix A, 2 specific).

[In 2005, Pulau Duyong was being developed with concrete banks, and ambitious projects

were prepared around a world class sailing event on the Duyung Kecil Island the “Monsoon

Cup” (2005-2015). The people of Duyung were invited to participate in a meeting on the

project, and its benefits for the inhabitants. Presenting the existing assets of the island was

proposed (Pekeduy 2005). This researcher gathered an inventory of the islands’ floral assets.

(Appendix to this chapter); to record the value of the floral wealth of the island. It has been

completed with data from a “present time” inventory made in 2019

4.2.1.2 Traditional Knowledge and Practice in Pulau Duyong

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In the 80ties and 90ties, ancient traditional knowledge was alive on the island. As noted

earlier for Terengganu, following the general tradition, practitioners on the island were

specialists. They were “Bomohs” or “Orang berubat orang”, for measles or for kidney stones,

“Gurus silat”, with all kind of treatments, “Majun” sweet pills of spicy medicines, and teas

formulas. Some were said to” “Bela”, to have a jin or a “Khadam” at their service. Ghosts

haunted swampy areas and places around cemeteries. Some villagers with “Ilmu” -knowledge-

would remember the “Tajulmuluk” and the four elements. Most of them referred to “Sejuk”

and “Panas” -cold and hot, for food and medicine. “Angin” -wind, (as in Chinese traditional

medicine) had a large role in the symptoms and in causes of illnesses. For example, a kind lady

advised, to salute Nabi Khidir before going sailing, and Nabi Ilyas before entering the forest.

Before a bridge was built over the island (1990) with roads to the islands below, there were

ferries going to town to bring commuters those who had work there or the shoppers, traders,

school children. However, many of the inhabitants were in the habit of relying on their own

resources –those of the islands- for food and medicine, from fishing and from the vegetation

around.

To cater for a population of around 3000 (census 1985), of which about 1 500 were adults,

a government peri-natal clinic was settled near the school and, in case of need, after “Bomoh”

help and advice, hospital was used as well. A cholera epidemy was energetically fought by

vaccinations at the school during daytime and, at night, by religious chanting processions

“Selawat” all around the island led by the “Imam surau”. Sprains were dealt with poultices and

kidney stones by massages. Some elders, expert in religious matters, used prayers and “jampi”

blessed water. (I have seen all this be done and as far I know, experienced, or was experienced

by my relatives, it was felt as effective).

i) Delivery at Home
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A revealing and frequent aspect of the traditional knowledge in medicine and in plant

species was the “peri-partum” practice of the “Tok Bidan”, the village midwife.

The following report (Personal document, 1985) is gathered from direct observations and

personal experience of deliveries and peri-partum treatment in Pulau Duyung and villages

around Kuala Terengganu. A trusted traditional practitioner in Pulau Duyung was Mak Cik

Esah or Wan Aisha. She was called for childbirths and kept busy providing the after-delivery

care.

It was then considered usual for the married women to give birth to six to ten children

for perhaps 20 years of their life. In the past, some children were lost during epidemics of

cholera. The last was in 1973.There had been no casualty then. Neonatal mortality was not

common in the 80ties. The government clinic in the village, with a house for the midwife, was

popular. At the same time, a few experienced traditional “Tok bidan” remained in demand. As

in other emerging countries, collaboration between official personnel and the local attendant

was welcomed, as each had respective tasks and were both available to assist the families:

“Although common, birth giving was an event in the village amongst relatives, especially

for a first child. Emergency transport by ferry to town and to the hospital was possible but, well

after the construction of the bridge, bringing cars to the island in 1990, the comfort of birth at

home was preferred. At seven months a “Lengang perut” small ceremony was held and the

“Tok Bidan” was booked. If, according to both midwives, the event appeared without any

problem, any of the available practitioners, -traditional “Tok Bidan” or government midwife-

was called by the husband to his home. All female relatives or neighbors would consider

coming and helping.

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A room is cleared of any furniture and a mattress is put on the floor where the parturient

would lay down while the ladies take place around, with the legs folded under them. If there is

a strong grandmother, she will take place at the head of the mattress, sitting cross legged. When

needed, her elbows on her knees, she will present her forearms for the mother to hold to while

she pushes for her child to be born. [In one case, an aunt sat behind the grandmother to offer

her arms, replacing the grandmother but not removing her, so that two generations were helping

a member of the third one to give birth to a member of the fourth generation.]

The midwife and the mother of the parturient are posted on the legs side, ready to hold the

feet. Other ladies of the family come and seat for a while offering their prayers, services,

bringing coffee to the midwife, hot sweet tea, or water to the future mother. Male relatives may

sit on the veranda “Lambur” of the house, bringing on and off the support of their banter and

prayers to the father.

A ribbon of cloth is attached below the breast at the stomach level to mark the progress of

the descent of the child inside the womb. In the past, the full expansion of a “Kembang

semangkok” fruit (Scaphium longiflorum) may serve as a timer for the duration of the delivery.

At the beginning of the parturition, a coconut-based oil “minyak selusuh” is smeared on the

skin of the stomach with a light touch of massage starting from the umbilic. Later-on, it will be

put on the labia to increase their elasticity. A sarong covers the thighs, the folded knees and the

legs of the parturient. The “Tok bidan” lifts the cloth from time to time to monitor the process.

The actual duration of the delivery was usually of about two to three hours only. Some

novices for a first child feeling the pressure early, would lay down one day in advance, while

for some other there was no time for the “Tok Bidan”, to arrive.
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Once, for such a delay, the “Tok Bidan” saw the caput, but there were not enough strong

contractions to help the head to be born, she chewed some “Sireh” leaves and spat on the stuck

head, saying prayers and chasing whatever spirit would hinder the delivery. During another

case of suspense, the grandmother of the future mother said reassuringly: “Malaikat naik turun

dari tanah ke langit khabar ada orang bersalin”. “The angels are coming up and down from the

earth to the sky to tell that someone is giving birth”

Once the new-born baby has slipped out, its vocal cords would voice its surprise as it starts

to breathe. Once no more blood runs through it, the umbilical cord is cut with a fresh bamboo

split. The soiled cloths are removed. The baby is then washed of the vernix caseum and dried.

The remaining cord is oiled with “Kunyit” Curcuma longa (antiseptic and helps cicatrisation)

and wrapped in a piece of clean cloth. The baby is dressed in a shirt and two folded pieces

made of light cotton. An adjustable cotton girdle with four strings maintains the stomach and

supports the back of the baby. Then, traditionally, it is tightly swaddled, “Bendung”, arms and

leg straight along the body in a piece of cotton cloth. Thus, it will not feel too much change

from the crowded atmosphere of the last month in the womb. The baby is put on a small mat

with a set of cushions, a knife or scissors hidden under a pillow to scare a hungry “Langsuyir”

vampire. A mini mosquito net in the shape of a rectangular umbrella is put over it.

The midwife waits until the after birth -the “Tetuban”- is expelled. She will wash it carefully

-it is considered a “brother” of the new-born- and put it in a tin box with an iron nail, and slice

of “Asam keping” (Garcinia atroviridis) to wait for the cord on the baby to be dry and fall.

Then the father of the child will bury it and plant a tree, often a “Jambu” -Syzyphus aquaea, on

the spot where it is buried.

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Meanwhile a “Gerai salai” -a warming platform- is prepared. It is a bed made of spaced

wooden slates on which a “Mengkuang” -Pandanus- mat is spread, with a number of “Kain

sarong” covering it. An iron basin is placed below with charcoal or any slow burning wood

such as the mangrove “gurah” (Sapium indicum).

ii) Plants in Postpartum Treatment

Plant species, showers, medicinal decoctions (“Mandi serum” (or “serong”), ubat periuk)

and other practices can be witnessed after delivery. Depending on the time of the day the birth

has occurred, the mother will be left to rest and sleep for a while, or she will take a “Mandi

serum” shower. The plant composition for the shower in the island differed from the classic

“Serai”- “Pandan”- “Halba”- “Halia”- “Kunyit”- recipe. There were wild Lauracea and

Fabaceae.

“Mandi serum” is a special shower, customarily taken to clean a person from bad influences

or spirits - “Serum”- that would have clung to him or her, following exposure to foreign or

possibly dangerous experience such as a stay in the police lock-up or after giving birth. It is not

the “Mandi bunga” of the future bride, nor the “Bersiram” of the royalty.

In the past, in villages in Terengganu, such as the ones in Pulau Duyung, species for the

“Mandi serum” for after delivery were found in the “Rok” or “Semak” thickets growing around

groups of houses. The leaves were collected and boiled with water in a large pot, then, the

decoction was poured in a basin of water for the shower. [As seen in a picture in “House

compounds” (R1) study area], They were:

“Teja”, Neolitsea zeylanica, Lauraceae, frothing and mucilaginous, a tree up to 20m tall,

found in Asia, Malaysia, Indonesia and India, Thailand, Vietnam, Oceania and Australia in
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thickets and evergreen forests. The term “Teja” is from the Sanskrit and refers to “senja” the

colors of the sky at sunset. It contains sesquiterpenes and has anti-inflammatory properties

(Wiart, Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal Plants - Asia and the Pacific, 2007)

“Terape”, Glycosmis pentaphylla (Rutaceae), astringent, a shrub, from India, SEA, to

Australia. Extract has antioxidant, antibacterial and analgesic potential properties (Kishore

Kumar Sakar and al., April 2013)

“Serengan”, Flemmingia macrophylla (Fabaceae), a shrub of tropical humid places from

Taiwan to SEA, naturalized in South Africa. Reported to have analgesic and anti-inflammatory

properties; because of its flavonoids contents has been studied for Alzheimer treatment (Yun

Liang Lin 2012).

“Capa” (or “Telinga kerbau” and “Sembung”), Blumea balsamifera (Asteraceae) aromatic

(camphor) and emollient; (exploited for camphor in Malaysia -by Chinese- and Philippines as

well), it provides a sense of well-being through freeing the breathing paths.

“Bonglai”, Zingiber Cassumunar, the long ginger leaves are slightly aromatic; they contain

Cassumunarin, a unique curcuminoid and have antioxidant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory and

antifungal properties. (….)

The medicinal properties were confirmed by later studies. What is felt are the immediate

rejuvenating effect, the general sense of cooling and calming as well as the purifying, cleaning

effect on the skin of the shower. (cf. Laderman in” Wives and midwives”,1986) and other

authors, including Longuet in Springler Encyclopedia, 2007)

[After delivery: Massage. “Bertungku” and “barut”; “Meroyan”, “Hantu langsuyir” -

Postpartum depression, vampires, and the treatment].

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Bleeding, through lack of occlusion of the capillary vessels in the womb was one of the main

causes of perinatal death (Siti Asmah in Kedah). It was said to be caused by a woman who had

so lost her life and had become a -thirsty- vampire. This vampire was supposed to livein the trees

around a house. The name of a fern with large leaves named “Paku langsuyir” -thevampire fern

(Asplenium nidum) is a reminder of that hovering danger of losing too much bloodafter delivery.

There was one such large one conspicuous on a Mangifera indica in front of thehouse of Nek

Senai, a reputed “Tok Bidan” in Kampung Setebu, Ulu Telemong.

After a massage of the whole woman’s body except the stomach and ends up by the head

as, explained Mak Cik Esah, “Dari kepala semua telah mula” “it is from the head that all

started”. This is probably because babies were usually born to this earth the head first, and a

return to the beginning or the source of things to close a process is a tradition.

“Asam keping” (Garcinia atroviridis), “Jambu” (Syzyphus aquaea), “Mengkuang”

(pandanus), and “Gurah” (Sapium indicum) are among plants that is used in postpartum

treatment as mentioned aboved.

[Note on“ilmu”or back in literature review This tradition of giving birth with communal

and natural environment assistance was integral part of ancient knowledge. British

commentators and earlier writers (cf. horrified Skeat on the “roasting” of the mother (18…. )

and Siti Asmah’s compassionate views (19… ) were doubtful about many of the traditional

practices. On the contrary, in the observations recorded by Josiane Massard (20… ) and

Laderman (20…). the female anthropologists noticed how seriously the care around delivery

was taken in Terengganu. The women there are aware of the sudden athletic efforts -voluntary

and natural- that a woman’s body must make, and of the necessary help to restore the exhausted

body. The practical and emotional support from the family and other villagers is obviously part
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of a culturally encouraged communal assistance, and of a shared knowledge of human life

process].

4.2.1.3 End of The Past “Era” and The -Busy, Landscape Changing- Transition to

The Present Times

Between the resources available in their surrounding and their own efforts, with many plant

species for food, the salt for preservation, wood or “Minyak Gas” -kerosene for cooking, the

boats, the sails and the wind for transport, -though petrol engines existed-, Pulau Duyong had

a local ecosystem, balancing natural environment and habitants needs. Even though they used

products from elsewhere, the people of Duyong were living then in organized self-sufficiency

evoking a life in autarky.

Electricity was brought to Pulau Duyung in the early seventies. Not all houses were

equipped. As mentioned in Chapter 1, oil had been discovered in 1973. Change came; very

slowly at first. Salt, dry fish, “Keropok”, activities of work on the island remained.

[It took more than 15 [verifiy] years after the arrival of electricity to see the first refrigerator

been carried -to the house of a reputed boat builder- in 1990 [verify and a washing machine].

However, by 2018, the old island of Duyong -its landscapes, its flora and the relationship of its

people with their natural environment- had radically changed.]

i) The Events

Land reclamation on the islands and in the estuary

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Past @1983 Present @ 2016

Figure 4.17 Outline of Pulau Duyong and Pulau Ketam in the estuary of the Terengganu
River:

Figure 4.18 Pulau Duyong in the past, then in 2013 with reclaimed areas in front of Duyong

Kecil. (“Survey outline” is a plan for future study

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Pulau Duyung: Physical Changes

Dam (1987), bridge (1990), embankment (1994)
Past Present

Landscape lay out and profile 1983 Landscape layout and profile 2013

ii) Landscape: Infrastructures brought Changes, slowly at First

A bridge to the mainland on both sides of the island and banks were the first changes in

landscape. The changes were linked with the increasing need of energy in Malaysia, identified

during the late seventies. The construction of a hydroelectric dam on the Terengganu River was

planned in 1978. It was completed in 1985. In prevention of the eventual consequences of

sedimentation and other changes in the estuary, banks were built around the island, except for

a length on the southern shore where boat building was active and needed open slopes to launch

the vessels.

In 1987 Dato Wan Ngah, from Pulau Duyung, was then the Director of the Jabatan Kerja

Raya Public Work Department. When the construction of a bridge over the estuary of

Terengganu River was decided, to link the capital to the new and vast airport, -renovated in

2005, to accommodate “up to 2 million passengers”. Wan Ngah supported the idea of roads
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access from the bridge down to Pulau Duyung. (Pic. Wan Moktar on the bank “Now we can go

everywhere” commented a lady villager).

Roads were built, around and across the island. On the inside, they replaced wooden jetties

that used to cross over the streamlets and mangrove vegetation. Concrete channels and drains

in places drove the flow of rainwater away from the roads.

Cars entered the house compounds. At night, goats went to rest on the warm tar, to be caught

in the morning by the “Majlis Bandaran” -Town Authorities. More easily transported by lorries

than in the past, household machines were acquired. The river water, perhaps a bit more

sluggish and less clean, and the wells, lost their cleaning and washing role as well as their teams

of women users. Mobile shops on motored vans manned by male drivers replaced the paddling

ladies. Busses brought school children to Kuala Terengganu and Seberang Takir.

In 2008, the visual access to the sea for the fishermen from familiar high spots on the island

disappeared. Land reclamation such as a “Pulau Warisan” in front the Chinese Street in the

state capital and in Serang Takir on the opposite bank has obstructed the view. A fishing boats

owner added a third storey to his house to keep some view over the estuary.

4.2.1.4 Re-visits Present times 2014-2021

i) Landscape and built environment

Introduction: The three original Pulau Duyong Kecil, Pulau Duyong Besar and Pulau Ketam

have been united. Development on Duyong Kecil and other transformations have brought

drastic changes to the landscapes and while some floral evolution is noted.
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Modern installations and activities have been organised. After the (cf Appendix 1) of the

“Monsoon Cup” (2005-2015) (cf. Appendixes 2) heralding an atmosphere of sport sailing,

Figure 4.19 Development on Duyong Kecil (a drone view from the internet) View of the
Terengganu River Estuary in 2017 with, mostly in sand colour, the newly reclaimed land
and the built areas of the tourism development efforts on the eastern extremity of Pulau
Duyong

glamour, and tourism. Buildings have been installed, as seen on the front part of the here

seen picture (Fig above…..). Their roofs appear grey-white: appartments, shops, a ship repair

warf, a marina and a five star hotel.

However, today (2019) the former vast modern “Marina” building now houses only a few

offices including the one of the Terengganu Tourism office and a café with a sweeping night

view on the new estuary. Offshore oil rigs vessels use the mooring of the modern wharf -

formerly meant for luxurious cruisers- to bring back and forth workers who will drive their cars

parked nearby back to their rented house (2018). A couple of leisure boats are anchored there,

while three more are moored at an independent marina opened by a local entrepreneur further

up in Duyong Besar.
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Presently, on the reclaimed sand area of Duyung Kecil, are tar roads lined with Meliacea

azadirachta, assorted with gated concrete buildings, for electricity, high water tanks, vast

toilets. Rows of four and five storeys flats with children playgrounds have been built on the

former arm of the river between the islands and the long jetty between Duyung Kecil and

Duyung Besar (pic. Gallery) where, in the past, retired sailing vessels and Vietnamese refugees’

boats had been laid to rest.

In Duyong Besar, nowadays (2019), timber houses on stilts of traditional proportions are

not the rule anymore. Cheaper and smaller wooden houses are found in two areas, behind the

school in Duyong Besar, and, close by the concrete row of restaurants, sundry shops and

galleries built on the riverside. In the rest of the islands, the houses built recently are large brick

villas with arches and columns, often adorned with wood carvings, or smaller individual

concrete buildings or even, as in Pulau Ketam, a row of terrace houses “Taman Warisan”.

(a)
(b)
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(c)

Figure 4.20 Present built environment: a) abandoned houses, b) bungalow c) terrace

houses “Taman Warisan”- “Heritage Garden” is the name given to this modest row of
concrete terrace houses.

Figure 4.21 d) -Projects: a concrete house around old house - A madrasah built amongst

an ancient “duku” garden

Details on the two large government projects aimed at attracting investment in and around

the estuary of the Terengganu River are given in Appendix B. 2 to this part of Chapter 4: the

“Monsoon Cup” and, the more recent “KT City Centre”, in Appendix 3:
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ii) The Fate of The Floral “Icons”

There is today still a “forest” of “Cengal” trees above the cemeteries. A mass blooming

occurred in November 2014 (check). For about two weeks, the ground around the “Cengal”

stands was covered with a yellowish white carpet of small flowers. Since the event, that usually

happened every two to four years, blooming has not been witnessed. Just recently (March 2021)

a few “Cengal” trees bloomed. Mass blooming after a lack of it in a species sometimes means

that the species or the trees are in danger, because of a -new- lack of suitability of the

environment.

Figure 4.22, a) Cengal Cemetery. b) After a recent blooming of one cengal tree in the
cemetery: after 7 years, in 2021 the last fruiting? pic. Mohamad Sufian)

The building of banks and concrete channels capturing the former streams had resulted in less

water and nutrients available for the roots of the trees - a necessity for Hopea odorata “Cengal”

trees -, than previously. A concrete wall follows a road along the main cemetery: the trees most

nearby seem to be the ones suffer the most. In Pulau Ketam, five “Cengal” trees have been fell,

to provide light and for safety (“Cerah sikit, serum”) to a house compound nearby.
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Near the bridge, a “Cengal” tree has fallen on cars gathered near a mechanic workshop.

(pics, also of a fell large tree at the crossroad. or in appendix)

iii) Coconut trees

On their part, the coconut trees are victim of rhinoceros beetles (Pic.) and of abandon. Old

Coconut falls are heard of and witnessed. One coconut fell on the library. Few inhabitants use

nearby plucked coconut to cook -even though they own some trees. Ready-made imported

“Santan” -coconut milk- is available at the grocery shops set near the bridge. Coconut trees are

not replanted. A few new coconut trees are left to grow. These do not bear the traces of “steps”

carved by the climbers. No working monkeys has been seen since long. The brave youths who

still know how to climb are called “spidermen” (Fig. a coconut tree trunk in the present times: No visible

traces of “steps for climbing (? check)

iv) Other Plant Species

“Nipah”, removed from the central mangrove and stream has re-appeared beyond the banks

in places on the Northern side of the island as well as on the former sand beaches of the South.

“Mengkuang” is not seen anymore.

Medicinal species such as “Capa” -Blumea balsamifera, “Gendarussa -Justicia gendarussa,

“Peria bulan” -Cardiospermum halicacabum, have disappeared. “Teja” -Neolitsea javanica

and other well-being shower species are not frequent anymore.

Hardy species still thrive: “Bebaru” Hibiscus tilliaefolia, “Ketapang” Terminalia catapa,

“Bebuas” Premna foetida, “Mengkudu” Morindas, Wedelia and other small Asteraceae

maintain their presence. Some “Tembusu”, “Bongor”, “Kekabu” and old mango trees have

been cut.
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Include as an Insert: on the fate of the plant species

As seen in Appendix 1, the plant species previously found on the “The paths of knowledge”

-(Words from Tuck-Poh Lye 2004, on the Orang Asli ways of learning) in the “forest”- of the

island, or the “Belukar” between houses, have almost disappeared. In the past, an elder lady

would recommend to her grand-children the edible herbs “Bayam Peraksi”, “Batang

kemoyang”, “Pegaga” and the young leaves of the “Jambu golok” (Anacardium occidentale)

or of the “serai kayu” (Syzygium polyanthum), and the children would as well pick up a fruit of

an “Ulat bulu” (Passionaria foetida) or a berry from the “Keduduk” (Melastomacea).

The cemeteries do not carry the same quantity of useful wild herbs. On the other hand,

ornamental species, Yasmin, Wrightia, Cambodia, are well taken care off and bloom on fences

or in the cemetery. Near the stairs of houses, Renellia speciosa, Bougainvilliers, Ixoras and

Clerodendrons, together with “Ulam raja” and the more therapeutic Ocinum sanctum, a few

“Hempedu bumi” -Andrographis paniculata, and “Misai kucing” -Ortosiphon stamineus, are

grown in pots.
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Figure. 4.23 new ways: a) Evening jogging (2020) before sun set, between a modern house
and a nursery of ornamental plants for sale in Pulau Ketam. b) Ornamental trend confirmed:
Podraena ricasoliana on a front yard fence in Pulau Duyong,

Figure 4.24 Pic. Sun set on the medicinal lalang, Imperata cylyndrica, a weed, and the”
rumah pangsapuri rakyat”.

v) Traditional medicinal practice and knowledge

A minute medicinal garden has been observed near the four-storeys apartments in Duyong

Kecil. The watering is automatic. Have been noted: Limau kiah, Atalantia buxifolia and

“Hempedu bumi”, -Andrographis paniculata.

The four practitioners mentioned at the beginning of this chapter have passed-away and

have not been replaced. Since the death of Wan Esah, there are no more traditional Tok Bidan.

A first child is welcomed at the hospital. Mothers and grandmothers will give their assistance

for the following births. A young woman from Seberang -facing Pulau Duyong, gives her

visiting card, proposing her services as “’confinement lady” just as her (Chinese, Indian and

Malay) counterparts in urban areas of Malaysia. She uses ready-made products.

The new “Guru silat” is a young sportsman who has organized contests and training in

Pulau Ketam while older “specialists” have not had the opportunity nor the time to transmit
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their knowledge. The many modern doctors in town are used. The hospital is at 15 minutes by

car from Pulau Duyong and is resorted to. The clinic in Pulau Duyong provides modern health

care advice.

It can be noted as well, that, in line with “Ilmu”and religious activities historically

associated with Pulau Duyong, a land owner from Pulau Ketam has presently decided to have

a two storey modern “Madrasah” -religious college- be built in the former “Duku” orchard of

his family.

Figure 4.25 Madrasah in Pulau Ketam

vi) Preliminary Results and Conclusion for this site of the “Coastal areas”

Centuries old island landscape is replaced, especially on the eastern side towards the estuary

by new contours and views akin to modern suburbia.

Mangrove chased by drains returns on the unbanked area, even around some of the island

embankments.
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-Out of @ 200 recorded species,18 had disappeared, (in 2014) of which 11 had a medicinal

use: “Getang”, “Letup letup”, “Tapak Suleiman”, “Lada pahit”, “Mata ayam”, “kawa”,

“Kangkong”, “Kemoyang”, “Kemunting”, “Batu Kambing”, “Kecubung”. An inventory made

in 2017, updated in 2019, is further presented in appendix: From 34 that have disappeared, 19

of these had a medicinal use, 9 had been used as food, and 5 were ornamental. In 2021 the

numbers were: 38 disappeared, 24 with medicinal uses.

Village landscape tree species have disappeared: “Macang, “Dedap”, “Kekabu”, “Rengas”,

“Setor”, “Bongor” and old “Duku” and have not been replanted. Some like the sea hibiscus

“Bebaru” have become invasive. Aging trees (coconut, “Nangka”, “Nibong”, “Pinang”) have

died and are not replanted.

The names of the species are still known, medicinal knowledge on them has decreased, yet

survives, but plants are not frequently used. Introduction of new medicinal species such as

“Ginseng Melayu”, “Jarum tujuh”, “Makhota dewa” indicates sustained interest. Ornamental

Jasmin, Wrigthia antidyssenterica, are planted in pots …

With the new proximity to urban area through the Sultan Mahmud bridge and tar roads, land

is seen as space measured in feet or square meters. Land prices increase. Conservation of

previously valued vegetation is not really envisaged.

vii) Presentation of The Appendices

Appendix A , 1“Inventories”, 2“Specific” from this part of Chapter 4 provide a

checklist of the plant species seen in Pulau Duyong in the past (1983-2007) and of their fate in

present time (2013-2019), with indications on occurrence, disappearances, diminution, or

abundance as well as brief mentions of their use medicinal, food, decorative or utilitarian.
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Although based only on encounters of the species along the paths or around some house

compounds, and not on a full systematic inventory on selected plots, the “not found again in

the same location” numbers still reveal some oblivion of the medicinal or edible “weeds” as

well as some lack of attachment for trees that were companions of the elder generations. More

recently (2021), 38 species have not been found where they used to be; of which 24 had

medicinal uses.

A few new medicinal plants, (“Ginseng Melayu” Talinum paniculatum, “Jarum tujuh”

Pereskia bleo) as well as ornamental species around houses and a nursery in Pulau Ketam have

been seen, indicating however a sustained interest in plants; albeit with a trend towards

ornamental species.

Two other Appendices in Appendices B, on the ECRD projects (East Coast Region

Economic Development) illustrate exogenous development efforts that had -or will have, if

realized- a strong impact on the landscape -thus on the land itself and on the plants and the

people in Pulau Duyong.

4.2.2 The coastline to Jambu Bongkok: “Survivors”

4.2.2.1 Coastal landscapes Beach, BERIS, Lowland forest

4.2.2.2 Flora and ikons

4.2.2.3 Mat Kapur: an independent medicinal spp. entrepreneur

4.2.2.4 Re visits: new landscapes, and new generation of “survivors”

4.2.2.1 Beaches, bris and lowland forest

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The Coastal areas South of Kuala Terengganu are dubbed here “Survivors” because it is a

suitable name for the people and the vegetation found there, growing on oligotrophic soil, and

as well as for the inhabitants. These, prior to the advent of tourism as a source of revenue,

aquaculture and plantations settlements, lived by the sea shore, from fishing at sea and in the

mangrove, from honey collection and sale of handicraft products from local vegetation such as

weaving mats and bags from Kerecut (Lepironia articulata) and pandanus.

In the eighties, the stretch of 120 km straight road from Marang to Dungun with little traffic,

had become at night a well-known “speed track” area. In daytime, it was also a picturesque trip

along the road. There were one side, lagoons with floating Bruguiera reflected in the water,

and on the other side, forest of gelam trees with their pale orange pealing bark. There was also

the “open prison” in Marang, and a camp of “Boat people” where refugees from Cambodia and

Vietnam had been gathered earlier. Towards the land, inside -amongst or behind forested small

hills- LDS- Land Development Schemes-, FELDA settlers cultivated rubber and palm oil. The

charm of the “lagoons” spreading parallel to the beach, had attracted a few implantations of

chalets and the construction of tourism projects (from Tanjung Jara and Rantau Abang Center

to Marang Beach resort and Angullia resort).

The particular character of this coast is its landscape line of dunes parallel to the seashore,

separated from it by slow moving streams or elongated large pounds -at times creating mirrored

landscapes- before one reaches the actual view of the sea with its permanently changing views

and colours.
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Figure 4.26. a) Map of Terengganu with the visited areas in the triangle. b) Map of the coast
showing the line of water bodies along the seashore and LDS -in green are set around part of
the Jambu Bongkok Reserve [Fig. a) From the top: Map of the coastal road, the various
water bodies BRIS, from KT to Dungun

i) Geology: Mengabang, BRIS, lagoons (shorten, simplify)

The seaside coastal morphology and the unusual landscapes have been shaped by a glacial

melt over more than 10 000 years after the Last Glacial Period (@21500 year ago). As

mentioned earlier, the coastal area is an example of the remains of the Sunda continental shelf

that used to spread from the Malay Peninsula to Borneo during the Last Glacial Period. The

climate warmed up and the water from the ocean flooded the lands, by stages, sometimes

reaching up to the eastern range of the granitic mountains of the Malay Peninsula where marine

shells have been found. (Tomascik et al., 1996) The sea went up and receded a few times,

leaving landscapes of water bodies and low hills or dunes parallel to the shore. Then, strong
 138

waves and monsoon winds coming from the north East added the formation of eolian and tidal

dunes, also parallel to the seaside.

Quite a few kampongs along the East Coast are called “Mengabang”: Mengabang Telipot

Mengabang Tengah, Mengabang Telong…The word refers to these stretches of sand

accumulated on the bank of a water body -often a small river-, that runs along the sea. They

look like elongated low dunes,

Geologists have called these landforms “BRIS or “beaches ridges interspersed with swales”.

[The words describe the whole coastal set: the beaches, the dunes, and the internal waters.

The tourism industry simplifies and call them “lagoon”, a term referring to freshwater bodies

surrounded by sandy banks in an ocean. In the “Kuala Ibai Lagoon”, on the outskirt of Kuala

Terengganu, a tributary of the Ibai river made of large ponds flows for a while, under the

rows of Casuarina that grow on the riverside dunes along the beach, before reaching the sea.

Since 2010, Large buildings – a cultural center, a large hotel and an equestrian center have

been placed over the long sand monticule bordering the water, in places obscuring part of the

view toward the sea.

iii) Winds and waves

Other contributors to the shaping and reshaping of the seashore on the east coasts

are not only the wind -It can blow as much as 5 m/s during the North East monsoon- but also

the waves [Cf later in C 5, Pantai Kekabu and Batu Buruk now for wind surfing: some change

in people/ nature relationship]. All these elements not only have had an impact on the lines of

the coasts, but also the soils deposits, the “horizons” of successive strata, below the topsoil and

influencing the nature of the vegetation above.

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[ Just as the coastal morphology, the vegetation is influenced by the original landforms, by

the waves, the winds, the hydrology, and the level of soil nutrients. [These factors have

contributed to shape the folds –or ridges-of the shores along the Kuala Terengganu toKemaman

. Three layers of have been distinguished in different beach ridges according to the origin of

their formation within the tidal amplitudes along time. 1 Subtidal deposits, 2 Wave built

intertidal to supra high tidal: 3 Eolism.

4.2.2.1 Coastal flora

In 1980ties, a line of white and yellow beaches of sand ran almost uninterrupted for more

than 150 km from Kuala Ibai to the small town of Dungun. There were rows of pokok rhu, -

Casuarina equisetifolia, stands of Gelam Melaleuca Cajuputeh and, in places, Brugiera

cylinfrica floating on lagoons, bordering the China Sea. Since 2005, teams of researchers at

UMT (Jamilah et al.2011) have studied in Jambu Bongkok Forest Reserve the physical

structure, and main features of these forms of land. They stressed the conditions of the Bris soil

that create an original ecosystem where people, flora and fauna have found ways to live with

each other, in apparently infertile surroundings, as well as the services these structures provide:

protection against erosion, food and water sources

Three types of vegetations had been observed on the lowland coastal forests, on the water

bodies (swamps and streamlets), and on the sand dunes and beaches, stretching toward the

South, from Kuala Terengganu over to Marang, Merchang, Jambu Bongkok and Dungun:

Towards the interior, particularly in the Jambu Bongkok Forest Reserve, are lowland forests

of Dipterocarps -Shorea materialis, Shorea leprosula, Hopea odorata Cengal pasir, mixed with

Cinnamomum porrectum -Akar sarsi, Campnosperma auriculatum -Terentang, Oncosperma

tigillarium -Nibong, and Xantophyllum affine -Minyak berok.

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Second is the vegetation in the seasonal swamp areas where the water is often black and

acid. It includes the Leguminosae Acacia Mangium and Acacia auriculiformis, and often pure

stands of the Myrtaceae Melaleuca cajuputi. These are in places associated with Lepironia

articulata, the Kercut sedge that is used for weaving mats, bags, and, until 1987 (last big cargo

boats trip to Ban Laern), for the sails of large trading vessels.

The third type, the heath vegetation -the name given to stunted vegetation occurring on poor

soils, was found on the stretches of beach that runs parallel to the road between Marang and

Dungun. Small in size, often below 1 or 3 meters height, the heath flora is nevertheless pretty

and medicinal: there are the Kemunting -Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, with its long stamens and

pink flowers, the climbing Ficus deltoidea -Mas secotet, whose name refers to its signature

“cote,” -a dot at the fork of the nervures on the leaves. Often, around a taller species, such as

the various Kelat and Jambu laut Sizygium, grow plants seeking nutrients or protection from

the sun; they group for survival in clumps such as the Hoya coronaria -Setebal , or, as the

Nepenthes- Periuk kera, and Drosera and resort to ensnare and digest insects in their leaves

transformed in traps. Other species produce secondary defensive metabolites that attract the

interest of phyto-pharmacists. Invasive species thrive on the back of sand dunes such as the

Timban tahi duri (Catunaregam tomentosa), and on the beach slopes like the medicinal Lamuni

(Vitex rotundifolia).

ii) Iconic and medicinal plant species

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Figure 4.27 Pic of Melaleuca cajuputi, pinkish bark and flower spindles

On the swampy margins of the beaches and dunes of the low land forest, grow, -often in

large groups, the gelam -Melaleuca cajeputi or Melaleuca Leucadendron. Striking in

appearance because of its unusual bark and the numerous flossy spikes of its white flowers, the

fire resisting (regrowth is fast) 20m high Myrtaceae can creates an out of this world landscape

on the banks of the sleepy lagoons of the East coast. Growing well in waterlogged areas, (gelam

refers to “tengelam” -inundated in Malay-) has a cream bark with rusty streaks that can peel

off like of multi-layered paper. Its colour reveals tannin content. The bark expands when

immerged in water -a useful propriety when caulking boats while the tannin repels wood

worms. The dark greyish green lanceolate leaves have parallel nerves. They exude a fragrance

akin to camphor with an acid and spicy note. Oil distilled from the gelam leaves contains

terpenes. Aromatic and medicinal, it is used to treat colds and headaches; it is antibacterial anti-

inflammatory (Nazeh et al. 2015) and insecticide. The wood is used for construction in watery

areas and burnt to produce charcoal.

Another plant species from the coastal areas is the less visible Albizia myriophylla or Tebu

gajah. It is a climber or -rarely- a shrub and a tree, that mixes with other plants in disturbed

areas near rivers, and forest edges. It occurs from the Himalayas, India, through Burma

(Myanmar), Indochina (Cambodia, Laos and southern Vietnam) and Thailand, to northern
 142

Peninsular Malaysia. The woody liana has the finely pinnate leaves, hooked spines, and flat

beans of the Mimosaceae family. Known by herbalists and majun makers who use it, when

available, to sweeten the taste of their concoctions. It was one of the preferred wooden chips

of ”Mat Kapur”, the reputed herb seller in Kuala Terengganu. He would introduce it to some

selected onlookers for them to taste and pick their interest. It is not easy to collect as it is often

ferociously guarded by ants. “Pak Da” of Padang Air, a traditional practitioner near Kuala

Terengganu, had planted one it in front of his house. He mentioned, like some of his colleagues,

that it is good for sore throat.

[Fig. Pic of Albizia myriophylla, from my drawing or photo from Padang Air or both.]

This species would be studied by phyto-pharmacologists: Five new oleanane-type triterpene

saponins, albiziasaponins A−E (1−5), were isolated from the stems of Albizia

myriophylla collected in Thailand and it was found to show a potent sweetness intensity (600

times stronger) relative to sucrose (Yoshikawa and al. 2002). Surprisingly, the sweet wood

bark has a hypo-glycemic effect that was found on diabetes induced rats (Tunsaringkarn et

ales, 2008). It was as well found active on Streptoccocus mutans, an effect related to the

lupinofolin contents and would justify the traditional use against throat infection (Azmah Saat

et ales, 2013).

A third notable plant species is frequent on the beaches of the East Coast, but particularly in

the area of Jambu Bonkok, where Mat Kapur would collect it to include the leaves in his

postpartum teas. It is the pretty, weedy, fragrant Vitex rotundifolia. Because of its medicinal

activity, the “invasive” (-in the USA-) “beach Vitex” deserves a mention as an interesting

species. It was seen spreading on the sand of the beaches in a few places in Terengganu, from

Besut to Dungun. It belongs to the Verbenacea -now Lamiaceae-, a family reputed for being -
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such as the Arabian lilac- beneficial in women ailments, from endometriosis to disrupted

lactation and breast pain. The one found in Terengganu, called lamuni (from sanscrit

jalanirgundi) by Mat Kapur, appears as a small shrub or a creeper with rounded and small

leaves, pale green on the top and velvety grey below. Its flowers are blue purple. It has tenacious

stems that spread on unstable sand, in a saline and hot environment, exposed to strong winds,

down until the sea waves. Its range is from Japan, Korea to the Pacific Islands and the USA

where it is declared invasive. It is nevertheless used in traditional medicines in its range of

habitat. Burkill (1966) refers to it as a variety of Vitex trifoliata. It is propagated by the fruitthat

can stand long travels through the water.

[Fig, Vitex rotundifolia (hand drawing)]

As early as 1998, it was found that Vitexicarpin, a flavonoid from the fruit of Vitex

rotundifolia (You and al., 1998, Zang 2013), inhibited mouse lymphocyte proliferation as well

as growth of cell lines in vitro. The medicinal part in Terengganu was mostly the leaves that

impart a lasting and pleasant flavor to therapeutic preparations.

4.2.2.2 Ethnography Record: Mat Kapur, herbalist and businessman

In the early eighties, spreading an array of mysterious roots and leaves packed in large sacks

on the pavement near the Bus Station in Kuala Terengganu, a “bomoh”, -actually more an

entrepreneur with a considerable knowledge in traditional plants, could be met and even

engaged in conversation about the properties of the plants he sold. This researcher had many

times the opportunity to converse with him, in town and by his house in Jambu Bongkok.
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The village of Jambu Bongkok, where lived Mohamed Yusof habited, then (in 1983) in his

thirties, is at about 150 km from the capital. Known as “Mat Sakai” “or “Mat Pangan”, probably

because of a close -professional or perhaps familial- relationship with some orang asli -

indigenous peoples. “Sakai”and Pangan” are often pejorative names for aborigines, so he

preferred his other surname of “Mat Kapur”, “-kapur,” referring to one of his former jobs in

the forest, logging the Driobalanocarpus camphora.

i) A medicinal plants entrepreneur

“In 1983, Mat Kapur had accepted to lead me and the -then on a visit in Malaysia- directors

of SREP French laboratory for whom I was doing research on medicinal species-, on his “field”.

We followed a trail from behind his house in Jambu Bongkok and arrived at a low landforest

fringe. The sand was greyish white. The trees were slim for a tropical forest, but tall. Hishouse,

close by the coastal road was in timber, on short stilts, with painted horizontal plankingand a

large veranda, typical of the 60ties rural style of the region. But the place to meet him was in

the capital of Kuala Terengganu:

Figure 2.28 Mohamed Yusof at work in Kuala Terengganu @1984 (“Utusan

Melayu”). Notice the bags. of woven ‘kerecut” -Molinaria latifolia for the medicinal species.
 145

Back then, Mat Kapur had a well-established spot in Jalan Paya Bunga, in Kuala

Terengganu, near the Bus Station. About twenty 3’ x 2’ kercut sacks full of a stock of roots

were laid on the pavement, slightly open on the top to give a glimpse of the contents. They

were as well bottles of medicinal oils including Minyak kapur -Dryobalanocarpus camphora-

and small transparent plastic bags full of dry leaves and chips of wood. Customers, men and

women of all ages, and spectators, gathered, listening to Mat Kapur’s short speeches. Trade

was brisk. I bought two packets of ubat periuk (medicine to be prepared in a cooking pot):

350gr of sliced roots and leaves, one for after delivery and another, a tonic for men. Back in

my home office, I began a first identification of the contents by comparing with species and

information from other ubat periuk similarly sold by four other herbs sellers or healers at the

market and other places in Kuala Terengganu, using as well the literature, Burkill and Hsuan

Keng (1969) mainly at first.

I found that Mat Kapur had some idiosyncratic preferences concerning plant names. His

knowledge being vast, particularly in the quantity of species he knew de visu, he could afford

to use his own understanding. Sometimes -at first, he misdirected me, for fun and- to hide his

business secrets from a foreigner.

French phyto-chemist Dr. Daniel Jean had noticed that herbalists and traditional healers had

often one or two preferred species that could have particularly interesting properties. I followed

that clue.

Among those that Mat Kapur seemed to prize the most were two species of herbs and roots

that could not be readily identified: One were leaves of what he called Timba tasek .They were

present in good quantity in the post-partum ubat periuk. These leaves were 2-3 cm long,

lanceolate with parallel nerves and had no particular characteristics in smell or taste, difering
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in this from the similar looking myrtle fragrant cucur atap or coreng atap Baeckia suffructicosa

or the other Lepstospermun flavescens (cina maki). Botanist Lynwood Hume and I found that

Mat Kapur gave to Styphelia malayana or Leucopogon malayanus (Ericaceae) the name of

timba tasek -usually reserved for to Clerodendron serratum. The Styphelia seems to have been

an innocuous and convenient substitute for the Myrtaceae Baeckia fructescens, Leptospermum

flavescens or even Melaleuca alternatifolia known today as commercial “tea tree” (sources

mostly from New Zealand and Australia). That was probably because the innocuous Ericaceae

was more frequent in Jambu Bongkok than the Baeckia or the Leptospermum which are found

more in Setiu area or on top of the northern hills of the State.

The second preferred species of Mat Kapur -the “pelaran” according to him-, came in the

form of yellowish white woody chips sweet to the taste. Seeing the chips, Habeeb, then a majun

and spices seller of Arab descent at the main market, suggested “Tebu gajah”. Burkill recorded

such a name for Albizia myriophylla, but without mentioning the effect on taste.

Mat Kapur led the laboratory phyto-pharmacists and I in the forest behind his house,

jumping on thick lianas, showing us Mas secotet (Ficus deltoidea), daun Pakan (Vitis

cinnamomea) -specific for women, “because of its red orange colour”, and two topical “male

organ enhancers” Setebal (Hoya diversifolia), and lintah leeches which he sold in the form of

a creamy decoction.

Mat Kapur had our two guests try the wood and bark of “pelaran”, saying that it changed

the taste of things. It was used as well by the orang asli to put it under the tongue “to drink

beer without being drunk” when negotiating with Chinese buyers of rattan: Sweet became

bland; lime juice became sweet, salt tasteless. Mat Kapur explained that the “pelaran” could

be used to help cure tobacco addiction as the cigarettes somehow lost their anticipated “kick”
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effect. Both doctors were baffled, thinking that perhaps there was a neurological action that

altered their perception. Later in Paris, as the effect was tried again and, because it lasts for at

least two hours, some of the guests who tried were afraid of having lost their sense of taste!

In fact, it was only that the taste buds are saturated by the sweetness of the wood of this

thick liana and cannot register anything else for up to two hours after having sensed it. The

sweetness is 600 times more intense than that of sucrose as was reported. Intensively sweet

triterpene saponines were later characterized in the species (Yoshikava 2002)

The French Lab did not pursue research on Albizia myriophylla because of the too complex

protein it may contain that would involve expensive, and time-consuming, research. They

referred to Curculigo (synonym Molineria) latifolia, -lembah nyor- another taste modifier from

Malaysia. Later, Albizia Myriophylla would be studied as buccal antibiotic in Thailand with

positive results (2010); and its use in alcohol preparation in Chotal tribe in Nepal 2012 was

investigated (Phytochemists personal communications and “Pubmed”). Later, other proprieties

were discovered Modern science here confirms (extreme sweetness) or follows (throat

medicine) traditional clues.

Another species was often found in Mat Kapur’s ubat periuk for women was “lamuni” or

lengundi, (Sanscrit: Jalanirgundi) Vitex rotundifolia, growing on the beaches. This small

creeper has spikes of lavender flowers typical of the Verbenaceae (now Lamiaceae), aromatic

1 to 4 cm long rounded leaves, greyish green above and pubescent below. It is distributed on

the coasts in sub-tropical Asia and Pacific countries. Like Vitex agnus-castus, it is traditionally

used as a medicine for female ailments and as insecticide. The roots of Vitex rotundifolia are

traditionally reputed to prevent pregnancy, for dysmenorrhea, to help healing after delivery.
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After a few years, Mat Kapur gained fame and his market increased. He sold plants to a

traditional medicine trader in Johore, and to universities for research and creation of medicinal

gardens (USM Penang). He bought a lorry. He engaged village helpers to collect, cut roots, dry

leaves, and package them. A forest reserve being planned behind his house, Mat Kapur hoped

that he would be trusted to exploit and preserve the place. The French lab director wrote for

him a letter about his knowledge to encourage the administration.

His house and business in Jambu Bongkok would be signaled by a large board on the

roadside “Mohamad Yusof Bomoh Melayu” (1990). He gave me –verbally- a list 120 spp. of

the medicinal species he knew and of their usage. (cf. Appendix).

During the following years I could receive information about him and the history of his

training, from people in town: He had an accident with his lorry but was unarmed. His son then

would drive him as he was subject to bouts of epilepsy. He still had two wives and it was

confirmed that he did marry a few ladies including an orang asli from Pahang- usually older

than him. According to one informant, (Daud Mohamed who knew Syed Rashidi, Mat Kapur’s

mentor), after the closure of the iron mines in Dungun, as a young man, he tried to work in the

forest; he had to stop because of illness. So, Syed Rashidi who knew him from the mines, taught

him how to prepare small bundles of samples of various medicinal plants to place his order to

the orang asli he knew. Syed Rashidi, on his side, was knowledgeable in medicinal species (cf.

Letter from the Malaysian National Museum). Those bundles were actual “order lists” between

people would did not use the written word or may speak a different language.

[One other interesting part is that Syed Rashidi (“Bung” Rashidi) was originally from

Cirebon in Java. Where did his knowledge come from?] On the other hand, it was said as well
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that the orang asli of Pahang conveyed much of their knowledge to Mat Kapur. Lists of spp.

given by MK, and his repertoire of illnesses (edit) cf Appendix]

Mat Kapur was not a therapeutic practitioner. His palette was variable yet…his indications

for his species reflected the medical image of the inhabitants. He had been listing the illnesses

the most known or afflicting the population or mostdiagnosed for which the people searched

plants for help.

His prescription method depended on the diagnostic or symptomatic description of the

ailment/illness.by the patients or visitors. There is often a consensus in Terengganu among

some frequent ailments, Usually a diagnosis given to a patient by a learned relative or a village

practitioner, Mat Kapur provided the medicine only. Yet, if pressed to do so, he would identify

the causes of the ailment from a symptomatic description and prescribe a famous specific

species, or a mild mixture of tonics.

Composition the medicine: Recipes vary in complexity. A main substance aims at the target,

another one corrector/ balances the first, another is a vehicle for the whole. Add a few with the

same indication to reinforce the effect. For postpartum recovery there were at least ten spp.

(see indications in the list in appendix) which are well known by villagers.

Knowledge: Main indications: refer to MK list of ailments: Resdong, meroyan, angin

pasang, gastrik, heat, hemoroids, malaria, syphilis, asthma, Pelepa s( translations/equivalence-

→ appendice 2)

4.2.2.3 Re-visits on the coast in present era 2013-2019

This part on the “present times” re-visits deals first with the aspects of landscapes and plant

life observed along the years 2013- 2019, during a series of trips to the coasts South of Kuala
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Terengganu, first to Jambu Bongkok, on the tracks of Mat Kapur. Later, other visits were made

with the State Director of the Department of the Environment, along the coast, and further with

Frantz Limier, a French botanist from La Reunion (in the Indian Ocean). Inventories of the

encountered plant species are given in appendix. [These re-visits confirm the singular character

of this area: The balance as well as the fragility of its specific ecosystem.]

i) Among the first re-visits: Mat Kapur’s son: New life, ancient knowledge

2013 With Zamri, son of Mat Kapur, and a student from the University Malaysia

Terengganu UMT]

In 2013, the road along the coast of the state of Terengganu that allowed communication

between the villages scattered along the coast was enlarged to facilitate traffic in two directions,

a better link from Kuantan to Kuala Terengganu and easier access to for tourism, holyday

chalets, sea trips to the islands and other activities . In Jambu Bongkok, some houses previously

close to the road had to be moved, including the one where I used to meet Mat Kapur. However,

after inquiries, one of his sons, Zamri, welcomed this researcher and UMT student in his new

residence, about 2 km inland. The newly cleared area comprised land lots of good size, where

a few bricks and concrete two-storey bungalows, car porches and gardens have been built in

various designs.

Mat Kapur had talked to his son about the orang puteh woman with whom he had

collaborated in the past, and Zamri -now in his thirties-, who worked offshore with an oil

company, was happy to be free just at that time, to guide us. He told that his father had passed-

away at around 60 years-old, rather suddenly, six years ago, from a cancer of the liver (barah

hati).
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Leaving Zamri’s spacious house, we drove around, passing by Land Development Schemes

housing and planted areas (LDS), towards the hills, where some forested patches remained.

Because of the road construction and associated infrastructures, inhabitants who had lost their

land had been offered facilities to buy a place in the settlement around Jambu Bongkok.

Walking at the back of the new settlement in the remains of lowland forest at the bottom of

a small hill, it was right away possible to spot a shrub of spiny Luvanda ascendens (selusuh

ayam), and further, on the side of a winding path with fallen leaves, a small tree of tongkat Ali

that Zamri called tunjang bumi, referring to its straight and deep root, was found close to a

Polyalthia bullata with dark leaves and stem that -following his father- he named tongkat Ali

hitam. A few steps away was another dark medicinal Annonaceae, the gajah beranak -

Goniothalamus macrophyllus, -a controversial species among the customers of traditional

midwives as it has abortive properties (Wiart 2006). Present there were also the Primulaceae

mata pelanduk -Ardisia crenata, with their red fruit, looking like the eye of a mouse deer, and

beras puteh -Chasalia chartacea with her bluish black fruit. Zamri signaled a red leaved jejuang

-Cordyline, and the quite common, albeit therapeutic and fragrant, bebuas -Premna foetida.

Back towards a swampy area nearer to the coast, in a grove of slim orange and grey trees,

Zamri showed the gelam tikus -Syzygium inophylla- that has small white fruit and edible young

leaves and the iconic species of the coast gelam paya -Melaleuca cajuputi- provider of multiple

services, on which grew a Ficus deltoidei -the traditional tonic mas secotet with its

characteristic “dot”. Pretty shrubs of Ixora and Rhodomyrthus brought the colours of their

flowers to the landscape and trees like the gemia -Bouea species the promises of their fruit.

Timba tasek named by Zamri was the innocuous Epacridacea Stiphelia. A few Cinnamomum

small trees -medang teja lawang and teja jantan, were noticed.
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On the beaches, were bushes of Catunaregam (the former Randia) spinosa with their white

flowers, straight tough spines and multiple medicinal properties -mentionned mostly by Mat

Kapur as “badan” as a specific of dermatitis- and the miniature looking pandan, Parameria

barbata or serapat, used as a tissues tightener after delivery. Vitex rotundifolia was spreading

its spikes of blue violet flowers over the sand towards the edge of the waves. Zamri and I

pronounced “Lamuni” just as Mat Kapur did.

Altogether, in about two hours of a short survey, more than thirty species of medicinal

species had been found and identified. The son of Mat Kapur remembered fondly his father’s

knowledge, but he did not feel that he would be able to continue the business nor the legacy of

“Mohamad Yusof Bomoh Melayu”. The list of the plants found during this short visit is given

in appendix.

ii) Landscape evolution

The coasts in the state are not only sandy beaches and mangroves but also, harbors have

been established by the estuaries of the rivers such as Marang, Machang and Dungun rivers,

where fish can be delivered and boats can moor later in the quiet waters behind the coastal

dunes.

In the present times, the formerly rather empty road is now bordered in the vicinity of the

small harbour towns with rows of mechanics, laundry and pet shops, catering for travelers as

well as for the inhabitants of settlements and new terrace housing.

