Puss Caterpillar (Larva), Southern Flannel Moth (Adult ...

EENY-545 

Puss Caterpillar (Larva), Southern Flannel Moth (Adult), 

Megalopyge opercularis (J. E. Smith 1797) (Insecta: 

Lepidoptera: Zygaenoidea: Megalopygidae) 1 

Donald W. Hall 2 

Introduction 

The southern flannel moth, Megalopyge opercularis (J. E. 

Smith) (Insecta: Lepidoptera: Zygaenoidea: Megalopygidae), 

is an attractive small moth that is best-known because 

of its larva, the puss caterpillar, which is one of the most 

venomous caterpillars in the United States (Bishopp 1923, 

El-Mallakh et al. 1986, Hossler 2010, Khalaf 1975). 

Figure 1. Male southern flannel moth, Megalopyge opercularis (dorsal 

view). 

Credits: Donald W. Hall, University of Florida. 

Figure 2. Male southern flannel moth, Megalopyge opercularis 

(anterior lateral view). 


Figure 3. Female southern flannel moth, Megalopyge opercularis 

(lateral view). 


1. This document is EENY-545, one of a series of the Entomology and Nematology Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food 

and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Original publication date January 2013. Visit the EDIS website at http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu. 

2. Donald W. Hall, professor, Entomology and Nematology Department, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 

32611. 

The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized to provide research, educational information and other services only to 

individuals and institutions that function with non-discrimination with respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, sex, sexual orientation, marital status, national 

origin, political opinions or affiliations. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A&M University Cooperative 

Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Nick T. Place, Dean

The family name Megalopygidae and genus name Megalopyge 

are derived from the Greek roots Megalo (large) and 

pygidium (rump)—probably because of the shape of the 

caterpillars. The specific epithet, opercularis, is derived from 

the Latin word operculum (Borror 1960) and refers to the 

lid (door) on the cocoon. The name “puss caterpillar” is 

likely in reference to the caterpillar’s resemblance to a cat 

with its soft fur and tail. 

The southern flannel moth was originally described by J. E. 

Smith (1797) and named Phalaena opercularis (common 

name, waved yellow egger moth). For a historical account of 

the southern flannel moth’s taxonomy see Heppner (2003). 

In addition to the name “puss caterpillar”, its caterpillar has 

been called “Italian asp,” “possum bug,” “perrito” (Spanish 

for puppy or little dog) (Bishopp 1923), and “woolly slug” 

(El-Mallakh et al. 1986). 

The southern flannel moth is one of three species of 

megalopygids in the eastern United States. For photos and 

general information on the other two: the black-waved 

flannel moth, Megalopyge (=Lagoa) crispata (Packard), and 

the white flannel moth, Norape ovina (Sepp), see Covell 

(2005) and Wagner (2005). For more detailed information 

on the biology of the black-waved flannel moth, see Lintner 

(1869) and Packard (1894). 

Distribution 

The southern flannel moth is found from Maryland to 

Florida and west to Missouri and Texas (Covell 2005). It is 

common in Florida but reaches its greatest abundance in 

Texas from Dallas southward in the western central part of 

the state (Bishopp 1923). 

Description 

Adults: Adults are small moths with wingspans of 2.4 to 

3.6 cm (approximately 1 to 1.5 in) (Covell 2005). Females 

are larger than males. The front wings are yellow with some 

black along the costal margins and waves of white hair-like 

setae (scales) on the basal 2/3 of the wings. Khalaf (1984) 

demonstrated that the hair-like setae are actually deeply 

divided scales and that the undivided bases of the scales 

are typical of wing scales of other moths. The black color 

is more pronounced in males. Hind wings of both sexes 

are uniformly creamy-yellow. The common name “flannel 

moth” is due to the thick coating of fur-like setae on the 

bodies which is predominantly orange on the thorax. 

Figure 4. Male southern flannel moth, Megalopyge opercularis 

(anterior view). 


