Esophageal Disorders Guide: Causes, Symptoms and Treatments

Esophageal Disorders
Dr. Salem M. Bazarah,
MD, M.Ed, FACP, FRCPC, FRCPC(GI) & PhD
Ass. Prof. & Consultant Gastroenterologist,
Hepatologist & Interventional Endoscopist
King Abdul Aziz University
Director, Liver Transplant Program & Department of
Internal Medicine DSFH

Esophageal Disorders
 Motility
 Anatomic &
Structural
 Reflux
 Infectious
 Neoplastic
 Miscellaneous

Esophageal Anatomy
Upper Esophageal
Sphincter (UES)
Lower Esophageal
Sphincter (LES)
Esophageal Body
(cervical & thoracic)
18 to 24 cm

Normal Phases of Swallowing
 Voluntary
 oropharyngeal phase – bolus is voluntarily
moved into the pharynx
 Involuntary
 UES relaxation
 peristalsis (aboral movement)
 LES relaxation

Normal Phases of Swallowing
 Between swallows
 UES prevents air entering the esophagus
during inspiration and prevents
esophagopharyngeal reflux
 LES prevents gastroesophageal reflux
 peristaltic and non-peristaltic contractions in
response to stimuli
 capacity for retrograde movement (belch,
vomiting) and decompression

Normal Swallowing
Cortical Swallowing Areas
Swallowing Center
Motor Nuclei
Oropharynx & Esophagus
Frontal cortex
Brainstem

Motility Disorders
 upper esophageal
 UES disorders
 neuromuscular disorders
 esophageal body
 achalasia
 diffuse esophageal spasm
 nutcracker esophagus
 nonspecific esophageal
dysmotility
 LES
 achalasia
 hypertensive LES
 primary disorders
 achalasia
 diffuse esophageal spasm
 nutcracker esophagus
 nonspecific esophageal
dysmotility
 secondary disorders
 severe esophagitis
 scleroderma
 diabetes
 Parkinson’s
 stroke

Diagnostic Tools
 cineradiology or
videofluoroscopy (MBS)
 barium esophagram
 esophageal manometry
 endoscopy

Motility Disorders
Based on Manometry
 Achalasia
– Inadequate LES relaxation
 Diffuse Esophageal Spasm
– Uncoordinated contraction
 Nutcracker Esophagus
– Hypercontraction
 Ineffective Esophageal Motility
– Hypocontraction

Achalasia
 first clinically recognized esophageal
motility disorder
 described in 1672, treated with
whale bone bougie
 term coined in 1929
 epidemiology
 1-2 per 200,000 population
 usually presents between ages
25 to 60
 male=female
 Caucasians > others
 average symptom duration at
diagnosis: 2-5 years

Pathophysiology
 Degeneration of NO producing inhibitory neurons
 loss of ganglionic cells in the myenteric plexus (distal
to proximal)
 vagal fiber degeneration
 underlying cause: unknown
 autoimmune? (antibodies to myenteric neurons in
50% of patients)
 that affect relaxation of LES
 Basal LES pressure rises

Mechanical End Result
 dual disorder
 LES fails to appropriately relax
resistance to flow into stomach
not spasm of LES but an increased basal
LES pressure often seen (55-90%)
 loss of peristalsis in distal 2/3 esophagus

Clinical Presentation
 clinical presentation
 solid dysphagia 90-100% (75% also with
dysphagia to liquids)
 post-prandial regurgitation 60-90%
 chest pain 33-50%
 pyrosis 25-45%
 weight loss
 nocturnal cough and recurrent aspiration

Diagnostic Work Up
 plain film (air-fluid level, wide mediastinum,
absent gastric bubble, pulmonary infiltrates)
 barium esophagram (dilated esophagus with
taper at LES) Bird peak
 good screening test (95% accurate)
 endoscopy (rule out GE junction tumors, esp.
age>60)
 esophageal manometry (absent peristalsis, 
LES relaxation, & resting LES >45 mmHg)

Manometric Features
 Incomplete LES
relaxation
 Elevated resting
pressure (>45
mmHg)
 Aperistalsis of
esophageal body

Goals
 reduce LES pressure and
 increase emptying

Nitrates and Calcium Channel
Blockers
 Isosorbide dinitrate
Reduces LES Pressure 66% for 90 min
 Nifedipine
Reduces LES pressure 30-40% for > 60 minutes
 50-70% initial response; <50% at 1 year
 limitations: tachyphylaxis and side-effects

Botulinum Toxin
 prevents ACH release at NM junction
 90% initial response; 60% at 1 year
 Needs repetitive sessions

Pneumatic Dilatation
 Balloon dilatation to 300 psi
 disrupt circular muscle
 60-95% initial success; 60% at 5 years
 recent series suggest 20-40% will require
re-dilation
 Success increases with repeat dilatations
 risk of perforation 1-13% (usually 3-5%);
death 0.2-0.4%

Surgical Treatment
 surgical myotomy
(open or minimally-
invasive)
 >90% initial response;
85% at 10 years; 70%
at 20 years (85% at 5
years with min. inv.
techniques)
 <1% mortality; <10%
major morbidity
 10-25% acutely develop
reflux, up to 52%
develop late reflux