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Figure 4.29 in Seberang Marang, a classic picture (from an internet blog on “Interesting
places in Terengganu”, 2013): lagoon with boats and houses on the dune (“mengabang”). The
sea is behind the coconut trees.
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Figure 4.30 Draft Sketches before and after: Fig. Relief transect sketch with development
efforts (draft: alter proportions, text characters etc., note: “fields” of solar electricity Station)

-Ecosystem

Already, back in 2007, a team of researchers from the UMT had made a study of the

ecosystem of the coastal landscapes of Terengganu and had given an inventory of the floristic,
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fauna and halieutic assets as well as the services provided by these areas: -carbon trapping,

fishes and other food sources as well as protection from the sea surges. Over the years, they

had found that the resilience or the capacity of the Terengganu coastal landscape in maintaining

its ecosystem services in the near future might have been compromised. (Jamilah et ales. 2011).

New visits were made by this researcher as well in 2017 and 2018, together with colleagues

from various disciplines.

iii) Jambu Bongkok and Rantau Abang: Revisits two names with a fading

fame

Objective: Conduct a brief reconnaissance along 65 km the coast of Terengganu, from Kuala

Terengganu to Rantau Abang, to observe the developments on the landscapes or particular

ecosystems identified in this area of the Northern East coast of Malaysia and check on the

condition of these environments : [ the BRIS –“Beaches Ridges Interspersed with Swales”

remnants of ancient moves of the shores completed by the activities of the weather and ocean,

. Two main landscapes were to be observed: the sand dunes or the mengabang on banks of

lagoons running parallel to the coast, and the lowland swamp forest.

An Interesting aspect of these landscapes is that the soil there is acidic and poor in nutrients.

The plants resort to ingenious means to trap food like “pitchers” for the Nepenthes spp., wrap

themselves in tannin rich bark like the Melaleuca, or keep a low profile such as the shrub

kemunting (Rhodomyrtus tomentosa), the creeping lagundi (Vitex rotundifolia), while their

associate mas secotet ( Ficus deltoidea) climbs on other trees to get the light it needs. For phyto-

chemists, these creative features may herald promising molecules or secondary metabolites.

[In the air: other species: Nepenthes gracilis Periuk kera: pic flower]
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Mengabang in Pulau Kekabu and Merchang

-Waste on beaches: As we took the coastal road from Kuala Terengganu to Marang, on the

left side, a row of shops, houses, and sometimes chalets built in timber and concrete, allowed

glimpses of waves rolling on the beach. A black smoke prompted us to stop: Polystyrene was

burning, spilling black liquid on the sand. We threw sand over it.

Figure 4.31 Polystyrene from white foam to Figure 4.32 Spinifex litoreus balls with
black spill spikes

We were in Pulau Kekabu,- the kapok island- some hundred meters on the northern bank of

the Marang River, before the estuary. It faces Pulau Kapas –the cotton island. This “pulau” is

an island made of a strand of land located between a body of water and the sea; it is a

“mengabang” in the Terengganu dialect.

Figure 4.33 Path on seaside dune

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A large path ran along the seaside tropical vegetation with a view of the monsoon surf in

the background. The two parts of a type of landscape characteristic of the Malaysian east coast

could be observed: the coastal sand dune and pond/stream running parallel to the shore.

[(“mengabang merujuk kepada kawasan di mana letaknya tanah di antara sungai dan laut yang mengalir

selari antara satu sama lain. Kawasan ini merujuk kepada hilir sungai di mana sungai berkenaan mengalir selari

dengan gigi pantai sebelum bertemu di muka kuala”)[}.

One part - the dune, was a stretch of sand road bordered by a row of pokok rhu (Casuarina

equisetifolia) with needle-shaped leaves that resist wind and salt, bushes of ambong ambong

(scaveola taccada) with succulent leaves and petite half flowers, rolling balls of the sharp tipped

herb rumput bebalin (Spinifex littoreus), tapak kuda laut (Canavalia littoralis) and the similarly

named the blue-flowered tapak kuda (Ipomea pes-capra). Classic of the seaside were also the

medicinal yellow serunai laut (Wedelia biflora ) and a lengundi, a pretty, strong- smelling,

mauve-flowered Verbenaceae that Mat Kapur recommended for after delivery. (Actually, the

soft gray leaves of this Vitex rotundifolia are common on other beaches of the world and are

even considered as a weed in the USA and in Madagascar.)

Figure 4.34 a) Scaveola b) Canavalia rosea c) Wedelia biflora

taccada
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On the other side of the path, was the second view representative of the landscape, the

“lagoon”, a body of water or an inland stream that run parallel to the coast, an attractive feature

of these shores of the China Sea. The low branching of the bakau -Bruguiera- a mangrove

species, were surrounded by their pneumatophore aerial roots, a device to gather oxygen in the

brackish waters when high tides mix with fresh water.

Figure 4.35 Mangrove at Pulau Kekabu

Figure 4.36 Another dune and waterbody landscape, near the estuary of the Merchang
River.

Bridges cross the water towards the dune that leads to the beach itself. Mengabang dunes

and depressions are natural berths for fishing boats, away from the ocean waves. The dunes of

BRIS soil formation, like the water filled swales, run parallel to the sea are often quite large
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and houses are built over these, creating picturesque village landscapes as in Seberang Marang

or in Pulau Kekabu.

iv) Hutan Lipur Rantau Abang;

After passing by sign boards inviting to the “King of Madu” and the “Turtle Sanctuary”

information center, at about km from the town of Marang, on the right side of the road, we

arrived at the entrance of the Jambu Bongkok swamp forest. Classified as a HVFR (High Value

Forest Reserve), it was formerly open to the public, creating an added tourism attraction to the

neighbouring Rantau Abang turtle landing beach. It is now closed as a recreation forest because

the facilities were not strong enough to be used by visitors.

Figure 4.37: The Melaleuca standing in the Figure 4.38: Lowland forest trees Their
water diameter is rarely over 50 cm

The road went through a stand of lowland forest trees, passed by a fairy-tale swamp

landscape with dramatic gesturing of lianas and aerial roots, gelam (Melaleuca cajuputi) trees

mirrored in the black water, followed by derelict looking boardwalks and gazebos. Leaving -

for the time being, the ornamental fishes and dragonflies that live there, we followed a trail on

firm ground.
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Figure 4.39 Hutan Lipur Rantau Abang”. Broken timber jetties over the biodiversity of
the swamp

It was still early in the season to see many flowers or even less fruit –except a tough

Anarcadiaceae perhaps from last year season-. We recognized Ardisia crenata , Ixora coccinea,

Chassalia chartacea, and the black grapes of the fruit of a gunciak (Antidesma ghaesembila .

Growing amongst ferns, lianas and palm trees, were various jambu (Syzygium) and

Dipterocarps (Hopea and Shorea) .

Figure 4.40 Chassalia chartaceae: red Figure 4.41 A clump of Nimbong palm

peduncules For a blueblack fruit with tick lianas

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On the swamp side, with their feet in the water, or on dry land, were, shaggy and pinkish

white, forming the bulk of the forest, still many Melaleuca cajuputi trees.

Figure 4.42 Melaleuca cajuputi Scaffold joining honeybees nest trees Balau pasir near the
fallne Shorea materialis

As mentionned earlier, the Melaleuca tree had been of much service to the people in

Terengganu:[ the bark was used as caulking stuff for the boats as it expends in the water,

helping seal the seams between the planks and later, with its high tanin content, would protect

the wood from maritime worms. Its boles would become poles, or charcoal; its leaves provided

a medicinal oil (“minyak geliga”)] and in the polen of the flowers digested by the Apis dorsata

bees or by the kelulut stingless bees would -and still do, provide a tasty honey, dark in colour,

and liquid in texture.

However, today, the Australian acacias (A.mangium and A. Auriculiformis) are becoming

dominant. Their wood serve as an easier nesting place for the bees, even if these are still friand

of the flowers of the Melaleuca. From Kuala Terengganu to Rantau Abang, the invasive Acacia

are seen thriving in the same habitat as the native Melaleuca, and replacing them.
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As we continued on the small road that goes through part of the Jambu Bongkok Forest, we

noticed a group of workers cutting the branches of a tree that had fallen on a cable. Puan Zaida

Zakaria, who is in charge of the recreational forests at the Forest Department of Terengganu,

explained: they were removing the crown of a balau pasir (Shorea materialis, of which the tall

stump, broken at about10 m high, could be seen standing further inside the forest. Traces of the

passage of honey hunters were noted: burnt timber and boxes, and deep cuts in the bark of a

nearby tree.

[Turtle upon the hill, Silica mining, and bird nests

On Bukit Hawa, a hill at about 5 km inside the land nearby is a giant rock in the shape of a

turtle. A legend told how one of these giant leatherback (dermocheleys coriaceae) had settled

there and had become a kind of landmark magnet for its nestling congeners. The much-broken

rock could be a symbol of the sad fate of the leatherback turtles. These are not seen any more

on the Rantau Abang nesting place. They are even said to be extinct. The small tar road that

leads to their mausoleum goes through gelam, Acacias and pulai forested hills, along areas

totally cleared for the mining of fine greyish silica-rich sand.

Figure 4.43 View from the Bukit Hawa Figure 4.44 “Penyu menangis siapa yang
tahu”(J.M.Aziz);
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[Regrowth on a dune after the catastrophe]

Back in summer 2014, in a phenomenon that was linked to the warmer climate and the peat

fires from Indonesia and Borneo, sparks would start wildfires that raged over many places in

the Peninsula, including on the east coast. As it is known that the Melaleuca, the Kemunting

(Rhodomyrtus tomentosa) and other hardy heath species are reputed to recover fast after a fire,

on our way back we stopped where the coast, on the road sides, had previously blackened.

Clumps of shrubby vegetation had already resumed growth. These new healthy bushes were

composed of Acacia Mangium. Of the native species, remained a few medicinal daun Siak

(Dianela ensifolia) with their pretty blue fruit and some Setebal (Hoya coronaria) climbers,

while the Rambut puteri (Cassyta filiformis) spread their orange colored nets on the sand..

Nowhere, even close to the water of a thin stream in a swale, any swamp or associate species

could be seen yet.

Figure 4.45 Acacia on the Sand dune Figure 4.46 Dianela ensifolia
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Conclusion for this trip in a Coastal area

Even during short visits, or other passing by trips, it was possible to see that this part of the

coast in the state of Terengganu possessed complex, beautiful, fragile landscapes and

ecosystems. These seem threatened by seasonal fires, rubbish disposal and the need to find

more resources for the inhabitants. Protecting the existing flora and fauna assets, as well as the

fishing, the honey hunting, –and the hospitality industry, (which includes the most ancient

guests: the nesting turtles), does not seem a straightforward task.

Malaysian university researchers (Drs. Jamilah and Faridah, Nakhzir Marden (2018), and

others such SEATRU at UMT, have been studying the different coastal ecosystems and the

services they provide. They intend to make them more known and see how to preserve them in

sustainable ways.

2018 With botanist Franz Limier: Re-visit in Rantau and Abang-Jambu Bongkok

Re-visit to the coast from Marang to Rantau Abang with botanist Frantz Limier

Our common objectif was to proceed to a brief review of the current state of the Jambu

Bongkok Forest Reserve, particularly, and generally, of the coastal landscapes, on the way from

Marang to Tanjong Jara with their vegetal cover and Bris ecosystem, for about 230 kmalong

the sea shore.

Marang: We noticed an abundant fruiting of Flacourtia inermis sweet cherries (ignored by

the near-by sitting elderly villagers), fishing boats at anchor in the estuary of the Marang river

and a gigantic PAS flag. During this trip made during elections times, blue and green flags

would occult the views on the sides of the road in the few inhabited places.
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Figure 4.47 Marang harbor with Figure 4.48 Fire Figure 4.49
flag Ancistrocladus

Fire

In Merchang, a fire (probably a cigarette butt had been thrown on dry leaves) had

transformed the landscape of a large dune by the left side of the road. Calcined Melaleuca

cajuputi -gelam trees, and trunks of burnt Acacia were spread on the blackened sand. The

leaves of Ancistrocladus clumps had turned copper.

Figure 4.50 Hanging beards Figure 4.51 Melaleuca Figure 4.52 Mixed with
cajuputi Acacia

Water mark

Further towards the shore, was a softly undulated terrain of dunes and water bodies with

Melaleuca and a few -ancient by the looks of their girth, Acacias (Acacias were introduced

since 1930s in a forest compensation scheme (S.K.Yap, 1988). The landscape there was

dramatic due to natural causes: in places, the gelam trees and some old Acacias were
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decorated with greyish beards of dead algae. Both species carried at a height of up to about 1

meter 20 the black trace of seasonal tides.

Figure 4.53 Colours Figure 4.54 Beach Figure 4.55 No tourist then
classics

In places, the silhouettes of Melaleuca cajeputi were mirrored in pools of -black (acid) and red

(tannin) fresh water running parallel to the dunes and the shoreline. There were also the remains

of a dune stabilizing Casuarina plantation –apparently an abandoned project. Further towards

the seashore, the succession of dunes and swales depressions led to the beach. The sea was of

many nuances of purple blue to green. Swishing fringes of white waves spread a darker orange

line on the sand. No tourists, but some plastic detritus evoked human presence.

Among other stranded rubbish from the sea: plastic bottles with Vietnamese writings.

(Vietnamese vessels are said to often encroach on Terengganu waters).

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Figure 4.56 Swale with Figure 4.57 Rodomyrtus Figure 4.58 From the sea
water tomentosa to chalets

Eagles flew around, hunting. Big lizards crossed hastily the path. Dragon flies rested on

leaves. A shaggy -dead-end earth road lined with the classic series of beach and heath

vegetation ran along the coast on the last fold of a dune above the “Merantau Inn” beach.

There were Pandanus, Scaveola, Rodomyrtus and Casuarina with some trees such as Vitex

lengundi and Syzygium grande. On the side towards the main road, -which was reinforced

with an embankment, the Bris landscape was still evident: growing on dune hills, thin

Melaleuca trunks and green bushes of Brugiera were mirrored in lagoons on a background of

thin clouds and blue sky. The chalets were empty.

[Further down the coast, our battered Proton car did not bend the sense of duty of the

Bangladesh guards: We had to skip appreciating the Tanjung Jara Hotel. The hotel resort,

designed to emulate vernacular features, had won, back in 1983 the Agah Khan Architecture

Award. The Tanjung Jara beach bay had more Vitex and Syzygium, a Calotropis fruit and a

carpet of Graminae herbs. We turned back North toward the forest]

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Resources

Figure 4.59 Sand mining Figure 4.60 Forest Figure 4.61 Swiflets breeding
interrupted

Just before the actual entrance to the area of the “Rantau Abang Virgin Forest Reserve”, on the

left side of the main road, was a tar road leading to the “Turtle Hill”. There, a large mining

operation of white and gray sand [granite sediments?] for silica, replaced part of what had been

a dune forest of Melaleuca and Alstonia, the latter still exhibiting their tufted leaves and pagoda

habit in the background. Two large swiftlets breeding buildings completed the impression of

determined exploitation of natural resources.

Rantau Abang Virgin Forest Reserve…

In the Forest Reserve itself, the view of a derelict main boardwalk explained why the Amenity

Forest is closed to the public, waiting for rehabilitation. Perhaps poaching on medicinal Ficus

deltoidea or Nepenthes pitchers may have added to the decision of cloture. The “Paya gelam”

-the Melaleuca swamp- though, is still attractive. Wild boars ran and macaques left the road as

our car approached. Slim 20/50cm in diameter and about 30m tall Dipterocarps grew on the

drier soil amidst shrubs such as the Catunaregam spinosus and Ardisia crenata.
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Figure 4.62 Board at Rantau Abang Forest

Reserve

Figure 4.63 Bridge to an islet

A colony of kelulut stingless bees (*) had elected domicile in such a trunk (Hopea or Shorea

spp. from the looks of the leaves and dipterocarp seeds on the floor) the leaves of which, up

above, were not visible. Poachers had deeply cut the bark of the tree and collected the honey.

Bees were seen, beginning to swarm at the entrance of their former nest. Frantz put back in

place the cut “walls” of the nest.

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Figure 4.64 Honey hive entrance Figure 4.65 Hopea break-in

Inside the swamp forest, numerous fish drew silver circles on the surface of the water as they

jumped in a black stream that flew through a pure stand of Melaleuca. The banks were eroded

on one side and accreted on the other, signalling strength of current surprising for an internal

body of water.

Figure 4.66 . Fish galore Figure 4.67 Nepenthes cups Figure 4.68. …in a row
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Above the ground covered with fallen leaves, hanged rows of vegetal cups of the Nepenthes

gracilis (peruk kera) and, further up, stood a rare sight: the flowering spike of the species.

Figure.4.69 Flower of a Nepenthes gracilis (Pic. F. Limier)

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Results from re-visits: Changes observed

4.2.3 Conclusions

Mengabang coastal dunes beauty is still there Still desolate, abandoned tourism projects,

some survive, so are the villager’s activities; Merchang, Jambu Bongkok…Silica mining.

Accacia kelulut, fish, aquaculture cages, sedge weaving. Forests have diminished

-Changes occurred because of the intention of bringing development by exploiting natural

resources. In some places, the natural system of the coast is destroyed or disturbed by large

scale projects.

The case of the enclave of Jambu Bongkok -former- Reserve, then “Rantau Abang Amenity

Forest”, then “closed”, is an example of the paradox of tourism or eco-tourism oxymoron:

Opened to too many people a preserved place lost the very qualities that attracted visitors, a

paradoxe that had already attracted the attention of Aldo leopold in 1949. What was
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neighborhood occasional collecting has become larger scale poaching: no more orchids, even

Nepenthes and less sought-after medicinal species such as mas secotet are becoming rare while

wild honey industry seems little supervised. Modern features: and a vast solar field has been

installed in Coara Marang to generate 116 MWp of electricity. Wind surfing sports develops

and Pantai Kelulut has won a reputation as the waves break strong and high on the beach.

Matters of ecological disturbances and sustainable Land Use Planning

Danger alarm/alert: Fires, waste deposits, aquaculture, new settlements, tourism, beach

width reduction: an ecosystem past and modern, obviously in jeopardy.

“Coastal landscapes are not only supporting the most productive and ecologically valuable

ecosystem but are also fast changing, caused by both anthropogenic and natural processes.

Changes in the form of diminishing vegetation cover, water body and increasing urbanization

in Terengganu, East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia, for the years of 2000 and 2017 were

assessed using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer satellite.

Changes due to urbanization raise concern over the loss of coastal landscape and may impact

its resilience, so it may no longer be able to provide key ecosystem services. This understudied

ecosystem deserves to be conserved for its ecosystem services."

4. 2. 3 Introduction: The “house compounds”: a reflection of a traditional society

Living on site in Terengganu and often conducting ethnobotanical research for foreign and

local laboratories, had made this researcher realise that the houses in the villages clearly

expressed the culture, the heritage, and the identity of their inhabitants. Exploration of

residential habitat in the rural areas and in the towns of the state from 2000 to 2005 for a Master
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in Architecture had led to the establishment of a socio-cultural typology of the house

compounds found in the northern part of the that state.

The selection of the house compounds was made on the basis that they were found in

localities of which the history was known, where people had been living for at least for three

generations, and where habitations exhibited features of the vernacular architecture.

These compounds revealed a landscape significant flora, demonstrating preferences for

plant species as well as a knowledge held by the inhabitants. They amply qualified as “cultural

landscape”, answering up to 17 academic criteria such as those gathered from the US National

Parks Registry (that identifies four cultural landscape types: -historic designed, -historic

vernacular, -historic agricultural, and -ethnographic), from the UNESCO, and various

sociological analysis.

After a general introduction on the village environing flora and habitat, a succinct

description of 16 “house compounds” from the previous research in 2000-2005 is given. It is

followed by re-visits in “present times” in 2013-2019, for each house and compound over the

recent years.
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Figure 4.70 Map with location of the described house compounds in Terengganu from
MA in architecture

Once the changes from ethnobotanical and landscape architecture perspectives are noted, it

will be possible, in the next chapter 5, to examine their significance, interpret further cultural

and social consequences that will help defining the general thrust of the evolution, perhaps

from one civilisation to another. Or from a life in a house compound microcosm or “holon”, to

a life as an individual (“clog” some say) part of a wider world/

4.2.3.1 Landscape, Flora, ground and cultural features, in the past

i) Landscape and plant species

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The main characters of the landscape in the villages were the profusion of flora and its

diversity (194 individual species of plants listed for 16 dwelling); its verticality, as trees (54

species) dominated the views: Moving walls of greenery in the monsoon period, these gave the

landscape a feeling of grandiose presence of nature and of the continuity of the passage of

generations. (The inventory of the species is given in appendix A Inventories , “specific”)

The most frequently encountered tree species in the sample are the mangoes (mempelam

epal, bacang), with their abundant foliage from which emerge, towards the beginning of March,

spindles of small red or violet flowers. Soon their heavy fruits will hang down, pulling the

branches downwards. Then come the jambu, the long red or white stamens of their flowers line

the ground while the tamarind trees that grow naturally at the back of the kitchen spread on the

ground their sour and sweet pods. Also present are papayas, duku with pleated trunk, lanky

durian and nangka, cousins of the breadfruit, whose giant fruits are quickly wrapped in batik

cloth by the villagers to protect them from birds and squirrels. One must also count the

prehistoric meninjau (Gnetum gnemon) with glossy dark green leaves. The pale yellowish flour

from their red-skinned berries makes bittersweet crisps.

The 31 species of bushes or shrubs bring colours to eye level such as yellow and orange

pecah periuk (Ixora), sun-kissed, multicolored hibiscus, cekur manis flowers whose leaves are

savoured as vegetables, and aromatic limes. The ubi kayu (Manihot esculenta) with pink stems

escape from the gardens into the undergrowth and the trees of the belukra secondary growth.

Herbs are the most numerous (72 species). They range from long green rectangles of banana

leaves to aromatic gingers to vegetables, ulam “greens” and gingers, heralding a varied cuisine.

Among the palms, the Cocos nucifera, the coconut palm, is most frequent, followed by the

Areca. The palms are few in species (11 species), but around the houses, their trunks trace
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vertical lines toward the sky and the cut-out shadows of their foliage is projected on the sand.

Here and there, the orange nut of the Areca palm recalls the tradition of chewing the nut rolled

in betel leaves.

Climbing species and epiphytes, (26 species), ara Ficus (fig trees), Hoyas, and Vitis, give

the landscape an air of inexhaustible energy.

ii) Garden elements and accessories

82 Elements and accessories have been listed (cf inventory in Appendix A. “specific). There

are among others, cages for animals, storage huts, multi-purpose platforms, swings and

hammocks, high-backed benches made for stretching out legs or sitting cross-legged, displays

of potted plants, as well as, under the houses, gerai salai (after delivery platforms), screens,

looms, lesong (mortars) for tapioca and rice, jars, iron tripods blackened by cooking fires and

coconut provisions, next to sampans as well as tools for fishing and harvesting.

House compounds elements always present are the wells and their accessories. The wells,

built of brick or cement, are a rallying point used by different inhabitants of a household at

different times of the day, The sound of the triangular iron bucket banging against the walls

followed by the sound of water gushing over the shoulders and hitting the cement around the

well have traditionally been part of the soundscape. They mark the hours, as well as the calls

to prayer, they were used for cleaning and having fun, in turn for the showers of the children,

the filling of the jars for the kitchen and the washing of the clothes, for fishermen, peasants and

carpenters returning from work. The wells “halaman tempat saya mandi” (the place where I

wash myself) -from a pantun (DBP…)-, whether they were inside the house -for wealthy

families- or outside, were inseparable from the feeling of being "at home" and the concept of

home as a whole.
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Animals bring the landscape to life. Their territory covers that of dwellings. They share it

with human inhabitants, some with permission such as roosters and hens, red-crested Moscovi

ducks, turkeys, goats, geese, fighting cocks and the monkeys trained to pick coconuts. Cats are

caged or allowed to live their lives and are then excluded from homes. Clandestine but just as

present on the roofs, in the trees and on the ground, are the foxes, the squirrels, the tenggiling

(Malayan pangolin) amateurs of termites, the snakes and the clawed monitor lizards. Birds are

heard at different times of the day and night. Choirs of toads sing between the heavy showers

of the monsoon rain. The eagles enjoy their meal of fish or mice in a rengas tree (Gluta rhengas)

while they have made their nest at the top of a cengal pasir tree.

Within this green and living background are set the house of the villagers.

-Recapitulation for in the state tangible [intangibles such as lay out significance later in C 5]

features from“the past”: valid for all the inhabited areas, Pulau Duyong, the coast to Jambu

Bongkok and the house compounds areas]

Plant species numbered: [@ 250]; Cultural architecture and landscape features: [ @ 80].

(Inventories are given in appendices)]

4.2.3.2 “Ethnobotanical document”: Narratives, Visits in the past and present

eras

To allow a view of the changes occurred in the house compounds as observed in the past

eighties and early 2000, a summary of a part of this researcher Msc in Architecture (Cultural

landscape…2007), has been rewritten, summarized, and completed with brief accounts of re-

visits made in 2014-2019 showing the latest developments in the surveyed sites. Following the

different “types” of house compounds as studied in 2005-2007 as seen in the” past era”:
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i) “Rakyat”1

The main features of the “rakyat” type of habitat are the modest size of the land, the simple

styled roof, the low cost of the building materials. Often, there are signs of commercial activity

or of seeking a livelihood around the house. (5 sites) or examples:

Figure 4.71. a “Rakyat house compound.

Rakyat 1:

Island of Pulau Ketam, in the Terengganu River: Che Da’s Wan Teh’s house compound

told of her many activities towards earning a living. In 1990, located about twenty meters from

a small tar road that crosses the rather green Pulau Ketam, Che Da’s home was a comfortable

household in timber, with a roof made of batu bata Singhora -clay tiles and a lambur -verandah.

A well was at the back, near the kitchen stairs. There were sheds for chicken and storage for

lidi brooms from coconut palms and mengkuang palms that had been collected nearby or from

around the cemetery in Pulau Duyung. In 2005, Recently widowed from her husband (fishing

boat skipper and part owner) with still schooling children, -Che Da continued weaving

multicolored colored supek mengkuang, -20 x 40 cm bags, and mats that are bought by a
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Chinese small trader in the market of Kedai Payang in Kuala Terengganu.[ She also looks after

young children of some relatives]. She informed that a sprained wrist was treated with the bark

of a terajang tree (Erioglossum rubiginosum) and used postpartum medicinal leaves for her

daughter’s after-delivery shower, all species found in the compound or in the vicinity. (Cf

sketch of the house compound in Appendix B)

Figure 4.71 a)Well, kitchen with “periuk” for herbs, b)Che Da,making a broom from
coconut leaves, c) Family on stairs

In 2014, Che Da had been asked to move away by the landowners who wished to build

modern houses for rent. The house and the livelihood accessories around had disappeared. Only

the well and the concrete front stairs remained. Some original plant spp. survived.

Figure 4.72 Remains in 2014 Figure 4.73 And 2018

Re-visits
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A last visit in July 2018 showed that all material memory of the compound had disappeared,

including well and stairs, everything swallowed by the secondary growth of Calladium,

Passiflora and Hibiscus tilliaceus. Concrete houses have been built, further towards the road.

“Rakyat 2”: Nearby, at about 10 meters from the new tar road was the house compound of

Enche Hamzah, a retired army man. Back in the 90ties, in the river were his fish farm basins,

at the entrance, a vast shed used for meetings -as En Hamzah’s wife was active in local politics.

Ornamental plants were displayed in pots on top of concrete columns. On the side of a stream,

small fences separated chicken from ducks and mangrove. A putat Barringtonia asiatica and a

kekatong (Cynometra cauliflora) and some fruit trees remained from the original mangrove

vegetation.

Figure 4.74 ……………………..

Re-visit

In July 2018, the house was not visible from the road as a new building made of concrete

dressed in blue ceramics with a modern glass door stood on the border of the road, replacing

the former meeting shed. However, past the new open kitchen balcony, one could appreciate

the continued planting efforts of the house owners: A swing is next to a garden of Lagermia

and other edible Cucurbitaceae, as well as vegetable and ornamental plant species growing over

the new concrete banks of the stream. The ancient timber house is now rented as a ‘homestay”.
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The formerly central original putat Baringtonia Asiatica is not there anymore. A few kekatong

(Cynometra cauliflora) fruit can still be spotted near the ground on the tree. In 2019, the new

modern house was carefully completed,

Figure 4.75 a) The new concrete house by the road display of ornamental plants b) That
house with the plants nursery by the river bankside is now on a popular afternoon jogging
route.

Rakyat 3: In Kuala Terengganu, in the town area of Jalan Kamaruddin, known for its - often

large- concrete bungalows belonging to government servants, was the timber house of En.

Mansor -a police inspector, whose father had been a royal house builder. The height of the

supporting pillars and of the walls, the crossed gable roofs with buah gutong finials and the

elaborated window panels on the sorong (protruding part of visitors area) signaled the proper

design for an aristocratic town house. However, the compound was neither vast neither had it

an alley leading to the main door. Near the kitchen door, on the ground floor, a tall pauh mango

tree gave shade to a circular bench for visitors and inhabitants.

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Figure 4.76 Past: façade on the Southern Figure 4.77 Ornemental species
side

Re-visits

This house compound in Jalan Kamarudin was revisited a few times. Enche Mansor had

passed away in 2006 (?) but ornamental species were still there, -even increased in quantity- as

well as the welcoming round bench. Concrete larger stairs replace the timber ones. A ”wakaf”

gazebo were neighbours and family members gather, has inherited of one of the former house

roof buah gutung finials.

Figure 4.78 Present: façade with “wakaf” Figure 4.79 … Present: ceramic stairs, South
family gazebo

Rakyat 4:
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in Sungai Rengas, South Ouest of Kuala Terengganu was the house of Enche Abdul

Rahman or “Pak Man”-a relative of Tukku Paluh- who often used to help patients with prayers

and medicinal plants species. The house, although large, was modest with its horizontal

planking and 4 ft height pillars. Under the floor were jars and the wooden pieces of a kek, a

tool for weaving the golden thread of the songket festival garments. A well was in the front

yard with a jambu air Syzygium tree. At the back of the house were the furrows of a vegetable

garden and a “clinic” where some medicinal roots and dry leaves were kept in plastic bags.

Figure 4.80 Large building, added Figure 4.81 Large Figure 4.82 Kek for
bathroom building, added “Songket” “Clinique ”
bathroom
Re-visit

In July 2018, although seemingly not abandoned, as the ground was swept and the stairs

renovated, the were no signs of inhabitants, but young man came out: Since his father and his

mother had passed away, his sister did not feel like staying there. Himself was working in Kuala

Lumpur. Jars, Kek and vegetable garden had disappeared, so had the well. The “clinic” had

served for a while as an extra relaxing room. The trees, old durians and duku at the back of the

house had been cut, so had the jambu near the well.
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Figure 4.83 2016 renovation Figure 4.84 Clinique used for a while as

extra room

Rakyat 5, in Batu Rakit

In 2004, Nek Aisha’s house compound was delimited on one side by the beach of the China

Sea, on the other by a small coastal road that led toward Kuala Besut. Coconut trees grew

around the house, together with a red flowered dedap tree (Erythrina variegata) and a sukun

(Atrocarpus altilis). The main beam of the house was oriented towards Mekka while a large

verandah adorned the Eastern façade. There were few sheds by the zinc shower room,sheltering

motorcycles, stacks of new roof tiles. and small boat accessories. Widowed from herhusband -a

diver and a fisherman, Nek Aisha has set a sundry shop and sold fried banana. She was also an

experienced midwife.
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Figure 4.85 2004: a) A popular shop b) “Caping” joint c) 2017: Nearby

cover element from remains of “bilis” small

the front of a boat fish processing

Re-visit

In 2017, re-visiting the beach areas, it was at first difficult to find the house, even traces of

it: It had to be moved, by “administration order” was the explanation. There were abundant

belukar and beach species. A daughter of Nek Aishah has now a house in Kampong Tanjung

on the other side of the road; nearby grows a sukun Artocarpus altilis. On the seaside, the

Chinese house is abandoned, only some half-demolished keret concrete basins for ikan bilis -

anchovies- fish-boiling, remained. During a re-visit on the site in July 2018, the well could not

be seen. Only the remains of basins were left, in the former yard of the Chinese house, that had

disappeared as well.

ii) Aristocrat

Even in the eighties and 2000, the “Aristocrat” house compound type of habitations were

the less easy to discover as they were less common: Their inhabitants had the means to re-build

modern bungalows in brick or concrete or to emigrate towards the capital of Kuala Lumpur.

However, when finding oneself in front of such a house, one realizes that it is particular in its
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original architecture, its large grounds marked in places by vegetal borders or a brick and

plaster wall interspersed with portals.

Figure 4.86 Aristocrat house compound sketch: Priority: status symbols; a gathering of
roofs or a vast residence on well swept grounds surrounded with a semi-circle of tall trees. A
driveway leads to the residence. Characteristic feature: decorative elements, for example
“sobek” -wooden panels cut outs with stylised floral motives or with Islamic calligraphy
(Four examples).

Aristocrat 1: On the Island of Pulau Duyong, in the estuary of the Terengganu River, is the

Kota Lama Duyong

Figure 4.87 Restored building: Figure 4.88 Corinthian Figure 4.89 Restored
Museum capitals building: Museum
first-floor brick and stucco
bathroom
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The vast house of the Judge Dato Biji Sura, built in 1919, and thanks to concerted efforts

from many parts, including the descendants of DBJ, Badan Warisan,UTM Skudai, and

inhabitants of the island of Duyung, has been restored in 1995, has been arranged into a

museum, Twelve buildings in various vernacular and foreign style, raised on 2 meters high

columns are in timber on the first floor and in brick and stucco on the ground floor. The

buildings and their garden are surrounded by a wall which has no less than six gates. A concrete

gutter system brings used waters to the river. In addition to the two basins (kolah) located near

the stairs for ritual ablutions and for washing the feet, there are two wells, one on the first floor

in the bathroom -it is 5 m deep- and another one, outside the ”fort” -the “kota”, for the guests.

There were a few trees inside the fort such as the delima -Zyzyphus mauritiana- which was

often in the past used by neighbours for bathing deceased persons, or the traditional welcome

melor -Jasmin, near the stairs under the arches of the entrance porch, a Datura perhaps used for

asthma.

Re-visits

Today, the Museum of the Kota Lama Duyung, mentionned in tourism brochures, is open,

and, except for some activities such as a photography contest in 2019, it is not much visited.

The external well and bathroom are still there, but remain forgotten. Curiously, a slim tongkat

Ali (Eurycomia longifolia) a species from the forest, is grown near the backyard selasar

balcony,while landscape Areca decorate a lawn area.

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Figure 4.90 Kitchen reconstitution Figure 4.91 Tongkat Ali in the garden

Aristocrat 2: In Seberang Kampong Batin, on the left bank of the Terengganu River, was

a vast timber house painted in pale green, the workmanship of which (with Art Deco -1920-

1940- inspiration) was apparent especially in the details of the windows of the façade and of

the staircase. The many atap belanda roofs with traditional finials stood out on a dark

background of tall cengal pasir -Hopea odorata. In front of the bay window of the façade, was

a broad alley decorated with ornamental flowers Allamanda, cactuses and Ruellia simplex.

Figure 4.92 Façade, bay window Figure 4.93 Alley

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Figure 4.94 Staircase handle Figure 4.95 Rear part and tempayang

Re-visits

In 2015, the land behind the beautiful house of Mak Engku has been sold and the chengal

pasir trees have been felled. Some of the roofs had been repaired, tiles changed for asbestos

Then in 2018, the house was empty, seemingly abandoned as bushes had invaded the front

alley. (Pics.) Haji Abdul Rahman had passed-away, and Engku Zaimah had moved out to live

with a sister. Only the persistent Ruellia simplex remained by the stairs.

Figure 4.96 Neglected entrance alley, ornamentals have disappeared

Aristocrat 3: Haji Ghani in Losong:

In the Losong village, the residence in “Bugis” style of Haji Abdul Ghani, a former

government officer, facing, but separated by a road, the one his great grand-father Haji
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Mohamad Kaya and that of his grand-father Haji Su, also in “Bugis” style. The carefully made

windows of the house reminded of the sophisticated “Holland” (Belanda) window casements

favored by wealthy Bugis people in Sulawesi. A carousel for vehicles circulation ran under a

porch, the roof of which was brought to the heigh of the house through high timber pillars. A

serambi gallery linked the two wings of the facade of the building. A beautiful jambu

(Syzygium aqueum) tree has been grown in front of the porch, protecting the stairs. Under the

house, were a big jar, movable partitions, a sampan and, in the garden, as a background, stood

a line of coconut and towering old mango trees.

Figure 4.97 a) Alley, vast

b) Haji Abdul Ghani c) Staircase and Jambu tree
entrance space
Embong

Re-visits

In 2018, part of the land has been bought by the government to allow the construction of a

road leading to a new market. It was then necessary to build a wall to prevent automobilists

from parking by the side of the house. Shops have been opened at the back of the house near

the market, replacing the mango trees. The jambu in front of the entrance stairs has been fell

as it was “too old”.

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Figure 4.98 a) View of the new entrance, ornamental Allamanda on the side of the lowered

stairs, b) old mango trees and coconut in the background have gone, or remain on the sides,

unused.

ii) The “Clan” house compound.

Figure 4.99 Clan heritage such as in Kampong Hiliran

Priority: Family: “A surau, a common well and some houses are connected. There is an

“enclosure feeling” because of visible or intangible boundaries. Tall and old trees are around

the compound, at entrance and exit. Characteristic feature: “titian” passage between the houses

The habitat of the type “Clan” is born out of the initiative of the founder, often a historical

figure. The houses of the family members are built close by his. The whole place endowed
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with a surau -Islamic chapel- gives the impression of an independent village or a small

principality. The entrance is framed with tall fruit trees. A few houses in various styles stand

separately but are often linked together by timber passages, common bridges, or balconies.

Clan 1: Tokku Paloh

Figure 4.100 a) Tokku Paloh, b) alley and jambu trees, c) high timber columns, d) tri-

dimensional carvings

This compound -a village in fact-, founded by the charismatic Syed Abdul Rahman Saiyid

Abdur Rahman bin Saiyid Muhammad al-Aydarus (1817-1917) or “Tok Ku Paloh” housed his

many wives and his disciples. In Tok Ku’s time, there was a fruit trees orchard including cloves

(Syzygium odorata), and medicinal species, and as well a weapon training area near the two

kolah basins close to the surau chapel, and a 2 m diameter wide public well. Two of the houses

were in bujang berpeles berserambi -single buildings with fascia boards and long verandas-

had relief carvings. Other houses had atap belanda (“Dutch roof” style) with jambu, duku,

meninjau trees in a vast courtyard, and with another well “for workers”.

Re-visits

During visits in the 1990ties, the atmosphere and the architecture of the “aristocratic village”

could still be felt, under the shade of the old trees. In the present times (2018), carvings can
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still be seen on the facades, but parts of the houses -roofs, walls- had to be renovated and new

material used (asbestos). Trees have been cut. The tiang timber columns have been shortened

and their belira -openings for reinforcements beams, are now empty. Garages have appeared

on the ground floor. Side verandas (selasar) have disappeared. A new surau with simple

planking replaces the old one. The kolah basin and the large well have been wrapped in

ceramic. Buah gutong and tujuk langit are both placed on the kolah roof, Modern bungalows,

some with neo-vernacular features, have been built on the divided land.

Figure 4.101 a) Land fragmented, modern bungalows b) The well with its clay bricks c)

Gathering of mixed memories

Clan 2: Haji Mat Kaya Losong

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Figure 4.102 Two buildings of the many houses of Haji Mat Kaya and his descendants in
Losong:‘tiga berpeles”with front “serambi”; “Belanda” roofs with two “sorong”protruding
elements

The splendid old residences that spread over the “kampong Losong” belonging to the family

of haji Mat Kaya bear witness of the artistic and architectural sense that ran in the in the family,

as well as of their financial means. Seen in the nineteen eighties, the most modern building had

a ground floor in brick and stucco, a first floor with “atap Belanda”or“Dutch roof” over three

main buildings. It was linked -at the back -clan style- to the more ancient rumah berpeles

berkembar tiga -three twin houses with fascia bords- with a serambi -front long porch.

Figure 4.103 Other houses of Haji Mat and his family in Losong

Re-visits

Now, in 2019, at the passing away of the last descendant living in the front house, both the

buildings have been bought, restored, (2017?) and have become part of Terengganu State

Museum. A few plant species evoking ancient uses have been planted by the side of alleys

surrounding the compound…

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Figure 4.104 Two revovated attached houses have become a museum

Clan 3, Jalan Hiliran, Haji Yusof “Kelang”

Nearby a small tributary of the Terengganu River -Sungai Hiliran- on the right side of the

estuary, a gathering of houses belongs to the family of Haji Yusof “Kelang”, a businessman

who had calmed troubles in the iron mines in Dungun [and had received shares in Kelang].

There are six houses, belonging to sisters -three in a line -of which two are linked through a

common porch, then, two more in front, and one on the side. All stand on massive timber pillars

but in various architectural styles. Windows with pointed arches, which -surprisingly, evoke,

(like in Seberang Bukit Tumbuh), Western “Art Deco” style (1925-1940), showing that their

owners had travelled. On the other hand, the patterns of the sobek -symmetrical and symbolic

cut out carvings above the windows, are representative of the East Coast traditional craft. A

surau on stilts complete the feeling of a living community. On the kitchen side, a double roof

indicates ventilation. An outdoor well is enclosed in a stone bathroom.

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Figure 4.105 Linked houses Pillar tops Western inspired Traditional carvings

Re-visits

Figure 4.106 the new surau Renovations Tradition

Today, Haji Yusof clan compound is somewhat disrupted by the appearance of garages, one

in the middle of the land and the other under a house. Altogether, care is still obvious. The

surau has been elevated and restored. A small garden is on the side with usual ornamental and

edible species: Hibiscus rosa sinensis, Solanum torvum, Clitoria ternatea.

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Clan 4: Haji Ibrahim, Pulau Ketam

On the island of Pulau Ketam, right behind the mosque, the descendants of The Nakhoda

Haji Ibrahim -captain of the legendary sailing trader “Najuah”-,have gathered their houses. The

most ancient is in the “bujang berpeles” style. The others are “Belanda” with “buah gutong”

finials. A common well is outside in the middle of a small courtyard. A cengal tree - the species

used in the past as mast for the big Malay trading schooners- is preserved. For a long time

“jeragan”(trawler captain), one of the descendants of Haji Ibrahim, has become a fighting cocks

breeder as cages inhabited by proud gallinaceae. can be seen in the garden and around his

house.

Figure 4.107 Path to the ancient common well present activities: fighting cocks
memories from the past

Re-visits: The land has been divided. Only two houses remain linked by the common

garden. One inhabitant has a family, the other is alone.

Clan 5

Lorong Haji Jamil

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Figure 4.108 a) Awang besar’s family: carved “sorong veranda,b) entrance door with

roof and finials, common well

In the city of Kuala Terengganu, behind Jalan Kampong Cina, the main residence of the

family of Haji Awang Besar (a wealthy trader whose story is linked to the brief episode -tree

weeks in August1945- of the communist rule) was marked by a timber gate with a tile roof and

finials and by a serambi serong -protruding veranda- surrounded with a cut out wooden frieze

and window lintels ornamented with similarly cut out carvings. The roofs were in” Belanda”

style. The well was in the common interior yard. A lawn and ornamental species filled the

garden of the main building. The other houses, simpler, were disposed in line with the first,

with their façade toward the road.

Re-visits

Since 2014, this “clan house compound” has completely disappeared. Behind the blue

palisades of an urban development, a large piece of land in the center of town has been bought

and cleaned and was to be re-sold to an investor conglomerate.

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Today, nothing remains of the once famous Lorong Haji Jamil and of the neighboring

surau, of the stucco and brick and other carved timber buildings. However, nothing has been

built since. In 2019, Belukar bushes and invasive species still rules.

iv) “Farm” house compounds

Figure 4.109 Farm” house compound sketch with lambur verandah, baloh padi, fence,
chicken cages, plants presentoir,

Lay out: a thin circle of trees around a house standing on clean floor with a rustic fence. Inside the compound,

sheds of various sizes Type. Priorities: harvest, storage for tools and harvest storage and animals lodgings

Features: large veranda “lambur” and baluh padi (Huts to store the padi).

The “farm” type of house compounds is different from the house and garden of the “Rakyat” in

the fact that their surroundings are vast, that there are few trees near the house itself, to facilitate
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the circulation of the harvested products, of the workers and customers. There are, though, a few

shelters with various functions. The wooden pillars are generally only of around 1m 30 meter high.

Farm 1: Nek Senai house in Padang Setebu

Figure 4.110 a) 2004 house wall material: Tree bark b) Eltingeria elator

Figure 4.111 c) Bunga kantan, still there d) Tongkat Ali ,left to grow

e) 2014: Bark replaced by plank for walls

Farm house compounds re-visits

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[It was in Kampung Setebu: a place surveyed in 2000 Upon a hill in Ulu Telemong in the

vicinity of Pasir Dula and Sungai Gawi that information on the Buluh Nipis camp had been

The house of Mek Senai, whose services were appreciated, even down in Kuala

Terengganu, was perched on the side of a forested hill, upstream from the Telemong River in

kampong Setebu. Part of the walls were made from the bark of seraya tree (Shorea cutisii). The

rustic stairs were made in logs, but a proper buah gutong finial decorated the roof. Around,

flowers of kantan (Eltingeria elator), fruit trees (duku, setor, rambutan), a chicken house on

stilts, -with a rope attached “to set an alarm from the house in case of a fox incursion”. A long

barn for cows and a square patch of medicinal tongkat Ali (Eurycoma longifolia) completed the

atmosphere of a farm at the edge of the forest.

-Re-visits:

In Ulu Telemong, at the Setebu farm house compound, the vegetation is now left to grow,

it seems, out of respect for the now disappeared grand mother, but it is neither maintained nor

used. The house is only occupied by a son who now works somewhere else. On the walls,

timber planking has replaced the tree bark. The stairs are now built out of planks. However, the

mangoustan, mempelam and other setor trees are still bearing masses of fruit that were kindly

shared by a grand son who is living in a house nearby while the Eurycoma shrubs have

continued to grow.

Farm 2 Hajah Aisha Tok Wok Beladau Selat

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Figure 4.112 a) Former

b) Farm house c)Hajah Aisha
padi fields

d) Kumai and sobek e) Gerai f) Baskets for duku harvest

The village of Belada Selat, on the banks of the Terengganu River, has been affected by

the construction of a dam that has suppressed the seasonal floodings and, with them, the catches

of fresh water fish and the rice harvests. This is what explained in 2004 Cik Wok, a 78 years-

old lady, owner of land, orchards and rice fields. Her residence, with its buildings in bujang

berpeles style and kumai paneling, dating from the beginning of the 20th century, stood on 2

meters high timber pillars. It is located in the middle of the land. On the kitchen side, the waste-

waters streamlet was bordered with gingers. On the left, was a closed garden with fragrant

flowers (cempaka, kesidang); on the right side, were giant banana trees and a baloh padi (hut

to store rice). Under the entrance veranda, was a gerai (platform) for resting with a broom made

of palms stalks. Further under the house, farm accessories were stored and, in the foreground,

stacks of baskets for the duku fruits.”A harvest of duku -a pilgrimage to Mekka” said Che Wok.
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Re-visits

In Belada Selat, in 2018 ”The house is not there anymore” told a villager. After verification,

it appeared that the old residence is still standing in the centre of the farm, but it is not quite

recognizable, as it is hidden behind the addition of a painted wooden building, while the land

around has lost the shade of its gigantic durian trees. An enterprise for the production of soya

bean juice is set on the rigth side. Cik Wok has passed away, and her garden is nowabandonned.

Farm 3 Haji Yusof Bukit Cempaka

Figure 4.113 a) The farm b) A client for c) Haji Tahir d) Baloh padi
house tamarind fruit

Cempaka is a flower (Michelia alba) but it also evokes the heritage of the kingdom of

Champa and the cultural traditions of the North East. In fact, the grand father of Haji Tahir who

lives in this house compound, came from Patani. The timber house built with vertical planks

has a buah gutong finial on the front roof. It is located in the middle of a land delimitedby a

coconut tree on each of the four corners. Bags of fertilizers are stored under the floor.Twobaloh

padi are in front of the verandah, which is rather large and is used for meetings around
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the rice harvest and other sales from the orchards and pastures, as well as during the top

spinning contests season.

Re-visits :

In Bukit Cempaka, Haji Tahir has passed away. His veranda is now empty as his children

have employments in town that keep them away during the day. Gone also one of the two baloh

padi, the monkey who used to climb coconut trees, the planks display for species to plant. The

well has now an electrical pump, yet a timba pail is still used. A son of haji Tahir , just retired

was happy to demonstate his ability with the traditional “bong” coconut dehusker,

Figure 4.114 Concrete stairs

F 4 Ayah Da Padang Air

In Padang Air, an area previously rather low (the name means “water field”), 10 km North

of Kuala Terengganu is the farm compound of Haji Da, whose father -a raja, a ruler- came

from Pagar Ruyung in Sumatra, had cleared the land. The house, as is typical of the rural

habitations as well as those of farmer owners, had a vast verandah (lambur) on the front part

of the house. Facing the main building, a baloh padi (hut to store the rice) stands, confirming

the importance of the harvests. However, the other activities of Haji Da were visible in the

workshop for turning tops added close to the verandah, and in the “bekam Clinic” shed, with

benches for the patients, further on the right from the house. Not far grew a mango tree on
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which climbed the thick and sweet liana tebu gajah (Albizia myriophylla) found very

appetizing by the ants.

Figure 4.115 Haji Da preparing sireh, the “bekam” treatment Clinique, Mango and Albizia

Figure 4.116 Spinning tops turning shed Figure 4.117 Cow and duku tree at the
back of the house

Two cows were grazing on a meadow at the back of the compound. Their horns are used in

the traditional bekam treatment, to aspire blood from the capillary vessels of the patients.

Re-visits, present era

In 2013, Haji Da ‘s son, Ayah Wain as he is known, had taken over the bekam practice after

the demise of his father. The original house had been divided in two parts for use by other

siblings who work outside. Ayah Wain himself has built a larger treatment shed, with

information and illustrations and a modern concrete house in front of the new clinic. On the
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space close-by he has created a garden of medicinal -and other- species. The tebu gajah is there,

some plants given by the orang asli to him (list in appendix). Old herbalism and moderntrends

are mixed: with goji (Synsepalum dulcificum) taste modifier from West Africa and Indonesian

makhota dewa (Phaleria macrocarpa) are well represented.

Figure 4.118 The new clinic and its garden: Albizia myriophyla, Phaleria nacrocarpa,
Abelsmoschus, Pterydophytes and New house in concrete

Conclusion

As seen in the re-visits of the house compounds, three sites have disappeared, two

“Rakyat”and one “Clan”. Many have seen their character changed (the farms), or diminished

(the clans). Two “Aristocrats” types have become museum…As many cultural features and

plant species were not found during re-visits, the “typology” discovered during the past era can

be now questionned. However, among the change, traits of faithfullness to the past remain.
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4.3 Natural Environment Narratives: 1: Forests hills, 2: Lake Kenyir, 3:

Orang Asli

4.3.1 Terengganu Hills: “On a higher plane”

In 1996, the Terengganu Hills were recognized as one of the biodiversity hotspots in

Peninsular Malaysia (Kiew,1996). Its flora was estimated to comprise approximately 1500

vascular plant species. Exact figures were then not available as the Terengganu Hills had not

been the subject of any detailed botanical investigation since Corner mounted two expeditions

to Ulu Kemaman in 1932 and 1935 (Kiew,1996). These, except for Bukit Bauk (Tams

Mey,1998) and Gunung Padang (Umul Nazrah et al., 2011) still remained under-collected and

unsufficiently known botanically.

Figure 4.119 1ocation of the sites in the“Hill forests” Map North of Terengganu with Lata

Belatan and Lata Tembakah waterfalls scale 1: 260 000

i) Lata Belatan

Given the botanical diversity of Terengganu, the most practical way to obtain knowledge

on the medicinal species was, at first, to interview traditional practitioners. In the eighties, the

villages, the coasts, with the island of Duyong, and the” hunting grounds” of Mat Kapur along

the mangroves and the lowland forests, had already delivered more than 300 medicinal species.

Forest trips were made to obtain an actual look at the plants whose roots were known but not
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always their live form, get acquainted with the habitat of these plants that had been until then

obtained from sellers at the market, or from the orang asli. In 2001, the Forest Department of

Terengganu was interested by the wish of the French “Mu Laboratory” to collaborate with a

Malaysian institution. Forest workers and particularly field foresters specializing in “Non-

Timber Forest Products” (NTFP) were appointed to guide expeditions. The Purpose of the visits

was the recognition of plants with medicinal, cosmetic, or other effect on the human bodyfor the

phyto-pharmaceutical research department of the Mu Laboratory.