Figure 5. Adult female southern flannel moth, Megalopyge opercularis 

(anterior view). 


Antennae are bipectinate (comb-like) with rami (teeth) on 

two sides. Rami of antennae of males (Figures 1, 2, and 4) 

are much longer than those of antennae of females (Figures 

3 and 5). The rami of the antennae of females are so short 

that the antennae appear almost thread-like. 

Figure 6. Female and male southern flannel moths, Megalopyge 

opercularis. 


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Eggs: The light yellow eggs average 1.2 mm in length and 

0.6 mm in width (Bishopp 1923) and are slightly rounded 

on the ends. 

Figure 7. Eggs of the southern flannel moth, Megalopyge opercularis. 


Larvae: The number of instars is uncertain and may be 

variable. Bishop (1923) stated that there are probably five 

or six instars. and gave the following approximate lengths 

for the first four and last instars: 1st instar: 1.5 mm, 2nd 

instar: 2.3 mm, 3rd instar: 3.1 mm, 4th instar: 3.6mm, 

mature larva: 2.54 cm (1 inch). Davidson (1967) reported 

similar dimensions. It seems that there may have been a 

misidentification of later instars by these authors based on 

the huge size difference reported between the fourth and 

final instars. Khalaf (1975) reported that there are 8 to 10 

instars. 

Full-grown larvae, including the ones in Figures 13 to 15 

reared by the author on winged elm, Ulmus alata Michaux, 

were much larger and measured approximately 3.5 cm (1.4 

inches) in body length and 4.0 cm (1.6 inches) including 

the tail. 

The integument of first and second instars is yellow but 

becomes pale greenish white to white in later instars. 

Larvae become progressively more “hairy” with each molt. 

All instars have rows of verrucae (raised sclerites with 

radiating setae [Gordh and Headrick 2001]) that bear 

hollow spines each of which has a venom gland at its base 

(Foot 1922). The spines are obscured by the long soft setae 

in the late instars. Late instars have a hairy tail. The color of 

late instars is somewhat variable. 

In the photographs of larvae that follow, only the first, 

next-to-last, and last instars are known for certain. The 

other larvae are in increasing order of maturity, but their 

exact instar in not known. 

Figure 8. Puss caterpillars, Megalopyge opercularis (first instars). 


Figure 9. Puss caterpillar, Megalopyge opercularis (early instar). 


Figure 10. Puss caterpillar, Megalopyge opercularis (middle instar). 


Figure 11. Puss caterpillar, Megalopyge opercularis (middle instar). 


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Figure 12. Puss caterpillar, Megalopyge opercularis (next to last instar). 


Figure 13. Puss caterpillar, Megalopyge opercularis (last instar). 


Figure 14. Puss caterpillar, Megalopyge opercularis (last instar, dorsal 

view). 


Figure 15. Puss caterpillars, Megalopyge opercularis (next to last [top] 

and last instars). 


The bodies of late instar puss caterpillars are normally 

completely hidden from sight by the thick coating of hair 

(setae). However, the head and prothorax may be exposed 

when the larvae are moving about or occasionally when 

feeding. 

Figure 16. Puss caterpillar, Megalopyge opercularis (anterior view 

showing head, prothorax, prothoracic spiracle and pre-spiracular 

appendage). 


Unlike most other moth larvae, megalopygid larvae have 

seven pairs of prolegs. Megalopygids have accessory prolegs 

on abdominal segments two and seven in addition to the 

normal complement of prolegs on abdominal segments 

three through six and ten. The accessory prolegs of all 

North American species of megalopygids, including the 

puss caterpillar, have no crochets (Stehr 1987, Wagner 

2005). 

Megalopygid larvae also have post-spiracular appendages 

(Figure 26) (=digitate sensilla of Epstein [1996]) on the 

abdominal segments that are hidden by the thick coat of 

setae. A defensive function was assigned to these structures 

by Hoffman (1932 [cited by Epstein 1996]) who reported 

that stimulation in the area of the “sensilla” resulted in the 

larva moving both the sub-dorsal and lateral spine-bearing 

verrucae toward the spiracles. 