Spastic Motility Disorders of the
Esophagus

Spastic Motility Disorders of the
Esophagus
 Diffuse Esophageal Spasm
 Nutcracker Esophagus
 Hypertensive LES
 Nonspecific Esophageal Dysmotility

Epidemiology
 Any age (mean 40 yrs)
 Female > Male

 Dysphagia to solids and liquids
 intermittent and non-progressive
 present in 30-60%, more prevalent in DES (in most studies)
 Chest Pain
 constant % across the different disorders (80-90%)
 swallowing is not necessarily impaired
 can mimic cardiac chest pain
 Pyrosis (20%) and IBS symptoms (>50%)
 Symptoms and Manometry correlate
poorly

Diffuse Esophageal Spasm
 frequent non-peristaltic
contractions
 simultaneous onset
(or too rapid
propagation) of
contractions in two
or more recording
leads
 occur with >30% of
wet swallows (up to
10% may be seen in
“normals”)

Nutcracker Esophagus
 high pressure peristaltic
contractions
 avg pressure in 10
wet swallows is >180
mm Hg
 33% have long duration
contractions (>6 sec)
 may inter-convert with
DES

Hypertensive
LES
Nonspecific
Esophageal
Dysmotility
 high LES
pressure
 >45 mm Hg
 normal
peristalsis
 often overlaps
with other
motility disorders
 abnormal motility
pattern
 fits in no other
category
 non-peristalsis in
20-30% of wet
swallows
 low pressure
waves (<30 mm
Hg)
 prolonged
contractions

Diagnosis of Spastic Motility
Disorders of the Esophagus
 Manometry
 Barium Esophagram
 Endoscopy
 PH monitoring

Spastic Motility Disorders
of the Esophagus
 treatment
 reassurance
 nitrates, anticholinergics, hydralazine - all
unproven
 calcium channel blockers - too few data with
negative controlled studies in chest pain
 psychotropic drugs – trazodone, imipramine and
setraline effective in controlled studies
 dilation - anecdotal reports, probable placebo
effect

Manometry in Esophageal
Symptoms
DES
HLES
ACH
Normal
75%
NE
12%
NED
9%
Normal
48%
DES
7%
HLES
1%
ACH
19%
NED
20% NE
5%
Non-Cardiac Chest Pain Dysphagia
JE Richter, Ann Int Med, 1987

Hypomotilty Disorders
 primary (idiopathic)
 aging produces gradual decrease in contraction
strength
 reflux patients have varying degrees of hypomotility
 more common in patients with atypical reflux
symptoms
 usually persists after reflux therapy
 defined as
 low contraction wave pressures (<30 mm Hg)
 incomplete peristalsis in 30% or > of wet
swallows

Hypomotilty Disorders
 secondary
 scleroderma
 in >75% of patients
 progressive, resulting in aperistalsis in smooth-muscle region
 incompetent LES with reflux
 other “connective tissue diseases”
 CREST
 polymyositis & dermatomyositis
 diabetes
 60% with neuropathy have abnormal motility on testing (most
asx)
 other
 hypothyroidism, alcoholism, amyloidosis

Non ischemic Chest Pain
 remains poorly understood (functional chest pain)
 enthusiastic investigation finds numerous
associations in studies
 psychiatric disorders (depression, panic or anxiety
disorder…)
 esophageal disorders (GERD, motility disorders…)
 musculoskeletal disorders
 cardiac disease (microvascular, MVP,
tachyarrhythmias…)

Non ischemic Chest Pain
 GERD is by far the most common, diagnosable,
esophageal cause
 50-60% of patients have heartburn or acid regurgitation
symptoms
 50% have abnormal esophageal pH studies (not always
correlating to sxs)
 very low incidence of endoscopic findings
 “PPI Test” may be best and most cost-effective approach
 a small subset of patients with non-GERD NCCP display
a variety of esophageal motility disorders
 symptoms and motility findings correlate poorly
 esophageal hypersensitivity/hyperalgesia may explain the
symptoms

GERD
 36-77% of all Americans experience
 GERD
 – 7% have daily GERD symptoms
 – 14-20% weekly symptoms
 – 15-50% monthly
 Symptoms include: heartburn, acid
 regurgitation, water brash, dysphagia,
 atypical symptoms (asthma, globus,
 laryngitis, cough, throat clearing)

Pathophysiology
 Lower esophageal sphincter dysfunction
 Delayed gastric emptying
 Esophageal dysmotility
 +/- hiatal hernia
 Repetitive mucosal injury / esophagitis
 Barrett’s Esophagus

Medical Treatment
 Lifestyle modifications
– avoid coffee, fatty foods, smoking;
lose weight, raise head of bed,
eliminate late night meals
 Acid suppressin via PPI’s

Indications for Surgery
 Failed medical management
 Need for lifelong medical therapy
 Hiatal hernia
 Atypical symptoms with (+) pH probe
 Complications
 – Barrett’s esophagus (5-15% develop BE)
 – Erosive esophagitis