As usual in tropical rain forests, the view was limited by the profusion of trunks of

varying size, and to identify the trees, one should climb high at about 50 to 150ft to reach an

improbable flower. The foresters that guided this researcher’s team of ethnobotanists and

phyto-pharmacists would show the characteristic black bark of an Ebenaceae, or let make a

dent in a fragrant Cinnamomum. Smaller medicinal species were at hand or at eye level: Easily

recognizable were the Polyaltia, the Smilax, or lianas like Fibraurea coccinea with the bright

yellow section of its wood, all visible as they were often growing towards the light above the

tracks.
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Figure 4.120 Lata Belatan:a) Landscape, b)Tristanopsis whitreana and Ixora javanica,

c)Clerodendrum deflexum d) Clerodendrum deflexum

The most remarkable landscapes in the hills of Hulu Besut are those created by the

“lata” high waterfalls. The monsoon rains rush down over the tributaries of the Besut river

such as the sungai Tenang (Lata Tembaka) or sungai Belatan, falling over granite boulders,

enhancing the many colours of the rocks. It is -by forestry law, forbidden to fell down

riparian species such as Pelawan (Tristanopsis obovata) and even the caustic Rhengas, so that

tall trees frame the view of the waterfalls, adding the shapes and various nuances of their

trunks and crowns to the scene of the cascading water, sand beaches and green pools.

Figure 4.121 Gunung Tebu and lata Belatan: slabs of mafic granite boulders weathered with
time and eroded by monsoon rains

i) Lata Belatan (in 2002)

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Figure 4.122 Lata Belatan Figure 4.123 Weedy and medicinal:

Catunarega spinosa
An expedition in 2002 led to Lata Belatan waterfall, where the stream splashes over rock

platforms and seeps through grey and orange boulders to fall into fish crowded green pools.

The area is the starting point to the climb to the summit of Gunung Tebu. That year, the NTFP

(No-Timber Forest Products) foresters were moving medicinal species from the forest as well

as from the villages to create an “Herboratum Perubatan” where they had planted medicinal

species in pots and exhibited them on an area at the bottom of the hills. Attractive species were

seen on the slopes around and on the forest path: Petaling, Kempas, the Pelawan, and the

precious Karas -Aquilaria species which fight a fungus by producing a black resinous

substance, that, when burnt, exhale the “hood” fragrance, world-famous because of the rich,

deep, spicy and lasting note of the smoke-. Although part of the newly opened recreation zone,

the area was not yet much visited. “Otherwise, that tree would not have survived!” said,

smiling, one of the foresters. The cauliflory flowers of an Artabotrys had an acid and sweet

fragrance. After a harvest of about 40 species, (cf. Appendix A. specific) shown, pictured and

-in a few cases, specimen collected, the guides led to the agro-tourism resort of Peladang Setiu

where other species where found. To complete the reconnaissance, for the foreigners, not far

from the road, toward Kuala Terengganu in belukar secondary growth around some fields, were

two famous species: The sweet Tebu gajah -Albizia myriophylla- and the controversial Ketum

-Mitrogyna speciosa.
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ii) Gunung Tebu

The large “Peda batholythe” as is called this rock zone in the Northern part of the Terengganu

state has been formed during eruptions of mafic material from the earth core, which have not

exploded, but have been weathered by successive monsoons over hundreds of thousand years

( Receptive visitors would feel the forces at work and will, somehow revere such places where

humanity seems dwarfed by nature: silat, cult, meditation are practiced (as in many places in

the hill of Gunung Tebu

The occasion to reach the actual summit occurred only in 2009, during the visit of a French

another visit with a botanist. the mountain culminating at 1.039 ft amongst the smaller peaks

on the right side of the Besut River valley, was fated to attract the imagination of the

inhabitants. The climb to the summit is like an initiatory journey with series of downward

slopes and progressive climbs. Stations associated each with a story, line the track: Batu Mat

Hassan (Mat Hassan meditation spot), Tempat cik Izah jatuh, Jendela Pandang, the Cemetry,

the Dewan (Parliament). The domes of tall Dipterocarps still conquer the view of the sky, but

picturesque or medicinal species such as the “doted” Ficus deltoides and Nepenthes were seen

growing in a lowland area with mosses and rocks, while on the drier summit, shrubby species

are found: Baekia, Leptospermum, Podophyllum. On clear days, the view extends in the North

iii) Lata Tembakah

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Figure 4.124 Latu Tembakah

Logged over part of the regenerating Pelagat Forest Reserve are lower hill

dipterocarps (623 to 1180 ft) Lower montane Forest. During an exploration trip organised 2002

after a visit to Lata Belatan, the track climbed slowly on a floor of leaves, roots and herbs

growing on the steep hill side. At a waterfall indicated as the “fifth” one the track followed the

Tenang stream. Tenang means calm in Malay. It is not so “tenang” as its waters fall from

vertical rocks with heights of as much of 30 m. Sometimes it disappears under boulders to

reappear in deep and clear pools where fish abounds. Some of the fishes are eager to clean

visitor feet from dead skin, a delicacy for them. stream on its rocky banks with ropes and

warning against going too close to some slippery boulders.

The foresters showed about 40 species., most of them plants with a medicinal use: 20 trees,

7 shrubs, 4 climbers, 7 herbs, 1 epiphyte (Cf. Appendix A, Specific). Their information was

noted. Five species were kept in view as their described effect -corroborated by the literature-

corresponded to the Lab objectives: “Keruping besi” or “Kayu arang” -Diospyros

terengganuensis- (vitamin K, antihemolytic and analgesic activity); Betek hutan,-Gomphandra

quadrifida- (for sinusitis) that irritates the nose, provokes phlegm and vigourous sneezing;

Sepetir minyak -Sindora coriacea-: oil from a hole in the trunk is used for cicatrisation. On the

road back, Terajang -Lepisanthes kunstleri- was signaled again as its leaves can be used for

soap when fresh, while the reddish-orange bark serves in the treatment of sprains or broken

bones. Raja satun -Pachycentria constricta- (also the name given to Hydnophytum or

Myrmecodia species) an about 15 cm large spheric epiphyte reputed for treating breast cancer,

hanged upon a tree.

4.3.2 “Ethnobotanical document”: Knowledge continuation

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i) Enthusiastic teams of Informants and colleagues

Further visits gave the opportunity to witness the increase of the planted medicinal

species. The team of knowledgeable foresters began to provide universities in the country

plants for their own gardens. At the initiative of the director of Sylviculture, En Samsudin bin

Salleh, they together composed a book and, in collaboration with the Terengganu Museum,

organized an exhibition of medicinal plants they had collected, planted in large jars and

arranged by ailments, like a vast vegetal pharmacy.

Figure 4.125 a) Pak Hussin precising an information, b) Mustapha and Pak Him have
gathered specimen to plant in the University of Science Malaysia (USM) Penang.

ii)Traditional practitioner

Pak Hussin from a nearby village was the son of a midwife who taught him much of his

knowledge. His indications were recorded while walking along trails on the Lata Belatan

tracks. Fauzi, his son, 20, did not learn from his father therapeutic information but knew all the

tracks in the mountains around Gunung Tebu. He was a dedicated and athletic guide.

iii) Foresters

As this researcher never missed to inform the Forest Department and to ask the necessary

permission to enter forest territory (together with specialists from the UM, CNRS, French Labs
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such as SREP, Mu Lab), proposed a collaboration and reports on the results, the director of the

Forest Terengganu Department provided the help assistance of forest personnel such as

Mustapha and Pak Ibrahim who had been field workers in Chalok, Belatan, Sekayu, and often

stayed at the base of the amenity forests.

Among the foresters who led in the forest of Lata Belatan and Lata Tembaka the team of

Ibrahim and Mustapha was outstanding in their knowledge of species reported as medicinal.

They had collected information from the villagers the reputation of whom they knew.

Gathering the plants on the forest slopes, they built a medicinal garden, at first on base of the

Lata Belatan area. Each had a different “style” of relationship with the forest and the plants

abilities. [from manuscript notes] Pak Him concepts were more oriented towards a cosmologic

interpretation of nature where plants and animals had a life force or soul not different from

human beings. His concepts were perhaps not remote from the modern ecological philosophy

such as the one of Janet Bennet Vibrant Matter (2010) Stephen Harding’s animate earth (2011)

but with deference towards Islamic views. On his side, Mustapha emphasized the practical

aspect of the traditional prescriptions for a therapeutic dose, for example: “Satu genggam”, -a

handful-, a measure than can be considered as the approximate size of a sick person’s own

heart, so it will be suitable for that patient.

iv) Collaboration between the State Museum and Forest State Department.
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Figure 4.125 Medicinal plants exhibition at the Terengganu Museum @ 200 spp. An Italian

visitor, a traditional practitioner, a family

In 1988, the Terengganu State Museum [(Cf, My articles, Utusan Melayu)] installed a

medicinal plants exhibition on the vast neo-vernacular concrete building of the State Museum.

They choosed the equivalent of a Serambi, -the long verandah of timber traditional houses-,

but in the museum grand proportions (@20 m large by 40 m long). Ailments and illnesses had

“booths” where their therapeutic plants were presented, like in a live pharmacy.

Parallelly, The Forest State Department started the publication of a book on traditional

medicinal plants found in the state.

v) Authors of a book

The book “Ubat UbatanTerengganu” resulting of individuals genuine interest was supported

by Datok Akhirudin Director of the Forest Department in two volumes published in 2006 and

2011, at the initiative of the Sylviculture Director, Haji Shamsuddin Salleh, with officers

Salleh Endut and Rhadi Chu, and Mustapha Omar and Ibrahim .

Figure 4.126 a) Book in two volumes b) One page: indications, botanical

description, habitat
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This researcher, having been trusted with the translation into English and the editing of

these volumes, realized how significant this work, composed by the foresters themselves, from

men on the field to higher officers. A page, one for each plant species, provides Malay name,

scientific name, synonyms in Malay, medicinal uses, parts used, mode of utilization, mixtures

with other species, botanical descriptions, habitat and planting method.

The most often mentioned illnesses are: in Volume 1 (2006): Post-partum: 39; hypertension:

32; calculi: 29; diabetes: 22; Fever: 20; cancer/tumor: 18 arthritis/rheumatism: 16;

winds/flatulence: 14; constipation: 12; cough: 11; sinusitis: 3; In Vol. 2 (2011): Post-partum

selepas bersalin : 32; hypertension darah tinggi: 29; calculi batu karang: 29 ; diabetes -kencing

manis: 23 ; Fever -demam: 18; cancer/tumor -barah:18; arthritis/rheumatism sakit sendi:23 ;

winds/flatulence angin: 6 ; constipation sembelit:11 ; cough batuk:10 ; sinusitis resdong: 2

The information refers to scientific and traditional terminologies, vernacular combinations,

translations and equivalences. Some illnesses or complaints are identified as symptoms for ex.

Fever, some by their diagnostic, hypertension, diabetes, some as treatment ex.: pos-partum

meroyang Equivalences: Angin and darah tinggi. Modern diagnostics are given as well:

hypertension, diabetes…

Medicinal species habitats cover not only the forest, even though documentation done by

foresters, as the practitioners and villagers they have interviewed have shared their knowledge

on the species in their own environment, in their compounds, the belukar, the mangrove areas

an d the beaches

Botanical descriptions, with Malayized scientific terms, are given. A good measure of

vernacular medicinal practice is explained as well about the combination with other species, or

the administration method such as for taking Batu Jin (Strobilanthes crispa). .A warning is
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given about Hempedu bumi -Andrographis paniculata- which “tidak boleh di gunakan secara

terusan” (“cannot be used for a long time”). Modern information is mentioned as for the value

of a Periuk kera” -Nepenthes ampullaria-, the host of an endophyte promising for leukemia

(Lee, Tan and Ting, 2010).

Medicinal species habitats that are mentioned. There are not only the forest species but -

approximatively they are: altitude forest 10 %, lowland forest 10%, open spaces 20 %, villages

20 %, Mangrove 10 %, beaches 5 %, paths sides 10 %, villages or houses compounds: 30%.

Even though documentation is done by foresters, as the practitioners and villagers they have

interviewed share their knowledge on the species in their own environment, in their

compounds, the belukar, the mangrove areas and the beaches

There are moments when traditional knowledge is given in modern terms: pelepas bersalin

or ramuan ibu bersalin, become “postpartum treatment” - barah hati is a liver cancer,hydrocele

can be huluran as well as batu karang is stones.

The gathered information is certainly “worthy of further investigation” -as the authors

write in their introduction. Some of the preconized preparations were already noted by

(Gimlette & Thomson) who have noted a “polypharmacy”, where the synergy between the

components is known and expected.

At the end of first volume of the book, there is a mention of the prayer to do while taking a

sample, holding it, standing in the direction of Mecca, reflecting -an attitude different from the

athleticism or peaking spirit to reach the summit and tourism of the Present Era, while not

incompatible with it.

4.3.3 Re-visits in the Present Era

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In 1996, the Terengganu Hills were recognized as one of the biodiversity hotspots in

Peninsular Malaysia (Kiew, 1996). Its flora was estimated to comprise approximately 1500

vascular plant species. Exact figures were then not available as the Terengganu Hills had not

been the subject of any detailed botanical investigation since Corner mounted two expeditions

to Ulu Kemaman in 1932 and 1935 (Kiew, 1996). Except for the recent Bukit Bauk (Tan …

) and Gunung Pandang ( Kiew… ) These forests remained undercollected and poorly known

botanically. Literature survey revealed that no botanical collecting had b

Meanwhile, the land was developed to provide work for the growing

population (settlements….) and the forest was exploited to answer the state needs.
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Figure 4.127 Map of the Terengganu Permanent Forest Reserves

4.3.4 Re-visits surveys in the Present Era

The new attractions of the hills, didacticism, sport and aesthetics

[Gunong Tebu an excursion under the rain in 2013; the Abdul Latif and forest

department expedition seminar…]

Figure 4.128 Map North of Terengganu with Lata Belatan and Lata Tembakah waterfalls (@
2015) scale 1: 260 000
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Figure 4.129 Sketch cross section of the land relief in northern Terengganu(draft) @

2015.Note: only @ 20 km from the sea to Gunung Tebu

Surveys were made in the hills, along the following years, to appreciate the

changes and their consequences, together with other researchers and visitors.

Lata Tembakah, 26/7/17: the seven storeys Tenang River

Amongst the visitors were Frantz Limier, a French botanist from Madagascar, and

visitors from Argentina. The road as for Lata Belatan, up to Kampung Jabi where paddy fields

and palm oil spread in front of the Bukit Dara hills. A turn left leads towards Bukit Payong.
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Figure 4.130 a)Majestic views Landscape on the way: Padi, palm oil, hills
b) Inside the Besut valley

Beyond the belukar scrubs and secondary growth vegetation, two series of hills flank the

valley of the Besut River: the Gunung Tebu hills and the Pelagat hills. Driving in the direction

of the village of Keruak in the valley of the Besut River, the road turns on the right, becomes

narrower and runs through the shade of rubber plantations and orchards to reach the base of a

waterfalls area : Lata Tembakah.

Figure 4.131 Nursery Figure 4.132 A choice of path: Easy or steep

course ?
Enche Yusof expected visitors. He informed of the demise just during the preceeding month

of Ramadan, of Pak Hussin, the knowledgeable local plant connaisseur. Walking around the

base, En.Yusof showed the cone habit of the Agathis borneensis and guided in the nursery.

More than 50 spp. of trees of timber value were there: 30 to 1m high saplings, grown in

polybags since about 2 years: The names were given in Malay, Pokok Rhu, Damar minyak

siput, Meranti rambai daun, kempas, Karas, Resak, Jambu laut, Halban, Meranti rambai daun,

Penaga. Meranti melantai, Gerutu, Bintangor, Merawan siput jantan…

Forester botanist style, En Yusof turned the leaves for the photography of the reverse side.

He accompanied the visitors on the trail.

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Figure 4.133 In the nursery: a) Meranti Tembaga b) Damar Hitam Siput c)Kelat

Syzygium species

Figure 4.134 Kapur:Driobalanocarpus aromatica, Mersawa kuning: Anisoptera curtisii

(Endemic to Pen. Mal.)

“ Five logs or five lorries“ estimated En. Yusof, from the butresses to the crown, that is 18’

@ 90’ for the height of this Mersawa kuning.

Fig 4.135 The name on the snake-like buttress roots is Shorea kunstlerii.
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“Perah (Elateriospermum tapos) “Mersawa Durian (Anisoptera laevis) “ Balau laut merah

(Shorea kunstleri) Panarahan Horsefielda species.

Further on, there were other boards, giving didactic information: Have you seen how is made

plywood? will the future generations be able to see me as big as this? yellowish veneerand

plywood value is very high on the marke.The cylundric bole is prefered by plywood producers.

. Its fruit exploses when mature and is eaten by animals and men”.

4.4 Species used in Traditional Medicine

Figure 4.136 a) Smilax b) Eurycoma longifolia c) Prismatomeris glabra

myosotiflora

There was an inversion of the names in the printing on the board, perhaps because of the

popularity of these species: Haji Samat would be usually the Prismatomeris glabra but as well

as two other botanical spp.; and Smilax myosotiflora is also called Ubi Jaga or Alek tembaga

or Dedawai.

Another board commented:“ These plants spp. are types of herbs that help enjoy a fulfilling

life. Physical health is the key to happiness in a family. “My house is my paradise”is the dream

of every family. If you want to know, ask our traditional practitioneer.”

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Some species were in flower or in fruit:

Figure 4.136 a) A ginger looking like a terrestral orchidea: Scaphoclamys disticha: a new
species (YY Sam, 2018) b) Lasianthus species

4.4.1 Cascades

“After walking for some time until you reached this place, do you feel sweating, tired or

thirsty? No need to be proud of the mineral water you brought here. Don’t you have in front of

you a mineral water that you can drink, and as much as you want? But, you have to be careful:

KEEP AWAY FROM THE DANGEROUS AREAS “

Figure 4.137
 226

Frantz Limier filmed underwater fish dancing in the large pool at the end of the loop of the

forest trail. En. Yusof led back on the more steep path along the waterfall. A stop was made

to contemplate the various stages of the grand landscape: antediluvian granit boulders took all

nuances of gray and black while the powerful flow rushed with its innimitable sound towards

suddenly calm and clear pools where travelers from Argentina had fun, bathing and sharing a

meal with local visitors.

Figure 4.138

4. 4.2 Conclusion on revisit of forest hills and both “Lata”waterfalls

The many medicinal plants that were shown to us 15 years ago by the foresters were not in

this Era found this time around, perhaps have they shyed away from the now too frequented

paths. However one will not miss to be impressed by height of trees, with life hidden in the

canopy far ahead above the ground; be witness of telluric forces in lata Belatan with large slabs
 227

barring the way, and the multidirectional hill terrain that sometimes misleads travellers on their

treck to the summit of Gunung Tebu.

The visitors were impressed by the beauty of the landscape for both places with the solid

texture of the rocks contrasting with the indefatigable water current and the fantasy of the ever

surrounding leaves, and the mystery of the water source and its choice of path. As trees growing

by the river sides rare protected by forest regulations, the landscape that frame the flow is

preserved and is even more diverse than inside the forest. The light helps the growth of more

species. Mosses land on granite, shrubs appear on the sands, and tree roots grasp the battered

edges of the cascades. Recreation, yes,” re-sourcing” as well. End. 8/8/17)

Conclusion/transition: new perceptions

After the ancient times when the forest was considered as a place of fear and dangers,

associated with the feeling of an inexhautible resource in land and space to explore and use.

Today, a mixture of modern attitudes have emerged from among the perceptions from the Past

Era: Awe and respect, the athletic desire for the conquest of oneself and of nature (“peaking”),

the enjoyment of a healthy escapade from the city,the desire of the knowledge (in botany,

zoology and pharmacy etc.), and the power of timber exploitation.

Natural wealth, long considered as inextinguishable resource, is now the object of a carefull

attention, from the public and the Forest Departments. The remnants of wilderness are reduced,

encircled, following the Western model where tamed landscapes of fertile hills and vast plains

herald agricultural industry on land originally planted mainly for inhabitants food.
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Figure 4.139 Lorry spotted carrying timber from Terengganu (Facebook Khaidir Ahmad
20 May 2021).“The have a permit” explained the Terengganu Forest Department, as the
public had questioned, seeing this picture on the medias.

The approach has changed. The reverence is less spiritually oriented. The modern

exploitation is less direct and individual as with the hunters and former forest collectors in the

Past Era. It is now industrial and impersonnal with workers paid wages, or illegal, with

poachers, sometimes foreign. Yet, visitors in search of recreation, getting in touch with nature,

its majesty, its strength and its deep calm, find it. But as visitors, not as inhabitants.

4.5 “Waterworld”: Kenyir

[“Dan janganlah kamu melakukan kerosakan di muka dunia ini. Sesungguhnya Allah tidak suka kepada orang

yang berbuat kerosakan.” (Surah Al-Qasas, 77). (Used also by Dome Nikong in exergue of his photo graphy book

“Wild Terengganu” (2017)

An introduction to the “Past Era” of what is now the “Greater Kenyir” is given in extracts

reports from early visits (1983 to 2002) through the eyes of an American botanist and this

researcher. These reports evoke the landscape and the flora along the Peres and Tersat rivers

among the many streams that enliven the views in the forest of the interior of the state, and are

now on the periphery of the lake.

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The historical event that occurred -the creation of the lake- is remembered: why, where,

when, how. Seismic tremors, accidents, water-boats, tourism- then, in 1988: a new project:

build more dams, and people’s reaction in Terengganu. “Save our forests!”

These new dams were built in 2008, adding to a beautiful landscape of extreme sadness; but

life goes on: activities -logging, tourism, and research continued.

Re-visit were made in the “Present Era”. Life is still there: Visit with JAS 2017, a French

Botanist 2018 (dyke, elephants), UMT (2021) and others… The lake becomes a natural

attraction through its fauna: Birds, tigers, bats, its pre-historical significance, through its flora

as well All that led to Lasir Geopark project and State Parks creation]

4.5.1 First visits in the Past Era

In the 70es or early 80es, looking out from a plane, a thick green carpet covered the North

eastern part of the Malay Peninsula, including the state of Terengganu. The uniformity belied

the variety on the ground -especially in flora and fauna species.

The forested hills referred to in this account are found in the central part of the West of the

state of Terengganu. They comprise the Ulu (upriver) Tembat and UluTerengganu forest

reserves and, in terms of districts: Ulu Terengganu, Jenagur, Ulu Telemong, and Tersat. The

sites described below- are now located around the Lake Kenyir. In the past, until 1985- the date

of the construction of the Dam on the Terengganu River near its Kenyir tributary-, these areas

were considered by Terengganu people as belonging to hutan, the jungle, a mysterious and

dangerous place where one needed ilmu or knowledge to be able to enter it.
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Figure 4.140 Ancient Map (UPEN 1975) of the “Ulu Trengganu” -an area that has now
become the “Greater Kenyir” in and around the Lake. [Redraw or get it again from UPEN
and Fig. modern map with places visited from 1983 to 2019].

Undaunted then were only the orang asli who lived there and had their own paths, and

hunters, -teachers and government officers, who entered for sport during the deer hunting

season, as well as various forest product collectors or poachers looking for medicinal plants,

(and monkeys and other marketable animals), or perhaps also, logging prospectors. Yet, along

the river banks of the Terenggan River that has its source in the South at Gunong Mandi Angin,

at 1460 m, and meet the Terengganu River in Kampong Pasir Berching, villages such as

Kampong Petang, Kampong Jelatang, Kampong Melaka, were established. Further, now on the

most Western edge of the lake, near Bukit Raung, were Kampong Belimbing and Kampong

Padang Reyet along Sungai Ketiar that flowed from the North. These streams and villages are

nowadays at the bottom of the lake.

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These forests are nowadays reachable, on the northern side, by the road from Kuala Berang

to Aring, which has been built on the northern periphery of the lake, or by boat. The sites that

were visited from 1983 to 2018 are indicated on the map Fig…

Figure 4.141 The Kenyir Lake with the location the visited sites from 1983 to 2019

The following reports are based on reports and field notes that recall the landscapes features

as well as the flora as these areas were visited, along the years in the past and present eras,
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during expeditions together with foreign and local researchers, as well as travelling visitors

who shared discoveries and information.

i) Sekayu waterfall

Back in May 1983, Sekayu forest was little known outside of Terengganu. It is a multi-level

scenic series of rapids and waterfalls, located at 16 km from the historical small town of Kuala

Berang (probably the “Foloan” of Chinese chronicles) and at about two kilometres from the

village of Sekayu, on the Sungai Peres River.

The around 2 meters deep and 20 meters large pool at the foot of the falls used to be a place

for “mandi serum” – a ritual recovery shower after an unfortunate event. There also, annually,

after the Ramadan that forbids bathing in the sea or in the rivers less water would enter the

body of the fasting person, villagers would come and enjoy a swim in the many pools along

the main stream.

The hills on the banks of the large stream are -in places, steep and rocky. Dipterocarp trees

form a majestic wall on both sides of the water. American botanist from Hawai Botanical

Garden Lynwood Hume has described his impression in 1983:

“From near the village of Sekayu, a blue mantle of native forest stretched away seventy

miles westward, a trail led from the end of the road through the forest edge to a white rushing

stream that in its descent formed clear cold pools delightful to swim in, and on whose surface

was reflected one of the most beautiful jungles of the world, the dipterocarps woodland of South

East Asia”.
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Upon the hill, on the left side of the river, former logging tracks climb the slopes amongst

re-growth of thick ferns and tall gingers, with sometimes broken stems and large droppings on

the path signaling the of passage elephants.

“We shared our findings -more the pleasure of our discovery-( I quote in inverted comas

some of Lynwood enthusiastic descriptions below)- and it was sometimes difficult to tell whose

work belonged to whom and anyway it did not seem to matter since our respective studies had

progressed quantitatively because of the interchange.”

Both visitors were beginners -Lynwood for Malaysian forests, and this researcher for

botanical names- and fertile samples were not always available. Yet, our tentative

identifications were later confirmed at Forest Research Institute of Malaysia -FRIM (Prof.

Kochumen and Dr Wong), and Benjamin Stone at the University Malaya.

Gingers, the “Maritime East Asian gingers” were prominent on the elephant path on the

steep side of the stream. There were, native of the Peninsula, some of them edible as the Alpinia

javanica, (Lengkuas hutan or Tepus), some more than three meters tall like the Zingiber

spectabile, the flowers of which appears on red to pale coral pink cones; Zingiber gracile, its

small inflorescence growing separate from the stem contains a spicy smelling liquid; Zingiber

wrayi, a very beautiful species rare “too rare to be part of Malay ethno-medicine” commented

Lynwood, and, like other gingers, its seeds are a favorite of the ants; Costus speciosus,

(setawar), that has its elegant stem curls carry large red and white flowers and that are very

often found in gardens, as well as Hellenia globosa -Setawar hutan with delicate flowers.

Other beautiful ornamental species abounded: the family of the Dilleniaceae, Dillenia

grandifolia -Simpoh “one of the largest species of the lowland Malaysian forest”, “the
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buttresses become stilts roots”. With the large blades of the leaves, the yellow flowers without

petals, “it has potential for parks and gardens”.

Earlier, on the road to Sekayu had been seen Dillenia suffructicosa -Simpoh air and

Tetracera indica- Mempelas -a sandpaper at hand- the “woody scrambler draws little attention

because it is so common” wrote Lynwood-. Water is contained in the larger species of the

genus. “The flowers are of exquisite form and the feathery red arils in which the black seed rest

are equally so. One of the pleasing sights in the villages”. [(Pic Duyung 2016!)]

Annonaceae shrubs, climbers and trees, were frequent with their distinctive leave nervures

and often thick and fragrant bark such as the Alphonsea elliptica -Pisang pisang “banana

banana” meaning in vernacular botany, that the fruit looks like small bananas but are not them.

Dipterocarpaceae -some of them critically endangered (according to the IUCN) for which

the tropical rain forests are famous, were well represented: majestic giants, with straight boles

branching high, various shapes of crowns, in domes, in tall spindles or some spreading wide

but avoiding to touch other tree crowns (like Driobalanops aromatica, Kapur -the camphor

tree), creating an attractively delineated canopy. Their seeds were found on the ground:

Dipterocarpus costulatus -Keruing with red fruits, that oozes a useful resin (Minyak keruing.);

Dipterocarpus kunstleri, its fruit prominently ridged with long wings; Shorea curtisii -Red

meranti, with a dark red wood suitable for furniture, construction, veneer. Big ants eat the seed.

There were also Shorea singkawang that has high quality fat; Shorea pauciflora -Meranti- as

well “more durable in the soil than most” and Shorea foxworthyi -Balau, that ‘has large

buttresses and regenerate easily”

Other fruit were edible: the nuts of Castanopsis inermis (Fagaceae), -Berangan, roasted or

boiled like chestnuts (‘need a highly fertile” soil so, suitable for agriculture wrote Soepadmo,
 235

Flora Malesiana 1972). In the same family, were seen: Castanopsis megacarpa -Kertaktangga

a beautiful middle storey tree and Lithocarpus sundaicus -Mempening.

Going back down closer to the stream, Gesneriaceae were growing: Didissandra serratifolia

-Tarom hutan, with lavender coloured flowers, and, amongst the mossy rocks Didymocarpus

atrosanguineus – a Meroyan, an after-delivery medicinal species; Cyrtandra grandis, a “tall

shrub, peculiar two meter tall clusters of green and blackish-blue fruit grew in one whorl

halfway down the stem and in another larger one at ground level”.

Among the green cover of palms and ferns of all sizes, some shrubs were noticeable because

of the striking colors of their fruit such as the frequent Rubiaceaee Cephaelis (syn. Chassalia)

griffithii, -Beberas, a woodland shrub with large glossy leaves, small waxy and white flowers,

and Lasianthus maingayi, -Sekentut “startling blue fruit” used in after-delivery decoctions.

Altogether, the harvest was of 36 species, some of them endemic to Malaysia. Close by the

entrance of the place, was a building housing a small forest museum hall with medicinal roots

but it exhibited no explanations or names.

The forest then was untouched. Later, during other trips, it was noted that the “Hutan Lipur”

or “Amenity Forest” was doted of concrete stairs and resting platforms [1989]. The agricultural

Department of Terengganu developed a fruit trees orchard and gathered information on the

medicinal species. An inventory of 150 species was made for the arboretum project of

University Science Malaysia in Pulau Penang, [from their own sources and surveys made along

the years by the State Forest Department].

Construction of the Kenyir Dam:

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In 1985, a dramatic event happened that changed the face of the state of Terengganu: The

inundation 260 km2 of land. Energy was needed for a developing country such as Malaysia.

In1980, the National Electricity Board had chosen the Tembeling river in Pahang tobuild a 500

MW producing dam in the -then gazetted- Taman Negara. Ecologists, NGOs, and the -then-

Vice Prime Minister Musa Hitam, opposed the project. An alternative site was proposed in

Hulu Terengganu, in the valley of the Terengganu River.

Figure 4.142 Map of Terengganu, with Kenyir Lake among the hills and the former rivers
showing the proportions of the size of the lake among the hilly areas

The site chosen was above the village of Jenagor, a place that was then a door to the

wilderness, a jungle where only hunters, medicinal plants and gaharu collectors would go and

where aborigenes of the Semoq Beri and Bateq groups lived. Still, there were as well a few

villages set along the tributaries of the Terengganu River. The relief was made of undulating

hills with summits ranging up mainly from 700 to 1400m in height, from where many streams

flew on sometimes steep terrain over granitic large boulders, with some picturesque magmatic

intrusions, rapids and sandy areas on the wider rivers. Besides Leguminosae and Dipterocarps

many other timber species used to be logged in the flatter areas, following SMS rules
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(Sustainable Forest management system) in compartments of the “Hutan Kekal Tembat”,

(North and South) and “Hutan Kekal Hulu Terengganu” (”Permanent Forest Reserves”).

Feasibility studies were approved by the State government and, in 1985, the dam

construction started.

A totally transformed landscape appeared where water replaced trees and the forests around

the bank largest rivers - the Terengganu mati - on the northern side, and the Terengganu on the

southern side -. The land has become a gigantic water body, a large spider with watery arms

overfilling the former tributaries of the larger rivers. In the middle, stood a vast island

dominated by Bukit Cergau (855m).

The Kenyir Dam, Peninsular Malaysia’s largest rock-fill dam, is underlain by granite and is

155 m in height. Construction began in 1978, was completed in 1985 and officiated in 1987.

The lake covers an area of 370 sq. km. The impounding of the dam caused tremors. The

Malaysian Meteorological Department recorded a total of 28 earthquakes with magnitudes

ranging from 2.5 to 4.6. The tremors were felt at a distance of more than 50 km. (Cik Noorliza

Lat 2002) The area now has been again aseismic, except for a few tremors in 2015

There were animal rescues, with elephants carried on rafts to the land towards the Taman

Negara, timber salvage with divers sometimes risking their life. The flora was not mentioned.

A group of orang asli, lost because of the inundated paths, was rescued by helicopter.
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Figure 4.143 Elephants were shot with calming drugs) to allow them to be pulled on the
rafts (Picture from the Kenyir official pamphlet).

Ethnography document: Reaction of the people in Terengganu to a new dam

project

In 1988. it was learned that the Department of National Energy (TNB) planned to add more

dams in Terengganu. An expedition was organised by “Kawat” -the local journalists

Association- at the request of the Chief Minister of the State to evaluate the assets that would

be inundated if another hydroelectric dam was built, as well as to prepare arguments against

further overtaking of the Terengganu forested land.

The ”Kawat (Terengganu Journalist Association) expedition” is an example of the reaction

of the people in Terengganu from various background and for various reasons, prepared to

oppose an eventual new dam project somewhere in the forests of the state.

Some of the following report is taken from the contents of a two-part article written by this

researcher, who had joined the expedition in 1987. (Utusan Malaysia, 24/2/88 and sq.),

The 43 participants strong “evaluation expedition” “In defense of the integrity of our

mountains” included individual people from Terengganu and government officers from the
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Wildlife, Forest and Environment Departments. There was Ali Mamat, the organizer, and the

head of Bernama news agency, as well as the poet Marzuki Ali, the painter Chang Fee Ming,

and a traditional practitioner, former penghulu Haji Abu Kassim. Were covered the areas

around three waterfalls and, further up around the rivers: Lata Terap, LataTembat waterfalls

and Sungai Petuang.

Figure 4.144 “Expedisi mempertahankan keaslian pergunungan” Figure 4.145.” Di mana

kehijauan?” watercolour by Chang Fee Ming

The landscape views were diverse, changing with the soils, the canopy height, the humidity,

the sun exposure. A few stinkhorn mushrooms with their lace petticoat, reddish Nepenthes

grew in a cold and wet area, and, where the sun went through the canopy, two different species

of terrestrial orchids appeared among round rocks. There were Kacip Fatimah with their red

fruit and fresh water from Gnetum and Tetracera lianas. Some participants marveled at the blue

flowers of the modest roadside Siak -Dianella ensifolia, while on the slopes, beyond the banks

of the Tembat River, footprints of tapir, bears, leopards, deer and mouse-deer were observed.
 240

In Sungai Petuang area, the Mergastua -Wild Life Department- rangers discovered footprints

of a badak sumbu -Sumatra rhinoceros, believed near extinct in Malaysia, - which could make

the number of rhinoceros reach seven individuals in the Terengganu hills at the time.

45 Plant species were collected, verified with Tok penghulu. A consensus was found in

vernacular names and indications. Among 43 species collected or noted, 23 are known

traditional medicine, 11 have attracted the interest of phyto-chemists, 5 have food value while

10 have ornamental value. Two are endemic to Malaysia. And perhaps to this area of

Terengganu.

The inventory with value or use of the plant species was sent to the Chief Minister of the

State, together with the rest of the biodiversity evaluation documents (cf. Appendix A,Specific)

The expedition was exceptional, not only by the encountered biological diversity, but also

by that of its participants, their different interests, and specialities. Were they assigned by their

department or were they simply concerned people, they listened to the poet Marzuki Ali as he

stood up by a fire on the last evening:

“This nature is ours

Trusted to us by God

Thus, do not easily

destroy its integrity

this nature is the legacy of our ancestors

we will not accept it to be

harmed

destroyed for the cause of or for the importance

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of development

Speaking for most of all present, he claimed:

We cannot pronounce words of treason

Under the banners of power

But we will continue to unite in our efforts

In the name of the majesty of your gift,

Indeed, oh God.

(This poem and the painting can be found in a bilingual book published by the Dewan Bahasa

dan Pustaka entitled Puisi Duyung Puisi Rakyat, Marzuki Ali et al. ,1990, re-edited in 2000).

However, the dams were built, later, in 2008-2011. For many years, sadness dominated the

landscape over the waters of the whole Lake Kenyir. Black branches were like skeletons

gesturing in a last request for help. Danger was there as well. Visitors had to avoid the emerging

trunk of dead trees that sometimes, fell dangerously close to their motorboats. In dry seasons,

the level of the water went down, leaving, below the still forested areas, views of the earth

color of the banks.

Efforts were made to animate the place. Resorts with timber chalets were built, traditional

sailing crafts were commissioned from the reputed Duyong boat builders. Houseboats were

introduced. The lake became alive, gradually, found its vocation as a door to nature for tourism,

sports, and scientific research. [and -later, in 2019- would start playing a role in Forest

conservation through Parks creation. ].

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Phyto-chemistry in 1998: Prof. Karim from University Samudra

In 1998 Pr. Karim was the head of a phytochemistry laboratory at the then “University

Samudra” in Terengganu. This researcher joined with his students and other university

personnel, in the expedition he led, first experiencing the comfort of a hotel near Pengalan

Gawi, then living on a houseboat, sailing over to Lasir waterfall and climbing upon the hills

around Saok waterfall.

The purpose was to find materials for the phyto-chemistry laboratory: plant species with

essential volatile oils and few alcaloids: eugenol, citron, safrol, sufrol aldehyde, cineol; the

targeted families were: Euphorbiaceae, Celestraceae, Lauraceae, Rubiaceae.

On the road towards Sungai Gawi, common -yet attractive, a bird, Merbah -yellow vented

bulbul, the usual small tree simpoh gajah (Dillenia species) and penaga lilin (Callophylum

inophyllum) were spotted.

At Saok waterfall and stream: Etlingera elatior Kantan bunga merah Etlingera coccineaor,

Elettariopsis curtisii, Tepus kesing, Pokok pijat

Orchidea: Dendrobium crumeatum

Cinnamomum molissimum Teja berbulu

Goniothalamus and Uncaria species.

Urophyllum glabrum , a tree with fragrant leaves)

Globba species

More frequent even Hujan panas Glochidion species (extract made), Croton, and

Limau hantu -Merope angulata.

Around Lasir waterfall:

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Kantan Globba and Taka Jangut baung, Kulim Dipterocapus bark

Medan a fragrant Lauracea with slender roots, an Annonaceae, some Chassalia chartacea,

A Melastomaceae, a Copsia (not in Burkill as this alcaloids-containing Apocynacea was not

recorded as medicinal or having any use in his time).

Pendarahan, Smilax with hooks

Lepidagathis, said to provoque abortion penguguran

Burseraceae and Bignoniaceae

Were collected in sufficient quantity for the oil laboratory and to be used by the students:

Serai, Pijat, Kantan, Hujang panas, two Teja species, the bark of a Goniothalamus and a

Rubiacea with clove fragrance Urophyllum glabrum (synonym U. arboretum) Merembong

jantan and Parameria laevigata (an after-delivery constrictor) Akar serapat puteh.

Re-visits, Present Era (2013-2021)

Trips made in the Present Era, gave the opportunity to visit the “new” Lake Kenyir, to

observe the landscapes, the flora, and see the changes occurred and how the people in

Terengganu reacted to and used the giant transformation of the forest land.

One of these visits was, in November 2016, a reconnaissance with the Director of the

Department of the Environment to the Lake Kenyir and to smaller recent dams. The

Participants were Puan Muhibbah Selamat (Department of the Environment DOE), and her

staff, [En. Mohd Nazim who took the pictures, En. Rosidi Ismail,] and this researcher.
 244

The objective was of a brief reconnaissance of the Northern part of the Kenyir Lake, along

the road 185, from Kuala Terengganu to the Kelantanese border, from the points of view of the

environment and local vegetation.

Location

Figure4.146: Map of the area, with rivers and new dam reservoirs indicated in the square.

(Choy and Hanson 2016)

Figure 4.147 The approaches of the Kenyir

Lake, Bukit Kapal in the background
 245

Figure 4.148 A classic view of a canopy

“wall”

Taking the road toward Sungai Tong, after the few village houses and shops of the Belara

district, came less inhabited areas, with a quarry extracting earth and rocks. Further, on the

right side, were rubber plantations. The trees were slim, replacing the secondary forest by the

more profitable Hevea timber that can be used for furniture making. On the left side, was a blue

zinc fence, about two kilometre-long. Through some openings shone the glitter of the plastics

from a massive refuse disposal field. That was followed by a TDM palm oil plantation. After

a crossroad, driving in the direction of Kenyir, the landscape was changing, with in the

background, various hills, their summit crowned by thin clouds, and soon, closer to the road,

came green walls lined with tall trunks of many shapes and nuances of the Hulu Telemong

Forest Reserve.

The extentions of the Kenyir Lake

The road entered in a forest terrain where Bangladesh workers mended landslides caused by

recent heavy rains. The road took turns and, at some of them, beautiful views could be enjoyed,

such as the lake waters framed by trees with high crowns, palms like Areca catechu,

Macaranga, Melastomacea species with pioneers and usual climbers such as Tetracera and

Vitis species. A carpet of healthy ferns hid the ground on the steep slopes of the banks of the

lake.
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Figure 4.149 Kenyir Lake, one of the glimpses from the road

Down on the right side of a narrow bridge linking two islands, a quiet “resort”, perhaps for

fishing amateurs was set by the water. Going up, just before the bridge, was a signboard:

“Hutan Simpanan Kekal Tembat”- “Tembat Permanent Forest”. One broken logging road was

on the right, heading to the hills.

Figure 4.150 Another arm of the lake seen Figure 4.151 Tembat Permanent Forest
from a bridge Reserve area

The entrance of the Puah Dam Tenaga National operations was closed by a large gate. After

verification of identities, even though with no prior appointment, it was allowed to enter to the

main water intake where the flow from the reservoir was directed to an underground tunnel.

There, it activated turbines that would generate electricity. The TNB-the National Electricity

Board personnel told about the elephants -about ten of them, that lived in the surroundings,
 247

eating wild bananas. One baby elephant was even born there. Clouds and hills were reflected

on the surface of the new lake reservoir which is higher in altitude than “Kenyir 1”

The Puah Dam

Figure 4.152 General layout of the Hulu Terengganu Hydroelectric project (Choy and
Hanson 2016)

Figure 4.152 Intake of the Puah dam Figure 4.153 Spillway towards the
towards the turbines Terengganu River
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Figure 4.154 156 mammals were removed Figure 4.155 Many species of animals were

from the Tembat dam impoundment area found and saved. The Colugo is number 1
on the fourth line from the left

On the summit of a neighbouring hill, the Wildlife Rescue station opened their doors. Their

teams had monitored and rescued mammals, snakes, and fish. Together with personnel from

the University Kebangsaan Malaysia, they had made posters describing their work during the

construction of the dam and during the impoundment. Photographs of the rescued animals

were exhibited: Besides elephants, there were as well black leopards, tapirs as pictured on

their boards.

They had caught one colugo “flying lemur” or tupai terbang. The round-eyed small

mammal found in South East Asia, who does not fly but glides between the trees of the

canopy. The animals as well as a quantity of fish were later released in the areas upstream of

the dam, around Sungai Duka in the North West of the Puah dam, toward the Kelantanese

border.

The dam is called Puah Dam after a tributary of the Terengganu River that used to flow

there. It was easy to see that a lot of clear felling had to be done to ensure the stability of the

buildings and of the gigantic hydroelectric installations

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Figure 4.156 View over the Puah reservoir Figure 4.157 The visitors in front of the

View from the top of the new dam

There had been strong rumours of abusive deforestation. According to a letter from Dato’

Dr. Dionysius Sharma, a total of 12.000 ha had been logged instead of the 6.0130 ha needed to

prevent the loss of timber in the inundated rivers. Furthermore: “A survey conducted as part of

the DEIA has revealed evidence of the presence of the elusive Sumatran rhinoceros within the

Tembat Forest Reserve, and, as recently as August 2008, a survey by the Department of

Wildlife and National Parks’ Sumatran Rhinoceros Task Force revealed evidence such as

feeding trails and horn scratch marks” (D.Sharma, WWF, 2008).

Unfortunately, the nearest logging road toward the upstream mountains was closed by a

light barrier and a ditch covered with fragile-looking planks. Another logging road was found

further on the way back, towards a water tank station. It was in bad condition. JAS stout vehicle

was engaged on the slippery lorry road and passed deep burrows, but lack of time, the

exploration had to stop there. Furthermore, permission should be obtained from the Forest

Department before any entry.

On the elevated monticules created on both sides in the clay soil of the logging road, grew

the papery herb “Nyor lembah” (Molineria latifolia). The -medicinal species had been
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researched for its sweet fruit the overwhelming taste of which lasts for about half an hour after

it has been taken, seemingly imparting sweetness to acid or bland drinks (Nakajima and al.,

2012). Close-by, were a few of the two-winged nuts of a Dipterocarp. P.Muhibbah -who hails

from Johore where dipterocarps are less common- marvelled at the spinning flights of the

natural shuttlecocks.

The landscape on the road is formed by chains of hills covered by primary forests bordering

large water bodies that used to be rivers. With its small population of Semoq Beri orang asli,

the summit of Gunung Lawit (1519 m) in the North, the dynosaur fossil tooth found on Gunung

Gagau (1375) at the border junction of Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang, and the -now made

accessible- diversity of its prehistoric forests around it, the Kenyir Lake area has lots to offer

to visitors and researchers. Indeed, on the way to the top of a hill -where SATU the Terengganu

water company has a few buildings and a water tank, a research centre for the UMT is being

built.
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Figure 4.158 Beweh waterfall

The last stopover for that visit was for the Beweh waterfall. Large grey boulders, some

covered with mosses of many nuances of green, adorn steep slopes from where fall two streams

of white water. Herbs like the Setawar and Jangut baung, both decorative and reputed as

medicinal, grew in the coolness under the tall canopy.

Botanics

A few plants species were encountered in the vicinity of the road. The range went from

common- nevertheless elegant- pioneer species such as: Dillenia sufructucosa (Simpoh aier),

Leea indica (Memali), Donax canniformis (Bemban), Uncaria tomentosa (Kait kait),

Macaranga bancana ( Mahang), to village favourites : Areca catechu (Pinang), Etlingeria

elatior (Bunga kantan), Typhonium flagatifolium (Keladi tikus) and to more recluse forest

dwellers: Piper porphyrophyllum (Sireh harimau), Smilax myosotiflora (ubi jaga,) Molineria

latifolia (nyor lembah), Tacca integrifolia (Jangut baung), Dipterocarpus fragilis (Keruing

kipas), Milettia sericea (pokok tulang daeng) and Notaphoebe umbelliflora, (medang) -The

three last mentioned having been kindly identified by En.Shamsul from the Training division

of the Terengganu Forest Department.

Further notes on the biodiversity in the area:

During a five-days multidisciplinary expedition made long ago (1985) at the request of the

then Menteri Besar Wan Moktar Wan Ahmad, around Sungai Tembat and Sungai Petuang, 43

spp. of -mostly medicinal- plants had already then been spotted by a traditional practitioner and

this researcher. Traces of elephants, Panthera tigris -the Malayan tiger- and old footprints of
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the rare Badak sumbu, Sumatran Rhinoceros, were found by the Pejabat Perlihitan personnel

(Utusan Melayu 24-25 /2/1988). Since, here scientific expeditions have been conducted in

Sungai Saok and Sungai Lasir, including in 1998 by phyto-chemists from the then Samudra

Universiti (now UMT). In 2010, 509 plant spp. were listed in a gathering of three botanical

inventories for Gunung Padang in the South of the Kenyir lake (FRIM, R. Kiew, Ummul-

Nazrah, Malaysian Nature Journal, vol 63, No 4.). In 2012, two new taxa of Globba were

discovered in the Tembat Forest Reserve: Globba tembatensis Y.Y. Sam & Julius and Globba

unifolia var. terengganuensis (Malaysian Nature Journal, vol. 64, No 2).]

From this short reconnaissance in a part of the Kenyir Lake area, it appears that in 2016,

many agencies and government departments were concerned and active in and around the lake.

[Yet, it would probably take some time before the place became a full-fledged eco-tourist

destination or… find its true benefit for the people of Terengganu who have lost so much of

their land. Further exploration is still needed to learn even more how to preserve and use the

state natural assets.]

2. Among other visits in present time:

The Kenyir Research Centre of University Malaysia Terengganu

On the 20th of August 2017, a few officials and lecturers from the University Malaysia

Terengganu gathered at the already active but with construction still in progress- Kenyir

University Malaysia Terengganu Research station. A visit from the Minister of Education was

expected. [Taking the opportunity to have another look at the floral evolution around the lake,

I gladly accepted the invitation of Dr. Jarina Jani.]

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The landscape on the road towards the Northern access to Kenyir was of village houses and

fruit -Artocarpus, Mangoes, and Lagerstroemia and Cassia ornamental trees. A hill was cut for

construction of the highway to Kota Bahru. Going through Lingai, over sungai Ikan -a muddy

-at the time- river. Along the way, quarries operations were active on hills of red earth and grey

rocks. Former Paddy lands were covered by fields of various Poaceae

On the approaches of the Kenyir Lake, secondary growth covers the roadsides in areas

deforested for various projects and large concrete buildings that were simultaneously

progressing particularly around the main entrance to the lake. In the background though, the

usual beautiful coat of emerging palms, Dipterocarps, and other rain forest species wrapped the

hills with their crowns of diverse colors and texture.

Flora species seen around the Research Centre

On top of a hill at the back of the Station (which is built in Terengganu neo-vernacular style),

was a lone Orania sylvicola -ibul palm tree, known to have a poisonous fruit. En, Sohok,who is

the guard of the Centre, confirmed: “The smoke of the dry fruit as a pukau tool,. The person

can be carried like that” he gestured:” sleeping, straight on extended arms”. The effect lasts

about one hour. Syed Abdullah a healer from Kampong…(Belara) had mentioned it in 2002

for his private drug rehabilitation treatments.

On the ground, were noted: A Smilax with gigantic leaves (15 x25 cm) compared to the

stem of this climber (½ cm) Smilax cf perfoliata (or Smilax. bracteata but leaves not so large,

not mentioned as angled).

Polygonum (Persicaria syn.) sinensis or paniculatum. It is a minyak angin herb that contains

a volatile oil in the root smell like mint and is common in “waste areas” in Malaysia.
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On the roadsides were a Commersonia, (Malvaceae), Bridelia (Phyllanthaceae), ‘food for

the birds’. brought by En.Wak.

Climbing high, “sought after by the Raja Brooke butterfly” said En. Sohok was the well

known Bauhinia bidendata

Sapium Baccatum -Ludai “mouse deer rubber tree”, used by the hunters to lure mouse deers

It has been studied at UiTM and UKM, (triterpenoids)

Derris elliptica tuba the well-known fish poison vine

Looking like a smaller Momordica charantia, with Ipomea spear shaped leaves and a

smaller, fruit was timun tikus another Cucurbitaceae, Zehneria indica, “good for stomach

diseases”.

Seen as well were a Beluru vine -Entada phaseolides, and a tall Keruing -Dipterocarpus

crinitus.

Knowledge:

En. Sohok the caretaker of the place and En, Wak -an experimented lab technician

volunteered information. En, Sohok since long has guided travellers in the forest. His

comments bear on the relationship between the plant species and their use by men and animals,

particularly for the hunters, fishermen and people living in the forest or on its fringes, like

Sahok’s own family. The names he gives bear the mark of practical or visual considerations:

Telinga gajah, ( Macaranga), Buaya sakit kulit (sharp bark of a Dipterocarp), so do his remarks

on the trees uses: “for wrapping tapai” delicacies, or “for catching animals”, or those that

“sosek” and those that harbour ghosts of fire when the atmosphere is electric. (Methane from
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organic waste explained Dr. Jarina Jani). Sahok insisted that he does not allow anybody to take

anything from the forest even Kelulut honey.

En, Wak, a veteran lab technician, on the other hand, knew well the scientific names of the

species. He remembered Pr. Karim the dedicated phyto-chemist at the University Samudra

(UMT) when we went together, back in 1996 in Kenyir to find aromatic species.

Were exhibited at the Research Centre the harvests from a group of students: butterflies,

bats in alcohol. There were as well recent books on Kenyir authored by UMT researchers,

including those contributed to by [“Mr.T “ or] Dato’ Dr. Tajuddin-, who. as he explained,

marveled at the changing shapes of the bats over the millenaries during their travels, after the

sinking of the Sunda Shelf, (but does not concludes to a Darwinien systematic view of all

species evolution). Dr. Tajuddin is a proponent of the “Kenyir Geopark” that would protect

from further logging the forests around the lake.

On the way back, were noticed, on lorries, unstable looking stacked of timber cut in planks,

by the road side, a long-established sawmill in full swing, and three lorries loaded withlogs of

various diameter.

Kenyir Present Era: re-visit with botanist Frantz Limier 8in May 2018

[Report on a re-visit with botanist FL along the Petuang River and on the road to Aring,

Frantz Limier, botanist, has taken many of the photographs and Rohani Longuet]. Present Era

observations were done to compare with the situation 25 years ago. A preceding visit with JAS

(November 2017) had been first made, following the then recently built road along the northern

bank of Lake Kenyir and driving up to the new dams on the Puah and Tembat Rivers. Another

secondsurvey was decided towards the Petuang and Tembat riverbanks, taking advantage of
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the new road and ancient paths. This short survey would follow the path of the previous visits:

mainly with “Kawat” Journalist Association (1988), University Samudra (1992), made by boat,

with incursions on the riverine slopes.