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Figure 17. Puss caterpillar, Megalopyge opercularis (ventral view 

showing auxillary prolegs without crochets). 


Cocoons: The cocoons vary in size from 1.3 cm to 2.0 cm. 

They have a small hump (hair pocket) on the back, and the 

flattened front end is formed by the operculum. Newly spun 

cocoons have a thin tapering front that extends beyond the 

operculum. As the cocoon ages and weathers, this front 

part collapses to form a flattened silk pad on the substrate 

in front of the operculum. The only apparent function of 

this ephemeral front part is to maintain structural integrity 

of the cocoon until the operculum is finished. 

Figure 18. Southern flannel moth cocoon, Megalopyge opercularis 

(new cocoon with thin silk anterior structure). 


Figure 19. Southern flannel moth cocoon, Megalopyge opercularis 

(older weathered cocoon showing operculum and hump). 


Cocoons are extremely tough and persist on trees long 

after the moth has emerged. Some persist long enough to 

become covered with lichens. 

Figure 20. Southern flannel moth cocoon, Megalopyge opercularis (old 

cocoon covered with lichens). 


Pupae: Unlike pupae of most moth families, abdominal 

segments four to six of the pupae are movable in the 

Megalopygidae and their close relatives including the 

Limacodidae. The appendages of the pupae are appressed 

to the surface of the bodies but are neither cemented to 

the body nor to each other (Mosher 1916). According to 

Mosher (1916), the “glazed eyepieces” of megalopygid 

pupae are probably the actual eyes of the pupa, and the 

“sculptured eyepieces” are likely extensions of the vertex 

rather than parts of the eyes. 

Figure 21. Southern flannel moth pupa, Megalopyge opercularis, (male, 

ventral view showing appendages and eyepieces). 


Anterior bands of spines are present on the dorsal aspect of 

the pupal abdominal segments. 

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dorsal view showing bands of spines on the abdominal segments). 


The post-spiracular appendages from the larval stage 

are retained in the pupae, but are reduced to button-like 

structures. 


lateral view showing abdominal post-spiracular appendages). 


Life Cycle and Biology 

The southern flannel moth is bivoltine (has two broods per 

year) with a possible partial third brood in the Deep South 

(Khalaf 1975). Eagleman (2008) presented epidemiological 

evidence for two major broods by plotting the chronological 

distribution of puss caterpillar envenomations for a 

three year period. His data showed two distinct peaks - one 

developing in early summer and the second in the fall. 

Females usually mate the night of emergence and lay their 

eggs during the first two nights following mating. Eggs 

are laid in single or double curved rows (occasionally in 

patches) on foliage or small twigs and are covered with hair 

from the under side of abdomen of the female. Eggs hatch 

in six to eight days. 

Larvae of the southern flannel moth are polyphagous (Heppner 

1997) and are recorded from plant species belonging 

to 41 genera (Heppner 2003). Some host records may be 

erroneous. Like many other Lepidoptera larvae, mature 

puss caterpillars sometimes wander from the host plant and 

onto other nearby plants prior to spinning their cocoons. 

Cocoons may even be found on buildings. 

In north central Florida, puss caterpillars are most common 

on various species of oaks but are also common on elms - 

including both native species and the exotic Chinese elm, 

Ulmus parvifolia Jacquin. Young larvae feed by skeletonizing 

leaves (Figure 9) and later eat small holes in the leaves. 

Late instars are leaf-edge feeders and curl the front of the 

thorax over the leaves as they feed (Figures 12 and 13). 

Khalaf (1974) reared larvae on a wheat germ artificial diet 

and reported ranges of times required for development of 

two different sets of first generation larvae of 63 to 97 and 

53 to 87 days. 