Surgical Treatment
 Pre-operative evaluation
 – Esophagram
 – EGD
 – Manometry (resting LES >5, length
>2cm)
 – 24-hr esophageal pH monitoring

Surgical Treatment
 Laparoscopic Nissen Fundoplication
 Goals of antireflux surgery:
 – Recreate Angle of His
 – Reconstitute LES with wrap
 Predictors of good surgical outcome:
 – typical symptoms (heartburn, regurg)
 – abnormal pH score, but NML motility
 – clinical response to acid suppression
 therapy

Other New Treatments
 Stretta...radiofrequecy ablation of LES
 Enteryx, Gatekeeper...implanted
 biopolymer into LES
 Endocinch, Plicator...endoscopic suturing
 to recreate LES

GERD Controversies
 Are meds better than antireflux surgery?
 Does antireflux surgery allow regression of
Barrett’s esophageal better than meds?
 Which is more cost effective?
 Does symptom relief correlate with
esophageal acid exposure?
 Where do the newer endoscopic therapies
stand?

Quiz?
 51 yrs old lady presented with chest pain ,
difficulty to swallow, post prandial vomiting
 Endoscopy failed to intubate the
esophagus
 PPI given
 Symptoms improve

GERD Medical Vs Surgical
Therapy
 In 1992, VA Cooperative study found open Nissen
 fundoplication better than antacids, H2 blockers in
 controlling GERD
 In 2001, VA Coop study follow-up at 10 years showed
 62% of surgical arm used acid suppression meds for
 symptom control
 Few deaths due to esoph cancer, but study was
 underpowered to detect difference

Therapy
 A multicenter Nordic study evaluated treatment
 failures of Omeprazole to Nissen fundoplication
 – failure defined as: mod/severe heartburn,
 dysphagia or regurg; grade 2 esophagitis; > 8 wks
 post-op requiring PPI
 At 12 months surgery was favored
 But at five year follow-up, open surgery appeared
 superior, but when allowing for escalating doses of
 PPI, each strategy was similar for symptom control
 Lundell et al. Gastroenterology 114:A207, 1998.
 Lundell et al. JACS 192:172-179, 2001

Therapy
 UK study evaluated laparoscopic Nissen to
 PPI therapy in 217 randomized patients with
 chronic GERD
 At three months, LNF group had improved
 LES pressure, DeMeester acid eposure
 score, GI symptom and general well-being
 score as compared to PPI group, and lasted
 to twelve months
 Mahon et al. Brit Journ Surg 92:695-699, 2005.

Regression Of Barrett’s
 PPI compared to LNF in 35 non-randomized
 pts with low-grade dyspasia detected on
 surveillance EGD
 12 of 19 (63%) in PPI group had regression of
 LGD to Barrett’s compared to 15 of 16 (93%)
 of LNF pts at 12 and 18 months
 Is biliopacreatic reflux to blame for BE?
 Rossi et al. Annals of Surgery 243:58-63, 2006.

DO Symptoms Correlate with
Treatment (Success/Failure)
 24 hr pH and DeMeester acid scores
 compared in 70 pts on no meds, on PPIs, or
 after antireflux surgery
 LES pH decreased most by LNF
 18 of 30 PPI pts asymptomatic but had
 pathologic pH probe testing
 19 LNF pts complained of heartburn/regurg,
 only two had positive pH probe
 Jenkinson et al. Brit Jour Surg 91:1460-1465,
2004.

Pathophysiology & Classification
 Type I - sliding
 Type II -
paraesophageal
 Type III - para and
sliding component
 Type IV - other
viscera involved

 postprandial fullness (63%),
 Reflux (31%),
 Dysphagia (34%),
 Bleeding (24%)
 Regurgitation/vomiting (36%)
 Dyspnea (11%)

Surgical Treatment
 Effective repair includes:
– Excision of hernia sac
– Reduction of hernia contents
– Repair of crural defect
 – Fundoplication, gastropexy, PEG,
esophageal lengthening (Collis
gastroplasty)

Upper Esophageal Motility
Disorders

Overview
 cause oropharyngeal dysphagia (transfer dysphagia)
 patients complain of difficulty swallowing
 tracheal aspiration may cause symptoms
 pharyngoesophageal neuromuscular disorders
 stroke
 Parkinson’s
 poliomyelitis
 ALS
 multiple sclerosis
 diabetes
 myasthenia gravis
 dermatomyositis and polymyositis
 upper esophageal sphincter (cricopharyngeal) dysfunction

Overview
 cricopharyngeal hypertension
 elevated UES resting tone
 poorly understood (reflex due to acid reflux or distension)
 cricopharyngeal achalasia
 incomplete UES relaxation during swallow
 may be related to Zenker’s diverticula in some patients
 clinical manifestations
 localizes as upper (cervical) dysphagia
 within seconds of swallowing
 coughing, choking, immediate regurgitation, or
nasal regurgitation
 diagnosis: swallow evaluation & modified barium swallow

Esophageal Disorders Guide: Causes, Symptoms and Treatments

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Esophageal Disorders Guide: Causes, Symptoms and Treatments