Access:

“We took the main road from Kuala Terengganu toward north, passed by a few villages,

noted again the long open air waste disposal, then, after a turn to the north east, the black smoke

of a palm oil processing factory, and the palm oil plantation with a paradoxical forest-friendly

warning.

Figure 4.159 Palm oil processing factory Figure 4.160 Forest fauna-friendly TDM
board

The beginning of the lake area was signaled by ferns growing on the slopes on the roadsides

and, in the background, the vertical canopies of hills summits with crowns of many shapes and

colours. A furry animal (-a civet?) was spread, dead, in the middle of the road.

The JPEM official map published in 2014 shows paths following the same routes as the ones

published in 2001. Wishing to arrive directly at the spots visited in 1988, the plan was to drive

along the road to the spot where the Petuang and Tembat Rivers flow into the lake. There, we
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would follow the marked paths up to the botanizing incursions made long ago along the

Petuang and Tembat rivers that are both coming down from the hills further North. The later

Tembat river had appeared, back in 1988, to be a sungai batu -a rocky stream, full of rapids

and shallow waters running from the Bukit Susu Dara (1452 ft). The other, the Petuang River

that flows from the area of Gunong Lawit (1518 ft) is also known for her Jeram Harimau -the

“tiger” rapids-, the roaring of which follows the traveler, before he meets with the real Panthera

tigris.

Figure 4.161 Lake Kenyir, 2001: Paths in Figure 4.162 Lake Kenyir 2014 The new
the Hulu Telemong and Hutan Sinpan road is indicated. The paths are still shown
Kekal Tembat are shown

Fig. Lake Kenyir, 2001: Paths in the Hulu Telemong and Hutan Sinpan Kekal Tembat are

shown Fig. Lake Kenyir 2014 The new road is indicated. The paths are still shown
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Just before a bridge that offered views both ways over the water of the inundated Petuang

River, a white board signaled an “AKS” Resort, and, close by another board that signaled the

“Tembat Permanent Forest Reserve”, a small earth road went down towards the banks of the

lake.

Figure 4.163 Permanent forest Figure 4.164 Resort Figure 4.165 Buttresses
and boulders

The resort was not in operation. The muddy earth road went further to a jetty from where

another resort could be reached “Suria”, said a young man who was fishing sitting close to by

a motorboat, “You could also be brought by boat to the “Musang Resort.” There are no paths

following the river, nor bridges over it”. We took to the hill. An elephant trail started on the

very side of the steep muddy bank. It went through a bamboo grove and up along a ridge that

from the maps indication led to Gunung Bungsu (857m). A streamlet ran amongst mossy

boulders. There were ferns, pipers, and gingers under the shade of the far up crowns of a few

trees withs large buttressed. We heard noises of broken bamboos or small branches and the

breathing of some creature. Back to the lake, as we reached to another jetty. The purple

flowering of -perhaps planted, Lagerstroemia speciosa, and the symmetric traces of climbers

on three trunks added some interest to the melancholic loneliness of the banks landscape.
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Figure 4.166 Climbers prints Figure 4.177 Floating resort between

Lagerstroemia and emerging dead trees

Close by, witnesses from the past layer of “emerging” trees: still part of the landscape, sadly

true to their name, they have resisted complete destruction for more than thirty years (1987-

2018) .

Figure 4.168 Cauliflower Polyalthia Figure 4.169 Costus speciosus

macrocarpa

A few boats were moored near a broken board: “m Harimau” perhaps the Jeram Harimau

rapids mentioned in the 1988 Utusan Malaysia article. Back on the path, towards the main road,
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yellow butterflies crowed over a small pond, a stout Bauhinia exhibited its wooden -looking-

large seeds, not far from a showy Costus and a gigantic ginger. We then drove West in direction

of the new dams and of their gate which was closed to the public. We turned back, stopped as

we saw a langur or leaf monkey who was eating… leaves, and followed another small road on

our right. Elephant dungs were on the ground, with a few Psilocybe mushrooms sprouting out

of it

Figure 4.170

Trackmen working by the side of the road asked if we were looking for the ketum (Mitragyna

speciosa) of ill repute. Medicinal species they said, are collected by the orang asli. It is a source

of revenue for them. Heading back, looking on the left side of the road to find again a possible

dyke formation previously noted, we saw a wall of red and black exploded rock.[ a dyke part

of the Kapal batholithe, Cf. En. Hamli Department of Geology…]

Leaving the lake area, back to civilization, we could not but notice the busy looks of the

Bukit Jong Quarry and, further on, the good provision of sawn logs at the sawmills.
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Figure 4.171 Hills Figure 4.172 Timber

Conclusion note for this site area: “ Waterworld”

It had seemed that the creation of the Kenyir Lake would have been a way to render more

accessible to the public a primary forest left after the filling of the reservoir. This brief visit

showed that, even with a road surrounding the lake , boats are now the way, and that what can

be reached is the low summits of mountain forests, now that the sedimentary soils of the river

valleys and their flora are gone, leaving a few pathetic dark brown reminders.

It will be of interest to go again up the Petuang and Tembat Rivers, not only to check on the

species remaining from the past, but also to check on the moves of the river banks and the

effect of the new dams in the area.

Flora

Below is a list of some of the plant species seen, photographied or collected on the outskirts

of the lake. These plants remind of those from the logged area in Tersat, South of the lake.

They are nevertheless attractive and some have medicinal use.

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Figure 4.173 Rauvolfia cf verticillata Figure 4.174 Bhesa paniculata

Costus speciosus, setawar

Behsa paniculata, senyamuk used for fever, stomach ache

Helmintostachys zeylanica tunjuk langit, sexual tonic

Vitis cinnamomea, pakan kertas, women tonic

Cinnamomum cf paraneuron, medang teja, in tonic teas

Clitoria ternatea Bunga telan, blue-white flowers, diuretic,

Codonoboea platypus, semboyan, postpartum

Molineria (syn. Curculigo) latifolia, nyor lembah, long lasting sweetener

Mapania cuspidata, sepet, postpartum

Polyalthia macrocarpa, mempisang,

Smilax myosotiflora, dedawai tonic

Freycinetia angustifolia, rancang besi

Re-visits in Lasir, Saok waterfalls, and Sauh island

Together with F Limier and foreign students in sociology, to review the evolution of the

development efforts:
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Figure 4.175 a) Sungai Lasir b) Amenities c) Hanging bridge

On the Southern side of the lake, the strong Lasir river stream that fell on large rocks , with

banks of various heights, had been doted with various amenities: a suspended bridge led to a

concrete building.

Figure 4.176 a) Hellenia c) Lasir waterfall

b) Saok: office trip
speciosus
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Figure 4.177 Education, scientific (Board Figure 4.178 “The green” is back, mirrored
Lasir)

Figure 4.179 Houseboat with Gajah Terum hills at the back

Site 6: “the forest was home” -→“The forest was home” and: “Now it is my

ward” -hopefully. (For conclusion)

Evolution: From the forest to the world

4. 6 Introduction to this “site”

Presentation of the site (1) and (2) of the people

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Two groups of Orang Asli, -the Bateq and the Semoq Beri, live in Terengganu. In fact, as

they are nomad, they can as well be found in Pahang and in Kelantan… The forest where they

live has been introduced in the previous chapters, with its 250 million years old flora and fauna,

its diversity, and its -now more understood- fragility. The following is an account of visits to

their places in the past (1980ties) and in more recent times (2014-2019).

4.6.1 Visits in the past

4.6.1.1 The Bateq

The orang asli of the Bateq tribe, the most ancient people in the Malay Peninsula, whose

existence is evaluated to from 50 000 to 25 000 years ago (Colin Nicholas, 2004) are found

usually in the forests of Perak, Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan as well as in Patani (Hala in

Thailand). Known as hunters and collectors, they have been described by anthropologists and

more recently, by travelers and tourists, because of their original culture and way of life.

Researchers from Shebesta (1952) to Endicott (1979) and Lye Tuck Po (2004) have captured

not only their survival methods but the philosophy of life of their community, and their

relationship with surrounding nature. They share everything, as it is difficult to store much in

the forest and, with their nomadic way of life, “they take only what they need Salasiah Che

Lah, 2014). De facto guardians of a philosophy that has little to do with modern global political

and financial systems, today, they represent a social model that has survived in its original form

for more than 25 000 years in an environment replete with dangers.

The Bateq people from Terengganu are those that have used to set their temporary camps or

hayak in the forested area along the Lagos and Sayap streams in that flow towards the Besut

river from the slopes of Bukit Kambing and Bukit ( ) hills in the state. These Bateq Deq as
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they call themselves are used to move as well in Kelantan towards Kuala Koh, and in Pahang

along the Lebir River. Following the national policy of integration in 1960 and 1990, they were

appointed places to settle in Besut upriver. Meanwhile they, like the state authorities and the

indigenous peoples or aborigines in many other countries, battle with the uncertainty of varying

concepts about land ownership, rights and adat or customary law.

4.6.1.2 Kuala Sayap, an Orang Asli village about 10 km from Kuala Keruak

First visits with molecules hunters, doctors in Pharmacy such as Drs Daniel and Muriel

Jean,(SREP), JR Deverre and Dr, Weber (CNRS - University Malaya).

Back in 1983, hearing often from the Malay villagers that the Orand Asli were the ones to

meet if I needed to send bigger quantities of medicinal material to the SREP (Societe de

Recherches Ethnopharmaceutiques), I enquired with the JEOA on the proper procedure to

approach them and enter the domain of the OA people in Terengganu. I was warned that the

orang asli were “very shy” and would run away in the forest if I came with a team of researchers

from France without an introduction. The government officers helped me to organize a

recognition trip. In Kampong Buluh, we spend a night in the house of a ustaz, a religious

responsible person, who called Enche Mat, a man well acquainted with the Bateq people of

Kuala Sayap. Kuala Sayap being an orang asli settlement village set close by the Lagos stream,

a tributary of the Besut river that flows among the forested hills of the north western part of the

state, not far from the Kelantanese border.

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Figure 4.180 Location of the Orang Asli (Bateq) in Kuala Sayap on the Sungai Lagos/Ruar

Figure 4.181 Field location: Sungai Lagos Ulu Besut and Sungai Berua (Semoq Beri) on the
lake Kenyir

4.6.1.3 Looking for Roots: researchers and orang asli. Ethnographic

document

[Stays in the orang asli area. Visits to the forests and lean-to camps 1984,1986,1990.

Extracts from reports]

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“Leaving the last Malay village of Keruak, we followed a former large logging track covered

in places with pinkish mud. Encik Mat -who having an orchard close by is familiar with the

Bateq people of the area- signaled in front of us, a thin, dark-colored man who carried a long

feather duster on his shoulder: “It is Nilam the chief of the village. “He went in the grocery

shop to buy some rice”. Nilam wore large and short pants and rubber shoes.

After ½ hour walk we arrived at a “new village” made of two rows of about twelve small

timber houses, bordering the earth road. The houses were simple, on 4ft high stilts like the one

used in Malay pioneer settlements, with horizontally laid short planks of the “tindeh kasih

overlapping style. There was a verandah, a sleeping room, a common room, and a kitchen area.

The stove used minyak gas as in the Malay villages of that time. Abdullah, our Bateq translator

cum guide, was informed of our arrival. He was around twenty-year old, about 1m 50 tall,

sturdy, and well dressed. We stayed in one of the houses reserved for the JOAC (Orang Asli

State Department) officers.

The next morning Abdullah led us up to a logged forest hill to look for medicinal plant

species. Quiet and invisible to us from the path, a woman had been digging roots with a stick.

“Here she is. This is Mak Timun, the Tok bidang -the midwife”-said Abdullah. I explained our

purpose: acquire samples of medicinal species with the related knowledge for possible future

collections.
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Figure 4.182 First interview with Mak Figure 4.183 Encounter with Nilam the
Timun “ketua kampong ”(on the extreme right)

On our way back later, we were met by Nilam (cf. fig 2, the man on the extreme right) and

a companion with a fair skin, possibly from a Chinese or Thai ancestor-. was the ketua kampong

-village headman of the resettlement in kampong Kuala Sayap. That day, Nilam took at heart

to interview us. Our guides Abdullah -the afro-haired Batek diplomat and Hassan -our Malay

friend, explained our intentions. Both OA “officials” accompanied us back to the kampong.

The next day, we walked only about 20 minutes from the settlement to the hayak -the

temporary house or shelter of the orang asli, a hut made of palms and rattan, with a “floor” or

platform at about 2 feet from the ground. There were four of these gathered around two

fireplaces, and further down, towards a small river, another one with a fire as well, erected

there as if for more privacy. Mak Timun and Mak Janda only were present. “The others went

to look for rattan” explained Abdullah.

On each of the sleeping-sitting-floor platforms were bundles of about 20 to 60 cm lengths

of roots of various colors and smells. There were as well a bamboo Jaws harp, a transistor radio

and some dry chandan (Aquilaria spp.) leaves “for smoking”. Mak Timun gave the Malay

names of the roots used around deliveries that she and her friends had gathered for us: Kerbau

jantan,(Shefflera ridleyi) pak punggah (cf Mat Kapur: Aralia spp) and “ibu anak
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gadis”(perhaps Cinnmomum parthenoxilon. There was as well a contraceptive plant -the name

of which was taboo. During an ulterior visit, the name of kacang kacang was given which

would have been a Leguminosae looking species. Other roots, already known from Mak Kapur

and his colleagues from Kuala Terengganu had been gathered.

Figure 4.184 Hayak, Chandan, roots and Figure 4.185 Bringing back
transistor samples, with Abdullah

We went back together to the “village” where we shared a fried rice prepared by our German

assistant -some of which the Bateq women packed to bring back and share with their group,

plus our payment and presents of kain batik hand printed cloth. While we thought our two

female informants had gone back home, they passed by our verandah, sporting hibiscus flowers

in the hair and bright smiles, showing their appreciation of our transactions, before returning

to the hayak.
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Figure 4.186 Stop over at the house of a Malay ‘bomoh’ near a forest edge orchard. Photo
souvenir: Pleasure of having been being brought together for the sake of research.

The same year, visits were made with a team from the University Malaya (Department of

Chemistry, JR Deverre and, later, Dr. JF Weber and the French CNRS Centre National de la

Recherche Scientifique.

Jean Robert Deverre performed tests on species similar to those previously found in other

parts of the Malaysian tropical forest -as well on the species recommended by Mak Timun-

(Rubiaceae) for alcaloids.

Figure 4.187 Tracking alcaloids fresh from the forest in the Bateq “village”, Nilam came
looking, and had diner with us.
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Figure 4.188 The pharmacist was willing to experience tracking the acaloids in their habitat,
using the lean-to lab (cf.perhaps pic“lab” only in file) Fig. Field preliminary screenings:
a) in the Kuala Sayap Orang Asli village ; b) in the forest, a field lab, by the Lagos stream

Figure 4.189 Collecting in larger quantity @ 10 kg for chemical evaluation. (Jabatan

Kimia University Malaysia)

List of species of phyto-pharmaceutical interest. Those found and result .

Expeditions Rohani+ Deverre Sites: Ulu Besut 2 times: Alcaloids containing spp.:

Tabernaemontana corymbosa (syn) Evatamia hirta jelutong badak: and 7 new ones.

Sungai Lago + Encik Ismail and OA (Abdullah) 13.5 1984, Ulu Besut 10.9.84
 273

Alcaloids screening cooperation UM/ CNRS the targeted families for alcaloids were

Annonaceae, Rubiacea, Lauracea, Menispermaceae (cf. phytopharmacy path in C2)

Results:

First expedition: 14 spp. were collected in small quantities and screened using a portable

kit, so as to get immediate results on fresh samples (Cf methodology, field work).

Identifications verified ulteriorly at the University Herbarium was done to the species or only

to the genus as the available specimen were sterile. They were 6 Rubiaceae, of which the Ixora

(jejarum, pecah periuk) were the most positive ( 4 +) for alkaloids, (leaves, fresh and dry) as

well as the dry leaves of a non-identified Apocynaceae.

A second expedition in the same area of Ulu Besut Forest reserve resulted in 7 species

screened by the same method. 2 of these, the Ervatamia hirta (Apocynaceae) was extremely

positive for fresh and dry leaves and for the fresh and dry bark (4+). The dry leaves and the

bark of the Annonaceae, Polyalthia cauliflora were positive (3+).

Among the screened shrubs were some reputed in the local materia medica such as Renellia

speciosa (Mengkudu hutan) and Ervatamia hirta (Jelutong badak).

Evolution towards integration -1983: Islam, cemetery, Kinzir and rubber plantations

Just as a Malay village, Kuala Sayap had a cemetery, with earth monticules and some stones.

It was located at about 200 hundred meters from the habitations. On the way towards the

cemetery, in a fenced area, was a healthy group of wild boars.

On the introduction of Islam, the religion followed by the Malays, Abdullah commented:”

Yes, we had to convert, but the ustaz -the religious teacher- told us that, before becoming
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Muslim, we believed in God already. Not all of us converted”. During one of our stays in their

house in Kuala Sayap, JHEOA officers came. They knew well their “wards” and commented

“Oh Semek ni is pregnant again”. There was no school then. Forest has been cleared to allow it

was said, rubber plantations.

Not wanting to turn the people of Kuala Sayap in an object for study, but wishing to have a

two-way relationship with them, at the occasion of a short visit, I brought my three-month-old

son with us, to introduce JFF Weber. The Dr. Weber, from the University Malaya, also looked

for phyto-chemical active substances. The Bateq women had a look at the baby anak orang

puteh and to what food I prepared. Unfortunately, other activities kept me away the following

years.

Later, in 2010, I heard news from Kuala Sayap from a Bateq man who had worked in

Kuantan, and had just married my neighbor’s daughter in Pulau Duyong: He told that many

inhabitants had moved, joining the Semoq Beri. Social integration with the Malays villagers

happened as he was a proof of it, but the village still existed.

4.6.1.4 Re-visits in “Present times”

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Figure 4.190 April 2014 - Adam, Nilam’s son reminisces

In April 2014, Adam bin Nilam, sitting under the freshly built lean-to, remembers me and

his late father’s story –he himself was 6- about the visit of the perempuan orang puteh -the

European woman.

Re-visits: [ Evolution of the Bateq people and of their relationship with their natural

resources]

The settlement: from about 15 families living on and off in the first series of wooden houses

settlement in Kuala Sayap, 4 families remain. Two are working closely with the JHOA office.

Other inhabitants have joined the Kuala Koh larger group of Bateq people in Kelantan. Many

have passed away: “Tua, sakit jantung…”explained Adam. The houses are now made of

concrete. There is a surau, the cemetery tucked 200 meters away, and a vast communal hall

where we planned to stay at first. Adam invited us -a French ecologist and me- to his house for

the night. The ecologist slept in the salon or common room. Even though his Malay wife was

still in the pantang -the traditional Malay post-delivery taboo period, I was given her room by

Adam, while she moved back to the couple bedroom.

State of mind and changes noted:

Listening to Adam -the present ketua kampong- and Mustapha, a Bateq from Kuala Koh,

but married and living in Kuala Sayap- there seems to be, more than previously, an awareness

and a division between those who wish to remain in the forest with the old ways and beliefs

and the others who are ready to enter the gob (“outsiders”) world.
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Mustafa and Adam lead us to a patch of belukar by a stream where they built a lean-to,

showing the different ways to tie the roofs and demonstrating the fire lighting with a stick

turned in a pre-drilled hole in another piece of wood.

Figure 4.191 Buluh Nipis and kampong Setebu in Ulu Telemong .

-Road to the Lake, Felcra dividends, Indonesian workers.

As we drove through the new landscape of surrounding palm oil plantations, Adam showed

the beginning of a large “highway to Kenyir” started there on the upper reaches of the Sungei

Besut.

He explained that the empty blue plastic bags of fertilizer left at the foot of each kelapa

sawit tree were left by the Indonesian workers. They had previously dumped the whole amount

in a few places instead of carefully distributing the fertilizer, hence the smaller bags to prove

the work properly done.

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The orang asli receive a dividend of five times 5000 RM a year for their participation and

use of their land in the FELCRA scheme. Adam has bought a MyVy car and while we were

there, ferried those who -like him, wanted to go to Kuala Besut to get the government BRIM

allowance.

Adam is aware of the philosophical and political implications of the land modern division/

appropriation compared to direct use/ protection (Bateq tradition) as well as of other options

[like the some of the PAS members or, in history those of Padang Kemunting rebels.] “Ada

orang yang tidak setuju” he said.

Yet medicinal species are still collected (Fig.4), providing Adam with a side revenue.

Figure 4.192 Map of the Kuala Sayap Figure 4.193 In the baskets, penawar hitam

settlement village in 2017. The roofs of the (Polyaltia bullata) and Kacip Fatimah

dewan, of palm oil plantation can be seen (Labisia pothoina) Adam’s house, the
mosque, and the surrounding

In Kuala Terengganu, in 2015 the JHOA Department of Terengganu and Kelantan held an

exhibition, mostly collected from the Bateq in Kelantan or at the Northern entrance of the
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Taman Negara. The medicinal parts of fifty classic species were shown and their usage

explained. (Appendix 2)

Figure 4.194 “Highway tak siap” 2020. -Google map (-add location Kuala Sayap)

4.7 The Semaq Beri: in Sungai Berua and Buluh Nipis

Introduction In 1990, the Semaq Beri settlement village in Kuala Berua was larger

than the one in Kuala Sayap. The orang asli there belonged the Senoi tribe. Their size was

taller, their hair was less curly than the ones of the Bateq, their skin slightly fairer, their

features more Asiatic. Their timber houses were built around the slopes of a valley where

the government had a building for agricultural research. Back in 1992, the Kenyir dam,

with fish cages, boats and even rafts, although it had cut direct resources from the forests,

still offered opportunities to the forest inhabitants.

The mystery of Buluh Nipis: a paper from Lincolm Inn University in PJ. ( describes

a survey of medicinal spp. used by an unspecified group Orang Asli in Terengganu. Intrigued

by the paucity of species mentioned, the mixture of Aloe vera and forest medicinal species and

the facts that “Buluh Nipis” is a not a village but an “agricultural” (cf. Google map) place near

the Jeneris River in Terengganu while it is an orang asli village in Pahang. I

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went to investigate together with a botanist and an ecologist to the Ulu Telemong Forest reserve

north of the Kenyir Lake.

Figure 4.195 Hulu Telemong Forest Reserve: detail, hills landscape and collapsed road

There, by the side of one of the tarred but deserted -in places collapsed former logging

roads, was a gathering of huts made from small trees, bamboo, wild gingers, nipah and other

palms species.

Figure 4.196 a) Camp in “Bukit Buluh Nipis” b) Kitchen hearth

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c) Cengal bark floor d) Festive ornament

The relative sophistication -lay out with levels, well defined areas for sleeping, cooking, storage

etc.- of the buildings indicated builders with a familiarity with a large organized habitat,such as

the Semaq Beri people whom I had been met more than twenty year ago, living then ina timber

resettlement beyond Kuala Berang, in Sungai Berua close to the Kenyir Lake.

Carefully woven square shaped pandanus baskets, rings of plaid rattan and other vegetal

decoration suggest a “sewang” festival. The “village” must have been temporary erected for a

special occasion. We went to enquire in the Semoq Beri village of Kuala Berua, East of Kenyir.

Unfortunatelly, Alias, the knowledgeable headman was away collecting medicinal species in

the Taman Negara and nobody then could answer

Later, in March 2019, the Semaq Beri settlement in Sungai Berua on the tar road (built in

1992) to the bank of the Eastern side of Lake Kenyir, had a school, a two-storeys meeting hall

a sepak takraw and basketball court. A street was bordered by more than 30 concrete houses.

Cars were parked at the back. Pak Yusof, a medicinal plant collector cum practitioner, agreed

to lead me in the forest to show the species he favoured. According to him, there were no more

“sewang” ceremonies as the old people who knew how to celebrate these had passed away. The

“Buluh Nipis” ceremonial place was probably not used anymore.

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“Mysterious illness” and the forest refuge

Figure 4.197 Fishing in Kenyir (2017). Bateq scaffold for burial in the trees, erected in
June 2019. (pics by Digital Dome)

In June 2019, a mysterious epidemy of gastroenteritis and broncheitis was reported among

the orang asli living in Kuala Koh. 15 people had died. Pollution of the rivers due to mining

on the hills in Kelantan was deemed to cause the illness. People from Kuala Koh (Bateq people)

had sought refuge in Sungai Berua. So, the Semoq Beri inhabitants, -whole families even with

cats and chicken- moved to forests towards the North of the lake in Kampong Gerdong area.

They were said to have moved even further inside the forest.

Figure 4.197 The Semak Beri refuge in Figure 4.198 Bukit Kapal, Jeneris river and
Kampong Gadong Pic.Bernama, Jun 2019 collapsed road near where the “sewang”
ceremony took place
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Figure 4.199 Map with location of the Sungai Berua settlement of the Semoq Beri in
Terengganu and that of the “Kampong Buluh Nipis” where traces of a “sewang” ceremony
had been seen in 2017 and of the area of Gerdong where the Semoq Beri sought refuge
during the 2019 measles epidemy

This was learned during a visit to Sungai Berua in 2019 with a French sociologist and a

Malaysian Rimba anthropologist. The Rimba office is set in kampong Basung. The researchers

and volunteers of this NGO have frequent contacts with the orang asli, in their conservation

activities.
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Figure 4.200 a) Sungai Berua (2019) cars and row of concrete terrace houses). At the back
of a house, Pak Yusof and I are planning a trip to check on some medicinal species.

b) (2021) In the library, in Pulau Duyong, orang Bateq look at medicinal roots, after a

meeting with the director of the State Parks.

 CHAPTER 5

DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

5.1 Selection of data: from the “Past Era” to the “Present Era”

To retrace the changes over time and find the paths that led to the present era in

Terengganu, this chapter recapitulates data gathered over the two periods of time presented in

the methodology chapter: 1980-2007- “past era”, and 2014-2022 “present era”. An analytic

review of the narratives and inventories of plants and cultural features reported in the visits and

re-visits done in those respective eras allows to identify the changes in the explored sites. It

underscore the significance of these changes for the inhabitants who experience the emergence

of the modern world in their surroundings.

For the floral environment, assessments of the evolution are made through comparisons

past/ present in quantity (increase or decrease in number of species:) and in quality (usage of

the species) in coastal areas, in villages, in the forests, around the Lake Kenyir, upon the hill

forests and in the habitat of the Orang Asli indigenous people.

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For the built environment, cultural and ground features from “the past era”: found

previously in house compounds and in other inhabited sites, are inventoried and compared with

their fate in the “present era”.

Throughout the surveys, the causes and the consequences of the observed changes over

time appear, and assist in understanding how the “present era” with its undertones of a new

civilization has arrived and has spread in the state.

The advent of the “present era” did not happen suddenly. It is, over almost forty years, the

result of multiple transformations that had an impact on the landscapes, on the flora and on

the life of the people of Terengganu. First mentioned here, are the exterior or exogenous events

or factors, second, are the significant endogenous changes -quantitative and qualitative-

emanating from the places and from the inhabitants themselves.

5.1.1 Impact of exogenous events on the landscapes

In Terengganu, it had been observed, during the visits and revisits, that exogeneous events

have had a strong, and often irreversible impact on the old landscapes that were in the past

synonym with the conservative image of the East Coast state.

In the present time, the estuary of the Terengganu River, as seen in the pictures

illustrating recent visits], is not any more the beach of Seberang Takir where sailors used to

collect sand for ballast, nor views of sailing boats -perahu payang, kolek or kuel- returning

from the sea. It is not anymore, at sunset, coconut trees swaying over the estuarine islands, a

view for elderly Chinese men to enjoy, while sitting in front of their town house by the river in

Jalan Kampong China -the Chinese village street. The estuary has changed direction (from

North -East to due East). It has now a vast marina and large new spaces where modern
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buildings will evoke the thriving city that has been planned as early as 2005 (State Chief

Minister Idris Yusof) and 2011 (ECRED, East Coast Regional Economic Development,), and

a draw bridge has been built over the mouth of the river.

The coast from Marang to Dungun has seen its quiet road by the beach enlarged. Timber

houses and their verandas, -from where locals could be entertained by the views of tourists avid

of sun and swimming, while athletes practice surfing-, had to be moved away, sometimes

toward agricultural settlements further inland. Tourism and a neo-vernaculararchitecture of

chalets and larger buildings brought some revenue and roads to the quiet beaches, bris dunes,

mangroves, and lowlands forests, while the inhabitants were encouraged to involve in

aquaculture, plantations and pursue their endeavors in tourism.

On the inland side, a metamorphosis started in 1985 hulu -up river- when the flow the

Terengganu River spread over valleys and a few small villages, bringing the energy of the

rivers waters to the Kenyir Hydro-electrical Dam. As much as 260km2 of forests, a home for

tigers and elephants, gigantic Dipterocarps and endemic small Gesneriacea, have become a

lake where houseboats bring families to experience the liquid landscape that mirrors green

surroundings. Infrastructures, -roads, bridges, drains and conducts for piped water and

electricity-, were provided.

On the Orang Asli side, efforts were made to bring them toward the main stream of

the population, through concrete housing, schools, TV and sports. They are invited as stake

holders in the surrounding recent palm oils plantations and as forest guides. The following table

(Table.5.1) summarizes these exogenous events.

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Table. 5.1 Summary of the exogenous landscape changes accompanying development

efforts

Sites Events Dates Causes Impact

Pulau Bridge, dam 1985 National energy Sedimentation in the
Duyong requirements. Terengganu River
Banks and 1990
canals Roads and cars Mangrove and fishing
2010 needs ecosystems disturbed
New Estuary
Loss of view of the sea
Jambu Forest 1987 Tourism industry Forests fragmentation,
Bongkok amenities
2008 Fish farms Poaching (medicinal
Road species, orchids), beach
enlargement 2010 Silica mining pollution, plastics from the
Settlements sea
“Terengganu Forests 1990 Tourism industry, Landslides, rivers water
Highlands” amenities logging, legal and pollution, poaching
illegal (medicinal species,
Forest Reserves gaharu),
excision
Kenyir, More dams 1987 National energy Totally new water
Puah, completion, requirements landscape
Tembat 450h. land 2017 Logging. Tourism
Rivers inundated Water quality to monitor
Orang Asli Wooden houses 1983 Agriculture Palm oil plantations
industry and replace forests
Settlements Concrete 2019 development
houses efforts OA regroup (Sungei Berua,
Kuala Koh), some
Roads through succumb to malnutrition
forests, mining and measles
House Demolition of 2010 Demography Concrete buildings in
compounds ancient town villages, towers in town
areas 2018 Timber rarity
Traditional house
New Roads Real estate compounds modernised,
concept belukar and wild
indigenous species
Urbanization diminution

Landscape impacting exogenous events had been ambitious and deliberate, while on the

ground, in the visited sites, endogenous events, although less ambitious, have appeared that

had also a strong influence on the landscapes. Transformations have occurred in the
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interconnected habitats: the habitat of the plants, and the habitat of the people, in their

floristic and in their built environment.

The accumulated result is that the hypothesis advanced in Chapter 1 will seems being

verified: new times have emerged and the new era is oriented towards a new civilization. From

the ecological point of view, the steps of a move within the new era can be summarized in the

two columns of parallel dynamics in the floral environment (or I” plant ecology”) and the built

environment (or II, “Human ecology”) as shown in the recapitulation Fig. 5…presented at the

end of this chapter. However, a more empirical evaluation has been attempted, by comparisons

of quantitative and qualitative data.

5.2 Changes in Floral environment: Comparisons past/present

To evaluate the evolution of the plants and of their habitat over the years. the narratives in

the precedent chapter 4 have been completed by analyses of plants species inventories over

time. (Appendices, Tables A: Inventories, 1) General, then 2) Specific)

5.2.1 Quantitative Results from the Plant Inventories

A first “General inventory” (Full version in Table Appendix A…) referred to in the

methodology gives identity information on @ 587 plant species encountered along more than

three decades (1982-2020), from notes in personal journals, records from expeditions. Species

are presented with headings indicating their vernacular and scientific name, botanicalfamily,

habitat, geographical range, and area where they were noted in Terengganu. It may be used as

a background information on the state botanical diversity.

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5.2.2 Results from the “Baseline inventory” (Inventory with location, Uses and present

Occurrence)

This inventory (Full version in Appendix A) of “Plants with location and uses” or “Baseline

Inventory” refers not only to the habitat, but to the particular place (“location”) within the

surveyed landscapes where each plant had been found, photographed or a sampleof which

was collected during visits and re-visits.

Table 5.2 Extract of the Table Inventory with location and uses, or “Baseline
inventory”.

This inventory includes 323 plant species, found in the visited sites, with their botanical

name, Malay name, records of the place where they have been spotted and recorded on the

field, over the years with abbreviations as in the following table:

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i. “Wild species” (w) means that the taxa are native or have been introduced naturally.
ii. “Planted” (pl) refers to human intervention.
iii. “Traditional Medicine” (“TM”) refers to a therapeutic reputation, often shared over the range (India,
Indonesia South China, Vietnam, Thailand) of the plant.
iv. “Food” (F) -often associated with Medicine.
v. “Pharmaceutical interest” (Pharm) means reviewed or mentioned in scientific papers (phyto-pharmacy,
phyto-chemistry, medicine).
vi. Ornamental (“Orn.”) refers to the aesthetic and fragrance value of the taxa, as well as their role in
bringing shade, perspectives and variety to the landscapes. Surprisingly perhaps, it is a category that has
most changed over the years.
vii. “p” means seen in the same place or in immediate neighborhood (“p” for present): 202 species
viii. “0” means not seen any more in that place, so they are qualified as “disappeared”: 48 species. They
have not been found again where they used to be seen in the past. For some, it is probable that their
environment, -their habitat, has been subject to disturbances, and they might still be found elsewhere in the
state,
ix. “Unverified “: 51 species: noted in the headings as “Check” September 2022: latest verification: 36
species qualified as “uncertain”.
The letter “y” refers to “yes” and means a positive answer to the referred use.

The 36 species qualified as “uncertain” had been seen over the years in the past, but in the

present times, they could not be seen. Presence or absence is not verified as of today or recently

(“Check” was noted in the original inventory with location). Although re-visits were conducted

at least three times in the localities where the plants had been seen previously, they were not

visible the following times. Various reasons may have prevented a sighting: species not as

conspicuous a previously, lack of flowers, lack of enough knowledge -the previously

accompanying forest staff was not available or have retired, etc., so, these species are included

as presence/absence “unverified” (with certitude)”. Recently, the presence of these species

within their habitat, but not at the formerly noted location, has been re-asserted: In an interview

(September 2022), with Encik Jaffrey, security officer at the Terengganu Forest Department

who, seeing the list of the still “uncertain” species exclaimed: “These are all medicinal plants!”

in fact, they are still in the forest, “but they have withdrawn from the too frequented paths”

explained Encik Jaffrey. “Poaching also occurs”, he added.

On a total of 322 species, there are:

Wild (w):( species occurring naturally): 222 species

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Planted species (pl): 106 species

Traditional Medicine use (TM): 283 species

Food (F) (noted as edible species) 77 species

Ornamental used (for aesthetic or fragrance value) 83 species

Pharmaceutical interest:(articles or reviews) 319 species

Some of the species are mentioned frequently because they appear in a few categories of

uses.

5.2.3 “Inventory of the disappeared species”: Qualitative examination by category of

use

From 323 species with location that were reputed as used by the inhabitants and mentionned

in phyto-botanical literature, 48 have not been found again and are recapitulated in a specific

inventory (Full list in Appendix A. 2).

Table 5.3 Extract from the “Recapitulatory inventory of the disappeared species” (In
Appendix A, 2 “Specific”)

This inventory lists the plants species that have not been found anymore. The causes of

these losses have been traced by individual species, then classified, to underscore the main

causes of the change (Appendix A, 2, Specific). Some have increased over time, such as
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ornamentals or invasive species, often climbers that smother weakened trees like Cengal

pasir.

Table 5.4 Past and present status of the plants, by usage and present pharmaceutical interest

Past Present Disappeared

Traditional Medicine use (TM): 283 238 45
Food (F) (noted as “edible” species) 77 60 17
Ornamental (used for aesthetic or 83 70 13
fragrance value)
320
Pharmaceutical interest

D I FFE R E N C E O F “ PA S T ” A N D
“ PR E S E N T” , B Y U S A GE
Past Present

300 283

250 238

200

150

100 77 83
70
60
50

0
Traditional Medicine Food Ornamental

Figure 5.1: Past and present status of the plants, by main usage
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i) Traditional medicine: (TM) They were 283 species noted in the past. The remaing

species are 238, so the disappeared amount to: 45. For example, the camphor

smelling Blumea balsamiflora -Daun capa, Justicia gandarusa -Gandarusa,

recommanded for back pain, the bitter Brucea javanica -Melada pahit and the

Flemingia macrophylla -Serengan, for recovery showers or are not found any

more in the cemetery of Pulau Duyong. They have been cut, so as to leave only

plants now associated with a proper cemetery landscape such as Plumeria,

Allamanda, Cordyline fructicosa. They have not re-appeared since.

A few “new” medicinal species have appeared, in private nurseries (Pak Wail in

Padang Air) or such as Phaleria macrocarpa -Makhota dewa and Gynura

procumbens -Gingseng Melayu or Sambung nyawa -. Their reputation had been

established in Indonesia. Other new bona fame species in 2016 are Clinacanthus

nutans -Belalai gajah, and Pereskia bleo -Daun beliung.

ii) Food: on 67 species, 10 have not been seen again at the same place as in the past.

For example, the planted Thrichosantes celebica -Ketola ular. Some familial Duku

orchards have been converted into terrace housing, (Seberang Takir) or madrasah

school (Pulau Duyong) or cut down (in Serada) because they were quite old.

Spreading mangoes and tamarind trees had to be cut for the safety of nearby roofs.

However, on the whole, fruiting trees are more preserved, even if not always used,

than wild medicinal species, but they have not increased in quantity.

iii) “Ornamental’: on 72 species. 11 have disappeared. This ornamental category is a

special case: For example: Wild “Ornamentals” such as Rhodomyrtus tomentosa,

Senna alata, Dolichandrone spathacea with trumpet shaped large flowers. have

disappeared from the locations of belukar or mangrove where they were observed

in the past. However, the total amount of ornamentals has augmented because a
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new trend has emerged: Inhabitants plant shrubs (Ixora, Bougainvillier, Hibiscus

rosa-sinensis) herbs, (Codiaeum, Aloe vera, Zebrina pendula, many coleus with

colorful leaves). They ornate their house with trees and shrubs previously found in

landscaped gardens (Allamanda), cemeteries, (Plumeria,). As Islam favors respect

of nature, the increase of ornamental species planted in pots is not only a sign of

gentrification (as in villas and bungalows), but it is connected with aesthetics,

emotional comfort - and religious tradition of cultivating beauty.

The bases of the walls and steps of the stairs and the bottoms of the houses areparticularly

decorated with ornamental species planted in pots., with, here and there, some medicinal

species such as Andrographis paniculata -Hempedu bumi, or Gynura procumbens

-Sambong nyawa, and Aloe vera -Lidah buaya.

The species used as material in the past, Ceiba pentandra -Kekabu, Oncosperma

tigilarium -Nibong , Hopea odorata -Cengal pasir, perceived as less useful, are less regarded

and have diminished in quantity, while for the Melaleuca cajuputi, they have now to compete

in their former pure strands in littoral forests with the vigorous introduced Accacia mangium.

The number of those that are not found any more are an indication that the links of these

species with the life of the people living close-by, the relationship of the people with their floral

environment, is diminishing. Like threads that -in a way- tied the people and the plants, these

threads are cut.

5.2.4 Change in uses of plants species, in proportion

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The following figure, established from the Plant Species Baseline Inventory gives a

recapitulation of the change over time in proportion, by use of plant species, in the visited sites,

in the past and in present times.

“Past times” 1980-2007 “Present times” 2014-2019

Figure 5.2: Proportional evolution in occurrence of the plant species over time,
according to three main uses

The number of wild species, used medicinally in the past, has decreased of 10%, which is

not dramatic, yet which is a trend noticeable as these species are abundant in the natural

environment in Malaysia and were commonly seen in the past. The other categories have

increased in proportion, which does not necessarily mean that they have increased in quantity.

In villages, the increase of climbers growing on trees of declining health, occults the actual

circumstances of the original and medicinal floral cover.

5.2.5 Factors of disappearance of plant species

The reasons of the disappearances, observed on the field and as given by the inhabitants

on site, have been noted for individual species. (Full text in Appendix A, 2 Specific

Inventories). In summary, the main causes of the disappearance are:

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i. Ecosystem disturbed to leave room for industrial agriculture (“Impacting exogenous

events”) and wild species are cut to leave place to selected ones: for example there

were efforts to replace Melaleuca by tobacco or kenaf in the Besut area.

ii. Species cut to be replaced by new built features such as concrete drains and other

infrastructures: Eclipta alba -Urang aring, Elephantopus scaber -Tapak Suleiman.

iii. Area deliberately “cleaned” for space or landscaping: Neo-Litsea zeylanica -Teja,

Blumea Balsamifora -Daun capa or Telinga kerbau, in a cemetery of Pulau Duyung,

iv. Lack of interest or maintenance ability from habitants: for exemple Vallaris glabra -

Bunga kesidang and Helianthus anuus -Bunga matahari in Beladau Selat,

v. Old and drying trees menacing safety around it

vi. Individual plant species “withdrawal” to a hidden or less exposed location

vii. Poaching

5.3 Present Status of Traditional Medicinal Knowledge

In the present time, according to observations and frequent interviews with villagers, a

number of plants species, common and medicinal, -in the past taken for granted, have

disappeared, unnoticed, unless they are evoked (as the Senna alata -Gelenggang and Donax

canniformis -Bemban in Pulau Ketam) during impromptu interviews.

This means that today, the relationship of people with a number of species is not close. The

reasons seen on the field for the changes of a number of plants species, as far as their presence

and their role in the life of the people are confirmed: They are exogen: - infrastructure

construction, general premium on urbanization, land status changes; and endogen: demise of

the elders, maintenance difficulty, demography, inhabitants’ own

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preferences, age, increase of land cost. Some factors are both exogen and endogen such as the

coast of timber material: “It is cheaper to build a concrete house than a wooden one!” is a heard

in Terengganu. (These reasons remain very similar to those found out by Nor Zalina Harun

(2018), also in the vicinity of the Terengganu Estuary. Consequently, the landscape is

modified.)

Some taxa, known as invasive, such as the Mikania micrantha, Chromolaena odorata, or

the pretty climber Ipomea alba, and the minute introduced cucumber Melothria pendula, may

give an impression of renewed abundance and contribute to the aesthetics of the villages. So

do the ubiquitous and easily invasive trees, Hisbiscus tiliaceus (synonym Talipariti tiliaceun),

Terminalia Catappa, Morindas, Premna foetida, and Leucaena leucocephala.

The relationship of the people with their floral environment is being -slowly- modified. A

particular knowledge, “first aid” on the field, (or potential clues for phytochemical research),

may be erased. Yet, traditional knowledge on medicinal flora has not completely disappeared:

In the present era, in Terengganu, the traditional knowledge on plants with therapeutic use

exhibits contrasting aspects: It is preserved and documented, while some of it may be erased,

together with its natural context; yet a few traditional practitioners still provide their services.

From interviews conducted in the recent past and in the present times and on-site impromptu

confidences (Delfolie 2021) much of the common knowledge on medicinal plant species has

diminished amongst the new generations in Terengganu, while the ancient medicinal

knowledge holders, mentioned in the first part of Chapter 4 have passed away. However, a

good measure of that traditional knowledge is documented and remembered among

knowledgeable inhabitants. There is a consensus on a number of species reputed as medicinal,

as well as a wide diversity of references sources from numerous origins.

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5.3.1 Resilience in Traditional Knowledge through written documentation

To highlight the resilience of some of the traditional medicinal knowledge over time,

comparisons between inventories of medicinal species available in Terengganu has been

sought. This allows to observe a measure of persistence and consistency of that traditional

knowledge. Five sources have been examined (Table in Appendix A, Inventories, Specifics)

i. The list of species from “Buku herba ubatan Terengganu,” a book published by the

Terengganu Forest Department with @400 taxa -including synonyms- in two volumes

(2006 and 2011). As introduced in Chapter 4, this two volumes gathering is a work on

medicinal plants composed by a team of officers, rangers and field workers from the

State Forest Department. It is written in Malay, uses botanical references, gives

photographs of the plants, and records their therapeutic uses. It has been chosen here as

base reference.

ii. The kitab tib -medicinal book- on “Tradisyonal Medicine”: It is a manuscript in jawi -

-Malay in Arabic script- that enumerate @ 300 taxa. (Appendix A Inventories,

Specifics…). This manuscript, acquired by the Terengganu State Museum (1984)

from a seller of antiques in Kuala Terengganu does not specify its origin. Examination,

transliteration and glossary have been established by Harun Mat Piah (2010). The

species mentioned do not refer to many forest species (only @ 20 are mentioned).

Perhaps this is due to the influence of a more urban knowledge. It may as well indicate

a provenance from Pattani where much traditional and religious knowledge had

received influences from international Middle East sources, through voyages and study

sojourns in Mecca by seekers of knowledge.

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iii. Mat Kapur, the bomoh and plants seller, shared his list of @ 100 species verbally. The

species he mentioned were easily found on the coastal areas. They include as well

Orang Asli herbal specialities growing in the forests towards the interior.

iv. An Inventory of “Village species” originally surveyed in 16 house compounds from

2005 to 2007, includes 335 taxa, completed during further surveys with species

conspicuous in other kampongs in the visited areas.

v. The list of species collected from the Orang Asli includes @ 136 taxa. This amount has

been gathered by this researcher from visits over time to the Bateq and Semak Beri

people in Terengganu in 1983-2002, from an exhibition in 2018 organized by the JEOA

in Kuala Terengganu and from the detailed record by a team Universiti Malaysia

Terengganu who interviewed 37 informants from the same tribes (Fuad, Pesiu et al.

2021). [The aborigenes are familiar with medicinally reputed villages species as well

as with those from the forest.]

5.3.2 Comparisons of medicinal species: Consensus

Table 5.5: Extract from the “Table “Frequency of medicinal species from 5 local different
sources, according to various sources of knowledge available in Terengganu”.(Complete in
Appendix A Specifics…) [ 25 species not mentioned in the Foresters’ “Herba Ubatan” have
been added for reference, from observation and documentation].
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There is a converging similitude in a number of taxa gathered in the 5 compilations of

species among the diverse sources of information. That implies a consistency of herbal

knowledge among some of the inhabitants.

The Buku Herba Ubatan Terengganu, the “Foresters’ book”. introduces 336 plant species.

The kitab Tib of “Tradisyonal Medicine” gives 108 species that are the same as the ones

described in the Foresters book.

“Mat Kapur ‘s list”, given orally and noted in 1985, verified with Mat Kapur’s son in

2015, was of @100 species, of which 73 are similar to the foresters’ book.

The “House compounds village list” from previous researches with a total of @ 210 plants

(2007), mentions 98 species that are found also in the Foresters book.

98 Species from the OA have been found similar to those on a total of @ 160 species

recorded from (“Pak Din” and JAEOA, 2017) in Kuala Terengganu and to the most recent

interviews realized by the UMT team (136 species, 2021).

The following 6 species are present in every list: Alpinia galanga, Averrhoa belimbi, Blumea

balsamifera, Mimosa pudica, Melastoma malabathricum, Morinda elliptica. Theyare usually

found in secondary growth and villages grounds. Two plants, the Alpinia and the Averrhoa, are

usually planted, the others are wild.

24 species are present in 4 of the 5 lists. These are: Annona muricata, Areca catechu,

Averrhoa carambola, Baeckia frutescens, Bambusa vulgaris, Brucea javanica, Capsicum

annum, Citrus aurantifolia, Clerodendron paniculatum, Croton caudatus, Curcuma zeodaria,

Cyclea peltata, Cymbopogon nardus, Cynometra cauliflora, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Hyptis

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suaveolens, Imperata cylindrica, Jasminun sambac, Lawsonia inermis, Leea indica,

Phyllanthus amarus or Phyllanthus niruri, Portulaca oleacera, Smilax myosotiflora,

Tamarindus indicus. They are found in villages. Only the Smilax and the Baeckia come from

a wild habitat, respectively in low land forests and on the coasts and hills. The other species

frequency is given in Appendix A, Specifics.

There is a consistency of consensus among medicinal species lists from various sources,

reflecting a common corpus of knowledge, or a consensus from common experience

transmitted over the generations until present times. Botanical names and Malay names are

known in the ethnobotanical literature. Their indications and preparation, their uses and

complementary ingredients are indicated in the Foresters herbal book as well in the

“Tradisyonal” manuscript and -from opportunistic interviews along the “re-visits”,

remembered, -although sometimes faintly, by some villagers, and by a few present times

remaining dedicated specialists some of them mentioned in the following paragraph.

5.3.3 Resilience in Practice

The practitioners previously mentioned in Chapter 4 have passed away, without

replacement. Only the grand-son of “Ayah Da” in Bukit Cempaka, comes to continue the

“bekam” cupping on Fridays. A few new traditional therapists have appeared, though:

Today, in 2021, in Pulau Duyong Kecil, on the road to the tourism Centre and the Rias Hotel

and Resort, is a treatment clinic heralding a continued syncretism as shown in the following

figure:
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Figure 5.3 Traditional treatment clinique in Pulau Duyong Kecil: “Islamic acupuncture” blessed

and “sufi”.

There are still knowledgeable people today such as Pak Wail in or Che Gu Haji Arif who

have set herbal gardens in Bukit Cempaka and in Gelong Bilal -Jalan Pasir Panjang, as well as

women medicinal plants sellers at the markets in various Pasar Tani and in Manir. Besides the

traditional panoply, they know of some new (in 2013- 2016) bona fame species: Phalearia

macrocarpa -Makhota dewa, Clinacanthus nutans -Belalai gajah, Pereskia bleo - Jarum tujuh,

Gynura procumbens -Daun dewa raja, Tadehagi triquetum -Daun Beliung.

Figure 5.4: Pic botanical book in Arabic and Malay on plants, showing a Middle East connection,
shown at Pasar Manir, Terengganu: Saffra: zakfaran, halba: Hilbeh.

A reputed Tok Bidang -midwife, daughter of healer Haji Siak who lived in a lone house on

an otherwise forest covered island of the Terengganu estuary, is now practicing in Pulau Ketam.

She talked freely of the “anasir or jising halus -spirits creatures that exist like us” she
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explained, and regretted that one of her sons had erased the mantras formulas she kept on her

mobile phone and were destined to placate these creatures.

Some of the plant species reputed in Terengganu were mentioned also in ancient Chinese

traditional medicine as reported in “Herb Hunting in Hong Kong” (1988) and other

compilations including “A Barefoot Doctors Manual” (1974). The range of a number of these

reputed species cover large geographic areas, from India to Africa and Arabia, such as Zyzyphus

Mauritiana -Bidara, or Moringa oleifera -Merungai, Emilia sonchifolia -Bayam peraksi ,

Andrographis paniculata -Hempedu Bumi, -a presumption of effectiveness that has often

served as or has been used as potential lead for phytochemical exploratory research, hence the

number of reviews or academic mentions signaled in the “Baseline Inventory”, almost identical

to the number of traditional medicinal species: 320 species, marked as pharmacologically

explored with publication dates from 2004 to 2020, giving a measure of the extend of the

scientific exploration and interest for these traditionally known species.

Unfortunately, the actual “material books” where the information was consigned “live”,

which is the natural and built environments where the plants grew, is changing. Knowledge

“written” in them is in danger of disappearance.

5.3.4 The fate of the “Paths of knowledge” of the Orang Asli and of the Villagers

In “Changing Pathways” (2004), anthropologist Lye Tuck Po had described how the Bateq

people of the forest of Pahang literally keep the records of their knowledge on theforest

as a source of food and also of medicine. They learn while walking among the treesand

remember the places where the plants were found -were they edible, or medicinal or usable as

tools. The paths they have followed are memory “maps”, with the plants -alive -or still vivid in

people’s memory of the forest.

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In Terengganu, as early as 1982 and 1883, Carol Laderman and Josiane Massard (their

works are mentioned in the literature review) had noted the importance of ulam health

protective greens in the daily diet of the villages’ inhabitants. These herbs were then at the

disposal of the villagers on the sides of the paths. Children could collect them, learning their

names, their uses, and where to find them from grand-parents, parents or friends. Girls would

know often where to find the medicinal plants they could collect to assist a family member

after child delivery. Far away, in Estonia, Renata Soukand (2010) has qualified the landscape

where people would find the healing plants they need as “herbal landscape”. That type of

landscape was also a reality for the people in Terengganu, until -progressively, tar roads, cars,

drains and space for housing and development were needed.

The difference between the herbal or therapeutic landscape of the Orang Asli and the one

of the villagers is that the Orang Asli “lessons” existed as such in the forest, while the one in

villages was the result of a built environment or gardens that introduced new valued species,

side by side with the original floral composition elements. Both Orang Asli and villagers

benefitted from the common didactic role of the landscape. In reality, today, both didactic

landscapes are disrupted by the frequent disappearance of the paths and of the original

vegetation cover. The Orang Asli direct “on the ground learning” and the villages’ landscape

inbuilt pedagogy or lessons in the landscape, disappear, and the traditional Ilmu -knowledge-

with it.