Larvae pictured here were reared in an un-air-conditioned 

garage during the heat of the summer and were fed foliage 

of winged elm (Ulmus alata Michaux). The first larva to 

complete development began to spin its cocoon 46 days 

after hatching from the egg. Micks (1956) reared larvae at 

25 °C on yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria Aiton), and reported 

that larval development required about six weeks. 

Mature larvae begin to spin their cocoons by making a thin 

framework of silk using their hair covering as the supporting 

framework. Cocoons are found on small twigs and 

branches and also in deep furrows of bark or under loose 

bark. 

After the outer layer of silk is laid down, larvae remove the 

soft hair from their bodies and pack it into the hump at the 

top of the cocoon and then add another inner layer to the 

cocoon. Larvae of the first generation pupate approximately 

16 days after completing the cocoon and begin emerging as 

adults approximately two weeks later. Individuals of the fall 

generation overwinter as larvae (prepupae) and pupate in 

late spring of the next year. 

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Figure 24. Southern flannel moth larva, Megalopyge opercularis, (initial 

stage of spinning cocoon). 


Figure 25. Southern flannel moth cocoon hair pocket, Megalopyge 

opercularis. 


Figure 26. Southern flannel moth larva (pre-pupa), Megalopyge 

opercularis, (note venomous spines and post-spiracular appendages). 


The pharate adult (pre-adult) stage forces the operculum 

open by repeated alternating lengthening and shortening 

of the abdomen (Davidson 1967)—probably while hooking 

the dorsal bands of spines of the segments into the floor 

and inner surface of the operculum of the cocoon thereby 

gradually moving the pharate adult forward and upward. 

Although they are not glued to the body, the legs remain 

folded and do not appear to assist in emergence from the 

cocoon. 

Figure 27. Southern flannel moth pharate adult, Megalopyge 

opercularis (note free appendages). 


The rounded frons may assist in forcing open the cocoon 

(Epstein 1996)—presumably by pressing against the upper 

front edge of the cocoon as the operculum is being forced 

open. The expanded posterior margins of the occiput 

may function in a similar way by pressing against the 

operculum. 

Figure 28. Southern flannel moth pharate adult, Megalopyge 

opercularis (beginning emergence from cocoon). 


Only when the pre-adult is nearly out of the cocoon does 

the adult moth split the pupal exoskeleton and emerge. 

The pupal exuviae is held by tension from the operculum 

and remains on the cocoon until it is beaten away by 

weathering. 

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Figure 29. Southern flannel moth pupal exuviae, Megalopyge 

opercularis. 


Economic and Medical Improtance 

Occasionally, in outbreak years, puss caterpillars are sufficiently 

numerous to defoliate some trees (Bishopp 1923). 

However, their main importance is medical. In Texas, 

they have been so numerous in some years that schools in 

San Antonio in 1923 and Galveston in 1951 were closed 

temporarily because of stings to children (Diaz 2005). 

The venomous spines of puss caterpillars are hollow and 

each is equipped with a venom gland at its base (Foot 

1922). All larval instars, as well as exuviae, may sting but 

the toxicity of the stings increases with increasing size of 

the larvae (Davidson 1967). 

Figure 30. Puss caterpillar, Megalopyge opercularis (early instar 

showing venomous spines). 


Figure 31. Puss caterpillar, Megalopyge opercularis (pre-pupa showing 

venomous spines). 


Foot (1922) reported that some individuals react more 

severely to stings than others, and the severity of the sting 

varies with the thickness of the skin where the sting occurs 

The sting produces an immediate intense burning pain 

followed by the appearance of a red grid-like pattern on the 

skin that matches the pattern of the venomous spines on 

the caterpillar. Swelling and sometimes also lymphadenopathy 

follow. 

In addition to the characteristic localized symptoms, more 

general systemic manifestations may also occur including 

headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, tachycardia, low blood 

pressure, seizures and more rarely, abdominal pain, muscle 

spasms and convulsions (Diaz 2005, Eagleman 2008, El- 

Mallakh et al. 1986, Hossler 2010, McGovern 1961, Pinson 

and Morgan 1991). 

Figure 32. Puss caterpillar, Megalopyge opercularis (characteristic 

pattern of sting). 

Credits: Courtesy of Armed Forces Pest Management Board. 

The venom is not well-characterized but it has been shown 

to possess hemolytic activity, and there is evidence that 

it is proteinaceous based primarily on its precipitation by 

75% saturated ammonium sulfate and the fact that it is 

inactivated by digestion with proteolytic enzymes (trypsin, 

pepsin, or chymotrypsin) (Picarelli and Valle 1971). 

Eagleman (2008) has reviewed common treatments for puss 

caterpillar stings. Remedies that may be helpful in some 

cases include removing broken spine tips from the skin 

with tape, applying ice packs, use of oral antihistamine, 

application of hydrocortisone cream to the site of the 

sting, systemic corticosteroids, and intravenous calcium 

gluconate. 

8

Natural Enemies 

Khalaf (1975) observed Chrysopa sp. (Neuroptera: 

Chrysopidae) feeding on eggs and early instars. Khalaf 

(1975) also observed an Anolis lizard eat a 4th instar larva 

(about 5 mm long) after which it displayed gulping motions 

and rubbed its mouth against the ground. Larvae are 

probably attacked by a variety of generalist predators, but 

reported observations are lacking. Older instars are likely 

well-defended from vertebrate predators by their venomous 

spines. 

Four species of tachinid flies (Lepidoptera: Tachinidae) 

have been reported from Megalopyge opercularis (Arnaud 

1978, Khalaf 1975, Micks 1956, Patton 1956). O’Hara and 

Wood (2004) and O’Hara (2009) have updated the tachinid 

names from Arnaud (1978). 

Table 1. Four species of tachinid flies. 

Names from Arnaud (1978) Updated names from O’Hara (2009) 

Carcelia amplexa (Coquillett) Carcelia amplexa (Coquillett) 

Carcelia lagoae (Townsend) Carcelia lagoae (Townsend) 

Euphorocera claripennis 

(Macquart) 

Ormia ochracea (Bigot) 

Lespesia aletiae (Riley) Leschenaultia halisidotae Brooks 

Eggs of the tachinids are laid externally on the puss caterpillars. 

Most caterpillars are parasitized late enough that the 

flies mature in the cocoons. The adult flies then emerge by 

forcing open the operculum of the cocoon (Khalaf 1981). 

Figure 33. Tachinid puparial shells inside old Megalopyge opercularis 

cocoon. 


Figure 34. Adult tachinid fly that emerged from a Megalopyge 

opercularis cocoon. 


Figure 35. Adult tachinid fly (lateral view) that emerged from a 

Megalopyge opercularis cocoon. 


Micks (1956) reported a parasitization rate of 20% in a 

population of Megalopyge opercularis in Galveston, Texas. 

There are similar rates of parasitism in Central Florida (DW 

Hall, unpublished data). 

There are at least two ichneumonid wasp (Hymenoptera: 

Ichneumonidae) parasitoids of Megalopyge opercularis: 

Hyposoter fugitivus (Say) 

Lanugo retentor (Brulle) 

Hyposotor fugitivus attacks and kills young larvae (Khalaf 

1977). Lanugo retentor oviposits through the wall of the 

cocoon and is parasitic externally on prepupae or pupae 

(Khalaf 1975, Khalaf 1981). Full-grown Lanugo larvae 

make their own cocoons inside the Megalopyge cocoons 

and when mature, the adult wasps chew their way out of 

both cocoons making holes of 2-3 mm diameter. The holes 

9

in the Megalopyge cocoon are often, but not always chewed 

through the operculum. 

Figure 36. Megalopyge opercularis cocoon with ichneumonid larva - 

probably Lanugo retentor. 