In the Present Era, the Orang Asli are still repositories, warden or trustees, of acommon

traditional herbal knowledge in the area where their live and travel, be it theirs originally, or

the one of the villages in the vicinity. The Orang Asli that had been interviewed mentioned 136

species (Appendix A, 2, “Specific”) such as Senna tora and Centella asiatica or Drymoglossum

pillesoides and Hyptis brevipes, all found within villages and outskirts or
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close-by plantations, like Nyor lemba, Molinera latifolia, or Paku tunjuk langit -

Helminthostachys neo-zeylanica. Only a few species -23 taxa on the total of 136- are found

in the forest, such as the medicinal Annonaceae: a Goniothalamus and a Polyalthia, the two

Smilax, the three Aji Samat, (Prismatomeris glabra, Jackiopsis ornata and Salacia

macrophyla) some Rubiaceae -Saprosma fragrans, Paederia foetida, the Aristolochacea

Thottea grandiflora, as well as Gesneriaceae such as Cyrtandra pendula, a climbing

“meroyang” post-delivery medicine.

5.4 The Built environment: a close relationship with the natural

background

The floral environment used to be the host of the built environment. Back in the eighties,

villages were seen nestled in natural landscapes where the inhabitants found at hand much of

their resources and material to produce not only food, but also tools to process and prepare the

food. Some plants species are cultural signals: Lawsonia invermis -Inai, Zyzyphus mauritiana

-Delima, qualify as “signs” that refer to local history and ceremonies.

The built environment was laid out or adopted by the villagers. A practical landscape

included fruit trees, useful shrubs and decorative shade-providing species. The flora was a

component of the village landscape. It would have qualified as “florally composed cultural

environment” and so, could be considered a part of the “built” environment.

The interrelation between the plants and the people was not only witnessed in their use as

food –such as the -still present- the Bunga biru (Clitoria ternatea) growing on fences and

providing the blue color of the rice in the Terengganu nasi kerabu-, or medicinal use of the

plants or in their landscape role. The close relationship was obvious as well in everyday life,
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in the traditional routine activities recorded in specific expressions: There were, in the

mangrove swamps the Nypa fruticans for the rokok daun (cigarette rolled in nipa leaves); these

swamps have been replaced by concrete drains. The mandi serum plants species noted in Pulau

Duyong visits, such as the Teja -Neo-litsea zeylanica, Capa -Blumea balsamica, Terape -

Glycosmis pentaphylla, have been replaced by decorative Jejuang -Cordilyne fruticosa and

Plumeria in the cemeteries. “Panjat nyor” -to climb the coconut tree-, is not much practiced

anymore in villages. The palm trees have aged while the “beruk panjat nyor” the coconut

climbing monkeys, and their masters have retired. One traditional activity is surviving: the

weaving of Rumput kercut -Lepironia articulata, on the coasts. However, today, the custom of

“hampar tikar” -to spread a mat for guests- is often rendered unnecessary by the presence of

sofas and armchairs in the houses.

Some tools made from tree material and were present in everyday life: wood for a lesong

from Tembesu -Fagraea fragrans, to pound fish and tapioca flour, “bong” timber stake to de-

husk the coconuts, kukuran nyor from Cengal to resist energic grinding out the pulp of a

coconut, and the penyapu lidi, a broom made from the leaves of coconut or Nipah palms. Toys

were made from the plants as well such as mock watch bracelets and trailers out of palms. [as

witnessed in Kamal Nawi drawings and cartoons (Pics)]

Cultural features and used parts of plants. trees or palms, reappear nowadays in Museum

displays and festivals re-enactments, for education and tourism. Their value is still

acknowledged, and the wooden tools -kisaran grinders, lesong pounders and kukuran

scrappers- are now sought after by collectors. On the ground, in life, electrical tools have

replaced their -formerly- daily use.

5.4.1 Quantitative evolution in the Built Environment: Cultural and ground Features
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Although at a first look, timber houses and gardens in Terengganu, did not exhibit grand

striking features, yet, as early as 1970, the National Museum of Malaysia moved a Terengganu

house right next to their modern vernacularly inspired building. It was recognized, as

mentioned earlier from Mubin Sheppard (1972) to Lim Jee Yuan (1987) Raja Bahrin (1988),

that timber habitations observed in villages in the past were a testimony of an identity and

exhibited characteristics that allowed to qualify them as part of “Cultural Landscapes”.

Restoration and reconstruction efforts were made, using the crafts pasak pegs or dowels

technic instead of nails, and reproducing the particular end of the mempeleh facia boards

designs.

Cultural features, in a built environment, include ground furniture, buildings architectural

characteristics, as well as plant species connected with traditional or religious practices.

Further, adding to the significance in terms of historical or design value, the technical use of a

material is significant. In Terengganu, that material is -or was- the wood -Seraya and Meranti

Shorea species, Cengal Neo-balanocarpus heimii, Kapur-Cinnamomum camphora, from the

state forests. Besides the artistic taste of the inhabitants, that material serves, when carved, to

tells of their beliefs and philosophy. Furthermore, other than the traditionally used material, the

organization of the built environment can be as well an expression of the social preferences

and status of a people.

In the past, the house compounds found in the villages in the state of Terengganu were full

of “ground furniture” and architectural components, as seen in previous records of visits in

chapter 4 of this study. The house walls, apart from carvings, had papan kembung (relief timber

boards), and, beyond the tukup -two layers kitchen roof, had also protruding dish dryers. The

gardens had, jars, fire-places, hammocks, walkways, resting platforms below trees and palm

wind breakers. The compounds had monkey’s special “apartments”, tool sheds
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and rice huts. On the larger compounds, they had praying places (“surau”) and teaching places.

Change over time had modified the built environment. Visits and re-visits in house

compounds (Appendix B. specific Inventories) have revealed a sizeable difference in the

number of cultural features between the past and the present eras. The following survey extract

illustrates the change:

Table 5.6: Example of cultural and ground furniture evolution over time

Hse cpds code R1 0 R2 R3 0 R4 A1 A2 A3 C1 C2 C3 C4 F1 F2 F3 F4 Then Now

c)Play rest decoration
High wooden bench /0 0 / 2 0
Plants around tree / 1
Former family bed
Former confinement bed 1 1
Mutlipurpose platform / / / 4 2
Swing, iron / 1 2
Swing, ropes
Hammak / 1 1
Flower pots / / / / / / / 10 7
Flower stands, boxes 6 6
Pots, hanged, husks / / / / / /0 3 3
Pots on the ground 9 8
Barbecue / 1 1
"Dragon jar" / 1 1
Lightening devices 1 1
Total 40 34

A survey of House compounds features made along the years 2005 to 2007 revealed how the

built environment features were important tangible aspects of the built environment in quantity

and in use, and how, through new surveys made from 2014 to 2020. these, formerly considered

a necessity, have disappeared.

In the 16 house compounds of the study, a total of 113 cultural features had been gathered.

Three house compounds have been erased, together with their features: one “clan” type in town

Kuala Terengganu, two “Rakyat,” one the coast (Batu Rakit) and one in the estuary island of

Pulau Ketam, somewhat impacting the total resultsa. That hints further that
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disappearance, re-use of the material, or moving away (modular houses built on stilts) is not a

rare occurrence. Architectural features added to the identification of an original diversity. As

an example of the observed change, an extract from the cultural features inventories (Appendix

A, 2) Specific) of past /present comparison is given, following their respective type of house

compound:

The total for Cultural or ground features occurrences noted in 16 house compounds is: 113.

The number of not “seen anymore” features is indicated in the table below:

Table 5.7: Differences in quantity of cultural features seen over two eras

Features Category Number of Seen, Past Seen, Present

Features
Water features 17 91 48
Daily life features 9 40 21
Rest, play, ornament 16 41 33
Space articulation 17 41 28
Trades, work, activities 20 54 27
Architectural features 34 - -
(for reference only)
TOTAL 113 267 157

The total missing (not seen) features in the present era, from actual sightings is: 267 - 157 =

90. Percentage of the “not seen anymore”, 110 on 267, which is 41 % of the original number

enumerated in 2007. This means considerable change -and loss, in a little more than a decade.

[Some architectural features are mentioned, as they participate in the landscape, but are not

enumerated here in detail as their quantity vary according to the view point, from 80 items to

54 and 34)]
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The house compounds did answer criteria that justified their identification as “cultural

landscape”. They answered to as much as 17 criteria of the World heritage Convention and

Kaplan and Kaplan (1989), (cf. Appendix B). Other than its practical and cultural quality, the

landscape in Terengganu deserved as well an interpretation as a “language”, and this adds

significance to the changes.

5.4.2 The landscape of the house compounds in Terengganu as a language

Beyond their cultural and practical value, landscapes have been identified as able to carry

a message: they “communicate”. They speak of the taste and beliefs of the inhabitants of a

place (Carl Sauer. 1925, Rapoport, 2004). That landscapes can be “red” and understood just

as spoken or written languages, is now acknowledged by researchers from landscape architects

to ecologists and sociologists. Beyond their function, their art or craft value, landscapes

“communicate” with the inhabitants, visitors or passers-by (Gros and Fisher,1984, Anne

Whiston Spirn,1998). In Terengganu the landscape of the houses and villages do speak.The

cultural and ground features are the “words” written in the language of the landscape of the

house compounds. If these features are not found in quantity anymore, it means that the

vocabulary of the “language” is disappearing. In Terengganu, the language of the traditional

landscape and its “vocabulary” clearly existed. “Ground furniture” -in landscape architecture

terms -wells, animal loggings, outside resting benches, cooking tripods, jars, various wooden

platforms etc. were its “words”. However, nowadays, the message has become less explicit

because Terengganu of the past is losing its “words”, as witnessed in the sites described during

the “visits and re-visits” of the house compounds.

These “words” are signs of a way of life, of an identity, of history and survival. When many

of these tend to disappear, these disappearances become signals that something -

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culturally or practically important at a time-, is going away, and that a living environment is -

component after component- moving away, while another environment is probably replacing

it. Could these “words” still be read in the present time?

To Complete the descriptions given in chapter 4, a recapitulation of the features that

composed the “vocabulary” of the Terengganu language is given, from the visits and re- visits:

i) Water features: (total 17) these features are the wells, with their accessories, -

drains, containers, jars, and scoops…These were seen in the past 91 times in the

16 visited compounds. From the field inventories and re-visits, are noted as seen

today: 51 times.

Water providing devices animated the compounds with the daily sounds of their flow at regular

times of the days, from the prayers of dawn to the women washing the clothes while children

learned to shower with a rope and a triangular pail, (timba) and men returning from the fields

or from the sea.

These wells are now filled and gone, or closed -as in Encik Mansor’s house, or sometimes

equipped with an electrical pump and a pipe to the bathroom on a new house or to the garden

compound (as in Bukit Cempaka) and used for reason of economy or in case of sudden lack

of piped water.

The triangular pail with a rope, the timba hung close to the well in the past, is now replaced

for an occasional use by a common bucket. In the past era, near the stairs of the house, placed

below a rain gutter was a jar (tempayang) filled with water during rains. A
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scoop made from a coconut shell (penyedok or batuk) was hung on a stick at the disposal of

those who were not wearing shoes to be used to wash their feet.

Figure 5.5: ” Kak Long balek Hari ini” Chan Fee Ming (1992) an example of resilience:

picture. on the Batu Rakit coast, in a sandy area (2007). Today, pipe with faucet by the stairs

and the fall of the jar (2022)

In the Present Era, water is usually brought into the houses through underground pipes.

The concrete slab at the bottom of the stairs is still used to step on it; but nowadays, it is not

water that covers the slab as visitors prepare to climb: It is slippers and shoes. Jar, scoop, pail,

are not frequent anymore.

ii) Daily life features activities (9 features). Electricity had brought obsolescence to

some traditional activities. Among landscape features, as well full of significant

information, the most evident were the lines of drying clothes:

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Figure 5.6: a) “Sail” (Chang Fee Ming, 1987) Batik drying in Pulau Duyong b) Stil
visiblel: “Ampaian” in the Kampong Setebu Farm, (2022).

Today, inhabitants do not live as much outside, but inside the house: The dryer in the

washing machine leads to the diminution of sightings of traditional attire. Clothes are hung for

shorter times; the lines of hanging clothes are less long. There are no more birth news carried

by bendung corsets the mother’s big and child small, having the same ribbons helping to tighten

the cloth over their respective bodies. Colorful kain batik decorate less the lines of drying

clothes. There are less plain kain pelikat telling of a grandfather preparing to go to the surau.

Among the ancient ground features, rakes and fireplaces still exist, “words” speaking of

the desire to clean the ground when chicken and other animals often ran freely over it. Towards

the back of the house, often under it, there were lesong pounding devices dug into a large piece

of wood which served to for rice also for the fish and tapioca flour of the kerupuk sausages or

crackers. Upon the lambur in the front of the house, woven palm mats in Mengkuang and

Kercut- were spread on the floor as a welcome gesture. In present times, a tempat tetamu -a

guest place- with seating area and furniture with sofa, chairs and table may be prepared on the

serambi or in the living room. Although the lambur verandah at the top of the stairs is still used,

for a brief or informal meeting or for work on fishing nets and. weaving

iii) Rest, play, ornament (9 features)

Former rejang -ancient four posts beds- brought down from the house and used as gerai

plate-forms- invited informally family and neighbors to sit outside the house. Climbing plants

species Valloris glabra Kesidang, Melor, jasmine, grown on the earth or in large wooden boxes

surrounding the staircase welcomed visitors with their fragrance and accompanied
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house inhabitants on their way out towards their various tasks. They are not so common

anymore. Today, many of the old working gerai have disappeared (together with Che Da’s

house in Pulau Ketam) from the house compounds. The still usable rejang having joined the

ranks of valuable antiques, are now back inside the houses. Ready-made concrete or painted

iron seats and table replace the previously built-on-site timber gerai ground furniture.

In Encik Mansor’s house compound in town, (Fig. in Chapter 4) a resting place has been

built. It is now called a “wakaf” as it follows, but inside the garden, the tradition of building a

public place to rest for travelers. It has a Singhora tiles roof and a buah gutong -finial inherited

from the renovated old house.

iii) Trade, work, activities (20 features)

In the past, numerous activity features were visible as in the Haji Tahir’s house

compound (“Farm” in Bukit Cempaka) where coconut use was frequent and evident. There

were living quarters for the “coconut climbing monkey” (beruk panjat nyor), under a tall

tamarin tree near two baluh padi huts. “Bong” de-huskers were seen in most houses, their

blade with a half open coconut stuck on it to protect unwary passers-by or children. Today,

only one of the 16 house compounds still has a bong.

Figure 5.7: Dehusker Painting Chang Fee Ming (1996) or “bong” in Bukit Cempaka
demonstrated by Haji Tahir’s son (2019)
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In the “clan” types of Tokku Paluh and Haji Yusof, a surau -Muslim chapel- had been built,

with a large kolah concrete basin in Tokku Paluh’s, and in Haji Yusof Clan in Kuala Hiliran.

These are still there, one with its kolah dressed in ceramic, its well equipped with an electric

pump. The surau has been rebuilt with modern timber and a mixture of traditional “buah

gutong” and “tunjuk Langit”. In “Haji Yusof clan” in front of the surau, a vegetable garden

with common shrubs: Solanum torvum, Clitorea ternatea, Citrus species, and herbs, has been

created.

(Fig. Pics of remaining “kolah” and garden in Kuala Hiliran in Chapter 6)

iv) Identity features: Examples of architectural components significant in the

language of the house compounds

Classic gable roofs, the multiple -separate yet attached- roof buildings composing a house,

-the modular construction facilitating addition of buildings-, the diverse floor levels, the stilts,

the stairs and their use, parts of the “words” or vocabulary can be mentioned both as

architectural components or as cultural features. Their number previously recorded in the

landscape of Terengganu was of 54 features in the past.

Related as well to architecture, another aspect of Terengganu landscape can be interpreted as

a “punctuation” of that landscape language. They are marks and testimonies of ancient history.

The ends of the roof rafters (“kayu rel”and “kasau”) of the houses are covered by barges

planks (fasciae) called “pemeleh” The recurring shape of the extremities of thesefascia

boards are different from the finishing of the similar decorated covers of the Thai or Cambodian

rafter ends. While in these Northern regions, the ends curve upwards like thewing of birds,

in Terengganu, fasciae barges have a peculiar end shape, like the open jaws of
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a ”makara”-the mythic vehicle of the Goddess Ganga or perhaps related to Varuna -a

protective water feature in Hindu mythology-

Figure 5.8: Inverted shapes: a) Thai, Hindu “Dragon jaws (Hpp.Behance.net): “Pemeleh” Makara
shape in Duyong Kecil, stairs in Kuala Hiliran

In Terengganu, the Makara has been simplified and stylized in an inverted pattern with the

longer jaw at the bottom, inversing the shape. The stylized Makara is found as well on stairs,

but not inverted.

Another “converted” (separated from a possible non-Muslim interpretation) is the Buah

gutong or Buah buton or Barringtonia fruit: Often interpreted as decorative elements, refers to

the two roof finials on a house built in “atap Belanda’ - “Holland” style of roof” meaning that

is not originally a Malay design. It refers to foreign features as it is influenced by Indonesian

or Bugis architecture, with a gable roof. The “buton” finials have been interpreted as symbol

that will encourage the inhabitants to remember death and tombal ornaments. However, other

and more than having an aesthetic and esoteric meaning, these buah buton or gutong finials

found on roofs in front and at the back of a house, are essential roof construction elements:
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they have in their rectangular middle three perforations that house and support the extremities

of the roof main ridge (tulang perabung) and the extremities of the fascia boards.

With their rounded top, the buah gutong finials could be have been interpreted also as

reminding of the Chinese or Hindu-Buddhist symbols of stupa. To occult any non-Muslimand

or foreign interpretation, the finials are balanced by a rounded geometrical bulb given the

prosaic name of buah butong, a common beach tree fruit.

These ornaments are not only a “visual punctuation” of the house compounds landscape,

but are also an artistic and esoteric signal, like the sobek carvings grills on walls openings, they

are functional, didactic and decorative.

Figure 5.9: a) “buah gutong” dry fruit b) Roof top main beam finial on an “atap Belanda”

Traditional architecture was, like other built features, conducive to the respect of cultural

rules. Beside increasing building safety, timber pillars or stilts enhanced privacy, reducing the

possibility of views inside the rooms. Like trees, the houses were planted in the soil, or later

fixed on concrete supports not covering a large part of the ground. The house floor was an

elevated “stage” (panggung). A device useful for ventilation, privacy, security, as well as for

preservation of the land: Once the house has been carried away, dismantled, or carried on
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timbers planks passing through the hole in the belira (horizontal reinforcements of the

pillars)) by a group of villagers, the land is disponible again.

Stairs are necessary to climb on the “panggung” house. They are comfortable to sit upon

their steps, back supported by the next step. They are not only props to display the family, but

observatories as well. Before the mobile phones, news could be obtained from there, while

sitting and watching the surroundings,

5.5 Qualitative evolution: The Landscape Language significance in the

past era

Not only the landscape of the Terengganu particular habitat could be considered as a

language that had words and even a “punctuation”, it was also a teaching tool, in its’s lay out,

it carried a message, akin to a lesson for the inhabitants and their guests. “Like myths and laws,

landscape narratives are a way of organizing reality, justifying actions, instructing, persuading,

even forcing people to perform in particular ways” wrote Anne Whiston Spirn (1998)

In the past era, a landscape especially the one of the houses and their gardens, had a

particular function: they were teaching suitable behavior

Following the metaphor on language, an important element from the qualitative point of

view of the language of the house compounds landscape are the lay out and the proper paths

around and towards the house or “the grammar” of the house compounds, The lay out and

relationship between the zones, the way components or features are organized within the frame

of that grammar. Which teaches how to walk properly in the compound, according to one’s

gender, role and age.

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Independently of the “types” previously identified which often had particular signs of

belonging to a social category, similar space organization could be observed amongst the

compounds in the past era and a common plan lay out could be drawn (Appendix B, Pictures

and drawings)

5.5.1 Ethological structure of the built Environment

The standard lay out of the traditional Malay house and garden, could clearly be described

as its organization followed a relatively similar common design. (Lim Jee Yuan, 1987). In

1988, Raja Bahrin had further noted the proper approach to the house was determinedaccording

to the genders of the visitors The role and Importance of the zones in a house compound as

directing the behavior of the inhabitants and that of the visitors, and led them according to their

activities their age or gender, were parts of the house itself.

Figure 5.10: a) A well determined lay out. Even With different social backgroud
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b) The man is received in front “Serambi” while the woman heads for the “dapor

Figure 5.11: Standard house compound lay out organization (Longuet, 2007,and in Delfolie

2019) well-defined lay out reference to cosmology Qiblat, to proper behaviour according to

gender and status and to the spaces uses inside the house
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House compounds Lay out and Articulation: towards the meaning of intangible features

Other than having a specific lay out, the house compounds were delimited -rarely- by full

fences or pagar, more by the placing of trees. Openings and communication wereimportant in

the society. Although the “aristocrat” type had a -rare- closed wall (“kota” or “fort”) for privacy

and security; yet, no less than five gates are found around the Kota Lamain Pulau Duyong.

They are quite elaborated openings or doors according to their function. One had a vast kolah

for visitors to wash their feet and take their ablutions, another one on the mosque side, with a

direct gate to the mosque for both Datuk Biji Sura and Dato Purba at the corner of the long

front verandah, one on the kitchen side, for the sellers of food and thosebringing ulam or fruit,

and yet another door for providers and merchants.

The “Clan house compounds” such as those of Tokku Paloh and Haji Yusof had titian jetties

that joined the main houses so that it was no need to step on the ground for members ofa family

to visit each other.

Today with concrete houses, bungalows and villas or modest terrace house, the paths for

visitors or for activities around the house may vary. The zones are organized following diverse

designs according to the house owners’ preferences and builders means, taste, to the interior

space organization and numbers of cars.

Just as for modern bungalow has a planned proposed lay out with -outside the house, a

courtyard, a car park, and inside the house a living room, and other parts dedicated to different

activities, the house compounds lay out in the past were clearly determined, but their meaning

and purpose were different from today. Each lay out invites to a particular way of life.
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5.5.2 The landscape and its psyche training role

[From signs or “words” only, to structure and moral direction, an introduction to function

and imprinted behavior in the past. It tells of its format and it teaches it]

And further ‘the intangible aspect’ of the past landscape, not only a language but had an

ethologically formatting impact on the inhabitants of through its lay out, cultural elements

including flora and daily practice, (Konrad Lorenz’s on behaviour structuring, applied on

human beings),

According to previous research, the units -houses and gardens or house compounds which

composed the landscape of the traditional habitat of Terengganu in 2005 had evident cultural

value. They responded to numerous cultural criteria (as much as 16 criteria are mentioned)

according to various schools of landscape cultural studies /architecture. All answered criteria

such as: coherence, legibility, complexity and a good measure of homogeneity, historical and

aesthetic value. (cf. table on cultural criteria). Beyond their cultural value, The dominant

characteristics of these house compounds were that: they were hierarchical, symbiotic, and

functional, and that they expressed a common social adhesion to certain principles of conduct

of life. These are:

i) Societal hierarchy

The first of these principles is an adherence to the hierarchical organization of society.

The place, the social status of the individual on this earth can be read in the external signs of

social rank. The main occupation is visible: hut granaries or palms ready to be woven

illustrate the "farm": or the "rakyat". A "serambi" (long ornate veranda) as in Tukku Paloh's

house or an anjung porch (closed and decorated) as in Jalan Haji Jamil, were signs of
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privileged status to which the commoners did not claim. The good manners of the Malay

custom (adat) command the respect for the status of important personalities (orang besar).

They may be decorated by ornamental species as was the now restored “Kota LamaDuyong”

The acceptance by the individual of his place in society, can be seen as a faint trace of

Hindu castes or a reflection of an interpretation of the Muslim concept of takdir (destiny). The

pride of the individual is found in the dignity of the master craftsman (tukang besar), the

skipper of a fishing boat (jeragan), their carefully constructed residencies in Jalan Kamarudin

and Pulau Ketam expressing their class apart and personal standing within the "Rakyat" type.

ii) Symbiosis in various activities

The cosmic orientation of the houses following the direction of the qiblat, results in the

fact that the lambur or verandah, located on the area that receives the light of the rising sun -

place where clothes can be quickly dried, and where leisurely conversations can be held in

the shade of the afternoon. In fact, household occupations are held at similar times and in

similar places because of that orientation.

A second aspect of the philosophy of life expressed in the houses and gardens observed

is that of the symbiosis with the natural environment. First. through the many uses of nature's

products: Pandanus for mats, terape for showers, cengal for masts. The natural environment

makes available wild species (mengkudu, terajang, teja, sembung). It is used for spices and

herbs, for fragrance and ornamentation which are planted such as Inai (Lawsonia inermis)

and Bidara (Zizyphus mauritiana), -appreciated for their particular values and religious

connotation-, they accompany marriages and deaths.

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This practical relationship is complemented by a feeling of spiritual closeness, -even

brotherhood with nature (Syed Naquib Al-attas, 1989). As expressed by villagers: "The trees

rise towards the sky, it is their doa” -their prayer”, explained an elderly lady in Pulau Duyong;

and traditional healers recommend to look for lines or "urat " -veins that appear in the wood

and the human body.

The compound is usually open or marked only by trees. The wall of the Kota Lama in

Duyong has been built but is pierced with no less than five entrances indicating an active social

network, each one dedicated to a particular use: to receive the family, the merchants, the friends

of the judge or of important persons or to go to the close-by mosque.

The religious significance identical direction of main ridge of the roof (tulang perabung)

of the main building not only indicates the respect of the direction of the prayers, but it results

in a simultaneous exposure to sunlight which in turn results in simultaneity in the activities of

daily life from one home to another.

The symbiosis which consists in sharing the life of the neighbors is reinforced by the custom

of making reciprocal visits, on the occasions of marriages, deaths, illnesses, births. The

"neighborhood" has been defined by the forty houses around the surroundings of the house.

Raja Bahrin (1988) suggests a definition by the reach of the call to prayer. To this can be added

the various communities to which the inhabitants of a house had participated, such as the

(fishermen who meet in Cendering or in “Pama”in Pilau Kambing

iii) Function

At a first practical level, the houses and gardens appear above all as functional units, an

architectural response to the tropical climate. Production activities- food, fish kerupuk
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craftmanship carvings, batik printing- allow to earn a living (mencari rezeki) from the house

or around it. The whole gives an impression of independence from the outside. The house and

its garden appear as a world in themselves: a microcosm.

b) Symbiosis at various levels

-Cosmic With the orientation of the houses following the direction of the qiblat, the

lambur or verandah located on the area that receives the light of the rising sun -place where

sarong can be quickly dried, and where leisurely conversations can be held in the shade of the

afternoon “petang petang”.

-Practical The second aspect of the philosophy of life expressed in the houses and gardens

observed is that of the symbiosis with the natural environment. First through the many uses of

nature's products: Pandanus for mats, terape for showers, cengal for masts. The natural

environment makes available wild species (mengkudu, terajang, teja, sembung). It is used for

spices and herbs, for fragrance and ornamentation which are planted as well as hennin and

bidara (Zizyphus mauritania), appreciated for their value and religious connotation, and they

accompany marriages and deaths.

-Mystical This practical relationship is complemented by a feeling of closeness, even

brotherhood with nature (Syed Naquib Al-attas, 1989). As explained by villagers: "The trees

rise towards the sky, it is their doa” -their prayer”, explained an elderly lady in Pulau Duyong;

traditional healers recommend to look for lines or "urat " -veins that appear in the wood and

the human body.

-Openness: wall of the Kota Lama in Duyong has been built but is pierced with no less than

six entrances indicating an active social network, each one dedicated to a particular use:
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to receive the family, the merchants, the friends of the judge or of important persons or to go

to the close-by mosque.

-Religious The identical direction of main ridge of the roof (tulang perabung) of the main

building not only indicates the respect of the direction of the prayers, but it results in a

simultaneous exposure to sunlight which in turn results in simultaneity in the activities of daily

life from one home to another.

-Communal The symbiosis which consists in sharing the life of the neighbours is reinforced

by the custom of making reciprocal visits, on the occasions of marriages, deaths, illnesses,

births. The "neighbourhood" has been defined by the forty houses around the surroundings of

the house. Raja Bahrin (….) suggests a definition by the reach of the call to prayer -without the

microphone perhaps.

c) Function

At a first practical level, the houses and gardens appear above all as functional units, an

architectural response to the tropical climate. Production activities- food, fish kerupuk

craftmanship carvings, bateq printing- allow to earn a living (mencari rezeki) from the house

or around it. The whole gives an impression of independence from the outside. The house and

its garden appear as a world in themselves -a microcosm.

But this is not all the functionality referred to by Haji Mohamad Yusof for twenty years,

director of the Terengganu State Museum. For him, he explained in an interview (2018), the

houses and gardens of Terengganu have two main important characters: They are first,beautiful

in the frequency of ornamental plants, and second, functional, through the usefulness of their

ground features. Functional also because they facilitate religious practice

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in everyday life as described above (for example in the separation of the sexes for visitors) and

because, built on stilt and having a “serambi” or a “lambuh” verandah, they ensure the

protection of privacy. De facto, the habitat was ethologically structuring the behavior of the

inhabitants. Through non-verbal but tangible and intangible signs, it was teaching the people

living in the so specially conceived compounds, to follow the rules and principle of the society.

Konrad Lorenz ( )

5.6 Ethologically structuring habitat”: Formatting in the past

The architecture of the house, besides the fact that it can be invested with a cosmological

interpretation (Muhammad Affandi Yahaya 1995, Ismail Said 2005), in a space loaded with

symbolic meaning, has a further role: The didactic-ethological function, guiding people

behavior- in the house and its surrounding compound, is to provide the inhabitants with an

environment designed in such a way as to facilitate "good" behavior. In Terengganu, this

function is based on built structures (Cosmological orientation of the dwellings, the cleaning

accessories such as the wells and their paraphernalia, zones and elements, customs (adab) -

stairs, floor levels, height of the buildings (which has a role in insuring privacy). At the same

time, it is reinforced for the younger generation by the presence and the traditional knowledge

of the elderly people with whom they live. These two elements -built- including floral and

traditional plant species environment- and alive, in the form of elders, of the habitat, are

essential for the sustainability of the social model and for its transmission. Similar to the

“formatting” or “imprinting” described by Konrad Lorenz studying animal behavior, through

a psychological mechanism of training or immediate learning, people in the house compounds

could adopt -as if naturally- the behavior suitable to their society.

5.6.1 The holistic interpretation of the Terengganu landscape

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As demonstrated in 2007 MA study (2003-2007), the habitat of the people in Terengganu in

the past was a microcosm which materialized a content of thought and a philosophy of life

which had been developed over time. It was integral part and mirror of the vision of the world

to which the inhabitants had subscribed during their history. The depth and extent of this mental

implantation is described by the holistic ecology which qualifies units of human habitat -as

“holons”. “Holon” are at the same time whole in themselves and a part of a macrosystem. The

term was found appropriate for the house compounds-, with their heritage made of three

spheres - noosphere, biosphere and techno-sphere. composing a holistic entity which further

refers to a “supra-system” (Zev Naveh and Arthur Lieberman, 1994) as the tenants of a holistic

philosophy would qualify this conceptual construction.

Figure 5.12: (From MA, 2005). A typical Terengganu house compound interpreted in a holistic
ecological landscape perspective or Total Holistic Ecology. “Past Era”. (Schema by the author)
referring to a traditional “supra-system”

5.6.2 Consequence of the Human habitat change: A new formatting?

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Formatting in the Present Era (Zev Naveh, 2000 “holon” and “supra-system”) implies

components of a new “supra-system” with Noosphere (Collective Psyche) , Biosphere(Group

survival), Technosphere (State History) replaced by: for Noosphere, by School and Science,

for Biosphere by Market and global Resources and for Technosphere replaced by Fintech, the

banking system and the digital technology.

As cascading results of the changes are seen in the house compounds, the inhabitants are

moving from having being rooted in the Past each in their own “microcosm” or “holon”

house and place to becoming cogs in the global machine of the modern supra-system… Or

individuals linked to a network of global opportunities. From the self-contained former “holon”

to a different concept of existence,

5.6.3 Summary on the causes and consequences of the changes

The causes of the noted changes are multiple, each adding to the other: costs of building

materials, space availability, jobs imperatives, plants bought and not grown anymore or

collected around the houses such as inai -henna- and post-partum sets bought from Indonesia

etc., demise of elders who remembered the traditions of the Qiblat direction for the main roof

ridge of a house(the tulang perabung towards Mekka, and the “door of the resources” (the pintu

dapur belakan rumah called “pintu rezeki”)…- or the name of the kitchen door.,

As a consequence of environmental changes in both floral and cultural landscape, a feeling

of loss of ancient directions in life appears, and new bearings have to be found. Some measure

of adaptation to globalization is deemed to be indispensable. As expressed by Hamlett et al.

(2006): “The individual has to willingly understand the framework of cascades to move

forward in a more globalized society. Establishing a foundation to understanding the passage

of information through transnational and multinational organizations, and even more,

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is critical to the arising modern society”. As a result of these changes in the situation of

individuals, in the formerly traditional, East Coast state, a representation of the new

“formatting” in the Present Era will appears as follows:

Figure 5.13: Spheres contents in the “Present Era”

The changes that have happened carry consequences in other domains, through cascades or

connected changes, while a loss of identity is observed. The typology of the housecompounds

based on a traditional society soon will not be valid. The landscapes types in Terengganu cannot

be identified easily anymore.

This means that today the habitat landscape can express a different social structure where

“urban” is synonym of development.

From the analysis of the evolution of both habitats, floral and human in the landscape of

Terengganu, Orang Asli and villagers shared the benefits of a common didactic role of the
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landscape: the one built, the other learned. That role has been disrupted by the annihilation of

the paths. Both the Orang Asli direct “learning” and the villagers’ inbuilt pedagogy/lessons

disappear. So will the -traditional “Ilmu”. In places, it is not only the paths that do not exist

anymore. But the land and its visual significance.

The reference supra-systems have changed. Business considerations have appeared for

development of medicine. Plants species and cultural features are transformed and re-

purposed. Knowledge on medicinal plants, timber architecture and craftmanship is less known

and less shared.

5.7 Conclusions

5.7.1 Summary 1: Three levels of Change

Three levels of change are identified, based on the present study of the floral and cultural

features along the two “Eras”

Table 5.8 :Three Levels of Change

Level Past Era Present Era

Material • Timber • Concrete house replaces
level • Local fruit & vegetable timber (valuable for export)
• Plants grown around the • Shopping from
or Resources
compound or collected international market
from the forest, path sides • Pharmaceuticals and doctor
etc. prescribed medicine
Existential Lay out of house compound • New functional lay out
level with: with “living room”,
bathrooms, garages, mobile
or Way of • Pillars, stairs,wells, phones (and
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life • Hierarchic status Communications)

• Community activities, • Paid job, independent or
• Areas below the house salaried often travel to it.
or/and around it • Community activities
• Rezeki or God-given means
of sustenance often in
proximity

Spiritual • Sounds of Azan call to • Azan – still, and Qoran

level prayers (Soundscape) reading
• Faithfulness to some traces • Persistence of metaphoric
or
of the past (as art) ex. main world vision and symbolic
Intellectual
puteri psychological language with a nostalgia
and religious
treatment of identity
life
• Reputation of • conscient concept of redha.
“complacency” non with presence of “akhirat”
resistance -after-life.

Changes appear mostly at the first two levels. Change is not so evident at the spiritual level

where an awareness of change seems to be accompanied with a lack of adhesion or interest for

it, with a focus on different objectives in this world.

For the vegetal environment, useful links have been cut. In the villages, climbing ropes of

Vitis, Mikania, Curcumis, Passiflora, Wedelia, spread over the vegetation and timber houses.

Trees species quickly invade: Terminalia cattapa, Hibiscus tilliaceus, Morinda, Premna

foetida, Ficus, Leucaena leucoI, meanwhile, ornamental species express the gentrification of

the house gardens. The forested zones are burdened with the dilemmas of revenue from

logging, mines and silica. The land still covered with vegetal growth is re-purposed, following

a global trend in perception of nature uses for -athleticism, “peaking”, hiking trails, forests

exploration, parks, corridors, tourism, while reappears the renewed emergence of the
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idea that nature needs to be preserved. A concept that can be interpreted religiously in the

duty of man as Kalifah of God on this earth.

For the built environment, it is muted in its messages. Its “words”, its significant

“punctuation”, even if preserved, while remaining, are signs of a past culture. They become

obsolete and join ornamental, “souvenir” features. The imbedded lay out or “grammar” with

its moral guidance is less understood. The house compounds flora and accessories expressing

a way of life, the “types” of house compounds previously (2005) based on the appearance of

traditional social signals, are not valid anymore. They are progressively replaced by houses,

residences, were buildings, gardens, plants and ornaments are rather based on financial means

of the owners or desire to evoke these, reflecting the prevalence of a new “supra-system.”

5.7.2 Summary Diagram

Landscape impacting exogenous events had been ambitious and deliberate, while on the

ground, in the visited sites, endogenous events, although less ambitious, have occurred that had

as well a strong influence on the landscapes as well as on the lives of the inhabitants. During

the field visits and impromptu interviews, the causes of these changes have been evoked. These

can be summarized as: -an augmentation of the population, legal problems concerning land and

heritage, lack of transmission of traditional knowledge in maintenance, crafts, herbal medicine

and gardening.

Transformations- exogenous and endogenous-, have occurred in two interconnected

habitats: the habitat of the plants, and the one of the people. Added to these, is the “cascading”

and reciprocal impact of multiple factors. Frequently encountered examples illustrated by

abandoned houses, are the cost of land, the cost of repairs in timber construction, associated to

problems of heritage and land division. Other accumulated factors

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are often linked with a modern life supported by media and school, such as the quest for a job

outside the residence, with a need for specialized education, and transports away from the rural

house garden halaman. The hypothesis advanced in Chapter 1, seems being verified: new times

have emerged, and they are perhaps steps toward a new civilization.

From the ecological point of view, the steps of a move towards new times can be

summarized in the two columns of its parallel dynamics in the floral environment ( I-” Plant

ecology”) and in the built environment (II, “Human ecology” which includes “cultural and

ground features”.) as shown in the following diagram Figure 5.14.

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I Plant ecology II Human ecology

Flora Culture

Species list: 587 Cultural features lists (113 in 2007)

Species +location: @ 322 Features’ role & use, spotted: 253

times

By origin: by uses: Through “landscape reading”

Wild – Planted Food, Medicine, tangible intangible features

Ornament

Species presently disappeared: Features presently disappeared: @

@ 48: 10% of the previously seen. 97: 41% of the previously seen.

Plants species resilience, by use: A “formatting landscape” existed:

Figures : pie charts Figures : triple spheres

Past/ present Past/ present Past: house Present: an

“holon” in a individual in
microcosm supra-systems

Causes and consequences: 2 Towards different directions

different eras

Wilderness diminution and new super-system(s)

New perception and experience of New perception and experience of

floral habitat human habitat

Present Era: Darul-Iman opens to the global destiny

Figure 5.14: Steps of the evolution from one era to a new one, from data collections and
analysis of the floral and built environments and the relationship of the inhabitants with these
environments over time.

To conclude, from the present era field reviews, it appears that the people in Terengganu

seem to have abandoned many of their links with their floral environment. Not having the

opportunity to practice skills in using the natural resources, they have de facto lost an

independence vis a vis the faster obtained products from the commercial world. Their built

environment, having lost many of its culturally significant features, reveals a present lack of
 331

identity and, in some cases, causes a feeling of a loss of bearings, like in other countries in

the world, to which it has been alluded, from China (Yunnan), to Japan, from South America

(Bolivia) to the Middle East (Turkey). These moves in both environments reinforce each

other and can contribute to propel young generations towards a different way of life in the

present era.

The change is perhaps deeper, more loaded with significance and consequences than straight

forward narrative descriptions or inventories over time would mean. The future of the

traditional relationship of the people with their flora and cultural features is perhaps in jeopardy

in the modern times, although that relationship is still valued and remembered. Further

approaches will assist in qualifying the witnessed evolution in the following chapter.
 CHAPTER 6

NEW INTERPRETATIONS OF THE FLORAL AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT

The review of the changes that have happened, materializing the beginning of the rise of a

new world, marks the first step towards answers to new questions of -how change is handled

in the state? -what needs to be preserved from the ancient concepts in floral landscape and

human habitats? and -how will preservation be done?

This chapter tells of the diversity in the ways people may live in Terengganu in the present

time. It reports disturbances and losses occurred in the forests areas and the efforts that were

made to remediate to theses. The sudden change in the availability of traditional building

material and space is underscored, while, within the uncertainty of the future, the potential

resilience of some of the state characteristics appear.

6.1 Prologue: Aspects of human habitat visible in Terengganu

An interesting aspect of the situation in Terengganu in the present era is that successive

interpretations of human life on the land can be witnessed. As seen in the precedent surveys,

the state provides a lesson in diversity of human habitat and on the relationship of the people
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with the flora and with the land. As far as the built environment is concerned, housing

concepts and priorities for everyday living vary there considerably. Diverse human habitat

alternatives or “shelters” are still observable. Each has specific features which reveal different

preoccupations amongst the occupants, the builders of these shelters, official and business

decision makers.

Life in the Life in the air

Life inside
forest Life inside and outside

Figure 6.1: “Human Habitat forms” in Terengganu and their priorities

The first form of habitat is the hayak. As seen in C4 in Kuala Sayap, that “house” is a shelter

built of palms or bamboo and small trees from the forest on 50 cm stilts, with a platform, to rest

and store a few belongings. The hayak can be grouped by four or six, set in a semi circle around

a fire. A stream is located at a convenient distance for water use, and toilet. An other hayak with

perhaps a fire may be placed at small distance. Food is collected from the environing forest

and streams or bought in exchange for forest products. Important features are the forest itself,

the water nearby and the fire that completes the facilities.
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The second form of “shelter”is the rumah berpeleh or any other style of the traditional house

with a compound. Built on stout wooden pillars supporting a pointed roof of clay tiles, the

rumah is oriented towards the Qiblat. A central feature is, on the ground, the well, source of

water and cleaning. Life routines -work, rest, play, sleep- are conducted as much outside(di

halaman) as inside the house. In the present era, piped water and electricity have moved these

activities towards the interior. Food is gathered from trees, domestic animals, from a family

fishing boat and, in the past, greens from close-by footpaths. The height of the pillars provides

privacy, increased ventilation and protection from the floods. Important features are:

cosmological orientation, wells, pillars, and timber craftmanship.

Another form is the terrace house or bungalow: Set on a concrete platform, built with

concrete or bricks and plastered walls, the terrace house uses modern materials and follows a

classic Western inspired design. The walls of the house or of the garden protect privacy. Cars

are parked in front of the house. The entrance leads to a space called the “living room”. where

guests are welcome, inside the house. The orientation of the house is dictated by the most

financially suitable use of the land. On advertisements, the direction of the qiblat is indicated

for the “Bumiputra” (Malay) prospective buyers. Access through a road as well as the piped in

water and electricity are the important features.

The more recent and different form is the high-rise apartment building, quite a new

landscape feature for Terengganu. It is an international design conceived to house numerous

people in a given space for urban living. The “apart-ments” multistorey building is full of

inhabitants yet it still keeps them physically apart. The decisive/necessary features of a “life

in the sky” are the lift, access to urban facilities, communications, highways, shopping centers

and …a return on investments.

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From answering the need of a shelter to a business proposition, the range of building options

is vast. Another significant aspect of the relationship of the people with the land appears is how

man’s habitation impacts the land.

The nomadic hayak does not impact the land. The traditional village house can be

moved away, and the land is not affected. The terrace or bungalow style covers the land with

a layer of stones and concrete while the heigh rise building is “planted” on deep pilling. These

different techniques imply different perceptions of the local ecosystem and land and how

human beings may settle on it and interfere with it. The choice is perhaps not open anymore in

a developing state that is now following international models of land use and identification

such as “city”. “suburbs”, and “rural” areas. In Kuala Nerus, the future “Putrajaya of

Terengganu”, promises a modern city that will house rows of terrace houses, high rise towers,

offices, and shopping centers with ready-made facilities. The ancient type of “shelters” needs

forest and timber. It is uncertain if the forest habitat and the timber material can serve their

former purpose within the modern context. However, new conceptsof closeness with nature

have appeared in sports and entertainment,

6.1.1 Original question: is a turn towards a new civilization being witnessed?

The first study on the cultural landscape from this researcher had been motivated by the

observation that part of that landscape, although still present enough to be recorded (through

detailed descriptions and evaluation of conformity to cultural criteria), was facing the danger

of a relative disappearance because of numerous contextual changes. The objective, then, was

to document the house compounds and their floral and architectural environment, when many

of these compounds were still observable in their integrity. The objective of the present study

has been re-visits, ten to fifteen years later, in the previously studied areas, -to which were
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added other places and further observations amongst the diverse landscapes of Terengganu.

The questions this time were: has the trend toward change been confirmed, and has a new era

arrived, uprooting -as it were, the past? Has an ancient era been replaced by a new one, within

a context of globalization? If so, what are the reactions of the people of Terengganu and what

future is awaiting the former traditional state? Is the “past” past? and is the future there?

What are the visible reactions of the people in Terengganu? Some answers to these

questions are summarized in the following parts, first for the changes in the flora, then for the

changes in the built environment in the areas described in this work.

6.2 Natural environment and floral heritage

Today, forests, landscapes, and plant species are valued assets for research, enjoyment,

tourism and education. A nostalgia reaches padi fields (which for example, have even become

an attraction for a restaurant in a rice field in Nerus), sea sides, wetlands, and coconut groves

are appreciated for their authenticity. However, during recent times, serious incidents have

occurred.

6.2.1 Tragedies of the ecosystem disturbances

A measles epidemy spread in Kula Koh, from water pollution: Some Orang asli in Kelantan

had noticed the effect of the water changes in the rivers, consequences which were attributed

to -legal- mining (gold: mercury was mentioned) and logging. Death cases were signaled,

reaching 15 cases and were reported in the media. Bateq people from Kuala Koh moved to

Sungai Berua in Terengganu, near the Bateq and Semoq Beri settlements where some

individuals were contaminated. The Bateq and Semoq Beri moved temporarily North to
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Gerdong area. Perhaps that is when a new settlement was built and a sewang ceremony was

held (cf. map and report in Chapter 4, -Forest hills and Orang Asli.).

In the hill of Belara, between Nerus and Sungai Tong, deforestation was authorized in the

remaining forest. Protests were numerous. (Appendix B, …) Surrounding plantations and

private orchards would suffer from the disappearance of pollinating insects and other animals.

The Palm oil project was abandoned, but not timber logging.

In the area of Kenyir Lake, the Lasir waterfall -a much visited small river of clear waters

rolling over rocks- suddenly took a milky orange color. Long ago authorized logging was

started in a hurry, with lorries and earth roads, and as much as possible, as soon as it had been

heard that the area would be included within the limits of a new State Park.

Figure 6.2: Lasir waterfall 19 Julai 2019: impact of a hurried last logging; now (2022)
restored, and part of the State Park.

6.2.2 Rescues

In Basong, near the Kenyir dam, NGO “Rimba” organized photography traps to

documents animals (especially the local Panthera) present in the remaining forest around the

lake. To preserve the life of large animals, the forest had to be preserved as well. The Sultan
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of Terengganu figured in a documentary on his support to the conservation of the tigers from

the state. Local universities were involved in making known the assets of the remaining

forested land around the Kenyir Lake. Uniza lecturer Ramle Abdullah (1993) studied the beliefs

of the Semoq Beri, Dr. Tajuddin Abdullah (2018) campaigned for the creation of a Geopark in

Kenyir. Meanwhile, in the Sauk island, Ketengah planted classic medicinalspecies.

Collaboration for the creation of a state parks private organizations from outside the state

and state agencies own was successful.

Figure 6.3: Map of the newly created State Parks around Kenyir Lake

Rimba is now closing its operations as such, but the works is continuing, through NBS

(Nature based solutions) and carbon dioxide budget. On their side, the Orang Asli are called

to assist in the work of the many agencies of the state that are involved in the protection

or/exploitation of the forest such as Perlihitan (Perlindungan Hidupan Liar dan Taman Negara),

Jabatan Alam Sekitar Terengganu, Forest Department and Tourism.

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Private voices and initiatives from individuals in the state express the concern of the local

people for the destruction of the natural environment, from the poet and lecturer Marzuki Ali

(2003), to singer Naquib Mohammed who denounces the tangan yang rakus the “greedy

hands” that nodai “-stain or rape-” the forest.

In 2014, photographer Dome Nikong (Suhairi Zakaria) who lives at the end of a row

of terrace houses in Sungai Tong, started a personal project of wilderness conservatory.

Sungai Tong is a pioneer’s small town on the road from Besut to Kuala Terengganu. The

Felda building, some shops, and secondary schools animate the place. The area is surrounded

with palm oil plantations, lorries heading on newly opened roads towards the forests being

logged. Orchids flowers bloomed under the sun, then died. Dome collected them and started

to plant them in his courtyard. to preserve their life and their beauty. After the orchids came

the Hoyas, the periuk kera Nepenthes, and the gingers. Dome reproduced a forest climate

atmosphere in his garden, laying stones on the ground to keep it cool and shade hanging nets

under the sky. Specialists identified or confirmed his findings on the species he brought back

from trips in forest. His “Wild dome Conservatory” is now reputed among the botanists from

over the world for Thysmia domei, Thysmia Siti Munirah, after Dome’s mother. In 2010

Dome’s book “Wild Terengganu” was published.

During photography work, Dome had been attracted to the indigenous peoples in Malaysia,

and while back in Terengganu, he became close with the Bateq community who live in Kelantan

in Kuala Koh while other small groups are in Terengganu. Dome discovered their knowledge,

their ability to live in the forest, their sumpit, and combs, the children, and in the flower season,

their many decorations, all subjects for the photographer’s evocative images of their life in the

forest. Together with singer Naquib, they produced “Rimba yang di lukai” a musical video that

tells of the ploy of the forest.

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6.2.3 Repurposing the wilderness

From Cep bap hep (Bateq) to masuk hutan (Malay) and “hiking”, there are nowadays

many ways to enter the forest, in Terengganu as in other countries where the forest used to be

close with human habitations.

“Hiking” -going for long walks in rural or forested areas for the pleasure of visiting- is

different of the objectives of forest visitors of the past, in the ninety eighties, when they

gathered in small groups of less than ten people, during the hunting season. Different also of

“masuk hutan” -to go in the forest to find particular plants species for individual use, or as in

the past, -capture a beruk -monkey- in a cage. It is neither enter without a permit to collect

candan (gaharu) nor wild animals body parts for sale, -as sometimes foreign (Cambodia and

Vietnam) poachers did and still do (Dome report 2021 and forest officer’s confirmation 2022.

It is not like the Bateq who would walk into the forest around their hayak place to collect plants

and learn about the latest developments on the land from the trees and the paths.

“Hiking” today in the forest or any rural area is for the pleasure of it, for the health benefit

as well. Those who were looking for animals, plants or fish, for food or sale, have now to share

with people in search of nature, in search of change, and of another world than work, cars, and

shopping malls.

The lists of lata waterfalls proposed to ecotourism in Terengganu has increased. Beyond the

already much visited Lata of the North -Lata Belatang, Lata Tembaka, Lata Lawit, Lata Lasir,

(that became orange in color from an emergency logging when logging was done just before

actual preservation of the place as it was to become part of the Kenyir Park), then Lata Payung,

Lata Berderu, and more, around the Kenyir lake.

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6.2.4 Traditional Medicinal species

State universities are active studying and researching the local floral assets: At UNISZA

Ficus deltoides …At UMT, in 2018, Doctor Abdul Ghani who had created a medicinal garden

in Pulau Pinang had the occasion to meet Dr. Fadzilah Adibah who’s laboratory had just

completed work on Backea frutescens -Cucur atap. One of the results was the production of a

skin care treatment.

Both scientists mentioned Harun Mat Piah’s work on the “Tradisyonal Ubat” and agreed

that “professors of medicine and shaman should work together” and would make medicinal

discoveries (Just as phyto-chemist Christian Wiard (2002) or pharmacist Daniel Jean (1983);

meanwhile, all the possible uses of the Melaleuca cajuputi are being explored, including (Dr

Fadzilah, 2018) elaborated a medicine for shrimps attacked by a… for which present cure is

expensive.

In 2018, the Institute of Marine Biology (UMT) organized a Conference on the

“Development of high value Herbal Medicine” at the INOS auditorium Prof. Dr Fadzilah

delivered a talk on “High-value Herbal Products” and reminded of the danger of extinction

for the medicinal species of which the roots are the most reputed. Dr Abdul Ghani Hussain

talked about the “Traditional Malay Herbs”. He underscored the importance of returning to the

basic elements of traditional therapeutics as a mean of understanding better ancient

symptomatology and proposed treatments. However as in 1983, French Lab Director Daniel

Jean “Medicaments Nature et Chimie”, who was doing research with local practitioners and

phyto-chemists at University Malaya had already warned: The laboratories that pursue research

on plants species have to cross many hurdles before their findings may be authorized
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and marketed. This is due to stringy regulations, the USA Food and Drug Administration

influence, and the concurrence of established products on the market.