Figure 37. Megalopyge opercularis cocoon with exit hole in operculum 

probably made by the ichneumonid Lanugo retentor. 


Khalaf (1975) reported a parasitization rate of 50% by 

Lanugo retentor in a population of Megalopyge opercularis 

in New Orleans, Louisiana. 

Control 

In most years, puss caterpillars are kept under control by 

natural enemies. If control measures are required, chemical 

insecticide or Bacillus thuringiensis applications recommended 

for control of other caterpillars (Osborne et al. 

2012) should be effective. 

Cocoon Guests 

A wide variety of insects use the old abandoned cocoons as 

homes or temporary shelters - either entering through the 

front as the opercula sag with age or through the exit holes 

chewed by ichneumonid parasitoids. Two species of ants 

have even been found raising brood inside the cocoons. 

Spiders are also common inhabitants of old cocoons. 

Figure 38. Pseudomyrmex gracilis (Fabricius) and brood inside old 



Figure 39. Crematogaster ashmeadi Mayr and brood inside old 



Figure 40. Camponotus snellingi Bolton and unidentified tachinid 

puparial shell inside old Megalopyge opercularis cocoon. 


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Figure 41. Unidentified spider inside old Megalopyge opercularis 

cocoon. 


Selected References 

• Arnaud PH. 1978. A Host-Parasite Catalog of North 

American Tachinidae (Diptera). United States Department 

of Agriculture Miscellaneous Publication 1319. 

Washington, D.C. Updated names for this catalog are 

available online. 

• Bishopp FC. 1923. The puss caterpillar and the effects of 

its sting on man. United States Department of Agriculture. 

Department Circular 288. 14 pp. 

• Borror DJ. 1960. Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining 

Forms. Mayfield Publishing Company. Palo Alto, 

California. 134 pp. 

• Covell CV. 2005. A Field Guide to Moths of Eastern 

North America. Special Publication Number 12. Virginia 

Museum of Natural History. Martinsville, Virginia. 496 

pp. 

• Davidson FF. 1967. Biology of laboratory-reared Megalopyge 

opercularis Sm. & Abb. Morphology and histology of 

the stinging mechanism. Texas Journal of Science 19(3): 

258-274. 

• Diaz JH. 2005. The evolving global epidemiology, 

syndromic classification, management, and prevention 

of caterpillar envenoming. American Journal of Tropical 

Medicine and Hygiene 72: 347-357. 

• Eagleman DM. 2008. Envenomation by the asp caterpillar 

(Megalopyge opercularis). Clinical Toxicology 46: 

201-205. 

• El-Mallakh RS, Baumgartner MS, Fares N. 1986. 

“Sting” of the puss caterpillar, Megalopyge opercularis 

(Lepidoptera: Megalopygidae): first report of cases 

from Florida and review of literature. The Journal of the 

Florida Medical Association 73(7): 521-525. 

• Epstein ME. 1996. Revision and phylogeny of the 

limacodid-group families, with evolutionary studies on 

slug caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Zygaenoidea). Smithsonian 

Contributions to Zoology. Number 582. 102 pp. 

• Foot NC. 1922. Pathology of the dermatitis caused by 

Megalopyge opercularis, a Texan caterpillar. Journal of 

Experimental Medicine 35: 737-753. 

• Gordh G, Headrick DH. 2001. A Dictionary of Entomology. 

CABI Publishing. New York, New York. 1032 pp. 

• Heppner JB. 2003. Lepidoptera of Florida. Part 1. Introduction 

and Catalog. Volume 17 of Arthropods of Florida 

and Neighboring Land Areas. Division of Plant Industry. 

Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer 

Services. Gainesville, Florida. 670 pp. 

• Heppner JB. 1997. Urticating caterpillars in Florida: 

3. Puss caterpillar and flannel moths (Lepidoptera: 

Megalopygidae). Florida Department of Agriculture and 

Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry. Gainesville, 

Florida. Entomology Circular No. 381. 2 pp. 