6. 2. 5 Traditional closeness with plants

An observed a percentage of 10% diminution of plant species in surveyed areas of the floral

environment reported in chapter 5 may not seem overly significant. However, it has been noted

as well that the disappeared species were so common and taken for granted that their loss is

rarely noticed by the inhabitants [(Survey questionaries 2022)] until it is signaled by a visitor.

Often, even uses of common trees such the Terajang -Lepisanthes kuntsleri- or Bebuas -Premna

cordifolia- are now forgotten. Adults (30 to 60 years old) refer to their own parents to find

answers for the uses of the species. The reason invoked is the lack oftransmission of traditional

knowledge. Modern scientific information on traditional uses is learned at school or on the

internet and are the most frequently mentioned references.

6.3 The landscape heritage of the built environment

6.3.1 Dramas: houses destruction and abandon

From time to time, old town areas are marked for intended development. As seen in

Chapter 4, in 2005, a large area of old wooden houses at the back of Jalan Kampong Cina in

the center of Kuala Terengganu had been demolished to leave place for “proper town”

development. It is still today (2022) left to abundant belukar and some rare, improvised

intruders camps. In 2010, to prepare the way for the planned KTCC -Kuala Terengganu future

City Center, wooden houses in Tanjong had to be demolished, while at the end of Seberang

Takir on a former large beach, reclaimed land was added, moving the estuary from the North-

East towards the direct East.

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In the villages, often close to town, but not exclusively, vast, previously stately timber

residences have been left for ten years without occupants, for lack of heirs or all of them

being busy having their own life somewhere else. Some buildings have been moved and their

timber re-used.

Figure 6.4: a) 2020: A uninhabited house in Pulau Duyong: climbers escalated the walls. B)
2022: Mango trees, gerai, serambi are gone. 2022: concrete house with zinc roof is built next
to it.

The halaman house compounds and the timber houses of the past are abandoned (as in the

row of traditional timber buildings in Ladang in Kuala Terengganu), not only because the

government develops the area into a “true” urban zone, but also, in places not -yet- marked

for acquisition, but also because the heirs have their own houses, or the heritage sharing is time

consuming, or sometimes because there are no heirs [(pic stone bases left, trees, and elegance

elaborate box window and carving in Ladang)].

6.3.2 Rescues: Museum and private efforts

Traditional architecture has been valued, even in the past era. As early as 1996, informed by

the Badan Warisan (supported by Raja Bahrin and inhabitants of Pulau Duyung) and after the

1986 floods which left derelict the Kota Lama built by Dato Biji Sura in Pulau Duyung,
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the Minister of Culture and Arts of Malaysia decided to have it restored. One non-descript

bujang berpeleh house that had been built inside the Kota was carried by the villagers out of

the walls of the “fort” (The Kota). About 30 men -neighbors, relatives of Datok Biji Sura and

Museum employees working together, held long timber pieces on their shoulders. In 1996, A

student from the USA made the first drafts and a team from the University Technology

Malaysia, executed the drawings. A contractor from Kuala Terengganu was appointed by the

State Museum, and in 1999, visitors could enter the totally restored “Kota Lama Duyong”.

They would appreciate the gathering of the varied architecture and ornaments that includes

Corinthian capitals and Islamic calligraphic carvings. The walls are built out of clay bricks,

with sealants of eggs white and sea shells.

In the surroundings, few of the previously aristocratic houses with mempeleh fasciaboards

have resisted the passage of time. Yet, in the Present eEa, in the rather derelict island of Duyung

Kecil, the Kota Lama, a building from the past, remains, witness of sophistication and wealth.

More recently, in 2017, in Kampong Losong, Kuala Terengganu two linked timber houses

of different style have been restored and opened to the public by the State Museum. One is a

rare gathering of three bujang berpeleh houses built in the middle of the 19th century by

wealthy trader cum sailing boats owner Haji Mat Kaya. It has a long serambi from where the

family members could watch silat performances. The second house, also in timber, evokes a

European two-story town house, with paneled windows and two wings. However, the main

construction material is timber, and the assembly method is panels joinery.

These three preserved and restored buildings are a testimony of innovative architecture and

craftmanship of the past, where foreign features are integrated in a vernacular design,
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using local material. The state museum is reported to have researched more ancient houses of

similar creative spirit around Kuala Terengganu town. Around the restored buildings, a few

still known traditional plant species are grown, although independently of their original

location. A tall Tongkat Ali -Eurycoma longifolia -a wild hill species, is near the kitchen of the

Kota Lama, while Meninjau (Gnetum gnemon). Merungai (Moringa oleifora) and Bidara

(Zyziphus Mauritiana) are missing in the reconstitution.

Private initiatives have illustrated the continued appreciation of the people of Terengganu

for the artistic value and craftsmanship of their traditional houses. Members of the royal family

have gathered, bought and rebuilt bujang berpeleh houses (Aryani and Pura Tanjung Sabtu -

unfortunately, they were not able to pursue). Businessman Alex Lee, (-his father shophouse in

Marang was such a traditional building with an intricate carving on the serambi/balcony-), has

organized a grandiose gathering of such “palaces” as their owner dubs them, in “Terrapuri”

near Kampong Mangkok, in the North of the state. He has as wellstarted a project on

preservation of other ancient timber houses.

True craft and passion teaching continuity has been assured by craftsmen from Northern

areas of Terengganu, in Kampong Raja in Besut, by Norhaiza Noordin and Rosnawati the wife

of the late Nik Rashidin.

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Figure 6.5: Janda –(jendela)- berhias- wall in Bakawali Sari Warisan, Kampong Raja
As well as other gatherings of traditional houses…Magnificent heritage in tradition versatility
in design

Figure 6.6: a) The curves of a box window in Kampong Ladang: creativity in the Past Era:
foreign design for a feauture, local material, b) individual preferences, local material, in
Sungai Durhaka, “dangau” gazebo added, beach Cycas species planted.

Rebuilding, reconstitutions, or modern use, for private use, ancient or modern houses on

stilts.

Figure 6.7: Modern efforts for architectural resilience: a) Twin bujang berpeles to be re- used
(Sungai Durhaka) b) Concrete house on stilt columns and “atap belanda” (Pulau Duyong)

6.3.3 Present built Environment: Modern developments and design efforts

In Kuala-Terengganu which has received officially the title of “Heritage city by the water”,

population growth has been continuous: 304 181 inhabitants in 2000, 295 591 to 343 2010 in

2010 to 390 948 in 2021 That rate has slowed down recently, yet, the population is expected

to reach 404 707 in 2023. (Official Statistics …) A Project for a convenient and well-planned
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urban area was started in Bukit Depu around Sungai Depu, among the former paddy fields,

south of Kampong Ladang.

Some coastal reclamations and other projects have not been realized such as in “Sun City”

and “KT City Center North”. In reality, today: Water and electricity facilities serve for foods

trucks and boulders covers beaches dubbed “Miami” and “La Corniche”. The sea has reclaimed

the beaches that was deemed to provide the “Riviera” feeling. In town itself, as seen in Chapter

four, corporate investors have not materialized for the city center project at the back of the

active and preserved identity Kampong China street. Weeds and secondary growth have waited

for now 12 years for the planned reconstruction. That part of town had in the Past Era, a brick

and stucco house, a small mosque, a well, many timber houses ornamented with carvings,

timber walkways and rows of planted common medicinal species. As described in Chapter 4,

it had a life of its own that attracted visitors, photographers and painters.

6.3.4 New wave: buildings, materials, designs and advertising

Rationalization (Entwunderung still) in economy, demography and legal aspects, has

brought new developments: Through the “Bandar Baru Kuala Nerus” on the North East side of

the Nerus river estuary, Kuala Terengganu is destined to have its own Putrajaya. The former

Nipah and Melaleuca swamps have been transformed into a planned base infrastructure for

administrative and commercial centers, with a lake and a modern architecture mosque, waiting

for further construction of apartments and terrace houses.

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Figure 6.8: a) Facilities ready to welcome new inhabitants b) A new mosque for a new era
and “Kuala Nerus Baru” a former Melaleuca cajuputi mangrove, the future “Putrajaya
Terengganu” waits for investments and future inhabitants

Real estate re-appropriates the nostalgia. Their advertisements celebrate peace, trees,

family values, proposing “three generations houses”. Kampung atmosphere would be

resuscitated on a roof platform with potted plants. As in In Kuala Lumpur, the concept of

“vertical kampung” (S.J. Kassim, 2017) is searched for. “Green” is also a key word, as well

as community facilities to evoke the village atmosphere, with gymnasium, brisk walk paths

and bicycle tracks.

[Lists of floral assets (even though its plant species were not specific to Malaysia). and

descriptive summaries past/ present (From data in C4 visits re-visits) particularly in the

villages. Disappearances, (from C4 re-visits) their meaning (cf. semiotics of landscape)

Analysis: Causes of the losses: in the sample (46 species), and generally (Reference to table

of impacting events which is valid for both environments flora and built, so present it at the

beginning of the chapter) heirs too.]

[Consequence: Loss of ages-old link with nature: going… gone thread after thread.]

On the forest and Orang Asli side, in the Kuala Sayap area, since the nineties, plantations

have conquered much land and the Bateq -FELCRA share-holders drive by car to their

destination. In Sungai Berua, the forest people have to walk or ride a raft, a motorized
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sampan or their motorcycle further to reach their sources of bamboo, Gaharu or rotan, and find

food. Still, a few specialists from Sungai Berua may offer to guide hiking visitors and

researchers, and show, on the way, some medicinal plants they are familiar with.

6.4 Recapitulation and Perspectives

From the observations and data gathering over 1982 to 2022, spanning more than one

generation, it appears that the technological change brought about by the arrival of fuel

powered energy has impacted the whole life of the people in Terengganu. Electricity replaced

salt in food preservation, brought its comfort to households. Electricity was then completed

by digital communications. Piped water rendered jar containers less necessary. In villages,

mobile phones replaced the “stairs observatories” and shopping online became handy during

the latest Covid pandemics.

Modernization -as far as landscapes, plants and people are considered, has meant a triple

sense of diminution in identity, in independence of resources, and in relationship with nature.

6.4.1 Nostalgia and loss of Bearings: People Reactions and Some unchanged Features

Identity signs -social status, main activity, or craft-, formerly readable in the landscape of

the house compounds, as these have lost more than 40% of cultural and ground features, does

not seem to be replaced enough by decorative finials on some Present Era concrete houses.

However, three examples of ground furniture deserve to be singled out because they

demonstrate an important aspect of the Terengganu habitat: the “no change” status of some

resilient features of in the inhabitants’ ” way of life” (or at the “existential level”).
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A first example of such a significant “no change” feature is a modest cooking tool: the large

iron tripods (“dapur kaki”) often found under houses and taken out for preparing food for an

occasion where family, neighbors, friends, and passers-by are invited.

Figure 6.9: a) Cooking tripod in Kampong Padang Air for communal foodand b) Public
bench under The Sultan Mahmud Bridge another by the jetty in Duyong Kecil, c) Praying
together before re-building the “ tiang 12” “ surau” building in Losong

Ground furniture such as the “home made” gerai -open air resting benches- made of planks

where a few people can sit with extended legs and rest their back, are rarely described. They

have not gained the status of actual furniture and are not found in shops nor commissioned to

craftsmen. They are usually built by volunteers on a free public spot with any available wood

material andare still eagerly used for resting after work or in impromptu meetings.

A third important feature of the village landscape, are the surau or Islamic chapels. The

activities around and inside these buildings have been mentioned (for “the “Clan” type of house

compounds) and are worthy of a special attention: They express the communityactivity and

the commune faith of the inhabitants of the place where they are built.
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Figure 6.10: a) 2007: Pic of the Surau in Kuala Hiliran; b) 2021: Maintenance: Taller pillars
to protect the building from floods, with new stairs and a garden

These three examples of ground features are a manifestation of the community spirit of the

inhabitants. Just as the Terengganu people answer the call of a gotong royong- community

work, they still share food together, together they rest, and together they pray.

Figure 6.11: Community Prayers at the beginning of the restoration of the Surau Haji
Latif in Kampong Losong;

The nostalgia of the disappearing past exists. Setanjak cloth headdress reappears. “Wakaf”

sheds have survived in courtyards ornamented with all details the house owners may found to

recall traditional Malay house architecture.

Impersonal, financially inspired construction style replacing the traditional architecture is

denounced. Awang Goneng (2010) has qualified of “Earth trembling barbarism” the demolition

of a row of shophouses in Kedai Payang in Kuala Terengganu. As in other

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countries where formerly coherent ancient human ecosystems have not survived, the

psychological effect of the “de-paysement” -change of scenery, or literally, the loss of a

country, of a “pays” is felt. Some unwanted consequences of the disorganization of a traditional

society emerge. In Duyong Kecil recently, about 50 m from the Kota Lama, in the now derelict

surroundings, a drug peddler -a figure not uncommon nowadays- was seen, pursued by

policemen.

The loss of a previously accepted living environment, although described in Chapter 5 as

a “formatting”, or ethologically didactic environment, and -in ways- limiting the freedom of

the individuals, is regretted. That regret is expressed in the medias, and in academy, because

of consequences that it may have on the psyche of the inhabitants such as the loss of their

feeling of having an identity, of belonging to a particular culture, to be supported by the warmth

of a community and the confidence in themselves they enjoyed in the past.

Traditional assets, floral and built, are still understood as the roots of the people identity,

autonomy and trust in themselves. Haji Mohammed Yusof, for more than twenty years the

Director of the Terengganu State Museum, wrote, in 2015: “We must look for what is specific

of us and is hidden in ourselves, and not to copy the character of other people. We must deepen

and appreciate our cultural values and our traditions and at the same time preserve the original

characters of the shapes established by our ancestors since centuries as this is the fundament of

the authenticity of our identity.”

6.4.2 Secular values, spirituality: a potential balance?

There is a disparity or dichotomy, between two worlds in the present era: the one of

“fintech” and the one of spiritual life. Ambitious for the state, Chief Minister Idris Jusoh had

wished a "change in mindset”. The following deliberate introduction of secular values,

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rationality, speed, focus, consumerism and profitability, seems to have encouraged

paradoxically a return to religiosity and conservative choices. The Islamic party was brought

to power again in 2018, and has been maintained in the recent elections of 2022.

In 2017, during an artistic event that took place in Pulau Duyong, the daughter of teacher

Abdullah Embong. has declaimed her father’s poem of in front of the gigantic cranes. The

machines were digging sand in the estuary to reclaim land for the future “KTCC North”, the

ECRD vision of a Kuala Terengganu town that would spread over the estuary, bringing more

activities -geriatric hotels for wealthy elders, private colleges and sports centers (Appendix C).

She ended, proclaiming: “Warisan kita, warisan tercinta: rumah merdeka”, “Our heritage,

beloved heritage: the house of our freedom”. “Heritage, house, freedom”: three important

concepts linked to each other and perceived by the inhabitants of Terengganu as related also

to the values formerly expressed in the traditional habitat -such as the cosmological dimension

of life and built-in Islamic teachings. These values that they do not want to see disappear, as

they are understood as fundamental aspects of their identity and of the place of human beings

in the universe.

In the estuary of the Terengganu River, in an area already mentioned for its museum

restorations, an example of constructive nostalgia is expressed: through an independent and

private initiative in Kampong Losong. An ancient surau (Muslim chapel) is extended and

brought back to its original form.

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Figure 6.12: Surau Wan Latiff: a) in 2020, with asbestos roof b) Restoration design drawing

(Punca Cipta Architects 2021)

Remaining chengal wood -walls, doors, floors and original bearing timbers are re-used.

Anonymously, family, friends and people who remember the activities of religious teacher Wan

Latif have undertaken to have the roof restored with pemeleh facia boards and using the original

papan kembung relief planking. The former neighboring simple pondok -students huts- will

replaced by a -concrete madrasah -teaching school- with an entrance echoing the stucco neo-

vernacular façade of the State Museum.

6.4.3 Conclusions on the change observed in this work and the resilience of a legacy

The present study has shown that, over the years, change has brought a gap with nature, a

loss of identity and a loss of independence vis-à-vis the commercially produced goods.

Trends towards change have been identified. Significant modifying events have occurred,

yet, the reactions of the inhabitants do not indicate a deep desire of change nor the reality of it.

In Terengganu, -redha (compliant) style-, the people do not oppose, neither adopt a new

civilization. What is seen as happening is not a change in civilization. It is an opening to the

global destiny.
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Modern values of growth, competition and consumerism, previously accepted as

inseparable from development, are now questioned. The recent Pandemic and Climate Change

process are now globally understood as warnings for a slowing down of nature exploitation

(COP27). Among the changes evoked in this work, Terengganu “Darul-Iman” persistent

characteristics: -the people’s symbolic and syncretic thinking, their continued attachment to

ancient craftsmanship, their sense of community and their strongly maintained religious faith-

, remain a legacy, the resilience of which may help create a balance and identify directions for

the times to come.

As reminded Abdullah Mohd Salleh, President of the Badan Warisan Malaysia (1988),

prefacing Raja Bahrin study on the Terengganu Timber Malay House: “It is only by

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Figure 6.13: Tanjung

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APPENDICES
List of Appendices, tables of inventories, maps, articles.

Part of this presentation is to be given in Part 3 of the data gathering Chapter 4, with details on

the concepts of these lists and results obtained from them.

Appendix A: Plant species Inventories:

1) General Tables:

-Plants species Identity (576 spp.)

- “Baseline plant inventory” (323 spp) with use, traditional and

Phyto-pharmaceutical, botanical note, location, occurrence

-Results from Baseline: Disappearances (48 spp.) and Uncertain (39 Spp.)

2) Specific inventoriesTables, by sites or other

-Pulau Duyong: Plant occurrence status: 210 species; disappeared:

-Forest Hills

-Kenyir MB

-Jambu Bongkok Mat Kapur, Zamri, F.Limier

-Orang Asli

-House Compounds

3.) Ground and Cultural features: Past and Present Eras

-Ground features

-Architectural features

Appendix B: Maps and reference tables

Map of Terengganu Forest Reserves

Criteria for Cultural Landscape,

 370

Appendices C: House Compounds Diagrams and Sketches

Lay out by types

Sketches of house compound types

Appendices D: Academic Articles and other Papers (previously at the end of the

concerned Chapters)

- Monsoon Cup

- Protests for Belara

- Protests for Tembat

Appendix A: 1) General Plant species inventories: Identity: 576 species

 A Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu & Notes

1. Abrus precatorius Mimosaceae Saga akar betina Belukar, India, sub tropics,
371 Kt, Jln pasir

sunny tropics panjang

2. Abutilon indicum Malvaceae Bunga kembang Shrubery India to S.China Villages,

lohor paths sides

3. Acalipha hispida Euphorbiaceae Ekur kucing Gardens Oceania, Garden Pulau

worldwide Duyung

4. Acalipha indica Euphorbiaceae Kuncing galak Shrubery Old world tropics P.Duyung

5. Acanthus ebracteatus Acanthaceae Jeruju Sea shores S.China, SEA Bank Nerus

River

6. Acanthus ilicifolius Acanthaceae jeruju putih Gardens Asia, Africa Village

tropics

7. Achras zapota, Manilkara Sapotaceae Ciku villages S America, tropics Pulau Duyung

syn.

8. Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae Ara songsang Coasts, Warm countries Open grounds

inhabited areas world

9. Acorus calamus Araceae Jerangau wet soils Americas Eropa to Jerangau

China

10. Acrotrema costatum Dillienaceae Meroyan punai tanah Wet tropical Moulmein to

forest Johore

11. Adenanthera pavonina Fabaceae Saga Forest & Native S.Chin, KT, border

planted India, tropics larger cemetry

12. Adenostemma vicosae Asteraceae Rumput tahi babi Waste Pan-tropical Paths, open

grounds grounds

13. Aerva lanata Amaranthaceae Bayam karang Waste Paths, open

grounds grounds

14. Agathis borneensis Auracariaceae Damar minyak Forest, up to SEA, Malaysia Bukit Bauk

1200m

15. Agelaea vestita Connaraceae Akar kelentit Shrubery Villages

nyamok

16. Ageratum conizoides Asteraceae Rumput tahi ayam Disturbed Tropics Villages open

grounds spaces, paths

17. Agrostistachys Euphorbiaceae Jejulung Forest Native to SEA, Lata Belatan

borneindicaensis India New Guinea

18. Albertisia megacarpa menispermaceae (not in Burkill) Hill forest Peninsular Gunung

Malaysia Kambi

19. Albizia myriophylla Fabaceae Tebu gajah Forest Peninsular Jambu

Malaysia Bongkok

20. Allium cepa Liliaceae Bawang merah

21. Allium sativum Liliaceae Bawang putih

 372

22. Aloe vera Asphodelacea Lidah buaya, jadam dry soil Africa, Arabia House

adapted compounds,

planted

23. Alchornea rugosa Euphorbiaceae Julong puteh Habited parts Burma to

Philippines

24. Alpinia galanga Zingiberaceae Lengkuas Habited parts Planted,

house gardens

25. Alpinia seruginosa Zingiberaceae Temu hitam

26. Alpinia conchicera Zingiberaceae Kuas genting Market KT

27. Alternanthera sessilis Amaranthaceae Keremak Habited parts America, Africa, Villages open

Asia spaces, paths

28. Amaranthus spinosus Amaranthaceae Bayam duri Shrubery America, House

pantropical weed compounds, paths

sides

29. Amorphophallus Araceae Loki Open shady Kenyir shores

campanulatus places

30. Anacardium occidentale Anacardiaceae Gajus, ketereh Gardens, America, tropics Pulau Duyung

paths sides

31. Ananas cosmosus Bromeliaceae Nanas Gardens America, tropics Market KT

32. Anaxagorea shortechinii Annonaceae Lerek, pali monyet, Hill forest SEA, Malaysia Lata Belatan

pompon

33. Andrographis paniculata Acanthaceae Empedu tanah Open spaces, India, SEA,.world Bukit Kecil

paths spread temple KT

34. Ancistrocladus tectorius Ancistrocladaceae Akar julong hitam Forest Nicobar, malaysia forest edge, P.

to Vietnam A

35. Annona muricata Annonaceae Durian belanda Gardens P,Ketam

36. Anthocephalus cadamba Rubiaceae Kelempoyan Open spaces India, SEA Jambu

(Neolamarckia) Bongkok

37. Antiaris toxicaria Urticaceae pokok Ipoh Forest West Africa to Perak

pacific

38. Antidesma gheosembilla Euphorbiaceae Sepat, gunciak, Rain forest China to Australia Cendering

kuncor

39. Apama corymbosa (syn) Aristolochiaceae Empedu beruang

40. Archidendron jiringa Mimosaceae Pokok jering Rain forest, Bukit

belukar Cempaka

41. Areca catechu Arecaceae Pokok pinang P.Duyung

42. Ardisia crenata Myrsinaceae Mata pelanduk Rain forest Hills near La

43. Ardisia littoralis Myrsinaceae mata ayan paya,pena Mangrove India to Malesia Village, Pulau

Duyung
 373

44. Argemone mexicana papaveracea Deruju, celang Mexico

geringan

45. Aristolochia tagala Aristolochiaceae Akar ketola hutan Forests, India, Asia, Pulau

thickets Australia Duyung, wild

46. Aromadendron elegans Magnoliaceae Cempaka hutan Low land rain SEA

forest

47. Artabotrys odoratissimus Annonacaeae Kenanga cina, atar Forest tropical Asia KT market,

planted

48. Artabotrys suaveolens Annonaceae Akar larak berduri Burma to

Philippines

49. Artemisia vulgaris Asteraceae Sundar malam open grounds Temperate lorong Haji

climates,China Jamil

50. Artocarpus altilis Moraceae Sukun Sandy Malysia to Batu Rakit

grounds Polynesia

51. Artocarpus communis Moracae Nangka Forest P.Duyung

52. Artocarpus elasticus Moracae Terap pasir Forest

53. Artocarpus polyphena Moraceae cempedak Wet tropics India to Australia

54. Artrophyllum ovalifolium Araliaceae Tumbuh nyor Sunny areas Malaysia,

S'pore,Indonesia

55. Asplenium nidum Aspleniaceae Paku langsuyir trees,rocks, SEA, Pacific P.Duyung

houses

56. Asystasia cormandeliana Acantahceae Akar ruas ruas Waste lands P.Duyung

57. Asystasia gangetica Acanthaceae ara songsang rumput Waste lands Old world tropics Village paths

Israel

58. Asystasia intrusa Acanthaceae Synonym

59. Atalantia buxifolia Rutaceae Limau kiah, limau Villages S.China, SEA KT.Jln

rawit Kamarudin,

planted

60. Aulacodiscus premnoides Algae Gintek bueh, buloh

61. Averrhoa belimbi Oxalisaceae Belimbing buluh Villages Malaysia, Villages,

tropics Indonesia planted

62. Averrhoa carambola Oxalidaceae Belimbing besi Tropics India to Pacific P.Duyung

Kecil

63. Avicennia Lanata Verbenaceae Api api Mangrove Malaysia endemic Pulau Duyung

(Vul)

64. Azadirichta indica Meliaceae Mambu, lada pahit Sand and dry Nepal, Tropics Planted, run

places wild

B Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

65. Baccaurea motleyanna Euphorbiaceae Rambai Forest SEA Villages

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66. Baeckia frutescens Myrtaceae Cucur atap Coasts, bris, Malaysia , Jambu

hill tops Sumatra, S China Bongkok

67. Barleria pritonitis Acanthaceae Lendap Wet/dry weed (cf aus, if u

tropics see a…)

68. Barringtonia asiatica Lecythidaceae Putat nasi ,butun Sandy, rocky

shores

69. Barringtonia schortechinii Lecythidaceae Putat

70. Barringtonia racemosa lecythidaceae Putat paya Mangrove Pulau Duyung

71. Bauhinia valii Fabaceae Tapak kuda Monsoon East Asia India Bukit Kecil

climates

72. Bauhinia variegata Fabaceae

73. Begonia

74. Belschmedia pahangensis Lauraceae Lorong haji

Jamil

75. Bidens pilosa Asteraceae kancing baju waste America to Pacific

grounds

76. Biophyton adiantoides Asteraceae Payung Ali Waysides,

villages

77. Bixa oreliana Bixaceae Kesumba inai keling Kuala

Terengganu

78. Blumea balsamifera Asteraceae Daun capa, telinga Road sides, SEA Pulau Duyung

kerbau waste lands cemetry

79. Bonnaya serrata Scrophulariaceae Road sides, Pulau Duyung

waste lands paths

80. Borassus flabellifera Palmae lontar, tar Bank

Terengganu river

81. Borreria articularis Rubiaceae Rumput susur Inhabited Tropical Asia Pulau Duyung

parts

82. Bouea macrophylla Asteraceae Setar Pulau Duyung

83. Breynia reclinata Euphorbiaceae Hujan panas,saga

monyet

84. Bridelia ovata Euphorbiaceae Sands N. Malaysia, java

Flores

85. Brucea javanica Simaroubaceae lada pahit Sunny, India, China, Mal, Cemetry

humid lands Austr, P.Duyung

86. Bruguiera cylyndrica Rhizophoraceae Bakau puteh Mangrove Shore Pulau

Duyung

87. Bryophytum pinnatum Crassulaceae Setawar, sedingin Dry areas Pantropical Pulau Ketam

near habitations
 375

88. Buchaniana lucida Anacardiaceae Otak udang SEA to Australia

Salomon

89. Burmania coeates

C Botanical name Family Nom Malay Habitat Range Location in

Tgnu

90. Ceasalpinia bonduc Fabaceae Buah gorek Mangrove Pantropical River and sea

sides

91. Ceasalpinia sappan Fabaceae Sepang Forest, SEA native, India

riverbanks and China

92. Cajanus indicus Fabaceae Kacang hijau. dahl World tropics

93. Calanthe vestita Orchidaceae Forest SEA Lata Tembaka

94. Calophyllum inophyllum Guttiferrae penaga laut Sandy coasts Tropical Asia Dungun

coastal road

95. Calotropis gigantea Asclepiadaceae Rembega Sea side, road India, SEA Sea side, KT

sides street

96. Camella sinensis Ternstroemiaceae Pokok teh Hills

97. Cananga odorata Annonaceae Kenanga SEA Villages

98. Canarium Burseraceae Kedondon

99. Canavalia maritima Papillonaceae Kacang laut Sandy shores

100. Canna indica Cannaceae Pisang tasbeh Villages,

planted

101. Cansjera Opilliaceae Cemperai

102. Canthium deocum Rubiaceae meraga, mertulang

103. Canthium horridum Rubiaceae

104. Capparis micracantha Capparidaceae

105. Capsicum frutescens Solanaceae Cili padi Gardens

106. Carallia suffructicosa Legnoticidaceae Sisek puyuh Sekayu

107. Carallia brachiata Rhizophoraceae Fesh water Africa, SEA to

mangrove Pacific

108. Carapa moluccensis Meliaceae Nyireh Jambu

Bongkok

109. Cardiospermum Sapindaceae Peria bulan Disturbed Pan-tropical P.Duyung

halicacabum grounds

110. Carica papaya Ericaeae Betek Village

gardens

111. Caryota mitis Arecaceae Rabok, tukas Belukar Malaysia Losong

112. Cassia alata Cesalpinaceae Gelenggang besar Flood plains Mexico to tropics Villages

113. Cassia fistula Cesalpinaceae

114. Cassia occidentalis Cesalpinaceae

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115. Cassia tora Cesalpinaceae Gelenggang Belukar Jalan

Kamarudin

116. Cassythia filiformis Lauraceae Rambut puteri on trees Pantropical Kampong

Hiliran

117. Castanopsis javanica Fagaceae Badang, gertak Forest SEA

tangga

118. Casuarina equisetifolia Casuarinaceae Rhu, cemara Sandy coasts Pantai Rhu 7,

Batu Buruk

119. Catharantus roseus Apocynaceae Kemunting Cina Beaches Madagascar to the Pantai Batu

Pacific Buruk

120. Catunaregam tomentosa Rubiaceae (Randia) India, SEA Jambu

Bongkok

121. Ceiba pentandra Malvaceae Kekabu,kapok Secondary Americas, Africa, P.Duyung,

forest, villages India,SEA villages, plted

122. Celosia argentea Amaranthaceae Bayam merah

123. Centella asiatica Umbelliferae Pegaga open fields Madagascar to the P.Duyung

Pacific

124. Cephaelis griffithii Rubiaceae Cempaka bukit

125. Cephalis triceps Rubiaceae

126. Cerbera odollam Apocynaceae Pong pong Mangrove India, SEA, to P.Ketam

edge Polynesi

127. Champeria griffithii Opilliaceae

128. Chassalia chartaceae Rubiaceae Beberas., jarum Forest hills

jarum

129. Chasalia curviflora Polypodiaceae Beras puteh

130. Cheilianthes tenuifolia Meliaceae Resam lumut

131. Chikrassia tabularis Cenana puteh

132. Chromolaena odorata Asteraceae Pokok kapal terbang Sunny land America. spread Besut

from Siam

133. Chirita syn Primulina Gesneriaceae

134. Chrysophyllum cainito Sapotaceae Africa

135. Cibotium barometz Dicksoniaceae Penawar jambi Humid hills S.China Malaysia Genting

Highlands

136. Cinnamomum cassia Lauraceae Kulit

137. Cinnamoum cinerium Lauraceae

138. Cinnamomum iners Lauraceae Medang Teja Remnant in Southern Logged forest

pre-disturbed Thailand,North Kampung

forest Peninsula Malaysia,

Southern Thailand

139. Cinnamomum porrectum Lauraceae Akar sarsi Kuala Berang

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140. Cinnamomum Lauraceae medang luso Forest

parthenoxylon

141. Cinnamomum sintok Lauraceae sintok Forest

142. Cinnamomum zeylanicum Lauraceae Kayu kuli manis

143. Cissampelos pareira Menispermaceae Gasing gasing

144. Cissus quadrangularis Vitaceae Pokok patah tulang

145. Citrus aurantica Rutaceae Limau Village gardens

146. Citrus hystrix Rutaceae Limau purut Village gardens

147. Citrus maxima Rutaceae Limau besar, Village gardens

pomelos

148. Citrus medica Rutaceae Limau nipis Village gardens

149. Citrus microcarpa Rutaceae Limau kasturi Village gardens

150. Clausena excavata Rutaceae pokok kemantu

151. Clausena lansiunm Rutaceae

152. Clerodendrum Verbenaceael/Lamiaceae

disparifolium

153. Clerodendrum paniculatum Verbenaceae Pemangil SEA P.Duyung

garden

154. Clerodenrum serratum Verbenaceae Timba tasek

155. Clerodendrum fragrans Verbenaceae

156. Clitoria ternata Fabaceae Bunga biru, kacang Pulau Duyung

telan

157. Cocculus cf Anamirta Menispermaceae Poison Villages, beaches

isles

158. Cocos nucifera Arecaceae Nyor, kelapa sandy shores SEA ,Pacific P.Duyung

159. Coestolegia griffithii Meliaceae Durian badak Urban

gardens

160. Coix lachryma jobi Graminae Jelai Behind jln

kampung Cina

161. Coleus amboinicus Labiatiae Ati ati

162. Coleus blumei Labiatiae Bangun bangun

163. Coscinum blumeanum Menispermaceae Kekunyit Vine Lata Tembaka

164. Cosmos caudatus Asteraceae Ulam raja P.Duyung

gardens

165. Costus speciosus Zingiberaceae Setawar Forest Sekayu

166. Crataeva macrocarpa Capparidaceae Dala hutan

167. Cratavea murvala Capparidaceae

168. Cratoxylon cochinchinensis Hypericaceae mempat Forest

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169. Crinum asiaticum Amaryllidaceae Bakun Brackish SEA P.Duyung

swamps

170. Croton tiglium Euphorbiaceae Cengkian

171. Croton caudatum Euphorbiaceae Daun puding Indonesia, New Cemetries

Guineae gardens KT

172. Crudia curtisii Fabaceae Kempas harimau

173. Cryptocarya Lauraceae

174. Cudrania javanensis Lauraceae jering tupai, kempas

harimau

175. Curanga fel-terrae --Picria Asteraceae

176. Curculigo latifolia- Hypoxidaceae Lembah nyor Secondary Rubber

Molineria forests plantation Tepoh

177. Curculigo capitulata Hypoxidaceae

178. Curcuma aeruginosa Zingiberaceae Temu hitam Grass areas SEA Garden Pulau

Duyung

179. Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Kunyit sandy places India, SEA Garden Pulau

Duyung

180. Cycas edendata Cycadaceae Paku laut Dry exposed Indian Ocean Pulau Kapas

coasts

181. Cyclea latiflora Menispermaceae Akar teron kemang scrub hedges P. Malaysia, parts On fence

of SEA Pulau Duyung

182. Cymbopogon citratus Graminae Serai Gardens

183. Cymbopogon nardus Graminae Serai wangi Planted,

house gardens

184. Cynometra cauliflora Euphorbiaceae Katak puru, kekatong wet tropics Malaysia, Pulau Ketam

with sun indigenous

185. Cyperus rotundus Cyperaceae teki, rumput halia Africa to Fields, waste land

hitam Warm parst world

D Botanical name family Malay name Habitat Distribution Location

Tgnu

186. Datura metel Solanaceae Kecubung Grasslands, From Mexico to Kota Lama

scru, waste Old Wold Duyung

187. Decaspermum fructicosum Myrtaceae kelentit nyamok, Thickets Bukit besar

tuka

188. Decaspermum paniculatum Myrtaceae

189. Dendrobium crumenatum Orchidaceae Angerek merpati On coconut P.Duyung

trees

190. Derris elliptica Fabaceae Akar tuba Forests Northern SEA T'gnu River

edges, river sides side

 379

191. Derris trifoliata Fabaceae Tuba laut, ketui sea side, World tropics Estuary

mangrove Terengganu

192. Desmodiunm polycarpum Fabaceae Kacang kayu

193. Desmodium triflorum Fabaceae Sisek tenggiling

194. Dianela ensifolia Hemerocallidace, Siak, meroyan grassland to Old world tropics Bukit Besar

Phormiaceae Herb bungkus forest hill KT

195. Urticaceae Jalan Hiliran

shrub hill

196. Didissandra frutescens Scrophuliaraceae Tarum hutan hill forest, Mascarenes to the Sumatra.

damp ravines Pacific, Japan, India Malaysia

197. Dioscora hispida Dioscoreaceae Ubi Gadong waste lands Malaysia Borneo

Sumatra

198. Dioscorea pentaphylla Dioscoreaceae

199. Diospyros argentea Ebenaceae Bedil lalat Forest hills Lata Tembaka

200. Diospyros terengganuensis Ebenaceae kayu arang, keping Lowland Terengganu Lata Belatan

besi forests

201. Dischidia gaudichandilii Asclepiadaceae Duit duit, pitis pitis On tree in the Malaysia, Borneo Losong

tropics

202. Displora kunstlerii Nasi dingin SEA

203. Dodonea viscosa Kayu berteh

204. Dolychandrone spathacea Bignoniaceae Tui Mangrove, Pulau Ketam

coasts

205. Dracaena elliptica Agavaceae Sepanjang hutan Madagascar to

Pacific

206. Dracaena gravifolia Agavaceae Badang,(?) jelutong

207. Drymis piperita

208. Driobalanocarpus Dipterocarpaceae Kapur Forest Jambu

camphora Bongkok

209. Dyera costulata Fabaceae Forest

E Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

210. Eichornia crassipes Pontyederiaceaee Keladi bunting Water ways, world wide Losong

ponds

211. Etlingera elatior Zingiberaceae Bunga kantan Forest Native Gardens

SEA,Tropics planted

212. Etlingera coccinea Zingiberaceae Tepus kesing Forest Malaysia, Borneo Sekayu

213. Elephantopus scaber Asteraceae Tapak suleiman sunny waste Africa to Nepal Cemetry

lands and SEA P.Duyung

214. Eleusine indica graminae gelang subang sunny waste Warm countires Weed

lands
 380

215. Emilia sonchifolia Asteraceae Bayam perasi Humid waste Tropical Asia to P.Duyung

land Australia

216. Entada phaseolides Fabaceae Beluru Low land Africa, Asia and Jambu

coastal forest Pacific Bongkok

217. Epigynum perakensis Pontederiaceae Lemak ketam Forest India S. China,

Malaysia

218. Epiphyllum oxypetalum Cactaceae Bakawali, buah naga Gardens America, spread to Pulau

world Duyung,

cultivated

219. Epipremnum pinnatum Araceae Rengut, Belukar near SEA, South China Pulau Duyung

kelempayang habitation

220. Eriaucolon sexangularae Eriaucolaceae Rumput kepala lalat Indo-Malesia Kota Lama

Duyung

221. Eryngium foetidum Umbelliferae jemuju. Ketumbar Kyllingia

jawa synoym

222. Erytroxylum cuneatum Erytroxylaceae Cinta mula Coasts Burma to Java Pulau Kapas

223. Ervatamia corymbosa Apocynaceae Susun kelapa, pokok Marsh, ponds Madagascar Gardens KT

resdong

224. Eugenia aqua Myrtaceae jambu Air

225. Eugenia claviflora Myrtaceae Jambu arang, keriang Lowland India to Australia Duyung

forest cemetry

226. Eugenia pustulata Myrtaceae

227. Eupatorium odoratum Asteracae Pokok german Grassland Americas Weed

228. Eurycoma longifolia Simaroubaceae Tongkat Ali Forest hills SEA Sungai La

229. Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae Ambin jantan Waste land Amrica, SEA Near

habitations

230. Euphorbia thymifolia Euphorbiaceae Rumput barah Waste land Tropics Near

habitations

231. Euphorbia tirucalli Euphorbiaceae Tetulang Gardens

232. Evodia latifolia Rutaceae Setengek burong Waste land Siam, Malaysia

Java

233. Evodia roxburghiana Rutaceae Tengek burong Waste land India, Malaysia

234. Excoecaria agallocha Apocynaceae Bebuta Mangrove, Tropical Africa to

sea coasts Australia

F Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

235. Villages, India, SEA to

Fagrea fragrans Tembusu coastal sands Moluccas Batu Rakit

Loganiaceae
236. Villages,

Fagrea maingayi Loganiaceae Setawar, sepuleh coastal sands P.Ketam

 381

237. Akar kunyit kencing Villages,

Fibraurea chloroleuca Menispermaceae kerbau Forest slopes coastal sands

238. Villages,

Fissistigma lanuginum Annonaceae Larak api selusuh Forest jardin P.Duyung

239. Akar tengkok biawak

Ficus callicarpa Moraceae hitam Forest Lata Belatan

240. Mas secotet, telinga Jambu

Ficus deltoides Moraceae kera Forest, coast bongkok

241. Ficus diversifolia Moraceae Mas secotet jantan Forest Gunong Tebu

242. Lata Belatan,

Ficus fosworthii Moraceae Tin Forest Jambu Bongkok

243. Gunong

Filetia hirta Acanthaceae Not in Burkill Forest Nuang

244. Fimbristylis diphylla Cyperaceae Rumput kepala lalat Fiklds Tropics

245. Himalayas to Pulau

Flacourtia jangomas Flacourtiaceae Kerekup Gardens Malaysia Duyung, garden

246. P.Duyung ,

Flagellaria indica Flagellaraceae Rotan dini Belukar path

247. Pandan tikus, Warm parts of the

Freycinetia angustifolia Pandanaceae rancang besi Fields world

248. Belukar and Mascarenes to P.Duyung,

Flemingia strobilifera Fabaceae Serengan
coasts New Caledonia cemetry

G Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

249. Galearia fulvii

250. Bukit

Garcinia atroviridis Guttiferaeae Asam gelugor Cempaka

251. Garcinia bracteata Guttiferaeae

252. Garcinia dulcis Guttiferaeae Mundu

253. Native of China, House

Gardenia jasminoides Rubiaceae Bunga Cina Villages distributed over the compounds

world villages and town

254. Garcinia hombroiana Guttiferaeae Pokok semeta

255. Malaysia Gardens,

Gardeniopsis longifolia Rubiaceae Julong Forest Indonesia planted

256. Sumatra,

Globba panicoides Zingiberaceae Halia hutan Forest Malaysia, Borneo

257. Hujan panas, saga coast, India to

Glochidion littorale Euphorbiaceae monyet swamps Philippines P. Ketam

 382

258. Malaysia,

Glupta rengas Anacardiaceae Rengas River banks Indonesia Pulau Sekati

259. Philippines,

Glycosmis puberula Rutaceae Terape Belukar Malaysia Pulau Duyung

260. Glycosmis citrifolia Rutaceae Terape Belukar S.China, SEA P.Duyung

261. Glyptopetalum Mountain

quadrangularis Celastraceae Cekur manis gajah forests

262. Villages,

Gnetum gnemon Gnetaceae Meninjau cultivated SEA P.Duyung

263. Seberang

Gomphostemma crinitum Labiatae mejulong bukit SEA Takir

264. Goniothalamus

macrophyllus Annonaceae Mempisang Forest SEA Lata belatan

265. Goniothalamus Malaysia, Sumatra

schortechinii Annonaceae Gajah beranak Forest Boreo Sungai La

266. Goniothalamus tapis Annonaceae Kenerak Forest SEA Sekayu

267. Secondary

Grewia paniculata Tilliaceae forest

268. Coasts {acific

Guettardia speciosa Rubiaceae ketapang pasir Sea side Australis Pulau Kapas

269. Inhabited

Guioa pleuropters Sapindaceae Kelentit nyamok laut areas SEA

270. Guioa pubescens sapindaceae Open country SEA

271. Gynandropsis gynandra Capparidaceae Maman Village paths Tropics Pulau Duyung

272. Sebiak, sambong

Gynura procumbens Asteraceae nyawa Cultivated SEA Lrg haji Jamil

H Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

273. Peninsular

Harpullia confusa Sapindaceae Kesemak Forest Malaysia, Java

274. Humid tropics to

Heydiotis glabra Rubiaceae Rumput sebueh Path sides Pacific

275. Helicteres isora Sterculiaeae Pulasan, cabai Forest India to Java Lata Belatan

276. Dryer open

Heliotropum indicum Boraginaceae Rumput ekor kucing lands Tropics Road sides

277. Helminthostachys Secondary India to New Gunung

zeylanica Ophioglossaceae Akar tunjuh langit forest, rubber Caledonia Kambing

278. Hemigraphis colorata Acanthaceae Benalu api Villages SEA

279. Indian to Pacific Pulau

Heritiera littoralis Sterculiaceae Dungun Coastal areas coasts Duyumg

 383

280. Hernandia peltata Hernandiaceae Buah keras laut Islands Tropics

281. Hibiscus Abelmoschus Malvaceae Kapas hantu

282. Cultivated in From Africa to

Hibiscus esculentus Malvaceae Kacang bendi villages India and SEA Pulau Duyung

283. China to the

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Malvaceae Bunga raya Cultivated Pacific Pulau Duyung

284. tropical "all round the

Hibiscus tilliaceae Malvaceae Bebaru shores world" P.Duyung

285. Tropics, perhaps Road side to

Hibiscus sabdariffa Malvaceae Asam susur rozelle, Cultivated from Africa Jambu Bongkok

286. India to Jambu

Hippocratea indica Celastraceae Serapat akar Forest Philippines Bongkok

287. Akar kepayang(?), Kampung

Hodgsonia capniocarpa Cucurbitacea Keluak Belukar India to SEA Paloh

288. Forest, Burma to North

Hopea odorata Dipterocarpaceae Cengal kampung coastal areas Malaysia Pulau Duyung

289. SEA and troipical

Homalomena griffithii Araceae Batang kemoyan Belukar America Pulau Duyung

290. Cempaka selong, Swamp Sri Lanka to

Horsfielda irya Myristicaceae pianggu forests Borneo

291. Forests and East Asia to Jambu

Hoya coronaria Asclepiadaceae Setebal orchards Pacific Bongkok

292. kemuning gong Lowland Gunung

Hunteria corymbosa Apocynaceae badak Forest Africa, India SEA Kambing

293. dedalu laut, kepala Coasts and Malay archipel to Jambu

Hydnophytum formicarium Rubiaceae beruk hills Polynesia Bongkok

294. Tropics, South

Hygrophylla angustifolia Acanthaceae Cukai, keremak batu Marsh India, China

295. Pulau Duyung

Hyptis sualveolens Labiatae Selaseh hutan Belukar tropics

I
Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

296. gardens Kuala

Impatiens balsamifera Balsaminaceae Inai keling Cultivated Terengganu

297. Seberang

Imperata cylindrica Graminae Lalang Weed Tropics Takir

298. Intsia bakeri leguminosae Merbau Forest Tropics Sekayu

 384

299. Ipomea batatas Convolvulaceae Ubi leledek Cultivated From America Kuala Berang

300. Ipomea pes-caprae Convolvulaceae Tapak kuda Sandy shores All over the world Pulau Duyung

301. Moist areas, Jalan

Ipomea reptans Convolvulaceae Kangkong laut water SEA Kampung Cina

302. Remput tembaga tropical Asia to

Ischaenum indicum Gramineae jantan Australia

303. Malaysia and

Ixonandres icosandra Linaceae Pagar anak Forest Sumatra Lata Belatan

304. Road sides, India, cultivated in

Ixora coccinea Rubiaceae Jejarun gardens Malaysia river sides

305. Malaysia and

Ixora javanica Rubiaceae Pecah periuk Forest Borneo Lata Belatan

J Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

306. Marshy Malaysia and Jambu

Jackia ornata Rubiacea Selumar, Aji Samat forest Borneo Bongkok

307. low land Thailand,

Jasminum bifarium Oleaceae Melur, melati Forest Malaysia, Indonesia

308. Villages

jasminum sambac Oleaceae Melati, Pekan, Melur Cultivated India, China, SEA gardens

309. Villages

Jatropha curcas Euphorbiaceae Jarak Cultivated From Americas gardens

310. Jussaeia suffructicosa Onagraceae Lakom air Wet places All the world

311. Justicia gandarussa Acanthaceae Gandarusa Belukar Tropics Pulau Duyung

K Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

312. Kaempferia galanga Zingiberaceae Cekur Cultivated From India Market KT

313. Around the world,

Kaempferia pulcra Zingiberaceae Kencur Cultivated Java

314. mangrove,

Knema intermedia Myristicaceae Penarahan itek, forest SEA Sekayu

315. Kompassia exelsia Fabaceae Tualang Forest ridges SEA

316. Gunung

Kopsia singapurensis Apocynaceae Pokok resdong Forest SEA Kambing

317. inhabited

Kyllingia brevifolia Cyperaceae Rumput teki areas Tropics Kepala lalat

L Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

318. Labisia pothoina Myrsinaceae Kacip Fatimah Forest SEA Lata Tembaka
 385

319. Forest and India and Malesia

Lansium domesticum Meliaceae langsat, duku villages (?) Pulau Duyung

320. Low land Madagascar, Seberang

lagerstroema flos-regina Lytraceae Bongor forest Japan,Autralia Takir

321. lagerstroema speciosa lythracea Bongor raya Villages India to Australia Pulau Duyung

322. Road sides

lantana camara Verbenaceae Bunga tahi ayam Villages America KT

323. Lasia aculeata Araceae gegeli Hills, belukar SEA pulau Duyung

324. Malysia, Borneo,

Lasianthus ridlleyi Rubiaceae Sekentut Forest Java Sekayu

325. lasianthus stipularis Rubiaceae Sekentut,ubat barah Forest Seberang

326. Lawsonia inermis lythraceae Inai Villages From Asia, spread Pulau Duyung

327. Leea indica Vitacea Memali Belukar India to Polynesia Seberang

328. Europe temperate

Leonurus sibiricus Labiaceae Seranting Belukar Asia

329. Lepidagathis longifolia Acanthaceae Peluruh, segugur Forest edges Tropics Pasir raja

330. Madagascar to

Lepironia mucronata Cyperaceae Purun danau Ponds Fidji

331. pokok terajang Seberang

Lepisanthes kunstleri Sapindaceae merajang Belukar Tropical Asia Takir

332. ceremai hantu, c,

Leptonychia heteroclita Sterculiaceae burong Belukar Tropics

333. Gelam bukit, cucur Hills and Australia to Jambu

Leptospermum flavescens Myrtaceae atap coasts Malaysia Bongkok

334. Mascarenes-

Leptaspis urceolata Graminae Hill forest Polynesia

335. Lettsomia maingayi Convolvulaceae Mountains

336. leucaena leucocephala Mimosaceae Petai belalang Forest Pulau Duyong

337. Waste India to

Leucas zeylanica Labiaceae ketumbit ground Philippines Pulau Duyung

338. Leucopogon malayanus Sandy coasts, Jambu

(Stphel.)Epacridaceae Epacridaceae Cucur atap montains SEA, Australia Bongkok

339. Licuala kunstleri Palmae Palas SEA, Australia

340. Moist places,

Limnophilia aromatica Scrophuliaraceae Beremi hutan water India to Australia

341. SEA, North

Lindera malaccensis Lauraceae Medang perawas Forest America

342. "Main range

Lindera selangorensis lauraceae Kerabu (?) Forest Peninsula"

 386

343. Grass land,

Lindernia crustaceae Scrophuliaraceae Akar kerak nasi open ground Tropics Pulau Duyung

344. Litsea cubeba Lauraceae Medang Forest

345. Thailand,

Litsea petiolata Lauraceae Medang perawas Forest Malaysia

346. Lobellia affiins Lobeliaceae Warm countries

347. Lonicera japonica Caprifoliaceae Gardens Asia Imported

348. From India to

Lophaterun gracile Graminae Rumput jarang Open forest Japan

349. Lophopetalum wallichii Celestraceae Kroi Forest SEA

350. Luffa echinata Cucurbitaceae Petola Gardens All over the world Gardens

351. Tidal East coast Africa

Lumnitzera coccinea Combretaceae Teruntum swamps to Pacific

352. Lusis quadrangularis pokok buasir

353. Indo Malesian jambu

Luvunga scandens Rutacea Susoh ayam hutan Forest region bongkok

354. Warm countries, Padang air,

Lycium chinensis Solanaceae Koki, gochi Gardens America planted

355. Lycopodium serratum Lycopodiaceae Paku serani Warm countries

356. Tropics of the old

Lygodium flexuosum Schizaeceae Ribu ribu besar Open country world

357. Open grassy Tropics of the old

Lygodium scandens Schizaeceae Ribu ribu lands world Seberang

M Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

358. Mallotus floribundus Euphorbiaceae Mahang,tampin Belukar Tropics, SEA Jalan Hiliran

359. Bukit Kecil,

Mallotus macrostachys Euphorbiaceae Balek angin Belukar Tropics, SEA KT

360. Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae Mempelam Villages India, SEA Villages

361. Mexico to Villages,

Manilkara kauki Sapotaceae Sawo, ciku Villages Phlippines, P.Dyung

362. Mapania humilis Cyperacea Sepit, siak siak rimba Forest Tropics Lata Belatan

363. Masdenia tinctora

Asclepiadacea Asclepiadaceae Akar tarum Forest Tropics Lata Belatan

364. Australia and

Melaleuca leucadendron Myrtaceae Pokok gelam Mangrove, Malaysia Batu Rakit

365. South China to Villages roads

Melastoma candidum Melastomaceae Keduduk Belukar SEA sides

366. Mascarenes to

Melastoma malabathricum Melastomaceae Keduduk puteh Belukar Pacific Villages

 387

367. inhabited

Melia azadarach Meliacea Margosa areas Himalaya to world Planted in KT

368. Mascarenes to Villages near

Merremia peltata Convolvulaceae Akar ulam Belukar Pacific KT

369. Hymalaya to Hill, Bukit

Mesua ferrea Guttifereae Penaga Forest Malaysia Cempaka

370. Jambu

Mezoneuron sumatranum Fabaceae Darah belut Forest Tropics Bomgkok

371. Indo-malaya Tanjung Biji

Michelia alba Magnoliaceae Chempaka puteh Planted ecozone Sura

372. Forest,

Michelia cempaka Magnoliaceae Chempaka puteh planted India to SEA Villages

373. KT

town,abandonned

Mikania scandens Asteraceae Akar ulam tikus Belukar Tropics houses

374. Warmer parts of

Millettia atropurpurea Fabaceae Tulang daing laut Forest the world Sekayu

375. Warmer parts of

Millettia serticea Fabaceae Tulang daing laut Forest the world Sekayu

376. From America to

Mimosa pudica Mimosaceae Semalu belukar SEA Villages

377. India , Burma, Kampung

Mimusops elengi Sapotaceae Tanjung Forest spread Tanjung in KT

378. Mitragyna speciosa Rubiaceae Ketum,biak Forest Old world tropics Hills, Tepuh

379. Momordica Charantia Cucurbitaceae Peria Gardens World spread P.Duyung

380. Morinda citrifolia Rubiaceae Mengkudu Belukar Tropics P.Duyung

381. Morinda elliptica Rubiaceae Mengkudu Belukar Tropics P.Duyung

382. India spread to KT, jln

Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Kacang kelur Villages tropics Kamarudin

383. China, tropical,

Morus alba Moraceae Tut, besaran Villages temperate Pulau Duyung

384. Mexico to the

Muntigia calabura Tiliaceae Kerukup Siam Villages Phlippines P.Duyung

385. SEA, Australia,

Murraya koenigii Rutaceae Kemuning Villages Pacific P.Duyung

386. SEA, Australia,

Murraya paniculata Rutaceae Daun kari Gardens Pacific P.Duyung

387. Musa asiatica Musaceae Pisang hutan gardens Belara

388. Malaysia

Musa gracilis Musaceae Pisang hutan Forest Terengganu Tersat

 388

389. Belukar, India

Mussaendra glabra Rubiaceae Balek adap villages China,Malaysia Sekayu

390. Mussaendra mutabilis Rubiaceae Balek adap Hills Lata Tembaka

391. Myristica fragrans Myristicaceae Pala Indonesia

392. Peiuk hantu, raja Malaysia into the

Myrmecodia tuberosa Rubiaceae stong Forest Pacific Lata Belatan

393. low forest,

Myxopyrum nervosum Oleacea Akar dedawai swamps SEA, New Guinea

N Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

394. Mempoyan empedu Indochina,

Nauclea junghunii Rubiaceae tanah Forest Malaysia

395. Mengkai, pulasan

Nauclea maingayi Rubiaceae hutan Forest Malaysia

396. China, India,

Nelumbium nelumbo Nympheaceae Teratai, telepok Water Egypt,Japan Sekayu

397. Peninsular

Neobalanocarpus heimii Dipterocarpaceae Cengal Red listed Forest Malaysia Lata belatan

398. Neolitsea zeylanica Lauraceae Teja , teja pasir Belukar SEA, Australia P.Duyung

399. Malaysia,

Neonauclea calycina Rubiaceae Kepayang air Forest Indonesia

400. Forest,

Neopteris nidus Polypodiaceae Paku langsuyir vilages, rubber Humid tropics Kpg Setebu

401. Tropical Asia to

Nephelium mutabile Sapindaceae Pulasan Villages Pacific

402. Cultivated,

Nephelium longana Sapindaceae Longan Villages China,India

403. Neptuna oleracia legum Keman air Tropics

404. Mediteranee to

Nerium oleander Apocynaceae Bunga Jepun Villages Japan

405. Planted,

Nicotiana Solanaceae Tembakau Plantations America, spread coasts

406. Mediteranee to

Nigella sativa Renunculaceae Jintan hitam India

407. Mangrove,

Nypa fruticans Palmae Nipah estuaries Gange to Australia Pulau Duyung

408. SEA, tropical

Notaphoebe panduriformis Lauraceae Medang air River banks America

409. Nothopanax scutellarium Araliaceae Daun mangkok from Java

 389

410. From India to

Nyctantes arbor-tristis Oleacaceae Serigading Villages China,spread

411. lagunas, still

Nymphea lotus Nympheaceae Telepok waters All over the world

412. America, Asia,

Nyssa javanica Cornaceae Lofty tree Malaysia

O Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

413. Ocinum basilicum Labiaceae Selaseh Villages All over the world Gardens

414. Ocinum canum Labiaceae Kemangi Villages all over the world Gardens

415. Africa India, now Paths sides,

Oldenlandia corymbosa Rubiaceae Siku siku Belukar pantropical villages

416. Oncosperma horrida Palmae Bayas Dry forests

417. Forests, Terengganu

Oncosperma tigillaria Palmae Nibong mangroves SEA lower course

418. Pokok sumbu badak, India to The

Ophiorriza communis Rubiaceae megawali Forests, Pacific

419. Malaysia to Kpg near Batu

Orania macrocladus Palmae Ibul Australia Rakit

420. Himalaya China to

Oroxylum indicum Bignoniaceae Bolai kayu, beka mangrove Malaysia Pulau Duyung

421. Belukar, India China

Ortosiphon stamineus Labiatiae Misai kucing gardens Pacific Australia Pulau Duyung

422. Tropical Asia and

Ostodes macrophylla Euphorbiaceae Akar julong bukit Forest Malaysia

423. Waste S,America, S.

Oxalis corniculata Oxalidaceae Sikap dada grounds Africa.,few SEA Pulau Duyung

P Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

424. India, China,

Paederia foetida Rubiaceae Sekentut Belukar Philippines Pulau Duyung

425. Forest, Malaysia,

Pangium edule Flacourtiaceae Kepayang, keluak Belukar Indonesia

426. India, Malaysia,

Parameria barbata Apocynaceae Akar serapat puteh Forest Borneo Lata belatan

427. Jambu

Paramygna angulata Rutaceae Limau lelang Forest, coasts India, China, SEA Bongkok

428. Jambu

Paramygna scandens Rutaceae Akar selusuh ayam Coasts India, China, SEA Bongkok

429. Panicum sarmentosum Graminae janggut Ali belukar Asia, SEA

 390

430. Kampung

Parkia speciosa Mimosaceae Peta Java Forest Humid tropics Setebu

431. Ulat bulu, timun America , Europe,

Passiflora foetida Passifloraceae dendang Belukar Asia Pulau Duyung

432. Himalaya, China,

Pavetta graciflora Rubiaceae Jejarum Forest Australia

433. Peireskia bleo Cactaceae jarun sembilan Villages America to Java Pulau Duyung

434. Himalaya to

Peliosanthes viridis Liliaceae Lat, sang, koh Forest Indonesia

435. Thailand,

Peltophorum dasyrachis Mimosaceae Jemerelang, batai Forest Malaysia, Sumatra Jeram Nerus

436. Pelthophorum pterocarpum Mimosaceae Batai Forest SEA

437. America, spread to

Peperomia pellucida Piperaceae Ketumpangan air Belukar tropics Pulau Duyung

438. Villages,

Pereskia corrugata Cactaceae Jarum sembilan Gardens planted

439. Himalaya, China

Pericampylus glaucus Menispermaceae Gasing gasing Forest to Moluccas

440. Malaysia and

Peronema canescens Verbenaceae Sungkai Belukar Indonesia

441. Montane

Phoebe grandis Lauraceae Medan keserai forest Malaysia

442. Montane Malaysia and

Phoebe kunstleri Lauraceae Medan keserai forest Borneo

443. Foot of Malay Peninsula

Phyllagathis griffithii Melastomacea Kerakap rimau mountains only

444. Serau malam , Kacip Malaysia and

Phyllagathis rotundifolia Melastomacea Fatimah Forest Sumatra

445. Phyllanthus niruri Euphorbiacea Dukong anak Coasts Tropics Pulau Duyung

446. Malay Peninsula

Phyllanthus pulcher Euphorbiacea naga buana Stream banks and Siam

447. inhabited

Phyllanthus urinaria Euphorbiacea Dukong anak areas Tropics Paths sides

448. gerahan badak, Kampung

Phyllochlamys wallichii Urticaceae sepucat Belukar North Malaysia Setebu

449. Pulau Duyung

Physalis alkekenge Solanaceae letup letup Belukar Tropics, Europe "alek nu"

450. Physostelma wallichii Asclepiadaceae Akar siak Forest Burma to Java

451. On support Malaysia, spread

Piper betle piperaceae Sireh tree by man

 391

452. Piper caninum Piperaceae Sireh hutan Low country Malaysia and Java

453. Imported to

Piper cubeba Piperaceae Kemukus Malaysia

454. Imported to

Piper longum Piperaceae Cabai Malaysia

455. Planted in

Piper nigrum Piperaceae Lada hitam Malaysia,

456. Shady coasts

Piper sarmentosum Piperaceae Kadok sides China to Java Pulau Duyung

457. Jambu

Pittosporum ferruginum Pittosporaceae Belalang puak Burma to Australia Bongkok

458. Europe to the

Plantago major Plantaginaceae Ekor angin Mountains world

459. Open and Tropical old Villages,

Plectranthus scutellarioides Labiaceae Daun ati-ati shade areas World planted

460. Tidal Bengal, China to

Pluchea indica Asteraceae Beluntas swamps Australia

461. Villages,

Plumbago zeylanica Plumbaginaceae Ceraka Road sides Africa Asia Pacific planted

462. Sumatra, Malay

Podocarpus polystachyus Conifereae Sentada Sandy Coasts Peninsula Gunong Tebu

463. Malay peninsula,

Polyalthia bullata Annonaceae Penawar hitam Forest Borneo Gunung lawit

464. Lowland Malaysia Sumatra,

Polyalthia cauliflora Annonaceae Peleh angin Forest Borneo Lata Payong

465. Polyalthia tuberosa Annonaceae Forest Tropics

466. Polygonum hydropiper Polygonaceae daun senahun Gardens World-wide

467. Polygonum minus Polygonaceae Kesum Gardens World-wide

468. Polyscias fructicosa Araliaceae Pokok teh Gardens SEA Losong

469. Portulaca oleracea Portulacaceae Gelang pasir Gardens World-wide Pulau Duyung

470. Mauritius to

Premna integrifolia Verbenaceae Bebuas Coasts Polynesia Pulau Duyung

471. Gading gading, aji

Prismatomeris glabra Rubiacea samat Forest SEA Lata Payong

472. Burma, Malaysia,

Psychotria viridiflora Rubiaceae Jarum jarum ukit Forest Indonesia Lata belatan

473. Malaysia and

Pternandra echinata Melastomacea Sial menahun Forest Borneo

474. Rocky, sunny Tropics old

Pterocarpus indicus Fabaceae Angsana areas World, Malaysia Pulau Ketam

 392

475. Burma to new

Pterocymbium javanicum Sterculiaceae Keluak, Bayur (syn) Guinea

476. Kacang Kampung

Pueraria phaseolides kacang(P.candollei?) Low country SEA, Pacific Sayap

477. Egypt, Persia and

Punica granatum Punicaceae Delima Gardens SEA Cabang Tiga

Q Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

478. Berangan, kertak

Quercus dsicocarpa Cupulifereae tangga Forest World spread Sekayu

479. Secondary Batu Buruk

Quiscalis indica Combretaceae Akar dani forest Asian tropics gardens

R Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

480. Malaysia,

Rafflesia hasseltii Citinaceae Bunga pakma Forest Indonesia Kenyir north

481. Sumatra,

Randia anisophylla Rubiaceae Bungkal Forest Malaysia, Borneo

482. Sumatra,

Rauvolfia perakensis Apocynaceae Batu pelir kambing Belukar Malaysia,Thailand Pulau Duyung

483. Burma to Borneo,

Renellia speciosa Rubiaceae Mengkudu rimba Forest Malaysia Lata Tembaka

484. Secundary Tenasserim to

Rhodamia trinerva Myrtaceae Mempoyang forest Australia

485. Cimetry

Rhodomyrtus tomentosus Myrtaceae Kemunting Open land SEA P.Duyung

486. Belukar, Kuala

Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae Jarak planted Africa to the world Terengganu

487. Siam, Malaysia,

Rinorea floribunda Violaceae Babi kurus Sumatra

488. Rinorea kunstleriana Violaceae (?) Selong pacat

489. Jalan Haji

Rubus moluccanus Roseacea Tapak ringu Planted World-wide Jamil

490. Lorong haji

Ruella repens Acanthaceae Akar keremak Grassy places SEA Jamil

491. Planted in Mediteranee to the Jalan Haji

Ruta graveolens Rutaceae Garuda pots world Jamil

S Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu
 393

492. Sandy, sunny Seberang

Saccharum officinarum Gramineae Tebu areas Tropics Takir

493. Swampy

Sagittaria sagittifolia Alismaceae Ubi Keladi places Temperate zones Paya Keladi

494. Tenasserim to

Salacia flavescens Celestraceae Serapat, empedal itek Forest Singapore

495. Salacia prinoldes Celestraceae Rakat Forest India to Australia

496. sanseveria Liliaceae Llidah biawak Planted tropics Gardens

497. Santaloides puchellum Conaraceae Akar sembelit Forest Malay Peninsula

498. India,

Santalum album Santalaceae Chandan Forest Indonesia,not Malaysia Imported

499. Coasts, India, Malaysia,

Sapium indicum Euphorbiaceae Gurah mangroves Indonesia Pulau Duyung

500. Belukar and India, Indonesia, Pulau Duyung

Sauropus androgynus Euphorbiaceae Cekur manis planted Malaysia ,cimetry

501. Kembang Sea coast Asia to

Scaphium affine Sterculiaceae semangkok Forest Pacific Sekayu

502. Sea coast Asia to

Scaveola frutescens Goodeniaceae Ambong-ambong Coasts Pacific Pulau Kapas

503. Schefflera arboricola Araliaceae Belutas hutan Forest

504. Sumatra, Malay

Schefflera pentaphylla Araliaceae Kerbau amok, Forest Peninsula Lata Tembaka

505. Padi fields Europe to

Scirpus mucronatus Cyperaceae Kerecut, fallows Australia Marang

506. Scoparia dulcis Scrophulariaceae Teh Macao Path sides America Pulau Duyung

507. Senna fistula Fabaceae Bereksa, kayu raja India. SEA

508. Senna occidentalis Fabaceae Kacang kota open spaces

509. Open spaces From America, Belukar

Senna alata Fabaceae Gelenggang humid spread P.Duyung

510. Selaginella atroviridis Selaginellaceae Paku merak Forest Asia and SEA Sekayu

511. World Tropics to Pacific, Jalan

Sesbania grandiflora fabaceae Turi warmer parts planted Kamarudin

512. Wild and

Sesamun indicum Pedaliaceae Biji bijan cultivated Africa, Asia Pulau Duyung

513. Waste

Sida rhombifolia Malvaceae Selaguri ground Tropics Pulau Duyung

514. East coast

Shorea materialis Dipterocarpaceae Balau pasir Forest Malaysia Sekayu

515. Lowland Sea coasts Asia to

Sindora coriaceae Ceasalpinaceae Sepetir forest Pacific Lata Belatan

 394

516. Sumatra, Malay

Smilax callophyllum Smilacaceae Itah besi, dedawai Forest Peninsula Bukit Bintang

517. Itah tembaga, Thailand, Jambu

Smilax myosotifolia Smilacaceae tongkat Ali Forest Malaysia to Java Bongkok

518. Banks of tidal

Sonneratia caseolaris Lithraceae Berembang rivers india to Indonesia Pulau ketam

519. Sonerila nidularia Melastomaceae Kacip Fatimah (syn.) Hill forest South East Asia

520. Solanum torvum Solanaceae Terung pipit puteh Belukar Tropics Pulau Duyung

521. Solanum verbascifolium Solanaceae Terung pipit Belukar Tropics

522. Getang, subang Open America to Jalan Haji

Spilanthes acmella Asteraceae nenek grounds pantropic Jamil

523. Sophora tomentosa Fabaceae Serapat Ocean shores India to Polynesia

524. Starchytapheta jamaicensis Verbenaceae Selaseh dandi Path sides America to tropics

525. Forest, open Tropics Asia to Padang

Stenochlaena palustris Polypodiaceae Paku miding spaces Polynesia Miding

526. Thailand, North

Stichoneuron caudatum Roxburghiaceae Kayu mati hidup Malaysia

527. Thailand, North

Steptocaulon wallichii Asclepiadaceae Kayu serapat Forest edges Malaysia lata Belatan

528. inhabited

Striga asiatica Scrophulariaceae Rumput siku siku parts Tropics

529. Strychnos ignatii, ovalifolia Loganiaceae Gajah tarek Forest Tropics Lata Belatan

530. Styphelia malayana, Malaysia and Jambu

leucop. Epacridaceae Timba tasek Beaches Australia bongkok

531. Forest and Sumatra,

Styrax benzoin Styracaeae Pokok kemenian planted Malaysia, Java

532. Jambu

Syzygium bernardi Myrtaceae gelam tikus pantai Coast bongkok

T Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

533. Tabernaemontana

divaricata Apocynaceae Village gardens Tropics Tanjung Susun kelapa

534. Jangut Adam,

Tacca cristata Taccadaceae Forest Malaysia Kenyir keladi murai

535. America, Ginseng

Talinum patens Portulacaceae Cultivated spread P.Duyung melayu, som

536. Planted, India Africa

Tamarindus indica Fabaceae spontaneous to Asia P.Duyung Asam Java

537. Tarenna stellulata Rubiaceae Forest Tropics Gunung lawit Kawa hutan
 395

538. Telosma cordata Asclepiadaceae Villages India, China Tanjung Bunga Tonkin

539. Pacific, Kelat gugur,

Ternstroemia bancana Ternstroemiaceae Forest Malaysia (Theaceae) kuak

540. Indonesia to

Terminalia catappa Sterculiuaceae Sandy costs Pacific P.Duyung Ketapang

541. Tetracera indica Dillienaceae Belukar SEA P.Duyung mempelas

542. Tropical

Theobroma cacao Sterculiaceae Cultivated America Kampung Paloh pokok choklat

543. Thottea dependans Aristolochiaceae Forest Malaysia Lata tembaka Seburut

544. Seburut

Thottea grandiflora Aristolochiaceae Forest Malaysia Lata tembaka telinga beruang

545. Mascarenes Rancang

Thysanolaena agrostis Gramineae Reed to New Guinea Forest, river side buluh

546. India to New Lempoyang,

Tinomiscium petolare Menispermaceae Forest Guinea Lata Belatan akar nasi

547. Tinospora crispa Menispermaceae Villages India to SEA KT, Kubur Patarwali

548. Mediteranee,

Trachispermum amni Umbelliferae Cultivated spread Pasar Payang Ajimuju

549. Tapak

Trevesia cheirantha Araliaceae Belukar SEA KT, Kubur harimau

550. Malaysia and

Trichosantes cucumerina Cucurbitaceae Belukar Celebes Duyung, gardens Ketola ular

551. Trigonella foenum -

graecum Fabaceae Planted, spontaneous Mediterannee Pasar Payang Halba

552. Malaysia Kedondon

Trigonoclamys griffithii Burseraceae Forest Sumatra Borneo mata hari, kijai

553. Adaman to Mentua

Trigonostemon longifolius Euphorbiaceae Forest Singapore pelanduk jantan

554. Tenasserim Sekayu, L.

Tristania merguensis Myrtaceae Forest to Papua NG Tembakah Pelawan

555. Damp open

Typhonium divaricanum Araceae paths sides spaces Birah kecil,

556. Damp open

Typhonium flagelliforme Araceae paths sides spaces Duyung, gardens Keladi tikus

U Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

557. Malaysia,

Uncaria gambier Rubiaceae Forest, cultivated Indonesia Gambir, kait

 396

558. Old world Pokok ekur

Uraria crinita Fabaceae Belukar ropics angin

559. Urena lobata Malvaceae Belukar Tropics Pulau Duyung pepulut

560. Humid old Merembung

Urophyllum glabrum Rubiaceae Forest word tropics Gunung Lawit jantan

561. Akar pisand-

Uvaria purpurea Annonaceae Forest SEA Gunung Lawit pisang jantan

V Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

562. Tikam

Java to Tanjung garden seladang,

Vallaris glabra Apocynaceae Cultivated Malaysia KT kesidang

563. World-wide, Rumput tahi

Vernonia cinerea Asteraceae Paths sides warm parts Besut babi

564. Afganistan to

Vitex negundo Verbenaceae Belukar Vietnam Leban

565. Mascarenes

Vitex rotundifolia Verbenaceae Beaches to Polynesia Batu Rakit Laggundi

566. Malay

Vitis cinnamomea Ampelidaceae Forest Peninsula Jambu Bongkok Pakan, lakum

W Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

567. East Africa to

Wedelia biflora Asteraceae Open spaces Pacific Pulau Duyung Serunai laut

568. Whitfordioendron Akar tulang

pubescens Fabaceae Callerya atropurprea SEA daeng

569. Malay Depu

Wilkstroemia ridleyi Thymelaceae Mangrove Peninsula Java Pulau Duyung pelanduk

570. Tropics

Wrightia leavis Apocynaceae Forest China to Australia Asam kelapa

X Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

571. Xylocarpus granatum Africa to

Carapa Meliaceae Mangrove forest Pacific Jambu Bongkok Nyireh

572. Xylopia ferruginea Annonaceae Forest Tropics Lata La Jangkang

Z Botanical name Family Malay name Habitat Range Location

Tgnu

573. Kuku Lang,

Zanthoxylum Hirtellum Rutaceae Forest Tropics kekabu hutan

 397

574. Asia Malesia

Zingiber cassumunar Zingiberaceae Villages Pacific Pulau Duyung Bonglai

575. Zingiber zerumbet Zingiberaceae Damp areas Tropics lempoyang

576. Indo-

Ziziphus mauritiania Rhamnaceae Sandy river banks Malayan region Pulau Duyung Bidara

Appendix A: in List of Inventories, general

“Plant species Baseline Inventory” with location, uses, and occurrence in present era (323

Species)

Tr Pharm F
No. Botanical name Malay name Family Location Tgnu Bot., habit Orn. Today
. . d

M.

Akar saga W,

1 Abrus precatorius betina Fabaceae Kt, Jln pasir panjang y 2014 Climber, vine y Check

Kembang W,

2 Abutilon indicum lohor Malvaceae Villages, paths sides y 2017 Herbaceus p

3 Acalypha hispida Ekur kucing Euphorbiaceae Gardens P. Duyung y 2016 W, shrub y p

Kuncing W,

4 Acalypha indica galak Euphorbia ceae Pulau Duyung y 2020 herbaceus p

Acanthus

5 ebracteatus Jeruju Acanthaceae Bank Nerus River y 2012 P, shrub Check

Achras zapota,

6 Manilkara Ciku Sapotaceae Pulau Duyung y 2015 P, tree y 0

Achyranthes W,

7 aspera Ara songsang Amaranthaceae Open grounds y 2018 herbaceus p

8 Acorus calamus Jerangau Acoraceae Jln Kpg Cina y 2020 W, aquatic 0

Adenanthera

9 pavonina Saga Fabaceae KT, larger cemetry y 2014 W, medium y y Check

Bayam W,

10 Aerva lanata karang Amaranthaceae Paths, open grounds y 2011 herbaceus Check

Araucaria ceae
Agathis Damar

11 borneensis minyak Bukit Bauk 2020 W, tree y p

Akar

12 Aglaia vestita kankacang Meliaceae Forest y W,tree Check

 398

Ageratum Rumput Open spaces, W,

13 conyzoides tahi ayam Asteracea paths y 2019 herbaceus p

Agrostistachys Lata Belatan,

14 longifolia Jejulung Euphorbia ceae coast 2018 W, shrub p

Albertisia Menispermacea Gunung W, woody

15 megacarpa e Kambing Climber Check

Albizia Tebu W, woody

16 myriophylla gajah Fabaceae Jambu Bongkok Y 2013 Climber 0

Lidah House

17 Aloe vera buaya, jadam Asphodela ceae compounds, planted Y 2018 P, succulent P

Alpinia Planted, house P,

18 galanga Lengkuas Zingiberaceae gardens Y 2014 herbaceus y y P

Alpinia Kuas Market KT, W,

19 conchigera genting Zingiberacea Besut Y 2020 perennial herb Check

Alstonia Mangrove, P.

20 angustiloba Pulai Apocynaceae Duyong 2008 W, tree p

Alternanthera Villages, watery W,

20 sessilis Keremak Amaranthaceae areas y 2015 herbaceus y p

Amaranthus Bayam House W,

21 spinosus duri Amaranthaceae compounds, paths y 2018 herbaceus y p

Amorphophal W,

22 lus paeoniifolium Loki Araceae Kenyir shore y 2012 herbaceus y p

Anacardium Gajus, 20

23 occidentale ketereh Anacardiaceae Pulau Duyung y 16 P, tree y p

Ananas 20 P,

24 comosus Nanas Bromeliaceae Market KT y 19 herbaceus y p

Anaxagorea Lerek, 20

25 shortechinii pali monyet Annonaceae Lata Belatan y 15 W, shrub Check

Andrographis Empedu Bukit Kecil 20 P,

26 paniculata tanah Acanthaceae temple KT y 12 herbaceus p

Ancistrocladu Akar Ancistrocladace 20 W, climber

27 s tectorius julong hitam ae forest edge, P.A y 01 shrub p

Annona Durian 20

28 muricata belanda Annonaceae P,Ketam y 11 P, tree p

Anthocephalu Kelempo 20

29 s cadamba yan Rubiaceae Jambu Bongkok y 15 W, tree Check

Antidesma Gunciak, 20

30 ghaeosembilla kuncor Phyllanthaceae Cendering y 12 W, tree p

Archidendron Pokok 20

31 jiringa jering Fabaceae Bukit Cempaka y 13 W, tree y p

 399

Pokok 20

32 Areca catechu pinang Aracaceae P.Duyung y 12 P, laim y 0

Ardisia Mata 20

33 crenata pelanduk Primulaceae Hills near La 08 W, shurb p

Ardisia Mata Village, Pulau 20

34 elliptica ayam paya, Primulaceae Duyung y 11 W,shrub y 0

Aristolochia Akar Aristolochiacea Pulau Duyung, 20

35 tagala ketola hutan e wild 11 W, climber y 0

Artabotrys Kenanga, KT market, 20 P, woody

36 odoratissimus atar Annonaceae planted y 18 climber y Check

Artemisia Baru Lorong Haji 20 P,

37 vulgaris Cina Asteraceae Jamil y 20 herbaceus 0

Artocarpus 20

38 altilis Sukun Moraceae Batu Rakit y 14 P, tree y y 0

Artocarpus 20

39 heterophyllus Nangka Moraceae Pulau Duyung 15 P, tree y p

W,

Asplenium Paku 20 herbaceous

40 nidus langsuyir Aspleniaceae Pulau Duyung y 18 epiphyte y p

Asystasia Ara 20

41 gangetica songsang Acantaceae Village paths y 13 W, shrub p

Limau

Atalantia kiah, limau 20 P, shrub,

42 buxifolia rawit Rutacea Jln Kamarudin, y 14 tree p

Averrhoa Belimbin 20

43 belimbi g buluh Oxalidaceae Villages, y 16 P, tree y p

Averrhoa Belimbin Pulau Duyung 20

44 carambola g besi Oxalidaceae Kecil y 21 P, tree y p

Avicennia 20

45 Lanata Api api Acanthaceae Pulau Duyung 15 W, rree p

Azadirachta Mambu, Planted, run 20

46 indica lada pahit Meliaceae wild 19 P, tree y p

Baccaurea 20

47 motleyanna Rambai Phyllanthaceae Villages 12 P, tree y p

Baeckea Cucur 20

48 frutescens atap Myrtaceae Jambu Bongkok y 14 W, tree Check

Barringtonia Putat 20

49 racemose paya Lecythidacea Pulau Ketam 15 W, tree y 0

 400

Bauhinia Tapak 20

50 vahlii kuda Fabaceae Bukit Kecil 16 W, climber P

Beilschmiedia Lorong haji 20

51 pahangensis Lauraceae Jamil y 16 P. tree 0

Kancing Waysides, 20 W,

52 Bidens Pilosa baju Asteraceae villages 13 herbaceus P

Biophyton Payung Waysides, 20 W,

52 adiantoides Ali Oxalidaceae villages 01 herbaceus Check

Kesumba Kuala 20

53 Bixa oreliana inai keling Bixaceae Terengganu 18 P, shrub 0

Daun

Blumea capa, telinga Pulau Duyung 20

54 balsamifera kerbau Asteraceae cemetery y 14 W, shrub 0

Bonnaya Pulau Duyung W,

55 ciliata Linderniaceae paths herbaceus

Borassus Banks 20

56 flabellifer lontar, tar Arecaceae Terengganu river 19 W, palm p

Borreria Rumput Spermacoce W,herbaceu

57 articularis susur articularis Pulau Duyung s p

Bouea 20

58 macrophylla Setar Anacardiaceae Pulau Duyung 20 P, tree y 0

Brucea Cemetry 20

59 javanica lada pahit Simaroubacae P.Duyung y 17 W, tree 0

Bruguiera Bakau Shore Pulau 20

60 cylindrica puteh Rhizophoraceae Duyung 16 W, tree 0

Bryophytum Setawar, 20 P,

61 pinnatum sedingin Crassulaceae Pulau Ketam y 19 herbaceus y P

Caesalpinia Buah River and sea 20 W,

62 bonduc gorek Fabaceae sides y 18 climber,shurb Check

W,

Calanthe 20 Epiphytic

63 vestita Orchidaceae Lata Tembaka y 15 climber y Check

Calophyllum Penaga Dungun coastal 20

64 inophyllum laut Calophyllaceae road y 19 W, tree y P

Calotropis Sea side, KT 20

65 gigantea Rembega Apocynacea street y 18 W, shrub y P

Cananga 20

66 odorata Kenanga Annonaceae Villages y 15 P, tree P

Pisang Villages, 20

67 Canna indica tasbeh Cannaceae planted 19 P, aquatic P

 401

Canthium

Horridum Kait kait Rubiaceae Jambu Bongkok y W, shrub P

Capsicum 20

68 frutescens Cili padi Solanaceae Gardens 17 P, shrub y P

Carallia Sisek Rhizophioracea 20

69 suffructicosa puyuh e Sekayu 20 W, tree Check

Carapa

moluccensis

Xylocarpus 20

70 moluccensis Nyireh Meliaceae Jambu Bongkok y 20 W, tree Check

Cardiospermu Peria 20 W, herb,

71 m halicacabum bulan Sapindaceae P.Duyung 13 climber y 0

P,

20 herbaceous

72 Carica papaya Betek Caricaceae Village gardens y 14 palm P

Rabok, 20

73 Caryota mitis tukas Arecaceae Losong 17 P, palm Check

Cassia alata, Gelengga 20

74 Senna alata ng besar Fabaceae Villages y 20 W, shrub y 0

Cassia Senna Gelengga 20

75 occidentalis ng Fabaceae Open spaces y 16 W, shrub P

Cassia tora

Senna
Gelengga Jalan 20

76 tora ng Fabaceae Kamarudin y 19 W, shrub P

Cassytha Rambut Kampong 20 W, climber,

77 filiformis puteri Lauraceae Hiliran y 11 vine y P

Casuarina Rhu, Pantai Rhu 7, 20

78 equisetifolia cemara Casuarinaceae Batu Buruk y 15 W, tree P

Catharanthus Kemunti Pantai Batu 20

79 roseus ng Cina Apocynaceae Buruk y 13 W, shrub P

Catunaregam 20

80 tomentosa Badang Rubiaceae Jambu Bongkok y 17 W, shrub P

Ceiba Kekabu, Pulau Duyung, 20

81 pentandra kapok Malvaceae villages 17 W, tree 0

Centella 20

82 asiatica Pegaga Apiaceae Pulau Duyung 10 W, herb y 0

Cerbera Pong 20

83 odollam pong Apocynaceae P.Ketam 17 W, tree y 0

 402

Chassalia Beberas, 20

84 chartacea jarum Rubiaceae Lata Belatan 12 W, shrub P

Chromolaena Pokok 20

85 odorata kapal terbang Asteraceae Besut y 10 W, shrub P

Cinnamomum Medang Logged forest, 20

86 iners Teja Lauraceae Kampung 14 W,tree P

Cinnamomum Akar 20

87 porrectum sarsi Lauraceae Kuala Berang y 19 W, tree 0

Cinnamomum medang 20

88 parthenoxylon serai Lauraceae Jambu bongkok y 17 W, tree P

Cinnamomum

zeylanicum, Kayu 20

89 verum kulit manis Lauraceae y 19 P, tree

Limau Pulau Duyong 20

90 Citrus hystrix purut Rutaceae kecil y 15 P, shrub P

Limau

Citrus besar, 20

91 maxima pomelos Rutaceae Duyung Kecil 18 P, tree P

Limau 20

92 Citrus medica nipis Rutaceae y 18 P, shrub y P

Citrus Limau 20

93 macrocarpa kasturi Rutaceae y 19 P, shrub y P

Clerodendron P.Duyung 20

94 paniculatum Pemangil Lamiaceae garden 19 P, shrub P

Bunga

Clitoria biru, kacang 20 w,p,

95 ternatea telan Fabaceae Pulau Duyung y 10 climber y P

Codiaeum Daun Cimemetery,

96 variegatum pudding Euphorbiaceae gardens KT P, shrub y P

Cocos Nyor, 20

97 nucifera kelapa Arecaceae P.Duyung y 18 w, p, palm y y P

Coscinum Kekunyi Menispermace 20

98 blumeanum t ae Lata Tembaka y 10 W, climber Check

Cosmos Ulam P.Duyung 20 P,

99 caudatus raja Asteraceae gardens y 15 herbaceus y P

Costus 20 W,herbaceu

100 speciosus Setawar Costaceae Sekayu y 11 s Y P

Crataeva 20
Dala
101 nurmala Capparidaceae Losong y 12 P, tree y P
 403

Crinum 20 W,

102 asiaticum Bakun Amaryllidaceae P.Duyung y 17 herbaceus y P

Majukani Euphorbiaceae
Croton 20 P,
(?)
103 caudatum Market KT y 13 herbaceus y P

Curculigo Lembah Rubber 20 W,

104 latifolia, Molinera nyor Hypoxidaceae plantation Tepoh y 18 herbaceus P

Cycas Pulau Kapas, 20 W, cycad

105 edentata Paku laut Cycadaceae Batu Rakit 15 palm y P

Cyclea Terong Menispermace On fence Pulau 20

106 laxiflora kemang ae Duyung y 06 W, climber P

P,

Cymbopogon Serai 20 herbaceous

107 citratus makan Poaceae Gardens y 07 grass y P

P,

Cymbopogon Serai Planted, house 20 herbaceous

108 nardus wangi Poaceae gardens y 15 grass P

Katak

puru, Fabaceae
Cynometra

109 cauliflora Kekaton Pulau Ketam y 2013 P, tree y P

Kecubun Kota Lama

110 Datura metel g Solanaceae Duyung y 2009 P, shrub y 0

Kelentit

nyamok, Myrtaceae
Decaspermu

111 m fruticosum tuka Bukit besar y 2012 W, tree P

Dendrobium Angerek 20 W,

112 crumenatum merpati Orchidaceae P.Duyung y 14 epiphyte y P

Derris Tuba Estuary

113 trifoliata laut, ketuil Fabaceae Terengganu 2013 W, tree y P

Siak,
Asphodelaceae
Dianella meroyan Bukit Besar hill

ensifolia KT 20 W,

114 bungkus y 16 herbaceus y P

Diospyros Bedil 20

115 argentea lalat Ebenaceae Lata Tembaka 06 W, tree P

 404

kayu

arang,

Ebenaceae
Diospyros kuping

116 trengganuensis besi Lata Belatan y W, tree P

Dolychandron 20

117 e spathacea Tui Bignioniaceae P. Duyong y 16 W, tree y 0

Driobalanocar 20

118 pus camphora Kapur Dipterocarpus Jambu Bongkok y 16 W, tree y P

Eichornia Keladi 20 P, shrub,

119 crassipes bunting Pontederiaceae Losong 19 aquatic y P

Etlingera Bunga 20 P,

120 elatior kantan Zingiberaceae Gardens y 12 herbaceus y y P

Etlingera Tepus W,

121 coccinea kesing Zingiberaceae Sekayu, kenyir y 2015 herbaceus y P

Elephantopus Tapak Cemetry 20 W,

122 scaber suleiman Asteraceae P.Duyung y 16 herbaceus 0

Eleusine gelang 20 W,

123 indica subang Poaceae Open grounds y 15 herbaceus P

Emilia Bayam 20 W,

124 sonchifolia perasi Asteraceae P.Duyung y 15 herbaceus y 0

Entada 20 W, woody

125 phaseolides Beluru Fabaceae Jambu Bongkok y 18 climber 0

Epiphyllum Bakawali Pulau Duyung, 20

126 oxypetalum , buah naga Cactaceae cultivated y 13 P, shrub y P

Epipremnum Rengut, 20

127 pinnatum kelempayang Araceae Pulau Duyung y 19 P, shrub y P

Erytroxylum 20

128 cuneatum Cinta mula Erythroxyklaceae Pulau Kapas y 17 W,tree Check

Ervatamia

corymbosa, Susun

E.Tabernaemonta kelapa, 20

129 na resdong Apocynacae Gardens KT y 16 P, shrub P

Eugenia, jambu 20

130 Syzygium aquaea Air Myrtaceae Gardens y 20 P, tree y P

Eugenia Jambu Duyung 20

131 claviflora arang, keriang Myrtaceae cemetry y 12 W, tree y y P

Eurycoma Tongkat 20

132 longifolia Ali Simaroubaceae Sungai La y 20 W, tree P

 405

Euphorbia Ambin 20 W,

133 hirta jantan Euphorbiaceae Near habitations y 15 herbaceus P

Euphorbia Rumput 20 W,

134 thymifolia barah Euphorbiaceae Near habitations y 14 herbaceus P

Euphorbia 20 P,

135 tirucalli Tetulang Euphorbiaceae Gardens y 17 herbaceus P

Excoecaria 20

136 agallocha Bebuta Euphorbiaceae Pulau Duyung y 08 W, tree 0

Fagrea

fragrans,

Cyrtophyllum 20

137 fragrans Tembusu Gentianaceae Batu Rakit y 19 w, p, tree y P

Fagrea

racemosa

Utania Setawar,

138 racemosa sepuleh Gentianaceae P.Ketam y 2011 P, tree y 0

Fissistigma Larak api Villages, 20

139 lanuginosum selusuh Annonaceae P.Duyung y 11 W, climber 0

Mas

Ficus secotet,

140 deltoides telinga kera Moraceae Jambu bongkok y 2014 W, P, shrub y P

Flacourtia Pulau Duyung,

141 jangomas Kerekup Flacourtiaceae garden y 2018 P, tree y P

Flagellaria Rotan

142 indica dini Flagellariaceae P.Duyung , path y 2016 W, climber y P

Flemingia P.Duyung,
Serengan Fabaceae
143 strobilifera cemetry y 2011 W, shrub P

Garcinia Asam

144 atroviridis gelugor Clusiaceae Bukit Cempaka y 2017 w, p, tree y P

Hujan

Glochidion panas, saga

145 littorale monyet Phyllanthaceae P. Ketam y 2006 W, tree P

146 Gluta renghas Rengas Anacardiaceae Pulau Sekati 2015 W, tree P

Glycosmis

citrifolia,G W, tree,

147 parviflora Terape Rutaceae P.Duyung y 2019 shrub P

Gnetum

148 gnemon Meninjau Gnetaceae P.Duyung y 2002 w,p, tree P

 406

Annonaceae
Goniothalam Selayar

149 us macrophyllus hitam Lata Belatan y 2013 W, shrub Check

Goniothalamu Gajah 20

150 s schortechinii beranak Annonaceae Sungai La y 07 W, tree P

Goniothalam 20

151 us tapis Kenerak Annonaceae Sekayu y 10 W, tree Check

Guettardia ketapang 20

152 speciosa pasir Rubiaceae Pulau Kekabu y 18 W,tree y P

Gynandropsis 20 W,

153 gynandra Maman Cleomaceae Pulau Duyung y 06 herbaceus y P

Sebiak,

Gynura sambong 20 W,

154 procumbens nyawa Asteraceae Lrg haji Jamil y 16 herbaceus 0

Heliotropum Rumput 20

155 indicum ekor kucing Boraginaceae Road sides y 15 W, shrub P

Helminthost Akar Ophioglossacea Gunung 20 W,

156 achys zeylanica tunjuh langit e Kambing y 11 herbaceus Check

Heritiera 20

157 littoralis Dungun Malvaceae Pulau Duyung y 14 W, tree 0

Hibiscus Kacang 20

158 esculentus bendi Malvaceae Pulau Duyung y 17 P, shrub y P

Hibiscus Bunga 20

159 rosa-sinensis raya Malvaceae Pulau Duyung y 17 P, shrub y P

Hibiscus 20

160 tilliaceae Bebaru Malvaceae P.Duyung y 17 W, tree P

Hibiscus Asam Road side to 20

161 sabdariffa susur rozelle, Malvaceae Jambu Bongkok y 18 P, shrub y Check

Hippocratea Serapat Jambu 20 W, shrub,

162 indica akar Celestraceae Bongkok y 07 climber Check

Hodgsonia Akar Kampung 20

163 macrocarpa kepayang Cucurbitaceae Paloh y 17 P, climber y Check

Hopea Cengal Dioterocarpacea 20

164 odorata kampung e Pulau Duyung y 15 W, tree y P

Homalomena Batang 20 W,

165 griffithii kemoyan Aracea Pulau Duyung y 11 herbaceus y 0

Hoya 20

166 coronaria Setebal Apocynaceae Jambu Bongkok y 18 W, climber y P

Hydnophytu Kepala 20 W,

167 m formicarium beruk Rubiaceae Kenyir y 14 epiphyte P

 407

Hyptis Selaseh 20 W,

168 sualveolens hutan Lamiaceae Pulau Duyung y 10 herbaceus 0

Impatiens Inai Gardens Kuala 20 P,

169 balsamifera keling Balsaminaceae Terengganu y 11 herbacerus y P

Imperata 20 W,

170 cylindrica Lalang Poaceae Seberang Takir y 19 herbaceus P

20

171 Intsia bakeri Merbau Fabaceae Sekayu y 20 W, tree P

Ipomea Ubi 20

172 batatas leledek Convolvulaceae Kuala Berang 14 P, climber y P

Ipomea pes- Tapak 20

173 caprae kuda Convolvulaceae Pulau Duyung y 07 W, creeper y P

Ipomea Kangkon Jalan Kampung 20

174 reptans g laut Convolvulaceae Cina y 15 W, creeper 0

Ixonandres Pagar 20

175 icosandra anak Ixonanthaceae Lata Belatan y 14 W, tree P

Ixora 20

176 coccinea Jejarun Rubiaceae river sides y 12 W, shrub y P

Pecah 20

177 Ixora javanica periuk Rubiaceae Lata Belatan y 16 W, shrub y P

Jackiopsis Aji Jambu 20

178 ornata Samat Rubiaceae Bongkok y 19 W, tree Check

jasminum Melati, Villages 20

179 sambac Pekan, Melur Oleacea gardens y 17 P, shrub y P

Jatropha Villages 20

180 curcas Jarak Euphorbiaceae gardens 08 P, shrub P

Justicia Gandarus 20

181 gendarussa a Acanthaceae Pulau Duyung y 14 W, shrub 0

Kopsia Pokok 20

182 pauciflora resdong Apocynaceae Lata Tembaka y 14 W, tree P

Labisia Kacip 20 W,

183 pothoina Fatimah Myrwsinaceae Lata Tembaka y 17 herbaceous P

Lansium Langsat, 20

184 domesticum duku Meliaceae Pulau Duyung y 12 P, tree y P

lagerstroema Bongor 20

185 speciosa raya Lythraceae Pulau Duyung 19 W, tree y P

lantana Bunga 20

186 camara tahi ayam Verbenaceae Road sides KT y 17 W, shrub y P

 408

Lasia

aculeata.
20

187 L. spinosa Gegeli Araceae Pulau Duyung 11 W, shrub y P

Lasianthus 20

188 oblongus Sekentut Rubiaceae Sekayu y 10 W, tree P

Lawsonia 20

189 inermis Inai Lythraceae Pulau Duyung y 10 P, tree P

20

190 Leea indica Memali Vitaceae Seberang y 18 W, shrub P

Lepisanthes pokok

kunstleri, L. terajang 20

191 tetraphylla merajang Sapindaceae Seberang Takir y 14 W, tree P

Gelam

Leptospermu bukit, cucur Jambu 20

192 m flavescens atap Epacridaceae Bongkok y 14 W, tree Check

Leucas 20 W,

193 zeylanica Ketumbit Lamiaceae Pulau Duyung y 18 herbaceus P

Leucopogon

malayanus Cucur 20

194 Stiphelia atap Epacridaceae Jambu Bongkok y 12 W, tree P

Luffa 20

195 echinata Petola Cucurbitaceae Gardens y 14 P, climber y P

Luvunga Selusoh 20

196 scandens ayam hutan Rutaceae Jambu Bongkok y 14 W, climber P

Lycium Koki, Padang air, 20

197 chinensis gochi Solanaceae planted y 10 P, shrub P

Lygodium 20

198 scandens Ribu ribu Schizaeaceae Seberang 14 W, climber y P

Mallotus Balek 20

199 macrostachys angin Euphorbiaceae Bukit Kecil, KT y 09 P, tree P

Mangifera Mempela 20

200 indica m Anacardiaceae Villages y 16 W, tree y P

Manilkara Sawo, Villages, Pukau 20

201 kauki ciku .Dyung 13 P, tree y 0

Mapania

humilis,
Sepit,

Mapania siak siak 20 W, sub-

202 cuspidata rimba Cyperaceae Lata Belatan y 04 shrub P

 409

Melaleuca Pokok 20

203 cajuputi gelam Myrtaceae Jambu Bongkok y 15 W, tree y P

Melastoma Villages roads 20

204 malabathricum Keduduk Melastomaceae sides y 11 W, shrub y P

Chempak 20

205 Michelia alba a puteh Magnoliaceae Jambu Bongkok 19 P, tree y P

Michelia Chempak Tanjung Biji 20

206 cempaka a Magnoliaceae Sura 19 P, tree y 0

Millettia Tulang 20

207 sericea daing laut Fabaceae Sekayu 20 W, climber Check

Mimosa 20 W,

208 pudica Semalu Fabaceae Villages y 12 herbaceus P

Kampong

Mimusops Tanjung 20

209 elengi Tanjung Sapotaceae KTerengganu y 12 w,p, tree y Check

Mitragyna Ketum, Hills, Tepuh, 20

210 speciosa biak Rubiaceae villages y 17 w,,p, tree P

Momordica 20

211 Charantia Peria Cucurbitaceae P.Duyung y 10 P, climber y 0

Morinda Mengkud 20

212 citrifolia u Rubiaceae P.Duyung y 16 W, tree P

Morinda Mengkud 20

213 elliptica u Rubiaceae P.Duyung y 10 W, tree y P

Moringa Kacang KT, jln 20

214 oleifera kelur Moringaceae Kamarudin y 17 P, tree y P

Tut, 20

215 Morus alba besaran Moraceae Pulau Duyung y 13 P, tree y P

Muntigia Kerukup 20

216 calabura Siam Muntingiaceae P.Duyung 14 P, tree y 0

Murraya Kemunin 20

217 koenigii g Rutaceae P.Duyung y 13 P, tree y 0

Murraya Daun 20

218 paniculata kari Rutaceae P.Duyung y 14 P, tree y P

P,

Musa 20 herbaceous

219 paradisiaca Pisang Musaceae Belara 16 palm y P

W,

Musa Pisang herbaceous

220 gracilis hutan Musaceae Tersat palm y Check

 410

Mussaenda Balek 20

221 glabra adap Rubiaceae Sekayu y 06 W, shrub y Check

Mussaenda Balek

222 mutabilis adap Rubiaceae Lata Tembaka y W, shrub Check

Peiuk

Myrmecodia hantu, raja 20 W,

223 tuberosa stong Rubiaceae Lata Belatan y 20 epiphyte Check

Nelumbium Teratai, 20

224 nelumbo telepok Nelumbonaceae Sekayu 15 P, aquatic P

Neobalanoca Dipterocarpace 20

225 rpus heimii Cengal ae Lata Belatan y 01 W, tree Check

Neolitsea

zeylanica, Neo- Teja, teja 20

226 litsea cassia pasir Lauraceae P.Duyung y 14 W, tree P

Neotopteris

nidus Asplenium

nidum, A.
Paku 20 W,
ellipticum
227 langsuyir Aspleniaceae Kpg Setebu y 18 epiphyte y P

Nypa 20

228 fruticans Nipah Arecaceae Pulau Duyung 15 W, palm y P

Ocinum 20 P,

229 basilicum Selaseh Lamiaceae Gardens y 20 herbaceux y P

Ocinum 20 P,

230 canum Kemangi Lamiaceae Gardens y 12 herbaceus y P

Oldenlandia,

corymbosa

Hedyotis Paths sides, 20 W,

231 corymbosa Siku siku Rubiaceae villages y 19 herbaceus P

Oncosperma Terengganu 20

232 tigillaria Nibong Arecaceae river banks 14 W, palm P

Orania Kenyir UMT 20

233 sylvicola Ibul Arecaeae hill y 13 w, p, P

Oroxylum Bolai 20

234 indicum kayu, beka Bignoniaceae Pulau Duyung y 19 W, tree 0

Ortosiphon Misai 20

235 stamineus kucing Lamiaceae Pulau Duyung y 03 P, shrub P

Oxalis Sikap 20 W,

236 corniculata dada Oxalidaceae Pulau Duyung y 11 herbaceus P

 411

Paederia 20

237 foetida Sekentut Rubiaceae Pulau Duyung y 17 W, climber 0

Parameria

barbata

Urceola Akar 20

238 laevigata serapat puteh Apocynaceae Lata Belatan y 19 W, climber P

Paramignya, Limau Jambu 20

239 Merope angulata lelang Rutaceae Bongkok y 18 W, shrub Check

Akar

Paramignya selusuh Jambu 20

240 scandens ayam Rutaceae Bongkok y 18 W, climber Check

Parkia Petai Kampung 20

241 speciosa Java Fabaceae Setebu y 13 W, tree P

Passiflora 20

242 foetida Ulat bulu Passifloraceae Pulau Duyung y 14 W, climber y y P

Peltophorum Jemerela 20

243 pterocarpum ng Batai laut Fabaceae Jeram Nerus y 14 W, tree y Check

Peperomia Ketumpa 20 W,

244 pellucida ngan air Piperacea Pulau Duyung y 11 herbaceus y P

Pereskia Jarum Villages, 20

245 corrugata sembilan Cactaceae planted y 14 P, shrub y P

Phyllanthus Dukong 20

246 amarus anak Phyllanthaceae Pulau Duyung y 17 W, shrub P

Phyllanthus Dukong 20

247 urinaria anak Phyllanthaceae Paths sides y 13 W, shrub P

Gerahan

badak,

sepucat,

Phyllochiam gaharu Kampung 20

248 ys wallichii badak Urticacea Setebu y 14 W, tree Check

Physalis letup Pulau Duyung 20

249 alkekengi letup Solanaceae "alek nu" y 14 W, shrub 0

20

250 Piper betle Sireh Piperaceae Villages y 19 P, climber y P

Lada 20

251 Piper nigrum hitam Piperaceae Padang air Y 19 P, climber P

Piper 20

252 sarmentosum Kadok Piperaceae Pulau Duyung Y 13 W, creeper P

 412

Pittosporum Belalang Jambu 20

253 ferrugineum puak Pittosporacea Bongkok y 13 W,tree Check

Plectranthus Daun ati- Villages, 20

254 scutellarioides ati Lamiaceae planted Y 16 P,herbaceus y P

Plumbago Villages, 20

255 zeylanica Ceraka Plumbaginacae planted y 13 P, shrub P

Polyalthia Penawar 20

256 bullata hitam Annonaceae Gunung lawit y 20 W, shrub P

Polyalthia Peleh 20

257 cauliflora angin Annonaceae Lata Payong y 12 W, tree P

Portulaca Gelang 20

258 oleracea pasir Portulacaceae Pulau Duyung y 19 W, creeper y P

Premna 20

259 foetida Bebuas Lamiaceae Pulau Duyung y 19 W, tree y P

Gading

Prismatomer gading, aji 20

260 is glabra samat Rubiaceae Lata Payong y 15 W, tree Check

Psychotria Jarum 20 W, woody

261 viridiflora jarum bukit Rubiaceae Lata belatan 17 climber Check

Pterocarpus 20

262 indicus Angsana Fabaceae Pulau Ketam y 18 W, tree y P

Pueraria Kacang Kampung 20

263 phaseolides kacang Fabaceae Sayap y 06 W, climber Check

Punica 20

264 granatum Delima Lythraceae Cabang Tiga 12 P, delima y P

Quiscalis Akar Batu Buruk 20

265 indica dani Combretacea gardens 18 P, climber y P

Rafflesia Bunga 20 W, parasitic

266 hasseltii pakma Rafflesiaceae Kenyir north y 14 plant y 0

Rauvolfia Batu 20

267 verticillata pelir kambing Apocynaceae Pulau Duyung y 13 W, shrub 0

Renellia Mengku

268 speciosa du rimba Rubiaceae Lata Tembaka y W, shrub Check

Rhodomyrtus Kemunti Cimetry 20

269 tomentosa ng Myrtaceae P.Duyung y 19 W, shrub 0

Ricinus Jarak Kuala 20 W,

270 communis merah Euphorbiaceae Terengganu y 12 herbaceus Check

Rubus Tapak 20 P, shrub,

271 moluccanus ringu Rosacea Jalan Haji Jamil y 16 climber y 0

 413

Ruellia Akar Lorong haji 20

272 repens keremak Acanthaceae Jamil y 06 P, herbaeus 0

Ruta Lorong haji 20 P,

273 graveolens Garuda Rutaceae Jamil y 16 herbaceus 0

Saccharum 20 P,

274 officinarum Tebu Poaceae Seberang Takir y 15 herbaceus y 0

Sagittaria Ubi 20

275 sagittifolia Keladi Alimastaceae Paya Keladi y 16 W, aquatic y 0

Sapium

indicum,

Excoraria, S.