• Hoffman F. 1932. Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte Brasilianischer 

Schmetterlinge. Deutsche Entomologische 

Zeitschrift 1932: 97-148. 

• Hossler EW. 2010. Caterpillars and Moths. Part II. Dermatologic 

manifestations of encounters with Lepidoptera. 

Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 62: 

13-28. 

• Khalaf KT. 1974. Nonaseptic wheat germ diet for Megalopyge 

opercularis. (Lepidoptera: Megalopygidae). Florida 

Entomologist 57: 377-381. 

• Khalaf KT. 1975. Biology of the puss caterpillar and its 

ichneumonid parasite. Loyola University Press. New 

Orleans, Louisiana. 43 pp. 

• Khalaf KT. 1977. Hypositor fugitivus (Ichneumonidae) 

parasitic within Megalopyge opercularis larvae (Megalopygidae). 

Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society 31: 147-148. 

• Khalaf KT. 1981. Multiparasitism of puss caterpillar by 

a wasp and fly species (Lepidoptera: Megalopygidae). 

Florida Entomologist 64: 534-537. 

11

• Khalaf KT. 1984. The identity of wing hairs in Megalopygidae. 

Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society 38: 64. 

• Lintner JA. 1869. Transformations of Lagoa crispata Packard. 

Twenty-third Annual Report of the New York State 

Cabinet of Natural History. Appendix D. Entomological 

Contributions by Lintner JA. X pp. 138-145. 

• McGovern JP, Barkin GD, McElhenney TR, Wende R. 

1961. Megalopyge opercularis: observations of its life history, 

natural history of its sting in man, and report of an 

epidemic. Journal of the American Medical Association 

175(13): 1155-1158. 

• Micks DW. 1956. Laboratory rearing of the puss caterpillar, 

with notes on the incidence of parasitism. Journal of 

Economic Entomology 49: 37-39. 

• Mosher E. 1916. A classification of the Lepidoptera based 

on characters of the pupae. Bulletin of the Illinois State 

Laboratory of Natural History 12:17-159. 

• O’hara JE, Wood DM. 2004. Catalogue of the Tachinidae 

(Diptera) of North America north of Mexico. Associated 

Publishers. Gainesville, Florida. 410 pp. 

• Ohara JE. 2009. Update of Tachinid Names in Arnaud 

(1978). (Last update: 7 July 2009) 

• Osborne LS, Buss EA, Mannion CM, Price JF. 2012. Commercial 

foliage and woody ornamental arthropod pest 

management. ENY-311 (revised June, 2006). Entomology 

and Nematology Department,. Florida Cooperative 

Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural 

Sciences, University of Florida. 

• Packard AS. 1894. A study of the transformations and 

anatomy of Lagoa crispata, a bombycine moth. Proceedings 

of the American Philosophical Society 32(143): 

275-292. 

• Patton CN. 1956. The Larvaevoridae of Florida, with 

Notes on their Biology and Host Relationships. M.S. 

Thesis. University of Florida. Gainesville, Florida. 66 pp. 

• Picarelli ZP, Valle JR. 1971. Pharmacological studies on 

caterpillar venoms. In: Bucherl W, Buckley EE. Venomous 

Animals and their Venoms. Volume 3., pp 103-118. 

Academic Press. New York, New York. 

• Pinson RT, Morgan JA. 1991. Envenomation by the puss 

caterpillar (Megalopyge opercularis). Annals of Emergency 

Medicine 20(5): 562-564. 

• Smith JE. 1797. The Natural History of the Rarer Lepidopterous 

Insects of Georgia. Vol. 2, Printed by Bensley T 

for Smith JE. London. 214 pp. 

• Stehr FW. 1987. In Stehr FW. Immature Insects. Kendall/ 

Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, Iowa. pp. 454-456. 

• Wagner DL. 2005. Caterpillars of Eastern North America. 

Princeton University Press. Princeton, New Jersey. 512 

pp. 

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