Shirakiopsis 20

276 indica Gurah Euphorbiaceae Pulau Duyung 15 W, tree 0

Sauropus

androgynus Cekur Pulau Duyung 20

277 Berynia androgina manis Phyllantaceae cemetry 20 W, shrub y 0

Scaphium Kemban 20

278 affine g semangkok Malvaceae Sekayu y 18 W, tree Check

Scaevola

frutescens, S. Ambong- Marang, 20

279 taccada ambong Goodeniaceae beaches y 21 W, shrub y P

Schefflera

arboricola,

Heptapleurum Kerbau 20

280 arboricola amok, Araliaceae Lata Tembaka y 19 W, shrub y Check

Scoparia Teh 20 W,

281 dulcis Macao Plantaginaceae Pulau Duyung y 16 herbaceus P

Senna alata Gelengga Belukar 20

282 Cassia ng Fabaceae P.Duyung y 20 W, shrub 0

Gelengga

ng kecil

Belukar, Belukar 20

283 Senna tora Pulau Ketam Fabaceae P.Ketam y 20 W, shub P

Sesbania Jalan 20

284 grandiflora Turi Fabaceae Kamaruddin y 16 W, p, tree Check

Sesamun 20 W,

285 indicum Biji bijan Pedaliaceae Pulau Duyung y 10 hebaceus y 0

Sida 20 W,

286 rhombifolia Selaguri Malvaceae Pulau Duyung y 17 herbaceus P

 414

Shorea Balau Dipterocarpacea 20

287 materialis pasir e Jambu Bongkok y 21 W, tree y P

Sindora 20

288 coriaceae Sepetir Fabaceae Lata Belatan y 17 W, tree P

Smilax Itah besi, 20

289 callopylla dedawai Smilacaeae Bukit Bintang y 13 W, climber Check

Itah

Smilax tembaga, Jambu 20

290 myosotifolia tongkat Ali Smilacaceae Bongkok y 13 W, shrub Check

Sonneratia Beremba 20

291 caseolaris ng Lythraceae Pulau Ketam y 20 W, tree y P

Solanum Terung 20

292 torvum pipit puteh Solanaceae Pulau Duyung y 10 W, shrub P

Spilanthes

acmella, Acmella Getang, 20 W,

293 paniculata subang nenek Asteraceae Jalan Haji Jamil y 13 herbaceus 0

Sophora Buah 20 W,

294 tomentosa gurah Fabaceae Padang Miding y 19 herbaceus Check

Streptocaulo Akar 20

295 n wallichii serapat Asclepiadaceae Lata Belatan y 19 W, climber Check

Styphelia Timba Jambu 20

296 malayana. tasek Ericaceae Bongkok y 06 W, shrub Check

Syzygium Gelam 20

297 inophyllum tikus pantai Myrtaceae Jambu Bongkok 14 w. tree y P

Tabernaemon Susun Apocynacea 20

298 tana divaricata kelapa e Tanjung 15 W, shrub y P

Jangut

Adam, keladi 20

299 Tacca cristata murai Dioscoreacae Kenyir y 19 W, shrub y P

Talinum Ginseng 20 P,

300 paniculatum melayu, som Portulacacea P.Duyung y 17 herbaceus 0

Tamarindus Asam 20

301 indica Java Fabaceae P.Duyung y 19 W, tree y P

Terminalia 20

302 catappa Ketapang Combretaceae P.Duyung y 20 W, tree y P

Tetracera 20

303 indica mempelas Dilleniaceae P.Duyung y 17 W, climber y P

Seburut,

Thottea telinga Aristolochiacea 20

304 grandiflora beruang e Lata Tembaka y 18 W, shrub P

 415

Tinomiscium Lempoya Menispermace 20

305 petiolare ng, akar nasi ae Lata Belatan 21 W, climber Check

Tinospora Menispermacea 20

306 crispa Patarwali e KT, cemetry y 16 W, Climber P

Trevesia Tapak 20

307 burckii harimau Araliaceae KT, cemetry y 18 W, shub y Check

Trichosanthe Ketola Duyung, 20

308 s cucumerina ular Cucurbitaceae gardens y 08 P, climber Check

Tristania Sekayu, Lata 20

309 merguensis Pelawan Myrtaceae Tembakah y 19 W, tree y y P

Typhonium Keladi Duyung, 20

310 flagelliforme tikus Araceae gardens y 14 W, herb P

Urophyllum Merembu 20

311 glabrum ng jantan Rubiaceae Gunung Lawit 10 W, tree P

Akar

Uvaria pisang-pisang 20

312 purpurea jantan Annonaceae Gunung Lawit y 16 W, climber

Tikam

Vallaris seladang, Tanjung garden 20

313 glabra kesidang Apocynaceae KT y 13 P, climber y 0 0

Vernonia

cinerea,

Cyanthillium Rumput 20 W,

314 cinereum tahi babi Asteracea Besut y 18 herbaceus p P

Vitex 20

315 rotundifolia Laggundi Lamiaceae Batu Rakit y 11 W, shrub p P

Vitis

cinnamomea,

Ampelocissus Pakan, 20

316 cinnamomea lakum Vitaceae Jambu Bongkok y 14 W, climber y p P

Wedelia W,

biflora, Serunai 20 herbaceous

317 Melanthera biflora laut Asteraceae Pulau Duyung y 07 climber P

Wikstroemia Depu 20

318 ridleyi pelanduk Thymelaceae Pulau Duyung y 19 W, shrub 0

Xylocarpus

granatum, Nyireh Jambu 20

319 Carapa bunga Meliaceae Bongkok y 18 W, tree Check

 416

Xylopia 20

320 ferruginea Jangkang Annonaceae Lata La y 12 W, tree P

Zingiber 20 W,

321 cassumunar Bonglai Zingiberaceae Pulau Duyung y 12 herbaceus y 0

Zingiber Tepus Kampong P,

322 spectabile tanah Zingiberaceae Setebu herbaceus p

Ziziphus 20

323 Mauritiania Bidara Rhamnaceae Pulau Duyung y 15 W, tree y P

 417

Dissapeared species

A 2) Specific: by subject or places

i) Most mentioned Causes of disappearance

by individual plant species as seen in house compounds and visited sites

1. Demise of owner, lack of interest, ability or strength from the present inhabitants, small
gardens abandoned

2. Landscape maintenance. Semak “weedy”, and hardy or invasive species removed.

3. Infrastructure construction, and soil covering (tar roads. banks, bridges, concrete channels

4. Area deliberately “cleaned” for new space/land use

5. Ecosystem disturbed. Repeated Floods (cf. Table “Impacting exogenous events” in C 5)

 418

The disappeared species are all rather common species with a medicinal use; mostly
international: South Asia, Pacific to Madagascar.

Examples of causes of disappearance of individual species noted in Terengganu

Acorus calamus: garden cut.

Albizia myriophylla: edges of the forested areas disturbed.

Areca catechu: aged tree, cut not replaced.

Ardisia elliptica: one individual, supplanted by robust secondary growth of Ficus and Hibiscus
tilliaceus

Aristolochia tagala: Supporting species along stream cut for replacement by concrete channel.

Barringtonia racemosa: Cut for space

Belschmedia pahangensis: in a garden, cut.

Bixa oreliana: garden, cut.

Blumea balsamifera: Cut while “cleaning” for landscape in a cemetery.

Brucea javanica: same as above.

Cardiospermum halicacabum: surrounding disturbance (tar road).

Cassia (Senna) alata: surrounding disturbance and floods

Ceiba pentandra: aged trees and space reclaiming

Cinnamomum porrectum: deforestation

Dolychandrone spathaceaa: concrete channels replace watery area

Elephantopus scaber: perhaps cleaning cemetry, perhaps loss of co-existing herb species

Emilia sonchifolia: pedestrian paths sides replaced by tar roads

Entada phaseolides: part of the rarefaction of some climbers in a much-visited reserve forest

Excoecaria agallocha: replacement of a marsh by a concrete channel

Fagraea fragrans: Cut for space

Fagrea racemosa: planted species that did not survive in its new surroundings

Gynura procumbens: planted, in a pot, abandoned

Heritiera littoralis: cut to gain space

 419

Ipomea reptans: Perhaps collected in a waterlogged area, left place to other water friendly and
hardy species

Justicia gendarussa cut during a “cemetery cleaning operation” did not regrow

Manilkara kauki, although edible, was cut for space.

Rauvolfia verticillata: smothered amongst the regrowth of other belukar

Rhodomyrtus tomentosa: cut during a cleaning, did not regrow. Still common in other village
sunny areas.

Ruellia repens: garden, cut

Sapium indicum: habitat modified: Nipah stream for concrete channel

Sesamun indicum: Appeared and disappeared, without obvious reason, not noticed, unused

Spilanthes acmella: Tar roads and construction projects in KT town

Talinum paniculatum: planted, moved away by owner for ornamemtal species

Vallaris glabra: abandoned; children of the deceased owner did not look after it

Wilkstroemia ridleyi: Area submerged by more common belukar

Zingiber cassumunar; stopped growing where used to: ground disturbances by human occupants

ii) Plant species -by places:

PULAU DUYONG;-Past, present

Scientific name Malay name Habit Habitat Uses Present

occurrence
1 Alocasia macrorrhiza Birah keladi Large H Swamp D, M
2 Alpinia galanga Lengkuas Large H Villages F, M
3 Alstonia angustiloba Pulai Tree Swamp M, F,
4 Aloe vera Lidah buaya Herb Planted M, F
5 Annona muricata Durian belanda Tree Villages F, M
6 Annona squamosa Buah nona Tree Villages F
7 Andrographis Empedu bumi Herb Villages M
paniculate
8 Anacardium occidentale Jambu golok Tree Villages F
9 Areca catechu Pinang Palm Villages M 0
10 Artocarpus integer Cempedak Tree Villages F, M
11 Aristolochia tagala Ketola hutan Climber Open spaces M 0
12 Artocarpus Nangka Tree Villages F, M
heterophyllum
13 Artocarpus altilis Sukun Tree Villages F, M
 420

14 Asplenium nidus Paku langsuyir Epiphyt Villages M

15 Ageratum conizoides Rumput tahi Herb Open spaces M
ayam
16 Asystasia Ruas ruas Herb Open spaces M
coromandelina
17 Averrhoa carambola Belimbing Tree Villages F, M
18 Averrhoa belimbi Belimbing besi Tree Villages F, M
19 Avicenia officinalis Api api Shrub Mangrove M
20 Bambusa vulgaris Buluh Large H Villages U, M
21 Barringtonia racemose Putat ayam Tree Mangrove M
22; Blechnum orientale Paku lipan Fern Villages M
23 Blumea balsamifera Capa Large H Open spaces M 0
24 Bouea macrophylla Kundang Tree Villages F
25 Bougainvillea Bunga kertas Shrub Villages D
26 Brassica sinensis Sawi Herb Planted F
27 Breynia reclinate Hujan panas Tree Forest edges M
28 Brucea javanica Lada pahit Large H Open spaces M 0
29 Bryophyllum pinnatum Setawar Herb Villages M
30 Caladium bicolor Keladi Herb Villages D, F, M
31 Cananga odorata Kenanga Tree Planted D
32 Canna orientalis Tasbeh Large H Planted D
33 Capparis micracantha Melada Tree Riversides D 0
34 Capsicum annum Lada merah Shrub Planted F, M
35 Capsicum minimum Lada api Shrub Planted F, M
36 Catharantus roseus Kemunting cina Herb Sandy areas M, D
37 Cardiospermum Peria bulan Herb Open spaces M 0
halicacabum
38 Carica papaya Betik Tree Planted F, M
39 Caryota mitis Mudok Palm Forest D 0
40 Cassia alata Gelenggang Herb Open spaces M 0
41 Cassia mimosoides Gelenggang Herb Open spaces M
kecil
42 Cassia tora Gelenggang Herb Open spaces M
padang
43 Centella asiatica Pegaga Herb Open spaces F, M ½
44 Ceiba pentandra Kekabu Tree Planted U, M 0
45 Cicca acida Cermai Tree Planted F
46 Citrus aurantifolia Limau nipis Shrub Planted F, M
47 Citrus hystrix Limau purut Shrub Planted F, M
48 Citrus maxima Pomelos Tree Planted F, M
49 Citrus macrocarpa Limau Kasturi Shrub Planted F, M
50 Cleome icosandra Maman pantai Herb Open spaces F, M
51 Clerodendrum Timba tasek Shrub River side M
laevifolium
 421

52 Clerodendrum Pemangil Shrub Planted M

paniculatum
53 Cocos nucifera Kelapa Palm Sandy areas F, M ½
54 Coffea arabica Kawah Tree Planted F 0
55 Cosmos sulphureus Ulam raja Herb Planted F
56 Crinum asiaticum Bakung Herb Mangrove D, M
57 Cordyline terminalis Jejuang Herb Planted M, D
58 Comelina nudiflora Aur Herb Open spaces F, M
58 Curcuma domestica Kunyit Herb Planted F, M
60 Curcuma zeodaria Temu kuning Herb Planted F, M
61 Cyathula prostrata Bayam pasir Shrub Open spaces M, F
62 Cymbopogon citratus Serai Herb Planted F, M
63 Cynometra cauliflora Kekatong Tree Mangrove F
64 Datura metel Kecubung Large H Open spaces M
65 Dendrobium Angerek Epiphyt On trees M
crumenatum
66 Derris elliptica Ketuil, Tuba laut Climber Mangrove M
67 Dolichandrone Ketui. Beka Tree Mangrove M 0
spathacea
68 Donax grandis Bemban Large H Open spaces M 0
69 Dianella ensifolia Siak Herb Open spaces M
70 Drymoglossum Pitis pitis Climber On trees M
71 Herritiera litoralis Dungun Tree Open spaces 0
72 Durio zybethinus Durian Tree Planted F
73 Eclipta alba Urang aring Herb Open spaces M
74 Elephantopus scaber Tapak Suleiman Herb Open spaces M 0
75 Emilia sonchifolia Bayam perasi Herb Open spaces F, M 0
76 Erioglossum Jambu arang Tree Open spaces F
rubiginosum
77 Erythrina indica Dedap Tree Villages M 0
78 Euphorbia hirta Gelang susu Herb Open spaces M
79 Excoaria agallocha Bebuta Shrub Mangrove D, M 0
80 Fagraea fragrans Tembusu Tree Villages D, M
81 Ficus fistula Ara Tree
82 Ficus hispida Ara sungai Shrub Villages
83 Flacourtia jangomas Kerekup Tree Villages F
84 Flemmingia strobilifera Serengan Herb Belukar M, D
85 Garcinia mangostana Semeta Tree Villages F
86 Gardenia jasminoides Bunga cina Shrub Villages D
87 Gluta renghas Rengas Tree River side 0
88 Gnetum gnemon Melinjau Tree Villages F
89 Gomphrena globose Bunga butang Herb Open spaces
90 Gossypium herbaceum Kapas Tree Villages U 0
91 Glycosmis puberula Terape Tree Belukar M
 422

92 Heliconia psittacorum Kepek udang Large H Villages D

93 Heliotropum indicum Ekor kucing Herb Villages D
94 Heritiera litoralis Dungun Tree Villages D 0
95 Hibiscus esculentus Kacang bendir Climber Villages F
96 Hibiscus tilliaceus Bebaru Tree Open spaces U
97 Homalomena Kemoyang Herb Paths sides F 0
sagittifolia
98 Hopea odorata Cengal Tree Cemetry M, U
99 Hyptis brevipes Ati ati puteh Herb Open spaces M
100 Impatiens balsamicum Inai keeling Shrub Planted M
101 Ipomea aquatica Kangkung Herb Planted F, M 0
102 Ipomea cairica Seri pagi Climber Escaped D
103 Ipomea pes-caprae Tapak kuda Herb Beach M
104 Ixora javanica Pecah periuk Shrub Villages M
105 Jasminum sambac Melor Shrub Villages D, M
106 Jatropha curcas Jarak belanda Shrub Villages M 0
107 Justicia gendarussa Gandarusa Shrub Villages M 0
108 Kaempferia galanga Cenkur Shrub Villages F
109 Lagenaria siceraria Labu air Climber Villages F
110 Lagerstroemia flos Bogor Tree Villages D
reginae
111 Lagerstroemia speciosa Bongor Tree Villages D 0
122 Lansium domesticum Duku Tree Villages F ½
123 Lantana kamara Tahi ayam Shrub Open spaces D
124 Lasia spinosa Gegeli Large H Open spaces D
125 Lawsonia inermis Inai Shrub Villages M
126 Leea indica Memali Shrub Open spaces M 0
127 Lepisanthes alata Buah ceri Tree Villages F
128 Lepisanthes Kunstleri Terajang Tree Villages M
129 Loranthus ferruginus Dedalu Epiphyte Open spaces D
130 Leukas zeylanica Ketumbak Herb Open spaces M
131 Macaranga bancana Mahang Tree Villages M
132 Mallotus Balek angin Tree Open spaces M
macrostachyius
133 Mangifera odorata Macang Tree Villages F
134 Mangifera indica Mempelam Tree Villages F
135 Manihot utilissima Ubi kayu Tree Villages F
136 Manilkara sapota Ciku Tree Villages F 0
137 Melia azadirachta Neem Tree Villages D, M
138 Mikania scandens Ulam tikus Climber Open spaces M
139 Mimosa pudica Pemalu Herb Open spaces M
140 Mimosops elengi Tanjung Tree Garden F
141 Melastoma Keduduk Shrub Villages M
malabathrica
 423

142 Microcos tomentosa Chenderai Tree 0

143 Morinda citrifolia Mengkudu Tree Villages M
144 Morinda elliptica Mengkudu Tree Villages M
145 Moringa oleifera Merungai Tree Villages M
146 Musa paradisiaca Pisang Palm Villages F
147 Murraya koenigii Daun Kari Tree Villages F
148 Muraya paniculate Kemuning Tree Villages D
149 Mussaenda frontosa Balek adap Shrub Open spaces M
150 Neolitsea zeylanica Teja Tree Coastal forest M
151 Notaphoebe Sukai Tree Wet forests U
panduriformis
152 Nypa fructicans Nipah Palm Mangrove F, U
153 Ocinum canum Kemangi Herb Villages F, M
154 Oldenlandia corymbose Cakar ayam Herb Open spaces M
155 Oncosperma tigillarium Nibong Palm Villages U, M ½
156 Opuntia ficus indica Kaktus Shrub Planted D
157 Ortosiphon stamineus Misai kucing Herb Planted M
158 Oxalis corniculate Cekek dadak Herb Open spaces M
159 Pandanus odorus Pandan Herb Villages F
160 Pandanus odoritissimus Mengkuang Large H Villages U, M 0
161 Passiflora foetida Ulat bulu Climber Open spaces F
162 Peperonia pellucida Ketumpang air Herb Villages M, F,
163 Momordica charantia Peria Climber Planted F
164 Phyllanthus acidus Cermai Tree Planted F
165 Phyllanthus niruri Dukong anak Herb Open spaces M
166 Physalis minima Letup letup Shrub Open spaces M 0
167 Piper betle Sireh Climber Villages M
168 Piper sarmentosum Kaduk Herb Belukar F
169 Plumeria indica Kemboja Tree Villages D
170 Premna foetida Bebuas Tree Belukar M
171 Polygonum minus Kesun Herb Planted F
172 Portulaca grandiflora Gelang Herb Planted F, M
173 Portulaca oleracea Gelang pasir Herb Open spaces F, M ½
174 Psidium guava Jambu batu Tree Planted F
175 Psodocarpus Kacang botol Climber Planted F
tetragonolobus
176 Psychotria sarmentosa Ketai Climber Forest edges F, M 0
177 Pterocarpus indicus Angsana Tree River side D, M,
178 Punica granata Delima Shrub Planted F, M
179 Rauvolfia verticillata Batu pelir Shrub Forest edges M 0
kambing
180 Rhodomyrtus Kemunting Shrub open spaces F, D,
tomentosus
181 Saccharum officinarum Tebu Large H Planted F
 424

182 Samanea saman Hujan hujan Tree Planted D, M 0

183 Sandoricum koejape Setol Tree Planted F, M 0
184 Sauropus androginus Cekur manis Shrub Forest edges F, M 0
185 Scoparia dulcis Ketumbar Herb Open spaces M
padang
186 Sesamum indicum Bijan Herb Open spaces F, M 0
187 Sida rombifolia Sedaguri Herb Open spaces M
188 Sonneratia caseolaris Bembang Tree Mangrove F, M
189 Sapium indicum Gurah Tree Mangrove M
190 Smilax Sentosa Banar, gadong Climber Forest edges M
191 Solanum torvum Terung pipit Shrub Open spaces F, M
192 Spilantes acmella, Getang Herb Open spaces M
193 Starchytarpheta indica Selaseh dandi Herb Open spaces M
194 Striga asiatica Siku siku Herb Open spaces M
195 Syzygium aquaea Jambu air Tree Planted F, M
196 Syzygium malaccensis Jambu bol Tree Planted F, M
197 Tamarindus indica Asam jawa Tree Villages F, M
198 Terminalia catappa Ketapang Tree Coasts M
199 Tetracera indica Mempelas Shrub Paths sides M
200 Tinospora crispa Patarwali Climber Planted, wild M
201 Torenia polygonoides Kerak nasi Herb Open spaces D
202 Tridax procumbens Kancing baju Herb Open spaces M
203 Urena lobata Pulut pulut Herb Paths sides M
204 Vallaris glabra Tikam seladang Climber Cultivated D
205 Vernonia cinerea Tembak bukit Herb Open spaces M
206 Vitis hastata Lakum Climber Open spaces M
207 Wedelia biflora Serunai laut Climber Mangrove M
208 Wilkstroemia indica Depu Shrub Forest edges M 0
209 Zingiber cassumunar Bonglai Large Cultivated M
210 Ziziphus jujuba Bidara Tree River side F, M

Four common species palm trees and herbs- -Cocos nucifera, centella asiatica, Portulaca oleacera
and Oncosperma tiggilarum have obviously decreased in quantity

iii) Plant species: JAMBU BONGKOK

 Scientific Name Malay name (Mat K.)
1 Stiphelia malayana Timba tasek
2 Leptospermum flavescens Cucur atap 425
3 Albizia myriophylla Tebu gajah
4 Fagraea acuminatissima Tengkuk biawak
5 Hoya coronaria Setebal
6 Entada phaseolides Beluru
7 Anacardium occidentale Jambu golok
8 Syzygium aquae Jambu air
9 Coscinum blumeanunm Mengkunyit kuning
10 Hibiscus sabdariffa Assam
11 Aralidum pinnatidifolium Pauh pungah
12 Vitex rotundifolia Lengundi
13 Garcinia hombronyana Semeta, Beruas
14 Fagrea racemosa Sepuleh
15 Vitis Nyaru
16 Portulacca oleacera Gelang
17 Baeckia fructescens Cucur atap
18 "Badang": skin deseases Badang darah
19 psoriasis, exzema etc. Badang duri
20 Badang minyak
21 Badang merayap
22 Celosia argentea Balong ayam
23 Pittosporum ferruginum Belalang puak
24 Leucaena leucocephala Belalang pasir
25 Chasalia chartacea Beras puteh
26 Bambusa Buluh akar
27 Averrhoa carambola Belimbing laut
28 Averrhoa belimbi Belimbing darat
29 Badang busuk
30 Cawat pangan
31 Erythroxylum cuneatum Cinta mula
32 Plumbago zeylanica Celaka pangan
33 Plumbago rosea Celaka kampong
34 Croton agyratus Carek murai
35 Microporus xanthopus kelentit kering
36 Lignosus rhinoceros Susu harimau
37 Ficus deltoides Telinga berok
38 Smilax myosotifolia Itah besi
39 Smilax callophylla Alek tembaga
40 Quisqualis indica Akar dani
41 Croton caudatum Gurah periapt
42 Garcinia artroviridis Gelugor jantan
43 Vitex pubescens Leban
44 Thottea grandiflora Empedu beruang
45 Ancistrocladus tectorius Julung akar
46 Psychotria viridiflora Julung kayu
47 Panicum sarmentosum Janggut Ali
48 Piper Kucukan
49 Fibraurea chloroleuc mengkunyit
50 Ardisia crenulata Kerbau jantan
51 Morinda citrifolia kemudu kayu
52 Morinda umbellata Kemudu akar
53 Buchania Katak udang
 426

54 Kayu lapis
55 Labisia pothoinia Kacip Fatimah
56 Bidens pilosa Kacing baju merah
57 Heydiotis diffusa Kacing baju puteh
58 Homalomena sagittifolia Kemoyang
59 Mesua ferrea Penaga gunong
60 Schefflera heterophylla Kerbau melawan
61 vitis cinnamomum Kertas pangan
62 Luffa acutangula Ketola pahit
63 Kawat tahi kucing
64 Alocasia indica Keladi birah
65 Hydnophytum formicarum Kepala beruk
66 Smilax myosotifolia lancang besi
67 Smilax calophylla Lancang tembaga
68 Piper nigrum Kucukan lada hitam
69 Coscinum blumeanum Mengkunyit puteh
70 Xylocarpus moluccensis Nyaru
71 Biophytum adiantoides Payung Ali
72 Pithecelobium microcarpu Petai merbau
73 Parkia speciosa Petai
74 Pithecelobium jering Nering/jering
75 Pithecelobium lobatum Keredas
76 Goniothalamus scortechinii Gajah beranak
77 Cinnamomum cinereum Teja sarsi
78 Ixora chinensis Pecah periuk
79 Vitis cinnamomea Pakan kertas
80 Aralidium pinnatofolium Puak punggah, balai
81 Garcinia motleyana Tambun
82 Ixonanthes icosandra Pagar anak
83 Cinnamomum cuspidatum Rempah gunung
84 Lophatherum gracile Rumput buluh
85 Commelina nudiflora Rumput aur
86 Cratoxylum formosum Ronggang
87 Blumea balsamifera Sembong, capa
88 Drioglossum pilesoides Sisek puyu
89 Melastoma malabathrica Sudu sendok
90 Carallia sufructicosa setulang daging
91 Clerodendron inerme Setulang laut
92 Piper porphyrophyllum Sireh rimau
93 Areca catechu Pinang
94 Solanum torvum terung kemar
95 Micromelum pubescens Semerol gajah
96 Mimosa pudica Semalu hutan
98 Hippocratea indica Serapat daging
99 Paramignya scandens Serapat darah
100 Parameria laevigata Sekecut urat
102 Polyporus sacer Susu harimau
103 Mikania micracantha Selaput tunggul
104 Eleutherine bulbosa Selusuh pangan
 427

105 Mapamia cuspidate Supit garam

106 Anastatica hierochunta Sanggul siti Ftimah
107 Luvanga scandens Susuh ayam jantan
108 Glochidio littorale Hujan panas
109 Sindora coriaceae Sepetir
110 Cinnamomun Teja jantan
111 Cinnamomum mollissimum Teja lawan
112 Eurycoma longifolia Tongkat Ali
113 Thottea grandifolia Telinga beruang
114 Glycosmis pentaphyllum Terape
115 Cyclea peltate Terung kemar
116 Fagrea fragrans Tembusu
117 Vitis spp. Ubi nyaru
118 Yong kui
119 Polianthes tuberosa Teruna semalam
Stiphelia malayana, Timba Tasek, Leptospermum flavescens Cucur atap, Albizia myriophylla

Tebu gajah, Fagraeae acumnatisssima Tengkuk biawak, Hoya coronaria, Setebal, Entada

phaseolidea, Beluru, Anacardium occidentale Jambu golok, Syzygium aquae Jamby air, Coscinium

blumeanum Mengkunit kuning, Hibiscus sabdarifa Assam, Aralidum pinnatifolium Pauh punga,

Balai, Vitex rotundifolia Lengundi, Garcinia hombronyana Semeta Beruas, Fagrea racemose

Sepuleh, Vitis Nyaru, Portulacca oleacera Gelang, Baeckia fructescens Cucur atap, Badang (for

skin deseases) Badang darah, badang berduri, Badang minyak, badang merayap, Celosia argentea

Balong ayam

Re-visits in Coasts Jambu Bongkok

Noted flora specimen, collected, and/or photographied in “re-visits”, by area,

With Zamri Mohamed (2013), Mat Kapur ‘s son

In the Forest Reserve:

Tunjang bumi, Eurycoma longifolia Selusuh ayam jantan, Luvunga scandens Mata pelandok, Ardisia

crenata Ubi Nyaru, Vitis diffusa Teja jantan, Cinnamomum molissimum Jejuang Cordilyne terminalis

Beras puteh, Chassalia chartacea Bebuas, Premna foetida Gajah beranak, Goniothalamus macrophyllum

In the swamp forest:

 428

Pecah periuk, Ixora sinensis Tumbuh seduan, Angiopteris erecta Gelam tikus, Syzygium inophylla Gelam

paya, Melaleuca cajuputi Pokok Gemia, Bouea spp. Belinjau, gnetum gnemon Timba tasek,

Leptospermum flavescens Rumput dawai, Ischaenum musticum Kayu kuat, Goniothalamus schortechinii

Kemunting, Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Katak udang, Buchania arborescens Rempah padang, Striga

asiatica Mas secotet, Ficus deltoidea

On the beach:

Badang busut Catunaregam spinosa (Randia) Akar dani, Combretum indicum Sesiak, Dianela ensifolia

Serapat kayu, Parameria laevigata Lamuni/lengudi, Vitex rotundifolia, Meribut, Olax scandens, Teh

padang, Scoparia dulcis, Kelempadang Vaccinium bracteatum, Tasek timbul Stiphelia malayana, Pulai

leaves: (on spleen for fever, latex for boils), Cerbera odolam, pong pong

With botanist Frantz Limier (2017) with some traditionally (Terengganu) reputed uses

Ancistrocladaceae Ancistrocladus tectorius, akar jenjulong hitam, naphtinisolquinoline, effective in

malaria, ulam edible green

Annonaceae Polyalthia bullata, tongkat Ali hitam, peleh, (tonic and postpartum)

Apocynaceae Alstonia angustiloba, Calotropis gigantea, rembega, anti-helmintic

Asparagaceae Cordyline terminalis (syn. fructicosa), jenjuang, abortifacient, hemostatic

Casuarinaceae Casuarina equisetifolia, Pokok Ru, used in dying, bark reputed postpartum

Cyperaceae

Lepironia articulata, daun kerecut

Dipterocarpaceae

Shorea materialis, balau pasir

Hopea odorata, merawan siput jantan, cengal pasir

Fabaceae

Clitoria laurifolia, sebusuk, different from Clitoria ternatea bunga telang

Flacourtiaceae

Flacourtia inermis,

Goodeniaceae
 429

Scaevola taccada, ambong ambong

Liliaceae

Dianella ensifolia, akar siak, meroyan bungkus

Lamiaceae

Vitex pinnata, leban Vitex rotundifolia, lengundi, lamuni. roots and leaves postpartum

Myristicaceae

Rodomyrtus tomentosa, kemunting, fruit edible, Chinese medicine

Myrsinaceae

Ardisia crenata, mata pelandok, mata ayam, ulam salad greens, clears mucus (asthma)

Myrtaceae

Melaleuca leucadendron, gelam, tannin, essential oil, external uses (and caulking. poles, charcoal)

Syzygium grande. Jambu laut

Syzygium palembanicum, Jambu laut air

Nepenthaceae

Nepenthes gracilis, periuk kera, plumbagin

Pandanaceae

Pandanus odoratissimus

Restionaceae

Leptocarpus disjunctus, (?) anxiolytic, hypnotic, food for macaques?

Rubiaceae

Catunaregam (Randia) spinosa, badang, one of them (as Mat Kapur), for skin problems

Chassalia chartaceae, beberas

Ixora javanica, peca periuk.

iv) LIST KENYIR

With Prof. Karim (UMT) 1992 research

Appendix 1 Pulau Duyong Plant species inventory, past, present

 430

Table Inventory of the seen in the past, then, present observation

with symbols indicating the main uses and present status of the mentioned species.
“o” means that the plant is not there anymore, ½ means that is much less seen. “M” means
medicinal, “F” is food, “D” is ornamental, and “U” is utilitarian.

Appendices B
Medicinal Plants in Terengganu to compare sources
Ubat
Bil Ubat Tgnu nd exhibition Tradisyonal Mat kapur Villagers Orang Asli Total
1 Abelmoschus moschatus 1
2 Abrus precatorius / 2
3 Acalypha indica / / 3
4 Acanthus ebracteus / 2
5 Acorus calamus / 2
6 Acrotrema costatum 1
7 Adenostoma capitatum 1
8 Adenothera pavonina 1
9 Aerva lanata 1
10 Agava angustifolia 1
11 Agrostistachys gaudichii / 1
12 Alangium ebenaceum / 2
13 Albizia myriophylla / / / 4
14 Alpinia conchigera / / 3
15 Alpinia galanga / / / / 5
16 Alpinia species / 2
17 Alstonia angustiloba / 2
18 Alternanthera sessilis / 2
19 Amaranthus speciosus / 2
20 Amonum cardamomum 1
21 Amorphophallus prainii / 2
22 Anacardium occidentale / / 3
 431

/A
23 Ancistrocladus tectorius pinanginus / 3
24 Andrographis paniculata / / 3
25 Annona muricata / / / 4
26 Antidesma ghaesembila / 2
Antidesma
27 Antidesma montanum sp 1
28 Aquilaria malaccensis / 2
29 Aralidum pinnatifolium / 2
30 Archidendron bubalinum 1
31 Archidendron jiringa / 2
32 Ardisia elliptica (below lah) / / 3
33 Ardisia barnesii
34 Ardisia crenata / / A. sp. 3
35 Areca catechu / / / 4
36 Aristolochia tagala / / 3
37 Artocarpus communis 1
38 Artocarpus elasticus 1
39 Artocarpus heterophyllus / 2
40 Artocarpus incisa 1
41 Archidendron bubalinum 1
42 Ardisia elliptica 1
43 Atalantis buxifolia 1
44 Averrhoa belimbi / / / / 5
45 Averrhoa carambola / / / 4
46 Avicenna lanata / / 3
47 Avicenna alba / / 3
48 Azadarichta indica 1
49 Baccaurea lanceolata 1
50 Baccaurea motleyana 1
51 Baccaurea parviflora 1
52 Baeckea frutescens / 2
53 Bambusa vulgaris / / / 4
54 Barleria lupulina 1
55 Barleria prionitis / 2
56 Barringtonia macrostachys B acutangular 2
57 Bauhinia acuminata B racemosa 2
58 Biophytum adiantoides / /
59 Bixa orellana
60 Blumea balsamifera / / / / 5
61 Bouea macrophylla / 2
62 Brucea amarissima / / / 4
63 Buchania / 2
64 Callophyllum inophyllum / 2
65 Calotropis gigantea / 2
Campylospermum
66 serratum
67 Cananga odorata / 1
68 Canavalia ensiformis / 2
 432

69 Canthium glabrum / / c. horridum 3

70 Capsicum anum / 2
71 Carallia atropurpurea / / sufructicosa / 4
72 Carica papaya / 2
73 Caryoca mitis 1
74 Cassia fistula 1
75 Cassia gandis 1
76 Cassia occidentalis 1
77 Castanopsis megacarpa / C inermis 3
78 Casuarina equisetifolia / 2
79 Catharantus roseus / / 3
80 Ceiba pentandra / 2
81 Centella asiatica / / 3
82 Cesalpinia bonduc / 2
83 Cesalpinia sappan / 2
84 Chassalia chartacea / / 3
85 Chromolaena odorata / 2
86 Cinnamomum cinnereum /C sp / 3
/C
87 Cinnamomum culitlawan / /cuspidatum cuspidatum 3
88 Cinnamomum molissimum / / 3
89 Cinnamomum porrectum / 2
90 Cinnamomum zeylanicum C iners / 3
91 Citrus aurantifolia / / / 4
92 Clerodendron paniculatum / /inerme / 4
93 Clerodendron serratum / / 3
94 Clerodendron thomsonae 1
95 Clitorea ternata / / 3
96 Cocos nucifera / 2
97 Coix lacryma-jobi / 2
98 Coleus blumei / / 3
99 Colubrina asiatica / 2
100 Combretum sundaicum 1
101 Cordyline terminalis / / 3
102 Coscinium blumeanum / / 3
103 Costus speciosus / Cheilocostus 2
104 Crataeva religiosa / 2
105 Crescentia cujete 1
106 Crinum asiaticum / / 3
107 Croton caudatus / / / C tiglium 4
108 Croton rheophytictus /agyratus 2
109 Coscinium blumeanum / / 3
110 Curcuma aerugina / /C longa 2
111 Curcuma zeodaria / / / 4
112 Cyathea luridaa 1
113 Cycas edentata / 2
114 Cyclea laxifora / / peltata / 4
 433

/C
115 Cymbopogon nardus / / winterianus 4
116 Cynometra cauliflora / / / 4
117 Datura alba / 2
118 Datura metel / 2
119 Derris elliptica / / 3
120 Desmodium gangeticum / 2
121 Dilliena ensifolia / 2
122 Dillenia obovata 2
123 Dioscorea hispida /D alata 2
124 Diospyros argentea 1
125 Diospyros buxifolia 1
126 Dipteris conjugata 1
127 Dipteris lobbiana 1
128 Dipterocarpus crinitus / 2
129 Dishidia major 1
130 Donax grandis 1
131 Dracaena elliptica 1
132 Drynaria quercifolia 1
Dryobalanops
133 sumatranensis 1
134 Durio spp. D zybetinus 2
135 Eclipta prostata / / 3
Elateriospermum
136 tapoifolia 1
137 Elettaropsis curtisii / 2
138 Emilia sonchifolia / 2
139 Entada phaseolides / 2
140 Epipremnum giganteum 1
141 Epitrema membranaceum 1
142 Erythrina fusca E. indica 2
143 Eurycoma longifolia / / 3
144 Etlingera elatior / 2
145 Euphorbia hirta / / 3
146 Euphorbia neriifolia 1
147 Euphorbia thymifolia 1
/
148 Fagraea auriculata acuminatissima 2
149 Fagraea fragrans / / 3
150 Fagraea racemosa / 2
151 Fibraurea chloroleuca / / tinctoria 3
152 Ficus benjamina 1
153 Ficus deltoidea / /
154 Ficus variegata 1
155 Garcinia hombroiana /motleyana 2
156 Garcinia atroviridis / /G cambodgia G cambodgia 3
157 Garcinia praniana / /hombronyana 3
158 Garcinia mangostana / 2
 434

/G
159 Gardenia florida / jasminoides 3
160 Globba pendula / 2
161 Gnetum gnemon 1
162 Goniothalamus umbrosus / scortechinii macrophyllus 3
/G
163 Gomphandra quadrifida penangiana / G globosa 3
164 Gossipum herbaceum 1
165 Guioa pleuroptis G pubescens G pubescens 3
Helmintyhostachys
166 zeylanica 1
167 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis / / / 4
Homalocladium
168 platycladum 1
169 Homalomena sagittifolia / / 3
170 Hydnophytum formicarium / / 3
171 Hydrangea macrophylla 1
/ hyptis
172 Hyptis suaveolens / / brevipes 4
173 Ilex cimosa / 2
174 Impatiens balsamina / / 3
175 Imperata cylindrica / / / 4
176 Ipomea aquatica / / 3
177 Ixonanthes icosandra / 2
178 Ixora concinna / sp not id 2
179 Ixora pendula / / 3
180 Jasminum sambac / / / 4
181 Jatropha curcas / 2
Johannesteijsmanni
182 altifons 1
183 Justicia gendarussa / / 3
184 Justicia plicostoma 1
185 Kadsura scandens / 2
186 Kaempferia /K galanga 2
187 Lagerstroemia speciosa / 2
188 Lantana camara / / 3
189 Leptospermum flavescens / / 3
190 Lasia spinosa 1
191 Labisia pumila / / 3
192 Lansium domesticum / 2
193 Lawsonia alba / 2
194 Lawsonia inermis / / / 4
195 Leea indica / / / 4
196 Lepidaria kingii 1
197 Lepisanthes rubiginosa / / 3
198 Leptospermum flavescens / 2
199 Leucaena leucocephala / 2
200 Licuala glabra 1
201 Lophopetalun Walichii L Gracile 2
 435

202 Maesa ramentaceaee 1

203 Mallotus macrostachylus / 2
204 Mangifera caesia 1
205 Manilkara zapota / 2
206 Mapania sp / /
207 Mapania cuspidata / / 3
208 Melastoma malabathricum / / / / 5
209 Melastoma sanguineum 1
210 Melicope lanu-ankenda 1
211 Merremia tridentata 1
212 Microcos tomentosa / 1
213 Mimosa pudica / / / / 5
214 Mimosops elengi /
215 Mitragyna speciosa /
216 Molineria latifolia /
217 Morinda citrifolia / / / 3
218 Morinda elliptica / / / / m corneri 5
219 Moringa oleifera / / 3
220 Murraya koenigii / / 3
221 Murraya paniculata / / 3
222 Mussaenda villosa / M frontosa 2
223 Neobalanocarpus heimii 1
224 Neolamarka cadamba 1
225 Nypa fructicans / 2
226 Nepenthes ampullaria 1
227 Ortosiphon stamineus / /aristratus 3
228 Oxyspora bullata 1
229 Pachycentria constricta 1
230 Paederia foetida / 2
231 Pandanus amarylifolius / 2
232 Pandanus odoratissimus `1
233 Pandanus odorus / 2
234 Parameria laevigata / / 3
235 Paramignya scandens / P laevigata 3
236 Parkia speciosa / / 3
237 Passiflora foetida / / 3
238 Pavetta siamica 1
239 Pedilanthes titymaloides 1
240 Peliosanthes teta / 2
241 Pentafragma horsefieldii 1
242 Peperomia pellucida / 2
243 Pereskia bleo / 2
244 Persicaria chinensis 1
245 Phyllagathis rotundifolia 1
246 Phyllanthus amarus / P niruri P niruri P niruri 4
247 Phyllanthus emblica 1
248 Phyllanthus pulcher 1
249 Phyllanthus elegans 1
 436

250 Phylloclamys walichii 1

251 Piper aduncum 1
252 Piper nigrum / kucukan / 3
253 Piper sarmentosum / /
254 Piper stylosum 3
255 Plantago major 1
256 Platycerium holtumii 1
257 Pluchea indica / 2
258 Plumbago zeylanica / 2
259 Polyalthia bullata / 2
260 Polygonum minus 1
261 Portulaca oleacera / / / 4
262 Premna foetida / 2
263 Prismatomeris glabra / 2
264 Pseudouvaria macrophylla 1
265 Psidium guava / / 3
266 Pternandra echinata 1
267 Pterocarpus indicus / / 3
268 Punica granata / / 3
269 Quiscalis indica / 2
/R
270 Rauvolfia verticillata sumatrana / 2
271 Renellia speciosa / 2
272 Rhizophora mucronata 1
273 Rhodamia cinerea 1
274 Rhodomyrtus tomentosa / 2
275 Ricinus communis 1
276 Sandericum koetjape / 2
277 Sanseveria trifasciata
278 Sauropus androgynus / / 3
279 Scaevola taccada / s frutescens 2
280 Scaphium macropodum 1
281 Scaphochlamys 1
282 Schefflera arboricola 1
283 Schefflera heterophylla / / 3
284 Schoutenia accrescens 1
285 Scoparia dulcis / 2
286 Selaginella intermedia 1
287 Senna alata / 2
288 Senna occidentalis / 2
289 Senna tora / / 3
290 Sesbania grandiflora 1
291 Smilax myosotifolia / / / 4
292 Smilax callophyllum / / 3
293 Solenostemon scutelloides 1
294 Spathoglottis plicata 1
Starchytarpheta
295 jamaicensis / S indica 2
 437

296 Staurogine setigera 1

297 Stemona curtisii / 2
298 Stenochlaena palustris 1
299 Streblus asper 1
300 Strobilanthes crispa 1
301 Strychnos pubescens / 2
302 Sweitenia macrophylla / 2
303 Syzygium aquae / / 3
304 Sysygium aromaticum 1
305 Sysygium cuminii /? 2
/ S.
306 Sysygium grande polyanthum 2
307 Sysygium gratum 1
308 Syzygium zeylanicum / 2
309 Tacca integrifolia / / 3
310 Tadehagi triquetum 1
311 Talinum patens / T patens 2
312 Tamarindus indicus / / / 4
313 Tectona grandis 1
314 Tetracera macrophylla / T. assa / T indica 3
315 Thevetia peruviana 1
316 Thottea grandiflora / / 3
317 Tinospora crispa / 2
318 Tiphonium divaricatum 1
319 Tisanolaena agrotis 1
320 Tradessiantia albiflora 1
321 Trema angustifolia Trema sp. 2
322 Triumphetta angulata 1
323 Tiphonium divaricatum 1
324 Uncaria lanosa / 2
325 Urceaola brachysepala 1
326 Vitex negundo /
/ V.
327 Vitex spp. pubescens / rotundifolia / 3
328 Vitis cinnamomea / /V hastata 2
329 Wilkstroemia ridleyii 1
330 Wrightia levis / / 3
331 Xylopia ferrugina /moluccensis 1
332 Zingiber cassumunar / 2
333 Zingiber griffithii 1
334 Zingiber spp. / 2
335 Ziziphus mauritiana / 2

Herba ubatan Trgnu: 336 Tradisyonal: Mat kapur: Villages: Orang asli
108 on
@300 73 on @ 100 98 on @ 200 98 on @ 200

Pulau Duyong: The Monsoon Cup”

 438

The “Monsoon Cup” was an effort toward sailing sports tourism on the traditional island of Pulau
Duyong that lasted 10 years (2005-2015)

Fig. The Monsoon Cup Match Race, (a) 2005, b) 2007) c) Landscaped Hotel

A Press release in 2007, from the event developpers: “Making the most of the monsoon”

“In less than three years a muddy sandbar in a little-known river estuary has been transformed into a yachting
Mecca. This is the story of a purpose-built venue for a world class racing event in 2007, and the little fishing

village surrounding it.

There’s a Hollywood saying: “If you build it, they will come!” and Malaysia now boasts its very own field of dreams
in the form of a multi-million dollars world-class sailing arena.
Kuala Terengganu is located on the eastern coast of Malaysia where the Terengganu River meets the South China Sea.
The village on the edge of the fertile river was once a notable trading port for gold and pepper and today the city’s one
million residents enjoy a lifestyle which reflects a strong Islamic culture and long-standing traditions of fishing and
boating..TRACI.1 LIKE.0 COMMENTS
Fishermen and their families still live along the banks of Pulau Duyong in scattered villages of rickety timber shacks
[Sic]. These families still depend upon a good catch for their livelihood but between September and December the
generally tranquil seas become turbulent with the arrival of Monsoon season. Traditionally this has always been the
time to shut shop, find a safe harbour for the fishing fleet and wait for the winds to abate but strong steady gusts are
welcome in Terengganu these days thanks to the arrival of a sailing event called the Monsoon Cup. (Traci Ayris, for
the stake holders of the project, 2007).

Outsiders’ views on exogen development such as the Monsoon Cup in Pulau Duyong

The Impact of the Monsoon Cup event on the island and the reaction of the inhabitants, as found by
academic researchers and foreign tourism view on Pulau Duyong was expressed as follows:

1) The inhabitants were not really involved: ‘The involvement of local community in this event is
passive and it has affected the local hosts perceptions. Most of the majo rdevelopments have not
given any benefit to the locals.’ Mohd Azmin, Nurul Azhani (2008) in Kajian persepsi komuniti
 439

tempatan terhadap pelancongan sukan: Monsoon Cup, Pulau Duyung. Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, Faculty of Built Environment.

2) Another research emphasized the importance of exploring and understanding the goals and
needs of both the organisers and the residents respectively, ( Nawal Hanim Abdullah, Ian Peterson
et al.2014) Residents’ Needs and Organisers’ Goals towards the Organisation of Monsoon Cup
Event, Malaysia Journal of Economics and Management 8 (2): 327 - 341 (2014) IJEM International
Journal of Economics and Management.

3) The sailing event was not registered in some tourism books. There was no mention of the event
in the Le “Guide du Routard 2008-2009, Malaisie, Singapour ». The guide instead tells of
interesting things to do about Pulau Duyong, other than observing the boat building and visiting
the Kota Lama Duyong: “Loose oneself in the inextricable network of earth trails. One meets there
many children, talkative women, and nonchalant old men. Nothing special to see, but an
atmosphere of calm and” joie de vivre”, and picturesque details to grasp. But the concrete begins
to nibble the ground, hurry to get there!”

p
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Pulau Duyong 3

“The Make-over of the Estuary”: 2011: Re-engineering for a modern landscape in 2020

Fig. ECRED (20011) vision for the Estuary of the Terengganu River: a) “KTCC Selatan”; b) KTCC Utara

“RM5b Kuala Terengganu City Centre to transform Terengganu”

KUALA TERENGGANU: The Kuala Terengganu City Centre (KTCC) project, unveiled on Thursday, Oct 20, will
be the linchpin to transform the state as it seeks to draw new domestic and foreign investments and create jobs.The
KTCC development, which covers a 7km radius from the Terengganu river estuary, will have a gross development
value (GDV) of about RM5 billion.
“Terengganu is set for exciting times. The KTCC project is a game changer and will establish new economic
parameters for the state,” said Terengganu Menteri Besar Datuk Seri Ahmad Said. “The project will herald in new
domestic and foreign investments, attracting many private entities participation where eventually it will elevate
Terengganu’s economy,” added Ahmad.
He added three major catalysts to drive KTCC were an integrated lifestyle enclave, a learning quarter, and a health
and wellness village.
Speaking at the ground breaking ceremony, he said there would be multiple spin-offs from increased tourist arrivals,
more opportunities in trade, retail services, recreation, food and beverage.
‘The East Coast Economic Region Development Council (ECERDC) is the facilitator for the project.
The development will focus around five key areas of Muara Utara, Muara Selatan, Pulau Warisan, Kampung
Ladang/Tanjung and the Corniche Waterfront. In total, the development is estimated to create jobs for more than
82,000 people by the year 2020”. (October 20, 2011 the Editor, The Edge,)
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Fig. Developement in the estuary and changes in views from Pulau Duyong (2020).

Fig. November 2020: Today: a) View toward Pulau Duyong b) View towards the draw bridge and the new
estuary.

Land reclamation has -not yet- fulfilled its promises. For the time being, on the future “KT City Centre North” (Muara
Utara), food trucks cater for local visitors who come to enjoy the space and the view of the new “drawbridge”.
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BIODATA OF THE AUTHOR

Christine Rohani Longuet was born in 1943 in Paris, where Maronniers (Aesculus

hippocastanum) are the main tree species, and wrought iron decorate stone buildings. She was

brought up near the “Jardin du Luxembourg”, a landscaped public garden, studied Latin, Greek

and philosophy, received a degree in History at the Sorbonne University (1961).

Her first work was as a librarian at the Astronomy Observatory of near Paris, then as a

documentalist at the Centre Scientifique du Batiment (Paris VII), and was appointed as translator

(German to French) for the monthly review “Pharma International”.

Travel started in 1971, to Malaysia and Singapore, working as a documentalist at the

cultural Departments of Embassies (France and Cambodgia), and translator. In 1982-1983, having

moved to Terengganu (Pulau Duyong) to commission the building of sailing boats, she pursued

activities in timber vessels and house construction.

In 1982-1983, she worked as a field ethnobotanist for the French “Societe de Recherche in

Phyto-Pharmacy”, then, from 1985 to 1995, together with phytopharmacists from the Centre

National de la Recherche Scientifique (France), and the Universiti Malaya and, from 2001 to 2003,

while the boat building was still active, further explored the Terengganu flora for medicinal species

for the French “LMD phytopharmacy Laboratoire”.

Studying from to 2003-2007, Rohani Longuet obtained a Master of Science in Architecture

at the University Technology Malaysia on “The Cultural Landscape of the House Compounds in

Terengganu”. From 2009 to 2011, she was appointed as a consultant at the University Institute

MARA in Puncak Alam to design and create a medicinal garden for their faculty of

phytochemistry.
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The gathering of documents and studies for the present thesis started in 2013 as a part time

research to bear witness of the past and present change in the floral and built Environment in

Terengganu. It was interrupted a few times for family reasons but has been continued.

On the personal side, Puan Rohani has eight -grown up- children, has been widowed three

years ago and still lives in Pulau Duyong.